A Comparative Lexical Study of Quranic Arabic

A COMPARATIVE LEXICAL STUDY OF QUR'ANIC ARABIC

HANDBOOK OF ORIENTAL STUDIES HANDBUCH DER ORIENTALISTIK SECTION ONE THE NEAR AND MIDDLE EAST EDITED BY

H. ALTENMULLER • B. HROUDA • B.A. LEVINE • R.S. O'FAHEY K.R. VEENHOF • C.H.M. VERSTEEGH

VOLUME SIXTY-ONE

A COMPARATIVE LEXICAL STUDY OF QUR'ANIC ARABIC

A COMPARATIVE LEXICAL STUDY OF QUR'ANIC ARABIC BY

MARTIN R. ZAMMIT

BRILL LEIDEN • BOSTON • KOLN 2002

This book is printed on acid-free paper.

Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data Zammit, Martin R. A comparative lexical study of Qur'anic Arabic / by Martin R. Zammit. p. cm. — (Handbook of Oriental studies. Section one, the Near and Middle East, ISSN 0169-9423 ; v. 61) Includes bibliographical references and index. ISBN 9004118012 (alk. paper) 1. Arabic language—Lexicology. 2.Semitic languages—Lexicology. 3. Arabic language—Lexicography. 4. Semitic languages—Lexicography. 5. Koran—Language, style. I. Title. II. Handbuch der Orientalistik. Erste Abteilung, Nahe und der Mittlere Osten ; 61. Bd. PJ6611.Z36 2001 492.7'3028^dc21

2001025942 CIP

Die Deutsche Bibliothek - CIP-Einheitsaufnahme Zammit, Martin K.: A comparative lexical study of Qur'anic Arabic / by Martin R. Zammit. Leiden ; Boston ; Koln : Brill, 2002 [Handbook of oriental studies : Sect. 1, The Near and Middle East; Vol.61) ISBN 90-04-11801-2

ISSN 0169-9423 ISBN 90 04 11801 2 © Copyright 2002 by Koninklyke Brill NV, Leiden, The Netherlands All rights reserved. No part of this publication may be reproduced, translated, stored in a retrieval system, or transmitted in any form or by any means, electronic, mechanical, photocopying, recording or otherwise, without prior written permission from the publisher. Authorization to photocopy items for internal or personal use is granted by Brill provided that the appropriate fees are paid directly to The Copyright Clearance Center, 222 Rosewood Drive, Suite 910 DanversMA 01923, USA. Fees are subject to change. PRINTED IN THE NETHERLANDS

(The Holy Qwr^ 30:22)

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CONTENTS Acknowledgements Abbreviations & symbols Introduction

ix xi 1

1. Past lexical studies 1.1 Muslim lexicography 1.2 Jewish Medieval scholarship: the exegetical background 1.3 Early modern and modern Semitic lexicology 1.3.1 The recourse to Arabic lexical sources 1.4 The Common Semitic vocabulary 1.5 Lexicostatistical studies: the Semitic languages 1.5.1 Lexicostatistical studies: the Arabic dialects

17 17

2. The 2.1 2.2 2.3

Qur'anic Text c driba and mustcfraba The ancient Arabs The Arabic language 2.3.1 The earliest attestations 2.3.2 The 'ambiyya question and Quranic Arabic 2.4 The Qur'an: etymology and compilation 2.5 The Qur'anic lexicon 2.5.1 Loanwords in the Qufan 2.5.2 Lexical miscellanea

19 20 21 22 23 26 29 29 30 34 34 37 43 47 51 61

3. The lexical corpus 3.1 The choice of the languages 3.2 The lexical grid

64 64 447

4. Diachronic semantic observations 4.1 Introduction 4.1.1 Context, meaning, and glosses

514 514 516

Vlll

CONTENTS

4.2 4.3 4.4 4.5 4.6

Extensive lexical community between Arabic and other Semitic languages Semantic retention in Arabic and in other Semitic languages Semantic specialization in Arabic Other lexical cases Summing-up

517 527 543 554 559

5. Discussion of the figures 5.1 The basic figures 5.2 Distribution of the lexical resources 5.3 Distribution by semantic classification 5.4 Areal distribution of the lexical material 5.4.1 Distribution patterns 1-4 5.4.2 The other distribution patterns 5-18 5.5 The Common Semitic element in the Qur'anic lexicon 5.6 Lexical exclusivity in Arabic

561 561 561 564 567 572 573

6. Summary and conclusions 6.1 General historical and linguistic background 6.2 Concluding remarks 6.2.1 This research in general 6.2.2 A brief outline of the findings

578 578 584 584 586

Appendix: General lexical notes Bibliographical references Index of Arabic Lexical Items General Index

591 617 629 646

573 575

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS In the course of the preparation of this work, I was lucky to receive the precious support of a number of people. Special thanks are due to Prof. Anthony J. Frendo, Head of the Department of Arabic and Near Eastern Studies (University of Malta) for his constant encouragement and overall guidance. I am also immensely grateful to compatriot and friend Prof. Alexander Borg of the Jacob Blaustein Institute for Desert Research (Ben Gurion University) for his critical reading of the manuscript and his invaluable remarks. I also wish to express my gratitude to Prof. Peter Serracino Inglott, Chairman of the Mediterranean Institute (University of Malta) for being supportive of this work and for granting me precious time to carry out my research during the period of my employment with the above Institute. Moreover, I was very fortunate in receiving the expert technical help of Karistu Abela in solving computing problems in general, and for designing the Semitic font in particular. I am also most grateful to: my colleague Dr Manwel Mifsud lecturer at the Department of Maltese (University of Malta) for his unabating moral encouragement; to the members of staff at the libraries of the University of Malta, the School of Oriental and African Studies (University of London), the University of Leeds, and the Pontificial Biblical Institute (Rome); to Ms Trudy Kamperveen of Brill Academic Publishers for her patience and kind assistance in bringing this work to press. Last, but certainly not least, I wish to acknowledge my indebtedness to my wife Gertrude, and my children Stefan and Christine, who patiently and lovingly put up with the strain involved in the preparation of this work. Msida, August 2001

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ABBREVIATIONS & SYMBOLS General abbreviations

AA ace. act. adj. adv. af.

Akk. Amh. Amor. Arab. Aram. aux. Bab.

BA BH Can. c. ca. cf. chap.

Chr. col. coll. comp. contr.

cp. conj.

CS' D. dem. denom. deriv.

Dn. ES e.g. encl.

ESA etpa. etpe. etym. esp. euph. Eze.

ancient Aramaic accusative active adjective adverb/ial 'afel Akkadian Amharic Amorite Arabic Aramaic auxiliary Babylonian Biblical Aramaic Biblical Hebrew Canaanite century circa confer chapter Christian column collective comparative contracted compare conjunction Common Semitic Doppehtamm, verbal stem with doubled second radical demonstrative denominative derived, derivative, derivation Daniel East Semitic exempli gratia enclitic Epigraphic South Arabian 'etpa'al 'etpe'el etymological especially euphemism Eykiel

f. fasc. fig. fn. fr. frag.

feminine fascicle figuratively footnote from fragment/ary Grundstamm, basic verbal stem G. Ge'ez Ge. Gk. Greek Gn. Genesis A-verbal prefix in ESA h. hafel haf. Heb. Hebrew hif'il hif. hitpa'el hitpa. hitpe. hitpe'al hitpo. hitpolel idem id. i.e. id est Arab, verbal derived II-X categories imp. imperative Imperial Aramaic ImpA indef. indefinite inf. infinitive insc. inscription interj. interjection interrog. interrogative intr. intransitive Isaiah Is. itpa. 'itpa'al itpalp. 'itpalpel itpe. 'itpe'el Job Jb. Jer. Jeremiah Jewish Jew. Jewish-Palestinian JP Eat. Latin lit. literally Iw. loanword m. masculine metaph. metaphor/ically Micah Mic. Minoan Min. n. noun

Xll

n.d.

ABBREVIATIONS & SYMBOLS

no date Neo-Hebrew nif. nif'al no. number NP Neo-Punic NT New Testament num. numeral NWS North-West Semitic OA Old Aramaic obi. oblique obsol. obsolete Official Aramaic OffA orig. originally o.s. oneself OT Old Testament pa. pa'el Palm, Palmyrene part, participle partic. particle pass. passive Post-Biblical Hebrew PbH pe. pe'al perh. perhaps personal pers. Persian Pers. Ph. Phoenician Pahlavi Phlv. pi. picel pilpel pilp. plural pi. poet. poetic prep, preposition prob. probably pron. pronoun pr.n. proper noun Proverbs Prov. PS Proto-Semitic

NH

pu. Pun. Q. Qat. QA re. rel. rt. sec. Sf. sg. Skr. s.o. SS sts.th. subst. Sum. Syr. /. stTalm. Targ. tD. ti. tp. tQ. tr. Ug. var. vb. voc. w. WS yif.

pu'al Punic The Qufdn Qatabanian Qur'anic Arabic regarding relative root section Sefire Inscriptions singular Sanskrit someone South Semitic st- verbal prefix in ESA something substantive Sumerian Syriac sqfel st- verbal prefix Talmud Targum t- prefix affixed to Doppelstamm in Akk. t- verbal infix in ESA t- verbal prefix in ESA t- prefix affixed to the simple verbal form transitive Ugaritic various verb vocative with West Semitic yifil

Bibliographical Abbreviations The following are abbreviations of standard works on Semitic studies. For full bibliographical details see the Bibliography section: AHw BDB CAD CDG DCH DISO DNWSI DRS HAL LA

von Soden, Akkadisches Handwbrterbuch Brown, Driver, Briggs, Hebrew and English Lexicon of the Old Testament Gelb, Jacobsen, et alii eds. Chicago Assyrian Dictionary Leslau, Comparative Dictionary of Ge'ez Clines, The Dictionary of Classical Hebrew Jean, Hoftijzer, Dictionnaire des Inscriptions Semitiques de I'Ouest Hoftijzer, Jongeling, Dictionary of the North-West Semitic Inscriptions Cohen, Dictionnaire de racines semitiques ou attestees dans langues semitiques Koehler and Baumgartner, Hebrdisches und Aramdisches Lexikon zum Alien Testament Ibn Manzur, Lisdn al-carab

ABBREVIATIONS & SYMBOLS

Lex. Syr Q. UT

Xlll

Brockelmann, Lexicon Syriacum The Qur'dn Ugaritic Textbook

References to the following sources of frequent mention will be indicated by the authors' surnames and page number/s only: Aistleitner Brauner Conti Rossini Biella Dillmann Fraenkel Gibson Gordon Ibn Faris Jastrow

Worterbuch der ugaritischen Sprache A comparative Lexicon of Old Aramaic Chrestomathia Arabica Meridionalis Epigraphica Dictionary of Old South Arabic—Sabaean Dialect Lexicon Linguae Aethiopicae Die aramaischen Fremdworter im Arabischen Canaanite Myths and Legends Ugaritic Textbook Maqayls al-Luga A Dictionary of the Targumin, the Talmud Babli and Yerushalmi and the Midrashic literature Jeffery The Foreign Vocabulary of the Qur'an Lane Arabic-English Lexicon del Olmo Lete Diccionario de la Lengua Ugaritica Payne Smith A Compendious Syriac Dictionary Penrice Dictionary and Glossary of the Kor-dn Tomback A Comparative Semitic Lexicon of the Phoenician and Punic Languages Other bibliographical abbreviations AAL ACILCS

ACILSCS AION ANLR Ar ArOr Berytus Bib BALM BSA BSLP EI(2) EBM ELL ET FO HdO HAR

Afroasiatic Linguistics ed. by R. Hetzron & R.G. Schuh. Malibu: Undena Publications, 1977. (Monographic Journals of the Near East, 4/4). Atti del Secondo Congresso Internationale di Linguistica Camito-Semitica, Firen^e, 16-19 aprile 1974, raccolti da Pelio Fronzaroli. Firenze: Istituto di Linguistica e di Lingue Oriental!, Universita di Firenze, 1978. (Quaderni di Semitistica, 5). Actes du premier congres international de linguistique semitique et chamitosemitique, Paris: 16th to 19th July 1969, ed. by A. Caquot & D. Cohen. The Hague, Paris: Mouton. Annali dell'Istituto Orientale di Napoli. Napoli. Accademia Nazionale dei Lincei. Rendiconti. Roma. Arabica. Revue d'Etudes Arabes. Leiden. Archiv Orientdlni. Praha. Berytus Archaeological Studies. Beirut. Biblica. Roma. Bollettino dell'Atlante Linguistico Mediterraneo. Budapest Studies in Arabic. Budapest. Bulletin de la Societe Linguistique de Paris. Paris. Encyclopaedia of Islam. (1908-34), new ed. I960-, Leiden: EJ. Brill. Leiden. Encyclopaedia Britannica Macropaedia. The Encyclopedia of Language and Linguistics, ed.-in-chief R.E. Asher. 10 vols. Oxford: Pergamon Press. Expository Times. Folia Orientalia. Revue des Etudes Orientales. Krakow. Handbuch der Orientalistik. Leiden-Koln. Hebrew Annual Review. Ohio.

XIV HS

IF IJAL JAAL JAOS JBL JNES JSAI JSS Lg Lingua OA PICSS PL RSO SI SSL

VTSup UF Ug

ABBREVIATIONS & SYMBOLS Hamito-Semitica. Proceedings of a colloquium held by the Historical Section of the Linguistics Association (Great Britain) at The School of Oriental and African Studies, University of London, 18-20 March 1970, ed. byj. & T. Bynon. The Hague: Mouton, 1975. Indogermanische Forschungen. ^eitschrift fur Indogermanistik und Allgemeine Sprachwissenschaft. Friedland. International Journal of American Linguistics. Boulder, Co. Journal of Afroasiatic Languages. Journal of the American Oriental Society. New Haven, Conn. Journal of Biblical Literature. Society of Biblical Literature. Journal of Near Eastern Studies. Chicago. Jerusalem Studies in Arabic and Islam. Jerusalem. Journal of Semitic Studies. Manchester. Language. Journal of the Linguistic Society of America. Los Angeles. Lingua. International Review of General Linguistics. Amsterdam. Oriens Antiquus. Rivista del Centra per le Antichitd e la Storia dell'Arte del Vicino Oriente. Rome. Proceedings of the International Conference on Semitic Studies, Jerusalem, 19th to 23rd July 1965. Jerusalem: The Israel Academy of Sciences and Humanities. Paleontologia Linguistica. Atti del VI Convegno Internationale di Linguisti, 2nd to 6th September 1974. Milano: Paideia Ed. Rivista degli Studi Orientali. Roma. Studia Islamica. Paris. Studies on Semitic Lexicography, ed. by P. Fronzaroli. Firenze: Istituto di Linguistica e di Lingue Orientali, Universita di Firenze, 1973. (Quademi di Semitistica, 2). Supplement to Vetus Testamentum. Leiden. Ugarit Forschungen. Neukirchen-Vluyn. Ugaritica. Wiener ^eitschrift fur die Kunde des Morgenlandes. Wien.

Symbols


becoming

?

before a gloss indicates a possible cognate; after a gloss indicates uncertain reading or meaning

*

reconstructed form

'. . .'

enclose glosses

INTRODUCTION Aim and scope of this research

In their quest to establish the classification of the individual Semitic languages, semitists have resorted to the time-honoured practice of conducting comparative research based, in most cases, on phonological, morphological or syntactic criteria. The lexicon is usually considered unsuitable for classificatory purposes. However, this does not mean that the lexical factor has to be totally ignored. In this regard, Segert's statement is most appropriate: The classification of Semitic languages is felt to need thorough revision; even a comparison of the lexical stock would be very helpful, as the criteria based on the system of language, especially on phonology and morphology, could then be completed by lexical evidence.1

Furthermore, in the concluding remarks to his lexicostatistical exercise, Rabin stresses ". . . the need for further investigation of the more fundamental vocabulary of Arabic in order to establish more clearly its position within the Semitic family."2 Semitists in general are aware that the Arabic lexicon merits to be thoroughly analysed, particularly in the light of the lexical evidence from the cognate Semitic languages.3 The present work aims at carrying out a quantitative analysis of a substantial corpus of the Arabic lexicon with a view to investigating the lexical relationship between Arabic and the major varieties of Semitic. The common lexical features, rather than pointing towards particular genetic affinities, are interpreted as indicators of different levels of socio-cultural links in general and linguistic exchange in 1

1960: 473. Hetzron 1976: 89 states "Similar lexical items with more or less regular sound correspondences will make such a [genetic] relationship quite probable, further to be confirmed by comparable features of grammar." For Potter 1960: 90, quoted by De Moor 1973: 88 (fn. 1), the criteria for language classification are: priority to morphology, followed by syntax, phonology, the lexicon and finally semantics. According to Petracek 1975: 124 ". . . every element is important; of course one has to know its position, in the centre or in the periphery, but each phonetic, lexical, etc. element matters." 2 1975: 99. 3 Fisher 1969: 235, fn. 9; Garbini 1972: 95.

2,

INTRODUCTION

particular, which characterized the various areas of Semitic.4 Reference is made to items of the Semitic Wortschatz which are shared by all, or by most of the cognate languages, but greater attention is reserved to lexical items from different areas of the Semitic Sprachraum which attest to various degrees of semantic development. This research is based on the lexicon of the Qur'an. This most prestigious Arabic source is generally considered as linguistic evidence from the 7th century A.D. which has remained practically unaltered.5 The Qur'anic text yielded 1717 lexical items belonging to 1504 roots.6 Taking into consideration the number of roots in Arabic as estimated by Herdan, namely 3775, the lexical corpus in this work would constitute 40% ca. of the postulated root-inventory of Arabic.7 These items constitute the lexical corpus on the basis of which lexical cognates have been established between Arabic and the languages representing the main subdivisions of the Semitic group, namely: - South Semitic: Ge'ez and Epigraphic South Arabian - North-West Semitic: Aramaic and Syriac, Hebrew and Phoenician - Ugaritic8 - East Semitic: Akkadian This approach allows an analysis of the lexical relationship between Arabic and individual Semitic languages, as well as between Arabic and the main hypothetical subdivisions of Semitic. Chapter 1 offers a brief overview about past comparative lexical studies, whereas chapter 2 discusses the emergence of Qur'anic Arabic, loanwords, and the semantic classification of the vocabulary according to associative fields. Chapter 3 presents the lexical data, which is

4

See D. Cohen 1973: 201. Rabin 1955: 21. B See 1.3 below. 7 Herdan 1964: 169. Of these 3,775 roots, a total of 1,170 contain /w/ or /y/. According to Robin 1992: 90 there are about 6,000 roots in what he terms Modern Arabic. 121 of the 1504 roots are represented by 255 lexical items. This is due, in general, to homonymity. Moreover, 79 items, mostly prepositions and particles, are not classified by root. 8 Some scholars (e.g. Huehnergard 1991, Militarev 2000) include Ugaritic within NWS. Bennett 1998: 20 places it within Canaanite. Ugaritic is treated separately in this work. 5

INTRODUCTION

6

then discussed from the semantic point of view in chapter 4. Chapter five tackles the statistical data accruing from the lexical data and chapter 6 offers the final observations and conclusions. The aim of this research is not to compile an etymological dictionary of Qur'anic Arabic, nor does it suggest a new classification of the Semitic languages.9 This study offers insights into the internal lexical relationships characterizing nine Semitic varieties. A lexical corpus which takes into account nine cognate languages of the Semitic area is bound to yield substantially reliable information about the Semitic lexicon. Such a quantitatively significant database makes it possible to determine, amongst others, whether certain meanings are specialized in one language and semantically unmarked in other cognate languages. Preliminary background That comparative Semitic studies in general and Semitic lexicography in particular are an offshoot of Biblical Scholarship is an undeniable historical fact. St Jerome, St Augustine and Priscan were among the very first, in the West, to notice linguistic links between 'oriental' languages (Hebrew, Punic, Syriac and Chaldaean).10 From the 10th century A.D. onwards, and under the impetus of Muslim philology, the first steps in Semitic studies were made. Most important of all were the works by such Jewish scholars as Sa'adiya Gaon, Ibn Qurays, Judah Hayyug, Ibn Ganah, and Ibn Barun.11 Grammatical and lexical comparative studies of various Semitic languages were undertaken,12 theories were formulated,13 and the first Hebrew grammars and lexica were produced. From the 16th c. onwards, a number

9

See chapter 6 for a summary of the various hypotheses regarding the classification of the Semitic languages. 10 See Burrini 1978: 116. S. Gaon (892-942) produced the Agron, a first Hebrew dictionary, whereas Qurays's work, Sefer ha-yahas studies the relationship between Hebrew, Aramaic, and Arabic, including references to Berber and Persian. 11 See Kaltner 1996: 5-11, quoting H. Hirschfeld 1926 regarding the fact that the Arab scholars " . . . confined their linguistic studies to the most minute elaborate study of the rules of their own language without acknowledging the existence of the kindred tongues." 12 The Samaritans in Palestine produced, amongst others, the trilingual HebrewAramaic-Arabic dictionary called ha-melis, sometime around the year 1200. 13 See Burrini 1978: 116 re Hayyug's formulation of the theory of Hebrew roots and its extension to weak verbs.

4-

INTRODUCTION

of works published in Italy, France, Germany and England constituted the first steps in what, later, was to become known as comparative Semitic studies.14 One of the tasks undertaken by comparative Semitists over, the years was the identification of a basic Proto-Semitic lexicon. Among the scholars who actively researched this field, one could mention Guidi (1878-79), Bergstrasser (1928), D. Cohen (1961, 1970), Fronzaroli (1964-1970),15 and Tyloch (1975).16 Indeed, these scholars based their studies on disparate methodologies for the identification of lexical items belonging to the common lexicon. Furthermore, other studies on the common lexicon covered the wider Afroasiatic area.17 Among the most important works are those by M. Cohen (1947),18 Greenberg (1966), Diakonoff(1967) and Orel & Stolbova (1995). Since the publication of the Swadeshi studies,19 a number of Semitic lexical studies have adopted lexicostatistical methodologies. This research is based on Swadesh's list of 200 words, or on the abridged version of that list, that is 100 basic words which are culturally unmarked and are supposed to be found in every language. Evidently, one of lexicostatistics' most obvious weak points is the very limited number of lexical items on the basis of which lexicostatisticians calculate a. the rate of lexical retention within a particular language over 1000 years, and b. the dates of separation of various cognate languages during the historical period.20 Both D. Cohen (1961, 1970) and Rabin (1970), amongst others, have applied the lexicostatistical method to the Semitic lexicon. Since its inception in 1952, the validity of this method has been the subject of animated discussion.21

14

See Burrini 1978: 117 for a review of the main works, as well as Segert 1991: 1426-27. 13 He identifies some 500 words common to three Semitic geographical areas, namely the East, the North-West, and the South-West. 16 1975: 56, where he lists 40 common words belonging to the ecological and cultural spheres and attested in all varieties of Semitic. 17 Diakonoff 1988: 19-23 subdivides the Afoasiatic languages (or Afrasian, as he calls them) into six branches: Semitic, Cushitic, Omotic, Libyan-Guanche, Egyptian, and Chadic. Presumably, these branches originated from an initial cluster, conveniently termed Pro to-Afrasian. The Afroasoatic group, traditionally called Hamito-Semitic, later disintegrated and Diakonoff posits the break-up of Proto-Semitic as having taken place some four or five thousand years after the Proto-Afroasiatic phase. 18 515 items of the common lexicon are identified. 19 1952; 1955. 20 See chapter 1. 21 See, among others, Hoijer 1956; Cadora 1966.

INTRODUCTION

5

Methodological Considerations and Sources Qur'anic Arabic (QA)

The choice of QA was prompted by the need to secure a reliable lexical corpus based on a source which is well fixed in time and place and which enjoys widespread consensus as to its linguistic validity. This book is not concerned with any religious aspect pertaining to the Qur'dn in particular and to Islam in general. It simply resorts to this most prestigious of Arabic sources, appearing in the Higaz area during the 7th century A.D., with a view to compiling a corpus of lexical items. Focussing on QA avoids the risk of opening the scope of research to include different phases of Arabic indiscriminately.22 Pre-Islamic Arabic, as attested in the elaborate oral poetical tradition of the Arabian bedouins and characterized by its vast archaic vocabulary of outstanding expressive beauty, could have been an attractive alternative to QA. However, in view of the contrasting views regarding the origins of a portion of this literary heritage, this alternative had to be abandoned.23 Chouemi's statement concerning the validity of the Qur'dn in research is worth quoting: Le Goran, comme champ de recherches linguistiques, ofFre plusieurs avantages. C'est le premier texte en prose arabe dont 1'authenticite soit indiscutable. II est d'une chronologic precise, d'une ampleur suffisante et d'une variete assez grande pour que s'y trouvent traites les sujets les plus divers. Ce sont la autant d'atouts qui facilitent le travail d'un linguiste desireux de conclure et d'aboutir.24

22 According to Barr 1968: 117 the problem characterizing Arabic lexicography lies in the fact that it does not rest directly on the literature itself, but on compilations from older Arab dictionaries. 23 Very often Western scholarship has questioned the reliability of the dating of Arabic sources. Thus, Hopkins 1984: xxxvii-xxxviii states that, in the absence of contemporary documentary evidence, ". . . it can by no means be taken for granted at the outset that these works [i.e. pre-Islamic poetry, the Qur'an, the prophetical literature, and the Ayyam narratives] in the form in which they are presently available are genuine, inviolate products of the periods to which they are held to refer." Hopkins adds that the earliest MSS of these works date from 3rd c. A.H. (9th c. A.D.), or later. 24 1966: iv. Schall 1982: 148 emphasizes the need for an extensive analysis of the Qur'anic lexicon.

5

INTRODUCTION

The Arabic sources The main sources for the Arabic items making up the lexical data25 are: Al-mucgam al-mufahras li-'alfdz al-qur'dn al-kanm,26 a Qur'anic concordance based on Fltigel's work of 1842; Mu'gam al-'adawdt wa-ddamd^irji l-qur'dn al-karimf7 and Mu'gam al-'alfdg wa-l-'a'ldm al-qur'aniyya.'28 The English glosses are based on Penrice's A Dictionary and Glossary of the Kor-dn.w In the discussion, in chapter 5, covering a number of Arabic lexical items, recourse has been made to Ibn Manzur's Lisdn al-carab as well as to Lane's dictionary. Moreover, I have also consulted 'Umdat al-huffdz. fl tafsir 3asrqf al-^alfdi (four volumes) by AsSamin which offers detailed definitions of the Qur'anic items. For the basic meanings of a number of Arabic roots, Ibn Paris' Maqdyis al-luga (six volumes) was consulted. This publication has been most valuable in the choice of the corpus' lexemes, particularly in the process of sifting and excluding lexical items which belong to the same semantic bases. In the case of loanwords in the Qur'an, frequent reference is made to Jeffery's book The Foreign Vocabulary of the Qur'dn30 which, to date, represents the most extensive discussion on this topic. The collation procedure Lexical items have been selected from each root attested in the Qur'dn, the sense of which is representative of the basic meanings pertaining to that root. No distinction has been made between nominal and verbal roots.31 In the case of homonymous roots, different lexemes reflecting the different meanings are included. In the choice of single lexical items, preference has been given to items of the basic verbal form C 1 C 2 C 3 (the Qal form). In the case of roots attested only in the form of substantives,32 participles, adjectives, infinitives, 25

See chapter 3. 'Abd al-Baql 1945. 2/ c Amayreh and As-Sayyid n.d. 28 Ibrahim 1968. 29 First published in 1873, and reviewed by Bosworth 1972. 30 1938. 31 According to Fleisch 1961: 268 ". . . une racine peut se manifester et dans des verbes et dans des noms, sans qu'il y ait priorite historique necessaire des uns sur les autres. Car ces mots: nom, verbe, n'ont pas en eux-memes de priorite 1'un sur 1'autre. . . . " 32 See Diakonoff 1975 for the subdivision of roots into verbal and nominal categories. 26

INTRODUCTION

7

etc., a lexical item has been selected which clearly represents the basic meaning of the root. Certain QA items, like bi'r, have formally corresponding items in the cognate languages. However, a number of QA roots are only attested in one or more of the derived verbal themes (e.g. baddald). In this case, the Qal form in the cognate languages is quoted, although derived forms are often included in order to elucidate further the meaning associated with a particular root. The items in the corpus are reproduced exactly as they are attested in the Qur'an (e.g. biddran; bazig). Wherever there is no entry for a particular language in the corpus, this means that no cognate of the lexical item in question has been found, or that the root in Arabic does not correspond semantically to the same root in any of the Semitic languages.33 Proper names are not taken into consideration since they offer no sound basis for reliable semantic conclusions, and therefore cannot be adopted for cognacy purposes.34 In general, it should be pointed out that, although arbitrariness in the collation process cannot be ruled out, this eventuality does not apply to ca. 51% of the lexical corpus. The reason being that this percentage of the data is made up of: a. roots represented by single attestations in the Qur'an (e.g. battaka)', b. roots with more than one attestation but with very close meanings (e.g. hqfata 'to speak in a low voice' and tahqfata 'to converse in a low tone'—in this case, the former, less derived item was chosen); c. roots represented by various grammatical categories such as plurals, participles, verbal nouns, etc. (e.g. bahr, bihdr, 'abhur, bahrdn; mah^ur, muhta^ir); and d. cases where all attestations of a single root have been included in the corpus (e.g. sarr, sarar). The Semitic sources A comparative dictionary covering all Semitic languages is, to date, not available. D. Cohen, in 1970, embarked on this enormous philological task and since then, the first eight fascicles have been published.35 33 This is what, according to Barr 1967: 264, constitutes 'negative evidence', that is ". . . the languages in which the form does not occur or occurs only with a different sense." 34 Beeston 1977: 51. 30 Militarev and Kogan 2000 note the lack of a standard and complete etymological dictionary of Semitic, stating that this gap cannot be filled with dictionaries of individual Semitic languages, ". . . nor even with D. Cohen's otherwise very helpful Dictionnaire des racines semitiques."

O

INTRODUCTION

It goes without saying that, had such a publication been available in toto, the collation effort involved in this work would have been drastically reduced. In the absence of such an essential tool, recourse had to be made to the following primary sources:36 Akkadian:

Aramaic:

Arabic:

ESA:

Gecez: Hebrew:

36

Gelb, Jacobsen, et alii eds. Chicago Assyrian Dictionary (CAD) Von Soden, Akkadisches Handwb'rterbuch (AHw.) Brauner, A Comparative Lexicon of Old Aramaic (Brauner) Brown, Driver, and Briggs, Hebrew and English Lexicon of the Old Testament (BDB) Jastrow, A Dictionary of the Targumim, the Talmud Babli and Yerushalmi and the Midrashic literature (Jastrow) Ibn Faris, Maqdyls al-luga (Ibn Faris) Ibn Manzur, Lisdn al-carab (LA) Lane, Arabic-English Lexicon (Lane) Penrice, A Dictionary and Glossary of the Kor-dn (Penrice) Ibrahim, Mu'gam al-'affaz wa-l-3acldm al-qur'aniyya c Abd al-Baqf, Al-mucgam al-mufahras li-'alfdz al-qur'an alkanm 'Amayreh and As-Sayyid, Mu'gam al-'adawdt wa-d-damd'ir fi l-qur}dn al-kanm Beeston, Ghul, et alii, Sabaic Dictionary Conti Rossini, Chrestomathia Arabica Meridionalis Epigraphica (Conti Rossini) Biella, Dictionary of Old South Arabic—Sabaean Dialect (Copeland Biella) Dillmann, Lexicon Linguae Aethiopicae (Dillmann) Leslau, Comparative Dictionary of Ge'ez (CDG)37 Brown, Driver, and Briggs, A Hebrew and English Lexicon of the Old Testament (BDB) Clines (Ed.), The Dictionary of Classical Hebrew (DCH)

Very often, these primary sources have been supplemented with comparative data from various secondary sources. Thus in the case of NWS languages, particularly in the case of OA (pre-700 B.C.), data was also collated from Hoftijzer and Jongeling's Dictionary of the North-West Semitic Inscriptions. The Aramaic data also includes lexical items from the three Sefire inscriptions (pre-740 B.C.; see Fitzmyer 1995). 37 According to Raz 1992: 245 "It [Leslau's dictionary] is not intended to supersede Dillmann's Lexicon, which will remain the context dictionary in this field of studies, as well as an unparalleled expensive monument to a bygone period when research work defied all cost."

INTRODUCTION

y

Jastrow, A Dictionary of the Targumim, the Talmud Babli and Terushalmi and the Midrashic literature (Jastrow) Koehler and Baumgartner, Hebrdisches und Aramdisches Lexikon zum Alien Testament (HAL) Phoenician: Hoftijzer and Jongeling, Dictionary of the North-West Semitic Inscriptions (DNWSI) Tomback, A Comparative Semitic Lexicon of the Phoenician and Punic Languages (Tomback) Syriac: Brockelmann, Lexicon Syriacum (Lex.Syr) Payne Smith, A Compendious Syriac Dictionary (Payne Smith) Ugaritic: Aistleitner, Worterbuch der Ugaritischen Sprache (Aistleitner) del Olmo Lete and Sanmartin, Diccionario de la Lengua Ugaritica. Vol. 1. (del Olmo Lete) Gibson, Canaanite Myths and Legends (Gibson) Gordon, Ugaritic Textbook (UT) Al-Yasin. The Lexical Relation between Ugaritic and Arabic General: Cohen, D. Dictionnaire de Racines Semitiques ou attestees dans les langues semitiques (DRS) Cohen, M. Essai Comparatif sur le Vocabulaire et la Phonetique du Chamito-Semitique Dessoulavy, Gate of the East and Garden of Semitic Roots Leslau, Hebrew Cognates in Amharic Leslau, Comparative Dictionary of Gecez (Classical Ethiopic) (CDG) Jean, and Hoftijzer, Dictionnaire des inscriptions semitiques de rOuest (DISO) Hoftijzer, and Jongeling, Dictionary of the North-West Semitic Inscriptions (DNWSI) Murtonen, Hebrew in its West Semitic Setting (Part One: Ba, Bb) The lexical cognates have been selected on the basis of reliable phonetic correspondences. Moreover, whenever there is no full semantic identity between Arabic lexical items and any of the cognate languages, an effort has been made, whenever possible, to adopt Orel and Stolbova's method of bridging the semantic distance in 'one derivational step'.38 Metathesis has also been taken into consideration. 38

See Orel & Stolbova 1995: xxvi. Thus, for example, what they term HamitoSemitic prototype *bah-/*bih- 'to burn, be hot' would have cognates in Egyptian meaning 'to burn'; West Chadic 'hot'; Central Chadic 'hot'; East Chadic 'to roast'.

10

INTRODUCTION

Transliteration, transcription and notation The following vocalic transcription for Arabic has been adopted: short vowels long vowels } alif maqsura ta marbuta diphthongs

a, u, i a, u, i a -a -aw, -ay

In the case of the other Semitic languages, vowel length is shown by a macron over the vowel. Nunation in Arabic, with the exception of a few adverbial items, has been omitted. Since the lexical corpus is presented in phonemic rather than phonetic transcription, Hebrew, Aramaic and Syriac lexemes are not marked for spirantization. ESA lexemes have been stripped of the various suffixed morphemes so as to render them more easily identifiable with cognates in the other languages. As for the transliteration of Ge'ez items, instead of adopting the traditional system of the seven vocalic orders, long vowels are marked by macrons. Arabic derived verbal themes are marked by Latin numbers, whereas for the rest of the languages, the familiar Hebrew notation (e.g. nif., hif, hitpa. etc.) has been adopted.39 In the absence of any indication regarding verbal derivation, a Qa/-verb is to be assumed. Since this study is based on QA, the lexical items in the corpus follow the Arabic alphabetical order. Transcription System

For a full list of abbreviations and symbols, see pp. vii-x.

INTRODUCTION

11

12

INTRODUCTION

Phonetic correspondences Cognacy has been considered on the basis of the following phonetic correspondences: Heb.

Ph.

Ug.

Akk.

3

3

3

3

-

t

t

S

S

t

s

Or O

g

a o

g

g

g

g

h

h

h

h

h

ll

h

-

h

h

h

h

h

h

h

h

h

d

z

d

d/z

d/z

z

z

d/d

z

s

s

s /s

s/s

s/s

s/s

s/s

s/s

s/s

s

§

§

s

s/s

s

s

s

s

d

d

d

e

/q

s

s

s

s

z

s

?

t

t

s

s

?

s

c

c

c

c

c

c

c

c

-

c

c

c

c

Arab.

Ge.

ESA

Syr.

3

3

3

3

t

S

t

I

g

h

c g

C

/q

Aram.

g

O

0

-

p

f

f

f

p

P

P

p

p

h

h

h

h

h

h

h

h

ESA s, s, and s correspond to s1, f , and j3 respectively in other publications.

INTRODUCTION

13

It should be noted that in a small number of lexical items, especially in Akk. and Ug., phoneme /h/ corresponds to /h/ in the rest of the Semitic languages, whereas a small number of lexemes are related by phonological correspondence between phonemes /b/ and /p/. 40 Definitions Cognacy Crystal defines a cognate as a " . . . language or a linguistic form which is historically derived from the same source as another language/form. . . ."41 In other words, cognates in genetically related languages are derived from etymons in a proto-language. On the phonological level, cognates reflect the rules of phonetic shift from one language to the other.42 Patterns of correspondence manifest themselves in a. phonetic identity, b. phonemic identity, c. reflexes of ancestral phonological elements, and d. conditioned correspondences.43 Moreover, these correspondences have to be enhanced by semantic criteria.44 Some Semitists tend to impose a rigid scrutiny on cognates, thus requiring formal phonological, grammatical and lexical agreement.43 Furthermore, one should distinguish between 'cognacy', reflecting a diachronic process, and 'lexical compatibility', which is attested at the synchronic level.46 It should be noted that, in this study, some QA items are said to be 'related' to other

40

Murtonen 1989: 17, 19, 48 notes that " . . . t h e distinction between /h/ and /h/ ". . . is largely inconsistent even in Semitic which strongly suggests that in protoSem and even later the difference was largely allophonic." He posits that the consistent phonological differentiation between the two phonemes took place during the late common Semitic. Similarly, he states that the ". . . phonological distinction between /b/ and /p/ is thus unprovable for the pre-Sem period." Huehnergard 1991: 694 states that the conditioning factors or sources of the reflexes of Sem. *h as Akk. h require further investigation. 41 1997: 67. 42 LaSor 1990: 192. 43 Bennett 1998: 27-28. 44 Leslau 1969: 1; Barr 1973: 113-114; Ehret 1995: 1. 45 Bynon 1977: 106. 4h Cadora 1966: 7 (fn. 4). Moreover, Cadora classifies lexical compatibility as follows: a. 'non-contrastive', comprising homosemantic words with the same form and,

14

INTRODUCTION

items in the cognate languages. These are cases where lexical items lack regular phonetic correspondence between some, or all the radicals of the root and, therefore, lack full cognate status.47 The root

In general, the root system is considered to be the shibbolet of Semitic languages. Medieval Arab scholars had already grasped their essential importance to the overall texture underlying their language, qualifying them as 'usul al-kalim, or 'the origin, or basis of words'.48 Semitic roots can be bi-, tri-, or quadriradical, but the triradical group is, undoubtedly, the most conspicuous. Roots assume a relatively limited number of morphological patterns, and have resisted the passage of time almost unscathed.49 The question regarding the biradical versus the triradical genesis of Semitic roots has intrigued Semitists for years on end.50 There are indications that biradical Afroasiatic and Proto-Semitic roots could have been numerically important during the prehistoric period, from which triradical ones evolved. However, the opposite also applies.31 A number of roots, both verbal and nominal, are common to all groups of Afroasiatic, including Semitic.02

b. 'contrastive', comprising homosemantic words with a different form. Further analysis of cognacy yields what Blanc (1964: 135) calls 'distant' or 'irregular cognates', namely ". . . words for which the ultimate etymon is the same, or for which part of the etymon is the same, but in which divergent developments have produced unusual or irregular alterations." 47 See Leslau 1969: 13. Bennett 1998: 30-31 calls such items 'skewed reflexes of the protoform'. Bennett rightly states that "It is appropriate to consider such forms as reflecting the same item in the ancestral language, but we cannot treat them on the same basis as regularly corresponding items." Moreover, Kaufman 1991: 821 remarks that " . . . the more distant the relationship and the more common the vocabulary in question, the less likely it is that the normal correspondence will apply in any particular case." 48 Bohas 1984: 24. 49 Sawyer 1967: 37-50. 50 See Brockelmann 1908: 285; Fleisch 1961: 248-261; Moscati 1964: 72-74; Thompson 1965: 233; Diakonoff 1965; Zaborski 1969: 307-312; DRS fasc. 6: xii-xiii; Petracek 1981: 338-89; Diakonoff 1988; Ehret 1989; Ehret 1995: 2. M Zaborski 1991: 1675-77 admits that in the prehistoric stage biradical verbal roots were much more than in later phases. Yet, he distinguishes between nine patterns of root formation. 12 Diakonoff 1988: 26-27 states that roots ". . . common to all the four groups of the Semitic branch can be counted in hundreds. The total number of words or roots which can be considered as derived from Proto-Afrasian is not yet exactly

INTRODUCTION

15

Moreover, Semitic roots are associated with a Bedeutungskern,53 or 'semantic nucleus'. This semantic element, intrinsically embedded within the consonantal root, had already been percieved by medieval Arab grammarians.54 The 'general meaning' of a root is then modified depending on the stem-patterns assumed by the root.53 Even though not of recent formulation, Cantineau's and Fleisch's definitions of the Semitic root represent widely accepted views on the subject and are worth quoting extensively. According to Cantineau, the Semitic vocabulary consists of: . . . groupes de mots ayant en commun un certain nombre de consonnes radicales et apparentes par les s e n s . . . la racine n'est pas une abstraction de grammairiens, mais un element implicite du systeme de la langue, degage par analyse associative. On y retrouve un element formel et un element semantique commun a tous les mots du groupe... .56 Fleisch's definition is unambiguous regarding general meanings attached to individual roots: La racine est compose de consonnes (et seulement de consonnes) au groupement desquelles est attachee une idee generale plus ou moins precise . . . elle [the root] possede une veritable realite linguistique: un signifiant: un groupe de consonnes donne; un signifie: 1'idee generale attachee a ce groupement de consonnes.37 Furthermore, basic meanings associated with the roots are, as it were, fine-tuned by various vocalic sequences which are assigned to the

known, but it must be quite considerable." Moreover, he estimates that around one thousand roots are shared by two, three, or more branches of Afroasiatic. 53 Brockelmann 1916: 96. 34 Bohas 1984: 25-29 refers to the remarkably insightful work of the grammarian Ibn Ya'Is (died 1245-6 A.D.), and distinguishes between two types of ma'nd or 'meaning': ". . . le mcfna I lie a la racine qui n'est autre que la charge semantique commune a tous les mots derives d'une meme racine et le ma'na II qui est lie a la structure (binyd) dans laquelle se realise cette racine." (p. 27). 55 Skalmowski 1964: 7. 36 1949: 93. Cohen DRS, Fasc. 6: iii quoted Meillet's definition which is on the same lines of Cantineau's, namely, "Un mot 'appartient' a une racine, il fait partie d'un ensemble de mots ayant en commun un groupe de phonemes auquel est associe un sens general." 57 1961: 248. This is echoed in Moscati 1964: 71, who states that Semitic languages ". . . present a system of consonant roots (mostly consonantal), each of which is associated with a basic meaning range common to all members of that root. . . ." On his part, D. Cohen (DRS, Fasc. 6: iii) defines 'root' as ". . . une sequence ordonnee de phonemes qui constituent la totalite des elements communs a un ensemble derivatif".

16

INTRODUCTION

roots.58 As regards homophones, Garbini states that these are indicative of two possibilities, namely that the consonantal root in Semitic has a much lesser value than is usually attributed to it, or that the Semitic languages were, originally, much less lexically bound together than is usually admitted.39 Loanwords

Loanwords are of little value in lexical studies based on cognacy.60 However, although loans are not included in this work's lexical data, Qur'anic loans are discussed in chapter 3. At times, it is quite difficult to distinguish between early loanwords that had undergone the long process of regular phonetic shifts in the receiving language, from more recent foreign acquisitions.61 This means that a distinction has to be made between words like bab 'door' and burg 'a tower, sign of the Zodiac'. The former is most likely an early acquisition from Mesopotamia, hence from a Semitic source, and is frequently attested in pre-Islamic poetry, whereas burg was taken over from a non-Semitic source (probably from Greek or Latin) and is not attested in the old poetry.62 Undoubtedly, loanwords are important markers of linguistic contact, bearing witness to close relationships at various levels between language groups.63 It is in this spirit that reference is made to them in chapter 3, namely as reliable indicators of the ancient Arabs' cultural contacts with contiguous Semitic peoples.

58

Leslau 1988: 15^16 states that "The meaning of a root lies in the consonants, the vowels serving to express shades of the basic meaning. ..." Sawyer 1967: 48-49 warns against the risk of overstressing the importance of root-meaning whilst ignoring what he calls 'overtones' which a particular word might acquire through consistent usage in certain contexts. Nonetheless, he did recognize that ". . . there is evidence for the significance of the root as a sense-bearing element in some contexts. ..." On his part, Goshen-Gottstein attributes the stability of root radicals in Hebrew to ". . . the importance of the radicals as sense-bearing elements." (quoted by Sawyer 1967: 40). Elsewhere, in 1975: 75, Sawyer defines the root as ". . . an identifiable group of consonants, not necessarily contiguous, which are common to a number of lexical items . . ." This is in line with Barr's definition (1964: 242), namely ". . . an easily recognizable common consonant sequence." 59 1973: 272~73. 60 D. Cohen did not systematically exclude loans from the DRS. In Fasc. I: viii., he argued that "On a en effet integre les formes qui ont diffuse a travers le semitique et qui, de ce fait, ont une histoire proprement semitique." 61 LaSor 1990: 192. 62 Jeffery 1938: 74, 79. 63 Leslau 1956a.

CHAPTER ONE PAST LEXICAL STUDIES 1.1

Muslim lexicography

The need for a comprehensive study of 'Arabiyya was being felt since the first years of Islam.1 The expanding Muslim Umma was fully aware of the role of Arabic as the unifying language of all Muslims. This consideration, coupled with the widespread ignorance of 'correct' Arabic and the threat to its integrity from other linguistic traditions with which early Islam came into close, particularly Persian, rendered Arabic philological studies (fiqh al-lugd) of utmost importance and urgency. Lexicography (cilm al-lugd) sought to explain obscure words in the Qur'an and the Hadit, but also in pre-Islamic poetry. By the end of the 8th century A.D., the nahw and the luga schools had already produced their first philological chefs-d'oeuvre, some of which are widely consulted up to this day.2 The task of the lugawiyy, or 'lexicographer', was to preserve and ensure the purity of the Arabic language. Thus, single words and expressions were checked and ultimately included in the dictionaries.3 Moreover, the due reverence accorded to the Qur'an and the Hadit, and the strict conformity to Muslim Orthodox exegesis, left the Muslim lexicographer no choice but to seek, above all, 'comprehensiveness'. As many words as possible, from the most commonly attested to the rarest, were included in the huge early Arabic lexica.4 In view of pressures from the traditional exegetical circles, lexicographers were not always in a position to dismiss certain mistaken interpretations and put forward their philologically correct ones.3 This tendency's inherent risk was that lexical material was being collated without much order or 1

Kopf 1956: 40. Particularly Srbawayh's Al-Kitdb and Al-Halil's Kitab al-cqyn. Rundgren 1973: 145 states that: "Quant a la naissance et 1'evolution de la lexicographic nationale, le 'Urn al-luga, nous ne possedons pas encore une vraie histoire de la lexicographic arabe, complete et satisfaisante a toutes les exigences scientifiques. ..." 3 Haywood 1960: 18. See also Kaltner 1996. 4 Kaltner 1996: 11. 5 Kopf 1976: 24. 2

18

CHAPTER ONE

classification. A good proportion of the voluminous dictionaries contained raw lexical material of dubious linguistic correctness.6 Thus, medieval Arabic lexicography was not always the result of critical lexical analyses and, very often, no distinction was made between primary and secondary applications of words.7 Arab and Muslim lexicographers showed little interest in looking beyond Arabic and in considering lexical evidence from other Semitic sources. This might be explained, in part at least, by the Muslims' conviction that the Qur'an, God's revelation, had reached mankind in the Arabic language,8 and therefore only this language deserved their full philological attention.9 Nevertheless, fleeting references were made by grammarians and lexicographers to other Semitic languages, particularly to Hebrew and Syriac, with which they were probably most familiar. Baalbaki makes reference to a number of traditional Muslim scholars and their views about the genetic relationship characterizing the Semitic languages.10 Very briefly, he refers to al-Halll who, in his Kitab al-cqyn, considered the language of the Canaanites as similar to Arabic, whereas al-Gawalfqf considered Hebrew a modification of Syriac, and 'Nabataean' a modification of Arabic. For al-Maqdisf, there are very few differences between Arabic and Syriac, and Ibn Hazm considered Arabic, Hebrew, and Syriac as originally one language which became differentiated from each other as a result of later migrations of their speakers.11 But it was in the discussion about loanwords that the native scholars' knowledge of Hebrew and Syriac, as well as of other languages, is most evident.12

6

Levi della Vida 1961: 177. Barr 1968: 117. 8 Suras 12: 2; 13: 37; 16: 103; 20: 113; 39: 28; 41: 3; 41: 44; 42: 7; 43: 3; 46: 12. (Numbering of suras and verses according to 'All 1989.) 9 See footnote 13 below. 10 1983: 117-27. He points out that Syriac, which was also referred to as Nabataean, was still spoken till the 3rd century of the Higra. Al-Birum, in his alAtdr, stands out for his direct access to Syriac informers and Hebrew sources, and for his good knowledge of Hebrew and Syriac. 11 Baalbaki 1983: 121-22. He also refers to Al-Gahiz's views which attributed the differences between Arabic dialects to the contacts which they had with different languages. Moreover, a number of Arab grammarians and lexicographers were actually of Jewish or Syriac origins and therefore could not have neglected their idioms in their works. 12 See section 2.5.1 below. 7

PAST LEXICAL STUDIES

1.2

19

Jewish Medieval scholarship: the exegetical background

The original raison d'etre behind the development of comparative Semitic studies, particularly comparative lexicography, lies in the exegesis of the Hebrew Bible.13 This exegetical justification was, in fact, responsible for the first three comparative dictionaries published during the 17th century.14 The Medieval Jewish exegetes worked closely with Muslim scholars and were quick to exploit the developments witnessed in the field of Arabic philology. Apart from writing in Arabic, the Jewish savants had also adopted Arabic terminology. Their proficiency in both Hebrew and Arabic, rendered them the best candidates to delve in comparative Semitic studies. Among the most representative works of the Jewish school are Sa'adya's grammatical and lexical studies in Biblical Hebrew and his translation of the Bible into Arabic, Ibn Qurays's comparative Semitic observations, Hayyug's scientific approach to the study of Hebrew, Ibn Ganah's first Hebrew grammar (apart from his lexicon), and Ibn Barun's observations about the grammatical and lexical similarities between Hebrew and Arabic.15 Among the aforementioned Jewish scholars, Yehuda Ibn Qurays, who lived in Tahert, in North Africa, during the 9th-10th centuries, deserves special mention. In his attempt to elucidate obscure Biblical Hebrew words, he actually made reference for the first time to the relationship between Semitic languages. Justifiably, this had earned him the title of 'the father of Semitic comparative philology'.16 In general, the Jewish scholars noted above had clearly perceived the close affinities between different Semitic languages and it would be no exaggeration to state that they had indeed pioneered comparative Semitic studies. Nevertheless, the fact should be acknowledged that these early linguistic endeavours were induced, to a very large extent, by the stimulating scholarly milieu characterizing different parts of the Muslim empire, particularly al-Andalus and Baghdad.17

13

Segert 1969a: 204; D. Cohen 1973: 191. See below. Also Segert 1969a: 204-205. 15 See Kaltner 1996: 5-11. 16 Robin 1992: 89. Kaltner 1996: 7-8 quotes Hirschfeld 1926: 18-19 concerning Ibn Qurays, stating that ". . . he surpassed his Arab teachers, who confined their linguistic studies to the most minute elaboration of the rules of their own language without acknowledging the existence of the kindred tongues." 17 Kaltner 1996: 11 stated that "Hebrew lexicography in parts of Europe that 14

20

CHAPTER ONE

1.3

Early modern and modern Semitic lexicology

Under the impetus of biblical studies, the 17th century witnessed three great monuments of comparative lexicography, namely Schindler's Lexicon Pentaglotton (1612), Hottinger's Etymologicum orientale sive lexicon harmonicum heptaglotton (1661), and Castell's Lexicon Heptaglotton (1769). The significance of such a prolific output is all the more appreciated when one takes into account the fact that, since then, no updated comparative dictionary of the Semitic languages has seen the light of day.18 Meanwhile, the prestige of Arabic in early comparative Semitic studies was greatly enhanced by Schultens' claims published in his Dissertatio theologico-philosophica de utilitate linguae arabicae in interpretanda sacra lingua (1706). He considered Arabic as the true representative of the most ancient form of Semitic, and stressed the utility of the Arabic lexicon in explaining obscure words in the Hebrew vocabulary.19 This emphasis on the prestige of Arabic dealt a significant blow to Hebrew which, till then, had been unchallenged in its primacy among the rest of the Semitic languages. The impetus given to archaeological studies during the last century, coupled with the progress registered in Phoenician and Akkadian research as well as the discovery of Ugaritic during the first part of this century constituted a most welcome bonanza for Semitic studies in general and for comparative Semitic research in particular. The philological and linguistic treatment of individual lexical items in a number of Semitic languages has been an ongoing exercise occupying most semitists, past and present.20 At times, the discovery of new linguistic evidence gives rise to numerous studies that painstakingly seek to highlight all facets of linguistic, cultural and historical details, thus shedding new light on earlier material.21 The arguments

could not draw directly upon the Arabic sources was not marked by the same creativity and vitality that the Near East and Spain witnessed." 18 Segert 1969a: 205. In the case of Arabic, Cohen, DRS, fasc. 6: vii., remarks that ". . . nous n'avons pratiquement aucune etude etymologique, quelque peu systematique, de 1'arabe." 19 In 1748 Schultens published the Clavis dialectorum, a comparative lexicon in its own right. 20 See, for example, a list of 'word studies' in the bibliography of vol. II and III of Clines' DCH. See also in Barr 1968 a comparison of Syriac and Hebrew verbs (305-07) and the 'Index of Examples' covering 334 lexical entries (320-337). 21 Dahood 1974: 381 remarked that "Twelve years later [i.e. since the publication

PAST LEXICAL STUDIES

21

brought forward in such studies are invariably supported by evidence from other cognate languages, and from the literary sources. 1.3.1

The recourse to Arabic lexical sources

Since the publication of Schultens' Dissertatio, comparative semitists have invariably resorted to Arabic in search of possible cognates. The problem has been that scholars often run the risk of drawing too copiously, and at times indiscriminately, from the seemingly inexhaustible Arabic lexica.22 Nevertheless, recourse to Arabic lexical sources can hardly be avoided when analyzing hitherto unknown attestations in a particular language.23 However, given the steady developments witnessed in Akkadian and Ugaritic studies, and taking into account the growing consciousness regarding the proper handling of Arabic lexica in comparative and etymological research, the pressure on Arabic might have eased somehow.24 Whatever the case may be, it cannot be denied that Arabic lexical resources still constitute a most dynamic factor in Semitic studies. Indeed, few can dispute the fact that the proper treatment of Arabic's extensive resources has been instrumental to the overall advancement of comparative Semitic research.25 Many years of unabating lexicological research have produced a number of etymological studies and lexica contributing towards a better understanding of the Semitic languages as one homogeneous group.26 However, one may be justified to note that, among the

of his first article on Hebrew-Ugaritic Lexicography in 1963], one can still maintain that in the field of biblical lexicography the revolution continues, thanks to the publication of new Ugaritic tablets and increased research on those long available." 22 Very frequently, comparative Semitists are alerted to this methodological misgiving. See Renfroe 1992: 1-2. 23 Healey 1988: 63. In this case, he was referring to the Ugaritic roots Itpn, p'id, and Isb which seem to be attested only in Arabic. 24 See Kaltner 1996: 5, 98-106. In his discussion about Ugaritic, Healey 1988: 68 advised that " . . . to avoid the pitfalls of the old-style philology with its delving into the Arabic dictionary for cognates, a framework of discipline is needed along with a dispassionate (statistically based) awareness of the Ugaritic lexical links with other languages. The work of the comparative lexicographer consists of a weighing of possible cognates for their historical, linguistic, geographical and chronological proximity, combined with a close attention to the context in Ugaritic, since the latter is the ultimate arbiter." See also Renfroe 1992: 2 for the role played by Arabic in general Ugaritic studies. 25 Kaltner 1996: 5. 2h See Fronzaroli 1973 for a detailed account of lexicographical studies published

22

CHAPTER ONE

various sub-divisions within the Semitic languages, the North-West Semitic group has probably received the lion's share of the semitists' attention. This emphasis on NWS has been dictated, in the main, by the exigencies of biblical scholarship. 1.4

The Common Semitic vocabulary

One of the fields of research in Semitic lexical studies is that concerned with the identification of a Common (or basic) Semitic vocabulary. Unfortunately, the numerous works on comparative phonology and morphology do not find many correspondents in the lexical sphere and, as yet, no comprehensive work covering the 'common lexicon' has been compiled.27 The works by Guidi, Bergstrasser, D. Cohen, Fronzaroli, and Tyloch are among the most representative.28 In the Afroasiatic sphere, the works by M. Cohen, Diakonoff, Greenberg, and Orel and Stolbova are among the most outstanding.29 The guiding principle in these studies is that lexical items (usually verbal stems and primary nouns) with the same phonetic and semantic value in different cognate languages, including those chronologically and geographically distant from each other, belong to the lexicon of a Semitic proto-language "... in a synchro nic phase shortly before the historical attestations. . . ."30 Different criteria have been adopted by various scholars to identify basic Semitic lexical items. Bergstrasser, for example, insisted that for a word to be considered as belonging to the Common Semitic lexicon, it has to be attested in Akkadian, Hebrew, Aramaic, South Arabic, Ethiopian and Arabic.31 At another extreme, M. Cohen in the various branches of Semitic. Since then, other important publications have become available, such as D. Cohen (1970a-) Leslau (1987), Murtonen (1986, 1989), Orel and Stolbova (1995), Hoftijzer and Jongeling (1995), del Olmo Lete (1996), Militarev and Kogan (2000). 27 Fronzaroli 1975: 43. 28 Bergstrasser 1983 identified 173 lexical items, including numerals, four prepositions, one conjunction and one interrogative pronoun; D. Cohen 1961, 1962, 1970, lists 306 items (numerals not included); Fronzaroli 1964a, 1965a, 1967, 1968, 1969, 1970 lists more than 500 items; Tyloch 1975 concentrates on 40 lexical items related to the cultural and ecological registers. He bases his evidence on North-East Semitic, North-West Semitic, South-West Semitic, Epigraphic South Arabian and Ge'ez. 29 M. Cohen 1947 lists 521 items. See also Diakonoff 1965; Greenberg 1966; Orel & Stolbova 1995. 30 Fronzaroli 1975: 46. 31 1983: 209-223. According to Schall 1982: 145, most of the pre-Classical Arabic lexicon was inherited from Common Semitic.

PAST LEXICAL STUDIES

23

did not hesitate to include words which are only found in one language.32 Fronzaroli struck a balance between the two extremes, including in his basic list words attested in at least one language from the three main Semitic geographical areas, namely the East, the NorthWest and the South-West. Moreover, most semitists exclude loanwords from word-lists. This is due to the fact that most loanwords are not a direct inheritance from the prehistoric period but just borrowings which took place well within the historical phase of Semitic. The basic Semitic vocabulary predominantly covers such areas as natural phenomena, wild and domestic nature,33 anatomy and physiology, social organization, working methods, feeding habits, the economy, mental processes, religion, and general terms. One of the merits accruing to this type of research is the fact that words are not studied in isolation, simply for the sake of etymology as an end in itself. This research allows the identification of wider spheres of relationship underlying the Semitic languages, and more light is shed on their origins.34 Thus, Fronzaroli's study of the basic Semitic lexicon led him to the conclusion that the sede comune of the Semites lies in the Syro-Palestinian region.35 Judging by the evidence from the Common Semitic lexicon, it transpires that, from the earliest times, the early Semites were familiar both with agriculture and with animal husbandry.36 This is but one practical aspect of this kind of lexicological pursuit and further research will undoubtedly uncover more about the evolution and subsequent development of the Semitic languages. 1.5

Lexicostatistical studies: the Semitic languages

This is not the place to discuss in detail the lexicostatistical method.37 Suffice it to say that this method is based on Swadesh's assumption that since "... fundamental vocabulary changes at a constant

32 1947: 54. He argues that "II est permis de croire (encore qu'on ne puisse pas le prouver) qu'un terme arabe est bien semitique, meme s'il ne s'est pas retrouve en akkadien, hebreu, arameen, ethiopien, etc." 33 Schall 1982: 145 notes that, whereas many names of animals belong to the Semitic Erbwortschatz, this is not so in the case of plant-names. 34 See Fronzaroli 1964: 159 160 regarding the cultural interpretation given by the three Italian linguists Pisani, Pagliaro and Devoto to comparative lexical studies. 35 1960: 135. 36 Tyloch 1975: 56, 60. This seems to be confirmed by archaeology. See Zohar 1992. 37 For an overall review see Wang 1993. Lexicostatistics are sometimes referred

24

CHAPTER ONE

rate. . . .",38 and relying on a list of 100 basic lexical items which are believed to be found in all languages and which are free from any cultural connotation,39 one could actually calculate the dates of separation of the various related languages from each other. However, many linguists have expressed their reservations concerning this method. Given the cultural diversity of the regions making up the Semitic Sprachraum, it is not always possible to establish a list of culturally unmarked basic lexical items.40 Nevertheless, a number of Semitic languages have not escaped these much debated statistical methods. D. Cohen, for example, bases his study on 116 basic items gleaned from a list of 306 Common Semitic words.41 His list covers basic items taken from Qur'anic Arabic, Soqotri (Modern South Arabian), and the Ethiopic languages Gecez, Tigre, Tigrina, Amharic, Argobba, Harari, Gurage, and Gafat. He then calculates the percentages of items sharing the same phonetic substance and meaning. On the basis of Swadesh's assumption that percentages over 80% of common terms indicate dialectal divergence within one same language, and in view of the percentages obtained in this study which are, in general, over 60%, Cohen concludes that these languages could be considered as making up a relatively cohesive family, without, however, qualifying to be regarded as dialects of the same language. In the second part of his study, Cohen focusses on Qur'anic Arabic, Gecez, ESA and Soqotri, and also contrasts Soqotri with Tigre and Amharic. He assumes that, at the beginning of the first millenium B.C., or perhaps a little earlier, the Common South Semitic group broke up into three branches. From this study, it transpires that the separation of Arabic from South Arabian seems to have taken place some time before the separation of South Arabian from Ethiopic.42 On his part, Rabin discusses some problems facing the researcher

to as 'glottochronology'. According to Wang, glottochronology focuses on time depth separating two languages, whereas lexicostatistics is an outgrowth from glottochronology and concentrates on the estimation of the degree of mutual intelligibility. See Bennett 1998: 34. 38 1952: 453. 39 Originally Swadesh had identified 215 words. For a modified version of Swadesh's method see Starostin, S. 1999. "Comparative-Historical Linguistics and Lexicostatistics". Historical Linguistics and Lexicostatistics, 3-50. Melbourne. 40 Healey 1988: 62; See also Hoijer 1956. 41 1970: 11-15. 42 In the final section of his study, Cohen applied lexicostatistical methods to dialectal varieties of Arabic. See 1.5.1 below.

PAST LEXICAL STUDIES

25

when applying the lexicostatistical method. Thus, the absence, in a particular Semitic language, of a lexical equivalent for any item of the basic 100 word-list, the absence of frequency lists for such literary languages as Hebrew, Ugaritic, Syriac, Akkadian, Arabic and Ethiopic, and the uncertainty about the meaning of certain words, are among the most obvious drawbacks of this method.43 Nevertheless, fully conscious of the method's misgivings,44 Rabin obtains very interesting results about the dates of separation of the various Semitic groupings from each other.43 In the case of Arabic, Rabin's calculations reveal that the last cognate language it had separated itself from was Syriac, some time around 1650 B.C., whereas its separation from the rest of the five Semitic languages under study had occured during the third millenium B.C.46 Moreover, this study reveals that Arabic and Ethiopic were already in contact during the third millenium B.C. However, Rabin himself remarks that this chronology does not seem to be confirmed by what is known about the ancient history of the Arabian peninsula.47 Provided that the conclusions of such lexicostatistical approaches are treated with the due reserve, there can be no doubt that Rabin's work offers interesting insights as to the 'separateness of the Arabic vocabulary' on the one hand, and the large percentage of common vocabulary shared between Arabic and Syriac (54%) on the other.48 Another example of a statistical study is that conducted by Barr which, although not based on lexicostatistical criteria, produced interesting results about the degree of lexical overlap in Hebrew, Syriac and Ethiopic.49 When comparing Syriac verbs with an initial radical Ibl with their Hebrew reflexes, and classifying them according to close or remote meanings, 40% of the 69 roots examined share close meanings, whereas the percentage of the Syriac roots with no Hebrew cognates is higher. In another survey of Syriac and Hebrew verbs with initial /7, Barr concludes that 25% to 30% of the total 43

1975: 86. Rabin himself states (p. 98) ". . . if we are to believe the table [containing the data]. . . ." ^ Thus, for example, the separation of NWS from SS ". . . took place at the same time or very soon after the division of NWS from Akkadian." (p. 98). 46 1975: 97. The earliest separation, Akkadian-Arabic, had taken place around 3575 B.C. 44

47

1975: 98.

48

Reference to Rabin's study is again made in section 6.2.2. 1968: 162-164.

49

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CHAPTER ONE

number of Hebrew verbs, and 33% of the total number of Syriac verbs, share a close formal and semantic correspondence. In the case of Hebrew and Ethiopic verbs with initial /7, Barr finds out that one Ethiopic verb out of six shares a close sense with Hebrew. As for Arabic, the percentage of words with an ancient Hebrew cognate of similar sense seldom exceeds 30%-40%.50 Barr concludes that, although the results of his study confirm a degree of considerable lexical community among the Semitic languages, however, the evidence ". . . appears not to favour a degree of overlap or coincidence so high that the presence of a phenomenon in one language will easily form a prima-facie case for its presence in another."51 1.5.1

Lexicostatistical studies. The Arabic dialects

In a study by Samarrai, Iraqi, Jordanian and Egyptian spoken varieties of Arabic are contrasted with Classical Arabic and a very high rate of retention, namely 89.2% is obtained.52 D. Cohen does not agree with Samarrai's assumption that Classical Arabic is 'comme etat de langue coherent', but rather a ^koine litteraire' whose lexicon contains forms belonging to different dialects and retains items which had become obsolete in speech.03 Thus, the resulting rates of retention obtained on the criteria of Classical Arabic need to be considered with great caution and reserve. On his part, Hymes re-examined Samarrai's work and brought the constant rate of morphemic loss within these varieties of Arabic into line with other languages.34 Another statistical study, conducted by Satterthwait, takes into consideration Qur'anic Arabic as the language spoken in Mecca during the 7th century A.D. In the compilation of the basic lexical list, Satterthwait even sought the help of Meccan informants.55 His study produces a rate of lexical retention of 82.5% which falls well within Swadesh's calculations, namely the preservation, after 1000 years, of 81% of the original 215 items of the core vocabulary.36 50

1968: 162. Samples of literary Arabic were used in this exercise. 1968: 164. 1959: 68-70. 53 1970: 27. 54 1959: 267-269. See Rabin 1975: 85 re Lees' calculations of the rate of change within a number of languages, namely 80.48%. 55 1960: 256-260. 51

52

56 Swadesh calculates the retention rate of his second list of 100 items at 86%. Regarding the above result, Cerulli 1961: 157 states that the results are, in them-

PAST LEXICAL STUDIES

27

Reference has already been made to D. Cohen's lexicostatistical study. In its final section, the study analyses the relationship between Qur'anic Arabic and five dialects of Arabic, namely San'ani, Cairene, Maltese, Tunisian (Jewish dialect), and Hassan (Mauritania).57 This study concludes that the percentages of common terms in the language dyads (Cairene-Maltese, Cairene-Tunisian, etc.) are very close to each other and fall within 69% and 75.5%.58 In fact, the average percentage of common terms is 72.5%, a figure which is indicative of a separation which took place a little more than a thousand years ago.39 Another lexicostatistical study covering dialectal varieties of Arabic is Blanc's analysis of the relationship between Baghdad's three colloquial varieties, namely Muslim, Christian and Jewish Baghdadi.60 192 items out of Swadesh's 200 word-list (96%), are cognates in the three varieties. Furthermore, reference can also be made to the study conducted by Ferguson and Sacld which centres on a list of 278 words for the comparison of Rabati, Damascene, Cairene and Baghdadi varieties of Arabic.61 In general, the end-results are very similar to those reached by Blanc. Finally, Cadora's thesis regarding the interdialectal lexical compatibility among Syro-Lebanese varieties and their relationship with Classical Arabic, Casablancan, Cairene, Jiddan and Baghdadi deserves to be included in this general overview.62 Cadora carries out a first analysis, based on the Swadesh list, with a view to establishing the extent of the non-contrastive compatibility of the varieties under consideration. A second analysis, based on the Ferguson-Sacld list, assesses the contrastive compatibility of the dialectal varieties. The first study reveals that, except for the Deir ez-Zor variety, the

selves, interesting, ". .. ma non si dimentichi mai che siamo al di fuori della evoluzione storico-culturale del popolo Arabo la cui influenza sul linguaggio . . . e stata forse percentualmente differente da quelle influenze che hanno agito sulle espressioni elementari della parlata comune considerabili nella test-list." 57 1970: 26-30. 58 1970: 29. 39 1970: 29 ". . . plus precisement: 1066 ± 181 annees." 60 1964. 61 1958. Unlike Swadesh's list which focusses on the basic vocabulary, the FergusonSa'rd list is based on the frequency criterion and on maximum differentiation in the four dialects. It also takes Modern Classical Arabic into account. Of the 278 lexical items, 176 are nouns, 19 adjectives, 43 verbs and 40 particles. 62 1966.

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Syro-Lebanese dialects ". . . share 82.5% of the two hundred items on this list. . . .", with a high rate of non-contrastive compatibility, ca. 96%, between any two given varieties.63 When compared with Classical Arabic, Baghdadi, Gairene, Casablancan and Jiddan, the Syro-Lebanese varieties, as expected, emerge as one homogeneous unit. The second analysis indicates that (a.) the Syro-Lebanese varieties fall within South-Western, North-Western, Central and Eastern groups, with members of each group contrasting less with each other than with members of the other groups, (b.) there is a lesser degree of homogeneity among urban varieties than expected, and (c.) Damascene Arabic has the lowest contrastive compatibility with both the Syro-Lebanese and non-Syro-Lebanese dialects.64 As can be seen from the above brief overview, there is indeed much scope for further research on the lexical relationship between Arabic and the rest of the Semitic languages. Up to now, comparative studies have been based on relatively short lexical lists. In the case of Cadora's study, for example, the observations about varietal contrastivity are based on just eleven lexemes. The quantitatively limited lexical data constitutes one of the shortcomings characterizing the lexicostatistical methods, as such limited evidence can hardly be conducive to realistic conclusions about whole linguistic areas. For this reason, one ought to take heed of D. Cohen's assertion, namely that "II faut encore bien des analyses, menees non seulement sur des listes reduites, mais aussi sur des bases globales."65 This is what this work modestly aims at, even though the extent of its lexical corpus cannot, by all means, be considered as 'global'.

63 64 65

1966: 2. 1966: 2-3. 1973: 201.

CHAPTER TWO

THE QUR'ANIC TEXT 2.1

'ariba and musta'raba

The origins of the first peoples inhabiting the Arabian peninsula are shrouded in thick mystery. The Qur'dn refers to the Arabian tradition concerning the people of cAd, who inhabited the southern flank of Arabia, and the people of Tamud of north-western Arabia. Muslim tradition has it that these peoples did not heed God's prophets (Hud was sent to cAd, and Salih to the Tamud) and disbelieved. Their pride, obstinacy and oppression of the poor brought upon them divine wrath and utter destruction.1 Moreover, traditionally, the Arabs consider themselves the descendants of two major ethnic groups, namely the Qahtan, originating in the Yemen and descending from Saba5 Ibn Yacrib, and the 'Adnan of north Arabia. According to this traditional view, the Qahtan were the original true Arabs ('driba}'2 whose language had always been Arabic, whereas the 'Adnan were the descendants of Ishmael, son of Abraham. Eventually, the cAdnan had renounced their Hebrew or Chaldaean language and adopted Arabic from Qahtan. This had earned them the epithet musta'raba, that is 'those who adopted Arab ways and manners (including language)'.3 This traditional theory was refuted by Tana Husayn. He claimed that the exact opposite corresponds to the truth, namely

1 See cAli 1989: 362~64. They are also known as the "lost Arabs" (al-'arab alba'ida). According to Arabian tradition, the cAd were the great great grandchildren of Noah whereas the Tamud were his great grand children. After 'Ad's destruction by a tremendous blast of wind, the Tamud succeeded them but were in turn destroyed by an earthquake. They were then succeeded by the Nabataeans. 2 These had left the Yemen, about 200 years before the Higra, following the inundation of al-carim which had destroyed Saba'j and migrated north where, later on, they became associated with the Lahmids, Gassanids, 'Azdis, Kinda, Tayyis, and others. The peoples of the Tamudic, Lihyanitic, Safa'itic, and Hasa'itic inscriptions, found along the caravan route of Western Arabia, are sometimes associated with these cdnba. See Rabin 1951, 1984, Robin 1992, cUtman 1996, and Versteegh 1997: 26-28. 3 See 'Utman 1996: 14-15.

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that the original Arabs were the 'Adrian, and the southern Qahtan were the ones who adopted Arabic after the advent of Islam.4 2.2

The ancient Arabs

Bedouins roamed the Syro-Arabian desert during much of the second millennium. Perhaps the earliest ancient Arabs we know of were the Midianites who inhabited the southern and eastern regions of Palestine during the end of the second millennium B.C.5 It was at this time that the bedouin nomads emerged into the full light of history.6 It was also during this period that the first proto-Arabs started settling in the Arabian peninsula, although the southern regions had already witnessed the beginnings of South Arabian civilization.7 Assyrian inscriptions offer the earliest historical glimpses at the Arabs as an ethnic group, starting with the military expedition of King Salmanasser III into the Western territories in 853 B.C. and the reference to Gindibu3 from the land of Arbi, or Arbaya, and his 1000 camels.8 References are also made to the 8th century B.C. Arab queens Zabibe and Samsi in relation to Tiglath-Phalasar III who had Arab border guards, called Arabu and Aribi at his service: the former paid tribute to him and the latter was overwhelmed by his troops and ultimately defeated. By the end of the 8th century, Sargon

4

1975: 106. Knauf 1988: 91 92. Knauf even postulates that qaus and Tahwe were two protoArabic words used by the Midianites. Knauf argues (pp. 44-48) that the verbal morphology of the word Tahwe suggests that it is of Arabian origin, contrasting with Amorite names which are characteristically nominal. Thus, Tahwe would not belong exclusively to the prehistory of what later became the Israelite religion, but also to the prehistory of the Arabian religion. 6 Garbini 1965: 4. According to Ephcal 1982: 6, the word 'nomads' ". . . refers to all the peoples in the desert of northern Sinai and northern Arabia and in the Syro-Arabian desert. Most of them raised camels and sheep, lived in tents and unfortified temporary camps and moved from place to place with their flocks, sporadically raiding the permanent settlements in the regions adjacent to the desert. . . the term "nomads" is applied to oasis dwellers as well." Apart from 'Arabs', Eph'al (p. 8) refers to other appellations of the nomads, namely 'the people of the east', the 'tent-dwellers', and in Jeremiah 9: 25, 25: 33, 49: 32, those 'who dwell in the desert that cut the corners of their hair'. 7 Versteegh 1997: 23. 8 Bulliet 1975: 86 states that during the Assyrian period, the camel-breeding Arabs lacked the means to control the caravan trade. Their military insignificance rendered them ". . . despised desert tribesmen more preyed upon by the agents of settled civilization than preying upon." 5

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31

II had overcome the ancient Arab tribes of Tamud, Ibadid, Marsimani, and Hayapa. In Sennacherib's first campaign against the Chaldaeans in 703 B.C., statues belonging to the Arab vassals were among the booty carried away, later to be returned to the ancient Arabs by his son Asarhaddon.9 Another important testimony from the end of the 7th century B.C. comes from Jeremiah who, in 25: 24, speaks of the kings of Arabia (ardb), and the kings of the mixed tribes (ha'ereb}.10 In the Babylonian revolts against the Assyrian Assurbanipal, the ancient Arabs sided with the Babylonians. Having subjected Assyria and Nineveh, king Nabuchodonosor's expedition to the West in 599 B.C. includes incursions into the Arabian desert and the seizure of much booty.11 These events coincided with Arabian nomads' migration and settlement among the local populations along the border of the Fertile Crescent and farther afield.12 These migrations intensified during the latter half of the first millennium B.C. In general, southern Palestine and Arabia contrasted with the politically and economically more advanced centres in Syria, but the close interaction between populations on both sides served as catalyst for cultural and linguistic exchange at all levels.13 Not much is known about the ancient Arabs' linguistic background. Undoubtedly, some nomadic tribes were Aramaic-speaking. The Kedarite Arabs, amongst others, had been in very close contact with the Aramaean tribes since the 8th c. B.C. and had adopted Aramaic as their language for writing.14 The earliest attestations to what is considered as a language related to Arabic come from inscriptions written in a script derived from South Arabian. These were found in Safa, in south-eastern Syria, and date from the 4th c. B.C. onwards. There can be no doubt that the ancient Arabs reaching the Fertile Crescent in the latter centuries of the first millennium B.C. did not resist the region's Aramaean-Hellenistic culture, and it was this 9

Ephcal 1982: 113. According to Versteegh 1997: 24 the etymology of the name 'Arabs' is unknown. The people called Hapiru in the Mari inscriptions may be the Aribi mentioned in later Assyrian inscriptions and this name may be derived from Sumerian gab.blr meaning 'desert'. Versteegh also refers to the theory which links the name 'Arabs' to the Semitic root 'BR 'to cross (the desert)'. This may also be the etymology of the name 'Hebrews'. " Briquel-Chatonnet 1992: 37-44. 12 Briquel-Chatonnet 1992: 38. 13 Knauf 1988: 45-46. 14 Greenfield 1974: 155. 10

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readiness to adapt to foreign ways which secured their ascent in Middle Eastern affairs. The steady sedentarization of Arab populations resulted in the establishment of principalities and kingdoms. That of the ethnically Arab Nabataeans, whose sovereignty, at the height of their power, reached Damascus in the North, the Negev, and Mada'in Salih in the Arabian Higaz was, perhaps, the most important.15 The relatively late reference to the Arabs (crb (sg.) and >e rb (pi.)) in South Arabian inscriptions of the end of the 2nd. c. B.C., seems to indicate that the Arabs were still solidly entrenched in the North Arabian reality and had not yet established full links with the southern area.16 Of great relevance is Eph'aPs contention that the term 'Arabs' ". . . was originally a northern concept exclusive to the cup of the Fertile Crescent and to Northern Arabia".17 Later on, they would infiltrate the sedentary central and southern regions of the Arabian peninsula and ". . . the term 'Arabs' expanded to designate the people of the region."18 What has been said till now about the ancient Arabs of the first millennium B.C. concerns more the Near and Middle East than the Arabian Peninsula. This is also the case for the closing centuries of that millennium. In 333 B.C. Arab warriors fought against Alexander the Great during the siege of Tyre. Subsequently, a number of Arab dynasties were established, among them the Iturean principality in the anti-Lebanon, the Kingdom of Samsigeramos at Hims and that of the neighbouring Rhambeans near the Euphrates.19 The Arab element transpires in Arabic onomastics relating to Arab cults and deities in Edessa and in Nineveh.20 Undoubtedly, the most important centre with the most pronounced Arab element was the caravancity of Palmyra (modern-day Tadmur) in Syria, where the deities' and sovereigns' Arabic onomastics are unmistakable.21 It was in Petra

lD The Nabataeans spoke a variety of ancient Arabic, but had adopted Aramaic as their written language. Their kingdom was annexed to the Roman Empire in A.D. 106 According to Bulliet 1975: 87-101, the invention of the North Arabian camel saddle sometime during the latter half of the first millennium B.C. ". . . transformed the economic, political, and social history of the Middle East." 16 Eph'al 1982: 8. It is only during the 1st c. A.D. that reference to 'Arabs' is made in inscriptions from the region of the kingdom of Sheba. 17 Eph'al 1982: 9. 18 Eph'al 1982: 9. 19 Briquel-Chatonnet 1992: 39-40. 20 Cf. the Hatra inscriptions (2nd~3rd c. A.D.). 21 Palmyra's beginnings go back to the first century B.C., becoming prosperous

THE QUR'ANIC TEXT

33

and Palmyra that the ancient Arabs witnessed a most significant change in the way they related to the caravan trade: rather than simply charging tolls on trade moving across their lands, they actually started controlling that trade and taking the lion's share of the profits.22 Some scholars, like Blau, portray the Arabs in the Arabian peninsula as living ".. . almost completely insulated from external influences", and therefore in a position to preserve their archaic speech.23 This vision can only be partially true. The trade routes traversing significant stretches of Arabia, brought the Arabs in very close contact with traders from the Levant, Mesopotamia, and southern Arabia.24 Moreover, from the beginning of the third century onwards, the Arabs' integration within Roman High society had become a reality.25 During the early centuries of the first millennium A.D. important segments of Arabian society were witnessing deep social transformations enhanced by their close commercial contacts and vassalage to the Roman and Persian imperial regimes. Apart from drawing the Arabians closer to the 'sown' centres of the Near and Middle East, these developments were also responsible for the accumulation of considerable wealth by the Arabs who were gradually assuming the stance of a regional military power to be reckoned with. Nevertheless, as is commonly evidenced by innumerable instances

by the first century A.D. After a period of military and political achievements, Palmyra succumbed to Roman hegemony in A.D. 272. Bulliet 1975: 102 claims that Palmyra's location in the north precluded her active involvement in the incense trade, and that it was mainly concerned with desert crossings between the Mediterranean and the Euphrates' region. 22 Bulliet 1975: 102. 23 1969: 38. 24 Among the principal commercial routes were: 1. Yatrib - Ha'il - an-Nagaf; 2. Yatrib Haybar - Fadak - Tema3 and thence to Duma - Babylon, or to Tabuk Ma'an, or alternatively to Sirhan - 'Amman; 3. Yatrib - al-cula - Tabuk - Ma'an. 25 See Briquel-Chatonnet 1992: 42 where reference is made to the Syrian Julia Domna, wife of Septimus Severus the governor of Syria; the lobbying by a number of Arabs in the Roman senate leading to the accession of Philipp the Arab, from Gebel Druze, to the Roman throne in A.D. 244; and the relations of Zenobia, queen of Palmyra, with the philosopher Longinus. The Arabs' assimilation of foreign cosmopolitan ideas and models is also reflected in the sphere of art, as the architectural achievements in Nabataean Petra and in Palmyra clearly testify. For more on the integration of the Middle Eastern populations within the Roman empire see Bulliet 1975: 108. Rabin 1955: 35 speaks about Arabia ". . . as an area of immigration as well as emigration, a meeting place of ethnic elements coming from various directions. These movements produced linguistic mixtures and a chequered map of linguistic boundaries, islets, and isolated remnants of earlier migrations."

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in human history, the rise in the fortunes of a people, more often than not, bears irresistibly the seeds of decline. Pre-Islamic Arabia, was not immune from this historical fatality. A combination of decisive factors precluded durable stability and prosperity in the Arabian peninsula. Among these factors one could mention the decline and fall of the Nabataean kingdom and of the neighbouring small states, the endemic tribal warfare among the Arabians, particularly among the Banu Gassan and the Banu Lahm who represented Byzantine and Persian interests in the region respectively, and the decline in the incense trade from the second century A.D. onwards.26 Anarchy took over and most of the region reverted to the previous bedouin form of existence. Furthermore, the fall of the Himyarite centre of power in south Arabia, as a result of the Ethiopian invasion in A.D. 525, precipitated the destabilization process. By this time, Arabia's fortunes were at their lowest ebb, but it was exactly at this juncture, sometime towards the end of the fifth century A.D., that Mecca started assuming a leading posture among other Arabian cities.27 Rather than exploiting its location, the Meccans capitalized on their commercial acumen to bring most of Arabian trade under their control.28 Moreover, the presence in Mecca of the most important Arabian tribal shrine, greatly enhanced this city's prestige. 2.3 2.3.1

The Arabic Language

The earliest attestations

It is indeed amazing that a literary form of Arabic, the language which boasts to have preserved much of the original Semitic inher26 Bulliet 1975: 104 explains that Christianity was responsible, to some extent, for this decrease in demand, requiring less incense for its rituals than the pagan or Judaist ones. Caravan cities like Palmyra, which did not rely on the incense trade, were less hit by this economic recession. 27 At this time, the tribe of Qurays was under the leadership of sheikh Qusayy, of North Arabian descent. 28 This is explained in detail by Bulliet 1975: 105-106. He states that contrary to the usual assertions concerning Mecca's natural location as a commercial centre, the situation on the ground was very different: the city was situated in a barren valley, it could not sustain a large population, and it was not a natural crossroad. However, its location did help in the domination of the surrounding tribes and also rendered it almost immune from outside interferences. The Meccans' aim was to convince the Arabian tribes that engaging actively in the caravan trade was more

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35

itance, made such a belated, albeit majestic, appearance on the historical scene.29 Notwithstanding the numerous inscriptions from the Arabian peninsula, not much can be made out about the linguistic situation during the first centures before and after the Christian era. A linguistic Sprachraum, characterized by ancient north-west Arabian (with definite article in h(n)-), ancient north-east Arabian (definite article in (3)l-), ancient south-west Arabian, to which belong the Epigraphic South Arabian (definite article in -w)30 and Himyaritic types (definite article am-), and finally ancient west-central Arabian which was presumably influenced by the other three varieties of ancient Arabian, has been suggested. Ultimately, this situation gave rise to varieties of early Arabic in use across the peninsula.31 In one of the Qaryat al-Fa'w inscriptions (1st c. B.C.), written in Sabaean script and in a language related to Arabic, and in the al-Hurayba inscription, written in Lihyanitic script, the Arabic definite article } l- is attested. Next comes the inscription, in Nabataean characters, from c£n 'Avdat, datable around 88/89—125/126 A.D., with four lines in Aramiac, and two other lines in what comes quite close to Classical Arabic, or to some variety closely related to it.32 The inscriptions in Nabataean script from Umm al-Gimal (ca. A.D. 250) and al-Higr (A.D. 267.) display a number of nouns ending in -w.33 We have to wait for the Namara inscription (A.D. 328), also written in Nabataean script, for the first five lines in what may be safely considered as Classical Arabic.34 As for inscriptions in early Arabic script, the most important are those from: Gabal Ramm (mid-4th

profitable than raiding it. Although signs of a commercial recovery in Arabia were evident, the volume of trade was less than that of Nabataean times, reaching lower levels after the advent of Islam. 29 Referring to the poetic language of pre-Islamic bedouin poets, Brockelmann 1908: 23 states "Diese Dichtersprache zeichnet sich durch grossen Formenreichtum aus und bedeutet in der Feinheit ihrer syntaktischen Ausdrucksmittel den Hohepunkt aller semitischen Sprachentwicklung. Ihr Wortschatz ist auBordentlich reich, da er aus den Quellen aller einzelnen Volksdialekte gespeist wurde." 30 This group is sometimes referred to as 'Sayhadic'. 31 Beeston 1981: 185-86. 32 Testen 1996: 281. 33 The al-Higr inscription contains a line in Tamudic. See Rabin 1960: 564-6. 34 According to Rabin 1960: 564—6, the language of this inscription belongs to the Western dialect group of Arabic. See also Bellamy 1985: 31-5 and Versteegh 1997: 31-35.

36

CHAPTER TWO

c. A.D.), Zabad (A.D. 512), Gabal 'Usays (A.D. 528), Harran (A.D. 568), and finally Umm al-Gimal (6th century A.D.).33 Apart from Arabic epigraphical attestations, the oral poetic tradition of the pre-Islamic (Gdhiliyyd) bedouin-poets is the next important stage prior to the emergence of Arabic in its Qur'anic form. One cannot but admire the poetic genius of pre-Islamic heathen Arabians who composed literary gems solidly cast within exceptionally rigid metrical arrangements.36 Rabin's suggestion that the highly formal style of Arabic poetry could have had its origins among the South Arabians, is very fascinating indeed. He argues that, since this type of poetry does not share the organized parallelism of the NorthWest poetic tradition, and in view of its much more developed metre and its more personal approach, it could have been of South Arabian inspiration. Although no such thing as South Arabian poetry has as yet been discovered, nevertheless, the lexical richness and the stylistic variation of the longer inscriptions from this area tend to point towards the existence of a literary culture.37 Taha Husayn's statements, in his book Fi s-sicr al-gdhiliyy (1926), caused quite a stir and gave rise to a controversy which dragged on for years. He actually denies the authenticity of much of what is known as pre-Islamic poetry, stating that it was written during the Umayyad period.38 Husayn claims that, rather than depicting the life of pre-Islamic tribesmen, this poetry is more concerned with the life of Arabian Muslims.39 He excludes the possibility of south Arabian poets like 3 Imru 1-Qays, Zuhayr, and Labfd to be able to write poetry in the 'ambiyya of the Higaz instead of resorting to their own south Arabian language, since South Arabians had only adopted Arabic after the 35

See Robin 1992; Versteegh 1997: 33. Montgomery Watt 1970: 83 states that "It is now generally accepted even by critical scholars that at least some of the so-called pre-Islamic poetry was genuinely composed before the time of Muhammad. . . . " 37 Rabin 1984: 132 does not exclude the possibility that South Arabian poetry could, in turn, have been influenced by Indian poetry, elements of which could have reached South Arabia as a result of commercial contacts between the two regions. 38 His views were reiterated in his Min tank al-3adab al-carabiyy, Beirut, 1975: 80— 120. A. Mingana 1920 and Margoliouth 1925 had already voiced similar views. 39 1975: 87. He asserts that, in order to have an idea about the religious and politico-economic conditions prevailing during the period prior to Islam, one should turn to the Qur'an, to the verses of poets contemporary to Muhammad and to Umayyad poetry. See also 'Utman 1996: 35ff. regarding the opposition to this view within Arab literary circles. 36

THE QUR'ANIC TEXT

37

advent of Islam. Controversies apart, the highly elaborate oral poetic tradition of pre-Islamic Arabia, at least considerable sections of it, is not called into question by modern scholarship. 2.3.2

The 'arabiyya question and Quranic Arabic

Notwithstanding the literary excellence of some of the long preIslamic poems, or qasa'id,40 the Qur'dn is definitely on a level of its own as the most eminent written manifestation of the Arabic language. Langhade remarks that: . . . cette oeuvre apparait sans que nous ayons de veritable trace et esquisse des constructions litteraires qui Font precedee et preparee. Nous n'avons du coup aucun point de repere pour la situer et la juger. Nous ne pouvons la juger que par rapport a elle-meme ou a ce qui viendra apres elle et qui sera marque par elle.41 Not much is revealed in the Qur'dn about its language. There are eleven references to its being written in the Arabic language. In one case, reference is made to a lisdnan 'arabiyyan^ twice to a lisanun c arabiyyun mubin^ seven references to its being an Arabic Qur'dn,44 and finally one reference to a hukman 'arabiyyan.^ Langhade interprets lisanun Carabiyyun mubin as a reference to the variant forms of Arabic at the time of Muhammad, or else as an indication that its usage could give rise to various interpretations.46 For Zwettler, however, mubin and bay an are, possibly, quasi-technical allusions to the poetic koine."'1 Yet Corriente's suggestion concerning the interpretation of the qualifier mubin., namely that Qur'anic Arabic falls 'between' 40

'Imru 1-Qays's qasida has 83 verses, Tarafa's 112, Zuhayr's 65, Labid's 89, Amr b. Kultum's 112, Antara's 95, and Harit's 86 verses. (Johnson 1973). 41 Wild, 1996: viii qualifies the Qur'an as ". . . the most decisive single factor in the history of the Arabic language and its literature." Nevertheless, Wansbrough 1977: 92, 116 doubts whether Qur'anic style actually affected the subsequent course of Arabic literature. Jones 1993: 44 identifies in the Qur'dn a number of basic registers belonging to the Arabian oral tradition, such as poetry, kahin, hatlb, qass, and documentary material. Jones states that, despite this fusion of registers, the endresult is rather different from any of the material drawn on, and the "... various existings strands are turned into a new style." 42 Sura 46: 12. 43 Suras 16: 103 and 26: 195. 44 Suras 12: 2; 20: 113; 39: 28; 41: 3; 42: 7; 43: 3; 41: 44. 45 Sura 13: 37. 46 1994: 25. 47 1978: 187. He makes reference to the traditional Muslim interpretation of baydn as 'linguistic articulateness' and mubin, according to Yaqut, the name of the c

38

CHAPTER TWO

(hence mubin) the Old Arabic Koine and Eastern bedouin Arabic on the one hand and Middle Arabic on the other, is worth considering.48 Moreover, it has been suggested that the word 'arabiyy may not have any ethnic connotations at all, nor refer to the Arabic language as such, but simply means 'clear, evident, unobscured', the opposite of 3acgamiyj>.49 Muslim tradition qualifies Qur'anic Arabic as the chastest language, that Muhammad spoke the most undefiled speech among all the Arabs and, consequently, that the language of his people, the Qurays, was the purest Arabic.50 It was inevitable that, as a result of the reverence reserved to Qur'anic Arabic, Qur'anic usage became the linguistic standard and the criterion by which Muslim scholars regulated themselves.51 Over the years, both Muslim and Western scholarships have propounded a wide range of frequently conflicting opinions about the linguistic situation in pre-Islamic Arabia and during the first centuries of Islam. Although it is not within the purview of this work to offer a detailed survey of the different scholarly views expressed, it is worth summarizing the most representative ones.52 In general, Muslim scholars consider literary Arabic, or 'arabiyya, as reflecting the fully inflected language spoken by the bedouins, the true arbiters of correct Arabic, as well as the language of their oral poetic tradition and of the Qur'dn.53 This presumed pre-Islamic linguistic homo6th c. language spoken in Arabia, the language of Ishmael and later of Macadd b. 'Adnan. Zwettler considers the use of both baydn and mubin to ". . . designate an inflective and synthetic form of Arabic recognized by all Arabs . . . for it would have effectively denoted that distinguishing and differentiating property of the poetic and Qur'anic 'arablya which the dialects in general seem to have lost-namely, the frab." 48 1976: 74. 49 Hsem 1986: 104-105. See also Ibn Faris IV: 239 and 299. 50 Kopf 1976: 32; Zwettler 1978: 99; Versteegh 1997: 38-39. 51 Kopf 1976: 33. He states that, on their part, the philologists were very careful not to upset authoritative traditional interpretations with their views and explanations. Thus, for example al-'Asma'f, the most famous of early Arab philologists, and Ibn Durayd, would not explain any word attested in the Qur'an or the Hadit and restricted themselves to orthodox exegesis. Kopf also refers to the tradition according to which cAbd Allah ibn 'Abbas was the first to adopt philological methods for exegetical purposes, a practice which was viewed with suspicion by the theological establishment. This development prompted at-Tabari to impose the principle that, whatever the results of the philological treatment, these should not contradict the official Islamic dogma. However, grammarians like 3Abu 'Ubayda (from Basra) did not hesitate to propound his own views, (p. 23). 52 This overview is based on Zwettler's exhaustive work (1978), Jones 1993: 29-48, Holes 1995: 7-45, and Versteegh 1997: 23-52. 53 The so-called 'pious triple equation' in Jones 1993. According to Rabin 1951:

THE QURANIC TEXT

39

geneity in Arabia is reflected in the following typical statement representing traditional Muslim philology: . . . al-luga l-carabiyya qabla nuzuli l-qur'dni l-kanm biha kdna }ahluhd l-'arab yatakallamuna biha ft sibh gaziratihim bis-saliqa wa-s-sagiyya fanhatan mucrabatan sallmatan mina l-lahn wa-l-^ihtilal. . . ,34

[Before the revelation of the Holy Qur'an in the Arabic language, its people, the Arabs, used to speak it instinctively and spontaneously in their peninsula, in its eloquent and inflective form and free from grammatical mistakes and defects.]

The traditional view that the 'arabiyya, often called fushd, or 'eloquent langauge', was the language of the Meccan Qurays and of other HigazT and Nagdl tribes alike has been adopted even by some modern Arab scholars.55 However, modern Arab scholarship is gradually coming to terms with a more realistic approach to the ancient history of Arabic. It has now conceded that, although the Arabic fushd did not differ much from the varieties of Arabic spoken in Arabia, nevertheless it enjoyed a status of its own as the literary creation of the pre-Islamic poets. It was, therefore, a language that was not acquired during infancy and childhood, but had to be learnt.56 It is not uncommon, in Muslim writings, to come across, sounder philological arguments that do not identify the language of the Qur'an with the idiom of the Qurays, but consider it a sort of 'common language' uniting all Arabs. Undoubtedly, the Quraysf dialect had exerted the greatest influence on the development of this 'common language'.57 Ibrahim's statement is unambiguous:

19 Ibn Ginni recognized the mixed character of Classical Arabic, with its alternative forms and irregularities, but the differences between dialects were in details not in the essentials. As for the widespread idea regarding the bedouins' role as linguistic arbiters, Rabin 1951: 23 remarks that, in real fact, these were no common bedouins but probably professional transmitters of ancient poetry (ruwdt). Zwettler 1978: 152~53 quotes Spitaler as stating that the native philologists restricted their queries posed to the Arabian bedouins to the 'arabiyya and not the spoken dialects. 54 Rafida 1986: 78. Traditional Muslim philology acknowledges the existence of a number of distinctive dialectal features within 'arabiyya. 00 'Utman 1996: 16, 122. See also Zwettler 1978 who refers to similar views adopted by Mukarram, Chejne and Nicholson. 56 'Utman, 1996: 122, 130-131. 57 hr 'ahr ahertu

}

idd*

•

'stupendous, grievous'

}

Syr. Aram. Heb. Ph. Ug. Akk.

ehad had 3 dhaz

'to take, seize on, lay hold of 'to seize, capture' 'to grasp, take hold, take possession'

3

'to seize, take hold of 'nehmen; heiraten; lernen'

3

HW Arab. Ge.

}

ESA Syr.

}

Aram. Heb. Ph. Ug. Akk. 5

DY Arab. Ge. ESA Syr. Aram. Heb.

3a

ah_d/d ahazu ah, }uht

'a brother; a sister'

3

ehjeiv, 'ehet

h, 3ht 'aha, hdtd

}

ah, 3ahdtd dh, 'dhot 3 h, >ht } ah, 'aht ahu, ah_dtu

}

'addd edd dw 'adi

'to cause to come; pay back; restore' 'debitum, aes alienum' 'to give, grant' 'to bring in, forward'

(cal-)3odot

? 'because of

3 }

Ph.

Ph.

Ug.

Ug.

Akk.

Akk.

Arab.

3

Ge. ESA

ye*z,e 3 d

'behold, if, when, then, at that time' 'hoc tempore, nunc, jam' 'when'

'DN Arab. Ge. ESA

Syr. Aram. Heb Ph. Ug. Akk.

haydeyn dayin 3 dz

'then, thereupon' (deyn encl. 'but') BA 'then, thereupon' adv. 'at that time, then'

>idk

'then'

Syr. Aram. Heb Phoen Ug. Akk.

'DY Arab. Ge.

add (IV) 'to injure, vex, annoy, offend, afflict' 3 ozd 'one who does an injustice' (< Arab.) 'zyt 'trouble, distress'

ESA Syr. Aram. Heb. Ph. Ug. Akk.

id

3e

'RB Arab. Ge. ESA Syr. Aram. Heb. Ph. Ug. Akk.

idu }

udun

'hire, wages, rent'

edna udna 3 ozen

'an ear'; 'adina 'to suffer, grant permission; hearken to' 'auris' 'ear; hearing; obedience; goodwill; power'; 3dn 'to let (go), discharge' 'an ear' 'an ear' 'an ear'

'udn uznu

'Ohr'; >idn 'Erlaubnis, Urlaub' 'Ohr; Weisheit, Verstand'

'irba

'want, a necessity'

3

ezn dn

3

3

3

'RD Arab. Ge. ESA Syr. Aram. Heb. Ph. Ug. Akk. 3

}

ard

'the Earth, earth, land, a country'

azara*

'to make strong' ('''al-quwwa ivas-sidda)

V arcd 3 rq (Sf.), 'afa 'eres

ZR Arab. Ge. ESA Syr. Aram. Heb.

mizyana

'Gurte'

3

'rs ars ersetu

Ph. Ug. Akk.

\rh ^r azaru

'to gird, encompass, equip'; nif. 'girded with might' 'clan? 'hiillen'; 'uzr 'vestido, revestido' 'binden'

'ZF Arab. Ge. ESA Syr. Aram. Heb. Ph. Ug. Akk.

'azifa

'to draw near'

'SF Arab. Ge. ESA Syr.

dsafa

'to provoke to anger'; }asaf 'grief

}

3

ZZ Arab. Ge. ESA Syr. Aram. Heb. Ph. UgAkk.

}

azza

'to incite' ('at-tahrtk zva-l-}izcdg)

'azzaza

'dominari; imperare; subjicere'

5

'asara

'to bind, make prisoner'

'asara sr 3e sar

'ligare, nectare, jungere' 'to bind, take prisoner' 'to bind, make fast, fasten, tie. . . .'

SR Arab. Ge. ESA Syr.

3

3

az.ar

Aram.

"sur

Heb. Ph. Ug. Akk.

'asar V 3 asr eseru

BA 'band, bond'; OA 3sr 'to imprison, restrain' 'to tie, bind, imprison' 'to bind' 'to bind'; also 'Gefangen nehmen' 'einschliessen'

5

asin

'corrupt, putrid'

SN Arab.

Aram. Heb. Ph. Ug. Akk. J

SW Arab.

Ge. ESA Syr.

Ge. ESA Syr

Aram. Heb. Ph.

Aram. Heb. Ph.

ug. Akk. 5

SY Arab.

'a pattern, example \vorthy of imitation'

}

asir*

'an insolent person'

'assar oser 3 sr 'ufr

? pa. 'to make strong; confirm, verify' ? 'happiness' ? Pun. 'happiness' ? 'Heil'

ug. Akk.

J

a«j>a

'to be sad; solicitous about'

Ge. ESA Syr. Aram. Heb. Ph. Ug. Akk.

'uswa

3

&R Arab.

Ge. ESA Syr. 'ason

'mischief, evil, harm'

Aram. Heb. Ph. Ug. Akk.

}

'SD Arab. Ge. ESA Syr. Aram. Heb. Ph. Ug. Akk.

musada

'SL Arab. Ge. ESA Syr. Aram. Heb. Ph. Ug. Akk.

'asl*

'the lo\vest part, bottom, root' ('asasu s-say')

}

syl? dsil 'si

'noble'? 'side, corner; chief 'side'

}

'fy on. . .'

'FF Arab. Ge. ESA Syr.

3

uffin

'covered, vaulted over' f. pass. part.

'SR Arab. Ge. ESA Syr. Aram. Heb. Ph. Ug. Akk.

}

isr*

'covenant, burden'

3

esar sar 'dsar

'to shut in, up, heap up' 'to lock up, hoard, gather' 'to lay up, store up'

'isr (bit) nisirti

'bundle' 'treasure'

5

}

asil

'evening'

'FQ Arab. Ge. ESA Syr.

'ufuq*

'the horizon'; }afaq 'tracts or regions of the earth'

SL Arab. Ge. ESA Syr. Aram. Heb. Ph. Ug. Akk.

}a

Aram.

Aram.

Heb. Ph. Ug. Akk.

Heb. Ph. Ug. Akk.

'FK Arab.

'afaka*

Ge.

'afakiya

ESA Syr. Aram.

h'pak ™pak

Heb. Ph. Ug. Akk.

hapak hpk hpk

'KL Arab. Ge. ESA Syr.

'akala 3

ekl kl 3 ekal

3

'to cause to tell lies, put on a false appearance; turn aside; frustrate; render silly'; mu'tafik 'turned upside down' (qalbu s-say* wa-sarfuh ean gihatih] 'circuli, annuli' 'to turn, change, move, return' 'to turn, turn around, flee; overturn, destroy'; hapak 'to turn; change; OA hpk 'to overturn' 'to turn, overturn' 'to overturn' 'to upset'

'to eat; devour; consume; make use of; enjoy' 'cibus, esca' 'meal or grain, cereal crops' 'to eat, devour, corrode'

'FL. Arab.

*afala

'to set (the sun)'

'"pal

'to make dark, obscure'

Heb. Ph. Ug. Akk.

3

opel

, 'darkness, gloom' (only poet.)

apdlu

'spat, verspatet sein'

Arab.

'alladi, 'allati

m. & f. rel. pron.

Ge. ESA Syr.

za l, 3lht, }ld, d d

Ge. ESA Syr. Aram.

}

3

Aram. Heb. Ph. Ug. Akk.

akal akal >kl 3 akl akalu

BA pe. 'to eat, devour' 'to eat' 'to eat' 'to eat, consume' 'essen, fressen'

Aram. Heb. Ph. Ug. Akk.

5

LT Arab. Ge. ESA Syr. Aram. Heb. Ph. Ug. Akk.

'alata*

'to diminish, defraud'

'LF Arab. Ge. ESA Syr. Aram. Heb. Ph. Ug. Akk.

}

alf

'a thousand'

3

elf >lf } dlep 'dap 'elep } lp 'alp elepu

'decem millia'

'LL Arab. Ge. ESA Syr. Aram. Heb. Ph. Ug. Akk.

J

5

'alima

'to suffer (pain)'

3

i7/

'consanguinity, relationship'

LM Arab. Ge. ESA Syr. Aram. Heb. Ph. Ug. Akk.

d, di, & z.u, ze d

s. 'wachsen lassen'

'a deity, God'

3

LW Arab. Ge. ESA Syr. Aram. Heb. Ph. Ug. Akk.

'aid (w)*

'to fail'

did

IV. (of obsol. 'aid) 'to swear, vow abstinence from'

'LW Arab.

did'

'benefits'

}

lh

tp. 'to curse or swear'

^/A dla J &

Yaudic 'covenant' 'to swear; curse' 'covenant; oath'

'ild

'tow^ards, to, as far as'

'am*

'or'

}

O A/Imp A 'towards' 'towards, to' (''ley poet.)

Arab. Ge. ESA Syr. Aram. Heb.

'LH Arab. Ge. ESA Syr. Aram. Heb. Ph. Ug. Akk.

'ilah*

'LW Arab. Ge. ESA Syr. Aram. Heb. Ph. Ug. Akk. Arab. Ge. ESA Syr. Aram. Heb.

>lh 'aldhd 'eldh 'eloah

'ilk

3

l 'el

3

im

Ph.

'/

'to'

Ug. Akk.

>m

Ug. Akk.

5 MT Arab. Ge. ESA Syr. Aram. Heb. Ph. Ug. Akk.

'ami

3

'amara

'to command, order, enjoin'

}

'monstrare, ostendere; notum facere; demonstrare' 'to proclaim'; 3mr 'command (of a god), oracle' 'to say; speak'; 'amira 'praefectus' BA 'to say, tell; command' 'to utter, say'; ma'amdr 'word, command' (late) 'to say' 'saying, command'; 'amr 'sichtbar sein, sehen' 'sehen'

MR Arab. Ge.

Ph.

ammara

ESA

}

Syr. Aram. Heb

'emar 'amar } dmar

Ph. Ug.

'mr 'arm

Akk.

amdru

mr

'a curve, anything which shows ups and downs'

3 MD Arab. Ge. ESA Syr. Aram. Heb Phoen Ug. Akk.

}

amad

'the term of existence, a space, term, terminus'

'amd

'siempre'

'ams

'yesterday'

'ernes

adv. 'yesterday (evening)'

Ph. Ug.

'msm

'darkness'

Akk.

amsali

'gestern'

'MS Arab. Ge. ESA Syr. Aram. Heb.

'ML Arab. Ge. ESA Syr. Aram. Heb. Ph. Ug. Akk.

}

Arab.

'amdma* 'before' (}al-hin)

Ge. ESA Syr. Aram. Heb. Ph. Ug. Akk. 'MN Arab. Ge. ESA Syr. Aram.

aml

'hope'

'mm

ti. 'to be led out'

'amina

'to be secure; trust, put trust in; be secure from'

>mn 'etemen 'aman

'MM Arab. Ge. ESA Syr. Aram. Heb. Ph. Ug. Akk. 'MM Arab. Ge. ESA Syr. Aram. Heb. Ph. Ug. Akk.

'MW Arab. Ge. 'to be secure' ESA 'to persevere . . . be constant, stedfast' Syr. BA haf. 'to trust' Aram.

J

umm

'a mother' ('al-'asl)

'emm 'm J gmm 'ayna } jy 'ay, }ey

'\vhosoever, whichever, who?' 'qui? qualis? (uter?)' Min. & Qat. indef. pron. 'who, which, what'; 'ay(kan) 'how?' 'where?, what?, how?' BA 'where, which'

'ay ayyu

'any'; 'which?; what?' 'welcher'

'iyya klya-

ace. particle supports the suffixed pronoun.

yat yat 3 et yt, 't

sign of ace. (archaism) BA mark of the ace. mark of the ace. sign of determined object

}

ESA Syr. Aram. Heb. Ph. UgAkk.

Heb.

Ph. Ug. Akk. Arab. Ge. ESA Syr. Aram. Heb. Ph. Ug. Akk.

'ayyuhd

interj. 'O thou!, O ye!'

ay iy (h)oy

'wehe!' Interj. Eh! Oh! Woe! 'wehe!'

ay, ayyi

'wehe!'

3

Arab.

bi-

Ge.

ba-

ESA Syr.

bb-

Aram. Heb.

\fbe-

Ph. Ug.

bb-

'in, by, at, with, to, into, upon, for, by reason of, from' 'in, per, ad, apud, intra, post, cum, ope, a, ob, propter' 'in, at, with, by' 'in, among, with, at, to, into, on, upon; by, according to, for, because, about' 'in, with, through, etc.' 'in, among, within, into, at, by, on, against, with, on account of, from' 'in; from; among' 'in, into, at, among, on, by, with, from'

Akk. B'S Arab. Ge. ESA Syr. Aram. Heb. Ph. Ug. Akk.

bas* be'esi

'severity, vengeance, valour, force' (3as-sidda wa-md dara'aha) 'vir fortis, juvenis, mas, masculus'

B'R Arab. Ge.

bi'r

'well'

barbir

'puteus, cisterna, fovea'

ESA Syr.

b'r be'rd

'well' 'well, pit'

Aram. Heb.

be3erd, beyrd b"er

'well, spring' 'well, pit'

Ph. Ug.

b"r, bhr

NP 'well'

Akk.

burn

'Zisterne, Brunnen'

B'S Arab. Ge. ESA Syr. Aram. Heb. Ph. Ug. Akk.

bfsa*

'to be bad, miserable'

be'sa b's he's b"es ba'as

'malum, pejorem esse/fieri' 'to do harm, injure' 'to be evil, displease, harm' BA 'to be evil, bad' 'to have a bad smell, stink'

b's be'esu

'to be bad' 'schlecht, stinkend sein'

'abtar

'childless' (}al-qatc)

batara btr

'to cut, hit, straighten out' 'childless woman'

betar bdtar

'piece; allotment; decree' 'to cut in two'

butturu

'verstummeln'

Akk.

BTL Arab.

tabtil*

BTT Arab.

Ge. ESA Syr. Aram. Heb. Ph. Ug. Akk.

batul

'separation from the world in devotion' ('ibdnatu s-say} min gayrth) 'virgin' (< Arab.)

b'tultd b'tultd b'tuld

'virgin'; b'tuld 'unmarried man' 'virgin' 'virgin'

bill batultu

'Jungfrau' 'Jungfrau'

BGS Arab. Ge. ESA Syr.

'inbagasa

'to burst forth (water)'

BTR Arab. Ge. ESA Syr. Aram. Heb. Ph.

Ug. Akk.

BTK Arab. Ge. ESA Syr. Aram. Heb. Ph.

battaka*

'to cut, cut off'

bataka

'rumpere; discindere'

batta

'to disperse, disseminate' (tafriqu s-say} zua-'izhdruh)

btt

'to communicate, make known'

bt

'scattered'; 'vernichten, zerschmettern'

bahata*

'to scratch the ground like a hen' ('itdratu s-say')

behas

'to stir, shake, agitate'

Ug.

Ge. ESA Syr. Aram. Heb. Ph. Ug. Akk. BHT Arab. Ge. ESA Syr.

Aram. Heb.

Aram. Heb.

Ph.

Ph.

Ug. Akk.

Ug. Akk.

BHR Arab. Ge. ESA Syr. Aram. Heb. Ph.

bahr

'the sea, a large body of water'

bahr bhr bahra

'mare, lacus magnus' 'the sea' 'mer, lac' (< Arab.)

Akk.

bertu

etwa 'Wasserlauf

Akk.

BHC Arab.

bdhic

'fretting oneself to death'

BHL Arab.

Ug.

BHS Arab. Ge. ESA Syr. Aram. Heb. Ph.

b'has bahas

'to stir; search, examine' NH 'to stir; search, examine, go to the bottom of a thing'

bahas a

'to diminish, withold what is due'

bahila

'to be covetous, avaricious'

Ug.

Ge. ESA Syr.

Ge. ESA Syr.

Aram. Heb. Ph. UgAkk.

Aram. Heb. Ph. Ug. Akk.

bdhel

pu. 'to get by greed'

BD' Arab. Ge. ESA Syr. Aram. Heb. Ph. Ug. Akk.

bada'a

'to begin, create'

BDR Arab. Ge. ESA Syr. Aram. Heb. Ph. Ug. Akk.

bidaran

'hastily'

bd3

'beginning, first occasion'

badara

'velocem esse; praecurrere'

BDC Arab.

'ibtada'a 'to bring forward a novelty'

BDL Arab.

baddala

Ge. ESA Syr.

Ge. ESA Syr.

badala bdlt bedal

Aram. Heb. Ph. Ug.

Aram. Heb. Ph. Ug.

b'dal badal

'to substitute, change one thing for another' (qiyamu s-say} maqama s-say}i d-ddhib) 'to exchange' (< Arab.) 'expiatory offering' 'to speak foolishly, invent folly'; badlaya 'expletivus', 'compensating' 'to separate, divide, distinguish' 'to be divided, separate'

Akk.

Akk.

BDN Arab. Ge. ESA

badan

'a body'

badn

'corpus mortuum'

BDW Arab. Ge. ESA

bdl

'merchant'; 'sustituto, personal de reserva'

badw

'a desert'; bada 'to be manifest, appear' (zuhuru s-say'} 'locus vastus, desolatus, desertus' 'open country'

badw bdt

Syr. Aram. Heb. Ph.

b'dan

'form, figure'

Ug. Akk. BDR Arab. Ge. ESA

badwaya

'nomad'

BR5 Arab. Ge. ESA

bar?

'sound, free, innocent'

by

Syr.

bere}

'healthy'; 'health, strength'; to> 'free of responsibility'; 'quittance of debt'? 'liber'

Aram. Heb. Ph. Ug. Akk.

b'n ban3 bry'h

'healthy, strong, stout, fat' 'fat' 'tranquillity, security'

BRH Arab. Ge.

bariha

'to leave off, quit; cease'

barreha

ESA Syr. Aram. Heb.

brh

'to enter the wilderness, take to the woods, flee, escape, run' 'free, unchecked (flow of water)'

b'rah barah

'to break through; flee' 'to go through, flee'

Ug. Akk. baddara

'to dissipate; squander'

bezr

'seed, grain' (< Arab.)

Syr.

bedar

Aram, Heb. Ph. Ug. Akk.

b'dar bazar

BRG Arab. Ge.

tabarraga 'to deck oneself

ESA Syr. Aram. Heb.

Syr. Aram. Heb. Ph.

pa. 'to scatter abroad, disperse, dissipate. . . .' BA 'to scatter'; also bezar 'to scatter'; pazar 'to scatter'

Ph. Ug. Akk. BRD Arab. Ge. ESA Syr. Aram. Heb. Ph. Ug. Akk.

barad

'hail'; bard 'cold, cool, coolness'

barad brd bardd bardd bardd

'hailstone'; barddi, berud 'cold, cool' 'cold, or hail' 'hail' 'hail' 'hail'

brd

'to be cold'

BRR Arab. Ge. ESA

barra

Syr. Aram. Heb. Ph. Ug. Akk.

b'rira benr bdrar

'to be pious, act justly towards' (}as-sidq) 'to purify, make white'; berur 'argentum' h. inf. 'to acquit o.s. of, to faithfully perform (a duty)' 'in a natural state, simple, innocent' 'clear, pure, certain' 'to purify, select'

bn barru

'to be free, pure, clean' 'rein (Edelmetall)'?; bardru 'flimmern'

fozrra bn

Ph. Ug. Akk.

brh brh

'to depart; waste' 'to flee'

BRR Arab. Ge. ESA Syr. Aram. Heb. Ph. Ug. Akk.

barr

'dry land' (hildf bahr)

bn b'rd bard bar

'open country, plain' 'open country' BA 'openfield' 'field'

barru

'unbebautes Land'

BRZ Arab. Ge. ESA

baraza

'to go forth; be manifest'

tabdraza

'alvum exoneratum ire' (< Arab.)

b'raz

'to bore, perforate, transfix'

Syr. Aram. Heb. Ph. Ug. Akk.

BRS Arab. Ge. ESA Syr. Aram. Heb. Ph. Ug. Akk.

'abras

'leprous'

baras

'leprosy' (< Arab.)

b'rsuta

? 'scabies'

BRM Arab.

'abrama 'to fix, settle (a plan)'

Ge. ESA Syr. Aram. Heb.

b'romim

'variegated cloth'

baramu

_ 'siegeln, versiegeln'; barmu 'mehrfarbig, bunt', birmu 'bunter Stoff'

Ph.

UgAkk. BSR Arab.

Ge. ESA Syr.

BRQ Arab. Ge. ESA Syr. Aram. Heb. Ph. Ug. Akk.

barq

'lightning, thunderbolt'

mabraq brq barqd barqa baraq

'lightning, thunderbolt, bright light' 'lightning storm > stormy season' 'lightning' 'lightning' 'lightning'

brq berqu

'lightning' 'Blitz'

BZG Arab.

bdzig*

'rising' (the sun)

b'ztf b'^cf

'to cleave, break, pierce, bore. . . .' 'to split, perforate, rend'

bassa*

'to crumble to dust'

Ge. ESA Syr. Aram. Heb. Ph.

basara* 'to be of an austere countenance'

b'sar

'to despise, scorn, blame, reprove'

Ug. Akk.

BSS Arab.

Ge. ESA Syr.

Aram, Heb. Ph. Ug. Akk.

b'sar basar

'to contemn' PbH 'to contemn'

Aram. Heb. Ph. Ug. Akk.

b'sas basas

? 'to tread, stamp, pile up' ? NH 'to tread, stamp'

BST Arab. Ge. ESA Syr. Aram, Heb. Ph. Ug. Akk.

basata*

'to extend, expand, enlarge, stretch' 'carpet, rug' (< Arab.)

BSQ, Arab. Ge. ESA Syr. Aram. Heb. Ph. Ug. Akk.

bdsiq

'tall' (palm-tree)

BSM Arab. Ge. ESA Syr. Aram. Heb. Ph. Ug. Akk.

tabassama 'to smile'

BSL Arab. Ge. ESA Syr. Aram. Heb. Ph. Ug. Akk.

basat ' ffsat ffsat pasat

'to stretch out, extend, reach out' 'to stretch, stretch forth; straighten' 'ausbreiten'

pasatu

_ 'tilgen, ausloschen'

'absala

'to deliver over to perdition'

BSR Arab. Ge. ESA Syr. Aram. Heb. Ph. Ug. Akk.

basar* 'man, men, human beings' basor bsr besrd besar bdsdr bsr bsr

'caro' (< Heb.) 'flesh'; 'human beings'? 'flesh, hence the body' BA 'flesh' 'flesh' type of sacrifice; Pun. 'child' 'flesh'

BSL Arab. Ge. ESA

basal

'onion'

basal bsl

(< Arab.)

Syr. Aram. Heb.

besld busla basal

Ph. Ug. Akk.

bsl

BT Arab. Ge.

batta'a 'to retard'

ESA

BSR Arab. Ge. ESA Syr. Aram. Heb. Ph. Ug. Akk.

basura

'to see, look at; understand'

nfbasser

? NH 'testeur pour 1'or'; beser 'or'

bsr

'spahen, lauern'; 'looked, regarded'

BDC Arab. Ge. ESA

bid1

'a part, a small number'

bad'a bdc

'to make a vow, consecrate' 'to slay (and strip) an enemy in battle'; 'to impose tribute on'

besac basac

'to cut, break' 'to cut off, break off, gain by violence'

bsc

'zerreissen'

batira

'to be insolent'

Syr. Aram. Heb. Ph. Ug. Akk.

BTR Arab. Ge.

ESA

Syr. Aram. Heb. Ph. Ug. Akk.

Syr. Aram. Heb. Ph. Ug. Akk.

BTS Arab. Ge. ESA Syr.

batasa* 'to lay hold, seize by force' ('ahdu BTL s-say* bi-qahr wa-galaba wa-quwiva) Arab. batasa 'to break, detach, cut off' Ge. ESA bawVsta 'calcitratio' Syr.

batala*

'to be in vain, perish'

batata btlt b"tel

Aram. Heb.

b'tas batas

Aram. Heb.

tftel bdtal

'vanum, irritum, frustra esse' 'uselessness' 'to cease work, be idle; be void, cease' BA pe. 'to cease' 'to cease'

Ug. Akk.

batalu

'aufhoren'

baata

'to send; make manifest; raise up'

'ab'et

'faire lever qn.'; 'excitavit'

besu

'sich entfernen'; D. 'entfernen'

Ph.

'to tread; kick, knock down, crush' NH 'fouler aux pieds' (< Aram.)

Ug. Akk. BTN Arab. Ge. ESA Syr. Aram. Heb. Ph. Ug. Akk.

batn

'belly; interior part'

batna bitnd beten bin

'belly' 'belly' 'belly; body; womb' 'belly'

Ph.

BCT Arab. Ge. ESA Syr. Aram. Heb. Ph. Ug. Akk.

'

BCTR Arab. Ge. ESA Syr.

batara 'to scatter abroad; turn upside down'

B'D Arab. Ge. ESA Syr.

Aram. Heb.

Aram. Heb.

Ph. Ug. Akk.

Ph. Ug. Akk.

B(D Arab. Ge. ESA Syr. Aram. Heb. Ph. Ug. Akk. BCL Arab. Ge. ESA

bad*

'a portion of anything; some' (tagzfatu s-say})

bdc

'to slay (and strip) an enemy in battle'

besac basd

'to cut, break' 'to cut off, break off, gain by violence'

bsc '

'zerreissen'

bacl*

'a husband' (3as-sdhib)

bcfal bcl

'possessor, dominus' 'husband, owner, lord, citizen'

BCD Arab. Ge. ESA Syr. Aram. Heb. Ph. Ug. Akk. BGT Arab. Ge. ESA

bauda taba'ada b'd 3 c ab ed 3

abcid bcfad

'to be far off, go a long way off' 'se amovere, migrare' 'to remove, repel'; 'after' 'to drive or send far away; depart afar' Talm. 'Be off!' 'away from, behind, about, on behalf of

b'd

'behind'

bauda

'a gnat'

bagtatan

'suddenly' (3an yufdgcia

s-say'}

Syr.

btfla

Aram. Heb. Ph. Ug. Akk.

becel If el b'l b'l belu

'lord, owner, head of a family, husband' BA 'owner, lord'; Targ. 'husband' 'owner, lord'; PbH 'husband' 'lord, chief; owner; husband; citizen' 'Herr, Eigner' 'Herr; Besitzer (von)'

BCD Arab. Ge. ESA Syr. Aram.

bagdd'

'violent hatred'

Heb. Ph. Ug. Akk. BGY Ge. ESA Syr. Aram. Heb.

//. bagd (y) 'to transgress' (gins mina l-fasdd)

Syr.

beCet

Aram. Heb. Ph. Ug. Akk.

becet ba'at

'to be formidable, assault suddenly, terrify' 'to startle, be excited' 'to fall upon, startle, terrify'

ba'atu

'to be taken unawares'

BGY Arab. Ge. ESA Syr. Aram.

/. bagd (y) 'to seek, desire' (talabu s-say')

Heb. Ph. Ug. Akk.

bd'd

'to attack, lay an ambush'? 'to seek, desire, endeavour' Sf. 'to seek'; BA (Dn.) becd 'to ask, seek' 'to inquire'

bgy ba"u

'verlangen, wiinschen' 'suchen'

BQR

baqar

'oxen'

Ge. ESA Syr. Aram. Heb.

bqr baqrd baqrd bdqdr

'cattle' 'herd, drove, esp. of kine; ox' 'herd' 'cattle, herd, ox'

bcw becd bcy

Ph. Ug. Aide. BQC Arab. Ge. ESA Syr. Aram. Heb. Ph. Ug. Akk.

buqa

'a piece of land'

baqwcd

'to scratch, tear, scrape, rake'

peqactd biq'a biq'a

'a plain, broad valley, level tract' BA 'a valley, plain'; b'qac 'to split' 'a valley, plain'; baqa' 'to split'

bqc

'valley'; 'to split'

BQY Arab. Ge. ESA

baqiya

'to remain'

bqy

Syr. Aram. Heb. Ph. Ug. Akk.

bdquyd

'to continue supplying'?; 'to leave unirrigated'? 'lasting, permanent'

bqy

'to remain'

Ph. Ug. Akk.

bqr bqr buqaru

'cattle' 'rebano de vacuno, cabana' 'Rind' (< Can.?)

BQL Arab. Ge. ESA Syr. Aram. Heb. Ph. Ug. Akk.

baql

'herbs, pot-herbs'

baqwl bql buqqdld b'qile

'planta, herba, olus' 'vegetables, plants' 'pousse, bourgeon' 'legume sec'

bql baqlu

'groats' 'Spross'; buqlu 'Malz'

BKR Arab. Ge. ESA

bikr*

'a virgin; a young heifer' ('awwalu s-say3 zva-bad'uh) 'primogenitus' 'first-born; young female camel'

Syr. Aram. Heb. Ph. Ug. Akk.

3

etbekar bukrd bekor

'to be first born' 'first-born' 'first-born'; bikrd 'young camel'

bkr bukru

'first-born' 'Erstgeborener'; bakru 'Kameljunges'

bak"'r bkr

CD CO

BKM Arab. Ge.

'abkam 'dumb'

ESA Syr. Aram. Heb. Ph. Ug. Akk.

ESA Syr. Aram. Heb. Ph. Ug. Akk.

Arab.

bal

Ge.

'enbala

ESA Syr. Aram. Heb. Ph. Ug. Akk.

BLC Arab. Ge. ESA

BKY Arab. Ge.

'but; not so but; or rather; still more' 'but, but also, rather, besides, so that not'

bal bl bl

'not'; }abal 'however, still' 'not' 'nicht'

ball a

'to swallow up'

bal'a

'edere; consumere, devorare'

BLS Arab. Ge.

baka (y)

'to weep'

bakaya

'flere, plorare, deplorare, lamentari'

b'ka bekd baka bk (?) bky baku

'to weep' 'to weep, lament' 'to weep, bewail' Pun. (dubious) 'to weep for' 'weinen'

3

ablas

'to be overcome w. grief; desperate'

balaga*

'to arrive at, reach; obtain'

balaqa

'to grow up, become sexually mature' (< Arab.)

ESA Syr. Aram. Heb. Ph. Ug. Akk.

BLG Arab. Ge. ESA

Syr. Aram. Heb. Ph. Ug. Akk.

b'lac belac bald

'to swallow up, devour' 'to swallow, consume' 'to swallow down, engulf

bf

'tragar, sorber'

BLW /. bald fw) 'to become worn with age, be Arab. worn out' ('ihldqu s-say}) Ge. balya 'usu et vetustate atteri; inveterascere' ESA blw 'to construct (a tomb)'; blwt 'funerary monument' Syr. beld 'to grow old, wear out, esp. of clothes' Aram. If ley BA 'to wear away, out' Heb. bald 'to become old and worn out' Ph. Ug. bly '[to be] worn out' Akk. belu, balu 'verloschen, vergehen' Arab, bald(y) Ge. ESA Syr. Aram. Heb. >abal Ph.

'yea> surely, verily, nay but verily, on the contrary'

OH 'verily, of a truth'

Syr. Aram. Heb. Ph. Ug. Akk. BLW Arab. Ge. ESA

balcf

NH D. 'etre communique, divulge'

//. baldfw)

'to try, prove' (nawc mina l-ihtibdr)

bandn

'the tips of the fingers'

Syr. Aram. Heb. Ph. Ug. Akk. BNN Ge. ESA Syr. Aram. Heb. Ph.

Ug. Akk.

bl

'doch'

Ug. Akk.

BNW Arab. Ge. ESA Syr. Aram. Heb. Ph. Ug. Akk.

'tbn*

'a son'

BNY Arab. Ge. ESA Syr. Aram. Heb. Ph. Ug. Akk.

band (y)

BHT Arab Ge. ESA Syr.

bahata 'to confound'

BH& Arab. Ge. ESA Syr.

feaA^a

Aram. Heb. Ph. Ug. Akk.

b'het

'ebn (< Arab.) bnw bard pi. b'nin bard pi b"mn ben bn bn /»mw

b'het

'to be ashamed, confused'; Af. 'to put to shame, dishonour, confound' 'to be confounded, abashed, ashamed'

Aram. Heb. Ph. Ug. Akk.

'to build, construct'

buy b'nd b'nd band % bnw/y ^a/zw

'beauty; delight'

BHL Arab.

'ibtahala

'to invoke (the wrath of God)'

BW5 Arab.

Ge. ESA Syr. Aram. Heb. Ph. Ug. Akk.

behla

'dicere; loqui; appellare; jubere'

Ge. bo3a ESA but Syr. Aram. Heb. ba' Ph. b} Ug. bo3 A. ba'u

bdlu

'anflehen'

BWR Arab. Ge. ESA Syr. Aram, Heb. Ph. Ug. Akk.

bara (zv)

'to perish, to be in vain' (halaku s-say'}

BYT Arab. Ge. ESA

ba'a (w)*

'to bring down; take upon oneself; bazvzva'a 'to prepare a dwelling for, locate any one' ('ar-rugu* 3ild s-say}) 'intrare, ingredi, intoire, inire' 'to enter' (also bh'}

'to come in, come; go in, go' 'to enter; bring; fall' 'to enter' 'entlanggehen'; ba'u (Can. Iw.) 'kommen'

bdl

'heart; mind; thought; intention'

brt bur bur bur

BWL Arab. Ge. 'a grave' ESA 'to lie uncultivated, waste, neglected' Syr. id. NH Aram. NH 'to be empty, waste, uncultivated' Heb. Ph. Ug. Akk.

bald bdl

'the mind; 'the heart' BA 'mind'

bayt

'house'

bdda (y)*

'to perish'

bet byt

'domus, domicilium' 'fortress; temple; house, family'

BYD Arab. Ge. ESA

Syr. Aram. Heb. Ph. Ug. Akk.

baytd baytd bayit bt bt Into

'house; room; temple or church; family' BA 'house' 'house' 'house, temple, room' 'house, temple, palace' 'Haus'

Syr. Aram. Heb. Ph. Ug. Akk.

BYD Arab. Ge. ESA Syr.

bayd

'eggs'

BYC Arab. Ge. ESA Syr.

Aram. Heb. Ph.

beycatd beysa

bftd

Aram. Heb. Ph.

Ug. Akk.

Ug. Akk.

BYN Arab. Ge.

bayna

ESA

byn

Syr.

baynay, bayndt

babayndt

'bet\veen'; bayyana 'to show, make manifest; declare' 'between'; 'abayyana 'perscipuum, manifestum reddere, demonstrare' 'between; to remove (punishment); to intervene, separate (boundary); openly, publicly?; the wise (epithet)' 'between, among, within, in the midst'; bay en 'to discern, make discern'

bayaa

'to make a contract'

bayac

'to give an oath of allegiance' (< Arab.)

b't

Pun. 'a tariff'

Aram.

byn

Heb. Ph. Ug. Akk.

beyn bn bn bin-

Sf. 'between'; beyney 'between'; (BA) bindh 'understanding' 'between'; bin 'to perceive' 'either'; bnt 'intelligence' 'zwischen, unter'; bn 'verstehen, vernehmen' 'zwischen'

Arab.

ta-

'By. . .' preposition prefixed as a form of oath to the word 'allah

Ge. ESA Syr. Aram. Heb. Ph. Ug. Akk. TB< Arab. Ge. ESA

tabia* 'to follow' (at-tuluww wa-l-qafw)

Syr. Aram. Heb. Ph. Ug. Akk.

t'ba' t'ba' tabcf

TRB Arab. Ge. ESA Syr.

turdb

tbc

turdb

nif. Aux. 'to do incessantly or insistently'; prep. mtbe 'successive'? 'to seek, demand, desire, beg, require' 'to ask, demand; inquire, search' NH 'to search; ask, claim, summon'

'earth, dust' (}at-turdb wa-md yustaqq minhu) 'remains of burnt incense' (< Arab.)

TBB Arab. Ge. ESA Syr. Aram. Heb. Ph. Ug. Akk.

tabba*

'to perish'

t'bab

'to saw, cut'

THT Arab. Ge. ESA

tahta

'beneath'

Syr. Aram. Heb. Ph. Ug. Akk.

t'hut, taht tht (Sf.), tehot tahat tht tht

TRB Arab. Ge. ESA Syr.

'atrdb

taht tht

'of same age' (tasdwi s-say'ayri)

Aram. Heb. Ph.

Aram. Heb. Ph.

Ug.

Ug.

Akk.

tarbu'ftju, tur(u)bu

'Staub(wirbel)'

Akk.

TRF Arab. Ge.

*atrafa

'to bestow the good things of life'

tarfa

ESA Syr. Aram. Heb. Ph.

trf

'reliquum esse vel fieri, superesse, residuum esse, restare; abundare'; 'atrqfa 'abunde habere' 'to remain'

TRK Arab. Ge.

Ug.

Akk.

TSC Arab. Ge. ESA Syr. Aram. Heb. Ph.

tisc tas'u tsc t'scf tesac tesa' ts'

'nine'

ESA Syr. Aram. Heb. Ph. ug. Akk. TCS Arab. Ge. ESA Syr. Aram. Heb. Ph.

taraka*

'to leave, leave alone, abandon'

tarek

pa. 'to drive out, divorce, banish'

tocs

f' f fl/

'destruction' ('al-kabb]

'to toil, labour, be weary, distressed'

ug.

*r

Akk.

Use

TFT Arab. Ge. ESA

fo/af

'filth; observance of rites'

tft

pi. 'kind of offering, lustration'?; ?'byproducts of agriculture (e.g. straw, etc.)'

ug.

Akk.

Syr. Aram. Heb. Ph. UgAkk. TLL Arab. Ge. ESA Syr. Aram. Heb. Ph. Ug. Akk.

talla

taldlu

'to lay prostrate'

etwa 'hinstrecken'

TQN Arab. Ge. ESA

'atqana

'to establish firmly'

Syr. Aram. Heb. Ph. Ug. Akk.

t'qen t'qen taqan

'to be stable, steady, erect' 'to be firm, stand'; af. 'to establish' 'to become straight'

taqdnu

'geordnet, gesichert sein, werden'

TLW Arab. Ge. ESA

tald (w)

'to follow; rehearse; read; declare' 'sequi, sectari; persequi; adhaerere' 'to pursue, persecute; continue to do (s.t.)'

Syr. Aram. Heb. Ph. Ug. Akk.

talawa tlw

TMM Arab. Ge. ESA Syr. Aram.

tamma

'to be entire, complete, perfect'

tamam tymm tamlmd fmimd

'complete' (< Arab.) 'perpetuity' 'innocent, perfect, harmless. . . .' 'perfect, upright'

Heb. Ph.

tarn tm

Ug. Aide.

tm

'to be complete; finished' Pun. 'totalite, perfection, integrite'; 'to decide; cause to cease' 'perfect, complete'

TYH Arab. Ge.

tdha (y) tayydhi

'to wander about distractedly' (gins mina l-hayrd) 'attonitus (errans)'

t'wah t'wah tohu

'to be astounded' BA 'to be startled, alarmed' 'formlessness, confusion, emptiness'

ESA Syr. Aram. Heb. Ph.

UgAkk.

TWR Arab. Ge. ESA Syr. Aram.

tara

'a time'

twrt

pi. 'outlets'?

tord

Heb. Ph.

tor

'row, line, order; twisted band, border' 'a plait, turn'

Ug. Akk.

tr tdru

the device that turns a chariot 'sich umwenden, umkehren, zuriickkehren; (wieder) werden zu'

TBT Arab. Ge. ESA Syr. Aram. Heb. Ph. Ug. Akk. TBT Arab.

tabata

'to be firm, steadfast, constant'

3

'permanence'; adj. 'enduring'?

tbt

tabbata 'to make slothful'

TBR Arab. Ge. ESA Syr. Aram. Heb. Ph. Ug. Akk. TBW Arab.

Ge. ESA Syr. Aram. Heb.

Ge. ESA Syr. Aram. Heb.

Ph. Ug. Akk.

Ph. Ug. Akk.

T66 Arab. Ge. ESA Syr. Aram.

taggag

'pouring forth abundantly'

THN Arab. Ge. ESA Syr. Aram.

tubur

'destruction'

sabara tbr t'bar sbr sdbar sbr tbr seberu

'frangere' 'to break s.th.; crush an enemy' 'to split' OA 'casser, briser'; t'bar 'to break' 'to break, break in pieces' 'casser, briser' 'to break' '(zer)brechen'

tubdt

'companies or bodies of men'

'athana

'to make a great slaughter'

Heb. Ph. Ug. Akk. TRB Arab. Ge. ESA Syr.

Heb. Ph. Ug. Akk. TRY Arab. Ge. ESA Syr.

tara*

'the Earth' (lit. 'beneath the soil'; }al-katra zva-hilafu l-yubs)

t'rd

Aram. Heb. Ph.

Aram. Heb. Ph.

t'rd sard

'to be damp, soaked; to grow in the water' 'to dissolve, soak' NH 'to dissolve, soak steep'

Ug.

Ug.

Akk.

Akk.

saru

'reich sein, werden'

TQB Arab. Ge.

taqib*

'shining'

saqaba

'to ignite, light, set on fire, fire (a gun)'

TCB Arab. Ge.

ESA Syr. Aram. Heb. Ph.

Ug. Akk.

tatrtb

tu'ban

'blame'

'a serpent'

ESA Syr. Aram. Heb. Ph. Ug. Akk.

TQF Arab. Ge.

taqifa

'to find; catch; take'

ESA

TQL Arab. Ge.

taqula

'to be heavy; grievous'

saqala

'ponderare; suspendere, crucifigere'

ESA

Syr. Aram. Heb. Ph. Ug. Akk.

t'qep t'qeyp tdqap

'to wax strong, prevail' BA 'to grow strong' 'to overpower' (< Aram.)

Syr. Aram. Heb. Ph. Ug. Akk.

Vqal t'qal saqal sql tql saqdlu

'to weigh' BA 'to weigh' 'to weigh' 'weigher; to examine' shekel (Gewichts und Geldeinheit) 'aufhangen; (ab)wiegen; darwagen, (be)zahlen'

TLT Arab. Ge.

taldt

'three'

TLL Arab. Ge.

tulla*

'a crowd, a number of people'

tumma

'then (after an interval)'

solas

ESA

tit

E

Syr. Aram. Heb. Ph.

fiat flat salos sis

Syr. Aram. Heb. Ph.

Ug.

tit

Ug.

Akk.

salas

Akk.

TMM Arab. Ge. ESA Syr.

tamma 'there, in that direction'

Arab.

tmt tamman

Ge. ESA Syr.

'there, that place' 'there, yonder'

Aram. Heb. Ph. Ug. Akk.

sm sam sm tm

Sf. 'there'; tamma BA 'there' 'there, thither' 'there' 'there'

TMR Arab. Ge.

tamar

'fruit; wealth, possessions'

samra

ESA Syr. Aram. Heb. Ph. Ug. Akk.

tmr

'uberem, fertilem, fecundum esse/fieri; frugibus abundare' 'crops'

TMN Arab. Ge. ESA Syr. Aram. Heb. Ph. Ug. Akk.

taman* 'a price' (ciwad ma yuba*)

mtmn

'value'?

Aram. Heb. Ph. Ug. Akk. TMN Arab. Ge.

tamdnfin)

ESA Syr. Aram. Heb. Ph. Ug. Akk.

tmn temdne t'mane s'mone smn tmn samane

TNY Arab. Ge. ESA Syr. Aram. Heb. Ph. Ug. Akk.

'itnan

'eight'

semn

sanuy tny treyn trey s'nayim sny tny sina

'two' 'duo (dies); feria secunda (septimanae)' (tenydnd 'second') (tinyan 'second')

TWB Arab. Ge. ESA

}

Syr. Aram.

tab swb

Heb.

sub

Ph. Ug. Akk.

tb

TWR Arab. Ge. ESA Syr. Aram. Heb. Ph. UgAkk.

at aba

'to repay, give as a recompense' (}al-cazvd zva-r-ruguc)

twb

'to reward, recompense; to repair; to complete, execute (construction)'; mtbt 'decree, ordinance; reply, answer' 'to return'; af. 'to bring word, answer' Sf. 'to return'; tub 'to return'; hif., haf., af. 'to return, hand back' 'to turn back, return'; hif. 'to give back, restore, give in payment' 'to return; declare; reply'

'atara* 'to plough; excite; raise (dust etc.)' }

atir af. 'to plough'; tar 'to stir' tawwdrd 'plougher with oxen'

TWB Arab. Ge. ESA

tiyab

'raiments'

Syr. Aram.

tawbd

'a robe'

sub/ptu

'ein Gewand'

tawin*

'a dweller'

Heb. Ph. Ug. Akk.

TWY Arab. Ge. ESA Syr. Aram. Heb. Ph. Ug. Akk.

TYB Arab. Ge. ESA Syr.

Aram. Heb. Ph. U §" Akk.

tayyibat

'women who left their husband'

tayydbd

'a backslider, apostate; a penitent'; sayube w-tayyabe 'those who frequented (the place) and returned to it, visitors'

G'R gaara* Arab. Ge. ESA Syr. Aram.

'to supplicate God with groaning'

Heb. Ph. Ug. Akk. GBL Arab. Ge. ESA

gabal

'a mountain (tagammu'u s-say' Jt rtifdc)

gblt

'(hill) country; territory, district; cultivated land (surrounding village or dwelling)'

Syr.

Aram, Heb. Ph. Ug. Akk.

gbwl gbul gbl gbl gablu

'territory, border, district' 'border, boundary, territory' 'boundary; territory within boundary' 'Berg, Eels' 'Hugel'

GBR Arab. Ge. ESA Syr. Aram.

gabbar

'strong, powerful'

gabra

'actuosum esse'

gabrdna gbr

Heb. Ph. Ug. Akk.

gibbdr gbr

'valiant, heroic' Sf. 'to surpass'; gbrt OA 'strength'; gibbdr BA 'mighty one' 'strong, mighty; valiant man' 'man'; gbrt 'mighty deed'

gapdru

'iiberlegen sein'

GBL Arab. Ge. ESA

gibill, gibilla

'a crowd, multitude' (tagammu'u s-say'}

gbl

'tribus'?

Syr.

gebal

Aram. Heb. Ph. Ug. Akk.

gebal gdbal

'to form, mould; mix, make up (medicine)'; g'biltd 'that which is formed or moulded, formation, creation; a mass (of dough or clay)' 'to knead' 'to knead'

GBH Arab. Ge.

ESA Syr. Aram, Heb. Ph.

gibah*

gubhd gobah

'a forehead'

'height, elevation' 'height'

Ug. Akk.

GTT Arab. Ge.

GBY Arab. Ge.

gaba (dly)

'to collect tribute'

'agbe'a

ESA Syr. Aram. Heb. Ph.

gb3 geba gebd gaba

'restituere; reddere'; 'astagabe'a 'ad se recipere; cogere, colligere; congregare' 'to impose tithes' 'to exact tribute' 'to collect tax' NH 'to collect (a bill, taxes)'

gdtim

'one lying on his breast'

Ug. Akk.

'igtatta* 'to tear up, root up' gasasa

'to scrape away, shave off, pluck out (hair)'

GTM Arab. Ge.

ESA

ESA

Syr. Aram. Heb. Ph. Ug.

?mgt

Syr. Aram. Heb. Ph. Ug.

Akk.

gasd.su

'ein Lamm, zum Schlachten geeignet'; 'fading' 'abschneiden'

Akk.

GTW Arab. Ge. ESA Syr. Aram. Heb. Ph. Ug. Akk.

gatin

'kneeling'

GHM Arab. Ge. ESA Syr. Aram. Heb. Ph. UgAkk.

gahim* 'Hell, hell-fire, fiercely burning fire'

GDD Arab. Ge.

gudad* 'track, \vay on a hill side'; gadid 'new' (}al-qatc) gadgad 'murus, macerial ambiens, septum'

ESA

sgdd

gahaun 'burn them'

(Q,at-) 'repartir, accorder'

GHD Arab. Ge. ESA Syr. Aram. Heb. Ph. Ug. Akk.

gahada*

'to deny, refuse, reject'

gadat

'a sepulchre'

gadis

'a tomb'

GDD Arab. Ge.

gadd*

'majesty, glory' (}al-cazama)

gedud

ESA

gdd

'serius, gravis'; geddat 'vehementia, gravitas' 'great'

GDT Arab. Ge. ESA Syr. Aram. Heb. Ph. Ug. Akk.

Syr. Aram. Heb. Ph.

guda giddudd glddud

'a hedge, mound' 'a wady between steep embankments' NH 'a steep or straight embankment'

Syr. Aram. Heb. Ph.

Akk.

gadadu

'abtrennen'?

Akk.

GDR Arab. Ge. ESA Syr. Aram.

gidar*

'a wall'

gdr gedrd gdar

Heb.

gaddd

'genius, godhead'

gddala*

'to dispute' ('istihkdmu s-say} fi stirsdl yakun fih) 'luctari, conflictari, certare'

(Min.) 'mur' 'pond, pool' (< Arab.) 'to fence in'

GDL Arab. Ge. ESA Syr. Aram.

gdder

'a wall'

Heb.

gddal

Ug. Akk.

gdrt

'Umfriedung'

Ug. Akk.

gdl gidlu

'large' 'gedrehte Schnur'

GDD Arab. Ge. ESA Syr. Aram. Heb. Ph.

gudad* 'a broken piece'

GDC Arab. Ge. ESA Syr. Aram. Heb. Ph.

gidc

'trunk of a palm-tree' (cf. gazi'a)

Ug.

Ug.

Ph.

tagddala g'dal g'dal

'to twist, plait, interweave' 'to be high, grow, be large, tall'; g'dal 'to plait' 'to grow up, become great'; NH gddal 'to plait'

Ph.

gddt

a kind of grain

UgAkk. GDW Arab. Ge.

ESA Syr.

Ug. Akk. gadzva

'a burning coal or fire-branxd' GRH garaha 'to gain, acquire for oneself Arab. (}al-kasb) Ge. garh 'merx, mercatura'

gedd

'to rise or mount up (as smoke, birds)'

ESA fire,

Syr.

Aram. Heb. Ph.

Aram. Heb. Ph.

Ug. Akk.

Ug. Akk.

GRH Arab. Ge. ESA Syr. Aram. Heb. Ph.

Ug. Akk.

guruh

'wounds' (saqqu l-gild)

grh garraha

'wounded' 'chirurgien' (< Arab.)

GRD Arab. Ge. ESA Syr. Aram. Heb. Ph.

Ug. Akk.

garad*

'a locust' (buduww zahiri s-say'}

garada

'to remove chaff'

g'rad gerad gdrad mgrd

'to strip, lay bare (as locusts)' 'to scrape, comb, strip' 'to scrape, scratch' 'file'

GRR Arab. Ge.

garra

'to dra\v, drag'

garara

'se dedere, se subjicere imperio'

ESA Syr. Aram, Heb. Ph.

gar g'rar garar grr

'to drag' 'to drag, pull, push' 'to drag, drag away' 'hauler'

Syr. Aram. Heb. Ph.

garaza

'dry ground bare of herbage' (}al-qatc) 'to cut'; ga^ara 'circumcidere'

gurzja

'faggot, bundle of wood'

garaz

'to cut, cut off' (cf. garden 'axe')

guruf

'a water-worn bank of earth' (}ahdu s-say' kullih habsan)

g'rap gerap garap

'to overflow'; garpd 'flood' 'to scrape, sweep' 'to sweep away'

gard (y)

'to flow, run; happen'

Ug. Akk. tagarraa

'to sip'

gwer'e

'guttur, gula, fauces'; g"ar(aya 'jugulare'; 'to strangle'

GRF Arab. Ge.

ESA

ESA

Syr. Aram. Heb.

Syr. Aram. Heb.

grc

pi. 'to drip'; perh. also 'to distil, or suck in, or withdraw'?

Ph.

Ph.

Ug. Akk.

Ug. Akk.

GRM Arab. Ge. ESA

guruz

ESA

Ug. Akk. GR( Arab. Ge.

GRZ Arab. Ge.

garama

'to drive into sin' (}al-qatc)

grm

h. 'to commit a crime, be guilty of

GRY Arab. Ge. ESA

Syr.

geram

Syr.

g'ra

Aram.

Aram.

gdrey

Heb. Ph. Ug. Akk.

Heb. Ph. Ug. Akk.

gard

'to run, trickle down'; pa. 'to provoke, incite' 'to incite, let loose; let off, drive, thrust'; itpa. 'to attack' pi. 'to stir up strife'

guy gem

'atacar' 'befehden; prozessieren'

GZC Arab. Ge. ESA Syr.

gazi'a

'to be impatient' (>al-inqitdc)

gaz'a gg } etgazac

'serra dividere, secare' 'to cut down, hew wood' 'etre coupe'; gu£a 'trunk, stump of a felled tree' 'to cut, chop, lop off' 'stock, stem'

GZ3 Arab. Ge. ESA Syr.

af. 'commettre un crime' (< Arab.)

guz'

'a part, portion'

gaz'a

'portiones convivis distribuere'

Aram. Heb. Ph. Ug. Akk. GZY Arab. Ge. ESA Syr. Aram.

gazd (y)tto recompense for good or evil' gzy

'to receive official commendation'?; gzyt 'award, commendation'?

gzja.

'to deal out, dispense, repay'

Aram. Heb. Ph. Ug. Akk.

gdaf gezac

GSD Arab. Ge. ESA

gasad

'a body'

Syr. Aram.

gusdd

'cadavre' (< Arab.)

^ ^

G |> ^ ^ ^ § w

Heb. Ph. Ug. Akk. GSS Arab. Ge. ESA

Heb. Ph. Ug. Akk. tagassasa gasasa

'to inquire curiously into' (ta'arrufu s-say3 bi-mass lattf) 'palpare, manu tangere; attingere'

GSM Arab. Ge. ESA

gism

'a body' (tagammu'u s-say')

gsm

'to spy, explore; try' ImpA 'espionner'; gasses pa. 'to feel, touch' 'to feel with the hand, feel, stroke'

Syr. Aram.

gusma gesem

'solide construxit, magnos muros construxit' 'body' BA 'body (of man)'; JP gisma 'corps'

GF5 Arab. Ge. ESA Syr. Aram. Heb. Ph. Ug. Akk.

gufa

'froth'

Syr. Aram,

gas hgss

Heb. Ph. UgAkk.

gasas

GCL Arab. Ge. ESA Syr. Aram. Heb. Ph. Ug. Akk.

gacala

'to place; impose; make; appoint'

3

af. 'to commit (to any one), entrust'

ag'el

Heb. Ph. Ug. Akk.

d ° £ !S > £ o § ^

£ oo

GFN Arab. Ge. ESA Syr. Aram. Heb. Ph. Ug. Akk.

gifdn

'large dishes, trenchers' (pi. of gofnd)

GLB Arab. Ge. ESA Syr. Aram. Heb. Ph. Ug. Akk.

'aglaba 'to attack, assault' (}al-'itydn bis-say3 min mazvdic 3ild mazvdi')

GLS Arab. Ge. ESA Syr. Aram.

magdlis 'places of sitting; assemblies'

*^

•

•

/

GFW Arab. Ge. ESA Syr. Aram. Heb. Ph. Ug. Akk.

tagafd

'to be removed rom'

GLD Arab. Ge. ESA Syr. Aram. Heb. Ph. Ug. Akk.

gild

'skin, hide'

gald

'skin, hide'

geldd gildd geled

'skin, hide, fur' 'skin, leather' 'skin (of man)' (< Aram.?)

gil(a)du

'Haut' (< Aram., Heb., Arab.)

GLL Arab. Ge. ESA Syr. Aram.

galdl

'majesty'

J^

Heb. Ph.

galas

'to sit, sit up; (possibly also) recline'

Ug. Akk. GLW Arab. Ge.

Heb. Ph.

Ug. Akk. guild galaya

'to make manifest, reveal'; gala3 'banishment' 'explicuit, declaravit'; galgala 'evacuare'

ESA

GMH Arab. Ge.

gamaha

'to be refractory'

ESA

Syr. Aram. Heb.

g'ld3 gela3 gala

Ph. Ug. Akk.

gly gly galu

GMD Arab.

gdmida 'that which is firmly fixed' (gumusu s-say'i l-maic min bard } azv gayrih]

'to uncover, reveal; to go into exile' BA 'to reveal'; galuta 'exile' 'to uncover, remove, depart; go into exile' 'to uncover'; 'emigrer, s'exiler' 'sich begeben nach' 'in die Verbannung gehen' (< Aram., Heb. gly}

Syr. Aram. Heb.

H w r >< 9 ^ O % c»

Ph. Ug. Akk.

Cfl

GMC Arab.

Ge.

Ge.

ESA Syr. Aram. Heb. Ph. Ug.

ESA Syr. Aram. Heb. Ph. Ug.

Akk.

g'mad gemad gamad

'to mangle (clothes), press heavily' 'to contract, shrink, be tight' NH 'to contract'

Akk.

gamaa

gnf g*mac ta

'to collect, gather, assemble'

'to assemble, bring together' 'a handful'

H01

GML Arab.

gamal

Ge. ESA Syr. Aram.

g'mal

Heb.

gamal

'grace, elegance' (husn)

'to do one good, (or) evil'; g'mul 'deed, reward, recompense' 'to deal fully or adequately with, deal out to'; g'mul 'recompense'

GML Arab.

gumla

'an aggregate, something complete, as a sentence' (tagammu' wa-cizamu l-halq)

Ge. ESA Syr. Aram.

*itgemal

Heb.

gamal

'to be laden with; be bestowed'; gamldnd 'large-sized' 'to wean; ripen'; NH gamlon 'largesized'

J^J °*>

Ph.

Ph.

Ug.

Ug.

g

Akk.

F

Akk.

gamalu

'Vergeltbares tun, vergelten, schonen'

GML Arab. Ge. ESA Syr. Aram. Heb.

gamal* 'a camel'

gamm*

'much' (katratu s-say} uuagtimd'uh)

gamal gml gamla gamla gamal

GMM Arab. Ge. ESA Syr. Aram. Heb.

gmm

'to decide in (tribal) assembly'

gmm

Ph.

gamal

Ph.

gm

'to be full'; gam adv. denoting addition, 'also, moreover'; megamma 'assembling' 'the illustrious Majesty, the illustrious Perfection'?; Pun. 'totalite'?

Ug. Akk.

gammalu

Ug. Akk.

*H» w

GNB Arab. Ge. ESA Syr. Aram.

ganb

Heb. Ph.

gdnab gnb

gabo gnb gabbd gb

'side'; ganaba 'to turn aside; avoid' GNH Arab. 'latus' Ge. 'to be or fight on the side of, for s.o.' ESA 'side'; g'nab 'to steal' Syr. OA 'side'; Targ. g'nab 'to steal'; ganneb Aram. 'to keep behind, go round about' 'to steal'; PbH. ginneb 'to keep behind' Heb. Pun. 'to steal' Ph.

Ug. Akk.

ganaha

'to incline'

g'han g'han

'to bend or bow, stoop, incline' 'to bend'

gdhan

'to bend'

Ug. Akk.

g w

GNH Arab. Ge. ESA Syr. Aram. Heb. Ph.

gandh

'a hand, wing, arm, arm-pit'

Ug. Akk. GNN Arab. Ge. ESA Syr.

GNF Arab. Ge. ESA Syr. Aram. Heb. Ph.

ganaf

'a swerving from the right way'

£ ~ > 0

O ^

Ug. Akk. ganna

'to cover' (}as-satr wa-t-tasattur]

ganin gn3 gnn

'foetus' (< Arab.) 'to wall, enclose with a siege wall' af. 'to make descend or rest upon > protect'

GNY Arab. Ge. ESA Syr.

gandn

'fruit'

gwan}a tgn

'trituravit' 'to gather crop'; gny '(garden) crop'

^ -^i

Aram. Heb. Ph.

ganne gdnan gnn

'to cover, protect' 'to cover; surround; defend' 'to cover'

Akk.

gananu, kananu

etwa 'einsperren'

GHD Arab.

gdhada 'to strive; contend with;

Ug.

Aram. Heb. Ph.

_

Ug. Akk.

fight'

GHR Arab.

Ge. ESA Syr. Aram.

Ge. ESA Syr. Aram.

Heb. Ph.

Heb. Ph.

Ug. Akk. GHZ Ge. ESA Syr. Aram. Heb. Ph.

j-j c°

. gahhaza 'to fit out \v. provisions'

gahara

'to be manifest, publish abroad' ('i'ldnu s-say} zvakasfuhu zva-'uluwwuh)

g'har gahar, gahar

'to be dazzled' 'projection, jetty; opening (in a wall for admitting light)'

w

Ug. Akk. GHL Ge. ESA Syr. Aram. Heb. Ph.

o > ^ ^ ^ g

gahila*

'to be ignorant'

g'hila

'amorous, wanton'

Ug. Akk. GWB Arab. Ge. ESA Syr. Aram, Heb. Ph. Ug. Akk. GWD Arab. Ge. ESA Syr. Aram. Heb. Ph. Ug. Akk.

Ug. Akk. gdba (w) 'to split, cleave, cut out' (harqu s-say") gqyb 'cup, goblet, pitcher' gwbn type of stonework, part of temple structure guba 'well, cistern, pit, den' gob BA 'pit, den' gub 'to dig'; geb 'pit, ditch, trench'

giydd

'swift coursers'

goyyed gwd

'velox, cursor (de equis)' 'a swift riding animal (esp. horse)'

GWB Arab. Ge. ESA

'agdba

'to return an answer, hearken to' (murdga'atu l-kaldm)

Syr. Aram. Heb. Ph. Ug. Akk.

'aglb '"geb

af. 'to answer' af. 'to reply'

GWR Arab. Ge. ESA

gdwara

'to be a neighbour'

tagawara gwr

Syr.

giyura'

'vicinum esse' 'to visit (a sanctuary)'; gwr 'business partner, joint proprietor' 'an alien, foreigner, stranger, proselyte' 'to be a stranger, sojourn, dwell' 'to sojourn'; ger 'a stranger' 'etranger, hote, client' 'foreign resident'

Aram. Heb. Ph. Ug. Akk.

gur gur gr gr

GWZ Arab. Ge. ESA Syr. Aram. Heb. Ph. Ug. Akk.

gawaza* 'to pass on, or over'

gwz gaz. guz, guz

'to 'to 'to 'to

GWC Arab. Ge. ESA Syr. Aram. Heb. Ph. Ug. Akk.

gdca (w)

'to hunger'

guf

'hunger; hungry'

gc gdwac

? hif. 'to delete' ? 'to expire; perish; die'

GWW Arab. Ge. ESA

gaww

Syr.

gaw

gw}

pass, go; pass through' hasten away, be lacking, fail' cut; cross, pass' pass over, away'

'air, the firmament' (say} •wdhid yahtawt 'aid say' min gawdnibih) ' 'penetrer dans les profondeurs de la terre' 'the inside, inward parts'

GWS Arab. Ge. ESA Syr. Aram. Heb. Ph. Ug. Akk.

gdsa (w)*

'to search, explore'

GWF Arab. Ge. ESA Syr. Aram. Heb. Ph. Ug. Akk.

gawf

'the belly, the interior'

gupd gupd

'body; self, substance' 'body, corpse' (late; < Aram.)

gpt

'Hohlen'

GY3 Arab. Ge. ESA

go?a (y)

'to come, come to, arrive at'

Syr.

£^ °

o 5 H ^d H g w

Aram. Heb. Ph.

gaw gew gw

BA 'midst' 'midst (aramaism)'; gewa 'a body' 'midst'

Ug. Akk. 6YB Arab. Ge.

ESA Syr. Aram. Heb. Ph. Ug. Akk.

Aram. Heb. Ph.

Ug. Akk. gayb*

'the bosom of a shirt or vest'

gayb

'sinus (vestis)' (< Arab.)

GYD Arab. Ge.

gtd

'a neck'

geyadd gidd gid

'nerve, tendon, sinew' 'thread, sinew, tendon; membrum' 'sinew, nerve, tendon'

gd gldu

'sinew' 'Sehne, Muskel des Tieres'

ESA Syr. Aram. Heb. Ph. Ug. Akk.

^ w

£ g > o

o

§ c«

oo

HBB Arab. Ge. ESA Syr. Aram. Heb. Ph. Ug. Akk.

}

ahabba 'to love; will; desire; like' (Ja/luziirn wa-t-tabdt} tahababa 'amore alicujus incendi' (< Arab.) hbb 'to love'; mhbbt 'adherent'? habeb 'to love vehemently, embrace, caress' habbeb 'to love, honor' hdbab 'to love' hbb yif. 'to love' 3 ahb 'to love' hdbu 'lieben'

HBB Arab. Ge. ESA Syr. Aram. Heb. Ph. Ug. Akk.

habb

HBR Arab. Ge.

habara* 'to delight, make joyful' ('al-'atar fi husn wa-baha] 'ahbara '(abstergendo) mundare, polire (ut color nativus refulgeat)'; hebur 'versicolor, variegatus, coloribus ornatus'

ESA Syr. Aram. Heb. Ph. Ug. Akk. HBT Arab. Ge. ESA

eberu

'(Gesicht) bemalen'?; eberu? 'Freude'

habit a

'to be vain, fruitless; to perish'

henbdb hb

'grain, corn' (}al-habba mina s-say} di l-habb) 'acinus, bacca' Min. 'bacca, granum'

habbd

'granum'

HBS Arab. Ge.

habasa

'to restrain, hinder, shut up'

habs

'career' (< Arab.)

ESA Syr. Aram. Heb. Ph. Ug. Akk.

hbs Jfbas habas habas

'to 'to 'to 'to

hbs absu

'belt, sash; thong, wristlet' (< abdsu?) eine Art Gurt?

HBK Arab. Ge. ESA

hubuk

'w^ays, tracks (of the stars)'

withhold (?) or capture' shut in, or up' imprison' bind on, bind up'

^ ^

g J> H ^ ^ g

w

Syr. Aram. Heb. Ph. UgAkk.

Syr. Aram. Heb. Ph. Ug. Akk.

HTM Arab. Ge. ESA Syr. Aram. Heb. Ph. ug.

hatm

'a decree'

Arab.

Akk.

atwum

HTT Arab. Ge. ESA Syr.

hatitan 'quickly' 'ahosa

'movere, quatere, concutere (caput)'

Aram. Heb. Ph. Ug. Akk.

hus hus

'to be anxious, hasten to, 'to haste, make haste'

hws hs hia.su

'hurry!' 'sich sorgen'; hiasu 'hineilen'

hattd

'even; as far as, until; in order that'

Ge. ESA Syr. Aram. Heb. Ph. ug.

atmu? 'Rede'

H g g >< 9 F

8

Akk.

^ G CAl

flee'

HGB Arab. Ge. ESA Syr. Aram. Heb. Ph. Ug. Akk.

higab*

'a veil; curtain'

>— oo

HGG Arab. Ge. ESA Syr. Aram. Heb.

hagga

'to go on pilgrimage' (3al-qasad)

hgg hagi fy'gag hdgag

• 'to make a pilgrimage' 'to keep a feast' 'to celebrate a festival, feast' 'to make pilgrimage, keep a pilgrim feast'

HGG Arab. Ge. ESA Syr. Aram. Heb.

Ph.

Ph.

Ug. Akk.

Ug. Akk.

hugga*

'a disputing, argument'

haggaga hg

'legem dare, constituere, condere' 'statute, law; obligation'

^ ^

o HGR Arab.

higr*

Ge. ESA Syr. Aram. Heb. Ph. Ug. Akk.

hagl hgr hegar hagar hagar hgr hgr egeru

HGZ Arab. Ge.

hagaza 'to restrain'

ESA

'wall, dam; unlawful; understanding' (}al-manc wa-l-'ihatah 'aid s-say'} 'vinculum (numella)' 'to reserve s.t. (for exclusive use)' 'to hinder, restrain' 'to encircle, gird' 'to gird, gird on, gird oneself 'a wall' 'to gird' etwa 'sich quer dariiberlegen'

tahdgaza 'infrenari'

HGR Arab. Ge. ESA Syr. Aram. Heb. Ph. Ug. Akk. HDB Arab. Ge.

ESA

hagar

'a rock, stone'

hgr

'stone > weight'

hadab

'an elevation of the ground'

H ?d H g w

Syr. Aram. Heb. Ph. UgAkk. HDT Arab. Ge. ESA Syr. Aram. Heb. Ph. Ug. Akk.

Syr. Aram. Heb. Ph. Ug. Akk. hadlt

'a novelty; event; story'

hedase hdtt hadet h"dat hddas hds hdt edesu

'renovatio' 'event'; h. 'to renew' 'to make new, dedicate; h'det 'new' BA 'new' pi. 'to renew; repair' (poet. & late) 'to repair; new; new moon' 'new' 'neu sein, werden'

HDD Arab. Ge. ESA Syr. Aram. Heb. Ph. Ug. Akk.

hiddd

'sharp' (adj. pi.) (tarafu

s-say})

hadad hadad

'to be sharp, pointed'; had 'sharp' 'to be sharp, keen'; had 'sharp'

ededu

'spitzig sein, werden'

g ^ £ £ > O 3 c«

HDD Arab. Ge. ESA Syr. Aram. Heb. Ph.

hudud

'prescribed limits, ordinances' (3al-manc)

hdd

'to sacralize'?

HDD Arab. Ge. ESA Syr. Aram. Heb. Ph.

hadld

'iron'

hadld

'ferrum' (< Arab.)

Ug-

Ug.

~

Akk.

Akk.

c_n

HDQ

hadaiq 'a garden planted with trees'

HDR

Arab. Ge. ESA Syr. Aram. Heb. Ph. Ug. Akk.

(}as-say} yuhttu bi-say})

Arab. Ge. ESA Syr. Aram. Heb. Ph. Ug. Akk.

HRB Arab.

haddeq hiddeq

'to force into, fill a gap' 'to squeeze into, drive in'

hdraba 'to fight against' (}as-salb)

Ge.

'to beware, take heed of; fear'

^

& hdr

'to fear; beware'

adaru

'sich fiirchten'

HRB Arab.

mihrdb

'a private chamber' (ba'du l-magalis)

g ^

Ge.

mehrdm

ESA

mhrb

'sacrum (septum); delubrum, templum' 'part of the temple (where thrbvisions are obtained)'

d ^ ^ §

ESA

hrb

'to fight, ravage'

Syr. Aram. Heb. Ph. Ug. Akk.

Aera£ harbd harab

'to slay with the sword' Syr. 'sword' Aram. 'to attack, smite down' (Aram, and rare) Heb. Ph. 'a sword or large knife' Ug. Akk.

HRT Arab.

harata

'to sow seed'

HRG Arab.

Ge. ESA

harasa mhrtt

'arare' 'ploughland'

Ge. ESA

hrb

hadira

harag*

'restriction; difficulty; crime'

w

Syr. Aram. Heb. Ph. Ug. Akk.

herat h"rat haras hrs hrt eresu

'to dig out, hollow out, furrow' 'to engrave' 'to cut in; engrave; plough; devise' 'ploughing' 'to plow' 'besaen (mit saatpflug), (Feld) bestellen'

Syr. Aram. Heb. Ph. Ug. Akk.

HRD Arab. Ge. ESA Syr. Aram. Heb. Ph. Ug. Akk.

hard

'a purpose'

HRR Arab. Ge. ESA Syr. Aram. Heb. Ph.

hurr

hargd

'dying agony'

HRR Arab. Ge. ESA Syr. Aram. Heb. Ph. Ug. Akk.

harr

'heat' (hildfu

harur mhr har harar harar

'ardor, fervor, aestus' 'drought (or perh. fever)' 'to burn' 'to burn, be blackened, charred' 'to be hot, scorched, burn' (poet.late)

hrr ereru

'to scorch; roast' 'diirr sein'?

HRS Arab. Ge. ESA Syr. Aram. Heb. Ph.

haras

'guards'

l-bard)

^ w

w « > o

O Tl

hard hr harar harar hor

'a free-man' (ma hdlafa l-'ubudiyya] 'liber homo, ingenuus' 'free man, free-born man' 'to set free' 'to set free'; hard 'free man' 'noble' (late)

Ug.

Ug.

Akk.

Akk.

a

^

^ •

HRS Arab. Ge. ESA Syr. Aram. Heb. Ph. Ug. Akk.

haras a 'to desire ardently' (}al-gasae)

hrs

'zeal, care'

harus ' ' hrs

'sharp, diligent' 'Begierde haben'?

HRD Arab. Ge. ESA Syr. Aram. Heb. Ph. Ug. Akk.

harad

'at the last extremity from disease' (dalilu d-dahdb wa-ttalaf wa-l-haldk iva-d-da'f]

hrs

? 'hoariness'?

harrafa

'to pervert' (3al-cudiil)

hrf

'to alter, tamper with (an inscription)'

^ °°

o HRD Arab. Ge. ESA

harrada 'to instigate, excite'

HRF Arab. Ge. ESA

Syr. Aram. Heb. Ph.

Syr. Aram. Heb. Ph.

Ug. Akk.

Ug. Akk.

HRF Arab. Ge. ESA

harf*

'a verge, margin; manner' (haddu s-say})

HRQ Arab. Ge. ESA

£ ^ * ^ § w

hdrap

NH 'to change, transform'

harraqa

'to burn'

Syr.

harrep

Aram. Heb.

harrep hdrap

Pa. 'to sharpen'; harpd 'a blade, sword' Pa. 'to sharpen; revile, blaspheme' 'to reproach'

Syr.

h'rak

'to burn, scorch, singe'

Aram. Heb.

harak harak

'to be burnt, blackened; burn, roast' 'to roast'

Ph.

Ph.

Ug. Akk.

Ug. Akk.

hrk

'quemar, asar'

HRM Arab. Ge.

harrama

'to forbid, make unlawful'

harama

ESA

hrm

Syr.

Bahrein 'aharem haram

'prohibere a communi usu, sacrare Deo' 'to put (s.o.) under restraint; to prohibit, be prohibited' OT 'to separate fr. ordinary use, devote to God; NT 'to excommunicate, curse, ban' 'to excommunicate'; also pa. 'to ban; devote; exterminate'

HRK Arab. Ge.

harraka*

'to move'

ESA Syr.

harkes

'to wag its tail (dog)'

M

Aram. Heb. Ph.

Aram. Heb. Ph.

Ug.

Ug.

Akk.

Akk.

haramu

'absondern'

HZN Arab. Ge.

hazana

'to grieve'

hazana

'aegrum animi, tristem esse'

HRY Arab. Ge.

ESA Syr.

taharra

'to seek'

ESA Syr.

H w r >< j>

o 2§ «>

^ ^o

Aram. Heb. Ph. Ug. Akk.

Aram. Heb. Ph. Ug. Akk.

HSB Arab. Ge. ESA Syr.

hasiba* 'to think, imagine; calculate'

Aram.

£

HSD Arab. Ge. ESA Syr.

hasada

'to envy'

h'sad

'to revile, scorn' 'to be put to shame'; pa. 'to jeer, blaspheme, disgrace' 'to be reproached, ashamed' (< Aram.)

hasaba

'putare; computare; annumerare'

h'sab hasab

'to count; take account; etpa. 'to think; plan' BA 'to think, account'

Aram.

h"sad

Heb.

hasab

'to think, account'

Heb.

hasad

Ph. Ug. Akk.

hsb htbn hasabu

'accountant; to plan' 'account' D. 'rechnen'

Ph. Ug. Akk.

HSR Arab. Ge. ESA Syr. Aram. Heb. Ph.

hasra

'sighing, causing of sighing'

HSS Arab. Ge. ESA Syr. Aram. Heb. Ph.

G Pi > ^ ^ ^ ^

w

hassa

'to utterly destroy' (galabatu s-say} bi-qatl }aw gayrth)

Ug. Akk. HSS Arab.

Ug. Akk. 'ahassa

husum

hs ahs haw

'to perceive, find, be aware of, HSM feel' (hikdyatu $awt (inda tazvaggu1 Arab. wa-sibhih] 'sensus (corporis, animi)' (< Arab.) Ge. ESA 'to suffer, be sad; be sorry, repent' Syr. 'to suffer; be affected, troubled; to Aram. care* NH 'to feel heavy, feel pain; Heb. apprehend' 'Woe!' Ph. 'merken, fiihlen'? Ug. 'sich sorgen'; asdsu 'sich betriiben' Akk.

hasaluna

*to be good or beautiful'

hasara

h'san hasan hasm

'to wax strong; be very difficult' BA haf. 'to take possession of 'strong (of the Amorite)'

Ge. heivas ESA Syr. has Aram. hasas Heb. Ph. Ug. Akk. HSN Arab. Ge. ESA Syr. Aram, Heb. Ph. Ug. Akk.

hasas 3

HSR Arab. Ge. ESA Syr. Aram. Heb. Ph. Ug. Akk.

*a succession of unlucky nights'

d ^ G g £ o

'to gather; raise from the dead'

§

£

HSB Arab.

Ge. ESA Syr. Aram. Heb. Ph. Ug. Akk. HSR Arab. Ge. ESA Syr. Aram. Heb. Ph. Ug. Akk.

hasib

'violent wind \vith shower of stones* (gins mm 'agzd'i l-ard, gins mina l-hasd)

If sab

'to cut through the ground'; itpe. 'to be hewn' haseb , 'to hew, hew out, cleave' mhsb 'a quarry' h.sb 'to hew, cleave' hasdbu 'abbrechen' hapira* 'to be restricted; hindered' ^al-gam* zv-al-habs zv-al-man') hasara 'circumdare vel cingere (re, in sp. sepimento, muro), consepire, circumsepire' hsr 'enclosed cultivated land' h'sara 'a court' hasra 'a court, yard' haser 'an enclosure, court'; cf. (dsar 'shut up' hsr 'a court' hasaru 'Hiirde' isru 'a prison'; eseru 'to enclose'; hasaru 'Hiirde'

HSHS Arab.

has has a

'to become manifest'

^r ^

Ge. ESA Syr. Aram. Heb. Ph. Ug. Akk. HSL Arab. Ge.

g hassala

'to make manifest*

£J *° E] g

w

ESA Syr. Aram. Heb. Ph. Ug. Akk.

HSY Arab. Ge. ESA

3

ahsd

'to number, calculate; know'

Syr. Aram. Heb. Ph. Ug. Akk. HDD Arab. Ge.

HDR Arab. Ge. ESA

hadara*

'to be present'

hdr

'a dwelling-place'; 'to perform a pilgrimage'

Syr. Aram. Heb. Ph. Ug. Akk.

HTB Arab. Ge.

hatab

'firewood, fuel'

hdtb

'ligna fissa, caesa (materia ignis)'

ESA Syr.

ESA Syr.

' '

Aram. Heb. Ph. Ug. Akk.

Aram. Heb. Ph. Ug. Akk.

hotba hatab

? 'chiselling' 'to cut or gather wood (firewood)'

htb

'firewood; wood gatherer'

HZR Arab.

mahzur

'hindered'; muhtazir 'one \vho builds a fold for cattle' (}al-

HTM Arab.

Ge. ESA

hadda

'to incite, instigate'

jjj

hatama 'to break into small pieces'

Ge. ESA

w >< G

§ f§ &

manc)

hzr

'to prohibit'

w

Syr. Aram. Heb. Ph. Ug. Akk.

Syr. Aram. Heb. Ph. Ug. Akk.

HZZ Arab. Ge. ESA Syr. Aram. Heb. Ph. Ug. Akk.

hazz

'part, portion; fortune'

hi "

'lucky'; h& 'good fortune' "

HFR Arab. Ge. ESA Syr. Aram. Heb. Ph. Ug. Akk.

hufra fahara kfr h'par hapar hapar

'a pit' (hafru s-say} wa-qal'uh stiftan) Todere' 'to dig out' 'to dig' 'to dig' 'to dig; search for'

haparu

'graben'

hatar

'to cut off; fence in'

hzy hatru, hatiru

'court' 'Hiirde, Hof (< Aram.)

HFD Arab. Ge. ESA Syr. Aram. Heb. Ph. Ug. Akk.

hafada

'daughters; grandchildren'

hfd

'grandchild'?

HFR Arab. Ge. ESA Syr. Aram. Heb. Ph. Ug. Akk.

hafira

£ "^

g j> $ * ^ g w

'original state, former condition' ^awzvalu l-amr)

HFZ Arab. Ge.

hafiza

'to keep, guard, take care of

mdhefad

'the veils and napkins in which an oblation is covered' (< Arab.)

ESA Syr. Aram.

hapltd hepsa

Heb.

hepes

'assiduous, painstaking, diligent' 'a sacred object held in hand at the delivery of an oath' ( d ^

g

ug.

^ w halaqa

Arab.

Ge. ESA Syr. Aram. Heb. Ph. Ug. Akk.

'to shave' (tanhiyatu s-sacr cani r-ras)

halaq

'to be smooth, slippery'

HLQM Arab.

hulqum 'the throat'

HLL Arab.

holla

Ge. ESA

helq

Ge. ESA

halala hll

Syr. Aram.

Syr. Aram.

halel halal

Heb.

Heb.

halal

Ph. Ug. Akk.

hlqm liqu

'throat, neck'? 'Gaumen'

Ph. Ug. hl(l) Akk. elelu

HLM

hulm

'a dream' (ruyatu s-say} l-mandm)

'guttur, fauces'

'to untie (a knot); to be lawful; alight, settle in a place' (nazala, li-anna l-musdfir yasudd iva-yaqid, fa-in nazala hallo] 'to be gathered, come in' 'to encamp'; 'to be unprotected (against)' 'to purify' 'to wash, rinse'; 'to degrade, profane' hif. 'to begin' (lit. 'untie, loosen, open') 'losen (vom Bann)' 'rein sein, werden; frei sein'

d w

£ | >

o Ge. ESA Syr. Aram. Heb. Ph. Ug. Akk.

helm him helma helma halom him him

fi

HLM Ge. ESA Syr. Aram. Heb. Ph. Ug. Akk.

halim*

hdmal

'kind, gracious; intelligent' (tarku l-fagala, hilafu t-tays)

g w

'to spare; to have compassion'

£ ^j

HLY Arab. Ge. ESA Syr. Aram. Heb. Ph. Ug. Akk.

halla

'to adorn with ornaments'

lahaya

'nitidum, pulchrum, venustum esse'

hall

'ornament'

HMD Arab. Ge. ESA Syr. Aram. Heb. Ph. Ug. Akk.

hamida 'to praise' (hildfu d-damrri)

HM3 Arab. Ge. ESA Syr. Aram. Heb. Ph. Ug. Akk.

hama

'mud'

tahamma

'to be swampy, muddy'

HMR Arab. Ge. ESA Syr. Aram. Heb. Ph. Ug. Akk.

himar*

'an ass' (gins mina d-dawdbb)

^ c°

n

HMR Arab. Ge. ESA

hmd

'to praise'

hamad hamad hmd hmd hamudu

'to desire, covet' 'to desire; take pleasure in' 'to desire' 'to be pleasant, covet' 'desirable'

humr

'red' (mina lladt yuraf bil-humra)

hmr hemard hamdrd hamor hmr imeru hamala

hammara 'rubuit'

HML Arab. Ge.

hmrt

ESA

hml

'red'?

hamala

'to carry, bear, load, charge with' 'to carry a burden'; heml 'onus' (< Arab.) 'to bring, admit (s.o. into e.g. a town); to drive (s.o. to a place)'

j> H £ H g w

Syr. Aram. Heb.

}

hmr h"mar hmr

'ruber' (< Arab.) 'to be hot, parched'; hammar 'dark' pe'al'al 'to be reddened' (Jb.l6:16); NH hdmar 'to glow, parch' ' 'rojo, rojizo' 'gerotet sein'

Ph. Ug. Akk.

hmr emeru

HMM Arab. Ge.

hamlm 'boiling hot water, a near relative or friend' hamma 'morbo laborare, doloribus ardere'

Syr. Aram. Heb.

h'mal

'to gather in, amass, lay up'

hamiya

'to be hot'

hamaya

? 'obloqui, conviciari, maledicere, ignominia vel contumelia afficere, calumniari'

Ph. Ug. Akk. HMY Arab. Ge.

ESA Syr. Aram. Heb. Ph. Ug. Akk.

hmm ham hamam hamam am hm ememu

'hot season'? 'to be hot, grow warm, or hot' 'to be warm, hot' 'to be or become warm' Pun. adv. avec le sens 'ardemment'? 'heat' 'heiss sein, werden'

ESA Syr. Aram. Heb. Ph. Ug. Akk.

HNT Arab.

hanita

'to break one's oath' cf. hanif

HNGR Arab.

Ge. ESA Syr.

Ge. ESA Syr.

Aram. Heb.

Aram. Heb.

hemd

'perussit (frigus germina)'; pa. 'aruit'

^ w

w « > o

O J3

handgir

'throats'

^ £

Ph. Ug. Akk.

Ph. Ug. Akk. HND Arab. Ge.

hanid

'roasted'

HNK Arab. Ge.

ESA Syr.

ESA Syr.

Aram. Heb. Ph.

Aram. Heb. Ph.

Ug. Akk.

Ug. Akk.

£ o 'ihtanaka*

'to subdue; to destroy utterly'

kanaka

'intelligere, percipere'

hanak hanak

'to train, dedicate' 'to train up; dedicate'

o

g H &

HNN Arab. Ge.

hanan* 'mercy' (al-'isfaq wa-r-riqqd) hannd

'grace, charm, joy' (< Arab.)

han hanan hanan hn hnn enenu

'to pity'; hfndnd3 'pity, mercy' BA 'to show favour' 'to show favour; be gracious' 'favor'; hnn 'to show favor' D. 'sich erbarmen; Gunst verschaffen' 'Vergiingstigung gewahren'

ESA Syr. Aram. Heb. Ph. Ug. Akk.

HWT Arab. Ge.

ESA Syr. Aram. Heb. Ph. Ug. Akk.

hut

'fish'

Ejj ^

hut

'piscis' (< Arab.)

w

HWG Arab. Ge. ESA Syr. Aram. Heb. Ph.

haga

'a necessity; thing, matter; wish'

Ug. Akk. HWR Arab. Ge. ESA Syr. Aram. Heb. Ph.

HWD Arab. Ge. ESA Syr. Aram. Heb. Ph.

'istahzvada

'to get the better of

Ug. Akk. hdra (w) 'to return; reply to in an argument' (*ar-ruguc) hwr

'to settle (tr. and intr.) in (a town)'

Ug. Akk.

HWZ mutahayyiz Arab. Ge. ESA Syr. Aram. Heb. Ph.

'one who goes aside or retreats'

Ug. Akk.

HWS Arab. Ge.

hdsa

'Far be it!' (adv.)

hdssa

'absit!' (< Aram.-Syr.)

HWT Arab. Ge.

ESA

'

Syr. Aram,

has has

'let it not be, God forbid!' 'far from him!'

Syr. Aram.

ESA

}

ahdta

'to surround, encompass; know'

Heb. Ph. Ug. Akk.

has

NH 'God forfend'

Heb. Ph. Ug. Akk.

HWL Arab.

hdla (w)*

HWY Arab.

Ge.

hawelt

ESA Syr. Aram.

hwl

'to pass by, go between'; tahwil 'a change, a turning off, or turn away'; haivla 'round about, from around' 'columna, cippus, monumentum'; hawala 'to turn around' prep, 'around'

hul

Heb.

hoi

'to dance'; itpa. 'to turn in a circle, dance' 'to whirl, dance, writhe'; heyl 'rampart, fortress' (perh. orig. 'surrounding wall'

Ph. Ug. Akk.

hwl halu

'circuit, district' 'kreissen'; hilu 'Geburtswehen'

y

ahwd

heway

HWY Arab. Ge.

ESA Syr.

£ ^

hawaya*

'intestines' (}al-gamc)

Ge. ESA Syr. Aram.

hwy 'to encircle, invest' hewyd 'snake, serpent' hiwya, hewyd 'serpent'

Heb.

hdwdh

estaf. 'sich tief beugen, verneigen'

Ph. Ug. Akk.

hwy

st. 'sich niederwerfen'

'dark-coloured'

Arab.

haytu

'where, wherever, wither'

'rubor coeli vespertini, vesper rubens'

Ge.

ESA Syr.

o £ H ya H » w

Aram.

Aram.

Heb. Ph. Ug. Akk.

Heb. Ph. Ug. Akk.

HYD Arab.

hdda (y)

'to avert'

HYR Arab.

hayrdn

'distracted'

Ge. ESA Syr.

Ge. ESA Syr.

Aram.

Aram.

w

Heb. Ph. Ug. Akk.

Heb. Ph. Ug. Akk.

5 £ >

HYS Arab.

Ge.

mahis

'a place or way of escape'

HYD Arab. ESA

Syr.

Syr.

Heb. Ph. Ug. Akk.

Q

hada (y)

'to have menstrual periods'

hyd

'menstruating woman'

o * &

Ge.

ESA Aram.

^

Aram.

Heb. Ph. Ug. Akk.

>-

en oo

HYF Arab. Ge. ESA Syr. Aram. Heb. Ph. Ug. Akk.

hafa (y)

'to be unjust'

hyf hefa

'to commit an injustice against s.o.' 'vis, vehementia'

HYN Arab. Ge. ESA Syr. Aram. Heb. Ph. Ug. Akk.

hin

'time'

hyn

'time, period'

HYY Arab. Ge. ESA Syr.

'istahya

inu, enu

prep, zur Zeit 'als' 'to be ashamed'

HYQ Arab. Ge. ESA Syr. Aram. Heb. Ph. Ug. Akk.

hdqa (y)*

'to surround, hem in, compass about' (nuzulu s-say} bis-say})

^ ^

HYY Arab. Ge. ESA Syr. Aram. Heb. Ph. Ug. Akk.

hayya

'to live' (hilafu l-mawt]

haywa hwy h"ya haya haya /zz^ hyy (hwy)

'vivere; reviviscere' 'to live, survive' 'to live' BA 'to live' 'to live' 'to preserve, restore, live' 'to live'

g > ^ ^ £jj §

HYY Arab. Ge. ESA Syr.

hayya

'a serpent'

hewya

'a snake, serpent'

w

Aram. Heb. Ph.

Aram. Heb. Ph.

Ug. Akk.

Ug. Akk.

hwh

Sf. 'a snake'; hewya 'serpent'

H B W

r w % o ^ o o

3d

iyj

Cn C_n

HB' Arab. Ge. ESA Syr. Aram. Heb. Ph. Ug. Akk.

hub' hab'a W hubyd habd hdba>

habu

HBT habuta Arab. Ge.

'that \vhich is hidden'

HBT Arab. 'abscondere; celare; latere (intr.)' Ge. 'to hide' ESA 'gloom, thick darkness' Syr. etpa. 'to hide o.s.; be hidden, covered' Aram. 'to withdraw; hide' Heb. Ph. Ug. 'verbergen' Akk.

'ahbata

'to humble oneself; to acquiesce'

malfbat

? 'flat plate, pan, or griddle (for baking)'

'to be bad'

habar

'news; tidings; report' ('al-'ilm)

habara

'connexum esse; communicare (cum aliquo)'

ESA Syr. Aram. Heb.

habrd habar hdber

Ph. Ug. Akk.

hbr hbr thru

a companion'; habar 'to join' BA 'fellow, comrade'; habbdr 'to join' 'a companion'; habar 'to unite, be joined' 'an associate' 'Gefahrte' 'Genosse, Gefahrte, Freund'

HBL Arab. Ge. ESA

habdl

'a hindrance; corruption'

habala hbl

'sibi arrogare, discrimini committere' 'ruin'

ESA Aram. Heb. Ph. Ug. Akk.

hptt

'Unreinheit, Verwesung'

HBT tahabbata* 'to strike with confusion; Arab. destroy' Ge. ESA hbt 'to beat, defeat (enemy)'

HBR Arab. Ge.

£j; °">

g > H ^ g § w

Syr.

bfbat

'to beat down, cudgel, batter'

Syr.

habel

Aram. Heb. Ph. Ug. Akk.

If bat hdbat '

'to knock; strike, punish' 'to beat off, beat out'

Aram. Heb. Ph. Ug. Akk.

habal habal

pa. 'to be corrupt, depraved'; h'bala 'corruption, hurt, harm' 'to wrong, be violent' 'to act corruptly; injure, oppress'

hbl habdlu

'destruction, mischief 'Gewalt, Unrecht (an)tun'

HBW Arab.

habd fw)

HTR Arab.

hattar

'a perfidious man'

Ge. ESA Syr. Aram. Heb.

'to be extinct'

'

Ge. ESA Syr. Aram. Heb.

Ph.

Ph.

Ug. Akk. HDD Arab.

Ge. ESA Syr. Aram. Heb.

H

h'tird

'swollen with pride, haughty'

w £ X > p

0

habu

'weich sein'

Ug. Akk.

hadd*

'a cheek' (taassulu s-say3 zvamtiddduh }ild s-sufl)

HDD Arab.

| c«

'uhdud* 'a pit or trench'

Ge. ESA Syr. Aram. Heb. C_n -^j

Ph.

Ph.

Ug. Akk.

HD' Arab. Ge. ESA Syr. Aram. Heb. Ph. Ug. Akk.

Ug. Akk.

hada'a

'to deceive'

katfa

'to betray, abandon' (< Arab.)

~o= hadadu

'tief einschneiden'

HDN Arab. Ge. ESA Syr. Aram. Heb. Ph. Ug. Akk.

hidn

'lovers'

HRB Arab. Ge. ESA Syr. Aram. Heb. Ph. Ug. Akk.

'ahraba

'to lay waste'

h'reb harab hdreb hrb hrb hardbu

'to be laid waste' BA 'to be waste' 'to be waste, desolate' 'drying shed'; 'dry, what is dry' 'to (become) dry' 'wiist werden'

o g H H

HDL Arab. Ge. ESA Syr. Aram. Heb. Ph. Ug. Akk.

hadala 'to disappoint; leave unassisted' hdl

'to abstain from, be neglectful of

hddal

'to cease; desist'

haddlu

? etwa 'zuriickgehen'

ffi

» w

HRG Arab. Ge. ESA Syr. Aram. Heb. Ph. Ug.

haraga*(to go out, forth' hrg

harag

'to bring a legal action against'; hrgt 'raid'; Min. 'to go out' 'to come fearfully'

Akk.

HRS Arab. Ge. ESA Syr. Aram. Heb.

harra*

'to fall down'

Syr. Aram. Heb. Ph. Ug.

Akk.

harasa 'to tell lies'

Ph. Ug. Akk.

HZY Arab. Ge. ESA

HRR Arab. Ge. ESA

HRQ, Arab. Ge. ESA Syr. Aram. Heb.

g haraqa

'to rend; make a hole in; feign'

hrq h'raq haraq Acra^

'attack, invasion'? 'to cut' 'to cut' 'to gnash or grind (the teeth); to cut a gap'

hasa'a

'to be driven away' (}al-}ibcdd)

w £ £ £

o

O £2 ^

Ph. Ug. Akk.

haziya

'to be disgraced'

HS' Arab. Ge. ESA

~

Syr.

Syr.

hast

Aram.

Aram.

hasd

'to make atonement, absolve, purge, pardon, condone, spare, be gracious' 'to be scraped'; af. 'to revile, sneer at'

Heb. Ph.

Heb. Ph.

Ug. Akk.

Ug. Akk. hasafa*

'to bury; be eclipsed (moon)'

HSR Arab.

hasira

Ge.

hasra

ESA Syr. Aram. Heb. Ph. Ug. Akk.

hsr tisar hasar hdser ' hsr hasaru

HSB Arab. Ge.

husub

'to wander fr. right way; be deceived; suffer loss, lose, perish' (}an-naqs) 'depravatum, perditum esse' (sensu ethico) ? 'poorer class' 'to be wanting; fail, lose' 'to diminish; want, miss; be imperfect' 'to lack, need, be lacking, decrease' 'to be lacking' 'abbrechen, -blattern' 'rough wood, timber'

ESA Syr. Aram.

HSF Arab.

HSC Arab. Ge.

ESA h'basa

'chips of wood'

g j> H ^ ^ ^

Ge. ESA Syr. Aram. Heb. Ph. Ug. Akk.

Syr. Aram.

£^ °

w

hsp hasdpu

'hinschwinden, verwelken' 'abreissen'

hasaa

'to humble oneself

has'a

'sedari, silescere, quiescere'

Heb. Ph. Ug. Akk. HSY Arab.

Heb. Ph. Ug. Akk. hasiya

'to fear'

Ge. ESA Syr. Aram. Heb. Ph. Ug. Akk. HSS Arab.

Ge. ESA Syr. Aram. Heb. Ph. Ug. Akk.

HSS Arab.

hassa

'particularly, peculiarly'; has as a 'poverty'

Ge. ESA Syr. Aram. Heb. Ph. Ug. Akk. 'ihtassa 'to bestow upon'

HSF Arab.

H w p X g h

o o has of a

'to sew together'

2§ c«

Ge. ESA Syr. Aram. Heb. Ph. Ug. Akk. a*>

HSM Arab. Ge. ESA Syr. Aram. Heb. Ph. Ug. Akk.

hasm '

HDR Arab. Ge. ESA Syr. Aram. Heb. Ph. Ug. Akk.

hadir

'green herbs'

h"nra hasir jnhsrt

'moss'; OA hsr Vegetation, grass' 'green grass, herbage' 'herbage'

hasa/ertu

'Grimes'

HT' Arab. Ge. ESA Syr.' Aram,

hit'*

'an error'

hat'a ' h'ta hatd

*non reperire, non invenire'

h'sam

'adversary*

HDD Ar'ab. Ge. ESA 'to rival, contend jealously or zealously' Syr. Aram. Heb. Ph. Ug. Akk.

hadada

'to cut off thorns from a tree'

HDC Arab. Ge. ESA Syr. Aram. Heb. Ph. Ug. Akk.

hada'a

'to be humble, lowly*

HTB Arab. Ge. ESA Syr. Aram.

hdtaba

'to speak to, address*; hatb 'a matter, thing, business*

'to miss' 'to miss, go wrong'

^ ^

o 5 H ?o H g w

Heb. Ph.

hatah

'to miss (a goal or way)'

Heb. Ph.

Akk.

hatu

'sich verfehlen'

Akk.

HTT Arab.

hatta*

'to write' (atar yamtaddu mtiddduh)

HTF Arab.

hit

'to fix the boundaries of a piece of land'

Ug-

Ge. ESA

Ug. hatifa

'to snatch, snatch away'

ESA

hgf

'things seized, booty'?

Syr. Aram. Heb. Ph.

h'tap hatap hatap

'to take by force; seize, snatch' 'to seize, snatch' 'to catch, seize'

hatapu

'wegnehmen'?

Ge.

Syr. Aram. Heb. Ph.

Ug.

Ug.

Akk.

Akk.

d w

£ g

£ o

O ?

HTM Arab. Ge. ESA Syr.

hurtum* 'a proboscis, nose'

HTW Arab. Ge. ESA Syr.

hartumd

'a snout, proboscis, trunk'

Aram,

hartumd

'nose, beak'

Aram.

Heb. Ph. UgAkk.

hartom ' '

NH 'nose, beak'

—huttimmu ••

'Schnauze'

Heb. Ph. Ug. Akk.

hutuwat

'steps'

£

>— cr>

oo

HFT Arab.

hafata

'to speak in a lo\v voice'

HFD Arab.

hafada

'to lower'

hdpas

'to bend down, let (tail) hang'

Ge. ESA Syr.

Ge. ESA Syr.

Aram. Heb.

Aram. Heb.

Ph. Ug-

Ph. Ug.

Akk.

Akk.

habasu

'niederschlagen'?

HFY Arab.

hafiya*

'to be hidden with'

HFF Arab.

hqffd

'to be light'

Ge. ESA

Ge. ESA

Syr. Aram. Heb.

Syr. Aram. Heb.

Ph. Ug.

Ph. Ug.

Akk. HLD Arab. Ge. ESA Syr. Aram.

halada hallada (k)hld

'to be eternal, live for ever, remain for ever in a place' 'to last long' Min. 'in aeternum'

^ ^

g >

H * hepd hapd hapd

'to cover, hide' 'to cover, overlay' 'to cover'

Akk.

hapu

'verpacken'

HLS Arab. Ge. ESA Syr. Aram.

'ahlasa*

'to purify' (tanqiyatu s-say3 "watahdlbuh}\ halasa 'to arrive at'

hales h"las

pa. 'to take spoil, seize' 'to take off, undress; withdraw'

^ ^ w

Heb. Ph. Ug. Akk.

heled

HLT Arab. Ge. ESA Syr. Aram.

halata

'to mix'

h'iat h"lat

'to mix' 'to make a paste'; itpa. 'to be mixed up, to mingle' "

Heb. Ph.

'duration; world'

Heb. ' Ph. Ug. Akk. HLC Arab. Ge. ESA Syr. Aram.

halas 'his

'to draw off or out; withdraw' 'to deliver' (id. BH pi.)

hala.su

'auskammen, auspressen'

halaa

'to draw off, put off'

shf

Qat. 'detrahere fecit, demisit' d w

ug.

Heb. Ph.

Ug.

g B

Akk.

Akk.

n

HLF

halafa

Arab. Ge. ESA Syr.

halafa hlf h'lap

Aram.

halap

Heb.

halap

'to come after, succeed' ('an

yagfa say3 bada say3 yaqum maqdmah] 'transire; elabi; transire, perire' h. 'to act as deputy' 'to exchange, substitute'; etpa. 'to change in turn' BA 'to pass over'; Targ. 'to be gone'; pa. 'to exchange'; OA hip 'successor' 'to pass on or away; pass through'; hif. 'to substitute (cause to succeed)'

HLF

p

o

hildf

Arab.

'the contrary; opposite' (3at-

^

tagayyur]

™

Ge. ESA Syr. Aram. Heb.

helep

'reversion' ^

en

Ph.

hip

'to go away, disappear, vanish'; Pi. 'to succeed'; hlpt 'payment'

Akk.

halpu

'Ersatzmann' (< Aram, halpa)

Akk.

Arab.

halfa

'after, behind' (hildf quddarri)

HLQ Arab.

Ug.

-

Ge. ESA Syr.

'

Ph.

;±

Ug.

halaqa*

'to create, produce'

Ge. ESA Syr.

Aram.

Aram.

o

Heb. Ph. Ug. Akk.

Heb. Ph. Ug. Akk.

g § @ H

HLL Arab.

halil

'a friend'

HLW Arab.

Ge.

Ge.

ESA

ESA

Syr. Aram.

Heb. Ph. Ug. Akk.

Syr. Aram.

Heb. Ph. Ug. Akk.

hald fw)

'to pass a\vay; be free, alone, clear'

hit

'funeral chamber'

$

w

HMD Arab. Ge. ESA Syr. Aram. Heb. Ph. Ug. Akk.

hdmid

'extinct; dead'

HMS — Arab. Ge ESA Syr. Aram. Heb. Ph. Ug. Akk.

hams —

'five'

HMT Arab. Ge. ESA Syr. A Aram.

hatnt

'bitter'

hmt

? 'pestilence' ? 'sickness'

HMR Arab. Ge. ESA Syr. Aram. Heb. Ph. Ug. Akk. HMS — •

Arab. Ge. ESA Syr. Aram. Heb. Ph. Ug. Akk.

hams hms homes hames hames hms Am/ hamsu

HNS Arab. Ge. ESA Syr. A Aram.

humur

'coverings, women's veils'

mahmasa — .

'hunger' »

hms

'to obliterate a writing on a stela'?

hunnas

'the stars in general'

3 w rft X £ ^ O 2§ S

>-^ °^ ^J

Heb. Ph. Ug. Akk. HNQ Arab. Ge. ESA Syr. Aram. Heb. Ph. Ug. Akk.

HWD Arab. Ge. ESA Syr. Aram. Heb. Ph. Ug. Akk.

Heb. Ph. Ug. Akk. munhaniq

'that \vhich is strangled'

hanaqa

'suflfocare; strangulare'

henaq hanaq hanaq hnq (iltm) hnqtm handqu

'to choke, stifle, suffocate' 'to strangle' 'to strangle' 'to strangle' 'the two strangling (goddesses)' 'pressen, (er)wiirgen'

hdda (w)

'to plunge into; wade; engage in'

HWR Arab. Ge. ESA Syr. Aram. Heb. Ph. Ug. Akk.

HWF Arab. Ge. ESA Syr. Aram. Heb. Ph. Ug. Akk.

~ co

huwdr

'a lo\ving'

g > ^ ^

hdfa (a)

'to fear, dread; apprehend'

hapu

'sich furchten'

3 s

w

HWL Arab. Ge. ESA Syr. Aram. Heb. Ph. Ug. Akk.

hdl

'maternal uncle'

hi hdld

'avunculus' (often in m.pr.n.) 'a mother's brother, maternal uncle'

halu

'Onkel miitterlicherseits'

HWN Arab. Ge. ESA Syr. Aram. Heb. Ph.

hdna (w) 'to deceive, be unfaithful to; violate'

HWL Arab. Ge. ESA Syr. Aram. Heb. Ph. Ug. Akk.

hazvzvala

'to besto\v favours on' (taahhudu s-say})

H

Ug. Akk. HYB Arab. Ge. ESA

HWY haivin Arab. Ge. ESA hwy Syr. Aram. Heb. Ph.

'utterly ruinous; waste; fallen do\vn' 'to make s.th. void, unnecessary'

w

£ | > o

O |

Ug. Akk. hdba (y) 'to be disappointed, frustrated' ('adam fa'ida wa-hirmdn) hyb

'to be lacking, not present; be in arrears of debt; to fail (rain)'; 'to neglect'?

HYR Arab. Ge. ESA

hayr*

'good, agreeable'

her hyr

'bonus, praestans, egregius' 'nobleman, noble' ^to

Syr. Aram. Heb. Ph. Ug. Akk. HYT Arab. Ge. ESA Syr. Aram. Heb. Ph.

Syr. Aram. Heb. Ph. Ug. Akk. hayt

'thread'

'emit ' hutd hutd hut

'cord' (< Arab.) 'a thread, string' 'thread' 'thread, cord, line'

ug.

ug.

Akk. HYL Ge. ESA Syr. Aram. Heb. Ph.

Ug. Akk.

HYL Arab. Ge. ESA Syr. Aram. Heb. Ph.

Akk. hayl*

'horses, horse; cavahry'

~ °

hdru

'erwahlen; aussuchen'

hayyala* talazvwun)

'to make to appear' (haraka fi

g > ^ *

g

| w

D'B Arab.

dab

'a state, custom, manner, wont'; dd'ibayn 'both of \vhom diligently perform their work'

DBB Arab.

dabba*

'beast of burden' (haraka cala l-ard 'ahaffu mina l-mast)

debb

'ursus, ursa'

debbd dubbd dabab

'bear' 'bear' 'to move gently, glide, glide over'; dob 'bear'

dbb

'moved, crept (animal)'; 'oso; bestia, animal mitico' 'Bar' (< WS)

Ge.

Ge.

ESA

ESA

Syr. Aram. Heb.

Syr. Aram. Heb.

Ph.

Ph.

Ug.

Ug.

Akk.

Akk.

dabbu, dabu

d w

g ?S

DBR Arab. Ge.

dubur

'the back, hinder part' (dhiru s-say3 wa halfuh] tadabbara 'to lie on one's back'; daber 'adytum (sanctum sanctorum)'

ESA Syr.

Aram. Heb. Ph. Ug. Akk.

DBR Arab. Ge.

ESA Syr.

(fbir dbr dbr duppuru

'hindmost chamber' 'innermost room' 'folgen'; 'turned the back' ? 'sich entfernen'

Aram. Heb. Ph. Ug. Akk.

dabbara

d'bar debar dbr dbr dbr

'to dispose, manage, govern' .

> o

O 2

'to lead (a flock) to pasture; lead, take, drive; guide, govern, manage; take wife' 'to seize, take, lead, drive' Pi. 'to manage' 'to lead' 'to manage'

^j

DTR Arab. Ge. ESA Syr. Aram. Heb. Ph. UgAkk.

muddatir 'wrapped in a garment' (tada'ufu DHR say3 wa-tandduduh badih eald baed)Ara.b. Ge. ESA Syr. Aram. desen 'what is hidden' Heb. Ph. Ug. Akk.

duhur

'a repelling'

;~j

dahara

'repudio dimittere, repudiare'

DHD Arab. Ge.

'adhada*

'to \veaken, nullify; condemn'

dahd (d/zv)*

'to spread out, expand' (bast zva-tamhid]

dahda

'labi, lapsare in lubrico, pede falli'

5 H ^d

deha tfhd ddhd dhy

'to cast off' 'to thrust, push, knock down' 'to push; strike; thrust' (< Aram.) Pun.'to break'; 'to drive away'

» w

dahala

'to enter'

N3

n

ESA Syr. Aram. Heb. Ph. UgAkk. DHR Arab. Ge. ESA Syr. Aram.

DHW Arab. Ge.

ESA Syr. Aram. Heb. Ph. Ug. Akk. ddhir

'that wh. is small, vile, of no account'

DHL Arab. Ge. ESA Syr. Aram.

H

Heb. Ph. Ug. Akk. DHN Arab. Ge. ESA Syr. Aram. Heb. Ph. Ug. Akk.

Heb. Ph. Ug. Akk. duhdn

'smoke'

DR3 Arab. Ge. ESA Syr. Aram. Heb. Ph. Ug. Akk.

daraa

'to drive off; put off; avert'

dera'on

'aversion, abhorrence'

d

durru

'abstossen'?

w

g B > o o

DRG Arab. Ge. ESA Syr. Aram, pearl'? Heb. Ph. Ug. Akk.

daraga

'a step, degree (of honour)'

DRR Arab. Ge. ESA Syr. Ararn.

durriyy

'shining'

darga

'to rise in rank' (< Arab.)

darara

'clare luxit, radiavit'

darga darga

'a step, stair, degree' 'step, stairs, ladder'

dura

'(name of) a jewel, mother of

madregd

'a steep place'

Heb. Ph.

dar

'pearl'?, 'mother of pearl'?

daraggu

^ _ ? 'Weg(spur)', durgu 'inneres Gebirgstal'; dardku 'nachfolgen'?

Ug. Akk.

(§ ™

|

— oo

DRR Arab. Ge. ESA

DRK Arab. Ge. ESA

'adraka

'to overtake; reach; attain unto'

madrak drk

'threshold; entrance' 'to overtake by pursuit'

Syr.

Syr.

derek

Aram. Heb. Ph. Ug. Akk.

Aram. Heb. Ph. Ug. Akk.

derak ddrak drk drkt darku, derku

'to walk, tread'; af. 'to follow closely, overtake, attain' 'to tread, stamp, walk; overtake' 'to tread, march' 'to tread' 'rule, dominion' 'folgender'; daraku 'nachfolgen'?

DSR Arab.

dusur*

'palm-tree

DRY Arab.

midrdr 'an abundant rain' (tazvalludu say3 can say3) dn

(fror dr dr dara.ru

'plenty > harvest'?; 'irrigation rights'? mdn 'controller of irrigation'?

'flowing; free run, liberty' Pun. 'fluidite'? 'fleissen' etwa 'freien Lauf bekommen'

dard (yj'to know'

Ge. ESA Syr. Aram. Heb.

Ge. ESA Syr. Aram. Heb.

Ph.

Ph.

Ug. Akk.

Ug. Akk.

DSS Arab. Ge. ESA

dassa* 'to hide' dassa dss

'cacher, dissimuler' 'a person who conceals, hides (s.th.)'

DSY Arab. Ge. ESA

fibres'

^ ^

g ^ *

Sjj g w

dassd

'to corrupt'

Syr. Aram.

Syr. Aram.

Heb. Ph. Ug. Akk.

Heb. Ph. Ug. Akk.

D" Arab. Ge. ESA Syr. Aram. Heb. Ph.

da"a

dsy

'to push; drive away with violence' DCW dad (w) Arab. Ge. ESA (fw Syr. Aram. Heb. ddca Ph.

Ug. Akk.

pa. and af. part, 'what is deteriorated'?

'to call upon; invoke; invite'

'announce, proclamation'

'to ask, desire'

Ug. Akk.

| ^ g ^ > £

g § c v

J

DF Arab. Ge.

dif

3

'warmth'

C

DF Arab. Ge.

ESA

ESA

Syr. Aram.

Syr. Aram.

Heb. Ph. Ug. Akk.

Heb. Ph. Ug. Akk.

dafaa

'to pay over to; repel; avert'

dqf'a

'trudere, pro-, detrudere, prosternere'

~ ^

DFQ

Ge. ESA Syr. Aram. Heb.

dafiq

'that \vhich pours forth, or is poured' (daf'u s-say} quduman}

dfq

'to sue, prosecute'

depaq dapaq

pa. 'to knock' 'to beat, knock (in driving, drive severely or cruelly)'

Ph. Ug. Akk. DLK Arab. Ge. ESA Syr.

duluk

'the declining of the sun'

Aram. Heb. Ph.

ESA

dakka

'to pound into dust'

Ge. ESA Syr. Aram. Heb.

nfdakta dakkek ddkd

'mortar' 'to crush' 'to crush' poet

Ph. Ug. Akk.

dk dakdku

'to pound, mix' 'zermalmen'

dalla

'to show, point out; guide'

dll dallel

'to guide, point out' 'to designate, mention, specify'; af. 'to show'

DLL Arab. Ge. ESA Syr. Aram. Heb. Ph.

Ug. Akk. DLW Arab. Ge.

DKK

Ug. Akk. dalw*

'a bucket'

delw

'aquarius' (< Arab.)

DMDM damdama Arab. Ge.

ESA

'to obliterate, destroy'

^ ^

o > ^ * ^ § w

Syr.

dela

Aram,

d'li

Heb.

dala

'to draw water'; dawld 'bucket, water-pot' 'bucket'; d'la 'to be suspended; draw, raise' 'to draw (water)'; deli 'a bucket'

Ph.

Ug. Akk.

Syr. Aram. Heb.

dmm

'to maltreat, destroy, break, crush'; nif. 'to be destroyed, cut off'

'tears'

Ph.

Ug. dalu

'(Schopf-)Eimer'

Akk.

DMR Arab. Ge. ESA Syr. Aram. Heb. Ph. Ug. Akk.

dammara

'to destroy'

dam'

dammara dmr

'to kick, tap' Qat. 'detruire'

DMC Arab. Ge. ESA Syr. Aram. Heb. Ph. Ug. Akk.

dmc dimtu

'to shed tears'

DMG Arab. Ge. ESA Syr. Aram. Heb.

damaga

DMW Arab. Ge. ESA Syr. Aram. Heb.

dam

'blood'

rfmm

wohl ein Epitheton Ba'al's

'to destroy'

s

w £ ^ > r

dem'd f

flfzm fl dim'a

dam dm, dmw d'md dema dam

O ? S

^ ^

Ph. Ug. Akk. DNW Arab. Ge. ESA Syr. Aram. Heb. Ph. Ug. Akk.

dand (w)

'to be near' (}al-muqdraba)

dny dend

'to draw near, approach' 'to adhere'; etpe. 'to assent, follow, obey'

dny

'herankommen'

Ph. Ug. Akk.

edrnn dm damn

(Pun.)

DHR Arab. Ge. ESA Syr.

dahr*

'time' ('al-galaba wa-l-qahr]

dhr

'to burn, destroy'

Aram. Heb. Ph. Ug. Akk.

~ oo

o j> H » H

DHM Arab. Ge. ESA Syr. Aram. Heb. Ph. Ug. Akk.

'idhdmma 'to be of blackish tint'

da'amu

'dunkelfarbig sein'

DHN Arab. Ge. ESA Syr.

duhn

'butter; anointing oil'

d'han

Aram. Heb. Ph. Ug. Akk.

d'han

'to grow fat, be anointed'; duhdnd 'fat; fatness' 'to be fat'; dahana 'fat'

w

DHW Arab. Ge. ESA

}

adha

'more grievous' (}isabatu s-say} bis-say3 bi-md Id yasurr]

Syr. Aram. Heb. Ph. Ug.

ddhd

'to fear'

Akk.

DWL Arab. Ge. ESA Syr. Aram. Heb. Ph. Ug. Akk.

dawala 'to cause interchange of good/ bad. . .'

DWR Arab. Ge. ESA

ddra (TV)*

Syr. Aram.

dayar dur

Heb. Ph. Ug.

dur dr dr

ddr dr

Akk.

duru

DWM Arab. Ge. ESA Syr. Aram.

ddma (w)

Heb. Ph. Ug. Akk.

'to go round' ('ihdaqu s-say' bissay' min hawdlayh) 'aetas (hominum)' (< Heb.) 'time, occasion; generation, people; beduin camp, clan' pa. 'to go about; dwell' BA 'to dwell'; pa. 'to go around, peddle' 'to dwell'; dur 'circle'; dor 'lodgings' 'assembly; family; perpetuity' 'circulo'; 'assemblage; generation'; Haus, Dynastic' '(Ring-, Stadt-)Mauer'; daru '(< Can.) Menschalter, 60 Jahre' 'to endure; continue; remain'

dwm

'lasting, permanent, forever'

dum dumd

Targ. 'to speak in a low voice; suspect' 'silence'

dm

Verbleiben'

jjjj w

£ « i

O § ^

^a CO

DWN Arab. Ge. ESA

Syr. Aram. Heb. Ph. Ug. Akk.

duna

'beneath; besides; except; etc.'

b-dwn

Min. 'sub, subter'

dwn

'to be lowly'

dnt

'baseness'

DYN Arab. Ge. ESA

dayn

'debt'

3

pi. 'monetary penalties, obligations (in general)'; D. 'to impose a fine'?

dyn

^ °

Syr. Aram. Heb. Ph. Ug. Akk.

o w X> H ffi W

Arab, Ge. ESA Syr. Aram, Heb. Ph.

da, (hd)di(hi) ze, zd dn, dt hade, had da ze, zu z, zn, Z\

'this; that' (dem. pron.) Arab. 'hie, haec' (dem. pron.) 'this' 'this' (f.) BA 'this'; OA z' 'this'; hada/i (f.) 'this' 'this' 'this'; Pun. h'z

D'B

dfb

'a wolf

Ge. ESA Syr. Aram. Heb. Ph.

ze*b

'hyaena'

dibd deba z*'eb

'a wolf 'a wolf 'a wolf

zibu

'Schakal; Geier'

dubdb

'afly'

>z, h> Ug. Akk.

Awrf

D'M Arab. Ge.

mad'um

sg. and pi. dem. pron.

'despised'

Ug. Akk. DBB Arab. Ge.

ESA

ESA

Syr. Aram. Heb. Ph.

Syr. Aram. Heb. Ph.

d

w

« >

£#zA

0

debdbd dib'bd ^bub

Ug.

Ug.

dbb

Akk.

Akk.

zumbu, zubbu

DBH Arab.

dabaha

'to cut throat; slay; sacrifice'

DBDB Arab.

mudabdab fro'

Ge. ESA

zabha dbh

'mactare; sacrificare' 'to sacrifice; kill, murder'

Ge. ESA

zababa

O g

'moved about, wavering to and (nazvsu s-say'i l-muallaqfi l-hawa?} 'to hover, soar' 3o

Syr. Aram, Heb. Ph. Ug. Akk.

debah d'bah zabah zbh dbh zibu

DHR Arab. Ge.

'iddahara 'to store up for future use'

ESA Syr. Aram. Heb. Ph. Ug. Akk.

dhr

DRW Arab. Ge. ESA Syr. Aram. Heb. Ph. Ug. Akk.

durriya

zehr

zarzara drr dar

'to slay, slaughter, sacrifice' BA 'to sacrifice' 'to slaughter for sacrifice' 'to slaughter' 'to sacrifice' 'Opfer'

'monumentum sepulchrale, sepulchrum' 'treasurer'?

'progeny, offspring' (latafa wa-ntisdr) 'dispergere, dissipere' hif. 'to scatter, disperse (an enemy)' 'enfanter'

Syr. Aram. Heb. Ph. Ug. Akk. DR5 Arab. Ge.

^ *°

zababu

'etre en fureur, delirer'

daraa

'to create, produce; multiply' (. . . ka-s-say3 yubdar wa-yuzrae] o £ H & H | w

ESA Syr. Aram. Heb. Ph. Ug. Akk. DRC Arab. Ge. ESA Syr. Aram. Heb. Ph. Ug. Akk.

dira

'a cubit, length of the arm'

mazra't drc d'ra'a derac aerocf

'brachium' in fragmentary context 'arm, shoulder' BA 'arm' 'arm; shoulder; strength'

drc dura'u

'arm' 'arm, foreleg' (< WS)

DRY Arab. Ge. ESA Syr. Aram,

dara (y)

Heb.

zara

'to snatch away; scatter' (}as-say} yatasdqat mutafarriqan) 'spargere, dispergere, dissipare' 'to sow'; rndf 'sown fields' 'to scatter, sprinkle, winnow corn' I. 'to scatter, strew; winnow' II. 'to carry away, lift, bear sustain' 'to scatter, fan, winnow'

Ph. Ug. Akk.

dry zaru

'to winnow, scatter, hack to pieces' 'worfeln, streuen'

zaraw/ya df d'rd d'ra

DCN Arab. Ge. ESA Syr. Aram.

mud'in

'one who is submissive'

Heb. Ph. Ug. Akk.

d w r

DQN Arab. Ge. ESA Syr. Aram,

'adqan

dqn daqnd diqnd

Heb. Ph. Ug. Akk.

DKR Arab. Ge. ESA

dakara*

Tore part, vestibule'; b-dqn 'in front of 'chin, beard' 'beard, bearded chin, hair growth'

DKR Arab. Ge. ESA Syr. Aram.

zaqan zqn dqn ziqnu

'beard; chin' 'beard' 'beard; chin' 'Bart'

Heb. Ph. Ug. Akk.

zakar zkr dkr zakaru

dakar*

'male'

DLL Arab. Ge. ESA

dalla*

'to be abject; humbled'

zalla dll

'to be stupid' tp. 'to be humbled, abased'

dkr

'chins'

'male'

zakara dkr dekar dikron

'to remember; make mention of (dakartu s-say}, hildf nasttuh) 'meminisse, recordari, reminisci' 'to mention; make known' 'to remember' BA 'memorandum, memo'; Targ. dekar 'to remember' 'to remember' 'memory' 'acordarse, mencionar, nombrar' 'aussprechen, nennen, reden, schworen'

>< ^ r

O ^ &,

i— oo

Syr. Aram, Heb. Ph. Ug. Akk.

Syr. Aram. Heb. Ph. Ug. Akk.

zal glal zalal

'to weigh light; be despised' 'to be of little value, disregarded' 'to be light; be worthless'

DMM madmum* 'abused; disgraced' (hildfu Arab. l-hamd] Ge. ' ESA Syr. Aram. Heb. Ph.

DNB Arab. Ge. ESA Syr. Aram. Heb. Ph.

danb

'a crime; fault; sin'

Ug. Akk.

Ug. Akk.

DNB Arab. Ge. ESA Syr. Aram. Heb. Ph.

Ug. Akk.

dekrd dikrd zakar

'male' 'male, man' 'male'

dkr zikaru

'animal macho' 'mannlich; Mann, Mannchen'

danub

'a portion, lot' ('al-hazz wa~ n-nastb)

DHB Arab. Ge. ESA Syr. Aram. Heb. Ph.

Ug. Akk.

££ *•

g j> g *

3 | w

dahaba

'to go away; depart' (mudiyyu s-say')

dhb

'an exit, outflow channel(s)'?

DHB Arab. Ge.

dahab

'gold' (husn wa-naddrd)

ESA

dhb

ESA

Syr. Aram. Heb. Ph.

dahbd dehab z,ahab

Syr. Aram. Heb. Ph.

Ug. Akk.

DHL Arab. Ge.

'anzahlala

'to forget' (sagI can say3 bi-dur 'azv gayrih] 'languescere, emolliri, dissolvi'

'adhel

Trapper de stupeur'

dahala* ;

Ug. Akk. H

Arab,

du*

Ge. ESA Syr. Aram. Heb. Ph. Ug.

DWD ddda (w) Arab. Ge. ESA dwwdt Syr. Aram. Heb. Ph. Ug. dd

Akk.

Akk.

DWQ ddqa (u>)* Arab.

'endo\ved with, having'

'to taste; experience'

Ge. ESA Syr.

DWC Arab.

da a (y)

'to drive away (flocks)'

n.pl. 'pastureland'

w

w | > o

O § 'herd'

'to become known'

Ge. ESA duq

'to gaze, observe, look into'

Syr.

|

—' Cji

Aram,

Heb. Ph. Ug. Akk.

dug

'to examine carefully'; pa. 'to grind, chew carefully'

Aram.

jr£ ^

Heb. Ph. Ug. Akk.

o w * 3

ew

R'S Arab. Ge.

ESA Syr. Aram, Heb. Ph. Ug. Akk.

R'Y Arab. Ge. ESA Syr. Aram. Heb. Ph.

ra's

'a head'

ra's r>s

re'ya r> fhd

ra'a r"y

Ge. ESA Syr. Aram.

'compassionate'

rubbamd*

'frequently, often' (luzumu s-say} wa-l-iqama calayfi)

Syr. Aram. Heb. Ph. Ug. Akk. 'to see, look; perceive; think; know' 'videre; spectare, adspicere, intueri' 'to see' 'to watch closely, spy out, be on the look out for' 'to see' 'eyesight'

Ug. Akk. RBS

rauf

ESA

lisa re's rfs r>s re's resu rad (a)

R'F Arab. Ge.

RBB Ge. ESA Syr. Aram. Heb. Ph.

rdbab rb

'to be, or become, many, much' 'multitude'

rabata

'to confirm; strenghten'

fbat

'to hold tight, grip'

H ffi

w

^ « > O ^ ^

Ug. Akk. tarabbasa* 'to wait, expect'

RBT

Ge. ESA Syr. Aram.

£o -j

Heb. Ph. Ug. Akk.

rabasu

'to lie in ambush (for)' (witches, daemons)

RBC Arab. Ge. ESA Syr. Aram.

}

'four'

Heb. Ph. Ug. Akk.

J

RTC Arab. Ge.

rata'a

ESA Syr. Aram. Heb. Ph. Ug. Akk.

arbac

}

arbac 'rbe 3 arbac 'arbcf d7$af W 3 arbf arba'u

rat a

'to pass time pleasantly, enjoy o.s.' 'prospere agere, bene succedere'

'

Heb. Ph. Ug. Akk.

£ o=

RBW Arab. Ge. ESA Syr. Aram.

rabd (w)

'to increase; grow; swell'

rbw fba. rb}

Heb. Ph. Ug. Akk.

rafoz

'to cause to grow > cultivate' 'to grow; increase' Sf. 'to multiply'; fba BA 'to grow great' 'to be or become much'

fr^/ ra/>w

'interest, usury' 'gross sein, werden'

RTQ Arab. Ge.

ratq

'anything close, solid, impervious'

ritqa rdtaq

'chain-like fence, twisted hedge' 'to bind'; ratoq 'chain'

rtqt

'dichte Wolken'?

ESA Syr. Aram. Heb. Ph. Ug. Akk.

o jj£ 3 yo H w w

RTL Ge. ESA Syr. Aram. Heb. Ph. Ug. Akk.

rattala

'to repeat w. distinct enunciation'

RGG Ge. ESA Syr. Aram. Heb. Ph. Ug. Akk.

ragga*

'to move; shake'

RGS Arab. Ge. ESA Syr. Aram. Heb. Ph.

rigs

'punishment; indignation; doubt'

ragaa

'to return, turn back, turn off'

rg

'a return'?

fgas fgas rdgas

'to rage, be in an uproar' BA 'to be in tumult' 'to be in tumult or commotion'

RGC Arab. Ge. ESA Syr. Aram. Heb. Ph.

rigl*

'a foot'

H

Ug. Akk. RGF Arab. Ge. ESA Syr. Aram. Heb.

w r X g ^ O * %

Ug. Akk. ragafa

'to shake violently; tremble'

ragafa

'to fall to the ground (fruit, leaves)'

r'gap

'to stir, shake'

RGL Arab. Ge. ESA Syr. Aram. Heb.

3

egr rgl regld fgal regel

^ ^o

Ph. Ug. Akk. RGL Arab. Ge.

ragul

'a man'

Ph. Ug. Akk.

mrgl

'footman' riglu

RGM Arab. Ge.

ragama*

'to stone'

ragama

'male precari, maledicere, exsecrari, diris devovere'

ESA Syr. Aram. Heb.

ESA Syr. Aram. Heb.

r'gam regam rdgam

'to stone' 'to stone' 'to stone; kill by stoning'

Ph. Ug. Akk.

Ph. Ug. Akk.

rgm ragdmu

'berichten, reden' 'rufen; gerichtlich klagen'

^ °

g > ^ ^ H

RGW Arab. Ge. ESA Syr. Aram. Heb. Ph.

Ug. Akk.

raga (w)

'to hope; fear'

RGW Arab. Ge. ESA Syr. Aram. Heb. Ph.

Ug. Akk.

}

argd3

'sides'; 'arga (IV) 'to put off, postpone'

w

RHB Arab. Ge.

rahuba 'to be ample, spacious' rehba

'amplum esse'

ESA Syr. Aram. Heb. Ph. Ug. Akk.

rhb

'width'

fhab rdhab rhb rhb '

'ambitious, greedy' 'to be, or grow, wide, large' yif. 'to widen' 'weit'

RHM Arab. Ge. ESA Syr.

RHL Arab. Ge.

rahl

ESA Syr, Aram. Heb. Ph. Ug. Akk.

rhl rahl

RHM Arab. Ge. ESA Syr.

}

Aram. Heb.

rahfmd rehem

Aram. Heb.

rahima 'to be merciful' ('ar-riqqa zva-l-catf wa-r-rafa) . . . mehra 'misereri, misericordem esse' rhm tp. 'to have mercy' fhem 'to delight in, desire'; etpa. 'to have mercy' rhm Sf. 'friend'; rahamim BA 'compassion' rdham 'to love'; pi. 'to have compassion'

Ph. Ug. Akk.

rhm remu

'to be kind' 'sich erbarmen, Mitleid haben'

Ug. Akk.

ruha'

'a gentle wind'

'arhawa

'patefacere, aperire, reserare'

RD' Arab. Ge. ESA

RH' Arab. Ge. ESA

'

rahala

'a saddle-bag'; rihdl 'a journey; travelling' 'sternere, insternere (jumentum sella, clitellis, tegumento)' 'equipment (e.g. saddle, etc.)' 'heavy bagage'

g

arhdm

'\vombs'

w w ~ o > Q

rahmd

O ^ ™

Ph. remu riff*

'a helper'

rad' rf

'auxilium'; radd'i 'adjutor' h. 'to help, aid'; 'rtf n.pl. 'helper'

^ ~

Syr.

Aram. Heb. Ph. UgAkk.

RDD Arab. Ge. ESA Syr. Aram. Heb.

Syr.

rehu

'begatten, zeugen; sich ergiessen'?

radda* 'to drive back; avert; restore; refer; take an oath' . redddde 'stubbornness, obstinacy' rdida fdad rddad

'a bridal veil' 'to beat, stamp, stretch' 'to beat out; beat down (fig.)'

Ph. Ug.

Aram. Heb. Ph. Ug. Akk.

RDF Arab. Ge. ESA Syr. Aram. Heb.

fda

fda ridda

'to journey, travel, go forward; instruct, chastise'; pa. 'to pound; lead'; af. 'to lead'; rdduya 'traveller, instructor' 'to chastise; drive, rule' NH pi. 'to drive, chase'

redu

'begleiten, (mit sich) fiihren; gehen; Tiere fiihren, treiben; verfolgen'

radifa

'to come behind'

rdf fdap fdap radap

'to 'to 'to 'to

pursue'? chase away; pursue' run, pursue' pursue, chase, persecute'

Ph. Ug.

Akk.

radadu

Verfolgen'

Akk.

rapadu

'(umher)laufen'; radapu 'verfolgen' (< Aram., Heb.)

RDM Arab. Ge. ESA Syr.

radm

'a strong wall'

RDY Arab. Ge. ESA Syr.

radiya*

'to perish' (ramyun *aw taramiri)

^ N0

g > « £] * ^ § w

Aram. Heb. Ph.

Aram. Heb. Ph.

Ug. Akk. RDL Arab. Ge. ESA Syr. Aram. Heb. Ph. Ug.

Ug. Akk. 'ardal

'vilest, most abject'

Akk. RSL Arab. Ge. ESA Syr. Aram. Heb. Ph. Ug. Akk.

RSH Arab. Ge. ESA Syr. Aram. Heb. Ph. Ug.

rdsih

'firmly established'

H w r1 X p F

Akk. 'arsala

'to send'

rsl

'a messenger'

RSW Arab. Ge. ESA Syr. Aram. Heb. Ph. Ug. Akk.

8 * TJ

}

arsa*

'to fix firmly' (tubdt)

'arsaw/ya rsy

'appellere in portum (navem)' 'to lie heavy (on s.o.)'

£

CD OO

RSD Arab. Ge. ESA Syr. Aram. Heb. Ph. Ug. Akk.

rasada 'to walk in the right \vay'

RSD Arab. Ge. ESA Syr. Aram. Heb. Ph. Ug. Akk.

rasad

'a lying in wait; an ambush'

rsd

'to watch, keep an eye on'

fsad rasad

'to lie in wait, watch' pi. 'to watch stealthily; w. hostility'

rasddu

'lauernd beobachten'?

RSS Arab. Ge. ESA Syr. Aram. Heb. Ph. Ug. Akk.

marsus 'firmly and compactly united'

RDC Arab. Ge. ESA Syr. Aram. Heb. Ph. Ug. Akk.

3

ardaea

'to suckle'

RDY Arab. Ge. ESA Syr.

radiya

'to be content, pleased; to choose'

rath retb

'that which is green'; rutab 'fresh ripe dates' 'succus'; retbat 'humiditas'

rdw r'ca

'to satisfy, content'; rdy 'to consent' 'to be contented, pleased, willing'

RTB Arab. Ge. ESA Syr.

fteb

'to be moist'

rsd

'to give legal effect to; guide'

£± ^

o 5 H £ H g w

Aram.

rqy

Heb.

rasa

Sf. 'to please'; f'd 'to desire, take delight in; welcome' 'to be pleased with; accept favourably'

Ph. Ug. Akk.

rsy

'gnadig behandeln'

RCB Arab. Ge. ESA Syr. Aram. Heb.

rub

'fear, terror'

Aram.

r'tiba

Heb.

rateb

Ph. Ug. Akk.

ratabu

'feucht, frisch sein, werden'

rad*

'thunder' (haraka wa-ttirab)

ra'ad

'tremor'

RCD Arab. Ge. ESA Syr. Aram. Heb.

'moist, succulent, fresh, green'; Ithpe. 'to be green moist' 'to be moist'; NH hif. 'to be green, succulent'

d w

'etf'ed re'ad ra'ad

'to become flexible, pliable' 'to tremble'; pa. 'to shake' 'to tremble, quake'; NH hif. 'to shake'

w « £ o

Ph.

Ph.

0

Ug. Akk.

Ug. Akk.

^

RCY Arab. Ge. ESA Syr. Aram. Heb. Ph.

ra'a (a) 'to pasture; to observe aright' re'ya rcy reCa recd racd rc

'pascere, pastum ducere' ti. 'to graze' 'to feed, tend, herd; graze' 'to feed; graze' 'to pasture, tend, graze' 'shepherd'

RGB Arab. Ge. ESA Syr. Aram. Heb. Ph.

ragiba

'to desire'

rehba

'esurire'

ra'abtanuta ra'eb

'voracity, greed' 'to be hungry'

^ 01

Ug. Akk.

rcy re'u

RGD Arab. Ge. ESA Syr.

ragadan* 'abundantly'

recidd

'herdsman' 'weiden (Vieh) hiiten'

'tender, flexible'; ra'duta 'suppleness, softness, freshness'

Ug. Akk.

rgb

'to be hungry'

RGM Arab. Ge. ESA Syr.

murdgam

'a place of refuge'

^r ^

Aram. Heb. Ph.

Aram. Heb. Ph.

g

Akk.

Akk.

H

Ug.

£

Ug.

W

RFT Arab. Ge. ESA Syr. Aram, Heb. Ph. Ug. Akk.

rufdt

ripta npot

'dust, anything broken small'

? 'flat cake, bread' ? 'some grain or fruit'

RFT Arab. Ge. ESA Syr. Aram. Heb. Ph. Ug. Akk.

rafat

'carnal intercourse' (hull kaldm yustahyd min 'izhdrih] '

repte

'slag; refuse'

repes

'mire'

rps rupustu

'Schlamm-, Sumppfeld' 'Auswurf

^ ^

w

RFD Arab. Ge. ESA Syr. Aram. Heb. Ph.

rifd

'a gift'

rfd

'to support, help'; rfd 'votive object'

rdpad

'to spread'; fpidd 'support'

Ug. Akk.

RFRF Arab. Ge. ESA Syr. Aram. Heb. Ph.

rafraf

'a pillow'

murtafaq

'a couch'; rafiq 'a companion, friend' 'superliminare, limen'; merfdq 'locus accubitus; refectorium; convivium, • i compotatio

Ug. Akk. H

RFC Arab. Ge.

rafaca

'to raise up, exalt, lift up'

RFQ Arab. Ge.

ESA Syr.

ESA Syr.

Aram. Heb.

Aram. Heb.

Ph. Ug. Akk. RQB Arab.

rpc

'sich erheben'?

raqaba

'to observe; respect, regard' (intisdb li-murdcdti say')

marfaq

w

£ « >1 t""

o

o marp'qd rdpaq

'elbow' hitpa. 'to support oneself, lean'; NH marpaq 'elbow'

raqabafn.)

'a neck; a slave'

rqb

'serfs'

^ ^

Ph. Ug. Akk. RQB Arab.

Ge.

Ge.

ESA

ESA

£ ^

Syr. Aram. Heb. Ph.

Syr. Aram. Heb. Ph.

Ug. Akk.

Ug. Akk.

RQD Arab. Ge.

ruqud* 'sleeping'

RQM Arab. Ge.

ESA

rqd

ESA

? 'to traverse (a defile)'; mrqd 'defile (between rocks, mountains)'; also 'inscription'?

Syr. Aram. Heb. Ph.

Syr. Aram. Heb. Ph.

Ug. Akk.

Ug. Akk.

RQY Arab. Ge. ESA Syr. Aram.

raqiya

'to mount a ladder' ('as-su'iid)

rqy

'to go up'

RQY Arab. Ge. ESA Syr. Aram.

£ co

marqum* '\vritten' (hatt wa-kitdba wa-md 'asbaha ddlik] raqama 'acu pingere, figuris pingere (vestem)' (< Arab.)

raqma fqam rdqam rqm

'an embroidered robe' (< Arab.) 'embroidered garment' 'to variegate' Pun. 'embroider'

rdqin

'an enchanter'

raqaya rqt

'incantare, fascinare'; rdqey 'incantator' pi. 'sorceresses'

g > rj ^ ^ § w

Heb. Ph. Ug. Akk. RKB Arab. Ge. ESA Syr. Aram. Heb. Ph. Ug. Akk.

Heb. Ph. Ug. Akk. rakiba

'to ride; be carried; go on board'

rakaba rkb fkeb fkeb rakab mrkbt rkb rakdbu

'to ride, go by boat' 'to ride' 'to mount, bestride, ride' 'to ride' 'to mount, ride' 'chariot' 'to ride' 'fahren, reiten'

RKD Arab. Ge. ESA Syr. Aram. Heb. Ph. Ug. Akk.

rawakid

'that which is still' (act. part.)

^ w

w « >

o o RKZ Arab.

Ge. ESA Syr. Aram.

Heb. Ph. Ug. Akk.

rikz

'a lo\v sound, whisper'

RKS Arab.

'arkasa

'to overturn, upset'

2§ ™

Ge. ESA Syr. Aram.

Heb. Ph. Ug. Akk.

5 cr>

RKD Arab. Ge. ESA Syr. Aram. Heb. Ph. Ug. Akk.

rakada* 'to stamp on the ground; to

RKM Arab. Ge. ESA Syr. Aram. Heb. Ph. Ug. Akk.

rakama 'to gather in a heap'

RMH Arab. Ge. ESA Syr. Aram,

rimdh

'lances'

ramh rmh rumhd rumhd

'lancea, hasta (longior)' 'lance'? 'a spear, lance' 'spear'

fly'

RKC Arab. Ge. ESA Syr. Aram. Heb. Ph. Ug. Akk.

rakaa

'to bo\v do\vn in prayer'

krofa tfrac kdrcf

'leg, shank, shin (of cattle etc.)' 'to bow, bend the knee' 'to bow down'

kf

'to kneel, bow'

RKN Arab. Ge. ESA Syr. Aram. Heb. Ph. Ug. Akk.

rakina

'to incline oneself

fken fken

'to bend downwards, incline' 'to incline, sink, fall; bend, turn'

RMD Arab. Ge. ESA Syr. Aram.

ramdd

'ashes'

^ o

g > H * ^ § w

Heb. Ph. Ug. Akk.

romah

'a spear, lance'

mrh '

'a spear'

RMZ Arab. Ge.

ramz

'a sign; wink or nod'

razama

'to wink'

Syr.

fmaz.

Aram. Heb.

fmaz. ramaz

'to make signs, wink'; remzd 'a sing, hint, gesture' 'to nod, gesticulate, hint' 'to wink, flash (of eyes)'

ESA

ranitm

'rotten'

Syr.

remtd

'a worm', coll. 'worms'; 'dust'

Aram. Heb.

rdmam

'to be wormy' (denom. < 'worm')

rahiba*

'to fear'

3

arheb fheb rdhab

'to trouble; inspire terror, alarm' 'to be proud, arrogant' 'to act stormily, boisterously'

ra'dbu

'zittern, ziirnen'

rimma

Ph. Ug. Akk. rama(y)

'to throw, cast'

ramaya

'icere, ferire, jaculando petere'

fmd fmd rdmd

'to put, place, pour, cast' BA 'to cast, throw' 'to cast; shoot'

my ramu

s. 'to throw down' 'werfen'

ESA Syr. Aram, Heb. Ph. Ug. Akk.

RMM Arab. Ge.

ESA

Ph. Ug. Akk. RMY Arab. Ge.

Heb. Ph. Ug. Akk.

RHB Arab. Ge.

ESA Syr. Aram. Heb. Ph. Ug. Akk.

RHT Arab. Ge. ESA Syr. Aram. Heb. Ph.

raht

'a family' (tagammu' Ji n-nas wa-gayrihim]

3

n.pl. 'family member'

rht

Ug. Akk.

RHQ Arab. Ge. ESA Syr. Aram. Heb. Ph.

'to follow; cover; oppress'

rahw

'a ditch or furrow'

ruh

'spirit, soul'

rh

'spirit' in rh[q]ds (loan translation)

Ug. Akk.

RHN Arab. Ge.

rahin

'given in pledge'

RHW Arab. Ge.

ESA Syr. Aram. Heb.

rhn

'to give pledges'; rhn 'hostage'

A?V^fn

NH 'to deposit as a pledge'; heren 'pledge'

ESA Syr. Aram. Heb.

Ph.

Ph.

Ug. Akk.

Ug. Akk.

RWH Arab. Ge. ESA

rahiqa

'rest, mercy' (saca, fusha zva-ttirad] rawih, rawh 'affable, kindhearted' rwh h. 'to widen, enlarge'; st[r]h[t] 'to be at peace, be safe/saved'

rawh

RWH Arab. Ge. ESA

Syr. Aram, Heb.

ruwdhd rewdhd rewah

Ph. Ug. Akk.

rwh

RWH Arab. Ge.

riahu,

rdhu

'ardha*

'ease, solace' 'wide space, relief 'respite, relief; rdwah 'to be wide, spacious' 'prosperity' 'iibrig bleiben' 'to drive home (flocks) in the evening'

Syr. Aram. Heb.

ruha rwh ruah

'spirit' Sf. 'breath'; ruha BA 'spirit' 'breath, spirit'

Ph. Ug. Akk.

rh rh

'spirit' 'spirit, breath'

RWH Arab. Ge.

rih

'\vind; smell; prosperity; power' 'flabello ventilare, ventulum facere'; rehe 'odor suavis'

roha

ESA

ESA

Syr.

Syr.

ruha

Aram. Heb.

Aram. Heb.

ruha ruah

'breath; wind'; nhd 'a smell, savour, odour, fragrance' 'wind'; BA reyah 'smell' 'wind'; reyah 'scent, odour'

Ug. Akk.

Ug. Akk.

rh rittu

'Wind, Duft' 'a winnowing fan'?

RWD Arab. Ge. ESA Syr. Aram. Heb.

ruwaydan

'gently'

ryd

tp. 'to diminish, fall off, subside'

Ph.

RWD Arab. Ge. ESA Syr. Aram. Heb.

Ph.

'arada

'to be \villing; wish, desire; intend'

'

Ph. Ug. Akk. RW Arab. Ge. ESA Syr. Aram. Heb.

Ph. rd

'wollen'?

rawc*

'fear; timidity'

ruac

? hif. 'to raise a shout; to give a blast w. clarion or horn'

Ug. Akk. RWG Arab. Ge. ESA Syr. Aram. Heb.

Ph.

Ph.

UgAkk.

Ug. Akk.

RYB Arab. Ge. ESA Syr. Aram. Heb. Ph. UgAkk.

rajyfe

'a doubt, calamity' (sakk wa hawf]

rab ryb nb

'to clamour, be in an uproar, resound' OA 'to quarrel' 'to strive, contend'

rabu

'beben' (heaven, earth, things, persons)

RYS Arab. Ge. ESA Syr. Aram. Heb. Ph. Ug. Akk.

raga(zv)

'to turn upon'

rf«

'feathers; fine clothing'

RYC Arab.

rf

'a high hill'

RYN Arab.

Ge. ESA Syr.

Ge. ESA Syr.

Aram. Heb Ph. '

Aram. Heb. Ph.

Ug. Akk.

Ug. Akk.

rdna

'to take possession of the heart'

run

'to overcome'

ZBD Arab. Ge.

zabad

'froth, scum'

zebd

'fresh butter' (< Arab.)

ESA Syr. Aram. Heb.

zagr

'the act of driving or prohibiting'

ggar

'to shut up, hold in, curb, restrain'

Heb. Ph. Ug. Akk.

'a divided portion, sect'

zabert

Tragmentum, segmentum'; zabara 'to break'

darner z.amar

'to prune' 'to trim, prune'

zbr

'to prune'

ZGW Arab. Ge. ESA Syr. Aram.

'azga

'to propel, drive forward'

zahf '

'an army marching in a hostile way'

ghap

'institit'

Heb. Ph. Ug. Akk.

ZHZH zahzaha Ge. ESA Syr.

zubur*

ESA Syr. Aram. Heb. Ph. Ug. Akk.

Ph. Ug. Akk.

ZGR Arab. Ge. ESA Syr. Aram.

ZBR Arab. Ge.

z.ah

'to remove far from a place' ('al-bu'd)

'to put in motion, move, stir o.s.'

ZHF ' Ge. ESA Syr.

Aram. Heb. Ph. UgAkk.

zuah zahah

'to remove, turn away' 'to remove, displace'

Aram. Heb. Ph. Ug. Akk.

ZRC Arab. Ge.

zara'a

'to sow seed; give increase to'

zar'a, zar'a

'semen spargere, seminare, serere'

ZRQ Arab. Ge.

Syr. Aram.

^rcf £rac

'to scatter seed, sow, beget' 'to sow'; BA grac 'seed'

Heb. Ph. Ug. Akk.

zarcf & dr' zjiru

'to sow, scatter seed' 'offspring' 'saen' 'Same(n), Saat; Nachkomme(n)'

ZRY Arab.

'izdara 'to despise'

ESA

zurq

'people with blue eyes'

'azraq

'caeruleus' (< Arab.)

Syr. Aram.

zarqa zrq

'sky-blue, blue-eyed' Hatra 'blue', prob. 'the blue-eyed' one?

Heb. Ph. Ug. Akk.

z/sarriqu

etwa 'schillernd' (Auge)

zaama

'to assert; suppose, think, imagine' (}al-qawl min gayr

ESA

ZCM Arab.

sihha) Ge. ESA Syr. Aram. Heb. Ph.

Ge. ESA Syr. Aram. Heb. Ph.

z'm

'declaration'

Ug. Akk. ZCM Arab.

Ug. Akk. zaim

'a surety, one who vauches for or guarantees another' ^at-takafful bis-say3}

Ge. ESA Syr. Aram. Heb. Ph. Ug. Akk.

ZFR Arab.

g co zafir

'a deep sob'

Ge. ESA Syr. Aram. Heb. Ph. Ug. Akk.

g I H * H hH

ZFF Arab. Ge. ESA Syr. Aram. Heb. Ph. Ug. Akk.

^o^a

'to hasten'

m^/"

'outflow channel (of dam)'?

ZLF Arab. Ge. ESA Syr. Aram. Heb. Ph. Ug. Akk.

'azlafa

'to bring near'

» w

ZLQ Arab. Ge.

'azlaqa

'to cause to slip or fall'

ZLL Arab. Ge.

zalla

ESA Syr. Aram. Heb.

ESA Syr. Aram. Heb.

z.lt zunzala

Ph. uAkk. g.

Ph. uAkk. g.

zalala

zdlal

'to slip'; zalzala 'to shake, shake to and fro' 'to move, be shaken, swing, be agitated' 'drainage platform'? 'tremor' 'to slip'; nif. 'to shake, quake'; zal^llm '(quivering) tendrils (of vine)'

gw £

ZLM Arab.

zalam

'divination arro\vs'

ZMR Arab.

Ge. ESA Syr.

Ge. ESA Syr.

Aram. Heb. Ph.

Aram. Heb. Ph.

Ug. Akk. ZML Arab.

Ge. ESA

zumar

'cro\vds'

« >

o J2 ™

Ug. Akk. muzzammil '\vrapped in a garment' act. part.

ZMHR Arab.

Ge. ESA

zamhartr

'excessive cold'

10 8

Syr. Aram.

Syr. Aram.

Heb. Ph. Ug. Akk.

Heb. Ph. Ug. Akk.

ZNM Arab. Ge. ESA

ZNY Arab. Ge. ESA

zand(y)

'to be guilty of fornication'

^anaya

'to fornicate'

Syr. Aram. Heb. Ph.

Syr. Aram. Heb. Ph.

gna gna zana

'to commit whoredom' 'to be unchaste' 'to commit fornication'

Ug. Akk.

Ug. Akk.

ZHD Arab.

zantm

zdhid

'spurious; illegitimate'

££ O

'holding in low estimation' act. part

g > H »

g g w

ZHR Arab.

zahra

'splendour'

Ge.

Ge.

zahara

tazahara 'gloriari'

ESA

ESA

Syr. Aram.

Syr. Aram.

zahra z.ihara

Heb.

Heb.

zohar

'brightness, splendour' 'moon, moon-light'; £har 'to shine, bloom' 'shining, brightness'; zahar 'to be light, shining'

Ph.

Ph.

Ug. Akk. ZHQ Arab. Ge.

Ug. Akk. zahaqa

'to vanish, disappear, perish'

ESA Syr. Aram.

ZWR Arab. Ge. ESA Syr. Aram.

Heb. Ph.

Heb. Ph.

Ug. Akk.

Ug. Akk.

ZWL Arab.

Ge. ESA Syr. Aram, Heb. Ph.

zdlafw)*

'to cease; cease to be in a place, fail, perish' (tanahhi s-say} can makdnih)

z.wl

'to finish, complete'

zwl zuldt

ZYD Arab.

Ge. ESA Syr. OffA 'to remove' Aram. [lit. 'removal'] prep, 'except, save that' Heb. Ph.

Ug.

Ug.

Akk.

Akk.

zarafw)

'to visit' (}al-mayl

zora

'vertigine laborare'; zawr 'gyrus, orbis, circulus' st. 'to visit'

z(u>)r zur zur zr

wa-l-cudul)

'to enter as a guest, lodge'; OA zr 'stranger, foreigner, outsider' 'to be a stranger' 'strange, other'

H w r X

g

r

o o zada(y)

'to increase'

z'd

st. 'to increase s.th.'

zud zud

BA 'to be presumptuous' 'to boil up, seethe, act proudly'

^ &

NO

ZYG Arab. Ge.

zaga(y)

'to be inclined; deviate; be dim (sight)'

ZYN Arab. Ge.

zayyana

'to adorn; prepare'

zena

'to decorate'; mazayyen 'tonsor (barbae et capillorum)' 'to feed; support; arm, equip' 'to equip, arm, decorate'; BA zun 'to feed' 'to feed'; NH pi. 'to outfit, decorate; gird, arm'

ESA Syr. Aram.

ESA Syr. Aram.

zayen zayen

Heb.

Heb.

nun

Ph. Ug. Akk.

Ph. Ug. Akk.

za'anu, z.anu 'ausgestattet, geschmiickt'

^ ^

g > w

JO

a w

saArab.

S'L Arab.

sa'ala

'to ask, interrogate; demand; pray'

Ge.

Ge.

sa'ala

ESA Syr. Aram. Heb. Ph. Ug. Akk.

ESA Syr. Aram. Heb. Ph. Ug. Akk.

s'l se'l s'el sa'al s'l s'al salu, sa'alu

'rogare; petere, poscere, postulare, expetere' 'to ask, request, demand, lay claim' 'to ask, interrogate, ask counsel' BA 'to ask' 'to ask, inquire' and Pun. [y]sl[ym] 'to ask' 'to ask' 'fragen'

SBB Arab. Ge. ESA Syr. Aram. Heb.

sabba*

'to revile' ('al-qatc)

sabba sbb

'to pierce, perforate, break, bend' 'to cut, slash'; sbb 'to blaspheme'?

sibba s'babim

Talm. 'chip' prob. 'splinters'; NH sibbeb 'to chip, chisel; chastise, discipline'

S'M Arab. Ge. ESA Syr. Aram. Heb.

sa-

sa'ima

an adverb prefixed to the aorist tense of verbs, and giving them a future signification; considered an abbreviation of sawfa

'to disdain, dislike, scorn'

Ph. Ug.

Ph. Ug.

Akk.

Akk.

SBB Arab.

sabab*

'rope, cord, lien; path, way, means to an end' (tul wa-mtiddd)

Ge. ESA Syr.

SBH Arab.

sabaha

'to roll onwards, perform a daily course'; sabh 'the act of swimming'

^ ^

Ge. ESA Syr.

Aram.

Aram.

Heb. Ph. Ug. Akk.

Heb. Ph. Ug. Akk. n

SB< Arab. Ge.

ESA Syr. f-1

fc^T

Aram. Heb.

sabc

'seven'

sab'u

sbc /oa

/^^ sebcf

Akk.

j^g/fl

SBG Arab.

}

asbaga*

L1]

Ph. Ug. Akk. 'to cause to abound'

SBQ Arab.

Ge.

Ge. ESA Syr.

'to overflow; abound'

§ jo H

» w

Aram. Heb.

ESA Syr.

?pcf

'a wild-beast'

O

c

jj r sb'

sabu

ESA Syr.

—f

Ph. Ug.

SB' Arab. Ge.

sabaqa

'to be in advance; go before'

sbq

'success'?

Aram, Heb. Ph. Ug. Akk.

/pa' sepcf

'to overflow'; af. 'to give in abundance' Aram. 'abundance, quantity' Heb. Ph. Ug. Akk.

STT Arab. Ge. ESA Syr.

sitt*

'six'; suds 'a sixth'

Aram, Heb. Ph. Ug. Akk.

set ses ss tdt, tt se/isset, sedi/ustu

SGR Arab. Ge. ESA Syr.

sugar a*

'to burn' (al-'iyqad)

SGR saggara 'to swell, become turgid

tasakwra

'to become red-hot from fire'

Arab. Ge. ESA

fgar

Aram.

sgar

'to kindle, heat (a bath, furnace, etc.; to burn (incense); to be hot, heated, warm, glowing' 'to heat'

sessu, seds sdt, st, st set

STR Arab. Ge. ESA Syr. Aram. Heb. Ph. Ug. Akk.

Syr. Aram.

'istatara

'to hide oneself

satara sir satar ftar satar

'abscondere, occultare' h. 'to protect' pa. 'to conceal'; itpa. 'to be concealed' BA pa. 'to hide' 'to hide, conceal'

str sitru

'hid'; str 'bedecken (mit Netz?)' 'ein netzartiger UberwurP?

(ocean)' ( a l - m a l )

sagra' sagnrd

'heavy rain' 'severe rain storm'; itpa. 'to be locked up, closed; to be engrossed with'

Heb. Ph.

Heb. Ph.

Ug. Akk.

Ug. Akk.

SGN Arab.

sagana*

'to imprison'

SGW Arab.

Ge. ESA Syr.

Aram.

Heb. Ph. Ug. Akk.

Heb. Ph. Ug. Akk.

SHE Arab. Ge.

sahaba sahaba

'trahere'

ESA

shb

'to be swept away (by

Ug. Akk.

'steady, persistent rain'

sagdfw)

'to be quiet, tranquil or dark (night)'

^£ ^

Ge. ESA Syr.

Aram.

Syr. Aram. Heb. Ph.

sagnr

sdhab shb

'

'to drag along the ground'

'to drag' 'sweeper'

floods)'?

SHT Arab. Ge.

'ashata*

ESA

sht

Syr. Aram. Heb. Ph.

Basket ?hat sdhat sht

Ug. Akk.

'to destroy utterly, eradicate'

g £ H * 3 ^

w

'ashata

'errare; in errorem/peccatum inducere' 'to rout, defeat, throw into disorder; to take (a place) by storm' af. 'to tarnish, sully, destroy' BA 'to corrupt' 'to slaughter, beat' yif. 'to ruin'

SHR Arab. Ge. ESA Syr. Aram. Heb. Ph. Ug. Akk.

shr

'morgen'

salfra sahar

'morning dawn, early morning' 'dawn'

shr seru

'dawn' 'Morgen'

SHQ Arab. Ge. ESA Syr. Aram. Heb. Ph. Ug. Akk.

SHL Arab.

sdhtl*

'shore of a river or sea' (kastu say')

SHR Arab.

Ge.

sahala

ESA

sahar* 'the early dawn'

'acuere'

'

sahtq

'far'

sahira

'to ridicule'; sahhara 'to subject, compel anyone to work without payment' ('ihtiqdr wa-stidldl]

Ge.

ESA Syr.

sahar

Aram.

Aram.

saher

Heb. Ph. Ug. Akk.

Heb. Ph. Ug. Akk.

'shore'

£5 « > _

o

Syr.

shl

* w

pa. 'to levy forced service, compel, impress' pa. 'to confiscate, press into public service'

^ ^

NO ^J

SHT Arab. Ge. ESA Syr. Aram. Heb. Ph.

sahita

'to be angry'

Ug.

SDD Arab. Ge. ESA Syr. Aram. Heb. Ph.

sadd

'a mountain, obstacle, bar'

sdd saddd saddd sad

'dam' 'stocks' 'stocks' 'stocks (for confining feet of culprits)'

SDW Arab. Ge. ESA Syr. Aram. Heb. Ph. Ug. Akk.

Sudan

'neglected, uncared for'

'to lead out to pasture in the morning'; sarraha 'to dismiss freely; divorce' ('al-intildq) 'to dismiss, dismiss a congregation at the end of Mass'

^ °°

Ug.

Akk.

sahdtu

'ziirnen'

Akk.

SDR Arab. Ge. ESA Syr. Aram. Heb. Ph. Ug. Akk.

sidra

'a lote tree'

SRB Arab.

sdrib

'going forth freely, carelessly' ('al-ittisd' wa-d-dahab fi l-'ard)

SRH Arab.

saraha

Ge.

'asrdb

pi. 'torrens, imbres'

Ge.

sarha

a 5 ^ g H » w

ESA Syr.

sarb'ta

ESA

Aram.

srb

Heb.

sirbeb

'generation, family, tribe, race, nation'; sarreb (denom.) 'to propagate, generate; found (a city), fill it with families' OA. 'noble; member of a clan'?; sarbeb 'to prolong, let hang down' 'to enlarge, prolong'

Ph. Ug. Akk. SRR Arab.

SRR Arab.

Ge. ESA Syr. Aram.

Aram. Heb.

'asrah

tfrah sarah

'to put forward, propound; bring out; spread out' 'to hang over' 'to go free, be unrestrained'

Ph. Ug. Akk. sirr*

}

'a secret' ('ihfd'u s-say , tva-md kdna min hdlisih wa-mustaqirrih)

Ge. ESA Syr. Aram. Heb. Ph. Ug. Akk.

Syr.

'

H 33

SRR Arab.

sarra*

'to make glad; rejoice'

£

% ^

Ge. ESA Syr. Aram. Heb.

o

O |

srr

'in secret'

Ph. Ug. Akk.

msr (< sir)

'Gegenstand der Freude'?

surur

'couches, thrones'

SRC Arab.

sdra'a

'to hasten emulously or in company with others'

Ge. ESA Syr. Aram.

w

ND

Heb. Ph. Ug. Akk.

SRF Arab. Ge. ESA Syr.

Heb. Ph. Ug. Akk.

'asrafa

'to be prodigal, exceed bounds'

SRQ Arab. Ge. ESA Syr.

£= o

saraqa

'to steal'

saraqa srq sarreq

Aram. Heb. Ph. Ug.

Aram. Heb. Ph. Ug.

seraq sdraq

'furari, furto auferre' 'to steal, rob' 'to empty, toss out, lay bare, lay waste' 'to empty' NH 'to empty'

Akk.

Akk.

saraqa

'stehlen'

^

SRY Arab.

sard(y)

'to travel by night'

w

Ge.

Ge.

saraya

'remittere, ignoscere, condonare (alicui peccatum . . .), expiare'

ESA Syr. Aram. Heb. Ph. Ug. Akk.

ESA Syr. Aram. Heb. Ph. Ug. Akk.

?rd ?ra sard

'to loosen' BA. 'to loosen' 'to let loose'

srh seru

'loslassen, schleudern' 'auslosen' (< Aram.?)

SRMD Arab.

sarmad 'perpetual'*

g j> H *

STH Arab. Gc.

sataha

'to spread out'

satha

'pandere, expandere; exponere'

?tah ?tah satah

'to spread out' 'to spread, stretch' 'to spread, spread abroad'

Syr. Aram. Heb. Ph.

setu

'ausbreiten'

Akk.

ESA Syr. Aram. Heb. Ph.

satafw)

'to attack \vith violence'

ESA

Ug. Akk.

STW Arab. Ge.

Ug. H

C

S D Arab.

Ge. ESA Syr. Aram. Heb.

saida

'to be happy' (hayr wa-surur)

scd

'to favor s.o. with, grant'

f'ad sa'ad

BA 'to support, sustain' 'to support, sustain, stay'

Ph.

C

S R Arab.

Ge. ESA Syr. Aram. Heb.

samara

'to cause to burn fiercely' ('isti'dlu s-say} wa-ttiqaduh wa-rtifdcuh]

K w

£ « > o

far sd'ar

itpa. 'to be excited, troubled' 'to storm, rage'; sd'ar 'to sweep, whirl away (of storm-wind)'

O ^ ^

Ph.

Ug-

Ug.

Akk.

sedu

'unterstiitzen' (< Aram.)

Akk.

saru

'Wind; Atem, Hauch'

SCW Arab. Ge. ESA

saa(a)

'to go hastily; run; be diligent'

masgaba

'famine'

sa'qya /

'dissipare, ventilare' 'course; area marked out'?

SGB Arab. Ge. ESA

£o

Syr. Aram. Heb. Ph. Ug. Akk.

fa

'to assail; act w. boldness, dare'

sd'a

'to rush (storm-wind)'?

SFH Arab. Ge. ESA Syr.

masfuh 'poured forth', musafih 'one \vho commits fornication' sajha 'se extendere'; sefdh 'extensus' msfh 'aquae ductus'; s/h 'proclamavit, vulgavit'

scy or swf 'ran' or 'swept' sa'u 'laufen'

Aram. Heb. Ph. Ug.

mispah sph sph

Akk.

sapahu

prob. 'outpouring (of blood), bloodshed' 'clan, family' 'family'; 'Geschlecht, Nachkommenschaft, Sprossling' 'auflosen, zerstreuen'

SFR Arab. Ge. ESA Syr. Aram. Heb. Ph.

safar*

'a journey'

Syr. Aram. Heb. Ph. Ug. Akk. SFR Arab. Ge. ESA Syr.

{^ ^

'asfara

'to shine, brighten (the dawn)' (3al-inkisdf zva-l-gala')

?par

'to be fair, bright, beautiful'; saprd 'twilight before dawn' BA 'to be fair, seemly' 'to be beautiful, fair, comely'

Aram. ?par Heb. sapar Ph. Ug. spr

'Schonheit'

Akk. SFC Arab. Ge. ESA Syr. Aram. Heb. Ph.

safa'a

'to drag along'

o s H W ya H | w

Ug.

Ug.

Akk.

saparu

'schicken, schreiben; Nachricht, Bescheid usw. schicken, senden; berichten, mitteilen'

Akk.

SFK Arab. Ge. ESA Syr.

safaka

'to shed blood'

safil

'low, vile, abject person'

?pak

'to pour, empty out'

SFL Arab. Ge. ESA Syr.

sfl sapel

Aram. Heb. Ph. Ug. Akk.

?pak sapak

'to pour, empty' 'to pour out, pour'

?pel sapel

spk sapaku

'to spill' 'aufschiitten'

Aram. Heb. Ph. Ug. Akk.

'low-lying land, lower part of land' 'to humble, bring down'; sapid 'mean, low, humble, wretched' BA 'to be low' 'to be low, abased'

spl sapdlu

'bottom' 'niedrig, tief, gering sein, werden'

d w

H £ >

o # *v SFH Arab. Ge. ESA Syr. Aram.

sqfaha

'to render foolish'

sfh

'to be ignorant, unaware of (s.th.)'

SQR Arab. Ge. ESA Syr. Aram.

Heb. Ph. Ug.

Heb. Ph. Ug.

Akk.

Akk.

saqar*

'Hell-fire'

tasaqwra

'igne accenso fervefieri'

%

ND INJ

00

SQT Arab. Ge. ESA Syr.

saqata

'to fall'

sqt ?ket

Aram.

?qat

Heb.

saqat

'to arrive' 'to sink, settle (as dregs); stay quiet'; ?qata 'stupor, amazement'?; ?teq 'to cease, be still, keep silence' 'to settle, be at rest, at ease'; ?taq, steyq id. 'to be quiet, undisturbed'

Heb. Aram. Heb.

Ph.

Ph.

n

Ug. Akk.

saqatu

'zu Fall bringen'

Ug. Akk.

SQM Arab. Ge. ESA Syr. Aram. Heb. Ph. Ug. Akk.

saqtm

'sick, ill' (3al-marad)

g H W ^ ^

8KB Arab. Ge.

saqma

'ill, sad'

saqummu

? 'ganz still'; saqummatu '(Toten-)Stille'

sakaba*

'to pour forth'

SQF Arab. Ge. ESA Syr.

saqf

'a roof

sqf