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A COMPREHENSIVE GRAMMAR OF THE ENGLISH LANGUAGE Randolph Quirk Sidney Greenbaum Geoffrey Leech Jan Svartvik Index by David Crystal
Longman London and New York
Preface
Longman Group Limited, Longman House, Burnt Mill, Harlow, Essex CM20 2JE. England and Associated Companies throughout the world. Published in the United States of America by Longman Inc., New York
0 Longman Group Limited 1985 AN rights reserved: no part of thispublication may be reproduced, stored in a retrieval system. or transmitted in anyform or by any means, electronic. mechanical,photocopying,recording, or otherwise. without theprior writtenpermissionof d e Publishers. First published 1985 Standard edition lSBN 0 582 51734 6 De luxe edition lSBN 0 582 96502 0 British Library Cataloguingin Publication Data A comprehensivegrammarof the English language. I. English language-Grammar-1950I. Quirk, Randolph 11. Crystal, David 428.2 PE1112
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ISBN 0-582-51734-6 Library of Congress Cataloguingin Publication Data A comprehensivegrammar of the English language. Bibliography:p. Includes index. 1. English language-Grammar-195. I. Quirk, Randolph. PE1106.C65 1985 428.2 84-27848 ISBN 0-582-51 734-6
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Set in APS 4 Times and Univers. Typeset, printed and bound in Great Britain by William Clowes Limited, Beccles and London.
Designed by Arthur Lockwood
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From the time when we started collaborating as a team in the 1960s, we envisaged not a grammar but a series of grammars. In 1972, there appeared the first volume in this series, A Grammar of Contemporary English (GCE). This was followed soon afterwards by two shorter works, A Communicative Grammar of English (CGE) and A University Grammar of English (UGE, published in the United States with the title A Concise Grammar of Contemporary English). These two were in part an abridgment of GCE, but what is more significant is that they were deliberately different both from the parent book and from each other. This is particularly obvious in the case of CGE, which looks at the whole grammar of the language from a semantic and communicative viewpoint. It is less obviously true of UGE,which follows the chapter divisions and in most cases the chapter titles of GCE, though in fact the abridgment was accompanied by a good deal of fresh thinking and radical revision. With A Comprehensive Grammar of the English Language, we attempt something much more ambitious: a culmination of our joint work, which results in a grammar that is considerably larger and richer than GCE and hence superordinate to it. Yet, as with our other volumes since GCE, it is also a grammar that incorporates our own further research on grammatical structure as well as the research of scholars world-wide who have contributed to the description of English and to developments in linguistic theory. It scarcely needs to be said that we take full collective responsibility for the contents of this book. But what does indeed need to be said is that it has been immeasurably improved as a result of the generous assistance that we have received, not least from our own students. We have benefited too from the perceptive attention that GCE, UGE, and CGE have received from reviewers throughout the world. But in addition to these scholars and writers, in addition also to the numerous scholars that we acknowledged in earlier prefaces, a further willing band of linguists put themselves generously at our disposal in giving detailed attention to earlier drafts of what has become A Comprehensive Grammar of the English Language. Some few have even undertaken the heavy task of giving a detailed critique of the entire book in such an earlier draft. For their searching work to this degree, we are especially indebted to John Algeo, R A Close, and Robert de Beaugrande, who between them produced hundreds of pages of invaluable comments. But we are grateful also to W N Francis and Bengt Jacobsson, who gave comparably generous and skilled attention to large parts of the book. Many other scholars have helped us with one or more individual chapters or with specific problems in the description of grammar. We list their names, but this can in no way convey our degree of gratitude or indicate the intellectual effort from which we have benefited: V Adams, B Altenberg, E Andersson, W-D Bald, D L Bolinger, J Coates, R Cureton, L Haegeman, R Ilson, S Johansson, H Kakehi (and his Kobe students), H Kinoshita, T
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Lavelle, B Lott, C F Meyer, T Nevalainen, W J Pepicello, G Stein, J Taglicht, J Thompson, G Tottie, T Waida, K Wales. The fact that some of these friends are among the most eminent experts in the world on American, British, and other varieties of English has contributed beyond measure to the confidence with which we assign such descriptive labels as 'AmE' and 'BrE'. Finally, we take great pleasure in making clear that David Crystal's role has extended far beyond what is indicated on the title page. He has not merely provided the detailed index which will make 'information retrieval' possible; in addition, in the course of this onerous and highly specialized task, he has contributed pervasively to the correction of error, the standardization of terminology, and the improvement of presentation. But this Preface would be sadly incomplete if we did not also record our gratitude to the grant-giving bodies whose financial help (over and above the support we have received from University College London, Lund University, the University of Lancaster, and the University of Wisconsin) has made our research and writing possible: the Leverhulme Trust, the Gulbenkian Foundation, the Social Science Research Council, the British Academy, the Knut and Alice Wallenberg Foundation, the Bank of Sweden Tercentenary Foundation, and our publishers, the Longman Group. RQ SG GL JS February 1985
Contents
Preface
v
Pronunciation table Abbreviations and symbols
viii ix
1 The English language 2 A survey of English grammar
35
3
93
4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19
Verbs and auxiliaries The semantics of the verb phrase Nouns and determiners Pronouns and numerals Adjectives and adverbs The semantics and grammar of adverbials Prepositions and prepositional phrases The simple sentence Sentence types and discourse functions Pro-forms and ellipsis Coordination The complex sentence Syntactic and semantic functions of subordinate clauses Complementation o f verbs and adjectives The noun phrase Theme, focus, and information processing From sentence t o text Appendix I
Word-formation
Appendix II Stress, rhythm, and intonation Appendix Ill Punctuation Bibliography Index
1
Pronunciation table
Abbreviations and symbols
A CONSONANTS VOICELESS
/P/
/t/
/k/ /f/ /g/ /S/
J /tJ/ /h/
A,
VOWELS
A, AmE aux BrE C C, CS eomp E -ed eM I
VOICED
pig ten cot fat thin soon fish cheap hot
/b/ /d/ /g/ /V/
6 /z/
/3/ /m/ /n/ /g/
/l/ /r/ /j/ /W/
big den got vat then zero pleasure jeep sum sun sung led red yet wet
/k/
111
M
/E/
/a:/
Id P:/ /U/ /U:/
1. 3 :
/a/ /er/ /au/
14
/au/
1311
l
/rar/ /ear/ /uar/ /erar/ /auar/ /aral/ /auar/ brar/
sheep ship bed bad calm Pot caught Put boot cut bird above day coal lie now boy here there poor player lower tire tower employer
iE
,.4.
I, 4
iM I/M -mg LOB M
mM NP 0 0, 0, obllg OP opt pass ph ph-pr Pr R
Syllabic consonants are indicated thus: g, /'/denotes the possibility (eg in AmE) of 'postvocalic r'. For indications of stress, intonation, and other prosodic features see App 11.
-S
9
:f i
S SEU StE SV SVA SVC SVO SVOO SVOC SVOA
adverbial object-related adverbial subject-related adverblal American English auxiliary British English complement object complement subject complement comparative end posltion of adverbial -ed participle form end-medial position of adverbial initial position of adverbial initial-end position of adverbial initial-med~alposition of adverbial initial or medial position of adverblal -ing participle form Lancaster-Oslo/Bergen corpus medial posit~onof adverbial medial-medial position of adverbial noun phrase object direct object indirect object obligatory operator optional passive phrasal verb phrasal-prepos~tionalverb preposit~onalverb regular variant (in Ch. 3) 3rd person singular present tense form subject Survey of English Usage Standard English subject +verb sub~ect verb adverbial subject verb + complement subject verb+object basic s tructures ~ subject +verb+ 2 objects subject+ verb+ object+complement subject verb +object+ adverbial
+ +
+
+
+
primary time-orientation (in Ch. 4) secondary time-orientation (in Ch. 4) tertiary time-orientation (in Ch. 4) verb past tense form of the verb (in Ch. 3) -edparticiple form of the verb (in Ch. 3) unacceptable tending to unacceptability, but not fully unacceptable native speakers unsure about acceptability native speakers differ in their reactions optional constituent comment (with examples); constituent boundaries; phonetic transcription style label (after examples); modified constituent (7.50); focused unit (8.1 16) free alternatives, as in:
}{
~ e c a m e {from ~' [1
contingent alternatives, as in:
[t{e] [E] does
/ 1/
New London York
best
alternatives (in examples) phonological transcription systematic correspondence between structures .c. no systematic correspondence between structures ellipsis marker, indicating grammatical omission A indicates possible semantic implication (in Ch. 19) A semantically equivalent f semantically nonequivalent a 'better ~ R h m aI r Capitals in examples indicate nuclear syllables, accents indicate intonation, raised verticals stress, and long verticals tone unit boundaries; for all conventions relating to prosody, see App 11.
I
The English language The English language today
The importance of English The use of English Native and second language Foreign language The demand for English The teaching of English School models of English The international character of English The future of English Standards of English Grammar and the study of language
Types of linguistic organization Sounds and spellings Lexicology, grammar, semantics, pragmatics The meanings of 'grammar' Syntax and inflections Rules and the native speaker The codification of rules Prescriptive grammar Grammar and other types of organization Varietiesof English
Types of variation Regional variation Social variation Standard English National standards of English British and American English Scotland, Ireland, Canada South Africa, Australia, New Zealand Pronunciation and standard English Varieties according to field of discourse Varieties according to medium Varieties according to attitude Varieties according to interference Creole and pidgin Relationships among variety types
The English language today
.39-40 .41
1.42
Variation within a variety Attitudes to variation Acceptability and frequency
3
The English language today The importance of English
1.1
English is generally acknowledged to be the world's most important language. It is perhaps worth glancing briefly at the basis for that evaluation. There are, after all, thousands of different languages in the world, and each will seem uniquely important to those who speakit as their native language, the language they acquired at their mother's knee. But there are more objective standards of ielative importance. One criterion is the number of speakers of the language. A second is the extent to which a language is geographically dispersed: in how many continents and countries is it used or is a knowledge of it necessary? A third is its functional load: how extensive is the range of purposes for which it is used? In particular, to what extent is it the medium for highly valued cultural manifestations such as a science or a literature? A fourth is the economic and political influence of the native speakers of the language.
1.2
If we restrict the first criterion to native speakers of the language, the number of speakers of English is more than 300 million, and English ranks well below Chinese (which has over three times that number of speakers). The second criterion, the geographical dispersal of the language, invites comparison with (for example) Hebrew, Latin, and Arabic as languages used in major world religions, though only Arabic has a substantial number of speakers. But the spread of English over most of the world as an international language is a unique phenomenon in the world's history: about 1500 million people -over a third of the world's population -live in countries where English has some official status or is one of the native languages, if not the dominant native language. By the third criterion, the great literatures of the Orient spring to mind, not to mention the languages of Tolstoy, Goethe, Cervantes, and Racine. But in addition to being the language of the still more distinguished Shakespeare, English leads as the primary medium for twentieth-century science and technology. The fourth criterion invokes Japanese, Russian, and German, for example, as languages of powerful, productive, and influential nations. But English is the language of the United. States, whose gross domestic product in 1980 was more than double that of its nearest competitor, Japan. No claim has here been made for the importance of English on the grounds of its quality as a language (the size of its vocabulary, its relative lack of inflections, the alleged flexibility of its syntax). The choice of an international language, or lingua franca, is never based on linguistic or aesthetic criteria but always on political, economic, and demographic ones.
Bibliographical note
The use of English
1.3
English is the world's most widely used language. A distinction is often made that depends on how the language is learned: as a natiue language (or mother tongue), acquired when the speaker is a young child (generally in the home), or as a nonnative language, acquired at some subsequent period. Overlapping with this distinction is that between its use as afirsf language, the primary
4 The English language
language of the speaker, and as an additional language. In some countries (particularly of course where it is the dominant native language), English is used principally for internal purposes as an intranational language, for speakers to communicate with other speakers of the same country; in other8 it serves chiefly as an international language, the medium of communication with speakers from other countries. One well-established categorization makes a three-way distinction between a native language, it second language, and a foreign language. As a foreign language English is used for international communication, but as a second language it is used chiefly for intranational purposes. We can distinguish five types of function for which English characteristically serves as a medium when it is a second language: (1) instrumental, for formal education; (2) regulative, for government administration and the law courts; (3) communicative, for interpersonal communication between individuals speaking different native languages; (4) occupational, bath intranationally and internationally for commerce and for science and technology; (5) creative, for nontechnical writings, such as fiction and political works. Note
1.4
[a] A bilingual child may have more than one native language, and a bilingual adult may be equally proficient in more than one first language. In some countries, English is one of two or more languages, and as a foreign language too it may be one of several that are known. [b] Although one's native language is usually also one's first language, it need not be. People may migrate to a country where a language different from their native tongue is spoken. If they become proficient in the new language and use it extensively, that nonnative language may become their first language, displacing the native tongue. Such displacement has occurred, for example, among Pakistanis in the United Kingdom and among Vietnamese In the United States. [C] Second-language writers in Southeast Asia and in East and West Africa are making important contributions to English literature. Their writings may Incorporate features characteristic of their second-languagevariety, including rhetorical and stylistic features, but they are generally addressed to, and read by, an international English readership. Native and second language English is spoken as a nativelanguage by more than 300 million people, most of them living in North America, the Britiyh Isles, Australia, New Zealand, the Caribbean, and South Africa. In several of these c~untries,English is not the sole language: the Quebec province of Canada is French-speaking, most South Africans speak Afrikaans or Bantu languages, and many Irish and Welsh people speak Celtic languages. But those whose native language is not English will have English as their second language for certain governmental, commercial, social, or educational activities within their own country. English is also a second language in many countries where only a small proportion of the people have English as their native language. In about twenty-five countries English has been legally designated as an official language: in about ten (such as Nigeria) it is the sole oficial language, and in some fifteen others (such as India) it shares that status with one or more other languages. Most of these countries are former British territories. Despite the association of the English language with the former colonial rulers, it has been retained for pragmatic reasons: where no one native language is generally acceptable, English is a neutral language that is politically acceptable, at least at the national level, for administrative and legal
The English language today
5
functions; and as an international language for science and technology it is desirable for higher education. English is an official language in countries of such divergent backgrounds as India, Nigeria, and Liberia, while in numerous other countries (Burma, Thailand, South Korea, and some Middle Eastern countries) it is used for higher education. In Sri Lanka, English at one time lost its official status, while retaining its social, cultural, and economic importance, but it has been reestablished as an official language; indeed, as a result of the increase in secondary education more people today learn English there than at any time during the colonial period. It has been estimated that English is a second language for well over 300 million people: the number of second-language speakers may soon exceed the number of native speakers, if it has not done so already. Note
1.5
The significance of English for higher education in second language countries is reflected in statistics for book publishing and literacy in 1981/82 in India. Indiaernerged as the world's th~rd largest publisher of books in English and forty-one per cent of titles produced lhere were in English, although only 2.3 per cent of the population were literate in English. But that tiny percentage represented 15 million people.
Foreign language Byforeign language we mean a language used by persons for communication across frontiers or with others who are not from their country: listening to broadcasts, reading books or newspapers, engaging in commerce or travel, for example. No language is more widely studied or used asa foreign language than English. The desire to learn it is at the present time immense and apparently insatiable. American organizations such as the United States Information Agency (USIA) and the Voice of America have played a notable role in recent years, in close and amicable liaison with the British Council, which provides support for English teaching both in the Commonwealth and in other countries throughout the world. The BBC (British Broadcasting Corporation), like the USIA, has notable radio and television facilities devoted to this purpose. Other English-speaking countries such as Australia also assume heavy responsibilities for teaching English as a foreign language. We shall look more closely in the next sections at the kind and degree of demand, but meantime the reasons for the demand have surely become clear. To put it bluntly, English is a top requirement of those seeking good jobs, and is often the language in which much of the business of good jobs is conducted. I t is needed for access to at least half of the world's scientific literature, and the most important scientificjournals are in English. It is thus intimately associated with technological and economic development and it is the principal language of international aid. The great manufacturing countries Germany and Japan use English as their principal advertising and sales medium; it is the language of automation and computer technology. Not only is it the universal language of international aviation, shipping, and sport, it is to a considerable degree the universal language of literacy and public communication. It is the major language of diplomacy, and is the most frequently used language both in the debates in the United Nations and in the general conduct of U N business.
6
Note
The English language
The English language today
[a] Some measure of the number and importance of publications in English is provided by the number o f translations of English books. In 1977 out o f a world total of 50 047 translations of books, 19 577 were from English. The nearest competitors were Russian (6771) and French (6054). [bl The pervasive influence of English has induced language academies or other languageplanning agencies in some countries to attempt to control the range of its functions and to prevent the acceptance of Englishisms (English loan words and loan translations) into their national languages, at least in official writing.
is commonly used as the medium for higher education, at least for scientific and technological subjects, even when it is not so used at the primary or secondary levels. Many students come from abroad for their higher and further education to English-speaking countries, where English is of course the medium for their studies. In 1979, there were 286 340 foreign students enrolled at the postsecondary level of education in the United States, 56 877 in the United Kingdom, and 32 148 in Canada (where some will have studied in Frenchspeaking institutions), apart from smaller numbers in other English-speaking countries. The country with the next highest figure after the United States was France, which had 112 042 foreign students in the same year.
The demand for English
1.6
The teaching of English The role of chief foreign language that French occupied for two centuries from about 1700 has been assumed by English-except of course in the English-speaking countries themselves, where French or (in the United States) Spanish is the foreign language most widely studied. Although patriotism obliges international organizations to devote far more resources to translation and interpreter services than reason would dictate, no senior post would be offered to a candidate deficient in English. The general equivalent of the nineteenth-century European 'finishing school' in French is perhaps the English-medium school organized through the state education system, and such institutions seem to be even more numerous in the Soviet Union and other East European countries than in countries to the West. There are also innumerable commercial institutions that teach English a t all levels and to all ages, both in non-English-speaking countries and in Englishspeaking countries. Most language learning, of course, takes place in the ordinary schools of the state educational system. The extent to which English is studied at the school level is shown in one analysis of the educational statistics for 112 countries where English is not a native language, but is either a foreign language or a second language. The study estimates that over 46 million primary school students and over 71 million secondary school students were in English classes in the early 1970s. These figures represent over 15 per cent of She primary school population and over 76 per cent of the secondary school population for those countries. I t is significant that English was the medium of instruction for 30 per cent of the primary school students and for nearly 16 per cent of the secondary school students. Estimated figures would have been far higher if statistics for all non-English-speaking countries had been included. (A notable exclusion from the study was the People's Republic of China.) Since the secondary school population is increasing at a rapid rate in the developing countries, we can expect that the number of English learners at the secondary level has increased very considerably since the early 1970s. Outside the primary and secondary schools, there are large numbers of students in institutions of higher and further education who are learning English for a variety of purposes: as the medium of the literature and culture of English-speaking countries; for access to scholarly and technological publications; to qualify as English teachers, translators, or interpreters; to improve their chances of employment or promotion in such areas as the tourist trade, international commerce, or international programmes for economic or military aid. In countries where it is a second language, English
7
1.7
Note
School models of English In countries where English is predominantly the native language, the form of written English taught in the schools is normally the STANDARD variety (cf 1.23), the variety associated with the educated users of the language in that country. However, it is now less usual than in the past for teachers to attempt to make the local spoken variety conform with some educated spoken norm. In countries where English is a nonnative language, the major models for both writing and speech have generally been the standard varieties of British and American English. The choice between them has depended on various factors: whether the country was formerly a British or a US colony; its proximity to Britain or the United States; which of the two had most influenced its economic, cultural, or scientific development; and current commercial or political relations. In some countries both American and British standard varieties are taught, sometimes in different institutions, . sometimes in the same institution. The situation has been changing in those countries where English is a second language, used extensively for intranational purposes in the absence of a commonly accepted national language. In countries such as India and Nigeria indigenous educated varieties are becoming institutionalized and are acquiring social acceptability. In the meantime, teachers in those countries are uncertain, or vary, about the norms to which their teaching should be geared: to those of the evolving local standard or to those of some external standard. Such uncertainties are analogous to the uncertainties among teachers in native-English countries over divided usages or prescriptive norms that differ from their own usage (cf 1.17). Where English is a foreign language, we may expect the American and British standard varieties to continue to be the major models, competing increasingly with the standard varieties of other countries such as Australia, in regions that are within the sphere of influence of those countries. Countries where English is a foreign language may develop, to some extent, independent prescriptive norms that are enshrined in handbooks and textbooks and that are reflected in examination questions.
The international character of English 1.8
English is preeminently the most international of languages. Though the name of the language may at once remind us of England, or we may associate
8
The English language
The English language today
the language w~ththe United States, one of the world's superpowers, English carries less implication of political or cultural specificity than any other living tongue (Spanish and French being also notable in this respect). At one and the same time, English serves the daily purposes of republics such as the United States and South Africa, sharply different in size, population, climate, economy, and national philosophy; and it serves an ancient realm such as the United Kingdom, as well as her widely scattered Commonwealth partners, themselves as different from each other as they are from Britain herself. But the cultural neutrality of English must not be pressed too far. The literal or metaphorical use of such expressions as case law throughout the English-speaking world reflects a common heritage in the legal system; and allusions to or quotations from Shakespeare, the Authorized (or King James) Version of the Bible, Gray's Elegy, Mark Twain, a sea shanty, a Negro spiritual, or a pop song - wittingly or not - testify similarly to a shared culture. The Continent can have its British meaning of 'continental Europe' in the United States and even in Australia and New Zealand. At other times, English equally reflects the independent and distinct culture of one or other of the English-speaking communities. When an Australian speaks of jbssicking something out ['searching for something'], the metaphor looks back to the desperate activity of reworking the diggings of someone else in the hope of finding gold that had been overlooked. When an American speaks of not getting to first base ['not achieving even initial success'], the metaphor concerns an equally culture-specific activity - the game of baseball. And when an Englishman says that something is not cricket ['unfair'], the allusion is also to a game that is by no means universal in the English-speaking countries. The future of English 1.9 Predictions -often gloomy - have been made about the future of English. It is worth considering the bases for such predictions with respect to the various uses of English. A single international language has long been thought to be the ideal for international communication. Artificially-constructed languages have never acquired sufficiently large numbers of adherents, although in principle such languages have the obvious advantage that they put all learners on the same footing (all are nonnative speakers), thereby not giving an advantage to speakers of any particular language. During the last few decades English has come closest to being the single international language, having achieved a greater world spread than any other language in recorded history. Yet in recent years doubts have arisen whether it will ever reach the ideal of the single international language or, indeed, whether its use as an international language will continue at the present level. One reason for the doubts has been the fear that national varieties of English are rapidly growing further apart and will finally separate into mutually incomprehensible languages. Fears have also been expressed that justifiable sensitivity to the child's right to use his native dialect (regional, socioeconomic, or ethnic) within a national variety might lead to the abandonment of a national standard dialect and hence to the further
-.
9
disintegration of English. The diversity in English is greatest in countries where English is a second language and therefore has to be taught. Since in those countries stddents are usually taught by teachers who are themselves not native speakers of English and who have inevitably acquired the language to varying degrees of adequacy, It is not eurprising that the standards of achievement are variable and subject to change. Some express concern about the excessive internal variability and the ill-acquired control of the language in such situations. Some fear the divisive effect of the emerging institutionalized varieties, which no longer look to native varieties for standards of acceptability. 1.10
While fears for the disintegration of English cannot be dismissed summarily, powerful forces are operating to preserve the unity of the language. Despite considerable dialectal differences within each national variety, the education systems have preserved the essential similarity of the national standards. The traditional spelling system generally ignores both the changes in pronunciation over time and the variations in pro~iunciationthrough space; despite its notorious vagaries, it is a unifying force in world English. Many factors are conducive to makihg differences in national varieties familiar and comprehensible: there is the influence of newspapers, magazines, and books on the written medium and of radio, television, and film on the spoken medium. Teachers and students can be made sensitive to, and tolerant of, language variation, and national examination systems can be made flexible enough to take account of variation. Despite a growing tolerance of nonstandard variation in speech, standard forms remain the norm for written English. The future of English as an international language has also been said to rest on the practicability of teaching the language, especially on a mass scale, to the level required for international usefulness, given the enormous expenditures required for the purpose. It is possible that as developing countries become richer they will be able to increase their expenditure on the teaching of English and raise the levels of teacher and student proficiency. At all events, programmes have been devised to restrict the goals of language learning, thereby allowing a more tealistic deployment of educational resources, as in the Teaching of English for Specific Purposes, for example for business or scientific communication. Following earlier attempts (such as 'Basic English') that were largely lexical, a proposal has also recently been made for constructing a simplified form of English (termed 'Nuclear English') that would contain a subset of the features of natural English; for example, modal auxiliaries such as can and may would be replaced by such paraphrases as be able to and be allowed to. The simplified form would be intelligible to speakers of any major national variety and could be expanded for specific purposes, for example for international maritime communication. The long-range continuance of English as a second language is also questionable in some countries. The eagerness for rapid technological advancement conflicts with the demands for the establishment of authentic links with past native traditions: objections to an official status for English and calls for its replacement by native languages are expressions of national pride and independence. Since a good command of English is usually restricted to an elite, we may expect political resentment against a minority
10
The English language
second language that brings benefits to those proficient in it. English is likely to be retained as an official language as long as no specific native language is politically acceptable to all, but we can expect that in at least some countries indigenous languages will become sufficiently dominant to acquire sole official status and eventually to displace English. In such cases English will gradually become recognized as a foreign language. However, irrespectiveof the degree of world influence exercised by the English-speaking countries themselves, English is likely to be retained generally as the medium for higher education as long as the major English-speakingcountries retain their economic and political status. 1.11
Note
Standards of English Complaints by native speakers that English is deteriorating or being corrupted reflect in the main a conservative resistance to change. Some language changes result in the loss of distinctions, but if a distinction is needed the loss will be compensated for. For example, in some regional varieties the distinction between the singular and plural meanings of you has been retained by the use of such expressions as you-all or you guys for the plural meanings (cf 6.12 Notes [a, bl). The introduction of specific new words or expressions (such as prioritize or interface) sometimes provokes violent indignation, often conveyed in ethical terms. Usually the objections to the innovations (or supposed innovations) reflect objections to their typical users. Some of the complaints relate to variants that are in divided usage among speakers of the standard variety; for example, graduated from and was graduated from in American English, or differentfrom and different to in British English. In yet other instances the forms are clearly recognized as unacceptable in the standard variety (such as the multiple negative in Idon't want no moneyfrom no one; cf 10.63 Note), though they may be acceptable in some nonstandard varieties. Relatively few points are at issue. They do not justify generalizationsabout the state of the language as a whole. Some native speakers claim that the use of the language is deteriorating. One charge is ethical: people are said to be abusing the language, more so than in the past, with intent to conceal,mislead, or deceive, generally through euphemism or obscure language. Usually, the accusation is directed principally against politicians, bureaucrats, and advertisers, but the abuse is felt to have an 'adverse effect on the language as such. Certainly, the contemporarymass media facilitate the rapid and widespread dissemination of such language abuses. The other charge is aesthetic or functional: people are said to be using the language less elegantly or less efficiently than in the recent past, a charge that is commonly directed against young people. The charge may or may not have some justification, but in any case is impossible to substantiate. Many variables inhibit the feasibility of making valid and reliable comparisons with earlier periods: for example, the phenomenal growth of the literate population and of the use of the written language. On standard and nonstandard English, c/ 1.22.On varietiesof standard English, cf 1.23ft:
Grammar and the study of language
11
Grammar and the study of language Types of linguistic organization
1.12
1.13
Sounds and spellings We claim that on the one hand there is a single English language (the grammar of which is the concern of this book), and that on the other hand there are recognizable varieties. Since these varieties can have reflexes in any of the types of organization that the linguist distinguishes, this is the point at which we should outline the types, one of which is grammar. When people speak, they emit a stream of sounds. We hear the sounds not as indefinitely variable in acoustic quality (however much they may be so in actual physical fact). Rather, we hear them as each corresponding to one of the very small set of sound units (in English, /p/, /l/, In/, /I/, ]a/, /S/ . . .) which can combine in certain ways and not in others. For example, in English we have spin but not *psin. (On the use of the asterisk and similar symbols, see 1.42.) We similarly observe patterns of stress and pitch. The rules for the organization of sound units (or phonemes) are studied in the branch of linguistics known as PHONOLOGY, while the physical propertiesof sounds and their manner of articulation are studied in PHONETICS. The other major method of linguistic communication is by writing; and for English as for many other languages an alphabetic writing system has been developed, the symbols related in the main to the individual sounds used in the language. Here again there is a closely structured organization which regards certain differences in shape as irrelevant and others (for example capitals versus lower case, ascenders to the left or right of a circle, eg: b versus 6)as significant. The studyof ORTHOGRAPHY (or more inclusively, GRAPHOLOGYor GRAPHEMICS) thus parallels the study of phonology in several wavs. Desvite the notorious oddities of English spelling, there are general principles: eg combinations of letters that English permits (tch, qu, ss, oo) and others that are disallowed (*pfx, *go) or have only restricted distribution (final v orj occurs only exceptionally as in Raj, spiv). Lexicology, grammar, semantics, pragmatics Just as the small set of arabic numerals can be combined to express in writing any natural numbers we like, however vast, so the small set of sounds and letters can be combined to express in speech and writing respectively an indefinitely large number of WORDS. These linguistic units enable people to refer to every object, action, and quality that members of a society wish to distinguish: in English, door, soap, indignation,find, stupefy, good, uncontrollable, and so on to a totalexceedingthe half million words listed in unabridged dictionaries. These units have a meaning and a structure (sometimes an obviously composite structure as in cases like uncontrollable) which relate them not only to the world outside language but to other words within the language (happy to happiness, unhappy, etc; good to bad, kind, etc; door to room, key, etc). The study of words is the business of LEXICOLOGY, but the regularities in their formation are similar in kind to the regularities of grammar and are closely connected to them (cf App I.1m. It is GRAMMAR
12
The English language
Grammar and thestudy of language
that is our primary concern in this book. Words must be combined into larger units, and grammar encompasses the complex set of rules specifying such combination. Meaning relations in the language system are the business of SEMANTICS, the study of meaning, and semantics therefore has relevance equally within lexicology and within grammar. Finally, the meaning of linguistic expressions when uttered within particular types of situation is dealt with in PRAGMATICS,which is concerned with the communicativeforce of linguistic utterances. Two terms are employed for the interconnection of grammar and the uses of grammar: TEXT LINGUISTICS and DISCOURSE ANALYSIS. All types of organization (but notably lexicology and grammar) enter into the structure of TEXTS, which constitute spoken and written discourse (cf Chapter 19).
1.15
To begin with, it is clear that the speaker cannot now be intending to restrict 'grammar' to inflections: rather the converse; it would seem to be used as a virtual synonym of 'syntax'. Secondly, the native speaker's comment probably owes a good deal to the fact that he does not feel the rules of his own language - rules that he has acquired unconsciously - to be at all constraining; and if ever he happens to be called on to explain one such rule to a foreigner he has very greatdifficulty. By contrast, the grammatical rules he learns for a foreign language seem much more,rigid and they also seem clearer because they have been actually soelled out to him in the learning process. But another important pointisrevealed i n this sentence. The distinction refers to 'grammar' not as the observed patterns in the use of French but as a codification of rules compiled by the French (especially by the Acadkmie Fran~aise)to show the French themselves how their language should be used. This is not grammar 'immanent' in a language (as our previous uses were, however much they differedin the types of pattern they referred to), but grammar as codified by grammarians: the Academy Grammar. There is no such Academy for the English language and so (our naive native speaker imagines) the English speaker has more 'freedom' in his usage.
Syntax and inRections The word 'grammar' has various meanings, and since grammar is the subject matter of this book we should explore the most common meanings of the word. We shall be using 'grammar' to include both SYNTAX and that aspect of MORPHOLOGY (the internal structureof words) that deals with INFLECTIONS (or ACCIDENCE). The fact that the past tense of buy is bought [inflection]and the fact that the interrogative form of He bought it is Did he buy it? [syntax] are therefore both equally the province of grammar. There is nothing technical about our usage in this respect: it corresponds to one of the common lay uses of the word in the ~n~lish-speaking yforli. A teacher may comment: --
---
John uses good grammar but his spelling is awful.
1.16
The comment shows that spelling is excluded from grammar; and if John wrote interloper where the context demanded interpreter, the teacher would say that he had used the wrong word, not that he had made a mistake in grammar. But in the education systems of the English-speaking countries, it is possible also to use the term 'grammar' loosely so as to include both spelling and lexicology. There is a further;use of 'grammar' that derives from a period in which the teaching of Latin gnd Greek was widespread. Since the aspect of Latin grammar on which teaching has traditionally concentrated is the paradigms (or model sets) of inflections, it made sense for the learner to say:
Jespersen wrote a good grammar, and so did Kruisinga. Did you bring your grammars? Naturally, too, the codification may refer to grammar in any of the senses already mentioned. The codification will also vary, however, according to the linguistic theory embraced by the authors, their idea of the nature of grammar rather than their statementof the grammar of a particular language : Chomsky developed a transformational grammar that differed considerably from earlier grammars.
This meaning of 'grammar' has continued to be used by lay native speakers. In effect, grammar is identified with inflections, so that nonspecialists may still speak of 'grammar and syntax', tacitly excluding the latter from the former. The termgrammar school (used in several English-speakingcountries, though not always with referenceto the same type of school) reflects the historical fact that certain schools concentrated at one time on the teaching of Latin and Greek. One sometimescomes upon the lay supposition that such schools do or should make a special effort to teach English grammar.
The codification of rules The 'codification' sense of grammar is readily identified with the specific codification by a specific grammarian: And this sense naturally leads to the concrete use as in:
Latin has a good deal of grammar, but English has hardly any.
Note
Rules and the native speaker Nor have we completed the inventory of meanings. The same native speaker, turning his attention from Latin, may comment:
French has a well-defined grammar, but in English we're free to speak as we like.
The meanings of 'grammar'
1.14
13
In the usage of many leading linguists, this last sense of grammar has returned to the catholicity that it had in the Greek tradition more than 2000 years ago, covering the whole field of language structure. Thus, in the framework of formal linguistics, some grammarians speak of 'the grammar' as embracing rules not only for syntax but for phonological, lexical, and semantic specification as well. Note
Accidents of intellectual history in the nineteenthcentury result in the fact that an old-fashioned
--
14
Varietiesof English 15
The English language
inflections in verbs and nouns (cf 3.5J 5.80). It is seen to bear on lexicology, for example, in the fact that some nouns and verbs differ only in the position of the stress (cf App 1.56):
Old High German grammar (or an Old English grammar) may well contain only inflections together with a detailed explanation of how the phonologicalsystem emerged.
1.17
Prescriptive grammar Finally we come to the use of 'grammar' in statementssuch as: It's bad grammar to end a sentence with a preposition. Here the term refers to a way of speaking or writing that is to be either preferred or avoided. Such statements pertain to PREsCRlPnVE GRAMMAR, a set of regulations that are based on what is evaluated as correct or incorrect in the standard varieties. Since we do not have an Academy of the English Language, there is no one set of regulations that could be considered 'authoritative'. Instead, evaluations are made by self-appointed authorities who, reflecting varying judgments of acceptability and appropriateness, often disagree. Authorities on USAGE, in this restricted sense, primarily deal with DISPUTED usage, a relatively small number of syntactic and lexical items that are controversial within the standard varieties. Their objections may persuade some to avoid certain usages, at least in their formal writina. Over the last two centuries prescriptive rules have accumulated into a prescriptive tradition for formal writing that is embodied (with some variation) in school textbooks and student reference handbooks, and in usage guides for the general public. As an occasional consequence of prescriptive pressures, some speakers have mistakenly extended particular prescriptive rules in an attempt to avoid mistakes. A classic instance of such HYPERCORRECTION is the use of whom as subject (cf 6.35 Note [a]). Others are the pseudo-subjunctive were as in I wonder ifhe were here and the use of the subjective pronoun I in the phrase between you and I. Our primary concern in this book is to describe the grammar of English. But we occasionally refer to the prescriptive tradition not only because it may lead to hypercorrection but also because it may affect attitudes towards particular uses that may in turn influence the preferences of some native speakers, at least in formal or more considered styles. It may lead some, for example, to replace their usual was by subjunctive were in I was strong enough, I would he/p you, or to replace who by whom in the teacher who Imost admired.
1.18
Grammar and other types of organization Progress towards a more explicit type ofgrammaticaidescription is inevitably slow and the whole field of grammar is likely to remain an area of interesting controversy. While theoretical problems are not the concern of this book, our treatment cannot be neutral on the issues that enliven current discussion. For example, we would not wish to assert the total independence of grammar from phonology on the one hand and lexicology or semantics on the other as was implied in the deliberate oversimplification of 1.12f: Phonology is seen to have a bearing on grammar even in small points such as the association of initial /d/ with demonstrativenessand conjunctions (this, then, though, etc, cf 2.37). More important are the phonological conditions for the -S and -ed
I
That is an 'insult. They may'in'sult me. But most obviously the interdependence of phonology and grammar is shown in focus processes (cf the connection between intonation and linear presentation: 18.2ff, 19.25fl, and in the fact that by merely altering the phonology one can distinguish sets of sentences like those quoted*in App 11.21. The interrelations of grammar, lexicology, and semantics are manifested in the semantic restrictions (cf 10.51) that permit [l] and [2], but not [la] and [2a] : Fear replaced indecision. *John replaced indecision. John hated indecision. *Fear hated indecision.
111 [lal [21
[2a1
The borderline between grammar and semantics is unclear, and linguists will draw the line variously. We shall not give guidance on such constraints in this book. Similarly, the borderline between grammar and pragmatics (and even more so between semantics and pragmatics) is unclear. Although we shall have occasion to refer to the kinds of intended speech behaviour (such as request and invitation)that may be conveyed through certain sentence types (cf particularly Chapter 1l), we shall not attempt a comprehensive account. But we shall attempt to give every indication of the meaning of the constructionswe discuss. Our general principle will be to regard grammar as accounting for constructionswheregreatestgeneralization ispossible, assigning to lexicology (and hence beyond the scope of this book) constructions on which least generalization can be formulated. In applying this principle we will necessarily make arbitrary decisionsalong the gradient from greatest to least generalization.
Varieties of English Types of variation 1.19 Having indicated how we may speak of different types of linguistic organization such as phonology, lexicology, and grammar, we may now return to the point we had reached at the beginning of 1.12. What are the varieties of English whose differing properties are realized through the several types of linguistic organization? Formulating a theoretical basis on which the varieties of any language can be described, interrelated, and studied is one of the prime concerns of the
16
The English language
Varieties of English
branch of language study called SOCIOLINGu~sTIcs. This discipline is far from having achieved complete answers, and all attempts are in some degree oversimplifications. We shall first consider five major types of variation. Any use of language necessarily involves variation within all five types, although for purposes of analysis we may abstract individual varieties (a relatedset of variation within one type). (a) (b) (c) (d) (e)
Regional variation seems to be realized predominantly in phonology. That is, we generally recognize a different dialect from a speaker's pronunciation is alsodistinctive. or accent before we notice that the vocabulary (or LEXICON) Grammaticalvariation tends to be less extensive and certainlyless obtrusive. But all types of linguistic organization can readily enough be involved. A Lancashire man may be recognized by a Yorkshireman because he pronounces an /r/ after vowels as in stir or hurt. A middy is an Australian measure for beer - but it refers to a considerably bigger measure in Sydney than it does in Perth. Instead of Isaw it, a New Englander might say Isee it, a Pennsylvanian I seen it, and a Virginian either I seen it or lseed it, if they were speaking the rural nonstandard dialect of their locality, and the same forms characterize certain dialects within Britain too.
region (l .20f) social group (1.22ff) field of discourse (1.28) medium (l .29f) attitude (l .3lff)
The fist two types of variation relate primarily to the language user. People use a regional variety because they live in a region or have once lived in that region. Similarly, people use a social variety because of their afiiliation with a social group. These varieties are relatively permanent for the language user. At the same time, we should be aware that many people can communicate in more than one regional or social variety and can therefore (consciously or unconsciously) switch varieties according to the situation. And of course people move to other regions or change their social affiliations, and may then adopt a new regional or social variety. The last three types of variation relate to language use. People select the varieties according to the situation and the purpose of the communication. The field of discourse relates to the activity in which they are engaged; the medium may be spoken or written, generally depending on the proximity of the participants in the communication; and the attitude expressed through language is conditioned by the relationship of the participants in the particular situatiqn. A COMMON CORE or nucleus is present in all the varieties so that, however esoteric a variety may b q i t has running through it a set of grammatical and other characteristics that are present in all the others. It is this fact that justifies the application of the name 'English' to all the varieties. Note
We have conspicuously omitted variation in time, since this book is solely concerned with the grammar of present-day English. Variation in the contemporary language, however, reflects in part historical changd in progress. At any one period, older variants may coexist with newer variants, and some of khe newer variants may eventually become the sole forms.
1.20
Varieties according to region have a well-established label both in popular and technical use: DIALEW. Geographical dispersion is in fact the classic basis for linguistic variation, and in the course of time, with poor communicationsand relative remoteness, such dispersion results in dialects becoming so distinct that we regard them as different languages. This latter stage was long ago reached with the Germanic dialects that are now Dutch, English, German, Swedish, etc, but it has not been reached (and may not necessarily ever be reached, given the modem ease and range of communication) with the dialects of English that have resulted from the regional separation of communities within the British Isles and (since the voyages of exploration and settlement in Shakespeare's time) elsewhere in the world.
17
Note
[a] The attitude of native speakers of one dialect towards the dialects of other native speakers varies greatly, but, in general, dialects of rural and agricultural communities are regarded as more pleasant than dialects of large urban communities such as New Yorkor Birmingham. This is connected, of course, with social attitudes and the asshciation of city dialects with variation according to education and social standing ($1.22) rather than according to region. [b] Dialectologistsand sociolinguistsoften use the term 'dialect' for social varieties.
1.21
It is pointless to ask how many dialects of English there are: there are indefinitely many, depending on how detailed we wish to be in our observations. But they are of course more obviously numerous in long-settled Britain than in areas more recently settled by Europeans, such as North America or, still more recently, Australia and New Zealand. The degree of generality in our observation depends crucially upon our standpoint as well as upon our experience. An Englishman will hear an American Southerner primarily as an American, and only as a Southerner in addition if further subclassification is called for and if his experience of American English dialects enables him to make it. To an American the same speaker will be heard first as a Southerner and then (subject to similar conditions) as, say, a Virginian, and then perhaps as a Piedmont Virginian. One might suggest some broad dialectal divisions which are rather generally recognized. Within North America, most people would be able to distinguish Canadian, Northern, Midland, and Southern varieties of English. Within the British Isles, Irish, Scots, Northern, Midland, Welsh, Southwestern, and London varieties would be recognized with similar generality. Some of these - the English of Ireland and Scotland for example - would be recognized as such by many Americans and Australians too, while in Britain many people could make subdivisions: Ulster and Southern might be distinguished within Irish English, for example, and Yorkshire picked out as an important subdivision of Northern speech. British people can also, of course, distinguish North Americans from all others (though not usually Canadians from Americans), South Africans from Australians and New Zealanders (though mistakes are frequent), but not usually Australians from New Zealanders.
1.22
Within each of the dialects there is considerablevariation in speech according to education, socioeconomic group, and ethnic group. Some differences correlate with age and sex. Much (if not most) of the variation does not
Regional variation
Social variation
i
18 The English language
Varietiesof
involve categorical distinctions; rather it is a matter of the frequency with which certain linguistic features are found in the groups. There is an important polarity between uneducated and educated speech in which the former can be identified with the nonstandard regional dialect most completely and the latter moves away from regional usage to a form of English that cuts across regional boundaries. To revert to an example given in a previous section, a n outsider (who was not a skilled dialectologist) might not readily find a New Englander who said see for saw, a Pennsylvanian who said seen, and a Virginian who said seed. These are forms that tend to be replaced by saw with schooling, and in speaking to a stranger a dialect speaker would tend to use 'school' forms. On the other hand, there is no simple equation of regional and uneducated English. Just as educated English, I saw, cuts across regional boundaries, so do many features of uneducated use: a prominent example is the double negative as in I don't want no cake, which has been outlawed from all educated English by the prescriptive grammar tradition for over two hundred years but which continues to thrive as an emphatic form in uneducated speech wherever English is spoken. Educated English naturally tends to be given the additional vrestiee of government agencies, the professions, the political parties, the press, the law court, and the pulpit - anv institution which must attempt to address itself to apublic beyond the smallest dialectalcommunity. It is codified indictionaries, grammars, and guides to usage, and it is taught in the school system at all levels. It is almost exclusively the language of printed matter. Because educated English is thus accorded implicit social and political sanction, it and provided we remember comes to be referred to as STANDARDENGLISH, that this does not mean an English that has been formally standardized by official action, as weights and measures are standardized, the term is useful and appropriate. In contrast with standard English, forms that are especially associated with uneducated (rather than dialectal) use are generally called A
Note
open to considerable variation. Learned or formal publications, such as academic journals and school textbooks, prefer British spellings, while popular publications, such as newspapers, prefer American spelling. Individuals may use both variants according to situation, but sometimes randomly. One difference between the American and British subsystems of punctuation is that the general American practice is to put a period or comma inside closing quotation marks, which are usually double in American usage for the primary set: Thesign said "No smoking." A further orthographic point may cause Anglo-American misunderstanding: the numerical form of dates. In British (and European) practice 2/10/85 means '2 October 1985', but in American practice it means 'February 10, 1985'(cf6.66). In grammar and vocabulary, standard English presents somewhat less of amonolithic character, but evenso the world-wideagreement is extraordinary and -as has been suggested earlier - seems actually to be increasing under the impact of closer world communication and the spread of identical material and nonmaterial culture. The uniformity is especially close in neutral or formal styles of written English on subject matter not of obviously localized interest: in such circumstances one tan frequently go on for page after page without encountering a feature which would identify the English as belonging to one of the national standards (cf 1.28f).
- -
NONSTANDARD.
'Substandard' is sometimes used in place of 'nonstandard', but less commonly now than in the past.
S t a n d a r d English 1.23 The degree of acceptance of a single standard of English throughout the world, across a multiplicity of political and social systems, is a truly remarkable phenomenon: the more so since the extent of the uniformity involved has, if anything, increased in the present century. Uniformity is greatest in orthography, which is from most viewpoints the least important type of linguistic organization. Although printing houses in all Englishspeaking countries retain a tiny element of individual decision (eg: realize1 realise, judgmentljudgement), there is basically a single spelling and punctuation system throughout: with two minor subsystems. The one is the subsystem with British orientation (used in most English-speaking countries other than the United States), with distinctive forms in only a small class of words, colour, centre, leoelled, etc. The other is the American subsystem, color, center, leoeled, etc. Canadian spelling draws on both systems and is
English 19
National s t a n d a r d s of English 1.24
British and American English What we are calling national standards should be seen as distinct from the standard English which we have been discussing and which we should think of as being supranational, embracing what is common to all. Again, as with orthography, there are two national standards that are overwhelmingly predominant both in the number of distinctive usages and in the degree t o which these distinctions are institutionalized: American English (AmE) and British English (BrE). Grammatical differences are few and the most conspicuous are known to many users of both national standards: the fact that AmE has two past participles for get and BrE only one (cf 3.18), for example, and that in BrE either a singular or a plural verb may be used with a singular collective noun: The government {e:}
in favour of economic sanctions.
whereas in AmE a singular verb is required here. Some are less familiar, but are unlikely to hamper communication. For example, AmE may use the simple past in informal style in contexts where BrE normally requires the present perfective (cf 4.20 Note), as in: Suejust Sue's just finished her homework. And BrE tends to use the construction with should where AmE generally uses the present subjunctive (cf 14.24): I insisted that he
]
should take {lab
the documents with him.
.
,
.
20 The English language
Lexical examples are far more numerous, but many of these are familiar to users of both standards: for example, railway (BrE), railroad (AmE); tin (BrE), can (AmE); petrol ather than the first, as in:
Note
A tiaer
I
money.
Specific reference: definite and indefinite
They have umpteenjazz records.
5.27
Uses of the definite article The definite article the is used to mark the phrase it introduces as definite, ie as 'referring to something which can be identified uniquely in the contextual or general knowledge shared by speaker and hearer'. The'something'referred
266
The useof articles with common nouns
Nouns and determiners
the North Pole the moon the stars the zenith the Greek gods
to may be any kind of noun phrase referent: a person (the girl), a group of people (thefiremen), an object (the lamp), a group of objects (the roses), an abstraction (the plan), a group of abstractions (the fears), etc. Moreover, the noun determined by the may have pre- or postmodification, by which the 'something' identified by the may be more precisely specified, eg: the talllamp
5.28
-
As elsewhere, when no distinction is necessary in this discussion of articles, 'speaker' subsumes 'writer', and 'hearer' subsumes 'reader'.
'(a) Immediate situation The term SITUATIONAL REFERENCE may be used to describe cases where the reference of the is derived from the extralinguistic situation. We first distinguish the used with reference to the IMMEDIATE situation: :
Note
The roses are very beautiful. [said in a garden] Have you visited the castle? [said in a given town] I missed both the lectures this morning. [said by one student to another] Have you fed the cat? [said in a domestic context] These are the pistons. [explaining the engine of a car] It is, of course, possible for the speaker to misjudge the knowledge of the hearer, in which case the hearer may need to seek clarification through a which- or what-question (with the nucleus on the wh-item): Have you fed the cat? Aren't the red roses lovely? Note
5.29
5.30
WH~CHcat? WHAT red roses?
In practice, since a speaker cannot always be surebf the hearer's state of knowledge, use of the involves a certain 'amount of guesswork. In fact, in some cases the assumption of shared knowledge is a palpable fiction. Notices such as Mindtheaepand Be~vareofthedog,for example, generally do not assume that the reader was previously aware of the hazards in question.
[a] Singular noun phrases having unique denotation include phrases referring to classes, groups, etc of human beings such as the following (cfcollective nouns, 5.108): the working class the proletariat the bourgeoisie the aristocracy Similar plural phrases include those referring to clans, tribes, races, etc: the Romans the Cordon Highlanders the masses the Italians The use of the in respect of the 'larger situation'overlaps with the generic use (cf 5.52fl. [b] Contrary to normal practice, there is no article before earth in the following expressions (cf 5.41fl: come backldown to earth He's very down toearth. rdirect'] What on earth are you doing?
(c) Anaphoric reference: direct The term ANAPHORIC REFERENCE is used where the uniqueness of reference of some phrase the X is supplied by information given earlier in the discourse (cf 12.6). We may distinguish two kinds of anaphora: direct and indirect. A definite noun phrase receives DIRECT anaphoric interpretation where the same noun head has already occurred in the text, and it is clear that a relation of coreference exists between the two noun phrases. (By COREFERENCE we understand a relation between the two noun phrases such that they have the same reference.) For example : John bought a TV and a video recorder, but he returned the video recorder.
(b) Larger situation (general knowledge) The identity of the referent may be evident from knowledge of the 'larger' situation which speaker and hearer share, eg:
Here, as in other similar cases, there is a complementary role for the definite article and the indefinite article: the first reference to an object will ordinarily be indefinite; but once the object has been introduced into the discourse in this way, it can be treated as 'contextually known', and can thenceforward be referred to by means of the definite article.
the Prime Minister the airlines the last war The larger situation may in fact be worldwide (the Pope), or be shared by all inhabitants of a country; eg in the United States, at a given time, virtually everyone will know which president is being referred to by the phrase the President. When it is as wide as this, the 'larger situation' is scarcely distinguishable from general knowledge and may extend, in extreme cases, to the whole planet or to the whole of human history. In the use of phrases like the sun there is the presupposition that, in our experience or fields of interest, there is only one such object. Similar examples are:
the earth the sky the cosmos the Renaissance the Church
There is a tendency for some nominal expressions following the to be written with initial caoitals. This is because such ex~ressionsin effect have UNIQUE DENOTATION, and in this respect resemble proper nouns (cf 5.60fn. There is no clear dividing line between 'immediate' and 'larger' - situations; instead, there is a scale of generality running from the most restricted to the least restricted sphere that can be envisaged: that of the whole universe of human knowledge.
the lamp on the table
Given that the use of the relies on shared knowledge, there are several ways in which the identity of the referent may be determined or 'recovered' by the hearer, as we shall see in 5.28ff. Note
the Equator the sea the universe the nadir the Republic
267
5.31
(d) Anaphoric reference: indirect INDIRECT ANAPHORA arises when a reference becomes part of the hearer's knowledge indirectly, not by direct mention, as in the example in 5.30, but by inference from what has already been mentioned: John bought a bicycle, but when he rode it one of the wheels came off.
[l1
268
The use o f articles with common nouns
Nouns and determiners
The wheels of the bicycle can be taken for granted in this sentence because (a) a bicycle has already been mentioned (ANAPHORA), and (b) we know that bicycles have wheels (GENERAL KNOWLEDGE). In this way, we can see that indirect anaphora combines two kinds of 'recoverability'. Another way to look at it is to say that indirect anaphora combines anaphoric reference with cataphoric reference (cf 5.32); eg we understand the wheels in [l] above to be an elliptical variant of the wheels of the bicycle. This latter explanation does not, as we shall see, apply to all such cases. Some further examples of indirect anaphora are the following. Once we have introduced the topic of a farm, we can go on to talk about thefarmer, the farmhouse, the pigs, the barn, etc; once we have introduced the topic of an orchestralconcert, we can go on to talk about theprogramme, the audience, the conductor, the second oboe, etc. Consider finally these examples:
cataphoric but entails some degree of anaphoric reference. Compare [4] and [4a]: The bicycle John bought has been stolen. [assumes unique reference; cfi John's bicycle] A bicycle John bought has been stolen. [cf: a bicycIeofJohn's, cf 17.461
the height of Mont Blanc *aheight of Mont Blanc Note
[21
[31 In [3] the topic of 'a wedding' is introduced by means of the verb phrase got married (hence the bride, the bridesmaids); there is also the presumption of a church, and hence the organist, the choir. There is thus no easy way to explain the subsequent occurrences of the by means of ellipsis; to do so, it would be necessary to yostulate such long-winded phrases as [3a]: the bridesmaids who accompanied the bride when she got married 5.32
(e) Cataphoric reference By the CATAPHORICuse of the may be understood the use of the definite article in a context where what follows the hea? noun, rather than what precedes it, enables us to pinpoint the reference uniquely. 'Cataphoric' is therefore the opposite of 'anaphoric' reference. In practice, however, the cataphoric use of the definite article is limited to cases where the modification of the noun phrase restricts the reference of the noun, so that its referent is, for the purpose of the,discourse, uniquely defined. Thus, the italicized postmodifiers of the followirig nouns justify the use of the: The President of Mexico is to visit China. The girls sitting over there are my cousins. of~rance The wines that Franceproduces- are among the best in the world. [3]
l
In principle, however, there is no difference between postmodification and premodification as a means of specifying reference. Compare: the President of Me.~ico the Mexican President
114 [lbl
Sometimes the definite noun phrase can be contrasted with an equivalent indefinite phrase. In such instances, the definite article is not in fact genuinely
14al
the parents of Elvis Presley *(some) parents of Elvis Presley
It is not necessary to postulate that the expression [S] presupposes some unspoken preamble such as [5a] but, rather, such as [Sbl: the mud on your coat [S] [sal There'ssome mudon your coat. You know there's mud on your coat. [Sbl Contrast [6]with [6a]: How did you get the mud on your coat? 161
Did you know you have { * ~ ~ ~ u d ]your o n coat?
5.33
&a1
(f) Sporadic reference The is sometimes used in reference to an institution of human society. For example, in [l] there aFe two possible interpretations of the theatre:
My sister goes to the theatre every month.
U4
L41
At other times, there is no such indefinite alternative, because the whole phrase has unique denotation, like the Equator (cf 5.29):
I lent Bill a valuable book, but when he returned it, the cover was filthy, and thepages were torn. They got married in grand style. The bride wore a long brocade dress, and the bridesmaids wore pink taffeta. The organist played superb music, and the choir sang magnificently.
269
[l]
By situational reference, it may mean a particular theatre, say the Criterion Theatre, which my sister attends regularly. But a more likely meaning is that my sister does not necessarily confine her theatre-going to one building: the theatre refers, rather, to the theatre as an institution, so that it would be inappropriate to ask, in response to [l]: Which theatre? We call this the SPORADIC use of the, because reference is made to an institution which may be observed recurrently at various places and times. There is a similar use of the news, the radio, the television, the paper(s), the press, etc, referring to aspects of mass communication: Did you hear the ten o'clock news? in the paper(s)
But with television or TV, there is also the possibility that the article will be omitted (cf 5.45). The concept of sporadic reference also extends to expressions referring to modern transport and communication, such as the bus, the train, thepost (esp BrE), the mail (esp AmE), the telephone: Mary took the buslthe train to London. OR: a busla train He promised that the letters would be in thepostlthe mail this evening.
270
Nouns a n d determiners
T h e use of articles with c o m m o n n o u n s
In a temporal rather than spatial sense, sporadic reference may even be taken to apply to the optional use of the before words referring to seasons (eg: the wititer, cf 5.47), and to festivals, etc (the New Year, cf 5.67). Note
In these examples, the personal pronoun or noun referring to the 'possessor' of the body part is the object, and the body part is a prepositional complement. There are virtually synonymous clauses in which the body part is preceded by a possessive pronoun, and functions as object:
[a] T h e sporadic use of the is in certain instances close to the generic use of the (cJ'5.55J). Compare the use of the theatre in [I1 above with the generic sense of the theatre['drama as an art form'] in [2l: She's an expert on (the) (Elizabethan) theatre. I21 Similarly: thenovel, the ballad, ((rre)dronla. [b] The contrast between situational and sporadic use is manifest in this pair of examples: There.s a vase of on the leleuision (set).
I
I shook him by his hand. He kissed her on her cheek. She patted him on his shoulder.
{*te/wision.
5.34
1 l
i
Ada and have We must catch
hobby.
My mother complains of a pain in thelher hip. The wanted man has a scar on'thelhis left cheek.
1; 1
Alternatively, the 'possessor' may be implied rather than stated: The doctor diagnosed a fracture of the collarbone. Many patients in the hospital suffered from a disease of the liver. But such constructions are not exceptions to the general rule that the refers to what is uniquely identified by shared knowledge. There is no unclarity in any of these cases as to the identity of the body in question. The restriction of this use of the to prepositional complements means that the possessive pronoun, rather than the, has to be used in such examples as:
II
Have you broken your arm? NOT: *Have you broken the arm? A further restriction is that the possessive pronoun must be used if the body part does not refer to what is denoted by the direct object:
{*F}
next bus.
She Note
[a] The 'logical' usk of the is closely related to cataphoric reference. Compare [I] with [La]: When is theflight that leaves~frstfor Chicago tomorrow? [lal [b] The occurrence of fixed phrases such as a bestfriend is possible in special contexts: eg if a child is always changing his or her best friend, one may refer to the current favourite as a new bestjriend. More freely, zero article may be used in front of fixed phrases such as: He was best man ['groomsman'] at the wedding. (c) He was
{
}
the best man man for the job.)
(h) The use of the with reference to body parts 5.35 With reference to parts of the body and following a preposition, the is often used instead of possessive pronouns my, your, her, their (cf also the indefinite article, 5.36 Note), etc: Mary banged herself on theforehead. They pulled her by the hair. Everyone gave us a pat on the back. Don't keep digging me in the ribs.
[lbl
In other cases the 'possessor' phrase is subject of the clause:
When is thejrstflight to Chicago tomorrow? This is the only remaining copy. Of the three newspapers we have in this city, this is the best.
[l] [2] [31 I n these cases the indefinite article or the zero article would generally be absurd:
him by the hand. {his hand.
It is often possible, though sometimes unidiomatic, to use a possessive pronoun in place of the:
There's an interesting play on (the) telecision. [e] On the sporadic use of the in cases like the hdrber's,cf 5.125.
(g) The 'logical' use of the We may reserve the term LOGICAL for cases where the uniqueness of the referent is to be explained not so much by knowledge of the world, as by appeal to the logical interpretation of certain words. These words are postdeterminers and adjectives whose meaning is inalienably associated with uniqueness: ordinals such asfirst; 'general ordinals' such as next and last (cf 5.22); also same, only, sole; and superlative adjectives like best and largest:
271
the
with her leji hand. {?with the left hand.
One factor which could make [2a] acceptable, and indeed nonnal, is the interpretation 'she is left-handed'. Similarly: She kicks the ball with the leftjbot (because she is left-footed).
li
With such an interpretation, the is normal, but the rule is not absolute. Note
[a] There can be a slight difference of meaning between the construction illustrated by [l] and by lla]. The following appear to be synonymous: [31 They grabbed him by the arm. his arm. f3al But one can imagine a grisly context in which [3a] refers to an arm severed from the body; this context could not apply to 131. Ibl . . It is difficult to eeneralize about cases of the above constructions. Some are purely idiomatic: She looked me in the eye and told me the whole story. [but not here: looked in my eye, although this is what a doctor will do at an examination of the eye] Further semantic factors are the following: (i) The use of the is preferred when the reference is to unpleasant conditions of the body (eg aches, pains, wounds):
{
-
272
T h e u s e of articles w i t h c o m m o n n o u n s
Nouns a n d determiners
haw a cold in the head have spieson the hroin be red in tlrejace be onned to teeth (ii) This use applies only to parts of the body, and cannot usually be extended to things which are worn: They seized him by the throot/tlrebeordltltecollor/?tlrejacket. Moreover, only those verbs which can take the personal direct object without the prepositional phrase can occur in this construction : He kickedlhitltapped me on the shin. I'He kicked etcmy shin.'But not: *He stepped me on the toes; *He stepped my toes.] [c] Outside the above conditions, the issometimes used instead of possessives in a masculine style'of speech: How's the back? [referring to an injury] Let's have a look at thearm. [This is also what a doctor, ofeither sex. might say to a patient.1 Related to this usage is the habit of some men of referring to their wives, or children, by the (informal) : How's the ) v @ '[normally: ? your ~vije] Wait till I tell the w$e about it! [normally: my ~vi/e] How are the childrenlkids? Note also (familiar) : How's theold man? ['your husband/father'] [d] On other uses of the (eg: themore the nrerrier; 4Omilestorhegollon),cjll.43.
Note
5.37
The indefinite article, like the definite article (cf5.35). is sometimes used with body parts: [31 Sally has sprained on ankle. He's broken a leg. [41 [S] BUT NOT:'Roger has hurt a nose. Alan cannot be used unless the body has more than one of the body parts mentioned; hence 151 is absurd in implying that Roger has more than one nose. Even when the body part is not unique, the possessive pronoun is the usual choice (cj5.35): [3al Sally has sprained her ankle. He's broken hisleg. 144 I've cut myfinger.
Nonreferring uses of the indefinite article The indefinite article is strongly associated with the complement function in a clause, or more generally with noun phrases in a copular relationship (cl 2.22, 10.8). Here it has a descriptive role (similar to that of predicative adjectives), rather than a referring role: . Paganini was a great violinist. My daughter is training as a radiologist.' We found Lisbon (to be) a delightful city. What a miserable day (it is)! (cf 11-31)
Whereas the indefinite article is required in the previous examples, there is vacillation in the following cases (cf'unique role', 5.42):
Uses of the indefinite article
5.36 The indefinite article is notionally the 'unmarked' article in the sense that it is used (for singular count nouns) where the conditions for the use of the do not obtain. That is, a/an X will be used where the reference of X is not uniquely identifiable in the shared knowledge of speaker and hearer. Hence a/an is typically used when the referent has not been mentioned before, and is assumed to be unfamiliar to the speaker or hearer:
her duties as (a) hostess my appointment as (a) lecturer Jung as (a) thinker Sometimes alan is nonreferring in a stronger sense; it may not refer to anything in reality at all:
An intruder has stolen a vase. The intruder stole the vase from a locked case. The case was smashed open.
Leonard wants to marry a princess who speaks five languages. From this sentence, we cannot tell whether Leonard knows a certain princess and wants to marry her, or whether he has simply laid down exceptionally stringent qualifications for his future wife. For all we know, there may be no princess who speaks five languages in existence.
As we see from this (unusually explicit) example, the indefinite article, in contrast to the definite article, makes no assumptions about an earlier mention. But in actual usage the distinction may be less overt. For example, a conversation may begin as [l] or as [la]: A house on the corner is for sale. The houselon the corner is for sale.
Note
The only difference in meaning is that, in [la], the speaker presupposes that the hearer will know which house is meant (perhaps because there is only one such house), whereas, in [l], no such assumption is implied. Unlike the definite article, the indefinite article does not signal coreference with a preceding indefinite noun phrase. In sentence [2], the speaker does not claim that the two watches are the same (although he.may be obliquely suggesting that such is the case): Bob lost agold watch yesterday, and Bill was wearing a gold watch this morning.
273
Although alan is used for descriptive exclamations such as What ajool (he is)!, there is also an exclamatory use of the in Thejool!, The silly boy!, etc. Such expressions often accompany a declarative clause, and are added as a parenthesis (intonation remaining at a low pitch): John is getting into D ~ Tthe, idiot! My D.iucffle4 the little o i ~ l i n gha's l broken the ~+l(ironic) There is a related type of descriptive exclamation in which a noun phrase with theor zero article is followed by that and a subject and verb (normally be): (The) fool that he is! On the exclamatory use of pronouns (Silly me!, Youjool!, etc), cj6.20.
The indefinite article and the numeral one [21
But if the second a gold lvatch is changed to thegold watch, the claim is made that the two watches are indeed identical, and that (probably) Bill is a thief.
5.38 The indefinite article derives historically from the unstressed form of one, and in present-day English there are still many contexts in which this numerical function is uppermost. Thus one could be substituted as a slightly emphatic equivalent of a in the following coordinate constructions (cf 5.21):
274
N o u n s and determiners
The use of articles with common nouns 275
a mile or two cf: one or two miles (10.41 Note [b]) T h e Wrights have two daughters and a son. a foot and a halfof water cf: one and a hayfeel (5.73 Note [b])
They haven't become
The difference between the uses of zero and of some may be summarized as follows. Unstressed some, although it is sometimes considered a plural article, actually keeps its quantifying function, and indicates reference t o a specifiable (though indefinite) quantity or amount. (Thus in [l], the speaker does not tell us the number of melons, but in principle the number could be found out.) The zero article, in contrast, indicates simply the category of the objects, etc referred to. So vegetarians in [4] names a category of persons, and the sentence simply indicates that the people referred to by they belong to that category.
The following are other examples in which one could replace alan, and where the adjective single can add an intensifying force to the indefinite article (or one) : Mungo can walk forty miles in a (single) day. They didn't stop talking for a (single) moment. There's not a (single)pickled onion in the house. Alan often occurs in this quasi-numerical sense following a negative (cf 10.62). Note
[a] The use of the indefinite article in a numerical or quantifying function is perhaps most obvious in its occurrence in such expressions as (cf 6.65): a hundred, a dozen, a score, a thousand,a n~illiort,a milliori and a ha[j['1,500,000'],a quarterla tlvel/rh of + noun Other uses are seen in quantifiers (cf 5.23f, 6.53) such as a f i i ~ a: little, a great nmny, a large number of, etc; also in measure phrases (cf5.18) such as: halfan hour, ten dollars a day, sixty miles an hour. three tinles a minute, etc [b] In addition to being a numeral. one also has substitute and generic functions. But in the use of the indefinite article in a generic.sense (A tiger can be dangerolrs),alan cannot be replaced by one (cf 6.56).
Uses of the zero article
5.39
The zero article compared with unstressed some With plural count nouns and with noncount nouns, the indefinite article does not occur (cf 5.13f ). The zero article is used instead : Have you ever eaten roasted chestnuts? Milk is good for you. Do you likeyolk music? But the plural or noncount equivalent of alan is sometimes the unstressed determiner some /sam/. Contrast:
some melon. ?melons.
1
She has become a vegetarian. They have become
*some vegetarians.
In the negative, unstressed any is the equivalent of some (but cf 10.59 Note [b]), so that a contrast may be observed between [3] and [4]: I haven't bought
any books. {?bookS.
]
vegetarians.
Note
The zero article may he usid instead of sorile, particularly if a contrast is implied prosodically : I've just bought MEwns (but not grapes). [lal I haven't bought adoKs(but I've bought magazines), W
5.40
Sometimes some and zero are both acceptable; in other cases one of them is less acceptable, or even quite unacceptable. In the following two examples, some would be unacceptable: These shoes are made of leather. I've always preferred coffee to tea. In [l], the speaker is merely interested in the type of material of which the shoes are made: the quantity is irrelevant. In [2], the interest focuses on the two types of drink, and it is irrelevant to consider particular quantities. In other cases, the introduction of some would necessitate a sharp difference in meaning, eg: Joe's been chasing women ever since he was young.
[31
In [3], some women would produce the incongruous impression that Joe has been steadfastly chasing the same group of women, rather than that he is a n incorrigible Don Juan. The distinction we have to draw, then, is between ~ ~ ~ C A T E G O R Imeaning AL of zero, and the QUANTITATIVE meaning of some. It can now be seen that the generic meaning of the zero article, as in Tigers arefierce animals (cf 5.26), is no more than a special variant of this categorial meaning. But it is still worth separating generic reference, where we could substitute all tigers with little change of effect, from the specific categorial reference of sentences like [3], where clearly there is no claim that all women have been chased by Joe (cj 5.56). As has already been hinted, the choice between zero and some is sometimes more a matter of focus than of clear contrast of meaning. There are many situations in which either choice could be made, with only a minor alteration of the force. Compare: Would you like (some) coffee or (some) tea? I've been writing (some) letters this morning. We have just received (some) news from Moscow. The variant without some will focus on the category as a whole; eg [4] is
276
The use of articles with common nouns 277
Nounsand determiners
asking about two kinds of drink, and 151 is concerned with a kind of activity, viz the activity of writing letters. But when some is added, the focus changes to whatever quantities of tea and coffee, or of letters, that the speaker has in mind.
5.41
5.42
The zero article with definite meaning Apart from proper nouns, nouns take the zero article with definite meaning only in rather special circumstances, as described in 5.42ff.
[d] Determiners (the, your, etc) are frequently omitted in official forms, eg: Please send the stipulated items, viz: (i) birth certificate (ii) passport (iii) correctfie Compare the omission of articles in headlines (1 1.45f ).
5.43
Noun phrases in a copular relation Unlike many other languages, English normally requires an article with a singular count noun as complement (cf 5.37): an engineer. is {*engineer.
the secretary. secretary.
5.44
There is, however, one circumstance in which the zero article occurs in such constructions: this is where the complement (or an equivalent appositive noun phrase) names a UNIQUEROLE or task. As the following examples show, in such cases the zero article alternates with the: Maureen is (the)captain of the team. John F. Kennedy was (the)President ojthe United States in 1961. As (the)chairman of the committee, I declare this meeting closed. They've appointed Fred (the) treasurer, and no doubt he will soon become (the)secretary. Anne Martin, (the)star of the TVseries and (the) author of a wellknown book on international cuisine, has resigned from her post on the Consumer Council.
[l] [2]
[3] [41
l51
The copular relation signalled by as (cf 9.48) is illustrated in [31, and the copular relation of apposition (cf 17.65ff)is illustrated in [5].In each of these examples, it is implied that only one person holds the particular position mentioned. Note
[a] Here we may also place examples where the appositional noun phrase indicating a unique role or task is placed first: FBIChiefJ. Edgar Hwver 161 Chelsea centreLfonvard Milton Smith [7] With restrictive apposition Id, 71, the article is generally omitted, whereas in nonrestrictive apposition [7a](cf 17.68). it is not: the Chelsea centre-forward, Milton Smith P4 There is a gradient linking the former construction to the institutional use of titles, as in King George, Chairman Mao, Doctor Smith. But the use of more elaborate phrases of this kind preceding a name is characteristic of the journalistic style sometimes known as 'Timestyle', because of its association with Time magazine. [b] The complement of turn (cf 16.22) is exceptional in having zero article even where there is no implication of uniqueness: Jenny started out as a music student before she turnedlinguist. BUT: . . . before she became a li~rguist. [C] Becausea unique role is implied, thedefinite article isgenerally omitted followingexpressions such as the post ul, thepositio~ioj, and the role of: After declining the post of Secretary of State, he nevertheless found himself taking on the role of u~ioficialadvi.erto the President.
Noun phrases with sporadic reference We have already mentioned (cf 5.33) the use of the in noun phrases with 'sporadic' definite reference, as in the radio, the theatre. In other cases, however, the sporadic use has become so institutionalized that the article is not used. We distinguish, under this heading, a number of different categories of zero article usage which are 'frozen' as part of idiomatic usage. (a) Some 'institutions' of human life and society Certain nouns have the zero article, especially as complement of at, in, and on in quasi-locative phrases: thus someone may be in church, but not *in library. We call them 'quasi-locative' because, although they appear to have locative meaning, their function is rather more abstract (cf: the theatre, 5.33). In such contexts, nouns such as college, church, etc do not refer to actual buildings or places, but to the institutions associated with them: to be in prison, for example, is to be a prisoner, not a casual visitor; to go to sea is to follow the occupation of a sailor; see the left-hand column below. In the right-hand column we illustrate the same nouns as used with the in situational or cataphoric reference: Compare : The townlthe city is very old. lie down on the bed bein) hospital (BrE) redecorate the hospital go to walk around the prisonlthe jail prison, jail The class works hard. class (esp AmE) visit the school look out towards the sea (cf 9.17) admire the church be in/be at church the gates of the college go to college
1: ;) {,:F
Note
[a] Other related phrases are the following, some of which show variation in the use of article: get out of bed during (the) breaklrecess be inlreturn to camp live on/ofT(the)campus be on/otT(the) stage at (the)court [royal palace]; in (the) court [law court]; The case was settled out of court; take someone to court come/go/leave home; be (at) home; feel at lrotire (cf5.51) With uniuersity, the article is optional in BrE in the expressions be allgo to (the) rmiversity, whereas AmE requires the definite article (as also with hospital in AmE: 'He's in the hospital.'). [b] The article is sometimes left out also when the reference is to the building, not the institution : I walked straight back into/ta schoul. She's at church, arranging flowers. In AmE, and increasingly in BrE, the article is often omitted in expressions like: in the center of town, the buszess part of tobwi
278
Nouns and determiners
The use of articles with common nouns
in (the) spring/summer in (the) autumn (esp BrE) [Fall in AmE has the article: in thefall]
(b) Means of transport and communication 5.45
This type is confined to zero article following by; but the same nouns can be used elsewhere with 'sporadic' the (cf 5.33):
travel leave come g0
bicycle bus train
But with reference to a particular season, the article is included:
Compare : take the bicycle be on the bus prefer the car choose the boat take a/the train be on the plane
I
radio telephone, telex communicate/communication by post (esp BrE) mail (esp AmE) satellite Compare:
The siring o f last year was cold. T~~~~~~ E)' ' ' befire last was unusually busy. The autumn (esp BrE) Note the difference between [ l ]denoting calendar time and [2]denoting seasonal climate:
The winter of I963 was an exciting time. Winter in 1963 was not like this last winter. (e) Meals
5.48
")
Examples of the zero article for the meal as an institution which recurs day (breakfast by ,day:
Also: by hand(cf 5.51,9.49 Note [a]).
5.47
before after at/for
(c) Times of day and night These take a zero article particularly after at, by, after, and-before:
at dawnldaybreak when day breaks ,. at sunrise [AmE also: at sunup] at sunset [AmE also: at sundown] atlaround noonlmidnight at duskltwilight atlby night (by) day and night before morning came Evening approached. after nighi$aIl/dark ' DaylNight came; day by day (cf 5.50); all day/night/week/year(long)(cf 8.63 Note [b])
Compare: watch the dawn during the day The sunrise was splendid. We admired the sunset. in the afternoon see nothing in the dusk wake up in the night in the daytime in/during the morning in the evening all through the night
(d) Seasons The article is usually, but not always, omitted when referring to seasons generally, as distinct from referring to a particular part of a particular year (cf temporal names, 5.67):
(The) winter is coming.
The zero article is in general use for meals as an institution [l], but the can be used for meals that need to be singled out [2]: Where are we having dinner tonight? The dinner after his retirement party was quite lavish.
a talk on the radio Jill is on the telephone. put a letter in the post send it through the mail The satellite is replacing cable TV.
5.46
279
brunch, cocktails (both esp in US) tea (esp in U K ) lunch, dinner supper
Often, however, the and the zero article are virtually interchangeable: That day, (the)lunch was served on the terrace. The indefinite article is used for a particular meal: We had a nice dinner, just the two of us.
(0 Illnesses 5.49
The zero article is normally used for illnesses, eg: anaemia, appendicitis, diabetes, influenza, pneumonia. But the is often used, in a more traditional style of speech, for some well-known infectious diseases: (the)flu, (the) measles, (the)mumps, (the)chickenpox; also (the)hiccups. On the plural form of mumps, etc, cf 5.75.
Note
[a] The articlecannotnormally beomitted withthelaplague,norwithsomepopular, nontechnical expressions such as thebends, thejitters, thela bellyache (familiar). Except in the fixed expression catcl1 cold, the indefinite article is required with cold,fever, and tenlperature: Our daughter had a terriblecold last week.
I have ( ~ ~ ~ ~ r a t U so , eh e )staying in bed today. [b] Headache is always a count noun:
I have a splittingl~eadachethis morning. Other nouns formed from ache are treated as noncount when they denote a condition: Nutsgive me toothache.
280
The articles in generic reference
Nouns and determiners
When they denote a single attack or pain, they are usually count in AmE and noncount in BrE: suffers lrom ~ s ~ o ~ ) I ~ (esp c ~ ~AmE) ~ c ~ J c . On and {(,hr) . ~ t o m a ~ l ~ (esp o d ~ .BrE)
5.50
281
Many complex prepositions (cf 9.1 l) also contain nouns without an article: on top of, by way of, etc; and there are also idioms in which a verb is followed by a noun with zero article and (often) by a preposition: take advantage oj; setfire to, get word of, etc (cf16.58). Such uses of nouns are iixed phrases, as can be seen in their lack of article and number contrast:
Parallel structures There is a tendency to omit the article, even with singular count nouns, where two nouns are placed together in a parallel structure:
advantage
arm in arm face toface day by day hand in hand eye to eye teaspoonful by teaspoorlful mile upon mile back to back side by side
*advantages
Sometimes the same noun is repeated after a preposition, as in the above examples; at other times, one noun is balanced against arother noun of contrasting meaning:
The articles in generic reference
from jather to son husband and wge from right to left OR:from the right to the left from west to east OR: from the west to the east from beginning to end OR: from the beginning to the end
5.52
The bull terrier makes an excellent watchdog. A bull terrier makes an excellent watchdog. Bull terriers make excellent watchdogs.
Phrases with the noun repeated typically have an adverbial function: They talked
I/
ace toface. man to man.
They stood
(g~;~",'d
Of the possible combinations of the articles with singular and plural, the one which does not occur with count nouns - that of the zero article with the singular form - is the only possibility which occurs with noncount nouns:
eyeball.
I t can be argued that the nouns have no article because they have largely lost their independent nominal status. We note, in support of this, that variation -in the number, determination, or modification of these nouns is normally impossible :
Velvet makes an excellent curtain material.
Such parallel structures are, therefore, virtually idioms exemplifying 'frozen' article use. There is one construction, however, in which the parallel structure with zero article is productive of new instances. This is where the two nouns are coordinated, and particularly where the coordination is emphasized by a correlative such as both. . .and or neither. . . nor (cf 13.35Jr):
5.51
Fixed phrases involving prepositions In addition to adverbial phrase idioms such as hand in hand, face to face, there are other idioms in which nouns with a zero article occur before or after a preposition. Some of the prepositional phrases considered in 5.44fl(such as at home, by hand) fall into this category, and to them we may add further examples such as onfoot, in turn, out of step.
[21
It should not, however, be assumed that the three options [la], [lb], and [lc] are in free variation. One difference between them is that, whereas the [la] keeps its generic function in nonsubject positions in the sentence, alan [ l b], and to a lesser extent zero [lc], tend to lose their generic function in these positions:
*They talked old man to young man. *They stood toes to toes.
The birth took place this morning, and both (the)mother and (the) child are doing well. They pitched camp between a small winding river and a ridge covered with brushwood; but neither (the)river nor (the) brushwood afforded the protection they needed in the event of attack.
Earlier (cf 5.26) it was noted that all three major forms of article (the, alan, and zero) may be used generically to refer to the members of a class in toto :
[W [%l Pc1 Of these, only [3a] refers to mystery plays as a genre; [3b] refers to only one play; and [3c] is most likely to refer only to a subset of them. We consider other differences below. the medieval mystery play. Nora has been studying a medievalmysteryplay. medieval mystery plays.
l
1
Note
One cannot replace a in the generic sense, as in [I b] (cf 5.38 Note [b]).
5.53
The generic use of the indefinite article The generic use of alan picks out ANY REPRESENTATIVE MEMBER OF THE CLASS. Thus any can be substituted for alan in examples like:
The best way to learn a language is to live among its speakers. Generic alan is therefore restricted in that it cannot be used in attributing properties which belong to the class or species as a whole. Thus:
.
282
N o u n s and determiners
l
T h e articles in generic reference
The tiger is Tigers are becoming almost extinct. BUT NOT: *A
When the noun refers toaclassof human beings, the typifying connotation of generic the can sound inappropriate,: ?The Welshmanis a good singer. [c$ Welshmen are good singers.] ?The doctor is well paid. [cf: Doctors are well paid.] ?As the child grows, it develops a wider range of vocabulary.
tiger is becoming almost extinct.
The generic use of the zero article 5.54
Note
The generic use of zero article with both plural nouns and noncount nouns identifies the class considered as an UNDIFFERENTIATED WHOLE (cf 5.39S): Cigarettes are bad for your health. Hydrogen is lighter than oxygen. Necessity is the mother of invention. Research shows that it is the elderly who are the prime victims of injarion. Hunger and violence will continue to mark the future of mankind/ humanity. We consider the use of the zero article with noncount abstract nouns in 5.58f When it has the meaning of 'the human race' rather than 'a male human being', nron and its synonym mankind are used generically without the article: This book is an attempt to trace the history of
"lan.
{mankind. Man meaning 'human being' (antonym: beasf) and its plural nlen may also be used in the same way. Thus:
1
A nlan is a social animal Men have been on this planet for over a million years. Man and wonran meaning 'the malelfemale part of the human race' are now less often used in a eeneric sense: Woman is the glory of all created existence. (S. Richardson) Because ofobjections to thegeneric useof man, other expressionsareoften preferred: hre~ronnki~rd. the human race, etc. rtrurr urtd n.i/l. do Parallel structures make a special case (cJ5.50); note that mar1 and ~t~a,~natr, not refer to the human race: Man and rabbit hisplay remarkably similar features in mating behaviour. But the following is unacceptable except in technical: scientific use: 'Rabbit displays similar features to ntan.
The generic use of the definite article
5.55
With singular noun phrases The is rather limited in its generic function. With singular heads, it is often formal or literary in tone, indicating THE CLASS AS REPRESENTED BY ITS TYPICAL SPECIMEN:
A great deal of illness originates in the mind. No one knows precisely when the wheelwas invented. My colleague has written a book on the definite article in Spanish. Marianne plays the harp very well. As the last example shows, names of musical instruments and also dances usually take the definite article: play the violin [but: play baseball], dancing the samba
283
It is more appropriate when used to identify the typical characteristics of a class in terms of personality, appearance, etc: He spoke with the consummate assurance and charm of the success&l Harley Street surgeon:
I
1
Note
l
I I
i
tl
5.56
[a] Another determinative word sometimes used with a typifying geneyc force is your (cf 5.63 Note [cl): Your average football supporter is not interested in comfort. In contrast to the, this use of your is associated with familiar speech; but it resembles the in its focus on the 'typical specimen' of the class. [b] Ambiguity may occur over the generic/speclficinterpretation: A : The president is too powerful. B: Which president? A: No, I mean presidents in general.
With plural noun phrases Generic the occurs with plural noun phrases in two special cases: (a) Nationality nouns, ie noun phrases referring to the peopleof anationality, an ethnic grout). - .etc. en: the Chinese, the English (cf 7.25) (b) Phrases with an adjective head referring to a group of people, eg: the unemployed['people who are unemployed], the blind, the rich, etc (cf 7.24) In other cases, the + plural noun cannot be used for generic reference. Thus the following sentences are not acceptable in a generic sense: *The wolves are carnivorous. Wolves are . . *The hydrogen is lighter than the oxygen. u Hydrogen is . . .
.
In scientific descriptions, however, we may find expressions like the rodents (referring to the whole order Rodentia). It is arguable, in fact, that instances of (a) and (b) are not truly generic, either. Rather, they are plural phrases with unique denotation because (like the masses, the fairies, the clergy, the Saints, etc) they designate a uniquely identifiablegroup of people. Hence there is a marked contrast between the (generic plural) in [l] and the (generic singular) in [la]: The Romans defeated the Carthaginiansin 202 BC. ?The Roman defeated the Carthaginianin 202 BC.
111
[lal
[l] is acceptable in comparison with [la], because the Romans and the Carthaginians refer collectively to a group of people, rather than to a typical specimen. The Romans is thus a generalization (like the mathematicians, the teenagers, the birds, etc in similar use), whereas the Roman implies a generic statement. Nevertheless, it will be convenient to apply the term 'generic' to both the singular and plural uses. With nationality nouns, there is a distinction to be drawn in many cases between the generic nouns (with invariable plural) ending in -ish, -sh, or -ch,
284
Nouns and determiners
!I
a n d t h e nongeneric nouns ending in -man in the singular and -men in the plural (both forms pronounced /man/). Compare:
The articles in generic reference
SlNGULAR Argentina Argentinian an Argentinian an Argentine i v(the) ) Argentine Argentine (v) Denmark Finland Poland Saudi Arabia
The Finns are fond of sport. [generic] Finns a r e fond of sport. [generic] The Finns Zknow are fond of sport. [specific] I n t h e following section, we give specimens of the various kinds of words for people a n d nationality.
SINGULAR
PLURAL
PLURAL
Chinese Japanese Portuguese Swiss Vietnamese
a Chinese [a] a Japanese a Portuguese a Swiss a Vietnamese
Chinese Japanese Portuguese Swiss Vietnamese
the Chinese the Japanese the Portuguese the Swiss the Vietnamese
'lraqi Israeli Pakistani
an Iraqi an Israeli a Pakistani
Iraqis Israelis Pakistanis
the Iraqis the Israelis the Pakistanis
African American Asian Australian Belgian Brazilian European German Greek [c] Hungarian Indian Italian Norwegian Russian
an African an American an Asian an Australian a Belgian a Brazilian a European a German [b] a Greek a Hungarian an Indian an Italian a Norwegian a Russian
Africans Americans Asians Australians Belgians Brazilians Europeans Germans [b] Greeks Hungarians Indians Italians Norwegians Russians
the Africans the Americans the Asians the Australians the Belgians the Brazilians the Europeans the Germans the Greeks the Hungarians the Indians the Italians the Norwegians the Russians
(i) China Japan Portugal Switzerland Vietnam (ii) Iraq Israel Pakistan (iii) Africa America Asia Australia Belgium Brazil Europe Germany Greece Hungary India Italy Norway Russia
REFERENCE
i
i
!
1 1
j I
j
:; aI
l
Note
Argentinians the Argentinians Arerentines the Argentines
Arab [dl Spanish
an Arab a Spaniard
Sweden
Swedish
a Swede
Swedes
English French Dutch
cf Note [e] an Englishman a Frenchman a Dutchman
Englishmen the English Frenchmen the French Dutchmen the Dutch
Irish Welsh
an Irishman a Welshman
Irishmen Welshmen
the Irish the Welsh
British
a Briton [fl
Britons
the British
Scots [g] Scottish (Scotch)
a Scotsman [e] a Scot (a Scotchman)
Scotsmen the Scots Scots (Scotchmen) (the Scotch)
(viii) Scotland
l
PLURAL
Spain
(vii) . . Britaln
Danish a Dane Finnish a Finn Polish a Pole Saudi a Saudi (Arab~an) (Arabian)
PLURAL
Danes Finns Poles Saudis/ Saudi Arabians Arabs Spaniards
( 4 England France Holland, the Netherlands Ireland Wales
5.57 Some nationality words SPECIFIC REFERENCE
~ ~ ~ , " ~ ~ c E
COUNTRY, ETC
T h e forms ending in -me? are subject to the general tendency t o disfavour words o f masculine bias (cf 5.105), and if a sexually neutral expression is sought, Welshmen in [2b], for example, may be replaced by Welsh people. There is also the feminine term Welshwomen, etc but this type of word is rare o r nonexistent in some cases, eg: *Jirewoman,*fieshwoman. W i t h other nationalities, the distinction between generic and specific nationality nouns does not arise:
NAME OF COUNTRY, ETC
SPECIFIC REFERENCE
NAME OF
The Welshare fond of singing. [generic] Welshmen'are fond of singing. [generic] The Welshmen are fond of singing. [specific]
285
the DanesIDanish the FinnsIFinnish the Poles/Polish the Saudis/ Saudi Arab~ans the Arabs the Spaniards1 ~Gnish ' the Swedes/ Swedish
[a] Chinaman is rare in educated use. [bl The segment -man in German is not a gender suffix (as in Englishman);consequently there are no *Germen or 'Gerwomen. [cl Grecian is chiefly used of Ancient Greece, and tends to refer toobjectsor abstractions,rather than to people: a Grecian urn. Id] Arab is the racial and political term (the Arab nations, etc). Arabic is used of language and literature,as well as in Arabic numerals(as opposed to Roman numerals).Arobia(n) is associated with the geographicalarea of the Arabian peninsula (c/: Saudi Arabia). [el Terms such as Englirhman/Englisl~men are included here because of their ability to be used generically for the inhabitants of the country (but cf 5.56); there are corresponding feminine terms Englishwoman, etc, but these are rarely used. [fl Britisher and Brit are colloquial variants of Briton. The use of Briton is more restricted than Englishman, Scot, and Welshman with specific reference. Because of the homophony of Briton and Britain, a spoken sentence beginning eg: 'An old Briton. .'is likely to be misunderstood. [g] The inhabitants of Scotland themselves prefer Scots and Scottish to Scotch, which however Scotch eggs, Scotch pancakes. is commonly used in such phrases as Scotch terrier, Scorch ~vl~isky, In contrast, Scottish denotes nationality and geographical area, rather than type: the Scattislz universities,the Scottish Highlands, a Scottish/Scots accent.
.
286
The articles in generic reference
Nouns and determiners
between [l] and [Ib]: whereas [Ib] implies that she is studying the history of Europe as a whole, [ l ] allows the interpretation that she is studying only some aspects of European history or a particular college course. The type of contrast illustrated above by [l] and [I b] can also be noted with concrete noncount nouns, and with plural nouns:
[h] In cases where there is a language with a name related to a nationality word, the adjective form is used for the language (cf5.58 Note): She speaks Chinese, Norwegian, Polislr, Irish, etc.
The articles w i t h abstract noncount nouns
5.58
Abstract nouns tend to be count or noncount according to whether they refer to unitary phenomena (such as events) on the one hand, or to states, qualities, activities, etc on the other. The following illustrate typical count abstract nouns :
This
-
The museum specializes in furniture of the 18th century. ?Alice is engaged in research on butterjies of South America.
The following are typical noncount abstract nouns (cf also the list in 5.9): Note
employment, happiness, honesty, literature, sleep
But the same abstract nouns can often switch between count and noncount use (cf dual class membership, 5.4):
I
much kindness. many kindnesses.
Society must be changed by
a revolution.
5.59
My favourite subject is history/French/mathematics/music. . . Happiness is often the product of honesty and hard work. Theory must go hand in hand withpractice.
She's studying European history.
[l]
But when the same noun is postmodified, especially by an of-bhrase, the definite article normally precedes it: l
*history of Europe. the history of Europe.
We thus find typical contrasts of the following kind: the evolution of man the art of the Middle Ages the philosophy of the Orient the morality of the 18th century
It appears that the cataphoric the is added in examples like [lb] because the effect of the ofphrase is to single out a particular subclass of the phenomenon denoted by the noun, and thereby to change a generic meaning into aspecific or partitive one. In this connection, we notice a slight difference
[2bl [3bl
He has French and Englislr
The partitive effect of the definite article in the history of Europe (example 5.58 [lb]) finds a parallel in the use of the indefinite article in such examples as these : Mavis had a good education. My son suffers from a strange dislikeof mathematics. (ironic) She played the oboe with (a)remarkable sensitivity.
Normally thd zero article also occurs.when the noncount abstract noun is premodified: '
---
[31 [3a]
There are expressions in which the definite article is optional with the name of a language (c/ 5.57 Note [h]), as in: ' a word borrowed from (the) Frenclr/(the)Italian examples from (the) Sanskrit/(the) Hebrew The following expression is now archaic except in, for example, Irish English: L41 He has the French. The meaning of [4] is 'He knows French', to be contrasted with the regular curricular sense of
PI:
In English, noncount abstract nouns usually have no article when used generically:
human evolution medieval art Oriental philosophy 18th century morality
[2] [2a]
But in these cases it is to a greater or lesser degree acceptable to omit the:
-
She's studying
18th century furniture. specializes in { f i e furnitureof the 18th century.
South American butterflies. Alice is engaged in research on the butterflies of South America.
meeting meetings arrival 7 arrivals discovery discoveries
She showed me
287
[l] L21 [3]
The indefinite article is used exceptionally here with nouns which are normally noncount. The conditions under which alan occurs in such cases are unclear, but appear to include the following: (i) the noun refers to a quality or other abstraction which is attributed to a person; (ii) the noun is premodified and/or postmodified; and, generally speaking, the greater the amount of modification, the greater the acceptability of alan. In confirmation of (ii), notice that a would have to be omitted from [3] if the adjective were omitted: She played the oboe with
*a sensitivity.
However, a would become more acceptable than zero if the noun were modified :
She played the oboe with
(a)charming sensitivity. a sensitivity that delighted the critics.
288
Nounsand determiners
Proper nouns
91
Proper nouns 5.60
Proper nouns are basically names of specific people (Shakespeare), places (Milwaukee), months (September), days (Thursday), festivals (Christmas), magazines (Vogue), and so forth. As we saw in 5.2, proper nouns do not generally share the formal characteristics of common nouns. In particular, they lack articles, or rather article contrast: Paris
-
*the Paris
-
*a Paris
-
The H a ~ u e *Harue
-
Londons ['cities called or resembling London']
When a surname is made plural and preceded by the definite article, it takes on the meaning 'the family called X':
\p1
the Wilsons, the Joneses /-U/, the Prideaux 1-21
The rules for making proper nouns plural are the same as for common nouns (cf5.798: but note the rules for exceptional spellings in 5.81 111).
*a Harue (b) Determination Some types of proper nouns are customarily preceded by the definite article (eg: the Andes, cf 5.72), but they lack article contrast, since the article cannot normally be varied (*an Ande, *some Andes). If reclassified as common nouns, however, proper nouns can have their meaning varied by articles and other determiners:
Within a given universe of discourse, proper nouns generally have unique denotation, and are usually written with initial capital letters (though not all nouns so written are proper nouns). Proper nouns often combine with descriptive words which we will call DESCRIPTORS, and which also begin with a capital letter, to make composite names like Senator Morse, Dallas Road. We may therefore draw a distinction between a PROPER NOUN,which is a single word, and a NAME, which may or may not consist of more than one word. A name normally functions as a single unit with respect to grammar. This means that, even if a composite name has an internal structure that is grammatically analysable (eg as King's College is analysable as genitive noun head noun), that structure cannot normally be varied by the insertion of words, by change of inflection, etc. For example, The Hague has a built-in definite article, but The does not act as a variable determiner, nor is it capable of being followed by adjectives: *The beautiful Hague. Equally unacceptable is *King'sfamous College.
a Shakespeare ['an author like Shakespeare'] his new Shakespeare ['his copy of the works of Shakespeare']
Other examples are:
+
Note
5.61
[a] Like other grammatical categories, the class of proper nouns has unclear boundaries. For example, a number of common nouns with unique denotation are close to proper nouns, and are sometimes spelled with a capital letter (cf 5.29), eg: Fate, Fortune. Heouen, Hell, Nature, Paradise, Earth Compare also, in their generic sense, Man and Woman (c/ 5.54 Note). On another level, we might wonder whe!her King's in King's College is to be classed as a genitive common noun which t is part of a composite name. [b] In The Hague Conuention, the article may be called 'conflated', since the definite article also occurs with premodifying names without built-in article: The Paris Peace Talks. As for loss of article in names, as in my native Hague, cf 5.72 (e).
I used to know a Mary Roberts, too. ['a person called Mary ~oberts'] She is the second Mrs White - the first one died. Lu Xun has been known as 'the Chinese Gorkr'. The definite article with nuclear stress placed before a name has the special meaning of 'the well-known personlplace named X' (c/ 5.1 1 Note [el):
A: I used to know John Lennon quite well. B : Surely you can't mean THE /&:l John ~ N n o n ? By contrast, the indefinite article placed before a personal name can have the meaning 'a certain person called X but otherwise unknown': A Mrs Robertson was trying to contact you this morning. Note
Proper nouns behaving a s common nouns Having unique denotation, proper nouns may also be expected to lack number contrast, determination, and modification. In general they do, but there are also circumstances in which they take on the characteristics of common nouns.
--
Proper nouns normally lack number contrast. Most proper nouns are singular, and d o not have a plural (Indonesia ?Indonesias),or else they have a plural but no singular (the West Indies *a West Indy). There are, however, special circumstances in which proper nouns are reclassified as common nouns, so that they no longer have unique denotation (cf App 1.53): Shakespeares ['authors like Shakespeare'] Smiths ['people whose name is Smith']
[a] There is a disparaging use of thot/those in expressions like that Mary, those Joneses: That Mr ~ ~ I d ihas p s been on the phone again. Isn't he a NO~sance! But stressed that is not disparaging in: T Phillips. [Lthatparticular person'] Oh, you mean T H ~ Mr This has no such overtones in: o n phoned? Who's this Mrs ~ d ~ e r t s that [bl The fact that the pronoun one can substitute for a name is strong evidence of its conversion to the status of a common noun in examples like this (cf6.55): A John Lemon, but not the FAMOUS one. 1knew ONE(person called) John Lennon. Note the nuclear stress on, and the pronunciation of, the indefinite article /er/. [C] Possessives and genitives can be used to denote close family relationships (cf 5.55 Note [a]): Is your Jennijer still at S C H ~ L['your ? daughter Jennifer'] Did you know that your Mrs w ~ f r ~ [ ' t hone e you know'] has been arrested forsn6~lifting? John and Mary are very anxious about their Tom. [ie their son1 Granny is delighted with Peter's Jane. [eg Peter's girlfriend]
{
(a) Number 5.62
289
5.64
(c) Modification When they have the normal unique denotation, proper nouns can only be
290
Nouns and determiners
Proper nouns
modified by nonrestrictive modifiers, such as a nonrestrictive relative clause (cf 17.22ff) or nonrestrictive apposition (cf 17.68): D r Brown, who lives next door, comes from Australia. Theseus, a Greek hero, killed the Minotaur. Nonrestrictive premodifiers are limited to adjectives with emotive colouring, such as : old Mrs Fletcher beautiful Spain
dear little Eric historic York
poor Charles sunny July
In a more formal and rather stereotyped style, the adjective is placed between the and a personal name: the beautifid Princess Diana ['Princess Diana, who is beautiful'] the inimitable Henry Higgins ['Henry Higgins, who is inimitable'] Proper nouns show that they can temporarily take on features of common nouns (cf5.63), and accept restrictive modification of various kinds: The Dr Brown I know comes from Australia. The flower arrangement was done by a Miss Phillips in Park Road. D o you mean the Memphis which used to be the capital of Egypt, or the Memphis in Tennessee? I spoke to the younger Mr Hamilton, not Mr Hamilton the manager. I n such cases, a determiner (especially the) is usual. But in addition, cataphoric the with restrictive modification can have the effect of splitting up the unique referent of the proper noun into different parts or aspects. We may therefore classify this as a PARTITIVE meaning: UNIQUE MEANING
PARTITIVE MEANING
during Eadter in England in Denmark Chicago Shakespeare
during the Easteyof that year in the England of Queen Elizabeth in the Denmark of today the Chicago IIike ['the aspect of Chicago'] the young Shakespeare ['Shakespeare when he was young'] the Bradjbrd she grew up in
l
Bradford Note
5.65
1
[a] Compare the 'partitive' use of the genitive in James Joyce's Dublin ('the Dublin which lames Joyce knew'], etc. [b] In the names of monarchs, etc. an adjectival cognomen is placed after the proper noun, and is prefaced by the, eg: Cl~arlesthe Great, Iuan the Terrible. This type of appellation is similar to an appositional type o f name, in which the by-name is nominal: William the Cotrqueror. But in these latter cases, the article is sometimes omitted: Richard (the) Lionheart, Richard Crookbock. [c] On nonrestrictive premodification as in an embarrassed Ben Miles, etc, cf17.3 Note.
Names with no article We now turn to regular examples of names without an article. The following list summarizes the main classes of name that take no article, in accordance with the main rule (cf 5.60):
PERSONAL NAMES (with or without TEMPORAL NAMES (cf 5.67):
291
titles; cf 5.66)
(i) Festivals, religious periods, etc (ii) Months, and days of the week GEOGRAPHICAL NAMES ( ~ 5.68): f (i) Continents (ii) Countries, counties, states, etc (iii) Cities, towns, etc (iv) Lakes (v) Mountains OTHER LOCATIVE NAMES consisting of proper noun + common noun descriptor (cf 5.69)
Personal names Whether or not they are accompanied by titles, personal names normally have no article (cf apposition 17.88). The name itself may consist of: given (first, or Christian) name alone: Margaret, Jack, etc the surname (family name, or last name) alone: Smith, Wilson, etc given name(s) and surname together: Margaret Jane Smith, Jack Wilson In addition, one or more given names (in American usage regularly the middle one) may be reduced to initials: M. J. Smith; J. Wilson; Charles R. Maguire Names such as these may be prefaced by the normal title of Mr for a man, or Mrs, Miss, MS for a woman, or a courtesy title indicating the person's status. Among the titles ascribing status are those indicating royalty (eg: Queen), rank of nobility (eg: Lord), political, clerical, or judicial office (eg: President), military rank (eg: Major), or academic or professional status (eg: Doctor). Some examples : Mr and Mrs Johnson MS Waterhouse Dr Brown Private Walker Captain O'Connor Lord Nelson Lady Churchill
General MacArthur Professor Smith Cardinal Spellman Inspector Harris Chancellor Brandt Governor Rockefeller Judge Fox
Fuller details of appositional titles are given in 17.91. On the use of titles and names as vocatives without the article, cf 10.53. [a] M S , usually pronounced /m~z/,is now widely used as a female title which avoids making the distinction between married and unmarried (Mrs and Miss). On the plural of terms of address, cf5.103. [b] The title Sir is used for a knight or a baronet. It is exceptional in that it must be accompanied by the given name of the holder, but need not be accompanied by the surname. Thus Sir Basil Sperlce can be abbreviated as Sir Basil, but not as 'Sir Spet~ce.Withother titles, it is usually the given name that isomitted in an abbreviated version: M S(Julia) Warrrl~ouse. [cl In naming monarchs and popes who have shared the same given name with others (eg : King
II
1 l
Proper n o u n s
292 N o u n s a n d determiners James I, Queen Elizabeth 11). we normally write the appended numeral as a cardinal roman number. But in speech, this numeral is rendered as an ordinal (cf 6.63): I 'the first', 11 'the second', VII 'the seventh', etc. [d] T h e use of the'article in the following is exceptional: (i) imperial titles: the Emperor Napoleon; (the) Enlperor Haile Selassie; (the) Czar Ale.wrzder: (the)Archduke Ferdinand [but: Kaiser Wilhelna 111 (ii) the Lard ['God'] (iii) (the) RevJohn Smith [always the Reuerend John Smith in the spoken form] (iv) titles of peerage, when followed by an oj-phrase: the Duke of Wellington, the Countess of Derby, etc [e] In familiar style, kinship terms with uniqde referen~sbehave like proper nouns in having no determiner, and often in beginning with a capital letter: Where's mother? [also: Mummy, Mum (BrE familiar); Monrmy, Mom (AmE familiar)] You'll see Uncleon Saturday. Father is here. [also: Daddy. Dad, Pop (familiar)] Contrast: MylThe fother was the tallest of the family. The following expressions are very informal, and used especially in a family environment by or to young children: (my) Daddy, bour) Mom, etc.
5.67
And or1 the Thursday she got worse. So, on the Friday we called the doctor. ['the Thursday. etc of the week concerned']
5.68
(equatorial)Affica Antarctica
Note that Antarctica refers to the continent, while ?he Antarcric refers more generally to the polar region (cf: the Arctic). (ii) Names of countries, counties, states, etc: (Elizabethan) England (modern) Brazil
(West) Scotland (French)Canada
(industrial)Staffordshire (northern)Arkansas
Note the exceptional use of the for certain countries and regions, eg: (the) Argentine (but Argentina, without the article, is more common; cf 5.57). Other examples: the Crimea the Saar (the) Sudan
Easter (Sunday) New Year Ramadan
the Punjab the Sahara (the) Ukraine
the Ruhr (the)Sinai (the) Yemen
The is sometimes used with French names, eg: the Auvergne; it is also used with plural names such as the Everglades (cf 5.72), and for names ending with a compass point:
(ii) Names of months, and days of the week: January, February, . . .
(medieval) Europe (East)Asia
(North) America (Central)Australia
(i) Names of festivals, religious periods, etc: Independence Day Good Friday New Year's Eve
Geographical names The following categories of names normally have no article, even with a premodifying adjective: (i). Names of continents:
Temporal names These have no article when they are used to refer to the period as a recurrent item in the calendar (cf sporadic reference, 5.43; seasons, 5.47): Christmas (Day) Passover New Year's Day
293
Monday, Tuesday, . . .
the NearlMiddlelFar East, the (Deep) South, the Midwest
However, these words behave more like common nouns when they refer to individual periods, or when they refer cpllectively to more than one occasion. Along with nqxt and last + a noun, tkey have zero article when they are connected with a point of time implicit in the linguistic or situational context (on prepositional usage, cf 9.40). Contrast:
(iii) Names of cities, towns, etc: (downtown) Boston (ancient)Rome
(central) Brussels (suburban)New York
Note the exceptional article in The Hague; also the use of the article in certain districts of large cities: the Bronx, the City, the West/East End (of London). (iv) Names of lakes (cf 17.89): (Lake)Ladoga Silver Lake
Days of the week also occur with the indefinite article, without reference to a particular Sunday:
(v) Names of mountains (cf 17.89): Mount Everest (Mount)Snowdon
Days of the week have a plural, but months of the year normally do not:
Mont Blanc Vesuvius
Ben Nevis Aconcagua
?I hate Januaries. Note
Note
Loch Ness Ullswater
Note exceptions such as the Great Salt Lake.
He left on a Sunday.
I hate Mondays.
Lake Michigan Lake Nicaragua
In rather popular BrE usage (felt by some to be nonstandard), the days of the week have the definite article in caseslike the following:
As the examples above show, in the names of lakes and mountains, the descriptor usually precedes rather than follows the proper noun: Lokc Michigan, not *Michigart Lake. There are, however, some cases in which the descriptor follows: Pikes Peak, Bassortlr~taiteLake.
Proper n o u n s
294 ~ & n sand determiners
Other locative names consisting of proper noun + common noun descriptor The structure 'proper noun + common noun descriptor (or by-name)' is typical of the names of natural features (such as forests, woods, and hills) and man-made features (such as roads, streets, squares, buildings, airports, parks, and gardens). The article is normally omitted: Epping Forest Clapham Common Hampstead Heath Kew Gardens Hyde Park Bredon Hill Piccadilly Circus
Park Lane Madison Avenue Times Square Portland Place Scotland Yard WestminsterBridge Hampton Court
the simple proper noun Oxjbrd. Although native English speakers may be able to analyse this into two elements ('ford for oxen'), such an analysis plays no part in their understanding of Oxford as the name of a university city. This 'scale of institutionalization'explains why there are many exceptions to the above categories of names which lack an article, and why there is sometimes vacillation between the use and omission of the definite article. It might be better, in fact, to regard names without articles as exceptions to the more general rule that definite noun phrases are introduced by the article the. But an even better way of looking a; this problem is simply to acknowledge that what accounts for apparent exceptions is the absence of a clear-cut boundary between names and definite descriptions. Consider the following three cases:
Paddington Station Kennedy Airport Magdalen College Canterbury Cathedral Windsor Castle Buckingham Palace Fountains Abbey
There are, however, many exceptions. For example, in London, the Albert Hall and the Mansion House are buildings, and the Mall and the Strand are streets. More general exceptions are the names of theatres, museums, etc (cf 5.72). Note
295
In 1965- 1968 she attended
York University. (the)Hatfield Polytechnic. the Paris Conservatoire.
The reason for using the article in the one case, and omitting it optionally or obligatorily in the other two, seems to be largely a matter of how far the name is an institutionalized name among English-speaking (and in this case particularly British) people. In the following sections we deal with the in-between area of names preceded by the definite article. They might, indeed, be called 'descriptive names', since not only do they take the article, but they can be analysed, in terms of noun-phrase structure, into head and modifiers.
[a] Names of British universitieswhereoneelementis a place-namecan usually have two forms: the Uniuersity o f b n d o n (which is the official name)and London Uniuersity.In names of American universities, there is a fairly regular contrast between the two types, as in the Uniuersity of CaI#iorttia and California State University. Universities named after a person have only the latter form: Yale Uniuersity, Brown University, etc. [b] The can exceptionally occur with Road in the names of some urban thoroughfares: (the)Edgware Road, (the) Old Kent Road[but only: Oxford Street, Fifrh Avenue] Large modern intercity highways also tend to have the article: the Son Diego Freeway, the Merrit Parkway, the Pennsyluatria Turnpike, the M1 (Motor~vay)
Structure of names with the Names with the definite article
5.70 There is a gradient between names like Sir Walter Scott and noun phrases which are termed DEFINITE DESCRIPTIONS, such as the author of Waveriey. Both names and:definite descriptions have (situationally) unique denotation; but one of them is grammatically 'frozen'hwhile the other is formed according to the normal productive rules for constructing definite noun phrases. The most obvious indicator of a name is its spelling with initial capitals; while the most obvious indicator of a definite description is its initial definite article. Expressions which combine both these features, such as the Eiffel Tower, are neither completely name-like nor completely description-like, but somewhere between the two. We may therefore illustrate the gradient between descriptions and names roughly as follows:
5.71
(i) Without modification: the Kremlin the Pentagon the Knesset
the Koran lhe Bible the Parthenon
The Guardian The Times the Dbil
(ii) With premodification: the Suez Canal the National Gallery the Socialist Bookshop The Ford Foundation the English Channel
the Washington Post the American Civil War the Ohio State Uniuersity Press the British Broadcasting Corporation (the BBC)
(iii) With postmodification: the Oxford rood Fig 5.70
The gradient between descriptionsand names
(i) is a definite description ('the road to Oxford'); in (ii) that description is conventionalized to the extent that Road is capitalized, so that the whole makes a composite name; in (iii) the loss of the article has taken this conventionalization further. The purest example of a name is perhaps (iv),
the Institute of Psychiatry the House of Commons the Bay of Fundy the District of Columbia the Cambridgeshire College of Arts and Technology
Virtually all names with postmodification like those above are postmodified by an of-phrase, and have an obligatory the. (iv) With ellipsis of elements: The original structure of a name is sometimes unclear when one element has
296
Number
N o u n s and determiners
( d ) Ships and planes, particularly when renowned in history, eg: the Victory, the Spirit of St Louis
been dropped and the elliptic form has become institutionalized as the full name : the Tate (Gallery) the Atlantic (Ocean) the Mediterranean (Sea) Note
(e) Newspapers and periodicals: The Economist, The New York Times, The Observer, The Providence Journal, The London Review of Books. The is generally spelt with a capital letter in names o f newspapers. Irrespective o f whether or not the article is part o f the name itself, it is not used after an indefinite article or other determiner or genitive:
the Mermaid (Theatre) the (River) Thames the Majestic (Hotel)
When the article is written with a small t , it is not part of the name itself. Hence any modifier describing the referent follows, rather than precedes, the article: the breathtaking Hinrolayas, the lower Mississippi. In The Hague, however, The is part of the name (cj'5.72 e).
Have you got a Times? [not:*a The Times] She's a Times reporter. Have you seen today's New York ~ i m e s ? Malcolm lent m e his Guardian.
Classes of names typically preceded by the
Magazines and periodicals, on the other hand, often have a zero article: Time, Punch, English Language Teaching Journal, New Scientist, Scientific American.
(a) Plural names (in general), eg: the Netherlands, the Midlands, the Great Lakes, particularly including the following two categories. ( i ) Groups o f islands: the Hebrides, the Shetlands, the Canaries (or the Canary Islands), the Bahamas (ii) Ranges o f mountains or hills: the Himalayas, the Alps, the Andes, the Rockies (or the Rocky Mountains), the Pyrenees, the Pennines. Also nonplural names o f ranges: the Caucasus, the Sierra Nevada. Exceptions: Kensington Gardens, Burnham Beeches ( b ) Other geographical names: (i) Rivers: the Avon, the Danube, the Euphrates, the Potomac, the Rhine. (The word River can sometimes be inserted after the: the River Avon, etc; but for some rivers it comes last: the Potomac River, etc; cf 17.89). (ii) Seas and oceans: the PaciJic (Ocean), the Atlantic (Ocean),the Baltic (Sea),the Kattegat (iii) Canals: the Panama Canal, the Suez Canal, the Erie Canal (iv) Other geographical features o f coastline: the Gulfof Mexico, the Cape oy Good Hope, the Bay of Biscay, the Strait of Magellan, the Sound bf Bute, (the)Bosphorus, the Isle of Man, the Isle of Wight Note that when there is premodification rather than postmodification in category (iv), the usually disappears. Thus: the Isle of Wight the Bay of Naples
Number Number classes
5.73
T h e English number system constitutes a two-term contrast: SINGULAR, which denotes 'one', and PLURAL, which denotes 'more than one'. Each noun phrase is either singular or plural, and its number is determined in general by its head, which is typically a noun. In the following sections we will concentrate on number as a property o f nouns, and as a basis for their classification.
Note
[a] In addition to singular and plural number, we may distinguish dual number in the case of both, either, and neither (cj5.16). since they can only be used with reference to two. Borh has plural concord (cj6.50); either and neither have singular concord (46.59fl). [b] Unlike some languages where plural implies'twoor more'. English makes the division after 'more than one': one h a w a y , one day
BUT:one and a ha!fdoys, tltv days, orrc or t ~ t ~day.^ o
However, the following remain singular: a pound and a hay; a day or two (cf 5.3% nrure than orrc doy
BUT: Long Island BUT: Hudson Bay
( c ) Public institutions, facilities, etc: (i) Hotels and restaurants: the Grand (Hotel), the WaldorfAstoria (ii) Theatres, opera houses, cinemas, and clubs: the Criterion (Theatre), the Globe (Theatre),the Athenaeum (iii) Museums, libraries, hospitals, etc: the British Museum, the Bodleian (Library),the Middlesex Hospital Probably because o f their origin as place-names, Drury Lane and Covent Garden are exceptions to the rule that theatres and opera houses take the, as in the Metropolitan. When the name o f a public institution begins with a genitive, the is not used : White's, Gaylord's (Restaurant),Brown's (Hotel), Guy's (Hospital),St John3 (College).
297
5.74
W e distinguish three main number classes o f nouns: SINGULAR INVARIABLE NOUNS, including noncount nouns (eg: music, gold), most proper nouns (eg: Thomas, the Thames). W e may also consider here abstract adjective heads, eg: the mystical (cf 7.26). (B) PLURAL INVARIABLE NOUNS, k nouns occurring only in the plural, eg: people, scissors. W e may also consider here personal adjective heads, eg: the rich (cf 7.23S). (CID) VARIABLE NOUNS,ie nouns occurring with either singular or plural number: T h e dog is . . . T h e dogs are . . .
(A)
298
Number
Nouns and determiners
We distinguish two subclasses: (C) REGULAR, with plurals predictable from the singular (like dog), and (D) IRREGULAR, where the plural is not predictable (eg:foot -feet, child children). In this latter group we find a large number of nouns with foreign plurals, eg: criterion criteria, analysis analyses.
-
-
-
Figure 5.74 provides a summary of the classification with section references to the subsequent discussion.
(A) SINGULAR INVARIABLE noncount nouns abstract adjective heads proper nouns '
SINGULAR PLURAL
NOUN CLASS
gold the unreal Henry
(Aa) (5.75) (Ab) (7.26) (Ac) (5.60fn
(B) PLURAL INVARIABLE summation plurals pluralia tantum in -S unmarked plural nouns personal adjective heads proper nouns (c)
(D)
NOUNS WITH REGULAR PLURAL NOUNS WITH IRREGULAR PLURAL
voicing and -S plural mutation plural -en plural , zero plural '
foreign plurals '
dog
-------
(Ba) (Bb) (BC) (Bd) (Be)
(5.76) (5.77) (5.78) (7.23f) (5.62)
dogs
(c)
(5.79fn
(Da) (Db) (DC) (Dd) (De) (DO (Dg) (Dh) (Di) (Dj) (Dk) (Dl) (Dm)
(5.83) (5.84) (5.85) (5.86m (5.93) (5.94) (5.95) (5.96) (5.97) (5.98) (5.99) (5.100) (5.101)
calf calves foot -feet child \, children sheep sheep stimulus stimuli larva larvae Stratum Strata matrix matrices thesis theses criterion criteria bureau bureaux tempi tempo cherub cherubim
I have serious doubts/gravefiars. Let's play on the sands.
Some plurals express intensity, great quantity or extent, and have a literary flavour, for example: the snows of Kilimanjaro the sands of the desert sailing on the great waters Note the following classes of invariable nouns ending in -S which take a singular verb, except where otherwise mentioned: (i) News is always singular (cf 5.9): Here is the news from the BBC.
What's the news today?
(ii) Nouns ending in -ics denoting subjects, sciences, etc are usually invariable and treated as singular, eg: Mathematics is the science of quantities. Other such nouns include:
Fig 5.74 Number classes 5.75
Abstract noncount nouns normally have no plural: music, dirt, homework, etc. But some can be reclassified as count nouns where they refer to a n instance of a given abstract phenomenon: injustices, regrets, kindnesses, pleasures, etc. Many abstract nouns are equally at home in the count and noncount categories (cf 5.4). Proper nouns are typically singular and invariable: Henry, the Thames, etc (cf5.62). Some noncount nouns, particularly those denoting natural phenomena, may be pluralized, eg: walking through the woods raise someone's hopes
scissors thanks people the rich the Alps
299
(A) Singular invariable nouns Noncount nouns are singular and invariable, ie they have no plural. Some concrete noncount nouns can be reclassified as count nouns with specific meanings, for example butters ['kind(s) of butter'] and a beer ['a glass of beer'] (cf 5.5).
acoustics athletics classics
economics ethics gymnastics
linguistics phonetics physics
Some, however, can be singular or plural, in particular when such words can denote both one's knowledge of the subject and the practical application of results : Politics is said to be the art of the impossible. [the science of government] Hispolitics are rather conservative. [political views]
[l] [lal
In some cases, there are forms without -S for special uses: Statistics is a branch of mathematics. These statistics show that exports are still low. There is a surprising statistic in your latest report. A new ethic is needed in the world today. Has the new coach found a tactic that works? (iii) Names of certain diseases ending in -S are usually treated as singular (but some speakers also accept plural), eg: (German) measles, mumps, rickets, shingles:
300
Number
Nouns and determiners
A: Have you ever had measles?
with premodification: (a) new clippers, (a) garden shears, (an) old-fashioned curling tongs. Forms are commonly singular when used attributively: a spectacle case, a suspender belt, a trouser leg, a pajama/pyjama top (cf 17.108).
B : Y e s 1 had {:em] when I was a child. ( i v ) T h e names o f some games ending in -S have singular concord, eg: billiards (but usually: a billiard table), checkers ( A m E ) , draughts ( B r E ) , craps, darts (but : a dartboard), daminoes,jves, ninepins: Darts is becoming very popular as a spectator sport.
Note
( B ) Plural invariable nouns 5.76
(Ba) Summation plurals Summation plurals denote tools, instruments, and articles o f dress consisting o f t w o equal parts which are joined together: B : They are £60. A: How much are those binoculars? T h e most c6mmon summation plurals are the following: (i) Tools and instruments: bellows; glasses, spectacles, binoculars; scales ['a balance']; clippers, forceps, pincers, scissors, shears, tongs, tweezers (ii) Articles o f dress: , britches ( A m E ) , briefs,pannels, jeans, knickers, braces ( B ~ E )breeches, pants, pajhmas ( A m E ) , pyjamas (BrE), shorts, slacks, suspenders, tights, trousers, trunks Number contrast can be achieved by means o f apair of. Thus apair of trousers refers t o one item, but twopairs of trousers refers to two (cf 5.7 Note [a]): That's a nice pair of slacks. A s I'm shortsighted I always carry twopairsofglasses. Plural pronoun concord is usual even with a singular determiner +pair: is it?they? I Ii ke { * : i ~ ~ } p a i r . How much are Although nohns that are summation plurals require plural concord, they differfrom ordinary plural nouns in that they are not generally thought o f as denoting plural number. Y e t usage varies. For many speakers, it is as follows (cf 10.43 Note [c]): Both pairs of scissors (?)Both of the scissors (?)Both scissors
two pairs of trousers. (?) two trousers. (informal)
I want
apair of trousers. *one trouser. (?)a scissors. (informal)
Many o f the summation plurals can take the indefinite article, especially
301
5.77
Compassescan be used in the singular (con~~uss) in the sense 'instrument for drawing circles': She drew her circle with a cot~~puss. In the sense of an instrument of navigation, it is a normal count noun: A magnetic compass is Magnetic MWasscs are) necessary fanavigation.
(Bb) Pluralia tantum ending in -S Some 'pluralia tantum' (ie nouns that, in a given sense, occur only in the plural) end in -S, whereas others have no plural marking, eg: people (cf 5.78). They have plural concord, eg: These damages have not yet been paid, have they? [damages = 'compensation in money imposed by law for causing loss or injury']
[l1
In many cases, plufalia tantum ending in -S also have singular forms, which however can be dissociated in meaning from the plural, eg: That damage was repaired long ago. [damage = 'loss, harm']
[lal
Other examples o f plliralia tantum: accommodations ( A m E ) : living accommodations amends: make everylall possible amends for something annals ['a historical record o f events']:in the annals o f history archives: T h e documents should be kept in the archives. (BUT: archive administration) arms ['weapons']: arms aid; arms control; the arms race; take up arms; ALSO: munitions arrears: He's in arrears with his payments; the arrears o f work ashes: burn to ashes; Her ashes were scattered; the ash(es) o f a burned letter (BUT: cigarette ash; ashtray; Ash Wednesday) auspices ['support']:under the auspices o f banns [ofmarriage]:publish the banns bowels, entrails, intestines: the movement o f the bowels; an infection o f the intestines (BUTsingular count: the large intestine) brains ['the intellect']: Y o u should use your brains. (BUTsingular count is more common generally, and particularly so when the meaning is anatomical: ' T h e average human brain weighs 14 oz.') clothes /klau(B)z/: warm clothes; a clothes basket (BIJT:cloths /kloes/ as plural o f cloth: a table cloth) clubs, diamonds, hearts, spades [playing cards]:the ace o f clubs; the jack o f hearts; BUT: I've only one diamond in m y hand. NOTE singular concord in : Spades is the suit. I t was hearts last game. the Commons/L.ords [the House o f Commons/Lords in the U K ] : T h e Commons are discussing the new bill. communications['means o f communicating']:communications gap; telecommunications network
302
Nouns and determiners
congratulations: Many congratulations on your birthday! contents: a table of contents (BUT:the silver content of a coin; the style and content of a book) credentials: evaluate the credentials of students customs: pay customs duty; go through customs at the airport; a customs officer dregs: coffee dregs/grounds; the dregs of society dues ['fee']: pay one's dues to a society; harbour dues earnings: Her earnings are higher this year. (BUT:earning power); ALSO: proceeds, returns, riches funds ['money']: for lack of funds; be short of funds (BUT:a fund ['a source of money']) goods ['property, merchandise']: leather goods; a goods train (BrE) (AmE = a freight train) grassroots ['the rank and file']: grassroots opinion/revolt/support (BUT:at grassroot level) guts ['bowels'; ALSO 'courage' (familiar)]: He's got the guts to do it. (BUTin premodification: a gut reaction; noncount: catgut) heads ['front side of a coin']: Heads or tails? heauens in the expression 'Good Heavens!' (BUT:go to heaven) honours: an honours course/degree/list humanities ['arts']: the humanitieslarts faculty letters ['literature']: a man of letters lodgings: a lodgings bureau (BUT:a lodging house; a poor lodging); ALSO: digs (BrE informal): Many students move into digs instead of living on campus. ALSO: quarters: married quarters(0u~:theLatinquarter['district']) looks: He has good looks. (BUT:give somebody a hard look) mains: turn the water off at the mains; NOTE in some phrases the -S is retained in premodification: mains adaptor; mains water supply manners ['social behaviour']: Where are your manners?; manners and customs (BUT;DOit in this mannerlway; I don't like his manner ['personal way of acting;]) \, minutes ['a record of proceedings']: the minutes of a meeting odds: What are the odds?; be at odds with; odds and ends outskirts: She lives on the outskirts of the city. pains ['care, trouble']: take great pains with something; be at pains to do something particulars ['details']: Take down the particulars of this event. premises ['building' (in official style)]: There is a suspect on the premises. (BUTin logic: a first premise) regards ['good wishes']: Ann sends her regards. (BUT: win his regard ['respect']) relations: an exercise in public relations remains ['remainder']: the remains of the castlelthe meal savings ['money saved']: a savings bank; a savings account (BUT:a saving of £5) spirits ['mood']: to be in good spirits (BUT:He showed a kindly spirit.) stairs [inside a building]: a flight of stairs; downstairs (BUT:a staircase; a stairway)
Number
303
steps [outside a building]: a flight of steps; on the church steps surroundings['environment']: These surroundings are not good for the child. systems: a systems analyst; computer systems applications thanks: Many thanks for. . .;All my thanks are due to you. troops ['soldiers']: Many troops were sent overseas. (BUT:troop movement; a trooo carrier; a trooo of scouts) tropics. living in the tropics (BUT:the Tropic of Cancer) valuables: Are mv valuables safe here? wages ['weekly pay']: What are his wages? (BUToften also singular: a wage earner; a minimum wage; a good/poor/high wage; a wage freeze) wits: live by one's wits (BUT:She has a keen wit. Her speech had wit.) writings ['literary production' (formal)]: His writings are not widely known.
(BC)Unmarked plural nouns: people,police, etc 5.78
The following nouns have no plural marking but are used as plurals (cf also collective nouns like clergy, staff, etc, 5.108): (i) people: How many people are there in the world today? People functions as the normal plural ofperson : There was only oneperson There were many people Persons is often used instead of people, especially in official style: 'a person or persons unknown'. Whenpeople means 'nation', it is a regular count noun: The Japanese are an industrious people. They are a great people. the English-speaking peoples In this sense, however, the singular form people is normally constructed with plural concord: The Portuguesepeople have chosen a new President. (ii) Folk is more restricted in use than people: countryfolk,fisher folk, island folk, folk art, folk music. Folks is used in casual style (That's all. folks0 and often with a possessive determiner in the sense of 'family' (my folks). (iii) police: 'The police have caught the burglar'. To denote individual police officers we normally use a police ofleer, or a policeman/policewoman with the plurals police oficers, policemen, policewomen : Why don't you ask apoliceman? In a collective sense 'the police force', only police can be used: He wants to join thepolice. [NOT,in this sense, thepolicemen]
304
Number
N o u n s and determiners
only in -oes: domino (plural: dominoes); also: echo, embargo, hero, potato, tomato, torpedo, veto. liiil -0sor -OES: In some cases there is variation between -0s and -oes plurals, eg: archipelago (plural: archipelagos or archipelagoes); also banjo, bufilo (cf 5.87), cargo, grotto, halo, innuendo, mangesto, motto, mulatto, tornado, volcano.
(iv) cattle: 'All his cattle were grazing in the field.' (v) poultry ['farmyard birds']: 'Where are your poultry?' But it is treated as singular in the sense of 'meat': 'Poultry is harder to come by nowadays than beef.
.
(vi) livestock ['animals kept on a farm']: 'Our livestock are not as numerous as they used to be.' (vii) vermin: 'These vermin cause disease.'
5.79
5.80
--- horses; box - boxes
/S/ in horse
/z/in size sizes /J/ in rush rushes
-
-- -
/tJ/ in church churches /3/ in mirage mirages /d3/ in language languages
-
(ii) /z/ after bases ending in vowels and voiced consonants other than sibilants: day days, bed beds (iii) /S/ after bases ending in voiceless consonants other than sibilants: bet bets, month months
-
5.81
-
(111) Nouns ending in -y preceded by a consonant change -y to -i and add -es: sky skies; -y is kept after avowel: day days, except for nouns ending in -guy /kwi:/ (where u is only a spelling vowel required after q), which have the plural -pies (soliloquy soliloquies). Proper nouns ending in -y have plurals in -ys: the two Germanys, the little Marys.
(C) Regular plurals Variable nouns have two forms: singular and plural. The singular is the unmarked form that is listed in dictionaries. The vast majority of nouns are variable in this way and normally the plural is fully predictable both in pronunciation and spelling by the same rules as for the -S inflection of verbs (cf 3.5,3.7), ie they form the regular plural. If the plural cannot be predicted from the singular, it is an irregular plural. The pronunciation of the regular plural The regular -S plural has three different pronunciations /E/, /z/, /S/ depending on the final sound of the base. (i) /rz/ after bases ending in sibilants:
-
-
-
-
-
-
(11) Nouns ending in -0 have plurals in -0s or -oes. (i) -0s:When -0 is preceded by a vowel (letter or sound), the spelling is -0s: bamboos, embryos,folios, kangaroos, radios, studios, zoos. When -0 is preceded by a consonant, the spelling is also usually -0s: dynamos, pianos, quartos, solos. Abbreviations are included in those nouns with -0s: kilos (= kilograms), memos (= memoranda), photos (= photographs); and ethnic nouns: Eskimos, Filipinos (but also zero, cf 5.88). (ii) -OES: The following are among those nouns which have plurals
-
-
(V) The apostrophe + s is used in some nouns of unusual form, eg letters: dot your i's; numerals: in the 1890's (or, increasingly, 1890s); abbreviations: three PhD's (or, increasingly, PhDs). Note
-5.82 ,.
-
(I) Unless the noun is written with a silent -e, the plural suffix is spelled -es after $ouns ending in sibilants which are spelled -S (gas gases), -z (buzz buzzes), -X (box boxes), -ch (church churches), -sh (bush bushes).
-
(IV) The final consonant is doubled in a few words, eg: fez -fezzes, quiz quizzes.
The spelling of the regular plural The plural suffix is written -S after most nouns: hat hats, including nouns ending in silent -e (college colleges). There are however several exceptions to this rule:
-
305
-
-
-
(D) Irregular plurals Irregular plurals are by definition unpredictable. Whereas the plural /IZ/in horses, /z/ in dogs, and /S/ in cats can be predicted from the final sound in the singular of the nouns, there is no indication in the written or spoken forms of, for example, ox, sheep, and arialysis to suggest that their plurals are oxen, sheep, and analyses. The particular plurals of these nouns have to be learned as individual lexical units. In manv cases where foreign words are involved, it is of course helpful to know aboit pluralization in;he relevant language$, particularly ~ a i and n Greek. Thus, on the pattern of analysis analyses we can construct the followingplurals: axis axes, basis bases, crisis crises, etc. But we cannot always rely on etymological criteria: unlike larva -larvae, for example, plurals like areas and villas do not conform to the Latin pattern (cf 5.94).
-
5.83
-
In abbreviations, reduplication also occurs as a purely written convention, eg: p - p p [the plural = 'pages'], l I1 [= 'lines'], MS MSS [ = 'manuscripts'], ex exx [ = 'examples'], c cc [= 'copies'],/-R[= 'and following pages'].
- - -
(Da) Voicing and -s plural (i) Some nouns which, in the singular, end in the voiceless fricative /0/ (spelled -th) form plurals with the corresponding voiced fricative /a/ followed by /z/. The spelling of the plural is regular (-ths): -th /0/
-
-ths /Elz/, eg: path -paths
There is considerable indeterminacy between voicing and nonvoicing in many nouns ending in -th. With a consonant letter before the -th, the pronunciation of the plural is regular /OS/: berth
- berths, birth - births, length - lengths
With a vowel before the -th, the plural has, again, often regular pronunciation /0s/, as with:
306
Number
Nouns a n d determiners
(DC)The -en plural
cloth, death, faith, heath, moth In a few such cases, however, there are both regular and voiced plurals, eg:
5.85
-
5.86
Voiced plurals, spelled -ves and pronounced /vz/,occur with: calf- calves elf.- elves half- halves knife knives leaf leaves
--
--
--
life lives loaf loaves self- selves (cf 6.23) sheaf sheaves :
shelfthief wife wolf-
-
shelves thieves wives wolves
dwarf (plural:dwarf/dwarves),hoof, scarf, wharf
-
(iii) One noun (house)ending in the voiceless fricative / S / in the singular has the plural /zrz/:house houses. [a] In BrE bath has the voiced plural /bo:dz/ or /ba:%s/when it means 'swimming pools', but usually /bo:9s/ when it means 'bathtubs'. [b] Clouerleaf occurs with either clouerleafsor clouerleavesin the plural. Regular plurals occur in names, eg the Toronto icehockey team Maple Leafs. [c] The painting term stilllijc has a regular pluralc stilllfes.
(Db) Mutation The plural is formed by MUTATION (a change of vowel) in the following seven nouns : l
--
woman /'wuman/ tooth /U:/ louse /au/
man /m=$/ men /men/ foot /U/ -fief /i:/ goose /U:/ geese /i:/ mouse /au/ mice /a11 Note
-
--
women /'wrrn~n/ teeth /i:/ lice /a11
[a] Compounds with unstressed -man, as in Englishman Englishmen (c/ App I.64), have no difference in pronunciation at all between singular and plural, since both are pronounced /man/. Similarly :fireman -firemen, postman -postmen, etc. [b] German and mongoose are not compounds with man and goose, and thus have regular plurals: Germans, mongooses. However, the irregular plural can be found also in nouns that are not 'true' compounds with -man; eg: dragoman dragomansor dragomen. [C] Regular plurals are normal in names, such as Mother Gooses, and may occur when otherwise mutational nouns have derived meanings, eg: Those louses!, Sillygooses! (familiar use).
-
(Dd) Zero plural Some nouns have the same spoken and written form in both singular and olural. Note the difference here between, on the one hand, invariable nouns, which are either singular [ l ]or plural [2],but not both; and, on the other hand, zero plural nouns, which can be both singular and plural [3,3a]: [l]
121 L31
[W
W e distinguish the following types o f nouns with zero plural: ( I ) animal names (cf 5.87), (11)nationality nouns (cf 5.88), (111)quantitative nouns (cf 5.89n, and (IV)nouns with equivocal number (cf 5.91).
Other nouns ending in $(e) have regular plural -f(e)sIfs/, for example: belief (plural:beliefs), chief, clzy,proof, roof, safe.
5.84
-
This music is too loud. AN the cattle are grazing in the field. Thissheep looks small. All those sheep are ours.
Both regular and voiced plurals are found with:
Note
-
--
(ii) Some nouns which, in the singular, end in the voiceless fricative / f / (spelled -for ye) form plurals with the corresponding voiced fricative /v/ followed by / z / The spelling o f the plural is -ves: -f I f / -ves /vz/, eg: calf- calves -fe / f / -ves /vz/,eg: knife knives
The -en /an/ plural occurs in three nouns: brother brethren (with mutation as well as the -en ending) is limited to brother meaning 'fellow member o f a religious society'; otherwise regular brothers child children (with vowel change /a11 /I/ and -r added) ox oxen (In AmE, the plural oxes is also sometimes found.)
truths /tru:Bs/ or /tru:Bz/;similarly: oaths, sheaths, youths (/ju:Bs/ (esp AmE)), wreaths
--
307
5.87
(I) Animal names Animal names normally have the regular plural: cow
- cows, eagle - eagles, monkey - monkeys, etc
However, many animal names have two plurals: -S and zero plurals, eg: duck, herring. Zero tends to be used partly by people who are especially concerned with the animals, partly when the animals are referred to in the mass as game : Have you ever shot duck? W e caught only a fewfish. The regular plural is used to denote different individuals, species, etc: Can you see the ducks on the pond? thefishes o f the Mediterranean In some cases usage is variable, eg: He caught five
ELs.
The degree o f variability with animal names is shown by the following examples: (i) Regular plural, eg: bird, cow, eagle, hen, hawk, monkey, rabbit (ii) Usually regular plural: elk, crab, duck (zero only with the wild bird) (iii) Both regular and zero plurals: antelope, reindeer,fish,jlounder, herring. shrimp, woodcock
308
Number
Nounsand determiners
(iv) Usually zero plural: bison, grouse, quail, salmon, swine (cf the normal word pig which always has regular plural) (v) Always zero plural: sheep, deer, cod Note
5.88
(ii) Foot denoting length and pound denoting weight often have: zero plural, particularly when a numeral follows: She's only
Certain nationality and ethnic names are sometimes used without -S:
The more general'use of singular for plural with measure nouns is nonstandard but widely current: He's nearly sixfoot. It weighsfiwpound. More widely acceptable is: Fiwpound of potatoes, please. The singular is however standard in quantitative expressions of the following type (c. 17.108):a tl~ree$ot ruler.
5.90
Other quantitative nouns (some of them rather rare) with zero plurals include the following when used with definite numbers and measurements:
Bedouin(s), Eskimo(s), Navaho(s)
brace [= 21: 'five brace of pheasants' gross [= 12 dozen]: 'ten gross of nails' head [= l]: '400 head of cattle' horsepower, HP: 'This engine has only fifty horsepower.' Aundredweigitr [British weight = i i2 poiinds]: 'five hand:cd::.eigh? (ef coal)' (ki1o)hertz: 'Two kilohertz equals 2000 hertz.' p /pi:/ ['penny' :lz/,as in: I really likey'ull's new car. ['your family's new car'] [c] You in earlier English was a plural pronoun only, and was restricted to oblique cases. Although you has gained universal currency as a 2nd person pronoun which is neutral in case
345
PLURAL
(y-forms)
.
6.13
SUBJECTIVE
OBJECTIVE
REFLEXIVE
POSSESSIVE
ye /ji:/
you/@e)
jourselues
your
yours
While we present this system of religious usage, it should be pointed out that there is a great deal of variation in current religious practice. There is a trend towards the adoption of present-day . . pronoun forms (c/ verb forms, 3.4 Note [b]). For example, the traditional use of th-forms in Quaker usage seems to be no longer current.In some dialects of BrE, particularly in the north of England, forms deriving from the earlier singular rlioa/tlree are still current also in nonreligious contexts.
Subclasses of pronouns The class of pronouns includes a number of heterogeneous items, many of which, as we have already seen, do not share all of the above contrasts. For example, somebody (being 3rd person) has no corresponding 1st and 2nd person distinction, no subjective/objective contrast, and no masculine/ feminine contrast. Yet it is included among our pronouns, as it incorporates its own determiner, is a closed-class item, and has the kind of generalized meaning we associate with pronouns. The point we want to make here is that the characteristics which single out the pronoun class from the noun class are not shared by all its members. Figure 6.13 shows the different subclasses of pronouns and gives references to sections where they are discussed:
personal: Ilme, wetus,. . . reflexive: myself; ourselves,. . . possessive:mylmine, ourlours, . . . RECIPROCAL: each other, one another RELATIVE : the wh-series, that CINTERROGATIVE: the wh-series 1DEMONSTRATIVE: this, these, that, those all and both ,-universal--{ each and every the some series multal and paucal
E-
CENTRAL
INDEFINITE
half; several, enough other and another nonassertive: the any series and either Lnegative:the no series and neither
6.62
Fig 6.13 Pronoun subclasses Personal, possessive, and reflexive pronouns may be called the CENTRAL since they share those features we have mentioned as being
PRONOUNS,
346
Pronouns
P r o n o u n s and numerals
particularly characteristic of pronouns, viz contrast of person, gender, and subjective/objective case. Although these central pronouns fulfil different syntactic functions, they have obvious morphological resemblances. This is also the reason why the possessives my, your, etc have been grouped with central pronouns, although such possessives, being determinative in function, cannot function alone instead of nouns, but only together with nouns (cf 6.29).
6.14
347
Personal p r o n o u n s 6.15
Central pronouns The central pronouns have in common the distinctions of person (Ist, 2nd, and 3rd), gender (masculine, feminine, and nonpersonal), and number (singular and plural) that have already been discussed. In addition, most personal pronouns have distinctions of case. The various forms of the central pronouns are displayed in Table 6.14: Table 6.14 Personal, reflexive, and possessive pronouns
With specific reference The personal pronouns usually have definite meaning, and resemble the noun phrases introduced by the definite article in that they may have situational, anaphoric, or cataphoric reference (cf 5.28fn. The 1st person and 2nd person pronouns, when they havespecific reference, are used to refer to those directly involved in the discourse situation: viz the speaker(s)/writer(s) and the addressee(s) (cf 6.6). The 3rd person pronouns may also be used situationally, to refer to some person(s) or thing(s) whose identity can be inferred from the extralinguistic context : Are they asleep? [spoken to his wife by a husband nodding his head towards the children's bedroom] Oh, how kind of you! May I open it now? [said by someone receiving a present from a guest] Much more frequently, however, the identity of the referents of 3rd person pronouns is supplied by the linguistic context. As with the definite article, we distinguish between the ANAPHORIC and the CATAPHORIC uses of a 3rd person pronoun, according to whether the element with which it corefers (the ANTECEDENT) precedes or follows it (cf 5.30fn. The more common type of textual reference is anaphoric reference: We have an excellent museum here. Would you like to visit it? [ = the museum] My brother is afraid that he will fail the test. The young girl stared at Dun and said nothing: she seemed offended by his manner, as if he had had the intention of hurting her. Dr Solway took the student's blood pressure that day. He also examined his lungs and heart.
I plural
Dr Solway took the student's blood pressure that day. He had felt sick during the night and came for his help as soon as the clinic opened.
hers
l
itself
l
they
L31 [41
It will be noticed that in [4] he and Dr Solway are coreferential, and his and the student's are coreferential. We recover the appropriate antecedent by means of the content of the sentence. For example, the second sentence of [4] can be changed so as to enforce a different interpretation of the pronouns:
singular masculine he
singular nonpersonal
[l] I21
l
them
cf Note [c]
I
1
t l ~ e m s e l ~ e stheir
1
theirs
/
[4al
Now the content of the sentence suggests that he refers to thestudent and his to Dr Solway. If the use of the pronoun is felt to be ambiguous or confusing, the antecedent can be used again, or a lexical equivalent can be found :
. . Thestudent had felt sick during the night, and came Note
[a] On the 'editorial ~ve'andother special uses o f the 1st person plural pronoun, cJ'6.lS. [b] Apart from you, there are the rare and/or restricted 2nd person pronouns thou, vou-all. etc (c/'
6.12 Notes [bl and [cl). [c] Thenl is sometimes replaced by 'enr lam/ in familiar use, as in Kick 'em our! [d] Us is theonly pronoun that has a contracted form ('s) in standard English (c/'App11.9):Ler:r 80.
for {D' SO1way's}help as soon as the clinic opened. the doctor's 6.16
'Referring it' The neuter or nonpersonal pronoun it ('REFERRING it') is used to refer not
348
Pronouns
Pronouns and numerals
only to inanimate objects as in example 6.15 [l] above, but also to noncount substances (such as some soup in [I] below), to singular abstractions (such as the sack of Rome in [2]), and even to singular collections of people, such as Parliament in [3]: She made some soup and gave it to the children. The sack of Rome shook the whole of the Western World: in a sense, it was the end of the Roman Empire. Parliament's answer to all awkward problems is to establish a Royal Commission whose findings it can then ignore.
What time is it? How far is it to York? It's warm today. It's getting dark.
[21 [31
Isn't it a shame that they lost thegame? .It must have been here that Ijirst met her. I take it then that you're resigning. But here, too, it can be maintained that the pronoun is not quite void of meaning, since it arguably has cataphoric reference (forward coreference) to a clause (italicized in [l-31) in the later part of the same sentence. One justification of this is the feeling of ellipsis in sentences such as [la] and [2a], which are like [l] and [2] except that the antecedent of it has to be supplied from the linguistic context:
[41 [5] 161
A : They lost the game. B :Yes, so I hear. Isn't it a shame? A : Where did you first meet her? B : It must have been here.
As is illustrated by [6], it can even corefer to a sequence of sentences. I t is the only personal pronoun which is almost always unstressed. He and she, for example, can be contrasted with one another by nuclear stress:
In some cases, it is necessary to add words which do not precisely replicate those in the text, eg:
S H eams ~ more than HE does.
It, o n the other hand, can only very rarely receive stress, for example when it is used as a citation form :
The bell rang, and I went to the door. It was Dr Long.
Is this word i ~ [looking ? at a manuscript]
Note
5.17
[4]
To make full sense of sentences like 141, we have to supply, for example:
One reason why it is rarely stressed is that when a stressed nonpersonal pronoun is needed, it is supplanted by this or that (cf 6.408, 12.10fn. Thus [5a] is identical to [5], except that this, a stressed and slightly more emphatic proform, replaces it: Rome way sacked by the Visigoths in 410 AD. 'This was the end of civilizdtion as the West had known it.
It's half past five. It's a long way from here to Cairo. It's been fine weather recently. What day is it today?
This 'PROP it', if it has any meaning at all, refers quite generally to the time or place of the event or state in question (cf 10.26). Even less meaning can be claimed for the it which occurs as an anticipatory subject in cleft sentences (cf 18.25fl or in clauses with extraposition (cf 18.33fl, as in[[-31:
111
In fact, in the personal/nonpersonal opposition, the nonpersonal gender is 'unmarked', in that for any antecedent for which he or she is inappropriate, it will be used instead. Hence, it can corefer to a whole clause or sentence, as in [4] and [5]: A :Who said that I was crazy? B: I said it. ['that you were crazy'] Rome was sacked by the Visigoths in 410 AD. I t ['the sack of Rome'] was the end of civilization as the West had known it. Many students never improve. They get no advice and therefore keep repeating the same mistakes. It's a terrible shame.
349
[sal
There are several restricted usages with nuclear stress on it. For example: Is that ir?['Lthat all you wanted me for?'] Also, with the sense of 'sex appeal','charisma', etc. it is stressed in: She's got ir. In children's games, stressed if is used to indicate whoever is next to play, in expressions like the following: She's i ~ . You're ir.
'Prop if Since it is the most neutral and semantically unmarked of the personal pronouns, it is used as an 'empty' or 'prop' subject, especially in expressions denoting time, distance, or atmospheric conditions:
It was Dr Long (who had rung the bell). Note
[a] Perhaps the best case for a completely empty or 'nonreferring'it can be made with idioms in which it follows a verb and has vague implications of 'life in general', etc: At last we've made if. ['achieved success'] have a hard time of it ['to find life difficult'] make ago of if ['to make a success of something'] stick it out ['to hold out, to persevere'] How's it going? Go it alone. You're in for it. ['You're going to be in trouble.'] [b] fican beused as asubstitutefora predication,andespecially for acharacterizingcomplement (c/ 10.20):
{:;::
and she ldorro it. l a rich womans.'rich'] She was If there could ever be such a thing as a modest Roman, Augustus was not ir. ['not a modest Roman'] This last example is exceptional in that if is stressed (~(6.16). Other uses of it as a substitute form are discussed in 12.13, 12.24fl.
.
350
6.18
P r o n o u n s a n d numerals
Pronouns
351
(e) We may occasionally be used also in reference to a 3rd person (=he, she). For example one secretary might say to another with reference to their boss:
Special uses of we The 1st person plural pronoun has a number of special uses: (a) One common use is the 'INCLUSIVE AUTHORIAL we' in serious writing, as in :
I
We're in a bad mood today.
As we saw in Chapter 3, . . .
Note
Here we seeks to involve the reader in a joint enterprise. Besides not having this 'intimate' appeal, you here would also be felt to be too informal or authoritative for discursive or scholarly writing. Compare also [l] with the more informal let's in [2]: We now turn to a different problem. Let's turn now to a different problem.
6.19
(b) The so-called 'EDITORIAL we' is still common enough in formal (especially scientific) writing by a single individual, and is prompted by a desire to avoid I, which may be felt to be somewhat egotistical. For instance, the writer of a scholarly article may prefer [3] to [4]:
[a] The v~rtuallyobsolete 'royal tie' ( = I ) 1s tradltlondlly used by a monarch, as In the follow~ng examples, both famous d ~ c t aby Queen V~ctor~a We are not ~nterested~nthe p o s s ~ b ~ l ~oft ~defeat es We are not amused [b] In nonstandard use, plural us 1s commonly used for the s~ngularme, as In Lend usa fiver [c] On the generlc use of we and other personal pronouns, cf6 21
I
I
Anaphoric and cataphoric reference Examples already given in 6.15-16 have ~llustratedthe anaphoric use of personal pronouns. Cataphoric reference occurs less frequently, and under limited conditions. Where it does occur, anaphoric reference is also possible, so that we can equate two synonymous sentences such as [l] and [la] in w h ~ c h the positions of pronoun and antecedent are reversed: = Before Geraldjoined the Navy, he made peace with his family. [la]
On the whole, cataphoric reference such as that in [l] is associated with formal written English. Also, it generally occurs only where the pronoun is at a lower level of structure than its antecedent (where 'level' is understood by reference to levels of branching on a tree diagram, as in 2.7fn. Thus, in [2] and [3] the pronoun is a constituent in a relative clause:
('Editorial' here is not applied to the fully justified use of we with reference to the consensus of an editorial board or other collective body.)
(c) The 'RHETORICAL we' is used in the collective sense of 'the nation', 'the
Those who most deserve it rarely seem to suffer defeat. Melville well knew that to the men who sailed in her, a whaler was anything but a pleasure boat.
party', as in: In the 19th century we neglected our poor as we amassed wealth. Today we are much more concerned with the welfare of the people as a whole.
And in [4], the cataphoric pronoun appears as part of the complement of an initial prepositional phrase:
\\
This may be viewed as a special case of the generic use of we (cf 6.21).
On his arrival in the capital, the Secretary of State declared support for the government.
(d) There is also a use of we in reference to the hearer (=you) which may occur for example when a doctor is talking to a patient: How aie we feeling today? In the context, this use of we may be understood to be condescending, but it also has an implication of sharing the problem with 'you' in the situational context of a doctor/patient or teacherlstudent relation, for example. A teacher wishing to instruct without overtly claiming authority may use the 'inclusive' 1st person plural (cf6.7):
[41
When this condition of subordination is not fulfilled, there is no equivalent of the kind illustrated in [I] and [la]: Jacqueline thinks she understands me. # She thinks Jacquekne understands me.
151 [Sal
I
1
While she can easily corefer to Jacquelinein [S],such coreference is impossible in [5a], so that here she and Jacqueline must be understood to refer to two different people. The conditions under which a pronoun can have coreference to another constituent can be summarized as follows. The constituent to which coreference is made must have precedence over the pronoun in one of two senses :
I
Now then, let's have a look at that project, shall we? This can be an evasively polite equivalent of: Now then, let me have a look at that project, will you?
(i) It must precede the pronoun, or
I
l
352 P r o n o u n s a n d numerals
(ii) it must have a higher position in the constituent structure (cf 2.7) of the sentence than the pronoun. With cataphoric pronouns, the first condition fails, and so the second condition must obtain. Note
6.20
[a] The above summary is not without exceptions. In journalistic writing, in particular, there is occasional use of cataphoric pronouns wh~chappear in noninferior positions: Failure of his latest attempt on the world record has caused heavy financial loss to the backers of daredevil balloonist Felix Champ. [b] Personal pronouns cannot make cataphoric reference to part or all of a subsequent sentence, except for debatable cases such as: I t should never have happened. She wentout and lefl the baby unattended. Here, it appears that it refers to the whole content of the succeeding sentence. But perhaps this is not true cataphoric reference, but a special rhetorical device, found in popular narrative, whereby the writer assumes the reader is already 'in the know'at the beginning of the story.
Modification and determination of personal pronouns Another use of pronouns which may be called cataphoric is illustrated in: He who hesitates is lost. ['The person who . . .'; a proverb] She who must be obeyed. ['The woman who. . .']
Here he and she are cataphoric in that their meaning is defined by the following postmodifier, which is a restrictive relative clause (cf 17.13). Their function is heoce parallel to that of the cataphoric definite article (cf 5.32). He o r she followed by a relative clause belongs to a literary and somewhat archaic style. Present-day English prefers the use of the plural demonstrative in such contexts (cf 12.19). They cannot be used:
1
Those who work hard deserve some reward.
*They
I
There is no similar use of cataphoric it fdi nonpersonal reference; a nominal relative clause (cf 15.8f) is used instead:
1
*lt that stands over there is a church.
what I n modern p g l i s h , restrictive modification with personal pronouns is extremely limited. There are, however, a few types of nonrestrictive modifiers and determiners which can precede or follow a personal pronoun. These mostly accompany a 1st or 2nd person pronoun, and tend to have an emotive or rhetorical flavour: (a) Adjectives: Silly me!, Good old you!, Poor us! (informal) (b) Apposition: we doctors, you people, usforeigners (familiar) (c) Relative clauses : we who have pledged allegiance to the flag, . . . (formal) you, to whom I owe all my happiness, . . . (formal)
Pronouns
353
(d) Adverbs: you there, we here (e) Prepositional phrases: we of the modern age us over here (familiar) you in the raincoat lrenthey weregoing'] As soon as the light went ojJ, lrtdd,l.taoojj; he sounded the alarm. ['Because . . he immediately. . .'I
Last night they were here late (again). On Monday I'll see you at nine (as usual).
{
8.57
{
Adjuncts of span and duration In contrast to the adjuncts which relate to time conceived as a fixed point or static span, there are three types of adjunct which relate to time as a linear dimension (cf 4.2ff, 4.23). Two of these have an orientation to the speaker's 'now' (that is, the time of primary concern to the speakerlwriter within a given context), the one referring to a span in the past, the other to one in the future :
-'NOW'
...... V...... PAST
FUTURE
Fig 8.57
Thirdly, there are the adjuncts of more general temporal measure, requiring no orientation to a particular 'now'. In view of the similarity of purpose, it is not surprising that some of the same forms serve for all three types of adjunct.
]
[e] For the use of many Group (b) adjuncts for time relationship, c/' 8.72; on their correlative use as conjuncts, c/' 8.145.
Time-position adjuncts can be in a hierarchical relationship:
8.58
Forward span The key items in realizing adjuncts of forward span are until and till introducing either clauses or prepositional phrases. In the Survey of English
536 T h e s e m a n t i c s a n d g r a m m a r of adverbials
Adjunctsof t i m e 537
all (next) week.
Regularly with perfective aspect in the clause of which the since-element is A, the span indicated by the adjunct reaches up to the 'now' of primary concern to the speaker (which may of course be 'then' if it is a past time that is of primary concern):
(part of) next year. Consider, finally, the following dispositions of forward-span reference, taking the 'now' of speaker's concern as 6 o'clock:
He has worked in the same office since (he came here) in 1980.
another half hour. I'm not ready yet; the work will take me till 6.30.
'1980'
Note
'NOW'
- -5'- - - - - - - - - -v--
I think I'll be ready by 6.30. I won't keep you waiting beyond 6.30.
'worked' Fig 8.60a
[a] Forward-span adjuncts can be evoked by means of questions with Utrtil 'vhetl . . ., Till tvllen . . . ., How long. . .(fir). Postposition of till is awkward and of rintil almost unacceptable: ?When are you working rill? ?*W11et1are you working titlfil? [b] Noun phrases can be ambiguous between time position and forward span: He'll be staying here tlesr nrotlrh. [EITHER'he will arrive tresr nlotlth and stay for an unspecified t i m e ' o ~ ' h ewill be staying herejor the wholeofnext month'] That is, the adjunct could be forward span but would normally be interpreted as time position. On the other hand, the prepositional-phrase variant can refer only to forward span: He'll be staying here for the t~estn~otrrlr. But phrases with duringare ambiguous within the forward span itself: He'll be staying here duritrg rlre ne.xt t~rotlth. The adjunct here could either mean 'for some period falling within the month'or 'for the whole of the month: [c] For forward span, there are nonhnite -edclauses with urrfil and rill, but not -ing clauses: I shall stay here untilorderedton~oce. ?l shall stay here trtrtilgettit~gfurfhcrit~.srrrrctiotrs. Cfalso the idioms untilfurthertloticc[= 'until you hear further'], wherertoticecannot be replaced by (for example) it&rmotion; and h firire [(BrE) 'from now onwards'], as opposed to in the future which as well as being available for span [ = 'in future'] is more usually used for time position ['at some iime in the future'].
When I came to know him in 1982, he had worked in the same office since 1980. 1980
'now' = 'THEN' (1982) 'actual NOW'
V
n
V
I
Fig 8.60b Thespeaker can show that he thinks the span is long by using the intensifier ever: 'worked there ever since 1980', '. . ever since he came here'. Both since- and for-adjuncts specify a span of time, but since marks in addition the starting point. If the clause with a for-adjunct has its verb in the perfective, the span extends to the 'now', and the hearer is able to count back and calculate the initial point in the span:
.
He has worked in the same officefor two years. Backward span 8.60 The key item in realizing adjuncts of backward span is since introducing either a prepositional phrase or a clause, or used alone as an adverbial (by ellipsis) :
~ u t unlike , adjuncts with since (cf 8.61), for-adjuncts do not require the perfective in the clause in which they function as A, and the time span may therefore be 'unlocated' in the past, the hearer knowing only that the span does not extend to 'now':
She has not!lived in America sir~ceh2r graduationfiom high school. She has been trying to make a living as a writer since herjrst novel was published. I spent some time in the National Gallery last year but I haven't been there since.
Mary was writing that playfor three years. I 1
?
Fig 8.60~ Such backward-span adjuncts can be expressed without for if they are placed not at E but at e M and if the verb has progressive form: Mary was three years writing that play. Mary has been three years writing that play. *He has two years worked in the same office.
When did you start giving the orders? Since when have you been giving the orders?
B : Since I was madeforeman.
'NOW'
l
+'writing3--+
I. ..-, :::.
141 [51
In the comparative clause [l], the whole predicate can be ellipted, but this is not possible in the adverbial clause in [4]. To make [4] grammatical, we have to add the dummy operator did, as in [5]. '..
..S.
Note
[a] When the 'stranded'subject of the elliptical clause is a pronoun, in informal use an objective form of the pronoun is preferred (for further discussion cf 6.4). Thus George in [l -31 could be replaced by either I l I
The predicates may, of course, have varied structures in terms of clause elements. For example, [l] and [2] have structures which can be represented as follows :
13.53
'$1
Such sentences may be seen as elliptical alternatives to coordinated clauses, for example :,
I
I
I
Peter ate thefruit, and Peterthe drank the beer.
[W But, o n the +hole, repetition of the subject is avoided where possible. In other cases (cf 13.45f), no elliptical explanation of the sentence is possible: Two youhg men ate the fruit and (also) drank the beer. L41 [ # Two young men ate the fruit, and two young men drank the beer]
Two young men ate the fruit and they (also) drank the beer.
l
,i!
P r e d ~ c a t e Subject
Predicate
Coordination of predications Coordination of predications (cf 2.48), as of predicates, is very common, and often involves ellipsis. Consider the following examples:
Most people will have read the book or ((will) have) seen the film.
i'
M4
[a] It is common to insert a comma (or other punctuation) before the coordinator in conjoined ~lauses,but it is I uch less common to insert a comma before the cwrdinator in conjoined predicates. Henck;;] above is written with no comma, whereas in [La] the comma, is inserted. (The commas inserted in 121and [3l are optional; cjApp III.7.) This characteristic difference is one sign of the greatercohesivenessof the coordinated predi~ate:something which accords with the view that the major constituent boundary in such cases is betwcen the subject and a vonjoint predicate, rather than between the end of one clause and the beginning of another. Putting it more simply, we may say that in [la] there arc two clauses, while in [I] there isoneclause with a conjoint predicate; this is shown in Fig 13.52 opposite. This cor)stituent-structure account of predicate coordination does not, of course, prevent the postulation of ellipsis where criteria (cf 12.32-38) of ellipsis apply; cf 13.44 Note. [bl The distinction between coordinate predicates and other coordinate constructions is sometimes neutralized. In the coordination of imperative clauses, eg: Sit down and listen to this,
Subject
[l] [2] D] l41 151 [6]
In all cases it is possible to regard the auxiliary or auxiliaries preceding the predication as ellipted. Thus [l], although we cannot regard it as equivalent to two coordinated clauses, can be regarded as an ellipted version of predicate coordination:
' Note
and
Most people will have read the book or seen thefilm. They should have washed the dishes, dried them, and put them in the cupboard. You must take the course and pass the examination. They were married in 1960, but divorced in 1970. Are you working or on holiday? Why couldn't she havefinished work late and still be travellinghame?
I
This is because for coordination of two predicates to take place, the subject of the one preqicate must be coreferential with the subject of the other. Thus [4] is synonynious with the sentence which differs from it only in that a coreferential they is inserted before the second verb:
Pred~cate
where there is no overt subject, this construction wuld be equally described as a coordination either of clauses or of predicates. (Contrast the imperative with a subject: You sit down and listen (to this) is likely to be one clause with coordinate predicates, whereas Sit down andjust you listen (to this) has to be two coordinate clauses.) In Mary skippedandjunrped, on the other hand. there is a different type of neutralization: this example wuld be analysed as containing two conjoined predicates, skipped and jumped, or alternatively as containing a single predicate (skipped and jumped) within which two verb phrases are conjoined. Yet a third possibility is that skipped and jumped is a single verb phrase, within which the main verbs are conjoined. Similar alternative analyses arise with coordination in relation to the scope of adverbials (cj13.54-5).
Coordination of predicates In coordination of predicates (cf2.47), which is very common, the conjoined predicates may be described as sharing the same subject:
Peter ate thefruit and drank the beer.
P r e d ~ c a t e and
[lal
1
[la]
As with predicate coordination itself, however, the most reduced form of the sentence will tend to be preferred; hence the omission of will have will be preferred in [la]. As [2] shows, more than one auxiliary can be ellipted in the second and subsequent conjoins; and as [6] shows, it is also possible (though rare) for the coordinated predications to contain auxiliaries. What is not possible, however, is the omission of a repeated operator combined with the realization of a repeated or coreferential subject: *You must take the course and you A pass the examination. *Are you working or ,,you on holiday?
This would no longer be a case of simple coordination, since the conjoins would consist of two separate constituents which are not coconstituents of a larger constituent: viz subject and predication (cf 13.90f).
F
l
!
Ei
Note
[a] For the same reason, 111s not poss~blefor the second of two repedted duxll~ar~es to be ell~pted wlthout the e l l ~ p sof ~ sthe first 'Most people will have read the book or wlll seen the film
Types of simple coordination
950 C o o r d i n a t i o n ?X [bl As with coordinate clauses, so with coordinate predicates and predications, general ellipsis (c/ 12.43) often occurs in a second or subsequent conjoin of the construction. In the following. for example, the head of the object noun phrase is ellipted in the second predication: We wanted fried fish, but were unfortunately given boiled And in the following, medial ellipsis (cf12.62)occurs in the second conjoin: My brother is using his car this morning, and will be again this afternoon.
.
13.54
13.55
$1 r
1'1
.
951
It is more usual, however, for a coordinate construction to be within the scope of adverbials where the conjoins are predicates or predications; eg: Unfortunately we [missed the train] and [had to wait six hours]. The guests were [walking], [talking], and [drinking wine] in the garden.
[l] 121
In [l], an example of predicate coordination, both the missing of the train and the long wait are regarded as unfortunate; and in [2], an example of predication coordination, all three activities are assumed to take place in the garden. (There is another possible interpretation of [2], however, whereby only the wine-drinking takes place in the garden.) In the following more complex example of predicate coordination, the coordination takes place within the scope of three adverbials; one in initial, one in medial, and one in final position:
Coordination and the scope of adverbials In the typesofcoordination we have discussed, adverbials, as more peripheral elements of the clause (cf 2.13), often stand outside the structure of coordination :
Yesterday [the sun was very warm] and [the ice melted].
[l] Although this example can reasonably be called coordination of clauses, the initial adverbial actually stands outside the two conjoins, and its meaning applies simultaneously to both of them. The structure of this sentence may be represented: A [S V C ] f [S V]. Just as in 13.45 and 13.47 we noted that coordination could take place within the scope of interrogation and negation, so here we may say that the two conjoins are within the scope of the adverbial yesterday. The role of yesterday in [l] is therefore rather different from that which it has in the following:
In those days they often used to [shoot the birds], [bring them home], [cook them] and [eat them] on a single day.
131
Although the scope of the adverbial on a single day is ambiguous here, perhaps the more likely interpretation is the one in which it applies to all four actions, as shown by the square brackets. But it is clear that the initial time adverbial has within its scope the whole of the rest of the sentence, and that ofren includes within its scope the whole of the predicate which follows it. Therefore a representation of the more likely interpretation of this sentence, with square brackets marking scope relations as well as the individual conjoins, is as follows:
[Yesterday the sun was very warm] and [during the morning the ice melted]. [Yesterdaythe sun was very warm] and [the ice has melted].
[21 L31 In [2], the appearanceof an adverbial of the same semantic class in the second clause limits the scope of the first adverbial. In [3], for reasons of tense and aspect (cf 4.231, yesterday cannot apply to the second clause, and so it is restricted to ttie first conjoin. The formulae for these two examples are:
In those days they [often used to [[shoot,the birds,] [bring them home,] [cook them] and [eat them] on a single day]]. For an example of this complexity, it is obvious that no postulated elliptical conjoins could lead to a plausible correspondence with clause coordination:
There is godd reason for saying that in a clause with an initial adverbial, as in Yesterday the sun was very warm, the whole of the clause including and following the subject is in the scope of the adverbial. This is partly on semantic grou 'ds, and partly on grounds of punctuation and prosody: it is notable that if ai prosodic or punctuation.boundary occurs in such a clause, it will normally be located between the adverbial and the rest of the clause. The remainder of the clause, which thereby becomes a constituent in its own right (rather than a sequence of subject and predicate), may be termed the KERNEL of the clause. The type of coordination illustrated by [l] is classified as a coordination of two clause kernels. It is less common for a coordinate construction to bome within the scope of a final adverbial; eg the analysis of:
?In those days they often used to shoot the birds on a single day, in those days they often used to bring them home on a single day, in those days they often used to cook them on a single day, and in those days they often used to eat them on a single day.
9
The train arrived and we met our guests on time. L41 would be [S V] [S V 0 A] (where on time applies only to the second clause), rather than [S V] [S V 0 ] A.
+
Note
+
The second interpretation of [41 could be obtained, however, if the sentence were a case of interpolated coordination (cf' 13.95-7). with intonational or punctuational separation of the second conjoin: , we met our G~JESTS, on T ~ M E . The train ~ I R ~ V E Dand
I
I l
m
Coordination of noun phrases and their constituents
I
I
Noun phrase coordination 13.56 In all positions where a nounphraseoccurs(egas subject, object, complement) there is also the possibility of a conjunction of two or more noun phrases, making up a CONJOINTnoun phrase (cf 2.10,13.49): [Some of the staff], and [all of the students,] have voted for these changes. [SUBJECT] On this farm, they keep [cows,] [sheep,] [pigs,] and [a few chickens.] [OBJECT] Lucy Godwin is [a well-known broadcaster] and [winner of the Novelist [SUBJECT COMPLEMENT] of the Year Award for 19781.
Types of simple coordination
952 Coordination
phrase coordination. Elsewhere, but is frequently inappropriate as a phrase coordinator:
The plan was opposed by [Frederick,][Mary,] and [me]. [PREPOSITIONAL COMPLEMENT] Jane plays three instruments: [the piano,] [the viola,] and [the French horn]. [NOUN PHRASES IN APPOSITION]
*On this farm, they keep cows but sheep, andonly a few chickens.
These examples show how the conjoined noun phrases may be simple or complex, and may have a noun or a pronoun as their head. In fact, the structural possibilities of the conjoins are the same as for individual noun phrases (cf 2.25). One of the implications of this is that noun phrases in coordination may contain general ellipsis of the kinds discussed in 12.54-58. The first conjoin will often contain the antecedent for ellipsis in subsequent conjoins : Which do you prefer: [the red dress,] [the green ,,l or [the white .l? It's [the longest single-span bridge in this country,] and [the second longest A in the world]. That must be either [John's writing] or [Bridget's .l. : There's little to choose between [that method] and [the other .l. Note
When the conjoint noun phrase follows a preposition, as in [2], it is often stylistically preferable, for reasons of parallelism and clarity, to repeat the preposition, thereby replacing a conjoint noun phrase by a conjoint prepositional phrase, as in [3]: . The plan was opposed not [by Frederick] but [by Maria]. Note
13.58
They appiauded not the players but the referee. Coordination of noun phrases by but in a nonsubject position is also liable to occur when but is followed by the adverb only, or by the clause substitute not (cf 12.28): On this farm, they keep [[cows] and [sheep,]] but [only a few chickens]. [The plan was opposed by Frederick], but [not Maria].
[l] [21
Strictly, this last example is again a case of clause coordination, not noun
Multiple coordination of noun phrases In noun phrase coordination, as in clause coordination (cf 13.16f), we have seen that it is possible to form constructions which are of more than two conjoins :
We had no friends, no family, no material resources. and noun phrases may have poiysyndetic coordination (with more than one coordinator; cf 13.17): She asked me to buy [four oranges,] and [a pound of plums,] and [a melon]. There may also be, as in clause coordination, more than one level of coordination: She asked me to buy [four oranges,] and [[one large melon] or [two small ones]].
13.59
Even with these constructions, however, a nonsubject position is much more usual :
Another reason for repeating the preposition in [3] is the oddity of placing not between a preposition and its complement: ?Theplan was opposed by not Frederick but Maria.
Asyndetic coordination (cf 13.1) of more than two noun phrases is also possible :
But as a noun Bhrase coordinator The use of but as a coordinator between noun phrases is restricted. But is seldom used in subject position, except where it has a repudiatory force following not;pr a n additive force following not only: Not only [the students,] but [some of the s t a a have voted for these changed. \ We were Aisappointed to learn that not [a thousand,] nor [a hundred,] but [a mere twenty-three] had turned up for the inaugural meeting.
[31
She asked me to buy [four oranges,] [a pound of plums,] and [a melon].
[a] When one of the conjoins is a personal pronoun, it is considered polite to follow the order of placing 2nd person pronouns first, and (more importantly) 1st person pronouns last: Jill and I (not I and Jill);you and JiN, (not Jillandyou), you, Jill, or me (not me, you, or JilO, etc. [b] A complication arises if any of the coordinated noun phrases exemplified above is accompanied by one or more adverbials; eg: occasionolly, Jane plays three instruments: the piano, the viola, and We can then no longer, strictly speaking, talk of noun phrase coordination; rather, this falls into a category of complex coordination to be discussed in 13.903:
13.57
953
,
Combinatory and segregatory coordination of noun phrases When phrases linked by and function in the clause, they may express COMBINATORY or SEGREGATORY meaning. Combinatory coordination is cwrdination for which it is inappropriate to provide a paraphrase in terms of coordinated clauses; this is because the conjoins function 'in combination' with respect to the rest of the clause. When phrase coordination is segregatory, on the other hand, we can paraphrase it by clause coordination. The distinction applies to various kinds of coordinate construction, but is clearest with noun phrases. For example: [John] and [Mary] make a pleasant couple. [ # *John makes a pleasant couple, and Mary makes a pleasant couple] [John] and [Mary] know the answer. [= John knows the answer, and Mary knows the answer]
Types of simple coordination 955
954 - Coordination
'
Further examples of mutual participation are:
Many conjoint noun phrases are ambiguous between a combinatory and a segregatory interpretation:
Peter and Bob separated. Paula and her brother look alike. Mary and Paul are just good friends. John and Peter have different tastes.
[John] and [Mary] won a prize. This may mean either (a) that John and Mary each won a prize, or (b) that the prize was awarded jointly to them both. Reading (b), however, is preferred unless the insertion of each makes it clear that reading (a) is intended. (On the related topic of distributive number, cf 10.47.) 13.60
Note the use of the plural nouns in complement position to indicate reciprocity : Mary and Susan are sisters/cousins/colleagues(of each other).
We may distinguish three kinds of combinatory meaning:
The corresponding singular complement cannot be used with reciprocal meaning: ?Mary is a cousin and Susan is a cousin. But with the segregatory meaning of Mary and Susan are teachers, the corresponding conjoined singular constructions make an acceptable paraphrase: Mary is a teacher and Susan is a teacher. The same meaning of mutual participation occurs with three or more conjoins: Smith, Brown, and Robinson became partners.
(a) JOINT PARTICIPATION The conjoins are interpreted as jointly constituting a single participant (cf 10.18ff) in the process or relationship described by the clause. The sentence: John and Mary played tennis against Susan and Bill.
111 may refer to a single combined process, viz a game of doubles, as shown in Fig 13.60a; but the same sentence might also have a segregatory interpretation, referring to four games of singles as shown in Fig 13.60b. A further segregatory interpretation involving two singles games, as represented in Fig 13.60c, is the one that would be selected if the adverb respectively were added to [l](cf 13.63):
(C) UNITARY PARTICIPATION In some cases the conjoins are so closely linked in meaning that they participate in the meaning of the clause as if they referred to a single object. The whole phrase may behave as a singular noun phrase for purposes of concord (cf 10.378):
l .-
Law and order is a primary concern of the new administration. Other examples arejish and chips, a ball and chain, bread and butter, the Stars and Stripes, and titles and names such as Fathers and Sons (a novel by ~ u r ~ e n eand v ) the Fox and Hounds (a public house). I t is a characteristic of such unitary phrases that the order of the conjoins cannot be varied, and that no determiner precedes the second conjoin (cf 13.67).
B M Fig 13.60b
Fig 13.60a
Fig 1 3 . 6 0 ~ Note KEY
J John M Marv S sus& B
M.
Fig 13.60d
Fig 13.60e
t}
Bill other players
i
(b) MUTUAL PA TICIPATION The conjoins a e interpreted as entering into a symmetric or reciprocal relation to each other, as indicated in Fig 13.60d. This is one interpretation of: John and Mary played tennis. But this sentence also allows a segregatory interpretation 'John and Mary each played tennis (with somebody)' as suggested by Fig 13.60e. The symmetric interpretation can be made explicit by adding or substituting some expression containing each other or one another.
l
The distinction between combinatory and segregatory meaning applies not only to conjoint noun phrases, but to plural noun phrases in general. Thus the combinatory meanings of: They are married. The threegirls look alike. We haven't met before. He painted the cars in two colours. contrast with the segregatory meanings of They arejeuerish; The threegirls hauea cold. [b] A special case of mutual participation is the use of and as a noun phrase coordinator following between (cf 9.39). [a]
Indicators of segregatory meaning 13.61 Certain markers explicitly indicate that the coordination is segregatory:
.
both (. .and) each
neither. . . nor respective (formal)
respectively (formal) apiece (rather rare)
While John and Mary have won a prize is ambiguous, we are left in no doubt that two prizes were won in: John and Mary have each won a prize. John and Mary have won a prize each. Both John and Mary have won a prize. John and Mary have both won a prize.
956
We interviewed'the Director and the Producer in their respective offices. Mary and Susan went to their respective homes.
However, because of the distributive meaning of each (cf 6.51), there is a potential difference of meaning between [l] and [2]:
They can even be in different clauses or sentences:
John and Mary have each won prizes. John and Mary have both won prizes. Both permits the distributive interpretation of prizes which occurs in [I] (= John has won prizes and Mary has won prizes), but also permits the nondistributive interpretation whereby prizes might refer to one prize won by John and another prize won by Mary. Corresponding to the positive correlative both . . . and is the negative correlative neither. . . nor, which likewise has segregatory force: John and Mary didn't win a prize. Neither John nor Mary won a prize.
Bob and his best friend have had some serious trouble at school lately. Their respective parents are going to see the principal about the complaints. Note
13.63
H e wouldn't lend his books to Tom and Alice. H e wouldn't lend his books to Tom or Alice.
13.62
[a] Apiece, a less common adverb which marks segregatory meaning, is normally placed finally after a direct object: John and Mary have won a prize apiece. It is restricted to clauses with an object, to which it gives the distributive interpretation of each. [b] The ambiguity observed in [2] above remains when the coordinate subject is replaced by a plural noun phrase:My children have both wonprizes. (Cf13.66 Note [d] and 10.47 on distributive , number.)
I
~ i l ~ a Be; n d visited their uncles.
\
This could mean: (a) Jill visited her uncle(s) and Ben visited his uncle(s). (b) Jill and Ben together visited the uncles they have in common. (c) Jill an Ben together visited Jill's uncle(s) and also Ben's.
4 On the other hand
:
Jill and Ben visited their respective uncles. can only mean (a). The use of respectivedoes not, however, help us distinguish the number of uncles, since respective cannot be used with a singular nounphrase head : *Jill and Ben visited their respective uncle. The related noun phrases do not have to be in a subject-object relationship:
Respectively The adverb respectively is used to indicate segregatory meaning, and also tells us which constituents go with which when there are two parallel coordinate constructions. For example, if there are two sets of conjoins [A] and [B] . . [C] and [D], respectively makes it clear that [A] goes with [C], and [B] goes with [D]. It can be added to the front or end of the second coordinate construction. Some illustrations follow: John, Peter, and Robert play football, basketball, and baseball respectively. . [= John plays football, Peter plays basketball, and Robert plays baseball] Arnold and his son were respectively the greatest educator and the greatest critic of the Victorian age. [ = Arnold was the greatest educator of the Victorian age, and his son was the greatest critic of the Victorian age] Smith and Jones are going to Paris and to Amsterdam respectively.
151 [61
Respective ' The adjective ,respective premodifies a plural noun phrase, eg as object, to indicate segregatory interpretation of a preceding conjoint noun phrase. In this function, it is normally preceded by a plural possessive pronoun:
Like other markers of segregatory meaning, respecriw can be used analogously with preceding plural noun phrases: Tlte boys visited their respectiue uncles.
.
Whereas [3] is ambiguous, [4] is unambiguously segregatory, making it clear that two prize-winnings were involved. Or following a negative (cf 13.31) has a simi~a~effect, seen in the contrast between the combinatory/segregatory ambiguity of [5] and the segregatory meaning of [6]:
Note
957
Types of simple coordination
Coordination
The respectively construction is generally limited to formal discourse. In other contexts it smacks of pedantry.
13.64
Coordination o f p a r t s of n o u n p h r a s e s When coordination takes place within a single noun phrase, it is often possible to postulate ellipsis from a full form in which coordination takes place between noun phrases : They sell [manual] and [electric] typewriters. Your [son] and [daughter] look so much alike. These may be expanded respectively to: They sell [manual typewriters] and [electric typewriters]. [Your son] and [your daughter] look so much alike.
[lal [2al There is a further type of coordination within the noun phrase which allows no ellipsis at all. Thus [3] is not usually paraphrasable by [3a], or [4] by [4a]: They made [salmon] and [cucumber] sandwiches. # They made [salmon sandwiches] and [cucumber sandwiches].
131 [3a]
[Spacious] and [well-furnished] apartments to let. # [Spacious apartments] and [well-furnished apartments] to let.
141 [4a]
Types of simplecoordination
958 C o o r d i n a t i o n
Here again, there is a distinction to be made, withand, between COMBINATORY and SEGREGATORY coordination. Combinatory coordination is associated with nonelliptical interpretation, and segregatory with ellipsis or quasiellipsis (cf 12.40). In the combinatory interpretation illustrated most clearly by [3], the conjoins act semantically 'in combination' with respect to the rest of the sentence. In the segregatory interpretation illustrated by [l], however, the parts of the noun phrase, and even of the clause, which are outside the conjoins can be regarded as the antecedents of an ellipsis or quasi-ellipsis, so that the noun phrase can be paraphrased by means of a coordination of noun phrases and ultimately of clauses. A test of segregatory coordination is whether the endorsing word both can be inserted before the first conjoin (cf 13.35): [ l ] means They sell borh manual and electric typewrirers, but [3] does not normally mean They made both salmon and cucumber sandwiches. Note
Coordination and number Essentially the question of whether a given noun phrase (simple or conjoint) is singular or plural depends on whether it refers to one or more than one member of a class of denotata. (For special problems of concord, cf 10.378) For instance, two noun phrases, even when both are singular, form a plural conjoint phrase when they are coordinated by and: [Jane is well] and [Susan is well].
[The King of Denmark] and [the Queen of Denmark] have arrived.
The [King] and [Queen] of Denmark have arrived.
present at the ceremony. The Presidents [of Greeceland [of ~ustrial~uere (= '[the President of Greece'] and [the President of Austria]') If the head, in such a case, is noncount, it cannot change to the plural, and there arises the oddity of a singular noun acting as head of a plural noun phrase (cf 10.38): [Indian] and [Chinese] tea smell totally different from each other.
permits a combinatory interpretation of skills, trades, and hobbies whereby each of the books in the whole set is assumed to deal with all three subjects; but if we assume a segregatory interpretation at this level (ie, 'books on skills, books on trades, and books on hobbies'), there is still another level at which the combinatory interpretation is possible: viz the shelves in question could each contain a mixture of the three types of book. In contrast, a segregatory interpretation4 n this level would mean that each shelf is reserved for one kind of book [-T'shelves for books on skjlls, shelves for books on trades, and shelves for books on hobbies']. In this way coordination creates possibilities of multiple ambiguity, and ingeneral, the further down the treeof constituent structure the coordination occurs, the greater are the opportunities for ambiguity, in the manner indicated by Fig 13.65:
e
Fig 13.65
7combinatory
(The plural teas would also be possible here, but would have the slightly different meaning of 'kinds of tea'.) Another example is: [Red] and [white] cabbage are (both) useful ingredients for a salad. (Here the plural cabbages would be ludicrous, suggesting that each salad should contain whole cabbages; while the singular is would suggest that the variety of cabbage in question is particoloured red and white.)
:l ;
il i
segregatory 7combinatory
[lal
If on the other hand the modifiers are coordinated, the noun head changes from singular to plural, thus indicating the plurality of the whole expression:
Those are the shelvesfo; books on [skills,] [trades,] and [hobbies].
7combinat~ry
[l]
The plural have is appropriate in [l], because the subject refers to more than one person. The same is true when the determiner and modifier are ellipted, so that King and Queen are coordinated within a single noun phrase:
As can be seen from the comparison of 13.64 [l] and [3] above, the combinatory/segregatory distinction may be made at various levels for the same construction. For example, the italicized phrase in:
segregatory
BUT: [Jane] and [Susan] are well.
Similarly with more complex noun phrases:
For somecases, it is possible to postulate yet a further stage ofellipsis, and toexpand the conjoint noun phrase into a conjoint clause: [They sell manual typewritersland[they sell electric typewriters]. [Ibl But such an analysis leads to results which are both nonsensical and ungrammatical for other examples: '[Their son look alike] and [theirdaughter look alike].
segregatory
959'
etc
.
To avoid confusion, then, it is best to use the terms 'combinatory' and 'segregatory' in respect to a given contrast of interpretation, rather than with more general reference to a grammatical construction.
Note
[a] An apparent exception which proves the rule is the case of coordinative apposition (cf 10.39). where two singular count noun phrases are placed in apposition to form asingular noun phrase: [Tom's father] and [Suzanne's uncle] is waiting for you. The only possible interpretation of this is that Tom's father and Suzanne's uncle are the same person. A similar conclusion must be drawn when two singular nouns are coordinated as heads o f a singular noun phrase: The [owner]ond[editorl of the Doily Post was a member of the club. [b] On the singular or plural number of noun phrases containing coordination by or, cf 10.41. [c] There is uncertainty over number where the many o construction (cf 5.23 Note [C])is Followed by singular heads conjoined by and: Many a boy andgirl (:;]left \
homeless. J
Id] A further uncertainty arises when a noun is postmodified by a prepositional phrase, the complement of which contains coordinated nounsor noun phrases with segregatory meaning: ht rhe cos&) of France ond Germany; or the hack(s) of the srores and osfces. Normally the singular will indicate combinatory meaning (eg: or the back ofrhe srores andosfces will suggest that the stores and offices comprise a single building or block of buildings). But where the singular is to
960
Coordination
T y p e s of simple coordination 961 L
some degree a 'froz&' part of a complex preposition (cf 9.1 I), the plural would not be acceptable: *in casesof/ireand rhefr; *on rhepartsofallconcerned. Yet even in idiomsof this kind the ability to pluralize is exercised in other constructions ( c .10.47): fanart 1 in achieving victory. We must all play
c
t
i
i
-i
He is a dishonest and lazy student. Another sign of combinatory meaning is the possibility of replacing and by asyndetic coordination:
1.;. l
He's a d i s ~ o ~ e s~t d, z sy~ c d e n t . They sell old, bartered furniture.
parts
13.67
Coordinated noun heads It is evident from what has been said in 13.64fthat various ambiguities arise when the constituents of noun phrases are coordinated. When coordinated heads are preceded by a determiner, the usual interpretation is that the determiner applies to each of the conjoins: a [knife] and [fork] the [head] and [shoulders] his [wife] and [child]
/i
This is not normally acceptable with segregatory meaning:
:;I
?*They sell old, new furniture.
)I
In fact, for a combinatory interpretation of modifiers, asyndetic coordination is generally preferred to syndetic coordination. Again, however, colour adjectives are exceptional: and in such expressions as a red andgreen uniform cannot be omitted, even though the meaning is combinatory. The endorsing item both placed at the beginning of a noun phrase identifies coordination of premodifiers as segregatory:
(= a knife and a fork) (= the head and the shoulders) (= his wife and his child)
(On the interpretation of quantifiers such as many in many girls and boys, cf 13.76.) A similar analysis in terms of segregatory coordination (cf 13.59) usually applies when the coordinated heads are preceded or followed by modifiers:
1
both young and old people
old [men] and [women] (= [old men] and [old women]) some [cows,] [pigs,] and [sheep] from our farm (= some cows from our farm, some pigs from our farm, and some sheep from our farm)
*Men who were both young andold were invited. Students who are both honest and clever always succeed. Note
But then there is also the possibility of interpreting these phrases as conjoint noun phrases: [Old men] and [women] were left to organize the community. At the niarket were [some cows,] [pigs,] and [sheep from our farm]. If the determiner is not repeated in the noninitial conjoins, however, an ellipsis of thegeterminer is normally assumed: the [boys],and [girls] staying at the hostel (= [the boys staying at the hostel] nd [the girls staying at t?e hostel])
B
Coordinated piemodifiers 13.68 If modifiers are coordinated, there may again be ambiguity according to whether the construction is understood to be segregatory. Thus:
1I i
l
He speci lizes in selling [old] and [valuable] books.
7
may mean 'bobks which are old and valuable' (combinatory meaning) or 'old books and valuable books' (segregatory meaning). Only the segregatory meaning is possible when the coordinated modifiers denote mutually exclusive properties: old and new furniture
one-pound and two-poundjars
Exceptions to this are colour adjectives (as in red, white, and blueflags), which allow the combinatory sense of 'partly one colour, partly another'. On the other hand, only the combinatory interpretation is available if the head is a singular count noun :
[= both young people and old people]
But when the adjectives are placed in a predicative position, the converse applies, and the combinatory interpretation is selected :
13.69 ,
[a] If the adjective phrase is postpositive (7.21). both . . . and is possible with either type of meaning, but the segregatory meaning is often marked by pitch movement, as indicated below: Men both 1old and 1young were invited. Students both honest and clever always succeed. [b] With a series of adjectives, the final and is occasionally omitted even with segregatory meaning: Old, young, wise, foolish, tall, (and) short men were invited without distinction. [c] Occasionally a noun modifier is coordinated with an adjective modifier, as in country and western music. [d] With or and either . . . or, the segregatory interpretation of premodifiers occurs even with singular heads; eg: It's a Georgian or Regency sofa.
Coordinated postmodifiers Coordinated postmodifiers, like coordinated premodifiers, afford the possibility of either a segregatory or a combinatory interpretation of and. The following is likely to have a combinatory interpretation: The bus for the Houses of Parliament and (for) Westminster Abbey leaves from this point.
l
I
But if the phrase is in the plural, an ambiguity results: the buses for the Houses of Parliament and (for) Westminster Abbey This could in theory mean either: 'the buses which go both to the Houses of Parliament and to Westminster Abbey' or 'the bus(es) for the Houses of Parliament and the bus(es) for Westminster Abbey'. The singular head bus does not allow the second segregatory interpretation with and. The second preposition in examples such as these may be readily omitted,
962
g
Coordination
Types of simple coordination
Y
so that the.coordination becomes one of prepositional complements rather than of prepositional phrases. But then a combinatory meaning is favoured; whereas if the preposition is repeated, a segregatory. meaning is more probable. Hence these are likely to have different interpretations: -
I1
or many students, and there is a preference for a synonymous construction with conjoint noun phrases, such as this book and that (one), a few students or many, where the second conjoin is a noun phrase reduced by substitution or ellipsis. Comparative forms are more easily coordinated:
-
Would you prefer M ~ R Eor LESS sugar? [= '. .more sugar or less sugar?']
Elsa Graham's books on [reptiles] and [amphibians] (probably combinatory) Elsa Graham's books [on reptiles] and [on amphibians] (almost certainly segregatory). Note
13.70
.
but even here the equivalent noun-phrase coordination, with reduction of the second conjoin by standard ellipsis, may be preferred:
Here again (cf 13.68 Note Id]), the segregatory interpretation is possible with a singular head and with or as coordinator: You have to take a busfir the HousesofParliament orfir Westminster Abbey.
I\
Further ambiguities of coordination in the noun phrase If a phrase containing modifiers coordinated by and has a singular count noun head, only one interpretation, the combinatory one, is possible. But if it has a plural head, there are four possible segregatory interpretations for a noun phrase containing two conjoins:
!l
the meetings on Monday and on Tuesday [= 'the meeting on Monday and the meeting on Tuesday' OR 'the meetings on Monday and the meeting on Tuesday' OR 'the meeting on Monday and the meetings on Tuesday' OR 'the meetings on Monday and the meetings on Tuesday'] Every time a; extra conjoin is added (as in the meetings on Monday, Tuesday, and Wednesdqy) the number of interpretations is doubled. The ambiguities can be avoide?, if desired, by the use of the nonelliptical equivalents. In addition4 this phrase allows a combinatory interpretation: viz that the meetings, or some of the meetings, lasted for both days. The combinatory interpretation would, however, be more likely if the second preposition were ellipted :the meetings on Monday and Tuesday.
Would you prefer M ~ R Esugar or LESS A ? There are some instances of idioms in which determiners are coordinated; eg the redundant and emphatic conjoining of each and every in: The secret was kept by each and every one of us. Cardinal numerals are frequently coordinated with or, but here again there is an idiomatic function. Five or six means, for example, 'approximately in the range of five and six'; ten or twenty means 'a number in the region of 10 or 20'; and the most frequently-occurring coordination of this type, one or two, has the special idiomatic sense 'a small number'. This approximative use of numerals does not apply when the correlative either. . .or is used:
I
i
I am inviting one or two students to a party.
I
l
does not mean the same as:
I am inviting either one or two students to a party. Note
bills for gai and (for) electricity \ the taxes on earned and (on) unearned income I
13.71
The following example shows how the segregatory reading of tax on earned and unearned income can be associated with the mutual participation (cJ13.60 Note [bD of between: There is no difference between the tax on earned and [= 'that on1 unearned income. Although the occurrence of a singular noun phrase as complement of between seems irregular, this sentence is in.fact constructed regularly according to the principles outlined in preceding sections.
Coordination of determiners and numerals . The coordination of determiners is comparatively rare. The following are possible, but are unidiomatic: this or other books, these and those chairs, afew
,
13.72
l
Note
[a] Occasionally a postdeterminer such asfew or many may be coordinated with an adjective:
hisfew but brtelligent remarks. Note also the idiomfew atrdfir between. [b] The coordination of a singular with a plural determinative leads to an anomaly of concord: logically, the head of the noun phrase could be either singular or plural. The difficulty is resolved (cf10.41) by making the head agree with the last conjoin: one or two students (NOT*one or two student); this and other arguments (NOT*thisand other argument). [c] Mention should be made of the rarity and ad hoc quality of coordinations of the definite and indefinite articles: She is the (or a) professor in the department; He may be a, or even the, ViceChoirman of the party. Such coordination takes place only with or, and the unreduced pronunciations of the articles Uel/ and /6i:/) are normally required.
A similar set';of readings is possible for:
Since tax is sometimes a noncount noun, it is also possible to read the segregatory readings into the corresponding singular phrase: the taxon earned and (on) unearnhd income.
963
i
Coordination of genitives Like determiners, genitives, when used in determinative function, are not often coordinated, and there is some uneasiness about the appropriate construction to use. A coordination of genitives such as John's and Mary's children resembles a coordination of modifiers in that it may be interpreted in either a combinatory or a segregatory fashion: combinatorymeaning:
'the children who are joint offspring of John and Mary' (A) segregatory meanings: 'John's child and Mary's child' (B) OR 'John's children and Mary's child' (c) OR 'John's child and Mary's children' (D) OR 'John's children and Mary's children' (E)
964
Coordination
Types o f simple coordination
And as in the case of postmodifiers, a further ellipsis is common if the combinatory meaning is intended. The following can be given only reading (A) above:
some uneasiness is felt in the choice of construction. For (a) and (b), there are variant orders: the possessive may precede the genitive, or vice versa:
Here-the 'S is outside the coordinate construction, and is added to the whole conjoint noun phrase John and Mary. In this, it resembles the 'S of group genitives (cf 5.123), which is a suffix to a phrase rather than to a single word.
13.73
f
I
This construction is rarely used, and is felt to be awkward.
+ +.
This construction is less awkward than (a), but is clearly associated with segregatory coordination. Thus your bank account and your husband's could not normally refer to a joint bank account shared by husband and wife. Also, since (b) is technically a coordination of noun phrases rather than of determinatives, this construction does not permit a 'segregatory singular' interpretation of a plural noun as head. For instance, Jack's and my dogs could mean 'Jack's dog and my dog'; but Jack's dogs and mine would tend to imply that Jack has more than one dog. A construction corresponding to (c) in 13.73, where the independent possessive pronoun (cf 6.29) precedes the genitive, is a further possibility, which however has limited acceptability:
Coordination of possessive pronouns Another problem of usage arises over the coordination of possessive pronouns. Two alternative constructions are the following:
+
(a) [POSSESSIVE][POSSESSIVE]. . .HEAD eg: your and my problems; their and our students (b) [POSSESSIVE -l-. . HEAD. . .] [POSSESSIVE] eg: your problems and mine; their students and ours
.
+
In (a) both possessives have a determinative function, while in (b) the second possessive pronoun has an independent function (cf 6.29f), so that strictly this is a conjoining of noun phrases rather than of possessives. Construction (b) is often preferred to construction (a), which can seem to be awkward. All these constru'ctions, however, suggest a segregatory interpretation, and if a combinatory meaning is intended, a periphrasis may be preferred; eg: her and my policy/poficies may be replaced by the policy/policies which she and I share. Yet anbther construction is sometimes encountered, but is not fully acceptable: ,
+
+.
(C) [POSSESSIVE] [POSSESSIVE . .HEAD . . .] eg: ?youb and my problems; ?theirs and our students l
This differs frdm (a) in that the first &join is an independent possessive pronoun such as yours, or hers, and differs from (b) in that the order of the conjoins is reversed. Of course, in many situations the awkwardness of this coordination of pronouns can be avoided by an inclusive use of our or your: our problems, etc. Note
13.74
+
+
. . . HEAD] (C) [POSSESSIVE] [GENITIVE] ?yours and your husband's bank account
I
,
j ;l
Note
I
it l l
13.75
' '
There is yet one further option, which corresponds to the construction of John and Mary's children (cf 13.72), and which resembles it in being associated with informal style and combinatory meaning: you and your husband's bank account. This will often be felt to be unacceptablewhere the first conjoin is a noun, or a phrase with a noun head, or a pronoun in the subjective case: ?Ihey and their friends' surprise; ?John and her book. The use of an objective pronoun for the first conjoin is also possible, but is nonstandard: ?me and my husband's bank account.
Other elliptical coordinations within the noun phrase We have already noted (cf 13.67) that when heads of noun phrases are conjoined, the determiner is often ellipted, resulting in a coordination at word level rather than at phrase level, with two nouns sharing a single determiner: a [boy]or, [girl] that [butter] and [milk] the [house] and A [gardens] my [father] and A [mother]
l
,
[a] The polite order of conjoined personal pronouns (cf 13.56 Note [a]) may be applied to possessive pronouns, as well as to pronouns in the subjectiveor objective case: your, his, andmy reports; your and my books; etc. [b] The difference between constructions(b) and (c) above is neutralized in the case of his, since there is no contrast in this pronoun between the determinative and independent form of the possessive pronoun :his and myjbuourite drink.
Coordination of genitives with possessive pronouns Three constructions corresponding to (a-c) above are also available when mixed coordinations of genitives and possessives are required. Here again,
+
[GENITIVE . . . HEAD. . .] [POSSESSIVE] [POSSESSIVE . . HEAD].. . + [GENITIVE] eg: my husband's name and mine; your bank account and your husband's
The group genitive constructionof John and Mary'schildren is characteristic of informal speech. In formal English, this conslruclion is sometimes felt to be incorrect, and the constructionof the children of John and Mary or (less commonly) John's and Mary's children might be preferred instead. The latter construction, however, is forced and awkward, especially if the conjoins are strongly associated with one another: ?Laurel'sand Hardy's hilarious screen comedies.
+
.
+ +
[GENITIVE][POSSESSIVE].. + HEAD [POSSESSIVE] [GENITIVE]. . . + HEAD eg: ?my husband's and my names; ?your and your wife's bank accoutlt
[John] and [Maryl's children (cf the children of John and Mary)
Note
965
The same kind of ellipsis may be observed when the determiner is accompanied by one or more modifiers:
f
.
those delicious [pies] and [pastries] Yet another kind of ellipsis takes place when one or more modifiers are included in the conjoins. The units thus coordinated are neither words nor
966
Typesof simplecoordination 9 6 7
Coordination
phrases, but the intermediate units we earlier called-NOMINAL EXPRESSIONS .(cf 12.16):
Coordination of other constituents 13.77
those [mince pies] and [Danish pastries] those delicious [mince pies] and [Danish pastries] those delicious [mince pies] and [Danish pastries] that you bought In such constructions, the limits of the conjoins are variable, and this leads to ambiguity. My elder brother and sister, for example, may be interpreted as my elder [brother]and [sister] (= 'my elder brother and my elder sister'), or as my [elder brother] and [sister] (= 'my elder brother and my sister'). Of these two interpretations, the former is preferred, for the latter meaning would be singled out by the repetition of my before sister. The following illustrates a similar but more complex kind of ambiguity of construction:
13.78
Four interpretations are possible:
The implication of chronological sequence which is found in clause coordination (cf 13.23) is also found, if the main verb has dynamic meaning, in verb phrase coordination. We may contrast, in this respect, the stative verb meanings of She knows and admires your work and the dynamic verb meanings of George repaired and sold the car. Coordination of main verbs, with shared auxiliary verb(s), is common:
its still life [paintings] and [drawings] by Van Gogh its [still life paintings] and [drawings] by Van Gogh its [still life paintings] and [drawings by Van Gogh] its still life [paintings] and [drawings by Van Gogh]
Other things being equal, an interpretation which preserves a parallelism between the conjoins will be preferred to one which does not. On this ground, (a) a n d (c) are more likely readings of the above example than (b) and (d); reading (b) is quite possible, however, because of the close association between still life and paintings.
I have washed and dried the dishes. The guests were sitting or lounging around in the front room. Quite a large number of people might have been killed or injured by the explosion.
I
13.76
Coordination of auxiliary verbs is less common and somewhat formal:
Scope of quat$ifiers and numerals in the noun phrase In 13.45 we studied the way in which quantifiers within the clause include coordinate constructions in their scope. A similar phenomenon occurs in the noun phrase, when quantifying determiners or numerals include within their scope the coordination of nominal expressions such as those discussed in 13.75 above. $I such cases, the nounqhrase cannot be expanded in the regular fashion, by repetition of the determinative item: They have no books or magazines for sale. [= no books and no magazines. . .] [ # no books or no magazines. . .l (cf 13.31) They're gbing to plant several flowering trees or shrubs. l [ # several flowering trees or several flowering shrubs] There are ten boys and girls in the playgroup. In the last example, ten may or may not include boys and girls in its scope. Hence it is possible that this phrase refers to a group of children adding up to a total of ten, rather than to a group of ten boys and ten girls. The former interpretation is not always selected, however, since ten husbands and wives or ten knives and forks would invite the contrary reading 'ten of the one and ten of the other'. This is because a husband and wife, or a knife and fork, form a unit in a way in which a boy and a girl do not.
Coordination of verbs and verb.phrases Verb phrase coordination is illustrated in: Heinrich Schmidt [was born,] [lived,] and [died in the city of Vienna. [ l ] Good cooking [can disguise,] but [cannot improve,] the quality of the ingredients. [21 Yesterday we [bought] and [sold ten paintings. l31
The Municipal Art Gallery is famous for its still lgepaintings and drawings by Van Gogh. (a) (b) (c) (d)
All the main variations of construction we have noted in connection with clauses and noun phrases are also found in verb phrases, adjective phrases, adverb phrases, and prepositional phrases. The central coordinators and and or, and to a lesser extent but, are used as linkers. In the cases of and and or, there may be more than two conjoins in a given construction. Coordination is asyndetic, syndetic, or polysyndetic. When and is the coordinator, there is a further choice between combinatory and segregatory readings. Some representative examples of other phrases are given below.
The country can and must recover from its present crisis. Staffordshire pottery always was, is, and will be prized by collectors. It is perhaps less rare when the auxiliaries are conjoined by or: He may, or (certainly) should, resign. But coordination then has the character of an interpolation (cf 13.95ff). Note
13.79
When two dynamic verbs of opposite meaning are conjoined, especially when combined with the progressive, the meaning of theconstructionisoften iterative (c/ 13.101):Helay tliereopening and shutting his eyes [ie repeatedly]; Visitors cantc and went throughout the suntnrer.
Coordination of adjectives and adjective phrases Adjective phrases are coordinated in: The journey was long and extremely arduous. Our team is veryjit, very keen, and ready toface the strongest competition in the world. In the following, there is a coordination of adjective heads: I'm feeling younger and healthier than I have felt for years.
Types of s i m p l e coordination
968 Coordination
He spoke for thefirst motion but against the second motion. John complained both to Mary and to Peter. They are going to France, to Germany, or to Switzerland. The talks held in 1951, in 1952, and in 1955 met with only limited success. If the two or more prepositions are identical, all but the first preposition can be ellipted; eg: to Mary and Peter; in 1951 and 1952 (but a combinatory meaninn is then allowed; c f 13.70). Further possibilities are the ellipsis of part of ;he prepositional coinplemknt in the first or subsequent conjoin (the former, cataphoric option being more formal):
But in the following, there is an ambiguity, according to whether the premodifier belongs to the first conjoin or to both conjoins: T h e souvenirs they bought were very cheap and gaudy. It is unclear whether the analysis should be: [very clleap] and [gaudy] OR
very [cheap]and [saudy]
But the second reading, in which the premodifier applies to the whole sequence, is preferred. A change in the order of the words will eliminate the ambiguity: T h e souvenirs they bought were [gaudy]and [very cheap].
He spoke for thefirst A but against the second motion. He spokejbr thefirst motion but against the second A .
Adjectives can be coordinated either in predicative position, as above, or in attributive position: His clear andforceful delivery impressed his audience.
or the ellipsis of the prepositional complement altogether, in which case the construction is simply one of coordinated prepositions:
[l]
He climbed up and over the wall. [= He climbed up the wall and over the wal4 Did you speak for or against the motion? Do you like your coffee with or without milk?
In attributive position (cf 13-68),the coordinator and is often omitted: His clear, forceful delivery impressed his audience.
[21 The asyndetic construction in [21 is combinatory, and is associated with nonrestrictive modification (cf 17.95). It also suggests, more than the syndetic one, that the two epithets are meant to contribute to the same general effect: ie '. . . clear and, I may go so far as to,say, forceful'. The syndetL construction of [ l ] , o n the other hand, has the additional possibility of a segregatory interpretation if the head noun is plural or noncount:
old and dilapidated buildings
Note
wet and windy weather
Coordination of adverbs and adverb phrases Coordinated adverbs and adverb phrases are normally of the same semantic class (eg of time, of place, of manner):
13.82
She made thk announcement quietly &t quite confidently. The Governor never arrives earlier or later than the time of an appointment. The piston moved up and down with increasing speed. I have only spoken to her once or twice. In this last examile, once or twice is likely to have the vague meaning 'a few times', comparable to the use of one or two as discussed in 13.71. The rarer case of coordination, in which the adverbs or adverb phrases are of different semantic classes, is illustrated by:
13.83
Coordination of prepositions and prepositional phrases The following illustrate coordination of prepositional phrases:
Mixed coordinationof adverbials The general principle governing the coordination of phrases and words is that the conjoins must belong to the same category, formally, functionally, and semantically. Sometimes, however, the normal formal parallelism is not maintained, so that there is coordination of different adverbial categories. In the following, adverb phrases are coordinated with prepositional phrases, and noun phrases with adverbial clauses. In each case, however, a close semantic parallel between the conjoins is maintained: The enemy attacked quickly and with greatforce. You can wash them manually or by using a machine. They can call this week or whenever you wish. I prefer the sentences below and on the nextpage.
He complained strenuously and open. They met somewhere and sometime, but I have forgotten how or why.
13.81
Also possible is a constmction synonymous with the above in which ellipsis occurs in the second conjoin: Did you speakfor the motion or againsr ?. Do you like your coffee with milk or tvithout ? These appear to resemble cases where a prepositional adverb replaces a prepositional phrase (cf 9.65-6); but in fact they belong to a different category, because they occur with words (~virhout and against) which cannot normally be used as prepositional adverbs. We must therefore describe these asunusualcasesof ellipsis in which a prepositionappears without its prepositional complement. This analysis may be further extended to cases like Asparagus is expensive our of seoson ond in. where, although in may be a prepositional adverb, in this instance it is obviously a preposition parallel to out oJ The effect of placing in at the end, with ellipsis, in this way is to give it the emphasis associated with end focus (cJ18.98).
.
These phrases, ifi contrast to those of [l] and [2],are ambiguous.
13.80
969
Coordination of subordinators If two subordinate clauses are identical except for their conjunctions, one of the clauses can be omitted, normally the first, so that coordination takes place between the conjunctions:
970
Coordination
Additional constraints o n coordination
I am prepared to meet them when and 1v11erethey like. [= . . . when they like and where they like] They will be arriving either before or after the show begins. Note
13.84
[a] On the formulaic coordination i/andonly if, cf15.35 Note [i]. [b] Ifand when is a stereotyped expression weakening the expectation (conveyed by arhen alone) that the condition in theclause will be realized: I/and when he buys a car, I'll try to persuade him to buy the insurance from me. With r a n d when ellipsis may be disregarded, since g a n d elien has become a unit. Other institutionalized conjoiningsof conjunctions are: as and when; unless and unril.
Similarly, constituents of a compound can sometimes be coordinated, with ellipsis of the other constituent; eg: factory- and oflce-workers, sons- and daughters-in-law, hand-made and -packed, out- and in-patients, psycho- and sociolinguistics. Once again, these constituents are loosely attached, and we do not find linking in more cohesive compounds such as roothache and headache: *tooth- and headaches. 13.86
Coordination of interrogative words and relative pronouns Coordination can also take place between other clause-introducing words, such as interrogative words, whether they introduce an independent or a dependent clause (cf 11.14f):
I am determined to find out who or what caused this uproar. How and why did you break into my room? A coordination of wh-words is not possible if the wh-words function as different elements of structure. For example, it is impossible to coordinate a subject who with a n adverbial why: *Who and why broke into my room? But such a sentence becomes grammatical if the second wh-word is appended to the clause: Who broke into my room, and why? This is becausk the appended why? counts as an elliptical clause (cf 12.63) (= 'why did tyey break into my room?'), and so the structural equivalence between the first conjoin and the second is restored. The same principle of structural and functional equivalence prevents coordination of relative pronouns, but the coordination of prepositional phrases contailiing a relative pronoun is quite common at the beginning of relative clauses
..I
'S
2,
I .,
971
Note
Order o f c o n j o i n s in w o r d a n d phrase coordination Apart from semantic factors such as chronological sequence (cf 13.23) the order of conjoins in word and phrase coordination is relatively free. The order of conjoined words can, however, be influenced by a tendency for the longer word to come second (perhaps a variant of the end-weight principle; cf 18.9). This is particularly noticeable in so-called BINOMIALS,ie relatively fixed conjoint phrases having two members; eg: big and ugly, cup and saucer. One principle at work here appears to be a principle of rhythmic regularity: eg the dactylic rhythm of 'ladies and 'gentleman, and the trochaic rhythm of 'men and 'women, are preferable to the less balanced rhythm of *'gentlemen and 'ladies and *'women and 'men. It has also been argued that semantic factors play a role; eg that other things being equal, the first position is given to the semantically salient or culturally dominant member, as in father and son, gold and silver, great and small, this and that. Phonological constraints have also been suggested: that low vowels come after high ones; that back vowels come after front ones, etc. Whatever the constraints may be, they lead to stereotyped coordinations where the conjoins are virtually in a n irreversible order; eg: odds and ends, bread and butter, law and order, by hook or by crook, through thick and thin; knife,fork, and spoon. [a] Arguably 'cultural dominance'can beextended to include the traditional sexual bias (cf 6.10) shown in the tendency to place male terms before female ones in cases like men and women, boys andgirls, (if) he or she (wishes). This tendency is reversed in mother andfather (where cultural dominance works in the opposite direction) and in ladies and gentlemen (influenced by the courtesy conventionof 'ladies first'). [b] On the ordering of you and I , etc, cf 13.56 Note [a].
:l,
\
I want to kAow by whom andfor whom it was ordered.
I
l
Additional constraints on coordination 13.85
R e s t r i c t i o n s o n coordination of w o r d - p a r t s The minimal unit which can normally be coordinated is the word. There are, however, occasional exceptions to this limitation. Some derivational prefixes which tend to be contrasted and which tend to be loosely attached to their base can be conjoined; eg: ante- (or pre-) and post-natal; pro- and antiestablishment; sub- and super-human. Tightly-attached prefixes do not permit such coordination: *im- and ex-ports.
13.87
'ill-assorted' c o o r d i n a t i o n : (a) s e m a n t i c The requirement that the conjoins match one another in form, function, and meaning is observed with varying degrees of strictness. The following are apparently examples of a semantic violation oftheconstraint, but nevertheless such constructions can be used for humorous or rhetorical effect: She made up her mind and then her face. I drove home in a hurry and a borrowed car. Such examples can be expanded, by supplying ellipted elements, into grammatical sentences; eg: She made up her mind and then she made up her face. But it is clear from this that the ellipsis is based on an incongruous association of two homonymous idioms, make up (one's mind) and make up (one's face). I t is to such examples of semantically ill-assorted coordination that the traditional term ZEUGMA is applied.
Less c o m m o n t y p e s o f coordination
972 Coordination
introduce clause coprdination (cf 13.35), and would therefore be omitted from an unreduced sentence such as [7a].
'ill-assorted' c o o r d i n a t i o n : (b) g r a m m a t i c a l 13.88
A different kind of 'ill-assorted' coordination is illustrated by the following:
We have washed, dried, and put the dishes away. By giving the police a pay rise, the Minister hopes to strengthen and make the force more efficient.
[l]
[21 There is no difficulty in understanding such sentences; this time the anomaly is a matter of structure. They contain a false parallel, in that away in [l] and more eficient [2] are structurally outside the coordinate construction, and yet semantically apply only to the last conjoin. Sentence [l] ought to be a reduced form of:
Note
13.89
'ill-assorted coordination': ( c ) lexical A third type of 'ill-assorted' coordination is illustrated by the following:
Here the speaker confuses the prepositions of the two combinations ashamed of and alarmed at. The cause of the false parallel in this case is lexical, in the specific combinations of adjective and preposition (cf 16.69), rather than grammatical. Such confusions, which are not unusual, can be remedied by an insertion of the appropriate first preposition: He was ashamed of and alarmed a t . . .
but clearly this does not make sense. Such sentences are likely to occur in the impromptu use of language, but will be 'corrected' in the more considered and especially in the written use of language; [l], for example, can be changed to : W e have [washed,] [dried,] and [put away] the dishes. [lal (On the ordering of the verb put and the adverb away here, cf 16.4fj.) The term 'corrected' above has been advisedly enclosed in quotation marks, since it is not clear how far such examples are to be regarded as sentences which are ungrammatical in a descriptive sense, or as acceptable sentences stigmatized merely because of prescriptive tradition. Other instances of a similar kind are :
Less common types of coordination [31 13.90
[4l [51
l61 [71 The anomalous structure of such sentences can be discovered by expanding each coordination construction to a postulated unreduced version, ie by repeating befor or after each conjoin the parts of the sentence which lie outside the coo dinate construction. The result will be an unacceptable sentence in each case. By way of illustration, the unreduced versions of [3] and [7] are:
e
*The spy was in his forties, the spy of average build, and the spy spoke with a slightly foreign accent. *I am fond of dogs and I am fond cats.
Grammatically ill-assorted coordination can also occur at the morphological level: The reader is invited to try the experiment for hisor herserbefore reading on. The problem with this example is revealed if we expand the first conjoin to bissel/(which is not grammatical in standard English) by assuming, as the construction seems to require, an ellipsis of Compare a related difficulty of coordinated possessive pronouns in 13.73.
He was ashamed and alarmed at the vengeful attitude of the War Cabinet.
*We have washed the dishes away, we have dried the dishes away, and we have put the dishes away.
The spy [was in his forties,] [of average build,] and [spoke with a slightly foreign accent]. Had the queen [lived five years longer] or [had given birth to an heir], th'e subsequent history of the nation would have been very diqerent. Either [the,children did not know what had happened], or [were trying to'@otect their parents]. ?Our ancient city [has], and [always ~$11,be proud of its achievements. I am fond both [of dogs] and [cats].
973
[W [7al The expansion in example [7a] is based on the principle that correlatives such as both . . . andmark the beginning of each conjoin. In fact, both cannot
13.91
C o m p l e x coordination U p to this point we have been concerned with simple coordination: that is, the coordination of single grammatical constituents such as clauses, predications, phrases, and words. We turn now to three less regular and less common types of coordination, viz complex coordination, appended coordination, and interpolated coordination: these types of coordination may be seen as related, by ellipsis, to the coordination of clauses. We apply the term COMPLEX COORDINATIONto coordinate constructions of which the conjoins are combinations of units, rather than single units. In the clause, for example, it is possible not merely to coordinate objects or to coordinate complements; but also to coordinate one combination of object and complement with another combination of object and complement. Our first examples illustrate coordination of contiguous combinations of elements in final position in the clause. (We reserve noncontiguous cases until 13.92.) (i)
INDIRECT OBJECT
+ DIRECT OBJECT
We gave [William a book on stamps], and [Mary a book on painting].
+
(ii) OBJECT OBJECT COMPLEMENT Jack painted [the kitchen white] and [the living room blue].
974
Lesscommon t y p e s of coordination
Coordination
(iii)
OBJECT
+ ADVERBIAL
[b] The first element of a gapped coordination is normally the subject of the clause; but exceptions to this occur with fronting (cf 18.20), if the first element is an object or an adverbial, and the subject is ellipted: The towns they attacked with tanks, and the villages A with aeroplanes. To God he committed his soul, and to the fire A his body. [c] Coordinations of nonfinal sequences of clause elements, eg subject + verb, will be viewed not as complex coordination, but as interpolatedcoordination(cf13.95).
You should serve [the coffee in a mug] and [the lemonade in a glass]. (iv)
ADVERBIAL
+ ADVERBIAL
Paula is flying [to Madrid tonight] and [to Athens next week]. Such coordination usually establishes a strong parallelism between the conjoins, and for this reason it tends to be associated with a premeditated, written style of English, rather than with informal conversation. But there is another type of complex coordination where there is no strong parallelism. In this type, the conjoins are unequal because one conjoin contains one or more adverbials where the other does not:
13.93
I found the music [unexciting] and - [frankly - discordant]. H e wears [smart clothes], and [sometimes a yachting cap at weekends].
is grammatical, but not:
Gapping The phenomenon known as GAPPING occurs when a second or subsequent conjoin of a complex coordination contains a medial ellipsis. This happens whenever the elements being coordinated are noncontiguous elements in the clause. For example: (i)
SUBJECT
+ OBJECT
*Roberts won in 1979 and Dingwall1980. Note
,
[One girl has written a poem], and [the other a short story]. (ii) SUBJECT ADVERBIAL(S) [Smith completed the course in thirty-five minutes], and [Johnson in thirty-seven]. (iii) S U B J E T COMPLEMENT [Jane has looked more healthy], and [Maurice more relaxed], since their holiday.
+
,
+
13.94
,
There is normilly prosodic separation of the conjoins, and in addition, the 'gap' or medial,ellipsis is often marked by the end of a tone unit: Coordination hith gapping is apparently more difficult to decode and comprehend than coordination without gapping. An indication of this is that nongapped interpretations are preferred to gapped interpretations in cases where a sentence permits both kinds of interpretation. In a sentence such as [l], for example, the interpretation indicated by [la] will be chosen in preference to tqat of [lb]:
Note
.
[l] [ lal [ l b]
[a] An additional, rather rare, kind of gapping is that in which the conjoinsconsist of a subject followed by a predication (the finite verb being ellipted): John can clean the shed and Sidney feed the chickens. The fortress had been attacked and its commanderA killed.
This applies even to clauses where the verb and the preposition form a 'prepositional verb' (c/ 16.5f). and where the prepositional complement resembles a direct object. Although the preposition in such cases appears to be more closely related to the verb than to its complement, the ellipsis of the preposition is not permissible: *I looked at Agnes, and she me. Contrast: I saw Agnes, and she me.
Appended coordination There is a loose kind of coordination in which the second conjoin is appended to the clause in which the first conjoin occurs (cf appended clauses, 12.70). In fact, it is preferable to regard all such cases as clause coordination with ellipsis:
John writes extremely well - and d ~ l y TO^. , My mother plays badminton, and sometimes even tennis. He got a bike for his birthday, and a book and a fountain pen. His left hook could fell the champion, and indeed any other boxer in his class.
~ ~ i . r a Ian ice-cream shdae.1 Maggie orhered a banana S P L ~ Tand
~ a r b a r gave a Sue a magnolia and Ada a camellia. [ = Barbara gave Sue a magnolia and Barbara gave Ada a camellia] [ f Barbara gave Sue a magnolia and Ada gave Sue a camellia]
For a construction to count as an acceptable gapping, it is necessary that each conjoin consist of a sequence of units at the same level of structure: viz at the level of clause structure. It is not possible, for instance, for each conjoin to consist of a verb phrase together with the first word (a preposition) of a prepositional phrase. Thus: Roberts won in 1979 and Dingwall in 1980.
Such examples are more likely to occur in informal speech.
13.92
975
,
[l]
01
[3] t41
Unlike complex coordination, this type of coordination is characteristic of informal speech. We could argue that [la] is a case of noun phrase coordination, and is a variant of [l] without a discontinuous subject: John and Sally write extremely well.
[lal
But this does not account for the singular verb in [l], and it is more realistic to classify such a construction as a coordination of clauses in which the second conjoin, which is elliptical, is added as an afterthought. This latter description also accords better with examples like [2] in which the appended subject is accompanied by an adverbial. In [2] it is the object of an elliptical clause which is appended, rather than a subject. With and, appended coordination has the air of a makeshift improvisation, sometimes accompanied by rhetorical emphasis (as in [4]). But with or and
I:
976
Coordination
Lesscommon t y p e s o f coordination 977
but, i t is more likely to occur in careful and/or written types of language:
match the grammatical form of the first conjoin, is. But with interpolated coordination this does not matter: the onlv. im~ortantrequirement is that t h e second conjoin (o;interpolation) be capable of replacing the first conjoin, so that the result of the substitution is a grammatical sentence. This condition, which is less exacting than that whGh applies to simple coordination (cf 13.43, 13.49, 13.88) is fulfilled in 13.95 [la] and 13.96 [3]:
I a m not sure whether J ~ N Ewrote the letter, or s i ~ l y .
[S] [61 In [S] the alternative interrogative clause (cf 15.6) allows the possibility of a postponed conjoin. The same applies to direct alternative questions, and alternative conditional-concessive clauses (cf 11.20J 15.41). In [6] the repudiatory use of but (cf 13.32, 13.42 Note [d]) allows a postponed negative conjoin. These are special constructions in which appended coordination occurs freely.
m
P B T plays ~ ~ football, but not J ~ H N .
He is a major composer. At least he was a major composer.
He is a major composer. He at least believes that he is a major composer.
Interpolated coordination
13.95
Like complex coordination, interpolated coordination is a device of restricted use, normally associated with the premeditated, primarily written, use of English. Further examples are:
Another less regular type of coordination may be called INTERPOLATED, because one of the conjoins behaves as if it is inserted, as a parenthesis, in the middle of the clause. Once again, the coordination can be regarded as an elliptical reduction of clause coordination, and in some cases there is a direct parallel between interpolated coordination and clause coordination with general ellipsis in the second conjoin: or wAs at any rate, H e is, [or at least he H e is a major composer, or at least he w
L
..
The folk music of his native Romania [inspired], and [provided the thematic material for], his greatest work. She [can], and [probably will,] beat the world record. Sam [often thought about,] but [never revisited,] the haunts of his childhood. In these days, few people [learn,] or [indeed see any point in learning,] the languages of Homer and Virgil.
[lal
Stylistically, such interpolated coordination is often awkward, and is best avoided if a more straightforward construction can produce the same meaning and effect. Thus instead of the first sentence above one could write:
Similarly, appended coordination such as that of [l] of 13.94 can be reordered so as t o produce an example of interpolated coordination: John - and Sally, too -writes extremely well.
L21 If we attempt to analyse [2] as having a coordinated subject, we have to deal with the curiosity of a plural subject with a singular verb; but if we treat it as a case of interpklated coordination, we accept that the subject-verb concord will be unaffected by interpolated elements. Note
13.96
The coordination of the definite and indefinite articles (cf 13.71 Note [c]) may be treated as a case of interpolated~oordination.
l .
Two main distinguishing marks of interpolated coordination are these: (a) The second'conjoin is normally separated by prosody (in speech) or punctuation (in writing) from the rest of the clause, and thereby shows itself to be syntactically dislocated. (b) There is nq requirement that the interpolation acting as second or subsequent /conjoin should constitute a grammatical unit, or even a sequence of grammatical units of the same rank. For example, the second conjoin in [la] in 13.95 is at least he was [ A S V], whereas in [3] below the second conjoin consists of an adverbial at least, a main verb believes, and the first part of a subordinate clause that he is: H e is, or at least believes that he is, a major composer. l31 H e may be, and (certainly) believes that he is, a major composer. [3a] This sequence of words has no autonomy as a grammatical unit, and does not
(cf D])
The folk music of his native ~ o m a n i ainspired his greatest work, and provided the thematic material for it. Note
Interpolated coordination may be distinguished from PARENTHE~CALcooRDrNAllON, where an unreduced coordinate clause is inserted parenthetically within another clause: They asked Bill Judd -and he's one of the best managers in the country - if he would take over the team next season. C o m p a r e a l s o P A r t e m s n c A r . ~where ~ ~ ~ ~the ~ ~parenthetically ~~, includedclause iscompletely independent of the other clause: Enterprising businessmen sell earthworms (they are one of the best soil conditioners) in hundreds of retail stores across the United States and Canada.
Some types of coordination which, on purely formal grounds, belong with complex coordination seem to belong with interpolated coordination in terms of prosody and style. These are coordinations where the conjoins consist of a sequence of nonfinal clause elements: (i)
SUBJECT
+ VERB
[Richard admires], but [Margaret despises], the ballyhoo of modern advertising. (ii)
ADVERBIAL
+ VERB
Gregory Peck [always was], and [always will be], her favourite Hollywood star.
978
Coordination
Idiomatic and expressive u s e s o f coordination 979
(iii) VERB + OBJECT (when the object is not at the end of the clause) Mrs Symes [gave a thousand dollars], and [promised several thousand more], to the fund for disabled athletes.
This quasi-auxiliary use of try appears to be limited to the base form of the verb. Contrast the acceptability of: Try and see him tomorrow. He may try and see us tomorrow. They try and see us every day.
To see that these have the character of interpolated coordination, we note firstly the strength of the intonation boundaries enclosing the second conjoin: Gregory Peck always w6sl and always W ~ L Lbe1 her favourite Hollywood STARI
with the unacceptability of: *He tried and saw us yesterday. *She has tried and spoken to him. *He tries and sees us every day.
and secondly, the ease with which these examples could be changed by inserting or subtracting words from either conjoin. For example, if we add or subtract adverbials from one or the other conjoin in the above example, this is only a superficial variation within the basically versatile pattern of interpolated coordination: Gregory Peck
{E& was,] and (no doubt) always will be,
Instead of coordination, in such cases, we have to use the to-infinitive; eg: He tried to see us every day. Note
her favourite Hollywood star.
[a] Of the two -ed participle forms of go (cf 3.19 Note [b]) both gone and been occur in pseudocoordination in BrE, but only gone occurs in pseudocoordination in AmE: They'vegone and spilled wine on the floor. (BrE and AmE) They've been and spilled wine on the floor. (BrE) The normal meaning of go is lost in these sentences. There is no aspectual difference between them, of the kind normally associated withgone and been (cf4.22 Note [b]), and both usages are informal and derogatory. BrE has a humorous usage in which both been and gone are conjoined with a third verb: Look what you've been and gone and done. [bl In familiar speech we also find the idiom: He
Idiomatic and expressive uses of coordination 13.98
13.99
pseudo-coordination : try and come, etc When they precede and, members of a small class of verbs or predications have a n idiomatic function which is similar to the function of catenative constructions (cf 3.49) and which will be termed PSEUDO-COORDINATION.The clearest example is try:
(:hed]a 3 left him.
Pseudo-coordination:nice and warm, etc Again in informal speech, there is a special use of some commendatory adjectives as first conjoin of a coordination by and. The most common adjective of this type is nice:
This room is nice and warm. [= 'warm to just the right degree']
I'll try and,come tomorrow.
His speech was nice andshort. It was louely and cool in there. [ = 'comfortably cool']
They sat and talked about the good old times.
Some speakers (esp in AmE) use good in the same way:
is similar in meaning to They sat talking about the good old times. Pseudocoordination b longs to informal style, and many examples have aderogatory connotation:
The road is good and long.
I
Like try in being followed by a to-infinitive in the corresponding regular form are stop, go, come, hurry up, and run. Like sit are stand and (positional) lie.
She
The semantic role of the first adjective is more like that of an intensifier than that of an adjective, hence this, too, may be regarded as pseudo-coordination. Other examples include:
This is roughly kquiva~entto rll try to cdme tomorrow, but is more informal in style. Further:
Don't just stand there and grin. [= stand there grinning] He went and complained about us. They've gone and upset her again. Run and tell him to come here at once. Why did you go and do a silly thing like that?
and hit me.
even where the adjectival form following and is used as an adverb:
I hit him good and hard. Note
She drovegood andfast.
[a] In attributive rather than predicative function, adjectives of the kind just illustrated commonly occur without and (cf 17.1 14): It was a good long way He made a niceshort speech. It's a louely warm day. to the corner. [b] A comparable construction is the stereotyped use of the conjoined adverbs well and truly as in: Some of the guests were welland truly drunk.
980
13.100
Coordination
Idiomatic and expressive uses of coordination 981
The intensifying use of coordination There are a number of circumstances in which a word or phrase is coordinated with itself. With comparative forms of adjectives, adverbs, and determiners, the effect is to express a continuing increase in degree. The comparative forms more and less, or else the inflected forms in -er, are often coordinated in this way:
1
The combination of this type of coordination with the repetitive coordination above produces a more vivid and emphatic effect:
, . -$
The soldiers marched up and down, up and down to the music of the band.
i
i
The repetitive types of coordination mentioned in this and the preceding sections, and especially the last type, are particularly characteristic of popular narrative style.
I
She felt more and more angry. [ = She felt increasingly angry.] She felt angrier and angrier.
l
The car went more and more slowly. [= The car went increasingly The car went slower and slower. slowly.] Coordination of this kind with more than two conjoins also occasionally occurs : The noise got louder and louder and louder, until it sounded as if a whirlwind had entered the house. Asyndetic coordination is rare, but not impossible here: The noisegot louder, louder, louder. . .
T h e i t e r a t i v e o r c o n t i n u a t i v e u s e o f coordination 13.101 Another kind of expressive repetition withand conveys the ideaof a repeated or continuing process.This iterative use of coordination may be found with verbs : H e talkeq and talked and talked. [= He talked for a very long time.] They knocked and knocked. [= They knocked repeatedly.] both with and: without the conjunction: They kept talking, talking, talking all night long. It also occurs' with adverbs, especially with again and the prepositional adverbs over, o ~around, , up, down, etc:
l I
l \
l/
13.102
O t h e r e x p r e s s i v e u s e s o f coordination The coordination of identical items also occurs with nouns. The effect, if the noun is repeated once, may be to suggest that different types, especially good and bad, can be distinguished: There are teachers and teachers. [roughly: 'good and bad teachers'] You can find doctors and doctors. [roughly: 'good and bad doctors'] But if the noun is repeated more than once, the effect is to suggest a large number or quantity: We saw dogs and dogs and dogs all over the place. There was nothing but rain, rain, rain from one week to the next. Somewhat similar to these last examples is the intensifying effect of repetition of attributive adjectives and of degree istensifiers: an old, old man [= 'a very old man'] very, very, very good [= 'extremely good'] But this type of coordination is always asyndetic. In informal speech, the coordination of a noun phrase with. . .or so is used to express approximation. The noun phrase is normally a phrase of measurement. Compare the following with the coordination of numerals (cf 13.71): . .
\
I've said it'again and again [= repeatedly], but she still takes no notice. H e kept repeating the name over and over. She talked on and on and on. [= continuously] The balloon went up and up into the sky. [= continuously upwards] Again, asyndetb coordination can be used for special dramatic emphasis: n up, up, up, until it was a tiny speck in the sky. The b a ~ ~ o dwent A similar effect of iteration or alternating movement is sometimes achieved by coordinating contrasting prepositions or prepositional adverbs: on and ofi ofland on, in and out, up and down, backwards andjxwards, etc: Jill and Eric have been seeing one another ofland on for the last five years. [ = intermittently] We watched the mother bird going in and out of the nest [= repeatedly in and out] trying to satisfy the appetite of the hungry fledglings.
The limitations become clear with additional examples; thus although we can speak of: a dollar or so to spend a pound or so of butter
a glass of beer or so or so of beer
we cannot speak of *a chair or so, *a child or so, and still less of *the chair or so, though 'another chair or so' is acceptable. Hence the head nouns preceding the or so approximation must be units of measurement bear, pound) or items contextually rendered units of measurement (another N). It may be worth mentioning that 'a glass of beer or so' has the structure: a [glass [of beer]] or so.
982
Note
Coordination
Abbreviationsfor coordination
[a] T h e stereotyped coordination in our and out has an intensifying effect in premodification of nouns: He's an out and out liar. [ = an utter, thoroughgoing liar] Out-and-oa~is often hyphenated. [b] I n informal speech, expressions likeyes, no, ~vell,OK, allright are often repeated foremphasis (c/ 18.58 on repetition).
983
In this they resemble prepositions such as with, in addition to, and a f e r more than coordinators like and; compare: John, with his brothers, was responsible for the loss. One senator afer another has protested against the ban. Compare, however, interpolated coordination (cf 13.95), where there can be a similar lack of plural concord, even with and. These observations remind us that coordination is related by gradience to subordination (cf 13.18f), and suggest that just as semi-coordinators such as for and so that are placed o n the scale between coordinators and subordinators, so quasi-coordinators such as as well as may be regarded as taking their place on a scale between coordinators and prepositions. Note
13.103
In addition to the semi-coordinators nor, so, and yet mentioned in 13.19, there are several linking items which we may call QUASI-COORDINATORS, because they behave sometimes like coordinators, and at other times like subordinators or prepositions. The most prominent of them are clearly related to comparative forms (cf 15.63ff):
I've not even read the first chapter,
{
l
finished the book.
To these may be added the infinitive construction not to mention, which is, however, more restricted in that it requires a following noun phrase: He wrote twenty novels, not to mention six thick volumes of verse. [c] The parallels between interpolated coordination ([I] cf 13.95f). quasi-coordination ([31), prepositional phrases ([Z]),and adverbial clauses ([4] cf15.17#') is illustrated in the following:
as well as, as much as, rather than, more than 4
Others are ifnot, not to say, and the correlative not so much. . . as. In the following examples, the quasi-coordinators do not introduce clauses or noun phrases, and resemble coordinators in that they link 'conjoins' of varying grammatical constituency:
The next meeting,
{G:] the one after it, will be very important.
[l1 121
The next meeting, as wellas theonelast month, will be very important. 131 The next meeting will be very important, as was tAeo~~e last month. (41 Whereas [5] is unacceptable because of the requirement that conjoins should be mutually substitutable, 161 is acceptable because of the status of lrke as a preposition: *The next meeting, and the onelast month, will be very important. l51 The next meeting, like the one last month, will be very important. l61
He [publishes]as well as [prints] his own books. The speech was addressed [to the employers] as much as [to the strikejs]. It was [bow well] more than [how loud] she sang that impressed me. He is [tdbe pitied] rather than [to be disliked]. Her manner was [unwelcoming]
[a] Nonrestrictive relative clauses have also been considered semantically equivalent to coordinated clauses. Such a classification seems particularly appropriate in the case of sentential relative clauses (cf15.57). where the relative clause has the rest of the superordinate clause as its antecedent: Pam didn't go to the show, which is apity. ['. . .and that is a pity'] [b] Less common examples of quasi-coordinators are still less and its informal synonym let alone:
{zo
say} [downright rude].
His latestiplay is not so much [a farce] as [a burlesque tragedy]. \
In other senterlces, however, they clearl; have a prepositional or subordinating role, and have the mobility of adverbials, in that they can be placed in initial or final position (cf 15.52): ( A S well as printing the books, he publishes them. \ ~ publishes e the books, as well asprinting them.
I
Abbreviations for coordination
l
Rather than cause trouble, I'm going to forget the whole affair. I'm going to forget the whole affair, rather than cause trouble.
[
Another reason for not treating these items as fully coordinative is that in subject position, they normally do not bring about plural concord if the first noun phrase is singular: John, as much as his brothers, was responsible for the loss.
:1
j/
13.104 .The tags and so on, and so forth, and et cetera (Latin = 'and others', abbreviated in writing as etc) are abbreviatory devices which are added to a
coordinated list, to indicate that the list has not been exhaustively given: He packed his clothes, his books, his papers, etc. And so on and and so forth (and their combination and so on and so forth) are
984
Coordination
used in the same way, but are restricted to informal use, and tend to occur after coordinated clauses rather than coordinated phrases. A less common phrase of the same kind IS and the like. Note
[a] Another abbreviatory devlce used in a similar way to erc is the Latin et a1 (in full er alii/aliae/ alia = 'and others'), which indicates incompletion of a list of names. It is most common in legal documents and in scholarly writing or lecturing, in the latter case to avoid repeating a list of coauthors: J C Brown et al. [b] Mention should also be made of the learned abbreviation ct seq (Latin et sequens) meaning 'and the following (page)'. This sometimes has a plural form with letter reduplication et seqq, paralleling the use of reduplic;~tionof (final) letters to indicate plurality in other abbreviations such asfi MSS,pp (cJ5.81 Note). [c] The abbreviation i r i n logical and mathematical discourse means 'i/and only if'.
14
The complex sentence
14.1-4 .2 .3 .4
Coordination and subordination
14.5-9 .6-8 .9
Finite, nonfinite, and verbless clauses
Compound and complex sentences Subordinate and superordinate clauses Subordinate and matrix clauses
Nonfinite clauses Verbless clauses Formal indicators of subordination
Bibliographical n o t e General studies of coordination include: Dik (1968); Dougherty (1970-71); Gleitman (1965); Schachter (1977); Stockwellet a1 (1973), Ch. 6. On coordination in relation to subordination and other kinds of connectivity, see Greenbaum (1969b. 1980); Halliday and Hdsan (1976); Huddleston (1965); Talmy (1978). On the coordinator but, see Greenbaum (1969a); R. Lakoff (1971). On coordination in relation to ellipsis/reduction, see Greenbaum and Meyer (1982); HarriesDelisle (1978); Meyer (1979); Sdnders (1977). On gapping, see Hudson (1976b); Jackendoff(1971); Koutsoudas(l971); Kuno(1976a). On ordering of coordinated elements, see Bolinger (1965); Malkiel(1959). Among other studies of coordination are Ardery (1979); Hudson (1970); Lakoff and Peters (1969); Ssrensen (1979a).
Subordinators Subordinators for finite clauses Correlative subordinators Marginal subordinators Subordinators for nonfinite and verbless clauses Subordinators for bare infinitive clauses Subordinators for to-infinitive clauses Subordinators for -ed clauses and verbless clauses Subordinators for -ing clauses Other indicators of subordination The verb phrase in subordinateclauses
The present tense in adverbial and nominal clauses The hypothetical past and past perfective The present and past subjunctive Putative should The perfective with temporal clauses The perfective with temporal since-clauses The perfective with other temporal clauses
14.36
Reporting the language of others
1020
Direct speech Indirect speech Backshift in indirect speech Other changes in indirect speech Indirect statements, questions, exclamations, and directives The subjunctive and modal auxiliaries in indirect speech Free indirect speech and free direct speech
1022
Transferred negation
1033
1026 1026 1028 1029 1030 1032
Coordination and subordination 987
14.37-41 .37 .38-39 .40 .41
Sentence complexity and comprehensibility Combining subordination devices within a sentence Positions of subordinate clauses Subordination versus coordination Structural ambiguity
1035
Bibliographical n o t e
1044
1035 1037
Coordination and subordination
j tI
i
14.1
1040 1042
I
j
I
l 14.2
In Chapters 10 and l 1 we studied the simple sentence, a sentence consisting of a single clause in which each of its elements (subject, object, adverbial, etc) is realized by a subclausal unit - a phrase. The multiple sentence, on the other hand, consists of more than one clause. One of the two major devices for linking clauses within the same sentence is coordination, which we discussed in Chapter 13. We there distinguished coordination from the other major device, subordination (cf 13.2ff). In this chapter we examine the complex sentence, a sentence in which one of the elements is realized by a subordinate clause. Here we discuss the structural types of subordinate clauses, the formal indicators of subordination, and the choices affecting the verb phrases of subordinate clauses.
Compound and complex sentences The major types of multiple sentences are the compound and the complex sentence. A compound sentence consists of two or more coordinated main clauses; the clauses of a compound sentence provide classic instances of a paratactic relationship (cf 13.2), that is they have equivalent function, as diagrammatically indicated in Fig 14.2a overpage. The two main clauses in the Figure are equal constituents of the sentence, and are linked by the coordinator but. A complex sentence is like a simple sentence in that it consists of only one main clause, but unlike a simple sentence it has one or more SUBORDINATE clauses functioning as an element of the sentence. Subordination is a n asymmetrical relation: the sentence and its subordinate clauses are i n a hypotactic relationship (cf 13.2), that is they form a hierarchy in which the subordinate clause is a constituent of the sentence as a whole -an adverbial in the example diagrammed in Fig 14.2b overpage. Subordination is not the only factor that enters into either the length or the complexity of sentences, when 'complexity' is understood in a nontechnical sense. Phrases may be complex in the degree of their modification; the vocabulary may be obscure; because of their compression, nominalizations (cf 17.51ff) may be more difficult to understand than corresponding subordinate clauses; the coherence of the sentence as a whole may be difficult to understand; the content of the sentence may presuppose knowledge that is not generally available. With respect to its function, a subordinate clause may be viewed as downgraded to a subclausal unit, such as a prepositional phrase: Although I admire her reasoning, I reject her conclusions. ['Despite my admiration for her reasoning, I reject her conclusions'] Both the subordinate clause and the prepositional phrase in the paraphrase are functioning as adverbials within their sentence. A clause that is not subordinate to another clause is an INDEPENDENT clause. Hence the two main clauses in Fig 14.2a and the main clause (identical with the sentence) in Fig 14.2b are independent clauses.
Coordination a n d subordination
988 T h e complex s e n t e n c e sentence
989
sentence
I
m a i n clause
/T\ i l l
I
adtnirc, her reosotitg
main clause
A
hut
I i P I
He
predicted
l
subordinate/superordinateclause [X]
reject her cottclusions
AYA
Fig 14.2a Compound sentence: coordination
rltat
he would discocer the tiny particle
I
subordinate clause [ Y ]
/ P P
whet? Fig 14.2b Coniplex sentence : subordination
Note
14.3
[a] Main clauses have also been called 'principal clauses'or (less commonly)'head clauses'. [b] Subordinate 4auses (sometimes abbreviated to 'sub-clauses') have also been called 'dependent', 'embddded', 'included', 'constituent'bnd 'syntactically bound' clauses. [C] Some grammaiians have extended the tenn sentence to cover what we have termed clause. [dl Main clauses are generally also independent clauses. But if a coordinated main clause when it is isolated from the rest of the sentence is unacceptable as a simple sentence, it is not an independent clause. For example, the second clause below is structurally deficient as a simple sentence because of the ellipsis, the acceptability of the clause depending on its relationship to the first clause: I The plot was kxciting and the characterizationplausible.
Subordinate and superordinate clauses Figures 14.2a and 14.2b present uncomplicated examples involving just two clauses. In Fig 14.2b the two clauses in the complex sentence are the subordinate clause and the SUPERORDINATEclause, of which the subordinate clause is a constituent; the superordinate clause is therefore also the main clause. But a clause may enter into more than one relationship; it may be subordinate to one clause and superordinate to another, as indicated in Fig 14.3a opposite.
l
he
cottduaed
his ne.rt esperintettt
Fig 14.3a Superordinate a n d subordinate clauses
Clause [W] is superordinate to clause [X], which is in turn superordinate to clause [Y]. Conversely, clause [Y] is subordinate to clause [X], which is in turn subordinate to clause [W]. Clause [X] is therefore both superordinate to clause [Y] and subordinate to clause [W]. The relationships may be further clarified by labelled bracketing: X-
W-
(He predicted [that he would discover the tiny particle Y-
-Y-X-W
{when he conducted his next experiment} ] ) In each instance the subordinate clause is included in its superordinate clause: [X] functions as object in [W], while [Y] functions as adverbial in [X]. The device of subordination enables us to construct a multiple hierarchy of clauses, one within the other, sometimes resulting in extremely involved sentences (cf 14.37ff). Further complexity and structural variability are provided by the interrelation of subordination and coordination. Each main clause in a compound sentence may include one or more subordinate clauses,
990
The complex.sentence
Coordination and subordination 991
each of which may in turn include subordinate clauses. An example, by no means unusually complicated, appears in Fig 14.3b, where the labelling has been abbreviated: sentence
,. $i i t
1: L'
14.4
Subordinate and matrix clauses We have pointed out that a subordinate clause is a part of its superordinate clause, functioning as one of its elements. Thus, we can match clauses with phrases or words in the same function, direct object in [l] and adverbial in [2]:
that they were nervous. We noticed (their nervousness. and
I think
One matures I U-ouldhope 0
0 I
We have no more reason to designate We noticed and One matures as clauses in their own right when they are followed by subordinate clauses than when they are followed by phrases or words. For both alternatives in [l] and [2] the clause that begins the sentence concludes the sentence. Nevertheless; we find many occasions in this chapter, particularly in discussing adverbial clauses, when it is useful to distinguish between a subordinate clause and the rest of the superordinate clause of which it is part. When we have needed to do so, we have used the term MATRIX clause to designate the superordinate clause minus its subordinate clause. For example, we have referred to the situation described in the matrix clause as contingent on that of the subordinate conditional clause (cf 15.35):
I
I
subordinatelsuperordinateclause
that your new position demands sensitive judgments
as the years go by. eventually.
subordinate clause
as the years go by Fig 14.3b Compound sentence with subordinate clauses
I
Similarly, coordination may occur at any level. In Fig 1 4 . 3 ~the two subordinate clauses of the complex sentence are coordinated :
I'll lend you some money if you don't have any money on you.
sentence
""r-
main/superordinateclause
1
S
l
1
Fig 1 4 . 3 ~Complex sentence with coordinated clauses
l
A subordinate clause may function not only as a clause element of a superordinate clause but also as a constituent of a phrase, for example as a relative clause postmodifying a noun phrase:
'
I
I
telephoned
while /
you I
mIr e
out I
Fig 14.4 Matrix and subordinate clause
I
1, j
I
She
matrix clause
l
The school which my children attend is within walking distance. We consider such noun phrases to be complex, but we do not consider a sentence with a complex noun phrase to be a complex sentence merely on the grounds that it contains a complex phrase (cf 10.1 Note [a]).
L31
The matrix clause Tll lend you some money conveys an offer that is consequent on the fulfilment of the condition expressed in the subordinate clause ifyou don't have any money on you. Similarly, we have referred to the matrix clause in discussing the time reference of adverbial clauses of time. For example, subordinators such as before and until indicate that the situation described in the matrix clause occurred before or led up to that in the subordinate clause (cf 15.27). We illustrate in Fig 14.4 what we have termed a matrix clause.
Note
Some have used the term 'main clause' for what we term matrix clause.
992 T h e c o m p l e x s e n t e n c e
Finite, nonfinite, a n d verbless c l a u s e s
Finite, nonfinite, and verbless clauses 14.5
We recognize three main structural types ofclauses:
$1
semantically as a sequence of agentive, activity, and affected, but semantic grounds are not sufficient for syntactic analysis. Only the clause do we analyse syntactically as a sequence of subject, verb, and object. For example, considerpart-time teaching in : I enjoypart-time teachir~g. It has the structure of a noun phrase with teaching as head and part-time as premodifier. Contrast reaching undergraduates in : I enjoy reachbig undergraduates. It has the structure of a clause (as in I teach undergraduates) with teaching as verb and undergraduaresas object. On the other hand, there is structural ambiguity in: I enjoy teaching. Teaching may be a noun phrase with only a heador a clause withonly a verb (c/ 15.13).
':I1 ,
a clause whose verb element is finite (such as takes, took, can work, has worked, is writing, was written; cf 3.52ff), eg:
FINITE CLAUSE:
I can't go out with you because l a m studying this evening. a clause whose verb element is nonfinite (such as to work, having worked, taken; cf 3.53), eg:
NONFINITE CLAUSE:
993
jic
Knowingmy temper, I didn't reply. l
a clause that does not have a verb element, but is nevertheless capable of being analysed into clause elements, eg:
VERBLESS CLAUSE:
Although always helpful, he was not much liked.
We recognize nonfinite and verbless structures as clauses because we can analyse their internal structure into the same functional elements that we distinguish in finite clauses. Consider, for example, the analysis of the nonfinite clause in: Knowing [V] my temper [Od],I didn't reply.
The analysis depends on the analogy with the corresponding finite clause: I[S] know [V] my temper [O,]. Similarly, the verbless clause although always helpful in: ~lthoudh[conj] always [A] helpful [C,], he was not much liked.
It is analysed as in the corresponding finite clause: ~Ithou~ [conjl h he [S] was [V] always [A] helpful[Cs],he was not much liked. \
One structurai type of clause may be embedded within another: Too nervous to reply after other speakers had praised her devotion to duty, Margaret indicated that she would speak later.
[l] The italicized subordinate clause in [l] is a verbless clause that contains a subordinate ponfinite clause (beginning to reply) that in turn contains a subordinate finite clause (beginning after other speakers). Note
We recognize a structure as a clause only when it is describable in terms of clausal rather than phrasal structure. Hence the subject in [21is considered anoun phrase becauseit has the structure of a noun phrase with conquest as its head: William's conquest of England brought about a change in the status of the English language. [21 Compare William's conquests of other countries, where the head of the phrase shows that it can take the number contrast that is characteristic of most nouns. On the other hand, the phrase structure of William's conquest of England is related to clause structure (William conquered England) through nominalization (cf 17.51ff). Both the clause and the phrase can be described
14.6
Nonfinite clauses The nonfiniteclause may be withor without asubject. The classes of nonfinite verb phrase (cf 3.53) serve to distinguish four structural classes of nonfinite verb clauses:
(i) TO-INFINITIVE without subject: The best thing would be to telleverybody. with subject: The best thing would befor you to telleverybody. The infinitive clause with to plus a subject is found characteristically in constructions with anticipatory it (cf 18.33ff),fir being used to introduce the subject : It would be better for you to tell everybody. (ii) BARE INFINITIVE without subject: All I did was hit him on the head. withsubjeci: Rather than you do the job, I'd prefer to finish it myself. The bare infinitive is found characteristically in pseudo-cleft sentences (cf 18.29f), where the infinitival to isoptional: What they did was (to)dig a shallow channelaround the tent. (iii)
-ING PARTICIPLE
without subject: Leaving the room, he tripped over the mat. with subject: Her aunt having left the room, I asked Ann for some personal help. When the subject of -ing clauses is expressed, it is often introduced by a preposition (cf 14.19 Note [b]): With the audience turning restive, the chairman curtailed his long introduction.
On the question of genitive subjects, cf 15.12. (iv) -ED PARTICIPLE without subject: Covered with confusion, they apologized abjectly. with subject: The discussion completed, the chairman adjourned the meeting for half an hour. Categories (i) and (iii) are used most frequently; category (ii) is relatively rare.
994 The complex sentence
Finite, nonfinite, and verbless clauses
-
Except for the -ed clause, which is inherently passive (cf 14.7), all types of nonfinite clauses have both active and passive forms, for example:
(S)VwC active SVOC Considered works of art, they were admitted into the country without customs duties. (S)VpJ active SVOA Kept in the refigerator, the drug should remain effective for at least three months. (S)VmO active SVOO Allowed unusualprivileges, the prisoner seemed to enjoy his captivity.
It would be possiblefor my son to drive you to the airport. -It would be possiblefor you to be driven to the airport by my son. Rather than Michaelguarantee the loan, it can be done by his father. -Rather than the loan beguaranteed by Michael, it can be done by his father. The parents havingpaidfor the damaged window, the police were not called. The damaged window having been paidfir by the parents, the police were not called.
-
14.8
Progressive and perfective forms may function in the verb phrase of nonfinite clauses, though the nonfinite verb paradigm is somewhat defective (cf 3.56). But modal auxiliaries are excluded, since they have neither infinitives nor participles. I n negative nonfinite clauses, the negative particle is generally positioned before the verb or the to of the infinitive: .
It's his fault for not doing anything about it. The wisest policy is (for us) not to interfere.
Adverbs and brief prepositional phrases that intervene between not and the verb in finite clauses may also come-between not and the verb: .
When not is inserted, there is often some aspectual marking: The purse not having been found, The purge not yet found,
we went to the police.
On the split ihfinitive, cf 8.21.
14.7
I
I expect them to come. They wanted us to learn economics. Joe supposed the stranger to befriendly. It's greatfor everybody to be here. I$'s best for you to give him a call. Paul prefers me to make the drfference clear. He got her to put the car in the garage.
l41
[lal [2al Pal 144
[51 We met you (when you?/we? were) leaving the room. With infinitive clauses, a corresponding finite clause also enables one to identify an understood subject:
--
I asked to go. I asked ifIcould go. I asked him to go. I asked ifhe would go. When no referential link with a nominal can be discovered in the linguistic context, an indefinite subject may be inferred, or else the 'I'of the speaker:
The subject of nonfinite clauses, however, is commonly absent. Because it is generally both syntactically and semantically passive, the -ed participle clause is restricted to the four types of passive clauses. In [l] the subordinator when introduces the -ed clause:
-
(S) V, active SVO When questioned, she denied being a member of the group.
[31
On the other hand, [5] shows how the advantage of compactness must be balanced against the danger of ambiguity; for the absence of a subject leaves doubt as to which nearby nominal element is notionally the subject:
The normal range of clause types (cf 10.2) is available for most nonfinite clauses, as in this set of to-infinitive clayses: SV SVO SVC SVA SVOO SVOC SVOA
L21
Because nonfinite clauses lack tense markers and modal auxiliaries and frequently lack a subject and a subordinating conjunction, they are valuable as a means of syntactic compression. Certain kinds of nonfinite clause are particularly favoured in written prose, where the writer has the leisure to revise for compactness. We recover meanings associated with tense, aspect, and mood from the sentential context. We can also normally see a correspondence with a finite clause with a form of the verb BE and a pronoun subject having the same reference as a noun or pronoun in the same sentence (cf 15.588). For examples 14.7 [l-41, one might make the following insertions : When (she was) questioned, she denied being a member of the group. (Since/Because/As they were) considered works of art, they were admitted into the country without customs duties. (If it is) kept in the refrigerator, the drug should remain effective for at least three months. (Since/After he was) allowed unusualpriuileges,the prisoner seemed to enjoy his captivity.
It's his fault for not ever doing anything about it.
995
111
.b
To be an administrator is to have the worst job in the world. ['For a person to be . . .'l The prospects are not very good, to be candid. ['. . . if I am to be candid'] Contrast:
It's hard work to be a student. [indefinite subject; cf 10.42fl It's hard work, to be honest. [I as subject; cf 8.1251
996
The complex sentence
Formal indicatorsof subordination 997
Verbless clauses 14.9
Loath to replyfor fear of offending herparents, she strode out of the room. [(S V) C, A,,,I Though now frail, they were quite capable of looking after themselves. sub [(S V) At,,, CS]
Verbless clauses take syntactic compression one stage further than nonfinite clauses and like them are also commonly subjectless. Once again (cf 14.8), it is often possible to postulate a missing form of the verb BE and to recover the subject, when omitted, from the context:
When the verbless clause is reduced to its minimum of a single complement or adverbial, it may not be easy to distirlguish it from an appositive construction (cf17.65ff), a nonrestrictive postmodifier (cf 17.48f), or a n adverbial which is a direct constituent of the main clause. The initial prepositional phrase below is an adverbial of the sentence:
Whether right or wrong, he always comes off worst in argument. ['whether he is right or wrong'] One should avoid taking a trip abroad in August wherepossible. ['where it is possible'] , . Verbless clauses camalso sometimes be treated as reductions of nonfinite clauses :
Of humbleparentage, he began his working life in a shoe factory. It might be regarded as an adverbial realized by a verbless clause consisting of just a complement, because its analysis is directly parallel to nominal o r verbless clauses like:
Too nervous to reply, he stared a t the floor. ['Being too nervous to reply. . .'l (Here the verbless clause itself contains a subordinate nonfinite clause, to reply.) When the subject is present, only the verb has to be recovered, though it is not always possible to insert it without juxtaposing the clause (cf [2] below): 73 people have been drowned in the area, many of them children. ['many of them being children'] There he stood, a tray in each hand. ['a tray was in each hand']
A man of humble parentage,
-Born of humble parentage,
.
Similarly, if the final noun phrase below had been placed next to the subject we would have recognized it as full apposition: The river lay in its crescent loop entirely without movement, an artifice of green-black liquescent marble.
[l] [2]
As it is, we could regard it as a verbless clause functioning as an adverbial. Indeed, many instances of partial apposition with noun phrases (cf 17.66) could be equally regarded as verbless clauses, eg:
The subject is often introduced by with (cf 14.15): With the children at school, we can't take our vacations when we want to.
...
Judge Clement Turpin, now a federal appeals courtjudge, is being considered for appointment to the US Supreme Court.
L31
Since it is uiually possible to interpret the clause as having an omitted BE, the verbless clause is limited to the two clause-types SVC and SVA, with or without a subordinator (sub): She looked at him expectantly, her eyesfullofexcitement and curiosityi[S (V) C] I d o not wish to describe his assertiops, some of them offensive. [S (V) C1 H e looked remarkably well, his skin clear and smooth. [S (V) C] Though somewhat edgy, she said she would stay a little longer. sub [S (V) C] We can myet again tomorrow, ifnecessary. sub [S (V) C] Mavis sat in the front seat, her hands in her lap. [S (V) A] While at college, he was a prominent member of the dramatic society. sub [(S V) A]
Formal indicators of subordination
[4l [51 [6]
14.10
(i) (ii) (iii) (iv)
The clause is initiated by a subordinating conjunction (14.1 lff). The clause is initiated by a wh-element (14.20). Initial elements in the clause are inverted (14.20). The presence of certain verb forms in finite clauses is determined by the type of subordinate clause (14.21ff). (v) The verb element of the clause is either nonfinite or absent (14.20).
171 t81 [g1 [l01
It is also possible in [g] to view the understood verb as HAVE ('having her hands in her lap', cf 'with her hands in her lap'), in which case the structure is [(S V) 0 A]. Optional adverbials may also be added, either initially or finally: 'Thank you very much,' said Raymond, ever mindful of his manners. [(S V) Afrequency Csl
Subordination is generally marked by a signal in the subordinate clause. The signal may be of various kinds:
More than one subordination signal may cooccur in the same subordinate clause. For example, a nonfinite or verbless clause may be introduced by a subordinating conjunction (cf 14.15ff). Note
[a] The verb form in the superordinate clause may also be affected by the type of subordinate clause. The clearest example is in the hypothetical condition relationship (cf 15.36). [b] For nonfinite and verbless clauses that are not part of a superordinate clause, cf11.40/:
998 T h e c o m p l e x s e n t e n c e
14.11
14.12
Subordinators (or more fully SUBORDINATING CONJUNCTIONS) are the most important formal device of subordination, particularly for finiteclauses. Like prepositions, which they resemble in having arelatingfunction, subordinators forming the core of the class consist of a single word, but there is a larger range of complex subordinators which function, to varying degrees, like a single conjunction. In addition, there is a small class of correlative subordinators, which combine two markers of subordination, one being a subordinator. Subordinators may be restricted to particular types of clauses, as the following sections show.
SUBORDINATORS
Subordinators for finite clauses Most subordinators may introduce finite clauses. Here is a list of those subordinators. They are divided into simple, complex, and correlative subordinators. The correlative subordinators-are listed and discussed in 14.13. SIMPLE SUBORDINATORS
after, although, as, b.ecause, before, directly (informal, esp BrE), if, immediately (informal, esp BrE), lest (esp AmE), like (informal, esp AmE), once, since, that, though, till, unless, until, when(ever), where(uer), whereas, whereupon, while, whilst(a minority alternative to while, esp BrE) COMPLEX SUBORDINATORS
ending with that: but that, in that, in order that, insofar that (formal, rare), in the event that, save that (literary), such that ending with dptional that: (a) participle form: assuming, considering, excepting, given, granted, granting, provided, providing, seeing, supposing ](that) (b) others: \ except, for all, \ (that) now, so
Formal indicatorsof subordination
[d] The omission of an optional that in the complex subordinators tends to lower the level of formality. On the other hand, the inclusion of tlrot may avoid ambiguity (~(14.41). [e] About and without are used as subordinators for finite clauses in informal style, but are not generally considered acceptable: ?She explained to us about there's nothingfor teenagers to do in the village. ?We can't even read in our bedroom without one of the children comes barging in wanting something. They are among recent examples of a continuing trend to use prepositions also as subordinators. On account (on (esp AmE), another recent example, has achieved somewhat greater acceptability in informal style: I can't come now on account (..o n. I how to look afier . my. baby . brother. [I] But that is a subordinator in the sense 'except (that)': She would have ignored Edward hut tlrot she knew he would have complained to her sister. Occasionally tlmt is omitted: It never rains but it pours. Except is used without that in the sense 'unless'(cf 15.34): I wouldn't be here except 1 had to. But that is often added when except has the senseAonly'(cf 15.44): I'd lend you my car except (that) I may need it later this afternoon. [g] The temporal subordinators, interrogative whether and if, and conditional ifcan alone serve as truncated subordinate clauses functioning as exclamation tags: ~
~
If . .1
A: Brian will attend the class when it suits him.
B: (*h, yes)
!,Ah!
Virtually any conjunction can function alone as an echo question: A: I11 let you know ifthere are going to be refreshments. B: in But surely you promised you would arrange it. A: We're arriving in New York aJier you leave. B: i ~ t e r But ? I was hoping to see you there.
Correlative subordinators The correlative subordinators are divided into five sets, listed below. The second correlative endorses the meaning of the first. For correlative coordinators, cf 13.338. CORRELATIVE SUBORDINATORS
l
ending with as: according as, as far as, as long as, as soon as, forasmuch as (formal), inasmuch as (formal), insofar as, insomuch as (formal)
1 Others: as if, as though, in case Note
[a] The distinction in form between the simple and complex subordinators is in part orthographic, since some of the simple subordinators are internally (that is morphologically) complex. But their orthographical unity points to the central place of the simple subordinators in the system. [bl In addition, the following archaic subordinators still have a limited currency: albeit, whence, whereat, lvlrerefore, whither. [cl Many of the subordinators indicate more than one logical relationship. The relationships are discussed in subsequent sections of this chapter.
999
such
")
such
}
less more (/-er) no sooner barely hardly scarcely (C) the
}
1} ......
}
(that) than
. .. than, when (informal) . . . when, than (informal) . . . the
Formal indicatorsof subordination
1000 T h e c o m p l e x s e n t e n c e
optional correlative in the alternative interrogative clause introduced by g (cf 15.6). The (e) set combines a subordinator in an initial subordinate adverbial clause with an optional conjunct (cf 8.134ff) in the superordinate clause. T h e conjunct emphasizes the relationship indicated by the subordinator:
(e) subordinator plus optional conjunct
. . .yet, nevertheless, etc
(even) though
Once
} }
since [reason] unless because seeing (that)
Though the workers were unhappy with some aspects of the proposed new contract, nevertheless they overwhelmingly voted in favour of it. [CONCESSIVE CLAUSE; ~f15.39ff1 Ifthis year's harvest is good, then they will not need to import wheat. [CONDITIONAL CLAUSE; cf 15.33ff ] Because you have not replied to my formal letter of May 1, I am therefore withdrawing my offer. [REASON CLAUSE; cf 15.45ff ]
. . then in that case
. . . therefore
T h e (a) set consists of the unique proportional correlative as . . . so (cf 15.51), also typical of formal and deliberative style. The conjunct emphasizes the relationship indicated by the initial subordinator:
Some writers avoid the conjunct as redundant in these examples. Its insertion is more usual in an insistently persuasive argument or in a formal a n d deliberative style of writing, especially if the initial subordinate clause is lengthy and the relationship then needs to be recalled. The effect is to balance the two parts of the system, an effect akin to parallelism (cf 19.7), and to remind the reader or hearer of the force of the argument.
As the strength of the defenders failed, so the courage of the attackers
grew. The omission of so tends to give a temporal interpretation ('all the while that') to the subordinator as. The (b) set contains comparative correlatives (cf 15.63ff). In this set the subordinate clause is positioned finally. The first element functions as degree modifier in the superordinate clause, while the second is a subordinator introducing the final subordinate clause:
Note
,
{more ashamed than I have ever been. angrier He had no sooner arrived than he asked for food. The (c) set]consists of the unique pair of proportional correlatives the . . the (cf 15.51):
1001
.
The harder they worked, the hungrier they became. ['As they worked harder, so they became hungrier.'] If the order Qf the two clauses is reversed, the meaning relationship is changed (cf Nfte [d] below): \\
The hungrier they became, the harder they worked. ['As they became hungrier, so they worked harder.'] The (d) set contains the whether . . . or correlatives used in two different types of suboqdinate clauses: alternative interrogative clauses (cf 15.6) and alternative cdnditional-concessive clauses (cf 15.41). In the interrogative construction the or-clause is optional: They didn't tell me whether I should write to the manager (or whether I should see him personally). In the conditional-concessive construction, on the other hand, the or-clause isobligatory. In both instances, the correlativeor coordinates twosubordinate clauses (cf the either . . . or correlative, 13.33f), unlike the previous sets, where only one correlative is attached to the subordinate clause. Or is also an
14.14
[a] The range of correlative subordinators can be extended somewhat in literary style to include, for example, where. . there and when . . .then: When her imagination was stirred, then there descended upon her a frenzy to inscribe her thoughts. [b] The following occur with ~ubject-o~eratir inversion (c/ 18.24) in the first clause: barely/hardly/scarcely . . whenlbefore no sooner. ..than There is traditional objection to the use of when as correlative with no soorler and to the use of than as correlative with the three negative adverbs. [c] Since subordinate adverbial clauses are usually in E position, the correlative in sets (a), (b), and (c) can be seen as providing the condition for the clause to be in I position and subsequently endorsing the force of the clause. [d] The may be used in two ways to introduce a final subordinate clause without a preceding initial correlative the. In the first use, it correlates with a comparative in the superordinate clause, the construction then belonging to set (c): They became (the) hungrier the harder they worked. The construction is equivalent in meaning to the correlative the. . . the construction: The harder they worked, the hungrier they became. [cf *Harder they worked, hungrier they became.] The equivalence provides an argument for suggesting that the firs1 clause is semantically subordinate, as in sets (a) and (b). In the second use, the is noncorrelative. It combines with a comparative, chiefly to introduce a final subordinate clause of purpose, especially a to-infinitive clause: They moved to the front, the better to hear the speaker. Less formally: They moved to the front in order to hear the speaker better. In formal style, the purpose clause may be initial: Themoreeasily to induce witnesses to testify, we areconductingour hearings in private.
.
Marginal subordinators As with complex prepositions (cf9.10ff'), it is difficult to distinguish categorically between complex subordinators and free syntactic constructions. Several marginal types require discussion.
,,
1002
F
The complex sentence
S
Formal indicators of subordination
i ,
.,
.have lost all such properties. Thus, like other particifiles, supposing and assuming can be expanded by adverbials:
Type 1 consists of a habitual combination of a subordinator with a preceding or following adverb; for example even $and $only. We regard these as subordinators because the meaning of the subordinator is affected by the presence of the adverb. In contrast, combinations such as only tyand just as consist of a premodifier preceding a subordinator. Type 2 consists of noun phrases that commonly function as temporal adverbials; for example, the moment (that) and every time (that). We consider these to be more like free syntactic constructions than like complex subordinators. The relationship between the moment and the following clause, for example, can be explained as the head of a noun phrase modified by a restrictive relative clause, the noun phrase functioning as adverbial of time. Compare :
supposing assuming
Seeing how he reacted Considering
Note
14.15
}
[a] The premodifier in the free constructionsof type 1 may be focusing(cf 8.1 16). as in even when and only if; intensifying (cf8.104), as in ewr since and just as (in the similarity sense); or specifying further the time relationship, as in just whenand afew days before. [b] There are other conjunction-like prepositional phrases similar to those in type 3, but not ending in thefact that; for example, in the event that, on thegrounds that, in thesense that.
Subordiiators for nonfinite and verbless clauses . Nonfinite and verbless clauses are subordinate by virtue of the absence of a finite verb as the verb element of the clause. They are, however, sometimes introduced by a subordinator, which generally signals the clause to be adverbial. The structural classes of clauses vary in the subordinators that they admit. However, all the classes except for that of the bare infinitive clauses may be introduced by the subordinators with and without. A noun phrase (not necessarily the subject) is required after the subordinator: Without you to consult, I would be completely lost. With the mortgagepaid, they could afford to go abroad for their vacation. Don't walk around with your shirt hanging out. Withyou as myfriend, I don't need enemies.
These allow some variation of the preposition and considerable variation of the head of the noun phrase. Compare:
Note
my belief
Only in spite of the fact that can be replaced by a simple conjunction (eg: although), yet it is clear that all the phrases have a similar function. We should therefore regard them as prepositional phrases followed by a clause in apposition to the noun-phrase complement. Type 4 consists of participle fonns such as supposing (that) and provided (that). The participles form a gradient. Some retain certain properties characteristic of verbs, while those that are most like simple conjunctions
...
But most important of all, the conjunctional seeing, provided, providing, and given are now distinct from the participles in meaning and in not requiring subject identification (cf 15.58f), so that they cannot be viewed as the verb in a participle clause.
becausepf the fact that due to the fact that ['because'] on accoupt of the fact that in (the) light of the fact that in spite ojthe fact that regardless of thefact that M t h o ~ h l
that they were sick, I went to visit them.
~OITIIS :
On the other hand, like many verbs, seeing and considering can be followed by conjunctions other than that:
precise very
Other examples of such free constructions include during the period when, until such time as, since the days that. Type 3 consists of prepositional phrases ending in the fact that. They express relationships of reason or concession. Because they can be replaced more concisely by a simple conjunction, they are considered to be stylistically clumsy. Examples include :
for the sake of argument ]that as a result of your advice
for the sake of argument as a result of your advice
The phrase permits the range of structural variations that one would expect from that analysis. For example:
{ ~ f : I~saw } him, I recognized him.
1{
But such expansion is not permitted for some of the other participle
I recognized him that moment. I recognized him the moment I saw him.
at
1003
14.16
Rather than is found with all types of clauses, including finite clauses, but it is generally best treated as a quasi-coordinator(cf 13.103), with matching forms in the clauses (but cf4.19 Note [cl): She telephoned rather than wrote. They were screamingrather than singing. He wanted to sunbathe rather than (to) swim. The part after rather than refers to an earlier assumption that is rejected; rather than is here equivalentto 'and not'.
Subordinators for bare infinitive clauses Bare infinitive clauses are limited to the two synonymous subordinators rather than and sooner than (cf 14.15 Note for the function of rather than as
1004
Formal indicators of subordination
Thecomplexsentence
When taken according to the directions, the drug has no side effects. ['When the drug is taken . . .'l Although not yet six months old, she was able to walk without support. ['Although she was not yet . . .'] Unless told otherwise, be here every night. ['Unless you are told . . .'; you is implied subject of the imperative superordinate clause] lfnecessary, he will take notes for you. ['If his taking notes is necessary, . .'l
quasi-coordinator). The matrix clauses express the subject's preference (cf 15.52): He paid the fine rarher than appeal to a higher court. Sooner than waitjor a reply to your letter, I would telephone her. The bare infinitive clause occasionally takes a subject: Rather than ~cirrerrdrive in his present state, I'd prefer to drive him home myself. Note
1005
[l] [2]
U1
.
141 The subject of the subordinate clause must generally be understood as identical with that of the matrix clause, but for verbless clauses such as necessary and wherepossible it may refer to the matrix clause as a whole, as in example [4].
[a] In contrast to the constraints on the quasi-coordinator ratlter than, when clauses are introduced by the subordinators rather than and soofter than the verb forms do not need to match and the subordinate clause may be initial as well as final. [b] If aouldor should is in the matrix clause, radcr and sooner may be moved into that clause when the subordinate clause is final: He would rather pay the fine tllan appeal to a higltcr court. Such sentences have an obvious resemblance to comparative constructions and admit various comparative adverbs:
[a] The if-clauses may be used for hypothetical conditions (cf 14.19 Note [a], 15.35): The milk would not turn sour ifboiled. pif it were boiled] I would have typed your manuscript for you ifnecessary. ['if it had been necessary to d o so'] [b] There is a stereotyped construction in which the -ed participle follows no sooner than: (It was) no sooner said than done.
pay the fine than appeal to a higher court. cheewy
14.17
Subordinators for -ing clauses Clauses with a n -ing participle may be introduced by any of the subordinators for -ed participle clauses (cf 14.18), except that the subordinators where, wherever, as [manner], and as soon as are excluded (cf Note [a] below) :
Subordinators for to-infinitive clauses To-infinitive clauses may be introduced by several subordinators: as if, as though, fir, in order, so as, whether . . . (or), with, and without. For in this function is restricted to infinitive clauses with their own subject, and indeed is often obligatory (cf 15.10):
although, as i f , as though, even i f , if, once, though, unless, until, when(ever), whether. . . or [conditional-concessive], while, whilst (esp BrE)
It would be an absurd ideajbr them to move to another house at this stage of thefrcareers.
Unlike -ed participle and verbless clauses, however, these -ing participle clauses cannot be regarded as strictly elliptical clauses, since the -ing participle does not necessarily represent a progressive form in the equivalent finite clause. The -ing participle neutralizes that aspectual distinction :
Sincefor may be combined with the subordinator in order to, it seems to be a device for introducing the subject rather than to be a true subordinator:
When returning merchandise, be sure to bring your receipt. ['When you return. . .' or 'When you are returning. .'l The nonequivalence of the -ing participle in these clauses with the finite progressive is most conspicuous when the progressive aspect is ruled out, as with the perfective or a verb used statively (cf 4.27ff):
.
In order for you to be eligibtefor a student grant, your parents must receiv less than a stipulated annual income.
e
Whether (with or without correlative or) introduces a subordinate interrogative clause: ,
I don't know whether to put on the air-conditioning today.
Once having left thepremises, you must buy another ticket to reenter. ['Once you have left. . .) Though understanding no Spanish, she was able to communicate with the other students. ['Though she understood no Spanish, . . .'l
In the absence of a subject in the subordinate clause, the subject is understood a$ identical with that of the matrix clause. 14.18
Subordinators for -ed clauses and verbless clauses Clauses with an -ed participle and verbless clauses may be introduced by some subordinators that are also used for finite clauses (cf 14.12): although, as [manner], as if, as soon as, as though, even if, if, once, though, unless, until [only -ed participle clauses], when(euer),where(ver), whether . . . or [conditional-concessive], white, whilst (esp BrE)
These clauses can be related to finite clauses for which the subject and the verb BE are supplied (cf 14.9):
Note
[a] -ing clauses introduced by if,even if,and unless are restricted to open conditions (cf 15.33, in which they are roughly equivalent to'in cases where'. Even so, ifsounds somewhat stilted: Ifcomingbycar, take the A10 and turnoffat theA414. Euen ifand unless are relatively more acceptable in such contexts:
i2sr} rcceiuing uisim, patients must observe normal hospital rules. [bl Afier, before, and since (subordinators with finite clauses) differ from subordinators such as when or while in that they are followed by -i~tgclausesbut not by -edclauses or verbless clauses: He took a shower
kz:]
returnin; home.
1006
The verb phrase in subordinateclauses 1007
The complex sentence
Since nroving here, I have felt more relaxed. These three also differ from the subordinators listed above in 14.19 in that they allow a subject in the -ing clause : Since nry conring here, life has become more comfortable for my parents. L31 The differences suggest that after, before, and sirace are better classed with prepositions such as on and tlrrongl~(both ofwhich permit a subject in the-ingclause) rather than with subordinators: He took a shower 011 returnit~glton~c. []a] Tl~rarrglrmy nroving here, life has become more comfortable for my parents. [c] Like as ~ ~ s l land a s instead a/. rarher t h ~ nis a preposition, not a quasi-coordinator (cf 13.103), when it is followed by an -ing participle clause that does not match the verb in the matrix clause (cf 14.15 Note): Their actions precipitated the war rathcr tlran auerting if. As lvellas visiting Niagara Falls. we spent a day in Toronto. He intends to go as he is, instead ~J'clionginginto his best clothes.
14.20
Denying any interest inpolitics, she claimed that she wished to continue in forensic medicine. There are only two types of subordinate clauses that have no clear indicator of subordination within them: (a) Nominal that-clauses allow the omission of that in certain contexts (cj15.4), but they may be said to be recognizable as subordinate through the potentiality for the insertion of that:
-
I suppose I can use your phone. I suppose that I can use your phone. Compare also the omissibility of relative that, 17.13ff. (b) Some comment clauses (cf 15.54) have no overt mark of subordination,. but - as with the zero relative clauses mentioned in (a) -they generally lack an obligatory verb complementation:
Other indicators of subordination We now turn to other indicators of subordination apart from subordinators.
I have no alternative, Isuppose. It could be worse, you know. = You know, it could be worse. # You know (that) it could be worse.,
(i) Wh-elements are initial markers of subordination in subordinate interrogative clauses (cf 15.5f) and subordinate exclamative clauses (cj15.7), in wh-relative clauses (cf 15.8f, 17.9ff), and in conditional-concessive clauses (cf 15.41j). The subordinating wh-words are: who, whom, whose, which when, where, what, why, how whoever, whomever (rare), whichever wherever, whenever, whatever, however whosoever, whomsoever, wheresoever, whatsoever, howsoever (all rare; legal ?nd religious) (ii) The relative pronoun that, which can often replace wh-pronouns, is a subordination marker in restrictive relative clauses (cf 17.9f):
The verb phrase in subordinate clauses 14.21
The style that we are examining in this exhibition was an unusual one. The relative pFonoun is to be distinguished from the subordinator that, which does not operate as an element in the subordinate clause. I
\
(iii) Subject-operator inversion is a marker of subordination in some conditional, similarity, and comparative clauses (cj15.36,15.50 Note, 15.74). It is typical of a literary and elevated style of persuasion. The operators that permit the inversion are had, were, should, and (less commonly) could and might: I Had I been lessforthright, I would have acquired more support. Were she here, she would support the motion.
Inversion of a different kind - the fronting of the whole or part of the predication - may occur with the subordinators as, though, and that (cf 15.39, 15.47): ' Eloquent though she was, she could not persuade them. (iv) The absence of a finite verb is itself an indicator of subordination, since nonfinite and verbless clauses are necessarily subordinate:
Note
In general the rules for the uses of forms and categories of the verb phrase such as tenses, aspects, and modal auxiliaries - apply both to subordinate and independent clauses. Nevertheless, there are cases in which choices affecting the verb phrase of a subordinate clause are determined by the particular type of subordinate clause it belongs to. With temporal sinceclauses, on the other hand, it is the choice of verb phrase in the matrix clause that is more obviously affected. Such determinations constitute a signal of subordination additional to other signals, such as initial subordinators. They are a particularly conspicuous signal when the verb phrase in the subordinate clause prevents that clause from constituting an independent sentence, even with the omission of the subordinator, as in (Though) he be the President himself:Less obviously, the meaning of the verb phrase would be different in an independent clause, as in (When) the game ends. Dependency relations ofthis kind are not necessarily found in disjunct clauses, particularly style disjunct clauses (cf 15.21), where verb choices are primarily deuendent on the circumstances of. the speech act. Contrast, for example, the matching tenses in [l),where the since-clause is an adjunct, with the absence of matching in [2], where the since-clause is a style disjunct: Since they really wanted to know, they conducredtheirown investigation. [I] Since you really want to know, they conducted their own investigation. [21
1008
14.22
Thecomplex sentence
The present tense in adverbial and nominal clauses The simple present is commonly used in preference to the auxiliary willor (in BrE, optionally with I and we) shall in certain types of adverbial clauses to express future meaning (cf also 14.26):
W hen After Before As If As soon as Once
- he arrives, the band will play the National Anthem.
Even if tomorrow's match is cancelled, Lancashire will still be at the top of the league. He'll come in case he's wanted. While I am away, the children will look after the house. Whether or not they win this battle, they won't win the war. Whatever they say, I won't pay. Wherever she goes, I'll go. The subordinators involved belong to the temporal, conditional, and conditional-concessive categories (cf 15.25, 15.34, 15.4lf). Temporal since, however, is excluded (cf 15.26). Clauses of similarity (cf15.50) and proportion (cf 15.51) may also have the simple present to express future meaning: Next time I'll do as he says. The har$er you exercise, the better you'll feel. Nominal that- and wh-clauses tend to contain the simple present when the matrix clause (as well as the subordinate clause) refers to the future; but when the matrix clause refers to the present, will is likely to be used in the subordinate clause. Contrast: In a few4'?inutes I'll ask him what he wants tomorrow. The question is what he will want tomorrow. However, thete are exceptional verb hnstructions like hope, bet, see (to it), take care, be careful, and (both in the imperative) suppose and assume, after which the simple present is often or (for take care and be careful) regularly used : I hope t$at the parcel comes in time. [also will come] Suppose be loses his way. Let's assume our opponents win the election. [also will win] I'll see that nobody disturbs you. [also will disturb] Take care that she doesn't fall. Will and won't occur in adverbial clauses, particularly in $clauses, in certain uses. In general, the difference between the simple present and the modal is that the simple present refers to an assumed future actual situation whereas the modal refers to the assumed predictability of a situation or of situations. More specifically, willand won't are commonly used:
The verb phrase in subordinateclauses (i) where the modals have a volitional meaning: If you'll help us, we can finish early. ['are willing to'] If you won't help us, all our plans will be ruined. ['refuse to'] If he'Npay, I'll go with him. If you'll use it, you can have it.
1009
[l] l21 l31 l41
The use of the simple present in [l -41 would suppress the volitional meaning. In [5] the volitional meaning is metaphorically transferred to inanimate objects: If your car won't start, call me any time and I'll help. ['refuses to'] [5] (ii) where the modals express timeless and habitual prediction: If drugs willcure him, this drug should do the job. If sugar willdissolve in a hot liquid, this chemical will do so too.
[61 [7]
Will can be replaced by can in [6] and [7]. In both sentences, the conditional clause does not refer to a specific actual situation. (iii) where the modals express the present predictability of the occurrence o r nonoccurrence of a future situation: If you won't arrive before six, I can't meet you. ['If you won't be arriving before six'] If the game won't befinished until ten, I'll spend the night at your place. ['If the game is not going to be finished until ten'] If the water will rise above this level, then we must warn everybody in the neighbourhood. ['If the water is going to rise above this level, then we must now plan to warn everybody in the neighbourhood'] If she won't be here before midnight, there's no need to rush. If we definitely won't win, why should we bother to play? ['If we definitely aren't going to win, . .'l
.
K81 191
[l01 [l11 [l21
The simple form is less usual in [g-121 than the progressive. In [8-121 the matrix clause expresses the present consequence of the present predictability. In [8-91 the consequence is a present decision to take a future action, while in [IO- 121 it is a present decision that affects present action. The modal can be replaced by the simple present in [g-91, but with a different implication. Contrast [g] with [gal: If you don't arrive before six, I can't meet you. ['in the event of your arrival after six']
[gal
The situation in the conditional clause of [8a] is viewed as possibly occurring. In [l01 replacement of the modal by the simple present yields the implausible sentence [loa]: If the water rises above this level, then we must warn everybody. [cf'when the water rises above this level, if it does so'] [l Oal Replacement of the modal by the simple present in [l11 and [l21 produces uninterpretable sentences.
1010
Note
14.23
T h e complex sentence
T h e verb p h r a s e in subordinate c l a u s e s
[a] The simple present may be used for future reference in relative clauses that together with their antecedent express similar relationships 10 those expressed in the adverbial clauses: 1'11 speak to her the first opportunity I haw. And similarly in appositive that-clauses modifying an appropriate noun phrase head : We'll be there tomorrow on the assumption that it doesn't rain. [b] The simple present in a conditional clause may refer to a state in present time: If you likeit, I'll give it to you. For dynamic situation types, the present progressive is used to refer to present time: If she's ~vorking,1 won't interrupt her.
would, since two modal auxiliaries cannot cooccur. Modals in hypothetical conditions, apart from hypothetical would, are would in other uses, could, might, and should: If they would help us, we couldJinish early. [volitional would, 'would be willing to'] If we had enough money, we could buy a typewriter. If you could type, you might save a lot of time. I might have married her if she would have agreed. If they had asked me, I would have had ro speak. [have to as substitute for must, which lacks a past form] If he had apologized, you should have done so too. [obligational should]
T h e h v.p- o t h e t i c a l p a s t a n d p a s t perfective The verbs in hypothetical conditional clauses are backshifted, the past tense form being used for present and future time reference and the past perfective form for p a s t time reference (cf 15.36). When these forms have such hypothetical implications we term them HYPOTHETICAL PAST and HYPOTHETICAL PAST PERFECTIVE. The general rule for verbs in both clauses of hypothetical conditions may be expressed thus:
Some BrE speakers maintain a distinction between would and should in the matrix clause parallel to that between will and shall (cf4.42): If I had been at home last night, I should have heard the noise. Hypothetical past or past perfective are obligatory in certain other constructions that have hypothetical meaning:
Table 14.23 Verbs in hypothetical conditions
It's time you were in bed. I wish this bus went to the university. If only I had listened to my parents! They are optional with other constructions that also have hypothetical meaning (on the subjunctive were, cf14.24):
future reference HYPOTHETICAL PAST PERFECTIVE
He acts as if he knew you. It's not as though we were poor. Suppose we told her the truth. Imagine your child played truant. I'd rather we had dinner now.
PAST PERFECTIVE MODAL
The modal h o s t commonly used in the matrix clause is would. It is used to express the hypothetical implication, without necessarily any other modal implications : If she
1011
{:F
Generally a negative inference can be drawn, which is more strongly negative with the hypothetical past perfective. Thus vonly I had listened to my parents implies 'I did not listen to my parents', and He acts as ifhe knew you implies the expectation 'He doesn't know you'. In I'd rather we had dinner now, the hypothetical past may express tentative politeness rather than hypothetical meaning.
to try} harder next time, she wouldpass the examination.
[future r~ference:'but I expect s h won't ~ try harder'] If they were alive, they would be moving around. [present reference: 'but I assume they are not alive'] If they had invited him to the conference, he would have attended. [past reference: 'but they didn't invite him'] As the brackefed implications indicate, the hypothetical meaning is more absolute in the past, and amounts to an implied rejection of the condition; whereas with present and future reference the meaning may be merely one of negative expectation or assumption, the positive not being ruled out completely. Depending on the lexical verb, the progressive might be necessary to convey present reference, as is indeed the case for try: If she were trying harder, her parents wouldn't be so anxious. When modal auxiliaries are used in hypothetical conditional clauses they combine with past and past perfective. In the matrix clause they replace
Note
[a] The hypothetical past is also used after an archaic Would that, which expresses a wish:
Would that everyone treated me as considerately. [b] Restrictive relative clauses modifying generic noun phrases (cf 15.34 Note [il) and their matrix clauses take the same forms as hypothetical conditionals if they refer to a hypothetical situation: Any person who had behaved in that way would hate been dismissed. [c] We have shown that the rules for past reference in a hypothetical condition require a past perfective in the conditional clause and a past perfective modal, generally would have, in the matrix clause: If I had seen her, I would haue told her. The operators are frequently contracted in informal style: If I'd seen her, I'd haue told her. In informal speech, the haue in the second phrase is frequently reduced to /av/ or /a/. so that I would haue may be rendered /a~da/.Informal AmE speech may have matching modals in both clauses: If I'dhatx seen her, I'dhaue told her.
T h e verb phrase in s u b o r d i n a t e c l a u s e s 1013
10:12 T h e c o m p l e x s e n t e n c e
l The first part of both clauses may then be rendered lardal. The contraction for the operator in the conditional clause is sometimes misinterpreted as replacing had rather than ~vould,giving rise to an error that is found in uneducated writing and its fictional representation: If I hadda seen her, I ~votrlrlatold her. The nonstandard spelling I'da is similarly found as a representationof la~dal,and ofis a frequent misspelling of have when hauc follows a modal. [d] In informal AmE the hypothetical past is sometimes used for past reference in place or the hypothetical past perfective: If they invited her to the conference, she would have attended. [e] Ambiguities are occasionally found between open and hypothetical conditions (cf 15.35). since open conditions take the full range of verb forms: If hefound a patient listener, he ~vouldpourouthis troubles. This sentence may be a hypothetical condition referring to the future ('I don't think he'll find a patient listener') or a n open condition referring to the past (mould having a habitual meaning). [r] In subordinate clauses following I 11Ch (that), the hypothetical past may be replaced by hypothetical ~vouldorby a to-infinitive: she visited
Notice that this mandative subjunctive (cf 3.59) is used even when the matrix verb is past (cf 14.25 Note [c]). If the matrix verb is present, the distinction between subjunctive and indicative is neutralized except in the third person singular or if the verb is be. In BrE, putative should with the infinitive is far more common. In both AmE and BrE, indicative forms are also occasionally used in this construction; for example, lefi in [2] and is in [4]. In general, the present subjunctive occurs more frequently in AmE than in BrE; in BrE it occurs chiefly in formal style. The past (or were-) subjunctive (cf 3.62), which is a form distinct from the past indicative only in the first and third person singular forms of be, is used in formal style in hypothetical conditional clauses and in other constructions with hypothetical meaning exemplified in 14.23: I wish she were not married. ~fonly I were not so nervous. If she were here, she would speak on my behalf. The stuffed dog barked as if it were a real one. Suppose he were lost. I'd rather I were in bed.
her to visit
14.24
The present and past subjunctive The present subjunctive (cf 3.58ff) is used very occasionally in formal style in open conditional clauses (cf 15.33 Note [d], 15.36) and in concessive clauses (cf 15.41 Note [b], 15.42 Note [b]):
In nonformal styles, hypothetical past or indicative forms replace subjunctive were: .
If any person be found guilty, he shall have the right of appeal. Whatever be the reasons for their action, we cannot tolerate such disloyalty. ' Whether she be right or wrong, she will have my unswerving support. More usually, the simple present indicative is used. Clauses of on cession (cf 15.398) and purpose (cf 15.48) may also very occasionally ih formal style contain a present subjunctive (esp in AmE) to express putative rather than factual meaning (cf 14.25): Though he be the President himself, he shall hear us. They rem4ved the prisoner in order that he not disturb the proceedings any f u r t l y .
Congress has voted that the present law be maintained.
[l]
We insistes that
l21
{:L~~]
leave at once.
They expressed the wish that
131
I t is essential that a meeting be convened this week.
141
I wish she was not married. If only I was not so nervous. If she was here, she would speak on my behalf. The stuffed dog barked as if it was a real one. * .
[sal [6al L74 [8al
Suppose he
[gal
{r}
lost, what would you do?
L
,
I'd rather I was in bed. The present indicative is a possible alternative after as ifand as though when the reference is to present time (eg: 'The stuffed dog bark$ as if it is a real one') and after imperatives suppose and imagine. Note
l
The more usual verb forms for the th>ugh-clause are the simple present indicative or pdtative should followed by the infinitive. Clauses of purpose require modal auxiliaries, and therefore only the should-construction is a possible alternative. The present ,subjunctive is also used in that-clauses (esp in AmE) after verbs, adjectivqs, or nouns that express a necessity, plan, or intention for the future :
L51 161 l71 181 [g] [l01
.
[a] The use of the present subjunctive seems to be increasing in BrE in that-clauses. There is a greater use of the subjunctive than the indicative if the agentive (perhaps implied) in the thatclause is shown to be willing to perform the action. Contrast: The committee was impressed by the candidate, but recommended that she reapply when she had been awarded her PhD. He was uery reluctant to leave, but I recommended that he went. But in both instances the usual form for BrE is the should-construction,here shouldgo: [b] The were-subjunctive cannot replace the hypothetical past in constructions introduced by It's rime (that), eg: It's time I was in bed. [c] May and ntigltt are alternatives, also in formal style, to the present subjunctive in purpose clauses (cf 15.48). in concessive clauses with though, euen though, and even f(cf 15.39fl), and in conditional-concessive clauses (415.41f): Poor though you might be, you cannot live all your life on charity. Let us fight on, that the light ofjustice and freedom may not die in our land. Whatever may be the justification for their actions, we cannot tolerate such disloyalty. But there may be a difference in meaning between the subjunctive and the modal auxiliaries. In the last example, the subjunctive does not cast doubt on the factuality of its clause; that is, Wltateucr be the jusrificarionfor their actions presupposes that there is justification, whereas the sentence with may allows the possibility that there is nojustification.
1014
T h e verb p h r a s e in s u b o r d i n a t e c l a u s e s 1015
he c o m p l e x s e n t e n c e
I was surprised that he shouldfeellonely when he was in California.
[d] Present subjunctive come is used in a temporal clause (generally initial) without a subordinator: Conre winter, we'll have to pay a good deal more for vegetables and fruit. ['When winter comes, . . .'l
14.25
Putative should The modal auxiliary should is used extensively (esp in BrE, cf 14.24) in thatclauses to convey the notion of a 'putative' situation, which is recognized as possibly existing or coming into existence. Contrast:
But it is also possible to use a perfective form:
I was surprised that he should havefelt lonely when he was in California. Note
I'm surprised that he shouldfeel lonely. I'm surprised that he feels lonely. While [l] questions the loneliness, [2] accepts it as true. Here, as often, the difference is mainly one of nuance, since the factual bias of the matrix clause overrides the doubt otherwise implicit in the should-construction. On the other hand, the nonfactuality is clearer in these examples:
1insisted['required'] that he
It's unthinkable that they should deny my request. I prefer that she should drive. I'm anxious that I shouldn't be in the way. They've arranged that I should absent myself for part of the committee meeting. I can understand their eagerness that you should be the main speaker. It worries me that their children should travel alone.
I prefer that she drive. We insisted that the meeting be adjourned. It was intended that you be the candidate. Indicative firms are occasionally used in BrE instead for [3] and [4]. A past verb in the matrix clause does not necessarily affect the form of should in the subordinate clause, even though the subordinate clause refers to a past situation:
L61
I insisted ['asserted'] that he changed his clothes.
[71
She suggestedl'recommended'] that I
[g]
be responsible for the arrangements
The perfective with temporal clauses
It's a pity ifthey should beso obstinate. ['It would be a pity if they turned out to be so obstinate']
It is also freqhently replaced (esp in AmE) by a present subjunctive (cf 14.24):
his clothes.
.
In a further stage of remoteness, the conditional clause has putative should:
I prefer her to drive. They've arranged for me toabsent myselfforpart of the committeemeeting.
1:,":Echongel 1tiauld1
She suggestedrsaid tentatively'] that I om responsible for the arrangements. [g] While 161 and [g] are unambiguously suasive, [7] and [9] may also be suasive for those who use the indicative even after suasive verbs. The putative and obligational meanings of should sometimes merge: The report recommended that education for theover-sixteensshould be improved. ['. .that education for the over-sixteens be improved'or '. . .that education for the over-sixteens ought to be improved'] [d] Similar to putative should is the tentative should used in open conditions with if-clauses (cf15.36): If she should be interested, I'll phone her. It is also used in somewhat literary style, with inversion: Should she be interested, I'll phone her.
The nonfactual bias of the should-construction emerges most clearly in instances where the construction is close in meaning to a conditional ifclause : It's a pity that they should be so obstinate. It's a pity ifthey are so obstinate.
Putative should is used in that-clauses when the matrix clauses contain verbs, adjectiles, or nouns that conveygn emotional reaction or that express a necessity, plan, or intention for the future. In the latter case, a that-clause with should is frequently replaceable by an infinitive clause:
(a] Should is also used in a subject that-clause when the matrix clause contains such verbs as show, indicate,prove, demo~lstrate,require, and demand: That they should r e h e to sign the petition required great courage. It shows how considerate she is that she sliould drive you all the way to the airport. [b] Putative should also occurs in some idiomatic questions and exclamations: How should I know? That he should dare speak in that tone of voice to me! [cf 11.411 Who should come in but my youngest sister! [c] The use of the present subjunctive or putative should in the subordinate clause evokes clearly the suasive meanings (cf 16.32) of the matrix verbs insist and suggest:
14.26
The perfective with temporal since-clauses A temporal since-clause generally requires the present perfective in the matrix clause when the whole construction refers to a stretch of time up to (and potentially including) the present: I have lost ten pounds since I started swimming. Since leaving home, Larry has written to his parents just once.
[l] [21
The perfective is also required when the clause contains a prepositional phrase introduced by since or the prepositional adverb since, just as it is required for certain other prepositional phrases and adverbs (cf 4.23): Scholars have been writing English grammars since the sixteenth century. They called to see us three years ago, but I haven't seen them since. In informal AmE, and increasingly in informal BrE, nonperfective forms are commonly used in matrix clauses with since-clauses and in clauses with preposition or adverb since:
1016
The complex sentence
I lost ten pounds since I started swimming. (informal) Since leaving home, Larry wrote to his parents just once. (informal)
[lal
'\
The verb phrase in subordinate clauses 10 17
Since he lefi home, Larry may haue written to his parents just once. (iii) The simple present or the present progressive is sometimes used in the matrix clause when that clause has habitual reference:
[2al
There are some exceptions to the general rule for matrix clauses. In most cases, both perfective and nonperfective forms are possible.
(Ever) since we bought that car we go camping every weekend. I'm doing well since I invested in the money market.
(i) Verbs used statively (cf 4.28ff) -particularly be and seem - may take nonperfective forms when the predication is durative:
When the whole period under consideration is distanced in past time, the past perfective is generally used in the matrix clause:
It's OK since I had it fixed. Things are different since you've gone. Since Pat left, it seems dull here. I'm feeling much better since I had an operation.
Since the country had achieved independence, it had revised its constitution twice. Ever since they had joined the organization, they must haue had little time for leisure activities.
In all these instances, perfective forms may also be used, eg: Things have been different since you've gone. The most common pattern that falls under this exception is It + BE + a time expression, in which the verb may be in the simple present or simple past, or have the will-future. Nonperfective forms are normal here: It's ten years since they were last here. How long is it since you last spoke to them? I t was ages since they last paid their bills on time. Next Tuesday it will be six years since I became an American citizen.
1
The past perfective may be replaced by the simple past, eg: Since the country achieved independence, it revised its constitution twice.
l
l
When the period in the matrix clause refers to a future time in the past, ie a future from the viewpoint of a past period (cf 4.48), a past modal perfective (generally would have) is used in the matrix clause. The construction is rare:
Perfective forms may also be used here too, eg: It's been ten years since they were Iast here; I t had been ages since they last paid their bills on time; Next Tuesday it wilf have been six years since I became an American citizen.
A: By next Sunday Harry will have completed 1200 miles since he started his walk. B: At that rate, he would have covered 1000 miles by last Sunday.
(ii) Modal auxiliaries, particularly can and could, or semi-auxiliaries occur in the matrix clause in nonperfective forms. Ever is usual here: [3] [41 [S]
The modals cannot be used here in perfective forms, but perfective forms are available for semi-auxiliaries or equivalent lexical verbs: (Ever) sihce my teeth were pulled out I haven't been able to eat anything solid. I have had to use crutches (ever) since I had a car accident. refused smoke (ever) since they saw a film on lung cancer.
l
I
i I
L34
1
I
Perfective modals may be used when the matrix clause refers to a situation in the past:
'
We now consider the verb in the since-clause. When the whole construction refers to a stretch of time up to (and potentially including) the present, the general rule for the temporal since-clause is that the simple past is used when the clause refers to a point of time marking the beginning of the situation referred to in the matrix clause and the present perfective is used when the clause refers to a period of time lasting to the present: POINT OF TIME
She has been talking since she wasone year old. Since I started swimming, I have lost five pounds. Since I saw her last, she has dyed her hair. Derek hasn't stopped talking since he arrived.
W4 [5al
[6al
If the promotion is confirmed, you will have been promoted three times since you joined the company. By tomorrow Daniel will have been in bed for a week since he caught the flu. Their car should soon have run 100,000 miles since they bought it second-hand.
It seems a long time since we last met. It feels like ages since 1-wasIast here.
3
171
When the period in the matrix clause refers to a future situation, a modal perfective (generally will haue) is used in the matrix clause:
Other verbs, particularly seem, also fit into this pattern:
(Ever) si 'ce my teeth were pulled out I can't eat anything solid. I have to se crutches (ever) since 1,had a car accident. They won!t smoke (ever) since they Baw a film on lung cancer. [won't # 'refuse to']
l61
Similarly: By tomorrow Daniel will have been in bed for a week since he caught the flu.
!
1018
j 1
The complex sentence
'
The verb phrase in subordinateclauses
I
If a construction with a when-clause refers to a sequence of two past events, the clause allows the same choice:
PERIOD OF TIME
Max has been tense since he's been taking drugs. Since I have been here, I haven't left my seat. Since I've known Caroline, she has been interested in athletics. I've had a dog ever since I've owned a house. I've gone to concerts ever since I've lived in Edinburgh.
]
We ate our meal when we {returned had returned from the game. All four forms of these sentences are acceptable, and mean roughly the same. The only difference is that when and the simple past (probably the most popular choice) suggests that the one event follows immediately on the other in sequence. There may, however, be a contrast if the suborainator is when and the predication in the subordinate clause is durative rather than punctual (cf4.33ff):
Similarly: By next year Mary will have written her second book since she's been at this university. The present perfective may also be used in the pattern It + BE + time expression, when there is no explicit indication of point of time, such as last: It's been a long time since I've seen Gerald (CS: I haven't seen Gerald for a long time). The present perfective is similarly used occasionally for other sinceclauses that refer to a point of time, eg: I've been lonely since you've lef. When the whole period is placed in past time, the past perfective or the simple past is used in the since-clause (cfbackshift, 14.31). The past perfective corresponds to a past of the simple past or a past of the present perfective. It tends to be used more commonly for periods of time, corresponding to the use of the present perfective in the constructions previously discussed: Since the country (had) achieved independence, it (had) revised its constitution twice. Since he
{
~
her, she
{z~
~
been] a journalist.
They walked out when I
I l
14.27
The perfective with other temporal clauses When an after-clause refers to a past event, the verb may be in the past perfective, though it is more commonly in the simple past:
Ireturned]
We ate our meal after we had returned from the game.
the lecture.
]
l
[a] T h e nonperfective fonns car1 remember and could remember are used in since-clauses to indicate the span over which personal memory extends: My parents have spent their summer vacations in France ever since I can remember. Ever since she could remember, the winters in her home town had been severe. Euer is commonly used with this collocation. [b] When we say thet the construction refers to a stvtch of time up to the present, we mean that the situation occurred within a period of time leading towards, but not necessarily up to, the moment of utterance: I've read ten books since I left college (but I haven't read any bwks in the last couple of months). Since we've owned a car we've gone camping every year except last year (and I'm afraid we're going to have to miss this year again). On the anterior time zone, cf4.185
]
had given
]
Every day we eat our main meal {after we {return when have returned from the game.
[41
Again, there may be a contrast when the predication is durative:
By last Sunday he would have covered 1000 miles since he (had) started his walk. Note
p
The variant with the simple past would normally mean 'as soon as I started giving the lecture' or 'during the time I was giving the lecture', whereas that with the past perfective means 'after the lecture was over'. If the sequence of events is habitual, the verb in the afer- or when-clause may be in the present perfective, though it is more commonly in the simple present :
]
Similarly:
1019
The audience claps when she
sings. has sung.
The differences in the interpretations of the when-clauses in [4] and [5]parallel those for the when-clauses in [2] and [3] respectively. The present perfective is sometimes used in both clauses of a temporal construction to imply the repetitiveness of the situation: In the past, when(ever) I've visited London, I've seen them. My usual practice is that as soon as I've taken a shower, I've eaten breakfast.
l
i
'
The use of the present perfective rather than the simple present suggests that the situation may not apply in the future (for example, that I'm no longer going to visit London). The present perfective is common in temporal as well as conditional clauses for a future event that precedes the future event referred to in the matrix clause (cf 14.22): When I've read the chapter, I'll put the kettle on. When they've scored their next goal, we'll go home. As soon as I've retired, I'll buy a cottage in the country. After they have lef, we can smoke. If I've written the paper before Monday, 1'11 call you.
L61 [71 [S1 [g]
[l01
Reporting t h e languageof others
1020 T h e c o m p l e x s e n t e n c e
(cf 14.29) or INDIRECT SPEECH (cf 14.30ff). Direct speech purports to give the exact words that someone (who may be the reporter) utters or has uttered in speech or in writing. Indirect speech, on the other hand, conveys in the words of a subsequent reporter what has been said or written by the original speaker or writer (who again may be the same person as the reporter). Contrast the direct speech in [l] with the indirect speech in [la]:
A common alternative for [7-101 is the simple present, which is excluded from [6] because the when-clause is durative. A leis common alternative, permitted also for [6], is will or (in BrE optionally with I or we) shall plus the perfective, eg: When I'll have read the chapter, I'llput the kettle on. The use of the past perfective in before-constructions requires special consideration. These four sentences seem to be equivalent in meaning:
DIRECT SPEECH
I saw him before he saw me. I had seen him before he saw me. I saw him before he had seen me. I had seen him before he hadseen me.
David said to me after the meeting, 'In my opinion, the arguments in favour of radical changes in the curriculum are not convincing.' David said to me after the meeting that in his opinion the arguments in favour of radical changes in the curriculum were not convincing.
Sentence [l31 appears to be paradoxical in that the second in the succession of events is marked with the past perfective, contrary to what we have noted above in after- and when-clauses. The explanation (cf 15.27) is that the beforeclause in [13], and perhaps also in [14], may be nonfactual; that is to say, the event in the before-clause may not have taken place ('He did not get a chance to see me, because I evaded him'). Note
1021
[l] [lal
Two secondary modes related to the primary modes of reporting are FREE INDIRECT SPEECH and FREE DIRECT SPEECH. In both these secondary modes there is no reporting clause; the act of communication is signalled by, for example, shifts in the tense forms of verbs (cf 14.35). The report may be a representation of mental activity (internal communication), which by its nature is unspoken. Thus, [2] and [2a] contain direct ' speech and indirect speech respectively:
[a] If the verb phrase in the matrix clause is progressive, or contains a verb used statively, when generally indicates simultaneity, rather than successivity, of the events: When Paul returned home, his children were using the computer. We were asleep when Norma telephoned. However, when may sometimes have the meaning of 'after'even if the verb is used statively : When I returned home, I heard my children playing in my bedroom. I didn't know what to do when they left. When always indicates simultaneity when the conditions apply to both clauses: Pamela was always popular when she was at school. The sun wasshining when we wereplaying. They were working when I was there. [b] Whenever requires the verbs in the matrix and subordinate clauses to be matched in both tense and aspect. Hence if whenever replaced when in [2] and [3] above, both verbs would be in the simple past, and in [4] and [5] both would be in the simple present.
'Should I tell them now,' I thought to myself, 'or should I wait until they're in a better mood? He asked himself whether he should tell them thenor wait until , they were in a better mood.
121 [2al
Obviously, this type of direct or indirect speech normally involves a report of the supposed mental activity of the speaker of the reporting clause. The notable exception is in prose or verse fiction, where by convention the narrator is often assumed to have access to the thoughts and feelings of the characters. Indirect speech frequently involves paraphrase or summary, and therefore the hearer or reader cannot uniquely recover the original speech or writing. The original utterance of [l] might well be reported as in [l b]:
,
David told me after the meeting that he remained opposed to any radical changes in the curriculum.
[lbl
Indeed, the act of communication may not be indicated at all:
Reporting the language of others
I saw David after the meeting. It's a pity that he remains opposed to any radical changes in the curriculum.
I
14.28
There are seveial modes in which other people's language may be reported. The most explicit modes are introduced by a REPORTING CLAUSE referring to the speaker and the act of communication in speech or writing (Caroline said; Caroline wrote), and perhaps also to the person or persons spoken to (Caroline told us), to the manner of speaking (Caroline said hesitantly), or to the circumstances of the speech act (Caroline replied; Caroline explained; Caroline said while washing her hair). If a reporting clause introduces the report of the communication, the REPORTED CLAUSE (which refers to the utterance itself) may take the form of
[Ic]
While [I b] is indirect speech, although a paraphrase of the original, [Ic] does not have the recognizable form of a reported communication, and is irrelevant to the present discussion. Note
[a] Direct speech is also termed 'oratio recta', and indirect speech is also termed 'oratio obliqua' and 'reported speech'. Free indirect speech is also known by the German term erlebte Rede and by the French term style indirect libre. [b] For the omission of reporting clauses with direct speech in certain written styles, cf 14.29.
1022
14.29
Reporting the languageof others 1023
The complexsentence
The words that Dorothy actually used were 'My mother's on the phone.'
Direct speech Direct speech, is usually signalled by being enclosed in quotation marks (cf App 111.21):
The President said, 'A failure by Congress to approve new taxes will lead to larger budget deficits, higher interest rates, and higher unemployment.'
Here were requires complementation by a subject complement. Then, the direct speech may be appositive to a unit that is clearly a part or the whole of the direct object:
[l]
Dorothy used the following words: 'My mother's on thephone.'
The reporting clause may occur before, within, or after the direct speech. Medial position is very frequent. When the reporting clause is positioned medially or finally, subject-verb inversion may occur if the verb is in the simple present or simple past:
Finally, coordination with a following clause suggests that the reporting clause is an obligatory part of the first clause, in that coordination would otherwise not be possible: 'The radio is too loud,' Elizabeth complained, and she then stalked back to her room.
(John said) borrow your bicycle.'
[2]
On the other hand, we can view the reporting clause as subordinate, functioning as an adverbial. Thus, like most adverbials it can be positioned variously and can - at least sometimes - be omitted. Both syntactically and semantically, it resembles the most important type of comment clause (cf 15.54). Compare the reporting clause in [7a] with the comment clause in [7b] and the adverb in [7c]:
said John Elizabeth complained. [31 complainedElizabeth. Inversion is most common when the verb is said, the subject is not a pronoun, and the reporting clause is medial, as in [2]. It is unusual and archaic, however, when the subject of the reporting clause is a pronoun, even when the verb is said (eg: said he). Direct speech may extend over many sentences. The reporting clause is then usuallv- -positioned within the first sentence. Reporting clauses are often omitted, however, in the representation of conversation in fiction writing when the identity of the speakers is obvious from the context; quotation marks are sometimes omitted too. Reporting clauses and qbotation marks are regularly omitted in written plays, in formal reports of mekings, and in some types of headlines; instead the name of the speaker (usu$lly in capitals or italics and followed by a colon or period) prefaces the direct speech. The structural relationship between the reporting clause and the direct speech poses some analytical problems. In some respects the direct speech functions as a subordinate clause: I Dorothy k i d , 'My mother's on the;hone.'
[41
In [4] the direct speech seems to be a direct object. We can ask a whatquestion and elicit the direct speech as a response:
A: What Pid Dorothy actually say? We can make it the subject complement in a pseudo-cleft construction (cf 18.29f): l61
Furthermore, in both [4] and [6] the structure is defective without the direct speech, which obligatorily complements said in [4] and was in [6]. Compare also :
[7a] [7bl [~CI
Moreover, the direct speech clause behaves like a main clause in that it can, for example, be a question or a directive: Dorothy said, 'Is my mother on thd phone? Dorothy said, 'Tell my mother I'll be over soon.'
1
Did you really say to Ronald, 'You're my best friend'? Tell Richard, 'You're my best friend.'
I ,
1
[g] [g1
But, of course, the reporting clause behaves likewise: [l01 [Ill
Finally, we may note the usual punctuation separation of the reporting clause (though this is not necessarily reflected intonationally), which suggests another parallel with comment clauses and many other adverbials. Indeed, if the direct speech clause is analysed as an object, this is the only construction where the subject and verb are separated from the object by a comma (cf App 111.9, App 111.21). Contrast the punctuation of [l l ] for direct speech with that of [ l l a ] for indirect speech: Tell Richard (that) he's my best friend.
B: 'Myimother's on the phone.'
What Dorothy said was 'My mother's on thephone.'
'GeneraIs,'they a[[eged, 'never retire; they merely fade away.' Generals, it is alleged, never retire; they merely fade away. Generals, allegedly, never retire; they merely fade away.
[ l lal
It is best to recognize that there is a gradient from direct speech that is clearly independent to direct speech that is clearly integrated into the clause structure. At the most independent extreme we have direct speech without a reporting clause. Next along the gradient are instances where the reporting clause is medial or final and it exhibits subject-verb inversion: 'I wonder', said John, 'whether I can borrow your bicycle.' Here there are severe restrictions on the form of the verb, and pronouns are
1024
,
The complex sentence
generally excluded as subject. Fprther along the gradient are instances where the ieporting clause is medial or final but without subject-verb inversion. Notice that the reporting clause is restricted also here to some extent in that it cannot readily be a question or a directive, a restriction that applies also when there is subject-verb inversion. There follow sentences like [4], where the reporting clause is initial and suffers from fewer restrictions. Most integrated are the partial quotations, as in this version of [l]: The President said that a failure by Congress to approve new taxes would lead to 'larger budget deficits, higher interest rates, and higher unemployment.'
114
Here we have a mixture of indirect and direct speech, the direct speech being only a part of a clause, and the reporting clause being implicit: '. . . would lead to what he said were larger budget deficits, higher interest rates, and higher unemployment'. Here are some reporting verbs of speaking or thinking that are frequently used with direct speech, the most common of which is say: add admit announce answer argue assert ask beg boast claim
comment conclude confess cry (out) declare exclaim explain insist maintain note
object observe order promise protest recall remark repeat reply report
say shout (out) state tell think urge warn whisper wonder write
In addition, ithere are numerous other verbs indicating the manner of speaking that are occasionally used with direct speech; for example, falter, mumble, murthur, mutter, snap, sneer, sob. Note
[a] Pronunciatioh and other speech features may be imitated in a spoken rendering of direct
speech. In writing it may be indicated by irregular spelling or, to a limited extent, by italics or underlining. In both media, the reporting clause may have indications of the manner of speaking ne Charles hinted qrkly, John said casually). Such indications are (Tom lisped, ~ a c ~ u & l iwhispered, common in some Action writing. [h] In conversatioh, says you, says he, etc (with the invariant -S) are sometimes used in casual style as an impolite retort meaning 'That's what you say', 'That's what he says', etc: A : I'm going to win this game. B : Says you! In old-fashioned speech, the nonstandard inversionsays Isometimesoccurs. The historic present (cf 4.8) is occasion~llyused in spoken narrative. [C] In journalistic/writing, a reporting clause with inversion sometimes occurs even in initial position : Declared tall, nineteen-year-oldNapier: 'The show willgo on'. [d] Unlike indirect speech, direct speech may acceptably contain grammatical errors or even be in another language if it purports to give a record of the communication of another person: He said, 'I know not well English.' [e] It is common in newspaper reporting to omit quotation marks in what appears to be direct speech, as exempfified in the first sentence in the following: New horses will strengthen the breed. Mr Steiner claimed. He said the newcomers lvould arrive after the epidemic was halted. The second sentence switches to indirect speech, as indicated by the tense backshifts (cJ14.31).
!
Reporting t h e languageof o t h e r s 1025
14.30
Indirect s p e e c h Typically, indirect speech is used to report statements, and takes the form of a nominal that-clause (cf 15.4): Neighbours said that a s a teenager he had earned hispocket money by delivering newspapers.
[l]
In [l] the indirect speech is a direct object, but in [2] it is an extraposed subject and in [3] a subject complement: It was said that as a teenager Max had earned his pocket money by delivering newspapers. What neighbours said was that as a teenager he had earned his pocket money by delivering newspapers.
121
[31
Reporting verbs that are used with indirect speech include those listed as frequently used with direct speech (cf 14.29). Lists of verbs of speaking a n d thinking used with indirect speech may be found in 16.31. Among t h e common verbs are believe, feel, imagine, know, mention, realize, recognize, suppose. We have observed earlier (cf 14.28) that a reporter using indirect speech may paraphrase or summarize; changes may be made from the original wording without affecting the essential truth of the report. For example, the original wording may be as in [4]: 'My first task today,' said the teacher, 'will be to examine current views on the motivations for armed conflicts.'
141 The indirect speech in [4a] approximates as closely as possible in that mode to the original wording: The teacher said that his first task that day was to examine current views on the motivations for armed conflicts.
L44
The hearer or reader, however, cannot be sure how close the indirect speech of [4a] is to the original wording, since [4a] could legitimately report the wording in [4b] instead : 'What I want to do now,' said the teacher, 'is to look at contemporary theories of the causes of wars.'
[4bl
If, however, the report had been conveyed by [4c], there is no clear correspondence with the reported clause in direct speech: The teacher announced his intention of discussing the causes of wars.
[4cI
When the report is conveyed through indirect speech as in [4a], we can specify the changes in wording that are required because the situation of the utterance by the reporter may differ in certain respects from that of the utterance by the original speaker. The differences affect the use of deictic features of the language, those features that relate to the time and place of the utterance and to the persons referred to in the utterance. They include : (i) tense forms of the verb (ii) other time references, eg: yesterday, now, last week, next Monday
1026
The complex sentence
Reportingthe language of others
i
1027
i (iii) place references, eg: here, there (iv) personal pronouns (v) the demonstratives this and these
I
Changes in tense forms are discussed in 14.31 and the other changes in 14.32. Further changes may be required to identify references in the original utterance that may not be known to the person receiving the report, for example the identity of persons or things referred to by pronouns. Note
As with other tl~at-clauses,the conjunction that is frequently omitted from the reported clause in less formal indirect speech.
Backshift in indirect speech 14.31 The reporting verb may be in the present tense for communications in recent past time, as in [l] and [2]: Joan tells me she's going to the airport in an hour's time. She says she was too busy to join us last night.
[l] [21
The present tense is also used for reports attributed to famous works or authors which have present validity, as in [3] and [4]: The Bible says there's no end to the writing of books. Chaucer somewhere writes that love is blind.
D] L41 .
The choice of verb form in the reported clause depends on the time reference of the verb. Thus, the verbs in [l], [3], and [4] exemplify the state present (cf 4.9, while was in [2] refers to a time previous to the time of reporting as well as to the time of the original utterance. Verbs of cognition may also be used in the reporting clause in the present tense: '
I know they don't care. Sylvia thinks Paul went to Lancaster last night. When the \ime reference of the origjnal utterance (or mental activity) no longer applies at the time that the utterance (or mental activity) is reported, it is often necessary to change the tense forms of the verbs. Such a change of verb forms in indirect speech is termed BACKS HI^. The resulting relationship of verb forms in the reporting and reported clauses is known as the SEQUENCE OF TENSES (cJ19.39). The changes can be illustrated best if we postulate an exact corresgondence for the reporting clauses of direct and indirect speech. DIRECT SPEECH
(i) (ii) (iii) (iv)
present past present perfective past perfective
--
BACKSHIFTED IN INDIRECT SPEECH
past past or past perfective
Thus, if the present deictic references in the direct speech become past deictic references in the indirect speech, there is a corresponding shift of
verb forms fnto the past, or if necessary into the past perfective. Examples of each part of the rule are:
-
' I am beingpaid by the hour,' she said. She said she was being paid by the hour. 'The exhibition finished last week,' explained Ann.
-
151
Ann explained that the exhibition
. preceding week. 'I've been waiting over an hour for you,' she told him. She told him that she had been waiting over an hour for him. ' I hadstudied French for four years at school,' I said. I said that I hadstudied French for four years at school.
L61 [?l [81
The choice in [6] represents the usual choice of a simple past in place of a past perfective when the context makes the relative time references clear, in this instance by the use of the preceding week. There is no change in [8] because the past perfective already expresses 'past in the past' and no further backshift to 'past in the past in the past' can be expressed. As [5] and [71 illustrate, the rule is not affected by combinations of the simple and perfective forms with progressive and passive forms. Backshift is optional when the time-reference of the original utterance is valid at the time of the reported utterance, cf [5], [?l, and [8]. Thus, the shift is obligatory in [g], but optional in [IO]:
-
' I am a citizen, not of Athens, but of the world,' said Socrates. Socrates said that he was a citizen, not of Athens, but of the world. 'Nothing can harm a good man,' said Socrates.
-
Socrates said that nothing
[g] [l01
Since the statement by Socrates in [g] deals with what is now past, it has to be reported by application of the backshift rule. The statement in [10], on the other hand, is a universal rule which, if it was true for Socrates' lifetime, should also be true today; the backshift rule is therefore optional. Here are other examples where present forms may be retained in indirect speech : Their teacher had told them that the earth moves around the sun. Sam told me last night that he is now an American citizen. I heard her say that she is studying Business Administration. A Yale professor has said that the Brooklyn Bridge is the most majestic embodiment of the American experience of the road. They thought that prison conditions have improved. I didn't know that our meeting is next Tuesday. She said that they are being discriminated against. The waiter told me that lunch is now being served. In all these sentences, past forms may also be used, by optional application of the backshift rule. Sentence [l l ] has the simple present in its timeless use, whereas the verbs in the subsequent sentences have a limited time-reference.
Reporting t h e language of o t h e r s 1029
1028 T h e complex s e n t e n c e
T h e appropriateness of the present forms in [12-181 therefore depends on their reference at the time of the reported utterance. For example, if at that time Sam had changed his citizenship, or if his citizenship was then in doubt, a n appropriate form of [l21 would be, for example: Sam told me in 1970 that he was then an American citizen.
[12al
Similarly, if a long time had elapsed between the original utterance reported in [l51 or if there was doubt as to its present validity, the past perfective would be used : They thought that prison conditions had improved.
[l54
Again, if [l81 were reporting what the waiter had said not five minutes ago but five days ago it would have read: The waiter told me that lunch was then being served. Note
D8aI
[a] If the indirect speech itself contains a subordinate clause, then the verb of that subordinate clause may be in the present tense because of current validity even though both the main verb of the sentence and the superordinate verb are in the past: They reminded us that they had frequently denied that the drug has any therapeutic value. She thought she had toldme that breakfast isserved between seven and ten. [b] Backshift from simple past to past perfective is necessary when the simple past in the indirect speech may be misinterpreted as representing a simple present: She said, 'I was married (, but my husband died last year).' -She said that she had been married. Contrast, where there is no possibility of misinterpretation: She said. 'I was married in church.' was married She said that she {hadbee,, n,arried] in church.
-
[C] Backshift is normal if the proposition in the indirect speech is considered to be false: The ancienk thought that the sun moved around the earth, but from the time of Galileo it was known that the reverse is true. [d] When can't or couldn't is combined with say or tell in a reporting clause, one meaning of the combination is roughly the same as don't know or didn't know: where she is. ['I don't knowW]
I canl
whocaIIed. ['They d q ' t know'] They couldn't)(~~~me}
.
,
[e] Since the simple past in indirect speech may represent either the simple past or the simple present of direct speech, it may give rise to ambiguity where both interpretations are plausible: A: She told me the game started at seven. B: (1t didfl;. It doesn't.
14.32
Other changes in indirect speech If the identities of the person speaking and the person addressed are not identical in the situations of theoriginal and reported utterances, the personal pronouns need to be changed. PRONOUN SHIFT requires the shift of 1st and 2nd person pronouns to 3rd person pronouns or to nouns, when the persons referred to in the original utterance are absent in the reported utterance:
-
'rll behave myself,' he promised. He promised that he'd behave himself:
-
'Ilike your tie,' she told John. She told John that she liked his tie. 'You know my family,' she said. She told him [or Tom, for example] that he knew her family. 'You are too noisy,' Pamela told them. Pamela told them that they were too noisy.
-
-
1st and 2nd person pronouns are used as appropriate to the reporting situation:
-
'You should be ashamed of yourseK' she told me. She told me that I should be ashamed of myself: 'I am your friend, Bob,' he said to me. He said to me that he was my friend. Similarly, in reporting to Margaret a statement about herself:
-
'Margaret is very clever,' Tom said to me. Tom told me that you are very clever. 'Margaret is in my class,' I said to him. I told him that you were in my class. We mention briefly other shifts that may be necessary. If the time relationship between time references in the indirect speech and the time of the utterance has changed between the original utterance and the reported utterance, it k necessary to make adjustments. Time references are changed variously according to the time of the reported utterance: for example, yesterday to the day before yesterday, last Monday, or June 10; now to then; next Monday to last Monday or Monday two weeks ago. If the places of the utterances are different, place references are changed accordingly: for example, here to there, or (if the reference is to the place of the reporting utterance) there to here, or the places may need to be specified by name. Demonstratives are also changed if the relative distancing has changed: this and these to that and those, but again the reverse if there is greater proximity at the time of the reported utterance. Indirect statements, questions, exclamations, and directives 14.33 Our examples have so far been of indirect statements; but all the main sentence types (questions, exclamations, directives, as well as statements) may be converted into indirect speech. The constructions are as follows: , INDIRECT STATEMENT: that-clause (15.4) INDIRECT QUESTION: dependent wh-clause (15.5f) INDIRECT EXCLAMATION : dependent wh-clause (15.7) INDIRECT DIRECTIVE :
that-clause (15.10f) to-infinitive clause (without subject) (15.10f)
Here are examples of the last three categories:
-
'Are you ready yet? asked Joan. [YES-NO QUESTION] Joan asked (me) whether I was ready yet. 'When will the plane leave?' I wondered. [WH-QUESTION] I wondered when the plane would have.
Reportingthe language of others
1030 The complex sentence
-
'Are you satisfied or not?' I asked her. [ALTERNATIVE QUESTION] I asked her whether or not she was satisfied. 'What a brave boy you are!' Margaret told him. [EXCLAMATION] Margaret told him what a brave boy he was. 'Tidy up the room at once,' I said to Tom. [DIRECTIVE] I insisted that Tom tidy (esp AmE) should tidy (esp BrE) I told Tom to tidy up the room. 'Have another apple,' Carol suggested (to me). [DIRECTIVE]
-
-Carol suggested that I
1
AmE) another apple. have (esp BrE) -Carol asked me to have anotl~erapple. All the types of changes outlined in 14.3lf apply to questions and exclamations as well as statements. With directives, there is no tense backshift in the verb forms exemplified above: mandative subjunctive, putative should, to-infinitive (cf 14.24f ). Directives in fact involve the summary type from which it is not possible to reconstruct the exact words of the direct speech. If the to-infinitive construction is used for an indirect directive, the reporting clause normally requires an indirect object or a prepositional object:
-
'Eat your food up,' she begged him. She begged him to eat his food up. 'Sit down,' I snapped at'him. I s n ,a*~* o e dat him to sit down. 'Don't say anything,' he whispered to her. He $hispered to her not to say anything.
-
Note
[a] If the subject bf the infinitive is not present in an indirect directive, it is understood to be identical with the indirect object or prepositional object when it is present: She told me tb call again lomorrow. ['that I should call again tomorrow'] I whispered t; them to bequiet. ['that they should be quiet'] introduced by for, especially in AmE, except when the reporting verb is The subject may ditransitive tell: ' She said for us to sit down. I shouted f o ~ l ~ e to mclear the way. IT the verb is say 'and the for-construction is not used, the subject is understood from the situational context: She said to sit down. [b] Echo questions occasionally occur in indirect speech: B : Am I going home? A : Yes, that's what I asked. A : Are you going home? The second senten'e might appear in indirect speech as I asked gyou asked i/I was going home. There are, howeve!, no indirect constructions for echo exclamations.
1031
There is no backshift for the mandative subjunctive (cf 3.59): 'We insisted that he leave at once,' she said. She said that they (had) insisted that he leave at once.
-
The past subjunctive (cf 14.24) or hypothetical past (cf 14.23) is backshifted to hypothetical past perfective if there is a change in time reference:
-
'If he were here, he would vote for the motion,'she said. She said that if he had been there, he would have voted for the motion. 'If she stayed another day, he would drive her home,' he said. He told me the following week that if she had stayed another day, he would have driven her home. Backshift is optional if the proposition in the indirect speech is still valid: 'If I were in New York, I would visit the current exhibition at the Metropolitan Museum,' he said.
-
l
would visit He said that if he [ ~ ~ ~ P o inn New ] York, he [would haue visited the current exhibition at the Metropolitan Museum.
If there is a change in time-reference, a modal auxiliary is backshifted from present tense forms to past tense forms even if the past tense forms do not normally indicate past time in direct speech:
-
'You may be able to answer this question,' he told her. He told her that she might be able to answer that question. 'I won't pay another penny,' I said. I said that I wouldn't pay another penny. If a modal auxiliary in the direct speech is already in the past tense form, then the same form remains in the indirect speech: 'You shouldn't smoke in the bedroom,' he told them. ' He told them that they shouldn't smoke in the bedroom. 'We could be wrong,' I told them. I told them that we could be wrong. 'I could speak Spanish when I was young,' I said. I said that I could speak Spanish when I was young. 'When I was in college I would study till two or three in the morning,' she recalled.
-
-
{W"
]
She recalled that when she had been in college she would studytill two or three in the morning.
The subjunctive and modal auxiliaries in indirect speech 14.34 There is no indirect speech construction for the optative subjunctive (cf 11.39), but when it is used to express a wish the construction with may (with a possible backshift to might) is sometimes a near-equivalent: 'God bless America!' she said. She expressed the wish that God might bless America.
-
In the last two examples (with could and would), the modal auxiliaries have past time reference in the direct speech, and therefore backshift entails changing to the perfective. Several modal auxiliaries or marginal modals have only one form: must, ought to, need, and had better. That form remains in indirect speech:
1032
,
Transferred negation 1 0 3 3
The complexsentence
I sat on the grass staring at the passers-by. Evetybody seemed in a hurry. Why can't I have something to rush to? A fly kept buzzing around, occasionally trying to settle on me. I brushed it off. I t came back. Keep calm! Wait until it feels safe. There! Got it. On my hand was adisgusting flattened fly, oozing blood. I wiped my hand on the grass. Now Ican relax.
'You must be hungry,' he said. He said that they must be hungry. 'You had better not say anything about this,' he warned me. He warned me that I had better not say anything about that.
-
In its obligational sense, however, the past of must may be replaced by had to in indirect speech:
We understand these as if there were quotation marks around the free direct speech.
'You tl~ustbe in by ten tonight,' his parents told him.
- His parents told him that he
}
had to be in by ten that night.
Note
For direct speech with a medial reporting clause but without quotation marks, cf 14.29 Note [e].
As always, backshift (where possible) is optional if the proposition in the indirect speech is valid at the time of utterance: 'Persistence can overcome all obstacles,' she said.
- She said that persistence {z:,~}overcome all obstacles.
Note
[a] If they are followed by a perfective infinitive, modal auxiliaries in the reporting clause are counted, for purposes of backshift, as past tense forms: 'What are you doing? I ought to have asked. I ougkt to haue asked what he was doing. [b] Backshift normally occurs in the subordinate clause after an attitudinal past used for politeness (cf 4.16):
-
What did you say your name piaS? I wondered if you ~vouldlend me some flour. We were hoping you would stay with us. There is n o implication in these examples of past time reference.
14.35
Free indire
As with Type [Cl], the object may be a clause postponed by extraposition: We have made it a condition that the new agreement be signed by ail the original signatories. He has proved it a fallacy that old age brings wisdom. Note
[a] The zero article occurs optionally with captive and prisoner as object complements, as i n (i) above: She held her niece (a) caprice. Hold captiw/prisoner and keep . .. captive/prisoner are unusual in that the omitted article is indefinite rather than definite. Examples of the zero article with definite meaning (cf5.42) are: Edgar was judged overall winner. They appointed Sue captain of the athletics team. [b] The object + infinitive construction with tobe, as with Type[CI], is not alwaysequivalent to the pattern with a phrasal object complement. For example, name can be used with to be only if the following noun phrase designates a future roleor status: Her parents named her ('to be) Gladys. The selectors named her (to be) a member of the touring team. As can be used with name only on the same condition as applies to to be: 'Her parents named her as Gladys (cf16.47 below). [c] The copular relation can obtain not only between the object and complement as in [l], but also between subject and complement as in [2]:
.. .
1200
Types of v e r b complementation
C o m p l e m e n t a t i o n of v e r b s a n d adjectives
She made him a good husband. (SV0,C.) 01 She made him a good wife. (SVOiCJ (21 [I] has the passiveanalogue He lvasn~adeagwdhusba~~d; but in the entirely different construction of 121, where the copular relation is between she and a good wi/e. no passive is possible. The meaning is: 'She was a good wife to him'. A prepositional verb of this same unusual pattern is strike. . . as in, for example: He struck me as a brilliant strategist. where a brilliant strategist is subject complement.
The experts rated his paintings (as)poorbut representative of their class. They classed Jane aspartially sighted. The media described the situation as hopeless. The situation was described as hopeless. Verbs not allowing this construction are marked '1' in the above lists. The construction is exceptional in allowing an adjective phrase to occur after a preposition. A more orthodox construction is obtained by adding the word being before the adjective phrase, and thereby converting the prepositional complement into a nominal -ing clause:
[Clpr]and [C2pr]Object complement following prepositional verb The preposition as designates a copular relation, particularly in specifying a role or status associated with the direct object: Thechurchcondemned the relic as a fraud. Following a complex transitive verb and a direct object, the prepositional complement of as functions semantically as an attribute, and may be termed a 'prepositional object complement' in the same way as the noun phrase following a transitive prepositional verb is called a prepositional object:
-
The media described the situation as being hopeless. Note
[C21 a genius. as a genius. [Czpr] to be a genius. [C41 (as) a genius. He was cohidered to be a genius. 16.48
Consideras, like regard as, class as, etc, therefore exemplifies yet another type of prepositional verb: one that is followed by a prepositional object complement rather than a prepositional object. Occasionally the preposition for occurs in this copular function, instead of as :
He took these words as evidence.
He took mefor a fool. In the fo~lowin~list, for verbs in column (i) the preposition is optional, where for verbs in col$mn (ii) the preposition is obligatory: (i) appoint (as)' choose (as): count (as) deem (as) esteem (as)' rate (as) reckon (as) report (as) / elect (as)' I certifv (as) crown (as)' make (into)' proclaim (as)
I
(ii) accept as acknowledge as characterize as class as define as describe as intend as' mistakefor regard as see as take aslfor treat as use as
,
Most verbs in [Clpr] and [CZpr] can also introduce an adjective phrase in the function of prepositional object complement:
1201
l
[a] Count as and rate as can also occur in an analogous asconstruction without the object, as 'prepositional'copular verbs; eg: This counts/ratesasa notablesuccess(cf 16.22 Note Ibl). [b] Although as is classed as a preposition in the above pattern, it in some ways resembles the conjunction as which introduces clauses of comparison (cf 15.71). Consider the following curious examples, in which as introduces on the one hand a clause and on the other hand a noun phrase in an appositional relation to the clause: Report me as I am - a superannuated don. He described her as hefound her, a liar.
[C31~dmplementationby object and adjunct ., Our next category, Type [C3], consists of verbs which occur in the SVOA pattern (cf 2.16), ie verbs which have as their complementation an object followed by a predication adjunct. The most characteristic adjuncts to occur in this pattern are prepositional phrases of space, and more particularly of direction; eg:
I slipped the key into the lock. He stood my argument on its head. Take your hands out ofyourpockets. The passive is illustrated by: [lal
The key was slipped into the lock.
Sentence [2] exemplifies the abstract or metaphorical use of such verbs and adiuncts. Manv of the verbs which fit into this pattern are causative verbs of motion: put, get, stand, set, sit, lay, place, send, bring, take, lead, drive, etc. The class is open-ended, since verbs normally without causative meaning can be adapted to this function; eg: show, see, elbow, etc in: The attendant showed us to our seats. ['conducted us. . .'] May I see you home? ['escort you. .'l He elbowed and bribed his way to fame. They talked me into it. ['persuaded me. . .'l
.
Other verbs are associated with space position adjuncts rather than direction adjuncts : They left the papers at my ofice. Always keep your eyes on the road when driving.
1202 Complementation of verbs and adjectives
Types o f verb complementation
I
The attackers caught us offourguard. H e wished them at thebottom ofthe sea.
[C41 He was known to be a spy.
Again, the spatial meaning of the adjunct may beunderstood in some abstract or metaphorical sense, as in the third example above. Adjuncts of other semantic types are less common, but instances are the adjunct of manner following treat:
[C51 Someone was heard to slam the door.
asllike a small child. and the optional adjunct of duration following last: This money will have to last you (Cfor)sixmonths). [a] Treot has a different meaning when the adjunct is omitted: Her parents treated her. [= 'did something pleasant for her'] [b] Superficially similar to the above pattern is that illustrated by remind andfirnisl~followed by an object and a prepositional phrase: She reminds me of my sister. Theyfurnished all the passengers with lge jackets. These however are classed as transitive prepositional verbs (cf 16.7-S), and will be dealt with in 16.56f below. The differencebetween these prepositional verbs and verbs of complementation Type [C31 is that in the former case the lexical verb governs a particular preposition, remind. oj; furnish . with. (Alternative prepositional constructions are sometimes available, however: provide . . . with,provide .fir.)
..
16.49
..
..
Variants of complex$ransitive complementation We now examine variants of complex transitive complementation in which the direct object is followed by a nonfinite clause acting as predication adjunct. All four kinds of nonfinite construction (cf 14.6-8) are possible:
[C51 bare infinitive : I heard someone slam
[C61 Ann was caught reading my diary.
I
[C71 He was seen executed by a firing squad.
On the face of it, the patterns [C41 and [C61are indistinguishable from the monotransitive patterns [B81 (eg: She hates the train to be late) and [B91 (eg: She hates the train being late), in which the nonfinite clause has a subject of its own. The ability of the noun phrase preceding the nonfinite verb to become subject of a passive is, however, a n important distinction between them (see further 16.51 and 16.53).
badly. Her parents treated her
Note
I
1203
[C71 -ed participle : We saw him beaten by the
The nonfinite clause in these patterns (in italics in the above table) has no subject itself, but its implied subject is always the preceding noun phrase, which is object of the superordinate clause. This noun phrase, which if a personal pronoun is in the objective case, is commonly termed a RAISED I OBJECT (cf further 16.64ff3: semantically, it has the role of subject of the nonfinite verb; but syntactically it is 'raised' from the nonfinite clause to function as object of the superordinate verb. Hence in general, this noun phrase (in italics in the table below) can become subject of the corresponding passive. (The passive of [C51 normally requires substitution of a to-infinitive for a bare infinitive; the passive of [C71 is of marginal currency; cf 16.54 Note [a].)
Note
These patterns [C41 and [C61 are distinguished from corresponding patterns in which the nonfinite clause is an adverbial by the fact that the implied subject of the nonfinite verb is 0 rather than S. Note the ambiguity of: She left him holding the baby. She left him tofinish the job.
+ to-infinitive complementation The verbs in this group are rather numerous, and may be subdivided, semantically, into the following categories: (iii) intend (vii) assist (i) announce mean bother declare bribe proclaim (iv) appoinf condemn pronounce elect dare report name defy repute [esp P] vote encourage rumour [P onlyl help (v) cause say [P onlyl induce drive tip (esp BrE) inspire force (ii) assume press get [no P] believe summon lead conceive (formal) prompt consider (vi) allow expect authorize feel compel find constrain imagine enable know entitle presume equip reckon see [P onlyl fit oblige suppose permit take require think [esp P] [P = Passive] understand [C41Object
16.50
"
1204 Complementation of verbs and adjectives
Types of verb complementation
Types (i) and (ii) correspond to the factual verbs of category [B31 discussed in 16.31: the nonfinite construction following these verbs can often be replaced by a that-clause with an indicative verb. Compare:
(v) This optimistic forecast led the administration to promise tax cuts. (- The administration was'led (by this optimistic forecast) to promise tax cuts.) (vi) My contract allows me to take one month's leave. (- I am allowed to take one month's leave.) (vii) Our teachers encouraged us to think for ourselves. (- We were encouraged to think for ourselves.)
The police reported that the traffic was heavy. = The police reported the traffic to be heavy. (formal) John believed that the stranger was a policeman. = John believed the stranger to be a policeman. (formal)
[B31 [C41 [B31 [C41 With factual verbs such as these, the nonfinite clause normally contains the verb be or some other verb of stative meaning. Especially when the nonfinite main verb is other than be, the finite clause (of pattern [B3]) is preferred to the infinitive one, except that the infinitiveconstruction providesaconvenient passive form:
{
In Type (iv), the infinitive main verb is normally be, and can be omitted: They appointed her (to be) the social secretary. This type overlaps with Type (v), 16.46. Note
The traffic was reported to be heavy. The stranger was believed to be a policeman. Some verbs in this construction have no that-clause equivalent:
-
They tipped him to be the next president. (esp BrE) He was tipped to be the next president. (*They tipped that he would be the next president.) Some verbs (marked [P only] in the list above) occur only in the passive version of this construction:
I
l
+
overhear [P?] (ii) jkel hear [P] see [P] notice [P?] watch observe [P] ,
(iii) help [P?] know [P]
Type (i) consists of verbs of coercive meaning; Type (ii) has perceptual verbs of seeing and hearing; and Type (iii) is a residual class of two verbs which are optionally followed by a toinfinitive. The marker [P] indicates that the passive (normally with a b-infinitive) is possible; [P?] indicates that the passive is of doubtful or limited acceptability.
I
Of the two classek of factual verbs, Type (i) consists of public verbs (cf 16.31) referring to a speech act, and Type (ii) consists of private verbs expressing :i belief, etc. !
\
(iii) They intended Mary to sing an aria. (- Mary was intended to sing an aria.) (iv) The meeting elected Mr Martin to be the next treasurer. (- Mr Martin was elected to be the next treasurer.)
..
bare infinitive complementation This pattern occurs with a relatively small number of verbs: (i) have let make [P]
The Broadway production was thought to have made Max's fortune. (?Newsmbn thought the Broadway production to have made Max's fortune.)
l
.
[C51Object 16.52
Other verbs (marked [esp P]) occur chiefly in the passive:
Of the remaining semantic types, Type (iii) consists of verbs of intention (on intend itself cf 16.41 Note [bl); Types (iv) and (v) consist of causative verbs, where the infinitive clause identifies the resultant state (Type (iv) verbs also belong to class [?l]); Type (vi) consists of verbs with a modal character, expressing such cpncepts as enablement, permission, and compulsion; and Type (vii) consistk of a variety of verbs of 'influencing' between which a common factor appears to be that the nonfinite clause has a purposive meaning. Examples are :
[a] There are a number of multi-word verbs in this category: IC4prl: count on . . . to . . .; depend on . . . to . . .; rely on . . to . . .; [C4ph]: make . . . out to . . .; [C4ph-pr]: keep on ot . . . to . (which has no passive). Examples are: 1 am depending on you to give us your full support. They made him out to be a monster of depravity. Why do you keeponat me to work harder? [bl Some passives of pattern [C41 (eg: be allowed, be supposed) have a semi-auxiliary(cf 3.47/) interpretation in which they lose their connection with the corresponding active construction, especially as regards agency. \
The field marshal was said to be planning a new strategy. (*Someone said the field marshal to be planning a new strategy.)
16.51
1205
, I
(i) You shouldn't let your family interfere with ourplans. We must make the public take notice of us. (- The public must be made to take notice of us.) (ii) Did you notice anyone leave the house? The crowd saw Gray score two magnificentgoals. (- Gray was seen to score two magnificent goals.) (iii) Sarah helped us (to) edit the script. I have known John (to)give better speeches than that. (- John has been known togive better speeches than that.) Know followed by the bare infinitive is confined mainly to BrE, and to the perfective aspect: have known. Let in group (i) is in other constructions classified as similar to an auxiliary (cf 3.51). Let has an apparent passive i n combination with such verbs as let go and letfall, but these are best regarded as fixed expressions, in which let has an auxiliary or particle-like function:
l
They let the prisoner go home.
-
?The prisoner was let go home.
1206
Complementation o f verbs and adjectives
~ ~ p ' e sverb o f complementation. 1207
Note that this apparent passive has the bare infinitive, in contrast, for example, to make, which has to have the to-infinitive in the passive:
-
They made him understand.
The,passive with this pattern is regular:
He k a s made to understand.
-
A third verb in group (i) is have, which (like have in monotransitive constructions) does not occur in the passive: They had me repeat the message. Note
-
Prepositional verbs with this type of complementation ([C6pr]) include come across, come upon, listen to, and look at: Look at those children climbing the wall. But these [C6pr] prepositional verbs have no prepositional passive:
*I was had (to) repeat the message.
[a] The formulaic nature of let himgo and similar expressions is illustrated by variants such as [l-31, which cannot be fitted into any regular complementationpattern: go the rope. [I1 They let the ropego. [21 go ofthe rope. [31 [b]Of the two constructions with help, that with to is more common in BrE, and that without to is more common in AmE. [c]A rare verb in category (i) is the now rather archaic bid, with a to-infinitivecomplementation in the passive: They bidlbade me sit down. I was bidden to sit down.
{
searching the building. Have in this construction (cf 18.51ff) also has no passive, in keeping with its use in other constructions:
-
She had us working day after day. *We were had working day after day.
+
16.53
[C61Object -ing participle complementation The verbs in category [C61 consist of verbs of perception (Type (i)), verbs of encounter (Type (ii)), and two verbs of coercive meaning (Type (iii)): (i) feel [CS] hear [CS] notice [CS] observe [CS] overhear [CS] perceive
see [CS] smell spot spy watch [CS]
(ii) catch discover find leave
Note
16.54
(i)
*I saw his lying on the beach.
CAUSATIVE verbs :get, have
She gotlhad the watch repaired immediately. verbs: want, need, like I wantlneed this watch repaired immediately. (iii) PERCEPTUAL verbs: see, hear,feel (oneself), watch Someone must have seenlheard the car stolen.
l
VOLITIONAL
A fourth group is peripheral to this construction: (iv) Verbs for which the -ed participle describes a resulting state:$nd, discover, leave Theyjbund/discovered/leji him worn out by travel and exertion.
The bare infinitiye, having nonprogressive meaning, implies that Bill did the whole job while Tim was watching; the-ingclause, with progressivemeaning, has n o such implication. This complementation pattern differs from that of [B9], not only in its progressive aspect, but also in that the noun phrase following the superordinate verb cannot take the genitive (or possessive) form (cf 16.42):
In this construction, as in that of [C6], have can have either an agentive causative meaning, or a stative meaning. Hence Theguardpatrol had two men shot is ambiguous, meaning either 'The patrol caused two men to be shot', or 'The patrol suffered the loss of two men by shooting'. The latter meaning is that of the have-existential construction (cf 18.51ff). In general, this complementation type is semantically equivalent to one with an infinitive form of the verb be. Thus in Type (ii), I would like my room cleaned is synonymous with I would like my room to be cleaned; in Type (iii), He saw the team beaten is synonymous with He saw the team be beaten.
I
Another difference from pattern [B91is that the -ing predication can normally be omitted without radically altering the meaning: I saw him lying on the beach.
We can distinguish three small groups of verbs complemented by a raised object followed by an -ed participle clause:
(ii)
Tim watched Bill mendlmending the lamp.
I saw him l$ing on the beach
Feel occurs especially with a reflexive pronoun object: Shefilt herselflollingin low.
IC71Object + -ed participle complementation
(iii) have get
Perception ve+s marked [CS] occur also with the bare infinitive pattern [CS]. With sue$ verbs there is an aspect difference between [CS] and [C6], as described in 4.61f:
;
We could hear the rain splashing on the rooJ The rain could be heard splashing on the roof. A teacher caught them smoking in theplayground. They were caught smoking in theplayground (by a teacher).
[entails: Isaw him]
Contrast: I hate my friends leaving early. [does not entail: I hate myfriends]
Note
[a] There is no passive for most verbs in pattern [C7], and at best the passive is dubious: ?The car must have been seen stolen. The acceptability of the passive with Type (iv) is exceptional:
1208 Complementation o f verbs and adjectives
Types o f verb complementation 1209
The car wasfound abandoned. This is, indeed, an indication that Type (iv) may not belong here so much as with the object complement construction [Cl], the participle construction being adjectival (cl: an abandoned car). [b] In addition to the two meanings of have object -ed participle above, a third meaning results if the -ed clause is analysed as a postmodifierof the object; eg: She had a book (which was) stole~~frorn the library.
+
The indirect object is normally animate, and is the recipient or beneficiary of the process described by the verb (cf 10.19). Unlike ditransitive verbs of category [Dl] (eg: give), ditransitiveverbs with prepositional objects normally have only one passive: We addressed our remarks to the children. Our remarks were addressed to the children. (*The children were addressed our remarks (to)) We reminded him of the agreement. He was reminded of the agreement. (*The agreement was reminded him (of)) Some verbs have all three possibilities of construction in the active; many have two; for others there isonly one possibility(in some cases the alternatives are not identical but very similar in meaning):
+
-
-
Ditransitive complementation
16.55
[Dl]Noun phrases as both indirect and direct object Ditransitive complementation in its basic form involves two object noun phrases: an indirect object, which is normally animate and positioned first, and a direct object, which is normally concrete. The two noun phrases differ from those of [C21in not being in a copular relationship: S
v
[D1 + 2a + 2b]
Mary told only John the secret. Mary told the secret only to John. Mary told only John about the secret.
[D11 [D24 [D2bl
offer [D1 + 2a]
John offered Mary some help. John offered some help to Mary
[D11 [D2aI
envy [D1 + 2b]
She envied John his success. She envied Johnfor his success.
[D11 [D261
wish [Dl]
They wished him good luck.
[D11
Helen blamed the divorce on John. Helen blamed Johnfor the divorce.
[D2a] [D2bl
Why didn't anybody say this to me?
[D2a]
Mary warned John of the dangers.
[D2b]
tell
He gave the girl a doll
U*
:
Oi
Od
The difference between this and complex transitive complementationis seen in : SVOC: He found her a loyal friend. (- She was a loyal friend) SVOO:: He found her an apartment. . (- The apartment was for her) The characteristics of indirect objects in contrast to direct objects are fully discussed in 10.7. Some ditransitive verbs have two passive analogues, which we shall distinguish as 'first' and 'second':
blame[D2a say
PASSIVE] The girl W$; given a doll. [FIRST A doll was given the girl. [SECOND PASSIVE]
Indirect object + direct object. Direct object + prepositional object. Indirect object + prepositional object.
[D2a]
warn [D2b]
Of these two, the first passive, in which the indirect object becomes subject, is the more common. The prepositional paraphrase is more usual, as an alternative, than ihe second passive: A dol<wasgiven to the girl. (For a list of verbs of Type [~1'],cf 16.57 below.)
[D21Object and prepositional object 16.56 In the ditransitiqe category, prepositional verbs form an important group with its own subddivisions, and may therefore be given a separate category number [D2]. These verbs are those we have called Type I1 prepositional verbs (cf 16.7-8). Alongside the ordinary indirect object pattern, two main prepositional patterns may be distinguished:
+ 2bl
The different constructional possibilities of certain verbs provide a means of achieving differentfocus (cf 18.37f). Compare the followingpairsof sentences as pronounced with unmarked (end) focus: Mary blamed the broken vase on J&N. Mary blamed John for the broken VASE. (C': John was blamed. ..by &Y.) The government supplied blankets for the H ~ M E ~ ~ S S . The government supplied the homeless with BLANK~~S. ( C ' Blankets were supplied. . . by the ~6vernment.) Note
[a] The above constructions are presented in the most typical syntactic ordering, but postponement of the direct or indirect object may take place in contexts where end-focus or endweight is required (cf 18.37); eg: John oflered to Mary the help that she needed. [b]Additional prepositional verb patterns should be briefly mentioned. There is, for example, the double-prepositional-verbpattern noted in 16.17(c):
Types of verb complementation
12 10 Complementation of verbs and adjectives I am applying to the hospitalfir a job. There is a further possibility that two prepositional objects may follow a direct object: We are paying $100 to the garagefor the repairs.
16.57
:
Verbs of complementation types [Dll and [D21 The following list gives some of the verbs that occur in Types [Dl], [D2a], [D2b], organized according to the cross-classifications of 16.56 above. We are interested here only in synonymous or nearly synonymous constructions, in which the same participant roles (cf 10.18Jn occur. Hence many possible prepositional verbs are ignored. Pay for, for example, is ignored because it introduces a further participant (the commodity bought) not included in pay (with) and pay (to).
[D1 + 2b]
envy excuse forgive
[D11
allow charge fine refuse wish
envyfor excusefor forgivefor
[D2a + 2b]
blame on supplyforlto
Table 16.57
EXAMPLE
[D1 + 2a
Type [D2a]
Type [D2b]
serve (Jack scampi)
serve (scampi) to (Jack)
serve (Jack) with (scampi)
+ 2b] pay provide (AmE) serve , tell
[D1 + 2a]
(i) bring deny give grant , hand ' leave jlend . ioffer 'owe !promise read qend show teach throw (ii) do jnd hake order reserve save Spare (iii) ask
Pay to provide for serve to tell to
pay with provide with serve with tell about
ask of
,
blamefor supply with
--
advise about punish for etc
.
The membership of [D2b] is numerous. Here are further examples, arranged by prepositions:
bring to deny to give to grant to hand to leave tolfor lend to offer to owe to promise to read to send to s h h to teach to throw to dofor find for makefor orderfor reservefor savefor sparefor
12 1 1
address to announce to communicate to explain to say to
-
Type [D11
:
thankfor prevent from protect from interest in accuse of convict of
convince of deprive of inform of persuade of relieve of remind of
rob of suspect of warn of congratulate on conjne to introduce to
refer to sentence to subject to treat to charge with compare with
Note that reflexive verbs (cf 6.25) sometimes occur with a prepositional object; eg: Wepride ourselves on the service we offer. Some of the verbs above (such as compare with) can have two inanimate objects. In Table 16.57, we have distinguished, under [D1 + 2a], verbs taking to as their preposition from those taking for; eg : ~
(i) She sent Paul a present. (ii) She made Paul a meal.
--
She sent a present to Paul. She made a mealfor Paul.
Occasionally, a preposition other than to andfor occurs in this function: (iii) She asked Paul a favour.
16.58
-
She asked a favour of Paul.
Distinct from [D2a] and [D2b] above is a kind of prepositional verb which has already been discussed in 16.7-8; a verb for which the direct object forms part of an idiomatic unit with the verb and the preposition. The syntactic properties of this type, which we label [D~c],have already been dealt with, and it is enough here to list a further sample of such idioms:
1212 Complementation of verbs and adjectives
catch sight of giveplace to give way to keep pace with lose sight of lose touch with lose track of
make allowancefor1 makefun of make a fuss ouer/aboutl make roomfor make use of l pay attention to' put an end to
Types of verb complementation 1213
put a stop to setfire to take account of take advantage of1 take care of1 take note of1 take notice of'
rare and formal in comparison with the similar infinitive construction (cf 16.63):
?I begged her that she should help. (formal) I begged her to help. (more uiual) For those verbs marked '0' the indirect object is obligatory;for those marked '(O)', the indirect object is optional; for those marked '((0))' the indirect object is not only optional, but unusual:
Those marked with a raised '1' can take not only a prepositional passive (cf 16.7-8) but also can easily take a passive for which the idiomatically-fixed direct object becomes subject; eg: (Some) aNowance was made for loss of earnings; (Little) notice was taken of this event. Other verbs can take the passive, but with greater difficulty;with these examples, as with prepositional verbs in general, idiomatic cohesion is a matter of gradience.
(i) advise (0) assure 0 bet (0) convince 0 forewarn (0) inform 0 notify30 persuade10 promise3(0)
Variants of ditransitive complementation
+
16.59
ID31 Indirect object that-ciause object Corresponding tomonotransitive verbsof Type [B31(cf 16.30)are ditransitive verbs for which the direct object is a that-clause:
The superscripts are interpreted as follows:
-
John convinced me (that) he was right. I wasconvinced (bx John) (that) he was right. The second passive is unacceptable when the direct object is a clause: *That he was right was convinced me. Thus the first passive (cf 16.55) above is the only passive that can occu~with this pattem. With some verbs, such as convince above, it is impossible to delete the noun phrase object:
1: Persuade in the sense of 'convince' belongs to Type (i); but it may also be used in a Type (ii) sense of 'persuade someone to do something'. 2: Write is found with an indirect object + that-clause especially in AmE. 3: With verbs so marked, the indirect object can be replaced by a prepositional object (cf 16.60). Note
*John convinced (that) he was right.
.
With other verbs, such as show, the indirect object is optional:
Ditransitive verb$ followed by a that-clause may be divided into a subtype introducing an indirect statement, and a subtype introducing an indirect directive (cf 14.33$. In the indirect statement, the that-clause contains an indicative verb; in the indirect directive the verb may be indicative or subjunctive, and often contains putative should or another modal verb (cf 16.32 for the distribution of these options): INDIRECTSTATEMENT:
May I infor/n you that your order is readyfor collection? INDIRECT DIRECTIVE :
Shepetitioned the king that herfather In the following list, Type (i) verbs introduce indirect statements, and Type (ii) verbs introduce indirect directives. The indirect directive construction is
Superficiallysimilar to the [D31 pattem is the 'impersonal'construction it strikes/stmck me (that) ,as in: It strikes me this work is for his own amusement. But here the thatclause (as in 16.34) is the extraposed subject of the verb. Compare: He strikes me as. .. (cf 16.46 Note [c]) and It occurs to me that. (cf 16.34 Note [cl).
.. .
..
-
The professor of mathematics showed me that Pythagoras was mistaken. The professor of mathematics showed that Pythagoras was mistaken.
(ii) ask3 ((0)) beg3 (0) charge (0) command ((0)) instruct ((0)) order ((0)) petition3(0) tell 0
remind 0 satisjL 0 show3(0) teach3 (0) tell 0 wager (0) warn (0) write2s3(0)
+
16.60
lD3prl Prepositional object that-clause object The verbs marked '3' in the above list can be optionally followed by a preposition, thus forming a category similar to [D2a]in 16.56: Hepromised ((to) me) that the debt would be repaid. For most verbs of [D31 which permit a prepositional object, the preposition is to: He wrote to me . . .
He reported to me that. . . etc
Exceptions are ask and beg, which (in somewhat formal usage) are followed by the preposition of:
I asklbeg of you that you will keep this secret. (formal) There is, in addition, a group of verbs which were classified in 16.31-32 as monotransitive, but which optionally allow the preposition to preceding a prepositional object. These may be distinguished as Type [D3pr], and subdivided into sub-types (i) and (ii), as in the parallel description of [B31 verbs:
1214 Complementation o f verbs and adjectives
Types of verb complementation
Joan mentioned (to me) that her father was sick. [Type(i)] Dr Day recommended (to her) that the treatment be continued. [ ~ ~(ii)] p e For example : (i) acknowledge admit announce complain confess
declare explain mention point out prove
remark report
(ii) propose recommend suggest
SOY
signal state
As before, Type (i)verbs introduce indirect statements, and the less numerous Type (ii)verbs introduce indirect directives. As before,too, some exceptional verbs take a preposition other than to: She demanded of me that. . . She agreed with me that. . .etc Unlike the nonprepositional verbs o f [D3],these prepositional verbs allow the that-clause to become subject o f a corresponding passive clause, an option which is more acceptable with extraposition: That several ministers are resigning has been admitted to our correspondent. It has been admitted to our correspondent that several ministers are resigning. It has been shown to us all that Miss Jones was innocent.
-
Without the preposition, it with an ordinary indirect object, such sentences are at best marginally gra~matical:?*Ithas beenshown usall that Miss Jones was innocent. Note
..
to me that . superficially appear to belong The constructionsof It a~~earslha~~ens/occurslseems to the pattern [D3prl: but in fact these contain monotransitiveverbs with an extraposed thatclause as subject: ' It ocnrred/seemeh'tome that he was lying. Cfsimilar patterns widhextrapositionin 16.34, 16.59 Note.
ID41 Indirect object + finite wh-clause object 16.61 This pattern o f complementation is primarily found with the verb ask, which introduces a reported question: \ John asked mk what time the meeting would end. I was asked (by John)what time the meeting would end.
-
Also used with this pattern are verbs which take an indirect object followed by a that-clause (Type (i) o f [D31),but for these the wh-clause tends to be limited t o nonasse$ve contexts (cf 16.35). Compare: George didn't tell them that the train was late. [l] George didn't tell them whether the train was late. L21 The differenceo f meaning between the that- and whether-constructionscan be stated in terms.of presupposition. Sentence [ l ]typically implies that the train was late, while [2]is noncommittal on the matter. [D41verbs can also introduce other question words such as where and how:
1215
Jim was reluctant to inform us (of)where he got the money. Would you remind me (about)how we start the engine? A preposition may always be placed before the wh-clause. In the above cases, the preposition is optional, but in the case o f verbs like enquire of (Type [D4pr])the preposition is obligatory: I enquired of the clerk which documents were needed. The complex preposition as to can be rather generally used for introducing the wh-clause; eg: I enquired . . . as to which documents were needed.
+
(D51Indirect object wh-infinitiveclause object This is yet another complementation pattern (comparable with [B51, 16.37) which may be taken by some verbs listed under [D31in 16.59: advise ask instruct remind show teach tell warn
-
The instructor taught us how to landsafely. W e were taught (by the instructor) how to land safely. They advised him what to wear in the tropics. Please remind me where to meet you afier lunch. The equivalent prepositional verb pattern [DSpr]is illustrated by suggest to, recommend to : Could you please suggest to the visitors which museums to visit? Here, as in the [D41type, a prepositional phrase introduced by as to can b e used: Helen advised us (as to) how to mainwin the machine.
+
[D61Indirect object to-infinitiveclause object W e have seen that the [D31 pattern may be used to introduce indirect statements, and that the [D41 pattern may be used to introduce indirect questions. Now we turn to the verbs o f class [D6],which introduce indirect directives (cf 14.33):
-
I told/advised]persuadedMark to see a doctor. Mark was told/advised/persuadedto see a doctor.
111
B1
This complementation category looks like those o f [B81and [CS],i n that the verb is followed by a noun phrase and an infinitive construction. But the [D63 pattern differsfrom these in that the noun phrase following the verb is a n indirect object, as will be clarified in 16.66 below. As with other verbs introducing indirect speech, the subject refers to the speaker o f some speech act, and the indirect object refers to the addressee. Like [D31 verbs, [D61 verbs form only the first passive exemplified in [2]above: we do not find *To see a doctor was told Mark. The following verbs belong to this class: advise ask beg beseech challenge1
command entreat counsel exhort forbid detail' implore direct enjoin' incite'
instruct invite' order persuade pray'
remind request1 recommend
teach tell urge
-
z L
\
4
Types of verb complementation 1217
1216 Complementationof verbs and adjectives
Each of these sentknces consistsof the sequence NI V NZto V N3, and yet we have analysed them respectively as monotransitive (SVO), complex transitive (S V 0 C,), and ditransitive (S V O,Od). A different analysis, in some ways more revealing, would recognize an overlap between two competing descriptions of the intermediate noun phrase NZ. There is little doubt that in [I] this is to be analysed as subject of the infinitive clause (cf 16.36); whereas in [3] there are equally strong reasons for regarding N* as (indirect) object of the main clause (cf 16.66):
Those verbs marked with a raised 'l'do not have the equivalent construction with a that-clause containing a modal or a subjunctive verb (Types [B3(ii)], [D3(ii)]). Contrast: They They
{t:;:}
her to stay another week.
{,t!?fzi] (her) that she would stay another week.
The alternative that-clause construction, however, is more formal, especially when the indirect object is present. Note
[a] The verb promise, when it occurs with this kind of complementation, is exceptional in that the understood subjectof the infinitiveis identified with the subject rather than with the object of the main clause: Sam promised me to get some food. = Sam promised me that he would get some food. # Sam promised me that Iwould get some food. The present pattern [D61is, however, less common with promise than the [B61pattern without the indirect object:Sampromisedfogef somefood. p]Only order can be followed by a passive infinitive: HL ordered them to be imprisoned/released.
I
Fig 16.64b Sentence [l]
Sentence[2], however,partakes of both these descriptions. From the semantic point of view, it requires the analysis of Fig 16.64b (cfi They expected [that James would win the race]). But from the structural point of view, the analysis in Fig 16.64~is more appropriate, reflecting N<s ability to become subject of the passive sentence :James was expected to win the race. We might reasonably say ihat in [2], NZbehaves like an bbject (0, rather than Oi) inrelation to the first verb, but like a subject in relation to the second, infinitive verb. The applied in 16.49ff to the intermediate noun phrase of term RAISED OBJECT, patterns [C4 - C7], incorporates yet another way of recognizing this double analysis, by envisaging a process whereby the subject of the infinitive becomes the object of the preceding finite verb. This raised object will be symbolized, in what follows, S/O.
Multiple analysis and gradience in verb complementation
16.64 Before we leave verb classification, it is important to reflect on the problems of dividing verbs into complementation ;types. The major division of complementation patterns into copular [A], monotransitive [B], complex transitive [C], and ditransitive [D] categories (introduced in 2.16) has been extended with little difficulty to include patterns in which the verb's complementation includes finite and nonfinite clauses. This is the basis for the classificatipn ~f verbs into types in 16.20-63 above. But unavoidably, our aim of presenting a clear classification has obscured some problems of gradience and!multiple analysis (cf 2.60ff), and to illustrate these we return to three superficially identical structures already discussed in 16.36. These are now illustrated with three new examples, each of which conforms to the pattern N, ViVz to V N3, (where N = noun phrase, and V = verb phrase): Table 16.64a
1 ;1 ; NI
[c41
\
They
:
V
expected
16.65 Given that the double analysis above provides some insight into clauses
\
NZ
to
V
N3
0
all parents 0 James
the students
1 to visit
+l
I
, the school
111
to win
the race
[2]
to attend
a lecture
[3]
Fig 16.64~Sentence [3]
containing nonfinite complementation, we could take such an analysis further, and apply it to all complex transitive patterns, including the more straightforward SVOC and SVOA patterns of [Cl - C3]: that John is a good driver. John to be a good driver. John a good driver. The parallelism of meaning and phrasal relations demonstrated in these three sentences recommends an analysis in which the complementation of pattern [C2], John a good driver,.woild be regarded as a ciause in its own right: ie as a verbless clause consisting of S = John and C, = a good driver, without an intervening V. This description would not, however, displace the by now familiar SV OdCOanalysis, but would rather be seen as an alternative way of looking at the same construction.
12 18
16.66
Complementation of verbs and adjectives
Types o f verb complementation 12 19
Gradience The technique of multiple analysis still leaves some subtleties unexposed. What this technique has suggested is that there are the following three categories corresponding to [l -31 in 16.64:
(d') to VN3 can marginally become the focus of a pseudo-cleft sentence: ?What they asked the students was to attend a lecture. (Contrast t h e decidedly unacceptable *What we like theparents is to oisit the schoot) (e') NZ,which like Oi in general is usually 'personal', can be detached from its place after the first V to become subject of a corresponding passive sentence : The students were asked to attend a lecture. (f') In a reduced construction, the infinitive marker to can be omitted: We asked them; We persuaded them; etc.
NZ= S:
We like allparents to visit the school. N2 = S/O: They expected James to win the race. NZ = 0: We asked the students to attend a lecture.
[l] L21 [31 But more than three categories can be appropriately distinguished if we recognize [ l ] and [3] as end-points of a gradient, with [2] at some point on the scale between them. This area of grammar affords a good example of gradience. At the monotransitive end of the scale, [I] can be characterized by a number of criteria which suggest that N, to VN3 (allparents to visit theschool) constitutes the direct object of an SVO pattern: (a) I t can be replaced by a pronoun referring to the clause or noun phrase nominalizing it: We like it; We Iike allparents' visits. (b) I t can be a n answer to a what-question: A: What do you like best? B: We like all parents to visit the school. (c) I n some dialects, it can be preceded by the infinitive clause introducer for: We like (it)for all parents to visit the school. (d) I t can easily (when preceded by for) be the focus of a pseudo-dleft sentence: What we Iike (best) isfor allparents to visit the school, (e) When the sequence NZto VN3 is turned into the passive form N3 to be Ved, by NZ,there is,no change of meaning: We like all parents to visit the school. = We like the school to be visited by all parents. (f) I n a reduced construction the infinitive marker to remains: We like them does not have the same meaning as We like them to. At the other, hitransitive end of the scale, a contrasting set of criteria characterize [3), and support the analysis of N2 (the students) as an indirect object and to VN3, (to attend a lecture) as a clausal direct object: (a') to VN3 can be replaced by a pronoun, a noun phrase, or a finite clause, with NZstill functioning as indirect object: l
We asked the students lwhat they wanted. (b') to VN3 can be the answer to a wh-question, while N2 functions as indirect o b r : A: W at did you ask the students? B : We asked them to attend a lecture. (c') When the sequence NZto VN3 is turned into the passive sequence N3 to be Ved, by NZ, the meaning is always changed: They asked the students to attend a lecture. # *They asked a lecture to be attended by the students. (In this case, indeed, the passive transform results in an absurdity.)
Note
[a] With some ditransitive verbs, criterion (a') has to be interpreted as the replacement of the infinitiveclause by a preposition and prepositionalobject (cf 16.56-8): They reminded him of his responsibilities. One man challengedthe other to a duel. [b] Criterion (d') is less reliable than the others, since the pseudosleft sentence is unacceptable for many verbs. But a pseudo-cleft sentence in which the indirect object is replaced by a prepositional object tends to be more grammatical: What they askedof the students was to attend a lecture. (The alternative construction with the substitute verb do, which alsooccurswith [l], is always more acceptable: What they asked the students to do was to attendo lecture.)
16.67
To give a simplified illustration of the analysis of gradience in the sequence N, VN2 to VN3, we now take a subset of the criteria listed above, and apply : them to a range,of verbs on the gradient connecting [l] and [3] of 16.66.
*
vERBcL*IB
(4)
!?k, tell,
t , allow,
etc
etc
(:;end,
expect, etc
want, like,
etc
(a') to V N3 can be replaced by a finite clause
+
-
-
-
(c') change o f meaning in passive of NZ ro V N3
+ +
+
-
-
+
+
-
(e') N Zcan become subject of passive Fig
16.67 A complementation gradient
The matrix uses only three criteria, and thereby distinguishes only four categories. This is sufficient to indicate the principle, however, that the three categories [B8], [C4], and [D61of our taxonomy could be broken down into a finer spectrum of categories between which the differences are small. I n effect, Fig 16.67 distinguishes two subcategories of [C4]: one (including elect and allow) which is closer to the ditransitive type, and one (including intend and expect) closer to the monotransitive type. Elect and allow respond to criterion (c') : They elected Miss Coe to succeed the present secretary. # *They elected the present secretary to be succeeded by Miss Coe. We don't allow residents to entertain visitors. # We don't allow visitors to be entertained by residents.
1220
Adjective complementation
Complementation of verbs and adjectives
while intend and expect do not:
Note
There is a considerable parallel, as the categories [El-ES] above demonstrate, between patterns associated with adiectives and those associated with monotransitive verbs. The chief difference is that adjectives cannot be followed by a noun phrase object. To bring out the parallel further, we could describe adjectives exemplified in 16.69 below (owrse to, conscious of, etc) as 'prepositional adjectives' comparable with prepositional verbs. We could moreover identify 'phrasaladjectives'(derived from participial formsofphrasal verbs) suchas nmdown('exhausted, depressed') and 'phrasal-prepositional adjectives' such as/ed up (with). These latter variants, however, are rare enough to be disregarded in the following lists.
16.69
Like prepositional verbs, adjectives often form a lexical unit with a following preposition: good at, fond oj; opposed to, etc. The lexical bond is strongest with adjectives for which, in a given sense, the complementation is obligatory: Max is averse to games .-U *Max is averse. Such adjectives are marked 'l' in the following lists. The lists make a distinction between participial (cf 7.15-19) and nonparticipial adjectives. The differencebetween participial adjectives and the -ed participle o f the passive construction is discussed in 3.75-77. These lists provide only a small sample o f the adjectives accompanying the prepositions concerned. In particular, it is often possible for the same adjective to go with two or more prepositions, as in angry about, angry at and angry with.
They intended the students to see the professor. = They intended the professor to be seen by the students. They expect the students to enjoy the classes. = They expect the classes to be enjoyed by the students. Note
For verbs in group (3). the voice of the infinitive clause and the voice of the main clause may be independently varied, with the result that a sentence like They expected the students to enjoy the classes has three corresponding passives with the same meaning: They expected the classes to beenjoyed by the students. = The students were expected to enjoy the classes. The classes were expectedto beenjoyed by the students. The last example has a passive verb phrase in both the superordinate clause and the infinitive clause.
{
Adjective complementation 16.68
Categories o f complementation in adjective phrases (cf 2.28, 7.21-2) are similar in variety t o those o f verb complementation. W e distinguish [El-E51 as follows : [El] Complementation by a prepositional phrase [E21 Complementation by a that-clause [E31 Complementation by a wh-clause [E41 Complementation by a than-clause [E51 Complementation by a to-infinitive clause [E61 Complementation by an -ing participle clause These complementation patterns can occur after an adjective (and its modifiers, i f any) i n various syntactic functions. For example: The violin (rather)dficult toplay. (adjectivd phrase as CJ \ Mary found(theviolin (rather)d13cuktoplay. (adjective'phrase as C,,) The violin is an instrument (rather)dz$cult toplay. (adjective phrase as postmodifier) The only positiob i n which an adjective cannot normally be followed by its complementation is the premodifying position in a noun phrase: *a keen child on chess. But here, too, with certain constructions (Types [E5(i)]and [E5(v)])the complementation can follow discontinuously after the head noun: The violin is a difficult instrument to play (cf discontinuity with comparative constructions, 15.75). For illustrative purposes, we will confine examples in the following sections to the subject complement function. The lists, like the verb lists in 16.20-63, will be selective.
1221
[ E l ] Adjective complementationby a prepositional phrase
ABOUT:
He was very worried about her reaction. (cf 9.60)
NONPARTICIPIAL
( PARTICIPIAL
aggrieved knowledgeable angry annoyed glad mad delighted happy reasonable AT: She was badat mathematics. (cf 9.62) NONPARTICIPIAL
PARTICIPIAL
angry brilliant clever
alarmed amused delighted
good hopeless terrible
frightened pleased worried
disgusted pleased puzzled
The village is remotefrom the bustle o f city life. (cf 9.18,9.47) dtfjerent distant distinct free remote
FROM:
OF:
She was aware of his difficulties.
I
NONPARTICIPIAL
afraid ashamed capable certain ON/UPON:
conscious' empty fond1 full
glad ~roudl short1 worthy
PARTICIPIAL
convinced scared tired
Their plan was based on cooperation.
NONPARTICIPIAL
contingent1 intent1 dependent keen
PARTICIPIAL
reliant1 severe
based1 bent'
set1
Adjectivecomplementation
1222 C o m p l e m e n t a t i o n of verbs a n d adjectives TO:
All capital gains are subject to taxation.
I
NONPARTICIPIAL
answerable averse1 WITH:
close. due'
liable1 similar
(that) you didn't call the doctor before.
{
I am surprised (that) anyone of your intelligence should swallaw a lie
PARTICIPIAL
accustomed1 allied1
angry busy comfortable compatible' content familiar friendly furious
I
drunk enchanted obsessed occupied overcome pleased satisJied taken1
[a] In general, choice of preposition remains the same after morphologically related verbs, adjectives, and nouns: diflerentfron~,d8er from, drflerencefiorn. But this correspondence is not always to be relied on: contrastfullofwith filled 1virh;proudofwithpride in. [b] Other prepositions which less commonly enter into adjective + preposition idioms includefor and towards: gratefulfir, sorryfor, inclined towards. [cl Used followed by the preposition to, a more informal synonymofaccustomed(to), is participial in spelling, but has the special pronunciation I'ju:sta/. Unlike accustonled, however, used does not occur with a following infinitive (cf 16.79). This adjectival used to, in spite of identity of spelling and pronunciation, is quite distinct from used to as a marginal modal (cf 3.44). Contrast: I'm used to hard work. I used to work hard. [dl In the past, prescriptive objections have been made to the use of to rather thanjiom after averse and dl@erent. However, to is the normal preposition to follow auerse, and dtflerent to is quite widely used (esp in BrE) as an alternative to dflerentjiom. On dlxerent than, cf 15.66 Note, 16.74. [el With can be obitted after (in)compatible if the subject is plural, cf 'mutual participation', 13.60: 'Car1 is incom atible. B : Carl and Eva are incompatible.
P
[E21 Adjective complementationby a that-clause 16.70
Like that-claus have :
7
S
following a verb, that-clauses following an adjective may \
(A) indicative verb: I am sure (that) he is here now. (B) subjunctive verb: They were insistent (that) we be ready. (formal) (C) putative should: I'm sorry (that) he should have left. (formal) The uses of th$ mandative subjunctive and of putative should have been discussed in 3.39 and 14.25 respectively. Putative should often occurs after expressions of emotion (sorrow, joy, displeasure, surprise, wonder, etc), and is often accompanied by intensifying expressions such as so, such, like this/ that, ever, or at all. The indicative that-clause, on the other hand, refers to an established fact.. The following pairs illustrate choices of construction:
I am sorry
It was natural for him to go to London after the war. = I t was natural that he should go to London after the war.
PARTICIPIAL
annoyed bored concerned delighted depressed disappointed disgusted dismayed distressed
happy impatient incompatible' sick uneasy
like that.
With some adjectives (those in category [E2b(ii)], 16.72) the should-clause can be paraphrased by an infinitive clause with a subject:
This plan is not compatible with our principles.
NONPARTICIPIAL
Note
l
1223
(that) I have to leave so early. (that) you should have been (so) inconvenienced.
That-clauses cannot be preceded by prepositions. Hence adjectives which are constructed with prepositions before noun phrases ([El]) drop the preposition before a that-clause (cf 16.28). Compare the following:
I am convinced
of his innocence. (that) he is innocent.
[Ell [E21
Many that-clauses following an adjective are actually subjects postponed by extraposition (cf 18.33): It is lucky (that) you came.
-
That you came is lucky.
These are listed separately in 16.72.
[EZa]Adjectives with experienwr (cf 10.23 Note) as subject 16.71
(i) ., THAT-CLAUSE HAS INDICATIVE VERB ONLY (CSNote [a] below) These adjectives express degrees of certainty or confidence: aware, certain, confident, sure: We were confident that Karen was still alive. ,
(ii)
THATCLAUSE HAS PUTATIVE SHOULD, OR SUBJUNCTIVE VERB
(or marginally also an indicative verb) The three principal adjectives in this class are anxious, eager, and willing: he should be permitted to resign? Are you willing that he be permitted to resign? ?he is permitted to resign? (On the distribution of these three alternatives, cf 16.30.)
{
(iii) THATCLAUSE HAS INDICATIVE VERB OR PUTATIVE SHOULD These adjectives express emotions: I'm so thankful that nobody was hurt. Were you surprised that Ray should win the prize? NONPARTICIPIAL
afraid hopeful angry proud glad sad grateful sorry happy thankful
I
PARTICIPIAL
alarmed amazed amused annoyed astonished
depressed disappointed distressed disturbed frightened
horrified irritated pleased shocked upset
There is a tendency to prefer the putative should construction in nonassertive contexts, or where the adjective has negative or unfavourable associations.
1224 Complementation of verbs a n d adjectives Note
16.72
Adjectivecomplementation 1225
[a] The restriction of Type (i) above to 'indicative verbs only' is meant to allow for the use of modal auxiliaries, including shouldin a nonputative sense; eg: l a m aware that Ishould[= 'ought to'] how joined long ago. [b] Afraid is unique among adjectives iri that it accepts the pronoun so (and its negative equivalent not) as a that-clause substitute (cf 16.31): I h r afiaidsolnot.
[E2bl Adjectives with anticipatory it as subject The that-clause in this construction is an extraposed subject. Three types are again distinguished, matching those in 16.71. (i) THAT-CLAUSEHAS INDICATIVE VERB ONLY (cf 16.71 Note [a]) These adjectives have to do with truth or knowledge: It is true that she never comes on time. apparent evident likely possible untrue implicit certain obvious true well-known indubitable plain clear unlikely (ii) THATCLAUSE HAS PUTATIVE SHOULD, OR SUBJUNCTIVE VERB (or marginally, also, an indicative verb) These adjectives express concepts concerned with modality or volition: I t is essential that the ban
should be lifted tomorrow. be lifted tomorrow. (?)is lifted tomorrow.
appropriate essential important necessary vital compulsory fitting impossible obligatory . crucial imperative improper proper Various de4erbal adjectives ending in -able also belong to this group, eg: advisable, desirable, preferable. (iii) THATCLAUSEHAS INDICATIVE VERB OR PUTATIVE SHOULD This group consists mainly of emotive adjectives, and includes a large number of participial adjectives ending in -ing: she should beio late. PARTICIPIAL
awkward curious , disastrous I dreadful 1 extraordinary fortunate irrational
logical odd peculiar sad silly tragic unfortunate
alarming annoying depressing disappointing embarrassing frightening irritating
perplexing pleasing shocking surprising
Various -able/-ible adjectives also belong to this group: admirable, commendable, deplorable, despicable, incomprehensible, inconceivable, lamentable, remarkable, understandable, unjustifiable, etc.
Note
[a] Although the pro-forms so and not cannot be used after these [EZb] adjectives (cf 16.71 Note [b]), there is a possibilityof replacing the adjective + solnot by a related adverb + solnor: B: Yes' obciously'fOrtu'tate'yso' A: It is apparent that she lives/doesn't live here. ' [B : No, eoidenfly/sadly not. [bl When an adjective of Type (iii) above occurs after a modal verb construction, the thot-clause is commonly replaced by an ifelause. If the modal verb in the main clause is hypothetical (eg: would), the verb in the $*lause is placed in the hypothetical past. Compare: It is sad that you have to leave. It will be sad ifyou haw to leave. It would be sad ifyou hod to leave.
[E31 Adjective c o m p l e m e n t a t i o n by a wh-clause As with that-clauses, we have to distinguish those adjectives ([E3a]) which are predicated of an experiencer (normally a person) as subject, and those ([E3b]) which go with anticipatory it. In the latter case, the wh-clause is a n extraposed subject. Examples are:
what I should say. whether the problem was solved. [E3b] I t was unclear what the; would do. [E3a] I was unsure
111 [2] [31 Type [E3a] consists of adjectives which are constructed with prepositions, and which therefore belong also to Type [El]. The preposition is sometimes omitted before the wh-clause (cf 15.5 Note [c]). In Type [E3b], on the other hand, no preposition can be inserted: *It was unclear oflabout what they would do. Also no infinitive wh-clause is possible (cf 16.37): It is unsure where to go is unacceptable unless it refers to some animate being (such as a mouse), and is consequently not interpreted in terms of extraposition. Returning to Type [E3a], we note that in some cases the adjective takes a wh-clause in assertive contexts: eg: careful (about), doubtful (as to), fussy (about), puzzled (as to), unclear (about), uncertain (of), undecided (about), unsure (of), unaware (of) : John is careful (about) what he does with his money. Most of these adjectives are intrinsically negative in meaning. In other cases, although elsewhere it is associated with an indicative that-clause [EZa(i)], the adjective tends to occur with a wh-clause in nonassertive contexts (cf 16.35), eg: aware, certain, clear, sure: Are you sure (of) how much the machine costs? I wasn't altogether clear (about) what we had to do. A similar division may be made among adjectives of the anticipatory-it type ([E3b]). Those which intrinsically express doubt, and therefore take this structure even in assertive contexts, include doubtful, uncertain, unclear, unsure, and unknown. Those normally occurring with an indicative that-clause (ie Type [E2b(i)]) include apparent, certain, obvious, and plain. They can take a wh-clause in nonassertive contexts. Each type is illustrated in: It was unclear whether an amendment would be accepted. It was not obvious how far the westernization process would go.
Adjectivecomplementation
1226 Complementation o f verbs and adjectives
After adjectives of Type [E3a] there may also occur an infinitive wh-clause: I was uncertain (oJ) what to do. This is preferable to the finite clause in cases illustrated by [l-31 above, since the subject can remain unexpressed in the reduced nonfinite version.
16.74
[E41 Adjective complementationby a than-clause There is a n unusual construction in which a noncomparative adjective is followed by a comparative than-clause as complementation. Different is the only adjective which fits into this pattern, and even then there is a tradition which regards the use of than here as improper. There is, however, no felicitous alternative to the different than construction in examples such as:
She's quite a dlyerent girl than she wasfive years ago.
In these types it is possible to insert a subject preceded by for; eg in Type (vi): Thefood is ready (fbr the children) to eat.
E
Note
16.76
attitude[$^^}
Infinitive complementation following adjectives modified by too and enough is discussed elsewhere, in 15.73.
[ES(i)l Bob is splendid to wait Type (i) has an analogue in a construction involving extraposition (cf 18.33): It is splendid of Bob to wait. This type of construction also permits a head noun between the adjective and the infinitive:
Ifo
Bob must be a splendid crajisman to have build built }this house.
[l]
As this example shows, the infinitive may be perfective. We may also compare constructions in which an evaluative noun with its determiner replaces the adjective:
The various stylistic variants of, and alternatives to, the than-clause after different are examined in 15.66 Note [b]. When the clause is reduced to a noun phrase, it becomes possible to usefiom as an alternative to than: The unions a n taking a very different
the employers. You're
When the noun phrase following than/from cannot be derived by ellipsis from a clause, than is decidedly less acceptable thanfrom: those of the northern part of the country.
These adjectives can also occur with anticipatory it and an ofphrase as additional complementation (416.82):
i
It wasfoolish of you to spend so much.
16.77 16.75
[E51 ~djective' complementationby a to-inf initive clause We distinguish seven kinds of construction in which an adjective is followed by a to-infiniti~e~clause. They are exemplified in the following sentences, which are superficially alike:
I
Bob is splendid to wait. Bob is slow to react. Bob is sorry to hear it. Bob is hesitant to agree with you. Bob is hard to convince. The food is r ady to eat. It is importa t to be accurate.
Bob is slow to react.
\
Npte
-
Bob reacts slowly.
There is also a partial adverbial analogue (c/ 8.127ff) for Type (i), but in Type (i), unlike Type (ii), the perfective infinitive, and even the get-passive(cf3.66) can be used: Joan was wise to resign. Joan wisely resigned. loan was careless to get beaten. Joan carelessly got beaten. Joan is careless to have got beaten.
-
d
In Types (i-iv) the subject of the main clause (Bob) is also the subject of the infinitive clause. We can therefore always have a direct object in the infinitive clause if its verb is transitive. For example, if we replace intransitive wait by transitive build in (i), we can have: Bob is splendid to build this house. For Types (v-vii), on the other hand, the subject of the infinitive is unspecified, although thecontext often makesclear which subject is intended.
[ES(ii)]Bob isklow to reuct In Type (ii), the sentence corresponds to one in which the adjective becomes an adverb, while the infinitive becomes the finite verb: In another analogue, the adjective is followed by in and a n -ing participle: Bob isslow in reacting. The infinitive verb phrase must be simple: for example, unlike the infinitive phrase in [E5(i)], it cannot be perfective: *Bob isslow to have reacted. Other adjectives in this small group are quick andprompt.
l
(i) (ii) (iii) (iv) (v) (vi) (vii)
to wait for me.
wise ' careful crazy mad silly caretess greedy nice unwise wrong
{?g}
[a] On different from and dflerent to, cf 16.69 Note [dl. [b] It is also possible for a than-clause to be used after the adverb d~rerently: In the west of the country, they pronounce their vowels quite d~rerenflython (they do) in the ' east. The same prescripti<eobjections are made to dfirently than as todifferent than.
(~~'"~}
Adjectives in this group are evaluative of human behaviour. They include :
The main languages of southern India are totally different in origin
Note
1227
16.78
-
[ES(iii)l Bob is sorry to hear it In Type (iii), the head of the adjective phrase is an emotive adjective (commonly a participial adjective), and the infinitive clause expresses causation :
l
Adjective complementation 1229
1
1228 Complementation of verbs and adjectives
l
I'm sorry t o have kept you waiting. ['I'm sorry because I have kept you : waiting'] I was excited to be there. [ - 'To be there excited me']
We are accustomed to take tea on the terrace. (formal) He was wont to leave the office at 5 p.m. (formal, archaic)
Adjectives in this group correspond closely to the adjectives followed by a that-clause in 16.71 (Type [EZa(iii)]):
.
.
NONPARTICIPIAL
PARTICIPIAL
afraid angry ashamed content furious glad
annoyed disgusted astonished dissatisfied bored embarrassed fascinated concerned delighted frightened depressed interested disappointed overjoyed
happy impatient indignant jubilant thankful
16.80
overwhelmed perturbed puzzled relieved surprised worried
Bob is hard
awkward convenient d#cult easy
IE5(iv)j Bob is hesitant to agree with you or a modal meaning such as ability, possibility, or liability. Examples are: PARTICIPIAL
able anxious apt certain [E2b] curious due eager eligible fit [E51 free[E5] i ; greedy ' hesitant impotent
determined disposed fated [E2b] inclined poised prepared (all) set unqual$ed
keen liable likely [E2b] loath powerless prone ready [E51 reluctant sure [E2b] unable welcome willing worthy
l
-
+
Jack is easy to fool. = Jack is easyfor anyone to fool. Note
16.81
Some of the most common adjectives in this list have a tendency to coalesce with the preceding copula to form a semi-auxiliary verb (cf 3.47): be able to, be willing to, be sure to. In addition to modal and volitional adjectives, some adjectives of aspectual meaning, such as accustomedand wont may be placed here :
With some adjectives in this group, such as nice or unpleasant, the entailment relation between be + adjective to V and be + adjective is less easy to avoid; eg: Jenny is nice to know implies that Jenny is nice.
[ES(vi)l Thefood is recrdy to eat Again, in this type the subject of the main clause is identified with the object of the infinitive clause. But unlike Type (v), Type (vi) has no analogous construction with an infinitive clause subject: The food is ready to eat.
\
Those marked [E51 are capable of occurring with an infinitive construction of 'passive' meaning, ie with an indefinite implied subject and a coreferential implied object: I l They are not fit to eat. = They are not fit to beeaten.
tough (informal) tricky (informal) unpleasant
hard impossible nice (informal) pleasarit
Unless there is ellipsis, we cannot omit the infinitive clause, and so there is no semantic implication between (say) The bread was hard to bake and The bread was hard. Unlike the preceding types, Type (v) permitsfor subject to be inserted at the beginning of the infinitive clause: Those darts are tricky (for a beginner) to use. Where the infinitive has no overt subject, its implicit subject is understood to,have an indefinite meaning:
The adjectives marked [E2b] occur with a corresponding construction with extraposition of q~ that-clause: Jill is likely attend. It is likely that Jill will attend.
-
To convince Bob is hard. convince.{- It is hard to convince Bob.
Adjectives so used refer to degrees of ease or comfort, and include:
16.79 In Type (iv), the head of the adjective phrase expresses volitional meaning, NONPARTICIPIAL
[E5(v)IBob is hard to convince In Type (v), the subject of the sentence is identified with the unexpressed object of the infinitive clause, which must therefore have a transitive verb; hence the unacceptable *Bob is hard to arrive. There is an analogous construction in which the adjective is complement to an infinitive clause acting as (extraposed) subject (cf 18.36):
*To eat the food is ready.
Also, we can generally (a) omit the infinitive clause, or (b) substitute a passive infinitive clause without change of meaning: Are these cups available (to use)? = Are these cups available (to be used)?
l
Some adjectives of this type, such as available,fit,free, ready, and sufficient, belong additionally to Type (iv), so that a sentence like The lamb is ready to eat is ambiguous, in one sense (the most accessible) being equivalent to the passive The lamb is ready to be eaten. Then there is a wider set of adjectives which often occur without complementation a t all : The air isfrosty (to breathe). Its fur is soft (to touch).
Complementationof abstract nouns 1231
1230 complementation of verbs and adjectives
In both Type (v) and Type (vi), the subject of the main clause can be equated with the prepositional object of the infinitive clause, so that the infinitive clause ends with a deferred preposition:
The cartons are worth(whi1e) saving. (- It's worth(whi1e) saving the cartons). (iv) There is a variant construction in which a preposition occurs between the adjective and the participle clause. In some cases the preposition is optional (cf (i) above): I'm busy (with) getting the house redecorated. We're fortunate (in) having Aunt Mary as a baby-sitter. In other cases, the preposition is obligatory: We are used to not having a car (cf 16.69 Note [c]). I'm hopeless at keeping the garden tidy. She's not capable of looking after herself.
She is pleasant to talk to. (- It is pleasant to talk to her.) This paper is terribly flimsy to write on. Is the cloth sufficient to make a dress out of?
+
In Type (vi), as well as in Type (v), for subject may be inserted before the infinitive verb: Are these books free Cfor visitors) to borrow? [= 'Are these books available. . . to borrow?']. [ES(vii)l It is important to be accurate 16.82 We saw in 16.72 that a that-clause following an adjective may prove to be a subject postponed by extraposition (cf 18.33). A to-infinitive clause following an adjective may have the same source:
-
Note
It is essential to spray the trees every year. To spray the trees every year is essential. The infinitive clause can also be introduced by for
+ subject:
It is vital (for the children) to be properly clad. It will be strange (for us) to be living alone.
[a] The adjectival constructions in (il) above may be compared, in some cases, with nominal constructions of equivalent meaning: It's no goodluse telling him anything. There's no point (in) telling him anything. Such constructions are introduced either by anticipatory it (cf 18.33) or by existential there (cf 18.45). AmE also has There'sno use tellmng hrm anything. [b] Worthwhile is sometimes spelled as two words. The vacillation between the spellings worthwhile and worth while reflects an unclarity about the status of this sequence, which may alternatively be regarded as the preposition worth (cf9.6) followed by a noun. Compare: It's not worrh your while siaying.
It's not
Adjectives of Types (ii) and (iii) in 16.72 ([E2b]) may have this construction: important,fortunate, lucky, surprising, etc. Possible also belongs to this group. An additional group of adjectives occurring after anticipatory it are those adjectives (chiefly naming evaluative attributes of persons) which occur in pattern [E5(i)] (cf 16.76). The adjective in this group is often followed by an of-phrase identifying the person(s) being discussed: It was wrong (of him) to tell lies.
Complementation of abstract nouns
It is nice of you to phone. 16.84
[E61Adjective'complementation by an -ing participle clause L6.83
A number of sub-types of this pattern may be mentioned. (i) Busy is followed by an -ing participle clause without subject:
,
Margery islbusy writing letters. l (ii) Worth and worthwhile, on the other hand, occur both with and without subject: It is scarcely worth(whi1e) (youlyour) going home. Here worth(whi1e) follows preparatory it, and the participle clause is an extraposed sqbject (cf 18.34). Other adjectives of this pattern arepointless and useless (It's pointless buying so much food), and adjectives of Type [E2b(iii)] (cf 16.72) also sometimes have this complementation: absurd, awkward,fortunate, annoying, etc. (iii) Elsewhere worth and worthwhile accompany an -ing participle clause without subject, but with a passive meaning, comparable to that of the infinitive clause in pattern [E5(v)](cf 16.80):
In this concluding section we will show, as a connecting link between this chapter and the next, how the patterns of complementation described for verbs and adjectives in 16.20-83 are also to be found with abstract nouns which are morphologically related to those verbs and adjectives. (Cf nominalization, 17.5lfl, and appositional constructions, 17.26, 17.35.) For example, the noun likelihood is derived from, and semantically related to, the adjective likely. It is therefore not surprising that a construction associated with the adjective is found with the corresponding noun: It is likely that Joan will get married. The likelihood is that Joan will get married. the likelihood that Joan will get married
111 121 [3]
But the assumption of correspondence cannot be automatic, for it may fail in both directions: Joan is likely to get married. *Joanls likelihood to get married *It is likely of Joan's getting married. n the likelihood of Joan's getting married
.
1232 ~ o m p l e r n e n t a t i o nof verbs and adjectives
I n t h e following section, w e illustrate how m a n y of these patterns c a n b e matched w i t h corresponding patterns of noun complementation. S o m e fairly regular changes, i t will b e observed, take place i n t h e conversion from t h e verb o r adjective p a t t e r n s t o their nominalizations (cf 17.51jj'). F o r instance, a preposition m u s t b e inserted between a head noun a n d a n immediately following n o u n p h r a s e o r adjective. T h e list begins with monotransitive patterns, because t h e r e a r e n o nominalized forms of copular v e r b complementation. ( M a n y o f t h e n o u n complementation particularl; in categories [C] a n d [D], a r e stylistically awkward.)
16.85
Table 16.85 Verbladjective and noun complementation compared VERB~ADJECTIVECOMPLEMENTATION
NOUN COMPLEMENTATION
[Bl] [B21 [BZpr] [B31 [B41 [B51 [B61 [B71
He examined the room. Paul lacks confidence. They rely o n her. I predict that it'll rain. I doubt whether he will win. We enquired(about) where to go. She refused t o answer. He denied having taken it.
[B81 [B91
X needs us to work harder. She resented his/him losing.
his examination of the room Paul's lack of confidence their reliance on her my prediction that it'll rain my doubt (about) whether he will win our enquiry (about) where.to go her refusal to answer ?his denialof having taken it (c8 his denial of the theft) the need for us to work harder her resentment of his/him losing
[Cl ~ r Thev l elected Joe (as) leader. [ ' ~ 2 p r jX c&tified Max (&)insane. [C31 X expelled Sue from school. i Jim to be boss. [c41 ~ h echose [C71 Wegot her elected.
their election of Joe as leader the certification of Max as insane the exmlsion of Sue from school their ihoice of Jim to be boss *our getting of her elected
[Dl] [D21 [D31 [D3pr] [D41 [D51 [D61
Ipaid him five pounds. It protected Rio from attack. X warnedus that it would snow. He admitted to me that he told lies. X reminde'd us (of) who he was. X advised us (on) what to do. S ~ invited G m e to stay.
my payment to him of five pounds theprotection of Rio from attack the warning to us that it would snow his admission to me that he told lies X's reminder to us of who he was the advice to us on what to do her invitarion to me to stay
[El] [E21 [E31 [E51 [E61
I was impazient with Freda. It was certdin that we would lose. I was carefil (over) what to say. Sam was qliick to reply. I was lucky meeting you.
my impatience with Freda \the certainty that we would lose my care over what to say Sam's quickness to reply my luck in meeting you
These structures, w i t h abstract nouns will b e studied further i n t h e next I chapter.
l
Bibliographical note On phrasal verbs afld other types of multi-word verbs, see Akimoto (1983); Bolinger (1971a); Carvell and Svartvik (1969);Cowie and Mackin (1975); Dixon (1982b); Fraser(1976); Kennedy (1920); Live (1965); Makkai (1972); Sroka (1972); Witton(1979).
Bibliographical note 1233 On general asoects of verb classification and comdementation. see Alexander and Kunz (1964)T~llerton(1982);Bresnan (1970); Chomsky (1985,Ch. 2); illm more (1968, l977a, 1977b); Halliday (1967-1968); Jain (1978); Lyons (1977, Ch. 12);Rosenbaum (1967a. 1967b); Ureland (1973). Some basic patterns of complementation are discussed in Bald (1972); DuBkovA (1976); Fillmore (1965); Huddleston (1969). On verb complementation by finite clauses (especially by that-clauses), see Behre (1955); Greenbaum (1976a. 1977a); G. M. Horn (1978); Kiparsky and Kiparsky (1970); Quirk (1981); Storms (1966). On verb complementation by nonfinite constructions, see Andersson (1985); Bladon (1968); DuSkovi (1979); Eagleson (1972);van Ek (1966); Freed (1979);MachlEek (1965). On the properties of specific verbs with regard to meaning and complementation, see Bald and Quirk (1970); Behre (1973); Bolinger (1971b); Fodor (1970); Kempson and Quirk (1971); Pittman (1970); Poldauf (1967); Postal (1971); Zandvoort (1961). On adjectivecomplementation,see Alexanderand Matthews(1964);Bolinger (l96la); Herbst (1983. , . 1984): , . Lees (1960b). . , Other studiesrelevant tocomplementationinclude Bridgeman (1965); Emonds (1976); Nickel (1968); Norrick (1979); Nosek (1965); Postal (1974).
.48 .49-50
Restrictive and nonrestrictive prepositional postmodif cation Positioti ;~ntlv;~rictlSt~nction;~l rcl;~lionsl)ip
17.51-54 Nominalization .S4 Tlic gr;lclicncc I'roln tlcvcrh;~lIlouns via vcrl>:~Illollns to participles 17.55-60 .55 .56-59 .S7 .58 .59 .60
.S9 .90 .91 .92 .93
Premodification Types of pre~nodifyingitem Restrictive and nonrestrictive premodification Premodification by adjectives Nonpredicative adjectives Prcmodification by - i t r ~p;~rticiplcs Prcmodilicatio~~ by -(,(lp;lrticiplcs Premodification by nouns Plural attributive nouns Premodification by genitive Premodification by adverb and other phrases Premodification by sentence Relative sequence of premodifiers Precentral, central, postcentral, and prehead position General principle for the order of premodiliers Hypotactic relations and order of premodifiers Multiple adjectivelnoun premodification The 'group genitive' Multiple heads
Minor t y p e s of postmodification Postmodification by adverb phrase Postposed adjectives Type (a) :.sonlehody higger Type (h): (I n~is!rrkcf~~l)icr~lr?/'&~itorrr.v Type (c) : !he presiclen! elect Postposed 'mode' qualifier: Lobster Nelvburg
17.61-64 Multiple postmodification .62 Ambiguity and constraints on multiple postmodification .63-64 Pushdown elements 17.65-93 .65 .66 .67 .68 .69 .70 .71 .72 .73 .74-87 .75-80 .76 .77-78 .78 .79 .80 31-84 .82 .83 .S4
35-87 .86 .87 .88-91
Apposition The nature of apposition Full and partial apposition Strict and weak apposition Nonrestrictive and restrictive apposition Definedldefining relationships Combinations of appositional types More than two units in apposition Ambiguity between apposition and other constructions Explicit indicators of apposition The scale of strict nonrestrictive apposition (A) Equivalence (Ai) Appellation (Aii) Identification Postponed and anticipated identification (Aiii) Designation (Aiv) Reformulation (B) Attribution Defining appositive with article omitted The relation of apposition to verbless adverbial clause Defining appositive with adverbial (C) Inclusion (Ci) Exemplification (Cii) Particularization Strict restrictive apposition
Geographical namcs Citations Apposi~ivcswill1 1ii111ics 01' pcrso~is Weilk apposilio~l Apposition with general nouns
17.121-122 .l21 .I22
Special relations b e t w e e n heads a n d modifiers Some problems of coordination Discontinuity between head and modifier
17.123-124 .l23 .l24
Conclusion Reduced explicitness and increased economy structure Types of noun-phrase structure in relation to variety Bibliographical n o t e
lntroduction 1239
1238 The noun phrase
lntroduction ,
17.1
T h e indefinitely c o m p l e x n o u n p h r a s e Just as the sentence may be indefinitely complex, so may the noun phrase. This mus! be so, since sentences themselves can be reshaped so as to come within noun-phrase structure. For example, the Sollowing sentences [la--c], simple and complex, can bccotnc one silnplc scntcncc [2] with n vcry complcx noun phrase as subject: The girl is Mary Smith. The girl is tall. 'I'hc girl was standing in Lhc corncr. You waved to thc girl when you cntercd. The girl became angry because you knocked over her glass. Tllc. tallgirl stnr~rlirlgirr tlre confer who hecnrtle (rtlgr~'hecorrse yolr litloclieclo~!erher g/cr,s.sc~/ic,r~'orc 11~crr~ec1 to Ire. 11.1rcrl~'otrc,rttcrecl is , Mary Smith.
17.2
(A) The HEAD, around which (for the most part) the other constituents cluster and which dictates concord with other parts of the sentence: [The tall girl standing in the corner] is my sister. [The tall girls standing in the corner] are my sisters.
I saw the tall girl in [the
/*::L
/
has a blue sweater] is my sister.
whiclt
(D) The POSTMODIFICATION, comprising all the items placed after the head, notably: prepositional phrases: the car ofct.si(lerlrr .src~r;~rf nonfinite clauses: the car stor~clit~g otrr.sic1~tile .srutiott relative clauses: the car tltat stoorl outsitl~~ the smriorl complementation (cf 15.63f): a bigger car rlrarr tl~crr
[21
Noun-phrase constituents In describing noun phrases we need to distinguish the following constituent parts:
[The tall giri in the corner
(C) The PREMODIFICATION,which comprises all the items placed before the hcad other than dcterminatives, notably adjectives (or, rather, adjective phrases, cj'7.20) and nouns: some furniture some experlsice furniture some r?cJryc.\pcr~.sir,c,furniture solnc r)~,ry~'.v/i~,tf.sirr r$icr, l'urniturc some very cery e.~pe)@)f.si~e office furniture
[lal [Ibl IIcl lldl [Icl
Moreover, starting from [2], we could reconstruct any of thc sentences listed in [la-e]- and in fact we could not understand the noun-phrase subject (printed in italics) of [2], unless we recognized its constituent parts as they are set out in [la-e]. Yet [2] has introduced many changes. We have, for example, suppressed all or part of the verbs in[Ic] and [Id]; we have put tall, which is complement in [I b], as a modifier before the noun girl; we have replaced the girl of [le] by 1~110. After describing determinatives and nouns in Chapter 5, the purpose of the present chapter is to state the conditions governing the making of noun phrases by processes such as those indicated above.
was full of people].
(B) The DETERM~NAT~VE, which includes (a) predeterminers, ie all items which can precede any central determiner (includingzero article) in a noun phrase, eg: all, both, double (cf 5.15,ff): both those musicians all the furniture (b) central determiners, including those items listed in 5.1 l,J; eg the articles, this, sorne: all those finelilusicians some new office furniture
(c) ~x)sltlclcr~llincr.s,wl~iul~li~llow c c ~ ~ l r ;t ~l cl l c ~ l ~ ~ i 11111 ~ ~ c ~I)ICC.C(ICI .s premodifiers, eg adjectives. Postdeterminers include c3g numerals, mur~y,/rw,secerul (cf5.20.J): the mutfy new offices the.1i.11'survivors
17.3
Restrictive a n d nonrestrictive modification Modification can be restrictive or nonrestrictive. The modilication is RESTRICTIVE when the reference of the head is a member of a class which can be identified only through the modification that has bcen suppl~ed.The girl in example [2] in 17.1 is only identifiable as Mary Smith provided we understand that it is the particular girl who is tall, who was standing in the corner, and who became angry. Such modification would not have been actually necessary unless there had bcen other girls present, tall but not in the corner, or in the corner but not tall, or who had not become angry. Restrictiveness, then, indicates a l~mitationon the possible reference of the head. Alternatively, the referent of a noun phrase may be viewed as unique or as a member of a class that has been independently ident~fied(for example in the preceding context). Any modification given to such a head is additional information which is not essential for identification, and we call it NONRESTRICTIVE. For example, the relative clause is110 is irr the confer in [I] is nonrestrictive: Mary Smith, ~vltois in the corner, wants to meet you. [I1 By reason of being designated by a proper name, Mary Smith's identity is independent of whether or not she is in the corner (though the information on her present location may be useful enough). If a man says [2], the daughter is identified as being one out of two daughters in the family and also as younger than the other daughter: Come and meet my yourzgerdaughter.
[21 [2] is thus an example of restrictive premodification. If, on the other hand, a
Introduction
1240 The noun phrase
The predications OSthe two clauses [2a] and [2h] are contrastive. Nonrestrictive relative cl;~uscsInEly ;~lsoimply othcr ;ttlvcrhi;~lf ~ ~ n c t i o n s , st~cll;IS ci~tlsc('I>CC;IIIS~ IIC II;I(!1hec11very IIcI~IIII', 'l'or I)ci111:vc1.y I I c I ~ I ' L I I ' ) ill [31:
man (in a monogamous society) says [3], the premodifier hercutyirl is ~~n~lcrstootl ;IS nonrcstriclivc: Come and meet my hecrrc/$rl wife.
1241
1.11
Another cx;~mplc: l tlon'l want him I 0 put his rqly ~loscillto my I~ousc; I ~ ; I ~ I I .
1111
S C I I ~ C I ~[I]. C C[3], S ilnd [4] arc incvitahly nonrcstriolive since - being trcntctl as unique - Mary Snritlr, ii,i/h, iu1d nose, in tllcsc sentences will not :~tlini( restriction. But almost any head that can be restrictively modified is also susceptible of nonrestrictive modification, eg: L51 is Mary Smith. The tall girl, iid~ois (I cl~~r~ti.st, Here the only infor~nationoffered to identify the girl as Mary Smith is the allusion to her tallness; the mention of hcr work as a dentist is not offered as an aid to identification but for additional interest. Other nouns which have nonrestrictive postmodification include those with generic reference: The giant panda, which is to hejouiid in the remote parts of China, lives exclusively on bamboo shoots. Note
In "o~ularnarrative style, there is a nonrestrictive use of pre~nodifyingadjective in c;ises like the.foilowing(cfcleft sentences. 18.26Note [bl): Reporters hounded an e~~lbnrrrrssed Ben Miles over his TV galfe I;lst week and in reply to one questioner the rr,l/ropp,v Milesmade things still worse by. . .
Hy conlr;Ist, rcstrictivc rclillivc cl;ltlscs will1 gc~icr;~l ;~~tIccctlcnIs (c:/'17.21) express conditional rcli~tionship,t.g: Students ivlro ~vorkhorcl pass thcir cx;tms. ['ISstt~tlcntswork hard, they pass their exams.'] 17.5
Proper nouns cannot have restrictive modification whcn they have the normal unique denotation. However, whcn the proper noun tc~nporarily takes on features of a common noun, restrictive modific:ttion is possible (cf 5.64): the Springfield that is in Illinois the Johrrsor~who wrote the dictionary
[I] [21 Nor are restrictive relative clauses possible with nonnoininal t~ntccedents (cf'sentential relative clauses', 17.9): He likesdogs, which surprises me.
*I won.t see anyperson, {anyone,
17.4
The fact that nonrestrictive relative clauses are not essential for identification enables us in [ l ] and [la] to make different parts of the sentence into a relative clause: Ill My brother, who is all engineer, lives in America. [lal My brother, who lives in America, is an engineer. Semantic equivalence is still preserved in [I] and [la] (although there is a difference in focus). A nonrestrictive relative clause may resemble an adverbial clause (cf simultaneous meaning, 15.28), eg: My brother, ivho has lived in Americafor over 30 years, can still speak Italian.
[21
In [2], the relative clause is grammatically optional, like any othcr nonrestrictive item, but semantically obligatory as the correlate of still in the superordinate clause. The relative clause here can be paraphrased as an adverbial clause [2a], with initial position (unlike the relative clause) [2bl, or as an adverbial prepositional phrase [2c]: My brother can still speak Italian, although he has lived in America jor over 30 years. Altl~oughhe has lived b~America for over 30 years, my brother can still speak Italian. A$er over 30 years iii America, my brother can still speak Italian.
Pal [2bl [2c]
131
Nonassertive heads cannot have nonrestrictive modification: ) W ~ Ohrs
not made m appointment.
141
By contrast, nonrestrictive modification is possible with assertive heads: Someone, who sounded like your mother, called to say she wanted to see you.
151 Nonspecific determiners like any, all, and eoery usually have only restrictive modification : *Every hook, which is written to deceive the reader, should be banned. *ANthestudents, who had failed the test, wanted to try again.
L61 [71 However we may occasionally find nonrestrictive 'as well as restrictive modification, as in: All thestudents, who had returned from their vacation, wanted to take the exam.
181 But positional variation of all is possible only with a nonrestrictive clause (cf 5.16,6.50): The stude~lts,who had all (ofthenr) returned from thcir vacation, failed the test. Pal *The students who had all (ofthenl) failed the test wanted to try again. [sal
1242 The noun phrase
17.6
Just as some modifiers are too strongly identified with temporary status to :Ippcilr in prchc:lci position, so thcrc can hc motlilic;~lionconstr:linccl to prchcad position hccausc it indicates pcrnlallcnt st;~ttts.'l'lll~sthe toe wllicl~ is characteristically (and permanently) big in rclation to thc rcst is called t l t ~ hig too, and WC cannot say of it *The toe is hi8 willlout tlcstroying this permanent characteristic and making the cxprcssion sccm to rcl'cr only (for example) to a tcmporary swelling. Compilrc also 1/71>orifi.irtrr1['first, carlicst'] vprsioi~beside His 118orkis quite origi~rol['of;I new type'], which would permit ;~dvcrhi:llintlic:~tionoftimc sp;ld (IIOII,, ol~~.r~:s, ctc; cf7.K7).
WC sh;lll draw ilttcntion to the distinction between restrictive and types 1;ltcr on, hut two nonrcstrictivc in thc clcscription of t l ~ c~notlilic;~lio~l general points may be of value now. First, modification at its 'most rcstrictivc' tcnds to comc nftcr the head: Any person ~ ~ ~t~ishes h o to see me must make an appointment By contrast. ourdecision touscan item as a premodificr(such as nonrcstrictivc .silbtin o .sil/y,/i)onoltcn rcllccts our wish that it hc taken for granted and not be interprcted as a specilic idcntilicr. Secondly, restrictive modification tends to begiven more prosodieemphasis than the head, since there is n built-in contrast. as in (qfexamples in 17.3): Susan is my B ~ t ~d;~ughtcr er John is my ~ A q son. l Nonrestrictive modification, on the other hand, tcnds to be unstresscd in prehead position:
In post-head position, its 'parenthetic' relation is endorsed by being given a separate tone unit (frequently with reduced prominence and narrow pitch range); or, in writing, by being enclosed by commas (cJ'17.22).
17.7
Temporary and permanent modification There is a second dichotomy that has some affinities with the distinction between restrictive and nonrestrictive but rather more with the contrast of nonprogressive and progressive in predication (cJ'4.25ff'), or permanent and temporary in agential nouns (cJ'App I.34J'). Modificatiotl in noun-phrase structure may also be seen as permanent or temporary (cJ'7.21), such that items placed in premodification position are typically given the status of PERMANENT or, at any rate, characteristic features. Although this does not mean that postmodification position is committed to either temporariness or permanence, those adjectives which have to be predicative have a notably TEMPORARY reference. Thus [ l ] would be understood as [la]:
the corirteous man the man w~kois courteous [ie 'normally and not merely at this moment']
[I] [Id
In contrast, [2] would be understood as having reference only to a specific time, and this corresponds to the nonoccurrence of [2a]: The man is ready. *the ready man (On the relevance of the distinction in determiners between indefinite and definite, cf 5.26ff'.) On this basis, we see that timidity and fear are contrasted in part according as the first is seen as permanent [3], the second as temporary [41: a man who is timid a man who is &aid
- a timid man .c *an
afraid man
[31 L41
17.8
The explicitness of postmodification In gcneral, premodification is to be interprcted (and, most frequently, can : ~ n dits greater cxplicitncss. only be interpreted) in terms ofpost~nodilic:~tion That is, sorne trill college girls will be interprctcd as 'son~egirls who are tall and who are (studying) at a college'. The prcn~odificdnoun phrase [I] may include, for example, all of the relations which are explicit in the postmodified noun phrases [la-e]:
an oil man a man who sells oil a man who delivers oil a man who produces oil a man who i?tvestigates oil a man who advocates the rise of oil
Ill [la] [I bl []cl [Id1 []cl What normally happens, as in the case of big toe (in 17.7) and oilt~tan[I], is that ambiguity does not arise since one sense is selected in a specific context (cflexicalization, App I.9fl). Thus, for example, the question 'Will the oil man call today?' will normally carry only one interpretation in any given context. Explicitness in postmodification varies considerably, however. It is greater in the finite relative clause [21 than in the nonfinite -ing clause [2a], from which the explicit tense (is?/w)as?) is absent, though this in turn is more explicit than the prepositional phrase [2b], from which the verb indicating a specific posture is absent: the girl who was standing it7 the corller the girl standing in the corner the girl in the corner
L21 l2al [2bl Reduction in explicitness in the noun phrase is closely related to the linguistic and situational context. There is, typically, a progression from 'more explicit' to 'less explicit' in a discourse. One instance of such sequential and gradual reduction from sentence [3], via relative clause [3a], via prepositional phrase [3bl, to pro-form [3c], can be seen in Anthony Burgess's novel Inside Mr Ettderby. When flying to Rome, the main character of the novel is warned by a n American passenger: 'Your ticket does not entitle you to undisputed monopolization o f the john.' [ie the lavatory]
[31 The fellow passenger who issued this warning is subsequently referred to as:
I I1
1244
t
Postmodification by finiteclauses
The noun phrase
l
In sentential relative clauses, the ;inteccdent is not nominal but clausal, ie in [4] the wholc clause Tlrcy trrc~,/i11111 r!/ s~lokibs1111rl1i;orils is postmotlifictl by 11'11ir.11 .v~~r/~ri.sl~.v III~,. 'I'II:II lllis is so ~ : I I II)c sccn i l l l l ~ cclloicc 01' S~IIL:LII:II. vc1.1) concord (sur/~risc,s).'l'l~cscntenlial rel;~livcclause h;~s;~lliniticswith, o n tllc one hand, nominal rclativc clauses. ;~ntl,on the othcr hand, with coordinate clauscs ((:/'l 3.501'):
[h]
t h America~l ~ who had olrsted Enderhy.fi.o~~l the johrt
:~ndfinally: :ill A ~ ~ ~ c r i c 1101 : ~ l ltI1v , jo1111I I I I ~ , , l)c~isuIhis C : I I I I C K I
IO
sl~oot
I3cl
The order of presentation in this chapter will bc I'rom mosl cxplicil to lcast explicit. We therefore start with the most explicit type of noun-phrase modification, ie postmodification by finite clause.
The adnominal relative clause is the central type of relative clause, and, unless indicated otherwise, 'relative clause' here mcnns 'adnominal relative clause'. Within such relative clauses we make a distinction between restrictive [5] and nonrestrictive [6] (cf 17.3f j ' ) : Snakes 1s11ichorc,l~oiso~~olr.v shoultl bc i~voidcd. Ratllcsnakcs, wlriclr itre poiso~to~rs, should hc avoidcd.
[51 161 Among those two types, the restrictive is the more common, and will be treated before the nonrestrictive.
Postmodification by finite clauses 17.9
Types of postmodifying finite clauses We distinguish two major types of finite clauses as noun-phrase postmodifiers, RELATIVE clauses [ l ] and APPOSITIVE clauses [2]: The news that appeared in the papers this morning was well received. The news that the team had won calls for a celebration.
17.10
[l] [21
b ~ gwell The news which we saw in thepapers this m o r ~ ~ was received.
[lbl
Appositive clauses will be further discussed in 17.265 The type of relative clause represented by [ l ] is called an ADNOMINAL relative clause, and will be discussed below. In addition to adnominal relative clauses, we distinguish NOMINAL relative clauses, as in [3], and SENTENTIAL relative clauses, as in [4]: What surprises me is that they are fond of snakes and lizards. They are fond of snakes and lizards, which surprises me.
and (ii) indicating its function within the relative clause either as an element of clause structure (S, 0 , C, A), or as a constituent of an element in the relative clause [internal relation].
[lal Pal
Thus that is not replaceable by a wh-pronoun in appositive clauses, as it is in relative clauses. More significantly from a general point of view, that in [2] has no function as clause element within the that-clause, as it has in relative clause structure. Thus in [l], the relative pronoun is subject; in [lb] it is object:
L31 [41
Nominal relative clauses are unique among relative clauses in that they 'contain' theirantecedents. They are discussed, with other nominal dependent clauses, in 15.8f:
C h a r a c t e r i s t i c s of r e l a t i v e c l a u s e s Part of the explicitness of relative clauses lies in the specifying power of the relative pronoun. It may be capable of (i) showing concord with its antecedent, ie the preceding part of the noun phrase of which the relative clause is a postmodifier [external relation];
Although superficially similar, the difference between these two types of finite clause becomes apparent, for example if we try to replace that by which in the two examples: The news which appeared in the papers this mor~lingwas well received. *The news which the team had wor~calls for a celebration.
1245
17.11
Gender concord Concord is on the basis of a two-term 'gender' system, personal and nonpersonal (cf 5.1058,6.8j'), and applies only to the wh-series: Joan, lvllo. . . the boy/people who. . . the human being who. . . the fairy who. . .
London, w11ich . . . the fox/animals ~vhich.. . the human body ~vltich, . . the unicorn 11hic11. . .
It will be seen from these examples that 'personality' is ascribed basically to human beings but extends to creatures in the supernatural world (angels, elves, etc) which are thought of as having human characteristics such as speech. Pet animals can be regarded as 'personal' (at least by their owners; cf 5.109f): Rover, wlto was barking, frightened the children. On the other hand, human babies can be regarded (though rarely perhaps by their parents) as not having developed personality: This is the baby which needs inoculation.
1246
The noun phrase
This is 117hrr1I c-rrn't rtntlcrs~rr~~~l.
Thot1~11 ships m:~yI:~kcthe pcrson:~l pronoun slrc,, the rcl:~tivepronoun is rcgul;trly ~~otipcrso~~;tl (1.15.1 1 1 Nofc): Is
SIIC'II
(111 I I ~ / ~ ~ I I ~ ~ I ~ O ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ I I , Y ~ ~ ~ ,
L21 131
Choose ~t:hiclrc~:c,r yorr like ho.vt. 141 In the case of tlclinite personal rcl'crcncc, the only pronoun i\ ~t~l~ucr.r,r:
{:llLj
~ / I ~ ~ ,iv11iiI1 s / I $ is due to lci~vcL r a (.itrihhc;~ncruisc tomorrow?
*who 1 Wl,oel.er~hclpcd me h;ts gone.
Collcctivc nouns (cf5.IOX) arc norm;tlly Ircatctl as pcrson;~!when thcy have plural concord (csp in BrE), and as nonpcrson;tl whcn they havc singular concortl :
A pcrsonal pronoun + :I rel;~tivcpronoun, on thc olhcr h:111~l, is possihlc only in archaic or very formal contexts:
responsible for this decision
He who made this possible deserves our gratitude. The gcndcr contrast is ncutralizcd whcn the 1l.11-seriesis rcplaccd by flrlrt or a zero relative:
It is more acceptablc if Ire has gcncric rcfcrcncc, also sounds archaic:
She must be the rricestpersort t l r ~ever t lived. That must be the riice~rtlting that ever happened.
l
Anyone Allybody IIJIIO helps the handicapped deserves our support. [7al [7bl Replacement is impossible with plural *the), ~vho/~v/riclr,and also with singular *it which: Those who help the handicapped deserve our support.
With wh-pronouns, the principle of proximity seems to be favoured (cf 10.35):
What
l
the people and things which amuse her most the things and people ivho
He imagined himself to be an artist, which he was not
That ~vhichis most highly valued in the tribe is valour. Note
[a]Other nonhuman creatures besides pets may take ~vhoeven in sentences where this involves an annarent clash with the neuter pronoun i/;thus, from a recent work of nonfiction: .. the chameleon ,160changes its colours This is less likely however when the relative pronoun is object in its clause, as we sec from the followingexamples on two successive pages of a work on zoology: the black rhinoceroses ,!'ha live in the park the white rhinoceros a,hicb we saw in the wildsoutside the park On the factors involved in this diference, cf 17.16. [b] It so happens that, in familiar speech, the word clrornctrr can be used in the sense of'person', and the wordpersor~nlirycan be used for somebody who has achieved notoriety. In consequence, we may have not only [ I ] and [2] but also [la]and 12x1: [I] Charles has a finecharacter ~vhichhe inherits from his father. L21 Smith has a strange personality ~vhiclrrepels many people. - . [lal Charles is a strange character ~vlrudislikes parties. (familiar) [2;11 Smith is now a famous personality lvlro is often interviewed on television. The nominal relative clause is common with definite nonpersonal reference (though with a different pronoun from that used in adnominal relative clauses; cf15.8L 6.35 Note [b]): ~vhat,ivharever, whichever. [l]
I can't understand is this:
That is acceptable with which only in very formal style:
Which can have a personal noun as its antecedent when the relative is a complement with the semantic role of characterization attribute (cf10.20):
What is most highly valued in the tribe is valour.
L71
The normal expressions are [7a] and [7b]:
she likes most
17.12
L61 in [7], which howcvcr
He who helps the handicapped deserves our support.
With coordinated antecedents of mixed gender, the choice of relative pronoun Inay create a problem. It does not arise when zero relative is possible or when that is chosen, eg:
Note
;IS
17.13
[[a1
. . ., there is a similar coostraiat on postmodific;~tionby some other In relation to 'it ~td~iclf structures: ?Heir~thecorr~~r is my new boss. [a1 ' N in !he corrtrr is an antique. [gal Postmodification followingy~~fr is possible in informill and peremptory vocatives (cf10.53): You ir~rhrc~~rrrer, stop chattering! [8bl
Restrictive relative clauses The choice of relative pronoun is dependent, in particular, on the following three factors: (a) the relation of the relative clause to its antecedent: restrictive [ l ] or nonrestrictive [2], eg: The woman who is approaching us seems to be somebody I know. [l1 The Bible, 1141icl1has been retrarulate~l,remains a bestsellcr. [2]
(b) the gender type of the antecedent: personal [3] or nonpersonal [4] (cf 17.11f),eg: the person who I was visiting the hook which I was reading
1248
Postmodification by finite clauses
The noun phrase
(c) the function of the relative pronoun as subject, object, complement, or ;~tlvcrbi;~l (inclucling its role ;IS prcposition;~l complcmcnt) or ;IS n constituent 01' :In clc~ilcntin tllc rcl;~livccl:~usc, :IS ;I tlclcrlni~lcr(in ll'h03~/lOllW C/' 17. 14). In the Sollowingdiscussio~lol'clioicc of rcl;~tivcpronoun, WC will first m;~ke a ilivision i~ilorcslriclivt: a~itlno~lrcslriclivc rcl;~livccl:~t~scs,:l1111 Illcl1 consider other factors, such as metlial or linal position ol' tllc rclativc clause in rcl;ltion to tlic supcrortlinatc cl;lusc, ;lnd Icngtll of the rcl;ltivc cl;wsC. The set of rclativc pronouns has been givcn in 6.32/]: It is in the nonrestrictive relative clauses that the most explicit forms of relative pronoun, ie the ivlt-series (who, ivhonr, u'hich, wltose) are typically used (cfl7.22). In restrictive clauses, frequent use is madeof the ivh-pronouns and also tlrrrt or 'zero' relative. Tlrcrt dircrs from thc wh-scrics: (a) in not having gender marking and thus being independent of the
personal or nonpersonal character of the antecedent; (b) in not having an objective form (like ~vlro/~~hom); (c) in not having a genitive (like whose of ivlto and which), thus not being able to function as a constituent of an element in the relative clause.
C : This is 1101 lhc type o l ~ i i o ( l e r ~ ~
( a! )~~lrorrrtlic burgl;~rlirctl tlic gun.
I() J (or1 11,11iclr1 was ill A : She arrivctl the day
In restrictive rclative clauses, the pronouns given in the survey bclow are used. When we indicate a parenthesized relative pronoun, it means that thcre is the option between that-relative and 'zero': This is the book (that) l bought at the sale When we use parentheses only '( )', this is to indicate 'zero': This is the book ( ) I bought at the sale. S, 0 , C, A in the survey below means that the relative pronoun functions respectively as subject, object, complement, and adverbial (or complement in a prepositional phrase functioning as adverbial) in the relative clause with personal and nonpersonal antecedents:
S: They are delighted with
1 was ill (on),
With a personal antecedent, the relative pronoun can show the distinction between ~vhoand whom, depending on its role as subject of the relative clause, or as object, or as prepositional complement:
l
who spoke to him to whom he spoke ivho(m) he spoke to uBo(m) he met
[subject] [prepositional complement] [preposition;~lco~nplenicnt] [object]
[l1 [2] [2a] l31 When the governing preposition precedes its complement, as in the rather formal [2], the choice of whom is obligatory. When it does not, as in [2a], o r when the relative pronoun is the object of the verb, as in [3], there is some choice between ivho or whom: the latter is preferred in formal English, the former is preferred in informal use, where however the zero form is by far the most common. If the pronoun is a possessive detecminer of the noun phrase, the form is whose : the person
17.14
1249
The woman ~vhosecio~rghter you met is Mrs Brown. ['The woman is Mrs Brown; you met her daughter.'] The house whose roof was damaged has now been repaired. ['The house has now been repaired; its roof was damaged.']
L41
[S1 In cases like [5] where the antecedent is nonpersonal, there is sorne tendency to avoid the use of ~ultose(presumably because many regard it as the genitive only of the personal ivlto), but avoidance involves stylistic difficulty. There is the stiffly formal and cumbersome of ~l~hich: The house the roof of wlzich was damaged . . .
[5al
Other variants are clumsy or unacceptable in standard English: 0 : They are delighted with
?The house that they damaged the roof of. . . *The house that the roofwas damaged of. . .
[Sbl [5cl Satisfactory alternatives can however be found, such as [Sd], or even [5e]: The house that had its roof damaged. The house with the damaged roof. . .
..
[sdl [5el
1250 The noun phrase
Postrnodificatior~by fir~itcclauses
Thrtt :IS s111>.icct:tnd t11r11or 'cro ;ISol~,jcclart p~,crcrrc(l10 11~l1ii.11 when tllc antecctlcnl is nonpcrsonal (I//, ~~rj,l/tilrg, c,r:rrj,//riltg. /trn//ri~a,/i//k,, or /II~I(./I:
111:iny c:~sc,in solnc liclds ol'disco~irscsucll :ISm;tthc.m;tlics, no evasion is fclt to bc ncccssary :
All
Let ABC be n trianglc u~/~ose ,sic/(,.s;tre of unequal Icngth. The of'11'1ticIt construction is sometimes placed bcforc its hcad (like wdtose). Thus WC liavc [7] bcsidcs the more usual [7a] and [7h]: tich the rc~.s~tl!.swill soon bc ptthlislied . . . hc pl~hlisl~cd ... [ivhose results will soon be published . . . S
The investiy;ltion
17.15
t i i . / sot111 ~ ["l1't11c. r c ~ . s r i l t , s ~ / ' i ~ ~ lwill
When the anteccdent is modificd by a stlpcrl;ilivc or hy one of t l ~ cpost~lclcr~iti~icrs,/ir.~t, lrr,s!, I I O , V ~ ,rj111),,the rcli~livclpri111c1t111 :IS s~11~;ccI is ust~;tlly tItc11, ;~ntl,as object, ~ / t aor / zero r;rlhcr 111;1111rItii.11or 11~11o01r) (d'5.22): She must be one of the most rcmarkablc wonicn thar ot:rr livcd They eat the finest food (!hat) money can buy.
.
People who live in new houses . . People that live in new houscs . . .
In such sentences, an alternative to a postmodifying copular relative clause with an adjective as complement is pre- or postposition of the adjective (cj'7.21):
Zero cannot replace the subject in a relative clause such as [2] and [3]:
D1 131
However, constructions 'are encountered that are arguably exceptions; for example, in very informal speech where the antecedent is an indefinite pronoun: ?Anybody ( )does that ought to be locked up.
Note
H]
The reason for putting a question mark in [4] is, first, that it is of doubtful acceptability; secondly, that many speakers would condemn it as slovenly; thirdly, that it may result from the subaudibility of a relative pronoun who or tllat and thus not strictly be zero at all. A commoner type of example is to be found in existential and cleft sentences (cf 18.44ff; 18.25ff): There's a table ( ) stands in the corner. It's Simon ( )did it.
[S] [61
Sentences [S] and [6] would again be very colloquial, and the use of that or a tvh-item would be regarded as more acceptable: There's a table
(::i;chj
~hu!strikes you as otld (thrrt) you find odd. . .
There was littl(>rho! ['not much that'] intcrcstcd him at the motor show. Much 1ht11['much of what'] has bccn s;~idtonight will soon bc forgotten.
171 [7;1] 17bI
Relative pronoun as subject and objcct When thc antecedent is personal and the pronoun is the subject of the relative clause, who is favoured, irrespective OS the style and the occasion; thus [I] rather than [la], though there is nothing wrong or odd about the latter:
*The table ( ) stands in the corner has a broken leg. *The man ( )stands over there I know.
1251
17.16
[a] The pronunciation of rAar as a relative pronoun is generally reduced to !Oat,, whcre;~sthe demonstrative rllor (cf6.40)has the rull form /&at/. [blOnereason why zero relativesubject isun;icceptablelnay be rel;~ledto perceptloll. In ex;~mple [Z],it isonly when encountering the verb/tos(tl~cscvenlll word in the sentvncc)III;II the reader/ hearer can interpret this sequence as a relative constrt~ction,inste;~dof an expccted S V A slructurcending with canlcr, as in [Zo]: The table stands in the corner. [2;1] Compare the situalion with the ;tcceplable zero a~nstructionol' nonsubject function in [Zb], where it is clear on reaching)olr (the third word) lhatyoa begins a new construction: The table you see svanding in Ihe corner has a broken leg. [2bl
Relative pronoun as object and prepositional complement With the antecedent still personal but with the pronoun now object of a verb or prepositional complement, there is a much stronger preference for thar or zero, perhaps to avoid the choice between ~vhoand ivltortt. Thus [I] rather than [la]: People (t/zat) I
stands in the corner.
{::; ; . ] ,
,
[6al However, there are good reasons for distinguishing such that/~vhich-clauses from adnominal relative clauses. The obligatory nature of such portions of existential or cleft sentences would argue against our equating them with postmodifications in noun-phrase structure (cf 18.48).
Again, there is nothing actually wrong about [la]; but 1vho11rhere would seem pedantic to many people, while ieho as object in rcliltive clauses is informal and tends to be regarded as incorrect. Since, thercforc, neither 117ltonor ivhont is wholly satisfactory, that (and particularly zero) is frequently used despite a personal antecedent.
Postmodification
1252 The noun phrase
'I'lie pcrson to ~~,hotrr xrly cornplainls sllol~ldbe ;~tltlrcssctlis . . . [I] Initiill prepositions are normally ;ivoiclcd in morc infot.~n;~l usc. where thcy woultl hc felt It1 Iic stillctl or polnpculs. A (lrkrr~.(l~rtcposilio~~ is tnorc gc~~cr;~lly 11hc0will1 ~ ~ r c p o s i l i ~vcrl)s: ~r~;~l That's the book ( ) he's been looking,for.
(21 But many prepositions (especially those dealing with temporal and other abstract relations) cannot easily be deferred (cJ"9.6):
?That was the meeting (that) l kcpt filllilig ilslccp tlroing. I31 One might find [3;1], but in familiar spcccli ;In :~tlvcrl>i:~l rcli~tivcwith 11,hol or n~ltere(cj'17.18) would be preferred to rhrritrg ~i~liiclr:
I have interest.^ outside my immediate work and its problems] which I find satisfying]. When the antecedent of the relative clause is no more complex than determiner + head, tl~atis by many preferred to which and zero:
That was the meeting during vIlic11I kept falling asleep. Pal Prepositions expressing spatial relations allow a deferred preposition even when the preposition is complex:
I'll take you to [the building [that all elderly university teachers prefer]]. O n the other hand, when the subject of the relative clause is a personal pronoun, zero is preferred to either which or that, especially if the relative clause itself is fairly short and simple:
This is the house he stood h,fiarit of:
Finally, other things being equal, more informal discourse will tend to have a preference for zero. In the following example from an informal conversation, the zero construction could not appropriately have been replaced by any of theother relative pronouns that are available in the system (who, whom, that):
It was in a book that a former teacher of mine thought o f a t one time presenting me with some quotations from.
[51 Hearing or reading it, we may successively have to rcjcct tlic intcrprctations, first, that the former teacher thought of the book; second, that the tcacher thought of presenting me with the book, before the belated,frotri enables us to achieve thecorrect interpretation ('. . .from 1vhic11a former teacher. . .'). A deferred preposition may be the only natural choice when there is coordination of one prepositional and one nonprepositional construction in the relative clause. Thus instead of the clumsy [6], zero relative and a deferred preposition would be far more natural, as in [6a]:
You learn a lot about [authors [you didn't know too much about to start with]].
Relative pronoun as adverbial When the relat~vcpronoun is the complement of a prepos~t~on (and, together w ~ t hthe preposltlon funct~onlngas A), some cho~ceexists In plac~nga preposltlon w h ~ c hhas a wh-pronoun as 11s complement N o such c h o ~ c e exlsts w ~ t hthat, where postpos~tlonwlth deferred preposlt~onrepresents the sole pattern
You should restrict yourself to words with il!l~ichyou are familiar and whicli you can use confidently. You should restrict yourself to words ( )you are familiar 11,ithand can use confidently.
[6l
[6a] But note that [6a] requires subject ellipsis, since coordination with zero relatives is not fully acceptable:
the dog ran torvardc
?You should restrict yourself to words ( )you are familiar ivitli a n d ( )you can use confidently.
under whlch the boy crawled
The cholce of relative clause structure ~nvolvess t y l ~ s t ~dci s t ~ n c t ~ o nIn s
141
However, clarity of expression would often influence us in the direction of a construction otherwise regarded as formal if a final preposition leads to clumsiness. Consider the following sentence:
Who's drunk [the milk [( ) I bought]]?
the boy crawled under
1253
general, it is certainly true that n41-pronouns with initial preposition a r c used prctlornin;~ntlyin (i~rrn;~l I'nglish:
Avoidance of whotrl may not be the only factor influenciog tliat 21s object with pcrson;~l ;~ntcccdcnt.C;l.:~~nrn;~tic;llol),jccls :~rc more likely to he ~ionpcrsonnl,or Lo ci~rrynonpcrso~l:~l implic:~tion.~II:III s~10,iccI~. There are sevcral other faclors inlluencing the seleclion of a pronoun Ll1:1t is object or prcposition;~lcoliiplctncnt in the relative clnusc, espccinlly wliert I I I C ~ I I I I C C C ~ I C I ~isI I ~ O I ~ ~ C ~011c S O is I Ithe ; I ~proxi111ity . ol' Ihc rcl;~tivcCI;IUSC to the head ol'lllc nnlccctlc~ll~>llr;ise;~ I I I ( I ~ is ~ II C I I C~ ~ C ~ I 01C C~ o t ~ ~ l ) l ~I I Ix' I iI IlCy subject of the antecedent phrase. When complex phrases or clauses intervene between the antecedent head and the relative pronoun, ~vllichis generally preferable to that and very much preferable to zero:
17.17
by finiteclauses
17.18
[6bl
In adverbial expressions of place, time, and cause, there is a wide range of choice in addition to what was statcd in 17.17 for the relative pronoun a s adverbial. The preposition + pronoun can be replaced by special adverbs (cf 7.53), q:
1254
Postmodification by finiteclauses
The noun phrase
7'1ii1t's tlrr pluc'e
17.19
l
"llic'll ~ I i cW;IShorn. wirerc, "l
That's the reaso~l
There ; ~ r ci~lsorestrictions on the ;~ntccctlcntnoc~ns.With rcl:~tivecl;~uscs wl~cretlic aritcccdcr~tdenotcs c;~uscor rc;lsoll, rz9tr.~orr is virtu;~llythe only possible antecedent; whcrc the ilntecedcnts dcnote place and time, the most generic nouns (plc~cp,period. tinre, ctc) tllso seem to he preferred. Thus pattcrn 5 is acceptable: the office ithere he works
she spoke.
Howcvcr, many woultl prcfcr altcrn;~tivcexpressions (patterns 1. 2. 3, 4, wlicrc piltlcrn I is most li~rrn;~l ant1 p;ltlcrn 4 1c;lsl li)rm;~l):
Note thnt,/i~rhicl, cl, in 13) h:~slimited :~cccptahility. However, there are considerable and colnplicatcd rcstrictions on tllesc 11811forms which operate in relative clauses expressing place, time, and cause. Many speakers find their use along with the corresponding antecedent somewhat tautologous -especially tlic type the recrsorr n,l~y and prefer the ndl-clause without antecedent, ie a no~ni~lal relative clause (cf 15.81'): [La1 Is this where she was born? [2al That was when she lived here.
the ofice
-
That's why she spoke.
V ~ to J J express manner
{
she spoke.
tlleplace
[4al
011 ivhicll
she was born >vhichshe was born otl that she was born or1 ( ) she was bent or1
[pattern I] [pattern 21 [pilltern 31 [pattern 41 [pattern I] [pattern 21 [pattern 31 [pattern 41
(
wl~ei-eshe works ?where she works at
[pattern 51 [pattern 91
Pattern 5 is acceptable, whereas pattern 9 is of doubtful acceptability. It requires a fairly specific antecedent, eg:
The followingpatterns can be distinguished for time expressions in a sentence such as '. . . was Thursday'. Pattern l : antecedent + preposition the day on ~diichshe arrived
i
l
at icrltich he works which he works at that he works at ( ) Ire works at
Place adjuncts in relative clauses admit of two further patterns: one with where and omission of the preposition (pattern 5), the other with the deferred preposition at (pattern 9):
L41
*That's the way how she spoke.
That.s h01" the wa,v (that)
the day
[h]
There is no relative how parallel to where, when, and ~ with an antecedent noun [4], but only [4a]:
1255
+ wh-pronoun:
the governnlent briildir~gwhere she works at With ageneral antecedent, such asplace, we may find the followit~gpatterns, which however are not acceptable to all speakers:
Pattern 2: antecedent + II~-pronoun+ deferred preposition: the day which she arrived 011
she stays when she's in London. (?)That's the place she uarks. she studies.
[l1 L21 L31 However, a final a t (pattern 4) would be fully acceptable, at least in familiar usage:
{
Pattern 3: antecedent + fhat + deferred preposition: the day that she arrived on Pattern 4: antecedent + zero relative + deferred preposition: the day she arrived on
she stays at when she's in London. That's the place she ~tvrksat. she studies at.
{
Pattern 5 : antecedent + wh-adverb: the day when she arrived
[lal [IaI [3al
With a generalized antecedent such as way, expressing direction, we usually have zero rather than 111at: Was that the way she werlt? ['Was that where she went?']
17.20
In expressions of time, omission of the preposition is usual whether the pronoun is that or zero:
1256
The noun phrase
T/IL~IIIOI?IL,III ( ).1~011 ( / [ I .s~~~ll~~l/lifl~ I / I ~ : I ~ will? ~ / lhcy ~ ~ are ~ I211Ayour ~ ~I l l~r o i~~ l.~. .~ l91 Thr rlrolla~lll( ).rollr~ll/i:(~1/11. i0li~orI~1111~('~ l ! ! i ! ~ ! ~ l i ~ $ ~osilio~t, on the oll)cr II:III(I,OIIC definer OSthe other. In [3], thc defincr is/i,~ert~rirrl r.\p,rt:
L31 (On the stylistic aspect of this example. cf 17.88.) Similztrly, in [4], the definer is I/JN[/l[' ~fJllh/tl'l.SPl' //l(' CNl':
(21
The e.rplrt~niiortthat he coleIc111'tsec the ctrr is unsatisfitctory. [partial + weak]
[2a]
[2bl
In [2b], Mrs Louise Porsctrts is the defined cxprcssion, and !he Prc:vielotl c?f'/hc, conrpany thedefiningexpression, thelatter constitutinga separate information unit. Note
[a]The first (ie defined)appositive determinesconcord: b n l , 0roh 11~eo1i1, r~il11101og,y - in other wods ecrr,~l~i,~g i*. nwcl-. our country.
~lentifulin
Ecerytl~irtgwe rrccd - larrd. hrobls, 11~~olr11, tecl~rtolrrgy[b]A definingappositive is not the same as a tag exclamation (~1'18.59Note (a]). An aside such as tlre uttrrfool in [3] is an irregular insertion and can come anywhere in the sentence: L31 John (the uercrJuol) insisted on staying with them. Compare an interpolation such as in [3al: (3.1 John (con yolr bcliccc it?) insisted on staying with them. Thedifferencebetween the twoconstructions is highlighted in the ambiguity of [4l: [41 Richard (the illai air^) forced his sister into marriage. In one interpretation,rhc uillrrir~is intended as a critical term, 'the bad character in the pkty', and is appositive to Richord; in the other interpretation, it is an cvnluntive colnlncnl sylronylnous withyhe man', and is an exclamatory aside.The two interpretationscan be distinguished intonationally: Apposition: [4;1] (Ricmrd(the /vi~lain( (forcedhis sister into hlh~riagel Excl;tm;ttoryttsidc: [41)1 (Ricwardthe vi~lain)lforced his sister into ~;\Rri;lgel The aside in [4b],as well ;IS being in the same tone unit 21sRichord, is also marked by a lowering of its pitch relative to that of the rest ofthe sentence. [c]The most common type of sep;~ratorused in delimiting a nonrestrictive apposition in writing is the comma; but dashes or parentheses are also used (ss they arc for othcr types of parenthetic
[I1 121 o I ' I I I c ;t~)~)osi~ivcs is
Ncxl S;iturd;iy,,/it~crr~cic~l e.v/~crt7b111 7'i,11hc,rwill bcgin writing a weekly column on the national economy. [partial +strict]
L41 The syntactically subordinate role of one of the appositives is clear with partial apposition, since only the definer can be omittctl (cl.17.66).
In [2] and [2a], the President of'the contpar~yis the defined and Mrs Lortise Parsons the defining expression. On the other hand, in [2b], the roles are reversed : Mrs Louise Parsolts, the President oftke corltpany, gave a press conference after the board meeting.
Definedldefining relationships When apposition is full apposition ((./'17.66), it m;ty no1 hcclc:tr which of the ;f~lrctsilivcsis lltc osilio~t.Ihc two :tl)l)osilivc unils cottlrihulc rcl;tlivcly independent information, with the lirst appositivc acting os thc Ul?l;lNl!U cxprcssion, and the sccorld ;rpposilivc 1l;tving a DI!PININO role ('the tlcfincr'). The defining role is reflected in thc fact that the sccond appositive is markcd as parenthetic by punctuation [2] or intonation [2a]: Tlre Presiclent of'the cotttpnty, Mr.7 Louise Porsorts, gave a Dress confcrencc nftcr the board meeting. The I~RBsidentof the company1 (Mrs Louise p i ~ s o n s(gave ( a press conference after the BOARD meeting1
1305
17.70
Combinations of appositional types The thrce types of distinction we have madc ;~pplyin comhin;ltion. as illustrated below:
r APPOSITION
c t i d
{fir:;
L {nonrytrictiue
[either omissible] [only one t~rnissiblc] [same syntactic class] [dilrercnt syntactic class] [diKerent information unit] [same information unit]
restrrctive (i) FULL,STRICT,NONRESTRICTIVE Purr1Jones, the clistbtgubhedort critic, died in his sleep last night. (ii) FULL,WEAK,NONRESTRICTIVE Playing foothall, his only intere.st it1 I(fe, has brought him many friends. (iii) FULL,STRICT,RESTRICTIVE My f'riettd Anr~uwas here last night. (iv) FULL,WEAK,RESTRICTIVE The queslion rvhelher 10 cot,Srss or 1101troubled the girl (V) PARTIAL, STRICT, NONRESTRICTIVE An talrrs~mlpresent was given to him for his birthday, er hook on ethics (vi) PARTIAL, WEAK,NONRESTRICTIVE Hi.7 expla~ration,lhat Ire cou1d11'1see the car, is unsatisfactory. (vii) PARTIAL, STRICT,RESTRICTIVE Next Saturday, fiarrcial e.upert Tottr Tinther will begin writing a weekly column on the national economy. [typical of journalistic style]
1306 Thn noun pl~rasn
However, if the second noun phrase in each sentence is separated from what precedes by a tone unit boundary in spoken English or by ;I c o ~ i l ~in n t written ~ Englisl~,Il1e11[IIC inIcrprcl:~~iot~ is wcip,l~lc~l ill f i ~ v o ~ ~ r o l ' l i ~ IIIC k i ifirs1 ~ g IIOIIII phrasc as dirccl object with thc sccor~tlnoun pIir;lsc in ;cpposilion to i t :
(viii) PARTIAL, WEAK, RESTRICTIVE His clain~tlrat he couldrr't sec, tl~ecar was unconvincing.
17.71
More than t w o units in apposition .Tl~ougl~ we 11;lvc I'oulitl it convctlicnt to cxcinplify :~l>positionwith ~ncrcly two appositives, thcrc may occ;~sion;llly bc more Ll1;111 two i~nitsin ill)~osiliot~ ;1t the s;ltne level, as in [l]:
They returned to their hirtliplace, their place i~/'rc~sitle~rce. tlte C ~ I I I I I I ~i?/'11,11ic/r J~ 11te.bI I Y ,~itizII(I I & 1 1 1 ~ . I I ; I I I , ~ ~)I':I person. I Icncc we tlo no1 lincl * r ~ o r ~ ~ ~ l ' (IL\p~~l~t~rtb~rr.v' ;r~~~rI 01 *j.r.rrr 2000. Pronouns followed by rtoun pltr;lscs, sue11its 1.orr~ir1.r ((:l10.53). ,lnrr Rrilish (~1'7.25NOIC[c]), and Ive ttrc,~~, can also bc analysctl as rcstriclivc i~pposition.
-
Note
17.87
Note
Postpuscd numer:lls and letters perhaps imply the ellip\is01 the u,urds ,rwrrhv o r Icrtcr: line (number)l 2 room (number) IOA equation (number)4 Ward (letter)C If that is so, the phr;lses contain ;~ppositionalconstructions,wit11 the liumhcr or letter heing in apposition to the clliptcd word rrrrnrhrr or Lrrer, eg: rrre~rbrrIllA TII?I I ~ I J > Ii.7~ PlOA. ~ We ;IISO find premodirying numbers and letters, particuli~rlyon signs likc I,'\ 2 Pl~~rfr~n~r. G Rbrk. ~ h e followingconstructions arc fully ;icccptahlc in onon~;~stic use: Number 3. No 3. (esp AmE) # 3 Chbiplcr)6, Class 2h, Fig(ure) B, Section 10, Table R, Type A There is no type (;I) with 11 delinitc detcr~nincrpo\sihle ill the li~ll(,winguse:
-
(Cii) Particularization PARTICULARIZATION is the marked form of inclusion and requires an explicit indicator which shows that the particularization has been chosen because it is in some way prominent:
(
'the number 1031 Are you in Nte~rher103?[NOT: Roonr 103? [NOT: 'the room 1031
The book contains some fascinatingpassages, notably an account oftheir trip to North Afiica. The children liked the atrimnls, particularly the monkeys. We want to invite a number oj'fiiends, especially Joat~andBetry.
17.88
Strict restrictive apposition There are three types of strict restrictive apposition of noun phrases. In type (a), the first appositive is preceded by a definite determiner (and possibly premodifier) and is more general than the second appositive: the number three that famous critic Paul Jones the year 2000 the soprano Janet Baker your brother George the novel 'Great Expectations' The type friend Anna usually implies criticism: Our friend Anna here doesn't think so, however.
Determiners are regok~rlyomitted in proper noun IISC. as is observed nor only in personal and geographical n;lrnes, but ;~lsoin, II~:ISL.S:III~I I ~ I ~ I I : I I O I ~ I C I ~ S I I I I C I I I ~ I .' I~I I I C ~ ~ O I lI ~ r : ~I Sr C O I I I ~ ~ ~ ~ . ~ I ~ C I I I Io atUcclivas, not as ~iiotlilicrsol' no~~n-phr;~se Ilc:ltls. ; I S in I ~ C I I 'ri~o,l.vto Lurrrlc~n.Thus we have rocrc/s to LJII(/~III hul not ~/ircililii~.v to orrrs. Cotnp;lre now the I'ollowing p;~irs:
Al~lnl~~l:ll Illcrc is nolhinl! wren]! will1 lhis slrl~clnrc.Io :~voitltlisconlinllily. the ;~dverbialc;ul hc ~novctlto inili:~lposilioll: .rhis morning I lnct a r?rtrnccrrryinfi.(I h ~ e r/J(ITCC/. l~~ Further examples of discontinuities in noun-phrase structure are prcsenteci in 18.39J together with some discussion of the COnSeqUences for information processing. Noun-phrase rnodi[i~rswhich have their own complc1ncntatiOn Can often occupy alternative positions. The structure iseithcr continuous (noun head + adjective with complement) or discontinuous (adjective noun head adjective complement). We can distinguish the following types of complement :
+
the ka~~d.~orne man that she kissed thefirst man that she kissed a11cxtrcrorclirrorydiscovery thi~tI m;itlc an early discovery that I made The nio.rt recent play I know well is Bcclroonr Farce. The most recent play I've seen is Ifamlet.
+
L41 [h] The superficial resemblance within each pair must not prevent 11s from seeing that, in each case, the second member has an adverbial relation in what is a plausible corresponding sentence:
(a) Adjective with a prepositional phrase as complement (cf 17.58):
the m m was the{fir'' *han~lsonre}that
(b) Adjective with an infinitive clause as complement (d'16.75J):
a discovery that I made (c) Adjective in comparative degree with a comparative clause as complement (cf 15.638): a person more qualified
The play I Note
w i t h the following types it should be noted that alternative adjective position also entails change, compared with types (a-C), in the position of the indefinite article, such that it always immediately precedes the noun head.
(e) So + adjective
. 131 [3a] .
've seen
{
kissed
*extraordinary
]most
~ recently ~ is Hainlet. ~
~
Comparativesofadjectives with comparativeclause complements like [S] and 161can have as ad hoc 'compounds' the normally postponed comparative conslructions in [5;1] and [6a] (ly Ihc p i c c c o I ' i ~ ~ I i ) r ~ ~ ~ ; ~ t i o ~ i that WC sec as the highpoint of our tnessagc, at the same time providing enough additional material to ensure that the message is complete. If the message is heard, the highpoint will he markcd in utter;lncc by prosodic prominence; but even if thc message is writtcn and is silclltly rcnd by the recipient, the writer must still ensure that the reader will identify the highpoint by being able to give it an internal or 'imagined' prosodic prominence. Intonation and other prosodic features are therefore essential in the processing and receiving of information, whether written o r spoken, and we shall be constantly referring to the phonological distinctionsdescribed in Appendix 11. But lexical choice and grammatical organization have an important role. Consider these examples: Will the new law help old people? The road will ultimately be repaired. I'll visit them occasionally. The honeymoon couple returned to Edinburgh in bright sunshine today.
[l] [21 131 [41
I n the following variants, the truth value is unchanged, but the presentation is very different: In your view, will the new law give old people the help they need? It will be some time before the road is repaired. . I don't think I can do more than pay them an occasional visit. It was bright sunny weather that welcomed the honeymoon couple back to Edinburgh today.
[la] [h] [3a]
L44 It is not merely that the variants are more verbose. In each case, a n introduction has been provided which puts the utterance in a communicative context, as in [la] and [3a], or which highlights an aspect of the utterance that is communicatively effective, as in [Za] and the journalistic [4a]. Moreover, care has been taken in [la], [3a], and [4a] to make the ending a n appropriate climax. But before we consider other modes of information processing we must look closely at the fundamental role of intonation and other aspects of prosody.
Prosodic aspects 18.2
Let us imagine that we know the answer to the question 'When shall we
I
I
1356 ~
I
Prosodic aspects 1357
Theme. focus, and it~formationprocessing
another (and better) way, it is common to process the inform;~tionin a message so as to achieve a lincz~rprcscnt:~tion from low to high information v;1111c~1:/'19.12).We sI1;11lrcl'cr to Illis ;ISI I I C pri~lciplc~ ~ ' I : N I > - I , O I Y I S .
She will delcide 'next WPEK~ 'I'lic tl~cmc(r:/'IH.O). wliich in Illis scnlcncc is thc sul?jcct .vl!i,, would he t~llcrc~l will~otitc111~)11;1sis, si~icci t 1'1111clio11s :IS ;I I I I C I C c1lc III:II Ihc s~1c:lkcris coopcl.ating in m;iking a rcply which h:~sthe cxpcctcll sul>.jcctwill1 ;I known identity. The verb phr:lsc 1r.iI1d.c.irlL. is given somewhat lllore prominence, since ;~lll~ougli it is sc~n;~ntic;~lly congruent will1 the form o f thc question, it fro111'ollr' ~ I ~ I ) W I C < I ~ C is by no means wholly prcdict;~hlcin dc~~cctillg;ltIc11tiotl to M;~rv'sdecision. If', for example, the question had been 'When will Mary decide'!', the rcply might have beell:
18.4
She will delcide 'next W
She will do so /next W ~ E K ~
~ E K ~
The effect of prosodic prominence is to draw attcntion to the semantic unit within which the prominent syllable occurs (in this c;lse tlie verb phrase 1~;ll clecide) and hcncc to give that unit inrorm:~tionprominence. So ;ilso with the information climax in this example. Thc noun phrase, ne.rt ~veek,which realizes the adverbial, would have the main strcss on the hcad, week. It is therefore this syllable which carries the nuclear tone, though of course it is not the item week itself which is informationally prominent but the wliole adverbial next n~eek.Compare the parallel distribution of informiltion in the following examples, noting the relation between the prosodically prominent syllables and the informationally prominent se11iantic units:
The verb phrase in tliis case would have little more prominence than the subject. But the m;~inprolnincnce is givcn to the t i ~ n cadjunct, next vvec,k, and tliis prominence is conveyed by the intonation nucleus on the head noun ~vrek. Such prosodic data do not concern speech alone. If we had received the inquiry in writing and had scribbled the reply on paper also, 'She will decide next week' would have been given the prosodic values of our spoken response as the receiver glanced at the written message. And if the receiver were to read it aloud to a friend, it would normally be read with these prosodic values. If this were not so, our message might be distorted or replaced by some other that we had not intended, such as:
H e will delliver it on Tii~sdayl He should have relplied to my ~ k ~ t e r l
She will delciDE next week1
18.3
?'hough there is a one-for-one correspot~dcr~cebetwcen tone unit and information unit, the correspondence is lcss direct between prosodic prominence :lntl inli>rtn:tlion value. I'romincncc hy slrcss or inton:~lion is rc;~lizcdon a .~.vl/iiblc~, ;l unit that h;~sno ncccssary ccirrclation with meaning, let alone information v;~luc.This is thc c;lsc wit11 the stress on -c.iil~i n :
If, on the other hand, my letter had already been established in the context, it would no longer be appropriate to make the prepositional phrase informationally prominent. Instead, the nucleus would probably occur on replied and the adverbial might be lightened and abbreviated by pronominalization:
Information and communicative dynamism COMMUNICATIVE D Y N A M I S ~refers ~ to the variation in communicative va? as between different parts of an utterance. The subject, verb, and adjunct In:
He should have r e l s r l r ~
She will delcide 'next WEEK( were described in 18.2 as being uttered with sequentially increasing prominence, with the S conveying least information, the V rather more (for the reasons stated), and the A conveying most - as is natural since it conveys (or implies that it conveys) the information sought by the lvli-element of the question 'When (shall we know what Mary is going to do)?' A TONE UNIT is defined in Appendix 11.13 as a stretch of speech containing one intonation nucleus, and since each such nucleus serves to highlight a piece of information, it follows that a tone unit is coextensive with an INFORMATION UNIT. .. .
It is such circumstances that lead some to define end focus in terms of the (stressed syllable of the) last open-class lexical item of tlie last clause element (but cf 18.12 Note [a]). Note
.
18.5
the 'communicative dynamism' can range from very low [correspona~ngto weak stress, as with the subject she), through medium (corresponding to nonnuclear stress, as with the verb phrase, it~illdecide), to very strong stress . .adverbial, next week). And, (corresponding to intonation nucleus, as with the . c,...
I n ;ill the examples so far, the 'scm;intic units' identified by prosodic;~llypro~ninc~t sylll~bl~~ have ;tlso bccn gra~nmaticalutiits (V, A), hut tlic bro;lder term 'scm;lntic unit' is nccess:lry ;is ;I reminder th;tt the informationally prominent unit n c a l not be ;I synt;~cticclement: It was Ineither an ~iJ~ocraticl nor cnltircly a o6~ocr;ttic govcrnmentl (Sec furtltcr 18.15.)
Tone units and grammar Every sentence has at least one tonelinformalion unit, and it is usuill forsuch a unit to be coextensive with a grammatical unit. Sometimes this is the sentence itself, as in the example we have been considering: She will delcide 'next
W~EKI
But far more commonly, the tone unit corresponds within a sentence. This may be: accordance with the linear progression OS the ~ntormatlonunlt. lu put
11
grammatical unit
1358
Ttlome, focus, und inforrniltion p r o c ~ s ~ i r l ~
(a) An initially placed optional ndjunct (cf8.36). other than closed-class items:
18.6
(Aftermy i ~ ~ n e sIs\went l to P R ~ N C E ~ contrast: \Then I went to FRANCE! (h) An initially or fin;~llypl:lced disjunct or conjunct, especially when realized by $1polysyll;~bicitcm:
It will he noticed that, in each of thc c;lscs ~ncntioncdin 18.5, thc rcmnindcr ol'the scntcncc is both a tonc unit nntl ;I gr;~nim:~tic:~l unit: t l ~ cprcdic;~tcin (d), a well-formed clause in (a), (h), (c), and (I). An untidicr situation, with no one-to-one relation between tone units and major grammatical units, occurs when such items as those specilicd in (a), (h), and (c) are placed medially. The items concerned may then continue to be given prominence by an intonation nucleus, but - especially in conversational English - the resultant division of the sentence into tonc units will not correspond to the gr;~tnmaticalunits that wc fincl it uscl'ul to tlistinp~~ish ill this hook. 'l'l~us: (a') A sentence with medially placed optional adjunct:
(FRXNKI~~ it has bcen dis/GRAcEfilll Morelbver( the /chairman may not he w i ~ ~ i n g l It was dis/GRic~fuII (PRANKIYI
You /should by ~ b w hc l learning your ~ivingl (b') A sentence with mcdially placed disjunct or co~ljunct:
(C)An initially placed vocative:
It has (FRANKIY( bcen dis/GR,ic~fuI( The Ichairman 'may moreoverl lnot be w i ~ ~ i n g )
~JOHNI
are YOU \all R ~ G H T ~ I~octorlI'm \very A~xiousl
(c') A sentence with medially placed vocative:
A vocative in end position will also occupy a separate tone unit if it is given a rising nucleus, whether for politeness or to single out the addressee more specifically (cf App 11.15). following a different type of nucleus:
You lshould 'really JOHN1 be learning your Living1 A furthercommon circumstancein which toneunits and sentenceconstituents do not completely coincide is where a noun-phrase postmodification takes the form of a nonrestrictive clause or appositional structure. For example:
I'm lmuch sBrterlI~6ctorl But I (don't think you're R ~ G H T( M ~ AR~I
g l delservedly ~ ~ 6 s p e r o u s l The (Japa~EsElwhose \industry is r ~ ~ i v i nare I adlmire the JapaN~sElwhose lindustry is r ~ ~ i v i n g l IHarriet S M ~ T Hour ~ lnew Represe~tativel/comes from Alanimal JLetme 'introduce you to 'Harriet SM~TH(our JnewR c p r e s ~ ~ t a l i v e l
Contrast: Are you \all R ~ G H T'John1 I'm \very A ~ x i o u 'Doctor1 s
Contrast (cf 18.5 (d)):
(d) The subject, if this element is realized by a clause or a long noun phrase, especially one with postmodification (cf 17.lff, 17.61):
The IJapa'nese who 'live in r6kyol can [see Ka'buki 'theatre ~ ~ G u l a r l y l
\What we WANT^ is (plenty of RAIN( The (tall 'lady by the DOOR( (spoke to J ~ H N ( Contrast: \John 'spoke to the 'tall 'lady by the DOORI (e) A fronted object or complement (cf 18.208): Her IwRiringl I (find unin~k~ligible) (f) The coordinate clauses in a compound sentence, especially when the clauses have different subjects:
She (won the RACE( and he was de(~iGHred( They ( W ~ L K E Dthey ( ~ w ~ M they I lplayed G ~ L F I Contrast coordinated predicates and predications (cf 13.52f): H e \went out and 'slammed the DOOR( I have (seen them and 'offered my HELP^ On the segmentation of tone units, cf App 11.18.
18.7
Thegeneralizations made in18.5-6 provide only guidelines: no rigid rule can be made about the relation of grammatical to tone units or about the precise points a t which tone units will form their divisions. Since tone units constitute information units, they are by their very nature variable stretchesof language, readily adjustable to the demands of emphasis, grammatical complexity, speed of utterance, and other factors. For example, a sentence having a clausal object will generally form one tone unit, so long as all the elements are relatively short and simple. But if (i) we wish to highlight certain parts, or (ii) the length of the constituents goes beyond a certain point (very roughly, five or six words), the sentence will be split into two or more tonelinformation units: The (man 'said we could 'park HERE[ The lman SXID~we could lpark HERE^ The lman ~ S S ~ R Eus1D that we could \park our c d ~Illere l 'opposite the ~OTEL~
Prosodic aspects 136 1
1360 Theme, focus, and information processing
(h1Tlle nolion of 'givcn' and 'new' isr~l;~tcs Illc t w o pr~leb111' lc;~strind most communic;itive dynamism (c/18.3), such as Juoir and etdifi~~rril~l in: Ji>:!t~li!i(Is s e : ~ l o i ~ i~~~lif!e~lil~le. ~l I'llc ilrlll . w r , / # ~ r r is l ~ I I ~ ~ I I I I C 1,111 ~ I ; 18, I ~r~Ilir , I I ~ . I ~ L , Iw I I ~ > k l \ o \ v \ 111.11 111.111 .1(,11111, %1..11#1011. 11 i, lc~wi~rtls t l ~ c'given' pole, wli~lel'or IIIC Iie:lre~ !vI!u ~ I I W V Il!:tl ~ JO,IIISI!II'CIS I I C B I Ii~ ~ ~ t l i ~ i~ e~t~~~~i. rllily he nc;lrcr tlie 'ocw'polc. 1TIlie 11e;lrcr.011 lllr otl~er 1r:ll~l.is c~hligcil10 ;l\k .\Vlri, is Jc>;jn?'. the speaker kllows tI~:tt hc llas ~nisjuclgetl cvcri wh:lt Ilr : I \ L I I I I I P ~I O I ~ c.IIIO\I given'. ( ' , ~ l l l ~ > ~:,l\,,: ;!c
There are extreme cases where every single word can constitute a tone unit; thus, in cmphatic irritation, we might say:
18.8
Given and new information When we construct a message, it is a courtesy to the receiver, as well as a convenience for ourselves, to provide the point of thc mcssagc with enough context for this point to be both clearly idcntificd and unambiguously utitlcrstood, ;IS well :IS being pl;~cctl in ;I norm:~l lingt~isticfrnmcwork. T o return to the question at the beginning of 18.2: When shall we know what Mary is going todo? The answer might have been: We'll know next week. Here the unitalicized portion replicates material from the question; so far a s the receiver is concerned, it is entirely GIVEN.But as well as providing assurance that the answer is indeed attending to the question, it serves as a convenient introduction to the actual point of the message, the NEW information conveyed by rtext week. Of course, in this instance, the message would have been adequately comprehensible if it had been confined to the new information alone: Next week. But in 18.2, the answer we considered was: She will decide next week. The italicized portion again presents the main point of the message and the entirely new information, but the introduction is less obviously and directly 'given'. Nonetheless, it serves as the necessary background and by contrast with the 'new' information it is relatively 'given'. The subject she and the futurity expressed by will are indeed entirely given, and in replacing ~ v eand know by she and decide (with consequently increased communicative dynamism; cf18.3) we oblige the receiver to infer that if, as we might expect, WC learn of her decision when it is made, the new information - in the context of this specific given information - constitutes an adequate answer to the question.
1l:lvc y c ~ l l l l ~ r rlu l l 1111: 1lljco11 C X I I I ~ > ~ I ~ ~ (~< II( #I I (I ' n,* O - ~ . LSCIIICIICC I~I'~ I ~ ~ ~ ~ C S C I I IIIIOS( C C I ~yl>ic;~lly hy 131. Altll(111j:11 they are synt;lctically Inore complex than scntcttccs wit11 tucrc I'rc)tlli~lg.clcl't sentenccs are in gcncrnl less rhetorically ohtrusive. It should not be tho~tght, Iiowcvcr. I11i1I Ihcy :~rcmcrcly stylistic v:~rianls.E;tch r~l'tllclive cx:~~nplcs, i ~ ~ ~ l > l i ~ ~sl>c(.i:~IIy ; ~ l i o ~ ~i lsl .I(.I:II~IIII 10 I ! ~ V C I I :IIIlv.
Allcr~~;~livcly t ~ g ~ ~llle i n proposrtion , c;ln be nl;~dc;I cl;ius;tl ol,jccl: Onc finds t h ; ~ ~ WC musl recognize th11t many students ;arc in fin;~nci;~l trouhlc. I have to say th;~t [bl Block language ((1 1.451/) oficn consisls ol' vcrhlcss senlcnccs t11:1t c:!n he reg;ircled existential:
I bathed. I had a bath. ['I took a bath' (esp A m 0 1
-
1403
I
{.
We have seen in 18.8-9 that the organization of sentences in terms of theme and focus generally presumes that a sentence begins with reference to 'given' information and proceeds to provide 'new' information. But there are many occasions when we must make statements whose content does not fall neatly into these two categories: [I1 A /car is 'blocking my WAY) L21 \Many 'students are in fi'nancial T R O U B ~ ~ ~ [3] \Quite a 'few 'species of 'animals are in 'danger of e x l i ~ c t i o n l Let us assume that the originator of these sentences has in each case put the focus where it was wanted. Nonetheless a certain awkwardness is sensed where the recipient is expected to interpret a theme as entirely new and unconnected with anything previously introduced. It is in these circumsPances that it is convenient to have devices for providing some kind of dummy theme which will enable the originator to indicate the 'new' status of a whole clause, including its subject. Thus in place of [l], we might have:
Existential there
18.45
Correspondence with basic clause patterns There is aregular correspondence between existential sentences with tlrere + be and clauses of equivalent meaning as specified in terms of the basic clause patterns (cf 10. lff), provided that the clause concerned (i) has an indefinite subject (but cf Note [a]); and (ii) has a form of the verb be in its verb phrase. Allowing for these tworequirements, wemay relate basic clauses to existential forms by means of a general rule:
+
subjcct (auxiliaries) + be + predication -there (auxiliaries) be subject +predication Likewise, in place of [2] and [3]: lmany s~6dentslin filnancial ~ R b U ~ l e l /quite a 'few 'species of h i m a l s l in [danger of
[Fa1 Pal
+
+ +
The subject of the original clause may be called the 'notional' subject of the there-sentence, so as to distinguish it from there itself, which for most purposes is the 'grammatical' subject (cf 18.46). Examples of the seven clause types along with the existential correspondences are given below:
1404
Therne, focus, a n d i n f o r m a t i o n p r o c e s s i n g
Type SVC S(lmclllingmust hc wrong.
Also ;~cccpl:~hlcis llie ~ l c l i ~ l rho i l c wlliclh is ~lclerhninc(lhy llic ;hhv,lulc \c~l,crl;hlivc (,./7.84). :IS ill. 'rlicrc's l l ~ rrrlclc\l-lorrkin~! c IB:~I \ l i ~ l l < l i ~ h ~ lllr ! : ~lv~,~lt l CIII,I 'IIli* L.(IIII.~II(DII~~ 1 1 ) i t l l i l l ~ l ~ l l r l iillllclr lc ill IIIP Icnllo\(,i~~~~ ,III~.III:III~,L~ l.~~tlr~~,~: 'IIlcrc'srf III~II~ L ~ S I I J ~ ,,/,,,,,,,r,,,,,~,.b~;~~i,l~~,g ~ ~ ~ ~ I ~ ~ ~ ~ . ~;,I~ 111,,,,,,,I,I,,,., lbl Whcrc />?isp;lrt ofil scmi-:luxilillry collslrllclion. lllcrc ;Ire I-cslriclir~nswilb cxislcnli;~l fh.n.: A man is l 0 lix il lornorrow. + 'l'licre is :I hi1;111I,)I i y it Iorimrrow. A r n ~ i l tisIx)1111d ~ It)i~~tivchoo~~ " l. l ~ r ~i\:l c 111,111 I>IIIIIIII III:III~VC'.~~~,I~ A III~III1, yc~1111~ 11% 1 1 ~ 1 1 lllr 1 ''l I!rnc I,.:, ~ ~ L , I I ))S O C I , ) * 11, 1 n ~ 1 1 ~ Ilu1: A m;ln is hoohl(110 he lherc soon. 'l'lhcre i., holtrrri ro hr. ;I II~:III IIC~CSO~,II. A II:II is g(1i11gto be ~1111 Iler. 'I'lhcre r\xr,rrrx rrr hr, ;I III;III WIIII ICI [C] Noun phrtlses introduced by the '~!nivers:~l' l e r l l l s ~ l l oorr,r~, r ;Ire not a,c:~silym;ldc 'notional subjects' ofcxistcntii~lscnlences (?* Tlrerc II,~I.V crcrynrhc irr rln. rooar) :IS other types o f indefinite expression. They act SI: such mostly in'second insl:~~~cc';!nswcr.;l o ehistcnli;~lquestions: A : WII;II is lllere 111he :lfr:~icIof? 11: ~l'l~crc's i ~ v c r y t l h i ~10~lhc g :xI'r:~iclof! Ncg:llivc ol~ivcrs;~ls arc fully :hcccptablc: Y " ~ c ~ c1lot11111g 's 10 w o r ~ y~I~UIII: Id1 Existential rhercoccurs Srccly i n d e p c ~ ~ dcl;t~~ses: e~~t Let me know i f there's ;lllvonc wailinn. [cl I n SVC-related sentences, the C cannot usu;~llydenulc :Ipcrm;inent property: There were several students ill. But: ?'There were sever;~lstudents t;iIl. [OSome frozen exisrenti;~l clauses exist without rArrt>;for example (inSornm;~l): Time Wi\S w l ~ e nI'd have tackled it. [ = 'l'hcre w:hs (once) ;I t i n ~ c :l
- Thcrc mnst hc something Wrong. - Was thcre etlyonc in Ihc vicinity?
Typc S V A Was anyone in the vicinity'? 'Typc SV
.
N~OIIC W;IS w : ~ i l i ~ ~ ~ ! '~'IIL'IL' ,,
W ; I S 1 1 0 ,III(,
-.
w:~ilil~l,,.
-
Typc SVO Plenty of pcoplc ;trc gcttitlg promolion. There are plenty of people getting promotion.
- bulldozers I ~ ~ I I bulldozers A -
Type SVOC Two hnve been knocking the place flat. Tllcrc have two knocking thc pl;lcc flat Typc SVOA girl is putting the kettle on.
There's a girl putting the kettle on
Type SVOO Soniething is causing my friend distress. There's something causing my friend distress.
-
..
Passive versions of the correspondences are also to be noted: Type SVps A whole box has been stolen. Type SV,, C No shops will be left open.
-
There has been a whole box stolen. 18.46
- There'll be no shops left open.
The notional subject can be postponed (cj'18.31) if it is required to have focal prominence:
(i) It often determines concord, governing a singular form of the verb (cf 10.34fl) even when the following 'notional subject' is plural: Tllere's some people in the waiting room. (informal) occurs alongside: There are some people in the waiting room.
There was in the vicinity a helpful doctor. There'll be left open no single well-stocked shop. Especially in informal usage, there is an existential sentence with an -ed clause following the noun phrase:
(ii) It can act as subject in jws-no and tag questions: Is there any more soup? Therc's nothing wrong, is tlic,re? (iii) It can act as subject in infinitive and -;rig clauses: I don't want there to he arjy 1nis1111rlersta1r~Ii17g. He was disappointed at there heitig so little to do. Tliere Iiavinig bee11trouble over tlris in thepast, I want to treat the matter cautiously.
There's a parcel come for you. There's a book gone from my desk. There's a tree fallen across our driveway. There's a new history of Indonesia published. N~~~
~h~ rule that existential sentencesshould have an indefinite noun phrase as'notional subject' us from constructing sentences like *Tl~ercSIhe rrrorreJJirr rbe box from Tllc alon@JJis (he bol, hi^ limitation can be waived, however, where the definite noun phrase conveys new information. in answerstoexistentiaI questions (actualor implied), such that the answer provides . . .. a specific (and hence definite) instance: A : Have we any loose cash i n thehouse? R. Wcll. the money i n the box over thcre . . -.., there's . A : Is there anyone coming to dinner? B: yes, there's Harry and there's also Mrs lones. compare also: m e r e are seueral arrirnals commonly depicted i n heraldry; for instance, there is the lion'.
.
The status o f existential there as subject The there of existential sentences differs from there as an introductory adverb in lacking stress, in carrying none of the locative meaning of the placeadjunct there, and in behaving in most ways like the subject of the clause, doubtless reflecting the structural dislocation from the basic clause types:
Note
[a1The absence oTlocative meaning is indicc~lcdby the ;lcccptability ofthe cxistcnlial scntcnce with herecooccurring with introductory rhert,: There's a screwdriver here. By conlrast, i~djunctrhercwit11inversion (~f18.23),;1sin~Thcrc'stl1cgirl~. would becontr;~dictor~ with an added here: "There's tile screwdriver here! (Bet d. ~THBRES tllc sc~Bwdrivcrl- IRigllt "HBREI [bl Existential rhrrccan be frontcd i n association with the type oflo-clause discussed in 18.36:
1406
Theme, focuu, and infor~r~alion procoosirl(l
two restrictions mentioned in 18.45: the verb need not be n form of the verb 1101 Ilc s ~ ~ l ? j c c t :
hr. ;~ntlilllll011g11there must he ;In indcli~lilcclc~ncnl,i f ncrtl
Sonictlii~~g kccps upsclling him. (C'/ 'So~ltcll~ing i h 1.cl1c;1tctlly upsctting him') 'I'hcre's something (tlii~t)kccps upsctting him. I'd like you to mcet some pcoplc. There's some pcoplc (that) I'tl likc you to Incct.
-
18.47
'Bare' existential sentences Apart from sentences related to basic clause types in the manncr dcscribcd in 18.45, we have to consider various other types of sentence introduced by existential /lrc,re. Among them is the 'bare' existcntial (somctimcs called 'ontological') sentence, which simply postulates the existence of some entity or entities. It has a simple clause structure /Ircrc+ be + indefinite noun phrase : There was a moment's silence. There's nothing to do. There was a sudden noise. There are numerous species of edible fungi. Undoubtedly, there is a God. ['God exists'] Is there any other business? [as spoken by the chairman at the end of a meeting] There must be a more direct route. Such sentences are perhaps to be explained as cases in which the final element is omitted as understood: There is a God (in the Universe). [ie now as always] Is there any other business (for the committee at this meeting)? There must be a more direct route (than the one we're discussing). Other sentences superficially like these are certainly to be so explained. For example, the sentence There'll be trouble, occurring on its own, implies a definite context: 'There'll be trouble at the matchlat the party', etc. Alternatively, it seems significant that many textual examples of 'bare' existentials comprise complexities that provide for the required double prominence. Compare such paraphrases of foregoing examples as: Edible fungi exist in numerous species. There was Isi~encefor a 'moment1 In 'There have always been wars', we have an SVA existential, though the A-element (always) is at M (cf 8.16); compare 'There have been wars in all pcriorls of history'.
18.48
Existential sentences with relative and infinitive clauses A more important additional type of existential sentence is that which consists of there + be + noun phrase + relative clause, and which resembles the cleft sentence (cf18.25, example [2]) in its rhetorical motivation. Such sentences can be related to sentences of orthodox clause types without the
[I l
L21 It is interesting that the rcl:~tivcpronoun r11c11 in chc 'anncx' cl;~usco f [ I ] can bc omittctl (cspcci;~llyin inli~rlnalusilgc) cvcn w l ~ c rit~ is suhjcct OS thc relative clause; something not permissible according to the norm;~lrulc for relative clause formation (cf17.15): Thcre's a man lives in China.
-
*I know ;I man lives in China. This omissibility is a sign of the special status within the main clause of the annex clause here, as in cleft sentences (c/ 18.28 Note). As with cleft sentences, we can have direrent tenses in the two parts of the sentence. Compare: There were some paintings that were admired by everyone. There are some planets that were discovered by the ancients The existential-with-relative construction is particularly common as a means of emphasizing a negative (cf Note below): There's nothing I can do about it. (- nothing rlrat/wlrich I can do) There was no way they could persuade her to try again. (- no way in which t h e y . . .) Compare, without this construction, 'They could persuade her b~no \ray to try. again.' Again, as with cleft sentences, WC can negate either part:
-
There was a student who didn't pass the exam. There wasn't a student who passed the exam.
[ = one failed] [= all failed]
But we can also negate both parts: There wasn't a student whodidn't pass the exam. [=all passed]
+
One may also mention a common existential sentence pattern there + h e noun phrase to infinitive clause, which is problematic to the extent that it cannot be directly related to the basic clause types of 10. lff':
+ +
There was no one for us to talk to. There's (always) plenty of housework to do. Such infinitive clauses are allied to relative clauses (cf17.9ff'),as we see on comparing: At last there was something to write home about. with the (stiffly formal) relative clause construction: At last there was something about which to write home.
Theme, focus. and informlion procewiny
1408
Where thc S is postponed (cf18.31) as in [Z], thcrc is less constr;lin~for the S to be indefinite, doubtless bccause the postponcmcnt ilsclf. inlplics the 'ncwncss't~l'lhc ilc111C O I I C C ~ I I C ~ I :
This typc of existential scntcncc somctimcs has a dclinitc noun phrase as nolion;~lsuhjcct (c/']8.45, Note [a]): 'I'hcrc's the III;III ttexl (Ioc~r10 col~siilrr. Note
0 1 1
18.49
'l'llcrc c:ltnc to his mind licr bc;~util't~l i ~ n dilltclligc~~t ktce.
Alsothercis ;l restricted i~liom;lticc~,nstr!lcliollcollsisli~~goflla~n~ -1- h? + l1eg;lllve -I- -ir!l:cl;lllsc: ' f l i c ~ eiw't a n y getting ;lw:ly frulll i t . I 1 1 el iI t~ I I I I l IIII, I ~ ~ ~ L ~ I I I : II ~I I~ I ~~ ~~ L~ . ~~ I I
If however the transitive verb is onc that Ibrms a V ((./'I h.SX), such scqucnccs arc I'l~lly:~cc.c.l~l;~l~lc:
I I ~ . ~ I ~ ~l4 ~ L ~ ~ c ~ I I . ~ ~ /
Existential sentences with verbs other than be The existential sentence has been described as 'presentative', in serving to hring sotncthing on to llic discours:ll stage deserving our attention. This sccmscspccially t1.11col';~r;~tllcrlcsscotn~no~~, 111t1rc lilcritry Iy~)c~ I ' c x ~ s I c I I I ~ ~ I ~ clause in which rhere is followcd by n vcrb other Ili:~nhi,:
Note
There rose in his imagination grand visions of a world empire. There exist a numbcr of similar medieval crosses in different parts of the country. There may come a time when the Western Nations will be less fortunate. Not long after this, there occurred a sudden revolution in public taste.
-
This construction, which may be related to other sentence forms by the simple correspondence S + V there + V + S (where S is usually indefinite), is equivalent in effect and style to subject-verb inversion after an initial adverbial (cf 18.23). Indeed, in all tlwre-existential sentences, there can be regarded as a 'dummy element', which, placed before the subject and verb, provides the necessary condition for inversion to take place. Grammatically, there is a subject, as we saw in 18.46 above and as we see again here with the operator inversion that takes place when the statement pattern is turned into a question, eg: Will there come a time . . . ? D i d there occur a sudden reoolzrtio?t
. . ..7
But the present construction requires some expansion of the rule given above. In the first place, the verb must be intransitive (exceptions are idiomatic or dubious; cf Note [a]), and of fairly general presentative meaning: verbs of motion (arrive, enter,pass, come, etc), of inception (enterge, spring up, etc), and of stance (live, remain, srarld, lie, etc); but cf 18.50. In the second place, while 'ontological' or 'bare' existcntials are commoner with these verbs than with be (eg: Theresprang up a wildgale), the normal sentence pattern concerned is SVA and the existential rule might be restated as follows (treating sprang up as a single verb unit and not as V A):
+
+
there V: + S + A there+V+A+S A there + V S
+
+
For example : There sprang up a wild gale that night. There sprang up that night a wild gale. That night there sprang up a wild gale.
[l] [2]
[3]
18.50
+ N multi-word
vcrb
[alTransitiveverbs in cx~stcntialsentencesarerare but \vould follow pattern 121nhove in having the S in end position: '?Therestruck 11ic;I S I I ( I C I ~ I I iclc:~. ((Y "I'l~cre st111ckIIIC i~ [;!l1 I I ~ : ~ I) I ('!) 'l'llcrc IIIFII :I~I~I(!SIC does mt ohcy t l ~ erule of '10-support:one can say Do he qrrilti!ssl 1'111 Is0 i ~ l ' ~ , : ~ itl~cy'll cl [:cl I.<JS'I~ ]Why are you'such a ~Abyl [Don't L I ~ S EYT ~ ~ r ~ ~ ~ I " S ~ ~
Note
In consequence, so and such become equivalent to hero and tijl~ut in exclamations (cf 11.31f ) : 'They wcrc so cross!
This phenomenon, along with that in 18.59, is sometimes termed 'left- ;ind right-disloc;ttiOn': cf17.78. Amplificatory tags
18.59
What delightful children they are!
Incou111sl to tl~cliontitigofitenlstobcsubscquently reinforced prot~otninally (as in 18.58), an amplificatory phrase may be informally added after the completion of a clause structure which contains a coreferential pronoun : They're all the same, tlresepoliticiot~s. I wouldn't trust hit?! for a moment, your hmtller-bt-lcrlv.
But so and such can also occur, as the earlier examples show, in questions and directives. Additional emotive emphasis is achieved by assigning a nucleus to so or stcch :
Such utterances are usually spoken with divided focus (cf.18.17), with a rise on the 'tag' confirming its relatively 'given' status:
I'm Is6 PLEASED[ Note
141 7
They're /all the SAME,these poliriciansl I (wouldn't trust him for a Moment, your ~ ~ b ~ ~ e r - i n - l a w l
Other wordsofstrong emotive import may take a nuclear tone for special emotive force: I ~ W ~ Syou' H d ~istelll I llove that htiisicl or I I L ~ V E ~ that l~irsicl I'm /rbRriblyso~ryl
The tag can be inserted parenthetically, as well as placed finally: He's got a good future, your brother, if he perseveres A n even more informal type of tag comprises a subject and operator: That was a lark, that was! He likes a drink now and then, Jim does. In some dialects of English (especially Northern BrE), the operator may precede the subject:
Reinforcement
She's a lovely girl, is Ann. Postposed nonfinite clauses, of the kind discussed in 18.35, sometimes closely resemble amplificatory tags; contrast:
Repetition and 'proxy' pronouns
18.58
Redorcement 1s a feature of colloqu~alstyle whereby some ttem 16 repeated (elther completely or by pronoun substttut~on)for purposes of emphas~s, focus, or themat~carrangement Its s~mplestform IS merely the relteratlon (wtth heavy stress~ng)of a word or phrase for emphas~sor clar~ty. It'sfar, far too expensive (Cf 7 89) I agree w ~ t hevery word you've s a ~ d-every srngle word In very loose and ~nformalspeech, a re~nforc~ng or recap~tulatorypronoun IS sometimes ~nsertedwrth~na clause where ~tstands 'proxy' for an l n ~ t ~noun al phrase
T11uman I was telltng you about - well, he used to l ~ v next e door to me TIE hook Iient you - have you fin~shedtt yet?
It was tough getting the job finished on time. [/tough. . . . . .TI'MEI] It was tough, getting beaten in the last match. [JT~uGHJ/. .. . . MATCH^] Note
[a]The umplificatorytag should not be confused with either vocatives (l:/ IO.52f) or w l ~ a tmay be called 'tag exclamations', such as Ilc ran O!I~(JJ~.~~IIVI S C I I ~ O I .the . iclirrr (d.17.68Note [b]).Both these constructions aredistinguishedfcom it intonution;~lly,in tlx~tthcy m;ly form tlle 't;~il' ora preceding nucleus, instead of having llleir own (usually rising) nucleus. The intoniltion rn~~rks the followingas usually tag and vocative respectively: He's a \goodcllip J ~ H N I He's a /goodC ~ 'John( P
14 18
Thun~e,f o c u s , o n d I r ~ f o r m a l i o nprocnsainrl
The exclamatory tag is furtller distinguished by being capable of (i) referring hack to a noun IIIIIIISC o l l ~ cIII;III r ;I ~ I ~ ~ I I ~ I I I : : 'I h811hnrtller l n l lof~ rpronouns ; l r ~ i llltllcr h l l l ~ s t i t ~ ~ '1 lItcy c ~ ;tI111s . II:IVC :I c111i1vi ~*,r:~~~ltn:~tic:~l ft~nctioll,as c:lll be seen in the it;~lici/cdcx;~~lll,lcs in thc I'oll my c;lsc, r,r,r~x/rtt l ~ c underground, go/ another taxi, trrri~:c,clat my front door, rrr.vlrec/ in, and of coursegave my poor wife the shock of her life.
IL.,l l
We now have a very different diagram: +Thursday
Now
t.
...
nnnnnnnnnnnn~nn n
u
u
~
s
z
~
~
2~ s -i 2 ~z . 2~ L -+ z : y ~ * g : g ~ Z~ -.+ -a +m + " 3 : 5 + EL 2 .+ -,
-
+
~
~
~
~
+ Do ~ You want . . . 7.
Fig 19.40 Note
[a1 While a sequence of pg~stlenses implies sequential events if Illc lexical me~ning of' the verb mtlkcs this plausible as in [21, n sequence of past verbs with progressive aspect (c/'4.25fl) can imply simultaneity,as in (31: Ren6 raged with anger. Janel went out for thc even ..,,"g. (21 Reni. was raging with anger. Janet wasgoing out for the evening. I31 [bl Use of the past perfective can enable us to reverse the order or sentences in :I lcrt (cf4.24). Note the way in which 'Time One'lTIJprecedes T, in (41where T, prcccdcs T, in [S]: There was a sudden violent noise outside [T,].John telephoned tllc police [T,]. I41 John telc~lhonedthe police IT2].Tllcre h;l(l bcen :I sudden violenl naisr outside I'r,].
[S]
Tense complexits in narrative More usually, however, texts comprise much greater time-reference complexity than the examples in 19.39f show. They will have a mixture of state verbs and discrete-action verbs; the narrative will weave backwards and forwards, a mixture of tenses and aspects, of finite and nonfinite clatrses enablillg the narrator to depart from the linear sequence of historical order so as both to vary the presentation and to achieve different (cg dramatic) effects: I was reading Chaucer's Troil~tsthe othcr niaht, and it suddenly occurred to me to wonder what Chaucer expected) us to make of the fact that Criseyde
{ki.i)never even been in love. Surely this ,
whereas Troilus
is significant, yet I had never thought of it before.
~
~
w
u
1456
From sentence to text the original example [l], the past varimt was illso givcn, implying ;l retelling
wc jl,lvc the ctddlt~on.~l complrc.lt~onof w~thlnCI ndrrdtrve
.I
n.1rrctttvc dhout a narrative
of lllc story ('Wllcn 'rroilus lirstsrf~~~ C'riscytlc, sltc I I ~ I ~ I;lI witlow ~ ~ ~ c fi)r I ~ solllc
time').
C1l.tucer's tttne 19.42
F I 19 ~ 41d
I had forgotten that they dine very early and I arrived at an awkward moment for both them and me. I31 But there is a further use of the present tense: the so-called 'historic present' (cf 4.8). As well as occurring in rather mannered and forrnal prose of an oldfashioned tone, it is common in colloquial spoken narrative, especially at points of particular excitement. The time reference is unequivocally past. For example:
The account of the narrdtor's readrng and reflection 1s itself of some complexity wlth~na perlod m the past, a duratrve aCtIVItY (readll1g) Is represented as belog interrupted by a sudden thought But the thought had slgnlficance not merely at the tlme of thinking nor merely during the rest of the ~ a d m per~od, g tt IS represented as be~ngpermanentlyrefers s 1 g nonly 1 f i ctoThe the ') does not connote that appeal 10 the hearer (Surely now of the speaker and hearer, there 1s no room for some such adverbial as at present
It was on the Merritt Parkwayjust south oSNew Haven. I was driving along, half asleep, my mind miles away, and suddenly there was a screeching of brakes and I catch sight of a car that had been overtaking me apparently. Well, he doesn't. He pulls in behind me instead, and it's then that I notice a police car parked on the side.
*Surely thls IS at present s~gnlficant
Frg 19 41b
'A' represents the (unknown) per~oddur~ngwhich Crlseyde has been a widow when the poem begms, 'B' represents the longer period (ln effect, ~ ~ ~whole ~ life) l dur~ng ~ ~ which ' sTrollus has never been m love It will be noticed that In this commentary we have adopted the ‘timeless' vlew of the fiction ('when the poem begins, Cr~seydehas been a widow for Some time') In
- E
I tl~htkshc had undergonczrn opcr~~tion bct'orc I tnct her. [l 1 Troilus is totally fancy-free until he secs Criscydc. L21 A third type of present, 'habitual' (cJ.4.61, is common in ordrnary narrative, and it can readily cobccur with past tenses:
Chducer expects
The narrator 1s here uslng the present tense of tlmeiess reference (cf 4 2ff) It 1s the potentlaitty for such a use of the present that made us give the two p o ~ s l b l ~ l t l'Chaucer e~, expects7and 'Chaucer expected- The latter takes the hlstorlcal vlew. a comment on the poet as he wrote In the fourteenth century The former treats the Chaucer canon as timeless, permanently existing An analogou~choice ex~stsm referring to the fictl0n.l nlinatlve of Chaucer's poem
Special Uses o f oresent and nast We havescen that thcprcscnt tcnsccan cooccurin lextu;~lslructurc wilh two distinct types of time references: ordinary 'state prescnt' and universal 'state prcsenl' ('timclcss'; (:f4.5):
Note
In nonstandard speech, the reporting verb in narrative is often in Ihe historic present: 'Wheredid you put my coat?'he says. 'I never touched it.' I s;~ys.
[41 151
19.43 As well as being able to use the present tense to refer to the past, we can conversely use the past to refer to a narrator's 'now', exploiting that form of backshift that is referred to as free direct and indirect speech (cj'14.28, 14.35). Textual cohesion and congruity of reference are maintained by careful consistency of tense and aspect usage, present replaced by past, past by past perfective, even in the prolonged absence OSreminders to the hearertreader in the form of reporting verbs ('He reflected . . .', 'She said . . .'). In the following example, an entire paragraph coheres in this way, but the end of the preceding paragraph is quoted with the reporting verb (recalled) as a cue. The past with this verb is the normal past used by any narrator for the story that is being told and which is necessarily in the past for both narrator and hearerlreader. From this point onwards, however, the past refers to the recreated 'present' of the character whose reflections are recalled: they are reasonably referred to as occurring 'now' (the final word of the introductory paragraph), in a sentence which we reconstruct for ourselves as 'Well, what does it work out to now?'
14(;0
From liurituncoto It is often indeed a desire for witty brevity that leads to the use o f overecot~omicnlreductions. In a printed book review. ;tSter commenting on Swift's soyilig i~hout'llic natioll's rcprcscl~lcrs'111:1t' I wottltl It:l~lgIllern if I could', thc writer went 011:
in [7] a relative pronoun replaces the earlier noun-phrase subject (cf17.15). Finitlly, in [l 01, there is total omissio~lof the second subject (cf 13.12f). All eight of [3-101 provitle satisktctory collcrcncc of Illc two p:lrts. It is pcrh:tpsclosest in [IO], but only at thccost of muting the separate signilicance of the second part - in contrast to [3] and [4], I'or cx;~mplc,which insist 011 our considering the hegir~nittgof the argument on the onc hand as well as its restilt on the other hand. As we hsvc indicated above by means of the cross-references, all of these tlcviccs ;\re tlcscrihctl clscwhcrc in thc hook in tcrtns ol' gr:~tn~natic;~l rttlc. Here we have needed to add only some nolcs f'ro111 :I tcxlu;~lpoinl t~l'vicw. N~~~
~pronouns i nor~ appo\itive h noun ~ phr;~ses ~ arc restrictel~to rererring hack toprececiing nolm consider the poss~bilitythat the Arsi of Ihcorigin:~lsentences had been: [la] Theyargued b~tterlyover unilateral disarmament. ,his event, the determiners and pronouns in the latter part or the combined lcxt variants would have had sententia] reference, and all would have been acceptable with the exception of
The tliitlg is said bccattse he knows hc can't: Swil't clocsn't 'mci~n it', though he doesn't not mean if cither. Tlie old bards apparently both mcant it and ro1111.
131 .. Thc cllipsis :~licrt,o~r'tis clc;tr: 'l1:lng tllcln'. Thc wl-itcr inlclltls to cello Il)is in the liri:~Icou1~1which lie iti~licizcsit1 LIic IIOPU 0 1 t;~kinp11s h:~ck 10 [ I ~ c quotation from Swift. But at that distance the cllipsis is unsatisk~ctoril~ vague.
~
Note
version [IOI.
19.45
Limitations on pro-forms What is grammatically tolerable has to be mediated by what is textually tolerable. Consider the following use of do so as a pro-form (cf 12.23f): There was a certain beautiful girl who occasionally walked past our house. Whenever she didso, my brother would tease me.
[l]
19.46
If we expand upon the first sentence, didso is less appropriate: There was a certain beautiful girl who occasionally walked past our house. Nothing particularly surprising in itself. We lived on a pretty lane, lined with rather attractive gardens. Yet 114 whenever she did so . . .
Y ~ chase U the plane down the it is being B ~ I L T .
~ 6 ~ w a"iyget . to the airport while
l21
In place of it (which might refer to t/te plans, the runtvay, or tfre airport), a fuller anaphoric expression would have been clearer if less satisfactory in reducing the wit: the place
Discourse reference There are numerous signals marking the identity between what is being said and what has been said before. The grammar of anaphoric and cataphoric substitution has been presented in 12.13~'' We concentrate here on devices that have a special value in referring less to concrete entities than to constituents or aspects of discourse itself. The signals can be divided into two groups, distinguished by the type of unit they refer to: (a) sentence or clause reference signals (b) noun-phrase reference signals
Such relative remoteness of the relevant predication requires that we find a weightier substitute than do so and one that can more readily establish the backward link, even if our alternative is no more precise semantically than: [l a ] . . [Yet whenever] this occurred. . . (Cf 19.24). Again, where textual material puts identification of an antecedent even rnornentarily in doubt, a pro-form will be avoided -however 'grammatical'- and an alternative means of expression found. Consider the vagueness of the following hyperbole, contrasting one who is always very late for a flight with one who is always very early:
In the followinganecdote, the impact and wit ;!re primarily ;~chicvcdby thc ellipsis, b u t in p;irt also by the satisfying order adopted (c/ 19.68) in tlicnchievemenl orclitn;~xh?. mc;lnsol'a triadic structure(cJ'19.8): Prisoner:As God is my judge. l a m noi guilty. h10ge:He isn't; I AM; you RE! It is not uncommon to find rhetarical eKectivencss resling on such m:lnipul;~tion of the most ordinary grammatical items. Note the way in which o11r. and rlo are contrilsted in ;I speech by a British politician: We have to learn to be ~ N nation E or we sh~~ll become ~6 nation.
Many of them are adapted from their primary function of denoting temporal Some signal both or spatial succession, eg:for~ner,uboue, Itere, rl~qfollo~vi~tg. sentence/clause reference and noun-phrase reference. 19.47
Clausal reference Common signals for sentence or clause reference include: anaphoric and cataphoric: here, it, rhis anaphoric only: that, theforegoing (formal) cataphoric only: asfollows, the following, thus Anaphoric examples: Many years ago their wives quarrelled over some trivial matter, now long forgotten. But one word led to another and thc quarrel developed into a permanent rupture between them. T/I(I!'s why the two men never visit each other's houses. Many students never improve. Thcy get no advice and tlierefore they keep repeating the same mistakes. Irk a terrible shame.
[l1
(21
1462
From sentence to tcrt
instead of Students want to be shown connections hetwccn spending their time memorizing dates and formulas. Reflecting I/I~,Y, Ilic 1111ivily i \ t ~ t c , v i l ~:IW:IY ]~ [ ~ O I T I \:lrf~c s;tlrvcyc:o~lr5cs ;Illcl [>rc;tki1lg~ 1 1 ;lc;~cIc~llic ) ~ ~ ~ ~I ' C I~I ~ C S i l l O I C ~ L ' ~l 0 5ll0b85 1 1 [ 1 ~ ~ ~ ~ 5 131 relating to one another.
.Shr.'.~k,rrrrnr,rlo hi\rorl. hook. M'l,rrh \ i ~ g p c \ l \ lhrr Ic;)cllrr i i h:,vinl! \rrn,v ~ n l l l l c n ~ ~ r,,,
1111
cl1
them is why the two m e n .
..
\~lc~.ll~tlll.lll\ IIIC\L.IIIPLI
. I I I : I I ~ ~ I I ~ I I 1L 1 5 ~ .lhlll I L ' ~ c I I I I I ~ ! ' ~ ~ ~ I 1C0~ ~' ~ 1 1 1 1 ~ 1 1 1 1 ! 1 ~ ~
[')l
I ~ . . L.II.OIILI~II, . c ~ .(11\
.I,
(IO)
(Ill II?l
'1,)1,,,,,,1'
1iL.11,!, I ~ ~ , I . , ~ r : l I I v P
to ;I llllgl~iat~c ~lrscr~pt~t,~~ 01 11,
[C) 111 illf(lrmil1 spoke11I!ngli.sh. ~t.lin~c;tt~ Ir:~vcci~li~pll,)r~~ ~ C V ~ ~ C I I1,)1~,1 CC i t , 1jIC (jiI.CelO~,jCCl ork~loll.in ;I qocstion,orgrt,s\ill ;I directiie. or rcll in ;I r(;l~~,,,Cnl (Doyou) Know WHAT'! He won.( pay up. Guess WHAT, 1131 . . (1'11) Tell you W I I ~I'vc T :f o r g o ~ l e111c ~ ~kcvc!
[41
rci LJJ
)
ILI
111,
In some instances, we can replace the reference signal by a correspo~lding that-clause. For example, rltat in [ I ] could be said to refer to a that-clause which corresponds to the immediately receding clause:
. . . That the quarrel developed into a permanent rupture between
I I I ~ I V!hl,lt \ I . ..III .
I I1L.l. 111 11. I J ~ ~ ~ ~ I I I :III!.I \c.11 ~ I. ~I I .~ ~I~I I IC OI Ir t,l ~ c t .T ~ I CI,.\>.L\ I,,,I I I V Thol's ;I 1h11igI dirllhr ~'c~l'lc ~ l ~ ~ h l ) cI IrI iB ~I I ~I I;Ig~ I.,IIICCII r11,ir's~ v h z ~I tlike 10 +I:: ;I c11,tpwlx,e~~p,~, Irl, k O l l ~ c l w i \ c .118nl i \ I I \ ( . I ~ : ~ ~ ~ : ~ p l ~ o r i11c .(1111111 ~ l I y 111 111111,.1. 1 1 :11).111.,1 ~ 11,.,1 ( 1 1 1 I 71
C'i~t;~phoric cxamplcs: 7'lris should intcrcsr you, il.yo~1.r~ still kccrt O I I I>c,xil~g.'l'hc wi~rld heavyweight championship is going to be held in Chicago ncXl June, so you should bc able to watch it live. Here is the news. A diplomat was kidnapped last night in Lolldoll . . .[radio announcement] 11 never should have happened. He went out and left the baby unattcndetl. My arguments arens,fullo~w". .
l,,.,.
111 ~ l t ~ l ~ ~ t ~1 I . ~t ~l l. ~l ~n 1. ~1 ~ ~ 1~1 !1, 81t l~~ 1I I~ ~ 1 ~ ~ ~~ 1 ,~ I I ,
As was sirid in Cli;~pterIZour. . . . WC will.spet~Rof Ibis ill Ch;~ptcrNille
Less specificrefcrencc is 1n;ldc in tcrn>sofnhol I. (or corli,,r);lnd hclrr,~.(or /orrr in tile tcxt). ;Ind some spoken material of o rormill kind, such ;IS lectures. lnnkc si!nil;~rIISC ol.oh,r. a ~ i dhr,b,ll.. [cl In legal English rhc soid, rlie ( o ) l i , r ~ ~ ' ~ ~ ' n n ~: f~rnl kt l~r ~h ~~'/,W~,S~I;,/ ~< ~ ~ I , ;Ire o s c t ~Ibr an:lphllric relkrcncc, the I;lst two both as ;l prcmodilicr (.tRe ;~fi~rcnlcnliol~ecl prcrvi\io~i\'l;tnd ;IS ;I nolln phr;lse. 111 lllc I;ltlcr fuoction,Iliey w(~uldnorm;tlly rrfcr I,,;,ptcvio~lrrlolrir , , I , ~ ; I,,illl , ~ I~crhon;ll ~efcrenee.
[lal
In [2], on the other hand, it could be said to stand for the whole of the two preceding sentences. With cataphoric signals, the substitution might be inordinately long in practice. Certainly, here in [S] could refer forward to a . ... following d:lsco&se i f indeterminate length. The pro-form may refer back to most, rather than all, of the sentence or clause: [a] They will probably win the match. That will please my brother. The more likely interpretation of that is their winllil~g/he match with the omission of auxiliary and disjunct but that they willprobably win the mulch is also a possible interpretation. ~b~~~ and below are used fordiscourse reference to refer to units of varying length, and even to illustrations:
. . , the arguments given belorv [perhaps referring to ~ ~ v e r~entences] al . . . the question mentioned above . . . the picture above The diagrams below illustrate. . .
19.48
Formulaic utterance While deictic reference and elliptcd matter must, from a grammatical viewpoint, be recoverable (cf12.6/), discourse permits a good deal of vagueness. This seems to be actively cultivated in propaganda ancl other persuasive material, but it is especially colnmoll in informal conversation, not least in the semi-formulaic responses to cxprcssions 01. thanks. apology, inquiry, and the like. Consider how difficult it would be to specify the precise reference or the exact ellipsis in the following responses: A: Thank you very much. B: Not at all. Not a bit. Don't ~ncntionit. You're W E L C O ~(esp C . Am€) A : I'm terribly sorry. B : Not at all. Not a bit. It's nothing. A : I wonder if you'd mind coming end taking some dictation'! Of course Surely (esp AmE) , Mrs Stew;~rt.
i
[I1
L21
G~.ariitnaticaldevices A: Would you mind my asking if you've ever taken drugs, Mr l-loovcr? B: Ahsolutcly NOT. A : You wouldn't know o rortunc-teller around here, 1 st~pposc?
Such noun phrases Inay be discourse abstractions, and the hc2tds may either be idetitical as in [ l ] or nominalizations th;~tntltl lexical variation (c-/.19.22), as in [2]:
141 [S1
[61
Try ME.
In [5] the implication is that B knows one ('Try askitlg if I know one'); in [61, I3 is s;rying tIi;lt hc himsell. can tcll fortunes. In (41, otlly the context could clarib whether B is saying that Ilc ';~bsolutcly(dots) not (~nintl)',or th;~tit is ‘absolutely not' true that he has taken drugs. In [3], the formulnic response will do! is a conventional way of saying '1 113illdo as you request', and B has interpreted (correctly, of course) A's polite inquiry In [l] and . . as. a ,request. , .,~.. :" [Z], the reference of it, in Don't ~rre~ltior~ it, It's rlor/lrltg, IS aouorless allaphluLtb in some way. But in the first line of [7], it iscataplloric if almost equally , c. vague .-..l in its reference; the initial imperative is little Inore tnan an I I ~ I L J I I I I ~ I I attention-requestingsignal, amorc severe form of wliich includes a cataphoric llere : A: By the way, Cynthia. It's awful of me, I know. But would you be able to look after my dog while I'm away next week? B: (Now look) (Here), this is the third time you've left me with your dog.
[71
Within sentence sequences that are strictly alike from a gralnmatical point of view, a discourse pronoun can have sharply different reference: She hoped he would not mention her unfortunate marriage. It
7
IPATI~TPOIIE of him.
be very That
hi~iieoiiof him in a WAY, of course. .
,....
181 [Sal A
In [S], the reference is to the predication including the negatlve CHISnot mentioning the marriage would be courteous'). In [ h ] , the reference cxcludes the negative ('His mentioning the marriage would be courteous'). It is only the pragmatic implications of the hedging adverbial in a way and the concessive ofcourse that lead us to this interpretation. Note
An interestinguse of cataphoric it in textual structure is in the cleft sentence device (c/18.26/!): (91 It was at9.15 this morning that the government proclaimed a stateofemergency. tn, It on their way from the airport that Gillian dropped the bombshell. In carerully rtl"l ..was .-. casualtones,she asked him if he would agree ton divorce. . .. ., .,.. ....,.,
.^_
I: I'
Noun-phrase reference
the
this -these
. . that - those
1465
Shc sct Irp ;l hypolhcsis tI1~1tchcmo~hcr;~py dcs~roycdthc will to livc :IS wcll as thc unwantctl cclls. 771i.clg~x,ll~r~,si.s ;~Llractctltllc attcntion o f . . . Deconstructionism holds that knowlcdgc about litcraturc is strictly unattainable . . . T11i.s~locrri~r~, is ptrc,ling in scvcr;~l rcspccts.
[l]
121 It is not always certain, howcvcr, when such a rcfcrc~lccis to a prcvious noun cxprcsscd proposition. Thc phrase or is a nominaliz;~liono f a witlcr, cl;~l~sally text from which [Z] is quoted is a case in point. As presented in the abbreviated form of [Z], cloctritrc~secrns to rcfer back unambiguously to cleconstructio~risrnand be a lexical variant of it. But in the original, there are several lines where we have indicated the curtailment, and tllcse include the following:
We must therefore abandon the old-P~shioncdquest to discover what a given author was trying to communicate.
[2a] The reference of tlris cloctri17emust therefore include, not merely the specific but the speculated collscquence which the author abstract rleco~~srructionisnr, went on to state. A fuller version might therefore read: This doctrine of'deconstructio~lis,,,tr~rtltlrc need to ohrr~rclo~r rhc olcfoshionedqrtest . . . is puzzling in several respects.
[2b] When suclr is used, the intention is often to indicate disapproval (which may be sympathetic): We visited the Browns yesterday and heard their compl;tints about the condition of the house they live in. I never heard such a sorry tale. [31 . . . such a rigmarole. i3al . . . of such wretchedness. i3bl In [31 and [3al, the reference is primarily to the conrpl~br~s. [3a] lexically indicating impatience rather than sympathy; in [3b] the reference is rathcr to the condition, with an implication of the speaker's sympathy. Use of the.hrn7er and rhe lorter is largely confined to (rathcr for~llnl)nounphrase reference: We heard their complaints that no one caliic to visit them and also that their roof was leaking. I helped them over thr lc~iter[ie the complaint about the roof] and promised to let some friends know about thc..lbrtner[ie the complaint about loneliness].
L41 For broader reference, both phrases might be expandcd to include a noun head : They were upset that noone came to visit thc111and also that their ;tnd roof was leaking. I helped them over tlrc~lcrttc~r/)r~~l?lc.r,r promised to let some friends know about tI~c~,fortnr,r rn,,rp/r~i~~r.
[5]
1466
19.50
From sentence to text
tlle intlclinitc use is virtu;llly cxclutlctl. 'l.11~ s;l~nc;ll)plics to t l ~ cirltlcfi~~ite use oflhcj.; in fortnal styles, ~ I I O J[41 ~ ~wI oI ~ ~rl cdl t r o ~ ~ to l y thecouncil ;~uthoritics, wllcre inl'orn~:~Ilyi l is i i ~ o pl:~~~sil)lr r~ will1 i~~? IISC 131l;)
131
151 Here, we could have in AmE: Ono . . . hi,s . . . hc . . . h(, . . . Other indefinite pronouns such as o1ljJolle,over~~hocl!,ciln be li)llowctl by /I(,in hot11 A m E and IlrE, but this is vulnerable to thc ol>jcction ol. seeming to 11;tvc a mole orientation, while the use of tlrc,!, to refer back to thcse intlclinitcs is open to the objection of seeming ungrarnmatical in the switch from singular t o plural. It is therefore largely confined to spoken (especially informal) usage (cfalso 19.64).
S~rchis used more cotntnonly than so or t11((t whcn (as in this last cxa1111)le) the adjective accomp;lnies a noun phrase, but slrclr is followed by normal noun-phrase order: [3al . , . They haven't had s1rc11cr good r i r ~ ~forc years. Note the different implications when this, rhot, and so are used as intensifiers. Compare: Note
19.51
Personal pronouns As explained in 6.7,6.18, rvc has several possible noun-phrase references. In discourse, we are concerned chiefly with the 'inclusive' we (cj'4.58, as with the subject of the present sentence), and with the 'exclusive' we as in: [l1 Will you stay here while Ive go for a policema~l'! In formal writing, and frequently indeed in the present book, nJe'inclusive' and n3e'exclusive' can cooccur. The former cooccurs with verbs ilnplying shared knowledge (urrtlerstc~r~d, see, opprecicrle, elc), the latter with verbs of communication (si~y,stoic, write, etc). It would be possible to use both in the same sentence, though this would usually be avoided: L21 We see now why ~veexpressed rescrvatio~lsearlier.
.
In [2], the second we is exclusive, the first inclusive or even (as often) indefinite and roughly equivalent to the more formal orle or the rcuder. The indefinite use ofyou and the you of direct 2nd person address (cj'6.2f) can also cooccur. In [3], the first you is indefinite, the second makes direct address: In fourteenth-century England, you had a very poor chance of being taught to read, yonsee.
(31
Unlike the two uses of Ire, however, you is rather rare in formal writing and
19.52
There is a rurther and rare use orottc,perhaps to avoid tllc egoccn~ric~tyol'.l': A : Did you enjoy your school days? B: Well, onecan hardly remember; it's :III so lorlg ago.
161
Comparison Signals of comparison and contrast play a frequent part in providing textual coherence. Most can be regarded as involving ellipsis (d'12.l[f!j; 12.3 llj.). The most obvious comparison signal is found in adjectives and adverbs, whether in the inflected forms or in the periphrastic forms with r~rore,nrost, os, /~.Ys,least (cJ'7.748). If the basis of comparison (cf15.63) is not rnadc explicit in the clause, it must be inferred from the previous context: John took four hours to reach London. Bill, on the other hand, was driving nrorc .S/OII~/~~. Mary used to listen to records most of the time. Sally was u rrrore enthrrsiastic student. There were ten boys in the group. Bob was by far the host. Barbara dances beautifully. Jack dances rro l e ~ II.c//. s Gwen always hands in a well-constructed and intelligent paper. I'm afraid Joan doesn't cxpend us much effort and time on her papers.
[I1
L21 [31 141
l51 We can demonstrate the anaphoric reference by supplying the basis of comparison:
. . . more slowly tlmrz Jolrrt ((trorv). . . . a more enthusiastic student tlri~rtMar], (~~,os). . . . the best (of tlte terl boys) (br tltegro~rl~).
f
l
1466
From sentence to text
[h] 1 ~\\(c\\ ~ sr111rrr12~ir1~1r~1 (~~IIII.I*,~). . . , as Inucll clL,r( ;lntl tilnc 011 11cr11;11lcrsUS (;U'''/I( ~ ' \ p l ' l ~ / /I~'I' . ~ l ~ ~[S:\ t l popc2rs).
,,
,
110
MY dog is fotlrtccrl
On comparative clauscs. (:/'l 5.6.10: cxpressio~lsof similarity or tlilTcrcncc; these mny invdvc Lhc so too of equative end antithetic cot~jjuncts([:/'X.!37(/'). For cx;lmplc:
is ;in cntomologist. is ;I t~xvcllings;~lcs~n;i~l. works for ;l11 oil co~iip;~~ly. more about treating mosquito bitcs than anyone I've evcr met.
rcc~lv~bcl ~gets ) tell ~ t\ollnrs ~ ~ ;l week for pockct money. 171 sj111i1~1r ;~tiiount. .. ' , , , I . . : _ _ . I _ ...,'. Mrs Hayakawa complained that the rool 1c:lKcU ant1 tnc w l 1 l L ~ ~ J ~ v ~ fitted badly, so that the place was freezing cold. Her husballd rrti LYI complained likewise. Tom behaved himself at the party. However, the other boy had to [91 be sent home. [l01 John didn't like the car. He asked to see a d@erertt one.
T
My next-door ncighhour
[2] The second sentence of [2] might be preceded by Not .rrrrpri.sirlgb,, but this would seem appropriate only if we knew what an cntomologist was, or if we connected travelling salesmen or oil executives with cxpericnce of mosquitoridden areas. Preceding the second sentence will1 All the .vcrr~reor Not~er/rc~le,~s would obviously have very different implications. But the postulated inscrtio~lsin [I] and [2] would serve not only t o nlldge the hearer in the direction of adopting a particular attitudeor to let the hearer know something ofthespeaker'sattitudc: they would also indicate the nature of the connection between the two parts of each text. Without the adverbials, each text is presented as offering two pieces of information; in this spirit, the second parts might have read respectively:
We can display the basis of similarity or difference: [6al
.-%
L . .J
m-i
. . . and he sleeps in the kitchen. . . . H e got married last week to a fortner girlfriend of mine.
[lal Pal In other words, the connection is thematic only, in the sense of 19.12. With the adverbials inserted, the second part of each text is shown to be (as the original versions might chance to be blterpretedas being) specifically related to the preceding theme, either as a natural consequence or as a surprising paradox.
Certain lexical items are used in a quasi-grammatical way to express identity, similarity, dissimilarity, and difference. Expressions involving respectiue(/y), mutual(ly), conuersc(ly), opposite (-ly is rare), etc effect considerable neatness and economy in discourse:
W" !:,,!l
,j)qi~i'{ fit
Brahms and Verdi wrote orchestral and operatic music, respecticel]'. The chairman and the guest speaker expressed their mutual admiration. Mary told Harry to see him again. H e . . that .she , never wanted l.:++a.+."cG reciprocated, but wltn even glcatcl ubrrrr u r o u . I thought that Oregon had a greater rainfall than British ~ol;mbia, but Caroline says lhe opposlte. The textual role of adverbials
[ l 11
Note
[l21
Since o/'co~rsL.can hint a t incongruily (concession)it~steadof expressing [I] still be a well-lbrmed text as: MYdog is fourteen Years old and of course be is vcry liisky (still) (. though I tlljnk he's beginninn to show his ;IEC~. ,.. . This use ofo/ioarse commonly expresses supcrliciol ;tgrecmenl wit11 what 11;lspreceded while1101 at the same time hinting at :I more fundament;~l dis;~grcen;ent.For ex;~~~lpIe: The chairman is of course absolutely riglll to dr:~w ;attci~tionlo t l ~ eerror in my presen~ation.On the other hand. I woncler whcthcr Ile is not using this 1;lpse of mine to prevent discussion o f t h e serious issue involvcd, I31 Oll~er;idverbinls tllat can convey such in~plici~liona include o~l,,rirrc~lil.. c~,rro~,t/l.. ~C,t,hrk.,s~, tr~r~l~tle,liab~~, slrf/i~trbrn/l)r. Of tlicse, ~/o~ihrl~~s,s is p;lrlicul;~rly b:irbod. U
1131 . rl L'-,
h1
-
19.54 a particular attitude), and expressing the rclevant connecrlull
oI(I rncl A D E is vcry hisky.
Ill Givcn the appropri:ttc gcncral knowlctlgc, thc clloicc of1rrorrt1r.s or).c1ors will dclcrminc the aptness of ;rdvcrbi;~ls~ h ; might ~t bc inscrtctl at l l ~ citiscrtion sign: r!/'~nrrr.scor rrotrrroll~.o n Ihc one Iiantl : J.CI. .still, . s r ~ r l ~ r i s ;l~~r l~llO ~ ~on ~~/l the other. A furtllcr example:
Wllitc was the victi~nof a confidcncc trick. Rill was tricked
very differently.from the woy ir~br'llic/l Mrs Wl~itewas (tricked). . in the same way as Mrs Wltite (bras (tricked)). J , an amount similar to lshot To111receroes. , complained about the some things as Mrs Ilayakawo (co&/nined clbotct). the boy other than Torn. . . see one differentfrom the car he didrl't like.
]
lllO1lL1lS
u r ; r v * r r u v*,-
.
Responses in dialogue often begin with an adverbial which i~ldicatesthe direction of transition between what has just been said and what is about to be said. On transitional conjuncts, cj'8.137,8. 142.
1470 From sentence to text
(h) Progrc's.siort: According as the progression is locational. tcrnporal, or logical, atlverbi;lls both l~clptointlic;t~ctlic tlircclion i~ntlmark thcsuccessivc sl;~gcs.1'11r c x ; ~ n ~ p l c :
A : Th;lt man speaks extremely good English. 13 :
Wc'19\
1121 yet,
I
clllncs I'r~ln;I vill;~gcin Mon~oli;t.
l.'ir.~t~ boil tlic ricc in wcll-s;tllccl walcr: tIr:~iriit it~~~t~(,(Ii(rt(,lj.. hfi~.vt, warm tlie lightly buttered h;tsc ol';r srn;tll pie dish. Yotr 11l:ly 110tt. p ~ t tIltc rice in llic (lisli. 711r'll ;1(1(1 llic CIICI.\C. I O I I I : ~:11id IO o t ~ i o f'1'11~ ~ . 11ic is (I/ /(I,$Irc;t(ly 10 lic p111~ I !Ire I i~vc,lr.
In one sense, tlie content of U's rcspolisc is idcntic;tl whctlicr it hegills :is (I 1 or[2]. It prcscnts ;In ;tdtlitional faet ;ll,out tlic man, and without the ;idvcrbinl, It's I ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ I I I S W W11:tvc " I ~ I ~only I ;I ll1c111:11ic link will1 A's sl:ttcmcnt. Will1 cilhcr of tile advcrbinls iliscrtcd, liowcvcr, 13 is 111;lkitlg:I signiIi~:~~it C ~ I I I I I I C I I I11ot merely on the man but on the propensity of villagers in Mongoli;~to spcok good English. If he begins with Well, lie implies tlint it is an cst:tblishcd I':lct (Well, qj'corrrse.') that Mongolian villages provide excellent bases for learning English. If he begins with Yet, he implies that the man's good command of English was clespitc his Mongolian upbringing. Note
121 (c) C ~ ~ t ~ t ~ ~ ~ r tIti Iis~ frcqt~c~~lly i l i t j ~ : i~iiptirli~r~t to iii:trk the 111;1lcl1 or rl?isni;~tch bctwccr~~ W O P ~ I ~ text. ~ S OConsidc~.thc ~ ~ I prcsc~lccor absc~iccof(forcx;~nl~lc) so too in the following:
The ordinary saw is not easy to use. A A plane demands years of c;~rcfi~l pr:icticc.
The use of 1 ~ ~ is1 1itself context-depcndcnl, lhowcvcr. I t would hc pcrVcctly p1;luslblc to usC t~.rll in [l]as a vcry dilTercnl tra~isiliotl(IVc,ll. ,low!) so as to conn~itc'Wcll. 1'11 lcll you somclhillg surprising:he colncs from n villagc in Mongolia'. Such ;In ;~ntithclic-conccssiv~ 1r;insition (d.8.141)is implicit in the frequent note ol' reservalion struck by the use of 1 ~ 1 1 . Considera converse exch;lngc ol.rcm;trkson the same suhject : A : That m;ln is from Mongoli;~ B: ]. l , ::: IIC speaks cxtrctnc~y g o d bdifi. H ~ ~[ l a ] ~ ,[h] connote 'Despite that. . :.There is in fi~clno one-word ;idverhi;ll the rcl;ltionsllip o f t h e originzll [I]at [ l i l ] ; WC would have to rCSOrt to a fully cl;lusal to expression, as in: So that explains why he speaks,, , Now 1 unders~nd why] [b] Elliptical responses (cj.19.48)often contain an obligatory connective; for example (where in .141.inlonalion enables us to dispense wilh the useof an adverbiill): Have a good weekend! A: How nice to see you again!
(i:i
(
19.55
Similarly, a contrastive corijunct (c/ 8.141) such as variant of this examplc:
[a]
Adverbials as structural indicators The basic relational structures briefly outlincd in 19.17 depend rather heavily on adverbial pointers, especially when any great degree of complexity is involved. (a) General to pnrticulnr: Any of the following would usefully assist the relationship at the insert mark in the accompanying example:
131 tlta ot/tc,r hor~rlin ;I
The ordinary saw is not easy to use. A A hammer is sonictliing that any novice can handle. 19.56
[h]
Tlie different discourse strategies (d 19.18) will likcwise call Ibr differclit adverbial indicators. Tlie 'step' technique is simplest, following ;IS it does a progressive relation (cJ'19.17). With the 'chain', howcvcr, it is p;lrticul:~rly helpful to point to the existence and direction of transitions in the structure. Thus the illustrative text of 19.18 (ii) might have begun (though using adverbial linkage more densely than is usual or desirable): Hamlet poignantly represents tlie indecisions that plague us all. Admittedy, indecision is not tlie worst of our ills. Ittfleerl, in some ways decisiveness can be more damaging. At nry rote many people have come to grief that way . . .
[l1 In a text of 'stack'-like structure, the 'layers' may call for cnumeratio~i(,first, or the outset,ji~trrlnr~~erlrally: .secorrrll~,tfest, . . .; .stillritorc, irrt~~orrrrrtrl~~ . . .), but it is especially desirable to draw the hearer's attention to what is to be 1lr.st hrlt l?. 110 t111~011.~ regarded as the most crucial point: thus, (IN it! rrll,,fi~tnIl~~, lerrst (though this alliterative conjunct is too liackncyed Tor n rcsoundi~ig climax), it1 cot~clusiurr,and many others. The balance strategy, like the chain, requires adverbial pointers both to assist the sense of rhetorical balance and to ensure tlint the author's presuppositions match those of his audience. For example. in p1;tce of the travel illustration in 19.18 (iv), we might begin another like this:
I am always thrilled at the prospect of having a mid-winter break
for example thus even For example: Many of the audience became openly hostile. letter to the management next day.
011
A My uncle wrote a
[l1
in Switzerland. A Frequently, the weather is quite warrn . . . [2] It inight not be at all clear whether the second sentence of [2] contributed to the pleasure (vision of deckchairs) or was a counterhal;~ncingunwelcome aspect (poor weatller for skiing); in other words, we have lefl in;tdequ;tte indication of compatibility (cf19.17). For the balance strategy, we need to insert at the marked place some sucl~indicator as grrrrrtc~rl,crtlr~tittctllj~. trtre, q j
symmetry is imperfect in several respects. In [l], [2], and [4], w e have conjunctions (*rrtrd hrrt, *rrrltl,fi)r; but 13.Xff on ,/i)r). In 1.71, we 11;tve a coi~,j~~itcr (rrrfd.n~):(:/'l 3.1X/; X. 137//. M~rcover,itri~l:111(1 h111i ~ r cdisl~~ioiitio~liilly distinct, cttitl demanding in sonic rcspccts grcatcr structu~il similarity hctwccn the coortlinatctl p;irts. C'oinp;~rc:
course,, pcellso, etc. ~ o s frequently t the balanced movement is indicated by tllc items ON 1/11' OII(' l1(1,1d,or1 th(>O I I I C(If(trld), ~ but there is usually a goal
rcsenlbling that of tllc stack and so tlcinanding ;I filllll ~ iri oll (d 8.139).
~ l l l l l l i~l l~l i~;IS ~ l ~l(111
?*Thc rain has stoppcd cr~rtllct'sgo for ;I w;tlk. I51 Thc rain h;~sn'tstoppcd htit let's go for :I w;llk. I61 111this rcsl>cct>~ i l t I ~ ( ~ iWC i g lnor1n:iIly ~ l11i11kiil',11111~ I I K I /I[(/ ; I S c l i ~ s c rcl;~tc~l l~ converses, tile converse ol'hrrr is i i i I';icl .v,:
Coordination and subordination 19.57 I n 19.5/j; we pointed out that two uttcranccs gnvc thc im~rcssionof bcing tcxlu;llly ~.cl;ltcd,even when jux~;iposctl without any formill indicator of connection. Asyrldctic rcl;~tiol~ ol'this kinil, r~~orcovcr. r;iiscs Ihc cxl~c~l;lli~lll that the second utterance followed the lirst as an iconic rcprcscnt;~tiollof being in time or consequential in rcaso~ling- and oftcl1 both, as in : Ill He ate too much for dinner. He was ill the next day.
The rain has stopped (and) so let's go for ;I walk Thirdly and (from the viewpoint of text cohesion) most significantly, the symmetry is imperfect in that,/br is a much less frequently used connective than the other three. In other words, textual structure is resist~intto stating a consequence in advance of thc condition. In thc event of this order being dcsirablc, it is more usual to make the condition structur;llly subordinate to (rather than coordinate with) [he consequence:
A simple coordination (cf13.43fl) of the two not only links them more firlnly (since more formally); it can also enable us to show that a third utterance in the sequence is less closely linked to the second than the seconcl is to the first; and, further, that the first and second form a sub-unity which as a whole has a relation to the third: He ate too much for dinner and he was ill the next day. He decided to be less greedy in future.
L21
But since a result or conclusion seems in some sense more important than the factors leading to the iesult or conclusion, it is natural to seek a linguistic emblem of this hierarchical relation by subordinating one part to the other instead of coordinating the one with the other: Because he ate too much for dinner, he was ill the next day.
English has four monosyllabic connective items which semantically belong together as constituting a symmetry of two related subsystems: arid but so ,fbr
: what precedes is congruent (cf13.22/1')
l71
Since the rain has stopped, she's gone for a w;llk. Note
19.59
[XI
Thcrc is a furtlicr esyrnmctry in the h c t ~ I I L Iond ~ can suhsurnc the rule ol. Irs~(0 13.24) though the converse does not hold: He's sixty-twon~~dhc plays squxsh like ;I twcoiy-ye:ir old. [bl Whcrcns orld and or can be used to conjoin ZI sequence or scvcr:~l cl;~l~scs, h111 ;tnd /i,r c;ln conjoin only two(cf13.8/,13.18/). [a]
Pairs and triads One of the ways in which coordination is exploited in textual structure is to assist the desire for parallelism and balance (cj 19.7). For example: These terrorists have destroyed their own credibility. They resisted arrest and then they gave tl~emselvesup. They went o n a hunger strike and then they started taking food. Some of them claim that they are all nationalists and some of them claim that they are all opposed to natiotlalism.
[l1 We note that the last three sentences in [l], each with clauses coordinated by and, form a triad (cf 19.8), a rhetorical patter11 that seems to he especially attractive. Coordination achieves the seemingly impossible task of giving three units equal status and yet of making the tliird climactic: for c x a ~ n p l c :
: what precedes is incongrue~lt(cf13.32) : what follows is a consequence : what follows is a reason (ie what precedes is a consequence)
For example (rt,pri;ltc in most i t t l i ~ ~ ~ Ct l~:~~CII I I I I S ~ ~ I I(II~ott~:l~ ICCS i l is 11s(.er in the precetling sentence. In turn it looks forward to the corrcspot~dingtime-position adjunct, rllur ~ ~ i g h r (line 5, cf8.55). Byhreak/i,sf r b t ~ ~line i n 8 takes us to the next temporal point to be distinguished, and in line I0 (still within the span (c1.8.57) covered by breakfast time) the adjunct tlrerr links hack across an intervening sentence to the point at which the parents made the decision about staying home. For the rest, the progress of the narrative is managed without time adverbials, but it should be noted that the place adjunct tzear the scltool (line 22) is effectively temporal as well, marking the change of both place and time after the breakpat scene. In a similar way, within the background intermission of lines 12- 15, the direction adjuncts (cf8.39J) ro .scl~oolandho~nelook back to the time-duration adjunct allrlay, marking beginning and ending points (the urttil clauses of lines 141') of the 'all dav' soan. , a -. The course of the narrative depends in fact as much on plnce-sequences as on time-sequences. There are two polar locations, homc and school, and references to these are frequent: (slaj~)/ro17ie (line 9): (bring. . .)to sclmol (line 14); (u~etlt)Iionte (line 15); (go) 10 school (line 19); Neur tllc. school (line 22). Between these last two adjuncts, we find all the Iroj (line 21), which elliptically links both: 'all the way (to school)' and '(on the way) near the school'. Adverbial linkage is by no means limited to time and space. The second sentence begins with an adverbial verbless clause of respect (8.85; realized by the adjective bojilike) which is obviously linked to the comparable itcm that begins the text, As U cltild, yet in balanced contrast to it: according to traditional stereotypes, a girl is easily frightened, a boy is not. The focusing subjunct (cJ'8.116J) euen in line 6 links this clause with the previous one: 'not merely could she not be consoled, she could not ri.or be induced . . .' Another focusing subjunct, ~ I I / Jin J line 17, both helps linkage with the preceding clause and also underlines the contrast between them. There is a further contrast with the following clause that is again pointed by a focusing subjunct, too in line 18. The concessive conjunct (d.8.136f/.) Yet in lille 9 again provides a close link with what has imtnediately preceded, as does the inferential conjunct So in line 17. The additive conjunct as NII ad(iccd terror (line 18) links the although-clause back to the fearsome threat of line 16 as well as itself being lexically linked -rather obtrusively - to tlie object in the altholcgh-clause. The disjunct ohuious!~~(cf.8.1218.) in line 7 is interestingly equivocal in its relations (cf the discussion of the clause concerned; 19.77). 11 invites connection with the hearerlrcader ('You will think it obvious'), a s well as working as a disjunct with respect to the participants in the narrative
1502 From sentence to text
('WCthought it obvious'). But it Ii;~san ;~dtlitional, textual function, in w~irkili~r, :is :l11 iti[.crcnti;~I-s~~~n~ni~tivc conjl~nct with rcf'crc~icc to tllc S C ~ . ~ ~ ~ I I S I Ii I~~~S~S l > l ii ~l l . lI Il I C ~ ~ r e v i o S ~~~~ J IhI I . I I (( 1C1 ~ I : I I I ~ 'So. I . \ : o h v i o ~ ~ ~i ll y , must Iinvc bccn n niglitm;~re'. Although it is natural to think of adverbinls at I position in a clousc (1.1X. 141) ;IS Ii;~vin!!;I linking ~ r l cwit11 wh;~th;rs prcccc!ctl, ;~ntltlu~shcing t11 X I ~ I
~
~
In. . . N I : s p o k e n w i t h n a r r o w p i t c h r a n g e 4.
. . 9: s p o k e n b r e a t h i l y
.f.. .fis p o k e n loudly Note
La]
the prosodic poinlsof interest, attenlion might be l ~ r a w l l ,lle lligllcr proplrrtion of rise (two dozen) than of those ending ;I nlll (one llozcn), .rllis is i n contr;lsl to the two inrorm;ll convers;~tionsof 19.88 - 9 to ljngllistic l,s;lge i n gcncr:ll, where f;llling nuclei ;Ire lnorc tll;in twice ;IS I'rcqocnt ;IS ;III ,,ttler fiypcs :ldclcd t a g u l l l c rc,App ~ I1.l7). l l i ~ l ratio l of rises is partly ;I function of pcrstrn;~lslvlc ;lntl p:lrlly ~llnctioll style determilled by the occ;lsion: llle need to m:~licone's voice c;lrry ill ;l comp;lny, tile need to give tile impression of inviting IIIC ;~udicncc'sinterest (c,: ,,.',l/,]ill? 15) ;llld of s c c m i l l ~ dogmutic. In Part, however. the distribution rcllecls tile gc,lcr;ll rhclorjc;ll slructure or the 'prosodic Par;lWPh'. UP 10 line 15, the spci~kcris 1;llking ; I ~ O U~l~~~ :lssulnpt~ons wllich past planning hiid been b;lsed: from line 16, WC ;tre IOI'I OS tile i n ,vlljch tile ;lssumplions proved baseless: things h;lvc turned out lI.I,,,~,,O.it~~:!tt! c:!!~(.i!lj!i t I I I I ~ I P ~ ~ \ ~ c it, \ ~ It>ol!Ii~l:bl ~ ~ P illld i!vlreIr\,c~tIIIC \CS.O!I~I ]'.111. c l l i ~ r c
;ll,,~
:, ,,,,,,,
-
13: [.s/lecrkirlg t o U t h i r c l p ~ , c s o/>rcs,scrll ~~ II K c v i t l ' s
151 1
The
Telephone conversation ..~ -.- .. A a n d B a r e h u s b a n d and w i f e
respectively, b o t h aged b e t w e e n
(SEU:
the material is entirely unscripted
-
19.89
S.7.2d).
A s in 19.88,
spontaneous.
B: l ~ i s t c nI lM o t h e r ' s C L ~ C Ki s~l r u n n i n g T q u a r t e r o f an h o u r s ~ b wIl' v e I s l i g h t l y m o v c d i t t o a f ; ~ s t c r p o s i r i o n l b u t Iliow d o I~ n o v et h e HANDS[ d o e s Ithat
FACEJ ] s p r i n g ~ F F I
A: 1~61 1~61 y o u l l o o k on t l i e B ~ C K ~ B: t l i e / t h r e e l i t t l e brown sc~Bwthings1 A: [no NO] if (youj u s t ( w h i c h c l o c k d o you
MBANJ t h e e l ~ e c t r i oc n e ) B: t h e e l ~ ~ c t r i~cYl E A H ~
60 and 65 and
A : / u ~ ~ L L IYOU
FOUR^
four double l a n d m y c n ~ u i n y cl o n c e r n s t h e T G r e e k w o r d for ~ S ~ ~ E N T Jlliis E J is ;I ~ i l E s T i o n tJl i ; ~ t II:IVC I > C C I ~ :tskctl I I E R I ~ ~ ol'tls ill Illis r00111 b c i r i g Greek s c t ~ o l ; r r s )/knob+,111cT i ~ s w c r . )
FO HOOK i t \
I~kslI ' v e l d o n c TIIAT~a n d I've [~iiovcdi t to
B:
IWC
s l i g h l l y io ;I f l ; ~ s tp o s i ~ i o n l A : t o a "/PAST p o s i t i o ~ l l B:
IvksJ bcc;tusc
B : ll'vc
t t n 8 ~ u l ; t t c dit] 111 1 \ w a n 1 t o ' m o v c t h c ~H~NDS~I~I(~ A : lwcll I l ~ c r c ' s:I " ~ K N OI ~jc;in31 I sort of r c m c m h c r c x k c ~ l y b) u t it's B : /is t h e r e a k n o b ) A: I W ~ L L J t h e r e ' s l o b v i o u s l y mcalis o f ~ 0 l n it1 g y o u 1don.t h a v e to t a k e t h e F R ~ N Tof1 B : (61.111 Ihaven't been a b l e to IOCATE t h e K N ~ B ( / o k JI'll l h a v e a c l o s c r LOOK]
IDOUB~~~
m . . . m : s p e a k e r uses a very precise articulation
in'. . .111': s p o k e n rhythm
[a) Prosody is used to make hforlr~~r:scl~~ck in line l both new (as though it were predicative) and also the subject of a sentence. B uses a high booster in linc 16 to justify the Icxic;~lrepetition in the context o r A's appilrent obtuseness. Note also the booslers at (/(IS), knob (18). .salt N Bl )w A ~ i i s l l l Inine f o u r otlc w h i c h is t h e I s c l l b o ~ n u m b e r 1 / o r in t h e TkvEningl jdotrblc s e v e n t w o t i i n c - B I C ~ I N I ii I W i l d a ~ hNuh.lborl w h i c h is m y IpBRsonal n u m b e r 1 a n d . . . [two
THBNI
"TSOME
Note
IINIIIC
B : m y I n a n e is W a d o B ~ ~ J I W a t l ; t sSCHOOLI ll I w;tnt t o c o n t a c t M i s t e r T v i ~ ~ i n g Il -w i l l I p h o n c ; I ~ G A I N Ib c t w c c n
it's r/"l~Osingq ;I r l u o r t c r o f ; t n 1li)uRI
A : ( Y B A H ( / ~Tif u ~ YOU w a n t t o " T ~ 6 ~ u l a it1 te
. . . q : falsetto 171 . . . m : s p o k e n w i t h ' s p i k y '
5
in
a regular rhythm
C: / t h i s i s s i ~ o nni L e s s i n
SPEAK^^^ 1111 igood ~ i ) R N i n g l
TO you1 I Jhavea n u m b e r o f Q u i n i c s J o f J d i f c r e n t K ~ N D S J to / w h i c h I w o u l d T v e r y m u c h l i k e t h e A ~ s w e r lif l you could G ~ V Ei t 'to me1 l o v e r t h e ~ E ~ e p h o nllate e J t h i s b l o ~ ~ i n -g J Ifirst o f ALL^ /some T s m a l l a c a T ~ 6 M i QukRicsl c / i s the S P E L L ~ -Ion ~ ~ J the T ~ T L E)I~U c i I iJlor
20
i s i t I U TC li I1 DOUBLE il - Ithat i s t h e F ~ R S Tp o i t i t ) - J N ~ wtheJ )sEcond one) /is)/I w o u l d t l i k e t o h a v e the PACE R ~ P e r e n c e /lf r o m T ~ i s k y ' s lI H i s t o r y ' o f G r e e k L i r e r a t u r e J l w h e r e hc t t a l k s a b o u t c a l l e d m T k ~ i s t o n nl i .
..
m Note
a c1i;tr;tcter
. . . m : speaker a r t i c u l a t e s s l o w l y
lal The pecu1i;ir fci~torcsofnniedil~min which there ctln he no rc:iction frotn l l ~ c;~dclressce;ire the main reclson for the relative form;~lity;and c;~relhl;irlieuli~tiunIn lltesc s:tnlplcs ;IS c ~ m p ; ~ ~ c d wit11 tllose in 19.87- 89. This is lcss obvious in the cast of (. a,h(, ;~pp;irentlyknowr liom experience the degree of c1;irily ;~lt;~ined hy the rn;~chinci~ndwho riouhllc\s k ~ ~ o wtllc s ;~ctu;il person who will listen lo the recording in due course. B I Ieven ~ C s c c n ~ s t o;~\,oi(lusing co11tr;icted Sorms (1Arrr.c in 20, 1 ~wril(/in 21 :ind 26, rhrrr i . in ~ 25). ;tnrl we notice t l ~ euncc,llo
Many coinages,however, seem on the facc of it to be so transparent that -- at le;~stwhen we know their rneuning- it would not occur to us to call thcir forlnalion unpredict;~ble. This is perh;lpscspeci;llly trueofhlends(c/'App1.70).Yet when Waync0;ltescoined ~vurkoholicaround 1970, he ;~pp;~rcntly saw lhi~nselfobliged to cxpl;l~nth;tt tllc wr~rrlw;ls 'to dcscribc lhose people so illvolvcd in lheir work that it interferes with thcir hc;llth, personal I1;lppincss. social functioning, and interperson;~lrel;ltionsllips'. Oates felt it necessary to go further and hint at the re;ison Ibr giving the coin;lge this p;lrticohr form by referringto 'irrldic~iolrto work'.
Of thc two ncgittivc points just ~t~;ttlc ;1ht111tIcxicali/;~tion,ul~rccovcrahility is fitr more cndclnic than unprctlict:~hilily. (iivcn !he fit~itcresources for I':xic:~li/;~lio~~ :l1111I I I C I:IcI III:I(~ ~ I I I 11.111111(1~., I C : I I ~1111111. I I I , I I ~ I I ( . ~ ~ V III:III C otllcrs (1.1 App I.IB), tltcrc arc various I~igl~ly likely ways i l l whicll n lexicalizntion will be realized, and it is 011 these that \ire concentrate in this Appendix. Tlills in tltc lexic;llii.tttion of concepts tI1;1tcan he given nomin;~l pro[)rrlies, it is vcry C ~ I ~ I I I I I I Io I I ; I ( I I I I I I ; I \lr:~lvpy Ir:~\ril1111 I ~ I I I I I I - ~ ) ~ I ~ ; I F C slrt~clurc.C'ol\~]?;~rc: Some pitper is s h i ~ ~ y . I'rtpr,r tltrit i.s .s/titt!~is tIifIir111l10 lvril~~ OII. IJlc:isc CI~JII'L lltry I I I C . S / I ; ~ ~ ~ ~ / J ~ I ~ J ~ ~ ~ , WCInay postttl:ttc the wily tl~isstr;~lcgywol ks in Icxic;tli/;ttio~l:
1/21Oil comes f'rom v;~rioussourccs, inclutli~tgvcgct;tb[c ntattcr. Suclt oil 11;ts functions and properties important for us and not shared with oil from other sources (eg mineral o r animal matter). It is therefore worth distinguishing: This oil is from a vcgct;~blcsourcc. Oilfrom oegetable sotrrces is healthy for cooking. Vegetable oil . . .
[I1 [B] The engines of cars require oil; it has to be e special oil (c8 from mineral sources, and of particular viscosity etc); sincc cars are relevant to our daily lives, such oil is worth distinguishing: This oil is for engines. Oilfor o r g i ~ ~ise sexpensive. Et~gitleoil . . ,
[?l But if such noun-phrase type preniodification is so common in Iexicalizntion as to challenge our earlier statement about predictability, it can readily be seen by comparing [ l ] and [2] that our statement stands concerning unrecoverability. Both [I] ancl [2larcofsimilarsc1nonticund form;ll structure, but it is only by learning each as an itliosyncrittic item that we can know that [l] 'means' oiljronl vegetables, [2] oil.lor cngines. There is nothing inherently absurd about oil jor vegetables, or oil fron~engines. The latter point gains force in considering the Icxicitlizations that have in BrE clustered round lighter 'that which lights things' (itselfa straightforwitrd -er agential noun, based on the verb to I~II!,cj'App 1.34). On the one hand, we have fire-lighter 'something that helps one to light fires'; on the other hand, pctrol-lighter, 'something that helps one to light (tobacco) by means of lexicalizittio~lsgive us g[~.s-l~It/r~r: the one like petrol'. But two indepe~idc~it .fire-lighter, 'something that helps one to light tlie gas'; the other like p~>trollighter, 'something that helps one to light (tobacco) by nicons of g;ts3. 1.11
The idiosyncrasy of lexicalization needs to be borne in mind when one is considering, for example, conversion (c/'App 1.43fl). Whcn beside the noun paper there comes into use a verbpaper, this is son~etimesloosely referred to as the conversion of the noun into a verb. But this is not so. What normally happens (as in this instance) is the lexicalization of an action that is related
.
..
-
lbl The wordspobz~anti pfrtJrr~ ; I I I .;IS WC Il;~ve\ren, l u n c l i o ~;IS~ hc,111 noun ;tnd vet-h.Sillcc;Is Ilolllls hlllll 111.cr~~ncrrle, ill111 IIIP VPIII, L.IIIII,I 111.I ~ I I I \ \ L . , I it, ' i ~ l ) l l l y N.. 11 i, Ilhrly I I I ~ I I I I ~ I I I V U H I ) P : I ICCI ~ C 11ti11 I ' I IIIC VCIII I \ I I C I ~ V C I I ).IOIII I I I C 11111111 11, . I L I I I ; I ~lit, I . I ~ I I ! . 15 1 1 1 1 ~I l l 1 / I Z ~ / ) ~ .II ~. . I I I : I I ! > ~ I'u~/JII~~II. w111cl1W;IS ;I vclb for ccr~i~~rics l>clcti~lg;tnd contrasting afixcs can he better understood, we shall use broad semnntic catcgorics as Lhc basis OS presentation, offsetting by tncans of cross-refcrcncc tlie incvitnble disadvantages of this approach in oversimplifying thc description. Thc semantic basis IIIC:IIIS, OS C O I I ~ S C .I I I ; I ~ itcnls h;tvitlg :I sit~glc(i)rtli (('g:1r11-. or.rtth-) but distinct semantic or grammatical I'unctions will be give11twoor morc scparatc cnlrics. Only tlie chief aliixcs in productive use will be dealt with (subject to the words of caution in App I. l W),but from time to timc it will be convenient to make notes of comparison with rarcr or nonproductiv~itcms. Wherc thc item normally carries secondary or primary stress, the head form is marked accordingly (eg: ,NON-,'MINI-),and exceptions are noted in the main body of the entry. Pronunciation is given where it is thought necessary. Note
1.21
[
Though most prefixescannot occur as independentwords, they can on occasion be detached to cj'13.85. permit coordination,as in pre- ondpost-/rysrerect~~~~~p;
Prefixation
1.22
Negative prefixes ,A- (/eJ or lie/), AN- (especially before vowels), 'lacking in', 'lack of', combines with adjectives, as in amoral, asexual, anhydrous, and is found in some nouns (eg: a~larchy).Chiefly used in learned and scientific lexicon. Some items have the main stress on the prefix: 'anarclty, 'atheist /ell, 'atrophied
Id. (cf App 1.22) 'not', 'the converse of', combines with open-class items including verbs: eg: disobey, disloyal(ly), disortier (n), disuse (n), ciisu~lity, discontent (n). IN- (and variants IL- before /l/, IM- before labials, IR- before It/) 'not', 'the converse of', combines with adjectives of French and Latin origin, and is less common than un-; eg: incontplete. Cf also the noun inattet~tio~t. ,NON- 'not', combines (usu~llyhyphcnated) with nouns, adjectives, and openclass adverbs: eg: non-smoker; lion-perishable; rton-trivially. UN- 'not', 'the converse of' (but cf App I.22), combines fairly freely with adjectives and participles; g : unfair, unwise, unfirgettable; unassumi~tg,
1541
DIS-
Note
1.23
Reversative or privative prefixes DE- (/di:/) [i] 'reversing the action', combines fairly frecly with (especially denominal) verbs and deverbal nouns; g : decerttrcrlize,de/iost, clesegregate, de-escalate, denatior~alization; [ii] 'depriving of', combines fairly freely with verbs and devcrbal nouns (eg: decapitate, clejorestatio~~), including one or two items already connoting deprivation (eg: de~rtide,r/c/lnrtd). DIS- (cfApp 1.21) [i] 'reversing the action', combines fairly freely with verbs; eg: disconnect, disiidect, disown; in some cases with privative force, as in cjishearten, dispos.~ess; [ii] 'lacking', combines limitedly with denomilial adjectives; eg: disb~terested; discoloured (also verb discolotrr) refers to unwelcome change of colour. UN- (cf App 1.21) [i] 'reversing the action', combines fairly freely with verbs; eg: undo, untie, unzip, tutpack, unwrap; [ii] 'depriving of', 'releasing from', 'degrading', combines limitedly with nouns, turning them into verbs; thus ttriseat, trrthorse, totnlnsk, u11ma11. Both de- (pronounced Id[/) and dk- occur also in words tli;~t already had the prcfi~cswhen adopted into English; in such cases they frequentlg h~lveno me:~ning annlysable by ordinar)' users of English. Eg: depe110,discern. Pejorative prefixes ,MAL- 'badly', 'bad', combines with verbs, participles, adjectives, and abstract ~~mltrrrrririo~~. nouns; eg: mnltrent, mnlfbrmed, nmlo(lo,oti.r, r~rcrllirrtctio~~~ MIS- 'wrongly', 'astray', combines with verbs, participles, and abstract nouns; ~~tr:rlc.rrc/(i~tg): ~ ~ ~ B c o ~ l(n). rl~rct eg: ntiscalculote, mishear, mi.~fire,~~i,:s,i!fi,rt~l, ,PSEUDO- 'false', 'imitation', combines frecly with nouns and adjectives, eg: pseuclo-Cltristianity, psetrdo-classicisnt, pseuclo-htrellccttr~~I (11or adj); psetrrioscie~ltific. '
Affixation 1543 Nolc
La] Verbs prclixed hy ~>rol; ~ n dmir- tend tr, he gr;ld;lhlc; c/ 'lle vcry much ~n~\c;~lcul;~led lllc t i ~ n creilulrcd' hcsidc'?lle very much c;~lcul;~Icd . . .' 1111 1\0111 111 Iorlll i311d i n ~IC~:TCCOI I I I ~ C I ) C I I ~ C III cI x ~ c : ~ \,,I,,/~~ tc~~rnl~Ic\tI~~co~r~hillin~ ~ o l ~ l((,/ l s A p p l.OO),;I? is ~ ~ ~ stlggchted ~ t l ~ c t>y r 1 1 1 exi\lc~lcc ~ c b l Illc i111or111;tl ; ~ l ~ l ~ ~ c v/~>c,tl,/ i:~li~~~l (L3rE). ~:lt\pp1.74. [C] For lrlller prcfixcs will1 pcjo!:ltive o\ertollcs. scc NON- (App 1.21 Nulc [fll:ARctl-. OWR-. I I N I ) I : I IIYI'I:II~ - . : ~IAI?I> ~ < ~1.2'1).
1.24
,AIICH-
Notc
I'rrlixcs of drgrer or size 'sttprcnic', 'IIIOS~', colilbines l'rcely with nouns, chiclly with Iit~~nalt rrl'rrcncc (I,,:: rrrr~lr(lr~/~c~. rrrv.l~I~i,\hr~p). : I I I11su;llly ~ willl pc,joralivc clrcct ((:B: r~rr./r-t~!rr.t~~y, ~II,./I /r~.\,.i,%l, rlr,./~/~l,/ro,r.ll,~): 11111t. 1111. I~yl~Il(~ll~i will1 1 1 1 1 . ~ 1 . rclativcly ad lloc i ~ e m s o; r c l ~ r r ~i!.r ~ntl~ lisol;~lc(lc:lsc, with I I ~ O I I I I I I C I : I ~ ~ I , I I /a:k/;~ntlnorm;~llywith tllc prclix stressed. ,CO- 'joint(ly)'. 'on crlu:ll holing'. co~nhincsfrccly will1 notlns ;111tlvcrhs: coe(/uc(lti(~t1,co-/~e;r,CO-pilot;CO-r~ligiot~ist, col~(rhi/,C O O ~ ~ (~IISO C ~ ( CO-O)(').(/!(' ~ ~ ~ ~ BrE), co-opt, coordit~ote,coexist. 111 some nouns, the prefix is stressed: 'cotlrit~~r. ,HYI>KII- 'cxtrcmc' (soltlctilncs pcjor:~tivc. 'too'), co~llllincs freely will1 adjectives: Ityperset~sitiue,Itj~/)o.criticctl,Irj~~crcrctiue. 'MINI- 'little', combines freely (and especially informally) with nouns: ntiriitt~arket,mini-skirt, niitti-ccth; a rathcr contrived contrast is possible with 'ttin.vi- 'large' (tt1cr.r;-letrgtll) and lcss commonly 'riritli- 'medium'. In ad hoc collocations, the stress is often on the base: 'They started a mit~i(-)Ifuctory.' ,OUT- ((;/'/\pp 1.26) 'surpassitlg', co~nbincsfreely with nouns and intransitive verbs to form transitive vcrbs: outrlunlber, otttcla.s,s, orrtdistrttice, oritgrow, o~ttrttn,o~ttlive. ,OVER- 'excessive' (hence pejorative), combines freely with verbs and adiectives: overeat, ooere.stit~mte,overreact, ouerplav, ocersit~iplijy,over~vork; overconfident, ouerdrw.sed. In more locative senses, 'from above', it combines fairly freely with verbs (ouerJlo\v, overshadow); cfApp 1.26 Note [bl. , s u p 'below' (but cf also App 1.26 Notes [a] and [b]), combines with adjectives: suhcotiscious, suht~ormal. , s u p ~ ~ - ' m othan', r e 'very special' (but cfalso App I.26), combines freely with sttper.ser~sitive)and nouns (with prefix stressed, adjcctives (eg: .sril)err~otl~ral, 'super~norket,'superttrori, etc): 'on top', 'hierarchically superior', combines lcss freely with verbs (super-itttpose) and nouns ('superstructure). 'SUR-'over and above', combines with nouns and takes the stress: 'surcharge, '.sttrtar. ,ULTRA- 'extreme', 'beyond', combines freely with adjectives (hyperboles like ultra-ntodortt, ultra-coriseroatiue; technical items like ultrasot~ic,trltroviolet); and with nouns in technical usage, sometimes with the prefix stressed (ultrotiiicroscopic, 'ultrasoutirl, ullrrtcetitrijuge). ,UNDER- (cj'App 1.26 Note [b]) 'too little', combines freely with verbs and -ed participles (undercharge, roiderestimote, underplay; u~lrlerprivileged,underprovided), and correspondi~lgnouns (underprovisio~t);with the meaning 'subordinate', it combines less commonly with nouns (eg: tit~dermonuger). Several of these prefixeswere already incorpor;~tcdillto words bcforc they were adopted and
,CONTRA-'opposite', 'contrasting', combines with nouns, verbs, and denon,inal adjcctives: corirra~Ii,stit~ctiot~, cor~trtti~~~liccttr. corr/nr/irctrrc~l:with stress on the prcfix. 'corrtrct/k)~~*, 1iott11.IISU(I oI'tr:~lli~. ,c'OUN'mR-'against', 'in opposition to', comhi~lcswit11 vcrbs. ;~bstr;lctnouns, and denominal adjectives: co~u~ter-c.s/)ior~(tge, courlter-clock~v;.~e;but often with main stress on the prefix: 'co~rriterc~ct(also cortrrter'crct): 'cortr~terrerolrttioti, 'c~o~tnter.sitrk (verb). ,PRO- (/prau/) [il 'for', 'on the side of', combincs frcely with dcnominal adjcctives and nouns (mainly to form premodibi~lg;idjcctivcs), cg: /)rocoriurrrttrist,pro-Atncriccrtr, pro-.strr(lete,lt. [ii] 'on behalf of', 'deputizing for', combines fairly frcely with nouns, eg: pro-con.su1,pro-proaost. Note
[a/ Allli-(:lnlonym,pm-)suggeslssimply on;~ttiludcoSopposition, l v h i ~ c ~ ~ r l r r l n ~ r - s u ~ ~ c s l r : ~ u l i o ~ l in oppositiol~to or in response to a previous aclion. A corerrc.r~~~rsk ciln Ii~liepli~ceonly ilthcrC has ~llrcadyhcen ;In rrrrocl. Lbl In 'orlrihn(1y (exccplion;ll in bllving initial strcss).d.Gcrm;ln .~lrzril~iirl~cr, -h,r,/l, cloes not lllc ordinary sense of human or ilnim:itc body, but r;lthcr IIIC more tecl~~~ic;~l sc~lscol'.oyeet.:~s
in./i~reigr~ /JO~/;C~.V. [C]Where (;IS in the many :~doptcdw o r d s l i k c t ~ r ~ ~ ~ ~ i ~isbnot ~ ) p;~n:llysed nr;IS :I prclix, il is I I S U ; I I I ~ unslrcsscd, /pra/.
1.26
Locative prefixes These, like spatial prepositions (cf. 9.14[f), may extend thcir meaning metaphorically to abstract spheres. (cf'also App 1.27) 'front part or', 'front'. combincs fairly freely with nouns such as Yorcnrttl, 'jores/~ore,Ifbregrorirtd: 'jbrekg, ~/bret~orrre. ,INTER-'between', 'among', combinesfreely with denominaladiectives. verhs --. and nouns; eg: ittlertintiot~al,i~ttrrlit~eor, i n t c ~ r - c o r r t i ~ ~ ciritert~rhte ~ ~ ~ ~ ( ~ I , (v), ir~termarrj~,ititeru~en~r.With nouns, the product is chiefly used in premodification: (the) inter-t~,ar(years),(an) irlter-.sclrool (event), but c:l.also (with initial stress) 'Biterpla)~(n). ,SUB- (cj'also App 1.24) 'under', combines fairly frecly with adjectives, verbs, and nouns; eg: subriorttral; sublet, srrh(lit,i(lv,.srthcotl'troct, slth.rectio~r(,. l . . or '. ,. .), 'suh,~vay. 'FORE-
~
7
-.-9
.WO-)'old', chiefly in learned words likc polcogrc~pky,p~lco/il/li~. ,PALEO,PAN- 'all3, 'world-witlc', combines especially with nouns and ~ r e m o d i f ~ i n g
wo~l;IYc% c ~ ~11) 1'111'111 ~ ~ l~l ~ ~l l lyl 1:'/l'/O,S('ll/~l'. S ' ~ l ~ / l ~ K ~' /i lI ~l ,/Ir, ~ l ~ /new l ~ l l i(cn1s l ~ ~ ; :lrc I:ll.gcly ct~nccrncd will1 clccll.E-ADJECTIVAL SUI:FIXES, etc. For ex;tmplc. -fv,.v.sis :I 'tlc-;l(Ijccliv;~lI I ~ L I I st~llix' I ill that it I ~ r m snotllls Srot~i:~cljcclivcsSIIUII :IlI'11rtI1cr: ~ n d to spci~k 01' the tI~~.ivetI worcls I I I C I I I ~ C I V C S :IS DBNOMINAL, DEVERBAL, Ctc: gr(l~~~oll.~rlt~.s.s :l 'de-:ldjcctivill' li)I'tll;llion, The comp1ic:ttions that we nolctl with prclixcs, especially in tllc mixture of native and foreign, productive and nonproductive, arc paralleled with suttixes, but in some ways thcy are more scrious. It is truc that, while we cannot semantically link the prc- ol' ~lniti~ry i~(lt)pliollslikc /)ro/i,r with tI1e . . prollurtlvc llr('- ill /Jri,-/ri,trt, tl~cgr;~l~tlt~;ltic:ll 1 ' 1 l 1 ~ ~ l i ~ ) (~ ~~ i C) X~~ I I I I P ~ e , -(((~)~)ioll is rccogni~ablcas a noun cntling w1lc(llcr or not ~ . ~ ~ , ,posscsscs li~l~ a b;lse (lJ(J/iotl,( h ~ ~ l i o tor~cr/ir~rr.l~or~;~~~). r, It is true that, in contr;lst with the variability of stress in prcfixation, asunix is more oftcn an unstressed addition to a base. But unlike prefixation, suftixa(ion with originally foreign items is accompanied by strcss shifts and sound challgcs determined the foreign language concerned. Thus even where the spelling of the base remains constant, the stress dilTerences in sets like the following involve different vowel sounds; for example, in BrE, thegr(lprph element in the is Pronounced /a:/, /a/, and /a/respectively (cf 1.19): 'photograph pho'tography photo'graphic
-
--
Spelling as well as sound is affected in many sets; eg:
----
invade invasion; persuade persuasion, etc permit permission; admit admission, etc 'drama dra'matic, etc able a'bility, etc in'fer 'inference infe'rential, etc
-
A further problem is that while productive prefixes can generally combine with bases any origin, some of the originally foreign foreign bases, and there has traditionally been inhibition about formillg 'hybrids'. This has resulted in pairs of (for nouns and denominal adjectives that are formally distinct:
---
mind mental nose nasal mouth oral
(*mindal) (*nosal) (*mouthal)
sL1tlixes
no more th;ln $1gr;lmm;~~ic;~l role, they rvoull~ like gr:lnlm;llic~ll no place ill word-rornl;ltion.This indeed is boa, some lillguisls trcal tile ;Id,,crb -!I., and the line is not always clear. With -i11g,it should he well ;Is ;lppeilring in lexicalized deriv;ltives,it is illso used in entirely prellicpablc nol,,in;lliz;ltiolls; Cl.,7,51n, Nouns in are the 'verhal nouns'or 1 7.52fl (conlr;lst ~dCvcrbill3 nouns): flo~~led the pe~tyreguI;llions. -mcrcly l-lismcr~flo~tlbi~of reg~llations.. tllc petty
,
The situation is similar with agential -er, since for copulas like be, huac, beconie),a syntactic frame exisls in \,pllich
;l few .,.r form is
such
Affixation lloutcd the petty rcgul;ltions. ~ncrc/lo~~r~~r of petty rcg~ll;lliolls. 511~lixI , ~ ~ ; I , , , C lcxic:~~i,:~ti~,~~ i, I I C ~ C U : I ~ lhcl't~~c Y :l11-rr li1rr11;~li~~f~ we llclvc tlcilte,l .,,r ;l 11,,,111 ~,,ch;I frame ('Its i,, a /lr~~rrcrl. Altl1r,11~11rve 11;lve"l'hcy a,fllr'l~/ ( ll,eekly, , -y 'somewhat like', 'characterized by', freely used with largely nouns to form gradable adjectives, often of colloquial tone, as in .sandY, ,,lemty, creflnl)', ~ ~ e a l I / l ~ , j i lcotnlj, t h ~ ; (cj'App 1.77); the bases may also be verbs as in grrsl?y, ru)lt?y (?lose). In s a r ~ dhair j ~ we have the 'somewhat like. sense; in sandy beach the 'characterized by3sense,
No~~n/edjcetive sullixes A number of sullixcs yield itcms tll;tt c;tn IIC llscd hotll :Is nouns illlil 'lS ~llormallynongradablc) adjcctivcs. Thc Sormalions bnsic;llly rclatc 'U hum"n bcillgs, ,.hiefly ;Is mclnhcrs of o group, and m;lY he both dcnolnini'l "" dcadjectival, on nnmes, d'also 5 . W .
am^ usually - , E S ~$/.5.88. ) [i] 'mcmber of" (nationality or race), as ~ l ~ ;Por~tl'~~rt,,sc,. ~ ~ ~ Jop(~'~~e.s~'; ~ ~ , ~ ~ ~ , [iil.(ill, lellg,lagc tile slylc Ol.', in ~'l~;'rri~,s~~, (~'(~ttco'tli:-'..lohtlso'~l('~('. cxccpl tllosc rclnling to jOlrrrro,,ese; both nouns alld as oflic;c~/ese)which arc nouns only and are pcj0rativc. to', as in ~ar'~virriurt. rc~'plrhlic0>l; -(I)AN as in S/lcrke',sl)cc~ri(~r~, ~Iiz(r'het11c111, ' c I I o ~ ~ I ~(sub)rrrhf1r' I(~(~~I~ [iil ,relating (adjective only); of,, as in pctri.y;(lri, I n d i ~ l ~ i ~ sCi la~~ i~' ,c ~ ~ G1as'wcgiatl g ~ a l ~ ~ (Of
-,ESE
riiil
Glasgow); hldo'rlesiart, 'Russiati (where the base ends in -(l). [ivl c(in)the language The stress falls on the last syllable before the suffix. Most items can be Other both as nouns and as adjectives, not gradable in [ivl, Variably instances: T / place ~ ~ is (n~iJiclly)urban; She is at2 (*aldirIl.v) urban grrerilla. -rsT in,, as in violinist, stylist, rflc(fal)ist, )'lasochist, loyalist. Items relating to adherence as distinct m '' and may skill are normally paired with abstract nouns in -ism (cf A~~ be djectives or nouns, though adjectival endings, -ic(al), may be added; 'l' A final vowel in the base is often omitted: cello App items may have verb bases, as with lypist, and are nouns -ITE[il.adherent to-,gmemberof (set)'asin~enthan~ite,shatna)lite, C~10mskyite3 socialite; these are primarily nouns but may be adjectives (He is a LuflL1ite; His aiews are rather Luddire), The bases are chiefly persona1 names Of those who have led movements ; [ i i ~'denizen of-, as in Brooklynile, Hantpsteadite; these are nouns Only' Formations of both types tend to be used disparagingly unless longestablished (Israelite) or where a movement excites little hostility
-
-
(Benthamite). Note
Some bases can lake .jsr, .iolt,and -ire, equally. The first would su~gestgrcatestcommitmcllt Darwinist'. ~t is usedorideasrather "lan to the views or theory concerned: G ~is all c of proponents, ~h~ secolld be more neutral and would lend in consequence to re;ldily as a gradable adjective (.~so'tthat approach rather Darwinian?'),but can 'lso use to the work or Darwin himself (ns Dorwi~isl,Donvillire c~nn00. lhird tends to be by those who are not tllemselves aLihercnts:'He is a L,isparagingand would be used Darwinitc,, rather than.Are you a ~ ~ ~ ~ i ~ i tnm c ?a Darwinire': ' o r ' ~ 3 fwiioois imp1icd. the more restricted use of -'ariclrl to form persona' nouns lbl with-iull Should be adjectives as in uulhori'rurio,j.oege'turiun,ocfogc'~~aric~~~.
Adjective suffixes
I.38
Denominal suffixes A wide range of suffixesexists having the function of forming especially from nouns. w e begin with those that retain a native flavour:
Note
Atnowother dellominal ;~djcctivcsufixes, we
brrrdele,l~~l~~e.J'r~lic.~~~~~e, I~orherso~~le; -narrly 'lit for,,as in [bl Where-like and -isll occur with t11e samc b;lsc, the
mention
.,,o,,lr
.consti,uling.,
in
Q ~ ~ ,!S, .pr;~ ~rlh!.,, ,v~,,,I.r ~ ~lr,hl., ~ ~ / is rej;ltively
,,,.jorlltive
l;lore
from literal comparison. In III~IIIIJJ, limnlike,no~s~ish, ,lle first refers to p~lgsicalor llcroic qualities(in 3 male), the second is n simile, usu;llly;lpplicd aonllumans, the lhird rerc,.s to unwelcome masculine attributes (usually in a The dellominal adjective suffixes in our second group are of breign origin and some of them are among the commonest sufixes in use, they retain something of their foreign origin in relative formality and in being largely used with bases that have also been adopted, ~~~~~~~~~d~~~~~both with bases an* with further derivations often reflect patterns of ~~~i~
~
~
morphology. All t h e suffixes h a v e t h e m e a n i n g roughly p a r a p h r a s a b l e a s ' h a v i n g t h e p r o p e r t i e s of" o r m o r e generally ' h a v i n g a relation t o ( t h e base)'; t h e ; ~ ~ l i c c l i v c1i)rtiicd s ;ire ~ ~ s u ; i I ~;r:~d~tIhlc. ly -1.4~(especially a f t e r b a s e s i n -or), -I(.hL (cs{hc~i;llly !r~pl:tCillg I ~ I C -AL, of b:lses), ;\S i n ~lcc.i'rl(~rtc11,di~l'lr~cr~rl; ~ ~ d i ' t o r i a lprc(fis'.soritrl: , l,,y,~,.~l,,~~,l~~;l.,~/~l l ~ t ; / O 1 , ~ l ~ l t / 11 ~ i ,will ~ ~ ~ h/ ,c scc11 Il1;tt slrcss is :~fl.cctc(I, I I S L I ~ I ~ ~ Y c,,lliil,,!, \:I\! ~ y l l ; i I ~IIL.IOI~: l~ 1 1 1 ~ : s111Iix (1.1 A1111 l l . l / / ) , : 'r~rrlfrl~(f/. ' q ~ i c . ~'tt~lr.sico/ ~/, ;Ire ;Imong tltc cxcclhlions. -'ESQUE, a p a r t f r o m its u s e i n w o r d s o f w h i c h it ; ~ l r c a d ySvrlncd a p a r t w h ~ l l a d o p t e d (burlesque, arahesqric), n o w chiefly u s e d w i t h n a m e s pronlinently associated w i t h artistic individuality: rotnorresque, KerJkoe.sque, ~ o 1 i e s q t r e . -[c(cf.Note [c] below), w i t h t h e s a m e stress rule a s f o r -(I/; cJg: u'Iorllic, he'roic, ocp'crrric., ,sl:l,c~'~~i/;c.; wit11 s o m e I,:tscs ill -cw, I h c sullix is -irlic, ( / i ~ ~ ~ l ~ ~ ~ ' l l ~ t l l ~ ~ ~ , l)ho,le'nlcr~ic bcsitlcp/ro1~rc,t,ric). .I'llc suflix is :llso tlsctl hr.llOllgl'atl;l~?lCclhllic adjectives a n d f o r t h c n a m e s o f t h e c o r r e s p o n d i n g Innguagcs: Cellic, ' A I ' u ~ J ~ ~ (contrast A'rahiat?; cfS.57 N o t e [dl). -ous (also -~ous,cspecially w h e n r e p l a c i n g -ion, -;/.v i n b a s e s s o ending), a s i n de',sirous, 'tiirtuori.s, 'gric,r)ort,s, cmi'hitiorts, vi'~rrrciori.~,t h e s t r e s s usually p l a c e d o n t h e l a s t syllable b e f o r e t h e suffix. Several f o r m a t i o n s a r e slightly irregular; eg: courteous, errorteous (cJ"courtesy', 'error'). N~~~
[a] T ~ noun C suffix-ity App 1.36) can be attached to -al. -ic, and -uus, hut its addition entails certain changes. The suffix-01 rcccives the stressed pronunciation k l / in place of/aI/ ~nerrrr~!/ ,zprr'rroli~~~): -ic changes its pronunciation fro111Ilk/ to Its/ (c'lr,ctric elec'rricit,~);-olis changes its to -OS-, and rcccivcs the strcssctl pronunci;~tio~> /'OS/inste;\d of/as/ ('arrioas crrri'osit!,). [b] Nouns in -ire (cfApp 1.37) do not acccpl udjectivc sullixcs (except -;sh), but those in -i.sr acecot -ic and .;col; indeed with an -isr item as a nongr;ldablc adjective, we have an intcrcsling series in rare cases: He is an atheist/egotist. His views are (solidly) atheist/egotist. His views are (rather) alheistic/egotislic. His views are (slightly) atheistical/egotistical. A diminishing degree of the -;srtt is implied; -i.sric, i.sticol also lend to be disparaging: c/: cnsuislicrtl. somendjectivcs. -jc alternates with -icrtl, with a dilference 0fmc:lning: a clo,s.si~~ pcrform;lncc clct,s,sicolInng~l;lgCs ['great', 'memorablc'l [.htin and Cjrcck'l a co~r~ic mnstcrpiece his comirnl beh;~viour ('ol comedy'] ('funny'] the car is ~.cortonl~col to run an ccorror~ticmiracle [.in the economy'l ('money-sz~ving'l an t~lr~crrir~rl fault an electric light [.powered by clectricity'l ['ofclcctricity'] a l~i.storicbuilding l~isroriculresc;irch [.pertaining to history'] ['with a history'] behaviour po'liricol pnrtics his ~~olitic [.tactful'] (unusual) ['conccrned with politics'] less common nco-classical affixes, among which -or).. -are, and -or)' are [d] ~h~~~ are notable: rcco/rrtiorron~,cfl~,criorrate,obligofo,:l'. Adjectives in -or>,:llternale (with or nouns in -tiorr, o'hligorory ohli'gotio?t,soli.sj/actor)~ rrrrisyacriurl. Both wit)lou, stress shift) in AmE they are often given a secondary stres% are reduced in BrE to /ar~/or -ory and and are distinguished in pronunciation as /,eri/ and /,0ri/ or /,auri/.
1.40
-
-ABLE ktirly freely c o m b i n e s with transitive v e r b s t o pl.oducc g ~ t d a b l e adjectives, ' o f t h e k i n d t h a t is subject t o b e i n g V-ed', its in tlel~aicrhle, n~ashnble,drbtkable, r~rcrrrogecrhle. I n m a n y a d o p t e d w o r d s t h e suffix w a s a l r e a d y p r e s e n t , s o m e t i m e s in t h e v a r i a n t f o r ~ n s-ihk,. -rrhlc, w h i c h a r c n o t prodllclivc i n I':nglisIi. liltt w11c1.c IIic P : I S S ~ V Crcl;tli011 C ; I I ~slill h e Soti~lcl: Bliv>ittrhlc, 'calitiot I)c ;tvoitlccl', t,i.silrl(* 'c;~tl Ihc scc~i'. .sr~lrr/~lt~ 'c;111 I,c dissolved'. A s w i t h passive v e r b phrases, t h c a g e n t c a n s o m c t i l n e s b e e x p r e s s e d w i t h a by-phrase (though chiefly a g e n e r a l a g e n t r a t h e r t h a n a specific o n e : ' T h e c o m e t w a s o b s e r v a b l e b y a n y o n e o w n i n g a p o w e r f u l telescope' b u t l'. . . o b s e r v a b l e b y .lohn'). Will1 t~i.ril11c~~ l l ci n s t r u m e n t i s i n d i c a t e d w i t h t o ('The ~ i a k e c el y e c a n n o t scc this' 'This is n o t visible t o t h e n a k e d eye'). P a s s i v e adjectives i n -crhle a r e chiefly used i n n e g a t i v e c l a u s e s o r w i t h n e g a t i o n b y affixation: ' H i s s t o r y i s n o t refulable' '. . . i s irrefutable' '. . . i s unrefutable'; instead o f ' H i s s t o r y is r e f t ~ t a b l e ' , w e w o u l d n o r l n a l l y u s e ' H i s story c a n b c refuted'. I n a d d i t i o n , h o w e v e r , -ohla yields n o passive m c a n i ~ l gb u t r a t h e r h a s a s e n s e p a r a p h r a s a b l e a s ' a p t 10 V': clrcrt~jictrl~l~ (wcatllcr), peri.slioh/c~,sui/ohle, etc. B a s e s m a y a l s o b e n o u n s , s o m e t i m e s i m p l y i n g a ~ n o d a l i z c dp a s s i v e sense ( ~ n a r r i a g e a b l e , saleable), s o m e t i m e s n o t (peocetrhle, ,firshiutmhle, seasonable, etc). -NE, a s in attractice, eflectiue, possessitie. In m a n y c a s e s t h e relation b e t w e e n t h e v e r b a n d a d j e c t i v e reflects R o m a n c e m o r p h o l o g y :protlzice proiluctir:e, e.~plode e.~plosice, espartd esprtrr.sicc,, prc,sutrre pre.srrr~~pti~~e, etc. In others, on t h e p a t t e r n o f rlecorcrtr t I c ~ c e ~ r t ~ ~ai r ~l oon, g e r ;tflix, -crtir,c,, i s used: tcrlkcrtiue, c!firntc~tir~, crtrisntit~~.O c c ; ~ s i o n o l l y tlle b a s e is a n o u n (secret .sacrctioe) a n d s o ~ n e t i m c st h e relation t o lllc b a s e is o b s c u r c d (as i n SCIIS~~~L'C, e~tlolii'e). T h e stress p a t t e r n o f t h e b a s e is n o t usually a f r e c t e d b y t h e a d d i t i o n o f -ice.
-
-
-
-
-
- -
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
Deverbal suffixes T w o c o m m o n s u l 5 x e s a r e used t o f o r m ;ttljcctives (1;trgely graclablc) f r o m v c r h s ancl t h e y ;Ire in p o l ; ~ rc r ~ ~ i l t ; i \i tl1 r c r p c r t of' v c r h ; ~ l voicc: -ir.r is l i ~ ~ ~ ~ l ~ ~ t ircl:~tccl ~ c ~ i l10~ ~t hl el y:~ctivc, 'c)[' [lie k i ~ l t l III;I[ C ; I I I V'; -,I/I/o i s futidametitally related t o t h e p;tssivc. 'of t h e k i n d t l l ; ~ tC:III h e V-ccl'. Tf111s ' T h e i d e ; ~ :Itlracts m e ' - ' T h e iclca is : ~ l l r ; ~ c l i v c ' :'.l.hc l c s l c t ~ n n c l t b e I~.;~~isl:~lc(l'"l'hr l r x l i s ~ ~ ~ ~ l ~ : ~ ~ ~ s\rrj,l,tr,.1;1~~~'~;111 l : i l ; ~ l ~ l c ' .\111)11011', \rr/y)0rr~1/,/~. *c;111I)c s l l ~ l ~ l i l l l r ~ l ' .
Nole
-
-
[a] Prefix;tl ncg;ilion wit11 i~~ljectivcs in botli -ir.r:~nd-ohktrci~tstlic \vIioIc o f ~ l i iII>IIoM,s~I~ ~l IIIC c : I S 1 r 1 1 1 1 1 chas the structure ter(trrr,r.sl~rrohIt~) ;~nddoes not mciln .],oss~blc 1101to tr:~nsl:~le'but 'not possible to translate'. Contri~stpri\.:,livc tr,r- (llows,we rcsutnc thc principle Illis Inc;tns tI1;1t wc grollp of c1;tssilic;ttion thal w:~sedoplcd liir sullix;~li:l~l: wortls ;tccortling to thc clitss ol' tltc 11;tsc ; I I I ~ I I I I CI;ISS ~ 111' Iltc \vo~cldc~i\,ccI. l'ltus ).c,Irc~.sris 10 bc closscd ;IS ;I dcvcrb;ll IIOLII) itt App 1.47.
['to subject to burglary']. Formations lend thcmsclvcs readily to n0lnill;llii-tttion in -ariorr, as in r~ori~ir~crlizcrrior~ itself. Over-use and new use of -ize ilctits is cll'lc~~ rrilici/ccl 1111 slyli.;lic ~ ! r o ~ ~ n'll lIIC s . ( I ~ I I ~ I ~ I IspcI1/ : I I1~1!!~ i~-i:v. 'I'bere is sotiic conl'usio~i01. -;:c will1 111cctl~li~tg -,.\c i t t ! ; ~ I I I I C v r l l ~ s(c,,llllphl;lsc ~ ) , 1 1Wllicll IllC llOUll onconversions i ~ l v o l v ip~lri,scs ~i~ ,.i,nl;lining i,d,ectivcs, App h'1s 1.52. Conversion to verb
Denomina~ 1-49 [AI ' T ~ p u t i n / o n ~ ' :
butfie /'lo put into a bottle'], corpet (1 subordiniltc ( B ~ ~ ) ) , ca'a10gue~J700r, g a r ( ~po.~it;ot~, , . s / ~ r (books: /~ cyApp con,mon in nonce usages such as rack (the plates), porc/l ({lle ncwsp~lpcr), [B] 'To give N,to provide with N': blrtrr CO(ll ['to give a coat (of p;iint, .cf,n,r~,s n, gre(rst., fi~usk,muzzle, oil, p/a,rler, [Cl 'To deprive of N':
Conversion to noun
I.11
Deverbal .State. [generally bitate of mind' or 'strte of sensation'] (from verbs used stativeIy to count or noncount nouns): desire, di,yjnay, doubt, love, snre[l, taste, [B] ' ~ ~ ~ ~ t / ~ ~(from t i v iverbs t y ' used dynamically): search, swilfl; shut-(1orn1, 'valk-out, blou'altenipt, jkll, hit, laugh, out (of a tyre) [C] 'Object of V': a,lswer ['that which answers'], bet, ~ a l c k / i l 1hall(l-aut ~, [D] 'Subject of V': who or that which boreslis boring'], cheat, coach, showbore off; stand-in [E] '~nstrumentof V': cooer [.something which to cover things'], paper, wrcrlch
the core from'], girt, ped, s h ~ i,Op-olr~-fai~ , \'1.'1:!). :l1111 :~lflll(:llllll~' -,-l1isc.ltcgory col,lpctcs botll dcrivLl,ioI,s ;tvki;lLi~,le ror sa~iie;~lIjccti\~c; [,,S: I l / ~ ~ ~ ~ ~/ \~~ l~ (' f~l )c. ' ~ ~ ~ ' ~ ~ ) : ,yfl l,,,
1101111 :
1';1lriolis111, I I ; I ~ I ~ I I ; I ~ ~:III~I S I I ~; ~ . oy 0t11cr~.YIII.Y YCIII'CI 11ke10 I I ; I I I I ~ . [iiil From phrases; sequcnccs of. more th:~none word arc somctirncs used as nouns, rcduccd to onc-word sli~lusby corivcrsion r;lthcr than by any of the normal p;ittcrns o f c o ~ n p o t ~ ~ ~((././\pp d i ~ l g I.57f): Whcncvcr I gnmhlc, my horsc is one of thc trlso-rrrr~.v.[if, one o f thc Ilorscs wl~iul~ Oitl 11o1will 1,111 r~lcrclv'.z l l gr;~phy, 0 0 hro;ld tllc~rrctici~l issues, sce Ad;ltns (1973): Art,n i41, and [51 punctuation is of enclosing the coordinator in commas, One for would have the odd effect On separating successive units and the other for separating included the other hand, consider the effect of including the participle clause seeing this in the following example: He smiled at Joan and Mary was cross. *He smiled at Joan and Mary, seeing this, was cross.
The punctuation in [6a] is unacceptable in SeriOuSlY misrepresenting the hierarchy of grammatical relations: it would make the reader think at first that and was coordinating the two names rather than the two clauses, and so we must have:
Question and exclamation marks in APP 111.2 specification was exemplified with the use of the apostrophe to mark the genitive, in many ways a more obvious example is Ihe question mark. This indicates that the sentence it terminates is a question, it is interrogative or (less frequently)declarative in form:
What can be done to help these people? You are leaving already?
[l] l21 In 'I1, as with Other wh-questions, there is no necessary prosodic distinction
from sentences to match the punctuation contrast between period and question mark, since unmarked wh-questions generally have falling tones (cf 'PP 2, In[21, on the other hand, the question mark in the prosodic contrast between this sentence as question and the same sentence as statement ( c f ~ p p11.13). The exclamation mark (in *mE, also 'erclamation point.) is more rarely Yed and indeed its excessive use is often taken as a sign of frivolous or Immature writing. It is however quite normal in representing a sentence uttered with great emotive force, whether or not this has exclamative form: How silly they are! Well done! What a Perceptive article she wrote! Fire ! Aren't they tall! (cf Note [b]) YOUdo2t say! Both the question mark and the exclamation mark generally exclude the use of Other Punctuation and have the value o f a period inasmuch as what follows begins with the capitalization ofa new sentence, But when they co-occur with the end of quotation, they come within the quotation marks and if more of the including sentence follows, no capital letter is used: 'How tall they are!' she thought. Both here and when they end a parenthetic sentence included within another sentence (C~APP II1.20), they differ from periods: She paid 40 OOOdollars(Isn't that over 20 000 pounds?) for a new sports car. In this respect are not hierarchically on the same level as the which not occur in those environments. when the,, end an included parenthetic as above, they have only a specifying function, not a separating function.
,634 Appendix 111 p u n c t u a t i o n Note
Specification
exciamation mark' The exclamativ~form (c/ 11.31n always end with an 'lone3 'Or example' where there is great 1lrgencY; i t cxclam;ltion used in with 'In ~mper;~tivc senlcnccl 8cncw11Y do no' in road signs us a symbol of w;lminy. they represent very peremptory rind urgent exclamation mark outside!' he shouted angrll~. exclamation marks unless they are used "ione as 12ikcwisc,vocntivcs ordinarily do not ,lry,entw;lrningor cnm~n;tn(l. ,,llhclltellcctiWI,ICII arc ~lltcrrwllivcin f'lrnl cncl in l' ~l"cslinn [bI pr;,g,l,;ltic re:ls‘,l,s, .I lllg i l b il rC\JLIC!St: b r m is l' mark, isone,, prcfcrred irthc interrogative the men;~ger'sdesk c;lrc to rc'rievC it who left a Silk Would the porter's office. 'lzry On the other hand, an excpamation mark is used with exclamatoV questions, such as
The question mark may sometimes precede, our practice in this book ,+,hen indicating doubtfully acceptable sentences, as in [Id] and [lg]: 1 think shc said (?)Abbis. Note
,,
use of more than one question mark or exclamation m;lrk or combin;ltions of the two to s"ggestextreme*o~bt or surprise is confined to very inform;^^ writin8such as
Quotation marks, italics, and underlining Quotation marks are used far more widely in manuscript and typescript than is underlining, perhaps because underlining is firmly associated with Only those involved in the writing and production of printed material are aware that underlining in manuscript and typescript is used to represent italics in print. In print, italics are used for the titlcs of works sucl, books, m;,gazincs, journals, newspapers, films, musical compositions, and paintings; in and manuscript these may be underlined or in quotation marks. Quotation marks are generally used in all written material for parts of larger works, for example articles in journals, chapters in books, short stories, and
toN!(cf 11.22).
mark is When a formallist of items appears at the end of a question, the question end of ,hc list m i g ~be ~ tmisinterpreted as a query On the its position at you like me to send to the foilowing people: wh;lt Sam and Mary Palon julian and Kale Coleman Robert Fowler Susan Goodman
Specification of included units The following illustrates the use of question and relation to included material:
1635
In print, italics represent cited words or expressions: marks in
The plural of woman is women. In other written material, underlining may be used for this purpose, but quotation marks are more common. We indicate that words are introduced from a different style by quotation marks, as with the colloquialism in 111: The stranded colonel was obliged to 'hitch' a ride from a passing motorist. [l1 Words a foreign language are indicated by italics in print by quotation marks (less frequently by underlining) in other written material :
,
id you see the words 'Are you happy'? id you see the words 'Are you happy?'? *I saw the words 'Are you happy?'. ~h~~~words ('Are you happy?') were on the ? ~ words,,'Are h ~ you ~happy~?', were On the [ld] is less acceptable than either [lc] or[1b1 as a Though logically same problem. The general rule is that Only One means of handling the noncorrelative mark can occur at one place. The rule is infringed more severely in [le] than in [Id] because two types of marks co-occur' Although they are primarily used at the end of interrogative Or sentences, there is a Consciouslyexceptional rhetorical use Of question and exclamation marks to specify doubt or surprise about individual parts Of a . . sentence; in such use, they are often enclosed in parentheses, following the . relevant item: A further semantic (?)problem may be formulated as follows' insisted that her name was Shirle~Temp1e (!) and The old something about being born in what sounded like Abbis (?) Ababa.
His slightestjeu d'esprit was impressive. I21 In all material, quotation marks are used to give the meaning of an expression, as in [3]: The word schaderlfreude, which means 'malicious enjoyment', is quite Fdshionable in English.
L31 Quotation marks, as in [l] above, may indicate a hesitant or apologetic introduction of a doubtful or discordant item. Or they may indicate a term that fully accepted. But elsewhere they may equally imply that the item is of doubtful validity because merely alleged; in this usage they may be sly or sarcastic and match a heavy prosodic marking in speech
1
./
l
i
I told him that his 'wife' had come and let him know by the way I said it that I didn't think she really was his wire,
141 As in [41, italics in print and underlining or wriggle underlining in manuscript and typescript can be used informally to indicate emphasis, other devices occasionall~used for emphasis are capitals and (in print) bold face and small
,636
Appendix 111 p u n c t u a t i o n
Specification
Abbreviations and the use of special symbols Abbreviationismilrkcd m o ~gencral!~ t by single pcriotl bllowinginitial letterOr shortened of a word, as ~nG C ~Brrrrlley, . U.K., (but some printers, as in this book, conventionally italicize iL. and eg periods). When the abbreviation includes the fin;,] letter of [he word abbreviated,there is a widespread convention in B ~ of E ignoring the need for a period: Dr> Mr, for example. Indeed, in much modern practice, abbreviation is out by means of word shortening without the use of periods: Or &c, d; UN, USA, PTO, for ex;lmple (cj 1.73). such abbreviationsas etc arc used sparingly in formal though RSVP with Or without periods is found almost only in formal use (on invitation cards), The abbreviation period is never followed by a though it may be followed by another mark.
and other specifiers of breaks bwak or anacoluth~nis indic~tedby a dash* but natuunlB this syntactic device belongs largely to informal writing: They gave him a prize for getting top marks - and a certificate as [l] well. L21 hoped that you -' His voice broke. [31 John wasn't altogether - I thought he seemed a little unhappy.
*
111.26
51
An analogous use of the dash is made to suppress (now obscenity ('Mr B-'; 'F- off'). Note
a name
Or
is also frequentiy expressed hy means of ellipsis Or suspension *Ots An unfinished replace the dash in 121 above, though perhaps giving or periods (normally three), which than an abrupt break. In formal writing*the *Ots the impression of trailing away lather indicate .,hat which it is unnecessary to specify*: Take a sequenceof prime numbers(l.3, S, 7,113 13, 17,. . .) and'consider ' ' ' or the omission of parts of quoted material: The review of the book stated, * ~ author h ~is enthusiastic at the Prospect Of 'ystems by televisionscreen. . .1can imaginegovernments whichyoucancallup~n~ormationon your such reference libraries an* their of the future being worried about the use on public opinion.' In AmE an additional fourth period indicates that the ellipsis coincides with the end Of sentence.
Lbl
is sometimes informally indicated by hyphens an* reduplication
Of
1637
Note
[a] Forthe
of numerical and mathematical expressions, cJ6,63fJ A dash (an en dash in print, c/ App III.5 Note [a]) is an abbreviating device for a sequence: pages [lead as 'pages fifteen to thirty-six'; in A ~ E for , inclusive numbering, as 'pages fifteen through thirty-six'] 1985-1995 9 a.m.-S 12-December 22 [also, BrE: September 12(h-December 22ndl Furtherabbreviation may be possible: 1985-95 pages I 15-17
[bl
letters:
.p.p.p-please t.t-try', his teeth chattered through fearand "ld. The same device is used to indicate prolongation of vowels: 'He-e-elp!'she cried.
Id] has the not use 0.k.
The apostrophe The apostrophe is most frequently used in serious writing to denote genitive singular and plural as in the girl's and the girls'; in speech these are from each other and from the nongenitive plural, In ordinary use, however, it also marks contractions in the verb phrase: etc. ~t is still very occasionally found marking the he's, can't, abbreviation at the beginning of such institutionalized clipped forms as in such or pu (cjApp 1.74). ~t is regularly used in o'clock, and it is e-er and o'er. In fiction or Casual writing it is poetic contractions used to indicate nonstandard or casual pronunciation in such forms as g'in', 1t is similarly used informally for contraction Of year .cos (BrE), and numbers, especially in figures; thus for 1984 we have 'B4. with items which The apostrophe is frequently used before the plural lack institutionalized spelling:
There are three i's in that word, the late 1990's is affixed without an apostrophe (1990s) if there is no But more often the danger of misreading (as there would be in example [l]). Note
The apostrophe is occasiona~~y used (especially in manuscript) for written abbreviations that do not represent abbreviations in speech, eg: profl'f~[pronunciation].
O.K.3 0 . k OK, and okay, while BrE prefers 0 , ~and . OKand does
Capitals
capitals
In addition to marking the beginning of a sentence, initial are used for proper nouns (cf 5.60R); for example, persons, places, works of literature, of the week, months of the year (but not usually the and the planets (but not the earth, the sun, or the moon), ~h~~ are used for a ~ ~ o s i t i o ntitles a l and descriptors and for status markers (cf 10.53) in vocative$: johnMills is a colonel. BUT He is colonel john ill^, These are the forms you wanted, Principal,
So
(but in AmE with periods at the ends of the abbreviations):
Those present included Mr Jones, Miss Graham, ~ ~ b i ~ , Willis, Professor Maisky, and Mrs ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ l , j . Initial capita1s are commonly used for the names of organizations and institutions:
!
the Home Office theEnvironmental Protection Agency
the Social Security System British Airways
1638 Appendix III p u n c t u a t i o n
Specification
the Mineworkers Union the Congressional Budget Ofice to lnnrk key w a r i i s ill fi,rm;~liiisaour~e, cspcci;1lly They arc occasionn~~y at the point where such words are introduced for the first time:
students andjor staff Rule A132 C:/'~llso App 111.28 N o l c [c], 3.
The next problem, that of Ultraviolet Radiation, is one On which c~,llsidcr:~\>Ic proyr~sshits llcen made. used in this book, is for tile wllolc wi)~'dL 0 hc Pl'i"tcll it' 'MA'.t2 An alternative, capitals for key words are a particular feature of legal CAPITALS
, ) jndicCltcsthe place t'l;ltcri:ll ill tllc I I I ~ I I X ~or I I I > c I wtlIC ~ ~lillrS ~ ~ is I,C illSCrICl,,
'
(b) A new line may specify the lbrmulaic termination o f a letter signatureOn a further new line. This convention requires a the ofthe formula ; ~ n d:l comm:l a t lllc end:
s
A line (often indented) is illso used to cacll in the structure postal addresses, except that city and state appear as One line in AmE Practice; again each line except the last may terminate a comma, but 'light punctuation' variant is :,lso possjb,c and is becoming more common : 26 Park Drive Portsmouth, RI 02480 USA
Capital letters also appear in the specification of many abbreviations, as 111.28, whether the items abbreviated are Proper nouns we saw in (where the use dinitial capitals is normal) or not, as usually in RSVP Or ('please turn over the page', (BrE)).
Note
Miscellaneous minor conventions
and may be grouped as (a) chiefly III.30 Lesser punctuation (b) formulaic: (a) I, parenthesized figures or letters commonly distinguish Parts Of an exposition, like the (a) and (b) in this section; a) and b), and a' and b., are common variants. 2. *he oblique stroke (also called 'slant', 'slash', 'solidus', 'virgule') is used to indicate abbreviation and also to Specify alternatives and subsectioning: the academic year 198516
is a lick (BrE) orchcck ( A ~ E )used to an or has acCeptcd It used in BrE to indici~tcthilt point is cxumplc, by a a student's paper). whereas in AmE it norm;jlly indicates In point is incorrect, and sometimes in AmE, the symbol x is used to indicate an incorrect point (read as 'cross'in BrE and as the name orthe letter+ in Or
;,
Ib1
a by a name by an obelisk (+) indicates that the person iscross dead,indicates a church dignitary. suffixing l' 'Iheword nun'be* is abbreviated asNo. and as # (AmE>,
be
M
,
53. Camden Gdns., London, N W ] 1 g ~ y , England.
['l The "'led
capitals or capitals throughout the word are commonly used in block language (lor
considered as names: ~ i fought with ~ Valour ~and was triumphant. ~ ~ ~ i ~ ~ the letters i, j, and y were used to some extent interchangeably and it is In the Middle immodesty it complicated reasons of paleographical preference (rather than the egocentric Of the lst might suggest) that capital 1, itself an afternant of j, emerged as the regular person singular pronoun. a strong tradition for distinguishing capitals in tit'es, generally [dl houses short close?-class words (cf2.39): TOthe End of Time
the at
Yours sincerely, (esp &E) Sincerely yours, (esp A ~ E )
,,
example, telegrams, notices, headlines; cf 1 1.45fl). capitals are used in personificatian, thereby indicating that the words are
lacedraws special attention to an item,
4' In manuscriptsand typescripts o caret ( X or
The ~ ~Registrars~lnllsl receive ~ a Copy of~the Letter ~ together ~ with the Form of Renunciation. are sometimes used in light or facetious At opposite extreme, prominence for the words so writing to indicate spoken ,she w h o ~ ~Be Obeyed,' s t he growled ironically. must certainly sec the Man of the House,'she announced pompously' h ~ what ~ ddoYOU want?'he shouted.
Note
1639
! Bibliographical n o t e of punctuation practice aregiven in Meyer (198)); prentice-Hal, 239; 974), pp 99University of Chicago Press (19x2). pp 131-j5; and US Office pp 7-250: and of BrE practice in carey (1957): Hart (1974): and AmE and BrE conventions are compared in a finillchapter by John W,Clark in data b r a n AmEcorpus is cited from Mcyer (1983), Beaugrande pp 192-213, discusses the motives for
Bibliography
.,
.,.
Aarts, F. (1969)'On the Use of the Progressive and Non-Progressive Present with Future Reference in Present-DIYEnglish'. E~gli,shS t ~ r d i ~50. ~ s565 579 Aarts, F. (1971) 'On the Distributionof Noun-Phrase Types in English Clause Structure', Lingua 26, 252-264 Aarts, F. (1979) 'Time and Tense in English and Dutch: English Temporal since and its Dutch Equivalents', English Stlrdies 60,603-624 Aarts, F. and J. Aarts (1982) English Sytltactic Structures, Oxford: Pergamon Press Aarts, J. and J. P. Calbert (1979) Metaphor a ~ t dNon-Metaphor: The Sentatlticsof Adjective-Noun Combblations, Tubingen: Niemeyer Abberton, E. (1977) 'Nominal Group Premodification Structures', in Bald and llson (1977), 29-72 Abercrombie, D. (1967) Elements of General Phonetics, Edinburgh: University Press Abraham, W. (1978) (ed) Valence, Semantic Case, and Grantmatical Relations, Amsterdam: Benjamins Adamczewski, H. (1978) BE + ING dons la Gramnlaire de I'Anglais Contenlporain. Lille: Atelier Reproduction des Thises Adams, V. (1973) An introduction to Modertt E~tglishWord-Formotion, London : Longman Aijmer, K. (1972) Some Aspects ofPs~~chological Predicates bt English, Stockholm Studies in English 24, Stockholm: Almqvist and Wiksell Aissen, J. (1972) 'Where Do Relative Clauses Come From?', in Syntaxand Sentantics, ed J . P. Kimball, 187-198, New York: Seminar Press Akimoto, M. (1983) Idiomaticity, Tokyo: Shinozaki Shorin Akmajian, A. and F. Heny (1975) An Introduction to the Principlesof Trattsjbrn~ational Syntax, Cambridge, Mass.: M.I.T. Press Alexander, D. and W. J. Kunz (1964) 'Some Classes of Verbs in English', Linguistic Research Project, Indiana University Alexander, D. and P. H. Matthews (1964)'Adjectives before That-Clauses in English', Linguistic Research Project, Indiana University Algeo, J. (1973) 0 t 1Defining the Proper Name, Gainesville: University of Florida Press Algeo, J. (1975) 'The Acronym and its Congeners', in The First LACUS Fprutn, edd A. and V. Makkai, Columbia, S. C.: Hornbeam Press Algeo, J. (1978)'TheTaxonomy of Word Making', Word 29,122-131 Algeo, J . (1980) 'Where Do All the New Words Come From?', American Speech 55, 264-277 Allen, R. L. (1961) 'The Classification of English Substitute Words', Getleral Linguistics 5, 7-20 Allen, R. L. (1966) The Verb System ofPreset~t-DayAnzericatr Etlglish, The Hague: Mouton Allerton, D. J. (1975)'Deletion and Proform Reduction', JourttalofLittguistics I I, 213-237 Allerton, D. J. (1978)'The Notion of Givenness and its Relation to Presuppositions and to Theme', Litlgua 44, 133-1 68 Allerton, D. J. (1979) Essetttials of Granmratical T/leory, London: Routledge Allerton, D. J. (1980) 'Grammatical Subject as a Psycholinguistic Category', Transactions of the Philological Society, 62-80 Allerton, D. J. (1982) Valency attd the English Verb, New York: Academic Press Allerton, D. J. and A. Cruttenden (1974)'English Sentence Adverbials: their Syntax and their Intonation in British English', Lingua 27, 1-29 Allerton, D. J . and A. Cruttenden (1976)'The Intonation of Medial and Final Sentence Adverbials in British English', Archiuum Linguisticum 7.29-59
1642 BibliograPhY
,
,
Blbllography
Allerton, D, J , and A, Cruttenden (l978)'Syntactic, ~lloculionar~~ Thematicand AttitudinalF~~~~~~ in the intonation of Adverbials', ~ o u r r r u l o f p r ~ g t n o t i 155-188 c~~, Allcr,,,ll~l), J , llllcl /I. (.r~~ccc~~clcn (1979) 'Three Rcaalns for Accenting jorlrllo~ irj'~i~rgt~isric.s 15. 4') 53 Altenberg, B, (1980)*Binominal~ p -ins a Thematic perspective: Genitivevs.i$ construction in 17th Century English', in Jacobson (1980b)x 149-172 Allcnhcrg,R , ( 1 982) nr1,ci.llirir,c0. tile of-~o~otrlrction: A SIU~IY!v~'~!'llt(lc~~~ vuria~iorl in /7111~ ~ , , l l l l/:,IKli.,~r, lr~ I . L ~ ~Sludie~ I , I i l l I:,r~y,lish(12. I . I I I I (~~ :~ l ~ ~ r ~ ~ l ' / ~ ~ ~ ~ ' ~ ~ Altcnberg, 8 , ( 1 9 8 4 ) ~Lillkilig ~ ~ ~ in ~ ~ p~o k~c nl;IIILI ~ r i n c ~{~~ulisll'. ~l S~l~lllll Li~tguisticu38, 20-69 ~ ~J , (1977) 011 d Case Crc~~nr~tar, ~ New ~ York:~Hllmanities ~ Press ~ , Anderson, S, R,(1976) .pro-sentcntial Forms and Their Implications for English sentence Structure', in McCawley (1976), 165-2°0 E, (1985) ol1verb C~nrplen~entutio~~ in Written E~lglisll,Lund Studies in ellglish 71, L U I Glceru~lILiher ~: E, (1974) ~ ~ ~ill (lle ( COrresponde~tce 1 ; ~ ~ ber~v~c~rr E~tglisAll~~o/l(l'io'~ o'tcl Ikc' N~~~ phrase (11E~~glisk Granrnrar, Li+: Universiti: Ardery, G, (1979) q-he Development of Coordinations in Child Language', Jolirllai verbal Lecrnlingand Verbal Behuvior 18,745-756 Amdt, H, and R, W , J~~~~~ (1981) 'An lnteractional ~inguistic~ o d eEveryday l ~ ~ ! Conversational Behaviour', Die Neueren Sprachen 80, 435-454 ~ ~ ~G, F. l (1957) d , Stress in English Words, Amsterdam: A r o n o ~M, , (1976) word For~nationin Generutiue Grumn7ar, Cambridge, Mass. : M.I.T. Press Austin, F, (1980) -'A crescent-shapedjewel of an island", Appositive Nouns in phrases Separated by of', E~lglishStudies 61,357-366 Austin, J , L, (1962) H ~to ~ DO Things ~ , 111itl1~ o r r l soxford: , University Press Auwera, J, vander (1980) (ed) The ~emarrticsof~eterminers,~ o n dGroom ~ ~ :'lm ~ ~E, (1967) ~ h'Hate, and Be in English Syntax', Lallguage 43, 462-485 Bach, E, (1968) .Nouns and Noun Phrases', in ~niuersalsin ~ingliisticTlleory, edd E. 1 Bach and R, T, H ~91-122, ~ New ~ York: ~ Holt, , Rinehart and Winston Bache, C. (1978) T } Order ~ ~ of Prenrodfiing Adjectiues in Presenf-Day Odense: University Press Bathe, C, (1982) s ~and Aktionsart: ~ ~ Towards ~ a semantic ~ t ~ i ~Jour~lal ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ of Linguistics 18,57-72 Abbreuiated Clous~sill E1lglish,Studia BBcklund,I, (1984) ~ ~ upsaliensia ~ l i 50,~Stockholm: ~ i Almqvist ~ ~ and Wiksell BBcklund,U, (1970) ~l~~~ ~ / / ~ ~ t i o n o f A d u Degree e r b ~ ~inf English, U!Jpsala English and AmericanTheses 1. BBcklund,U , (1981) Resfrictiue~djcctiue-~oun ~ollocatiorlsin ~tlgli~ll, UmeiStudies in the ~ ~ 23, ~ UmeB: ~ Acta ~ ~niversitatis i t i Umenis ~ ~ in Bailey, C,-J, N.and R. W. Shuy (1973) (edd) New Ways ofAnolyzing ~ , , ~ [ i $Washington, h, D.c.: Georgetown University Press Arbor: Bailey, R, W, and M. GGrIach (1 982) (edd) English as a World LU1lguage, university of Michigan Press Bald, w,-D, (1972) Srudien zu dell Kopulutiue~rVerbor des EnElfsckm, Uberblick" Bald, w,-D, (1975) 'Englische Intonation in Forschung und Lehre: ForumLinguisl;cum; Contribufionsto ~ppliedLirtguislics, 139-1633 Frankfurt: Lang Bald, W,-D, (1979) $ ~ ~ ~~ ~l ~ i- ~~ uhe s and t i o ~ntonation', ns in ~ ~ l i . s t e n 1979, t ~ g ed K, Schuhmann, 263-291, Berlin: Technische Universitat Bald, w,-D, (1979180) 'English Intonation and Politeness', StudioAnglica posnaniensia 11,93-101 Bald, W , - ~(1980) , 'someFunctions of yes and no in conversation', in G[eenbaum> 1 Leech, and Svartvik (1980). 178-191
i
1643
Bald, W.-D. (forthcoming) Which ONK ((mmeo) Bald, W.-D. and R. Ilson (1977) (edd) S1udie.s in E~tglishU,sc1gc, R ~ofa , ~ ~ Present-Da~Engli.~hCorpudfi~rLin,qui,s/ic ~ ~ : ~king ~ k f ~ ~ ~ : llllllls ilJI(1 l
3
l
l
'
Q .'
Index 1667
1666 Index
A +adverbial
adverbial (object-related)
A, +adverbial (subject-related) +article (indefinite) (;I# c~~llj~lllcl) K. l37 0- (prclix) 1.21, 30 (preposition)8.29 -a nouns 5.94 .U phlr;~ln5.95.98 irla9.10n; 17.60n U - W O I ~ S7.10-1 l see U/,VO: adjective, adverb aback 16.2 abattoir I. 13 abbreviatedclause 8.40,125n7134, 143; 11,34n, 3611.45-50; 12.59-65; 15.6, 14,40; 17.28; 19.44 seealso:prepositional phrase, question,
(I
abbreviation 5.66n,81; 6.65,66,69; 1 0 , g n ; 17.73; I.15,23n, 73; 111.27. 28-30 see coordination
-
ablaze 7.10 16.2; (be to) 3.40,47; 4.52, 61, 66, 68; 7.39; 12.64; 16.79 -ab/e7.1,21; 16.72;1.15,36,40 aboard7.10-11; 8.41 i9.66; 19.34 abode (verb) 3.18 abolish 16.26 about (adverb) 7.62; 8.41,48; 9.5 (conjunction) 14.17.n (particle) 16.2 (preposition) 3.76; 7.6211; 9.7,22, S1, 57,60; 16.69 (prepositional adverb) 9.66 (be to) 3.40,47; 4.47,48,66,68 (just -) 8.126
-
'
,
.
above (adverb) 7.67.70; 8.41 (particle) 16.2 (preposition)9.7, 19.2532 (prepositional adverb) 9.66 pro-form use 19.47 (-a/1)8.137-138;(the-) 19.47 abridge 7.8%
u~rood7.10-11,67~8.41; 19.34 absent (adjective) 7.22 (vcrh)( - onr'scdl (,/'iiim))6.25 ~h,sohollylrilrly1.16 absohrte (adjective) 7.5% 33; 8.106 ,( ly) 7.511; 8.101, 105, 106, 13011 absolute cl;l;l*,c15.3411,SX (12 coll,l,llriso~ 7.7, SOn, 74 Hh, 8'); 12.55; 18.45n meaning 6.5,53, 58; 9.58 ahstriict ;l,~cctiv;~l IIC;I(I 5.74; 7.26 meaning2.43; 9.55; 15.2,s; l6.24,48; 17.17; 1.26 noun 3.69; 4.4; 5.3.7,9, 17,58-75; 6.16;7.78; 8.106n;9.51,63; 10.18, 39.51 ; 15.4211; 16.26,84-85; 17.26, 51-52.54; 1.13,23,25,32,35736, 37,38.44,53; 11.4 obslird 16.83; ( - /Y)7.56 Academy l.l5,17 accent (prosodic)+stress accent (regional) 1.20,27,32
act-tcompletion, illocutionary, locutionary, speech (act), verbs (ncmilntic cli~ssifici~tion: sctivity, momentary, speech act, transitional) acting (adjective) 7.36 action+ verb llclivc p;lnnive ~ I C I ~ I 8.105 ~P~V
actual- recipient actually (disjunct) 8. I 27 (subjunct) 8.100, 102, 126; 18.55 iirl 1.74 add 16.31; (-to) 16.28 ad(1endrim 5.95 addition, in (conjunct) 8.137 (prepositional adverb) 9.66 (subjunct) 8.1 16, I 19 (-t0)9.11.58; 13.103 addition preposition 9 . 7 , ~ ~ additional5.22 additional language+ English additive (conjunct) 8,136,137-138, 143 (subjunct)8.l16-117, 119, 120, 143; 10.60; 12.29; 13.36,38
accept 16.31 ;(-as) 16.47 acceptability 1.42; 2.1 1
meaning 27,37n,'0.41,57;. 57 12.20.25; 13.23n, address to 16.57 address f o ~ s 0 f 5 . 1 0 3 ;10.52-53; 17.9111; 18.5; 19.65 function 10.52 postal 111.30 seeolso: plural, self-address,vocative adieu 5.99 adjectival* adjective adjective2.34,35,43; 7.1-4~-,47, 84-90; 9.23 8, 10; 10.22,46, 51; 12.27,45n, 65; 13.79; 14.24-25; 15.2, 54; 16.8,68-83; 17.51; 11.54 a-7.10-11,21, 39 adverbrelatedto7.6-10,27,28n, 29%
10.10; 16.15 accomp~ishment+verb~(semantic classification) accordance (in with) 9.1 1.63 according (as) 14.12; (- ly) 8.137, 145; (- to) 8.127n; 9.10,57,63 (for) 16.28; (on of) 8.86; 9.3'3 11,44; 14.12n.14; 15.46n; (mke of) 16.58 accurate 7.88; (more b ) 8.137 accusative case 6.4 accuse 6.25; (- of) 16.8,57; ( - N o n
-
-
-
71-823
accustomed 16.79; (- 10) 16.69 ache (noun) 5.4911 (verb)4.29; 16.41 ;(-for) 16.38 acknowledge 16.31,60; (- as) 16.47
36,38,46-47, 71-74.83 affixationin 1.21 -32,36-42,45,46, 48,50-52,55,57, 59,63n, 65,66, attributive function 6.62; 7.2-4, 10, I I, 13,15, l8,I9, 20-30,32, 34,38,39, 4-5,76,78,84,85; 13.79.99n. 102;
acronyms I.13n,73,7j976 .cross (adverb) 7.66; 8.41; 16.3 (particle) 16.2 (preposition)9.7, 22,25-27,28;
.
attributiveonly 7.32-37.73; 17.97
adjective [cont] central 7.3, 20-30,32, 33, 34. 37.44, 4.7; 17.07, 114 clause 7.10,27-30; 15.61 combination with verb 10.12n; 16.17, 33 compound 7.17; I.fiN, 6011;111.4 C l l l l h l l LICI/OII ;lcljeeliVC ( I ~ I , ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ) criteria for 3.76; 7.2-4 disyllabic 7.81 dynamic 7.40-41.44.4611; 8.94; 1.55 cllipsin 7.2811 cv;~luative7.84; 10.53; 16.82 final -l/-// 1.41 wadable 7.13, 16n,21,40,42,44,56, 63n. 66,74,87; 8.101; 9.62; 10.66; 17.114; 1.38,39,40, 55 head 2.25n,26,28,29; 3.59; 5.56-57, 74; 7.14,20,23-26; 10.66; 12.55; 13.79; 17.56-57; 1.45 inflection 7.1,2-4, 24,74-82, 83 inherent 7.32,40,43,44; 17.114 lengthof 7,81; 17, 15 -ly 7.9,s 1 n monosyllabic 7.81 -82 negative 7 . ~ 7 10,59; ~ ; 17,96 nongradabIe7.14n, 37,40,42,44,45,57, 87;8.83; 17.97, 114; 1.37, 38,39,51 nongradable conversion to gradable 1.55 noninherent 7.32,36,40,43,4,73; 17.97 nonparticipial 16.69-83 nonpredicative+adjective (attributive only) nonrestrictive 6.20; 7.22,24,25, 32n; 8.94n noun related to 7.12-14,37; 17.97, 114-118 object complement 16.44-45,47 order7.45; 17.1 14-1 16 participial 3.121, 13, 14,15,16,18,19, 44% 49,7677; 7.15,46,47,8 I ; 9.50n,63; 16.14n, 54n, 69-83; 17.64,94,98-103,114; 1.65; 111.4 participle vs, 7,15- 19 peripheral 7.3,12,31-39,~. 45.68; 17.97,114 phrase 2.24,25,26,28; 3.47n; 7.9,20, 23-26.65; 10.8, l l , 20,53,66; 11.4% 53; 12.20,27; 15.39, 62, 69, 71,73; 16.20,21,24,44-47.68-83; 17.2,58,96; 18.27,42,
lndex 1669
1666 Index adjective [cont] position of 7.247.20-30,45; 15.39, 69,71,73 postcentral 7.45 postmodification by 6.47; 7.21,22; 13.6811; 15.69,71,73; 16.68-83; 17.15,56-60,91n postmodification of +complementation postposed-t adjective (postmodification by) precentral7.45 predicative function 2,1711; 5.37; 6.62; 7.2-4,7, 10, 13, 15, 19,20-30, 32,34,82; 8.94; 1 3 . 6 8 , 7 9 , 9 9 ~ 15.25; 16.2211; 17.94.96, 114, 11511 predicativeonly 7.38-39; 1.30 prehead 7.45 premodification by 5.68; 6.47; 7.2-4, 13,20-30,43,45;7.6,22,65,71, 86;9.12; 11.32n; 13.62,79; 15.69. 71 ; 16.68; 17.2,3n, 15,27,94, 96-97, 124; 18.42, 5911; 1.25.29, 65 premodification of 7.2-4, 1I, 15n,16, 22,24,25,26,27n, 28,42,48,50, 56-59,60,66,83,89; 8.103n; 10.58; 11.32; 15.69,71,74; 16.44; 17.58-59,96, 118; 19.50 prepositional 16.68n prepositional complement function 9.111; 16.47 repeated 13.100 restrictive 7.22,35,36,73; 8.9411 semantic classification 7.40-44; seriesof 13.6811; 17.58, 114 stative7.40-41,446; 17.95
usage problems with 7 . 4 1 ~ 7l, 1% 16, 24n, 28n,38,75,84 see also: abstract. adverb, age, amplifier, colour, commendatory, comparative, complement, complementation. contingent,conversion, coordinate, denominal,deverbal, downtoner. emotive,emphasizer,health, intensifying,measure, noun, personal, postmodification, prepositionalphrase, provenance, suffix,
adjective [cant]
supplcmcntive clause, time, wll-
adjunct 2.15,60; 8.24,25-87, 121, 134-135,138,144,148-153;g.I. 16,33,45.47,63,65; 10.9,63-64; 12.49.62; 15.54,64; 16.16.20.24, 38n,4H; 17.51.53; 18.3 classes 8.26-38,143 clausal 13.15; 14,2111,3711; 15.2, 17, 20-23,33,47,48,49; 18.28;111.18 conjunction and 7.53 cooccurrence-h adverbial criteria for 7.49 fronting-t adverbial grammatical realization of 8.39-80 hierarchy 8.45,56,66,69; 111.8 negative 8.3511; 13.36 nonrestrictive 12.7011; 111.18 object-related 8.37-38, 76 obligatory/optional8.17,19, 22,26. 27-34,35,39,42,51,84,86; 10.9- 11; 15.22-23; 1 6 . 2 7 ~ 18.5-6.43 order 8.56.66, 12511 position of 7.58; 8.26,27,35, 36-38,44,47,55,63,65,68,71, 73, 84,85,87,150-152; 15.20,21n, 22. 25
predication8.17,19,22,26,27-90. 150; 9.33, 60; 10.9-10; 15.22-23, 50; 16.3,21,24,48; 18.21,24n, 43; 11.16; III.17n preposition and 7.55 semantic roles of 8.39-80.81, 134 sentence 8.26,36,38, 39,43,44,45, 48, 50, 51,58,66,71,76n, 78.86, 87,90,92, 134% 148,150,153; 14.39n; 15.22-23,25; 18.2411; subject-related 8.37-38,76, 12% syntactic features of 8.25,48,77,83 see adverbial,concessive, coordinate, direction,duration, frequency,goal, if-, manner, means, position, process, purpose, reason, relationship, respect, source, subjunct, time adverbial adjust (oneself) (to) 6.25; 16.28 admire 6.25; 8.107; 16.26 admissio~~ (by . . .own) 8.12711 admit4.67n; 15.54; 16.31, 39,60; (-redly) 8.127, 128, 137; 19.53% 56; ( - to) 16.28 adnominal+ relative clause , adriff 7.10
adv* adverb advantage (take -of) 16.8, 58
adverb [cant] syntactic functionsof 7.56-70; 8.24 without-ly 7.8; 8.106 sceulru: adjective, adverbial, adjunct. :~rnpliIier,ha/, cornpar;~tive. ct~n~plcrncnl, cunjuncl,coordinate, degree, direction,disjunct,duration, intensifying,manner, nonassertive, operator, place, preposition,
adverb2.31n, 34,35n,41,43,56; 3.27; 6.59; 7.46-74,82n,83,88; 8~assim;9.2,10,28; 10.15, 17.59; 12.26n.30; 14.14; 15.2; 16.3.72n. 77; 17.1 14; 11.6, 16; 111.4 a-7.10-11 affixation in 7.1,6,7,46-47,71; 1.21, 31,41,46n,69,71n classes 7.3-4,49 clause element function 7.48-49 closed-class 2.41 ;7.46; 8.13,23,41, 6 5 4 , 127, 148; 9.511 compound 7.21,46,69; 19.3711; I.57n conjunction and 7.51,52-53 criteria 7.46-47,51-55 derivational 7.1.6-9.46-47, 71 ; 8. Ion, 54,79,89,92, 150, 153; 111.4
prepositional, subjunct, superlative, time, NB- sufix, adverb phrase 2.12,24,25,26,28; 7.46, 48n;8.13, 19,24,78, 153; 10.9-10; 13.82; 15.2 as subject 2.25 elliptical 8.60 premodifying 17.94, l l l seealso: cwrdinator,postmodification adverbial centrallperipheral2.15; 8.150-152; 10.10 clause 3.461~62;4.45% 5311, 67; 7.53; 8.13,40,53,78, 106, 124, 127, 130, 132,150;9.55; 10.9, 10, 15, 16n,65; lI.18n; 12.61,67; 13.3, 50-51,82, 103; 14.4, 15,22,29,37n,39n; 15.2, 17-52,53,55,58-62, 75; 16.2411, 38n, 4911; 17.4.23-24,33,83-84; 18.3311; 19.60 compared to complement 2.18,60; 10.11 compared to object 8.27 cooccurrence 8.1.5.11-12,66,69,73, 101,149-152; 11.42 directive function 1.1.42 element2.12, 13,15, 16, 17,24,31,45; 4.5,20,22,23,36; 5.50; 6.32,34n; 7648-49; 8passinl; 9.1.58, 61; 10.1-49-10, 12, 13, 15, 26, 27, 29, 33,52,64; 11.15,31,44n,53; 12.49, 62.7011; 13.22,56n. 91 -92,94,97; 14.2, 14,36; 15.1-2, 4n, 8, 13, 40, 65.68; 16.5; 17.52,54n,58, 115n, 116, 122; 18.10, 11, 14; 18.4211, 49-50; 19.9,35-39,80; L60.63; 11.14, 16.21; 111.9, 17-18, 22 ellipsis 12.59 focuson 8.9811; 18.16, 27 frequency of 8.ln, 13, 1511, 23
gradable7.4.74.87; 10.66; 1.41 head 2.26,28; 7.46; 8.13, 153; 10.66 homomorphy with adjective 7.6- 10, 83 inflection 7.74,83; 8.4811 -1y-t adverb (derivational) medial 6.50 nongradable 8.85,89; 1.41 open-class 7.47; 8.13,23,54,93 participial 7.58n particle 7.61; 8.27,33,42n, 4711; 9.5; 10.12; 16.2-17 position of 3.27,40; 6.50; 7.10,27, 56-70,83,89-90; 8.87; 14.6 postmodifying 2.28; 6.20.42; 7.50.57, 60,67,69,85; 8.52, 6311, 103n; 9.5, 35; 10.6211; 15.69.71 ; 17.55 premodification by 2.45; 6.5011; 7.2-4, l l, 22,24,25, 26, 28, 42, 48, 50,56-65,68; 8.24,48n, 83,91, 98% 107,131,148; 10.11n,58,59; 15.69, 71, 74; 17.29.55,58, 100-101, 118; 19.50; 1.41 premodification of 7.27n, 48n,50,60, 6 6 8 9 ; 8.63n, 68,77, 83,91,98n, 102,106,107, 113,120,131; 10.59; 11.32; 15.69,71,74
fronting4.7;8.27,35-38,43,44,47, sequence 8.79, 150 simple 7.46
S
49.51,52,55,65,66, 70, 71, 7711, 78,81, 86,87,89-92,95,96,98, 101n, 103,112,114,120,121,124, 130,138n, 143n, 144,146, 147,
1870 Index adverbial [cont] 150--151; 10.16, 17. 26, 58-59,6411, 66; 13.30. 54- 55. 92; 14.0. 3')n; 15,22,25; 16.3, 3gn; 17.4, 84, 122; 18.19,24n, 33n,49-50; 19.13; 11.14: 111.17-18,20, 22 ft1nctions4.66n;6.54; 8.1.24 - 153; iwo: I . ~ I negative 3.4411; 6.5011; 10.58-59,66 object-related 2.19; 10.2, 10 obligatory 2.18; 8.22; 10.9-1 1,21; 15.511;1.54 optional2.13, 15, 16.21; 7.48; 8.22; 10.2,9,16,17; 12.44,62,64; 14.9; 16.45 order 8.15,22, 150-152 particle+adverb positionof 2.13;4.7;8.1, 11,14-23, 121,125.149,150-152; 10.9,17, 35,40; 13.38; 18.5, 11,42n,47;
scopeof 13.54-55 semantic roles 8.1,2-10,39-86,153; 10.9,13; 15.24-56 sentence2.15,55; 8.15, 13411 subject function 7.4811; 10.15,34,43n subject-related 2.19; 10.2, 10 syntactic function of 10.9; 15.17-23 textual roleof 8. l ; 19.53-56 usage problems 7.9,63n, 83: 8.21, 55n, 66, 69,79,98n, 99n, 106, 109n, 112,114,117,126,129n, 138n, seeolso: adjunct, adverb, agent, causative, cognate, complement, concessive. conditional,contingency, coordinate. coordination,degree, diminisher, direction,disjunct,distance, downtoner, duration, emphasizer. frequency, goal,
Indox 1671 aclvi,sc 16.59,62, 63; (-about) 16.57 - ( ~ e ~ l u s.94 ml~ (~[/i,ctl k26, 38 ;~lrcctcdrolc 10.19, 32; 14.5n: 16.14, 1'); 18.32, 51, 53 see 060: object, subject f~/~i.rtioi~otelj~ 8.91n CI//I~III 16.3l allirmntivc rcspunrc 1 1.4.- 13 affixation2.7, 37; 16.12; 17.1 18; 1.2-6, 14,15,20-42,52,58,76n, 77; 11.4 see UIJO:adjective,adverb,conversion,
agent adverbial 8.5,78,80,8] -83 ;tnimit (prop) ambiguity +comparison, coordindon, direction, -ing participle clause, postmodification, premodifichti~n, space, structural A ~ E +American English anlends 5.77 nmeriCan~ ~ g 1 ; s1,7-8,21-22.23-241 h 25,26,27,36,37,42 constructions 1.11,24; 2.21n; 3.127 13n,14n,15, 16,18,19,20,23,30n, 3211,3435, 39% 42, 43n,44, 45, 48' 59,61; 4,5n,20n,22n, 25n, 50,54n, 55,58,64; 5.16,25n, 44,47,49n. 66, 85, 108, I l l . 12m; 6.121~24n, 25n. 46n,56,66; 7.14% 21,56n, 57n, 66, 83; 8.31n.39.52.59; 61% 62.793 89, 911~97% 98,135,137,138~;9.3n9 4,8,10, 17,18n, 3436% 37,40,41, 44, 46n, 51n, 6611; 10.8, (On, 16.27, 36,48n,50,55n, 62% 6 7 . 6 8 ~ 8 3 ,7 , 34n,40; 12.21,25,26,28,49n, 6 4 4 65n; 13.18n, 98n,99; 14.12,23n324, 25,26,33,36; 15.10.22, 34n3 35n, 39, Mn, 46n,48,50,66n; 16.2,22, 30,32,41,52n, 59,83n; 17.47,60, 82n, 88.91, 108; 19.48,51,62
,
vocabulary 1.24; 5.7,33,45,46, 47, 66n, 75,76,77,90,108,109, 6,63n, 6411; 7.21% 38. 46n354,56n, 69;8.41,55, 100, 111, 112, 113, 120n;9.11,13n, 19n,20,21n322, 49,57n, 58; 10.3n,30.53,60; ,41n, 54; 14,36; 1 6 . 4 ~17.9111; ~; l9.36n,65; I.42,54,64,67; III.28n
anent 9.711
American English [cant] word-formation 5.105; 1.16%36n.41, 46n. 63,68,72n, 74,75,77 anlid(st)9.7, 21, 32 anrotlfi(st) (preposition) 9.7, 21, 32 16.2 a,~louttc(a greater of') 15.69; ( - 9 / ) .5.25;(- to) 16.28n; SCP o1.w: namher alnount--+mcasure,quantity
any [cant]
anew 19.3711 anger formulae 11.54 angry 16.71,78; (-about) 16.69; (-at) 9.63; 16.69; ( with) 16.69 animals (higher/lower) 5.87, 104, 109-110, 117,118;6.8 seealso: names (classified) animate+agent, gender, inanimate, noun, subject atmals 5.77 annex clause 18.28.48 announce 16.31, 50, 60; (-to) 16.57 annoy( ed) 16.71,78; ( - edaboutl with) 16.69; ( ing) 16.72, 83; ( - ingly) 8.127 annually 8.64 anotller 5.22; 6.13,54,58; 12.10 see also: orze answer+ response answerable to 7.39; 16.69 -ant 1.34 Antarctic(a) 5.68 ante- 1.27 antecedent 2.44; 6.15- 17, 19,22,23, 24n,26,31, 32-34,40,44; 10,3611, 4411.48-49; 12.8-70; 13.56,64, 14.22n; 15.8,55,57,61; 17.4, 5.9, 10, 13-32,63,66; 18.28, 30; 19.10,45,47n,77 see also: coordinate antelope 5.87 antenna(e/s) 5.92,94 anterior 7.85 anterior time+ time (anterior) anti9.7 anti- 1.25 anticipate 14.36; 16.31,35 anticipated identification 17.78 anticipatory meaning 4.35, 38,4411 anticipatory subject-tit antithesis 17.80 antitheticconjunct 8.136,137,141,146, 148; 15.43; 19.52,54n antonymy 2.38; 6.53; 10.66; 13.7811, 101;1.1,20,38 anxious 16.71,79 any (determiner) 2.54; 5.14,23,53; 6.45, 61 ; 9.58; 10.42,43n, 59-60,66; 15.14; 17.5 (intensifier) 7.5611.89 (pronoun)2.54; 6.12, 13,45,48, 52,59-61,62; 9.58; 10.42, 59-60; 12.10, 17; 15.9
pro-form use 12.10, 17 strcsscd/unstrcsscd 5.14n,39 ( the) 10.60 any- 2.54;6.45-47,52,59,60,61; 10.59; 15.9: ( bod~,)2.54;6.9, 45-47.61; 10.43,50,60; (-/tow) 8.137, 144, 145; ( - more) 9.39; (-one) 6.9, 45-47,61; 10.43.50,60; ( place) 10.60; ( tltiftg) 2.54; 6.45-47, 61 ; 10.60; 17.15;(- time) 10.60; (-1vay)8_137,144, 145;(- ways) 8.137; 10.60 ( - where)8.41; 9.58;
-
-
-
am~iific;lLion89;+amp1ifier amplificatory +tag
-
"*'lifier adjective7.32-34.45; 17.114 adverb 7.56, 87,89 cooccurrence of 8.107- 108 position '.lo9 syntaxof 8.110 subjunct8.25n, 33,104,10551~0~ 113; 11.21 anlplily7,85n anluse 6.25; (- d) 16.71 ;(-dot) 9.63; 16.69
definite) anacoluthon 17.63; 111.26
7-8 analysability (of words) 1.14 2 ~ ~ 2 : a i p l e 2 . 6 1 s.24,32; ; 10.11-16; 13.5211; 16.5, 13, 64-67 anaphora4.1 1, 13; 5.30,32; 6.15.19, 21,40,44; 8,54,78n, 87,145,147, 153; 12.6, 11,12,32; 13.9; 15.2, 19n, 6x11; 18.18; 19.44,46-49,
in apposition 17.65,71,73,80 usesof 13.22-27 (-a/1)15.46n;(-nor)13.18n; 18.24n;(- so)8.144, 146; 19.58; (-~~011/soforrh)l0.37n;13.104; (-with) 15.4611 seeo~so:~mrdination,coordinato~,~~, sentence (connectivity) '
1673
-
-
-
-
Apache 5.88
.
apart 7.66; 16.2; (-/rom)9.10,58; 15.4411 apex 5.96 aphaeresis l2.31,5ln phrasal 12.46n aphoristic sentence I I .43 apiece 13.61 apodosis 15.34n apologies 1 1.3,54 apostrophe 5.1 14; III.2,27 omission of 5.11811,125 +s5.81, 113 appa/16,26 apparent 16.72, 73; ( - ly) 8.127n appear4.29; 8.4211; 12.28; 14.36; 16.19,21,22,23,24n, 34,3811; 18.36 (it
- - -
S) 15.54; (it s 10 nte that) 16.60n; ( to) 3.40.49 appellation (apposition) 17.74,76 appellative 10.53 appended +clause, coordination appendix 5.96 apply (for) 16.28,56n; ( 16.17
-
to Nfor N)
apposition 2.5n,22; 6.28; 8.11 ;9,1n, 2, 60; 10.5, 11; 11.20n; 12.4,70n; 13.49n; 14.9,14,29; 17.44.65-93; 18.6; 111.6 attributive 17.74,81-84 coordinative 10.37,39,41; 13.66n; 17.80 defining vs. defined 17.68-69,80 discontinuous full 17.66 elliptical 18.29; 1.5211 explicit indicators-tapposition (marker)
1674 Index
Index 1675
apposition [contl full 14.9; 17.66,69,70,73,92 genitive of 5.1 16n indeterminacy in 17.72 marker 15.18; 17.65.73-87; 111.11% 13 multiple units in 17.71 nonrestrictive 5.42n.64; 6.20; 17.fixs 70,72,73,74-87; 111.19 partial 14.9; 17.66,69, 70, 73, 76-77, 79,80.82,85,92 premodification and 17.105 7 . ~ 5 17.68-69,70, ~; restrictive 82n,88-91,93 semantic scale ol' 17.74-87 strict 17.67.70.88-91 weak 17.67,70,92 seealso: and, appellation,appositive, designation, equivalence, exemplification,identification, inclusion,or, prepositional phrase, particularization,reformulation, say, substitution,titles appositive 17.65 clause 14.2211; 15.2,4,5,6,8, 10, 12, 57; 17.9.26-27,35-36,74; 18.39; 111.10 compound 5. 102; 1.65 conjunct 8.136,137,139, 141. 144 name 5.64n, 66; 10.52n,53; 111.29 noun phrase 5.42; 10.34; 13.56; 15.61, 62; 16.4711; 17.21,23n, 4 6 8 4 ; 18.40; 19.44 ofconstruction 5.1 16n, 117; 17.47-48, 73,93 predications 17.74 pronouns -+-self see also: apposition appreciate 8.107 approach (verb) 16.19
approximation 8.8; 13.71, 102 approximator subjunct 8.104,111-114,
-
apt 16.79; (be 10) 3.47 aquarium 5.95 -ar 7.37; I.2,36
article [cant]
archaism 1.28; 2.44; 3.411, 12.11, 16, 17, 18,22n,24n,37n, 48, 60,7711; 4.4% 7n, 53n,58n. 61n; 5.23% 58n, 1 0 , 103;6.12n, 18n,20,42,48n;7.15; 8.3n, 29,5011,601~64,85n,86,91n, 10311, 10511, 11 1,116n,130n: 9.7n. 1511;10.44n. 5811; 11.26. 39.41,44. 5511; 12.2711;14.1211.2311.2'); 15,31n,34n,48,49,57n,74n; 10.21, 52n.79: 17.12, 37,9111; 1823,2411;
25,26, 30,34,36-38,48,52,53,59, 63,67,72; 6.45,53, 54, 55, 67; 7.22, 3% 56n, 62.84; 8.10311; 9.1 l ; 12.16, 51,55; 13.7111; 15.7,41,73,74; 1 6 . 6 1 ; 17.47,82,96,99, 122; 18.4511;11.9 110 5.2,5X, 60, 65--611,70 SL2v'a/s0:urlicle (zero) plural 5.39
19.42; 1.13, 14 archives 5.77 are3.32; 10.44; 18.4911; 11.9; ( - n'f) 3.32 area(dimension) 5.8; 9.15, 17 Argi'rrtirlcl 5.68 urg~rohly8.127 argue 16.31,35; ( - ahouf) 9.60; 16.28, 35;(- or1)9.60; ( - with)9.53 -ariar~I.37n arise 3.16 arithmetical sums 10.37n arms (vs. w~eaporls)5.4.77 arourtd(adverb) 7.10-1 1,66,70; 8.41,48 (particle) 16.2, 12 (preposition) 9.7,22,26-27,29 (prepositional adverb) 9.66; 13.101 arrange 16.32, 35; (-/or) 16.28,38,41 arranging-verbs (semantic classification) arrears 5.77 arrit~al9.17n arriue4.27,45;9.L7n; 16.19; (-at) 16.14 art 3.411 arfully 8.127 article 5.1 1, 26-72 comparison and 7.84 conflated 5.60n. definite2.30n,41; 4.1 1, 13; 5.2, 10, 11,
stressed5.lln, 21.63; 13.7111; 18.12n; 11.9 unmarked 5.36 zero2.30n; 5.2, 13, 14,34,37n,39-51, 52,54,5%59,67,72; 6.21, SO; 7.2, 22,84; 9.49; 15.74; 16,22,46n; 17.2,50,78n, 82; 18.59n seealso: categorial,coordinate, noncount, artificial language +English artistic-names (classified) -ary 7.47; L39n as (adverb) 6.53 see also: as. . . 0s (conjunction) 6.4; 8.79, 103; 9.3, 4, 48; 14.12, 18, 20; 15.20,25,26, 39,46-47,50,55,59n; 16.47n; 18.24 (particle) 10.1211; 16.2 (preposition) 6.4; 9.3,4,7, 48; 15.46n, 46-47 (relative) 15.55 comparative 15.3911, SO; 19.52 concessive 15.39 manner 14.18 proportional 15.51 reason 15.20,46-47 similarity 15.50 temporal 15.20, 25, 26
-
13,14, 16-17,21,26-35,36,37n, 42-50, 52,55-57, 58, 59,62,63,64, 67n,68,69n, 70-72, 108, 125; 6.15, 20,30n,37n,40,42n, 45,50,53, 62, 64n; 7.24,84,86; 8.63n,79; 9.11, 40; 10.49n, 58; 12.8, 19n,51; 13.71n; 16.4611; 17.26,43,78n, 81 -82,88-91,99; 18.4511 ellipsis 1.34; 11.48.53; 12.35,51; 15.41; 17.107 followed by h 5.1 In generic reference 5.26,33n,38n9
.
,
vs. like 8.79; 15.50n ( and when) 13.8311; ( -jar) 6.27; 9.10, J7; 17.50; (-/iom)9.10; (- if) 14.12, 17-19.24; 15.50; 16,2411, 34n; (-01)9.10;(-. . .SO)13.42n; 14.13; 15.50-51;(- to)g.10,57; 16.61-62; 17.50 a s . . .as6.27; 7.74,86; 14.12-13; 15.39n.71,75; 17.122; 18.24 see a/so:br, good. long, many, ofren, soon,
ashore 8.41; 19.34
aside8.41; 16.2; (-/iom)9.10,58 ask9.2; 12.65; 16.32,35,38,55,57,59, 60-63; ( - about) 16.35; (be PJ h r ) 16.14; ( - for)9.2; 16.15,28, 41;(-of)16.57,60 asleep 7.10- 1 1 IIspccl 3.21. 31. 32.40.44, 47.49. 56; 4.1.4. 17 40,41,66,67;7,5Un; 8.64; 13.9811; 14.6,27n; 15.26,54, 5 8 ~ 6 275; , 16.3,40,42,53,79;
-
17.28-29.31.5411. 101; 18.16; 19.7 continuous-tprogressive durative-progressive mi~rkcd19.79 mixed 4.30 narrative structure and 19.39-43 simple 4.17 tenscand4.17-20,36; 8.61" seealso: duration, nonperfective, nonprogressive, perfective,potentiality, Progressive,verbs (semantic classification) aspectual meaning 8.29; I.35n aspire to l 6.38 assent to 16.38 assert 16.31 assertion 2.4611; 8.100; 1 1.3, 22-23,53; 15.37; 19.23n assertive forms2.53-55; 3.25,43n; 5.14.23; 6.45,59; 8.63n. 97; 10,59n,60, 6In, 62,63; 11.6, 12, 13,28; 15.35; 16.39,73; 17.5 pronoun 6.13,45-46,48,52-58,60; 7.62n territory 6.52, 61 seealso: determiner, nonassertive asseverative 7.5611; 8.100; 1.16 assimilation I.I7,21n; 11.10 assist 16.50 assume 14.22, 36; 15.54; 16.31,50 aS~lr"lirtg(lhat)14.12, 14; 15.34, 3Sn, 38n ass~mpriort(on the that) 15.34n assumption (in tag questions) 11.8 seealso: verbs (semanticclassification) assure 16.59; ( dly) 8.127, 128n; (mast dly) 8.13 1 asterisk convention 1.42 astern 8.41
-
--
lndex 1677
1676 lndex asyndetic coordination 7.89; 10.37: 11.46; 13.1, 3, 1 1 , 17. 18.36.42n. 58.68.79. 100,102; 15.49; 17.71.86; 19.57; 111.6n,8. 12 parataxis 19.511 tcxttr;ll connection 19.5 18 01 (pi~rticlc) 16.2 (preposition)3.76; 5.44,46: 7.70; 8.85: 9.7, 15-17,34,40,41,46,51, 62.63; 16.69; 17.19 ,l!? 3, l0 -111rI.I , 34, 35,39n, 42 -rrric 1.39 -1rriun 1.1, 2, 35,42 -atice 1.40 atmospheric conditions6.17; 10.26 atomic 7.37 atop 9.7 -atorittm 1.32n attachment +subject attain (to19.31 attempt (verb) 16.38 atrend to 16.28 attention (pay to) 16.8, 58 attitude 8.1 l 1, 122, 127; 15.54 variety l.19,31-33.36, 37-42 ,, UISO: prefix,variation attitudinal disjunct+content disjunct see verbs classification)
-
attitudinal past-tpast attorney general 5.102 attraction* proximity attribute2.43; 4.25; 7.28; 9.55; 10.18, 20,21,26,33; 15.39; 16.47-82; genitiveof 5.1 16; 10.2011 ulso: current, result
auxilialry [contl 31,47,9~,109n,117; 10.67-68; 11.8- 11,24,42n; 12.10.62.64; 13.78; 15.61; 10.52; lX.16. 43 contracted 1.31; 3.4% 23,45; 4.42, 57; 14,2311; 11.9: 111.27 critcri;~for 3.22--30.40 c l u l l l m y 2.41).51 ; 3.21. 30. 37: 10.55: 11.5.8; 12.21 23. 26. 40. 60 (12; 18.16 cllipsis 1 I .40,47; 12.47-50,52,5911; 13.53 cllll,ty i~~rxili;try (I~LIIIII~IY) m;trginal-> modal quasi- 13.98 semi- 3,ln, 29,40,46,47-48,49,50,
.
57; 4.41,47,66,68; 8.30% 97; 12.48n. 64; 14.26; 16.51n, 79; 18.4511 sequence 3.47; 8.20; 12.22 substitute+ auxiliary (dummy) syntactic function of 3.21,22,24-28 see UII, borh, euclt, future, mod'dl, negative,operator, passive, subject avail ( - able) 15.25; 16.81; ( o~~e.se!f(oJ'))6.25 7.10, 39; ( fromllo) 7.39; avoid 16.39,40
-
-
a u o l ~ e d ~ ~ ~ . ~ ~ ~ awake (adjective) 7'10-11 awake(n)(ed (verb) 3.16 aware7.10-11;9.2; 16.71,73; (-of) 9.2 a,vuy (adverb) 7.10-1 1,68; 8.41 (particle) 16.2, 12 (prepositional adverb) 9.66 see u/so:/rom
W
authorial we-ttve authorize 16.50 authorship 9.50 back (adverb) 7.46.67; 8.41 auxiliary 2.27,28,29,48-49; 3.1, 21-30, 31-33,36-37,45,47,48, 52,54-56,64; 4.3.66; 7.16;
back-formation 1.511,I In, 12 backshifting 3.59; 4.16, 2411,6011; 8.75; 11.46~1;14.23.28,29n, 3/,33--35; 15.35; 19.39,43 haak.stage 7.68 backward +span hrrrtc~rht~~r 5.95 horl7.'Jn. 75. 77. X2.X.7; 9.2: ( 1100.2: ( - h / - rl~~.vt)7.83; ( - Iy)7.9n, 83; 8.105, 107, 108 vs. ill 7.83 s
bound morpheme 1.211 boundary+tone unit houtt~len3.18 bo1ve1.r5.77 boy (vocative) 10.53 hruce 5.90 braces 5.76 braces 2.6; II1.20n bracketing 2.3; 13.16; 111.3, 16, 20 conventions in this book 3.75: 6.34; 7.50 see also: braces, parentheses, square brackets brains 5.77 branching (left-/right-)14.38-39; 17.44 brand (amplifier)7.56n brand name+ names (classified) BrE+ British English break (noun)5.44 (verb)3.16;1.12; (- dow11) 16.3; (-even) 16.17;(- inon) 16.29; ( - o f f ) 16.26n, 39; ( - u p ) 16.12 break-tanacoluthon, tone unit (boundary)
-body (pronoun)5.12; 6.45-47; 7.21,69; 17.57 see a/so: olly-,every-,some-
breatha/yzer 1.76 breeches 5.76 . ... .. . .
L,.. , l : . . . : V l U L a IdUJCiCLIVC)
L A , "
,m
I.lJ,
0-
OL
(noun)7.13 Black English 1.24 blame 16.56; (-for) 10.12n; 16.8,56,57; (-011) 10.1211; 16.56, 57 blazes, the8.101; 18.5911 bleedlbled 3.18 blending3.42n.76: 8.81; 11.13; 15.22; 17.6311;1.9n.15n. 73, 76 see ~rso:semantlc -.. Olt?W3.Ib blink (verb)4.27 blocklanguage 10.511; 11.45-47; 12.52; "10.wn; iIi.LYn block style 111.14 , . .. . . . OlObV 3.16; (- nJ 3.16; (-down) 16.2611; (-over) 16.19n; (- up) 16.3.4 bluntly , S ,, 8.124
..
." .. ...
.. -
. >
, \ . X - .
13.60n,70n (prepositional adverb) 9.66 (-...artd)9.39;(-youondI)1.17; 6.5 - . -. . . beware 3.54% 77n; 16.35; ( oJ J 16.33 beyond (adverb) 8.41 (preposition)9.7,27,32,58 (prepositional adverb) 9.66 bi- 1.28 biannrralI.28n; (- ly) 8.64 bias (verb)3.8 bias+masculine, sex
oorr (vero)4 . I ;~( bold . - face .- 111.30 .. ..
(prepositional adverb) 9.66 pro-form use 19.47 bend3.13 bended (adjective)3.13 bends, the 5.49n beneath (adverb) 7.70; 8.41
bid(den) 3.17; 16.52n biennialI.28n; (- ly) 8.64 big 7.34n,36,82,88 bilingualism 1.311 bi1lio116.63n , binac 1.75
oore (Verb) 3.16 bored 16.78; (-with) 16.69 born 3.16; (be -) 3.68 borne 3.16
beneficiary 10.19n; 16.56 benefit (verb)3.811; 10.23; (-fion1) 10.23
binomials 13.86; 19.6811 bio- 1.66 bionic 1.76
beset 3 17 besrde (part~cle)16.2 (preposltlon)9.7,20
10 6 2 , l l Z l , (agood -) 1 8Y, ( - o f ) 5 7.7 64,(one - ) 8 114 brt (= b ~ n a r ydlglt) 1 76
.
i
-
bizarrely 8.13 1 ..-,.l
--
N
sojf) 16.43
50.61; ..12.10, . .17; .. 17.24 - .
Oougtlt 3 15
.
61% 63n,86,88,91n, 100, 10711,
1680 Index
British English [contl 30,40; 12.21-23,25,26,65n; 13,1Xn,9811; 14.12. 18, 1'1, 22, 23-27, 33; 15.IOn. 25.29. 39,43. 44n,48,57; 16.2,22, 30,32,41,50, 52,6911; 17.11.60,82n,99, 108,112; 18.26n.38n, 51,59; 10.48.51, 63; 1.41 pronunci;~lion1.27; 2.42; 3.(111. 1311, 16; 5.83n; 6.6411; 7.47; 18.811, 17; 1.31,39n, 56, 63n,64; 11.l, 5 6 7 , 15n.21 spelling/punctuation 1.23,25; 3.8, 13n; 5.8; 6.63n,64n,66,68; 9.15n; 12.51n; 17.101; 1.17, 24,42.56,59; 111.4,8, Ion, 11, 14, 19,21,27,28, 30 vocabulary 1.24; 5.7, 33,45,46,66n, 75,76,77,90,9],103, 125; 6.6311; 7.8,9, 38,63,77; 8.41,59n, 64, 100-102, 105n,11 I , I 12,12On, 127, 145;9.7, 19n,21n,22,49; 10.30,53; 1 1.34n,54; 16.9, 12,23,45n; 17.9111; 18.3611; 19.65; 1.7, 10, 12, 33n, 54,63 word-formation I.23n,46n,48,49,5I3 62,74,75,76n, 77 Bririsher 5.57n Briron 5.57n broadcast (verb) 3.17 broadcasting 1.28; 5.11n; 9.9n; 11.50; 18,1411,2611; 19.34; 1.12 broadly 8.124 broke (adjective) 3.16 broke(n)(verb) 3.16; 1.12 brotherlbrerhren5.85
Index 1681 hu,sr(c.d)3.17;1.12 busy 16.83; ( - lvirk) 16.69 I ~ t 9.411: r 11.9 (co11ji111clio11)4.5.111; 0.5; X51444146; 9.5811; 10.66n; 11.44; 12.68; 13passim; 14.2; 15.43,44; 19.58, 59n,65; 111.7. 12 ( s ~ ~ l > , j ~ ~ ~l il ,c 11611; t ) X , l 10.60; l L41 (prclx)"tio11)0.5.27;9.7, 5 8 ; 15.44 end-placed adverb 1.26; 8.14411; 13.7n noun phrase coordinator 13.57 use of 13.32 (-al,so)8.120: 10.4ln;(-er.. .) 19.59n;(- ji1r)6.27;9.10,59; (-nor) 13.1811; 18.2411;( - rhtir) 9.3n; 14.12; 15.44 see also: coordinator,doebr, evetl,tlor. sentence (connectivity) buy 3.15;(-/ionl) 18.31n;(- N c h e a ~ ) 16.45 by (adverb) 8.41 (particle) 16.2 (preposition) 3.65,75; 5.45,46; 7.70; 8.59,80;9.3,7,9,20,34, 37,39,49, 50.51,63; 15.2911; 17.43 (prepositional adverb) 9.66 -name 5.64n, 69 -phrase2.21; 3.65,71,75,76; 7.16; 9.39,50; 10.6, 1311; 16.411; 17.103; 1.40
camp (noun) 5.44 (verb) 9.37 eantpri.~5.44 ClltJ 3.411, 2 1, 39. 40.47, 72; 4.30, 49, 50, 51,52,53,54,57n960,61,63; 6.61; 8.103, 112, 116n; 11.511, 13,2811; 13.31; 14.22. 26; 15.48; (- nor) 9 7 : 3 . 4 1 ;( ' 3 ; 10.67; I I.Xn Canadian English l .23, 25 See also: regional English canals-names (classified) cancel 3.8 candelahra(,s)5.9511 ccintklrhrrott 5.95 candidly 8.124 canonical I. 16n cap ( ping it all) 15.18; (to if (all)) 8.137; 15.18 capableof4.52; 16.69,83 capital-tletter
-
captive, holdlkeep 16.46n cardinal numbers +numeral care(verb) 10.61n; 16.35; (- about) 16.35 ;(could
burn3.13; 16.21; (- do~vn)16.26n;
less)
-
(-Nof)9.11;(-1heby(e))8.137
see also: agent
careless 16.76 caret 111.30 Caribbean English 1.27 carry 10.24; 16.26 case(in -) 8.86; 9.66; 14.12; 15.34, 35n, 46-47,48; (inany -)8.137; (in-of)9.11, 12n; 15.3411, 35; (in -(that)) 15.38n; (in that -) 8.137; 15.32 case (markedlunmarked) 5.112; 6.5 seealso: accusative,common, dative, genitive, nominative, noun, oblique, participant, pronoun (objective, subjective)
C
calf(vs. veal) 5.4 call 16.26,44,46; (-for) 16.12, 14-28, 41;(- of) 16.4; (-on) 16.6, 13, 14,
cast (verb) 3.17 casual+ informal catalog(ue) (verb) 3.8 cata~hora4.11.13;5.31,32,34n, 58,64; 6.15,l7,19-21,28n,40,42n, 44; 8.7811; 10.2611; 12.6, 11,12, 1911; 13.9; 17.81; 19.46-48 see also: coreference.ellipsis,whar
16,28; (-up) 16.12, 16; (- upott) calling (role) 10.52; 11.17n see also: alarm calque 1.511 came3.19; (-st) 3.411
-
l',62n; (-for) 8.107; 16.5.28. 38, 41; (take -) 14.22; (take of) 16.7.58 careful 16.73,76; (- abour) 16.73; (be -) 14.22 careful- formal
cables 11.47
builr 3.13 bureau 5.99 bureaucratic language 1.28
-
i
3
! ,' ,t : f
catch (verb) 3.15; 4.27; 16.48,53; (-at) 9.46; (- on) 16.3, 1911.;(-.right ~ f ) lh.7.5X:(- I I ~ I O I I )10.29;(- up II,///I)16.29 categorial (zero article) 5.40 catenative 3. l n, 29,40,45n. 49,57; 4.66; 15.25.62; 16.38n.39n. 40; 18.46n ro,l/,5,7~ crirrxhf 3. 15 causative adverbial 8.7; 10.21; I 1,2411; 15.45-47; 17.4, 18-19.34.53, 84; 18.5111 mc;tning3.35, 76n; 7.2011; 8.9; 9.4gn; 10.4; 15.29,60; 16.78; 19.8; 1.42, 54,68 preposition 9.7, 14,43,44, 56 subordinator 8.145 see also:/or, verbs (semantic classification) cause (verb) 16.50 'cause 12.51n; 15.46-47; 111.27 causeleffect relationship 15.45-47 cause-purpose spectrum 9.43,44-47 causer, external 10.21-22.33 cease 16.38,39,40 cent 6.69 central-tadjective, adverbial,clause, coordinator, determiner, modal, passive, premodification. preposition, pronoun, verb 'ce~r( = except) 12.5111 terrain (emphasizer) 7.33.34, 35.43 (restrictive) 7.35 complementation of 16.71,72,73, 79 (be fo)4.66; (be rhat) 18.36; (for -) 8.100, 102; (make -) 16.45; (make that) 16.1711; (-of) 16.69 certah~l.v(disjunct)8.127, 128, 130, 133n, 145n; 19.5311 (response) 8.13011; l 1.4n (subjunct) 8.100, 102; 18.56n certfi 16.31, 44.46; (-as) 16.47 -ch nationality noun ending 5.56; 7.25 -cl1 verb base ending 3.9 chain (discourse strategy) 19.18,20,22, 56 chain relationships-tchoice relationships challenge (verb) 16.63 chamois 5.99 chance (verb) 16.34,38n (noun) 17.36; (byany -) 8.127 changeberb) 16.19; (- into) 16.22n
-
-
-
lndex 1683
1682 Index
change-+ English, phonological characterization 6.17% 34% 39; 10.8, 20, 21; 15.11,39; 17.11 characterize as 16.47 cjl~rjie16.57, 59; ( - ~ 0 9 . 4 6(bl-) ; 9.66; (it1 oj)9.l l ; ( - lvif/l)16.57 chassis 5.99 chat 9.60 chatter away 16.3, 12 cheat ( N l of 16.8 ,-heck (verb) 16.31.35; (-(up)on) 35 check (graphic) 111.30n checking-ttag cherub(im/s)5.101 chew at 9.46 chid(den) 3.16 ch;ef(adjective) 7.35; (- ly) 8.116; 17.73.87 chide(d) 3.16 child(ren) 5.85, 113 chime in 16.31n Chinaman 5.57 Chinese 5.57 choice vs. chain relationships 2.5-6, 12;
-
clause 2.3-4,7, 11,13-24,48n. 55; 3.64; 6.3, 16,24,38n, 44; 7.20, 48-49;8,134-135; 10.1-4; 11.32, 38,45-46,54,93; 12.13; 14.5,29; 15.57; 18.10, 11; 19.7,28; 11.15; 111.20 appended 11.19; 12.70; 13.2. iOn.X4, 94; 15.23 central vs. peripheral elements 2.13, 14-15, 17,27,60; 7.48-49; 8.36, 38,45; 12.44; 13.54; 15.18,20-21, 23; 11.16; 111.9 dependent +subordinate clause discourse reference 19.46-48 element 2.12-24,25,47; 3.65; 7.22, 48-49,50,53n; 8.1.88.92, 12l. 134; 10.1-33,51,52; 11.15,24,38, 54; 13.52,84; 14.1; 15.39,65,75; 16.66; 17.9-10,51-52,115n, 116; 8.4-6,9, 11,20; 111.9 elliptical 3.26,42n; 7.29; 8.60; 10.37; 12.28,59-65,68,70; 13.10% 32, 34-35.83-84,94-95; 14.2% 19, 41; 15,66n,72; 16.80; 17.17; 18.24; 111.9 independent vs. dependent 10.1; main vs. subordinate 14.2-4; 18.29 matrix7.52; 8.147; 12.69; 14.4; order4.24; 7.52; 8.17.22; 13.6-9, 18, 22-23; 14.13,37-41; 15.4n312, 20-23,25,28n, 29.32, 37,41. 44,47,49,50,53-62,74; 17.4.84; 18.20-25,321~59 position of elements 2.12-15, 17,457 50,55, 57; 3.37n; 6.32,38; 9.48; 10.17; 11.15,34,40; 15.42,51; 16.4, 44,,, 55,56n; 17.115n. 116; 8.9,13, 20-25,32n, 37-40; 111.8 pro- +pro-forms semantic role of 10.18-33; 18.10 sequence-+ clause (order) substitute-tpro-forms superordinate vs. subordinate 2.9; 10.1; 13.10n; 14.3 syntactic function of elements 10.5-17; 15.65; 16.66 types2.16-24, 32; 10.1-4, 17, 33; 14.7.9; 15.25,34,39,46-47; 439
circumstance clause 15.45-47,71 meaning 15.29,45,60 see also: that citation form 6.16 citations 17.90 ,ities-+names (classified) (verb) 12.2811: 15.54; 16.31, 38 claim editing 17.80 clatnourfor (verb) 16.38341 clarification 8.145; 12.4; 13.39, 57; 15.67; 17.17,63-64, 121;
class as 16.47 (adjective) 7.13; 1.3% vs. classical 1.3911 classic (noun) 7.13 classical 1.34; 11.4
clause [cont] 1.60-65 see also: abbreviated, absolute,adjective, ndjunct, adverb, adverbial,annex, appositive,circumstance, comment,
l
close [cont] (amplifier) 7.33 (prepositional adverb) 9.66 (- ly)7.8; ( - 10)7.70; 9.5, 10,20; 16.69; 19.34 ~~~~~lr~llive.cump:~rison.complemcnt. cll,,u, 16,19,26 Complcmcnlation,compound, closed class 2.34,39,40,41,42; 5.10, 12; concessive, conditionel,contingent, contrast, coordinate,copular, 6.1, 13,63;7.46;8.13,41n; 11.3, 45; 12.52; 17.97; 18.5,12n, 14,1711; declarative,disjunct,-ed participle, 19.24n, 33-35; 1.28, 52,58; embedding, exception, exclamatory, extraposition,final.finite,IF, 11.9-10; 111.29n imperative, indicative, infinitive,-ing, see also: adverb, premodification, initial, interrogative,intransitive, quantifier kernel, manner, medial, negative, closed condition+condition IIominal, nonfinite, nonrestrictive,nor, (hypothetical) object, parenthetic, participle, passive, closed system +closed class phrase, place, positive, clothes 5.77 postmodification, preference, clothing (vs. garment) 5.4 ~ r e ~ o ~ i pro-forms, t i ~ n , proportional, cloce(n) 3.15 Purpose, reason, relative, reported, c~o~~leafi/clouerleac'es 5.83n reporting, restrictive,result, resumptive, reversal, rhetorical,sentence, similarity, dubs 5.77 sifrce-,subject,subjunct, subordinate, flung 3.18 summative, supplementive, tag, c10 1.75 than-, that-, rite-, time, transitive, CO- 1.6, 17,24 verbless, wbcoalescence I.12n; 11.10 clean (adjective) 7.8, 82; 16.45 coastline+ names (classified) (adverb) 7.8; ( - ly) 7.8 coat-ofinluil5.102 (verb) 16.26 C.O.D. 1.75 clear (adjective) 16.72,73 cod 5.87 (emphasizer) 7.33,34,73 code 3.26 (make N -) 16.45 cadex 5.96 clearly (conjunct) 8.127, 128, 14511 codification+ rules (intensifier) 7.34 coercive+ verbs (semantic classification) (subjunct) 8.100 cleave(d) 3.15 cleft 3.1 5 object 8.7; 10.29,30,33 cleft sentence 2.59; 6.5, 17; 8.120; subject l0.29n 10.4411; 13.42n; 17.15; l8.12n. 21, cognition+verbs (semantic 25-30, 31; 19.48n; 11.15 classification) focus of 8.25,68,83,92, 102, 110, 113, cognomen 5.64n 120,121,134,135; 15.10n,20; coherence 19.2-3,28 16.36, 66 cohesion 19.2, 69-84 pseudo- 4.4; 7.2811; 10.4611; 14.6, 29; scaleof 3.69;9.12; 13.52; 16.3-4,s 15.8n,9, Ion, 15.66; 16.36,66; see also: discourse (connectivity) 18.25,29-30,31; 19.61 coinage 3.4; 1.2n,3.7,9, 15, 16 see also: that, shot, 113Iillo1,~vhere,H ~ O why , COi,lCjd;tlg19.36 clf~er7.36;(- at) 16.69; (- ly) 8.127 col- 1.6, 17,24n clich68.120; 15.53; 18.26n; 19.2411 cold 5.49n climb9.31; 10.27; (- up)9.31 collective gender 5.104, 108 clippers 5.76 noun 1.24;5.91n, 108, 111, 117, 118; clipping 12.31,51n; 1.12.73, 74; 111.27 6.16; 10.35.36.48n. 50; 17,10, 39, close (adjective) 7.8 109 , (adverb) 7.8 see also :we
Index 1685
1684 Index collc~gc5.44 collirle 16.19 collocation+ semantic (restrictions) colloquial 1.33; -t informal colon 6.66; 14.29; 17.77; I11.3,6, 10-11, 13, 16,21,28n colour (verb) (- N blue) 16.45 colour adjectives 7.45,46n; 13.68; 17.114 cant- 1.6, 17, 24n combinatory coordination 13.35,46, 59-60,64-75,79 ,sot uiso: apposition, coordination combining form 1.3, 15n, 17,23n, 28-29,32,57, 59,66,70 see also: compound come 3, 19; 4,45; 8,28,30, 45,47; 14.24n; 16.2n,19,21,23n, 24; ( - about) 16.34; (- across) 16.6, 53; ( - and . . .)8.30; 13.98;1.18n; ( - by) 16.6, 12; (- dolvn with) 16.29; ( - i~tto) 16.15;(-of) 16.1911;(-out) 16.19n; (- to)3.49; 16.19n; (-upon) 16.53 comfortable with 16.69 comfortably 8.103n ' conlfy I.74n comic(o0 1.3911 comitative 9.52; 10.32n comma 1.23; 2.15;6.63n,67n; 8.17.36144; 10.65; 13.11,16n, 52n; 14.29, 40; 15.49,54,74; 17.6,22,68,72+ 114; 18.20; 19.9,29; 11.20; 111.29 39 6-9, 10, 11, 12, 13, 16, 17,202 21, 22.30 correlative III.16,17-19,22 inverted+ quotation mark serial 111.6, 8,9 . see also: punctuation commai~d(verb) 16.32,59,63 command 4.42n; 8.50,91; 11.2% 3.29, 42,53; 18.19,57; 111.2311 seealso: directive, imperative commander-in-chiefs.102 commerlce 16.38,39 commendatory adjective 13.99 comment (verb) 16.31; (- on) 16.28 comment clause7,28; 8.133; 11.1In, 12; 12.2811, 3on, 6sn; 14.20,29, 36n; 15.53-56; 18.2011; 19.65 function as 11.44; 13.27; III.2On '
coniment [contl disjunct, "ttbjuacl.-+ rncl;llin~ui~lic comment see a1.w~:topic com'nen'dries 4'7' l''5o committed 4.51,66 cotnpron 7.8111; (iit -) 9.66; (bl with) 9.1 l ;(- ly) 8.65, 77 common cnsc5.112; 6.2; 15.12 core I./Y.31,40,42; 1.6 gender 5.104, 107; 6.9; 17.43n sce olro: noun Co~l~~itotls, tile 5.77 coilInlunicotc(about) 9.60; ( - 011)9.60; ( - to) 16.57 (classified)' verbs (semantic classification) 5'77 con'municative dynamism 8.28; 13.2211; 18.3, 8,9, 10, 12, 13,23,32,3611,38,43; 19.12 function 1.3; 2.46.57-59; 17.45, 109; 18.1 see also: genitive commutability 2.5,6 comp->comparative comparative absolute7.85; 17.97 adjective 7.1,2-4, 7, 11,23,42, 74-82,84-86,87; 9.62; 10.58,62; 1 2 . 2 7 , ~13.71,100; ~; 14.13n; 15.63; 16.23; 17.114, 122; 19.52 adverb7.83-86,87; 8.55; 13.100; 14,1611; 15.52n,63; 19.52 clause4,13n,53n;7.53,86; 8.48, 1 0 9 ~9.4; ; i0.61; 11.4311; 12.69;
-
-
14.20; 15.2,49,50n,63-75; 16,4711; 17.122; 18.24,41,42; 19.52 construction 3.4511; 4.28; 6.4.59; 7.56n, 85; 8.21 ;9.4; 12.35; 1 4 . 1 6 ~ 15.5111; 16.13, 17; 17.121 correlative 14.13 element 11.44; 15.63-75; 18.41 frequency of 7.82n implicit 7.85 item 15.64 premodification of 7.89 preposition9.5,20 quantifier5.24; 6.53; 10.66 syntactic function of 15.75 see also: again, as, coordinate,more, other
COJJlPRJ'e IV~J/J 16.57; (- d with) I 5.6gn ""Jl'~Jr/~~l)'J(I?v (IV(JY U/,/')-) 8.137; (h! -) 8.137i9.66; (In wirlt)9.11, 12 comparison 7.74-86; 8.78.89, l 10; 9.4; 11.44; 12.20,25n; 13.100, 103; 15.63-75; 18.23; 19.52 ambiguity in 15.67 basisof 7.82n.85,86; 9.7,62; 15.63; 19.52; 1.70 clz~useof 15.22, 50 ellipsis in 12,43,44,61,65n, 69; 15.64n. 66-67; 19.52 focus of 8.48n, 83, 102, 106, 113, 120 inflectional 7.1.2-4, 74-84, 85n,86, 89,90; 9.5,20; 10.58; 15.64; 19.52 irregular 7.75-78 multipletpartial contrasts 1 5.68 periphrastic 7.2,74-75,77,81-82, 83,86,89,90; 10.58; 15.64; 19.52 standard of 15.63- 75 seealso: absolute, article, clause, equivalence, excess, good, ill, /east, less, l/llle, maximizer, nonequivalence, ~ l d , snlall, sufficiency,verbs (semantic classification),I V ~ N compass(es) 5.7611 compass points 8.4111 contpatible (~vitk)16.69 compatibility 19.17,55-56.72 compel 16.50 compensation+structural compere with Nfor 16.17 compl~bt16.31,60; (-about) 16.28 complement adjective phrase as 2.24; 3.74; 7.9,29, 30; 8.94; 17.15; 18.27 adverbial as 10.11; I 6.20,24 clauseas 3.46n; 8.61n, 120; 9.58n; 15.1,4-15,47; 18.29, 30 compared to adverbial 2.18,60 element 2.13, 15, 17, 18,22,24,45 ; 3,6677; 5.37.42; 6.5,24,29,32; 7'23; 9'3,45,47; 10.1-5, 8, 1°, 18; 11.31; 12.20; 13.60; 14.9; 15.1-2, 64; 17.47; L65; 111.9 ellipsis9.65; 10.8n; 12.59; 16.4n; 17.55 identificatory 10.8,20,21,26,46n
.
object 2.17, 19; 7.2,20,22,33; 10.2-5,8, 10, 11, 18,20, 33; 11.15; 13.91; 15.1,4,8,15,61,62,65; 16.43-54,68; 18.21,27 positionof 10.8,20; 15.71,74; 18.5
Complcmcnl [cont] prcposi[iot,;~l2.26, 28; 5.1, 35; 6,3,23, 24,26,29,32,38,39; 7.14,23, 26n, 55, 68; 9passim; 10.6,48,66; 1 1.14, ISn, 18,31; 13.56,57n,81,93n; 15.1-8, 12, 18,59,64n, 65; 16.4n, 5, 14; 17.35,52,55; 18.21,36; 19.34; 1.70 prepositional phrase as 2.25; 10.10, 11 suhjcct2.16, 17, 19;6.3.4.23, 35;7.2, 14,20,22;8.28; 10.2-5,6,8, 10, 11, 16, 18, 20, 21,26,33, 3911; 1 I .IS, 38, 42n; 12.48-49,59; 13.56.92; 14.29; 15.1. 4- 15. 22. 39.47, 56. 62, 65, 71; 16.20-22,4611.68; 17.65,83; 18.21,29,30, 4511; 1.53 substitute+ pro-forms verb 10.14 vs. verbless clause 10.16 see also: adjective,adverb, adverbial, attribute, characterization, concord, coordinate, nominal clause, noun phrase, preposition, prepositional phrase. pro-forms, relative pronoun, reversal, subject complementation 2.16- 19,28,32; 8.78; 16.18-83; 17.2, 121-122; 18.41 by clause 3.7611; 4.29; 8.21; 12.64-65; 17.122 modification and 2.33,60 of adjective 2.32; 3.47n; 7.21,22,24, 25,27n, 39,50; 8.31,85; 9.1, 60-63; 11.18; 15.1-12,59; 16.44, 68-83; 17.56,58, 122; 18.42 of noun 16.84-85 verb 2.21, 32; 3.5;; 4.27,67n; 6.25% 7.53; 8.26,27.42n, 49,51, 75n;9.1,60-63; 10.2,4, 10, 11, 1% 23, 16; 12.34; 14.20,29; 15.18, 22,54n,59,61,62,64; 16.1-67; 17.33 zero 16.24 See also: cerlaill, complex transitive, copular, ditransitive, intransitive, modification,monotransitive, transitive comp/ete(adjective) 7.33; 8,106; (-l,,) 8.105- 109 completion+ verbs (semantic classification) completion of actlevent 2.15, 32; 4.25, 38-39; 9.17; 16.12; 17,5411; I.3Sn complex 2.4n; +coordination, determiner, finite phrase, noun phrase, preposition, pro-forms, sentence, subordinator, verb phrase, word
/
-
-_________-.?L---'
Index
1887
1686 Index
complex " d h ev e r b / ~ ~ n s t ~ c t i o n 2,16,18,22;3,51;6,25n;8,34n,37, 49, 76; 10.2-4, 8; 11.24n; l5.I0I1; 16.17,18,20,36,39n343-548553 64-67,84; 1.54 complementation,mOnotransitive collll,lcxi(y y r ; ~ m ~ ~ ~ i ~ l i c : ~ l colll17/iar~ce (in ~virh)9.1 1 composite-tname, pro-forms co~npound2.4n as clause clemcnts 1.343 61-65 partial 1.5911 p l ~ r ;of ~ l1.3111
.-
merning89,97n_12711; l3.l4; 14.14' 15.29,43.54n, 6 0 ; 19.59 prcposilion ').7. 56 ,,bordinator 8.145; 13.20 ,,eolso: os, conditi~nal-concessive. i/. illar, rli,,r,Rh, n 3 ~ , na~liilr, ~. n,llil.~r ,,,,l r . ~ l t , ~ , . ~ o , ~ ~ ; ( ~ o 143; -)8~~37~ 15.18 collc/r,sj~~rl, in 8.137 ; 19.56 c o n c ~ u s ~ v c - + v(semantic ~rb~ cl;~ssilication) concord gender6.24; 10.6-8,48-50; 16.39; 17.11 12, 13 gmmn~atical10.35-36,40-41.45. 48;
i
i I
I
'
condition [cont] indirect 15.33,35,38 negative 9 . 7 . 5 ~ 13.30: ; I 5.3511 cll'cn 14.1011. 2311.24, 2511; IJ.J~-.ZX secz also: future conditional adverbial 8.7, 13 C ~ ~ I ~ I S C / S3.46, ~ I ~h1~ ;C4.9,4?, I I C C43. 45.52n, 57,64; 6.60; 7.29; 8.127, 132, 145; 10.57,61; 11.15n,41; 13.30; 14.4, 13,20, 22-25, 27; 15.6, 20' 27' 32' 33-38939973;17'34; 18.24 meaning 8.9; 9.32; 10.61;I 1 . 2 9 ~ , 4 3 , 53n; 13.25, 37n,X3n; 14.40; 15.27, 28,29,44,46n, 52, 60; 17.4 rhetorical 15.37 seealso: i/; verb phrase conditional-concessive clause alternative 13.28n,94; 14.13, 18-20, 22,24n,41 universal 15,8n,41, 42 conducive question 8.9711; 11.6-8, 12, confer (aboutlon) 9.60
confidenrially 8.124 confine 10 16.7, 57 cor$rirn~ 16.31,35 c o n f l a t e d j article confbrnz 10 16.28 conformily(in lsirh) 9. 11, 63 congrarulare on 16.57 congraf~rlalions5.77 congratulations 11.54 co?ljecture(verb) 16.31 conjoin(t) 2.10; 13.49 equivalence of l l 2 1 ; 13.93,96 see also: coordination,eiltrer,nor ConJunct 2.1011, 15, 60; 7.49,51,54, 65; 8.24, 78n. 122n, 126,127,134-147, 148-153; 9.1,57,65,66; 10.9,64; 11.14, 15% 1811; 12.5,62; 13.3; 14.13939n; 15.17, 18,21n,23, 32; 18.5-6; 19.18.38.53-54; 111.17 conjunction vs. 7.51; 8.146; 13.6-8,
-
~ompulsory16.72
i
correlative use 8.145; 15.39 disjunct 8.127
critcria for 7.49; 8.134.. 135, 143 neg~tivc10.5811 p11sitionof~.15. 17. 23. 144, 1 4 7 ; 10.17; 18.5 6 scmandcs of 8.136- 142 synlaxof8.134-135. 147 ~cl~~h ;~dditive. rr: ;~ntilhctic.; ~ p p ~ , ~ i r i ~ ~ , u~,~irra.iivc, C(IIIII;I,IIVC, c l n , , , ~ l l , i l ~ c , ~ I * C OcL~ I~ It ~~ ~~ ~, ~ eC (iI IiI ;iI ~t IiVvC ,~ . inferential,listing,reformuIntory, reinforcing, lime. replacive, result, .W,,, s~~mmi~livc, Ir;~nsitiun;~t conjunction 1.18; 2.34.41 ; 4 . 1 5;~6,5; 7.51,54; 8.9,53; 9.1n, 2-4, 10; 12.5.44; 13l>r~,ssi~lr; I4 pcissinl; 15.5011; IX.II1; 111.22 coordinating+coordinator ellipsis 13.16- 17,79 process of 2.46
subordinnting-tsubordin;ltor SeeQ/.Yo:adjunct, adverb, conjunct, coordination, correlative, exclusive, preposition, lime cortnection (in wirh) 9.1 I connective devices 19.19-68 connectivity+asyndetic, covert, discourse, ellipsis, logical, prosody, punctuation, rhematic, sentence, stress, text, theme, time connotation 13.22 COn~ci0~~7.39; ( - of) 7.39; 16.69; (- rho0 7.39 corrsenr 10 16.28, 38 corlsequolce (as a -) 8.137; (in -) 8.137; (in of') 9. I I consequence (meaning) 8.140n; 13.23, 35; 15.45; 19.8 collseqlie~~~ly 8.137, 14311, 145 consider 10.1211; 15.19,54; 16.31, 35,39, 44.46, 50; ( - as) 16.47 considered (style)+ formal considering (conjunction) ( - (that)) 14.12 (preposition) 9.3,8.57 collslsr Q / ' ~ o14n . consonants 3.7, g, 44; 5.1 1.81 ; 7.79; 1.17,72; 111.4n conspire 16.3811 consla~lrly8.65.77 constituent clause+subordinate clause immediate/multiple/unitav 8.1 2.4-8;
-
-
obligatory 2.13, 18, 26, 30, 32, 33; 10.4; 12.34; 16.69
Index constituent [conlj structure2.3-10,48n; 6.20; 13.2, 16, 32,65; 14.2-4,37-41 ,~c~~olso coordinate constrain 16.50 consul-generalI. 18% 3 1n contact (noun) 1.56; (in lvlth) 9. I I (verb) 1.56 contcntl>ora~teorrs((v) 19.36 cor~re~t~~ororv . . 19.36 conrend 16.31 C O I I ~ E16.78; ~~ ( - rvilll) 16.69 content disjunct 7.28; 8.94. 100, 102n, 123,124, 125n.127-133, 149, 9.63; 10.66; 15.20-21,23,47,53, 57 contents 5.77 context. in 9.66 context 2.32-33,52,58; 3.1211; 6.40: 8.117; 11.3,45; 16.14; 19.1,3-4, 15,48 see also: linguistic,situationdl Contino~t,the 1.8 continents-tnames (classified) contingency adverbial 8.2, 7,49,59,86,87,92, 103,132; 9.55; 15.30 meaning 15.30-32,34,46; 17.5411 seeoho: causative, concessive, conditional, if; purpose, reason, result, lvhen, where contingenf (up)o~t16.69 contingent adjective clause 7.29 continual frequency-tcontinuou~ freauencv, cotrtinrrally4.2611; 8.65 continuative +coordination, relative clause continue 16.38,39,40; (10 -) 15.18 continuing 15.18 continuing-, verbs (semantic classification) continuous aspect-, progressive frequency 8.64,65,67 co~rtinuously8.65 continuum+ varieties of English contour+ intonation contra- 1.25 contraction+auxiliary, negative, phonological, prefix, pronoun, -S contrariwise8.137 contrary(onthe -) 8.137.144; 9 . 6 6 ~ 13.32; (- fo)9.10,66n; (to the -1 9.66n
-
~.
-
co,ltm,rr(by ) 8.137 ; 15.43 ; fl3(r)' ,/.~)8.137;(bt-)8.137; 15.43 contrast clause 15.32,43 menning 13.24. 3711; 15.31; 18.12, 16. 1711; i 9 . 1 7 , ~ see aho: binary contrastive conjunct 8,136, 137, 141; 19.56 src also: rocus, stress, ~vhere.~t'hilr,,n~lril.~l. VOll
contri/~uteto 16.28 contrive 16.38 convenient 16.80; ( - ly) 8.127 conventions in this book-tasterisk, bracketing, italics, parentheses, small capitals converse (noun) 19.52; ( - ly) 8.137; 19.52 converseness9.19, 32n; 15.27n; 18.31 conversion 2.38n; 1.3, 12, 15, 18, 30,42, 43-56 adjectivelnoun 7.13.24n; 12.55n; 17.51; 1.48 adjective/verb 1.50 direction of 1.44 formal modification in 1.56 full 1.45 minor types 1.52 nounladjective 7.14n; 1.51 nounlverb 1.1l , 49 partial7.13n; 1.45 phrasal 5.123; 17.111, 122n; 18.41; I.17,52,59 pronoun/noun 6.20n secondary 2.3211; 4.28; 5.5,6,7, 62-64.75; 10.4; 11.46; 1.53-55 verblnoun 17.51; 1.47 seealso: adjective, count, intransitive, manner, monotransitive,noncount, prefix, pronoun, word class, word-formation convey 16.31 co~ivictoJ'16.57 convince9.2; 15.54; 16.59; (- 0fl9.2; 16.57,59 cooccurrence-t adverbial co-op I. 12 coordinate adjective phrases l3.49,79 adjectives7.7,22,24; 8.31n; 13.20, 79,99, 100, 102; 17.58; 1.51n; 111.8 adjuncts 8.46.74
coordinate [cont] udvcrb phrascs 13.80 adverbials8.1 l, 120; 13.20, 50-51, 82 adverbs 13.80. 100, 101, 102; 111.8 antecedents 6.22 articles 13.7111,9511 ~ l a ~ ~ e c o n s t i t u e13.12n t s 13, 18, 20-21, 34.43-49.91-93 clauscs8.15, 30, 36, 9411, 140; 10.1,7n, 41; 11.18n,29n, 5311; 12.36,68; 13.16-17, 18, 20-21, 34, 48, 50-51, 52,53,57, 58,59,64, 89,90-95, 103n, 104; 14.2.29; 15.21n. 26.43, 57; 17.9; 18.5; 19.11, 81; 111.6-7, c 13, 3
S"
1689
coordlnete Icont] prcposil~onsland non-prcposi~ional construction 17.17 prcposition;~lphrase and adjective 9,111; 10.11 prepositional phrases 9.50n; 13.39.57, 69,81, 84; 111.8 prepositions9.9. 55n; 13.81, 101 pronouns 6.5, 22; 10.44.50 propcr n;imcs I2.18n question and statement 19.62 questions 19.59 reflexive and phrase 6.27 rel;~t~ve pronouns 13.84 sentences-+ sentence (connectivitv)
LL
comparatives 7.85 compounds I.59,70; 111.4 conjuncts 8.144n determiners 13.71, l00 finite vs. nonfinite clauses 13.50-51 genitives 13.72 genitives and possessive pronouns 13.74 imperative and statement 11.29n imperative clauses 13.52n interrogative words 13.84 masculine and feminine 6.9 modifiers 13.70 nominal expressions 13.75-76 nonfinite clauses 13.50-5 1 noun phrase constituents 13.64-76 noun phrases 5.12n,38; 6.5,22; 7.1 In; 8.40; 10.34n, 35,37-41; 12.45n,54,56,68; 13.39.49.56-63.
noun and adjective 7.1411; 13.6811 nouns 5.50; 9.42; 13.67, 102; I.51n , numerals 13.71, 102 participle and adjective 3.76 phrases 11.18n; 13.35, 104 possessive pronouns 13.73 postdeterminerand adjective 13.7111 postmodifiers 13.69: 17.61: I.5ln predicates 13.12, 35, 37, 48,52,53n, 55; 18.5; II1.7,8 predications 2.51,52n; 12.68; 13.21, 34,35,47-48,53,55; 18.5; III.7,8 prefixes 1.2011;III.5n premodifiers 10.38; 13.68; 17.114, 119: 111.8 prepositional adverbs 13.101 prepositional complements 13.69
subordinate clauses 13.14- 15, 18,35n, 50-51; 14.37-41; 15.411; 19.59 subordinators 13.83 verb phrases 13.21,78 verbless clauses 13.50 verbs 3.69; 4.15; 13.78.98 word-componenrs8.134; 13.85; 111.511 words 13.75 see 01x0~parelletism coordinating conjunction- coordinator coordination 2.10, 11.44; 8.138; 9.52; 10.5; 11.21; 12.1-5,43,44,45n,61, 68,69; 13p(1ssinr; 14.1-4; 16.13; 17.23,44, 65, 112; 19.7, 18,57-60, 66; 111.6-8. 12 abbreviations for 13.104 adverbial scope and 13.54-55 ambiguity in i3.16, 50, 55, 65, 67, 69, 70.75, 79; 17.61 appended 13.43,90,94, 17.80 complex 13.43. 5611. 90-93.96-97 conjunctionsand 13.10- 11, 18 continuative 13.101 correlative-t correlative (construction) expressive 13.98- 102 gradience 13.5-6, 18-19, 103 idiomatic 13.98- 102 ill-assorted 13.87-89 intensifying use of 13.100 interpolated 13.29,54n, 78,90, 92n, 95-97, 103; 111.19 iterative 13.78, 101; 16.3 levels of 13.58 mixed 13.38,82 multiple 13.16-17, 18,58 number and 13.66
1690 lndex
coordination [conll parenthetical 13.96n premodific:~tionand 17.105. 121 pscudo-8.30; 13.98--99;i.IXn quasi- 9.4; 10.40; 12.69; 13.19, 103; 14.1511; 15.64n,68 sem;lntic fenturcs of 13.3-4.47 -49 scqucncc in 13.8 9. 18. 22 23. 00. 73--74. H6 simple 13.43--89.96; 19.57 syntactic featuresol 13.6- 17.96 vs. subt)rclin;~tion2.60; 13.2 4. 18-19; 14.1 -4,40; 19.57 6 0 , 6 6 seeolso: apposition, asyndetic, combin;~tory,ellipsis,noun phrase. polysyndetic,segrcgatory, space. syndctic, time adverbial coordinative-+apposition coordinator 2.10,41,60; 7.52; 8.1 19, 138, 144, 146; 12.18; 13passim; 14.2,37-41; 15.44n,47,60; 17.23, 61, 114; 111.6-8, 10, 12, 13, l8 central 13.5, 18-19,36-37; 17.65; 19.58-59 frequency o r 19.58 quasi-+coordination (quasi-) semi- 13.19, 103 uses of 13.22-32 see also: but, conjunction, gapping. subordinator cop-+copula cope with 16.5 copula2.16n; 3.32,46n, 47n; 8.42; 10.10n, 16,20; 16.21,79; 17.26 current/resulting3.66; 16.21-23 ellipsis 15.71 copular ckause/sentence 2.22; 3.66; 5.37,42; 7.20.29:9.45: 10.8; 15.62; 16.17,
'
.
65 verb 2.16, 18.22; 3.68,74,76,77,78; 6.25n;7.3-4, 10, Iln, 14;8.28, 33, 42,82,84; 9.1n,47,48, 50n; 10.2, 11, 16, 18,21, 26; 15.55n,71, 74; 16.4n,21-24; 17.12211; 18.22; 1.54 verb, semantic function of 16.23 seeolso: intransitive, phrasal verb. prepositionalverb copulat~veverb-+copular verb cor- 1.6 cordtally 8.90 (-yours) 8.9111 core+common core, grammar
coreference 3.70; 4.13; 5.5,30,36; 6.9, 15, 17, 19,21,22n,23,24,25,27n, 30. 31, 32;8.133n; 10.7,48; 11.8; 12.411, 5,X 13. 19.24; 13.52 -53: 15.27n; 10.30, 79; 17.65, 6611. 77, 121; 18.52, 59; 19.44 S~~CO/.SO:pro-forms,plonoun, substitution r.orpom 5.03 sn't)3.36; (-for) 16.57;(- it) 12.10, 24-26; (-ne)3.16,36.38n; ( - I J O I ) ~ . ~ ~ ; (-n't) 3.36.37; 11.28-30; (- n.1 be)3.37n;(-so)2.51; 12.10, 12,20, 21,23-26; 19.45;(ro ing) 12.23n; ( - st) 3.4n; ( - th) 3.411; (-that) 12.10,24-26; (toso -) 12.23n; (will -) 8.100; (- without) 16.6 Doctor 10.53; 17.91 doer* agent does+do dogged 7.19 -dom 1.32 don't -t do dormant affix 3n d o t i p e r i o d , suspension double (predeterminer) 5.15, 18 double+genitive, marking, negative, preposition doubt (verb) 16,26, 31, 35 (-but) 16.31n; (,lo -)8,127n; 15,54; (-firl(asto)) 16.73; (- less) 8.127; 19.53n
-
I ~ ~ (past U P tense, dive) 3.16 dolvtl (adverb) 7.46.66; 8.41 (particle) 16.2 (preposition) 7.70; 9 . 7 , ~ ~ - 2 7 . 3 2 ; 19.32n (prepositional adverb) 9.66; 13.101 (- ~vi~/r) l l .42 dax~rthill8.41 dolvnrig/rt 7.56 downstairs7.1 1n,67, 70; 8.41 dow~tstreant8.4 1 downtoner adjective 7.33.45.87; 17.114
lndex 1697 1696 lndex
downtoner [cont] adverbial 7.56,62,87; 8.104, 107n~ 111-114; 10.62n,66; 11.21 position of 8.1 14 syntaxof 8.113 do~vn~vard(s) 8.41 clonlnu~ind8.41 dozer1 5.89 Dr 17.91; 111.28 drugonran 5.84n drank 3.19 draw3.16;(-11)3.16;(- out) 16.12; (-up) 16.26n (verb) 16.38, 39,40; (-,fil) 16.72 dream3.15; 16.31;(- edit) 3.15
8.108; 16.12 drive 3.16; 16.19,44,48, 50; (- n) 3.16 drop (verb) 4.27; 16.19 drove 3.16 drown (be ed) 3.68 drunk (verb) 3.19; (- witk).16.69 drunken (adjective) 3.19; 7.19
-
gender 5,104,106 number 5.16, 73n; 6.11,50,61 ; 13.39 see also: noun duck (noun) 5.87 due 15.5911; 16.79; ( - S ) 5.77 due to9,10; 14.14; 15.46n, 5911; 16.69; (be -) 3.47; 4.66
d\eell3.611,13; ( - l'(/) 3.611, 13; (up)on) 16.28 dwelt 3.611, 13 (/ye (vcrb) 3.7,9; ( - Npink) 16.45 dynamic.-,~djcctive,hut!c, noun. dynamic verb meaning dynamic verb meaning 2.43; 3.35,48, 66,76,77; 4.4,6,7. 14, 15, 22,257 27,28,29n, 30,31,32,33-35-45. 47; 8.42; 9.16,42; 10.14n, 18,20, s s n ; 11.24; 12.25-26; 13.23,78; 14.2211; 15.22,31,50,60n; 16.39, ( W
44; 17.95, 101; 18.51n;I.47 dynamism+communicative
E (= end position)+ final -e addition 3.7,9 loss 3.7,9; 1.17 mute 3.9, Ion; 5.81; 7.79 each (determiner) 5.14. 18; 6.45.49, 51; 8.52;9.41,58; 10.3711~43 (pronoun) 6.13,20,45,48,49,50, 9.58; 12.10, 17; 13.61 3.28; after pro-form use 12.10, 17 (- andevery) 13.71; (- other) 6.13, 31; 13.46,60 12.65; 16'71'79 eager7.39, ear/ier7.66, 83; 8.55,77; 19.36947n;
-ed (denominal) 1.30,38; 111.4 participle 3.2, 3-4,6-20,32, 33, 35, 36,38,40,49, 53.54, 55,56,64,76, 77;4.67: 7.15-19,47,58n, 81; 8.12711, 13111; 9.3, 17,5011; 13.9811; 16.69; 1.12, 24,65.69 participleclause 3.2;4.67; 8.5911, 6111, 125; 13.50; 14.6-7. 18, 19; 15.25, 30,31n,34,39.53.56.58-62;
16.14n, 20.49,54; 17.29, 33-35; 18.29,45 premodifying 17.100-103 with/without subject 14.6 sccalm: adjective -edl VS. -ed2 3.4, 6, 11-20 edge 5.120 Edited American English 1.24 seealso: claim, mistake, nuance, reference, 1vcI1 editorial we-. we educated use of English 1.7,20n, 22,27, 28.30, 34,36, 37; 5.5711; 111.1 -ee (adjective base ending) 7.79 (suffix) 1.34 -ee(d) spelling in verbs 3.9 EEC 1.75 e'er 111.27 -eer 1.33 eerily 8.13 1 effect -.cause effectedjresult (object) e.g. 8.137; 17.73,86; 1.75; 111.11 egg on 16.2n eh?11.11, 55 either (adverb) 10.60 (determiner) 5.13, 14, 16.73n; 6.61; 10.42,60; 13.5
(pronoun)6.13,45,48,59-61.62;
echo utterance 11.33-37 see also: exclamation, explicatory, question, recapitulato~,wh-
10.42,60; 12.10, 17 (subjunct) 8.116 multipleconjoins with 13.39-41 ; 15.4111 pro-form use 3.26; 10.5711; 12.10, 17 (- orteor theother) 10.60; (- . . .or) 10.41.44; 13.5.33-34.35.39-41, 68n,71; 15.611.41 eke out 16.21~12 elbow (verb) 16.48 elder7.76; 10.5111 eldest 7.76 elect (verb) 16.46,50; (-as) 16.47 electric(o1) I.39n electrocute 1.76
element-+adverbi;~l,clause, colnp;lr;~tive,complement, objcct, pushdown, subject. verb, ~vhcl//elt!e.s 5.83 elicitation experiment 1.42; 3.41n, 43n, 48n eligible 16.79 elision 3.45n; 1.33, 37.41 ; 11.10 elk 5.87 el1ip.si.s 5.97 ellipsis 2.52; 3.43,44; 6.5. 17; 8.152; 12.1-7, 10, 16n, 18,20n,21, 26,27, 29.31-70; 19.48,67; II1.26n anaphoric 5.31 ; 12.7.42-43,44,45, 5511.67 cataphoric 5.3211; 12.7,42-43,44, 45, 5411.55~67; 13.81 classification of 12.41-44 coordination and 12.45n. 55,68; 13.44-49,55,90; 111.5n criteria for 12.32-38 dialogue use 11.51; 18.1In final 12.44,45,46.54, 56,57,59,62, 68.69 formal type 12.41,44,45 functional type 12.41,43,44,53-70 general 7.55; 12.38,43,44,45n, 53-65,6(; 13.51n,53n, 56.95 indetermin$cy 12.32,38n initial 12.44,46, 52,57, 66, 68, 69 limits of 13.45-46 medial 12.23,44,48n, 50n, 52,58, 62, 64; 13.12,53n, 92-93 quasi- 5.124'6 29; 12,38,40,54n, 60, 62; 13.641 ' , sentence connectivity and 19.33, 44-45,60n situational 12.38,42,44,46-51, 5411, 63n special 12.43,44,66- 70 standard 12.8,38,40n, 60,68 strict 12.38, 39, 68 structural 12.38,42,44, 52,59n textual 7.24; 12.42-43.44.45 virtual 12.18,40, 54n weak 7.24; 12.38,46,65; 17.90 without speaker-change 11.52 see also: adjective, adverb phrase, adverbial, apposition,article, auxiliary, clause, comparison, complement. conjunction, copular, declarative, determiner,directive, exclamative, head, imperative,infinitive, initial, interrogative,if, modification,name, nonfinite,noun, noun phrase, object,
1698 lndex
lndex 1699
ellipsis [contl operator, postmodification, predicate, prctlicz~tion, prcmodific;~lion. preposition,prepositional pl~ruse. pro-forms,pronoun, question, recovcrability, relative clause, response, scntencc,stress, suhjcct, subordinate clin~rc,S I I I I ~ ) T < I ~ ~ ~ RI I~OITI ,> S ~ ~ I ~ I (ht8r(,, I~C~II. vtrl,,
l,,,,,
a,,/,-
else (concessive/inferential conjunct) 8.137, 144, 146; 13.28, 30 (po~tniodilier)6,37n,47:7.6Y; 17.57 (so~~wthltg - ) X.13Xn: ( - II'/IL~~I*) 8.41 ; 19.33 (= cnd-medial position)+medial etn- 1.30 'em 6.14n em d a s h i d a s h etnborrass ( - cd) 16.78; (-ing) 16.72 embedded clause +subordinate clause
multiple 2.8-9,5211; 14.37-41 phrase2.8; 5.121;6.24n; 8.118n; 13.2 see also: genitive, self-embedding embrace 6.31
force 3,25;9.63; 10.21n; 14,25; 15,54; III.2,23 see also: emphasis, verbs (semantic classification) emphasis 3.39n,72; 4.55; 5.16; 6.4211; 7.89; 8.91,95, 10911, 144; 10.6,7, 17,48,69; 11.8,15n,25,30n,52n; 12,19n,28n, 30,60; 13.5%42, 71, 101; 14.37; 15.28n,40,41,70.73; 18passim; 19.23n,34n, 65,96; II.I0,21; 111.25 emotive 18.16.55-57 see also: exclamation,negation, operator. positive, pronoun, reflexive,Stress emphasizer adjective 7.33-34,45,87; 17.1 14 adverbial 8.8,20; 18.55,56n cooccurrence restrictions 8.101 subjunet 8.96,99-103, 126n syntaxof 8.102 empty7.88n; (- of) 16.69 empty -t auxiliary (dummy), it (prop), theme
et!- 1.30 -et]7.37; 1.42, 50 (plural) 5.74. 85 participle - t - r ~p;~rticiplc / en dash +dash e~mhle16.50
English [cont] quality of l .2 school models of 1.7 second Ii~~iguugc 1.3, 6,7, 10,27, 34-35,36,38,41 speakers of l . l-2,4
cllahlcment-t (semantic cl;~ssilicnli~~r~) ~11chu111ed leirll Ih.(ld) enclitic 2.48; 3.23; 10 55-70; 11.7- 1 l, 22; 13.4211; 15.36 l ~ o s t p ~ ~5.123 sc~l ,ACV u/,so: ,,it (prop) explicatory echo 11.33,36 explicit-tapposition (marker) explicitness 1.29; 2.58; 7.8211, 85, 86; 8.10n, 5 Z 9 . 6 6 ; 12.4; 15.6411.7111; 17.8, 1°, 21,24,30, 33, 37.52, 61, 107-108, lI7, 120, 121,123 see also: apposition, postmodification explode 4.27 express (verb) 16.35 expression->diminisher expressive-tcoordination,repetition extensibility 2.7- 10 extensive-tcopular verb extent(tosome -) 8.105, 111, I 14-1 15; 10.60; 11.411; (to 1v11at-) 8.2511, 110n; 11.15n extent-tmeasure (phrase) external-tcauser, modality, negation extra- I.26n, 29 extralinguistic factors 4.1 l - 12; 5.27-29; 6.15,40,43; 12.6-7,12, 46; 15.38,68n; 17.66, 80; 18.9n see also: situational context
-
'
e.rtraordirtary 16.72 extraposition 18.33-36 clausal 3.70; 6.17; 7.2811; 8.128; 12.47; 15.4,6-7, 10, 12; 16.28, 30, 35,37,41,45,46,6011, 70,72,73, 79; 18.33-36,44n ofobject 3.70; 15.7; 16.34n; 18.35 ofsubject2.59; 14.39; 15.4,6,7, 10, 12; 16.18n, 34,38n, 59,60,72,73, 76,80,82, 83; 18.33-36,44n phrasal 18.3311 seealso: -irr~participle clause, if
-
~ ~ ( ~ l ;(~ up ~ to)( 16,9, ~ ~ 29 Juct 9.2; 17.26; (irr -) 9.511; 12.30; (1/1? (ll~at))14.14 factive disjunct factual 3.52; 15.49-50 s~eol.so:condition (open),counterpactual, vcrhs (scm;~nticcl;~ssificatio~) factualityorientation 19.15 fact~rolly8.127 fai16.59; 16.38; ( - to) 3.49 .firi/ing (preposition) 9.8 faitlt 7.38 fair 7.82; 8.100n; (B! all ?less) 8.125 ~ ~ i ~ l ~ 78.100-102 .56; j ~ i t l g ~ /yours8,91n /~, /lll(verb) 3.16; 16.2n, 19, 21 ;(,.back) 16.1911; ( - do11.11)16.21; (3.16;(- off) 16.19n;(-out) 16.3, 19n;(- througlr) 16.19n falling tone 8.135; 11.5n,7n, 8, 10, 12, 14,20,22,23, 28n,36, 37; 14.3611, 37; 15.5411; 17.86; 18.18; 19.9.26-27, 63,65; 11.12, 13, 1511, I8n; 111.23 fall-plus-rise tone 10,65; 18,8,,; 18.17-18,5911; 19.65; 11.15 fall-rise tone 4.53; 8.1 12, 14311; 10.52, 65; 11.25; 14.37; 18.16, 18; 19.26-27; 11.14, 15n fatniliar 1vit1116.69 familiar->informal, -S familiarity marker 1 , 7 4 ~77 , family +names (classified) fancy 16.31, 39 f a r (adjective) 7.75, 82, 83, 88 (adjunct)7.83; 8.41.48; 10.61n (subjunct) 7.90; 8.63n, 105: 10.62 (-0ndan'a~~op)7.90; ( a s - a s ) 9 . l l , 17; 14.12; (by -) 7.90; 8.105; 15.19; (-fionl) 18.31n;(ho1v-)8.3,48, 110n; 10.13; ll.lSn;(so-)8.62, 72: 19.36; (so -as) 15.19 see ~l~o:~ur~herle~r,jurt/~~'r/esr farewells 11.54 jarther 7.75, 83; 8.48 Jartlrcst 7.75, 83; 8.48n /hscirlate 16.26; ( - d) 16.78 -fashion 7.46: 1.4111 fast (adjective) 7.82; 1.41 (adverb) 7.6,83 J
~
-
-
(amplifier) 7.56n ( - e r . . . than) 15.52n
~
~
)
1702 Index
Index 1703
jirted 16.79 Furher 10.53 li1111onl16.35 Jir~irpus 5.99 fa~.olir(noun) (in -) 9.66; (it1 oJ') 9.1 1 (verb) 8.107 F111 1.75 ,/oitr ( /or (t11(1i))3.01 ; 15.48; (1 1 15.54 ,/i~(~.si/>le l 5.25 ,~~,1/3.18; 16.31;(- lip) 16.411 Jorhle 7.33 ji.ed(verh) 3.18; 6.25; 10.51n ji.e/ 3.15, 76; 4.29-30; 6.25n; 7.9; 10.23; 14.30; 16.21,22, 24% 26,31,50,52, 53,54 (-~sif)14.36;(1-) 15.54;(-like) 16.2411; (- oneser) 6.25
-
-
-
(present tense,.fell) 16.1911
.
female (gender) 1.26; 5.56, 57% 104-106, 109-111; 6.1,8-10,13, 14; 10.50; 1.3311 feminine gender* female suffix 1.33 usage 5.66n; 11.30,32; 19.65; 1.7611 see o1,so: coordinate feminism 6.10 festivals- names (classified) feoer 5.4911 few (determiner) 2.5411; 6.4% 59; 10.59; 12.39 (postdeterminer)5.23-24; 10.66; 13.7111; 15.9 (pronoun)2.54n; 6.48,62; 12.10: 17; 12.39 predicative use 5.23n pro-form use 12.10, 17 (a -) 5.23, 3811; 6.48,53,57,62; 10.35n, 59,6111; (- ai~dfarherween) 8.48; 13.7111; (-er) 5.24; 6.48,53; 10.66; 12.10, 17; (- est) 5.24; 6.4853; 12.10, 17;(too -)6.57 see also: less, leost ff 13.104n fictional narrative-+ present (fictional) field-tdiswurse (field OF) fighi(verb) 3.18; (- with) 9.53 figurative-tmetaphorical figuratively 8.124
figure (verb) 14.36; (-out) 16.12 fill(orit) 16.26n; (- up) 4.27 ,fi~lnl19.38 li11i11p ~ s i t i c l ~ ~ in clause 6.38-39; 7.29; 8.15~.21,22, 23.26, 35-38.43.44.47,49,5m9 56.60, 63. 65.66.73. 7711, 7Rn, 84 87. 00 92. 05, 07. OX. I O l n. 102. 105, I O X . 109, l l 111. 114, 110, 124. 144, 150-152; 10.9. 16, 17,63,64; 12.30n; 13.61n.91; 14.9; 15.49n; 18.5. I I; 19.6511;111.8. 17 -18.20 in sentence4.24; 8.14311; 10.52 53; 8-9, 18,55, 103; 11.25; 13.41~ 14.13, I6n,29, 37-41 ; 15.20-23, 25,2Xn,29, 37.41,43,47,49. 53-56,57n, 59-62.75; 18.5911 see brrt,ellipsis,initial, medial, .so Jinolly (adjunct) 8.55.72 (conjunct) 8.137; 19.37, 38,56 (and -) 8.144 find (verb) 3.18; 10.411; 16.26, 31,44,46, 50, 53, 54.57; (-for) 16.57; (-out) 16.4, 12.35; (- outabour)9.60; 16.35; (- strange) 16.45 fine (adjective) 7.8; ( - r) 7.85 (adverb) 7.8; (-/p) 7.8 (verb) 16.57 finish (verb)4.34; 16.40; (-UP) 16.12 finite clause 3.22,25.52; 6.5,25n; 7.20; 8.10n, 13,20n,23,24,30n, 53.86, 87, 124, 125, 130;9.3,4, 55; 10.6, 34,55, 57,5811; 11.40; 12.59; 13.35, 50; 14.5-9, 10-14, 18, 19.20-41 ; 15.1-3.4-9, 18-23, 34, 41n,42n7 46n, 48, 53,58,71,74n; 16.25,30-35, 50,61,64,66,73; 17.2.9-26. 29,31, 33,35,36,37,44,92-93; 18.32,33,54; 19.39,41,60; 111.18 verb2.49; 3.2,30,32,S2,59;4.17n; 11.37; 12.23, 26; 13.9211; 14.5.15, 20; 16.22,77 vs. nonfinitecriteria 3.2.30.52 see also: mrdinate, object. postmodification, subordinator,verb phrase finite phrase 3.21.52-57; 4.18n, 67; 8.12211;10.34; 17.28.54; 18.16 followed by nonfinite phrase 3.57 simple vs. complex 3.54-55,57 structure 3.54-55 finiteness scale 3.52,56
firm (amplifieradjective) 7.33,43 firms-names (classified) .fir,st (:ldjuncO 8.55, 72; 19.36 (conjuncl) 8.137, 13811, 143; 19.38,55, 56 (postdctcrrniner)5.34, 119; 6.63 - 64; 17.15. 32 ( il!rdli~rrrnosr)X. 14411;(at ) 19.38: ( - ! V ) 8.137, 13811; 19.38; (in /h word-formation hjjper- 1.24 hypcrholc 8.126; 16.4n; 18.55; 19.45; 1.24.76n ~~ypercorrection 1.17; 3.62n: 6.5. 35% 38n;8.81n;9.4; 15.511; 17.63n hypcrnynl 19.21. 24 l ~ y ~ ~ c r ~ ~ r (l ~ 2: ~7~ ~ i s l l l ~i~plicnation 6.6411.67; X.HL)n:13.102n; 16,1411; 17.58, 101, 108, 121, 122; 1.17,21,24, 27n,59; 11.6;111.3,4, 5 hypocoristic 1.65n, 77 hyponymy 19.24 hypotaxis 13.2; 14.2; 17.114, 116; 19.5n; 111.8 I1ypirt11~~si.s 5.97 hypothetical meaning 3.30,46.62: 4.62, 63n,64; 8.127; 11.13; 15.50; 16.40, 72n see a l , ~condition, ~: past, verbs (semantic classification) I ' ~ ~ 0 t h e ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~
I I (= initial position)+initial 'I' (= speaker) 14.8; 15.l811, 19n, 21 ; 19.39,64 16.2-6,8-11,14,18,27; 12.28~47-48; 14,22,27,36n; 1 5 . 3 7 ~ 5 4 19.51n, ; 77n; III.29n vs. me 1.17 (Xand-) 6.5; ( - 'da) 4.2311; ( - 'I1 be. . .) 15.37n
-ible7.21; 16.72; 1.40 -;~7.1,37,47;17.102;1.37,39,41;II.4 -;col 7.47; 1.37, 39 -ices plurals 5.96 -ics 5.75 ID 1.75 idea unit-> tone unit
--
ideally 8.127, 130n identification (apposition) 17.74,77-78 anticipated/postponed 17.78 see also: complement, that idenrijl (oneself) with 6.25
idiom [cont]
1711
im- 1.17,21
12211; 6.1711; 8.47n, 59n, 96; 9.26, 34,36,65,66n; 10.16n,23n, 43, 46n.47,58,60; 1 1.2411; 12.2Xn, 51, 6311,6511; 13.25,66n, 71,87; 14.25n; 15.36,53,64n, 68n; 16.3-9, l l, 12, 13-17,21,24n, 29, 58,6911; 17.37,57; IX.24n.48n,49; 19.6811, 0911;l,7, l7 semantic criteria for 16.12 semi- 16.12 seeal.~~: coordination,fixed phrase, modal, stereotyped iE (= initial-end position)-tinitial le8.137; 17.27,73;1.75; III.II - h 1.77 -ie verb base ending 3.9, 10 f2.60; 3.62; 4.45; 8.9,49; 13.18-19; 14.12,18-19;15.6,20,21,30,32-40
adjunct vs. disjunct 15.21 -clause 3.30n; 4.16,52n; 8.124, 125, 140, 147; 11.41; 12.63; 13.15, 25n, 28n,30; 14.18-19, 22,25; 15.6, 19n,20,32-40,48n; 16.31n,72n; 18.33n concessive 8.9 conditional 4.64; 8.9; 14.1211; 15.6,20, 32-38,40-41 contingent 15.30,39-40 frequency of 15.6 interrogative 14.12n; 15.6 (- andonly f ) 15.3511; ( - and when) 13.83n; 15.3511; (as -) 3.62; 9.4; (even -) 8.145; 15.32, 39-41 ; (- Irnay)4.53;(- I wereyou) 3.6211; 15.36; (-?tot) 13.103; 15.34; (-only) 11.41; 15.3511; (only --) 15.3511; ( - . . .or) 14.13; 15.6; (-80) 15.34;(-. . . the11)8.145; 14.13 see also: as, even, ho~v 1$T13.104n; 15.35n -ifu I.35,42 il- 1.17,21 i117.38, 77; 1.65; (- er) 7.83 comparison of 7.77 ill- 7.83 '
ill-assorted-tcoordination illnesses+ names (classified) illocutionary actlforce 11.3, 13, 16, 17, 20n, 22,41,42,53; 15.38 iM (= initial-medial position)-tmedial I/M (= initial or medial position)-tinitial
-in plurals 5.101 imaginative prose-binformative itnlr~ir1~~4.20; 12.211; 14.24. 30, 36: 16.31, 35.39.44.46. 50 immediate constituent+constituent immedi;1tesit~1ation4.1 1-12; 5.28 i r ~ s ~ r ~ ~ i l i i r t r;~clverh) ~ ~ ~ ( ( i8.55; ~ n c 15.27, 20: 19.37, 55 (conjunction) 14.12; 15.25.29 impnir 7.85n ;,)lpat;e,ll 16.78; ( - ,,,ith) 16.69 irnperatiae 3.59; 16.72 imperative clauselsentence 1.28; 2.1311, 46; 3.37n, 77n;4.64n; 6.24i7.41; 8.16.7711, 90-91,95, 102. 109, 1 18n, 130, 147; 10.6, 17,34; 11.1, 10, 13, 17,24-.30, 37,5411; 13.25,30,52n; 18.55; 11.13; II1.23n ellipsis analysis 12.46n first person 3.5111; 4.811; 6.7; 11.10, 13, 26-28 frequency of l l .27 illocutionary force of 8.47; 11.29 marker-do, don't, let's mood 3.51, 52,54,58 particle-tdo, let passive 11.24 perfective passive 11.24n persuasive 3.37; 18.55-56 progressive 1 1.24 quasi- 3.54n; 4.52n; 11.30n subject in 2.57; 10.6; 11.1,25,27; 12.4611; 13.5211; 15.54 verb2.57;3.2,4.4;6.25n; 11.40,43; 14.22,24; 16.33 seealso: command, coordinate, directive, frequency(temporal),negative imperfective 4.17 imperial+names (classified) impersonal+ it, subject (personal), you infpinge 3.9 implicature 11.4 inlplicit 16.72 implicit +comparative intplore 16.63 impl~~ 16.31 impolite+politeness in~portant16.72.82; (most in~possibilitj~ 17.36 in~possib/e16.72.80 impotent 16.79 imprecation-texpletive
-
(ly)) 7 . 2 ~ ~
lndex
1712 lndex improper 16.72 improve 4.27 in (adverb) 8.41
16.77 (prepositional adverb) 9.66 (-Nof)9.1l;(-Nivit/1)9.11; ( - that) 14.12 in- 1.17,21,26n, 36n -in I.47n -ill' (= -ing) 3.511 -in-law(s) 111.4 inalienable+ possession inanimatcness+agent, gender, noun, subject ina.smuc/tas 14.12; 15.46; 1.18 incense (verb) 16.26 inception-tverbs (semantic classification) incessantly 8.65, 77 incidentally 8.137, 142, 143 incite 16.63 inclination 17.36 inclined 16.79; (- to) 16.69 inclrrded 17.73,86 included clauseisubordinate clause included units-+punctuation including (preposition) 9.8; 17.34,73,86 inclusion (apposition) 17.74,85-87 inclusive-texclusive, or, our, we, your ir~compatible(with) 16.69 incomplete-tcompletion, question, sentence incontestably 8.127 incontrooertibl~~ 8.127 incorrectly 8.127 increase (verb) 7.8511; 16.19 incredibly 8.127 indeed (conjunct) 8.103n (disjunct) 8.127, 130n (subjunct)2.28; 7.57,60; 8.100, 101, 10311; 12.30; 18.55; 19.55 as response 8.130n indefinite- article, determiner, frequency, noun phrase, past, pro-forms, pronoun, subject inde$nitely 8.63 indentation 111.11,14,21, 30 reverse III.14n indention- indentation independent+clause, genitive, -ing participle clause, pronoun, subject
infinitive [cont] 25.33, 3611; 153,411, 6.8, 10-11, 12. 18,25, 34n. 44,46n,48,50,53, 56,58-60.65, 661~73,7411;16.20, 22.28, 36,38, 4/, 42,43,49, 50-52, 63,04- 67. (>X. 70. 73. 75 - 82, 83; 17.30-32,33-34,35--36,93, 122; 18.29.35-36, 53; 19.60; 111.17 clauseellipsis 12.64-65 marker- to object + 16.32,41,44,50,63 passive 15.73; 16.6311, 81; 17.31 pcrfective4.19,67; 14.34n; 16.76-77 progressive 4.46 split8.21; 12.2311; 18.4211 to- 3.2, 30,40,42,43,44,45,49.51, 70, 7711; 7.22; 8.21, 132; 9.55; 11.1311, 18,40,41; 12.231~64-65; 13.50-51,98, 103n; 14.6-8, 1311, 17,23n,33; 15.3,4n,6,8,10-11, 12, 18, 25, 34n,44,46n, 48,50,53, 54,56,58-60,65,66n, 73,7411; 16.17,20,22,28,31,36,4/, 42,
indeterminacy 2.1 l , 15,60-61; 4.66n; 8.24,96; 11.3; 12.18.26n; 14.36; 15.60; 17.33 ,sccrrl,vo:slnnlysis (multiple), i~pposition, ellipsis, gender, gradience, sentellcc i~~(li,.\.(l~.v) 5.96 index cntrics 111.17n indicate 14.2511; 16.31,35 indicative mood 3.37,52,55,58,59,62; 4.16n; 10.34.44,55n; 14.24-25; 15.36; 16.30,33, 50,59,70-73; I.40n indicator word 2.37 Cldices 5.96 i~rdipmnt7.39; 16.78 indirect offer 15.38 request 11.2911; 15.38 thought- indirect speech seealso: agency, anaphora, condition. direct, directive, exclamation, indirect speech, object, prepositional phrase. question, reason, statement indirect speech 3.30; 4.16,24n, 4811,5811, 60,61; 11.3,46n; 12.28; 14.28-34; 16.311~63 free 4.4811, 6011.61 ; 14.28,35; 19.43 indisputably 8.127 Indo-European 2.34; 3.1 1 indoors7.70; 8.41 indubitable 16.72 indubitably 8.127 induce 16.50 -ine 5.105 inequality +nonequivalence comparison inevitably 8.127 infer 16.31 inference, tentative 4.56,66 inferential conjunct 8,136,137,140, 144, 148 disjunct 13.30 relation 19.17 inferior 7.85 infinitive 3.2, 52,53,54, 55,56,59n; 15.36,52; 16.69n; 17.54n bare 3.2, 30,35,40,41,42,43,45; 4.3, 42,43,47,48,64; 7.39; 9.49; 10.55, 67,68n; 11.13, 16,40; 14.6, 15,16; 15.15,66n; 16.17,20,52,53,54; 18.29 clause2.22; 3.46n; 4.52; 6.24; 7.22; 8.21.30.86, 125, 128;9.2,3n, 6; 10.65; 12.23; 14.6-8,13n,15-17,
50-51,52,54,59,63,68,75-82;
18.29, 35-36; 19.60 vs. participle construction 16.40 wh-clause 12.63; 16.20, 35, 37,62,73 with/without subject 14.6, 16, 17, 33; 15.10,48n, 73; 16.20,36, 38,41, 80-82; 17.35-36 seealso: existential infix 1.18, 3111, 76n inflammable 1.2 1n inflection 1.14-15, 18;2.4, 7,35; 3.30, 50,62;4.3, 17n;5.104, 123;7.13, 23.74-86; 8.29,48n, 63n; 10,3411; 12.5511; 13.100; 15.75; 16.2; 1.3, 1611,17,31n,38,45,71 vs. derivation 1.31n,41 vs. preposition 5.123 seealso: adjective, adverb, comparison, genitive inflectional language 6.4 morpheme 1.2n influencing+ verbs (semantic classification) bform9.2; 16.59,61; (- about)9.60; (-of )9.2,60; 16.57 informal (vs. formal) 1.26.31-33- 37,38, 42; 11.49, 53; 17.124 constructions 1.24; 3.23, 30n,32n, 34, 36n,38,43,62,66; 4.13n,26n, 43, 46,521~6511; 5,17n,23,25,35n, /
I
1713
informal [cont] 5511,661~76,84n. 102; 6.3-5, 8.9, 12% 18,20, 21,2411, 31, 35, 38.4311, 52% 53,55n, 56,6411;1.7,8, 14.22, 29.56n.60.63.64. 70n.78n. 83; 8.21. 30.311i. 39.42n. 47. 52. 62. 65% 75% 7 6 , 7 8 , X 6 , 8 9 3 , 9 7 n , 98, 114,117n,119, 124n. 143, 146n; 9.3n,4.5,6,8, Ion, 16, 1811, 37.40, 41,44.58.60; 10.1On.l5,23n,27, 30.34.41 -45.50.55n. 60. 11.5, 8, 1 1 . 12, 1511. 18,24,26.28.32n, 34, 40,44,47.49,53-55; 12.11, 17.23, 27,29n,35,46,48n, Son, 51 n, 52, 61n,63n,64n,65n, 68; 13.7n, 12, 36,7211,741~88,91,94,98-99, 102, 103n, 104; 14.12- 13,23n, 26, 29n, 30n,36; 15.5n,6,9nS12, 15, 18, 22, 25, 34,3511, 3711.39-40.44, 46n,48, 50,54n, 57% 71.74; 16.3.9, 14n, 22.29; 17.1111, 12, 14-16. 19, 30, 44,46,47,57n, 60n,78,80, 111-112, 119; 18.20,22,27, 2811.30, 3 4 , 4 0 1 43,45,48,57-59; ~ 19.2, 18, 42-43,47n,48,50,51,59,60,61n, 62,63,65 pronunciation 3.45n, 51 ;6.1411, 52n, 69; 19.3411; 11.10; 111.5, 27 punctuation/spelling 3,3611,4511, 51 ; 6.14n;8.21;9.7; 17.47; 1.39;111.11, 20,241~26,27 vocabulary 3.16; 5.7,35n,49n, 57n, 77,78,90; 7.57n,61,89; 8.65, 100, 102n,105n,111,112,115,127,135, 137, 145; 10.30,53,60,62; 11.54; 13.103n; 14.12; 15.18; 16.3.21. 29. word-formation 1.16,18,24,29,34, 38,40n,41,46n, 47n,48n,51,52, 65n, 67,68,70,72,74,75,76n, 77 information processing8.1; 18passin1; 19.25, 61, 66-68 sequence and 19.68 structure8.14, 37. 151; 13.3:. 14.40: 15.28n; 18.40; 19.60n,83-84 unit 17.68,78n; 18.3-19; 19.27; 11.1 l , 16 value 8.47,87; I 1.36,45; 12.51-52; 17.102; 18.2-4 see also: communicative (dynamism), focus, given (vs. new), grammar, prosody
.
lndex 1715
1714 lndex informative vs. imaginative prose 3.73 itfrequently 8.65,70n, 77 inlrirlfie 3.9 -ittg participle 3.2, 3-5, 7-20.32, 33.36. 38,40,42,49, 53,54, 55,56; 4% 67;7.15-19.81; 12.2211; 15.12; 16.28n.77: 1.68.69 -blg p~lrticiplccl;luse 3.2. 4411;4.07; X . 13. 28, 59n, 6111, 7511, 125; ').I. 3.0, 38; 11.18,40; 12.23,65; 13.50-51: 14.6, 19; 15.3,12-14,25,34,39, 53, 56. S8 62; 16.411,20. 36. 38. 3') 40. 42.49.53, 68, 8.3; 17.28, 20.30. 33-34,35,36,64; 18.20,29,48n; 19.60 ambiguity with noun phrase 15.13-15 extraposed 18.34-35, 36n independent interpretation 16.39 premodification by 17.98-99 with/wit[lout sulljcct 9.38; 14.6, 1911; 15.12,75; 16.20,36, 38,39,42,83; 17.28-30; 19.60 see also: nominal clause -;rig suffix (denominal) 1.32 (deverba1)8.127, 133; 10.30n; 16.72; 17.53,54; 1.3, 16n, 31n,35,61-63, ingraliate onese/J(~vith)6.25 ingredient preposition9.7,61 inhabit 10.27n inherent-tadjective (inherent) initial (position) -end position 8.22,23, 35,47,49, 63, 90, 118; 18.9 in clause 3.23; 6.38-39,41; 7.29, 54; 8.15, 16,20,23,26, 35-38,43,44, 47,51,52,55,65,66,70,71,77n, 78,81,86,87,89-92,95,98, 101n2 109n, 112, 114, 118, 119,120, 121, 124,130,138n,143n, 144,146,147, 150-151;9.6,42,58; 10.17,58,59, 60n,64n,66; 11.1, 14% 19,31; 12.27n, 28-30; 13.11,36,38,84; 14.9; 15.5,7,42,71; 17.49-50,78; 18.5.9-10, 13, 19, 20-25,49,50, 58,59; 11.14; 111.17-18,20,22 in discourse 8.135, 142 in phrase 5.121; 13.41 . in sentence4.24; 6.2711; 8.147; 10.52-53; 11.25.49; 13.7-9, I8n, 54-55,103; 14.13n,16n,24n, 29% 38-41; 15.12,20-23,25,32,41,43, 47,50,53-56.59-62; 16.3811; 17.5, 34,122; 18.20-25,3311; 19.60n
initial [contl in word 1.3 letter 5.29,66,70,71n, 118; 10.53; 17.9111;19.75; 111.28, 29 or medial 8.20 words o~iiitted1 1.49 srr,o/,v,r:;idverhi;ll(fronting),ellipsis. Rn:ll. I'l,,llting,~~lucli:~l, preposition,r o , Slrcss i ~ ~ i ~1,1311 i : ~ ~ i ~ ~ ~ ~ i~ririrrl~' 8.55. 13811 initiator discourse 7.54; 11.1511 role lO,2lll i~tlrnt> 11,h-(wnrll) clausc/se~~le~~cc 2.4/1,49, 50; 3.21,24, 34,42,44,45,48n, 52; 4.5311.54; 6.37n. 59,60.69; 8.16, 68,77n,83, 103,109, 110, 124; 10.6; 11.1-2, 5-23.37,40: 12.63; 14.17,20; 15.3, 4.5-6,7,8,9, 12.49. 51. 54; 16.35, 3711; 18.33n; 19.62.65; 111.23-24 cllipsis in 12.4611,49.-50,63 meaning 2.56; 6.53 negativelpositive 8.97 pronoun- 111lr-(word) seeo/.~f~: coordinate, determiner, if; IVII-(question),ycJs-ttoquestion interrupted+discontinuous intervals,at ADJ9.41 itttestines 5.77 intimate-tinformal into9.7, 13, 15-16,26,32; 10.10n; 16.2 intonation 1.18: 2.15, 56: 5.374 39n; 6.33;7.63n;8.17,43. 100, 117, 124, 126n. 127n, 130% 14311; 10.16,52, 6 4 6 5 ; 11.22,56n; 13.47n,54,92, 96-97; 14.29. 37,41: 15.611, 20,21, 23,28n,49n,54,62,74; 17.68,72, 84,86, 112: 18.28,37,56,59n; 19.65: 11.1-2,8,11-20; 111.2 vs. music 11.2, 17 seealso: nucleus, punctuation, tone, tone-unit intrcr- 1.26n intranational +language intransitive construction/verb 2.16, 3211: 3.38, 68, 77n;4.34; 6.25n; 7.1 In, 15,55; 8.22n. 28,32,33,47,94; 9.46,47, 6511; 10.2-4, Ion, 1211, 16, 21, 22, 24.30; 11.46; 12.34; 15.811; 16.211, 3,4n,5,18-19,21,24,26,28, 3811, 75; 17.29,31.43, 102; 18.13, 32,43, 49; 1.24,42,50,65 conversion to copular 1.54 conversion to transitive 16.19; 1.54
1716 lndex intransitive [cant] pure 16.19 see ulsu: complcmentntion intrinsic-tmodality ir~tr~~rlrrc~, to 16.57 introductions 11.53.54 invariable form 2.35; 3. In, 44,50; 6.54 see ulsu: noun, plural, singular inl.oriuhlj8.65, 67-68 invariant --+tag incent 8.13811; 16.26 inversion 2.46; 9.40; 10.60n; 12.3311; 17.109; 18.22-24 subject-operator 2.50; 3.23,24,37,40, 47;4.53n;8.35,70,98, 112, 119, 120; 10.6,7n, 17,57,58,59,66; 11.1,S-23,31,34; 12.29-30,60; 13.36.38,40,42; 14.10, 13n, 20, 2511; 15.5, 34,36, 5011, 74; l8.22,24 subject-main verb 3.2411; 8.47; 10.26, 4311; 11.39; 12.27n,28; 14.29; 16.3; 17.7811;18.21,22,23,24n, 49-50 inverted commas-tquotation (marks) inaest irl 16.6 incitatior~17.36 invitations4.6411; 6.60; 11.3,4, 17,20n, 29,40,53 incite (verb) 16.63 inco11:e 16.39; (- d) 7.21 inward(s) 8.41 -ion 1.39; 11.4 -ious 1.39 ir- 9.5711; I.17,21 Irish English 1.25 see a/.su: regional English ironically 8.127 irony 4.6411; 5.3711; 8.70; 11.7n,34,54, 5511; 12.911; 15.38,54n; 17.57n, 112; 18.40,55; 19.47n,65,75; I.21n,32 irrutional16.72 irregurdless (of) 9.57n irregular+ comparison, plural, sentence, subordinate clause, verb irregulurly 8.65,70n, 77 irrespectiae(of) 9.10.5611; 15.39n; ( - whether) 15.4111 irrrrrieuubly 7.56 irritate(- d ) 16.71 ;(- ing) 16.72 is3.32; 12.48; 18.49~1;(- n'r) 3.32 see also: that -is nouns 5.97 -ise 1.42 -ish (adjectival) 5.56-57; 6.6411; 7.1,25; 17.102; I.15,38,70
lndex 1717 islands+ names (classified) -ism I.32,36 -is! 1.32,37 issrre (noun) 19.24n it i~rnhicnt->it (prop) anticipatory 2.59; 3.49n,70; 6.17; 8.128; 10.26n; 12.28,47-48; 14.6, 26; 15.3.25; 16.30,3411,45, 72, 73, 76.82. 83; 18.33--36,44n comment clause use 15.54-55 dummy/empty/expletive+it (prop) extrapositive+ it (anticipatory) impcrsonal8.91n; 16.59n introductory +it (prop) nonpersonal 5.104, 107- 111; 6.8, 14, 20 nonreferring-t it (prop) omission 11.50; 12.47-48 personal pronoun 3.38; 5.104,
J jrrggecl7.19 j[1il5.44 Jap:inesc 1.2; 1.13 jargon 1.28 Juycee 1.75 jeans 5.76 jerk buck 16.4 Jesus 5.1 14 jingles 1.72 jitters, the 5.49n job (vs. work) 5.4 joint+participation journalistic language 1.28 jubilr~rit1 6.78
junior 7.85 just (diminisher subjunct) 8.11 1 (emphasizer) 7.57; 8.100, 102 (restrictive subjunct) 5.17n; 8.100n, 116, 118, 120; 11.40; 15.20,27,29, 50
107-111;6.2,6,8,14,20,21,39;
9.9; 15.19n; 18.33n preparatory+;! (anticipatory) pro-form 7.29; 12.13,24-26,28; 15.3; 16.36; 19.47 prop6.17; 10.15,26, 33,5011; 12.47-48; 15.59; 18.25-30, 3311; 19.48n referring 6.16 stressed 6.16, 29 (- . . .all) 6.45; (-S) 5.14; 6.2,6, 14, 29; ( - self') 6.6, 14,23-28 Italian 5.100 italics 5.1 In; 9.7n, Ion; 14.29; 18.14; 11.21; I11.24,28 convention in this book 2.35; 3.111; 7.50 itch (verb) 4.29:,(/or) 16.38,41 -ire 1.37, 3911; 11.5 irerri of'5.7 item-tcomparative item subjunct 8.92-98 iterative 4.40; 12.1 sec ulsu: coordination its(elf') -t it -ily I. 14.36.39; 11.5 -ive 1.40 - i . ~nouns 5.96 -ize 1.2, 15, 35,42
.
(time subjunct) 8.98 (-us) 13.4211; 14.14;(-1y)8)8.127; (not . . .but) 9.4111 justify 16.39
-
kill (verb) 16.26 kilohertz 5.90 kilorrrc,rri, 1.66 kitid(- Iy) 7.9; 8.90-91 ; 11.2911; ( - qf) 5.6:7.56n.64:8.1 11, 113, 114, 126: 10.43 kind-noun kirrglj~7.9 kinship terms 5.66n ki.s.s(vcrb)6.31 ; 16.26 KL 1.75 kneel(ed) 3.15 kr1~4t3.15 knc,~~, 3.16 knickers 5.76 kr~~/c/k~ri~~es 5.83 krrock4.35; ( - 11ouln) 16.2611;( - N Jl?~iftg)16.17: (- N ,scrr.s~lc.s.s) 16.45 knon~3.16:4.4,29; 12.28,35,65; 14.30, 3611; 16.26,31,35,50,52; 17.112; 19.47n (. . . S) 15.54; (be n thut) 18.36; (-how to)4.52; ( I - ) 12.6511; 15.54; (-?I) 3.16; 7.83; (be rr (to)) 3.7611; (~vcN r1) 3.76n; (you -) 15.54; 19.17,65 knowledge-textralinguistic factors, shared knowledge knowledgeableabout 9.60; 16.69
-
-
-
-
L k (= thousorid) 6.65 karute 1.13 keen 7.9; 16.79; (- (up)ori) 16.69 keep3.15; 10.24; 16.2n,21,23, 24,26, 44,46,48; (- alvuyfrorn) 16.29; (- on) 16.40; ( - on o r . . . to) 16.5111; (-pacen~ith) 16.8,58; ( - quiet abolrt) 9.60; ( - tubson) 16.8; ( - up with) 16.29; (- Ving) kennels 5.91
kick (verb)4.27; (- at) 9.46
-/(syllabic) I.76n , -/doubling 3.8; 7.79 LA 1.75 lab 1.74 luck (verb) 3.68; 10.14; 16.27 ladies anrlgentlernen 19.65 1ud.v 19.65 luir13.16 lair1 3.16 lakes-+ names (classified) Lallans Scots 1.25 lurnb 5.4 Lancaster-Oslo/Bergen corpus 1.42; 3.3%; 6.4611;9,19n,21n,22n; 15.47 language- block, bureaucratic, creative, English, fixed word-order, foreign language, formal, inflectional, informal, instructional, instrumental, journalistic, learned, legal, literary, occupational,
lndex
1718 lndex
language [cont] printed, regulative, religious, bcictitilic, spoke11VS. writtell. st;ltid;ird. technic;~l languages+ names (classified) llrrge 7.88; (- /.v) 8.116 I;trger sittl;1tion4.11 ; 5.29 Irrr~c*.vl S . 34 lurvir(~)5.94 laser 1.75 last (conjunct) 8.1 37 (postdeterminer) 5.22,34,67, 119; 7.21;8.52; 9.40; 17.15, 32; 19.38 (time adjunct) 8.55,77n; 19.37 (verb) 8.51 ; 1 6 . 2 4 48 ~ (at -)9.ln,28; 19.55;(- blrtnot least) 8.14411; 19.56; ( - 11') 8.137; 19.38; ( - oj'all)8.137; ( - out) 16.12; (this/fkese -) 8.60n late (adjective) 7.8,36 (adverb) 7.8,83; 8.55n, 77 ( - ly) 7.8,70,83; 8.55,62,63; (of-) 7. ..7nn -.. later 7.70, 83; 8.55,72.77; 19.37.38, 4711; (-on) 8.5511 Latin 1.2, 14, 15; 4.1711; 5.82,91,93-96, 112, 123; 6.4; 7.21n,85; 9.7n; 13.104; 17.5411; 1.6, 14,21,28,39, 56,75; 11.4 see also: neo-classical latter 17.97; (the -) 19.49 laugh (vs. la~rghter)5.4 laugh (at) 9.46n, 63; ( - . . . ofl) 16.411; ( - . . . selfsick) 16.45n /oy(verb)3.10, 16;9.l6n; 16.19n,48; ( - down) 16.4n lay (past tense, lie) 3.16 -1e (base ending) 7.47,80,81 lead(verb) 3.18; 16.26,48,50 lea~~(ed/t) 3.15 leap(ed/t)3.15;9.31; (- ouer)9.31 l e a r ~3.13; 4.8; 16.31,35, 38; (-about) 9.60; 16.28;(-edl 03.13 learned(adjective) 3.13; 7.19 learned language 1.28 least (postdeterminer) 5.24: 7.78 (pronoun) 6.48.53; 12.10, 17 (subjunct)8.111, 113, 115 incomparison 7.74,82n, 83; 8.131; 19.52 vs. /ewes1 5.24 (at-)8.116;9.ln;(inthe-)8.lll; 10.62; ( - ofal/) 8.1 11
-
,
letter [cont] 75; III.l,4, Ion, 11, 14,21, 23, 25, 29,30 rcdi~pliciltion13.104n seealso: acronym, initial, silent letter-writing 10.53n; 11.47; 17.91n; 19.65,85; 111.2, 11,1411, 30 k.tfrr.v 5.77 level -tcoordin;ltion, liicrarcliy level tone 11.14, 1511, 18n lexcme+lexical, vocabulary lexical factors9.12; 12.2; 13.89; 16.21; 17.39; 18.1; 19.7; 11.16 hybrid+ word-formation item 2.35; see vocabulary linkage 19.19.21-24,2511, 33-35.72 morpheme I.2n recurrence 19.23 see also: genitive,prosody, verb lexicalization 17.8,51,96, 11 1; 1.8, 9-12, 13-15,36n,38,57,65 conditions on compounds 1.58 phrasal 9.12n; 1.1211, 16 sec also: conversion, relexicalization lexicography 2.3811 lexicology +grammar, vocabulary lexicon +vocabulary li~ble16.79;(-to)4.66;16.69 lib 1.12, 74 libretto 5.100 lice 5.84 licence/licerlse 1.56 lick N irrto sltape 16.8 lie (verb) 3.411, 10, 16; 4.27, 32.38; 10.24; 16.19,21,24; (-and. . .) 13.98; (-S[) 3.4n;(- lo~v)16.17 lieu,in9.66; (-of)9.11, 12x1, 13 & ' l (in a//. . . -) 8.62 lfe/lives 5.83
leoue(verb)3.15;4.45;9.45; 10.27; 16.19,44,46, 53, 54. 57; (- 11cfi)re) l6,15;(-0/f) 16,39;(-irr!O 16.12; ( N .vtrr~~rli~r~) 10.17; ( t(~[f;~r) 16.57 lectlrre nbourlo~~ 16.28 kd3.IR 1(:0(:~) 8.41 (p;\" tctisc, k . u ! ~ 3.15 .) let'+ branching, dislocation 59; legal language 1.28; 3.141~37% 4.58n;8.91n;9.12n. 38n,56; 11.3% 12,2011; 13.104n; 14.20; 15.36; 17.73; 19.23,47n, 6411; 111.29 lend3.13;(- to) 18.3111 length (dimension) 5.8; 17.1 14 (of structure)2.7-9; 7.81 ; 8.87, 150, 153; 17.115; 18.7; 19.47.68n; 111.17-18.20 see also: adjective,long, medial, noun phrase, prepositional phrase, short, subject, tone unit, vowel, word lengtke~t7.8511 lent 3.13 less (postdeterminer) 5.24 (preposition)9.8 (prdnoun) 6.48,53; 12.10, 17 in comparison 7.74,82n, 83,86: 8.131; 10.66; 13.100; 15.63-64, 69n, 71; 19.52 vs./ewer 5.24,53 (-er) 7.78,83; (nolnot (any) (. . .) than) 15.70; ( - ofa . . . than) 15.69n,7ln; (- so) 12.27; (- . . . than) 14.13; 15.63-64,70 -less 7.1;9.57n; I.5,38 Iesso17.85n lest 3.61; 8.86; F.12; 15.48 let (lexical) 3.17,51 ; 1l.26n; 16.52 (particle) 3.51,60; 11.26-29; 16.52n (- alone) 13.10311; (- cloivtl) 16.2611; ( - Nbe) 16.17;(- Ngo) 16.9, 17, 52n;(- on) 10.6111; 16.3111; (-out) 16.3ln, 34n secalso: directive, let's
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-
-
-let I.15,33,77 let's3.51n;6.7, 18; 11.26,29,30n; 11.9; (-not) 3.51n; 11.3011; (- us) 3.5111; ( - yolr) 3.51n letter (alphabetic) 5.81; 8.138n. 143; 17.88n; 1II.3,28,29n capital5,29,60,66n, 70, 118; 8.13811; 10.53; 14.29; 17.91n; 19.75; 1.59,
l
!
ligllt (adjective) 7.8.88 (adverb) 7.8 (verb)3.18; (- ed)3.18 (in(the) of)9.11, 1211; 14.14; 15.46n; ( - ly) 7.8; (-upon) 16.5 light +punctuation
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lightnirtg (verb) 3.511 like (conjunction) 8.79; 9.4; 14.12, 36, 50; 19.60n (particle) 16.2,22,24n (preposition) 6.27; 7.81 ; 8.79; 9.4.7, 9.48; 13.10311; 15.50n, 71; 17.3711
1718
like [cont] VS. 11.5' + U S (a~ldthe-) 13.104; (ifj~ou-) 4.52n; 8.126; 12.6511; ( - to) (tlppr(ixim:~tor) 8.1 12n; ~ l l ~ l ~ l ~ )/ 4,5811 ~/~~~~rl -like 1.3, 38 likely7.9,81n; 8.127; 14.36; 16.72, 79; (be to) 3.47,66; (n~ost/yuire/ very-)8.127 liketvise (conjunct) 8.137, 143 (subjunct)8.116 pro-form use 12.10,25n (do-) 12.10 liking+verbs (semantic classification) -lily 7.9; 1.41 limiting-trestrictive line (in -) 9.66; (in ~virh)9. l l line (dimension) 9.15, 17 linearity 18.3
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-
-
linguistic context 6.1, 15,3811;7.30; 8.144n; 10.4; 11.38.41; 12.6-7,9,46; 14.8; 15.13,73; 17.8,46n, 80 organization 1.12-13, 18.27 seeaho: extralinguistic factors linguistics 1.12, 16, 18;2.4n; I.16n see also: textlinguistics linkers 13.6 see a1.90: discourse (connectivity), lexical linking verb-tcopular verb links 5.9 1 list 11.20; 17.86; 11.10, 13; 111.11, 23n I ~ S I 4.30; ~ N (- to)4.30; 10.23; 16.28,53 listing conjunct 8. 136, 137-138, 143; 15.18 lit 3.18 literal -> metaphorical literal/y (disjunct) 8.124, 130n (subjunct) 8.100, 126 literary language 1.28; 19.28 little (adjective) 5.24n; 7.88 (determiner) 6.59; 10.59 (frequency adjunct)8.65, 77 (minimizer) 8.11 1 - 113 (postdeterminer)5.23-24; 7.83; 10.66; 15.9 (pronoun) 6.48,53,62; 7.69; 12.10, 17; 17.15 comparison of 7.78,83 (a -) 5.23-24,38n;6.48,53,62; 7.56; 8.77,98, 11 1,114,115; 10.59,61n,
1722 Index
Index 1723
nraxi- 1.24 nruxinrize 7.8511 maximizer colnp;~risonoI'8. 106. I In niodilicationol'8.106. 1 I t ) subjunct 8,104,105-110 nmxirmtm 5.95 n~qv3.2 1. 39, 40, 5 1,60: 4.47, 49. 50, 5 1, 52. 5 3 , 54.00, 01.03; 0.01 ; H.103; I1,5n,Xn, 13. 39; 13.31; 14.2411.34; 15,40,48,55~;18.16, 24; (-0s we;;) 4.5311; (-not) 3.39; 10.67; (- n't) 3.23.39; 10.5511; 11.8n maybe 8.127 M.C. 1.75 nte6.2-6,s-11, 14, 1811,27 sec also: l meals+ names (classified) mean (verb) 3.15; 16.26, 31, 38,50; (1 -) 17.80 meaning vs. form 2.35n,38n, 41; 4.1 ; 13.47,51; 1.3, 9, 10, 15,20 meaning relations-+semantic (relations) seealso: absolute, abstract, additive, anticipatory, aspectual,causative, circumstance, concessive, conditional, consequence, contingency, contrast, derogatory, dimension, direction, genitive,grammar, hypothetical, inferential,-ing participle clause, instrumental, interrog:~tive,lexical, manner, matching, modal, negative, nonfinite, noun, object, outcome, passive, place, pragmatic, preposition, process, progressive, pronoun, purpose, putative. reason, reciprocal, repetition, resemblance, respect, result, semantic, some, subject, time, verb, verb phrase, word, word-class means (noun) 5.9 1 (by of)9.11; (byany -) 10.62; (by no -) 6.5011; (-of )9.11n
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'
preposition 9.7,43,49 see also: noun, process meanslagentive spectrum 9.43,48-51 meant 3.15; (be to) 3.47 meantime8.137, 145; 19.36; (in the -) 8.137; 19.36 meanwhile 8.137, 14311, 145; 19.36; (in the -) 8.137; 19.36 measure adjective7.66
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measure [cont] ;1dvcrbi:1I8,3,4,Y,48,57,63; 10.10, 60.66; 16.24n gcl~itivcof5.1 16: 17.38 phl;~se5.18, 3811:0.4111;7.88; L ) . J 2 ~ ~ . 35,64; 10.13, 14, 20n,27n, 35n; 13.102; 15.6411; 16.2711; 17.55, 108; 1.53 r,.vo/,s,r. I I O I I I I . p i ~ ~ l i l iVoC ~ I I >~H .( H C I I I I I I I I I C cI:~ssilici!lio~~) ntedi~~ 5.95n, 98n: 10.3411 medial cooccurrence 8.20 end- 8.19,20,23,60,84,90, 102, 114, 130 in cl;tusc 5.16; 7.27; 8.16 -18, 22, 23, 38,47,55,63, 65,71,78n, 8l.86, 90.91 -92,95,97,98, 102, 10311, 105, 107, 109, 114, 116% 117, 118, 119, 121, 124, 130, 146, 150-153; lO.L7,58n; 13.38,95; l8.6,41; 111.17-20 insentence 10.52; 11.811, 25; 13.55; 14.29,38-41; 15.22,25,47,53-56, 57n,60; 18.20n.59 initial- 8.18,20, 21,23,47,55,65, 102, 109n,114,130 long structure at 8.17 medial- 8.20 variants of 8.18-20 see also: ellipsis,final, initial medical(adjective) 7.13.37 (noun) 7.13 medium 5.95 medium 1.19,29-30, 36.42 meet3.18;6.31; 16.19,26 nremo 1.74 memorandum 5.95 mot 5 . 5 4 1 84; ~ 19.65 -men 5.56-57 -men[ 1.34
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(make of) 16.8; (no1 10 -1 13.103n mercifully 8.127 mere 17.97;(-ly)8.111, 116, 118; (not ly) 8.120; (not ly . .but) 10.4111 merger6.2; 13.11; 17.33 Merriam-Webster Third International Dictionary 1.13n mess (around) 16.12; (make a -of) 16.7,8
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-
.
Me,s.srs5.103 met 3.18 metalinguistic commcnt disjunct 8.8. 1 1 1. 126; 10.06: 11.24; 12.31; 15.38 (subjunct) 8.12011, 126 metanalysis 1.711~ metaphorical vs. literal 1.8; 3 . 1 4 ~16. 18; 5.12211;H.2.4.42n. 55. 1201; 0 . ISn. 1011.3.7. 33. 3911,61 ; 10.10. 11, 21,32n,47,511; 14.22: 16.3,4n, 5n, 12,14,24,29,48; 18.55; 1.7,12n,26 see also :preposition mclonymy 10.2111 nretrop01i.s 5.97 rne~vs5.91 mhm 7.56 mice 5.84 nricro- I.24n, 66 mid-Atlantic dialect 1.24 middle+ become, verb midi- 1.24 might 3.21,39,40;4.50,51,53,59-63, 65n; 8.103; 11.5n, 13; 14.20.23, 2411.34; 15.36,48,55n; 18.24; ( - as we11)4.53n; (- not) 3.39;
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10.68; (- n't) 3.39; 10.68; 11.811 mighty (intensifier) 7.5611 mike 1.74 mildly 8.1 11 miller~nium5.95 million 5.89; 6.65 mind(verb) 10.6111; 16.26,35,39; (-you) 15.54; (ifyoudon't -) 8.12411; (to PRON -)9.63 mine6.2-6, 8-1 1, 14.29 mini- I.13n, IS, 17.24.77 minimal free form I.2n minimize 7.85n minimizer subjunct 8.104,111-114, 115; 11.21 negative 8.1 11-1 14 seealso: nonassertive minimum 5.95 minor 7.85 minor-tconversion, postmodification, punctuation, question minority 10.43n minus (preposition) 9.8 minute (noun) (- S) 5.77 (the (that)) 15.29n mis- 1.23 misbehave 8.10811
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nti.scolc1~1arc 8.1 ORn nri.sco.st 3.17 ntisilexpectation, given New Zealand English 1.26 see also: regional English rre1v.s 5.75 news reporting 1.28; 3.73; 4.21 ; 14.2911; 18.26n; 19.34n seealso: broadcasting neivscast 1.76 newspapers+ names (classified) ne.xt(conjunct) 8.137; 19.18,38,55,56 (ordinal) 5.22, 34,67; 7.21; 8.52; 9.40; 17.15,32,57; 19.37, 38 (time adjunct) 8.55.72 (- to) 9.5, l0,20 -ng adjective base ending 7.80 -nge verb base ending 3.9 nice 16.76, 80; (-and. . .) 13.99 nightly 7.9; 8.64 niglrty I.74n ni16.64n no (determiner)2,54; 5.12, 13, ,4, 23; 6.45,59,62,64n;9.58; 10.42.58, 60,62,66; 12.18; 15.14.41 (intensifier) 10.60 reaction signal 7.54 response8.100, 13011; 10.55-70; 11.4-13; 13.102n vs. nor 10.58 (-. . .fro.. .) 11.4311; (- one)6.9, 45-47,62; 10.50,60 see also: doubt, n~orc No. 17.8811; III.30n
lndex
1728 lndex no- 2.54; 5.12; 6.13.45-47, G2 no article-->;~rticlc no-one -t tto(one) noblc (adjective/noun) 7.13 nobody 2.54; 6.9.45-47,62; 9.58; 10.43, 50,60 rrod (vcrh) 4.27.35 ttoisi, ohour/abrood 16.34n nomina16.1,23,46, 55; 7.45; 9.3 expression 12.16, 1911; 13.75-76 predicative-tnoun (predicative) see also: coordination nominal clause 4.6411; 7.53; 1 1.18n, 45; 12.20; 14.9,22; 15.2.3-16,25,65; 16.35,43,83n; 17.63, 112; 18.33.39 complement use 3.46n; 10.8 existential 15.16 -brg 3.49; 9.1 ; 16.47; 19.60 object use 3.62; 4.29; 10.7; 18.28 prepositional complement use 9.1 relative6.20.35n; 10.7, 34,38; 11.1811; 12.63;15.ln,2,3,511,8-9, 1211, 18,53,56; 17.9, 12, 18.20; 18.29.33n subject use 10.6, 15 that- 11.18; 13.50-51; 14.20,22,30; 15.54; 17.26; 18.2611; 16.16 vocative use 10.53 wh-9.1; 12.63; 13.50-51; 14.22 nominalization 1.28; 2.31n,43; 6.2411; 7.72-73;9.14; 10.25; 14.5; 15.13n, 14; 16.36,84; 17.26, 33,47,51-53; 18.43; 19.22,49;L26n, 31n,35,42, 44,71n nomitrally 8.127 nominative case 6.4 non- 1.15, 17,21; 111.4 nonagentive-t verbs (semantic classification) nonassertive adverb 10.60 context 3.42,43; 4.51; 5.23; 7.56n, 78, 86; 8.62, 107; 9.58; 10.57-70; 13.31; 15.14; 16.32n,35,39,61,71.73 determiner 6.45; 10.60 form 2.53-55; 5.14; 8.63n,69,97,98; 10.57-70; 11.6-7, 12, 13, 16, 17, 22,23, 28; 14.3611; 15.27,35,52,63, 73; 17.5; 18.24n minimizer 8.1 11- 114 pronoun 6.13.45-46,48,53,59-61, territoiy 2.53; 6.52 see also: assertive,determiner
nonattributive-) ;idjcctivc (predicative only) nonce-formation 2.4211; 8.8911; 17.1 1 l ; 1.5t1,15, 18,32,40n,41,49, 58,7111 noncommilted 4.5 1.66 nonconclusive-tverbs (semantic cl:~ssific;~tion) noncorrclative-tcorrelative, so, suclr, ihrough noncount conversion to count 1.53 indefinite article and 5.9n noun 2.30n; 4.4,7,34, 35; 5.2-9, 11, 13, 14, 17,23-25, 39,49n,52,54,58, 59,74, 75,8711, loon; 6.50,52; 7.14; 10.38, 42; 12.16, 19; 13.66.79; 15.7, 69-71,73; 17.54; 1.32, 35, 36,47 pronoun 6.41,45,49,53,61; 12.1811 see also: count nondefining-t nonrestrictive none 6.12,44n, 45,48,62, 6411; 10.42,58, 60; 12.10, 17, 18; (-the) 10.60 nonequivalence comparison 15.63, 71 -72,75 rronetheless 8.137, 145 nonfactual condition-tcondition (hypothetical) nonfinite clause 2.1311; 3.37n,40,52; 6.24n, 25n,31; 7.20; 8.13,20n, 29, 53,59, 61n,75n, 86,87,127n, 132; 9.3, 32n, 55; 10.1n. 6,34, 57,5811; 12.221~43-44;13.3511; 14.5-8, 10, 15-19; 15.1-3,lO-15, 18-19,30, 34,41,50,56,58-62; 16.25, 36-42, 49,64; 17.2,8,28-36, 37,54n,62, 92-93; 18.33-36,53-54,59; 19.38, 41,60; 111.18. clause ellipsis 12.67 forms 2.27; 3.2,32,36,40,45,47,48, 52; 4.55,66; 9.3; 10.34; 11.43; 12.23,26,49, 59; 14.5, 10; 16.17; 17.5411; 18.27 frequency of clauses 14.6 functions 3.30 phrase 3.2211,4911,52,53,56,57; 4.19, 67-68; 17.58 verb+nonfinite (forms) verb phrase, meaning in 4.67-68 with/withoutsubject 10.6; 14.7-8: 15.58-62; 16.36,49; 17.28-30 see also: coordinate,finite, not, object, postmodification, subordinator, verb
non/~(~mtttcrhle 1.21 n nongrkid;ihlc-->atUcctivc,adverb.
gradability, noun, verbs (semantic classification) nonhe;ided -> headed noninherent+;~djective (noninherent) nonlimiting >nonrcstrictivc nonlinguistic-textralinguistic Pactors nonnative-, English nonnegative forms 3.23,32,33, 36,39 nonparticipial +adjective nonpast +modal. present nonperfective 3.34;4.67; 8.61; 14.26; nonpersort 1.2 1n nonpersonal gender in noun 5.104,107-108,118n; 6.37;
33-34,36-39,41,42,45,47,49; 10.49-50; 16.15; 17.1 1-15,22,25 see also: agent, it, noun (personal),subject (personal) nonpredicative-tadjective (adjective only) nonprogressive construction 4.25-33, 46,67; 10.14; 17.7.9811; 18.43 see also: verb (stative meaning)
nonreflexive-tverb nonrestrictive clause 8.94n; 15.23,28n, 29; 18.6; 111.18, 19 modification 5.64; 6.20, 53; 13.79; 14.9; 15.2; 17.3,4-29,34,35,44, 48-50,58,65,94,95, 110, 115; 111.19 see also: adjective, adjunct, adverbial, apposition,postmodification, premodification, relative clause nonsentence 11.38,45,53-55 nonspecific-tspecific nonstandard 1.22, 37,41 construction 1.20; 3.32, 34n; 5.6711, 89n,llln;6.5, 18n,43n,55n;7.7, 56n, 83; 8.69; 9.4; 10.63n, 70; 12.2011; 13.7411; 14.29n; 16.2411; 17.91n, 112; 19.42n,63; 1.1811 orthography 3.36n, 44.4511.51 ; 12.47n,48n,49n, 5011; 14.2311; 17.47, 112 pronunciation 3.511; 111.27 vocabulary 3.17; 9.5711; 10.53; 19.65; I. 12,46n nor (coordinator) 10.41 ; 13.5, 18-20,40, 103; 111.6, 12
1729
nor [cont] (subjunct) 8.1 16. 119, 120; 12.29; 13.1 1.36.40; 18.24n pro-form use 3.26; 6.59; 12.29, 30n; 18.24 s c ~ rrlro: , o,rrl, hrrf, ncirhrr ttorrrtnll~~ 8.65, (17 60, 125; ( - .spi,rrkirg) 8.67n normntive +prescriptive north(ward(.c.))7.4611; 8.41 ; 9.66 not (particle) 2.34,48,50, 54; 3.22-24, 37,42n,45,47,51n, 58; 6.50n.59; 7.15n,22,56n;8.8,103, 113, 116n, 117, 120, 131; 10.54-70; 11.7.28; 12.64; 13.36-37,42; 15.36; 17.96; 11.9 clausal vs. phrasal 8.1 16n position in nonfinite clauses 14.6 position in questions 11.7 position with conjoins 13.42, 57 pro-form use 10.6611; 12.28; 13.57; 15.6411; 16.71n,72n (-a) 10.62; (-at all) 8.70; (and-. . .) 13.42n;(-. . .but) 10.4111;13.33; (-one) 10.62; (or -) 11.20; 15.6 see also: ecen, ecer, hal/,i/.just, much, negation, no, only,yrt notably 8.1 16; 17.73,87 notarypuhlic 5.102 note (verb) 16.31,35; (tcrke of) 16.58 nothitrg 2.54; 6.12,45,62; 10.60; 17.15 (numeral) 6.64n notice (noun) (take -of) 16.8, 58; (untilfirrther -) 8.59n (verb) 16.31,35,42n, 52.53 rtotfi 16.59 notional+concord, gender, grammar, passive, plural, subject notivirhstanditlg8.137, 145; 9.7, 56; 15.39n rtorigl~t6.64n nought (symbol) 6.64n noun 2.28,29, 34,35; 3.23, 59; 5passim; 6.1, 13; 7.33,86; 8.47, 54, 10311, 106n,133n;9.11; 10.511; 11.45; 14.24-25,32; 16.55-57; 18.13; 19.34-35; 11.5-6 -adjective combination 17.56, 59 affixation in 8.89; 1.21-49,51-53.56, 57,59-61.63-66,69-71 agent(ial/ive) 7.36.73; 17.7, 52,97; I.18n. 34,44,62,63,69,71 aggregate 1.32
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1730 Index noun [contl animate 8.40; 9.52; 10.51 ; 16.73; 17.42; 1.64 ;~ltributivc+ noun (prc~nodilic~ltio~~ by) case 5.112-126 classes 5.2-9, 13, 118 cl;~usc- F no1ni11;llcl~nlsc col~~lnon 2.30; 5.2. 1 I , 20 .W, (1011. 61-64, 67, 69. 125; 10.53; 17.5; 1.53 compound 5.91, 102, 122x1; 17.59, 104- 106; I.19,61,71 ; 11.6; 111.4 countable+count (noun) dual class membership 5.2,4,58 dynamic 1.53 ellipsis of 7.24; 12.1911, 35n. 4511, 55-58 evaluative 10.53; 16.76; 18.13.59n eventive 8.76 general 5.7; 7.24.26; 8.39; 9.2; 10.43, 53; 11.18n; 15.8, 15; 17.24,26; 17.93; 18.13, 14n,30, 5911; 19.35; 11.7 gradable 7.14n; 8.101; 9.62; 10.58; 15.69n,70 head+noun phrase (head) human5.29n, 55; 10.51; 17.46; 1.27 human relevance 5.118 inanimate 5.104, 110, 11 1, 118; 6.16; 10.51; 14.22; 17.39,45; 1.4011.64 invariable 5.74.75-78 locative 5.1 18, 119; 17.24 mass-t noncount (noun) material 7.14; 17.116 meaning of 2.43; 6.1 1.47; 7.32,35,
'
means 17.116 measure 5.8, 89n modal 17.36 modification of 5.59,61,64 nongradable 7.63n; 10.58 parallel use of 5.12n, 50 partitive-tpartition pejorative 7.3611 personal 5.104-108,ll l , 117, 118; 6.9.37; 7.1711, 19.24.40; 16.66; 19.4711 predicative2.17n; 7.1411; 1.51 . premodification by 5.7n, 76; 7.12-14, 45,68; 17.2,94,104-109; 1.26.27, 51 proper2.30; 5.2, 17,29,60-72,74,75, 81,125;8.141; 17,5,33,46,76,88n, 89.91, 114; 18.15.28n; 19.32,34;
Index 1731 noun [cont] proper-common conversion 5.61 ; 1.5211, 53 cl~l;l~ltit;~tivc 5.18. 25. 89 - 90; 6.65; 10.3511;17.108 repeated 13.102 spatial 17.116: 1.18 slativc2.43; 17.95; 1.53 alcllivr ~ I ~ I I I I I I I ~ C T I I I I V P I ~ S ~ I I I I 1.53 lcrnpor;ll 5.14n. 17, I X . l I X : (1.52; 8.52,63; 9.38; 10.20n; 15.25n,26; 17.20n,24, 39; 1.38 uncountable-+ noncount (noun) variable 5.74 verbal 10.30; 15.12; 17.52-54; 1.3, 31n, 35,61-63 see nlso: nbslract, s affected see also: subjective oblig-tobligatory ob/igation17.36
obligation 3.31,46,48; 4.49,51,54,55, 56,58,65,66; 8.128; 10.67; 11.13; 14.23.25n; 15.5; I.40n. 54 ohligotory 16.72
oJ'(adjective) 10.1In (adverb) 8.41 (particle) 16.2 (preposition) 9.7, 15, 18
obligatory-tadjunct, adverbial, constituent verb oblige 16.50; (be et1 ro)3.40 oblique case 6.4, 1211; 9.3n
(prepositional adverb) 9.66 (-4)9.10 ofir (verb) 10.30; 16.38,56,57; ( - to) 16.56,57
oblique stroke 2.6; 6.66; 1,5911,7611; III.28n, 30
offer4.57,58,60,64n;6.6O;8.9ln; 11.3, 4,6n, 17, 29.53
observational+verbs (semantic classification) observe 16.31,35,52,53
,srcl. I ~ ~ C II I; IHI ~, I I I I I ~ O I I , pilragraph, prominence, punctuation, stress prospect (noun) 17.36 proli~sin15.3411 ~ ~ r i ~ t c ~ c 16.7, ~ t j r o57~ ! ~
F
pt~nclu;~tion [cont] grammar i~ntl8.38, 100, 117, 143n; 10.16: 13.1, 1611,171i.52n. 54.96; 14.20.40 11; 15.011.20.21.23, 2811; 17.68, 72,84. 112. 121; 18.34, 41; 19.9, I In; 111.2,7, 15 hicrilrchy 111.3. 1 1 . 13. 14, 16. 18.23 i ~ ~ c l ~ nI Il IrI~~ lIi lSl 111.?.'1. Ih 21. 22 liglll vs. Ilci~vy111.1 1.22.30
protest (verb) 16.31 proto- 1.29 proud 16.71 ; (- of) 16.69 prove 3.1111; 6.25; 14.25n; 16.21,22,31, 35,44,46,60; ( - d/ 11)3.1411; (- (onr.~~i/')(lo h(#))6.25 provc~ti~ncc atljcctivcs 7.42 seealso: names (nationalities)
minorconventions 111.30 prosody and 11.5211; 11.20 separation 111.2.3-21 specification 111.2,9,23-30 successive units in 111.3- IS, 22 .S(Y~II/,WI: A111ol.ici111 IK~~filiali, Hrilihh l~iplisl~, calo~~. colnln;l, dilsll, direct speech, formulae,hyphenation. informal, numeral, parentheses, period, semicolon, space (orlhographic)
-
pro-verb+ do (pro-fonn) proverb4.12;7.83; 11.43; 13.2511; 15.16; 1.7 prouide 16.4811. 57; ( - d(that))9.3; 14.12,14; 15.34,35n, 4411; (-for) 16.28,57; ( - . . .forlwith) 16.4811; (-with) 16.7,57 prouiding(that) 14.12, 14; 15.34.3511 proviso (with the thot) 15.3411 pro-X+ pro-forms proximity concord 10.34n,35,40-45; 15.16; 17.11 spatial 6.43 temporal 6.43; 15.26,29 proxy +pronoun prude~ttly8.127 pseud 1.23.74 pseudo- I. 15,23 pseudo+cleft, coordination, how, passive, subject, subjunctive psst 11.55n psycholinguistic factors 17.113; I.14n PTO III.28,29
-
!
1
public+verbs (semantic classification) public facilities-tnames (classified) publicly 7.47
ii
;
plotish/i~r16.57 pure (central adjective) 7.34 (emphasizer adjective) 7.33.34 (-Iy)8.116, l18 pure-tintransitive purportedlj~8.127 purpose ( - ly) 8.93; (on - ) 8.93 purpose adjunct 8.30.86, 132; 11.15n adverbial8.7; 10.10,21,24n; 17.33 clause 4.5311; 8.86; 14.131~ 24; 15.20, 48,72-73,75; 17.33 disjunct 8.9411 meaning8.9; 13.37n; 15.27.3411.49; 16.51 ; 1.621~65 npgative 3.61; 8.86; 15.46n,48 preposition 9.7, 32n, 42,45 seea1.so: cause,/or,if; so. rhar. until purs~io~~ce (ill of) 9.1211 pursltont to 9.10 push (ho~ire)16.4; (- Nopen) 16.45
-
pushdown element6.3511; 11.18; 15.411, 65,66n,68; 17.63; 18.20n,28 seealso: relative clause, whput 3:17; 8.126: 10.30; 16.211.48;
publishing+printed language pufl(a1ottg) 16.411; (- up) 16.19n punctual+verbs (semantic classification) punctuation 1.23; 11.4711; IlIpassim
(- about) l6.34n; (- across)
16.26n;(- at~endto)16.58;(-a stop to) 16.58; (- alstoy) 16.4; ( - b y ) 16.6; (- dowrr) 16.4; (-down to) 10.12n; 16.9;(- of) 16.4.2611.
connectivity 19.19,25,28-29.73-74 cooccurrence 111,3,16,24n correlative 111.3, 16 error 6.3111; 111.1611 frequency of III.3n, 7
39;(-011) 16.4;(-paidto) 16.17;
(- straig/lt) 16.17; (- N to rights) 16.8; (- up) 16.4; (- up to) 16.9;
(-up with) 10.1211; 16.9, 12, 13, 14, 29; (- . 3 17.80
.
I
1748 lndex
putative meaning 15.48-49 see also: should putt(ed) 3.19 puzzled 16.78; (-at) 16.69; (-as to) 16.73 pyjamas 5.76
qlra 9.7 quadrillion 6.63n quail (noun) 5.87 quality -+partition, verbs (semantic classification) quantifier 5.4, 16,38n,39; 6.45-48,51, 58; 7.83; 8.52,59,67, 71, 108,115, 118n; 9.40; 10.42-43,66; 11.711; 12.10, 17,7011; 15.9,69n; 17.31.59, 86n closed class 5.20,23-25 negative 6.62 open class 5.20,23,25; 6.53 position of 3.28,40 postposed 3.23n,28,40; 5.2311 scope of 3.72; 13.45.76, universal-+pronoun (universal) seealso: comparative,frequency, multal, paucal, superlative quantifying, quantitative, quantity+determiner, noun, partition, some quantity of 5.25 quarrel (verb) (about) 9.60; 16.28; (- with) 9.53; 16.28 quarterly 7.9; 8.64 quarters 5.77 quasi- 111.4 quasi-+auxiliary, coordination, ellipsis,
qlrest(in-of)9.11, 12 question2.45,46,48,50, 53; 3.37; 4.52, 55,58; 8.85,90,97, 102, 106, 125n, 146% 147; 10.8,55, 57,6811; 11.2.3, 4-23,29n,32; 13.47; 14.2511.29; 15.10n, 35,54; 16.15; 18.19,24, 2711.49.57; 19.32,47n, 61-63.66; abbreviated 11.1511, 16 alternative 11.4.20-21,53; 13.2811, 47n,94; 14.33 as directives 19.62
lndex 1749 question [cont] direct 6.37n; 8.15, 130; 9.6; 13.94; 14.35; 15.5, 38; 19.62 ccho2.5611; 11.12n,14n, 34-36; 14,1211,3311 elliptical 10.17; 11.20-21 incomplete 11.36n indirect 3.6211; 8.130, 147; 9.6; 14.33; 15.5,6; 16.61,63; 19.62 information- wh- (question) m:trk 11.2911; 111.1, 3, 14,20,23 minor 11.22-23 polar l l .5n reduced 2.5811; 3.37 seealso: conducive,coordinate, declarative, exclamatory, formulaic, interrogation,negative, nor, positive, ratiocinative, reason, reflective, response, rhetorical, tag, verbless, IVII-, ..*"~""
yE"-""
-
quick (adjective) 7.82; 16.77 (adverb) 7.83 (-er. . . than) 15.5211; (- ly) 7.88 quid 5.90 quiet 7.8ln quit(ted) 3.17; 16.39 quite (compromizer) 8.1 l l , 113, 114; 11.21 (diminisher) 3.76; 8.1 11; 10.62; 11.21 (maximizer) 8.96, 105 (modifier) 7.56,63,89; 8.77, l l In, 131,147; 10.62n (predeterminer) 5.1711; 6.53 as response 8.120n,130n ((not) aN) 6.5011; (-so) 8.13011 quotation III.lOn, 20n,21 marks 1.23; 14.29; 111.3, 20n,21,25 partial 14.29 seealso: direct speech quote, to 8.126
-
-
R (= regular variantl-tvariant -r base ending 7.80 races+names (classified) radar 1.75 radio+ broadcasting radius 5.93 ragged 7.19 rain (verb) 4.27; 10.26 raise (verb) 16.19n raising-+object
ran 3.19 rang 3.19 range-tnucleus, pitch rapid(1y) 7.6, 36 rarely 2.5411; 8.65,68,70,77,98; 10.59; 11.31 rore(verb) 8.108n; 16.44,46; (- as) 16.47; (alutly -) 8.137, 14311; (at allhe -of) 9.41 rather (boostcr) 3.76; 8.10511; 10.62 (compromizcr)7.56,89; 8.1 l l, 113, 114 (conjunct) 8.126, 137, 141, 143; 13.32 (predeterminer) 5.1711 as response 8.130n position of 7.56n (had -) 3.4511; 7.83; (or -) 17.73.80; (should -) 3.4511; (- than) 10.40; 12.69; 13.103; 14.15, 16, 1911; 15.52; (- . . .than) 13.42n; (would I'd -) 3.40,45-46,66; 7.83; 8.96; 10.6111; 15.52; 16.33 ratiocinative question 11.2311 ravioli 5.10011 re 9.7,57 re- I. 17,27 're 3.23,32 reach (verb) 10.27 reaction preposition 9.7.63 signal 7.54; 11.54 read (verb) 3.18; 15.54; 16.19,57; ( - about)9.60; 16.28; ( - to) 16.57 readily8.103n; (more . . . than) 15.5211 readiness 17.36 ready 16.79,81 ready-made phrases 1.7, 8n real(centra1 adjective) 7.34,8L (emphasizer adjective) 7.33,34,73 (intensifying adverb) 7.5611; I.46n really (disjunct) 8,127,13011 (intensifier) 7.56n,57 (subjunct) 8.23,96,99- 102, 109; 11.6; 18.55-56 real condition-tcondition (open) realization 2.6; 19.2 realize4.29; 14.30; 15.54; 16.31,35 reason (noun) 17.18-20 (verb) 16.31 (-able about) 16.69; (- ably) 8.127; (the (that)) 15.4611; (the why) 15.46n; 17.18.20 reason adjunct 8.55n,86; 11.1511
l
-
-
reason [cont] itdverbial8.7, 121, 140; 10.10 cl;luse7.53; 8.127, 132, 14311; 14.13; 15.20,21,45-.47 directlindircct 15.45 disjunct U. 14011, 143n frequency of clauses 15.47 meaning 13.23; 14.14; 15.28,34n, 55n.60; 17.18-20 preposition 9.7.43.44 question 11.15n,40 sec ulsu: us, since. bul~ile rebind 3.18 rebuild 3.13 recall (verb) 16.31. 39 recap(-piug) 15.18;(to -) 15.18 recapitulate(to -) 15.18 recapitulating 15.18 recapitulatory echo 11.33.34-35 recast 3.17 receiue4.27; 10.3211; 16.26; (-from) 18.3111 Received Pronunciation 1.27; 1.56 recenlly4.22; 7.70; 8.55,62,63,77 recipient intended vs. actual 9.46 object 10.33 preposition 9.7, 32,46; 10.10 role 2.23; 10.7n, 19,20n,23,30, 33; 16.56; 18.51-52 subject 10.23, 30, 33 reciprocal expression 13.46 pronoun 3.70; 6.13,31,54; 7.1111; 13.46; 19.1111 . pronoun frequency 6.3111 relationship 13.60; 18.3111 reckon 14.36, 16.31, 44,46,50; (as) 16.47 reclassification-tconversion recoenize 14.30: 16.31
record(verb) 16.35 re(-)couer 1.2711 recoverability 5.31; 8.129; 12.6-7,41, 42,44,45-52; 19.48; 1.9-10, 14 precise 12.33, 34, 36-38, 65 unique 12.6,38,40n; 14.28 verbatim 12.32 secalso: ellipsis, situational, structural, lextual recurrence 8.64,69; 15.26, 30, 34 see also: lexical recursion 17.1 15, 117, 120; 1.5711
1750 lndex
lndex 1751
redo 3.16 reduce to 16.7n reduced form-toperator, question, rc(l~~clion, rclulivc C ~ ~ I Isctilcn~c IHC, reduction phonological 3.23.3611; 9.9; 12.31,46, 4811,5011,6411; 14.2311; 17.1511; 11.9 svnt;1clic2.52.5Xn. 59: 12.1 5; 14.9. l211 ; l6.00 seealro. abbreviated clsuse, ellipsis, pro-forms redundancy 2.52; 3.71; 12.1-2.7; 13.71; 15.6n,46n, 73 reduplication 5.8111; 7.70n; 16.3 ,seeu/.ro: coordination(iterative),letter. particle reduplicative compound 1.72 reel back 16.3 refer to 16.28, 57 reference (bJwith to) 8.85; 9.11,57 reference+ amphora, cataphora, discourse, generic, near vs. distant, noun phrase, personal, place, pronoun, semantic, situational, specific, sporadic, time reference editing 17.80 rejerendum 5.95 referring+ it reflect 16.31,35; (- on) 16.35 reflective question 18.33n reflexive pronoun 3.70; 5.104; 6.5.6.8, 11, 12, 13, 14,20,23-28, 31,45,56; 8.125n; 10.6,7,8,48; 11.25; 16.39; 18.1In basic use 6.23.24-27 emphatic use 6.23,27,28, 30; 18.39 object 7.17n; 10.4,6; 16.7n, 45n,46, 5311; 1.54 optional 6.27 position of 6.28 , precedes subject 6.23n pro-form use 12.10 semi-emphatic use 6.27 see also: coordinate, verb (nonrcflexive, reflexive, semi-reflexive) reformulation (in apposition) 17.74,80 reformulatory conjunct 8.126, 136, 137,
-
.
refusal 17.36 refuse (verb) 16.38.57 regard (as) 16.47; (as S) 9.57; (in to) 9.11.57; (- S) 5.77; (with to)
-
--
regarding (preposition) 9.8,57 regi1rillevsof9.10,57n; 14.14; 15.3911; ( - ~vllcthcr)15.41n rc~i11ni11 I!ngIisli 1.1 l, 19, 20 21, 22 27, 36, 37, 41 ; 3.1411,23, 30n; 4.50, (144; 5.171~2311,5811, l l In; 6.12n, 27n, 67n; 7.56n, 5711:8.144n; 9.7n: lfl.IOn: 12.2211.30); I3.7n: 15.Sn. 71; IH.27 ,s~~p~rI.v~: A n ~ ~ r i c I~ritish i~~i. register+discourse (field of) regret4.6711; 8.107; 15.54; 16.33, 38, 39. 40; ( - tuhly) 8.127, 129; 9.63 regular+ noun, plural, verb rgtrlurly 8.65, 70n rcgul:~tivcI;~ngu;lgc1.3 reir~ilcer5.87 reinforcement 18.58-59 reinforcing conjunct B.L36,137-138, 148; 15.18 reinforcing pronoun 17.78 reject 16.26 rejected condition+condition (hypothetical) rejoice 16.33; (- at)9.63; 16.28 relater word 2.37 relatior~(irt -) 9.66; (in to) 9.11 ; (-S) 5.77 relational+ basic, genitive relational verb+ verb relationship 3.34 time adjunct 8.53, 72; 15.25, 26 time adverbial 4.22; 6.27n; 8.4, l l time subiunct 8.97
relative clause [cont] pushdown 6.3511; 17.63-64 reduccd 7.21.22, 24; 12.3511: 17.56. 66, 82. H3, 92 restrictive 5.64; 6.20, 33,47,53,61; 7.25,86; 10.61; 11.53; 14.14.20, 23n; 15.34n; 17.3-6.9.13-21.22. 22. 26 77: . ~, . .. . .IH . .78 -. . scntcnli;~l8.133; 13.27. 103n; 15.2, 29n,55, 56.57; 17.5, 9 telescoped 17.21 zero6.33-34; 11.53: 12.19. 5911; 14.20; 17.11, 13-20.22; 18.28 see also: existential,nominal clause. postmodilici~tion relative destination-tdestinetion relative determiner-tdeterminer relative pitch-tpitch relative pronoun 6.8, 11, 13,20,32-35, 36, 38; 7.53; 9.6; 10.44n.49,51; 14.20; 15.2,55,60, 66; 16.15; 17.9-25,63,66; 18.28,48 adverbial function 17.13-14, 17-20, 22,30, 34 complement function 17.11, 13- 14, 22,25, 30 neutral 6.34n object function 7.13-14, 15-16,22, 30-34 position6.32; 13.84; 18.28 prepositional complement function 17.13-14,16, 17,24; 18.28 subject function 17.13- 14,15, 22,
-
78-17
see olso: coordinate.that, wh- (pronoun), when, where, which, who, whom, wltose. 32-35,42; 7.22,24, 25; 9.6, 55; 10.ln,7n, 17,4311,4411; 11.1811; 12.4; 13.50-5'1,84; 14.3, 2211; 15.2, 8-9,25n,27n, 28n, 29n,31n, 3911, 44n,51, 57,7411; 16.6, 15, 16; 17.2-6,8, 9-25,26-34,37,61,76, 79,92; 18.48,53; 19.47n adnominal 6.3511; 15.2.8,57; 17.9-25, 34 continuative 15.57n elliptical 7.86 free+nominal clause (relative) independent-tnominal clause (relative) nonrestrictive 5.64; 6.33, 3511; 7.25, 27,29; 8.9411, 132; 13.10311; 15.57, 60-62; 17.3-6,9,13,21,22-25, 26-27, 33,66,8l; 19.4711; 111.19
! i
i
relativized predication 3.26 relator+place, time rellay/'relay 3. Ion relend 3.12n relevance-+current relexicalization 1.7111 reliant (up)on 16.69 relieue (- d ) 16.78; (of) 16.57 religiouslanguage 1.28; 3.411, 16; 6.7, 1211;7.70n; 9.711; 14.20; 15.3111; 11.10 relislt 16.39 reluctance, with 8.93 reluctant6.59; 16.79; (- ly) 8.93 relyon 16.28; (- . ..to) 16.5111 remain 10.16.24; 16.21,22,23,24; (-S) 5.77
remaining-) verbs (semantic classification) r~~rrnkc~ 3.13 rc,fnork (verb1 16.:11. 60: ( irhly) 8. 127 ret?rer,1bcr4.52n,6711; 15.54; 16.26, 31, 35.38,39.40; (ci~n/corrld-) 14.26n r~tttitlrl16.4811. 59. 61. 62. 63; ( - q f ) 5
l/, 7 57
r~~lttulc~ /rorfr 16.09 retlil 3.13 render 16.44 rcni/ezaotr.s5.99 rent (verb) 3.13: (- fromlto) 18.3111 repay 3. Ion riyecrt (vcrh) 16.31 ; ( - edly) 8.65 rel)ent 16.39 repetition expressive7.89; 12.411; 18.58; 19.23 meaning4.35n, 67; 14.27; 15.28 of forms 17.61 ; 19.72 see also: adjective, adverb, adverbial, coordination (iterative),determiner, emphasis, neuer, noun, verb repidginization 1.35 replacive conjunct 8,136,137, 141, 143, 146 reply . . (verb) 16.31 reply +response report (verb) 15.54; 16.26, 31,44,50,60; (- back) 16.31n;(- edly) 8.127 reported clause 14.28-35 request 8.91 seealso: directive (indirect). indirect (indirect) reporting clause4.60; 14.28-35, 54n; 18.20n, 23; 111.21 verb4.16; 14.28-35; 18.2011; 19.41n, 43 see also: news reporting represet~t8.108n repudiation 12.54,62,70; 13.32.42, 57, 94 repute(verb) 16.50; (- d) 3.68; (- d(y) 8.127 request (verb) 3.59; 16.32,63 request4.52n, 57,63,64n; 8.90-91, 100; 11.3,4, 13,20n,29,53; 19.62; III.23n seealso: indirect, reported require 14.2511; 16.26,32, 39,50; (- d ) 7.21; (- ment) 3.59
lndex 1763
1752 Index
reread 3.18 rerun 3.19 resemblance (meaning) 9.48 rescntble2.21n; 3.68; 4.27,28; 10.1411; 16.27 resort 16.39 reserve 16.57; (-for) 16.57 reset 3.17 resohrtiorl 3.59; 17.36 resolution (principle) 14.37; 18.32n resolrie 16.32; (-on) 16.38 resort to 16.28, 39 respect (verb) 16.26; (in all S) 8.105; (in of) 9.1 1, 12n,57; (in some S) 8.111, 114; (BJwith to)8.85; 9.11, 57 see also :respeclirrg respect adjunct 7.87; 8.28-31, 81,85,87,88 adverbial 8.2,5,6; 1.70 disjunct 8.123-124 meaning 8.9 preposition 9.7,8,57; 17.50 titlesof 10.53 see olso: for respecting (preposition) 9.8.57 respective 10.3711; 13.61,62;. 19.52; ( - ly) 10.3711; 13.60,61,63; 19.52 response 1.34; 3.26; 6.4; 8.79,91n, 9711, 100,114,130n; 11.4-23,40n, 4311, 54; 12.43,44; 14.29; 15.5,20,21n, 5411; 16.13; 18.19,59n; 19.26-27, 54,65; 11.12, 13 elliptical 11.7n; 12.61; 18.16; 19.2, 5411 see olso: hardly, indeed, negative, new, no. quite. rother, right, sure,yes responsibility 17.36 rest (verb) 16.21 restriction adverbial 8.8 restrictive claqse8.94n; 14.3711; 15.23 markers 17.32 modification 5.64; 6.42,47,61; 7.24; 12.19; 15.2, 34n; 17.3,4-29,34, 35, 44.48-50,94.95, 110, 1 15 see also: adjective, adverb, adverbial, apposition, nonrestrictiye, postmodification, prernodification, relative clause, subjunct restrictives 5.17n restring 3.18 result(asa-)8.137;(asa -of)9.11
-
- -
result adjunct 8.49.81, 10311 adverbial 7.20n; 8.7 attribute 10.8,20; 16.21,23,45 clause 8.132, 14011; 15.20, 25,4Y, 72-73,75 conjunct 8.136, 137,140. 144 meaning 3.1311, 38n,77; 4.22,33,39, 43; 7.16.20; 8.42, 108; 9.17; 10.24; 13.23; 15.27,45,74; 16.38n; 19.6011; 1.54 object 10.22.28, 33 preposition 9.7,28,30,32 prepositional adverb 9.66 subject 10.22 subordinator 8.146n see olso: before, copula,so, source, thot, urrril resultant, resultative, resulting, resultive+copula, result, verbs (semantic classification) resume 16.39 resumptive clause 15.57 retell 3.15 rethink 3.15 retort (verb) 16.31 retrospective-+ verbs (semantic classification) return (in -) 9.66; (in -for) 9. l l ; ( - N unopened) 16.45 returns 5.77 Rev 5.6611 reveal 16.3 1 reuerend 5.66n reversal clause 15.25.49, 54 subject/complement 10.20,46n reversative -+prefix reverse* indentation rewind 3.18 rewrite 3.16 rhematicconnection 19.14, 21,69 rheme+ theme rhetorical conditional clause 15.37 question 8.112; 11.2, 13,23,44; 19.63 style6.l9n, 20; 12,411,911; 13.87,94; 15.22; 17.23n, 80; 18.21,23,36n, 48,5911; 19.18, 29,471~59;II.2n, 10, 18; III.2,7, 8,24 see also: we rhinoceros I. 14 rhododendrorl1.14 rhythm 13.86; 17.115; 19.12.25; 11.1-3,
rhythm [cont] 10, 11, 18, 19; 111.2 typesof.13.86 .seeolso: foot, slrcss riches 5.77 rill(ded) 3.17 ridden 3.16 ride (verb) 3.16 ridicule 16.26 right (adjective) 7.81 (adjunct) 8.41 (conjunct) 8.135 (intensifier) 7.61 ; 15.27, 29; 16.3.4 parenthetic use 19.6511 response use 8. 100. 12011 (all -) 8.100, 102n; 13.10211; (- ly) 8.127, 129, 133n right-+branching, dislocation rigid -+ frozen (style) ring (ed) 3.19 ripen 4.27 rise(n) 3.16; 16.19 rise-fall tone 11.23, 37; 11.14, 15n rise-plus-fall tone 18.17- 18; 11.1411, 1511 rising tone 8.91, 135; 10.52; 11.5,8-12, 20,2211, 23,34,37,53; 14.37; 17.78, 86; 18.5, 16, 18,26n,59; 19.9, 26-27,65; 11.13, 15, 1811; 111.12 risk (noun) 17.36 (verb) 16.39 ritual 11.3n River 5.72; 17.89 rivers-tnames (classified) Road 5.69n roam (aboutlaround) 9.31 roar 9.4611; (- hoarse) 16.4511 rob(of) 16.7.57; (- Nof) 16.8 rock (amplifier) 7.5611 rode 3.16 role preposition 7.4, 7,48; 9.7 see olso: adjunct, adverbial, affected, agentive, attribute, calling,clause, initiator, opposition, participant, reclplent, sernantlc, unlque role of 5 42n ran Nfiat 16 45 Romance languages l.40,1.40 romp home 16.3 room (make -for) 16 58
roughly 8.124 round (adverb) 7.66n:. 8.41.52 . (particle) 16.2 (preposition) 7.70; 9.7,9,22,26-27 (prepositional adverb) 9.66 (alllright - ) 8.6311 round brackets-+brackets row (verb) 3.811 royal hoe-+ we RP-> Received Pronunciation RSVP111.28, 29 ruh(in) 16.3411; (- Ndry) 16.17 rule (noun) (as a -) 8.76 (verb) 16.26,32 rules codification of 1.15, 16 grammar 1.15-16; 7.47; 10.51; 19.44; 1.1.5 spelling 3.7- 10, 1 In; 6.6411; 7.47, 83 transformational 2.20 word-formation 1.5, 15 vs. tendencies 17.114; 111.7 seeolro: phonological, prescriptivisrn rumour (verb) 15.54; 16.50 run(verb) 3.19; 9.16n,45; 10.411; 16.21; ( - a n d . . .) 13.98; (-at) 9.46; (- away with) 16.29: (- down) 16.411;(-for) 16.28;(- outof) 16.12; ( - over) 16.6; (- through) 16.6n; (- to)9.46 rung 3.19 Russian 1.2,5n; 5.104, 112, 123; 8.9111 -ry 1.32
S S-+subject S10 (= raised object)-tobject (raised) -S 1.18 clipped forms use 1.74n contracted genitive 5.1 13-1 14; 6.47; 7.69; 13.72; 17.4311 contracted pronoun 6.14n doubling in verbs 3.8 familiarity marker 1.77 noun plural 5.74,80,81,83; 6.65; 7.2511; 10.3411; I.31n verb base endina 3.9
1754 lndex
lndex 1755
said 3.15.68; 14.29; 18.36; (it is -) 15.54; (that -) 8.127n,137; (the -) 19.47n soil ororrtrd 16.12 saist/.saith 4.2n sake(fi)r.. . -)5.114. 120;8.100; l I,4ln;(./i1r (t1lc3) (1/')9.ll, 1211;
srrltrwr~5.87 (
'
0/') 9.
l l l1
-
salt-cellar l. l4 salutation 10.5311; 19.65 same (restrictive adjective) 5.34; 7.35 (all the -) 8.137, 141; (be the -) 13.46;tdo the -) 12.10,20,25n; (rhc-) 7.6211; 12.10,20 sang3.19 sunk 3.19 sans 9.7 sat3.18 satisfied with 16.69 satisjL 16.26.59 save (conjunction) 15.34n (preposition) 9.8.58 (verb) 16.39,57 (-for) 16.57; (- that)9.3n; 14.12; 15.44; 16.28n sauings 5.77 saw (past tense, see) 3.16 saw(ed/n) 3.14 say3.4n,5n, 10, 15,68;4.8; 12.20,28; 14.29.33n,36n; 15.54; 16.26,31, 35,50,56,60; 18.23 in apposition 17.73,86 (can't/couldn't -) 14.3In; (not to -) 13.103;(-s)3.5n, 15; (-she/l/ you) 14.2911; (so to -) 8.126; (so they -) 12.2811; (they -) 15.54; (- to)8.129; 16.56,57 see also: that saying-tverbs (semantic classification) scale-tcohesion, finiteness, gender, gradience, institutionalization scales 5.76 scarcely 8.98, 111, 112, 114; 10.59; ( - . . .) 14.13 scaredof 16.69 scafls/scarves 5.83 scene-setting 8.15,38,47, 87; 18.26n; 19.68 school 5.44; 9.17 school+ English, grammar schwa vowel 11.9 scientific language 1.28; 3.73; 4.2511; 5.54n, 56,91,92; 6.18,63n, 64n, 65;
scientific language [cont] 8.4111, 137;9.7n; 15.59; 17.99, 124; 1.24,26,27n, 59n; 111.511, 1 l , 30 .sci.s,sor.s5.76 scope 2.55;+adverbial. coordination. discontinuous, interrogation, neg~ltion,numcr;ll, parlition. prc(lici~ti~~ri, pro-hr~ns,q t ~ ~ ~ n l i l i c r scort, (noun) 5.90 scorn (verb) 16.38 Scut(-c11/-S/-tislr)5.57n scotchtape (verb) 16.45n Scots English 1.25 see aI.so: regional English scrrrl,c N clcon 16.45 sea 5.44 search (it1 of) 9.1 1, 12 seas-tnames (classified) seasons+ names (classified) second (conjunct) 8.137, 143; 19.38 (numeral) 6.63-64 ( - ly) 8.137; 19.38,56; (- ofaN) 8.137 second-instance sentence 2.5611; 3.45; 4.5211; 8.70; 12.28n; 15.35; 16.39; 17.101, 104; 18.45n second language +English secondary -t conversion, stress, timeorientation, word class see2.4n; 3.16; 4.29-30; 8,12711; 10.23; 14.22,36n; 15.54; 16.26, 31, 35,48, 50,52, 53, 54 (-about) 16.39; (-as) 16.47; (-fit . . . to) 16.1711; (I-) 15.54; (- n) 3.16; ( - st) 3.4n; ( - through) 16.6; (-to it) 14.22; (you -) 15.54; 19.39,65 seeing(tha1) 8.145;9.3; 14.12, 14; 15.46; ( - . . .) 14.13 seeing-tverbs (semantic classification) seek 3.15; (-for) 16.38; (-out) 16.12 seem3.66n,76;4.29;7.3, 10, l l n , 14, 15; 8.42n; IO.lln; 12.28; 14.26, 36; 16,21,22,23,24n,34, 3811; 18.36 (can't/couldn't -) 14.36n ; ( ingly) 8.127; (it s) 15.54; 16.34n.60n; ( - to) 3.40.49; (-to be) 7.1 In seeming+ verbs (semantic classification) segregatory coordination 13.35,38,46, 59-63,64-75 seldom 6.59; 8.65,67,70,77,98; 10.59 selectional restrictions+semantic (restrictions)
sell= 1.29,62,68,69; 111.4 -sew-selves5.83; 6.5.6, l l , 23-28; 8.124; 12.10 sell-address 11.53 self-correction 2.511; 17.80 se'destr~rt I. 12, 7 1 sell-embedding 14.39 srr.nb,: c~nhctldi~ly sell 3.15; (- N clteap/t~e~v) 16.45; ( - to) .. . 18.3111 sellatape (verb) 16.45n -selves+ - s e r semantic blends 8.81 classification 2.46:. 3.21 :, 5.3: - .7.40-44, . . . .. 11.2-3; 13.87; 16.20; 17.74-87; I.20,21-30 criteria 2.33, 38, 39,42; 3.21.29; 5.3511; 7.4,40,45;8.28, 31,34,40, 61;10.4; 13.3-4,36,45,54; 13.86; 18.4; 1.2 implication 12.31,38; 19.19,20,21, 69,70-71 relations 2.20-23,40; 3.65; 6.33; 10.29; 17.73-74; 19.7; 1.58; 11.8 restrictions 1.18; 3.29; 7.56n; 10.16, 30,51; . 15.9, 16; 16.21.45; 17.31; 1.7,44, 57 role3.65n; 8.1,2-10,134-142, 144, 149; 10.5-9, 18-33; 14.511; 16.23 vs. referential 4.2 see also: adjective, adjunct, adverbial, apposition,clause, concord, conjunct,
-
-
-
3
semantics 1.13, 16, 18,42; 2.46n; 19.2-3; 111.2 semi- 1.28 semi-annually 8.64 semi-auxiliary -t auxiliary semicolon 14.40; 19.29,73; III.3,6,7, 10,11,12-13,16 semi-coord~nator-tcoordinator semi-formulaic-+ formulaic semi-given+given semi-lexical-tlexical semi-passive+passive semi-reflexive -t verb send3.13; 4.2611; 16.44,48,57; (-away for) 16.14; (- Npacking) 16.17; (-to) 16.57 senior 7.85 sense (verb) 16.31; (in the that) 14.14n
-
sensibly 8.127 sent 3.13 sent -+scnlence .sc*trletrc,c(to) 16.57 sentence 2.11,46n, 59; 14.1 - - 2 ;15.57: 18.5; 111.3 cl;~usevs. 2.411 ~ ~ l l l p2.4.'). l ~ x 11.44.46; 10.1, 55; I I.8n. l8n; 14passin1;17.24; 19.57 compound 2.4, l l, 46; 10.1; 11.38; 13passirn; 14.2-3; 18.5; 111.6-7 connectivity 2.44; 12.13; 13.44n; 19passin1 discourse reference 19.46-48 r~:.l..nl.mn.,l..~ I L A A . I n a" Y ~ O + V U I ~uLa r v.,", W , IY.LO, LY, 14 ellipsis 11.38,43; 13.52 -A
.....,.....,
oranhir iAmtit\r T I T 1
-.
Ir -nr --.1J c
incomplete II1.26n indeterminacy 2.1 1 irregular 11.38-52 multiple2.11; 10.1 ; 14passim premodification bv 17.74. 112 processes 2.46; 3.il reduced 2.46 sequence6.16,44; 12.13; 15.57; 19.3, 58 sim~le2.4,9,11,46-47: 3.2: 10.1.55 . . structure2.3-10; 10.1-4; 13.44n types 1.18; 2.46-59; l l passim unitswithin 7 1-10 unreduced 2.56n utterance vs. 2.46n '
~~
fragmentary, generic. imperative, initial, intcrrogative,medial, negative, noun phrase, parenthetic, secondinstance, statement, subordinateclause sentential analogues 1.60-65, 69n sentential relative clause-trelative clause separability 16.3 separate 4.27 separation-tpunctuation sequence-tadjcctive, adverb, auxiliary, clause informatinn (order),-17,coordination, mnrlnl -..-. ., , premodification, preposition, pronoun, sentence, tense, time, trladic sequent-t time (sequence) seraph(-S/-im)5.101
Index 1767
1766 lndex
serial comma-tcomma series 5.91 seriously 8.124, 130 serve 16.57; ( - f o r ) 16.38; (- N hot/ cold) 16.45; (- tolwith) 16.57 set ( n o u n ) ( - o f ) 10.43n (verb)3.17; 16.48; (UN-) 16.79; (-fire to) 16.58; (- Nfree) 16.45; ( - o u t ) 9.45; 16.38n; ( - to) 9.6611; ( - u p ) 16.4; (- (up)on)16.69 set expression+ fixed phrase SEU-tSurvey o f English Usage several (postdeterminer)5.23 (pronoun)6.13,57; 12.10, 17 severe (-ly) 8.105; (- (up)on) 16.69 se~v(ed/n)3.14; 4.27 sex-neutrality/bias 5.56, 105; 6.8, 10.56; 13.86n; 19.51 see also: pronoun sh 11.55 -sh (nationality noun ending) 5.56-57; 7.25 -sh (verb base ending) 3.9 shake3.16;(- Nloose)16.45;(-n13.16 s11aN 3.4n, 21,39,40; 4.37,42,47, 50, 5 1, 57,58,60,61,64,65; 11.13; 14.22, 27; 15.68n; 16.41 . with second/third-person subject 4.5811 (-not)3.39; 10.67; (- we16.7; 11.10, 13 see also: shalt, shan't, should shallow 7.88 shalt 3.411; 4.5811 shan't 3.23,39; 10.67 shared information-tgiven shared knowledge 5.27-29,36; 19.22n, 65 see also: verbs (semantic classification) sharp (adjective)7.8 (adverb) 7.8; (- ly) (amplifier)7.8,56 shot 3.17 shave 3.14n; 6.25; (- d ) 3.1411; 7.19; (- n) 3.1211, 1411; 7.19; (-oneself) 6.25 she 1.26;5.104-107, 109-111; 6.2-6, 8-11, 14, 18,20,38; 12.47; 17.11 s/he 5.105; 6.10; I.76n sheaflsheaves 5.83 shear(ed) 3.14 shears 5.76 sheaths 5.83 shed 3.17 sheep 5.87
sheep [cont] (VS.mlrtton) 5.4 shecr (cnipll;isizcr ;~djcctivc)7.33 shrlj/sl~elves5.83 sl~elv(ed/n) 3.14 shift+stress shine 3.18; 4.27 ship 5.1 1 In -ship 1.32 ships+ names (classified) shit 3.17 shock(verb) 16.26; (- e d ) 16.71; (- ing) 16.72 shod 3.18 shoe(J) 3.18 shone 3.18 shook 3.16 shoot 3.18; 4.27; (- at)9.46 shorn 3.14 short7.88; (in -) 8.125; (- ly) 7.6; 8.55; ( - o f ) 16.69 short structure 7.22; 8.17, 22% 23.47, 87; 15.4n; 17.16,82n, 115; 18.19, 40,43; 19.58; 11.611.7; III.I2,29n seealso: length, long structure shorts 5.76 shot (verb) 3.18 should 1.24; 3.4% 21,39,40; 4.49,50,51, 56,57,59-62,64,65; 8.103; 14.1611, 20,23; 15.36,48; 16.71n putative 3.59; 4.64; 8.128; 10.55n,61; 11.41; 14.24.25.33; 15.11,44n; 16.30,32,59,70-72; 17.26.35 (-not/ -n't)3.39; 10.68; 11.811; (- st) 3.411 see also: shall shout 9.46n; 16.3111;( - a t ) 16.14 show3.14; 14.251; 16.31,35,48,55,57,62; (- ed/ n) 3.14; (- to) 16.57,59 showbiz 1.74n shrunk 3.19 shred 3.17n shrewdly 8.127 shrimp 5.87 shrink 3.19; (-from) 16.39 shriue(d/n)3.16 shrove 3.16 shrunk(en)3.19; 7.19 shut 3.17 sibilance3.5,9,32n; 5.80.99, 114; 6.11, 29 sick7.3811; (- with) 16.69 sideways 8.41 signal (verb) 3.8; 16.60
-
signifcunrly 8.127 sign[fy 16.3 1 silcnt lcttcr 3.811;5.81 siNily 1.41 silly 16.72, 76 similar (he -) 13.46; (- to) 16.69, 18.3111 similarity clause 13.26; 14.20,22; 15.22, 50; 19.52 see also: as similarly (conjunct) 8.137 (subjunct)8.1 16, 119 pro-form use 12.10,25n simile 18.55 simple (emphasizer adjective) 7.33 simple-tadverb, aspect, coordination, finite phrase, noun phrase, past, perfective, preposition, present, progressive, sentence, subordinator, verb phrase, word simply (adjunct) 8. IOOn (diminisher subjunct) 8.1 1 1 (disjunct)8.100n, 124 (emphasizer subjunct) 8.100, 102 (focusingsubjunct) 8.1 16, 118, 120; 15.20 simultaneity +time simultaneous 19.36; (- ly) 8.55; 19.36 since (time adjunct) 8.55,60-61; 14.26; 19.37 (conjunction)8.55n,60-61; 9.3; 14.12, 19n, 21-22, 26; 15.20-21, 25,27,46-47 (content disjunct) 15.21 (preposition) 7.70; 8.55n,60; 9.3,7,9, 38,40; 11.1411; 15.25, 2911 (prepositional adverb) 9.66; 14.26 -clause8.60-61, 124, 132; 14.21-22, 26 frequency o f 8.60 introducing style disjunct 15.21 reason8.61n, 132; 14.13; 15.20.46-47 temporal 8.55, 60-61 ; 14.21-22; 15.20,25,27 (-
. . .)14.13;(ever-)14.14n,26,27n
sincerely, yours 8.91n sing 3.7, 19 singe 3.7,9 single (adjective)5.38; 6.47; 10.62 invariable 5.74, 7 5 ; 6.54 noun4.4,7,35;5.7,11,13,14,21,26, 29n,36,42,50,52-59,62,73-103,
singular [cont] 1OR;6.9. 16.21,23,50,52;7.14n; 8.39;0.12,41; 10.34,38,46,50; 13.46,60- 62, 66-71, 103; 15.69n, 7 3 ; 17.47, 108- 109, 11811;111.27 noun lacking 5.61 partitive 5.6, 7 , 8 pronoun 6.6,8,9,11-12, 14,38n,40, 41,42.45,46,47,49,51,56; 7.69; 10.49-50; 11.26: 19.13n; 111.29n subject 3.5911;10.34-43,50 verb3.2,32,52, 54,58, 62; 4.16n; 5.100n; 6.12; 9.52; 10.34-46; 13.94,95; 14.24; 15.9, 16,36; 18.46 se~,ulsu:concord, distributive, noun phrase, number, -S sink 3.19 Sioux 5.88 sir 10.53; 17.9111;19.65 Sir 5.66n; 17.9111 sit3.18; 4.27.32; 8.28,30n;9.16n; 10.24; 16.48; ( - a n d . . .) 13.98; ( - d o ~ s n4.27; ) 10.24 situotiorl 19.24n situation type 4.4,27-35; 10.18; 14.22n see also: verbs (semantic classification: dynamic, stative) situational context 6.1 ;7.30; 8.124n; 10.4,49; 11.29,49, 53; 12.9; 14.3311; 15.13, 7 3 ; 17.8; 19.33-34; 1.16 recoverability 12.6-7 reference4.1 1-12; 5.28, 3311; 6.15,40, 43,44; 12.11-12 see alsu: ellipsis, immediate, larger, past size-tdimension, potential size, prefix ski (verb) 3.10n skyward(s) 8.41 slocken o f 16.12 slacks 5.76 sluin 3.16 slum (verb) 16.21 slang 1.33;5.90; 10.46; 11.54; 17.112; 1.12, 16, 52, 77 slant/slash-toblique stroke slay3.16 sleep3.15; (- in) 16.15 slept 3.15 slew3.16 slide/slid 3.18; 9.16n slight 7.33; (in the est) 8.1 11 ; 10.62; (-ly)8,lIl sling3.18 slink 3.18
-
lndex
1768 Index
slip of the tongue 16.211 s1i1 (verb) 3.17 slow (adverb) 7.6; 1.16n (vcrh) 16.77 snrall 7.82,88 critnpi~rinon11r7.77 SIII;III c:11)it11Is~ C I I I V ~ I I I ~ C2,.\S; )II 3,111 small o b j e c t s ~ n a m e(classified) s st~rell(verb)3.13; 4.29-30; 7.9; 10.23; 16.21,24n,53;(-ed)3.13 smelt 3.13 smile at 9.46 .smite/.smitten 3.16 smog 1.76 smoke (verb) 16.19 smote 3.16 sn- words 1.7611 snap at 9.46 sneeze 4.27 snow (verb) 4.27; 10.26 so (conjunct) 7.52; 8.135, 137, 140, 143n, 144, 146, 148; 11.9; 12.2911; 13.5, 11, 12, 18-19; 15.49; 18.24; 19.58; 111.6, 12 (conjunction)8.86; 13.103; 14.12; 15.48 (intensifier) 6.53; 7.22, 89; 8.77, 83, 102, 105, 120, 148; 11.32; 12.10, 3011; 15.49, 74; 16.70; 17.96; 18.24, 57; 19.50 (process adverb) 12.10 end-placed conjunct 8.144n initial 12.28,29 noncotrelative 18.57 pro-form use 2.44; 3.26; 8.10n, 148; 12.10, 13,20-26,27-30; 15.5411, 5511; 16.30, 34,7111,7211; 18.23,24 purpose 8.86; 15.48 stressed 12.23n. 29 syntactic status of 12.261~30 (-as) 14.17;(-. . . as)7.74,86; 14.13; 15.71; (-as to) 15.48; ( - . . .asto) 17.122;(- beit) 12.27n; (just (that)) 15.34,35n; (- . . . (that)) 14.13; 15.49,74; (-too) 19.55 see also: do (so),even, if; less, many, more, much, say. so that, speak io that 14.12 (purposive) 13.8, 10; 15.20,48 (resultative) 8.14611; 13.5,8- 10, 12, 14,18-19,103; 15.20,49
-
soh our 16.411 soc 1.7411 social variation 1.19.22-27,41 s o c i ~ ~ l i ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ i ~ ll i, lcOc r41; i l c 1.13, r i : ~ If> sociolinguistics I. I9 soft 7.43; 16.81 sold 3.15 ,sol(,(i~Jicclivc)5.34: 7.35: ( - / v ) 8.116: 1 .'l 1
soli~17.81 n solid vs. open spacing 111.4 solidus+oblique stroke some (determiner) 2.54; 5.2, 14,23.45, 52,59-60; 9.40; 10.4311, 60; 12.18 (pronoun) 2.54; 6.13,46,48,52,54, 59-60; 10.42,60; 12.10, 15, 16, 17, 18; 15.9 quantitative meaning 5.39-40,64n stressed 5.1411;7.63; 12.18 unstressed 5.39; 6.6411; 12.18 zero article vs. 5.39-40 (- of) 6.48, 52 some- 2.54; 6.45-47,52; 10.60; 15.9 -same 1.2811, 3811 somebody2.54; 6.8,9, 13,45-47.59-60; 10.50,60 somchow7.46; 8.137,140, 147; 10.60 someone 6.9, 12,45-47,60; 10.50,60 someplace 10.60 something2.54; 6.8,45-47,59-60; 10.60 sometime 8.55; 10.66; 15.27; (-S) 2.54; 8.67,71,98; 10.60 somewl~at7.56,89; 8.77, 11 1, 115; 10.60 somewhere7.46; 8.41 ; 10.60 soon (adjunct) 7.70,83; 8.55; 15.29; 19.3611 (as-)3.45n;(as-as)4.13; 14.12, 18, 25,27; (-er) 3.4511; 7.83; 8.96; (-er than) 14.16; 15.52; (- est) 7.83;(no -erthatr) 14.13, 1811; 15.2511; (would er) 3.40;4.66 sorry9.2; 16.71; 19.17; (- ?) 11.3411; 19.17;(- abour)9.2; (- t o . . .) 15.54 sortof5.6;7.56n,64;8.111,113, 114, 126; 10.43 sought 3.15 sound (adjective) 7.36 (verb)4.28, 30; 7.9; 16.21,22,23,2411 (-as if) 14.36 source adjunct 8.39-48,85,149 adverbial 8.2 preposition 8.2,7,18; 9.7,47
-
source [cont] -result relation 17.106 sorrlh(~~ard(.s)) 7.4611; 8.41 ; 9.66 So11111A I ' C ~ ~1!11gIisl1 I I I I 1.26 see also: regional English South Asian English 1.34 see a1.so: regional English ,s,lll'(,~,l/fl)3, l4 sl'i~cc(orthogr;~pI~ic) ll1.1, 2. B, 4.9 space adverbial 2.18; 6.27; 8.2,3, 15% 22,37,39-50,55n,76,78n, 81,85, 86.94, 11711,143, 149,150, 151, 153;9.66; 10.10, 11; 12.62; 16.2-4; 18.50 ambiguity in 8.43 cooccurrence 8.42-46 coordination of 8.46 hierarchy 8.45.149 position of 8.47,87; 18.50 realization 8.40-41 syntax of 8.48 see also: direction, distance, existential, place, position space preposition->place spades 5.77 spaghetti 5.100n span (past tense, spin) 3.18 span 8.4,52-53,57-62; 9.37,39; 17.7 backward 8.4,53,60-62,121; 9.35 forward 8.4,53,58-59,62 Spanish l .6,8 spare 16.57; (-for) 16.57 spar 3.18 spate of 10.43n spatial-tnoun, proximity, space adverbial speak 3.16; 7.1711; (-about) 9.60; 16.28; (-of) 9.60; (-on) 16.28; (so to -) 8.126; 15.2111; (to of) 10.6211 speakerlhearer 1.42; 5.2711 see also: ellipsis, native, orientation speaking (. . -) 8.6711,89,125,126; 15.56; 17.80 speaking+ verbs (semantic classification) special+ ellipsis species 5.9 1 specific (restrictive adjective) 7.35 Specific Purposes-+English specific vs. nonspecific reference 5.26, 27-51,55n,56-58; 6.15,60n; 7.22, 23;8.42n,46, 54,78,85,98; 10.60; 11.1811; 12.35; 15.8,9,31; 17.5,39, 76,77,92,99; 18.45n, 50
-
.
1769
.s~~i~(~i/ic~rlly (conjunct) 8.137 (subjunct) 8.1 16 spccilic:~Iion punclu~lion .~yr.~~lrrck:s 5.76 spectrrrt~r5.95 sped 3.18 speccl1 llcl ~,,lhll;j,s(J, 52; 4,7, 0511; l/,.?; 14.28; 15.33. 38.45; 16.3011, 31,63 -related disjunct 8.89n seealso: direct speech, indirect speech, reported, spoken vs. written. verbs (semanticclassification) .sl~eerl(ed)(up) 3.18 spccd -P tempo spell(ed) 3.13 spelling 1.10, 12, 23; 2.37-38, 4511,5411; 3 . 4 6n, ~ 7- 10, 12, 13n,20,39n, 44; 5.11,70,81,83,99, 114;6.46,58, 64; 7.47, 79,80,83; 8.137; 9.5n,7, 13, 1511; 10.22; 11.14n,55; 12.5111; 15.911; 16.69n, 8311; 1.3, 14, 17,21n, 3 1 , 4 0 141n, ~ 42,56,59; III.4n, 27, 2911 informal 3.36nS45n,51; 8.21 ; 12.47n, 48n,49n,50n,51n; 14,2311,2911; 17.47, 112;1.18,74n phonetic 1.2711 pronunciation 1.2711; 11.55n seealso: American English, British English, rules spelt 3.13 spendlspent3.13 spill(ed) 3.13 spilt 3.13 spin 3.18 spirits 5.77 spil (vs. spat/spitled) 3.18 spite(in of)8.86;9.11,56; 14.14; 15.3911; (in ofthatlit all) 8.137; (-of)9.11 split 3.17 split-tgenitive, infinitive, word spoil(ed/t) 3.13 spoke(n) 3.16 spoken vs. written language 1.7, 10,12, 17,19,23,29-30,37,38,41,42; 3.23,33,36n, 39n,45n,73; 4.49; 5.113;6.10, 18, 19,23n,63n; 7.29;
- -
8.13,21,23,35,58,117-119,126.
137,138n. 144; 10.35,36,40,43, 52x1; 11.7,29n,40,51.53; 12.4, 19, 46, 50n,52; 13.1,28,39-40,88,91, 94,96; 14.29,40; 15.35n, 36,53;
1760 lndex
Index 1761
spoken vs. written language [cont] 16.30; 17.6,21,43n, 63.68,72, 73, 78,80,113,119,124;18.1-2,11,
75: 1.27n,41; 11.9, 16,20-21; II1.l-2,5,27n statistical differences 8.13; 17.124 In sooonfull.3 , , sporadic reference 5.33,43-49, 125 spork 1.76 spot (verb) 16.53 sprang 3.19 spread 3.17 spring3.19; 16.21 sprung 3.19 spun 3.18 spy (verb) 16.53 square brackets 111.2011 -st 3.4n stack (discourse strategy) 19.18.28, 56,69 stacks of5.25n stadium 5.95 stage 5.44 stairs 5.77 stammering 111.2611 stance-tverbs (semantic classification) stand(verb)3.18; 4.27,32,38; 8.28; 9.1611; 10.24; 16.21,24,48;(- and
statement 2.46,58n;4.52n; I l passim; 12.47; 16.3011; 18.10, 19,57; 19.32, 4711; 111.23 indircct 3.5911; 11.31; 14.33; 15.54; 16.31,59-60,63 .. .. . S(~COI.YO: cooruln;lte, alrectlve states-inames (classified) stative-adjective, have, noun, stative verb meaning stative verb meaning 3.34, 66,68, 76; 4.4. 5,611, 22, 26-27-31, 32, 33,44, 52n,67;7.18;8.42,82, 149;9.16, 24n,27-30,32,42; 10.14, 18,20, 23,24,55; 11.24; 12.25.35; 13.23, 78; 14.19,26,27n; 15.60n; 16.21-24, 39,44,50, 53,54; 17.28, 101; 18.5111; 1.47 statusmarker 10.53; 111.29 stay (verb) 10.24; 16.21,22n, 23, 24 StE (= Standard English)-tstandard stead+instead steal 3.16 stem 2.4,37; 16.12; I.2,4; 11.4 morpheme 1.211 see also: base step, out of5.51 steps 5.77 step (discourse strategy) 19.18,56,69 -sterI.33
16.29 standard
stereotype0 3.04; U.YL,ILLII,I L W ,I L ~ , 127n, 14411; 10.15n,61n; 11.38.40, --
national 1.24-26,34, 36,37 preposition 9.7.62 . - .. . ... . English, nonstandard stank 3.19 star (verb) 3 7
-
-
a -) 8.137; (get ed) 3.6611; (to (with)) 8.137; 15.18
t
state, stattve) statal -t passwe state (verb) 16 31.60 state, state, stative)
-.
....
..
see orso: nxeu pnrase stick (verb) 3.18 .. .
\-".._
(cnnlunct) 8.137, 141, 143-146 (subjunct) 8 97,98 (- andall) 8 137, (better -) 8 147,
stimulus p r e p o s ~ r ~ o n r43, . ~ ,J I , 03; sting 3.18 ..
st~pulate16.32 strpulatron (with the stole(n) 3.16 stood 3.18
-
that) 15.34n
IU.IU
stoop 3.7 StOp3.7;4.27, 34; l1.47n; 16.19,26,38n, 39,40,42; (-and. .) 13.98 straig/rt (adverb) 16.3 stranding2.51; 3.26,45n; 6.4; 12.10,40, 55.59% 60-64; 15.66n; 16.14 see also: preposition (deferred) strange 16.82; ( - ly)8.127, 131 strata 5.95n.98n strategy -*discourse stratutn(s) 5.95 strength (on the of) 9.11 stress 1.12; 19.25; 11.1-9, 10-11, 18; 111.2 compounds and 5.120.122n; 6.47; 17.104-106; 1.3, 58,59, 61-70; 11.6-8 connected speech and 11.7- 10,21 contrastive II.9;-tfocus (contrastive) emphaticlheavy 11.22; 15.71; 18.3, 14; 11.3.8 even7.14 fixed vs. movable 11.4 initial ellipsis and 12.51 multi-word verbs and 9.65; 16.6, 16 noun phrase premodification 17.104-106, 109, 114; 11.6-9 position in words 7.79; 8.55; 19.68; I.14n, 19,26,34: 37, 39.40, 56,74, 76; 11.3-5 primary vs. secondary 1.19,20,21,25, 59,68; 11.3 shift 1.18; 7.47; 9.9; 1.19,27,31,35, 36,4011.56; II.6.8n -timed rhythm 11.1 vs. unstressed form 3.8, 23, 32.39; 4.53,57; 5.2, 14n,23, 38,39,63; 6.27% 28,5011,5211; 7.14, 32,56n,
.
-
62,63,81;8.111,116;12.15,23,24,
40,46,50,64; 17.26; 18.3-19,46; 19.3411;I.19,24,30, 33,42n see also: any, article, focus, intonation,ir, nucleus, preposition,pronoun, so, some, that strew(ed/n) 3.14 stricken (adjective) 3.18 strict-tapposition, ellipsis strictly 8.124 strid(den) 3.16 stride (verb) 3.16 strike(verb) 3.18; (-as) 10.14; 16.4611; (it smethat) 16.34n, 59n strikingly (amplifier) 7.56 string (verb) 3.18
-
strive(d1n) 3.16; (-for) 16.38 strode 3.16 strokc-toblique strong (adjcctive) 7.9n,80,88 (amplifier adjective) 7.33, 34 (- ly)7.9n; 8.105, 109 strove 3.16 struck 3.18 structural ambiguity (of complex sentence) 14.41 compensation 18.43 description 2.12, 55; 1.8 recoverability 12.6-7 .se~nIso:ellipsis, parallelism structure word* word (grammatical) struggle (with . . .for) 16.17 strung 3.18 stuck 3.18 study (verb) 16.26 stung 3.1 8 stunk 3.19 style 8.79 -style 7.46; L41n style 1.31 constraints 8.66; 13.96-97; 17.62, 105.109 disjunct8.123-126, 127n, 128, 12911, 130,143,149; 14,2111,3911; 15.18n, 20-21,23,33,38,45,46, 53,56,59 manual 111.4 indirect libre-tindirect speech (free) seealso: block, frozen, rhetorical suasive-tverbs (semantic classification) sub-tsubordinate sub- (degree) 1.24 . (locative) 1.26 subaudibility 17.15 subject (adjective) 7.39; (- to) 7.39 (verb) (- to) 16.57 subject affected 10.21-22,23,30,33; 18.32 animate4.34; 10.19; 16.26 anticipatory* it (anticipatory) -attachment 8.127n, 152; 15.58-59 clause2.59; 10.26n,37,46n; 15.1-15, 56; 16.3811; 18.4,29,32-36 discontinuous 3.28,13.94 element 2.13,21,24,25,45,47, 50; 3.56,65,66,69;4.811: 6.3-5, 23-27, 29,30, 31,32,35,41,50; 7.22,23, 27,29; 8.16, 18,49, 117, 119, 120, 127, 129;9.6; 10.1-5,6, 7-11, 16n, 17-26,27,28,30,33,56; 1 1.15,22, 31; 12.25,50,61; 13.3511,52-53,56,
1762 lndox
subject [cont] 57,92,94,95,97, 103; 14.511, 14; 15.1-15,52.54.65.67;16.7,14, 1811,19, 08 0 0 , 43. 70, 75, X I ;
17.47,83-84, 11511, 124; 18.3,5, 10, 16, 19,20n, 27, 32,45-54, 59; 19.8, 35; I.60,61,64. 65; 111.7,9, 21 cllipsis K.20n; 1 1.40. 4811; 12.43 44, 46-49,67; 13.12-13, 19,21,92n; 15.58-62,66, 71 ; 17.17; 111.7 empty -s if (prop) first-person 4.26n, 42, 54, 55, 58,64; 8.122, 124, 134, 143, 151; 11.8n, 13, 41 inanimate 4.34; 10.21 indefinite 6.24n; 7.3911; 10.35,42-43; 14.8; 15.73; 16.39, 79, 80; 18.45-49 independence of auxiliary/operator 3.29,40.42n. 47.49 length 11.7; 15.'5ni17.20n; 18.40,43; 11.20; 111.9 meaning (in conversion) 1.47 notional vs. grammatical 14.8; 18.45-48, 52 personal vs. nonpersonal 4.43; 6.24n; 8.90,94,129; 9.49; 14.3611; 16.42; 18.36n -plus-complement construction 11.44 positionof 2.14; 4.30; 10.6,20,43n; 11.41; 12.29 postponed 10.2611; 16.70; 18.33 pronoun8.47,71; 11.8-11,41,44; 14.8,29; 15.10; 16.3, 36; 18.10,23n, 24,26n prop-tit (prop) pseudo- 10.34n quasi- 10.43n realization of 2.24; 10.6 semantic propertiesof 10.6, 19-26,33 stranded 6.4 syntactic function of 10.6 temporal 10.33 territory 6.5, 35 understood 6.24; 7.27,29 seealso: adjunct, adverb phrase, adverbial, cognate, complement, compound, concord, coordinate, directive, disjunct, -ed, eventive, extraposition, imperative, infinitive, -ing participle clause, instrumental, inversion, locative, must, nominal clause, nonfinite, noun phrase, plural, prepositional phrase, recipient, reflexive, relative pronoun, result, reversal, singular, subjunct, time, time adverbial,verbless, vocative '
,
Index
subject matter 1.23,28 preposition 9.7,60 suhjcctive C I I H C r ~ I ~ G I I I I I I (%~~I!jecliv~ III li~rrl~) genitive 5.1 16; 6.2411; l0.20n; 17.41-43,47,51, 11511 -objective polarity 8.5, 7; 17.1 15 ~~~l!jccts n:lmcs subjunct2.15, 60; 7.49; 11.24, 2511,37,X5, 88-120, 121, 126,129n, 13511; 9.1, 9; 14.39n; 15.69,71; 19.53; 1.7111 clausal 13.15; 15.17, 19,21n, 23 distinguished from adjunct 8.88.90, 92n,95,98n general 8.93-95 position of 8.89-92,95, 97,98, 116, 117-119 restrictive 8.100n, I l l , 116-18, 120; 9.5811 subject-oriented 8.78,92-95, 109n, 129,148, 149 syntaxof8.102, 110,113,120 see also: additive, amplifier, approximator, booster, compromizer, courtesy, diminisher, duration, emphasizer, exclusive, focusing,formulaic, frequency,intensifying,item, maximizer, minimizer. modality, narrow orientation, particularizer, posilion, predication, relationship, time adverbial,verb phrase, viewpoint, volition, wide orientation subjunctive frequency of 14.24 mandative 3.58,59; 4.64; 14.24, 33-34; 16.30, 33,70; 17.26 mood 3.32n, 37n,52,54,58-62; 10.34,44,55n; 11.38-39; 14.23-25, 34; 15.34n, 41n,42n, 50; 16.59,63; 17.35 optative 3.51 ; 11.39; 14.34 passive 3.58 past-tsubjunctive (were-) vresent 1.24: 3.2.52.58.61: 14.24425: 15.36, &n,'48 pseudo- 1.17; 3.62n quasi- 4.53n, 64n uses of3.59-61; 14.24n were- 1.17; 3.58,62;4.16n,64; 14.23, 24,34; 15.36; 16.30,33 see also: formulaic, negative submit 16.31 subordinate clause 2.9,25,45; 3.56,58, 61;4.9,13,16, 19,45,47,53n,62, '
subordin;~teclause [cont] 64;6.37n;7.27-30; 8.13, 15,22,75, 106, 130. 141, 143, 144.145, 147; L).~l;10.1,57,04,65;1I.IH1i,OX,40;
12.34,43,45,65,69; 13.2,9-10, 14-15.18-19,83,84; 14pussbt; I5 pussirtr; 18.20n,27n,45n; I').XI X2 cllipsisof 15.68; 19.6011 as irregular sentence 11.41 positionsof 14.38-41 semantic functions of 15.24-56 syntactic functionsof 15.1-23 verb phrase in 14.21-27 seealso: adverbial, clause, coordinate, nonfinite subordinating conjunction+suhordinator subordination 2.9, 11,44; 6.19; 11.43; 12.1; 13.2-4, 18-19, 103; 14passim; 15passim; 19.5n, 7, 57-60 formal indicators 14.10-20 multiple 14.37-41 see also: coordination subordinator 2.9,41,44,45,60; 6.4; 7.29,52-53; 8.145; 9.3,55; 13.2-4, 5-10, 13-16, 18-19,103; I4passim; 15passim; 17.26; III.I8 complex 9.3n, 1211; 14.11, 12, 14; 15.46,48-49; 16.2811; I!12 correlative 14.11, 13 ellipsis 7.29; 13.14,50; 14.24n finite clause 14.12-14 marginal 14.14 nonfinite clause 14.15-19 simple 14.12 verbless clause 14.18 seealso: causative, concessive,condition, coordinate, correlative, manner, purpose, result, time sub-paragraph -> paragraph subsequent 19.37; (- to) 9.10 subsequently(adjunct) 8.55,62,72,77; 19.37 (conjunct) 8.137 subsidiary* focus substance preposition 9.7,61 substandard-+ nonstandard substitute clause-tclause substitute form-+ pro-form substitution 2.5-6,46; 3.26; 12.5,8-20; 18.33-36
1763
substitution [cont] vs. coreference 12.8 Vs. cllipvis 12.8, 1911. 38. .?V 40. 54n, 57 sccalsu: noun phrase, pro-forms,pronoun succeeditrg 19.37 successive units +punctuation s v ~ . /iclclcrrni~~cr) l 2.44; 1 1.32: 18.57 (inlensilicr) 15.49; 16.70; 17.96 (predeterminer) 5.15, 1711; 6.44n; 7.63; 12.10, 11; 15.74; 19.50 (pronoun) 6.44n; 12.10 noncorrelative 18.57 (-as) 14.13; 17.73,86;(- . . .as) 15.7411; 17.77n; (- that) 14.12; 1549,7411; ( - . . . that) 14.13; 15.49,74 suddenly 19.37 sufficiency comparison 15.63, 72-75 suficier~t15.73; 16.81;(- Iy) 7.85; 8.111, 113,115; 15.73 suffix(ation)2.4, 35; 3.811, 12; 5.105; 1.2-3,6, 17, 18, 19, 30,31-42, 57, 64 adjective 7.1, 15, 37,79,82n; 1.37, 38-40 adverb 7.46,71; 8.41 ;1.41 noun 1.32-37 pejorative 1.32,33,37,38n, 42 phrasal 5.123; 13.72 pronoun 6.1 1, 12n, 23 verb 3.12-20; I.42,50 zero I. 16n, 43n see also: agent, alveolar, de-adjectival, denominal, derivation, deverbal, feminine,-itig, nasal suggest 14.25n; 16.31,32, 60; (- to) 16.62 suit (verb) 3.68; 10.14; 16.27 suitcase (vs. luggage) 5.4 sunt (in -) 8.137; (- ing tcp) 15.18; (to up)8.137; 15.18 summarize, to 8.137; 15.18 summarizing 15.18 summation-tplural summative clause 15.57 conjunct 8,136,137,139, 144, 148; 15.18; 19.18,27 summon 16.50 sung 3.19 sunk 3.19 sunken (adjective) 3.1211, 19 super- (degree) 1.24 (locative) 1.26
-
1764 Index superficially 8.127 superior 7.85 superlative adjective5.34, 119; 6.64; 7.1,2-4,7, 21-,26,62,74-82,84,86; 8.21,61n; 17.15,32,97; 18.4511 adverb 7.83 frequency of 7.82n premodification of 7.90 quantifier 5.24; 6.53 sccolso: genilive supernatural beings+names (classified) superordinate+clause, hierarchy superuenirtg 19.37 supervisor I.24n supplementive clause adjective 3.47n; 7.10,27-28,29n adverbial 15.60-62 subjectless l5.61,71 suppletion 3.12 supply 16.56; (- for/to/with) 16.57 strpporr (verb) 16.26 support -+ do support preposition 9.7, 53 suppose 3.62; 4.29,64n; 11.8n,41; 12.28; 14.22,24,30; 15.54; 16.31,33,44,
( I - ) 15.54; (1 -so) 12.65n; (- dly) supposbtg(that) 11.41; 14.12, 14; 15.34, 38n supposition (on the that) 15.34n sur- 1.24 sure (adjective) 7.33; 8.100n; 16.71,73,
-
(intensifier) 7.5611; I.46n (subjunct) 8.100 as response 8.100 (be -) 12.28,65; 15.54; 18.36; (be to) 4.47,66; 16.79; (far -) 8.100,102; (make -) 16.45; (make that) 16.17n surely (disjunct) 7.5611; 8.127, 12811 (subjunct) 8,100,102 susface 5.120 surface dimension 9.15,17,25 surmise (verb) 14.36 surname 5.61,66 surprise (verb) 9.2; 16.26 surprised7.33; 16.78; (-at) 9.2.63; (- by) 9.63 surprising 16.72,82; (- ly) 8.127, 129, 131,133n
-
.
-
surround 10.27; (- in& 5.77 Survey of English Usage 1.42; 3.39; 7.8211; &In, 13,15n,21n, 23,58,60, 117; 11.5n, 1411; 15.47; 17.124; 19.10, 12, 87-90; 111.7 suspect (verb) 15.54; 16.31 suspenders 5.76 suspension dots III.26n suspiciotr.sly 8.127 slvcrm 3.19 swerrr3.l6; 16.31, 38 swear(ed) 3.17 sweep 3.15; (- Nclean) 16.45 swell(eci) (adjectivelverb) 3.14 swept 3.15 swim 3.19;9.16n, 31; 10.27 s~virte5.87 swittg (verb) 3.18; (- Nopen) 16.45 switch (down/ofl/up) 16.4; (- on) 16.4.6 s~vollen(adjective) 3.14; (verb) 3.14 swore/sivorn3.16 swum 3.19 swung 3.18 syllabic form 3.5n,33n syllable 18.4,11; 19.68; 11.3-10, 18-19 division 111.4 loss 12.31, 51n see also: duration syllabus5.93 symbols 8.138n see also: currency, mathematical,nought symposium 5.95 synchronic -+diachronic syncope 9.13n syncretism 6.2 syndetic coordination 13.1, 17,68,79; 19.11, 14, 69; 111.8 synonymy 2.38; 12.35.37; 17.80; 1.1 synopsis 5.97 syntactically bound clause-tsubordinate clause syntagmatic relationships 2.5-6; 1.13 syntax 1.14-16,42; 2.7, 33,37; 4.47; 6.46; 7.41; 8.48,77; 10.5; 13.4; 16.16; 17.44,66-67,92 vs. morphology 4.17 vs. semantics+grammar see also: adjective,adjunct, adverb, adverbial, 4mplifier. auxiliary,clause, comparative,conjunct, coordination, disjunct, downtoner, emphasizer, genitive, negation, object, prepositional phrase, prepositional verb, process, reduction, so, space, subject, subjunct, subordinateclause, time adverbial '
synthesis 5.97 systematic correspondences -+corrcspondcnces systems 5.77
T T , +time-orientation (primary) T, -P time-orientation (sccondary) T, -+ time-orientation (tertiary) t + transitive -t doubling in verbs 3.8 tableau 5.99 taboo 11.54; 15.3711; 1.16 tag abbreviating 13.104 amplificatory 17.78; 18.20.59 checking 10.57 clause 11.34 e x c l a m a t o ~1 4 . 1 2 ~17.68n; 18.59n invariant 1.34; 11.11 noun phrase 11.44; 18.34,59 question3.37.44; 4.5811; 6.7.9; 10.6, 50n,57-59,66,70; 11.7.8-11, 12n, 22,25,26n, 2811.38, 53; 12.47; 13.2; 14.35,3611; 15.54n; 19.63,65n; 11.13 see also: assumption, negative tail (intonation)+ tone unit take 3.16; 10.30; 16.2n, 24n, 26,47n, 50; 18.43; (- aslfor) 16.47; ( - in) 16.4; (- it that. . .) 16.3411; (- n) 3.16; (- n with) 16.69; (- off)4.27; 16.21~3; (- our on) 16.9; (- to) 16.28; (- up) 16.39 see also: account, advantage, care, note, notice. place. pride talk 4.27; 16.48; (- about) 9.60; ( - of) 9.60; 16.14;(- toNaboutN) 16.17 tall 7.66,88 tantamoqrtt (to) 7.39 tap 4.27 target preposition 9.7,43, 46 task (vs. work) 5.4 taste (verb)4.29-30; 10.23; 16.21.24n taught 3.15 tautology 8.124, 144, 146, 149; 17.1$,20 taxi 1.7411 TB 1.75 teach 3.15; 16.55,57,59,62,63; (-about) 9.60; (- to) 16.57 teaching* English tear(verb) 3.16
technical language 1.28 see also: scientific language tcclrr~lccrllj~ 8.127 -tcert6.64; 11.10, 13 teeth 5.84 r~lc-1.29, 76n telecast 3.17; 1.76 telegraphese 12.52; III.29n telescoped-relative clause t~,kr!i,rir~~t 5.33 tclcvision-t broadcasting telex 1.76 re113.15;4.8;9.2; 12.28; 14.3311; 15.54; 16.35,55,56, 57, 59, 61, 62, 63; 19.47n: ( - ahotrt)9.2,60; 16.56,57; (cart't/coaldrt't ) 14.31n ;(- of) 9 2 6 0 ; (-off) 16.2611; (- to) 16.57 telly I. 74 temperature 5.49n temperature 9.32n tentpo 5.100 tempo 15.53; 18.7, 17n; 19.27; 11.2, 10, 19 temporal -as, before, frequency, if: names (classified), noun, position, proximity, since, subject, time, verb, until, ~vhert,while, ~vhilst temp0ra~jly8.63 temporariness 4.25,26,29,32, 37, 38 see also: institutionalization 'temporary'vs, 'permanent9 modification 7.10, l In, 21,27,38, 5811; 17.7,57-58,63,95, 98- 102, 105,114; 18.45n tend to 3.49; 4.66 tendencies+rules tense 2.49,57; 3.31,40,42n, 44.50, 52,56, 58; 4.1.2-17,25,36; 11.24; 13.2311; 14.8,27n, 30; 15.26,54,58n, 68; 17.28,31; 18.16,48, 51; 19.7-8.78 compound 4.17n narrative structure and 19.39-43 sequence 14.31-34; 19.39 unmarked 4.2 see o/.so: aspect, backshifting,future, past, present, time, time adverbial tentativeness 3.30; 4.16,28,29, 37,49, 50,53,56,57,58n, 62,63,64n, 66; 8.140; 14.23,25n; 15.36, 54; 19.61 -1eria 1.3211,76 terminological issues 2.4n. 1311, 14n, 16, 17n,29,35, 38,41,43,44, 46,5211, 53;3.2n,49n,65;4.1,2,3, 17.66; 5.27n,112;8.104, 13411; 10.ln,7n,
-
Index 1787
1768 Index
terminological issues [cont] 9n; 11.211; 12.6; 14,211,411; 15.1211, 5911: 16.18; 17.5411; 19.2, 511;1.2n,3 t~~rmitru,~ 5.93 ternts (it1 of) 9.1 l terrible at 16.69 terriltly (amplifier)7.56; 8.105 tcrrilscrlivc, oldect, premodification zone, subject testify 16.31 -[er 1.2811 lext 1.13; 19passbn; 11.21 connectivity 8.134, 145; 19pussim illuslrstion of 19.69-90 linguistics 1.13 see also: adverbial,asyndetic,final, grammar,initial, orientation textual recoverability 12.6-7, 12,35,37 seealso: ellipsis, recoverability th- (initial sound) l . 18; 2.37 -th (final sound) 5.83 (suffix) 3.411; 6.63-64; I.5.16n than (conjunction) 3.4511;6.4; 7.76; 9.4; 14.13; 15.52n, 63-75 (preposition) 6.4.27; 9.4,7; 15.6411, 66n, 68 similarity to pronoun 15.66 than-clause 7.82, 84-86; 8.48; 15.63-75; 16.68,74 thank (for) 16.7.57; ( - Nfor) 16.8; (-/U/) 16.71,78;(-fully)8.127, 129;(-s)5.77;8.91; (- sto)8.91; 9.10;(- you)8.91 thanks 11.54; 12.34 that (conjunction) 8.86; 12.6; 14.12,20; 15.39,47,54 (determiner) 3.38; 4.1111; 5.14; 8.39; 9.40; 17.46 (intensifier) 7.56n,89; 12.10, 17; 15.74; 19.50 (pronoun) 6.1 1, 13, 16,40-44; 10.50n; 12.10, 19.24-26,6411 (relative). 5.3711: . 6.13.33-35; 12.19; . 14.20; 17.9, 1 1 - 2 1 . 2 3 ~26; 18.28.48 -clause 2.22; 3.42n,59; 4.27,45,53; 7.28;8.49,68, 120, 128;9.2; 11.811, 39.41 ; 12.28.65; 13.14; 14.22n, 24-25.33.36; 15.3-5, 10, 11, 12, 46n,74; 16.20,24n, 28,30-32, 34-35,38n,41,43,45,50,59-61, 63.68.70-72,73,78,79,82; 17.122; 18.35-36; 19.47
-
.
that [cont] circumstantial 15.47 cleft sentence use 18.28-29 c(,nccssive 15.30 degree 6.4111 disparaging 5.6311 identificatory 6.3411 pro-i'orm~~so 12.8. 10. 12, l.?. 10. ?'I 20. 2x11,.1011;15.3; 19.47,40 purpose 8.86; 15.48n resultative 15.49 stressed 5.63n zero 12.52; 14.20,3011; 15.4.49n,54, 74; 16.30,34; 17.11, 14-20,22,63; 18.28 (. -) 14.12.-13; (otld -) 19.47n; (at - ) 17.80;(do(just) -) 12.10; (forall-)81137;(in -)9.3n, 12n; 15.46; 16.2811; (- is (tosay)) 8.137, 139; 15.18; 17.27,73, 75-81,86, 92; 111.13; (like -) 8.78n; 12.27; 16.70; (- 'S. . .) 15.8; (- which) 6.42; 17.12 see also: nominal clause, say, so that the-article (definite), exclamatory body parts and 5.35 -clause 11.4311; 15.30,51 discourse reference 19.49 logical 5.34 possessive pronoun or 5.35 (- . . . the)7.82n; 14.13; 15.30,SI see also: exclamatory thee+ thou-forms their5.14,23n; 6.2-6,s-11, 14,29; (-s)6.2-6,s-11, 14.29 them 6.2-6,s- 11, 14; 10.3611 thematization 9.6; 17.50 theme8.15; 10.6; #.l-2,9,10-54; 1.58,59,70, 76; 11.16 connecting function 17.45; 19.12-13, 21,22,53, 69 dummy/empty 18.25-30.44.49, 51 fronting I5.lOn; 18.36 marked 18.10n, 16, 19,20-24,58 onset 18.10, 19 related to focus 18.9 unmarked 18.9 vs. rheme 18.911, 12n,38,40; 19.12,
..
then (additive conjunct) 8.23, 137, 143, 148 (adjunct)4.1 In; 6.43; 7.70; 8.55,72, 87, 144, 148; 13.12; 19.36,37
then [cont] (antithetic conjunct) 8.137, 141, 143. 146.14H; 11.15n (cnumerative co~ijuncl)8.137, 143, 148; 19.18,38, 55; 111.12 (inferential conjunct) 8.135, 137, 140. 143. 144. 148; 15.32 ( S I I I I I I I I : C(II!~IIIIC~) I ~ ~ V C H. 137, 143, I 1 H premodil'ying 7.611 pro-form use 2.44; 8.10n,55; 12.10, 11 (- agubt) 8.146; (hy/trtltil/upto -) 19.36; (justlright -) 8.98 see also: bcjore, the~tce19.33; (-forward) 19.3711 th~oreticiclly8. 127 there (adverb) 3.23; 4.1 In; 6.43; 7.67, 70; 8.41,48; 18.46; 19.33,64n; 11.21 adverbial vs. existential 18.46 omission 11.50 pro-formuse 2.44; 8.10n.41; 12.10, 11 (- . . . be)8.47; 18.23; (in -)9.ln sec also: existential thereabouts 6.6411; 8.41 thereafter 19.37n therefore7.46; 8.144, 145; 13.19 (resultive conjunct) 8.137,140n (summative conjunct) 8.137 thereupon 19.3711 these (determiner) 5.14; 10.4311; 14.30 (pronoun)6.11, 13.40-44; 12.10 pro-fonnuse 12.8, 10; 19.49 thesis 5.97 tltey5.104, 108; 6.2-6.8-11, 14,20,21; 10.36n.50; 12.47; 15.54; 19.51 (- . . . all/bath) 6.45 thick 7.66, 82,88 thieflthieues 5.83 thin 7.82,88 thh~e+ tholc-forms tlring(noun) 2.4411; 7.26; 17.57~1;(a -) (minimizer) 8.1 12; 10.62; (Jorone/another -) 8.137 -thing 3.38; 5.12; 6.46-47; 7.21.69; 17.57 think3.15; 4.27.29; 12.28; 14.36; 15.54; 16.31,35,44,46,50; (-about) 9.60; 16.28; (Idon'! -) 15,5411: (-odd) 16.45; (- of) 9.60; 16.14, 28; (to (that)) 11.41 thinking-+verbs (semantic classification) third (conjunct) 8.137 (fraction) 6.67 (numeral) 6.63-64; 19.38
-
this (determiner) 3.38; 4, I In; 5.13, 14, 63n;8.39: 9.40; 14.30; 17.46 (inlcllsilicr) 19.50 (pronoun) 6.1 l . 13, 16,40-44; 10.5011; 12.10; 19.6411 pro-form use 12.8, 10, 12,13; 19.47,49 (like - ) 16.70 t/l/t/li~r19.3.1 thorurrgl~8.106; ( - Iy) 8.105. 106 those (determiner) 5.14; 6.4211.62; 10.43 (pronoun)6.l l. 13,40-44; 7.24; 12.10, 19 pro-form use 12.8, 10, 19; 19.49 ( - that) 12.1911; ( - nto) 12.19 tltitrf-li)rms3.411:6.12. 14n; 10.44n thorg11(conjunct) 8.134, 137, 143, 144, 146 (conjunction) 3.62; 8.143, 145; 13.711; 14.12, 18-20,24; 15.21.39-40 (content disjunct) 15.21 (style disjunct) 15.21 concessive 14.2411;15.39-40 ( - . . .) 14.13;(as-)3.62; 9.4; 14.12, 17-19,24; 15.50; 16.2411; (even-) 8.145; 14.13,24n; 15.39-40 see also: althougl~ thoug/~t3.15 thousand 5.89; 6.65 thrice 3.16 threw 8.64 thrice(d/tl) 3.16 through (adverb) 7.66n; 8.41, 52 (particle) 16.2 (preposition) 7.70; 9.7,9,22,25,27, 29,32,36-37.50; 14.1911; 111.2811 (prepositional adverb) 9.66 correlative vs. noncorrelative 8.59 (all -) 8.6311; 9.36; (right - ) 8.63n througholrt 8.41,48; 9.7,29,36,66; 19.36 tltroue 3.16 throw (verb) 3.16; 16.26.57; (- aboctt) 16.4; (-at) 9.46; (- n) 3.16; ( - 10) 9.46; 16.57 thnt 9.7 thrust 3.17 thus (appositional conjunct) 8.137 (resultive conjunct)8.137, 144: 19.55 (summative conjunct) 8.137, 144; 19.56 pro-formuse 2.44; 8.10n, 7811; 12.10: 19.47 tly(se!f)+ thou-forms tick (graphic) 111.3011 tickle (verb) 4.29 tidal 7.37 tie (verb) 3.10
1768 lndex
lndex
tight 7.82 t i ~ h t5.76 .~ tigon 1.76 till(conjunction) 8.55n,58; 14.12; 15.25 (preposition) 7.70; 8.5511, 58,59,62; 9.7,37,38; 11.14n; 15.27, 2911 postposed 8.5911 vs. unti18.58 tinre (along -) 10.6111; 15.27.29; (at some -) 8.55; (at thesome -)8.137, 143; (before that -) 8.72; (hjl the (that)) . .. 8.59: (everv . , (that)) . ,. 14.14; 15.2811, (from - t o -)9.41; (in -) 8.59; (in ashort - ) 8.55n; (it's (that)) 14.2411; (or1 -) 8.59; (onamore -) 8.65n; (throughout the (that)) 15.2811; (lip to . . -) 8.72 see also: rimes ime (temporal) adjective 7.36 adjunct, adverb, adverbial4 time adverb(ia1) after 8.55; 15.26,29; 19.35,37 anterior4.18-19,21, 24,67; 8.55; 14.2611; 15.26.27; 19.35,36 clause4.8.24.42; 10.26; 13,14; 14.4, 21,22,24n, 26-27; 15.20,25-30, 32; 17.34 conjunction4.13,24,45; 7.53; 8.145; 14.121~22;15.25-30,31 connectivity 19.8, 17 daylnight 5.46; 6.66; 111.2811 frame4.2, 7, 14, 18, 19,20,24,36,46; 8.57 inclusion 4.36 meaning (in compounds) 1.63 period vs. point 9.34,40; 14.26 preposition 9.7, S, 14, 32,33-42,64; 17.17 reference 2.18; 3.30,40, 42; 4.2-16, 66; 6.17,43; 7.73; 8.9, 75,9711; 10.2011; 11.18n; 14.30-35; 15.811, 25-31,34,46, 5211; 16.40; 17.106, 114; 19.15.35-38 relators 19.31,35-38 sequence 4.15,24,36; 8.72: 13.23.77: 15 45,60,19 35,36-38,40-41,46, 55, 19 57 s~multaneous13 2311.14 27n, 15 26, 28,19 35,36,40n subject 10 25.26 subord~nator-tttme (conjunct~on) vs tense 4 2
-
-
-
.
time (temporal) [cont] see nlso: duration. frequency, future, noun. pusl, position, prelix, present, relationship,span, time adverbial, limeorienlation, ~vlten time adverb(ia1) 2.45; 4.13, 22,23,47, 5211, 57; 7.9, 10,67, 70; 8.2,4, 15 adjunct 8.37,42n,51-77, ll7n, 121, 125n, 143,149,150,151,153; 9.66; 10.10, 18, 33,60,61n, 66; 11.24; 12.62; 14.14; 15.6811; 16.24; 17.7, 18-20,24,55, 122; 18.26n,27; 11.21 conjunct 8.136,137,142 coordiniition of 8.74 hierarchy 8.149 position of 8.73,87 pro-form use 12.10 realization 8.52-54 subject-[object-related 8.76 subjunct 8.67n,69,97-98, 143 syntax of 8.77 tense and 8.75 see aho: duration, frequency,position, relationship,span time-orientation 4.14, 18-20,23,24,36, 40,4311; 8.4,55 primary 4.14,19,24,40 secondary 4.14, 19,24,36,40 tertiary 4.24 times (noun) 8.52 (predeterminer)5.15,IB; 15.71n (preposition) 9.8 ( N (a)) 8.64,66; (how niarry -) 8.64, 66 timeless-tpresent, ~vill Timestyle 5.42n tinge (verb) 3.9 -lion I.39n tip (verb) 16.50 tired oJ'16.69 titles (book, etc)8.85n; 10.34n; 12.52; 13.60; 17.90; III.29n (personal) 5.42n, 66; 10.53; 17.82n; 111.28 apposition and 5.64n. 66; 17.88, 90-91, 105; 111.29 seealso: numeral, rcspect, your tmesls 18 5911, I 7611 to (conjunct~on)+order (~nfin~tlve marker) 2 34,3 53.9 3211, l1 46,12 64,6511.15 66n, 16 28n,66 (prepostt~on)2 23,3 7 6 , s 59.9 7, 10, 15-17,26,32,37,45,46,51,63, 10 7,16 28n,39,57-63,69, l8 38
-
'
to [cont] (prepositional adverb) 9,6611 -clause-+infinitive focuson infinitive 18.14 ( - andfro) 9.66n see also: ought toasts 11.54 today 6.43; 7.70; 8.55;9.40; 10.15n together 9.66; 16.2; (- with) 9.10 token, by the same 8.137 told 3.15; (Z'm -) 15.54 tomorrow6.43; 7.70; 8.55,75; 9.40 tone* falling, fall-plus-rise, fall-rise, intonation, level, nucleus, rise-fall, rise-plus-fall, rising tone of voice 11.17 toneunit8.36,91, 116, 135;9.9; 11.9, 25; 14.37; 15.53; 17.6, 120; 18.1-19,41;11.11, 16-19; 111.18 boundary 8.38; 10.52,66n; 13.1, 16n, 92.97; 14.41; 17.22,68,72; 11.20; 111.9 grammar of 11.16 length 18.711; 11.16 onset 12.46; 18.10, 19; 11.11 tail 9.9; 10.52; 15.5411; 16.16; 18.5911; 11.15 loflgs5.76 tonight 7.10,70; 8.55 loo (conjunct) 8.137, 13811; 12.251 (intensifier) 6.53,57,59; 7.22,56,57n, 85; 10.62n; 15.63, 73,74; 16.75n; 17.122 (subjunct) 3.26; 8.1 16, 119, 120; 10.60; 12.29 see a1,so: much took 3.16 tools-tnames (classified) tooth/teeth 5.84 top(on -)9.13n, 19,66; 16.2; (on -of) 9.11,19; 16.2;(on-ofita11)8.137; (to itaN)8.137 topiclcomment 2.47; 10.6; 18.9n tore/torn 3.16 -1ory 1.3211 total (adjective) 7.21,33,73; 8.106 (adverb) 7.56 (- ly) 8 96,105, 106 touch (down) l6 3 touching (prepos~t~on) 9 8, 57 tough 16 80.18 36n tough-movement l8 36n toward(s) 7 70,9 7,17,26,16 69 town 5 44
-
1
!
I k
1
1769
towns+names (classified) traditional-tgrnmmar truJJic (verb) 3.8 tragic 16.72; (- ally) 8.127 trans- 1.26 transcription+phonological, prosody transferred -t negation transformations 2.20 transitional actlevent-tverbs (semantic classification) transitional conjunct 8.136, 137, 142; 19.54n:, -. 11.21 -. transitive construction[verb 2.16, 32n; 3.2n,38,49.66n, 67,68, 70; 4.27; 6.25;7.16,21; 8.2211, 32.33; 9.31, 47,6511; 10.2-4, 14,21, 24; 11.26n, 46; 12.34; 15.8n,54,73; 16.2n,4,7, 17,19,20,25-63,75,80; 17.43; 18.32,43,49; 1.24, 30,40,42,49, 50,54 see also: complementation, complex, do, intransitive translation I.Sn, 6; 17.80 transpire 15.54; 16.34 transport+ names (classified) transposition 2.46 travel 3 3 ; ( - ogue) 1.76 tread 3.16 treat (verb) 15.2211; 16.48; (-- as) 16.47; (-.to) 16.57 tree diagram 2.3 tri- 1.28 triadic sequence 19.8,45n, 59,69; III.6n,8 tricky 16.80 . trillion 6.6311 trisyllabic-tadjective trod(den) 3.16 troops 5177 tropics 5.77 trouble (verb) 16.26 trousers 5.76 true 7.33, 34,43, 73; 8.145n; 15.54; 16.72; 19.56 truly (disjunct) 8.124, 12511, 130n (subjunct) 7.34.5611 (vours -) 8.9111 truncated+abbrev~ated, reduction trunks 5 76 truthvalue3 6 5 , s 6.8, 112, 123, 127, 10 66.15 6n, 18 1 truth-focus~ngparaphrase 8 3 6 truthfully 8 124, 12711, 130n truths 5 83
1770 lndex
try 8.30; 14.23; 16.38,39,40; (-and . . .)8.30; 13.98; I.l8n turho- 1.66 turn (vcrb)5.42n;9.31 ; 10.27; 16.19.21, 23, 24, 44; (- doan) 16.4; ( - into) 16.2211; (- 08) 16.4,26n; ( - on) 16.4,bn; (- 0110 16.21, 22, 34. 3811; ( - r ~ ~/i~r) i t 16.29;( - 1111110) 3.40; ( rtvl) 4.27; ( ro1111l1) 'J,3 l ; ( - to) 9.6611; ( - traitor) l6.17n, 22; (- turtle) 16.1711; (- up) 16.3, 4, 12 turn, in 5.51 rut-rut 11.55 TV5.33; 1.75 'rwet,n 9.7n tweezers 5.76 twice (adjunct) 8.64 (predeterminer) 5.15,18; 15.7111 (-a) 8.64 'twixt 9.7n two 5.16; 6.50n -ty 6.64 typeof5.6; 10.43 typical+partition typography +graphology
-
-
-uble 1.40 UFO 1.75 ug11 1 l .55 uh-(h)uh 11.55 ulti&tum 5.95 ultra- 1.24 -um nouns 5.95 umpteen 5.2511 un- (negative) 7.81;9.50n; 1.13, 15,21,
-
(privative) 1.22,40n unable 16.79; (be to) 3.47; 4.68 unacceptability-+acceptability unarguably 8.127 unattached clause/participle 8.152;
.
unawareof16.73 unbelieoably (amplifier) 7.56 unbend 3.13 ' unbind 3.18 unbroken 7.1511 uncertain (of) 16.73 unclear (about) 16.73
lndex 1771
-.
uncountable noncount unrlecided(ab~~ut) 16.73 unrl~~niahlv 8.127; 19.53n unil(,r (:l(lvcrh)7.46: 8.41 (particle) 16.2 (preposition) 7.70; 9.7, 19.23-24,32 (prepositional adverb) 9.66 11!1,1vr-L24. 20 1111~1~~rl~i~l .\. l7 ~ r n ~ k r ~ ~ . s(verb) r i t ~ ~8.10811 ~~te ~rrulerJi~ot 8.41 undergo 3.19 ralderground 8.41 underlining 5.1 In; 111.25 underlying structure-*clause ror~l~~rncrrrh (adverb) 7.70; 8.41 (preposition) 9.7, IY,23-24 (prepositional adverb) 9.66 underrate 8.10811 understand3.18; 4.8, 29, 5211; 15.54; 16.26,31,50; (-ably) 8.127, 129, 133n understood +presupposition undertake3.16; 16.38 underwrite 3.16 undies 1.74n undo 3.16 undoubtedly 8.127, 12811, 131; 19.53n uneasy with 16.69 uneducated -t educated UNESCO 1.75 unexpected 7.15n unexpectedly 8.127, 131; (most -) 13111 unexoectedness 10.66 unfreeze 3.16 unget-at-able I. l8n,40n ungrammaticality+acceptability unhappily 8.127 ' uni- 1.28 unintenrionally 8.93 uniqrre 7.411; 10.51n; ( - ly) 7.4n unique denotation 5.29,32,34, 36, 56,60,61, 64,70; 10.53; 17.5 role 5.42 see also: recoverability unit-+ information, tone unitary-tconstituent. participation unite 16.19 United States Information Agency 1.5 universal* adjective, conditionalconcessive determiner, frequency, pronoun, tag
lotiuersity 5.4411 university -+names (classified) r~nj~i,~/Iy 8,127 rrrrk~lon~~~ 16.73 unless 14.12, 18-19; 15.20, 34, 35n,44; (- . . .) 14.13; (- and until) 13.83 rrrrlikr 9.7. 48: ( - 11))16.72 1111li11ketl PIIHYII~ICI~C I I I I / ~ I C8.~ l27 /(I~ unnrake 3.13 unmarked-tarticle, case, gender, marked, modality, person, plural, pronoun, tense, theme unnatural (not ly) 8.127, 12811 unpleasant 16.80 1olrl1101iJied16.79 unqtie.stionab~v8.127 unreal condition-+condition (hypothetical) unreaso~mbly8.127, 131 unreduced +sentence unrelated participle+unattached unstressed form +stress unsure (of) 16.73 until(conjunction) 8.55n, 58; 9.3; 14.12, 18-19; 15.20,25,27n (preposition) 7.70; 8.55n,58,59,62; 9.3, 7, 37-38; 11.14n; 15.27.29n postposed 8.59n purposive 15.27n resultative 15.20,27n temporal 15.27n vs. till 8.58 unto 9.7n untrue 16.72 unusually 8.131 unwefl 7.38 unwilling(be to) 3.47; (- ly) 8.93; (- ness) 17.36 unwind3.18 unwise 16.76; (- Iy)8.127, 131 unwritten 7.15n up (adverb) 8.41 (particle) 16.2, 12 (preposition) 7.70; 9.7,26,27,32,37; 19.32n (prepositional adverb) 9.66; 13.101 (verb) 13.9811 (-and. . .) 13.9811; (- to) 8.59,62; 9.10,37; (- with) 11.42 see also :time uphill 8.41
-
-
l
i I
l
upon (particle) 16.2
u p o ~[cont] ~ (preposition)9.7, 1311;16.69 ri11p~r7.85n;17.97; ( - nro.vt) 7.R2n upper-c;isc ,c:~pit;~l upset (adjective) 16.71 (verb) 3.17; 16.26 1ipa1rrir.s7.10. 6711. 70: 8.41 !I/>.\I~,YIIII K4 l I I / I I I ~ I I7,4011: ~ ~ ( , \ )8.41 ;( - tu ) 9 , 1 o -we (adjective base ending) 7.81 urge (verb) 16.32.63 us 6.2-11, 14, 1811; 11.26n; 11.9 -us nouns 5.93 usage criticized 1.17; 3.57; 5.1 In, 24,2511, 95n,YXn; 6.5,43n;8.21; 9.4,6, 5711; 11.1411; 12.17,23n, 36; 13.39-40, 88,96; 14.13n,23n; 15.12,46n,50n, 59; 16.41n,42,69n,74; 17.14-17,22, 61 -64,11811: 18,1411,2611, 27n,49n; 19.34n,50,51,60n,64n; 1.42,76 divided 1.7, 11, 17,39; 5.2211, 125; 6.5,63n; 8.106; 12.25-26; 15.71n; 111.4, 8 variation in 1.19-42; 2.49; 3.42n, 43n, 4811; 4.23n, 47,5811,6311; 5.35, 37,40,59,70,75,76,83, 87, 11 1 ; 6.12n,56; 7.14n,31,64; 8.111; 9.4011; 10.1In, 1411; 11.7, 1511.30; 12.62n; 13.72-74,8749; 14.36; 15.20, 23.25; 16.19n;I.33n,41n, 51n; II.5n,6 seeolso: adjective,adverbial, American, British, concord, feminine. formal. informal,legal, male, negation, nonstandard, numeral, only, politeness, pronoun, religious, scientific, standard use (verb)9.46; 16.26; (-as) 16.47; (make of) 16.58; (-up) 16.12 use(d) to (marginal modal) 3.30,40,41, 44;4.15,57,66; 8.21; 11.8n; 12.64; ( - be)4.13n;(had-)3.44n used to (adjectival) 16.69n, 83 useless 16.83 vs. use 2.59 usual occurrence 8.65,67 usually8.65,67-71,77, 12511 utter (adjective) 7.33, 34.68; 8.106
-
(- ly) 7.34, 87; 8.105, 106 utterance-+echo, formulaic, sentence
lndex 1773
1772 Index
valency 16.18n see alro: complement~tion valuables 5.77 volue (verb) 8.107 value-tcommunicative. information value-judgment disjunct 8.123, 127 variable* noun variance(at -) 9.66; (at with) 9.1 1 variation attitudes to 1.41 free 1.39; 5.52 see also: usage varietiesof English 1.7,9-11, 12, 17, 19-41; 3.511; 19.85-90 continuum of 1.35,39 relationships among 1.36-38 variation within 1.39-41 seealso: attitude, discourse (fieldof). interference,medium, regional, social, standard 've 3.23,34 veal (vs. calf) 5.4
-
venture (verb) 16.38 verb 2.13,24,35; 3 passim; 4passim; 7.38-39,56n,73;8.64,96;9.8,31; IOpassim; 13.78,97; 14.5, 10, 24-25; 15.54.65; 17.51; 18.3.10, 13.27, 32.43; 1.60-63; 11.5-6; III.9,21 affixation in 1.21-27,30-35,37,38,
centrality of 2.13 classes2.16,41; 3.1,12-20; 10.1-3 constraints (on passive) 3.68 contraction-tauxiliary (contracted) copulative->copular ellipsis2.15n; 3.23.26; 11.37; 12.4, 43.59-60,92-93; 14.10; 15.66; 18.41; 11.8 equative+copular fu112.29; 3.1,2-20 intensive+copular intermediate function 3.40-51 irregular 3.2,3, 5,611, 11-20 irregular (alphabetical index) 3.20 lexical+verb (full)
verb [cont] linking-tcopulnr main 2.16, 28-29; 3.1 middle 3.68; 10.14; 16.27 morphology 3.2-6, 11 -20 multi-word 2.36,61; 3.45-46; 10.12; 16.2-17,20,51n; 18.49 nonprogressive+verb (stative mcaning) nonreflexive 6.25 obligatoriness of 2.13 -particle combination* verb (multiword) positionof 2.13, 14 prinx~ry2.29, 34,41; 3.1, 2,4n, 5n, 13, 21,30,31-38,47 reflexive 6.25, 2711; 16.2411,57 regular3.2-10, 11, 12, 13, 14, 16, 17, 18,19,32n relational 10.14,2411 repeated 13.101 semi-reflexive 6.25 sensesof 2.13n,41 -verb combination 16.17 see also: active, adjective,auxiliary,base form, catenative, complement, complementation, complex transitive, concord,conversion, coordinate, copula, copular, de-adjectival,denominal, ditransitive, existential,finite, homonymy, imperative,instr,Umental, intransitive, inversion, modal, monotransitive,negation, nOnfinite, number, passive, performative, person, phrasal verb, plural, preposition, prepositional verb, principal parts, pro-forms, reporting, -S,singular, situation-types,stress, subjunctive, sufix, tense, transitive, voice verbs (semantic classification) accomplishment 4.27, 33-34, 39; activity 4.27,33-34; 10.2411; 12.22; 19.40-41; agentive 3.38,49; 4.27, 30,33-34,35,43; 10.23; 11.15n; 12.25-26; 16.23,54; arranging 8.49,75n, 76; aspectua14.66; 16.39, 40; assumption8.63n; 12.28; attitudinal3.68; 4.29; 8.63n, 101, 104-105,107; 12.25; becoming 16.23; beginning 16.40; being 3.68; 4.31; belief 8.6311; 12.28; 16.50; bodily sensation 4.29; causative 3.6611; 9.1611; 10.22,23; 11.42; 16.48,51,54; coercive 16.52,53; cognition 8.101; 10.23; 14.31;
verbs (semantic classification) [cont] co~nmunication4.8; 19.51; comparison 7.8511; completion 3.7711; compulsion 16.51 ; conclusive 3.66; 4.22,25, 27,33,35, 39; 17.10l; continuing l6.40;current 3.78; 16.44; declarative 16.44; direction 15.22; 16.23n;durative4.27, 33-34,38; 8.58; 9.37-38,3911; 14.26-27; 15.25,27; 16.23; emotive 4.29; 10.23; 16.30,33, 39,40; enablement 16.51 ;encounter 16.53; ending 16.40; event l l.15n; existential 15.62; expecting 8.49, 7511.76; f:lctual 16.30-31,44,50; frequentative 1.7611; general evaluation 8.1 10; goings-on 4.27, 33-34; gradable7.85n; 8.21, 101, 107n, 108,111 ; 11.15n; I.23n; having3.68; 4.31; hearing 16.52; hypothesis 16.30.33; inception 18.49; influencing 16.51 ; intellectual state 4.29; 16.31,44; liking 16.41; locative 16.24; making
verbs4.27,2829,31;8.3; (semantic classification) [cant] 16.2n; 19.41; suasivc 14.2511; 16.30, 31.32; thinking 12.65; 14.29-30; 16.31; transitional actlevent 4.27.33.35, 44n, 45; volitional 3.68; 4.16.29; 12.2411; 16.32,44,54; wanting 8.49, 75n,76; 15.10; 16.41 recolso: dynamic verhmcaning. stative verb meaning verb phrase 2.24,25,26,27-28; 3.1-2, 21,63, 64; 10.5,12; 12.5911; 18.13; 11.16 conditionnl clause 15.36 constituent order in 3.21. 27-28 finite vs. nonfinite 3.21-22.52-53: 4.1811, 19,67-68; 8.122n meanings of 4passim simplevs. complex 3.21,33, 54-56; 4.17; 10.55; 13.47 structure 3.27,40,45,52-57; 4.66; 7.16; 8.16,126n subjunct 8.96 see olso: coordinate, passive, subordinate
9.61; measure 10.13; mental state 4.16,52n; momentary actlevent 4.27,33,35,67; 8.58,66,69; 9.37; motion 3.77n; 7.10; 8.3,29,42,50, 76;9.16n,22-30; IO.IOn; 11.42; 16,2n, 23n, 48; 49; negative meaning 10.59; nonagentive 4.27, 30,33-35; nonconclusive 4.27, 33-34; nongradable 8.101, 108, 115; observational 16.4211; occurrence 16.3811; opinion 14.36; owning 8.49; perception 4.29,30, 52n, 67; 7.9; 10.23; 14.36; 16.52, 53,54; permission 16.51 ; placing 8.49,76; posture 3.7711; 8.28; private 4.29; 16.31-32, 50; process 4.27,31n, 33-34,39; 12.25; 16.23; public 16.31-33.50; punctual 4.27, 33,35,38; 10.2411; 14.27; 17.53; quality 4.27,28; remaining 16.23;
clause verbal noun -t noun verbatim-trecoverability verbless
result(ative/ing) 3.78; 4.22; 10.16; 16.44,51,54; retrospective 16.40; saying8.49,75n, 76; 12.28,65;
vermin 5.78 versus 9.7 vertebra 5.94
II.2ln; seeing 16.52; seeming19.51 16.23, 24n, 3811; shared knowledge ;
very (adjective) (adverb) 3.74;7.35 6.30,53,62n; 7.2-4,
speaking4.7,25n; 8.63n, 122, 124, 128, 143; 9.46n; 14.29-30; 15.13, 21,54; 15.59; 16.31; 19.4711; speech act 4.7; 16.31,44,50; stance 4.27, 32; 10.24; 18.231~49-50;state
clau~e2.13n;7.27; 8.13,53,91, 122% 132; 9.55; 10.6,16,58n; 11.43-44; 12.43-44,67; 13.25,30n; 14.5, 9, 15, 18; 15.16,25,30,31n, 34. 39,40, 41,50,58-62,71; 16.22n.65; 17.63, 83-84; 18.23n.44n; III.17,18 exclamation 11.10,40n introductions 11.53 preposed 10.16n question 8.13011; 11.41,44 withlwithout subject 10.6; 14.9,25; 15.34,58-62 see olso: complement,compound, existential,subordinator
11,15n,16-18,50,56n,57n,60,89, 8.48n, 77,91,96, 103, 106, 131, 90; 13311; 9.4,50n, 63; 10.ln. 62n; 17.58.97-98 see also: much
lndex
1774 lndex veto (verb) 3.9 via 9.7 Vicar 10.52 r1h?.- l. 1 7, 29 vic3.10 vielv(verb) 15.19;(in-of)9.11, 57; 15.4611 viewpoint suhjunct 7.59.60.65; 8 . 2 5 1 ~ 89, 127; 15.19,2111 ciukntly 8.105, 109 VIP 1.75 virgule 111.30 virtual +ellipsis virtrmlly8.11l, 114, 126 virtue (by of) 9.1 1; 15.46n virt~toso5.100 vis-a-vis9.7 ttisit 10.2711; 16.26; (- inlivith) 10.2711 uital16.72,82 viz8.137; 17.27; 1.7511; 111.11 vocabulary 1.20, 23-27,28, 31 ; 2.7, 13n, 35-38; 3.1n,4; 5.120; 6.1211, 15; 8.10n;9.65; 10.51; 18.4; 19.21,68; I.1,7, 12, 1311; 11.8; 111.4 seealso: American English, British English, formal,informal, lexical, nonstandard vocative 5.1211; 10.441~52-53;11.25, 41,53; 14.35; 17.12n,91n; 18.5-6, 17,5911; 111.11, 19, 23n,29 vs. subject 11.25 see also: man, nominal clause, noun phrase,
-
YOU
voice 2.21; 3.21,31,56, 63-78; 15.75; 16.6711; 18.32; I.40.69n marked 19.79 see also: active, passive Voice of America 1.S voicing3.5,6, 11, 13, 15; 5.74, 80,83, 114; 1.27.56 uoidof 9.10 volition3.31,46;4.42,46,49, 51, 53n, 57,58,60,62,63,65, 66; 10.21; 11.13; 14.22,23; 16.79 subjunct8.93-95; 10.21,24n see also: verbs (semanticclassification) volume (prosodic)+loudness volume dimension 5.8; 9.15, 17,25 voluntarily 8.93 vortex 5.96 .vote (verb) 16.32,46,50 uow(verb) 16.31, 38 vowels 3.5, 6, 7.8-20,32, 39,44; 5.11, 80;7.79,81;1.17, 19, 31, 33,36,37,
vowels [contl 56,64,66, 72; 111.4n,26n sec also: gr;~dation tsv '1.7 vulg4r--t fractions
bvages 5.77 wait (verb) 16.19, 3811; (-around) 16.12; (-for) 16.41 wake(n) 3.16 see olsi~:owake walk 9,1611,6611; 10.27; 16.19 ulannct 3.5 1 ; 12.49n, 64n want4.29; 7.83; 8.107; 10.10n, 5111; 15.8, 9, Ion; 16.26, 38, 39,41, 44, 54; (fur/Jrom of) 9. I l ; (- to) 3.51; 12.4911 wanting (preposition) 9.8 wanting+ verbs (semantic classification) -ward(s)7.46; 8.41 ;1.41 warn 16.31,56, 59,62; (-of) 16.56,57 warnings 11.53, 54; 15.38 was 3.32.62; 4 . 1 3 1 ~1611,6111; 18.4911; 11.9; ( - n't) 3.32; to) 3.46; 15.36 wash (verb) 16.26; (- oneser) 6.25 WASP 1.75 watch (verb) 16.26,52,53, 54 wax(verb) 16.21 way 8.39, 79; 17.18-20; (alo~tg-) 10,6111;(by of)9.11; (bythe -) 8.137, 142, 143; (every which -) 8.39; (in any/no -) 10.60,62; (in the same -) 8.137; (in what -) 8.2511, 78; ((in)that -18.78; (- of)9.lln; (no -) 10.62; (that -) 12.27; (which -) 8.3, 10 waylay 3. Ion -ways 7.46; 1.41 we6.2-11, 14,18,21; 11.2611; 14.22,27 authorial6.11, 18; 15.18n collective 6.7 editorial 6. I8 ellipsis 12.48 exclusive4.58;6.7; 11.13; 19.51 generic 6.18; 8.143; 10.50 inclusive4.58; 6.7, 18, 21; 11.13; 19.51,64 rhetorical 6.18.21 royal 6.181~23
-
(2
-
weak 7.88 weak -tapposition, ellipsis, reduced rorm >I'I'IIIIOII (vn. IJ~)ISS) 5.4 wear 3.16; 10.24 weather 5.9n ~veaue(d)3.16 ll~ll(il~i1) /)3 l 7 a'c~kly7.9; 8.64 itjeep 3.15 weight (dimension) 5.8 weight (semantic)+end-weight, semantic (criteria) welcome (adjective) 16.79 well (adjective) 7.9n. 38, 77 (conjunct) 8.23, 135 (initiator)7.54; 11.41; 13.102n; 19.541~65 (intensifier) 3.7611; 7.1 1, 16n, 61 ;8.96, 103,105, 10911 (simple adverb) 7.46 claim editing use 17.80 comparison of 7.77,83 (-and truly) 13.9911; (as -) 3.45n; 8.116, 119; 10.60;(as as)9.58; 10.40; 13.103; 14.1911; 19.60n; (how -) 8.25; (less -) 7.77; (may/ might (just) as -) 4.53n; (oh -) 7.54; (- then) 7.54; (very -)7.11 see also: known well- 7.17,83 went 3.12, 19 wept 3.15 were3.32;4.13n, 16n, 6111; 10.44; 14.20; 18.49n; (asit -)3.62n; 15.2111; ( - n't) 3.32; (- to) 3.46; 15.36 see also: subjunctive werl 3.4n wesl(ward(s)) 7.46n; 8.41; 9.66 wet(ted) 3.17 whadjective 2.45 adverb2.45;7.11n, 53,69; 10.10, 13; 16.15 clause6.36-39; 9.1-3; 14.33; 15.5,6, 51; 16.20,31n,35,61,68, 73; 17.93; 18.28-30 clause ellipsis 12.63-65 determiner 2.45; 5.14; 6.35n echo question 11.34-36 element 2.50.55; 6.32-39; 7.30; 8.15; 10.6,7n, 17,34; 11.1.14-19,23, 31-32; 14.10,20; 15.2,4n, 5-9,42, 65; 18.10,20n, 27-30
-
1776
wh- [cont] fronting 10.711; 11.19, 34; 15.42; 18.28 .30 I ~ I I I I I ~ ~ ~ I C C I E I I I11.19; ~ I ~ I S 15.5n pro-forms and 2.45 pronoun 2.37,45; 5.104-1 I 1;6.2, 12, 13.32-35.36-39.45; 7.69; 9.6; 14.20; 10.711:16.15: 17.9. 11-25 pushtlown clclllcnt I I . 18. 3 1 ; I X.20n question 2.48,50, 57; 3.2411;5.28; 6.36-39;7.11n,66;8.3,4,25,48, 59n, 60,63,64,66, 78, 79, 80, 86, 100, 110,113, 115, 11811; 9.6,36,44, 45,48,49; 10.6.711, 10-13, 17,61; 11.1,4, 14-19.20,23,31, 33-36, 40,44,53; 12.50n,63; 14.33; 15.5, 20,42,64,66; 16.14,15,16, 2611, 66; 18.10.59n; 11.12, 13; 111.23 word 2.37,45,50,54n, 55,57; 5.28; 6.32-39; 7.53,64; 8.1 18n;9.43,58; 10.17; 11.14-19,31-32,34-36; 12.63; 13.14; 14.20; 15.5-9,42; 16.16; 17.57,65; 18.28-30 see also: coordinate, infinitive, interrogative,nominal clause, pro-forms wharJs/wharves 5.83 what (conjunction) I0.46n; 14.20; 15.9, 15 (exclamatory) 2.57; 10.17; l 1.1, 31-32; 15.7.74; 16.35n; 18.57 (initiator) l 1.15n (interrogative determiner) 5.14.28; 6.36-39.62; 10.34; 15.7-9; 16.1511 (interrogative pronoun) 3.38; 6.12, 36-37.39; 7.64; 8.25, 80, 115; 10.6, 7n, 12, 13,34n; 11.14-19,34-36; 14.29; 15.7-8; 16.15,26n, 66; 18.5911; 19.47n (noun) 11.34 (predeterminer) 5.15, 1711; 7.63; 15.7 (relative pronoun) 6.3511.42; 15.8-9, 56.57; 17.12 (ad hoc verb) 11.34 cataphoric reference of 19.4711 . in pseudo-cleft sentence 18.30 (-about) 11.40; (-about it) 11.40n; ( - cha) 12.5011; (- . . for)8.86; 9.45; (- if) 11.40,41; (- . .like) 11.15n;(-ofit?) ll.40n;(-S) 11.34;(so- ?) 11.40n;(- though) 11.40; (- with. .) 15.4611; (. with) 8.80 whatever (interrogative determiner) 6.3511; 10.34; 15.8 (conjunction) 14.20; 15.9
.
..
.
.
lndex 1777
1776 lndex
whatever [cont] (postmodifier) 6.62n; 10.62 (relative pronoun) 6.35n; 17.12 whotsoever6.62n; 10.62; 14.20 when (conjunction)4.24,45; 7.53; 8.49,53; 9.3; 10.65; 14.12, 18-20,27; 15.20, 23,25,27,30, 34,39-40; 18.33n (interroeative) . . 4.13;. 7.53; 8.4.9.25, 55,59n,60; 10.10; 11.14-19; 16.15; 18.59n (relative) 7.53; 15.2911; 17.17- 18, 20, 24; 19.36 concessive 15.20,39-40 contingent 15.30,34 in pseudo-cleft sentence 18.30 tempora17.53; 8.53; 10.65; 15.25,27, 34; 18.33n 'time'- 8.4, 55; 9.40 (nosooner.. . -) 14.13; (by -) 15.57; (even -) 15.40; (from -) 15.57; (since -) 8.4,60; 9.ln; 15.57; (- . . . then) 14.13n; (till -) 8.4, 59n; (ur~til-) 8.5911; 15.57 see also: as, euen, i/ wllence8.3n; 14.12n; l5.31n,57 wheneuer8.53,64; 11.1411; 14.12, 18-20, 27n; 15.25,27,30, 34.42, where (conjunction) 7.53; 8.40; 14.12, 18, 20; 15.30-31.34 (interrogative) 7.1 In, 53.64; 8.3,9, 25; 10.10, 11; 11.14-19; 16.15.61; (relative) 7.53; 15.8; 17.17-20,24;
'
contingent 15.30,31,34 contrastive 15.31 in pseudo-cleft sentence 18.30 place 7.53; 15.31,42 (- . . .for) 9.43.; (-from) 8.3; (- . . .there) 14.1311; (- to) 8.3 -where7.21,69; 8.48; 17.57 whereofier 15.57n whereas 14.12; 15.31, 32, 39-40,43 whereat 14.1211; 15.5711 wherefore 14.1211; 15.5711 wheresoever 14.20 whereto 7.46; 14.12 whereupon 7.46; 14.12; 15.57; 19.3711 wherever8.40; 14.13,18,20; 15.30-31, 34,42 wherewith 15.57 whether 11.18n; 12.63; 13.28n; 14.1211; 15.6; 16.31n, 37n,61 (-. . .or) 14.17-19; 15.6,41-42
which (interrogative determiner) 5.14, 28; 6.3511.36-39; 8.39; 16.1511 (interrogative pronoun) 5.104, 107--110;6.36-39; 11.14-19 (relative determiner) 5.14; 6.35n (relalivc pronoun) 5.104, 107-1 10; 6.8.32-34,36,39,42; 10.36n,49, 50; 14.20; 15.8-9,55.57; 17.11-25; 18.28; 19.47n as pro-form 7.53n (or -)7.53; ( A J -~) 17.18; ((in) woy)8.1O;(of-)6.34; 17.14 whichever (determiner) S . 14: 6.3511 (pronoun) 6.3511; 14.20; 17.12 while (conjunction)4.13; 8.61, 145; 14.12, 18-19; 15.20,23,25,26,32, 39-40,43,46 (preposition) 9.7n concessive 8.145; 15.20,32,39-40 contrastive 15.32,43 reason 15.46 temporal 8.61, 145; 15.20,25,26,46 (- . . .) 14:13;(a -)8.77 wltilst 14.12, 18- 19,25,26,39-40 concessive 8.145; 15.39-40 contrastive 15.43 temporal 15.25,26 whimper (verb) 16.3111 whisper (verb) 16.3111 whisper 11.2 whither8.3n; 14.12n; 15.3111 who (interrogative pronoun) 5.104-109; 6.2, 12,36-38; 7.64; 8.25,80; 10.6n,7n, 3411; 11.14-19,34; 15.5n; 16.15; 18.59n (relative pronoun) 5.104-109; 6.2.8, 32-35; 10.36n,49,50; 14.20; 15.8-9; 17.11;23; 18.28 as pro-form 7.53n in cleft sentence 18.28-30 ( - . . .for) 9.45 see also: wltom whodunit 17.112 whoever 6.3511; 11.1411; 14.20; 15.5n, 8n, 42; 17.12 whole 5.7, 17; 6.50; 7.35n; 9.42 whole-part relation 17.106 wholly 7.47; 1.41 whom (interrogativepronoun)6.2, 36-38; 8.25,80; 11.14-19; 15.511; 16.15 (relative pronoun) 6.2,8,32-35; 10.36n,49; 14.20; 15.8-9; 17.11-23; 18.28
whom [cont] as pro-form 7.53n vs. who 1.17;6.5n,35; 17.14 (of-)6.34n; (to -)6.35; 10.711 whomever 14.20; 15.5n,8n whont.socver 14.20 whose (interrogative determiner) 5.14; 6.36 (interrogative pronoun) 6.2,36-38; 11.14-19 (relative determiner) 5.14 (relative pronoun) 6.2,33-34, 38; 10.49;~14.20;17.11-23; 18.28-30 whosoever 14.20 why (conjunct) l l . 15n (conjunction) 7.53; 14.20; 15.5,46n (initiator)7.54; 11.15n,41 (interrogative) 7.53,64; 8.9,25,86; 9.43,44,45; 10.10; 11.14-19,40; 12.63; 16.15; 18.59n (relative)7.53; 15.8; 17.18 in pseudo-cleft sentence 18.30 (-don't Ilwe) 11.17; (- don'tyou)
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11.17,2511,30n;(-doyou)ll.l6; (-ever) 11.14n; (- ncha) 3.3611; (-not) 11.15n, 17; 12.63; (-then) 8.135 wicked7.19,8ln wide (adjective) 7.8,66,82,88 (adverb) 7.8.5611 ( - ly) 7.8 wide +pitch wide orientation subjunct 8.88,89-91 widow(er) 5.105 wifelwives 5.83 wilfully 8.93 will(auxiliary) 3.4n, 21,39,40,47; 4.3, 8n,37,42,43n,45n, 46,47,49,50, 51,57,58,60,61,63,64,65; 6.61; 10.67,68; 11.10,28n; 12.47; 13.25; 14.22,26-27; 15.55n.6811; 18.56; 11.9 (noun) 17.36 timeless 4.57 (-do) 8.100; 19.48; (- have) 14.26; (ifyou -) 8.126; (.- not) 3.39 see also: do, won't, would willing 12.65; 16.71,79; (be to) 3.40, 47,66; 7.39; 16.79; (- ly) 8.93; (- ness) 4.57,61; 8.94; 17.36 wilt 3.4n win (verb) 3.18; 16.19,26; (- over) 16.26n wind(verb)3.18; (- up) 16.21,22
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I.,
wipe Ncleon 16.45 wise 16.76; ( - ly)8.127-129, 13311 -wise7.46: 8.89; 1.1611, l7,4/ wish (verb) 3.62; 4.29,64n; 10.5111; 12.65; 14.3611; 15.8,9,54; 16.33, 38, 41,44,46,48, 56,57 ( - p r ) 16.15,28; ( I (that)) 14.2311 wit (to -1 17.73 wit11(conjunction) 8.86, 132; 9.55; 14.9, 15.17; 15.34,41.46,60n; 18.54 (particle) 16.2 (preposition) 2.23; 3.75,76; 8.40,80; 9.4,7, 10,20,29,43,48,49-50.51, 52-53,55,61; 11.42; 13.103; 16.15, 60,69; 17.37 (along -) 9.4 withdraw 3.16 withhold3.18 within (adverb) 7.70; 8.41 (preposition) 9.7, 15n, 55n (prepositional adverb) 9.66 without (adverb) 7.70 (conjunction) 8.132; 9.55; 14.12n,15, 17; 15.34,41, 6011; 18.54 (preposition) 9.7,49,52,53,55; 13.8111; 16.6 (prepositional adverb) 9.66 withstand 3.18 wits 5.77 woke(n) 3.16 wolfiivolvrs5.83 woman 5.54n. 60n.102; 19.65 womonlwomen 5.84 woman- 5.102; L33n wolmort 5. 105 . won 3.18 wonder (verb) 4.29; 16.33.35; (I-) 15.5411 won't3.23,39; 11.811, 10; 12.47; 14.22 see also: will wont 16.79 woodcock5.87 wooden 7.43 word, a 10.62 words, in other (appositional/contrastive/ inferential conjunct) 8.137, 139, 141,144; 17.75-81,86 word 1.13;2.3,7,35,48n; 12.31; 18.15; 19.26; 111.1, 3 , 5 complex vs. phrase 1.18 complex vs. simple 8.10n; I.3,4, 14 grammatical 2.35,39; 1.1211 grammatical form of2.38n integrity of I.12n length 13.86
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