A Chinese History Reader

A Chinese History Reader CHINESE MANUSCRIPT COMMISSIONER Editorial Committee of The New Annotated Edition of the Twen...

Author: Sun Xiaoyu

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A Chinese History Reader

CHINESE MANUSCRIPT COMMISSIONER Editorial Committee of The New Annotated Edition of the Twenty-Four Histories. ADVISORS Lin Ganquan, former director of History Institute of the Chinese Academy of Social Sciences and academician of Chinese Academy of Social Sciences He Ziquan, professor of history, Beijing Normal University Chen Gaohua, former director of History Institute of the Chinese Academy of Social Sciences and academician of Chinese Academy of Social Sciences Chen Zuwu, director of History Institute of the Chinese Academy of Social Sciences and academician of Chinese Academy of Social Sciences TRANSLATORS Jiang Zhida, English Editor of World Affairs Press Zhang Lihua, senior translator from Foreign Affairs Bureau of Chinese Academy of Social Sciences Zhou Yunfan, senior translator from Foreign Affairs Bureau of Chinese Academy of Social Sciences Sally Sun, contributing Editor of The New Annotated Edition of the Twenty-Four Histories

A Chinese History Reader Sun Xiaoyu

B A S H U

Australia • Brazil • Japan • Korea • Mexico • Singapore • Spain • United Kingdom • United States

P R E S S

A Chinese History Reader Sun Xiaoyu

© 2010 Cengage Learning Asia Pte Ltd Original Chinese edition © Sichuan Education Publishing House and Sichuan Bashu Press

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Printed in Singapore 1 2 3 4 5 11 10 09

Table of Contents 1

CHAPTER 1

1 8 10 15

The Legendary Era Primitive Human Relics Primitive Culture Xia, Shang, and Zhou Dynasties

33

CHAPTER 2

33 40 44 54 65

The Spring and Autumn Period The Warring States Period One Hundred Schools of Thought Culture and Science Political Reforms

75

CHAPTER 3

75 81 82 86 87 87 88 89 90 91 93 94

The Ancient Age

Eastern Zhou Dynasty

The Qin and Han Dynasties Qin Shi Huang and the Qin Dynasty The Chen Sheng and Wu Guang Uprising The Contention of Chu and Han The Reign of Emperors Wen and Jing The Study of Huang-Lao Tai Xue The Controversy of Modern Script Classics and Traditional Classics Emperor Wu of the Han Dynasty Zhaojun Departed the Fortress Zhang Qian’s Western Expedition and the Silk Road The Maritime Silk Road Liu Xiu Established the Eastern Han Dynasty

VI

96 97 99 99 102 103 105 106 111 114 119 121 123

Table of Contents

Ban Chao and the Subordination of Western Regions Movement of Pure Comment and Partisan Prohibition Rebellion of the Yellow Turbans and Fall of the Han Dynasty The Battle of Guandu Three Humble Visits to the Thatched Cottage The Battle of Red Cliffs Evolution of the Worship of Guan Yu Scientific and Technological Progress Historiography and Philosophy Culture, Literature, and Arts Terracotta Warriors and Horses The Origin and Development of Chinese Medicine Filial Piety

127 CHAPTER 4

The Wei, Jin, and Southern and Northern Dynasties

129 136 140 143 160

Politics Military Affairs Scientific Achievements Brilliant Cultural Achievements Religion

169 CHAPTER 5

The Sui, Tang, Song, and Yuan Dynasties

169 172 188 201 203 205 207

The Sui Dynasty The Tang Dynasty The Song Dynasty The Liao Dynasty The Jin Dynasty The Western Xia Dynasty The Mongol Empire and Genghis Khan

Table of Contents

209 212 221 231

The Yuan Dynasty Literature and Art of the Tang, Song, and Yuan Dynasties Science and Technology during the Sui, Tang, and Song Dynasties Religion and Philosophy

241 CHAPTER 6

The Ming and Qing Dynasties

243 250 263 266 267 279 282 284

The Ming Dynasty The Qing Dynasty Academia of the Ming and Qing Dynasties Core Decision-making Bodies in the Ming and Qing Dynasties Politics, Economy, and Culture in the Ming and Qing Dynasties Novels of the Ming and Qing Dynasties Legal System Science and Technology

289 CHAPTER 7

The Late Qing Dynasty and the Republic of China

289 290 293 295 298 301 306 309 312 314 314 318 322

George McCartney’s Visit to China The First Opium War Destruction of Yuanmingyuan, the Garden of Gardens Taiping Heavenly Kingdom Modern Intellectual Enlightenment Westernization Movement Sino-Japanese War of 1894–1895 Reform Movement of 1898 Boxer Uprising and the Allied Forces of the Eight Powers The Treaty of 1901 The 1911 Revolution Founding of the Republic of China Science, Engineering, and Culture

VII

THE ANCIENT AGE

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CHAPTER 1

The Ancient Age CHINA is an ancient country with a vast territory that is almost the size of Europe. It is abundant in fertile land, mountains, rivers, and lakes. It also has a long coastline. China is one of the world’s most ancient civilizations and one of the birthplaces of humans.The ancient human relics and fossils that have been discovered date back as early as 1.7 million years ago. While the Nile River valley culture appeared at the dawn of civilization in the west, China was basking in a splendid culture that included painted pottery after the matrilineal society.The Chinese civilization experienced the three slavery dynasties of Xia, Shang, and Western Zhou after the rise of the Nile River Valley, Tigris-Euphrates Valley, and Indus River Valley civilizations. While the Greek Peninsula represented by the city-state of Athens was culturally flourishing, China had witnessed academic and cultural prosperity in the Spring and Autumn and Warring States periods.

I. The Legendary Era

Archaeologists have found many remains and cultural relic sites that unveil the images of Chinese ancestors. In addition, many of the ancient books contain a large number of myths and legends. In Chinese mythology, Pangu was the first emperor. Story has it that heaven and earth were integrated into one body that resembled an egg, with Pangu sleeping inside. He extended his huge hands and with them cut into the darkness with his axe. After an explosion, heaven and earth started to split apart. All that was clear and light drifted upward to become heaven and all that was turbid solidified to become the earth. Each day, heaven ascended by one zhang (three meters) while the earth expanded by one zhang, and Pangu grew rapidly by one zhang. Another 18,000 years passed and by then, heaven was far away from the earth, which was now very thick. Pangu

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At the same time, Pangu had also grown into a giant. After he died, his body turned into all the things in the universe, including the sun, the moon, mountains, rivers, trees, and grass. This heroic Pangu was the ancestor of human kind. There is another saying that no human being existed after Pangu separated heaven and earth. Nüwa the creatorgoddess formed a number of men and women from yellow clay after her own image and made them move, with this being the alternative origin of humanity on earth. Later, a man called Gonggong, the Spirit of Water, hit his head on the Buzhou Mountain so hard that the pillar supporting heaven cracked. Nüwa melted various kinds of colored stones and patched up the sky with the molten mixture. She cut off the feet of a great turtle to support the fallen sky. Thus the heaven was patched up and its four corners were lifted. While these are clearly mythological origins of the earth, certain aspects, such as the contributions made by the sages Fuxi and Shennong appear to be historical facts, according to historical records and stories handed down orally. Fuxi was also called Paoxi. He taught people how to make nets to catch fish and beasts, and how to domesticate animals. He admonished people against primitive communal marriage. He looked up to the sky, examined the earth, and drew up the Eight Trigrams that were the forerunners of Chinese characters, and thus put an end to the era of making knots on ropes to keep a record of things.

A CHINESE HISTORY READER

Nüwa, the creator-goddess

Shennong

THE ANCIENT AGE

3

Shennong had even more inventions to his name than Fuxi. It was told that he carved wood to make farm tools, taught people to grow crops, and his son Zhu taught people to plant vegetables. In search of medicinal herbs and edible plants, Shennong tasted hundreds of herbs and invented medicine, and he also discovered the food crops from among the flora. And while he was tilling for food, he could also weave clothing. He even set up a market to exchange goods. Nüwa, Fuxi, and Shennong were honored as the “the Three August Ones” for their great contributions to mankind. They appeared in the era of matrilineal societies. According to historical records, people in the Shennong times did not know who their fathers were, and lived together in groups.They jointly followed the clan’s customs and helped one another; they were all equal without private property or social class.The so-called “no evils, no punishment” exactly reflected the situation of the social and economic life of this period. As productivity improved, farming became the main production activity, and handicraft and bronze refinery industries boomed. Gradually, men began to play a dominant role in these activities. Around 4000–5000 years ago, a patrilineal clan commune society emerged. The legendary Huangdi was representative of this period. His family name was Ji, and his courtesy name was Xuanyuanshi or Youxiongshi. He was the head of a tribe in the Yellow River Valley. His inventions were manifold, including clothes, food, shelter, and transport vehicles. He encouraged people to cultivate crops and domesticate livestock. He mined bronze and smelted it to make coins. He cast twelve bronze bells to make music, and built ships and carts for transportation. He founded the calendar system by sending out people to observe astronomical phenomena, and determined the four seasons of the year; as a result, people were able to cultivate crops in accordance with the change of seasons. In the legend, his wife Luozu taught the people how to weave the silk from silkworms, and his subordinate Cangjie created the first Chinese characters. Under his leadership, great progress was made in social and economic life and the tribe became strong. The Huangdi tribe lived first in the northwestern part of China (now Shaanxi Province). Later, they moved eastward, down Huangdi

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the Beiluo River, past Dali and Chaoyi, across the Yellow River on its eastern bank, past Mt. Zhongtiao and Mt. Taihang, before finally reaching the south of Shanxi Province near the Yellow River. The Yandi tribe, which originally settled in Shaanxi Province together with the Huangdi tribe, had also grown strong.Yandi’s family name was Jiang. Known as the first man to engage in agricultural cultivation, Yandi styled himself Shennong. The birthplace of the Yandi tribe was on the eastern side of Mt. Qi in Shaanxi Province. Unlike the Huangdi tribe, they advanced southward, traveling along the Wei and Yellow Rivers, and passing through the southwest of Henan Province before finally reaching an area in the present Shandong Province. As the Yandi tribe advanced into the central area of China, they met with the powerful Jiuli people (also called the Li people) whose chief was Chiyou. A war broke out when the Yandi tribe entered into Chiyou’s territory. The war ended with the victory of the Jiuli people. The Yandi tribe had to flee to Zhuolu in the present Hebei Province. Later, the Yandi tribe joined hands with the Huangdi tribe to confront the Jiuli people. A decisive war took place in Zhuolu, according to legend. The two armies fought for days without a clear winner. Just when Huangdi’s army was turning the tide of battle, Chiyou breathed out a thick fog that obscured the sun. Huangdi’s army The war of Zhuolu fell into disarray and could not find its way out of the battlefield. At this critical moment, Huangdi devised the South Pointing Chariot, and with this, Huangdi was able to lead his army out of the fog and finally defeated Chiyou and killed him. After the defeat, the Jiuli people were scattered: some joined the Yandi tribe or the Huangdi tribe while others moved southward and arrived in a Huangdi defeating Chiyou

THE ANCIENT AGE

5

place later known as Jingchu, where they lived together with the Miao people. Soon after the victory, conflicts erupted between the Yandi and Huangdi tribes. They fought at the present Banquan, Huailai County, Hebei Province. After three battles, Huangdi defeated Yandi. Later, with the integration of the two tribes and some of the Jiuli people, the united peoples settled down in the Central Plains. After a long period of time, they gradually developed into the Huaxia people who form the majority of the Chinese people today. The Huaxia people were the predecessors of the Han Chinese. They regarded Huangdi and Yandi as their ancestors, and called themselves the “descendants of Yandi and Huangdi.” At that time the Central Plains were viewed as the center of the world. People living here called themselves the Hua People and the area they occupied the Zhonghua (Central Hua). Afterwards, by way of integration with other peoples, the Hua People expanded their scope of activities and established close economic and cultural ties with the Yi people in the east and the Jiuli and Miao peoples in the south.The culture of the Central Plains spread to all parts of China. The term “Zhonghua” represented the whole of China, and the “Chinese people” represented all the nationalities within China’s territory. The Chinese people claim that they are “the descendants of the dragon.” The dragon is the totem of Chinese people and this belief came into existence around the Yandi and Huangdi period. The image of the dragon is a combination of many animals: it has the horns of a stag, the head of a camel, the eyes of a demon, the neck of a snake, the belly of a clam, the scales of a fish, the talons of an eagle, the paws of a tiger, and the ears of an ox. This image is by and large a combination of many tribes’ totems, reflecting that different tribes were united after wars and evolved into the mainstream of the Huaxia people.This is how the dragon became the symbol of the Chinese nation. After defeating Yandi at Banquan, Huangdi became the head of the tribal union in the Yellow River Valley. After the death of Huangdi, Zhuanxu, Diku, Yao, and Shun succeeded. The totem of the dragon

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A memorial temple of Shun

The later generations called these five figures the “Five Emperors.” During the period of Yao, Shun, and Yu, there existed the Shanrang (abdication) system of selecting leaders for the tribal union.At that time, it was customary to forge alliances with other tribes. Instead of fighting frequent battles to seize the leadership, they tended to select their leaders in a peaceful way. The legend goes that when Yao was old, he called the chieftains to select Shun as his successor. Shun had been assisting Yao for twenty years, and then acted as a regent for another eight years.When Yao died, Shun passed his post to Yao’s son Zhu Dan. However, the chieftains would not follow Zhu Dan, and asked for instructions from Shun, and the singers refused to sing paeans for Zhu Dan. He was thus forced to abdicate the throne to Shun.When Shun was old, he also selected Yu—the flood-controlling hero—as his successor in the same way. Therefore,Yu began to handle the affairs of alliance on Shun’s behalf. Shun died seventeen years later.Yu followed suit and passed the throne to Shun’s son Shang Jun. As Shang Jun was a man of limited abilities, the chieftains did not accept Shang Jun, so Yu took over the post and became the successor of Shun. The transfer of leadership of tribal alliances from Yao to Shun and then to Yu revealed the rise and fall of these tribes and the changes in their social relations. In the era of the patrilineal clan commune, there already appeared a division between rich and poor, noble and humble. According to the legend,Yu’s family was very rich. His father Gun had even built an earth fort to protect his fortune. With the acceleration of the division of wealth, the primitive communal society started to develop into a society that included slaves.

THE ANCIENT AGE

7

In the era of the Three August Ones and the Five Emperors, people knew little of nature and could not explain strange phenomena, and so they resorted to legends to guide themselves. Some tales distorted the totems of tribes. For example, in some legends, Huangdi commanded six kinds of animals such as the black and brown bear to fight. Chiyou was very fierce with a cow-like face and two wings on his back. Actually, these characters were simply the totems of these tribes.There are also tales extolling the human pow- Houyi shooting the sun ers of defeating nature. For example, in the myth of “Houyi Shooting the Sun,” it was said that during the reign of Yao, ten suns appeared in the sky, scorching the plants, the grass, and the woods. People also sweated all day and felt very miserable. In the midst of this plight, Houyi, an unmatchable archer, came forward to assist. He shot down nine suns and left one shining in the sky. Later, Houyi, seeking perpetual youth for the shortlived people on the earth, obtained the elixir of immortality from the Queen Mother of the West who lived in the Kunlun Mountains. Returning to his palace, he confided the good news to his beloved wife Chang’e, a lady unparalleled in beauty and grace. Chang’e Chang’e flying to the moon secretly swallowed the potion in the hope that she would become immortal. The result was quite unexpected: she felt herself becoming so light that she flew up in spite of herself, drifting and floating in the air, until she reached the palace of the moon. These legendary stories contain traces of some reliable historical information and reflect certain aspects of ancient history if analyzed scientifically. Take “Houyi

8


Shooting the Sun” for instance.When there is a great deal of steam in the air, people can see three or four suns in the sky in some places. As for the Queen Mother of the West in the story of “Chang’e Flying to the Moon,” some historians now speculate that she must have been the chieftain of a tribe in the west during the matrilineal society era.

II. Primitive Human Relics

Where did humans first emerge on the earth? Scientists believe that humans evolved from a kind of ancient ape. Labor was the decisive factor that triggered this evolution. It took the great apes around two to three million years to transform into human beings that could make tools. The tools initially used by these humans were made of stone. Archaeologists call the prehistoric era when humans used stone tools the Stone Age.The Stone Age is parallel to the primitive era. Archaeologists also call the early stage of the Stone Age when the humans could only use the clipped stone tools the Paleolithic Age. China has been populated by humans since primitive times, and human fossils and Paleolithic Age sites have been discovered in most parts of China.The hominid fossil discovered at Wushan is believed to be the fossil of the earliest hominid that appeared over 2,010,000–2,040,000 years ago. All the fossil hominids of different ages excavated in China have the same shovel-shaped front teeth, rectangular eye sockets, and flat faces, which suggest that they were the ancestors of the modern Chinese people. In May 1965, Chinese archaeologists excavated two fossil teeth and some stone tools with signs of artificial polish. Anthropologists, judging from the bone relics and other objects discovered, determined that these humans (known as Yuanmou Man) existed 1.7 million years ago.Yuanmou Man is by far the earliest human being found in China or in Asia as a whole. Later on, anthropologists excavated the remains of Lantian Humans who existed 1 million years ago in the present Lantian County, Shaanxi Province. The primitive humans that appeared later than Lantian Humans are known as Peking Man. Peking Man was discovered in the winter of 1929 by the young paleo-anthropologist Pei Wenzhong at Zhoukoudian near Beijing. The Lantian Man fossil skull he discovered and five

THE ANCIENT AGE

9

other complete skull specimens unearthed later date from 200,000–700,000 years ago. Classified as humans, they retained the features of an ape, but used tools. This discovery proves that human beings existed several hundreds of thousands of years ago in northern China. However, the abilities of these hominids were limited. The tools discovered at the relic site of Peking Man were all rough-knapped stone tools. The era when such stone tools were used is called “the Old Stone Age.” The tools of this age, according to their shape, kind, and usage, can be divided into three types: chopping tools, scraping tools, and sharp tools. Peking Man could make wood tools such as wood sticks with stone tools. Using stone tools and wood sticks, they collected the roots, stems, and fruits of plants, and captured animals.They also used stone tools to skin animals and cut their meat. Peking Man learned to collect and use natural fire, using it to cook food, provide light and warmth, and scare off predatory animals. The use of fire was a great step forward in the evolution of humankind, strengthened its ability to control the environment. In the caves where Peking Man sheltered, archaeologists discovered four ash layers inside which fragmented beast bones and stones were preserved. When the thunder hit the forest and produced wild fire, Peking Man would collect the tinder from this fire and preserve it for years.With fire, people could eat cooked food instead of raw food, thus improving their diet and possibly their health. Peking Man lived in a hostile environment and used simple and coarse tools. Individuals could not stand alone. A group of several dozen people lived and worked together and shared the fruits of their labor. They lived a social yet a hard life. As a result, their life span was short: one third of them died before forty years old; some did not even live for twelve years. During the long period of several hundreds of thousands of years that followed, the ancestors of the Chinese struggled with nature and made gradual progress. Archaeologists have found fossils of hominids at Mt. Jinniu dating back to 280,000 years ago, and fossils of Upper Cave Man dating from 20,000 years ago. Upper Cave Man looked similar to a modern human and lived in the same region where the Peking Man had once dwelt. Because their fossilized bones were found in a cave on the top of the Longgu Mountain, they were called Upper Cave Man. They belonged to another prehistoric human kind, and came later than Peking Man. Like Peking Man, Upper Cave Man also used chipped stone tools, but they knew how to clean and drill holes in stones, and how to make bone needles and other similar instruments. They also made ornaments. Upper Cave Man knew how to make fire by hand. Fishing, hunting, and gathering fruit were their main productive activities.

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Their cave was composed of two chambers: the upper chamber and the lower one. The upper chamber was used for sleeping and cooking. The lower one was for burying human corpses. There were also cellars in the lower chamber for preserving food.The fossil remains of fish bones and clam shells have been found, signifying that Upper Cave Man often caught these as food. A bone needle, 8.2 centimeters long and as thick as a match, was found in a cave. Upper Cave Man may have used this bone needle to sew animal skins into clothes. They made ornaments by stringing together animal teeth drilled with holes, clam shells, and small stone beads. Upper Cave Man gradually expanded their scope of activity. They arrived at distant places along rivers or coastlines. The social unit in which Upper Cave Man lived was a clan linked by genealogy. Each clan consisted of several dozen persons descended from a common ancestor. Their living unit is called a “clan commune.”They worked together and shared food among themselves. There are many legends about primitive humans in ancient books. In the legends, they lived in caves, made animal skin clothes, fought with beasts with wood sticks, and ate grass roots, fruits, and the flesh of birds and beasts. A talented man called Youchaoshi later taught people to build nests in trees with branches to shelter from wind and rain and to be safe from the attack of wild animals. Another talented man taught people to whittle wood to make fire.These legends vividly represent the living conditions of China’s primitive humans.

III. Primitive Culture

The earth is often compared to a huge historical book. The fossils and relics of ancient creatures that have remained in the rock formation and soil strata are secret codes recording the evolution of life on earth. Archaeologists define the New Stone Age as the time marked by the use of ground stool tools, and have discovered that the ancestors of the Chinese dwelt in places all over China, in creative Neolithic cultures with diverse origins.

Haidai Area The Dawenkou culture discovered in the Haidai area1 dates back 4,000–5,000 years ago. The primitive residents here lived during the period of the patrilineal clan commune. Farming was the main activity. Handicraft art had seen much development: these people could make bronzeware and white and black pottery. Archaeologists found more than 180 pieces of pottery and jadeware in some tombs at the Dawenkou site, but only one or two items or nothing at all in other tombs. This suggested that with the development of production, the notion of private propAn area surrounded by the Bohai Sea, the Yellow Sea, Mt.Tai, and the Huai River.

1

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THE ANCIENT AGE

erty had come into being, resulting in a polarization between rich and poor. Besides the Dawenkou site, archaeologists also discovered the same type of cultural relic sites elsewhere in Shandong, northern Jiangsu, and Anhui, and named this group of Neolithic communities the Dawenkou Culture. In 1928, in Longshan town, Licheng City, Shandong Province, the Longshan Cultural sites dating from over 4,800 years ago were discovered. Archaeologists unearthed Black pottery some farming tools such as stone and clam sickles, and daily items such as stemmed cups and wine jars. Grey, black, and white pottery made of Kaolin or porcelain clay were also unearthed. The kiln temperature for producing white pottery was around 1,200–1,400°C, indicating that these people had brought the art of ceramics to a high standard. The black pottery items were carefully polished to a much greater refinement, and some objects even had outer walls as fine as eggshells.The Longshan Culture, appearing in the late period of the Neolithic Age, is divided into subcultures such as the Shandong Longshan Culture, the Central Plains Longshan Culture, and the Shaanxi Longshan Culture, according to their locations. In addition, archaeologists also discovered the Beixin Culture in Haidai Area.

Grey pottery

Central Plains In this area, archaeologists discovered a Neolithic relic site of the Peiligang Culture, dating back to about 7,000 years ago, and providing clues for research on the origins of the Yangshao Culture, a matrilineal society that dates from 7,000–5,000 years ago. The Yangshao Culture site is

Yangshao Culture

Pottery dragon

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centered along Guanzhong, western Shanxi, and western Henan, and includes both sides of the Great Wall, Hebei, Gansu, and Qinghai. Its name derived from the first Yangshao Culture site,Yangshao Village in Yinchi County, Henan Province, that dates back to 7,000–5,000 years ago. In Yangshao, archaeologists discovered that refined ground stone axes, shovels, and millstones were commonly used.There were layers of grain husks and cabbage seeds or mustard seeds well preserved in pottery jars. The art of pottery achieved great advances during this period. Pottery items such as urns, basins, bowls, and bottles were produced using washed clay; cooking vessels such as jars, stoves, and pots were made of clay mixed with sand.These pottery kilns must been fired up to 1,000°C. The artifacts, mostly made of the red clay, were often decorated with black or reddish brown paint, with decorative patterns depicting fish, deer, frogs, birds, flowers, leaves, and geometric figures. Some items were painted with simple symbols that might be the early forms of Chinese characters. Shang’an Area: The Banpo Culture archaeological site is in the vicinity of the present Banpo Village, in Xi’an, Shaanxi Province. The remains that date back to 6,000 years ago cover an area of around 50,000 m2. In the north of the site is a communal burial area, in the south the living area, while in the northeast there are the remains of a pottery kiln. Inside the living area there was a large rectangular house seemingly for public use, around which some round or square houses were built as residences. The residential area is surrounded by a moat. Many of the houses were semi-subterranean with the floor located one meter below the ground. The houses were supported by timber poles and had steeply pitched thatched roofs. Inside the house, the ground was very compact and smooth. A stove was placed in the middle of the house for cooking, lighting, and heating. The sleeping area was slightly raised above ground level. The early peoples in China were among some of the earliest to cultivate millet. The Banpo people cultivated millet and vegetables such as cabbage and mustard leaf. They built fences within their settlements to keep domesticated dogs and pigs. They also went fishing and hunting. The Banpo people widely used stone tools, such as stone axes, shovels, sickles or knives, and millstones. At Banpo, many farming tools were excavated, and more than two hundred cellars were discovered for storing food, tools, and daily necessities.What’s more, these people made weaving wheels.The people began to wear sack clothing.These details suggest that the Banpo people lived a primarily farming life. Pots were clearly in daily use among the Banpo people. Much earthenware was excavated at Banpo, which was uniformly red and decorated with a black pigment, known as color pottery. The craftsmen used frog, fish, deer, goat, or human face designs, as well as patterns composed of curved and horizontal lines, triangles, and dots. Of these, the painted basins decorated with human faces and four deer are

THE ANCIENT AGE

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the most distinctive forms of Banpo pottery. A cultural site at Dadiwan, Gansu Province in the Shang’an region, was excavated and a wealth of cultural remains were found. In the lower reaches of the Yangtze River, archeologists found ancient sites of clan tribes at Hemudu, Majiaban, Songze, and Liangzhu. The Hemudu site proved to be around 5,000–7,000 years old. The Hemudu Culture is named after the place in A funerary urn Yuyao of Zhejiang, where the site was found. The ancient residents here mostly used stone tools but also made animal bone tools.They chiseled holes in the bones for use in binding the bones to a wooden stem to make, for example, a fishing spear, a great progress in the technique of tool-making. At the Hemudu site, many bone shovels made from the scapula of animals such as buffaloes were excavated.The bone shovels were used to shovel earth: they must have greatly lessened the intensity of labor and improved work efficiency. The ancient peoples of China were some of the first in the world to cultivate rice. At Hemudu, a large pile of rice and stalks were discovered, evidencing that these people were rice farmers. They also raised livestock such as pigs, dogs, and buffalo. The Hemudu community was located in southern China, where rivers and lakes are densely distributed and the climate is humid and hot. The houses were built on stilts, a complex style for structures that represents the skills and knowledge of the Hemudu community in architecture.They laid thick piles in the earth as the base of the house, set beams on top of these piles, and secured wooden boards on them. Then they fixed pillars on the beams and made the roof. They used wooden planks as walls and set up railings along the house.The house built on stilts was well ventilated and moisture-proof. What was more, the residents knew how to dig and use wells. To prevent a sudden collapse, the four sides of the wells were supported by wooden stakes and square frames. A pavilion was built above the wells as a shelter from the rain. The Liangzhu Culture, named after the site of its discovery, Liangzhu,Yuhang of Zhejiang, dates from 3,000–4,000 years ago, and was located on the southern

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bank of the Yangtze River in Zhejiang. It appeared in the same period or a little later than the Longshan Culture and seemed to follow a patriarchal social order. Besides some cultural relics excavated at Liangzhu that are of the same type as the Longshan Culture, archaeologists also discovered bamboo-weaving products, suggesting the inhabitants here had made some advances in their handicraft arts.

Lower Reaches of the Yangtze River Within the central area of the Hanshui river basin, the Qujialing, Daxi, and Shijiahe cultures were discovered. The Qujialing culture dates back to more than 4,000 years ago. It developed in parallel with the late period of the Longshan Culture in the Middle and Lower reaches of the Yellow River and later was Cong with God’s face design assimilated by the latter. The excavated cultural relics were mostly similar to those of Longshan. Along the upstream areas of the Yangtze River, a series of Neolithic sites were discovered, represented by the site at Daxi. The ancient people here depended mainly on farming, planting long and roundgrain non-glutinous rice, raising livestock such as pigs, dogs, buffaloes, and goats, as well as on fishing and hunting. Their pottery skills reached a fairly high standard: the artisans in this period developed unique decorations and shapes.

The Liao River Basin Archaeologists discovered sites of the Xilongwa, Hongshan, and Xiajiadian cultures in this area. At these sites, archaeologists have excavated a number of cultural relics, particularly the large quantity of fine jades discovered at the Hongshan site that have attracted worldwide admiration.

Hongshan culture I

Hongshan culture II

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THE ANCIENT AGE

Chengdu Region The Baodun and Sanxingdui cultures were discovered in this area. In the late 1980s, many valuable Bashu bronze pieces, particularly bronze tree relics were excavated at the Sanxingdui Site. In northern China, the vast area from the northern part of northeast China to Inner Mongolia and Ningxia belongs to the northern grasslands.The most representative remains at this Neolithic site were those known as microlithic ware: long and thin sharp stone flakes with agates or The microlithic ware flints. These people mainly lived by fishing, farming, and hunting. Over 7,000 primitive cultural sites were discovered across the vast lands of China. Judging by the excavated Neolithic relics, it is clear that from the matrilineal clan society to the late period of the patrilineal clan society, communal societies later developed into those with private property and a polarization between rich and poor. Later there came social classes and class oppression. Accordingly, the leadership of clan tribes by election was replaced by the inheritance of power and the institutions of the clan communal systems turned into useful tools for controlling the populace. The slavery era was looming. The primitive clan communal system that had lasted for tens of thousands of years would eventually come to an end.

IV. Xia, Shang, and Zhou Dynasties

The bronze ware

The slave society lasted for over 1,600 years, dating from the twenty-first century BC to 476 BC. Xia, Shang, and Western Zhou dynasties saw the establishment and development of a Chinese slave society. In this era, great leaps were made in social economy and culture, and the brilliant Bronze Age civilization was represented by bronze work, oracle bone scripts, and a rites system.

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The Xia Dynasty initiated the slave society, normally maintaining the blood ties of the clan. The Western Zhou Dynasty practiced the patriarchal clan enfeoffment system, melting the ties of blood into state ruling, which played an important role in binding clans, stabilizing the hierarchical order, and maintaining national unity.

Yu the Great Taming the Flood It is said that during the ruling period of Yao and Shun, it rained continuously for a very long time. The ensuing flood became uncontrollable, and the fertile farmland was submerged by water, causing enormous losses.Yao assigned Gun to tame the raging waters. Gun had built earthen dikes all over the land in the hope of containing the waters, which turned out to be a miserable failure.When Shun became the ruler, he just sent Gun into exile at the Yu Mountain where Gun died. Shun recruited Yu as successor to his father Gun’s flood-control efforts and sent Qi, Houji, Baoyi, and Gaotao to assist Yu. Drawing lessons from the predecessor’s failure, besides blocking and damming the water,Yu adopted the dredging method to lead the flood waters to flow harmlessly along river courses and out into the sea. Yu worked very hard. It is said during his thirteen years of fighting the flood, Yu passed by his own family’s doorstep three times. He did not enter the home even when his wife was in labor. He led the workers to dig the new river channels, to serve both as outlets for the torrential waters and irrigation conduits for distant farmlands. As a result of his successful efforts, the people bestowed on him the title “Yu the Great.” When Shun was old, he passed his leadership of tribal alliance to Yu the Great. After he became the leader, Yu the Great organized people to further develop agricultural production. He asked Boyi to distribute rice seeds to people living at low and wet areas to plant rice. He sent Houji, Yu the Great taming the flood� who was good at planting crops,

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to distribute varieties of crops to people and teach them the way to plant them. Since Yu the Great carried out a series of effective measures, agricultural production grew rapidly in his reign. Legend has it that Yu the Great divided the whole country into nine zhou (prefectures): namely, jizhou, yanzhou, qingzhou, xuzhou, yangzhou, jingzhou, yuzhou, liangzhou, and yongzhou. He collected products as tributes in accordance with the conditions of every zhou. Yu the Great ordered to cast nine great ding (an ancient cooking vessel with three or four legs) as symbols of the nine zhou under his rule. During the rule of Yu the Great, there appeared many inventions: Boyi invented well-digging,Yidi invented wine-making, Xizhong improved on the structure of chariots, and so on. Gaotao formulated laws for Yu the Great, quelling those who opposed Yu the Great so as to stabilize the social order. With the development of production, the chieftains of tribes possessed greater and greater wealth and exercised considerable power. Even slaves became a kind of private property. In order to grab even more wealth and slaves,Yu launched an expedition on the southern “san miao” nationalities. After protracted fierce wars, “san miao” nationalities were defeated and many captives became the slaves of chieftains of tribes or heads of large patrilineal families, and these chieftains and heads slowly evolved into aristocratic slave owners. Amid the aggressive wars staged,Yu strengthened his ruling position and further established his authority. It is said that when Yu held a conference for all the chieftains at the Tu Mountain, over 10,000 chieftains brought gifts and treasures to please him. On another occasion,Yu called all chieftains to attend a meeting at the Kuaiji Mountain. The chieftain of the Fangfeng (protection against the wind) tribe came late for the meeting.Yu was furious with him and had him executed at once. By establishing personal authority,Yu became tian zi (son of heaven) in the real sense of the term (all powerful), and was called xia hou (King of the Xia people).

Qi Establishing the Xia Dynasty In his old age,Yu proposed Boyi as his successor. Boyi could not establish his authority, as Yu had not allocated him any important assignment to do. Quite the contrary, Yu helped to cultivate the forces of his son Qi in secret. After Yu died, Boyi, following the example of Yao and Shun, abdicated the throne to Qi. Unexpectedly, Qi did not wish to return the throne to Boyi. The chieftains of tribes showed no opposition, but Boyi would not let it go just like that. He rose to rebellion and contended with Qi for the throne, but Qi killed him in the end. A tribe called Youhu rebelled, claiming that Qi had destroyed their traditions. Qi maneuvered troops and fought against this tribe. Before the expedition,Yu told his subordinates,“Whoever obeys orders will get a grand reward; if you refuse to obey orders, I will execute you and enslave your family members.”The rebellious tribe was defeated a year later. In the twenty-first century BC, Qi

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established the first slavery dynasty in the history of China—the Xia Dynasty. Since then, the hereditary system replaced the abdication system. The establishment of the Xia Dynasty marked the end of China’s primitive society and the beginning of the slave society. The center of power during the Xia Dynasty lay in the present western Henan and southern Shanxi. Qi made The site of Erlitou of the Xia Dynasty Yang (now Dengfeng, Henan) the capital of Xia.The Xia Dynasty established an army, formulated criminal laws, and set up prisons. The state institution of the Xia was used as the tool for slave owners to oppress slaves and the common people. With the increase in agricultural output, grains were also used to make wine. At that time, people used bronze utensils and weapons, and jadeware and beautifully patterned clay objects. In recent years, in Dengfeng County, Henan Province, archaeologists discovered two ancient city sites full of pebbles, believed to be the remains of Yang. In the late Xia Dynasty, as the ruling class accumulated even greater wealth, they began to build spacious palaces. Archaeologists have discovered the remains of such a palace in Erlitou, Henan Province from this period of time.

Cheng Tang Establishing the Shang Dynasty Cheng Tang is also known as Shang Tang whose family name is Li. The tribe of Shang had a long history. The ancestor of Shang was Xie, the man who had helped Yu harness the flood. Legend has it that Xie was born after his mother swallowed an egg which had been laid by a pair of swallows. Probably this is the reason why the tribe chose a swallow as their totem. The tribe of Shang was a tributary state of the Xia Dynasty, dwelling in the lower reaches of the Yellow River. Cheng Tang was the fourteenth generation descendant of Shang. Shang had been expanding their influence to the middle reaches of the Yellow River. After he ascended the throne, Cheng Tang appointed Yi Yin and Zhong Hui as his right- and left-hand prime ministers. Under their assistance, Shang began to grow strong. The site of the Shang Dynasty

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Witnessing the tyranny of Xia Jie who had lost the support from people, Cheng Tang was engaging himself in preparation for annihilating the Xia Dynasty. The Xia Dynasty, established by Qi in the twenty-first century BC, lasted for around four hundred years, with seventeen kings of over fourteen generations. In the final years of the Xia Dynasty, after Jie ascended the throne, the social conflicts intensified. Jie was a notorious tyrant, who built lavish palaces and places for entertainment. It is said that King Jie once ordered a pond to be dug and filled with wine. He commanded some people to drink wine from the pond and in the end, they all drowned in the pond being drunk. King Jie stood watching by the side of the pond, laughing at them as they all drowned. The Xia people hated Xia Jie and Shang Tang Jie. Because he had likened himself to the sun, people pointed to the sun and said, “When will you perish? Let it be soon, even it means that we perish with you!” Shang Tang was a capable sovereign. He was diligent in politics and loved his people. He also appointed virtuous and talented people to important posts. Shang Tang appointed Yi Yin who was an intelligent and capable man as the prime minister, despite his slave origins.Yi Yin presented his plan of annihilating the Xia Dynasty. He also recommended many capable men for the job, who then became the major warriors of Shang Tang in his battle with Jie. Meanwhile, the Xia Dynasty, under the rule of the tyrant Jie, was beset with difficulties both at home and abroad and was in rapid decline.Tang saw that the time was ripe to conquer the Xia Dynasty. He carried out the strategy of wiping out the wings of the dynasty one after another, weakening the rule of Jie gradually, finally replacing the Xia Dynasty entirely. Tang first annihilated the nearby Ge (now Ling County, Henan Province), and then subdued a dozen small states and tribes. Tang went on to conquer, one after the other, the Wei state (now Hua County, Henan), the Gu state (now Juancheng County, Shandong), and the Kunwu state. These three states were important pillars for Jie’s rule in the lower reaches of the Yellow River. The Kunwu state was the closest allied force and the eastern defense of the Xia Dynasty. The demise of Kunwu left the Xia Dynasty vul-

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nerable to the frontal attack. Jie, eager to save his dynasty, which was under great threat, called for an alliance meeting with his tributary states to be held at Youreng. The Youmin tribe rebelled against Jie, and Jie was utterly isolated. Tang ordered an attack on Jie at once. A great battle between Xia and The ruins of Yin Dynasty Shang took place at Wutiao, north of present Kaifeng in Henan Province. Jie was defeated and fled to the south, and died at Nanchao, southeast of present Shou County, Anhui Province. Tang’s army advanced westward on the crest of their victory, captured the ruling center of Xia, and annihilated Xia’s tributary states.The Xia Dynasty was overthrown, and Tang finally established the Shang Dynasty. Tang made his capital in Bo, Shangqiu County of Henan Province. Nevertheless, due to political turbulence and flooding, Shang moved the center of activity several times, finally settling in Yin (present Xiaotun in Anyang County, Henan Province) under the king of Pan Geng. Hence, the Shang Dynasty is also called the Yin Dynasty or Yin Shang Dynasty, consisting of thirty-one kings, belonging to seventeen generations. At that time, its territory extended to Liaoning Province in the north, covered Hubei Province in the south, reached Shaanxi Province in the west, and bordered the sea in the east. Shang further improved and strengthened the slavery system. The emperor of Shang was the supreme ruler of the national land and subjects. There was a set of bureaucratic structures supporting the rule of the emperor: the highest-ranking executive official was called Yin or Xiang, and the official in charge of military affairs was called Shizhang. Under them were various levels of officials in charge of agriculture, banquets, sacrifices, and so on. The emperor had strong forces, divided into the left, middle, and right Shi. The emperor had nearly ten thousand soldiers ready to fight; Emperor Wuding, who boasted the most brilliant military career, ordered 23,000 troops to be made ready to fight within three months. The tomb of Wuding and Fuhao

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The social economy began to flourish as a result of the consolidation of the state ruling machine and the social stability. After Emperor Pan Geng moved the capital to Yin, the economy grew rapidly. Many slaves worked in the fields in groups: they used stone hoes and shovels to remove weeds and stone sickles to harvest. The crops included corn, millet, wheat, and rice. The livestock husbandry grew to a high level. On the occasion of worshipping ancestors by emperors, hundreds of livestock would be killed at a time. Livestock were raised for pulling carts as well as for food. The techniques in smelting and casting bronze ware, making pottery, and carving jade objects progressed significantly during the Shang Dynasty. Emperor Wuding was an accomplished emperor in the late Shang Dynasty. After ascending to the throne, he appointed people based on their merits, was cautious and attentive with state affairs, and pacified the nomadic peoples. By doing so, he consolidated his imperial power on the one hand, and enlarged his territory on the other. Legend has it that Emperor Wuding ruled the Shang Dynasty for fifty-nine years and pushed the Shang Empire to its zenith. Fuhao was the wife of Wuding, a woman general brave and tactical in warfare. She often commanded troops to fight and had decisive victories over the Tus, Bafang, Yis, the rebelling vassals, and other hostile tribes. Emperor Wuding loved and respected her very much, and after the death of Fuhao,Wuding was heartbroken. He prepared a large number of funerary objects for her, including more than 440 pieces of fine bronzeware.

Flourishing Bronze Culture of the Shang Dynasty In ancient times, the Chinese people learned the bronze smelting technique. Archaeologists have found bronzeware relics at Yangshao and Longshan culture sites. Of course, most of the bronzeware excavated was smelted in the Xia, Shang, and Zhou dynasties, and hence, these three dynasties are also known as the Bronze Age. There is less bronzeware from the Xia Dynasty than from the Shang and Zhou dynasties. The earliest bronzeware discovered so far are the knives, bores, fishhooks, bells, and other small items excavated at the Erlitou cultural relics.The Shang and Zhou dynasties represent the height of the Bronze Age. During the Shang Dynasty, the foundry workshops, grouped together in the capital city, were of a large scale. The Western Zhou Dynasty also saw further developments in the bronze founding industry. The daily-use bronzeware increased in number as the industry developed. A bronze goblet of the Shang Dynasty

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The manufacture of bronzeware reached its zenith during the Shang Dynasty. The bronzeware is the alloy of copper, zinc, and lead. The craftsmen were able to vary the proportions of the copper, tin, and lead according to the hardness required for different bronze wares. The bronzeware was of five types: ritual wares, weapons, tools, tableware, and miscellaneous objects.The most common types of tableware are Jue, Gu, Ding, and Zeng. The bronze weapons include dagger-axes and spears. The bronze tools include knives, axes, and so on. As bronze at that time was quite expensive, it was seldom used to cast farming tools. Bronzeware with animal-mask designs, such as tigers, elephants, and turtles, were popular in the Shang Dynasty. Simuwu Ding, excavated from the Anyang Yin Ruins in Henan Province in 1939, is the heaviest piece of ancient bronzeware known in the world today. It was named after the three Chinese characters “si mu wu” carved on the belly of the vessel. With a height of 133 cm and a weight of more than 800 kg, Simuwu Ding was molded in the late Shang Dynasty with a majestic and monumental form. To mold such a huge piece of metalwork, the craftsmen had to cast every part of the Ding separately first and then join them together. It is estimated that nearly three hundred men were required to work together to mold the Ding.The quantities of copper, tin, and zinc in the casting of the Simuwu Ding have been tested to be almost perfectly proportionate, showing the advanced technical standards of bronze casting industry during the Shang Dynasty. It is considered a representative work of the bronze culture at the height of the Shang Dynasty’s power. The large-scale standing bronze figure found in the Sanxingdui ruins is the representative work of the bronze culture in the Shu area during the Shang Dynasty. It is 226 cm high and weighs over 180 kg. It was made using the technique of casting by segments. In recent years, many bronze wares of the Western Zhou Dynasty have also been excavated. For example, nearly 5,000 pieces of bronzeware were excavated from the Guo state grave in Henan Province, including 180 pieces of bronze ritual wares, and many other bronze tools and cart decorations.

Zhou Dynasty Established by King Wen and King Wu

King Wen of Zhou

King Wen of Zhou, named Ji Chang, was the founder of the Zhou Dynasty. He was the descendant of Hou Ji, who assisted Yu the Great in controlling the flooding during his reign. The

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last monarch of the Shang Dynasty, King Zhou, is said to have been a cruel despot who neglected state affairs and abandoned himself to sensuous pleasures. In the meantime, a vassal kingdom of the Shang Dynasty called Zhou had begun to grow powerful in the valley of the Weishui River. The king of Zhou, named Wen, was an able and enlightened administrator who valued agriculture and made good use of talented people. Assisted by his able prime minister Jiang Shang (also known as Jiang Taigong), King Wen made his realm rich and powerful. In the mid-eleventh century BC, King Wen died, and his son came Jiang Shang to the throne as King Wu. In 1046 BC, King Wu, assisted by Lu Shang and his own uncle Duke Zhou, led an army comprising nearly three hundred military chariots and forty-five thousand heavily armed warriors from many states against the tottering Shang Dynasty, and toppled King Zhou at the Battle of Muye (in now Henan Province). The victory was aided by a revolt in the Shang army, which consisted mostly of conscripted slaves. King Zhou burnt himself to death. The Shang Dynasty, from Cheng Tang to King Zhou, lasted over five hundred years, with thirty-one kings, and seventeen generations. King Wu of Zhou King Wu founded the Zhou Dynasty in 1046 BC, and founded his capital in Hao (southwest of present-day Xi’an, Shaanxi Province). This era, until the capital was moved eastward to Luoyang in 770 BC, is known as the Western Zhou Dynasty. King Wu called himself the son of Heaven. The king instituted an enfeoffment system. King Wu appointed family members and relatives of the royal family to rule over these city-states. He also conferred those deserving officials and generals with hereditary titles and the power to rule some of his city-states. Each vassal state was put under the obligation to make regular contributions to the king and to provide military support for defense when needed. King Wu also established fortresses at important places across the country, forming a network to control the whole country. The collapse of the Shang Dynasty caused China to split into several separate states. At the time, the Shang only held power over a relatively small territory in the Yellow River region around Anyang. When combined with the State of Zhou, however, which already occupied a vast area to the west, the resulting territory of the

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Zhou Dynasty became incredibly large, numbering around 200–250 city-states. Each vassal state was put under obligation to make regular contributions to the king and to provide military support for defense. King Wu established his traditional capital near the heart of his kingdom at Haojing, just southwest of the present Xi’an in Shaanxi Province.

Duke of Zhou as the Regent King Wu died in the capital of Haojing less than two years after overthrowing the Shang Dynasty, having succumbed to years of a rigorous military life and hard work. After the death of King Wu, his younger brother Dan, known as the Duke of Zhou, acted as the regent for King Cheng, as the son of King Wu was still a child. Some royal family members such as the Duke of Zhao were suspicious of the intentions of Duke of Zhou. Lord Guanshu and Lord Caishu also spread rumors that the Duke of Zhou would kill King Cheng and usurp the throne.Wu Geng, son of King Zhou of the Shang Dynasty, took this chance and prompted Lord Guanshu and Caishu to rebel. He also united the remaining royal tribes of the Shang Dynasty in the Southeastern region. Confronted with such a critical situation, Duke of Zhou dismissed the misgivings of the Duke of Zhao and other high-ranking officials, and reassured the royal family. Under the name of King Cheng, he commanded the troops to conquer Wu Geng and quelled the rebellion in the southeastern region. The success of the eastern expedition expanded and consolidated the rule of the Zhou Dynasty, preparing the road for even greater expansion. After the eastern expedition, the Duke of Zhou moved the captive nobles of Shang to Dongdou near the capital city of Haojing. He also ordered the former vassal states of Shang to build palatial houses in Luoyi (present Luoyang, Henan Province). The new capital city was called Chengzhou. He stationed twenty thousand troops in Chengzhou to keep the followers of Shang under careful watch. Afterwards, the adherents of Shang acknowledged allegiance to the ruling of Zhou and never rebelled again. To further control the vast conquered area, the Duke of Zhou expanded the system of enfeoffment after the success of the eastern expedition.The Duke of Zhou The gravestone of the Duke of Zhou

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enfeoffed the vassal lords of territories as distant as the Zhou Dynasty’s influence could reach. It was said that seventy-one lords were enfeoffed by King Wu, the Duke of Zhou, and King Cheng. Of these, fifteen lords were the brothers of the Duke of Zhou; forty-one lords had the same family name as the Duke of Zhou; others were mostly the relatives of the Zhou clan or renowned officials and generals, or the descendants of Yao, Shun, or Yu the Great. In this manner, the Duke of Zhou strengthened his control over the affiliated feudal states and tribes scattered across the vast area of the Zhou Empire.

The Ritual and Music Culture of Zhou According to historical records, the Duke of Zhou, with the aim of strengthening the control over the vassal lords, formulated a complete set of regulations and systems in terms of politics, economy, and culture. He also created the ritual and music systems. By taking advantage of the popular concept of the Mandate of Heaven, he made the King of Zhou tian zi who was also the overlord of tian xia (the world). The King of Zhou belonged to the major lineage, and the vassal lords, bearing the same family name as the king, such as his uncles or brothers, belonged to the minor lineage that formed the ritual system connected by blood ties.The vassal lords, bearing different family names from that of the King, as most of them were relatives of the Zhou clan, could also be controlled by the ritual system. Since the King of Zhou was tian zi and overlord of tian xia (the world), the vassal lords were the subjects of the king, and between the king and the lords, there was a distinction of rank, such as superior and subordinate, and close and distant kin. The vassal lords had different ranks and titles. Under the vassal lords, there were various levels of officials: qing, da fu, and shi. Thus, a top-down hierarchical system—tian zi, vassal lord, qing, da fu, and shi—was established. The combination of a hierarchical system with a patriarchal clan system resulted in the complete and highly regulated ritual system pertaining to the monarch and his subjects, superiors and subordinates, fathers and sons, elder brothers and younger brothers, close and distant kin, the honorable and the lowly, and the noble and the inferior. By performing the sacrificial ritual, the rulers of the Western Zhou attempted to civilize the populace so as to reconcile social conflict, preserve the hierarchical system, and maintain the social order. The original meaning of the ritual was the ceremony performed to offer sacrifices to ancestors and gods. In the early Western Zhou Dynasty, the rulers drafted a series of dances accompanied by music in which food, clothes, shelter, and transportation as well as marriages, funerals, banquets, alliances, and so on were shown to demonstrate that all should observe the ranks of the hierarchical system as regards the honorable and the lowly, and these evolved

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into the typical behaviors of the people. For example, according to the rituals of Zhou, only the tian zi was entitled to an eight-row (sixty-four dancers) dance, and vassal lords and da fu were entitled to six rows and four rows, respectively. This system was probably the result of the “Duke of Zhou drafting the ritual and music systems.” These rituals also had a significant influence on the behaviors of rulers of later generations.

Book of History and Book of Changes

Shangshu (the Book of History) is China’s earliest official compilation of documentary records. It collects historical and legendary materials of the Xia, Shang, and Zhou dynasties. It also records events in ancient times such as Yao, Shun, and Yu the Great. Yijing (the Book of Changes) is the earliest book of divination from China. It expounds many complex relationships Shangshu such as Yin and Yang, and embodies the wisdom of the simple truths of the ancestors. Yijing had a great impact on almost all important thinkers and schools of thought in ancient China. Some concepts in the book, such as “just as heaven maintains vigor through movement, so a gentleman should constantly strive for self-perfection,” have a great bearing on the national character and spirit of the Chinese people. The book, however, also includes some superstitious beliefs.

Bagua and Taijitu

It is said that Bagua or the Eight Diagrams, was established by Fuxi, the first of the Three Sovereigns of ancient China.When observing the universe, Fuxi found that all things in the universe were formed by two elements: the “Yin” and the “Yang,” like a man and a woman, a male animal and a female animal, a male sun and a female moon, and so on. He adopted a continuous line to represent Yang, and a broken line to represent Yin.With just three lines, eight combinations (diagrams) could be formed.The diagrams are called “Gua” in Chinese. Each Gua represents a certain kind of thing in nature, which also reveals a certain aspect of the world. Fuxi explored these relations and rules of change in these diagrams so as to guide the behaviors of the people in their work and life. This was the origin of the Eight Diagrams. Since it was invented, Bagua has, over the centuries, had a close connection with the work and life of the people. Many Bagua pictures were discovered in exca-

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vated cultural relics. By the end of the Shang Dynasty, King Wen of Zhou put two Gua or more together and developed sixty-four Gua. He also named all sixty-four diagrams and provided a guaci (the explanation of the meaning of the different diagrams). Duke Dan of Zhou further worked on the yaoci to explain the meaning of each yao (line). The picture of the Bagua is said to have inspired a scientist to create the binary system that laid the foundations for the modern computing language. Taiji Taijitu or the Diagram of Supreme Polarity, is actually Taiji thinking, which maintains that the universe is non-polar. Non-polar refers to the infinity of space and time: for time, there is no starting and end points; for space, there is no measurable boundary. Both time and space are endless. For the convenience of the research of the universe, the concept of “supreme polarity” was introduced. Supreme polarity refers to the state of chaos without the distinction of “Yin” and “Yang.” It is the generality of the universe that any part of the universe can be viewed Bagua as “Taiji.” At the center of the Taijitu is a circle which suggests non-polarity gives birth to supreme polarity. The circle is separated by an S-shaped line, one half in black and the other in white. Each half is marked with a dot in the opposite color. The diagram is also called yin-yang fish, and black means Yin and white Yang. This suggests Taiji generates Two Polarities: the Yin and the Yang. In the black diagram there is a white dot while in the white diagram there is a black dot. If the small white dot expands endlessly, Yin will convert into Yang, and vice versa.This suggests that there is Yang inside Yin, and Yin inside Yang; they depend on, contain, penetrate, and convert into each other.The circle is surrounded by the Eight Diagrams, suggesting that the Two Polarities generate the Four Symbols, and the Four Symbols generate the Eight Diagrams. The Eight Diagrams develop into sixty-four Diagrams, which represents that all things, infinite and endless, retreat to the state of non-polarity. These are the main principles of Taiji thinking.

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The Evolution of Chinese Characters The Chinese characters are the vehicle of a language and a tool used to exchange ideas. They were cultivated and developed over a long time by the ancient people, not by any specific person. It seems incredible that the legendary Cangjie created these Chinese characters, yet it is possible that Cangjie collected, compiled, categorized, summarized, and taught these symbols, keeping records originally inscribed on the pottery or on some tools. There are mainly six categories of Chinese characters as follows: pictography, self-explanatory characters, associative compounds, the pictophonetic method, mutually explanatory or synonymous characters, and phonetic loan characters. Many Neolithic pots excavated at Banpo in Shaanxi Province, Jiangzhai in Lintong, and Lü County in Shandong Province were marked with such symbols. Some of these symbols were pictographs and had the primitive shapes of Chinese characters, proving that the characters evolved and developed as symbols and marks used by our ancestors to keep records. The oldest Chinese characters discovered so far are the Jiaguwen (ancient Chinese characters carved on tortoise shells or animal bones), which were already well-developed characters at that time. They all followed the six categories of Chinese characters. The Chinese characters now in use evolved from Jiaguwen. The characters were discovered in Anyang, Henan Province, which was the capital city of the Shang Dynasty. Around 150,000 of shell and bone pieces were excavated. Of the more than 4,600 distinct characters in these pieces, over 1,000 have been identified. Besides Jiaguwen, there were also characters inscribed on bronzeware during the late Shang and early Zhou dynasties, which are known as Jinwen or Zhongdingwen. The Jinwen on bronzeware recorded important events and activities and reflected the social life of the time, and therefore are valuable material for

Jiaguwen of the Shang Dynasty

Jinwen of the late Shang and early Zhou dynasties

The inscriptions on bronze objects of the Shang and Zhou dynasties

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studying the history of the Shang and Zhou dynasties. Although Jiaguwen and Jinwen developed into a set of fairly comprehensive symbols for keeping records, there still exist many pictographic characters with strong elements of pictures. These characters are difficult to write because of their loose structures and complicated strokes. They tend to be simplified with unbending strokes and rough-and-ready structures. Up to the late Western Zhou period. the Jiaguwen had been made uniform to conform to one type called da zhuan (great seal script). In the Spring and Autumn Period, written languages were more widely and frequently used than ever. Due to different practices in character writing in different states, the same characters could sometimes be written in quite different ways, such as in a simplified form or in variant forms. After Emperor Qin Shihuang unified China and established the feudal centralized system, he pushed forward the development of Chinese characters by unifying the various calligraphic styles that were thriving in other states, and created the standardized Xiaozhuan or small seal script on the basis of the script of the Qin state. The newly developed script, known as the small seal script, brought to an end the confusion of different forms of character writing since the Warring States Period, and also laid the foundation for the present regular script. Soon after the Xiaozhuan became the official standard script, there arose one style called Sutizi (the commoner style), which was simplified from the script of the Qin state and used among the common people. Although Xiaozhuan was neater than the earlier scripts, it was still troublesome for the common people. Even though it was not of the highest standThe written language of the ard, many people preferred us- Qin state

The written language of the late Western Zhou

The written language in the Spring and Autumn Period

Lishu invented by Cheng Miao

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Zhangcao in the Qin and Han period

Kaishu of the Han and Wei Dynasties

Xingshu


ing Sutizi, because it could be written more quickly, which was convenient. Eventually some official documents came to be written in Sutizi. This script came to be called Lishu (clerical script). A prisoner called Cheng Miao collected and organized the Sutizi. As prisoners at that time were called Tu Li, this Sutizi was named Lishu. The new script received the support of Emperor Qin Shihuang, and was widely used as the supplement for the small seal script. The Lishu of the Qin Dynasty is called Qinli (Qin clerical script) or Guli (Archaic clerical script), while that of the Han Dynasty is called Hanli (Han clerical script) or Jinli (Modern clerical script). The script of Lishu revised and modified the former fat and curved strokes to be flat, upright, and horizontal. It completely changed the numerous original pictographic features and made the Chinese script more symbolic. Lishu was the main style during the Han Dynasty. Based on the clerical script, an early form of cursive script called Zhangcao or old cursive script appeared in the Qin and Han period. Its strokes were linked together. Its horizontal strokes still ran upward; the end of its left-falling stroke and right-falling stroke still retained the clerical style.The clerical cursive script was widely used during the Han Dynasty. After the Eastern Han Dynasty and Cao Wei state, a new style of script known as Xingshu or regular script came into being, evolving from the clerical and clerical cursive scripts. The regular script (often called standard script or simply Kaishu) developed further during the Sui and Tang dynasties and became a widely recognized style. As the name suggests, the regular script is “regular,” with each of the strokes placed slowly and carefully, the brush lifted from the paper, and all the strokes distinct from one another.

THE ANCIENT AGE

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The running hand appeared after the regular script. Its style was between the regular script and cursive script. Different from other scripts, it did not have a specific style of its own.The strokes were rather flexible and natural. When carefully written with distinguishable strokes, the Xingshu characters will be very close to the regular style; when swiftly executed, they approach the Caoshu or cursive hand. Since the Jin Dynasty, most master calligraphers excelled at the running hand. After the invention of printing technology, the regular fonts were normally used in printing books. Between the end of the Ming and beginning of the Qing dynasties, there appeared a new style of characters: square-shaped characters featuring light horizontal strokes and heavy falling strokes. It is a variant of the regular script. Since the square-shaped script developed from the printing fonts of the Song Dynasty, the type of script is therefore called the Song typeface, as is widely used in printing newspapers and books nowadays.

Astronomy and Calendar of the Xia, Shang, and Zhou Dynasties The traditional Chinese calendar system has a very long history going back to the Xia Dynasty dating from over 4,000 years ago. The lunar calendar which is still in use is also called the Xia calendar as it was created in the Xia Dynasty. In the Shang Dynasty, the calendar system became comprehensive: the year was divided into 12 months, with odd months having 30 days and even months having 29 days. In a leap year, one extra month would be added. The calendar of the Shang Dynasty, also known as the Yin Calendar, had clear distinctions with the concepts of year, month, xun, day, and hour. The calendar also included farming seasons, informing people when to grow and when to reap the crops.

The written language from the late Ming to early Qing dynasties

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In the ancient time, the Chinese people learnt to observe the astronomical phenomenon. In the Xia Dynasty, there were records of meteoric showers and solar eclipses, the earliest records in the world. According to the narration of the solar eclipse happening in the Xia Dynasty, the first-ever record in historical document, when the solar eclipse occurred, people were extremely frightened, and the musicians hurried to beat the drums. The common people ran around to find shelters while the officials were fleeing in their carts. Historical documents of the Shang Dynasty contain many records of solar and lunar eclipses. Scientific calculation has proved that these records matched the actual occurrences. Shijing (The Book of Poetry) reA picture on the Calendar of the Xia Dynasty corded a solar eclipse occurring on September 6, 776 BC which is the first record of a solar eclipse that has an exact date of occurrence.

E A S T E R N Z H O U DY N A S T Y

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CHAPTER 2

Eastern Zhou Dynasty AFTER the hardships of wartime and social upheaval of the last years of the Western Zhou dynasty, there were no longer any vassals in court. Under the despotic rule of King You, the last emperor of the Western Zhou, the social conflicts were getting increasingly tense and the Western Zhou was well on its way to its doom. What was worse, King You deposed Queen Shen and Crown Prince Yijiu, and named his favorite consort Baosi as the new queen and her son Bofu, as the new crown prince. Lord Shen, the father of Queen Shen, resented King You so much that he allied with the Qianrong nomads to attack the Western Zhou and killed King You at Mountain Li. The Western Zhou was thus ruined. After the death of King You, with the support of Lord Shen, Prince Yijiu ascended the throne, and became known as King Ping of Zhou. As the national capital was severely damaged, in 770 BC, King Ping moved the capital eastward to Luoyi and founded the Eastern Zhou Dynasty. The Eastern Zhou lasted for 549 years from 770 BC to 221 BC when the state of Qin united China. The Eastern Zhou is divided into two phases: the Spring and Autumn Period (770 BC–476 BC), and the Warring States Period (475 BC–221 BC). During the Eastern Zhou period, there was severe rivalry between the vasal states for hegemony, resulting in the Five Overlords in the Spring and Autumn Period, and the Seven Powers in the Warring States Period.

I. The Spring and Autumn Period Duke Huan of Qi

After King Ping of Zhou moved the capital to Luoyang, the prestige of tianzi (Heaven’s son, the honorific title of the kings of the Zhou Dynasty) was weakening. The lords no longer followed his orders. Some strong states took every means to establish political and economic hegemony over other states. Duke Huan of Qi was the first overlord in the Spring and Autumn Period.

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Duke Huan of Qi whose personal name was Jiang Xiaobai fled out of Qi to avoid internal strife.When Duke Xiang and Duke Wuzhi of Qi, who took the throne after Duke Xiang were both killed, Xiaobai’s elder brother Jiu, who was in Lu then and was supposed to be the heir and had gained support from Duke Zhuang of Lu, and Guan Zhong, who was Jiu’s teacher initially, shot an arrow at Xiaobai on his way back to Qi from Ju. Xiaobai wasn’t hurt because the hook of his robes blocked the arrow. Xiaobai pretended to be shot to death, and managed to arrive in Qi before Jiu. He ascended the throne and became known as Duke Huan of Qi. Duke Huan wanted to appoint Bao Shuya as the prime minister. Bao Shuya declined and recommended his good friend Guan Zhong. He said,“If you want to rule only the state of Qi, I am competent as your assistant; but if you want to become the overlord of the entire world, no one except Guan Zhong will be able to serve your leadership.” Duke Huan accepted Bao Shuyao’s recommendation and did not avenge himself on Guan Zhong for the arrow shot. When Guan Zhong returned to Qi, Duke Huan held a grand ceremony in his honor and appointed him as the prime minister of Qi. Guan Zhong carried out reforms in Qi. He developed agricultural production by encouraging people to cultivate the wasteland and levying tax according to the grade of the land. He reformed the system of forces by establishing a permanent army of 30,000 troops and strengthening the drill of the army. The state of Qi was situated in the north of the present-day Shandong Province. It was near the sea and abounded in salt and fish. Guan Zhong set up a salt field to develop the fishing and salt industries. Under Guan Zhong’s reforms, the state of Qi enjoyed social stability and economic prosperity. Qi became the strongest state of the time, allowing Lord Huan to make a greater impact outside his state. Although the power of the royal family of Zhou was weak, the King of Zhou was still the nominal lord of all vassals. Under the slogan of respecting the king and defending against the barbarian, Duke Huan gained hegemony among the states of ancient China. Defending against the barbarian meant resisting the intrusion of neighboring nomadic tribes. Guan Zhong also promoted aid to the weak states, protecting them from humiliation and annexation by powerful people. These policies were embraced by other vassal states. In 651 BC, Duke Huan convened a meeting of the rulers of all the states at Kuiqiu. The king of Zhou sent his representative to attend the meeting. At the meeting, Duke Huan reached the zenith of his power: he became the first overlord in the Spring and Autumn Period. With the assistance of Guan Zhong, Duke Huan convened meetings with rulers of all states a total of nine times and established his prestige as an overlord. He led an expedition against the nomadic Shanrong people in the north to relieve the pressure on the state of Yan. He also offered to restore Xing and Wei, which were


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once eliminated by the nomadic Di people. He led the lords of vassals to repress the internal trouble of the royal family of Zhou, deterring Prince Dai from usurping the throne, and helping Crown Prince Zheng to ascend the throne. Duke Huan led the united forces to attack the state of Chu, forcing the lord of Chu to accept the authority of the king of the Zhou Dynasty. As a result, the state of Chu had to give up its coveting the Central Plains in the following decades. There is no doubt that the feats achieved by Duke Huan of Qi were largely attributed to Guan Zhong. Of the five hegemonies of the Spring and Autumn Period, Duke Huan of Qi was the most powerful one. His prestige as an overlord lasted the longest in the Spring and Autumn Period, and his hegemony over other vassal states was more harmonious than that of the overlords who succeeded him.

Duke Wen of Jin Duke Wen’s personal name was Ji Chong’er and he was the son of Duke Xian. As prince of Jin, he earned the reputation of an impressive personality and was popular among the officials and common people. Dame Li, Duke Xian’s favorite consort, wanted her son Qi Xi to succeed to the throne. Dame Li persuaded the Duke to accept her son as the heir to the throne, and to send princes Shen Sheng, Chong’er, and Yi Wu to the frontiers. She then killed Shen Sheng and sent men to kill Chong’er and Yi Wu. Hearing the news, Chong’er fled from the state of Jin with nineteen loyal retainers such as Hu Yan and Zhao Shuai. They first fled to the states of Di, Wei, Qi, Cao, Song, and Zheng. Although the sovereigns of these states treated him very well, they were not able to help him ascend to the throne. Some other states did not even recognize him. In exile, they experienced all kinds of hardships. One hot summer afternoon, the Prince was exhausted and hungry. His advisor and personal friend Jie Zhitui cut a piece of flesh from his own thigh to make the soup. After innumerable difficulties, Chong’er finally came to the State of Chu. Duke Cheng of Chu had heard that Chong’er was a wise man. He warmly received and treated Chong’er like a sovereign. Chong’er and his retainers settled in Chu. He was often invited to have dinner with the duke. One day, Duke Cheng of Chu gave a banquet in honor of Chong’er. Suddenly, amidst the harmonious atmosphere of drinking and talking, Duke Cheng asked Chong’er, “How will you repay me when you return to the state of Jin and become its ruler one day?” After thinking for a moment, Chong’er said, “You have a great number of beautiful women and attendants as well as jewelry and silk cloth, and the state of Chu abounds in rare birds and animals.What possible treasure can the state of Jin boast of to be presented to your majesty?” Duke Cheng said, “You are too modest. Nevertheless, you still have to show your gratitude to me in one way or another, I presume?” Chong’er

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answered with a smile, “If I were fortunate enough to return to the state of Jin and become its ruler, the state of Jin would be friendly to the state of Chu. If one day there should be a war between the two states, I would definitely order my troops to retreat three she as a condition for peace. (One she is equivalent to thirty li. Li is a Chinese unit of length equivalent to half a kilometer. And, therefore, three she is forty-five kilometers.) If, under that condition, you were still not reconciled, I would have to fight with you.” Soon, Chong’er was escorted to the state of Qin by Duke Mu of Qin. During the exile of Chong’er, the state of Jin was embroiled in internal strife. When Duke Xian of Jin died, Xiqi, the son of Dame Li, was enthroned, but he was assassinated by court officials. Dame Li then put Zhuozi, the son of her sister, on the throne, but he was also killed by court officials. Finally, Prince Yi Wu managed to become the sovereign, known as the Duke of Hui of Jin. Duke Hui was ferocious. After he ascended the throne, he killed many court officials. He continued to persecute Chong’er. He killed all those people suspected to be connected with princes Shen Sheng and Chong’er. He also betrayed his promises and was devoid of gratitude. While living in exile, he had promised Duke Mu of the state of Qin that he would give Qin five cities as a token of his gratitude to Qin after he ascended the throne. But after he returned to Jin with the escort of Qin’s army and became the sovereign of Jin, he did not give the cities as he had promised. The state of Jin had been hit by drought for one whole year, and upon the request of the state of Jin, Duke Mu of Qin lent a great amount of grain to the state of Jin, putting aside his private grudge against Duke Hui. The next year when the famine hit Qin, Duke Hui refused to help them. He was soon beset with difficulties at home and abroad. Both Qin and Jin wanted to depose him and place Chong’er back on the throne. Before long, Duke Hui died and the state of Jin was once again in turmoil. Chong’er returned with the troops of Qin acting for him and became the sovereign of Jin, titled Duke Wen of Jin. After ascending to the throne, Chong’er initiated multiple reforms, such as the reorganization of the military and the establishment of a stronger civil administration. Social order was restored and the economy recovered. Jin soon became a powerful state in the north of China. In the meantime, the southern state Chu also became strong and expanded its influence to the Yellow River valley. The strife for hegemony between the two states became critical. In the year 533 BC, the Chu troops and the Jin troops confronted each other in a battle at Chengpu. The Chu soldiers outnumbered the Jin soldiers. Faithful to his promise, Duke Wen of the state of Jin ordered his troops to retreat from the border by about thirty miles. After retreating, the Jin troops were stationed at Chengpu. Seeing that the


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Jin troops were retreating, the Chu troops thought that the enemy troops were afraid, and began chasing them. Taking advantage of the Chu troops’ arrogance and their slighting of the Jin troops, the Jin troops concentrated their forces and inflicted a crushing defeat on the Chu troops, thus winning the victory of the battle of Chengpu. After the battle, Duke Wen called a meeting of vassal states. King Xiang of Zhou rewarded the army for the victory. Duke Wen gained hegemony over these states.

King Zhuang of Chu The state of Chu was defeated by the state of Jin when it launched a northward expedition to the Central Plains. During the rule of King Zhuang of Chu, the state of Chu attacked the north again. King Zhuang was a legendary sovereign in the Spring and Autumn Period. He ascended the throne in 613 BC. It was said that for the first three years of his reign, he devoted himself entirely to hunting during the daytime and feasting at night. Knowing well that his ministers frowned on such debauched behavior, he declared execution for anyone who dared to admonish him. Although no one dared to criticize the king to his face, a wily minister Shen Wuwei managed to get King Zhuang to change his ways by purporting to entertain him with a riddle, as follows: “Your Majesty, here in our state of Chu there lives a big bird renowned for its gorgeous plumage. However, for three years it has never soared aloft nor uttered its majestic cry. What kind of bird is it?” King Zhuang replied, “This sounds like a rare animal indeed. Surely if it were to take to the skies once again, it would be bound for the heights of heaven. And it must save its extraordinary voice for a special occasion, at which time a single note would be enough to bring ecstasy to the ears of the world.” But King Zhuang carried on with his decadent lifestyle as before. A minister called Su Cong went to see King Zhuang and admonished the king candidly, regardless of the danger of being executed. King Zhuang was deeply moved by Su Cong’s admonition and told Su,“You are right. Let’s make an all-out effort to make Chu stronger.” From that day on, King Zhuang gave up his former habits and dedicated himself to the governance of his realm. He left it to Shen Wuwei and Su Cong to administrate state affairs, appointed the talented Sun Shuao as prime minister, and initiated political and economic reforms. Before long the state of Chu became a strong state again. King Zhuang was not a foolish sovereign after all. When he ascended the throne, most of the state power fell into the hands of the Prime Minister Yin Douyue and his clique. He indulged in sensual pursuits deliberately to relax Yin’s vigilance against him. As expected, having seen King Zhuang live an

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undisciplined life in these three years, the Prime Minister did not feel any apprehension about the king, but King Zhuang deprived the Prime Minister of most of his power most unexpectedly, and smashed the revolt of Dou Yuejiao. After his army’s brilliant military victories, King Zhuang attempted to achieve hegemony over other states. In 606 BC, in order to attack the nomadic tribe in the west of present-day Song County, Henan Province, King Zhuang led his army to the Yishui and Luoshui valley where the Emperor of Zhou resided. King Zhuang asked the messenger of the Emperor about the weight of the nine dings of Zhou, which were the symbols of hegemony, but he was scolded by the messenger. In the battle of Bi, his army defeated the state of Jin, another strong state at that time. After the battle, the state of Chu extended its sphere of influence to the side of the Yellow River. Many small states, such as Lu, Song, Zheng, and Chen, gave allegiance and services to the state of Chu. King Zhuang became the overlord of the Spring and Autumn Period.

Duke Xiang of Song In rivalry for the hegemony, Duke Xiang of Song who took the throne in 650 BC was also ambitious. He once followed Duke Huan of Qi and joined the Kuiqiu Alliance. After the death of Duke Huan, Duke Xiang of Song sent troops to interfere with the civil strife of Qi in an attempt to seek hegemony over other states. At the meeting to seal the alliance, he was captured by King Cheng of Chu. After he was released, Duke Xiang commanded his troops to attack the state of Zheng. In 638 BC, the Chu army attacked the state of Song to save the state of Zheng. The troops of Chu encountered the troops of Song at Hongshui in the northwestern region of the present-day Tuocheng city, Henan Province. Duke Xiang made several major mistakes in this battle: his troops were thoroughly defeated and he himself was badly hurt, and died in the following year.

Duke Mu of Qin Duke Mu of Qin who came to the throne in 659 BC also participated in the rivalry for the hegemony. With the assistance of his talented advisors, such as Baili Xi and Jian Shu, Duke Mu went all out to make his state strong. To gain access to the east of China, he meddled in the internal affairs of the state of Jin several times by taking advantage of the marriage relationship between Qin and Jin. After Duke Wen of Jin died, he took the chance to attack the state of Zheng but was ambushed by the army of Jin at Eryao in the southeast of the present-day Sanmen Gorge, Henan Province. The Qin army were utterly defeated. After that war, Duke Mu turned his attention westward and greatly expanded the territory of Qin. Duke Mu later became the overlord of the west of China.


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Wu and Yue Striving for Hegemony Wu was a state in the valley of the lower reaches of the Yangtze River, while Yue was a state in the valley of the Qiantang River. Both were hegemonic states during the late Spring and Autumn Period. King Helü of Wu seized the throne by assassinating his cousin King Liao of Wu. He relied on Wu Zixu and Sun Wu to develop the economy and strengthen the army. In 506 BC, He appointed Wu Zixu and Sun Wu as generals to fight against the state of Chu. They conquered the capital city Yin, forcing King Zhao of Chu to flee. Later, with the help of the state of Qin, Chu was founded again. King Helü thus became the overlord of the valley of the middle and lower reaches of the Yangtze River. Unfortunately, King Helü was seriously wounded and soon died in a war with the state of Yue. His son Fuchai became the new King. Fuchai was determined to get his revenge. Three years later, he led his army against the state of Yue. Against the advice of Fan Li and Wen Zhong, King Goujian of Yue rashly commanded the troops to attack the troops of Wu, but this ended in failure. At Kuaiji Mountain, King Goujian and the rest of the army were surrounded by the army of Wu. King Goujian was left with no choice but to accept Fan Li and Wen Zhong’s advice to surrender to the state of Wu and seek opportunities to take revenge sometime in the future. Wen Zhong bribed Bo Pi (the favorite advisor of King Fuchai) with lavish gifts. He told Bo Pi that the sovereign and subjects of Yue would surrender to be the slaves of the King of Wu, and requested him to persuade the king not to exterminate the state of Yue. Bo Pi talked King Fuchai into accepting the surrender of Yue despite the objections raised by Wu Zixu, another advisor of King Fuchai. So Goujian and his wife as well as Fan Li came to the state of Wu as captives. Fu let them live in a shabby stone house and ordered them to raise horses for him. Their food was no better than pig feed, and they slept on haystacks. Every time King Fuchai went out, he asked Goujian to lead his horse. Despite the humiliation, Goujian appeared to be loyal to Fuchai. Once when Fuchai fell ill, Goujian, pretending that he knew some medical knowledge, tasted Fuchai’s excrement so as to diagnose Fuchai’s illness. Seeing Goujian’s obedience to him, Fuchai dropped his guard against Goujian. Three years later, he was set free. Goujian vowed to exact revenge for his humiliation after he went back to his own state. He had a strong sense of discipline: he refrained from eating meat, dressed in coarse clothes, and slept on a pile of brushwood. He even hung a piece of gall above his brushwood bed and tasted the bitter gall before sleeping, repeatedly saying to himself, “Goujian, do you forget the pains and humiliations suffered in the state of Wu?”

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At the same time, he started social reforms and developed agriculture. He placed Fan Li in charge of military affairs and Wen Zhong, of civil affairs. He encouraged his people to give birth to more children, stipulating that men of twenty and women of seventeen years old had to get married, or else their parents would be punished. Goujian even ploughed the field himself, while his queen wove cloth. Meanwhile, Goujian continued to pay tribute to King Fuchai of Wu and his bribe to Bo Pi. He collected rare treasures and sent them to King Fuchai. Goujian also found two extremely beautiful young women: Xi Shi and Zheng Dan, and gave them as a gift to Fuchai. King Fuchai favored Xi Shi very much, and he built Guanwa Palace (Palace of Beautiful Women), where Xi Shi and he spent all day together. Seeing King Fuchai indulging himself after his grand victory, Wu Zixu admonished King Fuchai repeatedly. Fuchai was angry with him and finally forced him to commit suicide on the alleged grounds of sabotage. After ten years, the state of Yue became strong both economically and militarily, while the strength of Wu dwindled. King Fuchai pushed his army northward to attack the states of Qi and Lu, and rivaled for hegemony with the state of Jin. His army defeated the army of Qi and killed their commander. He then held a meeting with the dukes in Huangchi in present-day Fengqiu County, Henan Province, and was acknowledged as the overlord by the King of Zhou and other lords. While King Fuchai was concentrating his forces northward, exhausting the strength of the state of Wu, Goujian took this favorable opportunity to attack Gu Su, the capital of the state of Wu. In 473 BC,Yue conquered and annexed the state of Wu. King Goujian of Yue moved the capital to Langya. He called a meeting in Xuzhou with Qi and Jin, becoming the last overlord in the Spring and Autumn Period. Lacking a solid foundation, the state of Yue was exterminated by the state of Chu in 333 BC.

II. The Warring States Period

In the Spring and Autumn Period, the spread of iron tools facilitated the large-scale reclamation of wastelands and the expansion of farming lands, fostering the development of agricultural production. The economic and cultural exchanges among different regions brought boom times for handicraft production and commercial transportation. Also in this period, the large families in every state strengthened their armed forces in wars and increased their economic strength by scrambling for lands and population from the dukes. The power of the duke families began to decline while the large families controlled the dukedoms. Great social changes were taking place in the new economic and political context. At the beginning of the Warring States Period, the power of the ducal family


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of Jin weakened, and Jin gradually came under the control of six large families. The Wei, the Zhao, and the Han families annihilated the three other families: the Fan, the Zhongxing, and the Zhi families.The three major families deposed Duke Jing of Jin, and partitioned the rest of his territory. In 403 BC, the figurehead King Weilie of Zhou, conferred the title of Marquis on Zhao Ji, Wei Si, and Han Qian. Also in the state of Qi, the power shifted from the ruling Jiang family to the Tian family, and in 389 BC, the Tian family seized control of the state of Qi and took the title of Duke. In this era, the King of Zhou as well as the rulers of small states such as Lu and Song were squeezed by the powerful states and were on their last legs. The seven major states of Qi, Chu,Yan, Zhao, Han,Wei, and Qin had risen to prominence, starting the process of the invasive wars of annexation. The sovereigns of the seven powers had taken political reforms and strengthened their armies, establishing and consolidating the regime of the rising feudal classes.They had frequent wars of offence and defense. The winning state would expand its territory and increase its population, while the defeated one would lose its land and population. Thus the territories of the seven states were not constant but were in a state of continuous flux. The state of Qin lay to the west of the Hangu Pass in the present Linbao County, Henan Province, while the other six states lay to the east of the Hangu Pass. Wei was the most powerful state in the early Warring States Period. The state reached its height during the reign of Marquis Wen of Wei. Ximen Bao, the court advisor to Marquis Wen of Wei, devoted himself to abolishing the inhuman social practices and developing agricultural production when he was posted to Ye Prefecture in modern Linzhang County, Henan Province. General Wu Qi stationed himself at Xihe Prefecture in modern Heyang, Shaanxi Province, deterring Qin from advancing eastward. Li Kui, a reformer and Prime Minister of Wei, took charge of administrative affairs. Wei quickly rose as a strong state. Its territory reached the present-day eastern part of Shaanxi Province in the west bank of the Yellow River, the southern part of Shanxi Province, and the northern part of Henan Province. King Hui of Wei was ambitious. He initiated war without taking into consideration the powerful neighboring states of Qi and Qin. In 353 BC, Wei was defeated by Qi in the Battle of Guiling (now Heze County, Shandong Province). In 340 BC, Wei was devastatingly defeated again by Qin in the Battle of Maling. After these series of events, Wei was severely weakened. King Hui, fearing an attack from Qin, moved the capital from Anyi (modern Anli, Shanxi Province) to Daliang (present-day Kaifeng). Eventually, Wei lost the west bank of the Yellow River, which acted as a natural defense for Wei. Since then, Wei could no longer stop Qin from expanding eastward. In 375 BC, Marquis Ai of Han annihilated Zheng and moved its capital from Pingyang (now Linfen County, Shanxi Province) to Xinzheng (now Xinzheng

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County, Henan Province). As the Han state was landlocked on all sides by other powerful states such as Chu in the south, Qin in the west, and Wei in the east. Han was the smallest of the seven states, and was bullied militarily by its more powerful neighbors. During the reign of Marquis Zhao of Han, Shen Buhai was appointed as the prime minister and he initiated a series of self-strengthening reforms. After Shen Buhai died, the Han state was faced with numerous invasions and had no strength to defend its territory. The Zhao state had its capital in present Handan, Hebei Province. Marquis Lie of Zhao appointed capable men to high office and practiced thrift, and soon Zhao became strong. During the reign of King Wuling of Zhao, in order to reform his army, King Wuling adopted the nomadic style of cavalry fighting and even ordered his armies to be dressed in the nomadic armor and clothing. The reform greatly enhanced the military prowess of Zhao. Its territory included areas within the present Inner Mongolia, Hebei, Shanxi, and Shaanxi Provinces. The state of Zhao bordered the Xiong-nu (Huns), and the states of Qin, Wei, and Yan. But in the bloodiest Battle of Changping in 260 BC, under the command of General Zhao Kuo, the Zhao suffered a devastating hit by Qin: the main Zhao forces of 400,000 men were massacred by Qin. After this, Zhao was unable to rise to prominence again. At that time, Chu was a strong state in southern China. It expanded its territory after it had conquered the Yue and Lu states. Chu was bounded on the north by Han, Wei, and Qi, on the west by Qin, and had the sea coast in the east. In the late Spring and Autumn Period, Chu moved its capital from Ying (near present-day Jiangling, Hubei Province) to Ruo (now Yicheng, Hubei Province). In the late Warring States, under successive strikes by Qin troops, the territory of Chu was slowly annexed by Qin, forcing Chu to move its capital to Chen (present-day Huaiyang, Henan) and finally to Shouchun in Shouyang, Anhui Province. Under the reign of Duke Xiao, the state of Qin was transformed from a backward state into one that surpassed the other six states as a result of a series of reforms. In 359 BC and 350 BC, Shang Yang initiated a series of reforms in Qin, encouraging agricultural cultivation and fighting. His policies built the foundation that enabled Qin to conquer all territoryies in China. Qin first defeated its rival Wei to conquer the western area to the Yellow River and then conquered the territory of Han in the east of Jiayuguan. The six states that were under the strike of Qin adopted Su Qin’s strategy of Hezong (vertical alliance) to repel Qin’s expansion. Qin adopted Zhang Yi’s strategy of Lianheng (horizontal alliance). Qin con- Su Qin


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centrated its superior forces and launched a series of attacks. In 278 BC, General Bai Qi of Qin captured Chu’s capital Ying, and in 260 BC, he defeated the army of Zhao at Changping and massacred 400,000 surrendered soldiers. After this, the army of Qin swept across the six states without any major resistance. In 221 BC, it conquered the last state, Qi, establishing a unified and centralized nation in China. The Warring States was the period when the feudal society came into being, a process from isolation to centralization, prompting development and the exchange of ideas among states within the fields of politics, economy, and culture, laying a solid foundation for the development of a unified and multi-ethnic country in the future. During the Warring States Period, the powerful states were often involved in wars. At the same time, they also launched political and diplomatic offensives to reach their goals. Under such circumstances, the strategies of Hezong and Lianheng came into being. Geographically, Qin was in the west, and the other six powers were all located in the east. The six states formed alliances from north to south to repel Qin’s aggression, known as Hezong (vertical alliance). In order to destroy the vertical alliance and pave the way for its eastward advance, Qin took advantage of the internal conflicts among the six states, and adopted the policy of “connect with the far, attack those close,” which meant befriending the distant enemy while attacking a nearby enemy and defeating other states one by one. The policy was called Lianheng (horizontal alliance). Many tacticians, collectively known as Zonghengjia, travelled around the states, advising the rulers to put their ideas into practice, such as Gongsun Yan of Wei state and Su Qin from Luoyang. They obtained high salaries and positions by lobbying. Zhang Yi and Su Qin were the representatives of the Zonghengjia in the Warring States Period. Zhang Yi was the descendant of a noble family of the Wei state. In 329 BC, he arrived in the Qin state and became an official. Later, he was sent to Wei. King Hui of Wei appointed Zhang Yi as the prime minister. Zhang Yi attempted to execute the policy of Lianheng (alliance with Qin participating in its ascendancy), but his proposal was not adopted by King Hui of Wei. Qin attacked Wei and conquered some areas in present Wenxi County, Shanxi Zhang Yi

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Province, and threatened to attack other states. In 319 BC, Zhang Yi was expelled and sent back to Qin by Wei. The journey of Zhang Yi in pursuit of Lianheng failed this time. Gongsun Yan who called for the Lianheng policy got the support of the states of Qi, Chu,Yan, Zhao, and Han, and was appointed as the prime minister of Wei. In 318 BC, Gongsun Yan united Wei, Zhao, Han,Yan, and Chu to launch a war against Qin. King Hui of Chu was selected as the chief of the vertical alliance. As Chu and Yan did not send troops in the war against Qin, the allied armies of Han, Zhao, and Wei were thoroughly defeated by the Qin army. The first round of the “Five States Hezong against the Qin” contest ended in defeat. Qi and Chu had made an alliance that was as strong as the state of Qin. However, Qin sent Zhang Yi to Chu, and he lured King Huai of Chu to break off relations between Qi and Chu by promising to give six hundred li of territory in the area of Shangyu to Chu. King Huai of Chu believed Zhang Yi’s words and broke up with Qi. The King of Qi was furious and allied with Qin. When the envoy of Chu asked Qin for the land, Zhang Yi responded: “I just promised to give six li land to King Huai of Chu. I never said anything about six hundred li!” Afraid of being humiliated, King Huai of Chu dispatched troops to attack Qin. King Huai of Chu was not only was defeated, but also lost a large piece of Chu’s land. Su Qin, the representative of the Hezong strategy, had achieved some success in persuading the rulers of the six states into an alliance against Qin. Qin had to return some land captured from other states. The struggle of Hengzong and Lianheng, however, lasted for a long period of time. Typically, each state, in pursuit of its own interests, joined the Hezong alliance at one time, and the Lianheng alliance at another. Thus goes the Chinese saying, “serve Qin in the morning and Chu in the evening.” The policy of “connect with the far, attack those close” was put forward by Fan Ju to King Zhao of Qin. Fan Ju proposed to King Zhao of Qin to befriend the distant states of Qi and Chu while attacking those nearby states of Han and Wei. By adopting this policy, King Zhao of Qin captured Wei and then Han. This remained the basic state policy of Qin in the process of unifying China.

III. One Hundred Schools of Thought

The Spring and Autumn and Warring States Periods were a time of radical transformation in philosophical, political, and social life from 770 BC to 221 BC, up to the time when the Qin state unified China. People of this period held greatly varying views on social change, life, and nature, and established many schools of thought to account for these aspects of life. The most notable schools included Taoism, Confucianism, Mohism, Legalism, Militarism, Ming,Yin-Yang, and so on.The most famous philosophers were Laozi, Zhuangzi, Confucius, Mencius, Xunzi, Mozi, Shang Yang,


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Han Fei Zi, Sun Wu, Wu Qi, Sun Bin, Zou Yan, among others. They wrote books in which they expounded their theories, took a large number of men as disciples, and debated with other schools. Because there were many philosophers in this period, the philosophers and their schools of thought were generally called “Zhuzi Baijia” (the Masters’ Hundred Schools), and the debates among these schools of thought were called “Baijia Zhengming” (Disputation of the Hundred Schools of Thought).The period was of far-reaching consequence in the history of academic thinking in China, and greatly contributed to the interest in and status of philosophy in ancient China.

Guanzi Guanzi (died in 645 BC), whose given name was Yiwu and courtesy name was Zhong, was from present-day Yingshang, Anhui Province. Guan Zhong lived a poor life when he was young. He became a businessman to make a living and this led him to travel to many places. In 685 BC, he was appointed as the prime minister of Qi by Duke Huan. In his forty years as prime minister, Guan Zhong carried out a series of reforms in economic, political, and military fields, and was an outstanding politician of the early Spring and Autumn Period. To develop the economy, Guan Zhong broke the limits of the Jingtianzhi (the well-field system) by implementing a land grading-based taxation measure, which greatly increased the utilization of less fertile land. As the Qi state was adjacent to the sea in the east, Guan Zhong encouraged the trades of fishing and salt production, appointed salt and iron officials, and used state power to encourage the production of salt and iron. He organized mintage and drafted regulations, and placed emphasis on the development of commerce and the handicrafts industry. He adopted a policy of “qing zhong jiu fu zhi,” meaning that the government would buy or sell products in accordance with the requirement of the people and the good or poor harvest of the crops, so as to regulate the prices of goods and accumulate national revenue. Politically, he divided the state into twenty-one xiang (administrative regions). There were three kinds of xiang: the commercial xiang, the industrial xiang, and the intellectual xiang, and each xiang had its characteristic industries. Besides the xiang, Guan Zhong set up five shu (administrative regions) beyond the suburbs of each xiang. Guan Zhong also executed military reforms. In order to guarantee sufficient manpower to increase agricultural production, soldiers were required to engage in agricultural production in times of peace. He also developed a better method for selecting talent for government posts. He required that all xiang and shu should recommend outstanding people for official services, providing opportunities for ordinary people to become government officials. All these innovations greatly strengthened the national power of the Qi state. In the early Spring and Autumn Period, Duke Huan of Qi held the hegemonic state.

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Upholding the principle of “respecting the king and defending the state against the barbarians,” Guan Zhong assisted Duke Huan in uniting the neighboring northern countries to resist the invasion of people from the Shanrong nation. He once sent armies to relieve the states of Xing, Wei, and Yan, making great contributions to protecting the advanced economy and culture of the Central Plains region from the plunder and ravage of the barbarian tribes. In general, Guan Zhong was an accomplished politician whose reforms and strategies had a great influence on successive generations. The book Guan Zi has seventy-six pieces of writings extant. It is an important work for gaining insight into the thinking of Guan Zhong and the Jixia School of thought in the state of Qin during the Warring States Period.

Laozi Laozi’s surname was Li and given name was Er, also called Lao Dan. He was born in the Shan region of the Chu state in the late Spring and Autumn Period, and served as a keeper of archival records at the court of Zhou. Lao was a famous thinker in ancient China, and was the founder of the Taoist school. He observed things dialectically, holding that all things in the world and the human society were in a constant state of flux. All things were the unity of opposites, like existence and non-existence, nobility and humbleness, life and death, easy and difficult, high and low, hard and soft, which were all interdependent and could change to be their opposites. Laozi said, “It is upon bad fortune that good fortune leans, and upon good fortune that bad fortune rests.” Politically, Laozi asserted the rule of wu wei (non-action), and so opposed draconian laws. Taoism is profound and had a great influence on subsequent generations. It is said Laozi wrote The Classic of Tao and Virtue, in which he declares that Tao is the origin of the eternal world and is boundless in time and space. During the Eastern Han Dynasty, Zhang Daoling established the religion of Taoism, and Laozi was respected as the creator of Taoism. In actual fact, the Taoist school was quite different from Taoism, especially since the Taoist school was by no means superstitious. When Confucius went to Statue of Laozi


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Zhou and consulted Laozi about rites, Laozi said, “As for the person you mentioned, when his body and bones have dissipated, only his words will continue to exist. A gentleman travels in a carriage when he is successful and walks downheartedly when he is not. I’ve heard that a good merchant can hide everything and make it seem as if he has nothing, and an educated gentleman can appear slow-witted. Get rid of your overbearing airs and excessive desires, of your posturing attitude and greed. They will do no good to you, and I tell you that just as it is.” Confucius left and said to his disciples, “As for birds, I know they are able to fly; as for fish, I know they are able to swim; as for beasts, I know they are able to run.What runs can be stopped with nets, what swims can be stopped with fishing lines, and what flies can be stopped with arrows. As for dragons, I have no idea of their ascending to heaven by wind and clouds. Today I met Laozi, who is just like a dragon!”

Confucius

Kongzi (Confucius) was born in 551 BC in Zouyi in the state of Lu, which is known today as Qufu in Shandong Province. His surname was Kong and given name Qiu, and he styled himself Zhongni. He was a great thinker and educator of ancient China, and the founder of the Confucian school. Confucius lived a poor and humble life when he was young.When he grew up, he worked as a warehouse and a cattle keeper. In his thirties, Confucius started his teaching profession. He also served as the Minister of Justice in Lu. The main concepts of Confucius lie in Ren and Li. Ren means “loving people,” understanding and being considerate to others, and never imposing on others what you do not desire for yourself. People practicing benevolence would uphold their belief no matter how difficult the situation they encountered was. Li is propriety. People are required to restrain themselves and cultivate their morals, so as to bring their words and conduct in line with social norms. Confucius advocated the rule of De (virtue). He stressed that rulers should cultivate the people through De, and rule their state and the people through Li, opposing harsh government and severe pun- Confucius

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ishment. Since then, the Confucian school represented by Confucius has exerted a tremendous influence on the culture and ideology of the following generations of Chinese all over the world. Confucius was also a great educator. In his time, only children from aristocratic families could receive education. Confucius advocated “treating everyone equally in educating people.” He taught his pupils without discrimination, irrespective of their social status. Confucius established private schools and broke the government’s monopoly on education. It is said that Confucius taught as many as three thousand pupils, of which seventy-two became very famous later. Confucius proposed “teaching students according to their aptitude.” He said one should be honest in learning and not pretend to know what one did not know. He told his pupils to review what they had learned regularly during their study because “new knowledge can be gained by reviewing old knowledge.” He also told his pupils to combine their studies with thinking. Confucius’ disciples recorded his words and deeds in Lunyu (The Analects of Confucius), which is one of the classics of the Confucian school. Confucius’s theory has since been the orthodox ruling ideology in China for over two thousand years. Besides his teachings, Confucius also compiled some ancient works. It is said that in his later years, he compiled and edited The Book of Poetry,The Book of History, The Book of Rites,The Book of Changes, and The Spring and Autumn Annals, known as the Five Classics of Confucianism. Confucius’ thought later became the orthodox ideology of China’s feudal society, while Confucian culture was the single most important part of China’s traditional culture.

Mozi Mozi, with the given name Di, was the founder of the school of Mohism. A native of the state of Lu, he was probably born around 468 BC and died in 376 BC. Mohism and Confucianism were equally famous during the Spring and Autumn and Warring States Periods, and historians called the two schools of thought the “Mainstream Studies of Confucianism and Mohism.” Mozi was a carpenter, as famous as Gongshu Ban. He created war chariots and was an accomplished natural scientist, especially in the fields of physics and

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mathematics. Mozi served as a minor official and was therefore familiar with the political rivalry prevalent in his time. He was wise and learned, and often debated with Confucian scholars. Later, he established the school of Mohism. The philosophy of Mozi represented the interests of the common people.The fundamental principles of his thought are jian ai (impartial concern for others), fei gong (opposition to military aggression), and shang xian (exaltation of the virtuous). Impartial concern means to love all people, regardless of distinction between aristocrats and ordinary people, and to love them equally. Opposition to military aggression reflects the strong desire of the common people for a peaceful life by opposing warfare, particularly unjustified warfare. Exaltation of the virtuous argues for appointing worthy and capable people to governmental posts whatever their social origins might be. On the other hand, the practice of appointing kinsmen and favorites to office, regardless of their abilities, was condemned by Mozi, who argued that officials could not enjoy constant honor, and ordinary people should not always be the social class lowest in the social hierarchy. If a person is capable, he should be promoted but if incapable, he should be demoted. The thought of Mozi were contained in the book Mozi compiled by his disciples. Mohism was actively developed and practiced after Mozi’s death. Its influence began to decline after Confucianism became the dominant school of thought during the Han Dynasty.

Liezi Liezi, named Lie Yukou, was a native of the state of Zheng during the Warring States Period. As a contemporary of Zhuangzi, he was a Taoist sage of the Huang-Lao tradition. His original book Liezi written by himself was lost, and the extant text Liezi in eight volumes was edited and annotated by Zhang Zhan, a scholar of the Eastern Jin Dynasty. The book is filled with diverse concepts, advising people to follow nature, taking nonaction, and enjoying sensual pleasures. It also contains thoughts concerning basic materialism and dialectics. The book includes some splendid pre-Qin fables and legendary

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tales, such as Foolish Old Man Removed the Mountain, A Lamb Goes Astray at the Fork in the Road, The Man of Qi Feared that the Sky Might Fall, and so on, lucidly and imaginatively related.

Mencius Mencius was born in Zou County (present-day southeastern Zoucheng City of Shandong) in approximately 372 BC. He was also known as Meng Ke, and he called himself Ziyu. He was a student of Confucius’ grandson, Zisi. He visited several kingdoms such as Song, Qi, and Wei, sharing his philosophies. However, his theory was too idealistic for practice, and so was not easily accepted by all the kingdoms he visited. Frustrated by this, Mencius returned to his own land and set up a private school to enroll disciples or followers as Confucius had done. He also took his disciples with him and traveled through several kingdoms. The core concept of Mencius is “benevolence and righteousness.” He argued for benevolent government, declaring, “The people are noble but the noble are humble.” He rebuked unjustified wars waged by the ruling classes in the Warring States, and denounced the slaughter of city dwellers as barbarian acts. He strongly opposed the rulers’ abuse of the people, attributing the doom of Jie and Zhou to the loss of popular support. He argued that rulers should allocate a certain amount of land to peasants, refrain from infringing on their work time, and abolish harsh penalties and heavy taxes. He proposed the following as attributes that characterized a truly great man: To be above the power of riches and honors that may dissipate him, to be above the crush of poverty and mean conditions that may make him swerve from his principles, and to be beyond the power of physical force that may make him bend from his true path. He held that human nature was good, believing that man was born good or benevolent in nature. A good nature is the innate moral quality of people. But Mencius also defended the exploitation of the ruling classes by saying, “Some labor with their minds, and some labor with their strength. Those who labor with their minds govern others; those who labor with their strength are governed by others. Those who are governed by others support them; those who govern others are supported by them.” After the Song Dynasty, Confucius was regarded as the greatest sage and educator, while Mencius was honored as the second sage after Confucius by the succeeding generations. The philosoMencius


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phies of Confucius and Mencius have had a profound influence on the traditional culture of China. Mencius’s speeches and his life experiences were collected and compiled in a book by his disciples. The extant work Mencius has seven chapters. Technical aspects of writing such as parallelism, couplets, and refrains were used in the work of Mencius, lending an elevated style to discourse. In logical argument, Mencius focused on grasping the physiological state of his opponents, causing them to fall unwittingly into the trap set by themselves, and therefore defeating themselves by their own argument. Mencius was elegantly worded, vividly rendered, and vigorously argued. Elements of rhetoric such as exaggeration, drawing analogies, and the use of fables were adopted to enhance the persuasive argument.The whole work was written in a concise style. It can be regarded as one of the best collections of classical Chinese prose.

Xunzi Xunzi is the common appellation for the philosopher whose full name was Xun Kuang. Xunzi, born in 313 BC, a native of Zhao, was another leading scholar of Confucianism in the Warring States Period as well as a thinker and educator. Xunzi visited many places in his life. He once went to the state of Qi and had academic exchanges with other schools of thought at Jixia Xuegong, an academic center in Linzi, the capital of Qi. He was elected as the Jijiu (head of the Xuegong). Later, he visited Qin and Zhao, and spent his final years in the state of Chu as the magistrate of Lanling County. He devoted himself to writing to expound his theory and died in Lanling. Han Fei and Li Si were the disciples of Xunzi. As a learned scholar, Xunzi stressed the importance of authentic proof analysis. Inheriting the earlier Confucian philosophy and absorbing the merits of other schools, he established his system of thought and developed the ancient tradition of materialism. The extant book Xunzi, mostly written by himself, is composed of thirty-two chapters, containing many aspects such as philosophy, logic, politics, and ethics. Xunzi critically summed up the academic thinking of the naive materialism of ancient China, and was against the belief of the mandate of heaven and the blind worship of the supernatural. Xunzi assumed that the true nature of man was evil, and every good side of man was only achieved by his own efforts in learning, cultivating, and practicing Confucian moral norms and rules. He is known for his belief that ritual was crucial for reforming the original sinful state of human nature.

Zhuangzi A prominent Taoist figure in the Warring States Period, Zhuangzi, born in 369 BC, was from the Meng Town of the state of Song, and his given name was Zhou. He was at one time an official at Meng. King Cheng of Chu wanted to appoint Zhuang-

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zi as the prime minister when he heard that Zhuangzi was a sage, but Zhuangzi declined the appointment. He inherited the theory of Laozi that advocated “The ways of Tao are conditioned by the self-so,” and developed the concept of “govern without interference.” He mentioned that the thief who had stolen a hook had been sentenced to death, while the thief who stole a state had become the lord of the state; but it is at the gates of the princes that we find benevolence and righteousness (most strongly) professed. He argued that all things were the same, and required people to refrain from virtue and wisdom, and retreat to the state of chaos where men “live in common with birds and beasts, and are on terms of equality with all creatures.” Philosophically Zhuangzi a nihilist and relativist, he denied the disparity of all things, and denied the objective standard between right and wrong, great and small, existence and nonexistence, and noble and humble. But his critical and uncooperative attitude toward the ruling class had a positive effect in history. The extant Zhuangzi includes thirty-three chapters, featuring grand and vigorous narration, tinged with evidence of a peculiar imagination. His ornate style in relating fables provides a mysterious atmosphere to the stories.

Han Feizi Han Fei was born into a noble family of the state of Han in 280 BC. He was once a disciple of the philosopher Xun Kuang. He drew on the merits of every previous school of thought, such as Taoism, Confucianism, Mohism, and Legalism. In the book Han Feizi, all previous teachings of the Legalist thinkers were synthesized. He advised the King of Han to introduce institutional reforms to make the state stronger. However, the King often rejected his advice. He devoted himself to writing a book to expound his theories. Ultimately, Han Fei’s writings made their way to the Qin State where the king who later became the First Emperor Qinshihuang saw them and insisted on meeting the author. Han Fei came to Qin, but was not awarded an important position. He was even slandered by Li Si and Yao Jia, and was put in prison, where he eventually died. His brilliant writings were collected together in Han Feizi, a book of around 150,000 words. Han Feizi synthesized the ideas of earlier legalists, such as Shang Yang,


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Shen Buhai, and Shen Dao, absorbed the merits of every school of thought such as Confucianism and Taoism, and established his theoretical system that centered on laws and stressed the combination of power, systems, and laws. Han Feizi put forward many policy proposals that favored ample rewards and severe punishments and that encouraged agriculture and fighting. He believed in the centralization of regal power, opposing the aristocracy. He acknowledged the changing nature of life, but argued against the Confucian and Mohist tendency of “following the example of the former ruler” or “returning to the ancients.” He inherited the simple materialist ideas of Xunzi, while absorbing some dialectical aspects of Laozi’s philosophy. As a disciple of Confucian Xun Kuang, Han Fei believed that the nature of humanity was evil, and therefore he favored severe punishments and strong-arm tactics.The philosophy of Han Feizi reflects the standpoint and demands of the newly developing feudal class that was taking over and consolidating their power at that time, and the concept that “Monarchy is all-powerful” became the ruling weapon of feudal autocracy.

Sunzi Sunzi, whose name was Sun Wu, was an outstanding strategist in the late Spring and Autumn Period. He was born in the state of Qi, later taking refuge in the state of Wu. King Helü of Wu appointed him as his general and commanded the army to conquer Ying, capital of the state of Chu. King Zhao of Chu fled away in fear. Afterward, Sun Wu became well known among the vassal states. Sun Wu wrote Art of War, which consists of thirteen chapters, amounting to some six thousand characters. Sunzi’s Art of War is the earliest work of military science extant in the world, in which Sun Wu expounds his wide-ranging views on war. He emphasizes the importance of “knowing yourself and knowing your enemy,” “attacking the enemy unexpectedly,” and “concentrating a superior force to thoroughly defeat the enemy.” He was probably also the first strategist to recommend the use of spies. Sun Wu especially stressed the importance of us- Statue of Sunzi

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ing war only as a last resort because war was a grievous burden on the people. The philosophy of Sunzi’s Art of War, translated into English, French, Japanese, German, Russian, and Czech, among other languages, is seen as applicable to many practical problems in life, and still enjoys international prestige. During the Warring States Period, the military strategist Sun Bin in the state of Qi who was the descendant of Sun Wu also wrote a work on military science called Sun Bin’s Art of War. Since Sun Bin’s Art of War was not handed down, historians were skeptical as to whether the book had ever existed. The myth was dispelled when a copy of Sun Bin’s Art of War written on bamboo slips was excavated from a tomb dating to the Han Dynasty, at Yinque Mountain, Linyi, Shandong Province.

Jixia Xuegong Jixia was located near Jimen in Linzi, capital of Qi (present-day Zibo, Shandong). It was the center of several schools of thought during the Warring States Period. King Xuan of Qi in his reign (374 BC–357 BC) set up Xuegong at Jixia, inviting thousands of literati and lobbyists to give lectures or debate their thoughts there. The famous scholars, such as Chun Yukun, Zou Yan, Tian Pian, Jie Zi, Shen Dao, Song Xing,Yin Wen, Huan Yuan,Tian Ba, Lu Zhonglian, and Xun Kuang, came to Jixia one after the other to study or debate there. Of all the schools, the Huang-Lao school was the most influential. Xun Kuang was elected as the Xuegong Jijiu a total of three times. The establishment of Xue Gong played an important role in promoting the disputation of the schools of thought and enhancing the academia in the Warring States Period.

IV. Culture and Science

The pre-Qin period was an era of tremendous upheavals in Chinese society. It saw society develop from a primitive clan commune and a slavery system into a feudal order. These social changes brought about many outstanding philosophers and talented figures, creating a highly refined culture and miraculous scientific discoveries, which had a great influence on later generations and which nourished the spiritual life of the Chinese people.

The Book of Poetry

Shijing (The Book of Poetry or Classics of Poetry) is the earliest general collection of ancient Chinese poems, many of which were collected from the ordinary people. It is said that in the Zhou Dynasty, there were musical officials who traveled around the country collecting folk songs and ballads. Collected in The Book of Poetry were poems during the period from the early Western Zhou Dynasty (the Eleventh century BC) to the mid-Spring and Autumn Period. The Book of Poetry is divided into three


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parts according to genre, namely Feng, Ya, and Song. Feng, also called Guofeng, is the collection of folk songs from the vassal states in the Spring and Autumn Period. Ya are the lyrics of court music. Song is the dance music for sacrificial rituals at shrines. There are 160 poems in total, most of which center around romance between men and women. The Book of Poetry includes 305 poems in total. The most accomplished part is the Guofeng, which includes 106 poems. One famous poem entitled “Rat” compares a slave owner to an avaricious rat. The slaves, unable to endure the exploitation of their owners, attempt to run away from the field of the noble family, and try to find a shelter for themselves. From the time of Emperor Wu of the Han Dynasty, poetry reading was regarded as a necessary part of complete education by the Confucians. In the early Han Dynasty, there were three men who instructed on The Book of Poetry, appointed as educational officials one after the other. These were Shen Pei, Yuan Yuan, and Han Ying. The Book of Poetry exerted a very profound influence on the literature of later generations. Its humanitarian spirit and realism have also been valuable assets in the history of world literature.

Qu Yuan and Li Sao Qu Yuan (BC 340–BC 378), with the given name Ping, was born into an aristocratic family of the Chu state. Trusted by King Huai of Chu, Qu Yuan was appointed as zuo tu, an important post assisting King Huai of Chu in handling internal and diplomatic affairs. During his office as zuo tu, Qu Yuan advised King Huai to appoint virtuous and talented people to important positions and rule the state by law so as to revitalize the state of Chu. He also proposed that King Huai should form an alliance with the state of Qi against the hegemonic state of Qin and further unify China. But his proposals did not garner support from King Huai and other aristocrats. At the same time, Qin played tricks and successfully alienated King Huai from Qu Yuan. Slandered by treacherous court officials, he was dismissed and exiled. Qu Yuan at the poetry-reciting pavilion

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When the Qin army conquered the capital of Chu, Qu Yuan, filled with grief and indignation, took his own life by jumping into the Miluo River. It is said that Qu Yuan committed suicide on the fifth day of the fifth month of the Chinese lunar calendar. People began to eat Zong’zi (a kind of glutinous rice dumpling) and row dragon boats in honor of this great patriotic poet on that day every year after that, and this is the origin of the Dragon Boat Festival. Although Qu Yuan was frustrated in his political career, he achieved brilliant accomplishments in the field of literature. He was one of the greatest Chinese poets, composing many splendid poems. Based on the folk songs of Chu and the Chu dialect, Qu Yuan created a new style of poems called by later generations the “Elegies of Chu”. His most famous poem is the long lyrical work Li Sao, which amounts to more than two thousand characters. Li Sao, full of rich imaginative expressions and sincere emotions, reveals the poet’s love of his native country of Chu and its people. By adopting symbols and metaphor, Qu Yuan wove the myths, legends, historical figures, mountains, rivers, the sun and moon, storms, grass, flowers, and so on into lively and magnificent pictures. Qu Yuan also wrote Jiu Zhang and Jiu Ge besides Li Sao. His poems have been translated into many foreign languages. In 1953, the World Peace Council elected Qu Yuan as one of the Four Famous Men of World Culture.

The Spring and Autumn Annals

This is the earliest known historical text arranged on annalistic principles. It consists of the official records of the state of Lu, and ranges from the first year of Duke Yin of Lu’s reign (722 BC) to the sixteenth year of the reign of Duke Ai of Lu (479 BC). Covering 242 years of Lu’s history, the text documents the rule of twelve kings, recording retaliatory expeditions to vassal states, the building of alliances, and pilgrimages. Details in the Annals also reveal the conditions and major events of other states during that period. It is believed that Confucius compiled the work and used it to teach his students during his historical lectures. Since the work has become one of the Confucian classics, it is also known as The Spring and Autumn Classic. However, The Spring and Autumn Annals is too briefly documented, reporting only the results of some events and giving no details about the entire stories. Thus, later generations found it hard to understand the significance of some of the records. A number of works were composed to explain and expand on their meanings. These works are known as “commentaries.” Of these, The Commentary of Zuo by Zuo Qiuming, The Commentary of Gongyang by Gongyang Gao, and The Commentary of Guliang by Guliang Xi were collectively called the “Three Commentaries of The Spring and Autumn Annals,” and are included in Confucian classics.


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Zuo Zhuan

According to Sima Qian, the author of Historical Records, Zuo Zhuan (Commentary of Zuo) was written by Zuo Qiuming, a native of the Lu state in the final years of the Spring and Autumn Period. It was originally titled Zuo’s Commentary on the Spring and Autumn Annals. Some modern historians argue that Zuo Qiuming did not write the book alone, and that it is actually a collective work written by various historical officials in different periods. Zuo Qiuming is thought to have compiled the book based on the works of some historical officials and finished it in the early years of the Warring State period. Zuo Zhuan is a historical book that explains The Spring and Autumn Annals using historical facts. It contains substantial historical information and is highly valuable. It is also a literary work of excellence. The structure of the articles is cohesive, words are concise, and the description is lively, giving it a special position in the history of Chinese literature. The most important portion of Zuo Zhuan describes the rivalry among the vassal states during the major historical events on the grounds of the complex political struggles in the Spring and Autumn Period. It contains all major events in the fields of politics, defense, diplomacy, economics, and culture, showcasing with realism a glimpse of that era in a detailed and comprehensive way. The accounts of major campaigns such as the Battle of Chengpu between Jin and Chu, the Battle of Bi, the Battle of Yanling, and the Battle of Ying (capital of Chu) between Wu and Chu are very clearly and thoroughly depicted. Later generations therefore view Zuo Zhuan as a book on the art of war. Zuo Zhuan further unveils and criticizes the selfishness and ferocity of the ruling class, such as Duke Zhuang of Zheng killing his younger brother at Yan, Duke Xiang of Song and Duke Mu of Qin using human sacrifice or burying humans alive at funerals, and Duke Ling of Jin conducting himself in a way unbecoming to a ruler. Zuo Zhuan records some of the prominent scientific achievements of ancient times.The ancient scientists at that time recorded thirty-seven solar eclipses, saw several comets, and made observations of the constellations. They also recorded when and where a meteorite fell or an earthquake happened. The records of these natural phenomena are the earliest, valuable documents in the history of science worldwide.

Guo Yu

Guo Yu (Discourses of Jin) is the earliest Chinese historical book that comprises the separate histories of states.The book, in the order of Zhou, Lu, Qi, Jin, Zheng, Chu, Wu, and Yue, describes the history over five hundred years from King Mu of Zhou to King Zhending of Zhou. The author of Guo Yu is unknown. As Sima Qian said, “Zuoqiu lost his sight, and so he wrote Guo Yu.” Subsequent genera-

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tions believed that Guo Yu and Zuo Zhuan were written by one and the same person. In fact, Guo Yu is quite different from Zuo Zhuan both in stylistic aspects and layout and writing style. The content of Guo Yu sometimes overlaps and conflicts with that of Zuo Zhuan, and the two books are not consistent in details and omissions. Hence, it seems unlikely that the two books were written by the same person. Furthermore, Guo Yu starts from the beginning of the Western Zhou Dynasty. It is possible that the author of Guo Yu could have been someone in the early period of the Warring States who was familiar with historical anecdotes and the current situation in every state. Guo Yu makes a selection from a series of major events rather than following a systematic account of historical facts of the eight states. The nine-volume Discourses of Jin is the most detailed part, accounting for nearly half of the book. “The Discourses of Zhou” section which records historical facts from King Mu of Zhou to King Jing of Zhou is fairly comprehensive, while “The Discourses of Lu” and “The Discourses of Chu” come close to it in terms of completeness. “The Discourses of Zheng” section describes the history of Zheng at the end of the Western Zhou Dynasty. “The Discourses of Qi” section only records the achievements made by Guan Zhong when he assisted Duke Huan of Qi as the Prime Minister. “The Discourses of Wu” and “The Discourses of Yue” simply make a summary of the process of Wu and Yue’s striving for hegemonic power. The content of Guoyu is inconsistent. Some parts are written in detail, while others are sketchy. The structure of the book is neither complete nor cohesive, but is an extensive record of the conversations between the audience and the sovereign, noting the forming of alliances, the conduct of wars, the concluding of peace treaties, and the mutual annexations by vassal states, so it is still valuable as a set of historical documents. Guo Yu excels in recording discourse. For example, in the chapter entitled, “Duke Shao Admonishes King Li of Zhou so as to Dissolve Criticism,” Duke Shao compares the people to water and says that it is much more difficult to keep people from talking than to prevent floods, and with this talk, a regime could be overthrown. In general, Guo Yu with its detailed content reveals some trivia of life at that time. It is next to Zuo Zhuan in literary and historical value.

The Rites of Zhou and the Book of Rites

Zhou Li (The Rites of Zhou), also known as Zhou Guan or Zhou Guan Jing, is one of classics of Confucianism. The Duke of Zhou was once thought to be the author of this book. However, it is plausible that the book that was actually written in the Warring States Period is now regarded as forgery. Some contemporary


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scholars tend to regard the period of the Warring States as the time of the compilation of the book, based on their hypothesis and comparison of official titles in the text with the extant bronze inscriptions. The book is divided into six sections as follows: “Offices of Heaven” on government, “Offices of Earth” on education, and “Offices of Spring” on social and religious institutions, “Offices of Summer” on the army, “Offices of Autumn” on justice, and “Offices of Winter” on population, territory, and agriculture. Some scholars such as Zheng Xuan from the Eastern Han Dynasty, Jia Gongyan from the Tang Dynasty, and Sun Zhirang from the Qing Dynasty contributed annotations and commentaries to The Rites of Zhou. Li Ji (The Book of Rites), also known as the Junior Dai’s Book of Rites, is one of the Confucian classics. As an anthology of works on rites before the Qin Dynasty, it is said to be selected and compiled by Dai Sheng of the Western Han Dynasty. The modern version is the Annotated Book of Rites by Zheng Xuan of the Eastern Han Dynasty. The book contains forty-nine chapters including the “Summary of the Rules of Propriety,” “Royal Regulations,” “Proceedings of Government in Different Months,” “The Conveyance of Rites,” “Records on the Subject of Education,” and “Classical Music.” These were probably written by Confucius and his disciples. Besides these, there are some ancient works on rites within the section the “Classic of Rites.” It is an excellent reference book for studying society in ancient China, Confucian teaching, and ancient Chinese culture. Many scholars in various periods and dynasties made annotations and commentaries inside The Book of Rites, such as Zheng Xuan of the Eastern Han, Kong Yingda of the Tang, and Zhu Bin and Sun Xidan of the Qing dynasties.

Lüshi Chunqiu

Lüshi Chunqiu is a masterpiece of the Mixed School of the pre-Qin time. It was compiled in the final years of the Warring States by the retainer of the Qin Dynasty Chancellor, Lü Buwei. Lüshi Chunqiu comprises twenty-six volumes in 160 sections, and is divided into three major parts: twelve “Almanacs,” eight “Examinations,” and six “Discourses,” totaling more than two hundred thousand words. Lüshi Chunqiu contains an extensive array of subjects, such as politics, defense, education, literature, art, rites, mathematics, health, agriculture, astronomy, and calendar. The majority of the book refers to the thought of Confucianism, Mohism, and Daoism, and it also includes other schools of thought such as Legalism, Names, Yin-Yang, Militarism, and Agriculture. The Qing Dynasty scholar Wang Zhong pointed out that Lüshi Chunqiu absorbed all pre-Qin schools of thought. According to the author of the work, the purpose of compiling the book was to bring together all the strong points

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of all schools of thought. It argues that just as everything has its strong points and weaknesses, those who are good at learning will learn the strong points from others to conquer their weaknesses and will gain rewards in the world in the end, which was thought to explain why the Three Sovereigns and Five Emperors could achieve such great merits. Ironically, the book did not summarize all schools of thoughts and raise a new point of view or propose a new system. Instead, it drew a few strong points from one school, and a few from another school. The author put all conflicting schools of thought together, and tried to harmonize them. For example, the author attempts to harmonize Confucian filial piety with Mohist simplicity in funerals. Politically, the author approves of the centralization of imperial power; at the same time, he argues for enfeoffing dukes and princes, and preserving the hereditary system. The appearance of this miscellaneous book has its social origins. First, in the last years of the Warring States, the rise of the feudal states demanded political and ideological unification.The legalist school advocated unification under one standard; the Gongyang faction of the Confucian school favored the centralization of imperial power while the Mohist School raised the concept of identification with the superior.The Mixed School adopted a compromise by drawing on the strong points of other schools. After Qin Shi Huang established a centralized and autocratic rule, conflicts between the old hereditary bureaucrats and the rising landlords became prominent. The rising landlords demanded national unification, and were hostile to monarchial autocracy. Therefore, Lüshi Chunqiu is the work that advocates compromise and harmony. As a masterpiece of the Zajia school, Lüshi Chunqiu preserved a record of many articles and events that have come down to modern times. For example, it preserves some ancient agricultural technical documents that are still valuable. Today, Lüshi Chunqiu is viewed as a valuable book of the pre-Qin period.

The Bamboo Annals

Zhushu Jinian (The Bamboo Annals) is a chronicle of ancient China, thus named because the original text was written on strips of bamboo. The Bamboo Annals were discovered in a tomb in the Wei state, located in Ji Prefecture, in the fifth year of Xianning (AD 279) of the Jin Dynasty. Another version was in the first or second year of Taikang (AD 280 or AD 281). Composed of twelve chapters, the Bamboo Annals include the history of the dynasties of Xia, Shang, and Zhou, the Jin state in the Spring and Autumn Period, and the state of Wei in the Warring States Period, ending in the twentieth year of the reign of King Xiang of Wei of the Warring States Period (299 BC). The events recorded by The Bamboo Annals, such as Tai Jia killing Yi Yin and Wen Ding killing Ji Li, were quite different from the known conventional writ-


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ing style.The book was scattered and disappeared in the Song Dynasty. Scholar Zhu Youzeng of the Qing Dynasty wrote Jizhong Jinian Cunzhen (Authentic Relics of Annals of the Tomb of Ji). Wang Guowei made a further supplement to Zhu’s work and wrote Guben Zhushu Jinian Jijiao (Old Version of the Bamboo Annals—Edited and Proofread), which is an important document for research into the history of ancient China. There was another version of the Bamboo Annals in two volumes called Jinben Zhushu Jinian (Modern Version of the Bamboo Annals). The book was compiled by later generations. Many works, especially Zhushu Jinian Yizhen (The Bamboo Annals Textual Criticism) by Lei Xueqi, were written by referring to Jinben Zhushu Jinian as a text of discourse on criticism. In Jinben Zhushu Jinian Shuzheng (Modern Version Bamboo Annals Sub-commentary Textual Criticism), Wang Guowei verifies that Zhushu Jinian Yizhen was not authentic.

Shan Hai Jing

Shan Hai Jing (Classic of the Mountains and Seas) was an important work of literature on geography in ancient China. The author of the book and the time that it was written are still undetermined. It was originally thought that mythical figures such as Yu the Great or Boyi had written the book. However, consensus among modern Chinese scholars is that this book was not written at a single time by a single author, but by numerous people, from the period of the Warring States to the beginning of the Han Dynasty. The first part of the book called Shan Jing (The Classic of the Mountains) has five chapters, including “The Classic of the Southern Mountains” and “The Classic of the Western Shan Hai Jing Mountains”; the second part is called Hai Jing (The Classic of the Seas) in thirteen chapters, including “The Classic of Regions Beyond the Seas,” “The Classic of the Great Wilderness,” and “The Classic of Regions Within the Seas.” Shan Hai Jing mainly records the geographical knowledge from the folklore of ancient times, including landscapes, roads, medical knowledge, special products, folk medicine, rituals, and witchcraft.The book is an essential source for research on ancient history, ancient geography, culture, folk custom, and mythology. There are numerous ancient Chinese mythological stories recorded in Shan

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Hai Jing: Huang Di and Chi You clashing in the Battle of Zhuolu, Gun and Yu the Great harnessing the flood, the mythical bird Jing Wei trying to fill up the sea with pebbles, the headless Xing Tian wielding a shield and an axe and fighting with the Yellow Emperor; Kua Fu chasing the sun, and so on. These stories are invaluable material for writers of later generations and literature historians. Guo Pu, a scholar from the Western Jin Dynasty, annotated Shan Hai Jing. Scholars in the Qing Dynasties such as Bi Yuan and Hao Yixing further collated and annotated it. The contemporary scholar Yuan Ke wrote the Collated and Annotated Shan Hai Jing.


Sculpture of Guo Pu

Yu Gong

Yu Gong (Tribute to Yu) is a chapter from the book Shi Jing (The Classic of History). The author and the year of publication are unknown, but many modern scholars believe that it was written during the Warring States Period. The author divides the whole country into nine provinces:Yu, Ji,Yang, Qing,Yong,Yan, Xu, Liang, and Jing, assuming that these were the administrative regions after the Yu the Great harnessed the flood. The book has a detailed description of mountains, rivers, lakes, soil, characteristic products and economic goods, the tributary goods, transportation, and so on. The section on the Yangtze River and the Huai River valleys is rather sketchy. The work develops the legend of “Harnessing the Flood” into a valuable geographic record of ancient China, and is the earliest known piece of Chinese geographical writing of real scientific value. Later generations wrote many books that collated and annotated Yu Gong. For example, LunYu Gong (On Yu Gong) and Yu Gong Shanchuan Dilitu (Geographic Map of the Mountains of Yu Gong) written by Cheng Dachang of the Song Dynasty, and Yu Gong Shuoduan by Fu Yin and Yu Gong Zhuizhi by Hu Wei in the Qing Dynasty are summary works on the same topic.

Ganshi Classic of the Constellations

According to The Spring and Autumn Annals, one day in July, 613 BC, an astronomer in the Lu state observed a comet brush past the Big Dipper, which is the earliest recorded sighting of Halley’s Comet, about six hundred years earlier than the record made by European observers. By the Spring and Autumn Period, the Chinese had established the fixed calendar system, establishing the rule of nineteen years with seven leap months, a hundred and sixty years before the calendar system was invented in the West.The Chinese people have paid great attention to astronomical phenomena since

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very early times. In The Spring and Autumn Annals, there are records of Halley’s Comet and solar eclipses. The earliest observation of the solar eclipse dated back to 720 BC. During this period, there appeared specialized works on astronomy. Gan De of the State of Qi wrote a work entitled Astronomy and Astrology in eight volumes, and Shi Shen of the State of Wei wrote his Astronomy book, also in eight volumes. Later, the two works were combined as the Ganshi Xingjing (Classic of the Constellations).As the earliest astronomical work extant in the world, it records the motions of Mercury, Jupiter, Venus, Mars, and Saturn, and contains the names of eight hundred stars, more than one hundred of them marked with their positions.

Gan De

Lu Ban Lu Ban, whose real name was Gongshu Ban, was a native of the Lu state at the end of the Spring and Autumn Period. As a craftsman, he was able to build palace buildings, bridges, tombs, and even cloud ladders for warfare. He invented many kinds of woodworking tools and grinding stones. It is said that he once carved a wooden phoenix that was so lifelike that it actually flew in the sky for three days. He was regarded as the forefather of the construction craftsman, and was even worshipped by carpenters, bricklayers, stonemasons, artisan painters, painters, and bamboo craftsmen.

Sculpture of Shi Shen

Lu Ban

Li Bing and Dujiangyan Irrigation Project

Statue of Li Bing and his father

Li Bing (307 BC–251 BC) was the governor of Shu Prefecture of Qin in the Warring States Period. The Min River was the main branch of the Yangtze River originating in the mountains of the northern Shu prefecture. As the Yulei Mountain on the east side of the Min River blocked the river flowing eastward, when the mountain torrents rushed down in spring and summer, people living along the west bank of the Min River were plagued by flooding. Conversely, those living along the east bank suffered from drought. Li Bing investigated the problem and with the help of King Zhao of Qin, built the Dujiangyan Irrigation Project in the Min River.

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Instead of building a dam, Li Bing constructed an artificial levee or embankment (now known as the Fish Mouth Levee) to split the Min River into its inner and outer rivers. The Feisha Dike helped to reduce the amount of silt carried by the inner Min River before it flowed into the Baopingkou Aqueduct (mouth of the treasure bottle), a channel that cut through the Yulei Mountain as a water inlet. Dujiangyan The Feisha Dike is located at the point where the inland Min River breaks from the outer Min River at the so-called Fish Mouth. Li Bing observed and made use of the fact that the river water at this point flowed at varying current speeds as it turned the corner, with the outer current, heavy with silt, moving more slowly. The silt filtered into the dike and the water flowed through into the outer Min River. Li Bing also ordered stonemasons to carve three stone figures and placed them in the river so that the rise and fall of the river level could be observed, keeping the water level higher than the feet of the stone figures and lower than their shoulders. Since then, the Chengdu Plain has become “Nature’s Storehouse.” In the following two thousand years, the Dujiangyan Irrigation Project has nourished agricultural production, irrigating over 5,300 square kilometers of farmland. It is a rare ancient large-scale water irrigation project that is still in use.

Zeng Houyi Bian Zhong

Bianzhong is an ancient Chinese musical instrument consisting of a set of bronze chimes. The chimes are hung in a wooden frame and struck with a mallet. Along with the stone chimes called bianqing, there used to be other important instruments in the rituals and court music of ancient China, going back to the Zhou Dynasty. In the beginning, bianzhong consisted of a set of three chimes, but later it became more sophisticated and was composed of a dozen or tens of bronze chimes. Large-scale bianzhong were usually hung on the belfry. They were divided into lower, medium, and upper levels: the lower level held the low-pitched notes, used to perform the harmony, and the upper level had the high-pitched notes, used Bronze Bianzhong


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to perform the melody.The sophistication of this instrument goes to show that more than two thousand years ago, Chinese musical culture had already reached a fairly high standard of development. Some musical instruments of the Warring States Period were discovered in the Zeng-hou-yi Tomb in Sui County, Hubei Province. There are 120 pieces of ancient instruments such as bianzhong, bian pan, drums, and se. Each chime can play two notes. Zeng-hou-yi bianzhong can play all kinds of ancient and even contemporary music.

The Art of Painting and Drawing in the Spring and Autumn and Warring States Periods In the Spring and Autumn and Warring States Periods, painting and drawing were flourishing art forms. The silk paintings Funü Fengniao Tu (the painting of women, a dragon, and a phoenix) and Yulong Tu (Riding the Dragon) unearthed in Changsha, Hunan Province, are characterized by their advanced technique and flowing lines, and are the oldest silk paintings extant in China.The decorative patterns and pictures on bronze and lacquer items give insight into the period, and a sophisticated social life emerge from the simple designs. Some bronze kettles have been unearthed in Chengdu city, Sichuan Province. One picture on a kettle depicts scenes showing musicians playing instruments, and people engaged in activities such as collecting strawberries, archery, and fighting. Another picture on a kettle records an attack on a waterway and a large crowd of people landing.

Six Arts

Liu Yi (The Six Arts) refers to the six practices through which students were instructed.These were rites, music, archery, charioteering, calligraphy, and mathematics. In ancient China, only the children of noble families were entitled to be educated in the government halls in the six arts. Ordinary people and slaves were not qualified for such education. Education was treated as a means for maintaining the privileges of the nobility. Confucius defied these limitations by setting up private schools at a time when the slavery system was declining. Confucius taught the six arts to ordinary people. In the forty years of his teaching career, of his three thousand-odd pupils, seventy-two were renowned for their exceptional deeds.They were not only a great social force but also a force of cultural promotion and enlightenment in China.

V. Political Reforms

Since the Spring and Autumn Period, iron tools were used in production, and cattle-drawn plows came to be widely used. The use of iron tools and the promotion of cattle-drawn plows greatly increased productivity. As a result, the social economy

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grew rapidly. With the development of social productivity, slave owners began to drive slaves to open up the wasteland. The wasteland became the private property of these slave owners. As slaves continued to resist their oppression and flee, the slave owners began to change their methods of exploitation by leasArrowhead from the Spring and Autumn Period ing the land to the slaves.The slaves provided most of the harvest to the slave owners and subsisted on the remainder of the harvest. As a result, the slave owners who had large amounts of land became the landlords, and the slaves who cultivated the land for the landlords became the peasants.Two new classes, feudal landlords and peasants, thus appeared. In order to establish control and develop the economy, the landlords initiated political reforms in every state. In the end, these reforms swept aside the remnants of the slavery system and the feudal system was established.

Zi Chan Reform Zi Chan, also known as Gongsun Qiao, was born into an aristocratic family in the Zheng state. He was an outstanding statesman during the Spring and Autumn Period. In 554 BC, the twelfth year in the reign of Duke Jian of Zheng, Zi Chan was appointed as the minister of Zheng. In 543 BC, the twenty-third year in the reign of Duke Jian, Zi Chan was appointed as the prime minister and he proceeded to carry out reforms. He first readjusted the boundary of fields and ditches, and initiated the system of levying taxes according to the number of Qiu (a piece of land). Zi Chan emphasized the rule of law. He had the state’s code of criminal law engraved on a Ding, a bronze tripod vessel for the people to abide by. When people began to gather and discuss state affairs in the public areas of village schools, Zi Chan was advised to dismantle these village schools so that these people had no place to discuss the state affairs. He refused to act upon this advice and said, “We cannot dismantle these schools. If the villagers can put forth a good proposal from their discussion, we will adopt it. If they are criticizing our defects or faults, we will fix them. They are our teachers. I don’t understand why we should dismantle these schools.” As a philosopher, Zi Chan separated the domains of heaven and the human world, arguing against superstition and The memorial temple of Zi Chan believing that humans should be grounded in reality.


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Zi Chan’s reforms strengthened the state of Zheng. Although squeezed by the neighboring powerful states of Jin and Chu, he maintained the stability of Zheng and developed its economy, receiving respect from all other states.

Li Kui’s Reform Li Kui (455 BC–395 BC), a native of the state of Wei, was one of the major legalists in the early Warring States Period. He served as the Beidi magistrate. Later, he was appointed by Marquis Wen of Wei as the prime minister and started his reforms. The main measures of his reforms included the following: Politically, he abolished the hereditary system left over from the slavery society, and promoted ranking officials according to their meritorious services. His reforms dealt a heavy blow to the old aristocrats. At that time, there were nobles who inherited their fathers’ titles and positions, enjoying the privileges of nobility. However, some virtuous and capable men were not able to achieve important positions and put their talent to good use, just because of their humble origins. The policies of Li Kui deprived those who had neither achievements nor privilege and position. The rising landlords were conferred with titles and appointed to positions according to their achievements. The policies facilitated the establishment of the feudal hierarchy system, giving new impetus to political development. In order to develop agricultural production, stabilize the social order, and consolidate feudal authority, Li Kui promulgated the policies of Jin dili and Ping di. Li Kui held that only by Jin dili, which meant fully utilizing the land’s potential productivity could the peasants increase their output in agricultural production. If the peasants intensively cultivated their land, the output would increase by 3 dou per mu (a unit of land area); otherwise, the land output would decrease by 3 dou per mu. Therefore, the state must encourage and support the peasants to cultivate their land intensively. Ping di was a method for controlling the fluctuation of grain prices. According to the law of Ping di, the government would buy grain in bumpers years so as to sell it at fair prices in famine years. Therefore, even in the years of famine, the price of grain would be controlled and the people could lead a secure life. This policy was effective and the state of Wei became strong in just a few years. Li Kui also collected laws that had been enacted by rising landlord classes from other states and formulated in the last years of the Spring and Autumn Period. He wrote Fajing (The Classic of Law) in six chapters. In the book, he argued that the most important issue for the rulers of the feudal society was to prevent and punish robbers so as to protect the property of landlords from infringement, prevent politics, law, and ethics from violation, and protect individuals from per-

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sonal injury. At the beginning of the book, there are the laws regarding robbery and theft, followed by laws on imprisonment and capture on how to punish robbers. The fifth chapter is on laws of miscellaneous crimes, dealing with how to punish the acts that undermine the social order and institutions, such as stealing military tallies or official seals, and comments made on state laws.The last chapter focuses on laws that added or reduced penalties. The Laws embodied the powers of the landlord class and served as a tool to preserve their rule. As the first systematic feudal code in the history of China, The Classic of Law affirmed, in legal form, the feudal system, and laid the foundations for the development of the legal systems after the Qin and Han dynasties. The reforms carried out by Li Kui in the state of Wei developed the economy of Wei and strengthened the authority of the feudal landlord class. The state of Wei soon became strong, rising as a powerful state in the early Warring States Period.

Wu Qi’s Political Reform Wu Qi was a well-known military leader and politician in the early years of the Warring States Period. He was born into a wealthy family in the state of Wei around 440 BC. He arrived in the state of Lu and became a student of Lu Shen, son of Lu Can. He later turned to learning war arts. In 410 BC, when Qin attacked Lu, Duke Mu of Lu appointed Wu Qi as the general and he went on to defeat the Qi army. Statue of Wu Qi Later, Duke Mu believed rumors about him and did not trust him anymore. Wu Qi left for Wei. In 409 BC, Marquis Wen of Wei appointed Wu Qi as the general to attack the Qin state, seizing the Xihe region inside Qin territory. Marquis Wen appointed him as xihe shou (Mayor of the Xihe).Wu Qi stayed there for twenty-three years, implementing military, political, and economic reforms.The Qin army did not dare to advance eastward.Wu Qi expanded the Wei territory by a thousand li. After the death of Marquis Wen of Wei, Marquis Wu of Wei heard and believed the slander, and Wu Qi was estranged from his lord and was later dismissed from his position of xihe shou. While he was stationed in the Xihe region, Wu Qi reformed the army and established a strong force called Wuzu of Wei. He also wrote a book titled The Art of War, parallel to Sunzi’s work of the same title. The book was highly valued by later generations. Wu Qi left for the state of Chu after he was dismissed from his post. King Dao of Chu was pleased with him, and appointed him to several important positions. He was first stationed in the northern border of the Chu state. He was appointed as

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prime minister by King Dao of Chu one year later. Wu implemented institutional reforms to strengthen the state of Chu. The reform politically aimed at suppressing the nobility and centralizing royal power.The hereditary system and the enfeoffment system were reformed by stipulating that the enfeoffed nobility would be deprived of their titles and salaries after three generations. The names of the king’s distant relatives were removed from the genealogy of the royal family and their privileges of hereditary officialdom and salaries were abolished. The old nobles were sent to defend borders, away from the capital, while officials who were useless, lazy, or simply had no meaningful task to do were dismissed. The annual income of the Chu officials was decreased. Wu Qi spent money on creating and training a strong army. To develop the economy, Wu encouraged people to undertake agricultural production, and he forbade people to remain idle, so as to ensure a sufficient labor force for agricultural production. Wu proceeded to establish a strong army under the command of the state sovereign to achieve the goal of unifying China. To consolidate the defense of the capital, Wu reinforced the walls by doubling its height. These measures hit the old nobility of the Chu state very hard and strengthened the power of the royal family. The reform expedited the process of feudalization in the Chu state, quickly making it much stronger. However, when King Diao of Chu died in 381 BC, a few of the old nobles rebelled and surrounded the palace. Wu Qi spotted the bowmen assassins and rushed to King Diao’s dead body. He was killed, but many arrows struck the dead king’s body. The new King Su of Chu was furious at the sight of his father’s mutilated body, and ordered the execution of all those nobles involved in this great crime.

Shang Yang’s Reforms Shang Yang (390 BC–338 BC) was born into an aristocratic family in the state of Wei. His real name was Gongsun Yang, also known as Wei Yang. Since he was successful in introducing reforms in the state of Qin, Duke Xiao of Qin put Shang Yang in charge of fifteen cities in the Shang and Yu areas, and he was later known as Lord Shang, historically known as Shang Yang. When he was young, Shang Yang showed great interest in the legalist school of thought, especially Li Kui’s legalist theory. He made up his mind to carry out political reforms when he grew up. Shang Yang first went to the state of Wei,

Shang Yang

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but did not gain the support of King Hui of Wei. When he heard that Duke Xiao of Qin was looking for talented ministers, he came to Qin in 361 BC, expounding his theory to Duke Xiao and proposing institutional reforms in the state. He was trusted by Duke Xiao and was appointed as the Zuoshuzhang (head of the House of Commons). In 356 BC, with the support of Duke Xiao of Qin, Shang Yang introduced the first political reform in the state. The reform included the following aspects: 1. The abolition of hereditary privileges of the nobility: In order to efface the old customs in the state of Qin whereby a guilty man could be exempted from punishment, and a man without merit could be conferred with a noble title, Shang Yang stipulated that without military success, the imperial family members could not be included into the lineage of the royal family. There were twenty ranks of noble titles based upon military success. Nobility with higher ranks were allocated more land, houses, maids, and even chariots and garments. Without military achievements, the imperial family members were not entitled to noble titles, despite their wealth. 2. To award people with military renown and impose an outright ban on private wars: Those who had military experience would be awarded with noble titles, land, or houses according to their contribution. An army man who killed one enemy soldier would be promoted to one rank of the noble title, or rewarded with an officer’s post with fifty dan (a measure of weight) of payment. Those who killed an enemy officer would be rewarded with one rank of the noble title, a qing (equal to a hundred mu) of land, and nine mu of household land. 3. To create a household registration system to enhance management and implement a criminal responsibility sharing system: All residents would be registered into the household registry book. According to the registration system, five neighboring families were called wu, and ten neighboring families, shi. Harboring a criminal would be a crime as severe as surrendering to the enemy and all residents of the ten families would be executed. The person who reported the criminal to the government would be awarded with one rank of a noble title. Dian (ancient Chinese hotels) were not permitted to accept people without official credentials. 4. To reward farming and weaving achievements: Producers of large amounts of crops or cloth would be exempted from corvée labor. Those who were engaged in commerce and those shirking their responsibilities would be enslaved along with their entire family. As there was a shortage of labor in Qin, Shang encouraged the active immigration of peasants from the states of Han, Zhao, and Wei to cultivate the unsettled lands and wastelands. They were awarded with land and houses, exempted from corvee labor for three


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generations, and excused from military duties. 5. Encouraging the break-up of large family clans: To break up large clans into nuclear families, Shang Yang abolished primogeniture, and created a double tax on households that had more than one son living in the household. The reforms carried out by Shang Yang brought rapid development to the state of Qin, which began to emerge as a powerful state. In 352 BC, Duke Xiao of Qin appointed Shang Yang as daliangzao (the highest rank of Qin’s bureaucracy). In 350 BC, Shang Yang advised the moving of the capital of the state of Qin to Xianyang, where he introduced the second political reform. The main measures were as follows: 1. Promoting the county system: To establish a political system of centralization, Shang Yang grouped all villages and towns into forty-one counties governed by magistrates who were assigned by the monarch. 2. Abolition of the well-field system, opening crisscross footpaths between fields, encouraging the cultivation of wastelands, allowing land trade, and taxing according to the numbers of households and people. 3. Unifying the system of weights and measures. 4. Burning Confucian books in an effort to curb the philosopher’s influence. 5. Enacting the laws of the state of Qin following Li Kui’s The Classic of Law. This was promulgated and observed across the state. The political reform in Qin was the most thorough, comprehensive, and successful reform in the Warring States Period. The reform carried out by Shang Yang was a great blow to the old nobility because it consolidated and developed the feudal system in the state of Qin, thereby strengthening the feudal economy and military forces and stabilizing the social order. Qin emerged from being a backward state to one of the most powerful among the states, laying a solid foundation for Emperor Qin Shi Huang to unify the whole country. Shang Yang’s reforms The reforms were opposed by some of the old nobility, who were severely punished by Shang Yang.When Duke Xiao of Qin died in 338 BC, the old nobility avenged Shang Yang. They accused Shang Yang of conspiracy against the state. It is said that Shang was executed by being fastened to five chariots and pulled apart. Since the political reforms met the needs of social and economic development, the new laws enacted by Shang Yang were still in practice.

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King Wuling of Zhao and His Reform King Wuling of Zhao, whose name was Zhao Yong, was the sixth sovereign of the state of Zhao during the Warring States Period.When he ascended the throne, Zhao was in the midst of the wars of annexation. Although the Zhao army occasionally won some minor victories, Zhao was often defeated by major states, its generals were even captured, and its cities were lost. King Wuling could not stand the loss and had to take some action to strengthen Zhao. But how could he bring this about? The state of Zhao was constantly harassed by the nomadic Hu in the north. They fought with the Zhao army on horseback and were skillful in their movements. They wore short shirts and long pants so that they could easily get on or off their horses. They could freely shoot an arrow or ride their horses wherever they wanted to. Although the weaponry of the Zhao army was superior to that of the Hu army, in most circumstances, their organization was chaotic, and infantrymen were in among the chariots. Zhao’s army wore robes and used heavy armor, making it difficult for them to ride a horse. The same problem existed in all other vassal states. The main force was the composite army of armored infantrymen and chariots, whereas the cavalry were merely complementary. King Wuling of Zhao decided to learn horse-riding and archery skills from his enemy: the Hu tribe. To learn these skills, he had to redesign the uniforms first by adopting the Hu’s short shirts and long pants, convenient not only for riding and shooting but also for daily life. In the spring of 307 BC, King Wuling started his reforms.When he persuaded his uncle Lord Cheng and the prestigious minister Fei Yi to accept the Hu uniforms, conservative members of the royal family, such as Lord Zhao Wen, Lord Zhao Zao, Lord Zhao Jun, and minister Zhou Shao, opposed the reform, claiming that “the dress and customs are the rules of etiquette from ancient times. To change these old rules is a crime.” King Wuling refuted, “Since the customs at present differ from those in the past, are there any old rules? Even the monarch is not heStatue of Wuling of Zhao reditary, so what rules are there to


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follow? The laws and rules were regulated according to the times in the dynasties of Xia, Shang, and Zhou. Etiquette, laws, and rites are made in line with current conditions. We don’t need to follow the old rules if these new clothes and instruments of war are practical for us to use.” The opponents found no ground against the proposal but had to agree to wear the Hu clothes. As Hu clothes were convenient for daily life, they became popular among the ordinary people, and soon, all people in Zhao wore Hu clothes. King Wuling established a strong cavalry by himself after the reform measures were implemented. In the second year of the reform, Zhao began to grow powerful. It conquered the state of Zhongshan that often harassed Zhao. Before long, Zhao conquered the ethnic states to the north, such as Lin Hu and Lou Fan, and set up three prefectures, namely, Yunzhong, Yanmen, and Daijun, expanding the state territory to cover over one thousand li. In 299 BC, King Wuling abdicated the throne and passed the succession to his younger son, known as King Huiwen of Zhao. Later, an internal strife broke out in the royal family as the deposed crown prince rebelled. King Wuling was besieged in the Shaqiu Palace and starved to death. However, the custom of wearing Hu clothes advocated by King Wuling has continued among Chinese people for more than two thousand years.

T H E Q I N A N D H A N DY N A S T I E S

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CHAPTER 3

The Qin and Han Dynasties SHANG Yang’s political reforms notably strengthened the Qin state’s military and economy. Qin rose rapidly among the warring states of that period to become the most powerful state. After Ying Zheng of Qin ascended the throne, he waged a series of unification wars on the other six states. From 230 BC, he annihilated the Han, Zhao,Yan,Wei, The territory of the Qin Dynasty Chu, and Qi states, and brought the state wars to an end. He established the Qin Dynasty, the first multi-national feudal empire in China, and titled himself “Shi Huangdi” (First Emperor).The founding of a unified country met the demand for social progress and followed a historical trend. In order to consolidate his rule, Qin Shi Huang set up a centralized feudal system. Although the Qin Dynasty existed for a short period of time, it exerted a profound influence on the development of the Chinese feudal society and on the world. The collapse of the Qin Dynasty served as an example for later monarchs to follow. The Han Dynasty, established by Liu Bang, adopted most of the systems set up by the Qin Dynasty. Drawing the lessons from the collapse of Qin, the founder of the Han dynasty adopted the rehabilitation policy.

I. Qin Shi Huang and the Qin Dynasty Qin Shi Huang

Emperor Qin Shi Huang (259 BC–210 BC), born as Ying Zheng, was the grandson of King Zhuangxiang of Qin. He was the Qin sovereign in the Warring States Period and the

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founder of the first centralized multi-state feudal country in China. He reigned from 246 BC to 210 BC, ascending the throne at the age of 13 when Prime Minister Lü Buwei and Nao Ai held power. After he took control over the government at the age of twenty-two, Ying Zheng strengthened his power base by putting down Nao Ai’s rebellion, appointing Li Si to replace Lü Buwei, and dispatching General Wang Jian to continue the unification wars. From 230 BC when the Han was annexed to 221 BC when the Qi was conquered, it took Ying Zheng 10 years to unify the country, and establish a single empire, which was divided into thirty-six prefectures with counties under their jurisdiction. He also standardized coinage and script. Equally important reforms were the standardization of weights, measures, and codification of the law. He also dismantled fortresses on the borders of neighboring warring states, and built imperial highways (chi dao) and straight roads. To reinforce his power, all weapons belonging to civilians were gathered in the capital to be melted down; all historical records but those of the Qin State and philosophical writings were burned. The emperor arrested approximately 460 Confucian scholars and buried them alive. He sent the military to fight the ethnic Xiong-nu in the north, built a line of defense known as the Great Wall to fortify the northern border, and conquered Bai Yue in the south, setting up four prefectures: Minzhong, Nanhai, Guilin, and Xiangjun. These measures were effective in achieving unification and promoted the development of economy and culture. Qin Shi Huang imposed harsh laws and severe punishments as well as heavy levies and corvees upon his people. Moreover, he waged wars continually, causing untold suffering to his subjects. In 210 BC, on his fifth inspection tour around the country, Qin Shi Huang was ambushed by Zhang Liang who was hostile to the Qin. Although Qin Shi Huang escaped the ambush, he died unexpectedly on the way back.

The Centralized System Following his triumph,Ying Zheng discussed an appropriate title for the new ruler of China with his ministers. To honor the King for his accomplishments, the court suggested the most respectable title in ancient China: Tai Huang. But Ying Zheng, for his part, believed that he embodied the virtues and achievements of San Huang Wu Di. He, therefore, dropped Tai and added Di from Huang to form Huang-di, which can be translated as “August Emperor.” Convinced that he had established an eternal empire of which he was the first emperor, he titled himself, appropriately, Shi Huangdi, or “The First Emperor.” In this way, King Zheng became Qin Shi Huangdi, or “The First Emperor of the Qin Dynasty.” With his conquest complete and the establishment of his rule in place, Qin Shi Huang began a series of reforms to consolidate his power.


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In the central government, the emperor was the most important, followed by San Gong Jiu Qing (three dukes and nine ministers) who helped the emperor to run the country. The three Gong were: 1. Chengxiang or Prime Minister, the highest administrative official in the central government; 2. Taiwei (the highest-ranking military officer) who advised the emperor on military affairs (without, however, the power to move troops); and 3. Yushi Dafu (the general supervisor) who provided assistance to Chengxiang in his administrative work. In theory, the three Gong would exert checks on one another, while all power was located in the hands of the emperor. Ranked below the three Gongs were nine Qings (ministers), whose major responsibilities included managing the palace, and serving the emperor and the royal family.

The Prefecture and County System During the unification wars, the Qin set up prefectures to administer conquered areas. There had been fierce debates over the administrative system; some officials insisted on using the enfeoffment system to control the central and frontier areas. The Chancellor Li Si, however, strongly opposed this proposal. He argued that at the beginning of the Zhou Dynasty, the King bestowed titles of nobility on princes and important officials.These vassal states gradually became estranged and fought one another. The system of enfeoffment did not serve to preserve the Zhou Dynasty; on the contrary, it led to wars among the vassal states and the collapse of the Zhou Dynasty. Thus, the Qin Dynasty should have learned The site of a city of the Qin Dynasty a lesson from this. Qin Shi Huang accepted Li Si’s suggestion to abolish the previous enfeoffment system and adopted the prefecture and county system.The whole country was divided into 36 jun (prefectures) which were in turn divided into xian (counties). Each jun was headed by junshou (prefect) who handled administration, the junwei (commandant), who was in charge of military affairs, and jianyushi (supervisor), who supervised the local officials and citizens. Counties came under the control of prefectures. The head of a county of over ten thousand households was termed xianling (magistrate), while the head of a county comprising fewer than ten thousand households was termed xianzhang (major of a county). Ranked beneath the county magistrate or major were xiancheng and xianwei. The Xiancheng was in charge of civil affairs, while the xianwei was in charge of military affairs. All prefecture and county officials were appointed by the emperor and given fixed salaries. Their positions were not hereditary, and they were subject to dismissal

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by the emperor.This hierarchical system of administration achieved political unification and fortified the central government’s power.

Standardizing the Width of the Cart Axle and the Chinese Script Prior to unification, the carts in different states varied in size. Every state also built roadblocks and fortresses to reinforce defense. Qin Shi Huang decreed the dismantling of all roadblocks and the standardization of all carts, stating that six chi was to be the standard width for cart axles. Meanwhile, Qin Shi Huang ordered the construction of imperial highways linking Xianyang, the capital, with other areas. The standard chi dao was 50 Bu wide, with a tree planted every three zhang along both sides of chi dao. Before unification, Chinese characters varied greatly in different states. Qin Shi Huang adopted the Small Seal Script as the official Chinese script. Furthermore, Li Si and his colleagues wrote three books: Cang Xie Pian, Yuan Li Pian, and Bo Xue Pian. These books were used as school textbooks as well as samples of the Small Seal Script. This is how the diverse scripts used in various states were replaced by the Small Seal Script. A county official named Cheng Mian later created a simple and practical script. As he was jailed, and prisoners were called li in the Qin Dynasty, the script invented by Cheng Mian was termed lishu (Official Script), which was very similar to the regular script used in contemporary times. Content with li-shu, Qin Shi Huang pardoned Cheng Mian and promoted him to a higher office. He gave a decree advocating li-shu across the empire.

Unifying the Currency and Weight and Measure Systems The currencies of the Warring States Period were diverse in design and weight. For example, there were the shovel-shaped coins circulating in the Han, Zhao, and Wei states, Yi Bi Qian and gold coins circulating in the Chu state, and round coins circulating during the Zhou and Qin rule. After unification, Qin Shi Huang abolished the use of all kinds of coins circulating in other states, and adopted the currency of the former Qin state, declaring two types of currency: gold and copper. Gold was the higher currency, using Yi (twenty-four ounces) as a unit, while copper was the lower currency, appearing in round coins with a square hole in the middle, each weighing half a liang (half an ounce). Since the standards for size, volume, and weight were different in each of the warring states, Qin Shi Huang also standardized the weight and measure system after unification. Qin Shi Huang’s decree was inscribed on an elevated sliding weight in a steelyard. It stipulated that production of standard weight and measures should be supervised by the government. This is how he achieved the unification of the weight and measure system.


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Northern Expedition against Xiong-nu and Construction of the Great Wall Xiong-nu was an ancient nation in the north of China. Originally, they lived a nomadic life on the Mongolian plains. In the third century, Xiong-nu joined the slavery society. They became stronger at the end of the Warring States Period, seizing the Hetao area which had plentiful water and lush vegetation, and continued to advance southward.They also harassed vassal states in the north. In the final years of Qin Shi Huang’s reign, Xiong-nu, led by Chanyu, became a powerful state. Qin Shi Huang sent General Meng Tian on an expedition to the north, and Meng Tian defeated the Xiong-nu, recovering the Hetao area. Many people were sent there to cultivate the land. To prevent further attacks by the Xiong-nu, Qin Shi Huang began to repair and link the defensive walls built by the former Qin, Zhao, and Yan states and extended the walls eastward, beginning the construction of the Great Wall. Starting in the western part of the present-day Gansu Province, the wall ended in the eastern section of the present-day Liaoning Province. From east to west, it extended over 10,000 Chinese li (over 1,400 miles). To defend themselves from attacks by northern nomadic nations, the Great Wall was rebuilt or reinforced by the following dynasties, especially the Ming Dynasty.The Great Wall built since the Ming Dynasty starts from Jiayuguan in western Gansu and ends at the Shanhaiguan in the east.

Exploiting Yue and Building the Ling Canal In order to continue unification of the entire country, Qin Shi Huang sent troops to subdue minority tribes in the south at the same time as the Xiong-nu campaign. The Yue minority tribe, dwelling in Guangxi and Guangdong, were part of the slavery society. From 221 BC–214 BC, the Qin Dynasty dispatched armies to cross the Five Ridges. During an inspection tour on the upper reaches of the Xiang River in 219 BC, Qin Shi Huang ordered Shi Lu to build a canal connecting the Xiang River and the Li River in order to facilitate the transportation of food and money for the troops who were on the southern expedition. After investigation, Shi Lu discovered that the upper reaches of the Xiang River (a branch of Yangtze River) and the upper reaches of the Li River (a branch of Zhu River) were both located in Xing’an County, Guangdong. Thus, he dug a waterway in Xing’an County and built a canal about thirty-four kilometers (twenty-one miles) long that would channel the water of the Xiang River into the Li River, thus connecting the Zhu and Yangtze River systems. In 214 BC, when the Ling Canal was completed, the Qin army subjugated the Southern Yue. The newly conquered territories were divided into three prefectures: Guilin, Xiangjun, and Nanhai. By this time, the Qin Empire’s territory reached

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the South China Sea in the south, the East Sea in the east, Longxi (west of the Longshan Mountains) in the west, and the Great Wall in the north, with a total population of 20 million. The Qin Dynasty’s empire become the largest country in the world. The Ling Canal continued to be important after the Qin Dynasty collapsed. During the reign of Emperor Wu of the Western Han Dynasty, the Ling Canal was used to send armies to conquer the rebellion led by Zhao Tuo and Lu Shan. The Ling Canal also created favorable conditions for cultural and economic exchanges between the north and the south. It remained busy until the Ming and Qing dynasties.

Burning of Books and Burying of Scholars Despite such methods of expansion and unification, the country was far from intellectually unified. In 213 BC, at Qin Shi Huang’s birthday banquet in the Xian Yang Palace, seventy scholars came forward to wish him longevity. One of them praised the emperor for his triumph over the rival kingdoms and the establishment of the new system of prefectures and counties throughout the country. However, this praise induced a response from another scholar who thought that the new system of prefectures and counties was inferior to the old one of enfeoffment, and that Qin Shi Huang should learn from the old dynasties. Li Si, the Emperor’s prime minister, rebuked the scholars for failing to learn from the present and using the past to find fault with present policies and confuse people. Li Si further proposed that all histories in the imperial archives, except those written by the Qin historians, should be burned; the Classic of Poetry, the Classic of History, and works by scholars from different schools were to be handed in to the local authorities and burned; anyone discussing these two particular books was to be executed; and anyone using ancient examples to criticize contemporary politics was to be put to death, along with their families. The only books to be spared in the destruction were books on medicine, agriculture, and divination. Those who had an interest in law would learn from the officials. Qin Shi Huang approved of Li Si’s suggestion, and books were burned throughout the empire. In 212 BC, some Confucian scholars and magic practitioners talked secretly, outlining the emperor’s faults: a thirst for power, propensity to kill and punish, and neglect of intellectuals. When Qin Shi Huang learned of their dissent, he ordered a thorough investigation, during which the scholars blamed each other, rather than admitting to their criticisms of the emperor. In the end, it was discovered that more than 460 scholars were involved. Qin Shi Huang ordered that all of them should be buried alive in the capital.


II. The Chen Sheng and Wu Guang Uprising

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Qin Shi Huang made a significant contribution to the unification of China. However, as an emperor, he was cruel to his subjects and did not care about them. Qin Shi Huang imposed heavy land taxes (two thirds of their crop), corvee, and military service on the peasants. He also launched immense construction projects: he conscripted 700,000 people to build the E’Pang Palace and his Mausoleum. Besides these, many were recruited to build the Great Wall and roads.The heavy corvee labor prevented the peasants from participating in agricultural production activities, and the lands stood idle, eliminating the peasants’ means of livelihood. Qin Shi Huang also imposed harsh criminal laws. For example, if a person committed a crime, his or her family or neighbors would also be executed. After Qin Shi Huang died on his inspection tour in 210 BC, his son Hu Hai ascended the throne. He was known as the Second Emperor of the Qin Dynasty who trusted the eunuch Zhao Gao. Social conflicts increased in intensity as Hu Hai imposed heavier exploitation and suppression on the people than before. In 209 BC, over 900 poor peasants were drafted and sent to the Yuyang frontier for guard duties. When they arrived at Dazexiang of Qixian County (southwest of present-day Suzhou in Anhui Province), they found themselves unable to move on because of continuous heavy rains, which lasted for several days and rendered the roads impassable. According to harsh Qin laws, they would face the death penalty if they shirked their duty. Led by Chen Sheng and Wu Guang, the desperate men killed the officers escorting them, and rose in revolt. Chen Sheng said, “Since we’ll face death anyway, why don’t we die for a The gravestone of Hu Hai grand purpose? If one has to die, he has got to die like a man. Are the princes and lords and prime ministers born leaders...?” He urged the people to rebel against and topple the tyranny of the Qin Dynasty. The rebellion soon captured Dazexiang and Jizhou County as well as six other nearby counties. Poor peasants joined the uprising force in scores. After the peasant force conquered Cheng County, they established the first revolutionary The gravestone of Chen Sheng

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regime of peasants in the history of China. Chen Sheng was declared its king, and the state was called “Zang Chu.” The rebel force quickly grew into a large army with a thousand war chariots and over several hundred thousand of soldiers.They divided themselves into three forces, aiming to attack different Qin targets.When one branch closed in on Xiangyang, the Qing capital, the Second Emperor of the Qin Dynasty became panic-stricken and ordered his armies in various parts of the country to launch a counter-strike against the rebels. As the rebel leaders lacked war experience, the branch in Xiangyang was defeated by the much larger Qin army. Due to the split in his ranks, Chen Sheng was assassinated by traitors, and Wu Guang was killed by his subordinates. Although the rebel leaders were killed, the flames of rebellion against the Qin that they had kindled were sweeping across the country. Before long, the rebel army led by Liu Bang stormed and occupied Xiangyang. The feudal autocracy of Qin, which had lasted for barely fifteen years was swept away by relentless waves of peasant revolts.

III. The Contention of Chu and Han

After Chen Sheng and Wu Guang were killed, Xiang Yu and Liu Bang formed the main force in the battle against the Qin Dynasty. Xiang Yu, also known as Xiang Ji, was the grandson of Xiang Yan, the highest-ranking general in the former Chu state. He was raised by his uncle Xiang Liang who instructed the young Xiang Yu in martial arts. The rebellious young Xiang Yu rejected this, believing that martial arts was not worth his time. Xiang Liang then tried to school Xiang Yu in traditional Chinese military strategies, such as those from the Art of War. Xiang Yu was well known for his unusual physical strength, and was said to have been able to raise a bronze Ding. Liu Bang was a peasant who joined the Qin army as a soldier. He rose to the rank of officer and was put in charge of a town named Si Shang in Jiangsu Province. One day, he was ordered to escort a group of conscripted workers to march north to build the First Emperor’s tomb. On the way to the tomb site, many conscripted workers ran away, leaving very few workers behind. Since he would most likely be punished in any case, he freed the rest of workers and ran away to the mountains in the Wang and Shang region. Hearing of Chen Sheng and Wu Guang’s revolt, Liu Sculpture of Liu Bang


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Bang also rebelled against the Qin Dynasty. He conquered Pei County and killed the magistrate, and was elected as the duke of Pei. Xiang Liang and Xiang Yu revolted in the Wu region, and mustered an 80,000-strong force. After Chen Sheng and Wu Guang’s forces were defeated, they led the troops north, becoming a strong contender against the Qin Dynasty. Liu Bang and his followers joined Xiang Yu’s Sculpture of Xiang Yu army. In order to overthrow the rule of the Qin Dynasty, the rebels decided that Liu Bang would lead his troops westward to conquer the Guanzhong region, while Xiang Yu’s troop would march northward to relieve the Zhao state of Qin oppression and conquer the Guanzhong region. Whoever captured the Qin capital first would become the ruler of that region. In 208 BC, the Qin army, comprising three hundred thousand men besieged Julu, the capital of the Zhao state in order to eliminate the rebellion inside the city. The next year, Xiang Yu commanded a force numbering several tens of thousands to relieve Julu. After crossing the Zhang river, Xiang Yu ordered that all boats be sunk, and after a three-day supply of food had been prepared, all cooking pots were smashed, giving the troops no choice but to go forward. Each soldier was only allowed three days’ worth of provisions. They fought many battles with the Qin army. After the ninth battle, Xiang Yu finally defeated the Qin forces. He killed Su Jiao, the Qin general, and captured another Qin general, Wang Li; yet another general, She Jian, was forced to commit suicide. Afraid of being executed by the Second Emperor of Qin, General Zhang Han surrendered to Xiang Yu with his army of 200,000 men. Before and after the Battle of Jülu, Liu Bang led his army westward to the capital of Qin. The Qin Empire was already disintegrating; the eunuch Zhao Gao who was trusted by the Second Emperor of Qin forced the Emperor to Topographic map of Jülu

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commit suicide and appointed Prince Zi Ying as the King of Qin. In 206 BC, when Liu Bang’s forces approached Xian Yang, King Zi Ying killed the eunuch Zhao Gao and surrendered to Liu Bang. Soon after the Battle of Jülu, Xiang Yu led his troops to the Guanzhong area and stationed them at Hongmen (northeast of present-day Shaanxi). At that time, Xiang Yu had 400,000 soldiers, whereas Liu Bang had only a hundred thousand soldiers stationed at Bashang. Aware that he could not outdo Xiang Yu at the moment, Liu Bang personally came to Hongmen in order to reach a compromise with Xiang Yu, and surrendered Guanzhong to him. At a banquet, Fang Zeng, Xiang Yu’s advisor, persuaded him to kill Liu Bang immediately. Xiang Yu hesitated, and Liu Bang soon left the banquet and fled back to his army. When Xiang Yu entered Xianyang, he burnt the E’Pang Palace, killed King Ziying, and plundered with no reservations. Believing the anti-Qin war to be over, Xiang Yu bestowed the title of Prince on the nobilities of the former six states, the surrendered generals of the Qin, and meritorious generals, totaling eighteen people. He proclaimed himself Zhang Liang temple the Overlord of Western Chu, led his troops eastward, and established his capital at Pengcheng. Liu Bang was given the title “Prince of Han (Han Wang)” and moved into the lands of Ba-Shu (Yizhou) and Hanzhong. To further ensure that Liu Bang would not return from the East, Xiang Yu divided Guanzhong into three principalities. Xiang Yu also conferred the title of “prince” on the three surrendered Qin generals: Zhang Han, Sima Xin, and Dong Yi (also called “Three Qins”), and bestowed the Guanzhong area to the “Three Qins,” a big obstacle for Liu Bang’s ambition of eastward advance. In accordance with the proposal of his main advisor, Zhang Liang, Liu Bang burnt all roads they had passed, demonstrating that he would never return. However, Liu Bang and his followers did not stay in Hanzhong for long. At General Han Xin’s suggestion, Liu Bang publicly repaired the plank roads, but in secret, he sent Han Xin and several thousand troops to conquer Guanzhong by taking the older, meandering route through Chencang. Liu Bang’s troops defeated the army of the “Three Qins” and successfully recaptured the Guanzhong area. In the spring


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of 205 BC, while Xiang Yu’s armies were at war with the forces of Tian Rong, the rebellious Prince of Qi, Liu Bang commanded 560,000 men from five principalities which resented Xiang Yu, and launched an eastward expedition, eventually conquering Xiang Yu’s capital, Pengcheng. Upon hearing news of the situation, XiangYu hurried back with 30,000 elite soldiers. In April, 205 BC, the Chu and Han armies fought a decisive battle in Pengcheng, where the Han army was defeated and had to retreat to Ying Yang. Liu Bang’s father and wife were captured by Xiang Yu. From then on, the two factions were in a state of long-term conflict and many wars broke out continuously. At the same time, General Han Xin led his troops to eliminate Wei and Zhao, force Yan to surrender, and defeat Qi. In the autumn of 203 BC, due to the fact that his soldiers were tired and short of food, Xiang Yu was forced to compromise with Liu Bang and make some proposals to him. They reached an agreement: they would consider Honggou to be the line dividing Chu and Han.The west area belonged to Han, while the east belonged to Chu. Subsequently, Xiang Yu ordered his armies to withdraw eastward. However, Liu Bang and his army harried the withdrawing troops. In December, 202 BC, Xiang Yu was trapped Honggou in Gaixia, and the Chu army suffered a great loss. Xiang Yu saved a few soldiers from this trap and arrived at the Wu River. Too ashamed to face the people in his hometown, Xiang Yu committed suicide, on the bank of the Wu River by slitting his own throat. Thus came to an end the Chu-Han contention with the victory of Liu Bang’s Han army. In 202 BC, after the ChuHan conflict ended, Liu Bang The Wu River

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established the Han Dynasty and made Chang’an, known as the Western Han Dynasty, its capital.

IV. The Reign of Emperors Wen and Jing

Emperor Wen of Han (202 BC–157 BC), named Liu Heng, was the son of Liu Bang, Emperor Gaozu of Han. Emperor Wen ascended the throne after Empress Lü’s death to rule the country from 179 BC to 157 BC. At the beginning of his reign, the social economy was not doing well. During his 23-year reign, Emperor Wen reduced the labor corvée and lowered taxes on peasants in order to hasten the recovery of agricultural production, bringing prosperity to the people. He exempted the peasants from land tax for twelve successive years and reduced the burden of labor corvee from once every Emperor Wen of Han year to once every three years. In addition, Emperor Wen abolished harsh corporal punishment. According to historical records, this occurred at the request of Ti Ying, the younger daughter of a famous doctor Chun Yuyi. The doctor was framed and subjected to corporal punishment. Ti Ying accompanied her father to Chang’an and presented a letter to Emperor Wen, arguing that corporal punishment was so cruel that those who suffered from the torture became disabled and would never recover. She asked to serve as a maid in the palace to atone for her father’s crime. Emperor Wen was moved by her letter and decreed the abolishment of corporal punishment. Emperor Wen favored a frugal lifestyle. He once wanted to build a terrace. Upon hearing that a hundred jin (half-kilogram) of gold was needed, he said, “a hundred jin of gold is equivalent to the assets of ten households. I feel shamed by this. I cannot waste this money.” He then abandoned the idea. Emperor Jing (188 BC–141 BC), named Liu Qi, ruled the dynasty from 156 BC to 141 BC. He continued to implement his father’s policies. Emperor Jing reduced the land tax to one thirtieth of the harvest. He further mitigated the criminal penalty, but imposed severe punishment for the crimes of taking bribes and exploiting the law for profit. He decreed that if officials took bribes, their property


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would be confiscated and the officials would be punished. Officials involved in “buy low and sell high” schemes would be punished if they took bribes. During the forty years of Han reign, Emperors Wen and Jing of the Western Han Dynasty encouraged agricultural production, reduced the tax burden on peasants, and emphasized the importance of law and order. The price of grain fell sharply and society was stable. In the beginning of the Western Han Dynasty, a dan (a hectolitre) of rice was worth 5,000 qian (copper coin), and it was only worth 10 or 12 qian by the end of the Han reign.The living standards of commoners were improved tremendously. This period was referred to as one of peace and prosperity during the reign of Emperors Wen and Jing of the Western Han Dynasty.”

V. The Study of Huang-Lao

A political ideology was based on the tenets attributed to the Yellow Emperor Huangdi and the Taoist teachings of Laozi. As one of the schools of thoughts at Jixia Xuegong in the Qi state during the Warring States Period, Huang-Lao incorporated Confucian and legal principles into Taoist thought. Politically, Huang-Lao advocated the application of law and propriety, and advocated the principle of rule by noninterference. At the beginning of the Western Han Dynasty, hit by protracted war since the end of the Qin Dynasty, the population was reduced and the economy was in recession. Eager to stabilize social order and develop agricultural production, Liu Bang accepted the proposal of Lu Jia, a Confucian scholar, and guided his governance by noninterference. Liu Bang essentially followed the political institutions of the Qin Dynasty, and carried out a conciliatory policy in the economic arena. This governance method reflected people’s abhorrence of a cruel rule and their preference for peace. After Liu Bang’s death, his successors Emperors Hui and Wen advocated the Huang-Lao philosophy. Emperor Wen’s Queen Dou also admired the principles of Huang-Lao. When Emperor Jing was young, he learnt the tenets of the Huang-Lao philosophy, and after ascending the throne, continued to use the Huang-Lao method of governance. The Huang-Lao philosophy was applied for sixty or seventy years after Liu Bang’s reign, and this ushered in a flourishing stage of development with social stability and economic growth in China.

VI. Tai Xue

Tai xue was a university in ancient China. It was set up in the capital during the Han Dynasty.The name tai xue originated from the Western Zhou Dynasty. Emperor Wu of Han accepted his main advisor, Dong Zhongshu’s suggestion, setting up tai xue in Chang’an, the capital, in 135 BC. Courses in tai xue were taught by academics.These

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Dong Zhongshu


academics specialized in teaching the five Confucian classics of: Book of Poetry, Book of Documents, Book of Rites, Book of Changes, and Spring and Autumn Annals. The students there were termed disciples of academics or disciples of tai xu, and were given privileges such as tax exemption. Emperor Wu decreed that all jun-guo (prefectures and kingdoms) should appoint educational officials to establish the first local educational systems. Tai xue and jun-guo xue were establishments specifically aimed at cultivating feudal bureaucrats. These institutions played an important role in spreading culture.The following dynasties continued the educational tradition by setting up tai xue or guozi xue (national university), or both.

VII. The Controversy of Modern Script Classics and Traditional Classics

After Emperor Wu of the Han Dynasty created posts for the “Five Classics” academics, the study of Confucian classics boomed. At the same time, the controversy between different schools of Confucian classics also intensified. It was the continuous battle between modern script Confucian classics and traditional Confucian classics. Modern script classics were Confucian classics texts used by the “Five Classics” academics to instruct students.They were written in the popular official script of the time. Since the official script prevailed nationwide, it was not necessary to specify the name of the script in which the Confucian classics were written. Traditional Script Classics: The traditional script of traditional classics referred to the script which was used in the Eastern area during the Warring States Period but not during in the Han Dynasty. Some classics, such as Book of Documents, Book of Rites, and Analects of Confucius written in the traditional script were discovered inside a wall, when King Gong of the Lu kingdom tore down Confucius’ residence to expand his mansion. Kong Anguo, a descendant of Confucius himself, presented these books to Emperor Wu, advising the Emperor to list these books as official textbooks in the tai xue. The classical scholar Liu Xin who was engaged to collate ancient books proposed to Emperor Ai of Han that the traditional script classics should be kept in Xue Gong and used as textbooks in tai xue, triggering a nationwide controversy and intensifying the conflict between the two factions. However, the modern script classics


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always prevailed, as they could be taught at tai xue or xue gong, while the traditional classics could only be taught privately. There was a famous Confucian scholar (127 BC–200 BC) named Zheng Xuan in the Eastern Han era who was a native of Gaomi in Beihai (in present-day Shandong). He studied the modern script Book of Changes and Commentary of Gongyang, then followed in the footsteps of Zhang Gongzu by studying the traditional script, Book of Documents and Commentary of Zuo, and later studied the traditional script classics, as did the great scholar, Ma Rong. After he completed his studies, Zheng Xuan accepted disciples and taught them the classics. He had several hundreds of disciples. After he was forbidden to assume an official position as a member of the proscribed party, Zheng devoted himself to writing. Using the traditional script classics as a foundation while borrowing from the modern script classics, Zheng Xuan annotated all the Confucian Classics. His works, collectively named The Study of Zheng, were the synthesis of Confucian classics in the Han Dynasty.

VIII. Emperor Wu of the Han Dynasty

Emperor Wu of the Han Dynasty, named Liu Che, who lived from 156 BC to 87 BC, was the son of Emperor Jing. He ascended the throne in 140 BC with the title “Jianyuan.” The Han Dynasty, prosperous and strong, had reached its golden era after the efforts of several generations of rulers. However, land annexation, mercantile expansion, and border harassment also threatened the rule of the Han Dynasty. Emperor Wu was an ambitious ruler with great talent and vision. He decided to fortify his position and strengthen the centralization of authority by carrying out a series of reform measures. He reduced the power of the prime minister, strengthening imperial power instead. He created a special system for selecting, appointing, and assessing government officials, implemented cishi (feudal provincial or prefectural governor) system, appointed cishi in all thirteen prefectures in the country, strengthened central government control over local administration, and reduced the power of small kingdoms. When Emperor Wu ascended the throne, he instituted a system whereby the descendants of kings inherited parts of the kingdoms as marquisates, as he feared that the kings were too powerful. Thus, the kingdoms were rapidly divided into smaller and weaker territories which came under the direct control of the imperial court. Later on, Emperor Wu went even further, depriving many nobles of their titles, and strengthening the central rule. He also improved the legal system, reduced the power of powerful and wealthy lords, and maintained the social order of the feudal society. In military campaigns, he repulsed the Xiong-nu’s advances and established the domain of the Chinese Empire. Emperor Wu also adopted many economic reform policies. First, he changed the currency system, establishing the wuzhu coin as the

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national legal currency. Second, the manufacture and sale of salt and iron were monopolized by the central government. All these measures boosted the financial power of the central government and curbed the power of merchants. In addition, Emperor Wu focused on building water conservancy projects such as those for harnessing the Yellow River. In terms of culture, he encouraged “paying supreme tribute to Confucianism and neglecting all other schools of thoughts,” to solidify the mainstream status of Confucianism. He also set up an education system teaching Confucian classics. Everyone, including kings, had to abide by the will of the emperor, a concept which was called “grand unification.” When Emperor Wu succeeded his father, the country’s economy was recovering and growing while central power was intensified and consolidated.This provided considerable economic and political support for Emperor Wu to carry out his ambitious plans. From Emperor Qin Shi Huang to Emperor Wu of Han, previous rulers had made continuous explorations into the unification of ideology. In the Qin Dynasty (221 BC–206 BC), legalism served as the state ideology. At the beginning of the Han Dynasty (206 BC–AD 220), Laozi’s theory which was more moderate and humane was put into practice. By the time Emperor Wu reigned, the Huang-Lao philosophy could not meet the ambitious demands of Emperor Wu who wanted to consolidate his position and strengthen his power. Thus, Emperor Wu searched for a new school of thought. The Confucian scholar Dong Zhongshu reformed Confucianism and created a new type of Confucianism. He proposed that the ruler “pay supreme tribute to Confucianism while banning all other schools of thoughts.” Emperor Wu agreed to this and advocated Confucianism as the guiding ideology of the Han Dynasty. To secure the execution of this policy, the Emperor decreed that officials would be trained and selected based on Confucian doctrine. He ordered a search for talented Confucian scholars, and set up imperial and local colleges that would enable scholars to study Confucian classics.Thereafter, Confucianism became the orthodox ideology of the feudal society and remained so for over two thousand years until the end of the Qing Dynasty.

IX. Zhaojun Departed the Fortress

In the middle of the first century BC, the Xiong-nu was divided into several tribes. One of the tribes was subjugated to the Han Dynasty and migrated southward to the area near the Great Wall. During the reign of Emperor Yuan, Huhanye, the Chanyu (Khan) of Xiong-nu, wished to establish friendly relations with the Han Dynasty through marriage, to which Emperor Yuan agreed. Wang Zhaojun, a maid in the palace named Wang Qiang, with the courtesy name Zhaojun, was determined to marry Chanyu. Beautiful, intelligent, and well mannered, she soon became a


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favorite of Huhanye Chanyu. Chanyu (Khan) Huhanye praised Zhaojun as a queen who had brought peace and security to the Xiong-nu tribe, and thus conferred on her the title “First Lady of Xiong-nu Peace.” When Chanyu (Khan) Huhanye died, Wang Zhaojun abided by Xiong-nu’s levirate custom and became the wife of the next Chanyu, the oldest brother of her former husband. In her two marriages, Wang had one son and two daughters. Her offspring and acquaintances all strived to maintain friendly relations with the Han Dynasty until the demise of the Western Han Dynasty. The Han people and Xiong-nu co-existed in peace for more than 60 years. Wang Zhaojun

X. Zhang Qian’s Western Expedition and the Silk Road

In general, the term “Western Regions” mentioned during the Han Dynasty refer to Central Asia west of the Pamir Plateau, part of West Asia and South Asia, as well as a few areas in East Europe and North Africa. That was the boundary of Chinese geographical knowledge. At that time, there were thirty-six small states scattered around the Tarim Basin. They were all subject to the Xiong-nu’s exploitation and enslavement. The Darouzhi kingdom that once lived in the area between the Dunhuang and the Qilian Mountains was defeated by the Xiong-nu. Their king was killed and his skull made into a drinking vessel. As a result, the Rouzhi fled and bore a constant grudge against the Xiong-nu. At this time, the Han became increasingly strong, and Emperor Wu was determined to de- Zhang Qian stroy the Xiong-nu. Therefore, when the emperor heard of Xiong-nu’s exploits in Darouzhi, he sent the adventurous Zhang Qian to establish relations with Darouzhi and persuaded them to attack the Xiongnu from the West while the Han attacked from the East.

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Zhang Qian traveled westward through the Xiong-nu territory. He was captured by the Xiongnu and detained for over ten years. He and his party finally managed to escape and resume their journey toward Darouzhi. They traveled for months before arriving into the Dawan Kingdom.The King of Dawan who had long desired to establish friendly relations with the Han was very glad to see Zhang Qian and sent men to escort Zhang Qian to the Darouzhi. The Darouzhi had settled in the rich and fertile Am Wei Qing River Valley, and their king had no wish to avenge his father’s death by attacking the Xiong-nu. Zhang Qian had no choice but to begin the treacherous journey back to Chang’an, the Han capital. When Zhang Qian first set out on his mission, he was accompanied by over one hundred men, but after thirteen years, only he and Kanfu managed to make their way back to China. Zhang Qian reported what he had seen and learned during his journey. Later, Zhang Qian carried out military conquests when he followed General Wei Qing on an expedition, earning him the title of “Marquis Bowang.” In 119 BC, the emperor decided to send Zhang on a second journey to the Western Regions. Zhang had 300 brave men under his command, each equipped with two horses. They took gold, silk, goods, and over 10,000 heads of cattle and sheep with them. At the time, the Han Dynasty controlled the Hexi corridor. Emperor Wu was informed by Zhang Qian that the state of Wusun (in present-day Barkash Lake Area) had conflicts with Xiong-nu after the Wusun people migrated to the bank of the Yili River. Emperor Wu ordered Zhang Qian to visit Wusun, trying to persuade its ruler to wage a united war against Xiong-nu. Zhang arrived in Wusun, attempting to persuade the ruler of Wusun to migrate eastward, but failed. He dispatched deputy envoys to establish contact with territories such as Dawan, Kangju, Darouzhi, Yutian, and Daxia. In 115 BC, Zhang Qian returned to Chang’an, accompanied by dozens of Wusun emissaries sent by the state of Wusun. After this, the Han Dynasty also sent messengers to Parthia (Persia), Kizil, Hindu (India), Tiaozhi (in the north-western part of the present Persian Bay), and other countries, establishing official relations with the countries in the Western Regions. Trade and communication with the Western Regions became increasingly frequent. As a result, walnuts, grapes, pomegranates, broad beans, alfalfa, fine race horses from Dawan, and Guizi music and instruments such as the huqin (two-stringed bowed instrument) were introduced to the Han Dynasty. The state of Anxi in the west of Dawan did not produce silk. They also did not know how to cast iron tools. The emissaries of the Han Dynasty spread these techniques to the Western Regions. The exchanges between the Han Dynasty and the Western Regions enriched the


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material and cultural life of the states involved, and made significant contribution to the progress of civilization in China. Zhang Qian’s missions to the Western Regions successfully opened the Silk Road. It started from Chang’an, The route map of the Silk Road along the Hexi corridor, and was divided into the south and north route after it passed the Yumen Pass (or Yang Pass), and converged at Shule (present-day Kashi, Xinjiang). From Shule, across the Pamirs, it diverged again: towards the southwest, it would reach Darouzhi, Anxi, and Daqin; toward the north, it would reach Dawan, Kangju. After the Silk Road was opened, the envoys of the Han Dynasty and merchants traveled the road frequently. Large quantities of silk products were transported to the Western Regions along the road. Meanwhile, rare treasures from the Western Regions were imported by the Han Dynasty. The opening of the Silk Road was an important historical milestone. Thanks to the Silk Road, China had frequent economic and cultural exchanges with states in Central, West, and South Asia. Iron tools and silk, along with the techniques of raising silkworms, casting iron, digging channels, and papermaking were introduced to the Western Regions due to the Silk Road. Spanning the Western and Eastern Han dynasties, the Silk Road also helped spread Buddhism to China.

XI. The Maritime Silk Road

During the reign of Emperor Wu, Han sailboats succeeded in opening up a route to the Indian Ocean via the South China Sea, and conducted regular trade with coastal countries. Modern scholars call this route the Maritime Silk Road. Leaving from the coastal port of Guangdong Province, China’s ships sailed to the Indian Ocean from the South China Sea via the Malacca Strait in Southeast Asia. Finally, the ships arrived in coastal countries around the Bay of Bengal. The ships had even reached as far as the southern tip of the Indian Peninsula. The opening of this Maritime Silk Road increased the frequency of exchanges between China and countries in Southeast and South Asia, thus establishing the relations between the East and the West via the sea. Anxi (comprising present-day Iranian Plateau and the Tigris and Map of the Maritime Silk Road

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Euphrates River valleys) was a large country in west Asia with close connections to the Han Dynasty. The Anxi not only conducted trade with the Han Dynasty through the Silk Road, but also transferred silk to Daqin (ancient Rome, now the capital of modern Italy), making large profits from the switch trading.

XII. Liu Xiu Established the Eastern Han Dynasty The Western Han Dynasty declined after Emperor Wu’s reign. The ruling class became corrupt and land annexation grew common. Amid this chaos Wang Mang who acted as regent, usurped the throne and established the shortlived Xin Dynasty. After seizing the throne, Wang Mang carried out economic reforms aimed at resolving social conflict. UnforStatue of Wang Kuang and Wang Feng tunately, his radical reforms failed, the society grew more turbulent, and finally, peasant revolts broke out. In AD 17, a severe famine occurred in the center of present-day Hubei. The famine refugees revolted under the leadership of Wang Kuang and Wang Feng. As they gathered in the Lulin Mountain, they were called the Lulin Force. Shortly after the first uprising of the Lulin peasant rebels in the region of present-day Shandong, Fan Chong led desperate peasants in a huge rebellion army called Chimei (Red Eyebrows) because they had their eyebrows painted red. In AD 25,Wang Mang led over 400,000 troops to crush the Lulin rebels. They besieged Kunyang city, where nearly 9,000 Lulin rebels had retreated. At this critical point, Liu Xiu, a young leader in the Lulin force, slipped out of the city and gathered several thousand men in the surrounding areas to reinforce the rebel force in Kunyang. Wang Mang’s army was defeated by the joint attack.The Lulin force captured Chang’an, the capital, and killed Wang Mang. In AD 25, Liu Xiu who was a royal family member of the Western Han Dynasty proclaimed himself Emperor Guangwu, and made Luoyang the capital of the Eastern Han Dynasty. In the beginning of the Eastern Han Dynasty, the country’s economy was in recession and society was unstable. Liu Xiu initiated a series of reforms named “running the country with kindness.” In terms of politics, he rectified the problems with the management of officials, increased the centralization


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of state power, and bestowed liberal salaries and benefits to military generals with successful exploits, but deprived them of real power. The prefix da (grand) was removed from the posts of da sima (grand minister of war), da sikong (grand minister of works), and da situ (grand minister of education), and the title of da sima was replaced with taiwei. The officials who held these three posts were called sansi (three dukes). However, the duties of three dukes were transferred to Shangshu Tai that was originally in charge of imperial documents. Shangshu Tai was responsible for the emperor and dealt with the daily affairs of the state. By instituting Shangshu Tai, the emperor could directly control state power. For important positions, he appointed officials of virtue who were familiar with institutions and capable of administering to the country. He strengthened the supervision over officials and centralized military and political power, thus further reinforcing the centralized and autocratic system of government. In terms of the economy, he launched major measures such as readopting the former one thirtieth taxation system in the early Western Han Dynasty, encouraging refugees to return home and cultivate unused land, demobilizing armies so they could do farming, downsizing local government organizations, and reducing the number of local officials. During his reign, he gave nine orders to release slave girls or improve their legal status and forbade the maltreatment and murder of slave girls, assuaging a grave social problem that had existed since the Western Han Dynasty. Emperor Guangwu also punished corrupt officials and exalted honest and incorruptible officials who were determined to uphold the law. According to historical records, when a servant favored by Princess Huyang, of Emperor Guangwu’s elder sister, committed murder, he concealed himself in Princess Huyang’s residence. Dong Xuan, the magistrate of Luoyang, came to capture and execute him. He also overtly found fault with the Princess who then complained to Emperor Guangwu. Dong Xuan was summoned to the imperial palace by Emperor Guangwu and ordered to kowtow to Princess Huyang, apologizing for his offence. However, Dong Xuan refused to kowtow or make an apology. Emperor Guangwu appreciated his integrity, and bestowed him with a large sum of money, praising him as a “flint-necked magistrate.” As a result of these reforms, the social economy recovered during his reign. The population of the country and its political atmosphere grew relatively stable, which brought about the famous “Restoration of Guangwu” in China’s history. By the time Emperor He reigned, population and cultivated land had reached the highest level in the history of the Western Han Dynasty.

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XIII. Ban Chao and the Subordination of Western Regions

In the early stage of the Eastern Han Dynasty, the Xiong-nu controlled the Western Regions once again. In order to restore friendly relations with the Western Regions, the Eastern Han government dispatched Ban Chao to the Western Regions in AD 73. Ban Chao was the younger brother of the famous historian Ban Gu. When he was a young man, he engaged himself as a copyist for the feudal officialdom. He was known to complain: “A real man should behave like a hero, and should, like Zhang Qian, achieve something in the Western Regions. How can I settle for being a poor man dealing with copying all my life?” In AD 73, Ban Chao threw aside the writing brush and joined the army. Later, he was ordered to go to the Western Regions on a diplomatic mission with thirty-six brave and agile warriors. After he left the Yumen Pass, the first leg of Ban Chao’s mission was in the kingdom of Shanshan (in the present-day Xinjiang). At first, the king of Shanshan was very polite and courteous to them. Before long, the Xiong-nu diplomatic envoy arrived. The king was afraid of the Xiong-nu envoy, and started to alienate the messengers from the Han Dynasty. Ban Chao then decided to attack the Xiong-nu convoy. In the night, Ban Chao and his thirty-six warriors quietly entered the camp where the Xiong-nu convoy was stationed. They set a fire and attacked from both sides of the camp.The Xiong-nu were thrown into a panic and annihilated. This act The map of Ban Chao’s mission to the Western Regions made a great impact on the king of Shanshan. He himself had long been resentful of the Xiong-nu’s behavior. Ban Chao persuaded him to break with Xiong-nu and return to the embrace of the Han Dynasty. Soon after this episode, Ban Chao was ordered on a mission to Yutian where a special resident commissioner from Xiong-nu had been posted to supervise the king of Yutian. Due to the advice and encouragement of Ban Chao, the king killed the supervisor from Xiong-nu and established an alliance with the Han Dynasty. In the spring of the next year, Bao Chao reached the kingdom of Shule and captured and bound the Douti who was Guizi’s Marquis of the


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Left and the king of Shule (appointed by the Xiong-nu). Ban Chao appointed a member of the former royal family of Shule as the new king, and thus received the support of the Shule people. Thanks to tremendous effort by Ban Chao, the Han Dynasty restored solid and amiable relations with most of the kingdoms in the Western Regions and reopened the route to the Western Regions, which had been interrupted for over 60 years. The Eastern Han government did not send many troops to reinforce Ban Zhao. Only in AD 80 did the government send Xu Gan one thousand men. It later dispatched eight hundred men to join Ban Chao. At that time, the Xiong-nu was still strong. Under their lure and threat, some small kingdoms in the Western Regions remained volatile, leaving Ban Chao in a difficult situation.With the support of Shule and Yutian, Ban Chao defeated Guizi and other kingdoms and made them submit to the Han Dynasty again. All the Western Regions started restoring friendly relations with the Han Dynasty again.The route of economic and cultural exchanges between the Han Dynasty and the West—the Silk Road—was opened again. In this favorable climate in AD 97, Ban Chao sent his subordinate Gan Ying on a diplomatic mission to Daqin (the Roman Empire), who latter even arrived at the Persian Gulf. Although Gan Ying did not reach Daqin, he wrote down general information about the kingdoms he had passed. In AD 166, just seventy years after Gan Ying’s journey to Daqin, Eastern Han saw its first envoy from Daqin, who presented elephant-teeth, rhinoceros horns, and other gifts to the emperor of the Eastern Han.This was the beginning of direct exchange between Europe and China. Ban Chao spent over thirty years in the Western Regions. He returned to the capital Luoyang in AD 102, and died in the same year, at the age of seventy-one.

XIV. Movement of Pure Comment and Partisan Prohibition

From the time that Emperor He ascended the throne, the successors to the throne were very young. Therefore, the control of government had to be held by empress regents who usually relied on their clansmen. Naturally, the monarch’s power was lost and the consort clans manipulated the imperial court.When a young emperor grew up, he would try to break away from the control of the empress’s family, seeking the support of eunuchs close to him. Consequently, eunuchs replaced consort clans and seized power themselves. Such events occurred repeatedly. The Confucian officials and the students of the Imperial College not only prevailed on public opinion to attack the eunuchs but also began a conscious effort to form a coalition in order to diminish the influence of the eunuchs. Therefore, the conflicts between the two sides intensified gradually.

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The matter came to a head in AD 166 over a murder case. Zhang Cheng, a fortuneteller in Luoyang, had instructed his son to commit murder. Li Ying, a famous Confucian scholar and the governor in the capital Province, arrested the Zhangs, although a general pardon had been issued at the time. Li disregarded it and executed the Zhangs anyway, due to Zhang’s close ties with the eunuchs. However, Li did not anticipate that Zhang’s disciples would then accuse him of forming a clique with the students of the Imperial College and scholars in various prefectures with an aim to defame the imperial court and the emperor. Emperor Huan became extremely enraged and arrested Li, as well as two hundred students. It was this arrest order that coined the term “partisans.” Later, officials Huo Xu and Dou Wu submitted humble petitions, repeatedly requesting leniency for the partisans. As a result of their petitions, Li Ying and the college students were released and exiled to their hometowns. Their civil liberties were removed for life. This was the first Partisan Prohibition. After this event, the opposition and struggle between Confucian officials and college students and the eunuchs became more acute. The next year, after the death of Emperor Huan, Emperor Ling succeeded the throne. General Dou Wu, father of Dowager Empress Dou, and Taifu Chen Fan acted as regents. They restored the rights of partisans such as Li Ying and other respected scholars, and in fact, made many of them imperial officials. Later in AD 168, concerned that the eunuchs were exerting too much influence over the young emperor and the Dowager Empress, Dou Wu and Chen hatched a plan to exterminate the leading eunuchs. When word got out, headed by Cao Jie, the eunuchs mobilized the imperial guards and had Dou Wu arrested. Dou Wu later committed suicide. The Dou clan was also executed. The eunuchs immediately removed the partisans from the government and suspended their civil liberties again. The eunuchs were not content with merely removing the partisans from the government. In AD 169, they persuaded the thirteen-year-old Emperor Ling that the partisans were intent on revolting.The leading partisans, including Li Ying, Du Mi, and Fan Pang, were arrested and executed. Overall, about a hundred people lost their lives. Sculpture of Chen Fan This was the second Partisan Prohibition.


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XV. Rebellion of the Yellow Turbans and Fall of the Han Dynasty

In the late Eastern Han Dynasty, the commoners, suffering from political corruption, natural disasters, and heavy taxes, lived in great misery. Many families died from famine and other disasters. The peasant refugees began to rebel against the government. Zhang Jiao from Julu (in present-day Hebei Province) created a sect named “Taiping Dao,” and by curing diseases with his healing practices, he secretly contacted people from various areas. At that time, people joining the sect came from eight different states, covering places such as today’s Hebei, Shandong, Anhui, and Hubei. In a dozen years, he had gained several hundred thousand disciples. People from the eight prefectures of Qingzhou, Xuzhou, Youzhou, Yizhou, Jingzhou, Yangzhou, Yanzhou, and Yuzhou responded to Zhang Jiao’s call. They established thirty-six districts, each under the authority of a commander, the larger districts numbering over ten thousand people, and the smaller districts six or seven thousand. Zhao Jiao spread the following prophecy to encourage his followers to rebel: “The dark green heaven (referring to the Eastern Han Dynasty, as its army uniform was dark green in color) has died and the yellow heaven (referring to the uprising army as they wore a yellow turban) should emerge; Right in the year of Jiazi (AD 184), the whole country will be blessed.” In AD 184, during the reign of Emperor Ling of the Eastern Han Dynasty, the followers of the Taiping Dao from all regions revolted simultaneously. They wore yellow turbans and called themselves the “Yellow Turban Army.” Zhang Jiao was given the title “General of Heaven,” his disciple Zhang Bao was honored as “General of Earth,” while Zhang Bao’s disciple Zhang Liang held the title “General of Men.” They burned down government palaces, occupied the seats of prefectures, and caused mayhem in the capital. However, the Yellow Turban rebellion was finally curbed and stamped out by the imperial government.They gathered several hundred thousand people in Jizhou, Nanyang, and so on, and inflicted heavy damage to the imperial army, which arrived to squash the revolt. The Han Kingdom had to rely on local forces, and the main force of the army was subjugated after nine months’ fighting, while the rest kept fighting in local areas for over twenty years. The Yellow Turban Uprising impacted the rule of the Eastern Han Dynasty heavily, hastening the fall of the Eastern Han regime.

XVI. The Battle of Guandu

After the Yellow Turban Uprising, warlord Dong Zhuo entered Luoyang and seized control of the central government. He deposed Emperor Shao of Han, and

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appointed Liu Xie as the new emperor. Yuan Shao fled to Jizhou and launched an expedition against Dong Zhuo.Yuan Shao was elected as the head of all the warlords who sent forces to fight Dong Zhuo. However, the alliance dissolved, and the warlords were waging wars against each other because of their different interests. Yuan Shao soon seized the post of Jizhou Mu (overlords of Jizhou) and occupied Jizhou. After seven or eight years of annexation war, Yuan Shao defeated Gongsun Zan and seized Youzhou in AD 199. He became the overlord of four prefecBattle of Guandu tures (Youzhou, Jizhou, Qingzhou, and Bingzhou: present-day Hebei Province, Shanxi Province, and eastern Shandong Province) and unified the vast area north of the Yellow River. At the same time, Cao Cao had occupied Yunzhou and Yuzhou (present-day west of Henan and Shandong Provinces). Since Cao Cao had controlled the young Emperor Xian of Han, he gained a political advantage by issuing orders to the dukes and princes around the country by using the Emperor’s name. Cao Cao also invited talent, opened up wastelands, and encouraged agricultural cultivation. His power was increasing. In the spring of AD 190, Yuan Shao, commanded an army of one hundren thousand men who were stationed at Liyang. He intended to seize the city of Xuchang, where Cao Cao lived and defeat him. Cao Cao resisted Yuan Shao’s attack with an army of thirty or forty thousand troops. Before the battle against Yuan Shao, Cao Cao led his troops eastward. He conquered Xiapi and defeated Liu Bei, the ally of Yuan Shao, capturing Liu Bei’s wife and forcing the surrender of Liu’s general Guan Yu. After resolving his minor problems, Cao Cao returned to Guandu, ready to confront Yuan Shao. In February AD 200, Yan Liang,Yuan Shao’s general, crossed the Yellow River and attacked Cao Cao’s city of Baima. Under the advice of Xun Yu, Cao Cao led a battalion across the Yan Ford on the Yellow River, but this maneuver was only a feint. As soon as Yuan Shao drew out troops from Baima to counter Cao’s attack, Cao Cao retreated and struck east to relieve Baima’s forces. In the ensuing battle, General Yan Liang was killed and the Yuan troops were destroyed. After this, Cao Cao abandoned the fort and evacuated its occupants, moving southward. Taking advantage of the situation, Yuan Shao’s forces of six thousand light cavalry units led by Wen Chou


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and Liu Bei set off in pursuit. However, Cao Cao anticipated the attack and prepared a distractive tactic. He ordered his troops to discard their steeds, weapons, and other valuables.Yuan Shao’s forces were tempted by greed and broke through their ranks to grab the valuables in front of them. As they were doing so, Cao Cao’s six hundred elite cavalry which had been lying in ambush attacked. In the chaos,Yuan Shao’s commander Wen Chou was killed and Liu Bei fled. In the eighth month, the Yuan army pushed to Yangwu, directly north of Guandu, and began construction on earthen fortifications. The Cao army also began reinforcing their defences. Both sides harassed each other with ballistas and catapults but to no effect. To break the stalemate, it was suggested to Yuan Shao that he use his superior numbers to his advantage and outflank the enemy when attacking Xuchang.Yuan refused, preferring to wait for the food supply in Cao’s army to run out. Shock troops were dispatched to burn Yuan Shao’s grain carts. Leaving the main camp in the hands of Cao Hong, a force of five thousand elite infantry was led by Cao Cao himself into the enemy-controlled territory. Traveling rapidly under the enemy banner at night and pretending to be Yuan’s reinforcements, Cao Cao besieged Chunyu Qiong’s supply camp, burning it along with much of Yuan Shao’s grain. In spite of this emergency, Yuan Shao refused to send his main forces to relieve Chunyu’s defenders, as his commander Zhang He had urged him to do. Instead, he chose to send a smaller force of light cavalry, whilst attacking Guandu with the bulk of his army. By dawn,Wuchao had fallen to the furious attack and Cao’s victorious soldiers then proceeded to defeat the small relief force. At Guandu, Yuan Shao failed to break through, and army morale plummeted after the capture of their food supplies. Zhang He and Gao Lan surrendered and their battalions burned their weapons. Cao Cao seized the day once more and attacked when the enemy was at its weakest. Seventy thousand troops in Yuan’s army were killed and he lost countless provisions, escaping over the Yellow River with little more than eight hundred horsemen. Two years later, Yuan Shao died a dejected man. By AD 205, Cao Cao had destroyed the rest of Yuan Shao’s forces and conquered the Ji, Qing, You, and Bing prefectures, unifying north China. Wen Chou

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XVII. Three Humble Visits to the Thatched Cottage

After defeating Yuan Shao at the Battle of Guandu, Cao Cao attacked Runan in AD 201. Liu Bei fled to Jing Province to seek refuge with Liu Biao. Born in Zhuo Commandery (present-day Zhuozhou, Hebei), Liu Bei was a descendant of Prince Jing of Zhongshan. Liu Bei grew up poor, having lost his father when he was a child. To support themselves, he and his mother sold shoes and straw-woven mats. He became sworn friends with Guan Yu and Zhang Fei at the Peach Garden. He gradually rose to prominence as he had made many achievements when suppressing Three visits to the thatched cottage the Yellow Turban Uprising. Liu Biao welcomed Liu Bei personally, treating him as an honored guest. He also gave Liu Bei some troops and asked him to be stationed in Xiangyang. To restore the rule of the Han Dynasty, Liu Bei enlisted the services of able people to add to his troops. Hearing that Zhuge Liang was an outstanding talent, Liu Bei went to Longzhong despite the chilly cold with his sworn friends Guan Yu and Zhang Fei in order to ask for Zhuge Liang’s assistance. Zhuge Liang, with the courtesy name Kong Ming, was born in Yangdu of Langye (present-day Zhuge Liang Qinan, Shandong Province), and later settled in Longzhong, west of Xiangyang, Hubei Province. He led a hermit’s life and associated with notable people, associating himself to famous figures such as Guan Zhong and Le Yi. With a reputation for wisdom spreading far and wide, he was called the “Crouching Dragon.” Liu Bei had to make three trips before he was able to see him. Zhuge Liang analyzed the situation in the country in detail for Liu Bei, and advised Liu Bei to occupy the Jingzhou and Yizhou Prefectures and ally himself with Sun Quan against Cao Cao. Liu Bei was so excited that he invited Zhuge Liang to assist him. This was the origin of the story about “three humble visits to the Sun Quan thatched cottage.”


XVIII. The Battle of Red Cliffs

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The Battle of Chibi (Red Cliffs) between Cao Cao and the coalition of Liu Bei and Sun Quan took place at Red Cliffs (present-day northeast of Jiayu, Hubei Province) in AD 208. Cao Cao whose courtesy name was Mengde was born in the Qiao County (present-day Bozhou, Anhui). His father, Cao Song Red Cliffs who served in the court as the grand commander was the foster son of Cao Teng who in turn was one of the favorite eunuchs of Emperor Huan. At the age of twenty, Cao Cao was recommended for a promotion to northern district commander of The Battle of Red Cliffs Luoyang. When the Yellow Turban Rebellion broke out, Cao Cao was recalled to put down the rebels. He was successful in his military exploits and was promoted to dianjun xiaowei (a military position). Cao Cao, intelligent and courageous, was well versed in both polite correspondence and martial arts. He liked to enlist the service of capable people, and there were many brave and talented men working for him. Later, the warlords formed a coalition with Yuan Shao against Dong Zhuo, and Cao Cao joined their cause. He was assigned to be the magistrate of Yanzhou Prefecture in AD 192. After defeating Yuan Shao at Guandu, Cao Cao conquered other warlords and united the north of China. After uniting the north, Cao Cao prepared to march south to unify the country. The overlord of Jinzhou Prefecture, Liu Biao, had just died after a period of illness. Under pressure from Cao Cao’s forces, Liu Cong, Liu Biao’s younger son and successor, quickly surrendered. When Jingzhou fell, Liu Bei and Liu Biao’s elder son Liu Qi immediately led about twenty thousand soldiers to Xiakou (presentday Hankou). Although Cao Cao claimed that he had eight hundred troops at his

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disposal, Zhou Yu estimated Cao Cao’s actual troop numbers to be closer to two hundred and twenty thousand after conquering Jingzhou. Cao Cao’s army was advancing from Jiangling down the Yangtze River toward Xiakou. Liu Bei’s main advisor Zhuge Liang was sent to negotiate the formation of an alliance against Cao Cao with Sun Quan. Sun Quan was from Fuchun in the Wu Prefecture (present-day Fuyang, Zhejiang Province) and called himself Zhongmou. His father, Sun Jian, and elder brother, Sun Ce, were famous generals. In the last years of the Eastern Han Dynasty, Sun Ce acquired six prefectures southeast of the Yangtze River with the support of influential families. In AD 200, the eighteen-year-old Sun Quan inherited land from his brother. Sun Quan, under the tutelage of Zhou Yu, Zhang Zhao, and other able advisors, continued to build his power base along the Yangtze River. When Cao Cao led his army to pacify the south, Sun Quan was twenty-five years old. He was aware of the fact that his regime would be in danger if Cao Cao got a firm foothold in Jingzhou. In the end, Sun Quan decided to oppose Cao Cao. He sent generals Zhou Yu, Lu Su, and Cheng Pu with 30,000 soldiers to form a coalition with Liu Bei’s troops, which numbered 20,000. The supreme commander of the united forces was Zhou Yu, whose courtesy name was Gong Jin, a native of Shu County, Lujiang Prefecture (present-day Shucheng city, Anhui Province). He was the chief general of the Wu state. Zhou Yu was born into a bureaucratic family, and made close friends with Sun Ce at a young age. Zhou Yu later helped Sun Ce to conquer the six prefectures southeast of the Yangtze River and was promoted to jiangwei zhonglangjiang. Zhou Yu was called Zhou Lang (gentleman) by the local people, as he was young and handsome. Sun Ce died at a young age, and Zhou Yu and Zhang Zhao were entrusted to assist Sun Quan. Zhou was appointed as qianbu Dadudu. Zhou Yu and Lu Su were boldly advocating war against Cao Cao.The combined Sun-Liu force sailed upstream to the Red Cliffs where they encountered Cao Cao’s vanguard force. Cao Cao’s men could not gain an advantage in the small skirmish which ensued, so Cao Cao retreated north of the Yangtze River and the allies pulled back to the south. Cao Cao had moored his ships stem to stern, possibly aiming to reduce seasickness in his naval troops, who were mostly northerners and were not used to living on ships. Observing this, Zhou Yu’s divisional commander Huang Gai feigned surrender and prepared a squadron of capital ships. The ships had been converted into fire ships by filling them with bundles of dry reeds and oil. As Huang Gai’s “defecting” squadron approached the midpoint of the river, the sailors set fire to the ships before escaping in small boats. The unmanned fire ships, driven by the southeastern wind, sped toward Cao Cao’s fleet and set it ablaze. As all the ships were moored together, it was impossible for the ships to sail away. Within a short time, smoke and


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flames stretched across the sky and Cao Cao’s fleet turned into a sea of fire. Soon, the raging flames extended to the camps on the bank. Many men and horses were either burned to death or drowned. Unfortunately for Cao Cao’s army, the allies, led by Zhou Yu and Liu Bei, gave chase over land and water. Due to famine, disease, and skirmishes along the way, many of Cao Cao’s remaining forces perished. Cao Cao then retreated northward and was not able to dispatch military expedition to the south. In AD 220, Cao Cao died of illness. His son Cao Pi deposed Emperor Xian of Han and proclaimed himself emperor of Wei, making Luoyang his capital. With Zhuge Liang’s assistance, Liu Bei occupied most of the Jingzhou Prefecture. Shortly after that, he expanded his territory westward and seized Liu Zhang’s Yizhou Prefecture. The year after Cao Pi proclaimed himself emperor, Liu Bei declared himself emperor of Han, which was historically known as the Kingdom of Shu or Shu Han, and made Chengdu its capital. Sun Quan had further strengthened his force in the middle and lower reaches of the Yangtze River. In AD 229, Sun Quan named himself emperor of Wu and made Jianye (now Nanjing) the capital.This was the start of three kingdoms: Wei, Shu, and Wu.

XIX. Evolution of the Worship of Guan Yu

In Beijing, temples of Lord Guan are the highest in number. It is said that in the Qing Dynasty, there were over two hundred temples of Lord Guan, accounting for one tenth of the total temples. In temples of Lord Guan, General Guan Yu of the Shu Kingdom in the Three Kingdoms Period, popularly known as Lord Guan, was worshipped. In fact, Guan Yu was not very influential in the lives of people from the Cao Wei to the Tang Dynasty. However, Guan had gained a reputation since the Song Dynasty due to the advocacy of emperors. In the Song Dynasty, he was honored as “Righteous and Courageous King of Martial Protection” by the emperor. In the Ming Dynasty, the emperor honored him as “Imperial Sovereign Saint Guan Yu temple

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Guan, Great Emperor who defeats the Demons of the Three Realms, and Heavenly Lord Known from Afar for His Divine Power.” His honor was greater than even that of the emperors on the earth, since no emperor in history had called himself “Great Emperor.” Indeed, Guan Yu’s highest military rank was Front General, and the highest title conferred on him was Marquis Han Shou Ting. At the critical moment, Guan not only lost his life but also lost Jingzhou Prefecture, causing great losses to the Shu Han. Thus, he did not have godlike powers as purported. In the Qing Dynasty, Guan Yu was worshipped as “God Protecting the Country” and was credited as “Military Sage.” Guan Yu has gained status equal to the master of Chinese culture, Confucius, who is respected as the “Civil Sage.” Guan Yu has been deemed to have “omnipotent power,” and people have prayed to Guan Yu for many purposes, such as success in imperial examinations, promotion in official ranks, elimination of disasters, curing diseases, exorcising evil, inspecting hell, blessing merchants, and enlarging one’s exchequer. Furthermore, in the famous historic novel The Romance of Three Kingdoms, Guan Yu was portrayed as a loyal and righteous hero, and people’s idol. The emperors of the dynasties to come were willing to educate their subjects using Guan Yu as an example, for he embodied the virtues of loyalty, filial piety, moral integrity, and righteousness.This is why Guan Yu has been so widely worshipped.

XX. Scientific and Technological Progress

The calendar used in the Qin and early Han Dynasties allocated the tenth month as the beginning of the year, which was not very accurate. During the Taichu reign of Emperor Wu of Han, astronomers like Tang Du formulated the first fairly accurate calendar, called the Taichu Calendar, beginning from the first month of the year.

Zhou Bi Suanjing and Gougu theorem

Zhou Bi Suanjing

Zhou Bi Suanjing, original name Zhou Bi, is the oldest mathematical work extant. It was a book on astronomy, probably written in the Western Han period or earlier. It mainly expounds the Gaitian Theory (a theory of cosmological structure) and the Sifen Calendar, and was viewed as the representative work of the Gaitian Theory. Its compilation may have been concluded in the later part of the Western Han era. It contains the practice of Gougu theorem, and very complicated calculations of fractions and extractions of square roots. According to Shang Gao, the right triangle made by the carpenter’s


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ruler is called gougu, the shorter side is called gou, while the longer side is called gu, and the hypotenuse is given the name xian. If the gou is three and the gu is four, the xian must be five.The Chinese discovered the Gougu Theorem early on; around five hundred years later, a Greek mathematician called Pythagoras (580 BC–500 BC) raised the Gougu theorem, also called the Pythagorean theorem.

Nine Chapters on the Mathematical Art

Jiuzhang Suanshu (Nine Chapters on the Mathematical Art) was not compiled by one single person. It was revised and added to by many people for a long time, and was not finished as a definitive edition until the Eastern Han Dynasty. So far, we know that in the early Western Han Dynasty, Zhang Cang, and Geng Shou made additions to it. It was published no later than the first century AD (in the early Eastern Han Dynasty). The current version of Jiuzhang Suanshu the book was annotated by Liu Hui. The book contains 246 questions and is divided into nine chapters. Every chapter deals with a specific type of question.The following are short descriptions of each chapter. Chapter One “Field Measurement” deals with the methods for calculation of areas of land. Chapter Two “Cereals” concerns proportions for exchange of cereals, millet, or rice. Chapter Three “Distribution by Proportion” refers to the distribution of commodities and money at proportional rates. Chapter Four “Short Width” finds the length of a side when the area or volume is given. Chapter Five “Construction Consultations” finds the volumes of various shapes of solid figures. Chapter Six “Fair Taxes” deals with calculations on how to distribute tax and labor according to the population and distances. Chapter Seven “Excess and Deficiency” uses the method of double false position to solve difficult problems. Chapter Eight “Rectangular Arrays” deals with the method of solving problems on simultaneous linear equations and introduces concepts of positive and negative numbers and the rules of addition and subtraction of positive and negative numbers. Chapter Nine “Right Triangles” discusses the Gougu theorem and problems on similar right-angled triangles, and introduces general methods of solving quadratic equations. The book systematically sums up the mathematical achievements accomplished since the pre-Qin period to the early Eastern Han Dynasty. In particular, the rules of computing with negative numbers and the method of solving quadratic equations with one unknown element were the most advanced methods in mathematical operations, indicating the formation of the ancient Chinese mathematical system.

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In most cases, the book adopts an inductive approach to mathematics. It usually takes the form of a statement of several problems, followed by the most general methods of solving these problems. It contrasts with the approach of ancient Greek mathematician Euclid (330 BC–275 BC) who, in his Elements of Geometry, tended to deduce propositions from an initial set of axioms. Nine Chapters on the Mathematical Art has exerted a profound influence on the development of Chinese mathematics and has been selected as a textbook for mathematical learning by every Chinese dynasty since then. It is the one of the ten most important ancient Chinese mathematical books. As one of the world’s ancient masterpieces on mathematics, it has been translated into many languages such as Russian, German, and Japanese.

Papermaking Technique

A tomb at the Fangmatan site

Cai Lun

Paper was one of the great inventions of ancient China. Paper made during the western Han Dynasty was discovered in a tomb at the Fangmatan site in Tianshui, Gansu Province in 1986. It is the oldest paper in the world discovered so far. Maps were drawn on the paper which is very soft, thin, and smooth, suggesting that the paper-making technique of the time was advanced. Before the invention of paper, people used bamboo slips, wooden tablets, or silk to record things. However, bamboo slips and wooden tablets were very cumbersome, while silk was very expensive. The appearance of paper facilitated writing since it was cheap and portable. In AD 105, Cai Lun of the Eastern Han Dynasty improved the paper-making technique based on previous experience. He broadened the choice of raw materials by using tree bark, rags, flax, and old fishing nets, which were cheap and easily available. As the quality and output of paper was enhanced, paper became widely used. Cai Lun was named “Marquis Longting” for his great achievement in paper-making, and the type of paper created by Cai Lun has been called


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“Caihou Paper (Marquis Cai’s Paper)” as a way of commemorating his contribution. The papermaking technique was later spread to all parts of the world. It greatly boosted cultural exchange and educational promotion, and heavily influenced the process of world civilization.

Zhang Heng and the Invention of the Seismograph Zhang Heng (AD 78–AD 140), born in Nanyang, Henan Province, was a famous scientist during the Eastern Han Dynasty. He developed The papermaking technique of the Han Dynasty an armillary sphere on which were carved all the astronomical phenomena known at that time. In AD 132, he invented a seismograph, which was the world’s first instrument used to identify and ascertain the direction of earthquakes. The seismograph was made entirely of bronze. In it, there was a balanced post and eight rods connected to eight dragon’s heads on the exterior. When an earthquake occurred, the balanced post would tilt in the direction of the quake, push a rod, and cause the corresponding dragon’s head Paper of the Western Han Dynasty to disgorge a bronze ball which would then fall into the mouth of a bronze toad below. The seismograph could detect the precise cardinal direction of a distant earthquake. In AD 138, a bronze ball fell out of the dragon’s mouth facing west into the north-facing bronze toad, indicating an earthquake, which had occurred west of the capital. A few days later, a messenger arrived to report that an earthquake had occurred in Longxi, around 500 kilometers west of Luoyang.

Invention of Water-powered Bellows During the Han Dynasty, the handicraft industry expanded on a large scale. For example, to exploit iron ore alone, over one hundred thousand people were required. The craftsmen began to use coal as fuel for casting iron. Du Shi, the Taishou of Nanyang Prefecture of the Eastern Han Dynasty, invented the first water-powered bellows (an air-blowing device) in metallurgy. It applied hydraulic power (i.e., a waterwheel) to operate bellows greatly enhancing the quality of the cast iron. These iron-making processes were increasingly used. During the

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Water-powered bellows


Bronze weapons of the Eastern Han Dynasty

Eastern Han Dynasty, iron weapons had replaced bronze weapons. Wan (Nanyang) and Gong were the pioneers of iron casting. Only a thousand years later did the Europeans begin to use water-powered bellows.

Water Conservancy and Improvement of Farming Tools The government of the Han Dynasty attached great importance to water conservancy projects. The Yellow River had been completely harnessed twice during the Han Dynasty. When Emperor Wu came to inspect the harnessing site, he ordered all the accompanying civil and military officials to carry firewood to fill the gap. Emperor Wu also built the Liufu and Bai Ditches in the Guanzhong region, irrigating tens of thousands of mu of farmland. During the Eastern Han Dynasty, Emperor Ming ordered a hydraulic expert, Wang Jing, to control the flooding of the Yellow River. Wang succeeded, and the submerged land became fertile in dozens of counties spanning the lower reaches of the Yellow River. Great innovations in farming tools occurred during the Han Dynasty. Equipped with a moldboard, the plow could work more efficiently. A yoke using two cattle for tilling was widely used in plowing. A new kind of farming tool called the cattle-drawn seed plough was invented during the reign of Emperor Wu, greatly increasing sowing speed. During the Han Dynasty, wheat was widely cultivated in north China and be- Farming tools of the Han Dynasty


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came a staple crop, while rice was primarily grown in the south. During Emperor Wu’s reign, Dong Zhongshu advised promoting wheat in the Guanzhong area. From then on, people in the north preferred to eat wheat-based food.There were many types of wheat-based food at the time, such as the hu-style cake (small unsweetened cake) and noodle soup.

XXI. Historiography and Philosophy Sima Qian and the Records of the Grand Historian Sima Qian (145 BC–87 BC), whose courtesy name was Zichang, was a native of present-day Hancheng, Shaanxi Province. He was born into a historiographer family. His father, Sima Tan, was the taishi ling (Grand Historian) of the Western Han Dynasty. Taishi ling was a historical official who was also in charge of the library, astronomy, and the calendar. Influenced by his father, Sima Qian enjoyed reading. He left home for a long journey in his twenties, traveled to Kuaiji to study the relics of Yu the Great, and went to Confucius’ hometown to collect the sage’s documents. He even travelled to the Yantze-Huaihe area and the Central Plains, collecting the legends of prominent figures such as Xiao He and Han Xin. After he returned to Chang’an, the capital, he was appointed as the Palace Attendant, which involved safeguarding the gates of the palace, managing the imperial carriage, and accompanying the emperor on inspections of different parts of the country. He accompanied Emperor Wu on several tours, and thus visited many areas. He was sent by Emperor Wu to Sichuan, Yunnan, Guizhou, and other places to learn their local customs. Other places he visited included Shandong,Yunnan, Hebei, Zhejiang, Jiangsu, Jiangxi, and Hunan. After his father died, Sima Qina took over his post and became the taishi ling. He had read large numbers of imperial books, and his knowledge of history as well as his experiences from traveling across the country provided a solid foundation for the writing of The Historical Records. Sima Qian

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Sima Qian proceeded to compile the Records of the Grand Historian in early 104 BC. However, he infuriated Emperor Wu and received severe punishment for his involvement in General Li Ling’s affairs. In 99 BC, Emperor Wu dispatched an army to launch a campaign against the Xiong-nu. Li Ling who commanded a force of five thousand, was besieged by the Xiong-nu cavalry numbering tens of thousands. Li Ling was defeated and taken captive. Emperor Wu attributed this defeat to Li Ling, and all the officials in the government condemned Li Ling for the defeat. Sima was the only one defending Li Ling. As Sima Qian’s remarks enraged Emperor Wu, he was castrated and thrown into prison for three years. In 96 BC, upon his release from prison, Sima Qian was appointed as the zhongshu ling in charge of the emperor’s confidential documents. In his final years, Sima Qian devoted himself to writing The Historical Records and completed the work at the age of fifty-five. The whole book comprises five parts: twelve volumes of Benji (Imperial Biographies), ten volumes of Biao (Tables), eight volumes of Shu (Treatises), thirty volumes of Shijia (Biographies of the Feudal Houses and Eminent Persons), seventy volumes of Liezhuan (Biographies and Collective Biographies), a hundred and thirty volumes in all. This book keeps a record of major events in Chinese history for three thousand years, from the age of the legendary Yellow Emperor to the earlier years of Emperor Wu.

Ban Gu and The Book Of Han

Ban Gu (AD 32–AD 92) from the Eastern Han Dynasty wrote Han Shu (Book of Han), the first book about dynastic history. Ban Gu, whose courtesy name was Meng Jian, was from Anling in Fufeng (present-day northeast Xianyang of Shaanxi Province). He was Ban Chao’s elder brother. His father Ban Biao had written The Legend after Records of the Historian with sixty-five chapters, a supplement to the renowned Records of the Grand Historian. Under his father’s influence, Ban Gu took over responsibility for writing a history of the Han Dynasty from his father. This book is now known as The Book of Han. In AD 62, Ban Gu was summoned to the capital by the Emperor to write the Book of Han. After more than twenty years, the work was nearly finished. After the death of Ban Gu, Emperor He of the Han Dynasty ordered Ban Gu’s younger sister, Ban Zhao, to resume her brother’s work and complete the book. Ban Zhao included eight Biao (chronological charts) and Tianwen Zhi (astronomical biography) in the book. Ban Gu


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This book, also known as the Book of Former Han, was the first dynastic history book in China written in a biographical style. The massive work, containing records of numerous events, is consistent in style and concisely worded, and was often viewed by the later generations, as a paragon of official history on par with the Records of the Grand Historian. The Book of Han recorded 230 years of events, from the first year of Gaozu’s reign in the Han Dynasty (206 BC) until the fourth year of Wang Mang’s Dihuang reign (AD 23), examining political, economic, cultural, military, and other diverse aspects of society during the Han Dynasty. Ban Gu initiated the practice of keeping Biao (charts) Ban Zhao and Zhi (biography) in his book.The Charts of Figures listed the historical figures from ancient eras until the Chu state period. The four Zhi, Yiwen, Wuxing, Xingfa, and Dili expanded the scope within which historical records could be used for written works.

Wang Chong and Lun Heng Wang Chong (AD 27–AD 97), whose courtesy name was Zhongren, was born to an ordinary family in Shangyu, Kuaiji (now Shangyu, Zhejiang). His grandparents and parents had to migrate several times due to oppression from the local landlords. Wang went to Luoyang to study at the Imperial University. He studied very hard and had broad interests there. Since he was poor and lacked sufficient money to purchase textbooks, Wang had to resort to frequenting bookshops in order to acquire knowledge. He had an excel- Wang Chong lent memory, which helped him to become very well-versed in the Chinese classics. Later, he became a local official, but resigned from his post several times due to his contempt for the vulgar social atmosphere and his conflicts with the bureaucrats. He spent most of his time writing essays about contemporary issues. Wang wrote four books, but only the Lun Heng (Critical Essays) has survived until contemporary times. Lun Heng comprised

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eighty-five essays, totaling 200,000 words. Criticizing the system of Confucian thought in the Han Dynasty characterized by mysticism, he expounded his belief in simple materialism. During the Qin and Han dynasties, the pursuit of immortality prevailed among the ruling class. Emperor Qin Shi Huang and Emperor Wu of the Han employed many alchemists to seek drugs that would grant immortality. The leading Confucian scholar, Dong Zhongshu, also promoted this superstitious belief: Heaven was closely connected to human beings. For example, if the emperor was benevolent, Heaven would praise him with favorable weather; otherwise Heaven would bring disaster to warn him. Wang Chong, a materialist philosopher from the Eastern Han Dynasty, criticized these superstitious concepts in Lun Heng. He argued that Heaven was a natural existence; it would never have the full gamut of human feeling, nor would it bring about disasters to warn the humans. He maintained that solar and lunar eclipses, thunder, and rain were all natural phenomena, rather than signs of Heaven being displeased. He was equally scathing about the widespread belief in ghosts. He argued that since the body of a dead man would rot while his spirit would fade away, ghosts did not exist. Wang’s Lun Heng was not circulated in the Central Plains until the final years of the Eastern Han Dynasty when the great scholar Cai Yi distributed the book in southern China. He benefited a lot from Lun Heng, which was thereafter highly valued.

XXII. Culture, Literature, and Arts Stone Carving, Silk Painting, and Dance accompanied by music in the Qin and Han Periods Artwork from the Qin and Han dynasties was varied and colorful. It included wall murals in tomb chambers, silk painting, wood engraving, and so on. The color silk painting found in the Mawangdui Ruins in Changsha, is a masterpiece typical of Han Dynasty art, characterized by its delicate illustrations and brilliant colors. The stone and brick carvings of the Han Dynasty featuring universal subjects and high levels of artistry are valuable tools in understanding the life of people during the Han Dynasty.The Nanyang Museum of Han Dynasty Stone Carvings situated at Wolong Gang in the suburb of Nanyang City, Henan Province, has a collection of several dozen Han stone carvings.The pictures vividly depict the plowing of cattle, hunting, wine drinking, pitch-pot games, and so on, reflecting the variety of life at the time. The stone carvings found in Shandong portray fishing, hunting, plowing, weaving,


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fighting, dancing, historical stories, divine dragons, gods, ghosts, and so on. The stone carvings found in Sichuan have broader subjects, including agricultural perspectives such as sowing and reaping, as well as recreational scenes, such as bazaars, banquets, games, and buildings, and indoor displays as well. Silk paintings in the Dance accompanied by music in the Dance accompanied by tombs of Han Dynasty in Qin and Han periods I music also reached a high level Mawangdui in the Qin and Han dynasties. There were a variety of dances at the time, which were performed at folk banquets, weddings, funerals, and other festive events. At the end of the Qin Dynasty and the beginning of the Han Dynasty, the Song of Dance accompanied by music in the Qin and Han periods II Chu prevailed. In the Han Dynasty, there were musicians who were capable of composing and singing, such as Li Yannian during the reign of Emperor Wu of the Han Dynasty. It was said that when he sang a new song, the entire audience was moved. The dances were accompanied by drums, bell-shaped percussion instruments, vertical bamThe site of Wolong Gang boo flutes, Tartar reed flutes, and pipas. The dances included Zhe yao, Jian wu (Sword Dance), Qi pan wu (Seven Tray Dance). Empress Zhao Feiyan of the Western Han Dynasty was good at dancing. It was said that she was as lithe and graceful as a swallow, and was thus named feiyan (flying swallow).

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Nineteen Ancient Poems

A group of poems titled Nineteen Ancient Poems was first seen in Anthology. Xiao Tong, from the Liang state in the Southern Dynasty, selected them from ancient poems that were written by anonymous writers. He collected five-character poems and named the collection Nineteen Ancient Poems, which was ranked highest among the “miscellaneous poems,” and regarded as a collection of poems by later generations. Neither the date of writing nor the authorship of Nineteen Ancient Poems have been confirmed. It is generally acknowledged that they were not written by a single person at a specific time, and the date of their creation is approximately from AD 140 to AD 190, during the late period of Emperor Shun, before the reign of Emperor Xian of the Eastern Han Dynasty. Nineteen Ancient Poems is a remarkable hallmark of the ballads of Yuefu, refined and written by the literati.The literati of the late Han Dynasty established an extensive and profound emotional connection with their social and natural environment, due to their attention to the intrinsic value of humans. Things that were associated with superficial fame in the past gave way to the everyday and spiritual lives of the poets, and the subject matter, style, and thus literature styles evolved. Nineteen Ancient Poems played an important role in the development of fivecharacter poems, and is of great significance to the history of Chinese poetry as well. Its subject matter and expressive method were copied by the later generations to the extent that they almost became the ideal model. Its artistic style also influenced the creation and critique of poems in later times. In view of the development of ancient poetry, it is not exaggerating if one were to honor it as “the crown of five-character poems” and “the founder of the five-character poems through the ages.”

Han-Fu and Yuefu Poetry of the Han Dynasty

In the Western Han Dynasty, there appeared a new literary form called Han-fu. Hanfu is characterized by ornate phrases and extravagance in style but a lack of emotions and content. Prominent Han-fu writers included Jia Yi, Sima Xiangru, Yang Xiong in the Western Han Dynasty, and Ban Gu as well as Zhang Heng in the Eastern Han Dynasty. They wrote famous articles that were popular among the people. Jia Yi was a political critic and literati who lived during the reign of Emperor Wen of the Han Dynasty. His poems and Han-fu, filled with intense emotions, illustrated his uncompromising attitude toward social problems. His main works included Guoqin Lun and Pengniao Fu. Sima Xiangru, whose courtesy name was Changqing, Yang Xiong was born into a poor family in Chengdu, Shu Prefecture. He


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was a prominent writer in the Han-fu movement. Admiring his superb talent, Zhuo Wenjun, the daughter of one of Sichuan’s wealthiest and most powerful men, Zhuo Wangsun, married him against the wishes of her family. The couple opened a wine shop where Zhuo Wenjun sold wine every day. Later, he composed the poem Zixu Fu (Rhapsody on Sir Vacuous) to describe the breathtaking beauty of the imperial garden. The emperor was so enamored of this poem and the talent of its writer that he sent for Sima Xiangru and re- Jia Yi ceived him warmly in the imperial palace. Sima Xiangru then wrote Shanglin Fu (Rhapsody on the Imperial Park) and was appointed Imperial Attendant by Emperor Wu. After that, the emperor sent him away to quell a rebellion, which had broken out in ancient Sichuan, Sima’s homeland. Sima wrote the rhapsody The Tall Gate Palace in honor of the deposed Empress Chen Aijiao. Emperor Wu was so moved after reading this poem that he visited the deposed empress. In his final years, Sima Xiangru was put in charge of the Imperial Park. In most of his rhapsodies, Sima Xiangru described the magnificence of the Imperial Park and the extravagance of the barricade hunt staged by the emperor in exceedingly elegant language. In the Eastern Han period, Ban Gu’s Liangdu Fu and Zhang Heng’s Liangjing Fu, depicting the flourishing scenes and customs of Chang’an and Luoyang, were considered as Han-fu masterpieces. During the reign of Emperor Wu, the government created an imperial music bureau called Yuefu which was responsible for collecting folk songs. The folk songs, after being modified and set to music, were called Yuefu poems. The Yuefu poems featured simple styles, fresh and beautiful language, and heartfelt emotions. Some poems described the life of ordinary people, while others depicted the misery of the Southeast the Peacock Flies commoners: they were forced to

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enlist in the army and their families suffered greatly as a result. Some described the unfairness of heavy taxes and levies by the government. Kongque Dongnan Fei (Southeast the Peacock Flies) and Shiwu Congjun Zheng (Homecoming after War) are two masterpieces of Yuefu poetry. Southeast the Peacock Flies is the first long narrative poem in Chinese literary history written in the Han Dynasty. It tells the story of a beautiful, diligent, and good-natured girl named Liu Lanzhi from a common family who got married to Jiao Zhongqing. Although the couple loved each other, Liu Lanzhi was treated badly by her mother-in-law. In the end, the couple had no other choice but to commit suicide. The poem condemned the evils of feudal ritual propriety. The following poem, Homecoming after War, depicts the heartrending sight of an old man returning home from military service. Homecoming after War

At fifteen I left home to fight the foe And could not go back till I was fourscore. On the way I meet a countryman I know; I ask him who remains within my door. “Seen from afar, your house is over there, Mid graves where pine and cypress stand aloof.” Arrived, I see in dog hole run a hare And a pheasant fly from beam of roof. In middle courtyard grows only wild grain And by the well grows mallow I can eat. I pluck the grain and boil it as food plain And put the mallow in the soup I heat. When I have cooked the simple, homely fare, Who will eat it with me? No one appears. I go outdoors and eastwards fix my stare, My furrowed face and clothes wet with tears.

Xu Shen and Shuowen Jiezi

Xu Shen (AD 58–AD 147), was a renowned Confucian scholar who lived during the Eastern Han Dynasty and specialized in the Five Classics. He was from Zhaoling, Nunan (present-day Yancheng, Henan Province) and his courtesy name was Shuzhong. In the twelfth year of the Yongyusn reign of Emperor He of the Eastern Han Dynasty (AD 110), he completed his dictionary, Shuowen Jiezi (Analytical Dictionary of Characters). The book, comprising fifteen volumes in total, contains


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fourteen pieces of writing as well as a preface.The extant collated version of Shuowen Jiezi compiled by Xu Xuan in the early Song Dynasty divided each section into two volumes, totaling thirty volumes. It included 9,395 character entries and 1,163 words in varying forms. Xu Shen was the first to organize the characters by radicals. He sorted characters into 540 radicals according to the type of Chinese character and the structure of its components. Most of the characters were written in the Small Seal script. The characters in pre-Qin Great Seal script were classified as variants. The explanation of every character began with the meaning of the character based on the Six Classics, followed by the pronunciation of the character. This book is a masterpiece of ancient classics and its exegesis was a vital important source for later generations to study Chinese characters and compile dictionaries.The book was the first to analyze character forms and explore their origins, and was also one of the earliest dictionaries in existence.

XXIII. Terracotta Warriors and Horses The Mausoleum of Emperor Qin Shi Huang Great achievements had been made in the art of sculpture during the Qin and Han Dynasties. The world-renowned Terracotta Warriors and Horses were masterpieces of sculpture at the time. The mausoleum of the first emperor of the Qin Dynasty is located 5,000 meters away to the east of Lintong, Shaanxi Province. According to historical records, the mausoleum project was initiated the year after Emperor Qin Shi Huang ascended his throne. It was designed by Prime Minister Li Si and executed under the supervision of Grand General Zhang Han. A total of 720,000 laborers were enlisted for its

Terracotta warriors of the Qin Dynasty

Terracotta figurines of the Han Dynasty

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construction. In March 1974, the farmers from Xiyang Village of Yanzhai Township in Lintong District of Xian accidentally discovered many broken pottery figures while digging a well, 1.5 km east of Emperor Qin Shi Huang’s tomb. After archaeological excavations and careful research, it turned out to be a pit in which terracotta warriors and horses from the Qin Dynasty were buried. The terracotta warriors and horses are a large-scale underground battle array composed of infantrymen, cavalrymen, and chariots. It is estimated that there are over seven thousand soldiers, six hundred horses, and a hundred chariots in the mausoleum pits. These life-size figures vary in their facial expressions and gestures. The magnificent clay warriors and horses reflect the outstanding sculpture of the Qin Dynasty. The Terracotta Army has been acclaimed as the “Eighth Wonder of the World.”

Han Terracotta Warriors in Xuzhou Painted terracotta figurines from the Han Dynasty were unearthed in December, 1984 near Shizishan, Xuzhou. It was the third important discovery following the Western Han painted terracotta warriors at Yangjiawan of Xianyang and the Qin terracotta warriors at Lintong of Xi’an. The Xuzhou terracotta warriors were kept in the first underwater museum in China. These grey figures were made of clay. There are four horses, one official, and more than 4,800 figures in standing or sitting positions, or with different hair styles, or with different weapons, painted white and red.These terracotta warriors were made in the first century BC, during the reigns of Emperor Jing and Emperor Wu. The collection displays the military establishment of the prince of Chu in Xuzhou in the early Western Han period. Among the warriors found were officers and soldiers, who had varying clothing, armor, weapons, A painted terracotta figurine of the Han Dynasty and hair styles. Most of these warriors had a sad, sober facial expression because they were buried with the prince of Chu. This discovery is critical to the study of military history and is also a major artistic achievement of Chinese craftsmanship. It also proves that Xuzhou was a city of military importance in the Han Dynasty. It is very valuable for studying the social life, burial rites, military systems, and battle formations of the time.


XXIV. The Origin and Development of Chinese Medicine

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Legend has it that the Chinese medicine was invented by Shennong. However, Chinese medicine could not have been invented by a single person. It had probably been invented by ancient civilizations in the course of daily life. At the time, people might have recovered from a disease on eating a specific animal or plant, and would then record the single formula or herb that could cure the disease. Later, Shennong decided to collect all the formulas or herbs that had cured disease. He recorded the animals and plants people used to cure diseases, tasted them, and then experimented with them. By doing so, Shennong accumulated vast experience and had more methods of dealing with diseases. People believed that Shennong tasted hundred of herbs and invented Chinese medicine. In fact, he was a magic practitioner, also known as a witch doctor who cured people’s diseases. Later, along with social progress, the role of witch doctors evolved. There were specialized doctors, and Chinese medicine theory and works changed accordingly. In Sima Qian’s Historical Records, Bian Que was a famous doctor in ancient times. Bian Que, whose family name was Qin and given name,Yueren, was born in Zheng, in the Bohai Prefecture. He was a well-known doctor in the Spring and Autumn Period and was skilled in internal medicine, gynecology, pediatrics, and the five sense organs. Pro- Shennong, the inventor of Chinese ficient in every method of curing disease, Bian Que medicine advocated the four-step diagnosis of “looking (at their tongues and their outside appearances), listening (to their voice and breathing patterns), inquiring (about their symptoms), and taking (their pulse),” which were carried out by later generations. Bian Que often traveled far to treat people. A legend states that once, while visiting the state of Guo, he saw people mourning on the streets. Upon inquiring what their grievances were, he was told that the heir apparent of their lord had died, and the lord was mourning. Sensing something was amiss, he went to the palace to inquire about the circumstances of the death.After hearing Bian Que

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how the prince “died,” he concluded that the prince had not really died, but was in a coma-like state. Using acupuncture, he brought the prince back to consciousness and prescribed medicine for the prince, who recovered within days. Bian Que later went to the state of Qin to treat King Wu of Qin where he was murdered by an imperial physician who was jealous of Bian Que. Zhang Zhongjing (AD 150– AD 219), was also named Zhang Ji. He was born in Nanyang, Henan Province and was one of the most famous herbal docZhang Zhongjing tors in the Eastern Han Dynasty. He had taken the office of taishou of Changsha. His book, Shang Han Za Bing Lun (Treatise on Febrile and Miscellaneous Diseases), was the greatest achievement on medical theory since the Qin and Han Dynasties, and was applied broadly in medical practice.This medical classic, which contained over three hundred effective formulas, expounded the theories of traditional Chinese medicine and the principles of medical treatment. As he laid the foundation of Chinese medical science, Zhang Zhongjing was called the “Medical Sage” by his successors.

Hua Tuo and Mafeisan

Sculpture of Hua Tuo

Hua Tuo (AD 145– AD 208), with the courtesy name of Yuanhua, was also called Hua Fu. He came from Qiao in the state of Pei (present-day Bozhou, Anhui) during the Eastern Han Dynasty. As a folk doctor, he was proficient in internal medicine, surgery, pediatrics, gynecology, obstetrics, and acupuncture. Surgical operations that he pioneered were canonized by later generations. He successfully removed tumors in the abdominal cavity and connected the intestines and the stomach. According to The Later Chronicles of the Han Dynasty, if Hua Tuo diagnosed a tumor that could not be cured by acupuncture and medicine, he would perform surgery on the patient. Hua Tuo would administer a small packet of anesthetic called mafeisan that he had prepared, and would ask his patient to


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consume it with warm wine. In a little while, the patient would grow unconscious. Hua Tuo would then operate on the patient and remove the tumor. He would then stitch the wound and apply some ointments to it. A few minutes later, the patient would slowly regain consciousness, and within a week, the incision would be almost completely healed. Hua Tuo’s successful surgical operations showed that he was highly skilled in The Huangdi Neijing the techniques of diagnosis, anesthesia, operation, stanching, and healing the wound. It was of critical importance that he grasped the use of mafeisan during surgery. The achievements of Hua Tuo were a significant contribution to the science of surgery and anesthesia. In fact, he predated Western medical practice by more than 1,600 years in terms of the use of general anesthesia, which was not adopted by the latter until the early nineteenth century. He preferred a simple formula made up of a few herbs. He was skilled at making diagnoses by observing patients and listening to their voices. His achievements also include pulse manifestations and acupuncture, and pioneered medico-athletics in China. As he believed that physical exercises could toughen the body, cure diseases, and prolong life, he practiced qigong and taught the “frolics of the five animals,” imitating the movements of the tiger, bear, ape, deer, and bird. Huo Tuo left his imprint on many places in today’s Jiangsu, Shandong, Henan, and Anhui provinces. He has been praised as a “Divine Physician” by the Chinese. The Qin and Han periods were important times in the development of Chinese pharmacy. In this era, there were many famous doctors and masterpieces on pharmacy. The Huangdi Neijing, compiled in the Western Han era, is an important medical document. It was the first book to contain knowledge of the human anatomy and blood circulation, and it laid the theoretical foundations for Chinese medicine. The Shennong Bencao Jing, written during the Eastern Han Dynasty, was the first comprehensive work about pharmacy in China.

XXV. Filial Piety

Filial piety involves respect and love for one’s parents. It also means that one should care for and support their parents, and bury them when they pass away. In short, one should fulfill the duties of an offspring. Filial piety was an integral part of the ethical code in ancient China.The ruling class of the feudal dynasties also used filial piety to their advantage. They advocated filial piety, aiming to fortify their power

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by improving familial harmony and maintaining the system of feudal rituals. The advocacy of filial piety would no doubt lead to respect for the patriarchal system, as patriarchal power was central to feudal society. The doctrine of patriarchal power had been promoted by rulers since the Han Dynasty era. The posthumous titles of the emperors of both Western Han and Eastern Han dynasties were described by words glorifying obedience, thus making it an important psychological tool in maintaining a unified centralized authority. Thus, the concept of filial piety is closely connected with the concept of loyalty to one’s sovereign, in effect, ritualizing state politics. In the highly autocratic feudal society, sovereign power, supplemented with patriarchal power, would lead to extreme and absolute sovereign and patriarchal powers.

Main Measures Taken by the Han Dynasty for Filial Rule First, parents were the controllers of family assets, and offspring did not have private assets. Parents could dispose of the family asset at will without interference from their offspring. Second, separating family members was discouraged, and working and living together were advocated, as this was a major requirement in fulfilling filial piety. Filial piety required not only harmony between father and son but also intimacy between siblings. Therefore, during the Han Dynasty, families were large, with as many as five generations living in the same house. Third, filial piety was rewarded in order to promote filial piety among the ordinary people. Not only would the local officials reward filial sons, but even the emperor would award and confer titles on them when he made inspection tours. Fourth, filial piety was regarded as an essential requirement when selecting officials. During the Han Dynasty, there was a system of “recommending filial and honest people,” which set filial piety as the standard for selecting officials. This prompted some to pretend to be filial to their parents to acquire official posts. Fifth, Xiaojing (The Classic of Filial Piety) was promoted. The Classic of Filial Piety had a high status in the Han Dynasty. It was a compulsory subject for students and was promoted by the officials.To sum up, under the influence of the filial rule of the Han Dynasty, the rulers, by advocating filial deeds, linked filial piety and social order by extending the importance of family ties to the whole society, which was conducive to harmonizing the relations between different social classes, reconciling social conflicts, and thus making society harmonious and stable.

Three Cardinal Guides and Five Constant Virtues

San Gang Wu Chang (The Three Cardinal Guides and Five Constant Virtues) were often used to educate people and handle ethical situations in feudal society. The


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three cardinal guides are: ruler guides subject, father guides son, and husband guides wife. Here, “to guide” means “to control” or “to be in the dominant position.” The five constant virtues are benevolence, righteousness, propriety, wisdom, and fidelity, as specified in the feudal ethical code.

Twenty-Four Stories of Filial Piety

Ershisi Xiao (The Twenty-four Stories of Filial Piety) was compiled by Guo Jujing, who lived during the Yuan dynasty. The book contains stories about twenty-four filial people in Chinese history. They are Emperor Shun, Emperor Wen of the Han Dynasty, Zeng Shen, Min Sun, Zhong You, Dong Yong, Yan Zi, Jiang Hua, Lu Ji, Tang Furen, Wu Meng, Wang Xiang, Guo Ju, Yang Xiang, Zhu Shouchang, Yu Qianlou, Lao Laizi, Cai Shun, Huang Xiang, Jiang Shi, Wang Bao, Ding Lan, Meng Zhong, and Huang Shangu. The rulers of feudal dynasties used these figures as examples in order to realize their objective of advocating the rule of filial piety, thus strengthening social order in the feudal society.

Household Instructions to the Yan Clan

Yanshi Jiaxun (Household Instructions to the Yan Clan) was written by Yan Zhitui whose courtesy name was Jie. Yan was from Qi of the Southern and Northern Dynasties. He studied Rites of Zhou and Zuo Zhuan (Zuo’s Commentary) at an early age and served in the court of Southern Liang. Later, he came to Northern Qi and became zhongshu sheren. After Northern Qi was overthrown, he entered Northern Zhou and was appointed as Taizi Wenxue when the Sui Dynasty was established. In his twenty-six-chapter book Household Instructions to the Yan Clan,Yan Zhitui gave a written compendium of his own philosophy and life-advice to his sons, advising them on which paths to take and avoid in order to gain success in life. He wrote that he had formed many bad habits in life that took years to overcome because his elder brother had not been strict enough with him in the absence of their father.

Admonition for Women

Nüjie (Admonition for Women) is a book that Ban Zhao wrote containing instruction on the code of behavior for women. Ban Zhao, whose title name was Huiji, was the sister of Ban Gu of the Eastern Han Dynasty. Ban Zhao’s husband was named Cao Shou, so she was called “Cao Dajia” (great mistress of Cao). As Ban Zhao was talented and well-versed in history and literature, she was favored by Empress Dowager Deng. After her husband died, Ban Zhao was summoned to the palace by Emperor He to give lectures to the empress and other imperial concubines. When her elder brother, Ban Gu, passed away, leaving the History of the Former Han Dynasty unfinished, Ban Zhao, under Emperor He’s orders, resumed her

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brother’s work and completed it. The Admonition on Women, divided into seven chapters, stated that women should abide by the ethical code of “three types of obedience and four virtues” in the feudal society of China.

T H E W E I , J I N, A N D S O U T H E R N A N D N O R T H E R N D Y N A S T I E S

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CHAPTER 4

The Wei, Jin, and Southern and Northern Dynasties AFTER the Battle of Red Cliffs, Cao Cao was not able to conquer the south. In AD 216, Cao proclaimed himself King of Wei, and declared his second son, Cao Pi, the Crown Prince.When Cao Cao died, Cao Pi succeeded his father as the King of Wei. In AD 220, Cao Pi deposed Emperor Xian of the Eastern Han Dynasty. The Han Dynasty, including the Western and Eastern Han Dynasties, lasted for 426 years. The Western Han Dynasty was established by Liu Bang, the Emperor Gaozu. In fact, this dynasty was ousted by Wang Mang, a powerful minister, who established the rule of the Xin Dynasty for fifteen years. After Wang Mang died, he was succeeded by Liu Xuan, who declared himself as the Gengshi Emperor and remained on the throne for only two years. He was replaced by Liu Xiu, the descendant of Liu Bang. Liu Xiu resumed the reign of the Han Dynasty and established the Eastern Han Dynasty. In AD 220, the Han Dynasty came to an end. After Cao Pi proclaimed himself as Emperor, he changed the dynasty’s title toWei and designated Luoyang City as its capital. During his reign, Cao Pi made several attacks on Wu, but was compelled to withdraw each time. After Cao Pi’s death, the Cao family leaders were Sima Yi and his sons, Sima Shi and Sima Zhao. After gaining control over the government, Sima Zhao, sent Generals Deng Ai and Zhong Hui to attack Shu. Liu Chan, the sovereign of Shu, surrendered to Wei Deng Ai and the title “Duke of Jin” was bestowed upon

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Sima Zhao

Sima Yan

Sima Rui


Sima Zhao. Sima Yan succeeded Sima Zhao after his death. He deposed Cao Huan, the emperor of the Wei Dynasty, and proclaimed himself emperor of Jin, of the Western Jin Dynasty. In AD 280, the emperor of Jin conquered Wu and the country was united. Sima Yan believed in family connections, so he appointed his male relatives as kings, which laid the foundation for internal conflict within the royal family. In his old age, Sima Yan even declared Sima Zhong, his slow-witted second son, as the crown prince, which planted the seeds for the power monopoly of Empress Jia and war among eight princes. After his death, the country quickly divided and lapsed into a state of war. The eight princes enfeoffed by Sima Zhong attacked one another, resulting in the demise of the Western Jin Dynasty no more than forty years after it unified the country. At this time, northern minorities such as the Xiong-nu, Xianbei, Jie, Di, and Qiang migrated to the north of China, began to attack each other, and evolved into 16 minority kingdoms. During the wars between the eight princes and conflicts among the minorities, Wang Dao helped the Prince of Langye, Sima Rui to conquer the south and establish a local regime. When the Western Jin Dynasty met its end, Sima Rui proclaimed himself Emperor and made Jiankang City the capital of the Eastern Jin Dynasty. Established in AD 317, the Eastern Jin existed for 103 years and was overthrown in AD 420 by Liu Yu. The Eastern Jin lasted for four generations and had eleven emperors. After that, China was divided into the Southern and Northern Dynasties. The Southern Dynasties included Liu Yu’s Song Dynasty, Xiao Daocheng’s Qi Dynasty, Xiao Yan’s Liang Dynasty, and Chen Baxuan’s Chen Dynasty. In the north, the Tuoba clan of the Xianbei tribe unified north China, which was later divided into Eastern and Western Wei. The Eastern Wei Dynasty became the Northern Qi Dynasty, while the Western Wei Dynasty became


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the Northern Zhou Dynasty. In AD 589, Emperor Wen of the Sui Dynasty reunified China, ending the existence of Southern and Northern Dynasties, which had lasted for more than 160 years. The split between the Southern and Northern Dynasties was a result of influential land owners who had controlled the regime and The site of the capital of the Eastern Jin Dynasty established strong, powerful families. The royal family’s internal war and the large-scale immigration of ethnic minorities into China allowed for the formation of a group of strong warlords. The division of the country severely impeded social, economic, and agricultural development, and brought great misery to everyone. On the other hand, the ethnic minorities, through immigration, adapted to the process of feudalization rather quickly under the influence of the Han feudal economy. Various nationalities, by living and working together, facilitated national integration focused on a Han-centric nationality. In this era, the struggle between ideologies was also rather complicated. The Wei and Jin Dynasties saw contention between metaphysics and anti-metaphysics, while the Southern and Northern Dynasties saw the Buddhism and anti-Buddhism movements struggle for dominance. Chinese literature and arts flourished during this period, and outstanding achievements were also made in mathematics, medicine, and agriculture. All these facilitated the new growth phase of the Chinese feudal society after the Sui and Tang Dynasties.

I. Politics Shizu and Shuzu

In ancient times, shizu referred to officials of shi or dafu rank, while shuzu referred to commoners. During the Eastern Han Dynasty, powerful feudal bureaucrats and land owners enjoyed political and economic privileges and gradually developed into wealthy and noble families.They were called shizu or gaomen. Everyone else who was poor and humble was called shuzu or hanmen. Marriage between shizu and shuzu was forbidden, and shizu and shuzu were not even allowed to sit together. High-ranking shuzu officials still felt inferior to shizu.

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The Nine-Grade Official Selection System The nine-grade official selection system was a process used to select officials during the Wei, Jin, and Southern Dynasties. In AD 220, when Cao Cao’s son Cao Pi, the King of Wei, came into power, he accepted a proposal by Chen Qun, the Minister of Personnel, and appointed Zhongzheng officials in charge of examining the candidates in the provinces and classifying them into nine grades: superior-superior, intermediary-superior, inferior-superior, superior-intermediary, intermediary-intermediary, inferior-intermediary, superior-inferior, intermediary-inferior, and inferior-inferior. In appraising the grade of a candidate, the Zhongzheng official at first considered to a large extent what status the applicant’s ancestors had possessed and how many generations had taken office. This was called “family background” or “grade.” After this, the Zhongzheng officials proceeded to examine the merits (called Zhuang) of the applicants, Finally, the officials would record grades and merits, rank the The nine-grade official selection system applicants, and recommend them to the Ministry of Personnel, which then took charge of selecting the officials and appointing them to office. The level of the office was parallel to the grade of each applicant. Every three years, the Zhongzheng officials would also submit their recommendations to the Ministry of Personnel as to whether officials who had already been conferred offices should be promoted or not. The system guaranteed that families of power and influence manipulate the government in the long run. Zhongzheng officials were important, so they were usually from families with power and influence. In most cases, they selected officials according to their social status rather than their merits. Influential families and land owners, taking advantage of this, monopolized the right to become officials. Until the Jin Dynasty, official posts had become hereditary, and it was common that “no high-grade family was elevated from a commoner, and no low-grade family was the family of power and influence.” The descendants of many powerful families in the Wei Dynasty remained in high-ranking governmental posts up to the Jin, Southern and Northern Dynasties. The families of ministers of works, such as Cui Lin, Lu Min, and Wang Chuang, associated with nobles from the Xianbei tribe and became wealthy and powerful families that could influence politics. Wang Dao and Xie An, who were descendants of Grand Tutor Wang Xiang and the General of the Household Xie Zan, assumed important posts such as prime minister and grand tutor. The Wang and Xie families were the two most powerful families after the royal family


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themselves. They played an important role in the political arena and were often involved in political situations.The nine-grade official selection system came to an end when the imperial examination system was established.

Wang Dao Wang Dao (AD 276–AD 339), whose courtesy name was Maohong, was a statesman living during the Eastern Jin Dynasty. He was born into a noble bloodline at Linyi of Langye and befriended Sima Rui, the prince of Langye. Upon Wang’s suggestion, Sima Rui marched to the south of China and stayed in Jianye (present-day Nanjing) when the north was in chaos due to the war between the eight princes. As Sima Rui was not recognized by everyone, the influential nobility, such as He Xun and Gu Rong, and land owners did not support him after he arrived in Jianye. In order to resolve this situation,Wang procured grand insiginia for Sima Rui, at the Shangsi Festival and with his cousin Wang Dun, accompanied Sima Rui. The nobility were shocked and ran to the roadside to request for an audience with Sima Rui, who finally gained the support of the local nobles and land owners. At the end of the Western Jin Dynasty, many northerners escaped to the south to avoid the war. In AD 317, with the support of nobles, officials, and land owners from the north as well as influential families and land owners in the south, Sima Rui and proclaimed himself Emperor Yuan of the Eastern Jin Dynasty, and made Jiankang the capital. With the political support of Wang Dao and the military backing of Wang Dun, Sima Rui ruled south China, and all the members of the Wang family held high ranking offices. The popular saying “the domain was ruled equally by the Simas and the Wangs,” accurately reflected the political reality at the beginning of the Eastern Jin Dynasty. Wang Dao was later appointed as the prime minister, and served three emperors. By gaining control of the aristocracy from the north and uniting the nobility in the south, Wang helped to stabilize the rule of the Eastern Jin and saved the south from enslavement and destruction by northern chieftains.

Xie An Xie An (AD 320–AD 385), whose courtesy name was Anshi, was born into a noble family in Yang Xia, Chenjun (present-day Taiyuan City, Shanxi Province), and was a statesman from the Eastern Jin Dynasty. He did not hold any post until in he was in his forties. He assumed the office of prime minister during the reign of Emperor Xiaowu. At this time, the “Former Qin,” a Di state in the north, grew strong with the help of its competent Prime Minister, Wang Meng who devoted himself to developing agriculture and making the state prosperous.The Former Qin quickly unified north China and seized Liang, Yi, Fan, and Deng (present-day south Shaanxi, Sichuan, and Northwest Hubei). Xie An ordered his niece, Xie Xuan, to train the

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army and strengthen defenses. In AD 383, the eighth year of the Taiyuan reign of Eastern Jin Dynasty, Fu Jian, against Wang Meng’s dying request not to attack Eastern Jin, and regardless of opposition, recruited people of all nationalities into the army and personally led a force of eight hundred thousand men, claiming to a number of one million, to assault Eastern Jin. Xie An insisted on resisting the attack, and sent his brother Xie Shi and his niece Xie Xuan to command the elite Beifu Army numbering eighty thousand men to resist the Former Qin.They met the Former Qin army at Luojian and repelled the initial attack. Fu Jian’s army was frustrated at this setback, and crossed the Fei River to wage a decisive war with the “Former Qin” army. The commanding general of the “Former Qin,” Fu Rong, was killed, his army was defeated, and the soldiers fled. Fu Jian was severely hurt and rushed back to Luoyang. When news of the victory arrived at Xie An’s headquarters, he was playing “Go” with a guest. He did not display any emotion, but only stated, “The children won a battle.” However, his excitement became evident when, after the game, while retiring to his bedroom, he forgot about the threshold, breaking his wooden sandals. After the Battle of the Fei River, the Former Qin quickly collapsed and north China experienced division and war again. Xie An led his army northward and regained control of Luoyang, Qing,Yun, Xu,Yu, and so on. He also recovered the territory south of the Yellow River and the Ji River. Before long, Sima Daozi, the brother of Emperor Xiaowu, who disliked Xie An, gained power in the government. Xie An left for Guangling (present-day Yang Zhou) and devoted himself to carrying out a campaign to recover the north and unite China. However, he fell ill not long into the campaign, returned to the capital, and died soon after. The Battle of the Fei River

Emigrant Prefectures and Counties At the end of the Western Jin era, north China was involved in frequent wars. The military blocs of each ethnic group attacked each other, bringing the people great suffering. The northern people, including noble families, migrated southward. They lived together as they had done in their homeland. The governments of the Eastern Jin and the Southern Dynasty set up immigrant prefectures and counties to help


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the refugees from the north to settle down. The governments used the names of the prefectures and counties in the north to create many immigrant prefectures and counties south of the Yangtze River, maintaining feudal privileges and the names of their native areas, in an attempt to assuage the conflict between northern immigrants and southerners. At the beginning of the Eastern Jin, immigrant prefectures and counties used the names of places where they lived in previously in the north. For example, they set up the Xuzhou Prefecture in Jinkou (present-day Zhenjiang and Jiangsu), the Langye Prefecture, and Linyi County in Jiangcheng (present-day Jurong County, Jiangsu).When Liu Yu recovered the the Qingzhoum, Xuzhou, and other prefectures, he used the word “North” before the original prefectures, and “South” before the immigrant prefectures. The number of immigrant prefectures and counties diminished after the Eastern Jin government carried out the policy of tu duan, and was totally abolished by the time the Sui Dynasty was established.

The Reform of Northern Wei After the Eastern Han Dynasty, the nomadic people in the northern and northwestern frontier areas were encouraged or forced to migrate inland to meeting labor demand, as labor supply was scarce then. The migrant nomads included the Xiong-nu, Xianbei, Jie, Di, and Qiang, referred to as wu hu (the five major nomadic people). After moving inland, the nomadic people had to bear the heavy burdens of tax, military service, and corvée. They were even sold as manservants and maidservants. This oppression intensified the ethnic hatred for the ruling class and laid the foundation for consistent revolts from these nomadic peoples. After the end of the Western Jin, north China became a battlefield for nomadic warlords, resulting in the establishment of sixteen states: Former Zhao, Northern Liang, Xia, Former Yan, Later Yan, Southern Yan, Western Qin, Southern Liang, Later Zhao, Cheng Han, Former Qin, Later Liang, Later Qin, Former Liang, Western Liang, and Northern Yan. In AD 386, Tuoba Gui, the outstanding leader of the Xianbei tribe, established the state of Dai at Cheng Yue, and renamed Dai as Wei in the same year, which marked the beginning of the Northern Wei era. In AD 439, the Northern Wei unified the Yellow River territory and ended the period of sixteen states. Influenced by Chinese civilization, the Xianbei tribe learned how to farm and began to settle down. Tuoba Gui appointed Cui Hong, a Tuoba Gui

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Han figure, as the prime minister in charge of handling the civil service system and relevant laws. Tuoba Gui also emphasized the training of talents. He established an imperial college with over three thousand students. After the Yellow River Basin was unified, people from all ethnic groups lived together and learned from one other in a stable environment, creating the trend of ethnic assimilation. During the reign of Emperor Xiaowen (Tuoba Hong), drastic measures were adopted to speed up the assimilation. Emperor Xiaowen ascended the throne at the age of five under the regency of his grandmother, the Grand Empress Dowager. From a Han family, Grand Empress Dowager had sufficient political wisdom to rule. She acted as regent over Emperor Xiaowen for twenty-five years and had ordered some reforms during this time. In AD 490, the Grand Empress Dowager died, and Emperor Xiaowen became the new ruler. He accepted the proposals of Han officials and implemented a policy of drastic Sinicization. 1. Introducing the salary system. Before the reign of Emperor Xiaowen, officials were not paid by the court, and they indulged in embezzlement and plundered the properties of local people that they administered to. In AD 483, Emperor Xiaowen implemented the salary system, which stipulated that each household must provide an extra three pi (bolts) of silk, as well as two dan (hectoliters), and nine dou (decalitres) of millet to the government, to be used as salaries for officials. Meanwhile, rigid laws were drawn up to discourage corruption: officials who embezzled up to one bolt of silk would be executed. After the system came into effect, the state began to distribute salaries to its officials according to their rank. Over forty officials were accused of committing embezzlement, and were sentenced to death. 2. Introducing the equal-field system and three chiefs system. In the Western Wei Period, aristocratic and powerful families were so powerful that many peasants sought shelter from them and farmed the land for them. These peasants were completely affiliated to the aristocratic and powerful families, with the result that many families had only one household, while many men had only one household registry. As a result, the population under government control became increasingly smaller. Emperor Xiaowen, aiming to increase the population and halt revolts among the peasants, promulgated the equal-field system and three chiefs system in AD 485 and AD 486, respectively. In the equal field system, every able-bodied man received forty mu of government-owned land, while women received twenty mu. Manservants and maidservants were entitled to a certain amount of land. Thirty mu of land was granted for each ox owned, capped at four oxen per family. Forty more mu would be granted in compensation for land that needed to be fallowed for


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one year, and eighty mu more in compensation for land that needed to be fallowed for two years. This land could be sold. If the owner was dead or too old to farm, the land would revert to the state for reassignment. Every man was granted an additional twenty mu of mulberry land to plant fifty mulberry trees, five date trees, and three elm trees.The mulberry land was granted as private property, so the owner could keep it. In areas without enough land, peasants were allowed to migrate to the other places to obtain land.The three-chief system required five families to form a neighborhood (lin), with five lin forming a village (li), and five li forming a commune (tang).The responsibilities of the three chiefs were to examine the household registry, collect taxes, and call up corvée labor. This was root-level administrative organization during the Northern Wei Period. 3. Moving the capital and Sinicization. As a northern frontier city, Pingcheng (present-day Datong, Shanxi), the capital of the Northern Wei Dynasty, was the bulwark of conservative Xianbei aristocrats. Emperor Xiao, eager to implement his reforms, decided to move the capital to Luoyang. In AD 494, Emperor Xiaowen set out with two hundred thousand troops, including high-ranking officials and Xianbei aristocrats, leaving the capital of Pingcheng to go on a southern expedition. After a month of marching in the relentless autumn rain, some members of the expedition were beginning to lose their initial resolve. The men finally arrived in Luoyang, where they had expected a period of rest, but instead, they received orders to keep marching. Officials and nobles that had harbored reservations about the wisdom of the expedition from the start gathered before the emperor, advising him in no uncertain terms to call it off. The young emperor gravely responded: “We have invested too much in this southern expedition to retreat now. Either we continue south, or make Luoyang Model of Luoyang of the Northern Wei Dynasty the new capital.” The officers and officials had no other choice but reluctantly agreed to designate Luoyang as the new capital.Thus, the young emperor successfully moved his capital, which gave this wise and benign ruler the free rein he needed to achieve his political ambitions. The first decree ordered that disyllabic Xianbei surnames be contracted to the monosyllabic Han style, and hierarchically translated. For example, Tuoba, the surname of the imperial family, became Yuan, meaning first or primary; Hemu became

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He, and Helou was changed to Lou.The second decree required all Xianbei officials to be proficient in Chinese. Those who were over the age of thirty and had difficulty with the language were allowed a period of leniency, but officials under the age of thirty were required to adopt Chinese as the official language. Any official falling short of the standards was demoted or dismissed. The third decree ruled that officials and civilians alike should wear Han clothes. The emperor also sent for and obtained Confucian classics from the Qi Dynasty in the south for the children of Xianbei aristocrats to study. Another reform was Emperor Xiaowen’s encouragement of intermarriage between Xianbei and Han aristocrats in order to strengthen ethnic unity.The emperor selected his concubines himself from large Han clans, and on his orders, his brothers married into noble Han families. Loyalist Xianbei aristocrats were hostile to the reforms. They instigated the Crown Prince to revolt against the emperor, but Emperor Xiaowen deposed the Crown Prince, stripped him of his royal title, and poisoned him. Conservatives back in Pingcheng launched an armed rebellion but were put down as well, and the reforms were eventually implemented. The nomads were Sinicized by adopting the Han’s language, clothes, customs, and practicing intermarriage. At the same time, the reforms also enriched and developed the civilization of the Central Plain area. Ethnic food, clothes, bedding, music, songs, dance, and so on enriched the lives of the Han people.

II. Military Affairs The War of the Eight Princes This was a civil war for power among the imperial family of the Western Jin Dynasty. At the beginning of the Jin Dynasty, Sima Yan, known as Emperor Wu, made many of his uncles, cousins, brothers, and sons princes, each with independent military forces and full authority within their principalities. He made his developmentally disabled son Sima Zhong the Crown Prince. After the death of Emperor Wu in AD 290, Sima Zhong ascended the throne and became known as Emperor Hui. As he was developmentally disabled and unable to learn the skills needed to govern a country, various factions fought for control of the imperial court. Initially, the emperor’s stepmother, Empress Dowager Yang, exerted the most power at the courts, and gained power for her family, the Yang consort clan, allocating the bulk of the power to her father,Yang Jun.The emperor’s wife, Empress Jia Nanfeng, enlisted the help of Sima Wei and Sima Yun, whose troops killed Yang Jun and his allies in the palace in AD 291.The Dowager Empress was removed from her position and died in prison. Power then went to Sima Liang, the emperor’s granduncle. However, Empress Jia plotted with Sima Wei and convinced the prince to kill Sima Liang. She then announced that Sima Wei was


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acting independent of imperial orders and executed him. The empress and the rest of the Jia clan remained in power until AD 300, when she deposed and assassinated the heir to the throne, Sima Yu, her husband’s son with the concubine Consort Xie Jiu. Sima Lun, who commanded the imperial guards, took this opportunity to kill Empress Jia and her faction. Sima Lun then placed himself in a position of power and tried to gain control over the powerful princes.This resulted in the rebellion of Sima Yun, who marched his troops to the capital against Sima Lun. He was killed by Sima Lun’s troops in the ensuing battle in Luoyang. Sima Lun then imprisoned Emperor Hui and declared himself the new emperor. In response, Sima Jiong led a coalition of forces, including Sima Ying and Sima Yong, against Sima Lun.They defeated Sima Lun’s troops, killed him, and then reinstated Emperor Hui as the emperor, while Sima Jiong exerted the greatest influence in the imperial court.When Sima Jiong tried to consolidate power, the princes turned against him, and he was defeated and killed by Sima Ai, the Prince of Changsha. Likewise, Sima Ai held power briefly, but was later defeated and killed by Sima Yue. By this time, Sima Yue’s troops had incorporated Wuhuan and Xianbei troops as cavalry units. Power now passed to Sima Ying, who was defeated and fled from Luoyang along with the emperor. He was finally captured by Sima Yong, who was in turn defeated by Sima Yue’s troops. Emperor Hui was poisoned in AD 306, and his brother, Emperor Huai, ascended the throne. Sima Ying and Sima Yong were eventually captured and killed; Sima Yong died on February 7, AD 307, which marked the official end of the struggle. The winner of this conflict was the last surviving major prince, Sima Yue. The war of the Eight Princes lasted for sixteen years. It destroyed production and brought severe hardships to the people, inciting the rebellion of everyone in the country. The nobles of ethnic minorities also rebelled against the government and tried to gain power by taking advantage of this war.There were five ethnic minorities who entered north China: Xiong Nu, Xianbei, Jie, Di, and Qiang. They established states and fought against each other, throwing north China into great chaos. In this way, the Western Jin Dynasty declined.

Yongjia Disturbance As Sima Zhong was developmentally disabled, during his reign, his wife, the Empress Jia Nanfeng behaved as if she was the emperor, resulting in political corruption, causing the war of the eight princes, and damaging the national economy.This weakened the Jin Dynasty. In the first year of theYongxing Period (AD 304), Liu Yuan, the leader of the Xiongnu, amid the rebellions of the ethnic minorities, rebelled at Lishi (presentday Shanxi) and attacked the Western Jin. He established the

The cavalry of Xiongnu in the “Yongjia Disturbance”

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state of Han and declared himself Emperor. After the death of Liu Yuan, his son, Liu Chong, ascended the throne. The next year, Liu Chong sent his general, Shi Le to defeat the Jin army and killed over a hundred thousand men. Shi Le also captured and killed the Grand Commandant,Wang Yan. In the same year, Liu Chong ordered Liu Zhuo to command the troops, conquered Luoyang, and captured Emperor Huai. Liu Zhuo also allowed his soldiers to plunder, killing over thirty thousand nobles, officials, and commoners. This period of time was called the “Yongjia Disturbance.” After Emperor Huai was captured, the Jin declared Sima Ye, known as Emperor Wei, as the new Emperor, and the capital was moved to Chang’an. In AD 316, Xiongnu soldiers seized Chang’an and killed Emperor Wei, ending the Western Jin Dynasty. Around the time of the Yongjia Disturbance, many northerners, including noble families, migrated to the south to escape the war, causing an unprecedented tide of immigration with a population of over ninety thousand. They emigrated to the nearby areas such as Sichuan and the middle and lower reaches of the Yangtze River, and faraway areas, such as Fujian, Guangdong, and Guangxi.

Zu Ti’s Northern Expedition Zu Ti (AD 266–AD 321), born in Qiu County, Fanyang (present-day Laishui, Hebei), was an ambitious and farsighted man. He and Liu Kun, his close friend since early childhood, were appointed chief clerks, responsible for document administration in the Sizhou Prefecture. He and Liu Kun held a deep affection for each other.They not only often shared the same bed when sleeping, but also shared the same lofty ideals: to render meritorious service by rejuvenating the Jin Dynasty and become pillars of the state. Once, Zu Ti heard the rooster crow in a wasteland area. Zu Ti jumped up and woke Liu Kun up: “Listen. How inspiring the rooster’s crow is! Let’s get up and practice on a slope.” From then onward, they practiced swordsmanship every morning at the first crow of the rooster. In the last years of the Western Jin Dynasty, north China was under the rule of nomadic nobles. Zu Ti led his clan from Luoyang to the South and settled down in Jingkou (present-day Zhenjiang). The Western Jin Dynasty ended in the fourth century. Sima Rui established the Eastern Jin in Jiankang, and was content with this. Zu Ti requested the permission of the court to recruit soldiers and launch a northern expedition. Moved by Zu’s patriotic enthusiasm, Sima Rui gave him the title of Fenwei General and cishi of the Yu Prefecture, but supplied him with necessities for only a thousand soldiers. However, Zu was not frustrated. In August AD 313, Zu Ti led more than a hundred families from the North over the Yangtze River on a north-bound expedition. When the ship was midstream, Zu Ti tapped the ship’s side with his oar, swearing to his followers: “If I cannot crush the enemies who occupy the Central Plains, I will never cross the Yangtze River again.” Deeply


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moved by Zu’s passion, his followers were raring to fight. When Zu Ti reached Huaiyin, he settled down, making weapons and recruiting soldiers. Soon, he had recruited over two thousand men. After training for some time, the troops headed for the Central Plains. With the support of the northerners, Zu Ti’s troops quickly recovered the lost territory of northern Anhui and southern Henan. At the time, there were many powerful land owners who occupied the areas north of the Yangtze River. They did as they pleased and were involved in internal conflicts. Zu Ti persuaded them to put an end to their internal strife and participate in his northern expedition. In AD 319, a powerful land owner in the Chen area, Chen Chuan, surrendered to King Shi Le of the Later Zhao State. Upon hearing this, Zu Ti decided to launch an attack on Chen Chuan. Shi Le sent Shi Hu and fifty thousand troops to attack Chen Chuan. However, Shi Hu was defeated by Zu Ti. After several years’ expedition, Zu Ti had recovered all the territory south of the Yellow River. Shi Le dared not infringe on this territory. When Zu Ti got ready to advance to the north of the Yellow River to unify the country, Sima Rui feared that it would be difficult for him to control if Zu Ti’s forces were too strong. Sima Rui appointed Dai Yong as the dudu (governor), who would command the military affairs of the six northern prefectures and govern the civil affairs of the recovered prefectures and counties. At the same time, Zu Ti was informed that Sima Rui had become suspicious of the Wang family. The conflicts between Wang Dun and Sima Rui would probably result in internal unrest. Growing extremely anxious, Zu Ti fell ill and died in AD 321 at the age of fifty-six.

Founding of the Eastern Jin Dynasty The Eastern Jin was founded with the support of noble families from the North and the South. Sima Rui, the first Emperor of Eastern Jin, was the great grandson of Sima Yi. At the age of fifteen, he inherited his father’s title—Prince of Langye. When he was young, he made close friends with Wang Dao, whose family was also very influential in Langye.Wang was so talented that he became a court official at his early age. Seeing that the Jin Dynasty was in chaos and could not last long, he decided to throw his lot in with Sima Rui. With the help of Wang Dao’s powerful cousin, Wang Dun, who was the Emperor’s son-in-law, as well as clan members such as Wang Rong and Wang Yan who were high ranking officials in the court, Sima Rui was commissioned in AD 307 as the military commander of parts of the Yang Prefecture (present-day Zhejiang, southern Jiangsu, and Anhui) south of the Yangtze River, with a post at Jianye. Wang Dao became his chief advisor. When Sima Rui arrived in the south, few of the powerful nobles supported him. To change this situation, he arranged for Sima Rui to attend the Shangsi Festi-

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val celebrations held by the local officials and commoners. To emphasize Sima Rui’s nobility,Wang Dao arranged for a majestic royal procession. He and his cousin,Wang Dun, also led a crowd of noble families who had migrated from the north to escort Sima Rui. Powerful local figures such as Gu Rong were shocked at this, and they all rushed to request an audience with Sima Rui. After this,Wang Dao personally visited Gu Rong and He Xun, who were well-regarded by the local population. He invited them to serve in his administration. Gu Rong and He Xun successfully persuaded other noble families to support Sima Rui, who eventually won the support of the noble families in the south. At that time, the north, however, was in a state of great turbulence. Six or seven noble families in the central area had escaped to the south. Wang Dao advised Sima Rui to accept the capable individuals among them and seek the support of the northern nobles. Sima Rui commissioned over a hundred people as his subordinate officials, known as “one hundred and six pillars.” Sima Rui, accepted by the southern nobles and immigrant nobles from the north, had strengthened his rule in the south. In early AD 318, Han Zhao’s emperor, Liu Cong, executed Emperor Min of the Jin Dynasty. Sima Rui then declared himself emperor in Jianye (present-day Nanjing), and was thereafter known as Emperor Yuan of Eastern Jin Dynasty. Sima Rui was aware of Wang Dao’s importance, knowing that Wang not only played the most important role in his rise to the throne but was also the crucial figure in reuniting the northern and southern noble families. At his ascension ceremony, Sima Rui even took Wang Dao by hand and invited him to take the imperial seat. Wang declined boldly. This clearly showed that Wang Dao and his brother, Wang Dun, had special positions in the Eastern Jin’s government. At the time, Wang Dao controlled the government, while Wang Dun commanded the army and was commissioned in Jinzhou. Other members of the Wang family also held important posts in the government. This led to Sima Rui’s suspicion of the Wang family and the revolt of Wang Dun in later years.

III. Scientific Achievements Liu Hui Liu Hui was a Chinese mathematician who lived in the time of the Wei Kingdom. Liu Hui was well known for two books that he had written. One was an extremely important commentary, published in AD 26, titled Jiuzhang Suanshu, or as it is more commonly termed, Nine Chapters on the Mathematical Art. The other was a much shorter work, called Haidao Suanjing or the Sea Island Mathematical Manual. In his commentary on the Nine Chapters on the Mathematical Art, he raised many original


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ideas. He was praised for his rigorous circle-cutting method that could calculate to any degree of accuracy. He executed the calculation to a 3072-gon stage and obtained an approximate value for , which was 3.1416. He was the first mathematician to create an accurate method of calculating the circumference ratio, and he laid the foundation for ancient Chinese mathematics.

Zu Chongzhi Zu Chongzhi (AD 429–AD 500), was born in Qiux- Liu Hui ian of Fanyang (present Laishui of Hebei Province) and called himself Wenyuan. He was a great mathematician and astronomer living during the period between the Song and the Qi in the Southern Dynasty. At the end of Western Jin Dynasty, Zhu Chongzhi’s family moved to the south. Zhu received a thorough education and his talent earned him a good reputation. Zu created the advanced Daming Calendar, correcting the existing errors in the popular Yuanjia Calendar. He also invented a water-powered ricepolishing device and a thousand-mile ship, and also recreated the south-pointing chariot, among other inventions. Zu’s greatest contribution was his calculation of Zu Chongzhi the ratio of the circumference of a circle to its diameter, or . Zu, following the principle of the circle-cutting method created by Liu Hui, calculated the value of pi between 3.1415926 and 3.1415927. It was the most advanced mathematical achievement in the world at the time. It was not until a thousand years later that this accuracy was surpassed by a European mathematician. Zu Chongzhi compiled his major mathematical achievements in a book Zhui Shu which documented the highest achievements in mathematics in the era. It also became the main mathematical textbook in China and was later used as a textbook in Japan and Korea. To commemorate his contributions to astronomy and mathematics, foreign scientists have named a lunar crater on the moon after Zu Chongzhi.

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Jia Sixie and Qimin Yaoshu

Statue of Jia Sixie

Jia Sixie lived during the Northern and Eastern Wei Dynasties. He was one of the most renowned agronomists in Chinese history, and was the author of China’s first agricultural encyclopedia. In the late years of the Northern Wei Dynasty (AD 386–AD 534), he wrote Qimin Yaoshu (Essential Skills for the Common People). It was the earliest and most comprehensive agricultural encyclopedia in China. The book is also an outstanding work in the history of world agriculture. It covers a wide range of topics and records production experiences and methods, offering advice on farming, forestry, animal husbandry, fishery, and sideline occupations. Qimin Yaoshu was first distributed primarily among the commoners. In the Northern Song Dynasty (AD 960–AD 1127), it became an official guiding book on agriculture.

Pei Xiu and Yugong Diyutu Pei Xiu (AD 224–AD 271), who styled himself Jixiu, born in Wenxi, Hedong (present-day Shanxi Province), was a cartographer living during the Jin Dynasty. Pei Xiu proposed six map-making principles in the prelude to the Yugong Diyutu, China’s first atlas collection, after summing up the experience of his predecessors. The six principles boil down to three factors: scale, direction, and distance. These principles represented the most brilliant exposition on cartography in ancient China, laid a theoretical foundation for the creation of traditional Chinese maps before the end of the Ming Dynasty (AD 1368–AD 1644), and played an important role in the cartographic history of China and the rest of the world.

Li Daoyuan and Commentary on the River Classic

Li Daoyuan, whose courtesy name was Shanchang, was born in Zhuo County, Fanyang, Hebei Province (present-day Zhuozhou city, Hebei Province). He was a Chinese geographer who lived during the Northern Wei Dynasty, and was the author of the The Commentary to the River Classic (Shui Jing Zhu). Li Daoyuan used his position as an official with business in many places to carry out field investigations. He is known to have visited the present-day Henan, Shandong, Shanxi, and Jiangsu Provinces. Using results from his own field work, Li Daoyuan was

The Commentary on the River Classic


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able to compile his work on the basis of the The River Classic, which was a book documenting China’s waterways believed to have been compiled during the Three Kingdoms Period. While The River Classic covers only 137 waterways with a total of about ten thousand characters, Li Daoyuan’s The Commentary to the River Classic contains information on 1,252 waterways written in forty volumes, using about three hundred thousand characters in total. Besides the waterways, the book also illustrates many aspects of various areas by describing their geographic conditions, history, and folklore. The book is praised as the most systematic and comprehensive geographic work existing in China at the beginning of the sixth century.

IV. Brilliant Cultural Achievements

Culture was greatly enriched during the Wei, Jin, Southern, and Northern Dynasties. Deeply influenced by music-bureau folk songs of the Han Dynasty, many poems portraying the chaotic society and the suffering of the common people in the late Eastern Han Dynasty were written. Most of the poems had a simple and natural style in a solemn yet evocative tone.The poetry of this period changed from the four-character line to the seven-character line.There were many talented poCai Wenji ets. Most of their works were realistic, substantial, and dynamic, and known as Jian’an Literature. Among this era’s most important writers were the Three Caos, the Seven Writers of Jian’an, and the poetess Cai Wenji.

The Three Caos Cao Cao defeated other powerful men of in the chaotic years at the end of the Eastern Han Dynasty (AD 25–AD 220) and unified northern China. His poems, written in a forlorn yet enterprising tone, reflected the reality of the times and his ambition. For example, he rued the miseries of the common people in Song of the Burial: The people suffer worthless sacrifice. Dead bodies scatter in the open air; Not even cockcrow is heard anywhere. The high death rate is beyond belief; At thought of this, I’m benumbed with grief.

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Cao Zhi, the third son of Cao Cao, is widely acknowledged as the most accomplished writer and poet of the Jian’an era. His surviving works outnumber those of his father and brothers. He wrote more than eighty poems and over forty essays. Like his father, Cao was full of aspirations, bursting with heroic optimism and romantic emotions, such as in the White Horse. In this poem, he wrote: “Giving up his life for the sake of his country, He looks toward death as a journey home...” He made remarkable achievements in descriptive prose, with Luoshen Fu (Ode to the Goddess on the Luo River) regarded as one of his signature works.

Dianlun

Cao Pi, the second son of Cao Cao, was the founder of the Wei state in the Three Kingdoms Period. He wrote many realistic poems. In addition, he received critical acclaim for Dianlun (Rules for Literature). Most of his works have been lost except for two articles: Monologue and On Literature. On Literature was the earliest existing work on literary criticism, and played an important role in the history of Chinese literary criticism. The article aims to criticize the mutual disdain of literati. He explored the advantages and shortcomings of the literati of Jian’an, and made pertinent comments about them. He also outlined the characteristics of each form of literature. He argued that the personality of any literati differed; thus, their style of work varied accordingly. Therefore, any literati could not look down on other literatis’ style.

Seven Literati of Jian’an The term “Seven Literati of Jian’an” was taken from Cao Pi’s On Literature. This group includes Kong Rong, Chen Lin, Wang Can, Xu Gan, Ruan Yu,Ying Chang, and Liu Zhen. Apart from Kong Rong, who was killed by Cao Cao, all the others were members of political Seven Literati of Jian’an cliques controlled by the Cao family. Wang Can was entrusted with establishing a new system of laws and standards for Cao Wei, and was also the most accomplished literati among the seven literati of Jian’an. His representative work was The Poem of Seven Sorrows, a five-character poem lamenting the people’s suffering during the war.


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Seven Sages of the Bamboo Grove During Cao Wei’s final years, the Sima family gradually gained full control of the state’s power. Sima Zhao’s intention to usurp the throne was so obvious that Emperor Cao Mao of the Wei Dynasty complained, “Everyone on the street knows what’s on Sima Zhao’s mind.” Cao Mao initiated a coup against Sima Zhao, but it failed and he was killed. Sima Zhao then selected Cao Huan to be a puppet Emperor. At that time, many officials were repulsed by Sima Zhao’s political ambition. Afraid of becoming scapegoats for the dynasty’s subrogation, they took a cynical attitude toward life in order to escape their political reality. The Seven Sages of the Bamboo Grove, i.e., Xi Kang, Ruan Ji, Shan Tao, Ruan Xian, Xiang Xiu, Wang Rong, and Liu Ling, were their representatives. Some of them pursued superficiality and despised Confucian rites; others defied conventions, indulging in alcohol and sleep. Sima Zhao, knowing the importance of these officials to his governance, Seven Sages of the Bamboo Grove separated them and forced them to publicly declare their support for the Sima family. Shan Tao, Ruan Ji, and Xiang Xiu had succumbed to the machinations of the Sima family. Shao Tao, who chose to live in seclusion after Cao Shuang was killed, agreed to hold office under the pressure from the Sima family. Ruan Ji, at the Sima family’s insistence, wrote a persuasive letter praising Sima Zhao. Xi Kang was killed by Sima Zhao, as he would not defer to him. After Xi Kang was killed, Xiang Xiu came to Luoyang and accepted the post offered by the Ruan Ji Sima family. Tao Yuanming (AD 365–AD 427), also called Tao Qian, was a famous recluse and outstanding poet who lived during the Eastern Jin Period, and was commonly known as the “pastoral poet.” His poetic talent and lofty sentiments influenced many scholars in the later times, and he is stilled praised in modern times.

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Tao had served an official several times, but always in low-ranking positions. At the age of forty, Tao Yuanming was appointed the magistrate of Pengze County. However, he held office for only about eighty days. His superior officer sent an assistant to his County. Tao was asked to put on a ceremonial dress to welcome the man. “I cannot bow like a servant in return for five bushels of grain,” Tao said. On the same day, he resigned from office and returned to the countryside. He ended his career as an official and led a life of seclusion. During the twenty-two years after his retirement, Tao Tao Yuanming Yuanming practiced subsistence farming in the countryside. Five Poems of Returning to the Life of Farmers are some of his most outstanding works, which fully reflect the poet’s enthusiasm for rustic farm life. While young, I was not used to worldly cares, And hills became my natural compeers, But by mistakes I fell in mundane snares And thus entangled was for thirteen years. A caged bird would long for wonted wood, And fish in tanks for native pools would yearn. Go back to till my southern fields I would. To live a rustic life why not return? My plot of ground is but ten acres square; My thatched cottage has eight or nine rooms. In front I have peach trees here and plums there; O’er back eaves willow trees and elms cast glooms. A village can be seen in distant dark, Where plumes of smoke rise and waft in the breeze. In alley deep a dog is heard to bark, And cocks crow as if o’er mulberry trees. Into my courtyard no one should intrude, Nor rob my private rooms of peace and leisure. After long years of abject servitude, Again in nature I find homely pleasure.


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Apart from his poems, Tao is perhaps best known today for his short but intriguing depiction (in prose) of a land hidden from the outside world called “Peach Blossom Spring.” It reveals the poet’s feelings, glorifying nature and pursuing freedom. It is also the poet’s criticism and ironic observations of reality. In the Wei, Jin, and Southern and Northern Dynasties, poetry describing nature also flourished. Xie Lingyun (AD 385–AD 433), a poet living during the Eastern Jin and the Southern Dynasties, was considered a nature poet who focused on the “mountains and streams.” In his poems, Xie faithfully described the beauty of the mountains and streams. The most popular verses in his poems portrayed the beautiful landscape in a refreshingly lucid style. In contrast, another contemporary poet, Bao Zhao, expressed his emotions in a forceful and vigorous tone. His representative work Ni Xing Lu Nan (Farewell) influenced later generations. Xie Tiao and Shen Yue, who lived during the Southern Dynasty, created the Yong Ming style of poetry, an important step for styles that were evolving from the free classic style to the modern rhyme style.These poems tended to be short in length and sought the rhythm and antithesis of the poem. Folk songs prevailed in the Wei, Jin, Southern and Northern Period. During the Southern Dynasty, most of the folk songs had elegant lyrics. The folk songs in the north, while illustrating their living situation with bold and unrestrained spirit, were vigorous, unsophisticated, and intense, as shown in The Song of Cile (a folk song of the Xianbei group): A Shepherd’s Song By the side of the rill, At the foot of the hill, The grassland stretches ‘neath the firmament tranquil. The boundless grassland lies Beneath the boundless skies. When the winds blow And grass bends low, My sheep and cattle will emerge before your eyes. Besides this, The Song of Mulan is the most accomplished folk song in the North, and is still popular among the people in modern times.

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Liu Xie and the Literary Mind and Carving of Dragons

Liu Xie, whose courtesy name was Yanhe, was a literary theorist and the author of The Literary Mind and Carving of Dragons. The book was composed of fifty chapters, totaling over thirty-seven thousand words. Liu Xie wrote this book for two reasons: First, Liu wanted to highlight the role of literature, as he believed that literary works could promote Confucianism and were therefore beneficial to political stability. Second, he saw that many literati paid more attention to form than to content. As a critic, he was concerned about this, and wanted to correct this trend. He summed up the prevailing wisdom of literary creation and criticism in the past. Against the trend of formalism at that time, he maintained that literature should have social and political significance. He argued that content was more important than form. He believed that the evolution and development of literature was connected with the politics of the time. He suggested that writers look to Confucian classics, such as The Classic of Poetry and Book of History, as their paragon, and learn from The Song of Chu, represented by the great poet Qu Yuan’s works. Wenxin Diaolong (The Literary Mind and the Carving of Dragons) is China’s first work of aesthetics and the first book of systematic literary criticism.

Zhong Rong and Critique of Poetry

Zhong Rong was also called Zhongkai. He was born in Changshe, Yingchuan (present-day Changge, Henan Province). He was a literary critic who lived during the Southern Dynasty. He wrote Critique of Poetry, criticizing the trend of stressing form and contemporary writing techniques in an attempt to change writing style. Critique of Poetry is the first and the most systematic monograph in China. The book provides comprehensive reviews of poetic creations from the Han,Wei, Qi, and Liang of the Southern Dynasties. He contended that poetry emerged from reality touching and compelling the soul, and stressed the social role of poetic works. He also argued that poem creation should highlight poetic creation, and opposed stringing together literary quotations and vainly pursuing rhythm.

Xiao Tong and The Literary Collections

Xiao Tong

Xiao Tong (AD 501–AD 531) was the crown prince of the Emperor of Wu of the Liang, the Southern Dynasties. An erudite scholar, Xiao Tong was generally in favor of Confucian thought. He ordered many of the literati and


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intelligentsia to compile The Literary Collections.The work, containing thirty volumes, is the oldest surviving anthology of Chinese literature arranged by genre.

Wang Xizhi, Saint of Calligraphy At the end of the Eastern Han Dynasty, calligraphy gradually became an art. In the Wei and Jin Periods, many calligraphers created different styles of calligraphy. Zhong Yao, from the Cao and Wei Periods, began to develop the clerical script into the regular script. Wang Xizhi (AD 303–AD 361), from the Eastern Jin Dynasty, incorporated the essence and merits of previous and contemporary calligraphers, and became one of the renowned calligraphers in China. He broke away from the styles of the Han and Wei Dynasties and established a style of his own. He was good at regular, clerical, running, and cursive scripts. His calligraphy featured fine brush strokes and aesthetically pleasing handwriting, bringing to mind the image of “floating clouds in the sky, or a flying dragon on a rampage through space.” He left behind calligraphic works, such as Preface to the Orchid Pavilion, in running style was well as Le Yi Dissertation and Huangting Classics in regular script. He was traditionally referred to as the “Saint of Calligraphy.” Wang Xizhi, whose courtesy name was Yishao, was the nephew of Wang Dao, the Prime Minister who helped to establish the Eastern Jin Dynasty. The highest official office he ever held was General of the Right, and he was titled General Wang. The calligraphy of Wang Xizhi His most representative work, Preface to the Orchid Pavilion was written in AD 353. On the third day of the third lunar month of that year,Wang Xizhi invited famous personalities such as Xie An to a party with than forty guests in total, located at the Orchid Pavilion beneath the Kuaiji Hill, where they drank and improvised poems.With a slight boost from liquor,Wang Xizhi flourished his brush and at one go, completed a preface to their poems. Viewed from the perspective of calligraphy, the characters resemble flying dragons and dancing phoenixes, emitting a vigorous and unrestrained spirit. The work, totaling 324 characters, was the epitome of calligraphic art in his time. Preface to the Orchid Pavilion has been revered by generations of calligraphers as the “No. 1 Running Script.” Another story tells of a Taoist priest who had long wished to have a copy of Huangting Jing in the calligraphy of Wang Xizhi. It is told that Wang was very fond of white geese, and he began to raise a flock of white geese. One day, when Wang

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happened to pass by the home of the Taoist priest, he saw this flock of white geese. Wang was fascinated by the geese and pleaded with the Taoist to sell the whole flock to him. The priest said in reply, “I will not sell my geese. I’ll give them all to you on the condition that you write me a copy of Huangting Jing.” Without hesitation, Wang set about writing a copy of the book for the priest and brought the whole flock of geese home. Wang Xizhi was fond of rearing geese, because he learnt the secret of how to hold and wield the brush by observing the gestures of the geese. As he held the brush, his forefinger looked like the head of a Wang Xianzhi goose while the shaft of the brush was upright. When wielding his brush, he moved the brush smoothly, in the same way that the goose dispelled water with its feet. Under his influence, his wife Xi and their seven sons all developed a great liking for calligraphy, especially his youngest son Wang Xianzhi, who later became a famous calligrapher as well. The term “the two Wangs” in the history of Chinese calligraphy refers to none other than this father and son pair. It is said that, Wang Xizhi began to learn calligraphy at the age of seven. He often pondered the structure of a word and the best way of manipulating the brush. Each time he finished writing, Wang would wash his writing brush in the pond in front of his home, causing the once clear water to grow blacker and blacker until it literally became, as people called it, the “ink pond.”

Gu Kaizhi

Nymph of the Luo River

Gu Kaizhi (AD 346–AD 407) was born in Wuxi, Jiangsu Province and styled himself Changkang. He was once the military advisor to Grand Commandant Heng Wen and the Governor of Jingzhou Yin Zhongkan of the Eastern Jin Period.An accomplished painter, he was well known for his portraits and paintings of human figures. In his figure paintings, the composition was well organized, the lines fluid and graceful, and the figures lifelike. Gu Kaizhi was a prolific painter, but only two copies of his hand-scrolls are extant: Admonitions of the Instructress to the Palace Ladies and Nymph of the Luo River.


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In the Admonitions of the Instructress to the Palace Ladies, Gu Kaizhi successfully portrayed the beautiful and graceful image of court women.The lines in his painting are like endless silk threads: numerous, detailed, and lifelike. Nymph of the Luo River is a figure and landscape painting, illustrating a poem written by the well-known literati Cao Zhi of Cao Wei. In this painting, he painted many figures with beautiful scenes in graceful lines. This painting is a realistic masterpiece, compared with the prevailing Buddhist paintings of its time. A copy of the painting is now owned by the Palace Museum of Beijing. Gu Kaizhi was learned and erudite. Besides painting, he was also a talented poet and calligraphic critic and theorist. He wrote three books about painting theory: On Painting, Introduction of Famous Paintings of Wei and Jin Dynasties, and Painting Yuntai Mountain. They were the first books about painting criticism and theory, and greatly influenced painting and its criticism of the later generations.

The School of Mystery The School of Mystery was a school of philosophy prevailing during the Wei Period. The transitional period between the Wei and the Jin was a time of political, social, and economic instability. The intelligentsia, subdued by the power and pressure of their rulers, were confused and desperate. Disappointed with classical Confucianism, they looked for something more simple, relaxing, and apolitical. Thus appeared a very strange phenomenon: classic Confucian writings were interpreted through the perspective of Daoist classics such as Laozi and Zhuangzi. The combination of Confucianism and Taoism formed a very unique ideology— the school of mysteries. It then became a fashionable trend to have essentialist discussions. The development of the School of Mystery occurred in three phases. In the first phase, scholars interpreted The Book of Changes and The Analects of Confucius based on the philosophy of Laozi and Zhuangzi. He Yan’s Collected Annotations on The Analects, Rectification of Notes to the Analects of Confucius, and Wang Bi’s The Interpretation of Analects, Annotations of The Book of Changes were writings representative of this period. These scholars adored Laozi and Zhuangzi and their independent style of thinking. In the second phase, scholars such as Ruan Ji and Xi Kang looked on Lao and Zhuang as their mentors.They adored nature and opposed Confucianism, looking down on the hypocritical scholars who restrained themselves by Confucian rites, claiming they were “the louse inside one’s trousers.” Xi Kang overtly declared: “Laozi and Zhuangzi are my mentors.” He advocated pursuing nature rather than Confucianism. In the third phase, Xiang Xiu and Guo Xiang integrated Confucianism and Taoism. They held that Confucianism was nature itself. Xiang Xiu wrote Notes on Zhuangzi, which is considered to be the best collection of notes ever written about Zhuangzi. Guo Xiang furthered the study

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of Xiang Xiu and wrote his own Notes on Zhuangzi, promoting the theory that a “being spontaneous produces itself.” Obviously, the School of Mystery was more radical at this stage. After the Eastern Jin Dynasty, the School of Mystery began to converge with Buddhism. The Notes on Liezi, written by A stone carving reflecting the thought of Zhang Zhan, is an excellent example of this the School of Mystery trend. Buddhist Schools tended to interpret Buddhist Classics using the language of Mystery, and Buddhism became popular while the School of Mystery declined. He Yan (?–249), whose courtesy name was Pingshu, was born in Wan County in Nanyang (present-day Nanyang, Henan Province). He was a Mystery scholar from the Wei State during the Period of the Three Kingdoms. He Yan was the grandson of General He Jin, and Cao Cao was his stepfather. He was very intelligent and became keen on Taoism when he was young. He Yan married Princess Jinxiang of the Wei state and served as libu shangshu (Minister of Personnel). Along with Xiahou Xuan and Wang Bi, He Yan advocated the Learning of Mystery. Although claiming to care little about fame and wealth, He Yan continuously pursued fame. He was eventually killed when he threw his lot in with Cao Shuang. In a time when the Confucian Classics could not contribute to good governance, he argued that sovereigns should rule without interference. His writings, such as Collected Annotations on the Analects and Discourse of Non-action, expounded this belief. Wang Bi (AD 226– AD 249), whose courtesy name was Fusi, was born in Shanyang (present-day Jiaozuo city, Henan Province). A Mystery scholar from the Wei State during the period of the Three Kingdoms, he held the office of minister, and shared the same reputation as He Yan and Xiahou Xuan. They believed that “Nameless” was the origin of everything that had ever existed. “The named was derived from the nameless.” Wang Bi defended feudal ethics and rites by incorporating the Lao philosophy into Confucianism. He annotated the Book of Changes with a philosophical approach, departing from previous tedious interpretations of Confucian Classics used during the Han Dynasty. He wrote The Interpretation of Analects, Annotations of The Book of Changes, and other similar works. The new schools of thought introduced during the Wei and Jin Periods were burgeoning during the Zhengshi reign of Wei. Although they could think


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independently, the scholars suffered by losing their beliefs. Wang Bi was among the first who pioneered the learning of Mystery during the Wei and Jin Periods. He died at the age of twenty-four.

Art of Grottoes During the Southern and Northern Dynasties, the ruling class had built many grottoes sculpted and chiseled on cliffs with an aim to promulgate Buddhism. There are three grottoes in China noted for their fabulous frescos and statues. The Dunhuang Mogao Grottoes are located in Dunhuang County, Gansu Province, twenty-five kilometers southeast of the city. The common name for these grottoes is the Thousand Buddha Caves. They are located on the precipitous face of the east ridge of Rattling Sand Mountain (Mingsha Mountain). There are five levels in the Mogao Grottoes, which span about 1,600 meters from north to south. Their construction began in the year AD 366. Those that have been preserved to this day include rooms dating from the Northern Wei, Western Wei, Northern Zhou, Sui, Tang, Song, Western Xia, Yuan, and Five Dynasties. There are 492 grottoes in total, with wall paintings covering forty-five thousand square meters and containing 2,415 painted stone carvings. There are also five surviving timber structures, which date back to the Tang and Song Dynasties, as well as a large number of stone columns with carved designs of lotus flowers and coloured paving tiles. Hence, the Mogao Grottoes constitutes a treasure trove of many different art forms, including architecture, painting, and sculpture. The discovery of the hidden “sutra cave” in AD 1899 was a tremendous and startling event for both Chinese and foreign scholars. It attracted much attention and as a result was soon visited by foreigners such as Aurel Stein, Paul Pelliot, Langdon Warner, and Albert von Le Coq. In AD 1943, the Research Institute of Dunhuang Art was established. It launched efforts to restore the cave as well as protect and research its remaining contents. In AD 1950, it was renamed the Research Institute of the Cultural Relics in Dunhuang, responsible for the complete repair and thorough research of the grottoes. The Mogao Grottoes

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Yungang Grottoes These grottoes are located west of Datong City in Shanxi Province, on the southern ridge of the Wu Zhou Mountain.They are carved into the mountain and extend for a kilometer in length.The carving began in the early phase of the Northern Wei Dynasty. More than fifty grottoes remain at Yungang today, and contain fifty thousand statues, flying “apsaras” and their supporters, and also inscribed patterns of a number of rare birds and animals, towers, pagodas, plants, and flowers. The grottoes’ inscriptions vary in their characteristics: Some are tall and strong, some magnificent, while others are quiet and peaceful. The No. 20 Grotto is a large statue of Buddha. Towering at 13.7 meters, the sculpture has thick, broad shoulders, and a chubby face. This grotto represents the height of artistic skill and craftsmanship seen in the Yungang Grottoes. The Yungang Grottoes

The Longmen Grottoes

Longmen Grottoes The Longmen Grottoes are located on the cliffs along the banks of the Yi River, twelve kilometers south of downtown Luoyang in the Henan Province. They were first chiseled during the Northern Wei Dynasty (AD 386–AD 534), after the Northern Wei Emperor, Xiao Wen, moved the capital to Luoyang. Currently, there are thousands of caves and grottoes, one third of which were carved during the Northern Wei Dynasty.The Buddha sculptures in these grottoes have thick, broad shoulders, chubby faces, thick


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lips, and steep nose bridges, displaying a dignified appearance. The Middle Bingyang Cave and Guyang Cave are representative of stone carving art in the Northern Wei Period. The Buddha figures here have an air of grace, divinity, and magnificence. Their clothes are loose and the folds are fine, while the grain of the clothes is fluid. There are also many inscriptions in the Longmen Grottoes. The twenty Longmen Statue Epigraphs, a prominent hallmark in the history of Chinese calligraphy, are found here. Representing the calligraphy of the Weibei (Steles of the Wei Dynasty) Style, these graceful Chinese characters with a vigorous style hold the essence of the inscription calligraphy of the Longmen Grottoes.

Dance and Music In the time of the Wei, Jin, Southern and Northern Dynasties, nomadic and foreign music was introduced to China along with the migration of the nomadic people into the hinterland. Kangguo, Shule, and Quici music from the Western Regions as well as Tianzhu, Funan, and Gaoli music from foreign countries became popular in China. Dance, which was closely linked with this music, also displayed the trend of ethnic incorporation in this era. Famous dances included King Lanling Going to Battle. They depict King Lanling of the Kingdom of Northern Qi commanding his troops to launch an attack on the enemy. The stage actors would all wear masks in this performance. King Lanling Going to Battle was influential in the development of the Chinese theater performance.

Calligraphy Chinese characters are semantic and phonetic symbols that form the unique art of calligraphy. The art of Chinese calligraphy has a long history. In ancient times, people kept records using pictography. Some graphical figures, such as animals or objects, slowly evolved into pictography, containing a certain abstract element. These were the initial hieroglyphs, and led to the art of calligraphy. Calligraphy and drawing are therefore considered to share the same origin. Wang Yirong In the autumn of AD 1899, the Qing Dynasty scholar Wang Yirong discovered jiaguwen, or oracle-bone inscriptions. Since then, many oracle bone inscriptions and bronze inscriptions from the Shang and Zhou Dynasties such as the sanshipan and maogongding bronze inscriptions as well as oracle bone inscriptions were unearthed at the Yin Relic Site in Anyang, Henan Province. They have received attention and been identified. The thinly scattered, regular, and beautiful characters are the original work of calligraphers.

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However, it was probably not until the late Spring and Autumn Period that people began to see the characters as artistic work.The inscriptions on the bronze utensils and musical instruments excavated from the Tomb of Zenghouyi dating back to the early Warring States Period, showing that people at the time were aware that characters were developing into a form of art. The shiguwen inscriptions discovered during the Tang Dynasty were stone carvings from the Qin state in the Warring States era. It is a calligraphic masterpiece of a work of great significance.The calligraphic critic Zhang Huaijin extolled the stone inscriptions in his Shuduan. After unifying the whole country, Emperor Qin Shi Huang ordered the Prime Minister, Li Si, to promote the seal script used in the Qin State during the Warring States era as the standard national script. Li Si later invented a new type of script: xiao zhuan (small seal script). It is said that Li Si had written Taishan Keshi (Stone Inscriptions at Mt.Tai) and Langya Keshi (Stone Inscriptions at Langya). Li Si’s calligraphy using the small seal was praised by the critics of the Tang Dynasty: “the pictures are like iron stones while the characters have a streaming effect.” The Western Han and Eastern Han Dynasties are the peak periods of China’s calligraphy. The clerical script, or modern script, was widely used during the Han Dynasties. The clerical script followed some rules of the seal script, and it set the style of calligraphy for the later Wei, Jin, Southern, Northern, Sui, and Tan Dynasties, and developed other types of scripts. From the era of the Sui and Tang Dynasties until modern times, the official script has not been abolished although the regular script and cursive script have prevailed, justifying the strength of the official script as art. The most important calligraphers of the Han Dynasties were Cai Yong and Zhang Zhi.


Zhang Huaijin

The Shiguwen inscription

The calligraphy of Li Si


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Cai Yong (AD 132–AD 192), whose courtesy name was Bozui, was a literati and calligrapher from the Eastern Han Dynasty. He was from Chenliu (now south of Qi County of Henan Province). He served as Yilang (advisor). He was killed by Wang Yun because he allied himself with Dong Zhuo. Cai Yong was good at Confucian classics, music, and astronomy. He was skilled in the seal script and excelled in the clerical script. In AD 175, Emperor Ling of Han allowed Cai Yong Cai Yong and Tang Xidian to engrave the Six Classics. Some parts of the classics were inscribed on stone tablets and were kept in front of the gates of the tai xue (imperial university), and were known as “Xiping Stone Classics.” Zhang Zhi (?–AD 192), whose courtesy name was Boying, was born in Jiuquan, Gansu, and was a Chinese calligrapher from the Eastern Han Dynasty. Zhang Zhi excelled in the old cursive script. Later, by simplifying the strokes of the old cursive script, he developed a new form of the cursive script called the modern cursive. For this reason, he was regarded as the “Sage of The Xiping Stone Classics Cursive Script” by Wei Dan, who was a calligrapher from the Wei State in the Three Kingdoms era.When the great calligrapher, Wang Xizhi, commented on calligraphy in the Wei and Jin Periods, he held the greatest esteem for works by Zhang Zhi and Zhong Yao. The works in the cursive script of Wang Xizhi and his son, Wang Xianzhi, were greatly influenced by Zhang Zhi’s modern cursive work. The period of the Wei, Jin, Southern and Northern Dynasties is a transitional The calligraphy of Zhang Zhi stage in the development of Chinese calligraphy. In this era, calligraphy, in the form of regular script, clerical script, cursive, and semi-cursive script were all flourishing. In the era of the Three Kingdoms, there were great calligraphers in the Wei State. Even in the Han Shu and Wu state, there were famous calligraphers. For example, Huang Xiang was a well-known calligrapher from the Wu state. His courtesy name was Xiuming, and he was born in

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Jiangdu, Guangling (present-day Jiangsu). He had served as a senior official in the Wu State. He learned calligraphy from Du Cao, and excelled in the old cursive script. The strokes in his ba fen calligraphy were especially forceful. His cursive script calligraphy, together with Yan Wu’s chess art and Cao Buxing’s painting, were praised as the “Eight Unique Skills” in the Wu State. In this period, two other prominent calligraphers rose to recognition: Zhao Yao and Wang Xizhi. Their calligraphic arts were highly valued by later generations. Zhong Yao (AD 151–AD 230), whose courtesy name was Yuanchang, was a Chinese calligrapher and politician of Cao Wei. Born in present-day Xuchang, Henan, Zhong Yao served in the government as Grand Tutor. He was excellent in clerical, regular, running, and cursive scripts, and was particularly skilled in kaishu (the regular script). The style of his calligraphy was simple but well organized and natural. His masterpiece was xuanshi biao. His calligraphic works were given great importance in the dynasties to follow, but his original works no longer exist, leaving only duplicates made during the Song Dynasty. Wang Xizhi from the Eastern Jin Dynasty created his style of calligraphy by absorbing the best from various calligraphers and inheriting the traditions of the Han and Wei Dynasties, which featured grand and forceful styles. A versatile calligrapher, Wang was skilled at writing in seal, clerical, running, cursive, and regular scripts, and was superb at the cursive script. Since the era of the Six Dynasties, his style of calligraphy has been imitated by other calligraphers. He was recognized as the sage of calligraphy in calligraphic circles. His masterpieces written

Xuanshi Biao

The calligraphy of Wang Xianzhi


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in the regular script were the Huangting Classics and LeYi Dissertation. Shiqi Tie is known as his best work displaying the cursive style. Preface to the Orchid Pavilion, Sanglun Tie, and Kuaixue Shiting Tie are the most famous works of Wang Xizhi incorporating the running style. The calligraphic style of Lanting Ji Xu is dignified, lucid, and vigorous, and this work is recognized as the best masterpiece displaying the running style. Wang Xianzhi, the younger son of the famous Wang Xizhi, made significant innovations in the field of Bo Yuan Tie by Wang Xun calligraphy. He learned calligraphy from his father in his childhood. In order to improve the art,Wang Xianzhi incorporated the best elements of Zhang Zhi’s work (a calligrapher in the Han Dynasty). Wang Xianzhi excelled in regular, running, clerical, and cursive scripts and had his own distinctive style for cursive and running script. His use of the brush pen was innovative and turned the previously unsophisticated, old style into a new style known for its boldness. His masterpiece in running hand script is Ya Tou Wan Tie, while Nymph of the Luo River is his best-known work in regular script. In addition, Zhongqiu Tie is also well known. The members of Wang family were all fond of calligraphy. The work of Bo Yuan Tie by Wang Xun, the descendant of the Eastern Jin’s Prime Minister Wang Dao, have been handed down and highly valued. After the Wei and Jin eras, tablet inscription in the Northern Dynasties began to grow. In the A tablet of the Wei Dynasty history of calligraphy, tablet inscriptions of the Northern Dynasties were termed as Tablet of the Wei Dynasty. Tablet inscriptions from the north are as famous as the handwritten books from the south. The tablet inscriptions of the Wei Dynasty, which incorporated the official script of the Han Dynasty, were unique in style, firm in composition, flowing, powerful, and graceful. Large numbers of memorial texts and inscribed stone tablets at the Longmen Grottoes, such as the Twenty Gems of Longmen Calligraphy, feature vigorous strokes,

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latent energy, and immense possibilities for change. All these achievements enabled the growth of calligraphy during the Tang Dynasty.

V. Religion Taoism

Many people may find it difficult to tell the differences between daojia (taojia) and daojiao (taojiao). They are two different concepts. Daojia is a school of thought that centers around the “tao” doctrine of pre-Qin Laozi and Zhuangzi. The appellation daojia first appeared in Liujia Zhi Yaozhi (The Substance of the Six Schools), written by Sima Tan during the Western Han Dynasty. He called it daode jia. It is called dao jia in the Book of Former Han and is listed as one of the nine major schools of thought. Traditionally, Laozi was viewed as the founder of daojia, while Zhuangzi was Laozi’s follower who further developed the ideology. Daojia is primarily based on the Natural Way (tao) of Heaven, urging people to learn from the Way in order to control their thoughts and behavior: “Rear them, but do not lay claim to them; control them, but never lean upon them; be chief among them, but do not manage them.” In political terms, daojia advocates “governance by noninterference” and states that “if we stop looking for people of superior morality to put in power, there will be no more jealousy among the people.” In moral terms, daojia proposes “banishing human kindness and discarding morals,” and claims that “Ritual is the mere husk of loyalty and promise-keeping, and is indeed the first step towards brawling.” Later, the Taoist school developed into the Huang-Lao Study as it integrated with the Names school and the Legal school. As a result, the Huang-Lao Study and the Legal School were two of the most influential ideologies in the early Western Han Dynasty. During the reign of Emperor Wu of Han, the emperor adopted the policy of “paying supreme tribute to Confucianism while neglecting all other schools of thought.” The Huang-Lao ideology rejected this, and the Taoist school of thought survived among the commoners. Laozi was venerated as the ancestor of Taoism when the religion burgeoned. In fact, the Taoist school was not a religion, nor did it advocate worship of any gods. During the Wei and Jin Dynasties, the study of Mystery was popular. Scholar Wang Bi and He Yan tried to interpret the Confucian classics using LaoZhuang philosophy, helping to merge Confucianism and Taoism. After Buddhism was introduced to China, scholars tried to interpret Buddhist classics using the Lao-Zhuang philosophy, facilitating the combination of Buddhism and Taoism. However, during the Song and Ming Dynasties, neo-Confucian scholars advocated Confucianism, stifling Buddhism and Taoism.


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The origin of Taoism can be traced back to witchcraft in ancient times. Taoism is an innate religion of the Chinese. It was founded by Zhang Daoling at Heming Mountain (present-day Chongqing, Sichuan) in AD 142, in the first year of the reign of Emperor Shun of the Eastern Han Dynasty. Because each follower was supposed to offer him five pecks of rice, the religion was also named the “Five Pecks of Rice Tradition.” The followers of the “Five Pecks of Rice Tradition” respectfully called Zhang Daoling “the Celestial Master,” so the religion was consequently called “the Celestial Master Tradition.” Taoism venerates Laozi as its ancestor, respectfully naming him Taishang Laojun (Senior Lord Taishang). Laozi’s Dao de jing, Zhang Daoling’s Orthodox Oneness Tradition, and Daiping dong ji jing are the most important canons of Taoism. In the late Eastern Han Dynasty, Zhang Jiao and Zhang Lu founded the Supreme Peace Tradition and the Five Pecks of Rice Tradition, respectively. They became the rallying points of the peasant uprising in the final years of the Eastern Han. In AD Dao De Jing 317, in the first year of the Jianwu Reign of Emperor Yuan of the Eastern Jin Dynasty, Ge Hong wrote the Inner Book of the Master Who Embraces the Simplicity in which he compiles and elaborates on Taoist doctrines and theory. During the era of the Southern and Northern Dynasties, Kou Qianzhi, a Taoist priest in Songshan Mountain in the Northern Wei Dynasty, reformed the Old Celestial Master Tradition by stipulating yuezhang songjie xinfa (New Precept Scripture of Music). This reformed Taoism in north China was called New Celestial Master Tradition. In the south, the Taoist priest Lu Xiujing, who lived on Lushan Mountain, compiled sandong jingshu (Scriptures and Writings of the Three Caverns), and compiled regulations on fasting. During the Tang and Song Dynasties, the South- Ge Hong

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ern and Northern Celestial Master Traditions as well as the Shangqing, Lingbao, and Jingming sects started to emerge. By the era of the Yuan Dynasty, they were all incorporated into the Orthodox Oneness Tradition. In AD 1167, the seventh year of the Dading reign of Emperor Shizong of the Jin State, Wang Chongyang founded the Quanzhen (Complete Perfection) sect in Ninghai, Shandong (present-day Mouping) in the north. His disciple, Qiu Chuji, was favored by Genghis Khan (AD 1162–AD 1227), Emperor Taizu of the Yuan Dynasty and the Quanzhen sect prevailed for some time. Later,Taoism was divided into two sects: the Zhengyi sect and the Quanzhen sect.The Taoist priests who believed in the Quanzhen doctrine would renounce their families, while believers in Zhengyi doctrine (popularly called vulgar Taoist priests) would not. All the Taoist sects venerated deities. Wang Chongyang Sanqing tianzun (Celestial Worthy of Three Purities) are the highest-level deities in Taoism. Sanqing deities include yuanshi tianzun (Celestial Worthy of Original Beginning), lingbao tianzun (Celestial Worthy of Numinous Treasure), and Daode tianzun (Celestial Worthy of the Dao and Inner Power, also known as Laozi). Apart from these three deities, Taoist priests also believed in the Yuhuang Dadi (Great Thearch Jade Emperor), Wangmu niangniang (Queen Mother), Sanyuan dadi (Three Emperor Lords of the Three Realms), and Baxian (Eight Immortals). These deities had their own temples (termed guan in Taoism). For example, people can find Temples of the Three Officials (the heaven official, earth official, and water official) all over the country. Taoism holds different views on the question of life and death. Buddhism pursues “no life” through nirvana, a state that is extremely quiet and beyond samsara.Taoism pursues the attainment of immortality mentally and physically. Besides pursuing personal perfection,Taoist priests also made pills that supposedly granted immortality and took these pills. The practice of making immortality pills was conducive to the development of science, especially chemistry. For example, the medical books writ-


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ten by the Taoist priest, Ge Hong, made outstanding contributions to pharmacy and chemistry. In his work Baopuzi (Inner and Outer Books of the Master Who Embraces the Simplicity), some chapters such as “Jindan Gold” and “Cinnabar” (The Pill of Immortality), and “Huangdan” (Lead Monoxide) mostly describe the methods of making pills granting immortality as well as gold and silver by using minerals, which marked the beginning of the Chinese chemical industry. In Xianyao (Medicine of Immortality) Ge Hong elaborated on how to use herbs to cure various diseases. It was viewed as the first pharmaceutical reference in China.

Taiping Jing and Taoism

Taiping Jing (Classic of Great Peace) was the earliest canon of Taoism. There were three versions of Taiping Jing in the Han Dynasty: Tianlì Baoyuan Taipíng Jing (in twelve volumes), written by Gan Zhongke who was from Qi during the reign of Emperor Cheng of Western Han, Taiping Qingling Shu (Black Scarf Book of Great Peace) in 170 volumes, whose author was Yu Ji from the Eastern Han Dynasty, and Zhang Daoling’s Taiping Dong Ji Jing, in 144 volumes. All these books have since been lost. The Zhengtong Daocang of the Ming Dynasty contained the remaining fifty-seven volumes of Taiping Jing. The contents of Taiping Jing are numerous and jumbled, discussing heaven and earth, yin and yang, the five elements, Heavenly Stems, Earthly Branches, calamities, spirits, deities, and the social atmosphere at the time. The Taiping Jing advocates religious and feudal moral concepts. It contains some chapters revealing the working people’s opposition against exploitation by the ruling class. It favored the ideas of living by one’s own labor and helping the poor or needy. It had some influence on religious folk activities such as Zhang Jiao’s Taiping Dao and Zhang Daoling’s wudoumi Taoism. Taiping Jing played an important role in the research of social situations in the late period of the Eastern Han Dynasty and the history of Taoism. Zhang Daoling

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Zhengyi and Quanzhen

Zhengyi (Orthodox Oneness) Tradition and Quanzhen (Complete Perfection) Tradition are two sects of Taoism. It is said that during the reign of Emperor Shun of the Eastern Han Dynasty, Zhang Daoling, who was practicing personal cultivation on the Heming Mountain in Sichuan, was taught Zhengyi Mengwei Milu and Zhengyi Fawen by Taishang Laojun (Senior Lord Taishang). After that, Zhang Daoling established the Zhengyi Tradition of Taoism, which was called the “Five Pecks of Rice Tradition” of Taoism at the time. During the Yongjia reign of Western Jin Dynasty (AD 307–AD 312), Zhang Daoling’s descendants in the fourth generation moved to Longhu Shan (Dragon and Tiger Mountain in present-day Guixi County, Jiangxi). He venerated Zhang Daoling as the founder and Celestial Master of the Zhengyi Tradition, which became popularly known as the Celestial Master Tradition.The northern and southern Celestial Master Traditions, together with other Taoist sects such as Shangqing, Jingming, and Lingbao co-existed and converged. By the Yuan Dynasty era, all Taoist sects were incorporated into the Zhengyi Tradition. In the eighth year of the Dade Reign of Emperor Cheng of the Yuan Dynasty (AD 1304), the emperor conferred the title “Leader of Zhengyi Tradition” on Zhang Yucai, the thirty-eighth generation descendant of Zhao Daoling, and took charge of the incantations of Longhu Shan, Gezao Shan, and Mao Shan. Taoist priests who believed in the Zhengyi Tradition would not renounce their families (few of them would) and were called Huoju Taoist priests, or secular Taoist priests. In AD 1167, the seventh year of the Dading reign of Emperor Shizong of the Jin state, Wang Chongyang founded the Quanzhen tradition and taught the tenets of Taoism at the Quanzhen Monastery in Ninghai, Shandong (present-day Mouping). Over fifty years later, Wang’s disciple, Qiu Chuji, whose courtesy name was Changchun Zhenren, was named “State Master” by Emperor Taizu of the Yuan Dynasty and took charge of Taoism. Qiu Chuji had monasteries built everywhere. The White Cloud Monastery in Beijing, where he lived, was one of the well known “Ten Directions Monasteries.” There were seven branches of Quanzhen Taoism: the Yuxian sect, Nanwu sect, Suishan sect, Longmen sect,Yushan sect, Huashan sect, and Qingjing sect. Later,Taoism converged into two sects: Quanzhen Taoism and Zhengyi Taoism.

Tao Hongjing Tao Hongjing

Tao Hongjing (AD 456–AD 536), the Taoist master and pharmacologist during the Qi and Liang Periods of the Southern Dynasties, named himself


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“Tongming,” and called himself the “Huayang Hermit.” He was born in Moling, Danyang (near present-day Nanjing, Jiangsu). He was a general at the Qi Dynasty’s court. By the Liang Dynasty era, Tao Hongjing had resigned from his official post and led a secluded life at the Gouqu Mountain in Gourong (Mt. Mao). After Emperor Wu ascended the throne in the first year of Tianjian during the Liang regime (AD 502), he sent for Tao Hongjing many times, but was refused. However, he kept up regular correspondence with Tao Hongjing, who came to be known as “The Prime Minister in the Mountains.” Tao was even given the posthumous title, “Pure and Faithful Gentleman.” Tao Hongjing developed his thinking from the Lao-Zhuang philosophy and Ge Hong’s immortal Taoism, and incorporated concepts from Confucianism and Buddhism. He excelled in cursive, clerical scripts, and was exceptionally skilled in the running hand script. He had carried out research on calendars, calculation, geography, and medicine. Tao Hongjing had also worked on the Chinese pharmacopoeia, Shennong bencao, adding new drugs used by prominent physicians during the Wei and Jin Dynasties, and compiled the Bencao Jing Jizhu.The book is in seventeen volumes, discussing 730 drugs. With the exception of a manuscript of the preface found at Dunhuang, the Bencao Jing Jizhu is lost as an independent text, but has been reconstructed, based on quotations found in later sources Tao also wrote other books, including Zhengao (Declarations of the Perfected), Zhenling Weiye Tu (Illustrated Ranking of the Immortals), and Yao Zongjue (The General Medicinal Formulae).

Ge Hong and Baopuzi

Ge Hong (AD 284–AD 364) was a famous Taoist theorist, physician, and alchemist from the Eastern Jin Dynasty. His courtesy name was Zhichuan (The Young River) and he was nicknamed Baopuzi (The Master Who Embraces Simplicity). He was a native of Jurong, Dangyang, and was the grandson of Ge Xuan’s brother. Since his youth, Ge Hong had loved gymnastics and exploring cultivation techniques to attain immortality. Later in life, he learned the secrets of alchemy from Zheng Yin and earned his respect. During the reign of Emperor Yuan of the Eastern Jin Dynasty, he served as ziyi and canjun (military counselor). He was titled Marquis Guannei because of his success in putting down the peasant uprising led by Shi Bing. When he was old, he heard that Jiaozhi had produced cinnabar, which was an important raw material used in alchemy. He then lodged a request with the court to go to Goulou County (the present-day Guangxi Zhuang Autonomous Region) neighboring Jiaozhi, in order to be a county magistrate there. However, as he passed

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the Luofu Mountain located east of the Guangzhou Province, Ge Hong decided to settle down with his family. He practiced alchemy and medicine, and wrote books there until he died. His works included Baopuzi (Master Who Embraces Simplicity). Ge Hong advocated that one should practise “Nourishing Life” and the arts of immortality for one’s inner life, and practise the Confucian way for the outer, social life. He also stated that one’s writings should attach importance to both morality and behavior. Ge Hong also wrote Jinkui Yaofang (Golden Rare Prescriptions) in a hundred volumes. As it was too thick and heavy to carry, he selected important sections from it and compiled these in a three-volume book: Zhouhou Beiji Fang (Prescriptions for Emergent Reference). The book discusses various medicines. Among his records is possibly the earliest prescription for the treatment of smallpox and tsutsugamushi disease in medical history. The Baopuzi is divided into the Neipian (Inner Chapters) and Waipian (Outer Chapters). The Inner Chapters (in twenty volumes) contain accounts of Ge Hong’s own research into the art of immortality, dealing with topics such as alchemy, preserving health, and talismanic charms.The Inner Chapters are the most comprehensive among the extant works of shenxian jia (or alchemist). The Outer Chapters (in fifty volumes) comment on the gains and losses of life, and pass judgment on humans, demonstrating the author’s tendency towards Inner Immortality and Outer Confucianism. In the Inner Chapters, chapters such as Jindan Gold and Cinnabar (The Pill of Immortality) and Huangbai Gold and Silver (Medicine for Immortality) demonstrate how to manufacture pills of immortality or create gold and silver. In the chapter Xianyao Medicine of Immortality and others, there are records of treating diseases with medical herbs.The book was conducive to the development of chemical science and pharmacy.

Daozang

Daozang is a corpus of Taoist classics.This collection of Taoist classics was started during the Six Dynasties. The widely circulated catalogue, which listed the entire corpus of Taoist writings was Sandong Qionggang (Exquisite Compendium of the Three Grottoes), compiled during the Kaiyuan reign of Emperor Tang Xuanzong. During the early Song Dynasty, Da Song Tiangong Baozang (Precious Canon of the Heavenly Palace of the Great Song Dynasty) was compiled, and it was further supplemented and named Chongning Chongjiao Daozang. The first printed text from the canonical corpus was Wanshou Daozang, printed during the Zhenghe reign of Emperor Hui of the Song Dynasty. It was selected as the blueprint of Taoist canon by the Jin State and the Yuan Dynasty.The current Taoist canon is based on a Ming era edition, compiled under the command of the Zhengtong Emperor, and thus called Zhengtong Daozang.


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The Wanli Emperor sponsored a supplement to this book. It includes 1,476 books, and is numerous and jumbled in terms of content: it contains the works of hundreds of schools of thought besides the Taoist canon.

The Dragon and Tiger Mountain

Dragon and Tiger Mountain

The Dragon and Tiger Mountain, is located southwest of Guixi County in the Jiangxi Province. During the Eastern Han Dynasty (AD 25–AD 220), the Taoist priest, Zhang Daoling, went there for personal growth. It is the birthplace of Zhengyi Dao (Orthodox Oneness Taoism) and is near the historical site of Shangqing Palace in Shangqing Old Town, which is about four kilometers southeast of the mountain.

Mazu Culture Many countries adjacent to the sea include sea gods in their pantheon of deities. In China, Tianhou (Heavenly Queen), also known as Mazu, is the most widely worshipped sea deity. Mazu temples can be found everywhere in the coastal areas of China and Southeast Asia as well. It is said that in Taiwan alone, there are eight hundred Mazu temples. There are over a hundred million Mazu devotees across the world. According to legend, Mazu, originally named Lin Mo, was born into a fishing family on Meizhou Island in Putian, Fujian, during the early Northern Song Dynasty. Her father, Lin Yuan, was the superintendent of the area. Because she did not cry at birth, her given name was Mo, which means “silent.” When she grew up, she was called Moniang, meaning “silent girl.” A kind-hearted girl, Lin Mo was always ready to lend a helping hand to villagers who were in difficulty, and became well known for her many good deeds. She Statue of Mazu

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was also proficient in medicine and cured the sick with medicinal herbs. At the same time, she taught people how to prevent disease and ward off calamities. As she was familiar with the sea and was good at making astronomical observations and calculating weather changes, Lin Mo could tell when it was the right time for sailors and fishermen to put out to sea. Due to her extraordinary kindness A Mazu temple in Taiwan and miraculous powers, people began calling her “The Goddess.” When Mazu was twenty years old, she did not think of marriage, endeavoring instead to rescue the victims of the sea. She died at the age of twenty-eight in the process of rescuing victims. The villagers said she was not dead, but instead, had ascended to heaven and become immortal. Local fishermen built a temple in Moniang’s hometown to pay respect to her.This was the earliest temple of a sea deity. From the time of the Song Dynasty to the Qing Dynasty, the imperial courts raised Moniang’s status with new and grander titles forty times, ranging from furen (wife of feudal lord) to tianhou (heavenly queen). Mazu was not only was worshipped by the coast-dwellers but also was on the national deity list. There are thousands of Tianhou Temples across the country. On Mazu’s birthday (the twenty-third day of the third lunar month), hundreds of thousands of fishermen visit the Mazu temple to worship the goddess with great piety, instead of going fishing. Similarly, in Taiwan, more than one million devotees gather at the Chaotian Temple at Beigang for the Goddess’ annual inspection tour.

T H E S U I , TA N G, S O N G, A N D Y UA N DY N A S T I E S

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CHAPTER 5

The Sui, Tang, Song, and Yuan Dynasties I. The Sui Dynasty The Establishment of the Sui Dynasty During the Northern and Southern Dynasties, the North and the South were in opposition to each other. Conditions for unification were not ripe until the middle of the sixth century, when the northern ethic minority groups were gradually integrated with the Han people and strong ethic disputes were no longer a problem. As economic and cultural development and contact between the North and the South strengthened, people hoped to end this conflict and unify the country. In AD 581,Yang Jian from the Northern Zhou Dynasty’s royal family ascended the throne and established the Sui Dynasty in Chang’an, taking Kaihuang as his title.Yang Jian was also known as Emperor Wen of the Sui Dynasty. In AD 589, the emperor sent his second son, Yang Guang, and an army of five hundred thousand soldiers across the Yangtze River and overthrew the Chen family of the Southern Dynasty, taking Emperor Houzhu of Chen and his concubines captive. For the first time since the Qin and Han Dynasties, China was a united country once again. After Emperor Wen gained the throne, he reformed the government and established three Sheng and six Bu in the court. The three Sheng included Shang Shu Sheng, responsible for national administration, Nei Shi Sheng, in charge of drafting government orders, and Men Xia Sheng, tasked with implementing administrative edicts. The six Bu included Li Bu, responsible for officials, Li Bu, in charge of sacrificial offerings, schools, and imperial examinations, Bing Bu, in Emperor Houzhu of Chen

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charge of military affairs, Xing Bu, overseeing judicature, Min Bu, in charge of household registries and fiscal affairs, and Gong Bu, overseeing engineering projects and allocating garrison troops or farmers to reclaim wasteland and grow crops.The highest-ranking official among the three Sheng was zaixiang, the prime minister. The system of Six Bu was continued by later dynasties. Emperor Wen also abolished the system of recruiting officials used in the Wei and Jin dynasties, and began to select officials through examinations on different subjects. During the reign of Emperor Yang, Jinshi Ke was set up, and Keju, or the imperial examination system, took shape. Since then, scholars from the lower social strata could be recruited to the bureaucracy according to their talents. The imperial examination system was adopted and practiced until the end of the Qing Dynasty. During Emperor Wen’s reign, the country was unified and stable. People enjoyed lower taxes and the economy prospered. Large warehouses were built in the Chang’an and Luoyang areas to store grain and textiles, and these warehouses were used until the early period of the Tang Dynasty.This era was called the “Great Time of Kaihuang.”

The Grand Canal After the death of Emperor Wen, his son Yang Guang, titled Emperor Yang, succeeded him. To improve North-south transportation, consolidate his rule, and make travel easier for himself, a few million people were ordered to build a canal between AD 605 and AD 610. The Grand Canal originated in Zhuojun in the North, and ended in Yuhang in the South, while its midpoint was Luoyang. With a total length of two thousand kilometers, it was the longest man-made canal in the ancient history. It stimulated economic interaction between the North and the South. The Grand Canal was completed by connecting rivers and existing canals. The Grand Canal was made up of four parts: Yongjiqu, Tongjiqu, Hangou, and Jiangnahe, conMap of the Grand Canal necting five big rivers: the Hai


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River, the Yellow River, the Huai River, the Yangtze River, and the Qiantang River. It became the main North-South route.

Development of the Imperial Examination System Prior to the Sui Dynasty, most appointments to the imperial bureaucracy were based on recommendations from prominent aristocrats and local officials, and it was commonly accepted that recommended individuals had to be of aristocratic origin. The decline of aristocrats and rise of commoner landlords during the Sui Dynasty made this recruitment system impossible. When Emperor Wen of Sui ascended the throne, he abolished the recommendation system and introduced an examination on various subjects. He decreed that those who passed the examination could be recruited to the bureaucracy. During the reign of Emperor Yang, the jinshi exam was set up, marking the beginning of the imperial examination system. More exams were added in the Zhenguan years of the Tang Dynasty. While watching the new jinshi pass the Duan Gate in a line, Emperor Taizong happily said that the heroes under heaven were all Place of the Imperial Examination in his hands.

Tyrant Emperor Yang Emperor Yang was a tyrant. He built his east capital in Luoyang and constructed many luxurious palaces, employing two million workers every month, many of whom died during the process of construction. After the Grand Canal was completed, he traveled from Luoyang to Jiangdu frequently on the dragon boat. His fleet was made up of A model of Emperor Yang’s dragon boat five thousand boats, spanning more than a hundred miles on the canal.The prefectures and counties along the river route prepared numerous tributes and food for the emperor. He also ordered millions of

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farmers and soldiers to build boats and transport army provisions, and launched a war against the Goryeo. Endless corvee and scutage made millions homeless and caused farmland to lie unused. Farmers had to feed themselves on barks and potherbs. This finally led to a large-scale uprising by farmers. The Sui army was defeated by the farmers and in AD 618, Emperor Yang was killed by one of his generals. The Sui Dynasty was brief, lasting for only thirty-eight years. When the farmers’ uprising spread throughout the country, Li Yuan, the governor of Taiyuan, a politically ambitious and militarily talented Sui noble raised an army against the Sui. In AD 618, Li Yuan ascended the throne. He was titled Emperor Gaozu of the Tang Dynasty. Thus, the Tang Dynasty was founded and Chang’an was made its capital. The country was unified after a war that had lasted eight years.

II. The Tang Dynasty The climax of the Tang Dynasty After Emperor Gaozu, Li Shimin ascended the throne and began the reign known as the “Great Time of Zhenguan.” Named Emperor Taizong, he was an outstanding political leader. He learned from the fallen Sui Dynasty, realizing that an emperor had to appoint virtuous and talented people, and that his ministers had to be honest and show transparency in performing their official duties. He also realized that the government had to reduce corvee, cut taxes, and encourage production in order to consolidate its power. During Emperor Taizong’s reign, the court was politically upright, the economy expanded quickly and prospered, and the country grew stronger. After Emperor Taizong’s death, Gaozong became the emperor, and his empress Wu Zetian later ascended the throne. They both continued their predecessor’s policy of developing the economy and the country continued to grow prosperous and strong. After Empress Wu Zetian’s reign, the Tang Dynasty was politically unstable and the court did not regain stability until the reign of Li Longji, or Emperor Xuanzong of the Tang Dynasty. He was an ambitious monarch who was devoted to developing the economy, and he brought the Tang Dynasty to unprecedented heights, known as the “Heyday of Kaiyuan.” Li Shimin


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After the efforts of a few generations following the founding of the Tang Dynasty, the country became rich and strong, and cities like Chang’an, Luoyang, Yangzhou, and Chengdu emerged as metropolises. At the time, Chang’an was a glamourous, commercial city with a million inhabitants, and it was one of the largest cities in the world at that time. The High Tang Dynasty and its subjects embraced the outside world like the sea receiving water from many rivers. In almost three hundred years, the Tang people had integrated with ethnic minorities from neighboring territories as well as with foreigners. This new blood made the country vigorous and full of life. Its innovative spirit is a noteworthy part of the history of Chinese civilization.

The High Tang During the early Tang Dynasty, cross-border trade surpassed the peak of the Han Dynasty. Cultural exchanges with neighboring and distant countries reached heights. This was reflected in the way foreign cultures were embraced. Tang culture, particularly during the High Tang Period, was the result of a policy that was favorable to cultural exchanges, which established Chinese culture while absorbing that of foreigners. This was possible due to the solid foundation of its own cultural roots. The early Tang emperors integrated Northern and Southern music into a form named Datang Yayue or “the court music of the Tang.” When Emperor Taizong brought peace to Gaochang, its music Emperor Xuanzong was introduced to enrich the ten musical forms of the Tang, among which Yan and Qingshang music were traditionally classified as court and ancient music. The other types included Kucha, Sindhu, Xiliang, Gaochang, Anguo, Shule, Kangguo, and Goryeo music, which were all foreign in origin. For instance, “Qinwang Pozhen Yue” was among the first types of High Tang music that fully reflects the characteristics of foreign music. When this music was played, the sound of drums with some touches of Kucha music could be heard many miles away. Lively music had not been a Wu Zetian

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feature of the Yayue. “Nichang Yuyi Qu” was another example, and it had been recomposed from the Hindu-Buddhist music of the Brahman. Ethnic minority clothing became fashionable. Narrow-tipped shoes and tight dresses used by female dancers from ethnic minorities were most popular in the late years of the Tianbao Reign. Nobilities and commoners followed these fashions. The High Tang was a liberal society, which was open to various foreign cultures. All sorts of ideologies emerged and a great number of talented artists appeared. Poetry, music, dance, calligraphy, and painting reached unprecedented heights. They complemented one other and created the impressive cultural legacy of the High Tang Dynasty. Such high culture atmosphere was best reflected in the charming capital city of Chang’an, which was regarded by the Chinese as the center of the world. People from all parts of the world such as Turks, Indians, Persians, Syrians, Vietnamese, Koreans, Japanese, Jews, Arabs, and even Christians and Byzantines could be found in every corner of the capital.This made Chang’an a very cosmopolitan city. Foreigners in the city were usually businessmen, travelers, or diplomats. The Silk Road achieved its full potential during the High Tang Period. It started from Chang’an in the east and went all the way across the Hexi Corridor, over the Congling Mountain, and ending in the Mediterranean. Between Emperor Gaozong and Emperor Xuanzong’s reigns, nine families from Zhaowu became the intermediaries of international trade between the East and West. From Central Asia, they were the Sogdians and their descendants which included the families of Kang, An, Cao, Shi, Mi, Shi, and He. The Sogdians were known as business-oriented people, controlling transfer trade along the Silk Road for a long time. Zoroastrianism, Manichaeism, central Asian music, dances, and calendars were brought to the Central Plains, while silk and paper production techniques from the Central Plains spread to the West. The nine Zhaowu families played a very important role in this process. In addition, the exchanges between the Tang Dynasty and Japan as well as Korea were also frequent during this period. Japan sent numerous imperial ambassadors to China. In the early Tang period, there were no more than thirty thousand households in the government registries, but during Emperor Xuanzong’s reign, this number rose to more than 10 million. In the High Tang era, China’s territory stretched to Andong in the east and Anxi in the west, reaching the Mongolian Plateau in the north and the South China Sea in the south.


Music and Dance in the High Tang

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Qin Wang Pozhen Wu (Prince Qin’s Cavalry) is a tribute to the illustrious military exploits of Li Shimin, who bore the title “Prince Qin” before he became emperor. “Prince Qin’s Cavalry” is a martial dance that celebrates the power and grandeur of the imperial army. Its performance called for 128 dancers, a choir of a hundred singers, and another hundred musicians. The dance music was the Tang court composer Lu Cai’s adaptation of various folk melodies. The dance formation is circular to the left and square to the right, with war chariots at the front, and foot soldiers bringing up the rear. The music led the dance formation through twelve variations. The aim of the dance was to remind Tang Dynasty soldiers and civilians to be alert and prepared for war. Another aspect of martial dance is the “sword dance” devised by master swordsmen.The most famous sword dancer from the Tang Dynasty was the legendary beauty, Gongsun. As a child, the celebrated Tang poet, Du Fu, once watched her dance, and the spectacle created by her superb skills forever remained fresh in his memory. The square in Yancheng, Henan Province was a sea of people. Following a drum roll, Lady Gongsun appeared, rapier in hand. Her sword glinted with every change of her posture and stance, whispering like silk upon being unsheathed and flashing at each thrust. Her dancing seemed to evoke a power that could hold back rivers and repulse oceans. NichangYuyi Dance (the Rainbow Skirt and Feathered Coat Dance) was music as well as a dance, which depicts the land of fairies. It reflects Taoist idea of becoming immortal. The dance could be performed by one person, or two people, or even a group of a few hundred people. In the fourth year of the Tiaobao reign, Consort Yang Yuhuan performed this dance for Emperor Xuanzong in the Mulan Hall. Traditional Chinese dances are lyrical, slow, and solemn, in contrast to Lady Gongsun the wild, tempestuous Hu dances. Af-

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ter spreading to the Central Plains area, they became widely popular. Songs and dances from the Western Regions gradually became a part of local life until they formed a major aspect of traditional Chinese performing arts. Among the ten official Tang Dynasty dances, eight were from outside China, and of these, one was from Korea, and seven were from the Western Regions. Nuo Dance was originally a ritual of exorcism performed in the last month of the year. There were either four or twelve masked performers with coronets. They wore bearskins with swords in their hands while dancing to the music and singing “nuo.” The ritual was held in Taichang Temple in the imperial palace. Later, nuo dance was more entertaining and evolved into nuo opera. This dance was very popular during the Tang Dynasty. Yangguan Sandie is also called Yangguan Qu, music played on the Chinese musical instrument called qin. The lyrics were based on a poem written by the Tang poet Wang Wei, expressing one’s feelings when saying goodbye to a friend. The music repeats itself for three times, and is therefore called “sandie.”The poem goes as follows: “Wei City morning rain dampens the light dust. /By this inn, green, newly green willows, /I urge you to drink another cup of wine, /West of Yang Pass are no old friends.” “Konghou Yin” follows the style of Yuefu music. Konghou is a harp-like stringed instrument. The song tells the story of a woman who played the kouhou and sang “Wugong Crossing the River” by the river where her husband was drowned. The music was very sad, and she threw herself into the river after singing the song.

Sancai Glazed Earthenware

The ceramic and porcelain industry progressed to a very advanced stage during the Tang Dynasty. Sancai was colored ceramic earthenware produced in the Tang Dynasty. They were beautifully shaped human and animal figurines illustrated in glazing tints. The colors of these glazes were usually yellow, green, blue, and brown. The word sancai literally means “multi-colored.” The technique of making sancai reached a height during Emperor Xuanzong’s reign, and it was therefore called Tang sancai. Sancai products were usually made for their aesthetic value, as burial wares featuring many human and animal figurines, and as wares

Sancai Glazed Earthenware


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for daily use, featuring houses and models of vehicles. The human figurines on these ceramics included images of officials, aristocrats, generals, soldiers, Chinese and foreign merchants, female musicians, acrobats, and servants, reflecting many aspects of Tang life. Tang sancai were exported to foreign countries and have been found in present-day Korea, Japan, India, Iraq, and Italy. They are evidence of exchanges between China and the rest of the world in ancient times.

Datang Xiyu Ji (The Great Tang Records on the Western Regions) This twelve-volume book documents the history and geography of the Western Regions during the Tang Dynasty, and was written by Xuanzang and Bianji. In the first year of Zhenguan’s reign (AD 627), Xuanzang set off from Chang’an on his Buddhist pilgrim. He traveled to India via Central Asia and stayed there for more than ten years. He returned to Chang’an in the nineteenth year of Zhenguan’s reign. At the request of Emperor Taizong, he orally recalled the journey, which was recorded by his assistant Monk Bianji. It took twenty years to complete the book, which contained a hundred thousand characters. The book gives an account of Xuanzang’s personal experiences and the stories he learned in the 138 countries, regions, and cities on his route, including present-day Xinjiang in China, Central Asia, Afghanistan, Iran, Pakistan, India, Nepal, Bangladesh, and Sri Lanka. It describes the geography, land and water transportation, climate, produce, ethnic groups, languages, history, politics, economic life, religions, culture, and customs of these regions. Written in simple language and carefully organized, it is a very important reference in the study of ancient Central Asia and South Asian history. The book has been in translated into English, German, and French.

Kultigin Stone Stele In 1889, during the Qing Dynasty, a Turkic inscription was unearthed along with the steles of Uyghur Khan and Bilge Khan at a historical site in the Orkhon Valley. Kultigin was the younger brother of Bilge Khan. His name Kul and Tigin was his title of Turkic nobility. When Kultigin died in AD 731, Emperor Xuanzong sent his condolences and a memorial stele was erected the following year. The stele was inscribed in Turkic and Chinese and the elegy in Chinese language was written by Xuanzong himself. This stele is very important for the study of the Tang-Turk relations and Turkic language.

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Kaicheng Stone Classics

The Kaicheng Stone Classics are a group of twelve Chinese classical works carved at the order of the Tang Dynasty Emperor Wenzong in AD 837 as a reference document for scholars. The works included the Book of Changes, the Book of History, the Book of Songs, Account of the Rite of the Zhou Dynasty, the Book of Ceremony, the Book of Rites, Zuo Qiuming’s Commentary on Spring and Autumn Annals, Gongyang’s Commentary on Spring and Autumn Annals, Guliang’s Commentary on Spring and Autumn Annals, the Analects of Confucius, the Canon of Filial Piety, and the Erya. These classics were engraved (double-sided) on Kaicheng Stone Classics 114 stone tablets.The main body of the texts used the clerical script while the titles used the regular script.They are presently preserved in the Stele Forest Museum in Xi’an, China.

Imperial Japanese Envoys to China When the Tang Dynasty replaced the Sui Dynasty, Japan continued sending imperial ambassadors to the Tang. Between AD 630 and AD 894, twelve envoys arrived in China (not counting three failed missions).The envoys’ entourage usually comprised a few hundred people, including officials as well as helmsmen, sailors, artisans, Buddhist students, and other students. These envoys traveled to China by various routes. The northern route, starting from Fukuoka in Japan and proceeding along the western coast of the Korean Peninsula across the Bohai Sea to the Shandong Peninsula in China, was safer. They then traveled all the way to Luoyang and Chang’an by land. For the southern islands route, they sailed from Kyushu and traveled through the southern Ryukyu Islands before turning to northwest to cross the East China Sea. After disembarking, they changed ships to continue the journey to the North via the Grand Canal, which was more dangerous. The mission of the imperial ambassadors was to study Chinese culture. They brought back a great number of Chinese classics and technologies to Japan, which advanced its production, livelihood, and cultural development. They also intensified cultural exchanges between China and Japan, which continued until the imperial ambassadors’ trips to China ended in the late ninth century.


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Jianzhen Visiting Japan Jianzhen (or Ganjin) was a Chinese monk who helped to propagate Buddhism in Japan. From the family of Chunyu in Yangzhou, he received ordination at the age of fourteen. At that time, the Buddhist monastic discipline in Japan was not established, and initiation was not done in the correct manner. A Japanese monk, Rongrui, came to China with the imperial ambassadors and invited Jianzhen to Japan to teach the discipline. In AD 742, despite opposition from his disciples, official disapproval, and the risks of the voyage, Jianzhen attempted to go to Japan. The journey failed, as did the next three attempts. In AD 751, he made his fifth attempt, but the ship was blown off course in the Hainan Islands. Rongrui died, and Jianzhen was blind due to an infection. However, he was determined, and finally reached Japan in AD 753. Upon his arrival, Jianzhen was warmly welcomed by the Japanese court and the public. He constructed the first ordination platform at Todai-ji (the East Great Temple) where Japanese monks received ordination, presided over by ten Japanese eminent monks. Jianren was the founder of the Buddhist monastic discipline in Japan. In AD 759, he began the establishment of the Toshodai-ji Temple. He brought a large number of Buddhist scriptures, statues, and articles with him to Japan. Although he was blind, he managed to correct mistakes in the Buddhist manuscripts and was able to identify herbal medicines using his sense of smell.The disciples in his company had excellent knowledge of sculpture, painting, and architecture, and thus, propagated Tang culture in Japan. Jianzhen died in AD 763. A dry-lacquer statue of him was made by his disciples. Jianzhen has been respected by Japanese Buddhists for more than 1,200 years.

Abe no Nakamaro Abe no Nakamaro was a Japanese student in the imperial embassies. As a young scholar, he studied at the Taixue in Chang’an and later passed the imperial examination for jinshi. He stayed with the Tang Dynasty and became a senior civil servant. He was skilled at writing poems in Chinese, and often wrote and recited poems with the prominent Chinese poets, Li Bai and Wang Wei.

Memorial of the Propagation of the Luminous Religion from Daqin in China The East Roman Empire (Byzantine Empire) was called Fulin by the Tang Dynasty. Merchants and envoys traveled between the two empires, and thus, Nestorianism was introduced into China. A Nestorian church was set up at Yiningfang in Chang’an city at the order of Emperor Taizong, and it was called the Nestorian Temple, or Daqin Temple. Later, the Tocharians paid for the erection of a stele “Memorial of the Propagation in China of the Luminous Religion from Daqin,” which is still there now.

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Light Tower of the Huaisheng Mosque and the Tomb of Waqqas The Huaisheng Mosque in Guangzhou is one of the oldest mosques in China built in memory of the Prophet Muhammad. Known as the Lighthouse Mosque because of the ancient tower in the mosque, it was said to have been built during the Tang Dynasty. The existing tower is from the Tang, but other parts are believed to have been built in later periods. Waqqas (Sa`d ibn Abi Waqqas) was purportedly one of the first AraHuaisheng Mosque bians who introduced Islam to China during the Tang Dynasty. He died in China and was buried by the Liuhua Bridge in Guangzhou.

The Reign of Zhenguan and Emperor Taizong The “Great Time of Zhenguan” was a compliment to Emperor Taizong of the Tang Dynasty during his reign of Zhenguan (AD 627–AD 649). The Sui peasant uprisings had ruined the Sui ruler before him. Having learned a lesson from the fallen Sui, Emperor Taizong, as well as his ministers Fang Xuanling, Du Ruhui, and Wei Zheng, often reminded themselves to be industrious and prudent, and allowed the people to rehabilitate themselves and live a happy and peaceful life. While advising the Emperor, Wei Zheng compared the emperor to the boat and the people to the water. According to him, the water that bears the boat is also the water that swallows it up. He also persuaded him to hear out all parties. Emperor Taizong continued the policy of land equalization and selected people to run the country through imperial examinations. The years of his reign were characterized by transparent politics, stable society, increased population, and a rapidly growing economy. Emperor Taizong (AD 599–AD 649) was Li Shimin, second son of Li Yuan, the EmperWei Zheng or Gaozu. He joined his father in the rebellion


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against the Sui and achieved numerous military victories. After the founding of the Tang Dynasty, he was conferred the title of Prince of Qin and appointed as shangshuling. He put down the peasant uprisings of Dou Jiande and the separatist Wang Shichong. In AD 626, in the ninth year of Emperor Gaozu’s reign, he launched the Coup of Xuanwumen, in which he killed the crown prince and replaced him. Consequently, he forced his father to abdicate. During Taizong’s reign, he promoted the land equalization system, the fubing system (a local militia system), and the zuyongdiao system (trading corvee for taxes). He also enforced stricter examination for local officials and improved the imperial examinations system. He appointed honest and capable people to im- Statue of Princess Wencheng portant positions and listened to good advice. During that period, politicians were honest, the economy continued to grow, and society was stable. This era is known as “the Great Time of Zhenguan.” Taizong also established contact with ethnic minorities in the border regions. In AD 630, he defeated the East Turks, and the Uyghur regarded him as the “heavenly Khan.” In the 15th year of his reign, he married Princess Wencheng to Songtsan Gampo in Tibet in order to strengthen the alliance between the Han and the Tibetans, as well as economic and cultural development in Tibet.

Empress Zhangsun Zhangsun was the wife of Emperor Taizong. She was the daughter of the Sui Dynasty general, Zhangsun Sheng, and married Taizong at the age of thirteen. She was the empress when Taizong became emperor. Her elder brother, Zhangsun Wuji, was a close friend of the emperor, who intended to make him a senior official at the court. Empress Zhangsun strongly opposed the promotion and explained to Taizong, “I have the opportunity to be here in the palace, enjoying the highest of honors. I do not wish to see my brothers and nephews wield power.” The Emperor did not take her advice and made Wuji a general and chancellor. The empress secretly summoned her brother and asked him to decline the position. She was only satisfied when Taizong relegated her brother to a lower position. When Emperor Taizong was about to marry off Princess Changle, who was Empress Zhangsun’s child and his favorite daughter, he ordered that her dowry

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had to exceed that of his sister, the Princess Yongjia. Wei Zheng advised against it, pointing out that this was contrary to Emperor Ming of the Han’s observation that a young daughter should not be more honored than one’s elder sister. Emperor Taizong finally agreed and also informed Empress Zhangsun, who was greatly impressed with Wei’s honest advice, and thus, after receiving permission from Emperor Taizong, ordered her eunuchs to send rewards of money and silk to Wei, praising him for his honesty. Once, when she was very ill, the crown Empress Zhangsun prince attended to her and expressed that he would like to ask his father for amnesty for some criminals and that he wished to convert to Taoism to pray her health. The emperor said that life and death were in the hands of destiny and beyond human control. She persuaded him not to disturb law and order for her sake. On her deathbed, she said to the emperor, “Fang Xuanling has served Your Majesty for a long time. He is careful, and all of his wonderful strategies and secret plans were not revealed to anyone. Unless there is a particularly good reason, I hope that you will not abandon him. As for my Zhangsun clan, many of them enjoy high salaries and high positions on account of our marriage, not because of their great virtues, and therefore they can easily fail. In order to preserve the Zhangsuns, I hope that you will not put them in powerful positions.” She told the emperor to bury her in a modest manner. Empress Zhangsun died at the age of thirty-six, on the sixth month of the tenth year of the Zhenguan Reign. She was honored as Empress Wendeshunsheng (“the civil, virtuous, serene, and holy empress”), and known popularly as the Empress of the virtuous.

Lingyange Pavilion and Twenty-four Chancellors In AD 643, in the seventeenth year of Emperor Taizong’s reign, he had the likeness of the twenty-four senior officials and generals who had helped to install him as emperor painted on the wall of the Lingyange Pavilion in Chang’an. Among them were Sun Wuji, Du Ruhui, Wei Zheng, and Yuchi Jingde. The emperor personally wrote a prose passage praising his chancellors, and Zhu Suiliang named the pavilion Lingyange, while Yan Liben painted the portraits. The purpose of this was to honor their services to the country.


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Wei Zheng Wei Zheng (AD 580–AD 643) was a statesman famous for advising and criticizing the emperor. As a young man, he was poor and was once a Taoist priest. During the late Sui Period, he joined the rebel force of Wagangjun and later became an attendant of the crown prince. When Taizong ascended to the throne, he was responsible for advising Emperor Taizong and gave more than two hundred pieces of criticism. In AD 629, Emperor Taizong made Wei the head of the imperial archival bureau, Mishu Sheng, and later named him Zhengguogong, or Duke of Zhengguo. He advised the emperor to hear out all parties, stay prepared against adversity in times of peace, be prudent, reduce tax burdens, and think of the commoners as the water that bears the boat but also swallows it. He made great contributions to the “Great Time of the Zhenguan.” Emperor Taizong commented that he was like a mirror that showed the mistakes of the court.

Zhenguan Zhengyao

Zhenguan Zhengyao was written by Wu Jing during the Tang Dynasty. Forty chapters long in ten volumes, it records the dialogues between Emperor Taizong and Wei Zheng, Fang Xuanling, Du Ruhui, and other chancellors, their oral and written memorials to the throne, and suggestions. Ge Zhi recorded the comments of Liu Fang, Ouyang Xiu, Sima Guang, and nineteen other people and added annotations at the end. It is called Ji Lun.

Di Fan

This was a book written by Emperor Taizong for his crown prince. It originally had thirteen chapters, but half of them were already lost by the Song Dynasty era. The existing version is in four volumes included in the Yongle Dadian.

Wu Zetian Wu Zetian (AD 624–AD 705) was the wife of Gaozong and the Emperor of Wu Zhou between AD 690 and AD 705. Wu Zetian was born in Wenshui in Bingzhou (present-day east of Wenshui in the Shanxi Province), and her father was Wu Shiyue. She entered the Tang palace at the age of fourteen and became a concubine of Emperor Taizong. After he died, she became a Buddhist nun at the Temple of Ganying in Chang’an.When Emperor Gaozong ascended the throne, she was brought back to the palace and made his concubine, and was installed as empress in AD 655. Gaozong was in poor health, but Wu Zetian managed the court on his behalf and gradually held all the real power. After Gaozong’s death, she deposed both his sons, Emperor Zhongzong and Ruizong, and proclaimed herself Empress. She changed the title of her reign to Zhou and became the first female monarch in Chinese history.

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In the early part of her reign, Wu Zetian put kuli (cruel secret police officials) such as Lai Junchen and Zhou Xing in important positions in order to attack senior officials from the previous reigns and undermine the previous nobles’ control over the political power. She asked the kuli to compile Luozhi Jin, which included methods of torture that might very well scare prisoners to death. They killed members of the imperial Tang family, nobles, and senior officials. When her rule was stabilized, Wu Statue of We Zetian Zetian killed the kuli and gave up her kuli strategies to enjoy the court atmosphere. She revised the Zhenguan Shizu Zhi and Xingshi Lu, which listed the family name of “Wu” as the first class and included all officials above Rank Five, as well as soldiers who had been promoted to Rank Five for military achievements. She also improved the imperial examination system and started the practice of examinations for military officer positions.The system helped to recruit bureaucrats from across the country despite their social class.Yao Chong, Song Jing, and Di Renjie were selected and promoted by Wu Zetian. They were famous chancellors who played an important role not only in the reign of Wu Zetian, but also in Emperor Xuanzong’s reign during the Kaiyuan era. During Wu Zetian’s reign, she reduced the burdens on farmers and took various measures to promote social and economic growth. The population grew, and the terThe wordless tombstone of Wu Zetian ritory’s frontiers were secured and expanded. This period is known as “the extended Zhenguan rule.” In AD 705, when Wu Zetian was very sick, Chancellor Zhang Jianzhi launched a coup, supporting Li Xian, Emperor Zhongzong. Wu Zetian died in the winter of that year and was titled Empress Zetian.


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Di Renjie Di Renjie (AD 607–AD 700), whose courtesy name was Huaiying, was a chancellor during the Tang Dynasty. He was born in Taiyuan (presentday Shanxi Province) and was recruited into the bureaucracy through the imperial examinations. He was successively appointed to many government positions such as judge of Dudufu in Bingzhou, dajicheng, shiyushi, and later, cishi of Ningzhou and Yuzhou. In the early period of Wu Zetian’s reign, she promoted him to diguan shilan or the deputy minister of finance, and gave him the title Tongfengge Luantai Pingzhangshi, making him a de facto chancellor. Framed by Lai Junchen, he was once thrown in prison and demoted. Di Renjie Later, Di served as the prefect of Weizhou and was a commandant at Youzhou. In AD 697, he resumed the office of chancellor. As a general, he once campaigned against the Turkic army. Subsequently, Wu Zetian made him neishi, the head of the legislative bureau, and he managed to persuade Wu Zetian not to build a big Buddhist statue. Di was known for his courage in not yielding to power. He recommended Zhang Jianzhi and others to serve in the court, many of whom became well-known chancellors.

Golden Age of Kaiyuan The political atmosphere was unstable from the late years of Wu Zetian’s reign until her grandson, Li Longji, took the throne. Li Longji was Emperor Xuanzong, also commonly known as Emperor Ming of the Tang Dynasty. As an emperor of many accomplishments, he carried out many reforms. He promoted people with talent and virtue to important positions and made younger talents, such as Yao Chong and Song Jing, chancellors. He streamlined the bureaucracy by cutting down on the number of officials and imposing stricter examination measures. Xuanzong also encouraged production and the growth of the economy. He halted the expansion of Buddhism by reducing the number of Buddhist monks,

Emperor Xuanzong of the Tang Dynasty

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and banned the construction of temples in order to avoid a waste of labor. He used the conscription system to raise his army. He continued to develop the imperial examination system and set up Jixianyuan (an imperial library and college) to attract scholars. Once, when he entertained famous scholars at the banquet at Jixian Hall, (literally meaning a place where fairies gathered), he said during a toast that fairies were intangible beings, and the hall should be renamed Jixian Hall. This was the origin of the name Jixianyuan. In the early part of Emperor Xuanzong’s reign, the court was incorruptible and the country was powerful and prosperous. The Tang Dynasty reached its apex, and this period was therefore called the golden age of Kaiyuan, which was the name of Xuanzong’s reign. It was the second golden age in Chinese history apart from that of the Western Han Dynasty. This was reflected in a poem by Tu Bu when he described all the public and private barns, which were full of grain.

Emperor Xuanzong of Tang Emperor Xuanzong (AD 685–AD 762) was the third son of Emperor Ruizong. In AD 710, Empress Wei poisoned Emperor Zhongzong and altered the imperial order so that she could install her young son, Li Chongmao, as emperor. Xuanzong and Princess Taiping plotted a coup involving the imperial guard army in the palace, and killed Empress Wei along with her followers. Ruizong became the emperor, and soon, Xuanzong was made the crown prince. In AD 712, Ruizong abdicated, and Xuanzong ascended the throne. The ambitious emperor promoted the talented Yao Chong and Song Jing to the office of chancellors, in order to develop the economy and reform ineffective policies from Wu Zetian’s reign. The economy and culture of the Tang Dynasty reached a height that was recognized as the golden age of Kaiyuan. During the late period of his reign, he changed the title of his reign from Kaiyuan to Tianbao. As Emperor Xuanzong turned his attention to pleasure-seeking with his favorite concubine, Consort Yang Yuhuan, he paid less and less attention to administration, and much of his power fell into the hands of the corrupt Li Linfu and Yang Guozhong, resulting in increasing land merges, greedy officials, and political corruption. Meanwhile, more non-Han jiedushi (military governors) in the northern areas began to take regional power into their own hands. In AD 755, An Lushan rebelled against the Tang, and captured Luoyang to enter Guanzhong. Emperor Xuanzong then fled to Sichuan. The crown prince, Li Heng (Emperor Suzong), ascended the throne at Lingwu. Suzong gained control of Chang’an again, and Xuanzong returned to the capital from Sichuan in AD 758. The Tang Dynasty never recovered from this setback. In AD 762, Emperor Xuanzong died, deep in depression.


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Fengshan In the thirteenth year of the Kaiyuan period during Xuanzong’s reign, he led a large group of civil and military officials to Mount Tai in Shandong to make a sacrifice to heaven and earth, which was called fengshan. Chancellor Zhang Shuo was fengtanshi, in charge of all the rituals during fengshan.The God of Mount Tai was titled the King of Tianqi, and people were not allowed to cut firewood near the Temple of the King of Tianqi. After the ceremony, officials below the rank of sangong were all promoted to a higher rank. Emperor Xuanzong wrote Ji Tai Shan Ming.

Princess Wencheng in Tibet The Tubo were the ancestors of ethnic Tibetans. They were a branch of the Qiang people in the Han Dynasty who later moved west to the regions south of the Yarlung Zangbo River and grew strong there. Songtsan Gampo was considered the founder of the Tibetan Empire. In AD 629, he inherited the throne of Tsanpo from his father and moved the capital to Lhasa, and conquered Subi, Yangtong, as well as other tribes, unifying the Qinghai-Tibet Plateau and establishing a centralized slavery state. During this period, he developed agriculture and animal husbandry and introduced the feudal culture to Tibet. The contact between the Han and the Tibetans grew. Songtsan Gampo was an admirer of the culture in the Central Plains, and sent envoys to request a marriage to the Tang several times until Emperor Taizong finally agreed to marry Princess Wencheng to him, and asked Chancellor Li Daozong to escort the princess on her journey to Tibet. At this, the Tibetans rejoiced and prepared horses, oxen, food, and water for her journey. Songtsan Gampo was very happy to marry a Tang princess, which his father had not managed to achieve. He built a palace for Princess Wencheng to celebrate the royal marriage. Songtsan Gampo, as the son-in-law of the Tang emperor, personally went to Qinghai to meet his bride, and received the Tang official escorting the princess. A large wedding was held in Lhasa. Princess Wencheng brought a great number of art and crafts, grains, vegetable seeds, medicine, and tea as well as calendars, techniques, and books, with her to Tibet, promoting economic and cultural progress in Tibet. Subsequently, Songtsan Gampo received a title and office from the Tang. Princess Wencheng’s marriage laid a foundation for closer exchanges between the Han and Tibetans. Following this, Princess Jincheng married the Tibetan Tsanpo Mes-ag-tshoms during Emperor Zhongzong’s reign. Later, Mes-ag-tshoms wrote to Emperor Xuanzong, addressing the emperor “uncle” and saying that Tibet and the Tang were one family. During Emperor Muzong’s reign, the two regimes again declared that they would not invade each other. An inscribed pillar which records the SinoTibetan treaty still stands in front of The Jokhang today, as a historical evidence

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of the Han-Tibet friendship. A hundred and ninety one visits by Tibetan envoys to the Tang and sixty-six visits by Tang envoys to Tibet between AD 634 and AD 846 were recorded.

The Fall of the Tang Dynasty

Zhu Wen

The Anshi Rebellion

The Anshi Rebellion took place at the end of Tianbao era as a result of vassal regimes, the eunuchs’ power, and factional disputes. The political order seen during the High Tang era no longer existed. Peasant uprisings led by Huang Chao and Wang Xianzhi toward the end of the Tang Dynasty sieged Chang’an and overthrew its ruler. In AD 907, Zhu Wen, once a civil and military governor of the Tang, deposed the Tang emperor and established the Liang Dynasty, also known as the Later Liang Dynasty. The Tang Dynasty lasted for 289 years, from AD 618 to AD 907. In the next fifty years, the Later Liang, the Later Tang, the Later Jin, the Later Han, and the Later Zhou appeared consecutively in the valley of the Yellow River. They were collectively named the Five Dynasties. During that period, ten other separate regimes also existed in both the north and the south. They were referred to the Five Dynasties and Ten Kingdoms. They campaigned against one other over time, forcing people to live in a constant state of war.

III. The Song Dynasty Establishment of the Northern Song Dynasty In AD 960, General Zhao Kuangyin usurped the throne from the seven-year-old Later Zhou emperor and established the Song Dynasty, choosing Dongjing as its capital. It was also known as the Northern Song Dynasty. Zhao Kuangyin was named Emperor Taizu of Song. When the new dynasty was established, Zhao Kuangyin tried to unify the country, moving from the south to the north and conquering the weak states before taking on the stronger ones. In AD 979, he overthrew the last regime (the Northern Han) and ended the separation of the Five Dynasties and Ten Kingdoms.


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After unification, Emperor Taizu tried to centralize his power by increasing civil power and discouraging military power. First, he centralized military power. One year after he became emperor, he sent two imperial guard generals, Shi Shouxin and Gao Huaide, to the Provinces to be jiedushi (regional military governors). After reducing governors’ powers, he then divided the power of the commander of imperial guards among three individuals, who were all directly responsible to the emperor. He set up a shumiyuan (Privy Council), which had the power to mobilize the army but not to lead the generals, while the generals did not have power over the army, allowing the council and generals to limit each other’s use of power. Second, he centralized administrative power. Some positions and departments were set up to reduce the power of the prime minister including Canzhizhengshi (deputy Prime Minister), Shumiyuan (to reduce his military power), Yan Tie, responsible for collecting taxes, Du Zhi for budgeting and auditing, and Hu Bu for household registration. These departments were collectively called San Si and they aimed to reduce his fiscal power. Thus, all the power was now in the hands of the emperor. At the local level, the power of the jiedushi as governor of a prefecture was moved to the central government. Civil servants replaced generals to become zhizhou, or prefects. Zhizhou were also supervised by Tongpan, who reported directly to the emperor. Government documents had to be endorsed both by zhizhou and tongpan to be valid. The control of central government over the local departments was then established through the checking system. Thirdly, fiscal and judicial power was centralized. Song territory was divided into twenty-one Lu (tax zones), and each one was taken care of by an officer (zhuanyunshi) who saw that a small portion of taxes was kept for the local government and the rest went to central government. This essentially ruled out local separation from the state. The central government also ordered civilian officers in charge of judicial affairs to overrule the jiedushi’s control. Death penalty sentences had to be re-examined and approved by the central government to avoid abuse of power. Meanwhile, Zhao Kuangyin made it clear that the emperor would not order the execution of scholarbureaucrats who advised him on methods of ruling his empire. By doing so, he was able to gain different opinions. This also gave officials more opportunities to advise the emperor. Early measures to centralize power removed opportunities for separation, maintained the stability of a unified China, and encouraged social and economic development. However, it also produced negative results: redundant bureaucracy and official posts, excessive government expenditure, rigid military leadership, military weakness, and local fiscal difficulties.These elements laid the foundation for poverty and weakness. On the other hand, the imperial examination system experienced substantial

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progress compared to the Sui and Tang dynasties. The examination was carried out at local, provincial, and national levels (Xiang Shi, Sheng Shi, and Dian Shi, respectively), and procedures were very strict. Dian Shi was the final examination and the emperor was directly involved at this level, causing jinshi to be titled “the students of the son of the Heaven.” The number of the subjects tested in the examination was reduced. Identification on the examination sheet was concealed in order to prevent examination officials from cheating. More students were enrolled than in the Tang Dynasty. In more than twenty years of Emperor Taizong’s reign during the Song era, about ten thousand officials were recruited through the system, and one third of these officials were commoners.This opened up possibilities for scholars across social strata, enlarging the power base of the Song regime, and strengthening the central government’s role.

Emperor Taizu of Song Zhao Kuangyin (AD 927–AD 976) was the founder of the Song Dynasty, and he ruled from AD 960 to AD 976. Originally from Zhuozhou (now Zhuo County in Hebei Province), he came from a bureaucratic family. During the Five Dynasties and Later Zhou Period, Zhao Kuangyin served as commander of the imperial guards, Dianqian Doudianjian, and jiedushi of Zongzhou Guidejun, controlling the military power of the Later Zhou. In 960, he launched a military coup at Chenqiao, overthrowing the Later Zhou and establishing the Song Dynasty. During his reign, he destroyed independent regimes such as the Southern Tang Dynasty and consolidated the state’s defense against the Khitans. He centralized the government, launched water conservation projects, encouraged peasants to cultivate farmland, reduced taxes, and developed agricultural production. He was an important political figure in Chinese history. However, he also favored civil service over military strength and domestic affairs over foreign relations, which had a negative impact on the state, and was a major source of the subsequent weakness of the Northern Song Dynasty. When Chairong, Emperor Shizong of the Later Zhou died, his seven-year-old son was crowned Emperor. Zhao Kuangyin was then the general of the imperial guards. To usurp power from the emperor, he staged the Chenqiao military coup. On the first month of the lunar calendar in AD 960, when the emperor and his chancellors were celebrating the New Year, news from the northern borders arrived, reporting a joint invasion by the Northern Han Dynasty and the Khitans. The chancellors could not tell whether it was true, and hurriedly ordered Zhao Kuangyin to defend the state. Zhao Guangyi, Zhao Kuangyin’s younger brother and his close ally, Zhao Pu, conspired to stage a military coup. When the army arrived at Chenqiao station, Zhao Kuangyin pretended he was drunk.The next morning, his soldiers pushed him into his tent, put an imperial yellow gown on him, and knelt to him, shouting,“Long live the emperor.” Zhao Kuangyin was then made the emperor.


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When the Song Dynasty was founded, the emperor conquered independent regimes and united China.The Song territory stretched to the sea in the east and the south, and in the north, it connected the Liao at present-day Haihe of Tianjin and the Yanmen Pass of Shanxi. In the northwest, it bordered the Western Xia and Tibet along the Hengshan Mountain of Shaanxi and the Huangshui River of Qinghai, and in the southwest, it was adjacent to Tibet and Dali at the Minshan Mountain and the Dadu River as well as Vietnam at Guangxi. At the urging of his prime pinister Zhao Pu, Emperor Taizu weakened the military power of the vassals in order to avoid their increasing autonomy. He managed to do so by encouraging his generals to drink. After he was crowned, Emperor Taizu invited his generals to a banquet, during which he expressed his worries. “You have made me emperor, but I am not able to go to sleep all night,” he sighed. The generals asked why, and he replied, “What will you do if one day your men put the imperial gown on you?” Shi Shouxin and other generals knelt down nervously and asked what they should do. The emperor said, “Why not give up your military power and go back home to enjoy a happy and wealthy life so there will be no distrust between us.”The next day, Shi Shouxin, Gao Huaide, and other generals resigned and give up their military power on the excuse of their poor health. Soon, the Song ruler also weakened the power of the jiedushi and sent civil servants to local offices.

Bao Zheng Bao Zheng (AD 999–AD 1062) came from Hefei in Luzhou (present-day Anhui Province) during the Northern Song Dynasty. His courtesy name was Xiren, and he was a jinshi scholar. During Emperor Renzong’s reign, he advised him to select generals and train armies to fight against the Khitans. He had been appointed to many other positions before he became the magistrate (zhifu) of Kaifeng. He was famous for his uncompromising stance against corruption among the government officials at the time. He upheld justice and refused to yield to high powers. He wrote a book, Bao Xiaosu Zouyi, which was a memorial to the throne. His Statue of Bao Zheng name became synonymous with justice and with the clear blue sky (qingtian), which became a popular metaphor for justice in the Chinese-speaking world. He appeared as the main character in novels and dramas, even in a Yuan Zaju (Yuan drama), Selling Rice in Chenzhou.

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“Feel worried before Tianxia starts to worry, and feel happy after Tianxia has rejoiced”

Yueyang Lou

This is a quote from Fan Zhongyan’s famous work Yueyang Lou Ji, composed on the occasion of the reconstruction of Yueyang Lou under the governance of a friend of his. Fan Zhongyan (AD 989–AD 1052) was a Northern Song politician and literary figure, whose courtesy name was Xiwen. He was born in the Wu county in Suzhou, and held the title of jinshi in the imperial examination. He came from a poor background and studied very hard. He was known for his integrity when he served in the government. When he was yanguan (the officer who was in charge of the salt business) in Xixi, he advised Zhang Lun, the prefect of Taizhou, to reinforce the sea barrier to protect the land from sea waves. In AD 1040, when the Western Xia attacked Yanzhou, he and Han Qi, another Jinglue Fushi (commandant) of Shaanxi, reorganized troops and strengthened the borders. In AD 1043, he was made Canzhizhengshi (councilor) and submitted ten pieces of advice on reforming the official appointment system, developing agriculture, reforming military affairs, advancing the regal system, and reducing corvee and tax. Many of the reforms that he introduced met with opposition from conservative ministers. He then resigned from the position of councilor and died on the journey to take up a new position in Shaanxi. Fan was known for his poems and prose.

Wang Anshi and his Political Reform

Fan Zhongyan

Wang Anshi (AD 1021–AD 1086) was born in Linchuan of Fuzhou (present-day Fuzhou in the Jiangxi Province), and was awarded jinshi in the imperial examination. He spent many years as a local official in the Yin County of Zhejiang. In AD 1058, he submitted a long report advocating political reform. In AD 1070, Emperor Shenzong made him the second privy councilor in order to introduce and promulgate his reform policy.


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This policy covered mainly three aspects: 1. State finance and trade; 2. Defense and social order; 3. Education and governance. Some of the finance reforms included paying cash for labor instead of corvee labor, increasing the supply of copper coins, improving trade management, and direct government loans to farmers during planting seasons to be repaid at harvest. He believed that the foundation of the state depended on the well-being of common people. To limit speculation and eliminate private monopolies, he initiated price controls, regulated wages, and set up pensions for the aged and unemployed. The state also began to build public orphanages, hospitals, dispensaries, hospices, cemeteries, and reserve granaries. Statue of Wang Anshi Military reform was centered on a new institution: the baojia system, or organized households. This was done to ensure collective responsibility in society and was later used to strengthen local defense. He also proposed measures to breed military horses, make more efficient weapons, and train the militia. To improve education and management, he sought to break down the barrier between clerical and official careers, as well as improving their supervision to prevent connections being used for personal gain. Tests in law, military affairs, and medicine were added to the examination system, and mathematics was added in AD 1104. The new policies generated and increased government revenue to cover their expenditure over the following twenty years. More than a hundred thousand water conservation projects were started to irrigate land spanning 360 thousand hectares, and in the land survey, more taxable farmland was registered. Meanwhile, military effectiveness was improved, and the Song army won some victories over the Western Xia. However, after implementing the new policies, some unwise selections of officials undermined the results. More importantly, there was deep-seated resistance to the reforms, as it hurt bureaucrats from the old system. With Emperor Shenzhong’s death in AD 1085, the new policies were rolled back when Sima Guang came into power.

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Sima Guang and Zizhi Tongjian (A Comprehensive Mirror to Aid the Government) Sima Guang (AD 1019–AD 1086), whose courtesy name was Junshi, was a Northern Song chancellor and historian. He was born in Sushuixiang in Xia County (present-day Wenxi in Shanxi) and obtained jinshi in the imperial examination. He was longtuzhi xueshi (librarian of the imperial library) during Emperor Yingzong’s reign. During Emperor Shenzong’s reign, he served as hanlin xueshi, and impeached officials. He was also responsible for recording historical events. When Wang Anshi introduced the new reformist policies, he debated with Wang in the presence of Emperor Shenzong, insisting that the laws and policies of their ancestors could not be changed. In AD 1070, Sculpture of Sima Guan he became the governor of Yongxingjun (present-day Xi’an) and in the following year, he retreated to Luoyang to concentrate on compiling Zizhi Tongjian. It took him years to complete the work in AD 1084. In AD 1085, when Emperor Zhezong ascended the throne and his father, Emperor Gao, was regent, Sima came to the capital to take charge of state affairs. He ordered the abolishment of the new policies. He died eight months after he took office, and was granted the posthumous title of Duke of Wenguo. Zizhi Tongjian Sima Guang was the lead historian who compiled Zizhi Tongjian, assisted by three other historians Liu Ban, Liu Shu, and Fan Zuyu. The 294-volume book chronologically narrated the history of China from the era of the Warring States to the Five Dynasties (403 BC–AD 959 ).

Three Historical Figures

Yang Ye (AD 927–AD 986), whose original name was Yang Chonggui, was born in Taiyuan in Yingzhou (present-day Taiyuan). His father, Yang Xin, was the gover-


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nor of Linzhou (present-day Shaanxi Province) during the Northern Han Dynasty. He was a good horserider and hunter as a young boy.When he grew up, he served as a military officer under Liu Chong of the Northern Han, and later became the Jiedushi of Jianxiongjun. In AD 979, when Emperor Taizong of the Song Dynasty campaigned against the Northern Han Dynasty, he persuaded his emperor to surrender to the Song. Emperor Taizong made him a general and prefect of Zheng, and subsequently, the renshi of Daizhou. When the Khitan troops invaded Yanmen,Yang Ye led a cavalry of a few thousand troops along a trail to the Panmei north of Yanmen and attacked the rear of the enemy troops. The Khitans were defeated. Since then, they tried to avoid Yang’s army when they saw his flag.Yang Ye was then promoted to guanchashi of Yunzhou. In AD 986, the Song army launched a massive expedition to the Northern frontier.Yang Ye was the vice-commander under Pan Mei, and together, they secured the four prefectures of Yun, Ying, Huan, and Shuo by the Sanggan River. Yang Ye and Pan Mei were ordered by the Song court to evacuate the people in these four regions. At the time, Empress Xiao of the Khitan had captured Huanzhou and the Song. As Yang Ye escorted the populace to safer areas, he and his men were ambushed by a sizable Khitan force. Knowing full well that the chance of victory was slim, Pan Mei nevertheless ordered Yang Ye to initiate a counter-offensive, and the battle raged on until at last they were driven into Chenjiagu (present-day south of Shuo County). Although Pan Mei had promised to send reinforcements there,Yang Ye and his men found a deserted valley instead, and within days, he and his soldiers (including his son,Yang Yanyu) were completely wiped out.Yang Ye himself was captured by the Khitans and died of starvation three days later, at the age of sixty. This story has been developed into a series of novels and plays called yangjiajiang, which detail the exploits of the Yang military family. After the death of Yang Ye, his other sons were also made commanders by the Song court and they continued to campaign against the Khitans. Yue Fei (AD 1103–AD 1142), whose courtesy name was Pengju, was born in Tangyin of Xiangzhou (present-day Hennan Province) and was a Southern Song general famous for his battle against the Jin Dynasty. He joined the army in the late Northern Song period and was demoted after the founding of the Southern Song, when he tried to dissuade Emperor Gaozong from moving the capital to the south. In AD 1129,Yue Fei fought against Wanyan Wushu and recovered Jiankang (present-

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day Nanjing). In AD 1133, he was promoted and honored with a banner praising his loyalty, “Jingzhong Yuefei,” after he cracked down on peasant uprisings in Jiangxi. Yue Fei waged a protracted campaign against the invading Jurchens in an effort to take back the north. He succeeded in recovering Zhengzhou and Luoyang after the victory at Yancheng. Just as he was threatening to attack and recover Kaifeng, corrupt officials advised Emperor Gaozong to recall Yue Fei to the capital and negotiate for peace with the Jurchens.Yue Fei was ordered twelve times to return. Yue Fei finally submitted to the will of his emperor and returned to the capital, where he was imprisoned. Qin Hui would eventually arrange for him to be executed in AD 1142 on false charges. After his death, his honor was restored and given the title “Prince of E” during Emperor Ningzong’s reign. He also wrote a book titled Yue Wumu Yiwen. Statue of Yue Fei

Statue of Wen Tianxiang

Wen Tianxiang (AD 1236–AD 1283), born in Luling in Jizhou (present-day Ji’an in Jiangxi Province). He was the top scorer (zhuangyuan) in the imperial examination in AD 1256. In AD 1275, he led an army of volunteers to battle against the Yuan army and defended Lin’an (present-day Huangzhou). The following year, he was made a chancellor and was sent to the Yuan camp for negotiation, but was arrested there. He continued to campaign against the Yuan armies in Jiangxi, Fujian, and Guangdong after he escaped from the Yuan camp. In AD 1278, Wen was captured and sent to Dadu. He was offered a Yuan post, and ordered to convince the remaining Song forces to surrender. Wen refused both requests and was executed in AD 1283. During this period, he wrote the famous poems Zhenqige


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(Song of Righteousness) and Guo Lindingyang (Passing Lingdingyang). “None since the advent of time have escaped death, may my loyalty forever illuminate the annals of history.”

Along the River During the Qingming Festival

Along the River during the Qingming Festival is the title of several panoramic paintings which are the representative work of the Song Dynasty artist Zhang Zeduan (AD 1085–AD 1145). It is one of the greatest pieces of ancient Chinese art, capturing the daily life of peo- Along the River during the Qingming Festival ple from the Song Period along the Bian River near the capital, Bianjing. It presents vividly and in great detail the craftsmanship, architecture, transport tools, and customs of the Song metropolis.

Bi Yong Bi Yong was originally an academy established by the emperors of the Zhou Dynasty. During the Eastern Han Dynasty, CaiYong explained in his book, Mingtang Yueling Lun, that Bi Yong was a place surrounded by a wall of water. Bi Yong existed in all the following dynasties. Bi Yong was a place of sacrifice, but it was used as a pre-school of imperial academy in the late Song Dynasty.

Bi Yong

Wen Xi Yan The Tang and Song emperors practiced the tradition of holding banquets for people who had passed the last jinshi and other exams.These banquets were called Wen Xi Yan (banquet in celebrating the happy news). During the Song Dynasty, the banquets took place on two different days: The first was a jinshi banquet, inviting those who passed the jinshi exam as well as chancellors, while the second invited those who had passed other exams as well as shenglang officials.The banquets given

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by Song emperors used to take place at the Qionglin Garden, and were therefore also called the Qionglin banquets.

First Banknote in the World: Jiaozi or Huizi

Commercial activity grew very quickly with the rise of cities during the Northern and Southern Song Dynasties. During the Northern Song Dynasty, there were more than 1,900 trading markets in cities and towns nationwide. Commercial prosperity brought about changes in iron coins that were used as currency. In Sichuan in the Northern Song territory, sixty-five kilograms of iron coins was needed to pay for a roll of luo (a type of silk textile).To avoid unnecessary nuisance, sixteen rich merchants in Sichuan jointly issued jiaozi, paper money. Jiaozi was paper printed with images of houses and figures. During Renzong’s reign, the government monopolized the issuance of jiaozi. The circulation of jiaozi was widespread in Southern Song territory, and jiaozi and copper coins became equally recognized currencies. Also called huizi or guanzi, it was the first paper money in the world.

Prosperity on Maritime Silk Route Foreign trade boomed unprecedentedly during the Song Dynasty. In some port cities, special residential housing was established to accommodate foreign traders, called Fanfang. Similarly, foreigners’ markets and schools were called Fanshi and Fanxue. In the Song, Liao, and Jin pe- Foreign trade in the Song Dynasty riods, Chinese merchant boats reached Korea, Japan, countries in the South China Sea, and countries as far as the Arabian Peninsula and the eastern coast of Africa. China exported porcelain and silk and imported spices and ivory.

Shibosi

As maritime silk routes had grown, shibosi was set up as an administrative body. The Tang had set up shiboshi in Guangzhou, while the Song set up shibosi and created the official post of tiju in Guangzhou, Quanzhou, Mingzhou (present-day Ningbo in the Zhejiang Province), Hangzhou, and Mizhou (present-day Jiao County in Shandong Province).The duties of this office included inspecting incoming and outgoing boats in the harbor, collecting business taxes, purchasing government-monopolized goods,


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and dealing with foreign traders.The department was called Shibo Tiju Si in the Yuan and Ming Dynasties, and was headed by a chief tiju. The institution was abolished during the Qing Dynasty.

Pu Shougeng Pu Shougeng is a noteworthy figure in China’s maritime trade. He lived around the turn of the Song and Yuan dynasties. Originally Arabian (also said to be from Zhancheng), he lived in present-day Quanzhou in Fujian. He owned a great number of merchant boats and was very powerful in the coastal areas. He served as Tiju for thirty years until the end the Song era, and surrendered to the Yuan army. In AD 1278, after he was appointed shangshu zuochen of the Fujian Xingsheng, he invited merchants from South Asia to China and restored maritime trade.

Song Dynasty Shipwreck In AD 1974, a Southern Song merchant shipwreck was unearthed from the mud in the Houqing Harbor in Quanzhou. The bottom of the boat remained intact, but nothing else above the deck survived. The wrecked ship was 24.2 meters long, 9.15 meters wide, and oval in shape, with a pointed bottom. Many relics were found inside the ship, including spices, medicine, wooden plates, copper coins, ceramics, and bamboo and vine wares. There is evidence that it was a medium-sized ocean merchant ship from the late Southern Song Dynasty in Fujian. It sailed to Southeast Asia, and when it returned to the harbor, it sank after an accident. Scientific calculation indicates that if reconstructed, the boat would be thirty-four meters long, eleven meters wide, and four meters deep, with a load of two hundred tons. The shipwreck is now displayed in the Museum of Quanzhou Bay’s Ancient Boats at the Kaiyuan Temple in Quanzhou.

Qifeng Stone inscription in Quanzhou

Qifeng was the title of the local chief official and the official of Shibosi, literally meaning “to pray for wind for safe navigation.” Qifeng stone inscriptions were found in the Jiurishan Hill in Quanzhou.

The Song–Liao War The Khitan people originated in the upper reaches of the Liao River and engaged in livestock breeding, fishing, and hunting. They were organized into clans during the Sui and Tang eras and eventually submitted to the Tang Dynasty. At the end of the Tang era, their power grew when the Central Plains were in chaos. The Han farmers who moved north of the Great Wall to escape war lived among the Khitans. The Khitans gradually learned to farm, weave, and build houses and towns. Some

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of them settled down in order to take up farming. In the early tenth century, Yelu Abaoji unified the Khitan clans and in AD 916, he proclaimed himself emperor and established the Liao Dynasty, with its capital in Shangjing. Abaoji was titled Emperor Taizu of the Liao The Khitan people Dynasty. During his son Deguang’s reign, Shi Jingtang from the Shatuo clan became jiedushi in the Hedong area in the Later Tang era. He eyed the throne, and conspired with the Khitan army to overthrow the Later Zhou emperor. Sixteen prefectures fromYouyun were ceded to the Khitans. In AD 979, Emperor Taizong of Song ended the Northern Han Dynasty and attempted to recapture these sixteen prefectures before attacking the Liao Dynasty. While the military attacked Youzhou, Emperor Jingzong of the Liao Dynasty arrived at Gaolianghe and defeated the Song army. When the Song army returned the next year, it was defeated again at Mozhou. In AD 986, Emperor Taizong made another attempt by employing three armies quite successfully at the beginning of the campaign. However, the Eastern army was defeated after rash advances, and on the western front, The Khitan script an old deputy general, Yang Ye, and his army were attacked while helping civilians in the border area to safety. He was captured and died soon after. In the autumn of AD 1004, a large Liao army attacked the Northern Song and fought all the way to Chanzhou (present-day Puyang) on the Yellow River, threatening the capital Bianliang (present-day Kaifen) to the shock of the Song court.


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The Song Prime Minister, Kou Zhun, was determined to resist and tried to persuade Emperor Zhenzong to lead the army. Vice Prime Minister Wang Qinruo advised the emperor to move the capital to Jinling (present-day Nanjing), and Vice Prime Minister Chen Xiaoshou suggested moving to Chengdu instead. Emperor Zhenzong was confounded by the situation and had no idea what to do. He was finally forced The Treaty of Chanyuan to agree to lead the army at the urging of Kou Zhun and a few other officials. Chanzhou was divided into two sections by the Yellow River. Emperor Zhenzong refused to cross the river from the southern bank. Gao Qiong, general of the imperial guards, had to bully his soldiers with a whip, making them carry the emperor across the river on his sedan chair. When the yellow dragon of the emperor’s flag flew on the city walls, cheers from the army could be heard many miles away, and the army was inspired. Many soldiers fought bravely, and the Liao general was killed by an arrow as he directed the battle from outside his tent.The Liao army was intimidated and then proposed a peace treaty. Kou Zhun refused to do so, but Emperor Zhenzong did not want to continue the war. Cao Liyong was sent as an envoy to negotiate with the Liao, and was informed that the emperor’s deal was “anything under one million.” Kou Zhun knew he was not able change the emperor’s mind and asked Cao Liyong to come to his tent before he set off on his mission. He told him, “You know the emperor’s deal, but if you dare to give more than 300 thousand I will order your death.” An agreement was reached: the two countries would be allies and the Song would give two hundred thousand pi of silk and a hundred thousand liang of silver to the Liang annually.This treaty was later known as the “Treaty of Chanyuan” by historians because Chanzhou was also called Chanyuan. As a result of this humiliating treaty, the burden of the Song people grew. However, peace remained for more than a hundred years, and it opened up communication and trade between the north and south.

IV. The Liao Dynasty After Abaoji ascended the throne in AD 916, he used Han Yanhui, a Han in Youzhou, as an important advisor. Han taught the Khitans how to build houses, streets, towns, and markets, and how to live alongside the Han people. He also helped the Khitans

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to establish their sovereignty over other territories and learn the hereditary monarchy of the dynasties in the Central Plains. He reformed Khitan habits, customs, and systems and accelerated their development. In later years, Khitan rulers constantly invaded neighboring territories and captured many Han people, but they accepted and employed many Han scholars and officials. The Khitan territory stretched from the sea in the east to the desert in the west, and from the south of the Great Wall to the northern desert. Under the impact of the culture from the Central Plains, the Khitans became a feudal dynasty and a formidable power in the north. Through the defeat of the Song Dynasty, the Khitans found the Song Dynasty’s weakness and began to attack the Song. This eventually led to the Treaty of Chanyuan. To be effective in governing the Han people, it applied separate political systems to the Han and the Khitans. The Southern and Northern Chancellors were appointed at the central government level. The Southern Chancellor was a position held by a Han or a Khitan, following the system used since the Tang governed the Han and the people of Balhae.The Northern Chancellor was a Khitan and had more power, governing the Khitans and other ethnic groups. They were called the Southern and Northern Chancellors because their offices were located south or north of the imperial palace. The Liao also established the system of five capitals: Shangjing of Linhuangfu as the imperial capital since AD 936, Nanjing as Dongjing of Liaoyangfu,Youzhou as Nanjing of Youdufu (later called Zhejinfu), Zhongjing of Dadingfu, and Yunzhou as Xijing of Datongfu. The Khitans created their own script. The Khitan language belonged to the Altaic family, a type of medieval Mongolian language. The Khitans did not have a written language. As they were Sinicized, literary works were written in Chinese. Yelu Abaoji employed Han experts to create the Khitan large and small scripts. Parts of Chinese characters were assembled into compound characters to create the Khitan script. The “large script” was written in vertical columns running from top to bottom and from right to left. Some of the characters were Chinese, while others were independent inventions.The “small script” was also termed simplified characters, and it included logograms, syllabograms, and possibly some phonograms. Examples of large script were found in the imperial tomb (now Baitazi of Liaoning) unearthed in AD 1932, with characters inscribed on the tomb stele of Emperor Daozong and his empress of the Liao Dynasty. One individual must be mentioned when talking about Liao rulers: Empress Xiao (AD 953–AD 1009). She was the empress of Emperor Jingzong, also named Chuo (Yanyan).When her son,Yelu Longxu (Emperor Zhizong) came to the throne, she was titled empress dowager. She was the regent when her son was young. It was recorded in history books that she followed the advice and enjoyed the loyalty of all


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the officials.Along withYelu Xiezhen and Han Derang, she participated in state affairs and sent Yelu Xiuge to guard Yan (present-day Beijing). In AD 986, she sent troops to defeat the Song army at Qigouguan (present-day Southwest of Zhuo County in Hebei Province). In AD 1004, she and Yelu Longxu led an army in an attack on the Song and fought them all the way to Chanyuan (now Puyang in Henan Province), eventually securing the Treaty of Chanyuan with Emperor Zhenzong of Song. After the middle of the Liao Dynasty, the court became riddled with corruption. Ethnic and class disputes grew frequent. Different ethnic groups rebelled against the rulers. Under joint attacks from the Song and Jin regimes, the Liao Dynasty was eventually annihilated by the Jin Dynasty.

V. The Jin Dynasty The Establishment of the Jin Dynasty The Jin Dynasty was established by the Jurchens, who were descendents of the Heuksoo Malgal or Black-Water Mohe. They inhabited the area by the Songhuajiang River and the lower reaches of the Heilongjiang River, and lived on fishing and hunting. They were conquered by the Khitans. To consolidate its rule over the Jurchens, the Liao Dynasty included the Jurchen tribes in Liaoyang, which officially accepted the Liao culture and were called Shu Jurchen. Other tribes north of the Heilongjiang River and Ningjiang Prefecture (present-day Fuyu in the Jilin Province) who kept their ethnic identity were not included in the register, and were therefore called Sheng Jurchens. The Wanyan Tribe of the native Jurchens gradually grew stronger and unified all the tribes. When Wanyan Aguda became chieftain, he led his people to fight against the rule of the Liao, and gained power. In AD 1115, he ascended the throne and established the Jin Dynasty. He established his capital at Huining Jin and named himself Emperor Taizu of the Jin Dynasty. Aguda recruited his people into the Meng’an Mouke, which was a social and military organization as well as a The site of the capital of the Jin Dynasty

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local government unit. Able-bodied men in every household were engaged in economic activities in times of peace, and went to battles when there was a war. Due to the Jurchen’s military and territorial expansion, many Mouke households moved south to the present-day northern China area. The Jin rulers captured a large amount of land and distributed farmland among the Jurchens. Mouke households soon became landlords, and rented the farmland to the Han people instead of farming the land themselves. This accelerated the feudalization of the Jurchens. After Aguda founded the Jin Dynasty, it soon became a strong nation. The politically corrupt Liao regime was under attack from various ethnic groups. Aguda led his army against the Liao several times and weakened it. Later, the Jin and the Song agreed in the Treaty of Haishang that they would jointly attack the Liao from the north and the south. In AD 1125, the last emperor of the Liao,Tian Zuo, was captured by the Jin. When the Liao Dynasty was defeated, the Song took the land south of the Great Wall and the Jin took that north of the Wall. After the defeat of the Liao Dynasty, the Jin rulers ignored the treaty and invaded Song territory twice, posing a threat to the capital at Dongjing. The Song army, led by Minister Li Gang, defended the capital successfully. However, the emperor was not determined to fight back and Dongjing was eventually seized by the Jin. In AD 1127, the Jin army captured Emperor Huizong, Emperor Qinzong, their empresses and concubines, and three thousand officials. The Northern Song Dynasty met its end, and this later came to be known as the Jingkang Incident.

The Jurchen Script The Jurchens did not have a written language until the Jin was established. It happened when Aguda asked Wanyan Xiyin to create the Jurchen script that was based on the Khitan script. The Jurchen script was another example of cultural exchanges between the Han, the Khitans, and the Jurchens. All three were Jurchen official The Jurchen script languages. When the Jurchens became increasingly sinicized, Chinese language and characters were more commonly used. By the middle of the Ming Dynasty (in the fifteenth and sixteenth centuries), the Jurchen script was completely obsolete.


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From Hailing to Yanjing After the death of Emperor Taizong of Jin, the grandson of Emperor Taizu came to the throne. Addicted to alcohol, he was killed by commoners in Hailing in AD 1149. Hailing Wang, or Prince of Hailing, moved the capital from Hailing to Yanjing, and then to Bian. He led a large army on a campaign to the south in AD 1160. As he was a fierce and brutal man, Shizong was made the emperor of Liaoyang immediately after his army left.The Hailing army arrived in Caishiji and was defeated by Yu Yunwen, a Song general. He tried an alternate route via Yangzhou and was eventually killed by his soldiers. The Jin army then withdrew and retreated to the north.

Sinicization of the Jurchens When the Southern Song and the Jin dynasties signed a peace treaty, the Jin empire included regions north of the Huaihe River. The Jin’s territory even included parts of the present-day Sea of Japan, Sea of Okhotsk, the Stanovoy Range in Russia in northeast, present-day Mongolia in northwest, Hetao, bordering the Western Xia Dynasty in the west at the Hengshan Mountain in Shaanxi and Eastern Gansu, bordering the Song Dynasty in the south at the Qinling Mountain and the Huaihe River. A number of reforms were carried out to manage this large jurisdiction.These were similar to the administration processes of the Southern Song, and established a centralized power base. The Jin rulers organized the large-scale emigration of the Jurchen people to the Central Plains. They also resumed and developed agricultural production, the craft industry, and commerce. In addition, they encouraged Jurchen-Han marriages and practiced more Han customs. It is recorded that in the twenty years after the Jin Dynasty moved its capital to Yanjing, the Jurchens gradually changed their diet habits and cultural customs to mimic Han customs. Even the emperors’ children learned Han customs and could hardly read their own languages.

VI. The Western Xia Dynasty Li Yuanhao founded the Western Xia Dynasty The Western Xia Dynasty was the regime established by the Tangut, who were a branch of the Khitans. In the early Tang period, they were given the family name “Li” by Tang emperors, and were made vassals who had to pay tributes to the Tang Dynasty.They were also allowed to move to and settle in Gansu, Ningxia, and the northern part of Shaanxi. During the late Tang period, they helped to suppress the Huang Cao uprising, and therefore, were conferred the title of Duke of Xiaguo. During the Five Dynasties era, when vassals established independent regimes, the Tangut seized

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the opportunity to grow stronger. During the early Song Dynasty, Li Jipeng, the Tangut chieftain, and his clan established the Western Xia. He proclaimed himself king in AD 990. In AD 1038, King Yuanhao installed himself as the emperor of the Da Xia, whose capital was situated in Xinqing (present-day Yinchuan). Yuanhao spoke Chinese, had decent knowledge of Buddhism, and was fond of reading The mausoleum of Li Yuanhao military books and laws. Imitating the Song system, he established his bureaucratic and military departments, and placed Han people in important posts.They also created the Tangut script.The Tangut were called the Western Xia because they lived northwest of the Song Dynasty. After Yuanhao was crowned, he campaigned against the Song and both sides suffered great casualties.Yuanhao proposed ending the hostilities, and a peace treaty was reached in AD 1044. Yuanhao then was subjected to the Song who bestowed 70,000 liang of silver, 150,000 pi of silk textiles, and 30,000 jin of tea on the Tangut. After the peace treaty, the two sides traded along the borders. The Song people sold tea, textiles, grains, and china in exchange for horses, cattle, sheep, camels, and felt from the Western Xia.The Tangut learned the culture of the Central Plains by establishing imperial college and translating Chinese books into the Tangut language.

The Tangut Script The Tangut were nomads and did not have their written language. The Tangut script was created by copying Chinese characters, and was called “national script.” The Tangut script was used to publish books explaining its phonology, meaning, and structure, and Confucian classics such as the Analects and the Mencius. When the Mongols destroyed The site of the capital of the Western Xia Dynasty the Western Xia Dynasty, they reduced the cities to ruins, and the once splendid Tangut culture disappeared completely from the Northwest. From 1908 to 1909, the Russian explorer Piotr Kuzbmich Kozlov, under the auspices of the Royal Society of Geography, excavated an important Tangut


city named Khara-Khoto. There, he uncovered a great number of books, booklets, scripts, Buddha figures, and statues, as well as some reference books and dictionaries such as Fanhan Heshi Zhangzhong Shu and the Wenhai Baoyun, which made it possible to read the Tangut script. Recently, Khara-Khoto Script in the Russian Collection was published in order to help people understand the mysteries of this lost kingdom.

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The site of Heshui City

VII. The Mongol Empire and Genghis Khan The Mongols are an ethnic group in China with a very long history. In the middle and later parts of the twelfth century, Mongol tribes fought one other. The Mongol chieftain, Temujin, gradually grew in power and in the early thirteenth century, he unified the nomadic tribes after more than ten years. In AD 1206, Temujin was crowned the Khan of the Yekhe Mongol Ulus (Great Mongol Nation) at a Kurultai (general assembly/council) and assumed the title of Genghis Khan. The ambitious Genghis Khan quickly entered into conflicts with the Western Xia Dynasty. After they won the first few battles, the Mongol army broke the bank of the Yellow River and flooded the Tangut capital at Zhongqingfu, and forcing the Tangut to sign a peace treaty. Genghis Khan’s second target was the Jin Dynasty. After a few campaigns, the best armies of the Jin were destroyed and they had to buy peace from the Mongols by submitting gold, silver, and their princesses. The desperate Emperor Xuanzong of the Jin Dynasty moved his capital from Zhongdu (present-day Beijing) to Nanjing (present-day Kaifeng). Genghis Khan then occupied Zhongdu. As he was preparing to destroy the Jin Dynasty, he received reports of a few hundred Mongol merchants who had been captured and killed in the Khwarezmia (Chorasmia) Empire in the Western region. Furious, Genghis Khan sent his army to the west. After he had annihilated the Western Liao, Genghis Khan personally led the Mongol army on Genghis Khan

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a campaign against the Khwarezmia Empire in Central Asia, and seized its old and new capitals. He then captured the vast territories of Central Asia, Persia, and India. After these victories, he returned to the Mobei and died of illness in a military camp in Liupanshan when campaigning against the Tanguts. The Western Xia and Jin dynasties were destroyed by Genghis Khan’s son, Okodei (Ogodei). Later, Batu, the son of Genghis Khan’s oldest son, Joci, led an army to the west, which conquered Kipchak and Moldova, seized Moscow and Kiev, and invaded Poland and Hungary. He defeated the joint Polish and German forces in southern Poland, leaving Europe in shock. When the news of the death of Okodei Khan came, Batu returned to the east.The Mongol army units stationed at camps in the lower reaches of the Volga River stayed on in order to establish a trans-continental empire, the Kipchak Khanate or empire of the “Golden Horde,” as well as to build its capital, Batu-Saray, on the banks of the Volga River. When Yesu-mongke became the fourth Khan, he appointed his younger brother, Hulagu, to lead the third western campaign. This third expedition targeted Baghdad, capital of the Abbasid Dynasty (Umayyad Caliphate) of the Arab Empire. Baghdad was also the capital of the Islamic Arabic world. The Mongol army seized the city and the Caliph, the supreme leader of Islamic community, surrendered. The Mongols then invaded Syria in three stages. When Hulagu received news that Yesumongke had died, he made his way back east, but stopped when he heard that Kublai had been installed as the Khan. He did not return to Mongolia, and declared his support for Kublai. Kublai sent a royal decree stating that Hulagu was entitled to the land west of the Amur River. Hulagu then established an Ilkhanate in Persia and made Maragheh (present-day Azerbaijan) its capital. Temujin (AD 1162–AD 1227) was an outstanding Mongol chieftain and politician. Temujin was born AD 1162 to a Mongol tribe near the Burkhan Khaldun Mountain and the Onon and Kherlen rivers. When he was nine years of age, his father was poisoned during a meal. His family was then abandoned by his tribe, leaving them without protection. For many years, his mother and her children lived in poverty, surviving primarily on wild fruit, fish, and other small game hunted by Temujin and his brothers. He escaped captures by his enemies many times, and he learned from his difficulties in life. It is said that he fought like an eagle and was as joyful as a calf, and he was prudent and careful in the day, and determined and patient in the night. When Temujin was growing up, the Mongol tribes fought one other and were under the rule of Jurchen nobles. Later,Temujin’s tribe became stronger and defeated other Mongol tribes and unified the Mongol nation. In AD 1206, Temujin was acknowledged as Khan of the unified tribes and took on a new title Genghis Khan. Genghis Khan established Mongol military, political, and legal systems. Mongol script


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was created and used, and this accelerated the feudalization of the Mongol society. Subsequently, Genghis Khan, his sons, and his grandsons continued to expand their territories. In AD 1211 and AD 1215, they campaigned against the Jin. In AD 1219, they began their first expedition to the west and expanded their territories to include Central Asia and Southern Russia. Genghis Khan died of illness during the Mongol attack on the Western Xia Dynasty in AD 1227. After the founding of the Yuan Dynasty, he was given the title of Emperor Taizu of Yuan, and was honored as “Yi Dai Tian Jiao,” meaning “hero of his time.”

VIII. The Yuan Dynasty Kublai established the Yuan Dynasty Kublai (AD 1215–AD 1294) was Emperor Shizu and the founder of the Yuan Dynasty. He was the second son of Tolui, the fourth son of Genghis Khan. In AD 1260, he installed himself as the Khan in Kaiping, and then made Dadu (present-day Beijing) his capital. In AD 1271, “Yuan” was declared the name of his country. In AD 1279, the Yuan destroyed the Southern Song Dynasty and unified China.Yuan territory reached the Yinshan Mountain in the north, the desert in the west, Liaozuo in the east, and the South China Sea in the south. TheYuan Empire included four Khanates: the Kipchak Khanate, Ilkhanate, Chagatai Khanate, and Okodei Khanate. The territory Kublai of these four khanates stretched from the hinterland of Asia to Europe. These khanates regarded the Yuan emperor (the Great Khan) as suzerain, and they were considered vassal states of the Yuan.The title of Khan in the vassal states was gained by inheritance and had to be authorized by the Yuan emperor. The khanates paid tributes and sent envoys to the empire.

Dadu during the Yuan Dynasty During the Yuan Dynasty, Dadu was the political center of the empire as well as a commercial metropolis. A vast number of commodities flooded into the city via maritime, freshwater canal, and land routes. Merchants and foreign envoys from Asia, Africa, and Europe gathered here. Dadu was a well-planned city with a wall that was 2,800 meters long and

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a population of 400–500 thousand people. The commercial center of Dadu was located around the present-day Shichahai and Jishuitan areas. Here, people could find markets selling rice, flour, sheep, horses, silk textiles, and leather chaps. Every day, a thousand carts of silk were brought into the city. Foreigners were impressed by the prosperity and wealth of Dadu. There were also many Buddhist and Taoist temples, mosques, and Christian churches in the city. Dadu was a city with The site of the capital of the Yuan Dynasty rich culture that attracted many artists. The poet Yuan Haowen, the painter and calligrapher Zhao Mengfu, and the playwright Guan Hanqing all lived in Dadu.

Xing Sheng System in the Yuan Dynasty.

To centralize his power, Emperor Shizu improved the government by creating Zhongxingsheng responsible for administration, Shumiyuan in charge of military affairs, and Yushitai as a supervisory body at the central level. Xuanzhengyuan was also established to oversee religious affairs and deal with Tibet. Zhongshusheng was present at the local level, called xingsheng, or sheng, under which there were lu, fu, zhou, and xian. Hebei, Shanxi, and Shangdong were directly governed by Zhongshusheng, and the other areas were divided into ten xingsheng: Lingbei, Liaoyang, Henan, Shaanxi, Sichuan, Gansu, Yunnan, Jiangzhe, Jiangxi, and Huguang. This system played an important role in the political unification of the country. The Yuan Dynasty also created the Penghu Inspection Agency to govern Penghu and Taiwan. This system helped to facilitate economic and cultural exchanges between different ethnic groups and strengthened the government’s control over its frontier areas. Duan Siping (AD 893–AD 944), was the first king of the Dali Kingdom between AD 937 and AD 944. He came from a large family of the ethnic Bai people, who were nobility during the Nanzhao Dynasty. In AD 902, during the reign of Emperor Zhaozong of Tang, Zheng Maisi, a Nazhao nobility, overthrew the dynasty. Three dynasties (the Kingdoms of Dachanghe, Datianxing, and Dayining) followed in quick succession until Duan SipDuan Siping


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ing (the former jiedushi of Tonghai) seized power in AD 937 and ended the Kingdom of Dayining, establishing the Kingdom of Dali. It mostly comprised Bai people, and its territory included Yunnan and southwestern Sichuan. The jurisdiction of the Kingdom was divided into eight fu, four jun, and thirty bu. Agriculture, animal husbandry, handicraft, and metallurgical technology were developed.The king was given the title “King of Dali” and “Yunnan jiedushi” by the Song court. They assimilated Han culture into their own, and the Chinese script was commonly used by the ruling class. Buddhism was widespread. In AD 1253, Kublai destroyed Dali, and Yunnan became one of the Yuan’s xingsheng. The Duan family became governor hereditarily.

Four-Class System in the Yuan Dynasty The Yuan rulers had a policy of ethnic discrimination that involved dividing people into four classes and governing them accordingly: the Mongols were the first class, Semu people (which included the Tangut, the Hui, and Uihur people) the second, the Han people (who were referred to as Han people living in the Jin’s territory) the third, while the Khitans, Jurchens, and southerners (including Han people living in the territory of the Southern Song) as well as other ethnic groups were the fourth class.The Han and southerners in the government were not allowed to have any real power. A Han Chinese was not supposed to fight back when attacked by a Mongol. If a Mongol killed a Han, the Mongol was only exiled and had to pay for the funeral as punishment. If a Mongol was killed by a Han, his entire family would be executed. In addition, the Han and southerners were not allowed to practice martial arts, hunt, or assemble, and they were even restricted in the areas of lighting houses and owning pets. However, the Han officials and landlords who surrendered to the Mongols were granted these privileges. The Yuan Dynasty was open to different religions. Buddhism, Taoism, Islam, and Christianity could all be found in China, and Buddhist and Taoist temples were also built. Islamic Persians and Arabs moved to China and lived with the Han people and Mongols, and formed a new ethnic group, the Hui. In AD 1245, Archbishop Giovanni de Piano Carpini, the founder of the order of Saint Francis of Assisi, visited the Mongol Empire as the envoy of Pope Innocent IV. He presented a letter from the Pope to the Mongol Khan, who received the envoy very graciously and wrote to the Pope in return.Thus, contact with the Vatican was established. In AD 1253, Louis IX of France sent a Franciscan monk, Guillaume de Rubruquis, to meet the Great Khan. He returned to France with a letter of credence from Mongke. The Mongol Khans were interested in establishing contact with Christian churches.

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The Mongolian Script The Mongols did not have a written language until the nation was formed. After defeating the Naimans, the Uyghur script was used. In AD 1269, during the reign of Emperor Shizu, Drogon Chogyal Phagpa designed a new alphabet by changing the Tibetan script to encompass Mongolian and Chinese characters.The vertical Phagspa script, which ran from the left to the right, was used throughout the empire as the official script, and it was called the new Mongolian script.

Marco Polo in China The Yuan Dynasty had close contact with countries in Asia, Africa, and Europe. The best-known foreigner who visited China during that period was an Italian, Marco Polo. He arrived during Emperor Shizu’s reign and lived in China for more than ten years, traveling to different parts of the country. His book, Travels of Marco Polo, vividly recounts his experiences in the Orient, describing the prosperity of cities such as Dadu and Hangzhou. The book inspired European interest in the Orient. Marco Polo was able to speak Mongolian and ride horses. He soon learned Yuan court etiquette and Chinese customs after he arrived in China. Marco Polo He traveled extensively in China, and was sent abroad as an envoy by Emperor Shizu several times. He was said to have been a local official in Yangzhou. His accounts of China in Travels of Marco Polo were based on historical facts, such as the use of paper money and coal, and early Yuan political conflicts. He also mentioned the Lugou Bridge in his book, describing it as an extraordinary bridge.

IX. Literature and Art of the Tang, Song, and Yuan Dynasties The Tang Dynasty, often considered the golden age of Chinese poetry, produced more than fifty thousand poems in different styles written by more than two thou-


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sand authors. Tang poetry can be classified according to two periods, early Tang poetry, represented by Chen Zi’ang who reformed poetry, and the High Tang Period characterized by its achievements and a vast number of poets, such as Meng Haoran and Wang Wei (landscape poets), and Gao Shi and Cen Can, who were known for poems describing soldiers on the frontiers. Li Bai, the Poem-God and Du Fu, the Poet-Sage represented the highest achievements in poetry. Poetry during the Mid Tang era tried to depict real life, and was best illustrated in the satirical poems written by Bai Juyi. Late Tang poets such as Du Mu and Li Shangyin created a new, sensational style that featured historical sites. Ci is the major form of poetry from the Song Dynasty. However, Tang and Song prose also have their merits. Six of the Eight Great Prose Masters of the Tang and Song lived during the Song, including Ouyang Xiu, Wang Anshi, Zeng Gong, Su Xun, Su Shi, and Su Zhe.

Li Bai Li Bai (AD 701–AD 762), whose courtesy name was Taibai, was born in Longxi and moved to Shu (present-day Sichuan). When he was twenty-five years old, he started wandering throughout China and travelled to present-day Hubei, Shanxi, Shandong, Jiangsu, Anhui, and Zhejiang. When he was in his forties, he was given a post at the Hanlin Academy at the recommendation of He Zhizhang, but he had to resign at the orders of Emperor Xuanzong, because his character did not suit life in the imperial court. At the age of fifty-eight, he was involved in a revolt against the Emperor and the failure of the rebellion resulted in his exile to Yelang (present-day Tongxin of Guizhou Province). He was pardoned before his journey into exile was complete. Statue of Li Bai He died at Dangtu. Li Bai loved mountains and rivers and wrote many landscape poems. His poems were full of enthusiasm, fresh, imaginative, simple, and romantic. Over a thousand poems are attributed to him, many representing the pinnacle of poetic perfection, for instance, A Dream Journey in the Mount Tianmu, Hard Roads in Shu,The Hard Road, and Bringing in the Wine.

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Du Fu Du Fu (AD 712–AD 770), whose courtesy name was Zimei, was born in Gong County in Henan. He left home at the age of twenty to travel around the country. Later, he failed the jinshi imperial examination. He met and befriended Li Bai while traveling. He settled in Chang’an and lived there for ten years, and was given a junior post there. Du Fu led a largely itinerant life when Chang’an fell after the An Shi Rebellion broke out, and only settled temporarily in Sichuan with a friend. He died on a boat in Yueyang at the age of fifty-eight. He was also called Du Gongbu, as he served as yuanwailang of the Gong Bu. Du Fu lived at a time of constant unrest when the Tang Dynasty had started its decline. He was also called the “poet-historian,” and Sanli and Sanbie series are eternal masterpieces. Credited as the Poet-Sage, he used refined and dignified language in his writing, which was powerful and solemn.

Du Fu

Bai Juyi Bai Juyi (AD 772–AD 846), courtesy name Letian, was born in Xiagui (now Weinan in Shaanxi Province). He passed the jinshi imperial examination in AD 800. His official career was initially successful: he was a Member of the Hanlin Academy and shiyi, Reminder of the Left. In AD 815, he was exiled for remonstrating too forcefully. His career resumed when he was made cishi of Hangzhou and later, Suzhou and Henanyin. He settled in Luoyang in his Bai Juyi later years as the shangshu of Xing Bu and lived there in his retirement. Bai Juyi wrote about three thousand poems, making him the most prolific poet from the Tang Dynasty. There was a movement to reform poetry during the Mid Tang Period. Bai and his fellow poets emphasized the accessibility of poetry, i.e., poems that reflected real life. Poem in the Qin and NewYuefu are the best representative works of such poetry.

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Wang Bo Wang Bo (AD 650–AD 676), whose courtesy name was Zi’an, was born in Longmen in Jiangzhou (present-day Hejin in Shanxi Province). A gifted boy, he was able to read and write at the age of six, and correct mistakes in the books he read when he was only nine. In AD 666, he passed the imperial examination and was made chaocanlan. He offended the emperor with his overly witty comments and resigned to travel in Sichuan. In AD 673, he was made canjun of Huzhou and was later demoted again. He drowned in the sea while visiting his family in Hainan. He is the author of Collection of Wang Zi’an. Wang Bo,Yang Jiong, Lu Zhaolin, and Luo Bin- Wang Bo wang are collectively regarded as the four greatest poets in the early Tang era. His poems went beyond the limits of court literature and covered a larger range of themes. He used flowery and stylish language to express his emotions in poetry. His progressive thinking is reflected in the quote “friendships across the world make near neighbours of far horizons.” Wang Bo was also a great prose writer. His masterpiece “Tengwangge Xu” (Preface to the Prince of Teng’s Pavilion) has been widely read in China throughout the centuries.

Classical Prose Movement in the Tang Dynasty

This movement advocated clarity and precision rather than the florid piantiwen, or parallel prose style that had been popular since the Han Dynasty. Parallel prose had a rigid structure and was criticized for being overly ornate at the expense of content. The main proponents of the movement during the Mid Tang era were Han Yu and Liu Zongyuan, both promoting a new style that better reflected the real life.

Han Yu Han Yu (AD 650–AD 676), whose courtesy name was Tuizhi, was born in Heyang (present-day Meng County in the Henan Province). He passed the imperial examination with jinshi in AD 792. In literature, he strived to restore Pre-Qin and Han literary tradition in prose. He championed the classical prose, breaking free of the stylized formality of Tang prose to explore a writing style more suited to argumentation and the expression of ideas. His writings are often of the

Han Yu

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very highest standard, leaving nothing to be desired either in originality or in style. Han Yu wrote a large quantity of playful verse and often transformed the banal into wittiness. The most famous example of this was zashuo (The Essays).

Liu Zongyuan Liu Zongyuan (AD 773–AD 819), whose courtesy name was Zihou, was born in Hedonghai (present-day Haizhou, Yuncheng in the Shanxi Province). He passed the imperial examination with jinshi in AD 793. He was made zhengzi of Jixiandian, xianwei of Lantian County, jianchayushi, and Libu yuanwailang. He fell from favor because of his association with a failed reformist movement led by the Prince Statue of Liu Zongyuan of Shuwen. He was exiled to Liuzhou, where he eventually became the city’s governor. Together with Han Yu, Liu Zongyuan was a founder of the Classical Prose Movement. His essays cover a wide range of topics. He wrote in vivid and refined language, criticizing corrupt politics. His fables are reflective, as seen in Qian Zhi Lü (The Donkey of Qian). He also wrote beautiful travelogues.

Ouyang Xiu Ouyang Xiu (AD 1007–AD 1072), whose courtesy name was Yongshu, was a writer and historian living during the Northern Song era. He passed the imperial examination with jinshi at the age of twenty-four. He served as a civil official in the local and central governments, and was once fushi of the Privy Council as well as canzhizhengshi. He was demoted because he supported the Statue of Ouyang Xiu Qingli Reform started by Fan Zhongyan and criticized Gao Ruona for his excessive flattery. Ouyang was a literary leader from the mid Song era, referred to as the greatest literary figure of his age. He promoted the Classical Prose Movement that aimed to reform the florid styles of poetry and prose at the time. He also encouraged younger


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writers, such as the Su father and sons (Su Xun, Su Shi, and Su Zhe), Zeng Gong, and Wang Anshi, who all enjoyed his patronage. When he chaired the examinations at libu in AD 1057, he failed those who wrote in abstruse and intricate language, in order to correct their writing style. Being a learned man, Ouyang Xiu made great achievements in prose, poetry, historical writing, and literary criticism. He is most prominent for his prose, among which is Zuiweng Tingji (Pavilion of The Old Drunkard). Lyrical in tone, this work is a description of his pastoral lifestyle among the mountains, rivers, and the people of Chuzhou. Qiusheng Fu (Song of Autumn) vividly describes the various sounds of autumn. His poems include two collections, LiuYi Ci and Zuiweng Qinqu Waibian. As a historian, Ouyang (with Song Qi) led the commissioned team that compiled the New Tang History, which was completed in AD 1060. He also wrote a New History of the Five Dynasties. He played an important role in establishing the use of epigraphy as a historiographic technique.

The Su Father and his Two Sons The Three Su refers to Su Xun (AD 1009–AD 1066) and his two sons Su Shi and Su Zhe. They were great writers from the Northern Song era, and Su Shi attained the highest achievements. Su Xun wrote primarily about history and politics, and his prominent works are Quanshu and Lunheng. Su Zhe (AD 1039– AD 1112) was the author of Luancheng Ji. Su Shi (AD 1037–AD 1101), whose courtesy name was Zizhan, was born in Meishan (present-day Sichuan). In AD 1057, he and his brother passed the imperial examinations and attained the jinshi degree. Beginning in AD 1060 and lasting for the next twenty years, Su held a variety of government positions throughout China. He was also a member of the Hanlin Academy. He was demoted and exiled to Juchanghua (present-day Changjiang County in Hainan) because he suggested that some of Wang Anshi’s new policies be implemented, and was therefore not tolerated by the conservative faction. He died in Hangzhou on his way back to the north from exile. Su Shi

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Su Shi excelled in the shi, ci, and fu forms of poetry, as well as prose, calligraphy, and painting. With his poetic fame largely resting on his ci style poems, Su Shi also founded the haofang school, which cultivated an attitude of heroic abandon. In both his written works and visual art, he combined spontaneity, objectivity, and vivid descriptions of natural phenomena. Nianujiao: Chibi Huai Gu (Remembering Chibi, to the Tune of Niannujiao) and Shui Diao Ge Tou (Remembering Su Che on the Mid-Autumn Festival) were examples of this.The first poem was inspired by the 3rd century naval battle in the Three Kingdoms Era, the Battle of Chibi in AD 208. Su Shi was also a great calligrapher and painter who was skilled at painting bamboo, withered trees, and strange-looking stones.

Li Qingzhao Li Qingzhao (AD 1084–AD 1155), whose pseudonym was Yi’an Jushi, was born in Jinan, Shandong. She was a famous ci poet living at the turn of the Northern and Southern Song dynasties. Being a poet of the school of delicate restraint, she was natural and expressive in style, merging passion with literary images and creating an artistic conception in which feelings and scenery were well blended. Among her most prominent poems were “To the Tune of Like a Dream: Last night a sprinkling of rain” and “Shengshengman: I’ve a sense of something missing I must seek.” Legend has it that once her poet husband put one of her poems together with his own fifty poems, showing them to a friend Li Qingzhao and asking his opinion. After reading them the friend told his three favorite lines, “Oh, I cannot say it is not enchanting/Only, when the west wind stirs the curtain / I see that I am more graceful than the yellow flowers,” which are the last lines of Li Qingzhao’s poem.

Xin Qiji Xin Qiji (AD 1140–AD 1207 ), whose courtesy name was You’an and pseudonym was Jiaxuan, was born in Licheng (present-day Jinan in the Shandong Province). He grew up in Jurchen-occupied northern China, and rose against the Jurchens


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alongside Geng Jing who was murdered by Zhang Anguo, a traitor. Xin captured him and took him to Jiankang. Xin Qiji served in a number of government posts in the present-day Jiangsu, Hubei, and Jiangxi provinces. Xin Qiji was a famous poet in the Southern Song era, and his poems are full of patriotic sentiments. He was well known for Pusaman:Writing on the Wall of Zaokou in Jiangxi and Pozhenzi: Looking at my Sword in the Drunken Night. He advocated the campaign against the Jurchen invasion and when he had retired, he often recalled his days of fighting the Jurchens in his poems. His late life of seclusion in the countryside was also reflected in his poems on the stars and fields.

Lu You Lu You (AD 1125–AD 1210), whose courtesy name was Wuguan and pseudonym was Fangweng, was born in Shangyin in Yuezhou (present-day Shaoxing). He passed the imperial examination with a jinshi degree during Emperor Xiaozong’s reign. He served as tongpan of Zhenjiang, tongpan of Kuizhou, and anfushi of Chengdu. Lu You was committed to saving the nation by ousting the Jurchens. He was a great literary figure most prominent for his achievements in the shi and ci poetry forms. His poems are full of his feelings about unrest and patriotic spirit. This is best articulated in the following lines: “All turns to dust in my dying eyes, /only regret is that a unified land is not seen. / When the Lu You day of the emperor’s troops sweeping the North comes, / you must not forget to tell me before my tombstone.”

Guan Hanqing

Yuan Qu became a major performing art during the Yuan Dynasty. It is the synthesis of Yuan zaju (Yuan opera) and Sanqu (songs). Yuan zaju, composed of music, singing, dancing, performing, and narrating, is a comprehensive stage art and performed according to a script composed of both verse and prose. Sanqu refers to popular songs from the northern regions.

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Guan Hanqing is the most prominent playwright. Guan (pseudonym Zhaishou) was born in Dadu (present-day Beijing). He wrote over sixty plays in his life, of which more than ten survived. He expressed his deepest sympathy for the oppressed and exposed corrupt rulers in his plays. Injustice to Dou’e is the best-known play that he wrote. Guan Hanqing

Yuan Haowen Yuan Haowen (AD 1190–AD 1257), was a Jin Dynasty writer whose courtesy name was Yuzhi (pseudonym Yishan). Being a jinshi, he was gongbuyuanwailang in Xing Shangshu Sheng. He retired from public service when the Jin Dynasty met its end. Yuan Haowen was a learned man, a prominent poet and writer at the turn of the Jin and Yuan dynasties. His poems are somber and sentimental. He wrote thirty jueju poems in a natural and expressive style. He was also well regarded by literary critics.

Wang Shifu and Xixiang Ji Wang Shifu, was born in Dadu (present-day Beijing). His birth and death dates are not accurate. Lu Gui Bu included thirteen zaju (plays) that he wrote, of which Xixiang Ji (Romance of the West Chamber) is his best-known work. It tells the story of a secret love affair between Zhang Sheng, a young scholar, and Cui Yingying, the daughter of a chief minister in the Tang court. Zhang Sheng falls in love with her the first time they meet. However, word of Yingying’s beauty reaches a local bandit. He dispatches ruffians to surround the monastery where Yingying and her mother are staying, in the hope of taking her as his consort.Yingying’s mother says that whoever drives the bandits away can have Yingying’s hand in marriage, so Zhang Sheng contacts his friend General Du, who is stationed nearby, and subdues the bandits.Yingying’s mother begins to regret her rash promise to Zhang Sheng, and wants to go back on her word. The two young lovers are greatly disappointed and begin to waste away from their unfulfilled love. Fortunately, Yingying’s maid, Hong Niang, takes pity on them, and ingeniously arranges for them to meet in a secret union. Xixiang Ji is regarded as the zenith of Yuan era Za Ju.


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Wu Daozi Wu Daozi was a painter of the Tang Dynasty, born in Yangzhai (present-day Nanyu County in Henan), whose dates of birth and death are unknown. He was made xianwei of Xiaqiu, Yanzhou (present-day Yanzhou County in Shandong), and neijiao boshi, a court painter during Emperor Xuanzhong’s reign. He was very skilled at free brushstrokes and was considered one of the forerunners of the freehand style. He was honored as the sage of painting. The King Sends His Son Sakyamuni was among his most famous works. Emperor Xuanzong asked him to create a painting after he returned from his trip to Jianglingjiang River. It only took him a single day to depict the landscape of 150 kilometers along the river. He was best known for figure painting, and the ribbons he painted were so lifelike that they seemed to be blow in the wind.

Wu Daozi

Yan Liben Yan Liben (?–AD 673), born in Wannian of Yongzhou (now Xi’an), was a Tang painter. He was skilled at figure painting, using energetic brushstrokes for different stories. Among his masterpieces is Emperor Tang Taizong Meeting Tibetan Emissaries (38.5 x 130 cm), depicting the scene of Emperor Taizong receiving Ludongzan, the Tibet envoy.

X. Science and Technology during the Sui, Tang, and Song Dynasties Sun Simiao In the Sui and Tang dynasties, tremendous progress was made in Chinese medicine. During the Zhenguan reign of the Tang Dynasty, the government set up many medical schools with highly specialized medical disciplines. Under the rule of Emperor Gaozong, the government ordered doctors to compile Tang Ben Cao, which was the first pharmaceutical book in the world compiled and distributed by a government.

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Europe did not produce a similar book until over eight hundred years later. During the Tang Dynasty, many prominent doctors emerged. Sun Simiao was the most outstanding one. He devoted himself to writing Beiji Qianjin Yaofang (Essential Formulas for Emergencies Worth a Thousand Pieces of Gold), and was honored as the “King of Chinese Medicine” for his significant contributions to Chinese medicine and excellent care given to his patients. The Beiji Qianjin Yaofang was completed in AD 652, comprising thirty volumes. It collated the medical formulas of the former generations and folk Sun Simiao remedies and also expounded on the diagnosis, prevention, and prescription formulas of diseases, including topics such as gynecology, pediatrics, physics, surgery, nutrition, acupuncture, and so on. The book lists 232 symptoms, and 5,300 formulas. Besides Beiji Qianjin Yaofang, Sun also wrote another medical work called Qianjin Yifang comprising thirty volumes. It is the sequel and supplement to Yaofang, and contains more than two thousand ancient formulas that were not included in the latter. Sun Simiao was a doctor with lofty ideals. It is said that one day, when Sun Simian was on his way home, he came across four people who were carrying a coffin. He saw drips of blood seeping out of the coffin, so he rushed to the porters and asked, “Who’s the dead person in the coffin? When did he/she breathe his/her last breath?” He was told that a pregnant woman lay in the coffin. She had gone through a difficult labor and failed to deliver the baby, and died only moments ago. Sun Simiao asked, “Is it alright to open the coffin and let me take a look? I may be able to bring her back to life.”When the family of the dead learned that Sun Simiao was a doctor, they hesitantly agreed to have the coffin opened. Sun Simiao found the woman’s pulse was weak, and then inserted an acupuncture needle into an acupoint. Soon, the woman regained consciousness and the baby was born with a cry. It was amazing that one needle saved two lives.

The Zhaozhou Bridge The Zhaozhou Bridge is the oldest existing single central arch stone bridge in the world. For more than 1,330 years after its construction, it survived numerous earthquakes, storms, and floods, and it still stands on the banks of the Jiao River (in present-day Zhao County in Hebei Province). It is regarded by some as an impressive achievement in the history of bridge construction.


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The Zhaozhou Bridge

The Zhaozhou Bridge is about fifty meters long with a central span of 37.37 meters. It stands 7.3 meters tall and is nine meters wide. It has a structure of considerable aesthetic merit, and has been likened to “a new moon asleep Statue of Li Chun on the water.” Li Chun, its designer, who lived during the Sui Dynasty, innovatively used a single central arch of a circular segment, which is stable and more weight-bearing, easier for traffic, and uses less materials. The bridge has two small side arches on either side of the main arch. These side arches serve two important functions. First, they reduce the total weight of the bridge. Second, when the bridge is submerged during a flood, they allow water to pass through, thereby reducing the pressure on the bridge.

Crooked Plough The use of crooked ploughs advanced farming methods, increased land yields, and helped agricultural development. Crooked ploughs angle the cutting surface forward. When dragged through a field, the coulter cuts down into the soil and the share cuts horizontally from the previous furrow to the vertical cut. It is flexible, labor saving, and suitable for small patches of a field. This plough can be driven by a cattle or a person.

The crooked plough

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Seng Yixing and Dayanli Calendar Tang rulers were interested in astronomy and set up a special agency to observe celestial phenomena. Seng Yixing was the most prominent astronomer of the Tang era. Yixing was a Buddhist monk, named Zhang Sui at birth. He studied very hard as a young man and was famous for his knowledge in Chang’an. During Emperor Xuanzong’s reign, he suggested that the government set up more than ten sites throughout the empire to carry out an astronomical survey, which calculated the length of a degree of meridian. He was most likely the first person in the world to calculate the length of a degree of meridian based on scientific observaSeng Yixing tion. This survey had more than one purpose. It was also carried out in order to obtain new astronomical data that would aid in the prediction of solar eclipses, so that flaws in the calendar system could be corrected and a new, updated calendar installed in its place. As a result, the Dayanli Calendar signified the maturity of the ancient Chinese calendar, which came into use in the twelfth year of the Kaiyuan Reign.

Wood Block Print The invention of woodblock printing was a very long process. It was first invented during the early Tang Dynasty, inspired by the techniques of stamping and rubbing. The wood block was prepared as a relief matrix. The “white” parts were cut away with a knife, chisel, or sandpaper, leaving the characters or image in “black” at the original surface level. The block was cut along the grain of the wood. It was only necessary to ink the block and bring it into firm and even contact with the paper or cloth to achieve an acceptable print. The content would, of course, print “in reverse,” or mirror image. A skilled worker could print two thousand pages per day. It is believed that book printing started with Emperor Wen of the Sui’s order to print Buddhist scriptures. Nuze, written by Empress Zhangsun, and Ling Zi Xing Zhi, by Emperor Taizong, were woodblock prints. Jingangjing, produced in AD 868, is believed to be the oldest existing woodblock print in the world.


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Gunpowder The discovery of gunpowder is associated with alchemical experiments in ancient China. It was discovered by Taoist monks and alchemists searching for an immortality elixir. The recipe was first recorded by Sun Simiao, a prominent alchemist and medical doctor from the Tang Dynasty in his book, Danjing: When mixed, saltpeter and sulfur will ignite and give off a flame. A similar description can be found in a book from the eighth or ninth century, which is believed to be the oldest book to mention gunpowder. Gunpowder was first used in warfare to produce flamethrowers and rockets during the late Tang Dynasty. It was recorded that soldiers from the rebel army during the late Tang Dynasty used flamethrowers on the thatch-roofed houses of the defending army, and the fire cost three hundred enemy lives. The Mongol army brought gunpowder to Arab countries and Europe. During the Song Dynasty, gunpowder production techniques were improved, and a great amount of gunpowder and firearms were produced. Gunpowder was then classified as explosive, combustive, and flammable, and used in firelocks, rockets, and cannons. The sound of gunpowder explosions could be heard many miles away and produced a lot of heat. People and animals could be killed or wounded by it, and the Mongol army took many firelocks and cannons in their western expeditions.

The Compass, Shipbuilding, and Navigation During the Song Dynasty, major progress was made in magnetization and the use of the compass. Compasses are built as standalone sealed instruments with a magnetized needle turning freely upon a pivot, thus able to point in a northerly and southerly direction. As early as the Warring States Period, lodestone was used as compass, and was called zhinanzhen (south pointer). However, when lode- Compass stone was processed to use in compasses, it was brittle and lost its magnetism when heated. Compasses made of artificial magnets were widely used to overcome the shortcomings of lodestone. Once invented, the magnetized needle was used for navigational purposes. During the Southern Song period, the Arabs took compasses to Europe, which laid

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the foundation for global navigation and the discovery of the New Continent. The invention also stimulated shipbuilding in China, which reached a high standard as early as the Sui and Tang dynasties. Metallurgical techniques such as cutting, polishing, and jointing were commonly used, and propellers were mounted onto warships. China was already able to produce a fair number of ships at the time. Known to some as the “ruler of the sea,” the largest maritime ship in the world built during that period was too big to pass the Persian Gulf and people had to transfer to smaller boats. Five hundred maritime ships were built at Hangzhou during the early Tang period. Shipbuilding and navigation made some further progress during the Song and Yuan dynasties. Chinese boats traveled to countries in the South China Sea, the Arabian Peninsula, and the eastern coast of Africa. As a leading shipbuilding country in the Song Dynasty, China was capable of building ocean ships, and the government set up shiboshi in Quanzhou, Mingzhou, and Guangzhou to manage shipbuilding and foreign trade.

Movable Type Printing The movable type system was invented by Bi Sheng, a commoner living the mid-eleventh century during the Northern Song Dynasty. Bi Sheng’s type was made of baked clay. When he wished to print, he set an iron frame on the iron plate. He placed the types on this. When the frame was full, it made one solid block of type. He then placed it near the fire to warm it. When the paste (at the back) was slightly melted, he took a smooth board and pressed it over the surface, so that the block of type became as smooth as a whetstone. Then, he applied ink to the plate to print. When the printing was finished, the plate was heated and types could be removed. Archaeologists found that the Movable type printing first known movable type prints appeared as early as the Western Xia Dynasty. During the Song and Ming periods, metal movable types made of tin, copper, and lead were used. During the Song and Yuan dynasties, chromatic printing was invented to print paper money in

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order to avoid forgery. Official stamps and special designs were printed in red, blue, and black. Saving time and money, movable type printing advanced cultural diffusion and development. Movable type spread to Korea, Japan, Egypt, and Europe, where it appeared four hundred years later in the fifteenth century. During the Yuanzhen period of the Yuan Dynasty, Wang Zhen improved this system by creating a revolving table type case with individual movable type characters arranged primarily according to their rhyming scheme. Two revolving tables were actually used in the process; one table which had official types from the book of rhymes, and the other, which contained the most frequently used Chinese writing characters for quick selection. When setting types, a person sat between two turn plates to pick up the types from the revolving plate while another person read the text to him. This increased the efficiency of typesetting.

Shen Kuo and the Dream Pool Essays

Shen Kuo (AD 1031–AD 1095), whose courtesy name was Cunzhong, was born in Qiantang (presentday Hangzhou). He lived during the Northern Song period and was a prominent scientist. His research spans astronomy and the calendar system, among others. His book, Dream Pool Essays, records many scientific achievements in ancient China, including his own discoveries. Apart from science, Shen Kuo excelled in many other fields of study, including literature, history, music, and painting. He studied hard and was very observant. He formulated a hypothesis about the process of land formation based on several observations. This included his observation of fossil shells in the geological stratum of a mountain hundreds of miles from the ocean. He inferred that the land was reshaped and formed by erosion of the mountains, uplift, and silt deposits, after observing natural erosion at the Taihang Mountains. Shen discovered the concept of true north in terms of magnetic declination towards the North Pole. He also discovered petroleum reserves in Shaanxi and predicted the potential of the oil. It was he who gave petroleum a Chinese name: shiyou. Dream Pool Essays comprised twenty-six volumes. Coupled with two other complementary works, it

Sculpture of Shen Kuo

The Dream Pool Essays

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became a comprehensive science book exploring astronomy, the calendar system, mathematics, physics, chemistry, biology, and geology.The book is regarded as one of the eight greatest scientific works in the history of China. The Japanese mathematician, Mikami Yoshio, said that there was nobody like Shen Kuo. The British scholar, Joseph Needham regarded him as an important person in Chinese science history. On July 1, 1979, the Zijinshan Observatory in China named an asteroid they discovered in AD 1964 after Shen Kuo.

Guo Shoujing and the Shoushili Calendar

Guo Shoujing (AD 1231–AD 1316), born in Xingtai in Shunde (in present-day Hebei), was a famous astronomer and hydraulic engineer in the Yuan Dynasty. He worked as a government official and supervised water supply. Taishiju was set up during Emperor Shizu’s reign to work out a new calendar system. Guo suggested that the basis of a good calendar relied upon observation and surveying, which was based on good instruments. He invented almost twenty astronomical instruments, including the gnomon, the square table, the simplified armillary, and a water-powered armillary sphere called the Ling Long Yi. He gained calculations from different sites through observation, with the southernmost point at the Xisha Islands Statue of Guo Shoujing and the northernmost at Siberia. Guo completed the calendar system, calculating a year to be 365.2425 days, just twenty-six seconds off the current year calculated, making it the most accurate calendar in the world followed by the Gregorian calendar four hundred years later.

Song and Yuan Porcelain The size and techniques in the Song era’s porcelain industry greatly exceeded those of previous dynasties. Sites containing more than one thousand Song kilns have been found in 130 counties in China, among which thirty are sites of great importance. They include the Ding Kiln in Quyang, Hebei, which is famous for the ivory-white or creamy-white color of the majority of its products. The glaze of Ding porcelain is translucent and the product’s shape is elegant. The Jun Kiln was located in Yuzhou of Henan. Jun glaze colors include blue-gray, sky-blue, moon-white, red, and purple, like sunset glowing in the sky.The Ge Kiln is in Longquan, Zhejiang. Ge ware is celadon with fine cracks. The Ru Kiln is located in Ruzhou of Henan, and produced


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celadon as beautiful as the clear sky after rain.The Guan Kiln was located in Kaifeng in the Northern Song era and Hangzhou in the Southern Song era. It is usually celadon which is described as being made with materials and having a thick, clear, soft blue glaze. In addition, Jingdezhen kilns were famous for their white porcelain during the Southern Song and Yuan dynasties. As the center of porcelain production in China, its ceramic products were exported to many foreign countries.

Huang Daopo Reforms Weaving Techniques The cotton weaving industry spread to regions south of the Yangtze River during the Northern and Southern Song dynasties after the spinning wheel, fluffing bow, and loom were invented.The rise of cotton weaving marked the start of cotton cloth replacing linen to become a major material used in clothing and quilts. Huang Daopo came from a poor family. She learned new weaving techniques from the ethnic Yi people living on the Hainan Island, and she integrated these techniques with those on the mainland, improving existing weaving methods. She reformed the Yi pedal machine and invented the cotton gin for removing cottonseeds, which Sculpture of Huang Daopo made the weaving industry possible on a larger scale. She also transformed the mainland’s linen single-spindle spinning wheel into a three-spindle pedal spinning wheel, which was able to produce three balls of yarns at one time. It was the most advanced weaving machine in China at the time. Huang Daopo taught these techniques to people in her hometown in the Songjiang region, causing fundamental changes in the industry. Songjiang became the center of the weaving industry south of the Yangtze. An ancestral hall was built in her hometown to commemorate her, and she is regarded as the goddess of cotton.

Wang Zhen and Nong Shu Wang Zhen, courtesy name Boshan, was born in Dongping, Shandong and served as magistrate of Jingde and Yongfeng during the Dade years. He was credited for his achievements in promoting education and agriculture. Wang Zhen had rich knowledge of farming and agriculture and completed Nong Shu or the Book of Agriculture in AD 1313. The twenty-two-volume book comprises three parts: Nongsang Tongjue (Comprehensive Prescriptions for Agriculture and Sericulture),

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Baigu Pu (Treatise on the Hundred Grains), and Nongqi Putu (Illustrated Treatise on Agricultural Implements). Nongsang Tongjue covers agricultural history, timetables, cultivation, planting, irrigation, and harvesting. Baigu Pu deals with cultivation of various crops including vegetables, fruits, and bamboo. Nongqi Putu contains illustrated treatises on agricultural equipment, machines, irrigation equipment, water-powered mills, transportation tools, and weaving machines.

Abacus The abacus is a calculation tool, which originated from the rod calculus. In the shape of a rectangle, the Chinese abacus has two beads on each rod in the upper deck and five beads each at the bottom for both decimal and hexadecimal computation. It was first used during the Ming Dynasty, and was recorded in Jiuzhang XiAbacus angzhu Bileisuanfa Daquan, written by Wu Jing during the Ming era. It became popular across the country because it made calculation easy, and was also widely used in East Asia.

Wujing Zongyao

Wujing Zongyao (Collection of the Most Important Military Techniques) was an official book compiled by a team of Chinese scholars led by Zeng Gongliang with the aim to improve knowledge of all the known martial techniques used in warfare. It is written in two parts, and the first part (containing twenty volumes) covers a wide range of subjects, including military organization, infantry and cavalry coaching, marching, battling, strategy and tactics, use of weapons, and border geography. The part of battling and weapons are richly illustrated. The second part also has twenty volumes, and recounts the stories of battles and the application of yin and yang in warfare. The original has been lost, and extant copies are mostly re-written.

Song Ci and Xi Yuan Lu

Song Ci (AD 1186–AD 1249), whose courtesy name was Huifu, was born in Jianyang (in present-day Fujian). He served in criminal courts in Guangdong and Hunan for many years. Song Ci combined many historical cases of forensic science with his own experiences, and wrote the five-volume book Xi Yuan Lu (Collected Cases of Injustice Rectified) in AD 1247. It is the first forensic book in the world and was held in high regard by later generations of forensic scientists.


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Li Chunfeng Correcting Ten Mathematical Works Li Chunfeng (AD 602–AD 670) was born in present-day Baoji during the Tang Dynasty. He was an astronomer and mathematician who was first appointed to the Imperial Astronomy Bureau to help institute a calendar reform. He eventually was promoted to become the deputy of the Bureau. By order of the emperor, he and the mathematician, Liang Su, made corrections to ten mathematical works. Upon their completion, the books, including the famous Jiuzhang Suanshu (Nine Chapters on Mathematical Art), were used across the country. Two of the ten corrected works were lost after the Song Dynasty.

XI. Religion and Philosophy Christianity in China Christianity is a monotheistic religion centered on the life and teachings of Jesus, the revealer of God, as presented in the Holy Bible, which includes the Old Testament and the New Testament. Christianity began and spread in the Roman Empire in the first and second centuries. A Christian sect known as Nestorianism, which later declined, came to China in the seventh century during the Tang Dynasty. The Roman Catholic Church reached China during the late Ming Dynasty in the sixteenth century. After the Treaty of Kiakhta was signed by China and Russia, Russian Orthodox missionaries arrived in China. Different sects of Protestantism were also present in China after the Opium Wars. Chinese Christianity often refers to Protestantism.

Islam in China In the early Tang Dynasty, Uthman ibn Affan, the third Caliph of the Rashidun Empire, sent his envoy to Chang’an to meet Emperor Gaozong. This was the first recorded diplomatic exchange between China and the Islamic world and Islam soon arrived in China. During the Yuan Dynasty, many Persian and Arabian Muslims migrated to China and assimilated with the Han and the Mongols, forming a new ethnic group called the Hui.

The Rise of Neo-Confucianism Neo-Confucianism is a form of Confucianism that was developed primarily during the Song Dynasty. It was a philosophy that attempted to merge certain basic elements of Confucian, Taoist, and Buddhist philosophies. Zhu Xi was the most important Neo-Confucian thinker of the Southern Song Dynasty. He believed that li was the source of everything, the primary, while qi was the physical material making up the

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universe, and therefore secondary. He favored heavenly principles over human desires, arguing that the human desires were the source of all evil and should be eliminated by the heavenly principles. Teaching was very popular in the days of Zhu Xi, and there were four major academies of classical learning called shuyuan: Bailutong Academy, Yuelu Academy, Shigu Academy, and Yingtian Academy.The first two were set up by Zhu Xi to teach students of Confucianism. Zhu Xi, whose courtesy name was Yuanhui (pseudonym Hui’an), was born in Wuyuan, Huizhou during the Southern Song Dynasty. He passed the imperial examination in AD 1148 and obtained the title of jinshi. He then held some local government posts but concentrated mostly on the study of Confucianism. He learned Cheng Hao’s Confucian ideas from Li Tong, a follower of Cheng Hao. Zhu Xi formed a new system of Confucian thought called Lixue or Neo-Confucianism, which is different from the Confucian classics in the Han and Tang dynasties. It is the renaissance of Confucianism and an intellectual summary of the progress of Confucianism. It is widely believed that Zhu Xi was the greatest Chinese thinker since Confucius and Mencius, and the most important Neo-Confucian scholar. His philosophical thoughts have had extensive impact since the fourteenth century, and influenced Korea and Japan in the fifteenth and sixteenth centuries. His philosophy has also aroused Europe’s interest since the seventeenth century, and his work, A Complete Collection of Zhu Xi, was translated and published in Europe. Many western sinologists argue that Zhu Xi’s methodology is empirical in nature. Zhu Xi spent most of his life writing and teaching. He wrote extensive commentaries, such as Sishu Jizhu on Confucian classics. Most of his works include letters, prefaces, and postscripts he wrote, memorials submitted to the throne, and essays, which were compiled in Zhuzi Daquan. Zhou Dunyi (AD 1017–AD 1073), whose courtesy name was Maoshu (pseudonym Lianxi), was born in Yingdao, Daozhou (present-day Dao County in Hunan). He was a learned man and the forerunner of Song-era Neo-Confucianism. Neo-Confucian philosophers such as Cheng Hao and Cheng Yi were both his disciples. He was remembered as being generous, humane, and attuned to the natural world. He wrote in a short essay, Ai Lian Shuo (On the Love of the Lotus), saying, “Since the Tang Dynasty, people of the world have loved the peony very much. I especially love the lotus, which grows out of the dirty mud yet is clean, is cleansed by the pure waters but is not seductive; its center is void, thus the lotus has vacuity; it grows straight and has no creeping vines and branches.” He compared himself to the lotus and satirized those in search of fame and fortune.


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Zhang Zai (AD 1027–AD 1077), whose courtesy name was Zihou, was born in Mei County in Fengxiang (present-day Mei County in Shaanxi), and was a Northern Song philosopher. Zhang held that everything in the universe is comprised of a single fundamental substance, qi. In its dispersed, rarefied state, qi is invisible and insubstantial, but when it condenses into a solid or liquid, it takes on new properties. All material things, living and inanimate, are composed of qi, so everything has the same essence. In Zhang Zai’s terms,Taoism and Buddhism both emphasize escape from the world, and he criticized this as pointless. His most important works are his commentary on the Book of Changes and Zheng Meng (Cor- Statue of Zhang Zai recting Ignorance), included in the Complete Collection of Zhangzai. As recorded in Song History: Biography of Yang Shi, at the age of forty,Yang Shi visited Cheng Yi in order to study Neo-Confucianism with him.When he arrived at Cheng Yi’s house, Cheng was sitting there with eyes closed.Yang stood outside the door in order not to disturb him. Cheng Yi woke up after many hours to see Yang Shi covered with snow, and invited him in. Yang Shi, whose courtesy name was Zhongli, lived in his retreat house in Mount Gui, and was known as Mr. Mount Gui. He was titled Wenjing by the emperor after his death. The story, which shows his respect for his teacher, was also mentioned in Xie Yingfang’s poem. Lu Jiuyuan (AD 1139–AD 1193), whose courtesy name was Zijing, was born in Jinxi, Fuzhou (in present-day Jiangxi). He was a philosopher and educator from the Southern Song Dynasty. He was called Mr. Xiangshan because he once taught at Xiangshan. He argued for “the mind as the reason,” asserting that the reason of heaven, man, and objects are all in the mind. The mind is the only being; “the universe as my mind and my mind as the universe.” He believed that the mind and reason are eternal, and moral goodness is innate. He debated Zhu Xi for many years. A later Neo-Confucian movement, the Lu Wang School is named after Lu Jiuyuan and Wang Yangming. He is the author of the Complete Works of Mr. Xiangshan. Wang Yangming, born Wang Shouren in Yuyao (in present-day Zhejiang Province), was a philosopher and educator from the Ming Dynasty. He served as shangshu of Nanjing Bingbu and was posthumously titled Duke of Wencheng

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by the emperor. Wang was a leading figure in the Neo-Confucian School of Thought founded by Lu Jiuyuan, and opposed the school of Cheng-Zhu’s NeoConfucianism. He maintained that objects do not exist entirely apart from the mind because the mind shapes them. He believed that it is not the world that shapes the mind, but the mind that gives reason to the world.Therefore, the mind alone is the source of all reason. He understood this to be an inner light, an innate moral goodness, and an understanding of what is good. His philosophy first appeared to be anti-traditional, but in the middle of the Ming Dynasty, Wang’s philosophy became influential and spread to Japan. His followers compiled a thirty-eight-volume, Complete Works of Wang Yangming, of which Chuan Xi Lu and Da Xue Wen were his most important philosophical works. During the Ming and Qing Dynasties, the School of Neo-Confucianism and the School of Mind subsequently became the official philosophies of the rulers. However, flashes of enlightenment also appeared. Wang Fuzhi was a Chinese philosopher from the late Ming and early Qing dynasties.Wang’s metaphysical approach is not easily pigeonholed, but it is not too misleading to think of it as a version of materialism. Only qi exists; li, which was a central concept in traditional Confucian thought, does not exist independently, being simply a principle of qi. Qi, and thus, the whole universe, has always existed. His dialectic idea was reflected in his argument that motion is absolute and the rest relative.

Buddhism Buddhism originated in India and spread to China in the form of Mahayana Buddhism. Sakyamuni, the founder of Buddhism, is regarded as the Buddhists’ god. Bodhisattva means either “enlightened existence,” “enlightenment-being,” or “heroic-minded one who is enlightened.” Another translation is “Wisdom-Being.” Amithaba and Avalokitesvara, or Guan Yin (Goddess of Mercy) are two of the major Bodhisattvas. The Buddha’s first and most important teachings are the Four Noble Truths. Everything in life is painful. Nothing in life is ever good enough and what is good does not last forever. The reason for this pain is our desires, anger, and ignorance. We want more and more, so we feel pain. We feel pain even when we get what we want—because one day we will surely lose it. We feel pain through our anger and hatred and we are led into painful situations through our ignorance. There is hope. There is a way to end pain. The way to end pain is to follow the Noble Eightfold Path. The way to end the pain is Nirvana, which stops the circle of birth-deathrebirth. Buddhism first came to China at the time when Zhang Qian exposed China to the kingdoms and products of the Western Regions yet unknown to the Chinese.


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During the reign of Emperor Ai of the Western Han Dynasty, a Buddhist envoy from Great Rouzhi arrived in Chang’an, and Jing Lu, a scholar, accepted his Buddhist teachings. This is the earliest record of Buddhism in China. Emperor Ming of the Eastern Han Dynasty sent his envoys to the Western Regions to learn Buddhism. It was said that he saw a big golden man in his dream and explained the dream to his chancellors on the following day. One of his chancellors said that the golden man was Buddha from the West. He then ordered his men to go to India and invited two Buddhist monks to China.They brought back Buddhist scriptures on a white horse. The Emperor had them settled in Luoyang, and soon built the White Horse Temple. After that, Buddhism started to spread in China, and aristocrats worshipped Buddha and built temples. Buddhist texts were translated into Chinese. The White Horse Temple was reconstructed in the years of Jiajing during the Ming Dynasty. The Sutra of Forty-two Chapters is the earliest Buddhist sutra translated into Chinese. It was translated by two ordained Rouzhi monks, Kasyapa-Matanga and Dharmaraksha during the Eastern Han Dynasty. It was a selection of Hinayana sutra. Later, the Mahayana sutra was included. As early as the 220s, people in China began to have their heads shaved to become Buddhist monks.There were forty-two Buddhist monasteries in the Luoyang area during the Jin Dynasty. Dharmaraksha spent the rest of life translating Buddhist sutras after he brought them to China. Buddhism became popular in China. Shi Le and his son, who lived during the Later Zhao era, admired Buttocho, a Buddhist monk from Chuka, and Buddhism spread in the Zhongzhou area. People built Buddhist temples, and the number of monks and believers grew. Later, Kumarajiva, a Kuchean Buddhist monk, settled in Chang’an. He is remembered for the prolific translation of Mahayana Buddhist texts from Sanskrit to Chinese in three hundred volumes. During the Jin Dynasties, Buddhist monks Dao’an and Huiyuan brought Buddhism south of the Yangtze River. Therefore, Buddhism became popular during the Southern and Northern dynasties. Emperor Wu of the Southern Dynasty and Emperor Xuanwu and Xiaoming were Buddhists, and promoted the religion. As described by Tu Mu, a Tang poet, there were 480 temples in Jinling alone. A great number of Buddhist sutras were also translated during this period. According to Kaiyuan Shijiao Lu, there were 115 major translators during the Cao and Wei dynasties and the Northern Qi Dynasty. They translated 1,581 Buddhist texts in 4,047 volumes. Cao Buxing was born in Wuxing (in present-day Zhejiang), and was a painter from the Wu kingdom during the Three Kingdoms Period. His fame was associated with his skills in painting dragons, tigers, horses, and human figures. He was one of the eight smartest people of his time, including Huang Xiang, a calligrapher,

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and Yan Wujun, a chess player. When a Buddhist monk from the Western Regions brought a statue of the Buddha to the Wu, he was asked to paint it. However, the copy he made was lost a long time ago. Fa Xian was a famous Buddhist monk in the Eastern Jin Dynasty. He traveled to Nepal, India, and Sri Lanka between AD 399 and AD 412 to acquire Buddhist scriptures. His journey is recorded in his work, A Record of Buddhistic Kingdoms. This is a travel book, filled with accounts of early Buddhism in Asia, and the geography and history of countries at the turn of the fifth century including China, India, Pakistan, Nepal, and Sri Lanka. It is the earliest detailed record of land and maritime transportation, which is of great interest to scholars. The work was translated and spread to France and Britain in the nineteenth Century. Buddhism believes in soul after death, the circle of birth-death-rebirth and karma, setting the spirit of people living in poor and miserable conditions free, and helping the rulers to control the commoners. Therefore, Buddhism developed quickly during the Wei and Jin dynasties. Rulers spent a great deal of money building temples. Temples became too rich and powerful, possessing a lot of farmland and houses, and using up government revenues from tax and corvee. From time to time, people protested against Buddhism, and Fan Zhen, a philosopher of the Southern Dynasties is a good example. Fan Zhen was born into a poor family in present-day Henan Province. He later became a high-ranking official due to his erudite nature. Reacting to the prevalence of Buddhism in his time, he wrote Shen Mie Lun (On the Annihilation of the Soul), denying the ideas of reincarnation and body-soul dualism. He argued that “the soul is the body; the body is the soul. There is the body, there is the soul; when the body is destroyed, so is the soul.” Xiao Ziliang, a Buddhist and aristocrat, organized Buddhist monks and scholars to debate with him, but failed to disprove his treatise. Emperor Wu of Liang, unhappy with this work, gave an imperial decree criticizing the treatise, and ordered sixty-four of his courtiers to rebut Fan. Fan did not give in, and wrote again to defend his opinion. To strengthen imperial rule, Emperor Taiwu of the Wei and Emperor Wu of the Northern Zhou called for an abolishment of Buddhism. During that period, there were more than two million Buddhist monks in the Northern Zhou Dynasty and three million in the Northern Qi Dynasty. The Buddhist community enjoyed the privileges of being exempted from tax and corvee, which clashed with government interests. Emperor Wu of the Northern Zhou took a firm stance against Buddhism. He forced the Buddhist clergy back into lay life, confiscated their property, burned Buddhist scriptures, and destroyed Buddhist images. This was meant to increase government tax revenue and the availability of labor, which would favor economic development.


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This trend continued, and when Emperor Xuanzong of the Tang Dynasty ascended the throne, he also suppressed Buddhism, banning the construction of temples and forcing monks and nuns to return to civilian life. Han Yu, a Confucian thinker, was exiled for sending a letter to the emperor in which he denounced the elaborate preparations being made by the state to receive Buddha’s finger bone. Xuanzang was born Chen Wei in Houshi, Luoyang (present-day Yanshi in Henan). He entered Buddhist monkhood at the age of thirteen and Xuanzang was his name as a Buddhist monk. From boyhood, he took to reading sacred books, mainly the Chinese classics and the writings of ancient sages. Xuanzang developed the desire to visit India because he was concerned about the incomplete and misinterpreted the Buddhist scriptures that reached China. He started his pilgrimage from Chang’an Xuanzang in the first year of Emperor Taizong’s reign, traveling to the Yumen Pass, then to today’s Xinjiang, Afghanistan, Pakistan, finally reaching India after experiencing a lot of hardship. He spent five years at the Nalanda Temple, the center of Buddhist studies in the world at the time, studying Buddhist scriptures. He later earned a very prestigious reputation for his knowledge at a Buddhist debate in an Indian city. He returned to Chang’an in AD 645, and was received by Emperor Taizong, who appointed him to take charge of translating Buddhist sutras. He is credited with the translation of 1,355 volumes of scripture into Chinese. He also translated Dao De Jing into Sanskrit and took it to India. Xuanzang died in AD 664 during the reign of Emperor Gaozong and was buried at the Xingjiao Temple in Chang’an. Platform Sutra is a Buddhist scripture that was composed in China. It is one of the seminal texts in the Zen school. It is centered on discourses given at the Dafan Temple in Shaozhou and attributed to the sixth Zen patriarch, Huineng. The establishment of Zen is traditionally credited to the South Indian Pallava prince-turned-monk, Bodhidharma, who came to China during the Northern Wei Dynasty. The Zen school emerged during the Tang Dynasty. The sixth patriarch, Huineng, was not able to read and write, but he is said to have advocated an immediate and direct approach to Buddhist practice and enlightenment. His teacher, Hongren, wanted to select his successor, so he asked each of his disciples to write a gatha. One of the disciples, Shenxiu, wrote: “The body is a Bodhi tree, / the mind a standing mirror bright. /At all times polish it diligently, /and let

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no dust alight.” However, Huineng had a deeper understanding of the truth of Buddha, and he also had this poem written on a wall: “The Bodhi is no tree, /nor is the mind a standing mirror bright. /Since all is originally empty, /where does the dust alight?” Hongren was impressed by Huineng’s insight into Zen. Huiren asserts that all sentient beings have Buddha-nature, the universal nature of inherent wisdom and virtue, and emphasizes that Buddha-nature is nothing other than the nature of the mind itself. He believed that the human mind is a pure land, and there is no need for sermons and rituals to reach sudden enlightenment, or The Pagoda of Fogong Temple dharma transmission. His disciples developed his ideas about enlightenment and transformed the Zen school. Zen is divided into southern and northern schools in China. The northern school emphasizes gradual enlightenment while the southern focuses on faster enlightenment. In later years, the southern school prevailed, which asserted “a special transmission outside the scriptures,” “no dependence upon words and letters,” “directly pointing to the human mind,” and “seeing into one’s own nature and attaining Buddhahood.” People did not need rituals to be enlightened. Such a notion was later used by Neo-Confucian philosopher in their concepts of “pure mind” and “self-understanding.” The Sakyamuni Pagoda of Fogong Temple is the oldest, tallest existing fully wooden structure in China. The pagoda was built in AD 1056 during the Liao Dynasty in Ying County, Shanxi. Built in an octagonal shape, the pagoda is 57.31 meters high. From the exterior, the pagoda seems to have only five stories and two sets of rooftop eaves on the first story, yet the pagoda’s interior reveals that it has nine stories in all.The pagoda features fifty-four different kinds of bracket arms in its construction. Accurately designed and built in large dimensions, the pagoda is a pinnacle of wooden architecture in ancient China. It is now a national heritage site. The Chinese Buddhist Canon, or Great Treasury of Scriptures, is the total body of Buddhist literature deemed canonical and written in Chinese. It includes Agama, Vinaya, and Abhidharma texts as well as Chinese Buddhist works. Its compilation started during the Southern and Northern Dynasties, and according to the Kaiyuan Shijiao Lu, contains 5,048 fascicles in 1,076 texts. New translated Buddhist texts


were added to it in subsequent dynasties. It was first printed during the Northern Song Dynasty, and existed in carved versions during the Lao, Jin, Yuan, and Ming dynasties. Tibetan Buddhism is also called Lamaism. Mahayana Buddhism came to Tibet from India during the Tang Dynasty, and is still practiced in Tibet and Mongolian regions. It is primarily divided into four main traditions: Nyingma, Kagyu, Gelug, and Sakya, of which the first sect belongs to Old Translation and the last three, the New Translation. The Gelug, also known, as the Yellow Hat sect, is a school of Buddhism founded by Tsongkhapa (AD 1357–AD 1419) during the Ming Dynasty. The Gelug was recognized as orthodox and approved by the court during the Qing Dynasty. The lineage holders of the Gelug are the successive incarnations of the Dalai Lama and the Panchen Lama, two major disciples of Tsongkhapa. There are four great Buddhist Mountains in China: Mount Wutai in Wutai County of Shanxi Province, Mount Emei in Sichuan Province, Mount Jiuhua in Anhui Province, and Mount Putuo in Zhejiang Province. Southern Buddhism in China is called Theravada Buddhism, mainly practiced in the present-day ethnic Dai regions in China, Sri Lanka, Myanmar, Thailand, Cambodia, and Laos.

Mount Jiuhua

Mount Emei

Mount Wutai

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T H E M I N G A N D Q I N G DY N A S T I E S

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CHAPTER 6

The Ming and Qing Dynasties THE Ming and Qing (before the Opium War) dynasties lasted from the mid-fourteenth century to the mid-nineteenth century. The world history saw dramatic changes in many regions during this period. Capitalist elements first appeared in fourteenth and fifteenth century Mediterranean cities in Europe, and bourgeois revolutions took place in France, Britain, and the U.S. in the seventeenth and eighteenth centuries. The world entered a new historical phase. However, China declined from the mid-Ming Dynasty as a result of the feudalist system, which hindered productivity, and the closed-door policy of the Qing government. During the last years of the Yuan Dynasty, the corrupt rulers brought the country to the edge of economic collapse and social disintegration. Successive flooding of the Yellow River and natural disasters forced people out of their homes.The Yuan rulers were hit heavily by large-scale uprisings. Zhu Yuanzhang, a farmer-turned Buddhist-monk, rose to prominence quickly after he joined the Red Turban Rebellion in the Yangtze River and Huai River valleys. He soon became the leader of the peasant revolts. Growing stronger and more prominent, he beat other rivals and finally overthrew the Yuan Dynasty. In 1368, he established the Ming Dynasty and proclaimed himself emperor in Nanjing. He was Emperor Taizu of Ming and adopted Hongwu as the title of his reign. Zhu Yuanzhang published an edict to the effect that those who brought fallow land under cultivation could keep it as their property without ever being taxed for it. The people responded enthusiastically to this policy, and cultivated land rose sharply. He also reduced tax and corvee and encouraged the handicraft industry. Social order and the economy recovered under this rehabilitation policy. Politically stable and economically strong, the Ming Dynasty entered into another phase of prosperity in Chinese history The dynasty evidenced traces of decline in its middle phase when there was a lack of strong rule. The northern nomads attacked and occupied the northern passes, while wokou or Japanese pirates raided the coastlines of China, leaving the

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court struggling with both domestic and foreign problems. In early seventeenth century, Nurhaci, a Jurchen chieftain in northeastern China, united the Jurchen tribes and gradually formed a new ethnic community, the Manchu people. He was made military commander of Jianzhou by the Ming court and later declared his independence. In 1616, Site of the Ming palace in Beijing Nurhaci declared himself Khan and founded the Jin Dynasty, often called the Later Jin. In 1618, Nurhaci campaigned against the Ming. In 1636, his successor Huang Taiji installed himself as emperor in Shengjing (now Shenyang) and established the Qing Dynasty. By 1643, the Qing had occupied the territories north of the Shanhai Pass. Meanwhile the peasant uprising in Shaanxi led by Li Zicheng brought about an active response by people in northern China. Li’s army grew rapidly and occupied Beijing in 1644. The last Ming emperor Chongzhen hanged himself. In the same year, Qing troops defeated Li’s rebel army and moved the capital to Beijing. It was the beginning of the Qing rule in China. The Manchu was an ethnic group living in the remote regions of northern China. One of its older traditions was the system of bondservants, or boo-i. The Jurchen tribes Emperor Kangxi employed Chinese agricultural boo-i as early as the 1400s. The Manchu masters treated their slaves in much harsher ways than their Han Chinese counterparts. When the Manchu rulers conquered the Central Plains, they seized properties belonging to the Han people wherever they went, jeopardizing social productivity. The Han people strongly resisted the Manchu people when these northerners came marauding and massacring south of the Shanhai Pass. There were three radical instances of resistance in three massacres in Jiading,Yangzhou, and Jiangyin. The Manchu rulers enslaved large numbers of previously Chinese-owned estates over vast


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areas all over northern China and suppressed the Han people, increasing conflicts between the Han and the Manchu people. The early Qing rulers, especially Emperor Kangxi adopted policies to diminish these conflicts. They suspended the seizure of Han land, recruited Han scholars into the bureaucratic order, and restored the imperial examination system to stabilize social order and revitalize the economy. During the reigns of Emperor Kangxi, Yongzheng, and Qianlong, the unified multi-ethnic nation was consolidated and the economy rapidly grew to new heights in the nation’s history.

I. The Ming Dynasty Zhu Yuanzhang Zhu Yuanzhang (1328–1398) was the founding emperor of the Ming Dynasty. He was born poor in Fengyang in Anhui and became a monk at the Huangjue Temple. In 1352, he joined the Red Turban Rebellion led by Guo Jixing. When Guo died, Han Lin’er claimed the title of emperor and appointed Zhu the deputy general. In 1356, Zhu conquered Jiqing (now Nanjing) and installed himself as the Duke of Wuguo, abolishing the tyrannical policies of Yuan and ordering his generals to bring fallow land under cultivation. He took the advice of Zhu Sheng to “build high walls, stock up rations, and not be too quick to call yourself a king.” By so doing, he successfully strengthened his power, consolidated his bases, developed the economy, and enlarged his army, without exposing his real aims to other rising powers. After he defeated the most powerful opponent Chen Youliang and eliminated other remaining powers, he proclaimed himself the King of Wu Kingdom.Two years later, he betrayed the peasants’ revolt by calling the Red Turban a demon and killing Han Lin’er. In 1367, Zhu’s forces defeated another major warlord, Zhang Shicheng, and ordered his generals Xu Da and Chang Yuchun to campaign up in the north. In 1368, Zhu proclaimed himself the Ming emperor in Nanjing and adopted Hongwu as the title for his reign. In the same year, Xu Da captured the Yuan capital Dadu and overthrew the Yuan’s rule. After Zhu came to the throne, he commanded his followers to carry out a population census, remeasure land, reduce taxes and corvee, build water conservation works, and encourage land cultivation. He also enacted the Da Ming Lu (the Code of the Great Ming) to con- Zhu Yuanzhang

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strain the rich and the powerful, abolished the offices of the grand councilor so as to have a tighter grip on imperial power, and centralized the feudal autocracy. Under his rule, the economy in rural China recovered in times of peace. However, being a ruthless monarch, Zhu Yuanzhang killed more than 50 people implicated in the cases of the alleged rebellion headed by Hu Weikang and Lan Yu. Many generals who had fought battles with him were also put to death for various spurious reasons. He set up a secret service known as the jinyiwei to watch over his officials and people, allowing him to have the right to arrest and kill people, which he did with both ease and frequency.

Beijing, the Capital of Ming To consolidate his dynasty, Zhu Yuanzhang sent his sons to become feudal princes of various feudatories across the country. Over the years, their power had also grown, particularly that of Yan Wang, Prince of Yan in Beiping (now Beijing).The crowned prince Zhu Biao died at a very young age, and his son Zhu Yunwen became the crowned prince. When Emperor Taizu died, Zhu Yunwen took the throne and became Emperor Jianwen.To strengthen the power of the monarch, he tried to reduce the power of feudal princes. Before he was able to do so, Zhu Di raised his army and made his way to the south to “pacify the revolt.” His campaign for the throne is known as the “battles to pacify revolts.” When Yan Wang started his campaign in Beiping in 1399, Emperor Jianwen ordered his army to fight back, but his incompetent generals were defeated in many battles even though the imperial army was the greater of the two. Zhu Di was a good military strategist and fought all the way through to the south.Three years later in 1420, he captured Nanjing and set fire to the imperial palace. Emperor Jianwen mysteriously disappeared. The battles ended with the victory of Yan Wang. Zhu Di usurped the throne and changed the reign title to Yongle, and became Emperor Chengzu of the Ming Dynasty. Chengzu strengthened his defenses on the northern borders and decided to build his capital in Dadu of the Yuan. It took thirteen years and 800,000 workers to complete the construction. In 1421, he moved the capital of Ming from Nanjing to Beijing. Meanwhile, he continued the policy of reducing the power of feudal princes.

Zheng He’s Voyages to the Western Ocean Zheng He (1371–1433), born Ma Sanbao in Kunyang (now Jinyang) of Yunnan, was often called Eunuch Sanbao. He came from a Hui family and later became a Buddhist monk. His father died when he was only twelve years of age. He later followed Zhu Di and eventually became his trusted adviser and military officer, assisting


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him in deposing Emperor Jianwen. In return for his meritorious service, the eunuch received the name Zheng He from Emperor Yongle. Between 1405 and 1433, the Ming government sponsored a series of seven naval expeditions. Emperor Yongle designed them to establish a Chinese presence and look for foreign treasure for the emperor. For the first voyage, Zheng He was placed as the admiral in control of the huge fleet of sixty-two boats and 27,800 crewmen, which fleet carried a great amount of gold, silk, and other precious goods. In subsequent voyages, his fleet visited more than thirty countries in Asia and Africa and reached the Red Sea and the East Coast of Africa. Zheng He Zheng He and his fleet were well received in countries they visited. They met kings of various states, expressing their goodwill to the Ming Emperor. They traded Chinese silk, porcelain, and tea with local inhabitants in return for jewelry, spices, and medicines. Many foreign heads of state and envoys traveled to China on his boats. Just on the voyage of 1423 alone, he brought 1,200 envoys from sixteen countries to China. Zheng He’s expeditions set a precedent for friendly exchanges The model of Zheng He’s boat and peaceful co-existence between nations despite the differing sizes of countries, and his journeys had a significant influence in many parts of Asia. The diplomatic aspect of Zheng He’s expeditions was unprecedented in Chinese history. The size of his fleet, the length of his voyages, and the distance covered by his journeys were all firsts in maritime history, coming half a century earlier than the ocean navigation by various Europeans.

Tumu Crisis Battle of Beijing In July 1449, Esen Tayisi of the Oirat Mongols launched a large-scale invasion of China. His army and the Ming army personally led by Emperor Yingzong met at Tumubao, west of Huailai County. The Ming army was defeated and the Ming emperor was captured. This battle is known as the Tumu Crisis in history. When the news of the conflict reached the capital, the court without its emperor and the whole capital city was thrown into a panic, knowing that Beijing was

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only defended by an army of less than 100,000 soldiers and only one tenth of these were armed. Chancellors at the court cried out for help and wealthy families planned to flee. A few days later, Empress Dowager Sun ordered Zhu Qiyu, brother of the emperor, to act in the place of the emperor. Zhu Qiyu called in the chancellors. Xu Cheng, hanlin shijiang (an official title), suggested moving the capital to Nanjing, while Defense Minister Yu Qian insisted on resisting the invasion and his advice was at last adopted. In September, at the suggestion of Yu Qian and other ministers, Zhu Qiyu was installed by the Empress Dowager as Emperor Jingtai, and Zhu Qiyu Emperor Yingzong who was still held by the Mongols was considered to be the retired emperor. At that critical moment, Yu Qian was at the helm as commander.Yu Qian (1398–1457) was born in Qiantang in Zhejiang and was a jinshi. As a government official, he was known for his honesty. He reinforced the defense forces by redeploying troops to Beijing, transporting grains from surrounding suburbs to the city, calling in dismissed soldiers, and collecting abandoned weapons at the Tumubao battlefield. He also punished runaway generals and officials, particularly Wang Zheng and his followers who were largely responsible for the defeat. The army and the people were greatly encouraged by his measures, and his army soon rose to 220,000 soldiers. Esen did not withdraw but instead launched another campaign on the Ming. Soon the Oirat army arrived at Beijing and camped outside one of the city gates, Xizhimen. Yu Qian ordered his generals to array their troops outside all nine city gates, and he personally led an army to meet the main troops of the enemy at Deshengmen. To encourage the army and the people of Beijing to defend their city, Yu Qian announced his order of rewarding those who worked to repel the assault and punishing those who did nothing to prevent the attack. At first, Esen was confident that he would capture Beijing, but his plan was soon foiled. He was somewhat daunted to see that under the steadfast leadership of Yu Qian, the Ming soon turned this unfavorable situation to their advantage. Not only did he use Beijing’s fortifications relatively well, but he also deployed various schemes to destroy Mongol morale. At one point, he commanded his forces to pretend to lose control of the city gates and lure a large force of Mongol riders into the city. Once a portion of the Mongols were inside, the gates were shut and the Mongols inside were ambushed.The Mongols lost 10,000 people and a cavalry of 90,000


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was defeated. By the end of October, Esen and his surviving army were forced to leave Beijing for Jingzhou with Emperor Yingzong. The Ming army drove them as far as the north of the Great Wall by mid-November. Emperor Yingzong was released and returned to Beijing soon after the victory. In 1457, he regained the throne with the help of Xu Cheng and Eunuch Cao Jinqiang when Emperor Jingzong (Zhu Qiyu) was very ill.This is historically known as the Duomen Incident.

Yu Dayou and Qi Jiguang Battling against Japanese Pirates In the late Yuan and early Ming Dynasties, Japanese warriors, merchants, and pirates, together with dishonest Chinese businessmen, raided the coastlines of China from time to time. Being victims of their aggression, the people who lived in the coastal areas called them wokou (the term “wokou” is a combination of “wo” referring to Japanese, and “kou” meaning “bandit, enemy, or invader”). The raids became increasingly frequent and severe in the mid-Ming Period.Yu Dayou and Qi Jiguang were two important figures in the battles against Japanese piracy. Yu Dayou was born in Jinjiang in Fujian province. At the recommendation of Wang Shu, xunshi Zhejiang duyushi (an official title), he was appointed the commander to fight wokou, as he was familiar with the defense of coastlines. Later, he also served as the general for Renning and Taizhu prefectures. With the support of Wang Shu, he recruited and buildt battle ships, drafting soldiers who were good swimmers and building war ships that could travel up rivers. The ships were equipped with spears, gunpowder, and lead pellets. When wokou raided the coastal area, the defense forces would first let them into the river and then block the river mouth to cut off a seaward escape. They would then destroy the enemy trapped on the river. In March 1553, the third year of Jiajing’s reign,Yu Dayou led a picked troop directed by Wang Shu and launched a night raid on the wokou near the Putuo Mountain and set fire to their camps. The pirates were badly hit and fled.This is known as the Putuo Mountain Victory. The following year,Yu was promoted to the position of general under the leadership of Zhang Jing, governor of Fujian and Zhejiang. He fought against wokou at Wangjiangjing, killing approximately 1,900 pirates, the largest victory since the campaign had begun. Yu Dayou became a famous general after this, and the pirates all feared him. Unfortunately Zhang Jing was framed by Yan Song, a treacherous court official, and was put to death. Yu was also arrested and wokou returned to China’s coastlines. One year later, Qi Jiguang, a young general, was sent by the Ming government to the eastern part of Zhejiang. Qi was born in Dongmu in Shandong province. When he was only sixteen, he expressed a wish in a poem to see peace in all China’s

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seas. When he arrived in Zhejiang, he was appointed to lead the garrison of Ningbo, Shaoxing, and Taizhou prefectures. He dismissed the old army, as they were corrupt and incompetent. He then recruited three thousand soldiers from farmers and miners in Yiwu and trained them. He designed a special battle formation, known as the yuanyang or “mandarin duck,” to fight against wokou who usually used heavy spears and long guns and hid in the swamp. His well-disciplined new army, known as Qi’s army, fought bravely in these battles. In April 1561, a few thousand pirates in more than one hundred ships attacked Statue of Qi Jiguang Taizhou, and Qi’s army responded swiftly and defeated the wokou in nine battles. The frightened pirates never returned to Zhejiang after that. Qi Jiguang consequently moved his army to Fujian and Guangdong to continue the defense. By 1565, the activities of wokou in China were eliminated.

Donglin Academy and Donglin Movement (Party) In the late Ming, the most corrupt members of the ruling class were represented by the emperors themselves, their eunuchs, princes, the immediate relatives of the sovereign, and powerful chancellors. Another group of the ruling class was composed of medium and low ranking officials and landlords, and intellectuals who had been politically sidelined. Dissatisfied with the corruption and determined to reform politics to assuage social unrest, this latter group developed into a new political force bent on opposing the group of large landowners, who were in fact the “eunuch faction” and those in opposition were known as the “Donglin faction.” In 1594, Gu Xiancheng, a Ming Grand Secretary, was removed from his post because he had had some disagreement with Emperor Shenzong. He returned to his home town Wuxi. Together with Gao Panlong, Qian Yiben, and Shi Menglin, he lectured at the Donglin Academy in Wuxi. Gu Xiancheng was a firm supporter of opposition, advocating that the gentry class ought to be concerned about politics, the people’s livelihood, and society as a whole. In the lectures, they criticized politics and corrupt bureaucrats and eunuchs, and their ideas won support from the common people, some officials, scholars, and merchants, none of whom were satisfied with the current situation. They were also supported by some honest and upright officials in the court, for instance Zhao Nanxing, Minister of Civil Appointments. The Donglin Academy soon became the opinion center, and the Donglin supporters or the Donglin Movement was named after the academy. A couplet was put up on the two pillars


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of the Donglin Academy to express the concern of the scholars for the state. The political philosophy of the Donglin Party was reflected in their activities. They insisted on recruiting only talented and honest officials. Li Sancai, who was in charge of water transportation, was such an official. He punished corrupt officials, constructed canals, and Donglin Academy gave goods for famine relief. Gu Xiancheng wrote to his good friend, Grand Secretary Ye Xianggao, to recommend him for the post of chancellor in court. However, the eunuchs opposed this proposal and removed Li Sancai. The Donglin supporters declaimed against heavy taxes and corvee. Yao Ximeng from the Hanlin Academy wrote to the emperor, reporting the miserable situation the people faced under the heavy taxes and corvee in several prefectures in the Yangtze River Delta. Men were forced to sell their children and wives and to abandon their homes. He proposed cutting taxes, but the court ignored his suggestions. The Donglin Party also fought against the outrageous and dishonest eunuchs who were sent by Emperor Shenzong to seize the wealth in the provinces. Yu Maoheng and Li Sancai both wrote to the emperor, accusing them of ruthless behavior, which caused strong opposition from the emperor and the eunuchs. During the reign of Emperor Jiazong, some Donglin supporters such as Ye Xianggao, Zou Yuanbiao, Yang Lian, and Zhao Nanxing were appointed to senior government positions.They hoped that with the support of the emperor and a handful of honest senior officials, they would contain the despicable eunuchs, reform the government, and improve people’s livelihood. But the eunuchs, with the blessings of the emperor, persecuted the Donglin supporters and put them on the blacklist. Later on in 1624, when Eunuch Wei Zhongxian had absolute power over the court, he began to persecute the Donglin supporters. Wang Wenyan,Yang Lian, Gao Panlong, Zhao Nanxing, Wei Dazhong, and many others were tortured to death or forced to commit suicide. The persecution did not stop until the death of Emperor Xizong in 1627, when Zhu Youjian, Emperor Chongzhen, came to the throne. Wei Zhongxian and his followers were removed and the reputation of the Donglin supporters was restored.

Yuan Chonghuan Yuan Chonghuan (1584–1630), with the courtesy nameYuansu, was born in Dongguan in Guangdong province. He passed the jinshi examination during the reign of Emperor Wanli. In the second year of Tianqi’s reign, he went alone on horseback to

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the Shanhai Pass to investigate the physical features of that area. On his return to Beijing, he volunteered to guard Liao and was subsequently sent to Liaodong by the court. He led his troops to fortify Ningyuan (now Xingcheng of Liaoning) and defeated several attacks of the Manchu army. In 1626, he won the Battle of Yuanning in which his troops wounded the Manchurian Emperor Nurhaci who died soon after that. Yuan was promoted to take charge of Liaodong. In the following year, Nurhaci’s successor, Huang Taiji, campaigned against Ningyuan and Jinzhou. Yuan defeated Huang Taiji. He was then appointed Minister of War, commanding the army in Jiliao. In 1629, bypassYuan Chonghuan ing Jinzhou, Ningyuan, and the Shanhai Pass, the Manchu troops broke through the Great Hall at the Gubeikou and suddenly appeared north of Beijing. Yuan rushed back from Ningyuan with an elite army to defend the capital. Huang Taiji made the suspicious Emperor Chongzhen believe that Yuan was a Manchu spy and put Yuan to death by dismembering his body. The Ming emperor and his chancellors never knew the truth, until it was later revealed by Emperor Qianlong of the Qing Dynasty.

II. The Qing Dynasty The Rise of Manchu Manchu is the former Jurchen, one of the minority ethnic groups with a long history in China. Nurhachi was an outstanding leader of the Jurchen. Nurhachi (1559–1626), surnamed Aisin-Gioro, was from a famous family. His ancestor Möngke Temür was appointed Leader of the Jianzhou Left Guard during the Ming Dynasty. The young Nurhachi moved frequently between Jianzhou and Fushun. He understood Chinese and Mongolian, liked reading The Romance of the Three Kingdoms, and was deeply influenced by the Han culture. Later, he was granted titles by the Ming government and had several invitations to go to Beijing and other places. He had a sound understanding of the feudal rule of the Ming Dynasty in the Han’s area. In 1583, his grandfather and father were killed by Ming troops during the war. Nurhachi inherited thirteen suits of armor left to him by his father. He set up niulu and expanded his armed forces. He was fearless, and charged ahead of his men into the fight with his enemy. He first killed Ni Kan


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Wai Lan who had killed his grandfather and father and then conquered various tribes in the nearby area. He later made his stronghold in Hetu’ala, unified different Jurchen tribes in Jianzhou within eleven years, and controlled a large area from the east of Fushun to the Changbai Mountain and to the south of the Yalujiang River. In 1587, Nurhachi built a three-layer city in Fei’ala along the Suzi River, constructed palaces, planned out laws, and established a political center. In 1599, he ordered Erdeni Bagshi and Gagai Jarguchi to create a Manchu written language with Mongolian letters and in this way created for the Jurchen people their own written language. Soon after, he established the eight-banner system on the basis of niulu. This form of organization, a military and political combination, enabled the Jurchen Nurhachi people to be in a better position during the annexation wars. While conquering various Jurchen tribes, Nurhachi had agreed to the appointment by the Ming government as Leader of Jianzhou Guard and General of Dragon and Tiger. After he gained control over the various Jurchen tribes, he broke, in 1616, his subordinate relations with the Ming Dynasty, ascended the throne of Khan, and founded a state called Jin. In 1618, Nurhachi accused the Ming Dynasty of helping Ni Kan Wai Lan to kill his grandfather and father. He led 20,000 soldiers to seize Fushun and enter Yahuguan. Much taken by surprise, the Ming Dynasty hurriedly organized an army of more than 80,000 soldiers to fight Nurhachi through four routes. Nurhachi adopted the tactic of concentrating a superior force to destroy the enemy forces one by one. The fight lasted for five days and the Ming troops were defeated. This was the famous Sa’erhu battle. Henceforth, Nurhachi gained the upper hand on the battlefield in Liaodong. After the Sa’erhu battle, Nurhachi occupied the Liaoshen area and was ambitious to annex the Central Plains area. In 1625, Nurhachi moved his capital to Shenyang and called it Shengjing. He was wounded by the Ming general Yuan Chonghuan when attacking Yuancheng and died soon after. In 1636, his son Huang Taiji was enthroned in Shenyang and he turned the name of the state into Qing.

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The Eight-Banner System

This system was set up on the basis of niulu, which had for generations been a hunting organization of the Jurchen. Later, Nurhachi reorganized niulu into a basic administrative unit and political unit governing three hundred people. During the annexation war, Nurhachi set up the Four Banner system. The four banners were Red, White,Yellow, and Blue. After cutting off relations with the Ming Dynasty and for the sake of the annexation war, four more banners were added. Five niulu formed a team and five teams formed a banner, which included sixty thousand people. The additional four banners were xianghuang, xianghong, xianglan, and xiangbai, being altogether eight banners. The supreme leader of the eight banners was Nurhachi and the heads of the eight banners were his sons and nephews. When major events took place, the supreme leader would hold discussions with the eight banner heads. The costs of banquets at the royal court were shared by the eight banners, and wealth and materials that had been seized from others were also shared equally. The eight banners also elected successors to the throne. Soldiers of the eight banners came from the common people of the eight banners and these people had to serve as soldiers for generations. They could neither leave the niulu nor migrate freely. When Huang Taiji came to power, he set up eight Mongolian banners and eight Han banners, making altogether twenty-four banners.

Zheng Chenggong and Shi Lang The island of Taiwan was part of China since ancient times. The Dutch occupied Taiwan in 1624. The Taiwanese people were cruelly exploited and thousands of them were slaughtered. The Dutch also assaulted the coastal areas of the mainland. In 1661, Zheng Chenggong left Jinmen with an army of 25,000 soldiers. They first arrived at Penghu and then landed in Luerhmen in Taiwan. After Statue of Zheng Chenggong landing, they first wiped out the 180 Dutch soldiers led by Captain Thomas Pedel, burned the Dutch battleship Hector, and cut off communications between the two enemy strongholds in the cities of Taiwan and Chiqian. Dutch invaders, afraid to fight, hid themselves in the cities of Taiwan and Chiqian. Zheng Chenggong sent his men to besiege the two strongholds. The enemy in Chiqian surrendered, while half the Dutch troops in the city of Chiqian were wounded or killed. After several months of fighting, Frederic Coyett, governor of Taiwan, wrote to Zheng Chenggong, saying that he was willing to present 100,000 liang of silver if Zheng Chenggong would give up Taiwan. Zheng refused and went on to launch violent attacks on the Dutch. Frederic Coyett was forced to surrender the following year and Taiwan was returned to China. Zheng Chenggong practiced an open-door


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policy and conducted trade with foreign countries. His army opened up wasteland, grow grains, and helped the Gaoshan people to develop their economy, thus making great contributions to the exploitation and social development of Taiwan. Taiwan was under the control of the Zheng family after its recovery from the Dutch rule. In 1683, Emperor Kangxi ordered Shi Lang, Prefect of Fujian Navy, to attack Taiwan. The troops of the Zheng family were defeated in a fight in Penghu. Zheng Keshuang, Zheng Chenggong’s grandson, surrendered to the Qing Dynasty. The following year, the Qing government set up Taiwan Fu (Taiwan Prefecture), which was under the jurisdiction of Fujian province. The establishment of Taiwan Fu strengthened the links between Taiwan and the motherland, promoted its development, and consolidated the coastal defense of the country.

Prosperity of Kangxi and Qianlong Aisin-Gioro Xuanye (1654–1722), Shengzu of the Qing Dynasty, the third son of Emperor Shunzhi, was enthroned at the age of eight with the title Kangxi. In the first few years, Oboi and some other senior officials were in charge of state affairs and they supported Manchu aristocrats and slaveholders in their enclosure of land. Large-scale land enclosure was conducted three times within 500 kilometers around Beijing and 146,766 hectares of fertile land were enclosed in such a way. Han people were forcibly organized into zhuang (farm) for production and turned into slaves, thus leading many farmers to escape. At this time, Wu Sangui and two other vassals became increasingly strong and formed separatist forces. After Emperor Kangxi took over the reins of government, he had Oboi arrested and dismissed him from office in 1669. He then tried to weaken the forces of the vassals. He put down the rebellions of three vassals in the twentieth year of his reign and the uprisings in Taiwan two years later, stationing troops in both places. In the twenty-fourth year, Emperor Kangxi sent troops to drive away the Yakesa tsarist Russian invaders stationed along the Heilongjiang River, and managed to contain the ambitions of Russia to invade China. In the twenty-eighth year, Emperor Kangxi sent Suo Er Tu to conclude the Treaty of Nerchinsk with Russia, defining the eastern boundary between China and Russia. At that time, the chieftain of the tribe of Zunghars who maintained secret relations with tsarist Russia staged a rebellion and attacked Kerk Mongolia, inner Mongolia, and Tibet. Emperor Kangxi sent troops three times to suppress the rebels. When he was old, he sent troops again to put down rebellions raised by a few Tibetan aristocrats in collusion with the Zunghars tribe, thus strengthening national unification. During the reign of Emperor Kangxi, great importance was attached to agricultural production, wasteland reclamation was encouraged and awarded, land enclosure was stopped, the Yellow River was harnessed, water disasters were mitigated, and smooth transportation on the Grand Canal was ensured. During his reign,

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land survey was conducted across the country and the Map of the Imperial Territory was drawn up. An office for compiling the history of Ming Dynasty was established, and The Complete Collection of the Tang Dynasty Poetry and the Kangxi Dictionary were compiled. The Cheng-Zhu idealistic philosophy was advocated. Emperor Kangxi once executed authors of the History of the Ming Dynasty and Nanshan Collection and persecuted intellectuals. In the fifty-first year of his reign, Emperor Kangxi issued a decree, stipulating that the number of people in the previous year was the standard and no more taxation would be levied if the number of people increased in the future.This period of his reign was called zhiping, but many central government officials formed cliques to promote their personal interests, and local officials were often very cruel and greedy. Aisin-Gioro Hongli, Gaozu of the Qing Dynasty, was the fourth son of Shizong of the Qing Dynasty. He was the emperor named Qianlong in power from 1735 to 1796. During his reign, he sent troops to put down the revolt by the Zunghars and strengthened the management of the central government over the western part of China. In the fifty-eighth year of Qianlong’s reign (1793), he refused the aggressive demands of the British envoy George Macartney and punctured the colonialist ambition of Western powers. He established Boxue hongcike (examination for scholars of wide learning), conducted searches for precious books and compiled the History of the Ming Dynasty. In the thirty-eighth year of his reign, the editorial board of Siku Quanshu (Complete Library of the Four Treasuries) was set up and the multi-volume project was completed ten years later. At the same time, he used the opportunity to burn and alter the books that were not favorable to the Qing government. He also had some book authors and intellectuals arrested and persecuted with the aim of strengthening ideological control. During his reign, Emperor Qianlong went on many inspection tours, visiting the southern part of China six times and incurring great expense. Many wars took place during his reign and it became a general practice that his generals bullied their subordinates and tried all means to flatter and please the emperor. He put He Shen in an important position for twenty years and embroiled politics in even greater corruption. The landlord class carried out land annexation for a long time and land was controlled by fewer and fewer people. In the late period of his reign, Emperor Qianlong uprisings staged by people of different ethnic


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groups broke out one after another. In early 1796, his son Emperor Jiaqing, was enthroned. Emperor Qianlong, calling himself Taishanghuang (Emperor’s father), was still in charge of state affairs. The largescale uprising initiated by the Clan of White Lotus took place that year in Sichuan.

Suppression of Rebellions of San Fan San Fan refers to Wu Sangui, the vassal of Xi Ping, Shang Kexi, the vassal of Ping Nan, and Geng Jingzhong, the vassal of Jing Nan. Three of them were generals of the Ming Dynasty in Liaodong and they later surrendered to the Qing government and put down the resistance of people of various ethnic groups for the Qing Dynasty. They made great contributions and were made regional kings by the Emperor Jiaqing Qing government. As military governor of outlying prefectures for the Qing government to control remote areas in the southern part of China, Wu Sangui was stationed in Yunnan and also governed Guizhou. Shang Kexi was stationed in Guangdong, whereas Geng Jingzhong was stationed in Fujian. They all had massive forces and Wu Sangui was the most powerful. They were imperious and despotic, and set up separatist regimes with their armed forces. When Emperor Kangxi came to power, he regarded them as a potential danger. In the twelfth year of Emperor Kangxi’s reign, Shang Kexi wrote to the emperor and asked for permission to return to Liaodong due to old age and poor health. Having heard this, Wu Sangui and Geng Jingzhong hypocritically wrote to the emperor and asked the latter Shang Kexi to rescind Fans, trying to sound out the attitude of the emperor. Emperor Kangxi was very happy to receive their request and ordered that Fans be rescinded. Greatly disappointed,Wu Sangui started a rebellion in Yunnan. Geng Jingzhong and Shang Zhixin, the son of Shang Kexi echoed one another. In a few months time, Wu Sangui seized the six provinces of Yunnan, Guizhou, Guangdong, Guangxi, Hunan, and Sichuan. Emperor Kangxi used buying over as a means of appeasement, and military pressure to make the Han warlords, including Geng Jin-

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gzhong, Shang Zhixin, and Wang Fuchen, change sides.The Qing government soon took control of Guangxi, Guangdong, Fujian, Jiangxi, and Shaanxi. In the eighteenth year of Emperor Kangxi’s reign,Wu Sangui enthroned himself in Hengyang, Hunan. He died soon after and his grandson Wu Shifan, a teenager, became the successor. Young and incompetent, he was defeated time and again and fled to Yunnan. The Qing troops entered Yunnan via Sichuan, Guangxi, and Hunan, and besieged the city Kunming in the nineteenth year of Kangxi’s reign. The helpless Wu Shifan committed suicide and the eight-year rebellion was put down.

Conclusion of Treaty of Nerchinsk

In the fourth decade of the seventeenth century, tsarist Russian troops invaded Yakesa and Nerchinsk in China. The invaders burned, killed, and looted wantonly. The Qing government negotiated many times with Russia but to no avail. Emperor Kangxi decided to defend the borderland by force. In 1685, the Qing troops advanced through land and water ways to besiege the Russian troops stationed in the city Yakesa. The Russian troops suffered heavy losses and surrendered. After the Qing troops withdrew, they came back again and reoccupied Yakesa. In 1686, the Qing government again sent troops to Yakesa and killed more than one hundred Russian soldiers. Out of the over eight hundred soldiers, only several dozens of them survived after a long siege and were forced to surrender. In 1689, representatives of China and Russia held negotiations in Nerchinsk and signed the first boundary agreement, the Treaty of Nerchinsk. The agreement confirmed from the legal perspective China’s sovereignty over the areas of the Heilongjiang River and Wusuli River, including Sakhalin, and stipulated that Chinese and Russian merchants holding passports could enter each another’s countries to do business. After the conclusion of the Treaty of Nerchinsk, there was relative stability in the border area in the eastern part between China and Russia and peaceful contacts and trade between the two nations were carried out.

Eastward Return of Torgout

Eastward Return of Torgout

Torgout, one of the four Mongolian tribes, led a nomadic life in the area of Ya’er near Ta’erbahatai. People of this tribe migrated to the lower reaches of the Ejile River (today’s Volga River) at the end of the Ming and early Qing dynasties.To get rid of the control of tsarist Russia, people of this tribe returned eastward to their home country under the leadership of Wo Ba Xi, an outstanding chieftain. They crushed the pursuit, attack, and obstruction of the Russian troops and eventually returned to their grasslands


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in Yili. Later, they were divided into two groups, the old and the new. People of the old group herded sheep and cattle in the areas of Zhuledusi and Ku’erkalawusu, whereas people in the new group lived in the area to the southwest of Kebuduo.

Holding Court at the Royal Palace There was the practice of holding court at the royal palace during the Qing Dynasty. It was first held at Tai He Men and Tai He Palace and later it took place at Qian Qing Palace. It was usually held once in ten days, i.e. on the fifth, fifteenth, and twenty-fifth of every month. Officials above the liu bu level were obliged to attend such court meetings.

Nanshufang

In 1677, i.e. the sixteenth year of Kangxi’s reign, Hanlin scholars and other officials were asked to be on duty in the Forbidden City.The place where they worked was called Nanshufang and those on such duty were called the nanshufang xingzou (an official title). They not only wrote articles but also drafted imperial edicts in compliance with the wishes of the emperor. Since the estabJunjichu lishment of Junjichu (the offices of the Privy Council), officials at Nanshufang were no longer involved in political affairs and were only responsible for writing articles, books, and drawing paintings. Officials at Nanshufang were of different ranks, but in principle, only members of the Hanlin Academy could work at Nanshufang.

Qiansouyan

In the fifty-second year of his reign, Emperor Kangxi celebrated his sixtieth birthday and people aged sixty-five and above could come to join in the celebration.Young princes and royal family members were ordered to toast the old people. People of eighty years old could come forward to drink wine with the emperor. In the fiftieth year of Qianlong’s reign, Emperor Qianlong held a banquet for one thousand old people at Qian Qing Gong and people aged sixty and above were invited. Emperor Qianlong presented wine to yipindachen (the highest-ranking government position) and people aged ninety and above. In the first year of Emperor Jiaqing’s reign, a similar veteran banquet for one thousand old people was also held.

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The Summer Resort The Summer Resort, also known as Li Gong or Re He Xing Gong, was situated in the northern part of Chengde city, Hebei Province. Building began in 1703 and was completed in 1790. Twice as large as the Summer Palace with more than one hundred buildings, it was a place for Site of the Summer Resort emperors of the Qing Dynasty to spend their summer and handle state affairs. There were twelve magnificent Lama temples outside the Summer Resort. Each year, some Mongolian princes and dukes were asked to come to meet the emperor at the Summer Resort, hunt animals, and practice martial arts with the emperor. At that time, chieftains from the Uygur, Tibetan, Miao, and Gaoshan minority ethnic groups came to see the emperor at the Summer Resort. The Summer Resort and the outside temples actually played the role of another political center of the Qing Dynasty.There were scenic spots inside the Summer Resort with writings by emperors Kangxi and Qianlong, known as the Seventy-two Scenes. The Summer Resort embodied the pinnacle of the art of architecture of the southern and northern parts of China, and it encapsulated the scenery of a variety of localities.

The Forbidden City

The Forbidden City

Located in the center of Beijing, this was the royal palace of the Ming and Qing dynasties. Building began in 1406 (in the fourth year of Emperor Yongle’s reign) and was finished in 1420. It was divided into the outer and inner courts. Main buildings in the outer court included the Tai He Palace, Zhong He Palace, and Bao He Palace, as well as the Wen Ying Palace


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and Wu Ying Palace on the left and right wings. It was the place where the emperor held grand ceremonies, met officials, and exercised power. In the inner court, there were such buildings as Qian Qing Palace, Jiao Tai Palace, Kun Ning Palace, and six other smaller courts in the east and west. This was the area where the emperor handled his day-to-day duties, and he and his wife and concubines lived, played, and worshipped. There were more than nine thousand rooms in the whole of the Forbidden City, and it covered an area of 720,000 square meters. The Forbidden City is the largest and most complete existing architectural complex constructed with wood in the world. It is now the Palace Museum and was made a world cultural heritage by UNESCO in 1987.

The Yongzheng Period Yongzheng, i.e. Aisin-Gioro Yinzhen, was an emperor of the Qing Dynasty. As the fourth son of Emperor Kangxi, he was in power from 1722 to 1735. He was at first granted the title Prince Yong. He seized power through conspiracy with the help of Long Keduo and Nian Gengyao and began to persecute his brothers who had vied for the throne with him. Many of his followers were demoted and Long Keduo and Nian Gengyao were arrested and executed. Many Han intellectuals were arrested for their writings. He appointed E’ertai, Li Wei, and some other people as dudu (viceroy) of important provinces and regions. He set up Junjichu in the seventh year of his reign and deprived princes of their leadership over the troops of the five banners of zhenghong, xianghong, xiangbai, zhenglan, and xianglan so as to strengthen his monarchal autocracy. He incorporated populace tax into land tax to ensure tax revenue. Moreover, he sent troops to put down the revolts by aristocrats of the tribe of He Shuo Te in Qinghai, and suppressed the riots started by aristocrats of the Zunghars tribe. In the fifth year of the reign of Emperor Emperor Yongzheng

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Yongzheng, the Sino-Russian Treaty of Kyakhta was concluded to delimit the boundary line between China and Russia in the central region.

Yang lian yin

This was a practice of the Qing Dynasty. Officials were entitled every year to a certain amount of money apart from their salary due to their ranks; this was called yang lian yin (money to maintain honesty and integrity). The amount of yang lian yin was fixed and was no less than the salary after the Yongzheng period.

Yang Xin Palace Yang Xin Palace was located in the southwest outside Qian Qing Gong. It was built during the Ming Dynasty and rebuilt during the reign of Emperor Yongzheng. It was a place where the emperor lived and handled daily affairs. The room in the middle was the place where the emperor met with his officials, read memorials submitted to him, and discussed military and state affairs in the rooms on the right and left. The room in the east was the place where Empress Dowager Cixi attended to state affairs behind the screen during the reigns of emperors Tongzhi and Guangxu. After the 1911 Revolution, this was the place where Emperor Xuantong (Pu Yi) was forced to abdicate and, where Zhang Xun put on a show of restoring the imperial throne in 1917.

Foreign Missionaries in China In the latter half of the sixteenth century, foreign missionaries from the Society of Jesus came to China.They spread religious doctrines on the one hand and introduced on the other hand, works on astronomy, mathematics, physics, geography, paintings, and music to China. At the same time, they brought to the west Chinese Confucian and Taoist doctrines, and made contributions to cultural exchanges between China and the West. Matteo Ricci. The Italian came to Guangzhou by sea in the ninth year of Emperor Wanli of the Ming Dynasty (1583). He worked as a missionary for fifteen years in Guangdong where he became fluent in the Chinese language and immersed himself in the study of Confucian classics. He was not only an expert in theology but also knew a great deal about astronomy, mathematics, geography, and philosophy. He brought with him advanced scientific and cultural knowledge of Europe at the height of the Renaissance.There was a high tide of “the eastward spread of western learning” a few years after his arrival in Beijing. Xu Guangqi, a Chinese scholar, had frequent discourses with Matteo Ricci and studied hard in western learning. He translated six volumes of The Elements together with Matteo Ricci and introduced the fundamen-


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tal theories of Euclid’s Geometry. The book was reprinted time and again and became a classic. This translation created for the first time technical terms for the geometric nouns of point, straight line, plane, curve, quadrilateral, polygon, parallel lines, diagonal line, right angle, and obtuse angle, which are still in use today. Matteo Ricci drew many world maps, the most popular of which was Kunyu Wanguo Tu, printed and published by Li Zhizao in the thirtieth year of Emperor Wanli’s reign during the Ming Dynasty. The world map shocked all the Chinese people who saw it, because it broke free from the traditional Chinese thinking that the sky was round while the land was square, and greatly broadened the Matteo Ricci vision of the people. The map was presented to the emperor of the Ming Dynasty.

Chongzhen Almanac. In the second year of the reign of Emperor Chongzhen, Xu Guangqi who was then libu shilang (an official title) was asked to supervise the writing of almanacs. Xu Guangqi and Li Zhizao invited Nicolas Longobardi, Jean Terrenz, Rojak Ludvid, and Johann Adam Schall Von Bell who were familiar with western calendars to take part in this work. With the help of these western scholars, 137 volumes of 46 categories were compiled and translated under the title The Chongzhen Almanac. These books made a detailed introduction to the advanced European astronomical works of Concerning the New Phenomena in the Ethereal World by Tycho Brahe, De Revolutionibus Orbium Coelestium by Copernicus, and Laws of Planetary Motion by Johannes Kepler, among others. Unfortunately, the Ming Dynasty collapsed before these books were published. In the early Qing Dynasty, Johann Adam Schall Von Bell revised the books and had them published under the title Xiyang Xin Li (the New Western Calendar). Nicolas Trigault. While making a work report for the Roman Catholic Church in 1614, Nicolas Trigault obtained over five hundred copies of books donated by Pope Paul V, in addition to two hundred copies of books he and his companion Deng Yuhan had collected in Europe. In 1618, Nicolas Trigault and another twenty-two

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members of the Society of Jesus escorted these books to China. These books were spread to various places in China later, and some of them were translated into Chinese, introducing western science, culture, and religion. These books can be found today in the National Library. While western learning spread to the east, eastern learning also spread to the west. Michele Ruggleri, a member of the Society of Jesus, together with the help of two translators, translated the Great Learning into Latin, and had it published in 1593. Sometime later, Atlas of China, History of that Great and Renowned Monarchy of China, and some other books were published in the west. Their publication gave the world an insight into and better understanding of China. Ferdinand Verbiest. Of all the emperors of the Qing Dynasty, Emperor Kangxi was the most interested in western learning. Ferdinand Verbiest won the trust of Emperor Kangxi and was appointed to an important position. From him, Emperor Kangxi learned that western people had more precise and practical knowledge, and he therefore asked Verbiest to make new instruments for astronomical observation. The emperor also decided that in future, westerners should be responsible for the compilation of astronomical yearbooks. Under the influence of Ferdinand Verbiest, Emperor Kangxi not only greatly promoted the learning of western mathematics, but also learnt it himself. Joachim Bouvet. Priests Joachim Bouvet and Jean-François Gerbillon explained western scientific knowledge and medicine to Emperor Kangxi who carefully read the teaching materials of western medical science they had compiled and translated. Kangxi hoped that they would recommend western doctors to come to China and at his request, some priests who were proficient in medical skills came to China one after the other. They came to the royal palace and were highly regarded by the emperor. This was the start of the spread of western medicine in China. During his inspection tour to the southern part of China, Emperor Kangxi asked Joachim Bouvet to accompany him and to teach him knowledge about western medical science along the way. Emperor Kangxi attached great importance to western science and technology, but he also kept a close watch on these foreign priests. He allowed them to preach in China, but prevented them from setting up churches in various provinces. By the time of Emperor Yongzheng, the Qing government stipulated that apart from those priests working in Beijing, all others in various provinces should settle down in Macau or return to their home countries. During the period of Emperor Qianlong, western priests preached all over China, collecting intelligence and confidential information, and even ganged up on local officials to exploit the masses. In the fiftieth


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year of Emperor Qianlong’s reign and in the sixth year of Emperor Jiaqing’s reign, the Qing government worked out regulations to punish those priests who had committed such crimes. Western priests met with severe restrictions before the Opium War and cultural exchanges between China and the west were also cut off.

III. Academia of the Ming and Qing Dynasties Li Zhi Li Zhi was born in Jinjiang in Fujian province, and was a Ming philosopher. After passing the jinshi examination at the age of twenty-six, he became a government official in Hui County in Henan. He consequently served as a boshi (an official title) of the Guozijian, the Imperial College, and a junior official at the Board of Rites and the Board of Punishment. In later life, he was a prefect for three years before he moved to Hubei and lived with the Geng’s. He studied and debated with the Geng brothers, Geng Dingxiang and Geng Dingli, both senior bureaucrats. He then moved to a temple at the Longtan Lake in Macheng, living half a secular and half a monastic life. He eventually became a monk and studied Buddhist scriptures. Li Zhi was very popular in his day, and his books, the Cangshu and the Mengshu, were known in all corners of the country. All scholars strove to get a copy of his works, and even lost interest in reading the Confucian classics. The court banned and burned his books twice, but this only served to fuel his fame. Being an idealist, Li Zhi was deeply influenced by Wang Shouren’s School of the Mind. He criticized political corruption and Cheng-Zhu’s School of Principles, pointing out that moralists were hypocrites who pretended to be moral, benevolent, and righteous, but were in actuality only in pursuit of fame, wealth, and high positions in the bureaucracy. He also objected to following Confucius, arguing that he was a human being, not a god nor was he the final judge of what was right and wrong, and also believed that right and wrong changed with time. Li Zhi pointed out that the classics were probably the exaggerations of historians and rulers in a given political context, not the words Statue of Li Zhi

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of sages. There was no such a thing as cure-for-all, and when the sages spoke and wrote, they only responded to their particular times and contexts. As a progressive philosopher living in the mid-Ming Dynasty when the court and bureaucracy were corrupt, Li Zhi was demonized for speaking the truth. He was jailed for spreading dangerous ideas and finally died in prison.

The Early Qing Dynasty Huang Zongxi lived in the transition period from the Ming to the Qing dynasties. Also named Taizhong, he was a native of Yuyao, Zhejiang. He was an expert in history and his main work was Mingyi Daifang Lu. After the collapse of the Ming Dynasty, he lived in seclusion to write book critical of the feudal monarchal autocracy. He unmasked the monarch as “attributing all interests and benefits to himself while attributing problems to other people,” from which he came to the conclusion that monarchal autocracy was harmful to the world. He advocated “the rule of law” and was opposed to “the rule by the people.” He was against the practice that agriculture was emphasized and commerce was constrained, as he was of the opinion that industry and commerce were equally important. His views shocked the academic circles of that time, and exerted an influence on the rising democratic trends in the late Qing Dynasty. Gu Yanwu was another famous thinker of the period from the late Ming era to the early Qing period. Also known as Mr.Tinglin, he was from Kunshan, Jiangsu. After his defeat in the anti-Qing struggle, he went to various provinces in the northern part of China, made many friends, and settled down in Huayang, Shaanxi, in his old age. He was conversant with the classics, history, astronomy, geography, phonology, epigraphy, military affairs, and farm matters. He wrote Tianxia Junguo Libing Shu and Rizhilu, expounding his views on the history of the classics, government officials, taxation, institutions and regulations, geography, literary art, among other subjects. He stressed learning for practical purposes, striving to reverse the tide of impractical learning. He was against the politics of monarchal autocracy and proposed that “harmony and stability could be attained by empowering the people” and “it is the responsibility of everyone to safeguard the country.” His earnest and down-to-earth attitude toward learning exerted a great influence on the academic community of the Qing Dynasty. Wang Fuzhi, a native of Hengyang, Hunan, also lived in the transition period between the Ming and Qing dynasties. He lived to a ripe old age at the foot of Shichuanshan Mountain in Qulan, Hengyang, and was thus known as Mr. Chuanshan. He was an outstanding materialist thinker, contending that qi (tool) is a solid substance, while li (principle) is the objective law. He proposed that the objective law depends on solid substance, and that “the world is made up of substance.” In his view,


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stillness includes movement, whereas movement does not include stillness, referring to the naïve dialectical thinking that movement is absolute while stillness is relative. He looked at history from a developmental perspective, and asked for advancements in politics to be made to keep up with the times.

Qianlong-Jiaqing School of Thought This was a school of thought with textual criticism as its main activity during the reigns of Qianlong and Jiaqing.This school was also known as Puxue, due to its simple, plain, and pithy style of writing, and its emphasis on the enumeration of facts and evidence. This school was an outcome of the policy of the Qing government to control intellectual freedom. During the reign of Emperor Qianlong in particular, books were ordered to be burned many times and intellectuals were persecuted. Scholars dared not express their views, and were careful with their writings so as to avoid persecution or execution together with their whole family. The adherents of this school spent their time sorting out ancient books as if to escape reality.To shackle the intellectuals, Emperor Qianlong also advocated the textual research of classics and this was supported by some high officials and noble lords such as Ruan Yuan and Bi Yuan. Textual research was popular for a time. Founders of the Qianlong-Jiaqing School of Thought were Yan Ruoqu, Hu Wei, and Mao Qiling, among others, in the early Qing period. These scholars immersed themselves in ancient books, became divorced from reality, gave up learning for practical uses, and took great pains in working on every sentence and word in ancient books. This school could be divided into the Wu School with Hui Dong as the leader and the Wan School with Dai Zhen as the champion. Scholars of the Wu School collected classics by the Han Dynasty scholars. They worshipped blindly and accepted everything the Han Dynasty people had said or done, no matter whether it was good or bad. The Wu School mainly included Shen Tong, Jiang Sheng, Yu Xiaoke, Jiang Fan, Wang Mingsheng, among others. The Wan School headed by Dai Zhen attached great importance to the textual research of various kinds of institutions in the Rites of the Zhou,The Rituals and Rites, and the Classic of Rites.The main objective of this school was to grasp the content and meaning of ancient books judging by their phonology and philology (using language and characters as a means to carry out research).They made contributions in phonology and philology. Dai Zhen had many students, among whom Duan Yucai, Wang Niansun, and Wang Yinzhi were most famous. Most people of the Qianlong-Jiaqing School of Thought devoted their lifetime to the work of textual research and they attained high achievements in the collation,

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cataloging, compilation, and identification of the classics, history, science, literature, phonology, the calendar, and geography. Their main work was to revise documentation, distinguish the true from the false, identify mistakes, make notes, and interpret words and institutions, as well as carry out textual research on geographical evolution, thus providing reliable materials for researchers of later generations.

IV. Core Decision-making Bodies in the Ming and Qing Dynasties As emperor, Zhu Yuanzhang concentrated power in his own hands. He removed and executed senior officials and generals who had helped him to overthrow the Yuan Dynasty, fearing that they might usurp the throne. The most known examples were the cases of Hu Weiyong and Lan Yu. Hu Weiyong followed Zhu Yuanzhang in the early rebellions and became his senior grand councilor. Fearing his growing power, the emperor ordered to have Hu executed under the pretext of some minor issues. More than thirty thousand aristocrats and bureaucrats involved were killed. Later, Zhu took a similar action eliminating his general Lan Yu who had fought for the emperor in many battles, and fifteen thousand people involved in the case. It is known historically as the “Hu Lan Incident.” After the execution of Hu Weiyong, Zhu Yuanzhang abolished the prime minister’s post which had been for over one thousand years the head of the main central administrative body in previous dynasties. The central administration was divided into six ministries: li, hu, li, bing, xing, and gong, each headed by a shangshu (royal secretary) reporting directly to the emperor. Later Emperor Chengzu established the Grand Secretariat or neige who participated in political decisions. This system lasted until the end of the Ming Dynasty and meant that the power of the emperor was even more concentrated. At the regional level, three departments were established to divide power: the cheng xuan bu zheng si, responsible for civil affairs and finance, the ti xing an cha shi si. in charge of surveillance and juridical affairs, and the du zhi hui shi si, managing all military affairs. The three departments supervised one another at the provincial level and power was therefore controlled at the central level. Still the emperor was not able to fully trust his officials and people. Zhu Yuanzhang set up the imperial secret service, the jinyiwei, to watch over his officials and people. Emperor Chengzu established an eunuch-led agency, the Eastern Factory or dongchang, as the ears of the emperor.


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Junjichu (Grand Council)

The early Qing rulers established the system of the Grand Secretariat and six ministries and maintained the yizhengwang dachen huiyi (the Council of Princes and High Officials), which made all-important state and military decisions, therefore constraining the power of the emperor. Kangxi established nanshufang (Southern Study) in the “Inner Court,” which, as a de facto policy-making body, drafted the orders of the emperor. Subsequently, the central power was split into three, the Grand Secretariat, the Council, and the nanshufang, with the real power in the hands of the emperor. To increase imperial power, Emperor Yongzheng established the junjichu, and councilors were selected from Manchu and Han officials by the emperor himself. They took orders from the crown and communicated them to the ministries and local officials. In this way, the chief executives followed the orders of the emperor directly. The power of the Manchu nobility was eclipsed and the yizhengwang dachen huiyi was finally abolished during Emperor Qianlong’s reign. The establishment of the junjichu signified the climax in Chinese history of a centralized imperial autarchy.

V. Politics, Economy, and Culture in the Ming and Qing Dynasties Imperial Examinations of the Qing Dynasty The Four Books and Five Classics is the generalized title of the authoritative books on Confucianism in China. The Four Books are the Great Learning, the Doctrine of the Mean, the Analects of Confucius, and the Mencius; and the Five Classics, the Book of Changes, the Book of Poetry, the Book of Rites, and the Spring and Autumn Annals. They were the fundamental works for the study of ancient Chinese philosophy, history, literature, and social systems, serving also as compulsory reading for the scholar gentry and students taking part in the imperial examinations. They are the treasures of Chinese culture, and in the Qing Dynasty, the Four Books and Five Classics were published in one edition. The Qing regime followed the earlier dynasties to recruit bureaucrats through imperial examinations. To control the minds of scholars, the questions in the exams only tested the examinees’ knowledge of the Four Books and the Five Classics, leaving little room to express personal viewpoints.The answers had to be rigidly written in eight parts, hence known as the eight-legged essay, the eight parts being composed of the opening, amplification, preliminary exposition, initial argument, central argument, latter argument, final argument, and conclusion. The structure of much of the

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essay included heavy parallelism and redundancy, and was full of clichés. In the early Qing period, during the reign of Emperor Kangxi, several provisional subjects were added to the exams by the emperor, for instance Boxue Hongci (Wide Learning), Jingji (Economy), and Xiaolian Fangzheng (Obedience, Incorruptibility, and Integrity).The ruler tried to use the imperial subjects to attract the scholars. Meanwhile the wenziyu (literary inquisition) prevailed, referring to the official persecution of intellectuals for their writings. Such persecutions could even be due to a single phrase or word that the ruler considered offensive. In a serious case, not only the writer but also his immediate and extended families would be killed or sent into exile. Such unjustified persecution caused terror and seriously hampered social development.

Economic Reforms Zhang Juzheng (1525–1527) was born in Jiangling, Hubei. He started his political career after he passed the jinshi examination at the age of twenty two. During the early years of Emperor Muzong, he was appointed daxueshi (one of the six grand secretaries) at the Grand Secretariat in charge of northern border affairs, and was later made shoufu (the most senior grand secretary). He then initiated a series of political, intellectual, economic, and military reforms. His economic reform began with the attempt to generate more government revenue. In the mid-Ming Dynasty, land mergers, concealment of estate, and tax evasion were rampant, leading to reduced taxable land and the exhausting of government funds. Zhang ordered the re-registering of land nationwide and investigation into untaxed land and estates. He asked the officials to collect the due tax to increase government revenue without increasing taxes. This policy, to some extent, affected landlords and the nobility, and alleviated the burden on the peasants. According to official statistics in the Wanli years, an additional three million qing of farm land was revealed and brought under tax laws, greatly increasing government revenue. Based on the results of the new land measurement, the government initiated reforms on the taxation system. In 1581, an edict of yitiaobianfa, literally meaning the law of the single-whip, was published, that unified land tax and corvee in the form of currency. Zhang Juzheng


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Before the new edict, the Ming tradition was to have separate taxes and corvee. Tax was imposed on land (summer and autumn crops) and collected from landlords, while corvee was imposed on households.The government registered land and population in the Yulin Book and the Yellow Book as the basis of taxation.The records in the books became confused and outdated when landlords merged or concealed their land and the population migrated elsewhere. The privileged rich landlords and aristocrats managed to conceal their property and evade tax while poor peasants frequently lost their land but still shouldered the burden, what with the rulers asserting mandatory forced labor and additional duties on them in the collecting of products of local specialty. Peasants were forced to abandon their land and leave their homes or even escape to forests and mountains, thus becoming outlaws. The source of state revenue and labor shrank, resulting in social unrest. To stabilize the rule of the emperor and to generate more revenue, Zhang adopted a unified system to raise tax and corvee: based on registered land and population, a single tax was levied on land yields, incorporating other taxes and products of local specialty presented to the court. Tax in the form of currency was collected by county or prefecture governments.This may seem to be a simple policy, but at the time was a reform of great significance. Mandatory forced labor by peasants was replaced by wage labor, relieving the dependence of peasants on the state.The relatively higher degree of personal freedom made it possible for an increase in the economic activities of merchants, farmers, and waged laborers. Silver currency as tax payment replaced payment in kind, expanded the use of silver currency and stimulated commercial production. This also simplified collection and reduced corruption, thus reducing the burden on the peasants. It improved the fiscal situation of the Ming, as was recorded, boasting that “the grains in the barns of Taicang could last ten years and silver of four million taels were stored in the treasury at Taipu Temple.” The Qing rulers also adopted reform policies in the early years. In 1669, Kangxi declared that farm land formerly owned by feudal princes now belonged to those who cultivated them, which was called the “land ownership swap.” In 1712, the Qing government benchmarked the size of population in 1711 as 24,620,000, in order to collect poll tax, and promised that there would be a tax on the increased population. During the reign of Emperor Yongzheng, the policy of Tanding Rumu was introduced to incorporate poll tax with land tax.The bonds that tied peasants to the feudal state were further loosened. The number of formerly concealed population was reduced. This policy played an important role in population growth and the socio-economic development in China.

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Seeds of Capitalism In the late Ming, the population in China was near 200 million and exceeded 300 million by 1800. Foreign crops were introduced into China such as corn, cotton, peanuts, and sweet potato, partially causing a massive 40% increase in the amount of land under cultivation. The rise of textiles, the smelting industry, mining, and commerce promoted social and economic growth. Between 1700 and 1800, China had an estimated 23.1% of the world’s GDP which increased later to 32.4%, while Europe moved from only 23.3% up to 26.6 %. The handicraft industry boomed during the Ming and Qing Dynasties. The government closed-door policy did not completely rule out foreign trade. Textiles, porcelain, and tea exports led to a huge trade surplus. Half of the silver in the world market poured into China, making it one of the major currencies in the Chinese market. The handicraft industry made some progress in the following areas. The innovation of tools improved the quality of products and productivity, such as shachouji, a new weaving machine for silk and cotton. The advances in technology facilitated a greater variety of goods, for instance, the double-impression printing technique used to produce multi-color prints. A greater division of labor further intensified social division. The upsize in production turned out a greater number of goods. During the mid-Ming Dynasty, ironworks in Foshan could produce 3,000 kilograms of iron per day. Each ironworks plant could employ up to three hundred iron mining workers, two hundred puddling workers, and two hundred charcoal makers. The seeds of capitalism emerged from this as did a new production relationship. In the mid-Ming Dynasty, the textile industry grew substantially and independent textile factories emerged to produce commercial goods in the south Yangtze River region. For example, jihu, professional textile makers, could have a workshop of a few or a few dozen looms and employ weavers to work them. It was a capitalist production relationship, with the owner of the workshop as the early capitalist and the weavers as the waged workers. In the reign of Emperor Kangxi, the textile industry boomed with the lift on the ceiling of one hundred looms per workshop. In Nanjing, a workshop might have as many as five or six hundred looms. Other sectors also grew rapidly, such as iron refining in Guangdong, ore mining in Yunnan, sugar making in Taiwan, lumbering in Shaanxi, and coal mining in Beijing. Commerce also developed during the same period, and some rural areas turned into commercial centers specializing in certain industries. Such centers could have a population of more than ten thousand households. There were more than seventy emerging towns in Suzhou Prefecture alone. Shengze was a modest village of fifty or sixty households in Wujiang in Suzhou during the early Ming, but by the mid-Ming, it had become a town of more than ten thousand households. Suzhou and Hangzhou


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became more prosperous than large cities like Beijing and Nanjing, which is reflected in the saying, “Above is Heaven, below are Suzhou and Hangzhou.” The development of commerce resulted in the formation of clusters of rich merchants in Anhui, Shanxi, Ningbo, Shandong, Jiangxi, Huguang, Fujian, Guangdong, and Shanghai. Merchants in Anhui and Shanxi were the richest clusters and their business covered a wide range of regions. Huishang, literally meaning “Anhui merchants,” refers to the business people from Huizhou Prefecture, including the six counties of She, Xiuning, Wuyuan, Qimen, Qian County, and Jixi. They rose to prominence approximately during the reigns of Chenghua, Hongzhi, and Zhengde during the Ming Dynasty, and reached their commercial height in the reigns of Qianlong and Jiaqing of the Qing Dynasty, holding their sway until the end of Qing. The Jin (Shanxi) Merchants first did business in the cities and towns on the borders along the Great Wall. After they shifted their business to the hinterland in the reign of Hongzhi of the Ming Dynasty, they soon monopolized the salt business in the Huai River valley and in Yangzhou, and became as powerful as the Anhui merchants in the same business.

Imperial Commissioned Books The Ming and Qing emperors commissioned special teams to compile a number of enormous books. The compilation of the Yongle Encyclopedia was directed by Xie Jin, appointed by Emperor Chengzu of the Ming during the Yongle Era. It incorporated eight thousand texts from ancient times up to the early Ming Dynasty, covering an array of subjects, including agriculture, art, astronomy, drama, geology, history, literature, medicine, natural sciences, religion, and technology, as well as descriptions of unusual natural events. It consists of seven to eight thousand books in more than eleven thousand volumes. Because of the vastness of the work, it could not be block-printed, and it is thought that only three copies were made. The original and first of the two copies was destroyed during the fall of the Ming Dynasty. The second copy was gradually dissipated and lost from the late-eighteenth century onward, until many of the remaining volumes were burned in the fire when the Eight-Nation Alliance attacked Beijing. Only around three hundred volumes have survived to the present, of which about two hundred are in China. The forty-two-volume Kangxi Dictionary was compiled by Zhang Yushu by the order of Emperor Kangxi and published in 1716 or the fifty-fifth year of the Kangxi Era. It was partly based on two Ming dictionaries Zihui (Character Collection) and Zhengzitong (Correct Character Mastery).The dictionary contains 47,035 character entries, which give variants, pronunciation in traditional fanqie spelling and in modern reading of homophones, variant meanings, and quotations from Chinese books

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and lexicons. Emperor Daoguang established a review board led by Wang Yinzhi, and their Zidian Kaozheng (Character Dictionary Textual Research) corrected 2,588 mistakes, mostly in the quotations and citations. The Kangxi Dictionary was widely used and was very popular despite its errors. The Gujin Tushu Jicheng is a book organized by category, and is a complete collection of illustrations and writing from the earliest to contemporary times. It was initially compiled under the directorship of Chen Menglei and later Jiang Tingxi. The work was printed in the fourth year of the Yongzheng Era, using copper movable-type printing. It spanned around ten thousand rolls. A total of sixty-four copies were made. This book covers a wide range of topics, including natural phenomena, geography, history, literature, and government. The Sikuquanshu, translated as the Imperial Collection of the Four is the largest collection of books in Chinese history. The collection is divided into four Ku Jing (Classic), Shi (Histories), Zi (Masters), and Ji (Collections). It is largely based on six sources: court collections, the surviving Yongle Encyclopedia, selections from the provinces, The Kangxi Dictionary private collections, and commons publications. The compilation began in the thirty-eighth year of the Qianlong Era and it took about ten years to complete it. It includes 3,479 titles or works in 7,916 volumes bound in 36,078 books. Scribes copied every word by hand and the collection was transcribed into seven copies. Four copies for the emperor were placed in specially constructed libraries in the Forbidden City, Old Summer Palace, Shenyang, and Wenjin Chamber, Chengde. The Gujin Tushu Jicheng Three additional copies for the public were deposited in Siku Quanshu libraries in Hangzhou, Zhenjiang, andYangzhou.The three copies kept in the Wenyuan Library in the Forbidden City,Wenjin Library in Chengde and Wenshuo Library in Shenyang are well preserved and relatively intact. Although the work has preserved a large amount of literature, hundreds of books were banned and subsequently destroyed during censorship drives Sikuquanshu


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if they were found to contain something that was deemed not in favor of the Qing rulers. The Daqing Yitong Zhi is the official complete chorography of the Great Qing. The Qing rulers ordered the compilation of a complete chorography three times during the Qing Dynasty, starting in 1683.The first chorography of 342 volumes was completed in the eighth year of the Qianlong Era, the second 500 volumes in the forty-ninth year of the Qianlong Era and the third 560 volumes in the twenty-fifth year of the Daoguang Era. It provides accounts of different regions, starting with The Daqing Yitong Zhi the capital, and then Zhili, Shengjing, Jiangsu, Anhui, Shanxi, Shandong, Henan, Shaanxi, Gansu, Zhejiang, Jiangxi, Hubei, Hunan, Sichuan, Fujian, Guangdong, Guangxi, Yunnan, Guizhou, Xinjiang, Uliastai, and Mongolia, altogether twentytwo jurisdictions, as well as Qinghai and Tibet. In the order of writing for each province, illustrations were followed by a general description. Fu and Zhiliting have separate volumes describing their territories, evolution of jurisdiction, topography, customs, schools, cities, towns, farm land, mountains, rivers, historical sites, passes, bridges, dykes and dams, temples, celebrities, figures, local produce, and so on, under twenty-five categories altogether. Covering a wide range of items and carefully and accurately recorded, it is a complete national chorography of China, providing important materials for the study of Chinese geography and history.

Scholarly Book Series

Mao Jin and the Jindai Mishu. Mao Jin, with the courtesy name of Zijin and born in Changshu, was a regular bibliophile and collected more than eighty-four thousand books. He was the editor of a series of books entitled the Jindai Mishu, with fifteen sub-series under 141 titles. The book is based on the Mice Huiyan edited by Hu Zhenheng, which was burned in a fire. Mao combined the surviving copies with his own collection and compiled the series. Most of the works in the Jindai Mishu were anecdotes written by Song and Yuan writers.They had formerly not been considered significant enough to be included in previous collections. Cao Rong and the Xuehai Leibian. The series was first edited by Cao Rong in the early Qing period and revised by Tao Yue, containing 431 titles divided into the Jingyi (Classic), the Shican (Histories), the Zilei (Masters), and the Jiyu (Collections). The history section is mostly made up of insignificant detail and unofficial histories, while the Zilei contains the philosophy section on Neo-Confucian works in the Ming and Qing dynasties.

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Nalan Xingde and the Tongzhitang Jingjie. Nalan Xingde (1655–1685), with the courtesy name Rongruo and the eldest son of Grand Secretary Nalan Mingzhu, was from the Manchu Plain Yellow Banner administrative division. He passed the jinshi examination during the reign of Kangxi. Being a good rider, poet, and scholar, he once served as an imperial senior bodyguard.The Tongzhitang Jingjie, originally called the Jiujingjie, was actually carved by Xu Qianxue and He Zhuo in the name of Nanlan Xingde. It has 1,860 volumes in 146 titles, a complete collection of Song,Yuan, and Ming annotations of the Book of Changes, the Book of History, the Book of Poetry, the Spring and Autumn Annals, the Three Classics of Rites, and the Classic of Filial Piety. Bao Tingbo and the Zhibuzuzhai Congshu. Bao Tingbo edited the Zhibuzuzhai Congshu during the Qinglong Era and his son Bao Shikong continued his work and compiled it into a series of books of thirty sub-series and 207 titles. It brings together books on textual research, mathematics and science, epigraphy, geography, painting and calligraphy, poetry, catalogs, and so on. Seventeen more titles were added by Gao Chengxun in his Xu Zhibuzuzhai Congshu and forty-seven more titles by Bao Tingjue in Hou Zhibuzuzhai Congshu in the Daoguan Era, both written in the same styles. Ruan Yuan and the Huangqing Jingjie. Ruan Yuan (1764–1849), courtesy name Boyuan, was born in Yizheng of Jiangsu. He passed the jinshi examination in the Qianlong Era. He served first as governor of Guangdong and Guangxi and than as the Grand Secretary. As a promoter of the Puxue (simple and plain learning) and textology, he set up the Xuehaitang Academy in Guangzhou. He revised and carved the Annotated Thirteen Classics and the Huangqing Jingjie. The Huangqing Jingjie was a collection of annotated Confucian Classics edited by Ruan Yuan who collected seventy-four works of the classics between the eras of Qianlong and Jiaqing.The collection has more than 1,400 Statue of Ruan Yuan volumes under around 180 titles. The set was kept in the Wenlan Hall of the Xuehaitang Academy in Guangzhou and is thus called the Xuehaitang Jingjie. Later on,Wang Xianqian, following the same style, continued to edit and publish Huangqing Jingjie xubian, collecting works by 110 authors under 209 titles and in 1,430 volumes, many of which are the textual research findings of Qing scholars.They represent the evolution of the Qing studies of Confucian Classics, a reference for studying Chinese history and languages.


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Jingshi Trend of Thought. Jingshi was a trend of thought during the Ming and Qing dynasties, advocating studying and solving practical problems, emphasizing science, and opposing abstract ideologies. The Ming Jingshi Wenbian, originally called the Huang Ming Jingshi Wenbian, is the title for a collection of the Jingshi works. The 504-volume work were selected and edited by Chen Zilong, Xu Fuyuan, and Song Zhengbi. The book is composed of memorials submitted to the throne as well as articles on military subjects, topography, political affairs, defense, rites, tax and corvee, criminal law, agriculture, maritime transportation, irriga- The Qing Jingshi Wenbian tion, finance, and the imperial examination.The volumes were arranged by author. The collection was completed in 1638 during the reign of Emperor Chongzhen and was banned in the Qing Dynasty. It is an important source of material for the study on the Ming Dynasty. It was originally carved, and photocopies are available. The 127-volume Qing Jingshi Wenbian, also called the Huangchao Jingshi Wenbian, was edited by He Changling and Wei Yuan. It was completed in 1826 and published the following year. It is a collection of official documents, essays, memorials to the throne and letters, including eight parts of scholarly writing, politics, bureaucracy, rites, military subjects, criminal affairs, and engineering works. It is an important reference for studying Qing history. The Qing Jingshi Wen Xubian is the continuation of the Qing Jingshi Wenbian in the same style. The first 120-volume continuation was edited by Sheng Kang and published in 1897, including memorials to the throne and essays written during the reigns of Daoguang, Tongzhi, and Guangxu. The second 120-volume continuation Weiyuan was edited by Ge Shijun and published by the Wensheng Publishing House of Shanghai in 1896. The 80-volume Qing Jingshi Wen Sanbian was edited by Chen Zhongyi and published in 1897. A revised edition was reprinted the following year.

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Libraries Tianyi Chamber is located on the west side of Moon Lake in the city of Ningbo. It is the oldest surviving library in China, founded in 1561 during the later part of the reign of Emperor Jiajing of the Ming Dynasty by the vice-Minister of Defense Fan Qin who was a jinshi. In its heyday, the library boasted a collection of 70,000 volumes of antique books. After Emperor Qianlong’s reign, the Tianyi Chamber lost much of its collection due to theft, and only 13,000 volumes The Tianyi Chamber survive to the present day, including the Ming chronographies and records of those who passed the imperial examinations. It is now a national heritage site, and has since added more books into its collection. The Qianqing Tang is a catalog of thirty-two volumes written by Huang Yuji in the early Qing. Being an important catalog of Ming writing, it contains relatively complete works by Ming authors, together with their biographies. The History of Ming: Yiwenzhi was based on this catalog, adding works from the catalogs of Song, Liao, Jin, and Yuan. Mashi Xiaolinglong Shanguan is the name of the library founded by Feng Yueguan (with the courtesy name Qiuwang) and Feng Yuelu (with the courtesy name Peixi) in the Qing Dynasty.They were both book collectors during the eras of Yongzheng and Kangxi and collected more than one hundred thousand books.

Shuyuan

The shuyuan, usually rendered in English as Academies or Academies of Classical Learning, is a type of school in ancient China. Unlike a national academy and district schools, shuyuan were usually private establishments built away from cities or towns, providing a quiet environment where scholars could engage in studies and contemplation without worldly distractions. The Yuelu Shuyuan was originally built on the Yuelu Mountain in Changsha in Hunan during the ninth year of the Song Dynasty under the reign of Emperor Kaibao, and was one of four most renowned shuyuan. It was founded by Zhu Dong, prefect of Tanzhou, and included lecture halls, dormitories, and a library, its student number reaching 1,000.The Southern Song’s renowned Confucian scholars Zhu Xi and Zhang Shi both lectured at this academy. It was renewed several times during the


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Ming and Qing dynasties, and was used as an education venue. Zhu Song, father of the Song Neo-Confucian philosopher Zhu Xi, studied at the Siyang Mountain south of She County in Anhui. When Zhu Xi moved to Chong’an in Fujian, he named his house after the mountain, Ziyang Shutang in memory of his father. Ziyang became another name for Zhu Xi. When the Ziyang Shuyuan was founded in She County, Zhu Xi was invited to his hometown to write an article commemorating the event. Many other Ziyang Shuyuan were consequently founded in different provinces. Gujing Jingshe is a shuyuan dating from the Qing Dynasty founded at Gushan Mountain by the West Lake in Hangzhou. During the reign of Emperor Jiaqing, when he was an education official in Zhejiang, Ruan Yuan, being a promoter of textology, gathered scholars there to write the 116-volume Jingji Cuangu. After he became governor of Zhejiang he turned the fifty rooms previously used for writing the book into a school and selected local scholars of classical learning to study there. He named the school Gujing Jingshe and wrote an article to commemorate it. Many prominent scholars were invited to lecture at the school, including Ruan Yuan himself, Wang Chang, Sun Xingyan, and Yu Yue. The lectures covered a wide range of topics on the classics, astronomy, geography, and mathematics. Selected articles of the students were included in the Collection of Gujing Xueshe. Gujin Xueshe was also founded in Shanghai, and was incorporated in the Qiuzhi Shuyuan during the Reign of Emperor Guangxu. The Xuehaitang is a shuyuan founded by Ruan Yuan in the Yuexiu Mountain in Guangzhou during the Qing Dynasty when he was governor of Guangdong and Guangxi during the reign of Emperor Daoguang. Ruan Yuan lectured at the Xuehaitang, where there were eight lecturers. Students studied the thirteen Confucian Classics, the Records of the Grand Historian, the Book of Han, the Wenxuan, the Poetry of Tu Pu, and the Collection of Han Changli. Each student chose one topic and wrote a book report which was commented on by lecturers. The Xuehaitang carved the Yanjingtang Ji, the Xuehaitang Ji, the Xuehai Jingjie, and the Huangqing Jingjie.

Wushu (Martial Arts)

The origin of wushu is attributed to the needs of self-defense rather than as physical exercises.The primitive people fought against wild animals and enemies for food and resources. Ways to win in such elemental struggles are the sources of wushu. Later in the slavery and feudal societies, wars were more frequent and wushu developed into different forms, with the use of different types of weapons, such as knives and swords made of metal and wood. These weapons combined with the various forms of practice are called “the eighteen arms of wushu.” Wushu masters

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appeared one after another: Yue Fei, Zhang Sanfeng, and Qi Jiguang, to name just a few of those who practiced the art and wrote theories on wushu.These classics, such as Wujing Qishu by Huang Gongshi of the Han, Wujing Guijian by Wang Yan of the Song, Jixiao Xinshu by Qi Jiguang of the Ming, and Wujing Huijie of Zhu Yong of the Qing have remained to the present day. In modern times, after the invention of firearms and the application of thermal weapons, wushu became much less important in wars and its function as a form of physical exercise was more apparent. In the late Qing Dynasty and in the Republic era, wushu became a major form of exercise for many ordinary people. Chinese people now have the tradition of practicing wushu, which has been carried down from generation to generation and is also practiced in other countries. It is recorded in a Ming history book that the martial arts master Chen Yuanzi travelled to Japan and taught the Shaolin Quan Fa (Shaolin fist) there, which subsequently led to the invention of the art of judo.

Heritage Sites

The Great Wall of the Ming Dynasty. Now known as one of the wonders of the world, the Great Wall was first built in the Qin Dynasty, and was subsequently repaired, rebuilt, and expanded during consequent dynasties. The Han and Ming walls are the most spectacular.The Han wall was more than ten thousand kilometers, based on which the Ming wall was constructed. The Ming wall ranged from the Yalujiang River in the east to the Jiayu Pass in the west, more than 3,000 kilometers in length.The important eastern part was built with strong bar-stones and bricks.The Shanhai Pass was the largest of all, and the Jiayu Pass was built in the early Ming at the Southwest corner of Jiayu city in Gansu, known as “the greatest pass in the world.” The Ming wall protected the northern borders for more than half a century. Cities such as Taiyuan located near the border grew into prosperous and bustling cities comparable to those south of the Yangtze River. In times of peace, the Mongolians not only developed their animal husbandry but also gradually learned to use plows to grow crops of all kinds, from wheat, to beans to leafy vegetables. Thousands of hectares of land were under cultivation and Mongolian villages emerged one after the other. Trade between the Han and The Ming Great Wall Mongolians was very active. Mer-

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chants from the hinterland opened shops in cities and towns in the border areas selling cloth, wool, tea, and groceries, while the Mongolians managed horse markets. Economic activities helped them to exchange their cultures and integrated their customs. They lived together peacefully. The Ancient Observatory. This was a pretelescopic observatory built in the eastern part of Beijing. Founded in 1442 during the Ming Dynasty, it was used by astronomers to observe movements of the heavenly bodies. After the Xinhai Revolution, it was renamed the Central Observatory. It is an important astronomical heritage site.

The Ancient Observatory

VI. Novels of the Ming and Qing Dynasties Sanguo Yanyi (The Romance of the Three Kingdoms)

The novel was written by Luo Guanzhong, a novelist of the late Yuan and early Ming dynasties. Stories about the Three Kingdoms had been popular since the Sui and Tang dynasties, and Luo Guanzhong in writing Sanguo Yanyi made use of the historical material in Sanguo Zhi (A History of the Three Kingdoms) by Chen Shou and in Zhu by Pei Songzhi. It is the first historical novel in the literary history of China. It uses as its main story the nearly one hundred years from the start of the Yellow Turban Uprising at the end of the Eastern Han Dynasty up to the tripartite confrontation among the three states of Wei, Shu, and Wu and on to the unification of the Western Jin Dynasty, vividly portraying many of the central characters. Liu Bei, Guan Yu, Zhang Fei, Cao Cao, Sun Quan, Zhuge Liang, Zhou Yu, and some others were depicted in so lively a manner that they became household names among the masses. The depiction of wars, such as the Battle of Guandu, the Battle of the Red Cliff, and the Battle of Yiling not only provided examples of successful battles in which the party with more soldiers was defeated by that with the fewer, but also gave significant military insights. Zhuge Liang the book portrayed has become a symbol of national wisdom.

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Shuihu Zhuan (Heroes of the Marshes)

This is a novel with a peasant uprising as the theme. Shi Nai’an, the author, was said to be from Xinghua, Jiangsu, and to have taken part in the peasant uprising led by Zhang Shicheng at the end of the Yuan Dynasty. Shuihu Zhuan uses as historical fact that the masses were forced to revolt by the authorities. The book lays bare and castigates the evils and corruption of the ruling classes, and affirms and eulogizes the righteousness of the peasant uprisings and glorious images of the heroes in Liangshan. Shi Nai’an enthusiastically depicted the thinking and characters of the 108 heroes in Liangshan. However, the book lends support to the principle of loyalty to the emperor, although it is opposed to corrupt officials and it points out that the way out for peasant uprisings was to surrender to the government.This is perhaps one of the weaknesses of the book.

Xiyou Ji (Journey to the West)

The author of this novel is Wu Cheng’en of the Ming Dynasty. He was once an official in Changxing County of Zhejiang Province and he left the position because he did not want to yield to his superiors. He also wrote Sheyang Xiansheng Cungao. Since the Song and Yuan dynasties, the story of Tang Seng going on a pilgrimage for Buddhist scriptures had been very popular among the people and some elements relating to gods and spirits were gradually added to the story. Wu Cheng’en wrote Xiyou Ji in a romantic way.Through the depiction of trouble-making and evildoing demons and spirits that the heroes came across on his way to get the Buddhist scriptures, Wu Cheng’en indirectly laid bare the decayed morals of contemporary society. He portrayed a fearless and rebellious Sun Wukong (Monkey King) who was courageous enough to revolt and fight for good. He feared nothing, created disturbances in the heavenly palace and made the heavenly Yuhuang emperor (Jade Emperor), lord of the heavenly palace, run around in circles after him. The depiction in the book of the fatuousness, greed, and cruelty of the Yuhuang emperor, demons, gods, and spirits, and the description of their shameless behaviors, such as treachery and fraudulence, appeared as a merciless exposure of the feudal ruling class. Sun Wukong was infinitely resourceful, but he could get rid of neither the control of Buddha nor the Incantation of the Golden Hoop.

Hong Lou Meng (Dream of the Red Chamber)

Cao Xueqin, also named Zhan, was from a large family that used to be wealthy. It took him ten years to complete this great work. The first eighty-four chapters were written by Cao Xueqin and the last forty chapters were written by Gao E.The book depicted the history of the rise and fall of the four aristocratic families of Jia, Shi, Wang, and Xue, and it castigated feudal ethics.The tragic love story of Jia Baoyu and


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Lin Daiyu was the main topic that was interwoven with the unhappy marriages of twelve other maidens, and with a variety of frictions and struggles among the four families. The story vividly depicts the ups and downs of the fortunes of the Rong and Ning mansion houses of the Jia family and reflects the social contradictions and struggles of that time. The book is well knit in structure and succinct and vivid in language.

Liao Zhai Zhi Yi (Strange Tales of A Lonely Studio)

Written by Pu Songling, this is a brilliant collection of short stories in classical Chinese that criticized social inequality and injustice through stories telling of demons and ghosts.

Rulin Waishi (The Scholars)

Written by Wu Jingzi of the Qing Dynasty, the novel tells of scholars taking part in the imperial examinations, and it exposes the corruption of the imperial examination system of the feudal society. It is an excellent satirical novel.

Jin Ping Mei (The Golden Lotus)

The novel was written during the reign of Emperor Wanli of the Ming Dynasty, but its author remains unknown. It mainly depicts the evil life of Ximen Qing and his lewd life. Ximen Qing was originally the owner of a pharmacy, but he ganged up with officials and made Cai Jing, an important official of the royal court, his godfather. He became a tixing qianhu of the county where he lived, and took bribes, bent the law, bullied and oppressed the weak, and led a dissipated and shameless life. The author describes the spiritual outlook of high and low officials and eunuchs who worked around the emperor and committed all manners of crimes and of gangsters and other sorts of ignoble people. The book draws an outline of a cruel and ghastly world of ghosts and goblins through the base actions and evil activities of these people. The book boldly and mercilessly lay bare the scum of society at that time, and vividly depicts the deviant human behaviors when power and money were the objects of life. It renders a plain description of the phenomena of seeking and indulgence in sensual pleasures, and the consequent moral degeneration and corruption. This undisguised depiction exposes the evils of the feudal system and the ruling class.The author creates some vivid characters such as Ximen Qing, Pan Jinlian, Chen Jingji, and Yan Bojue, who are characterized with distinctive features. For instance, the depiction of the character of Pan Jinlian surpasses that of Shuihu Zhuan. Pan Jinlian is a complicated character: she forgets her poor family background and is content with the life of a lackey, she is cruel and vicious but toadyish and submissive, she is jealous and unkind, but frank and outspoken,

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she is quick and sly but very stupid. She is extremely individualistic, leaving readers an impression that she is a miserable outcome of the destruction of humanity caused by the rottenness within society.

VII. Legal System Law Texts

Ancient people used the law in a way different from us today. It was called mingxing and bijiao. People in ancient times always hoped to achieve morality through education supplemented with punishment, while people of subsequent generations used the law as a means of maintaining social order.Thus, the law lost its original intention of “bijiao” and just became an instrument to maintain relative social order. The first statute book in China was Fajing, written by Li Li from the State of Wei during the Warring States Period. The book includes six parts: Dao, Zei, Qiu, Bu, Za, and Ju. Robbery is the infringement upon the property of other people, assault is to harm the body of other people, and robbers and thieves have to be trapped and arrested. Each part includes many chapters.When Emperor Gaozu of the Han Dynasty came to power, he reached an agreement with the people of the Qin Dynasty, which was that three parts of the statute would be put into practice, while the other three parts would be abolished. Later Xiao He said that the three parts of the statute were not enough to guard against treacherous elements. He restored all six parts and added three more. In later years, another eighteen parts were added by Shu Suntong. After the Qin Dynasty unified China, the rulers formulated stricter laws for fear of insurrections by people from the other six states, and it became the practice to formulate laws.They enforced the law as strictly as possible and this had nothing to do with the number of clauses in a law. During the reign of Emperor Wen of the Han Dynasty, Qi Taicang ordered Ti Ying, daughter of Chun Yuyi, to save her father who was guilty and should accept corporal punishment. Taking pity on her, Emperor Wen had corporal punishment removed, and put in place moral education supplemented with corporal punishment. Corporal punishment was no longer used. Emperor Ming of the Wei State of the Three Kingdoms period ordered Chen Qun to work out a new law with eighteen parts, but he was overthrown by the Jin Dynasty before the new law could be implemented. Emperor Wu of the Jin Dynasty ordered Jia Chong to formulate a new law with twenty parts. In the fourth reign of Taishi,the new law was promulgated and put into force. This was Jinlu, the Code of the Jin Dynasty or Taishi Lu, the Taishi Code. Jinlu is a systematic compilation of the laws and decrees of the Han Dynasty. Confucianism was popular at that time and Confucian theories were of course


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applied to laws. The Confucian School was more tolerant than were the Legalists, and stressed the importance of preserving good social habits. Therefore, Jinlu was relatively civilized. After its formulation, Jinlu was in continual use in later dynasties. During the Southern Dynasties, the states of Song and Qi had not systematically worked out their laws while the states of Liang and Chen had, which was a continuation of the Jinlu. During the Northern Dynasties, the states of Wei, Zhou, and Qi also used Jinlu in addition to some Xianbei laws, such as Beiqi Lu, the Code of the Northern Qi Dynasty.Tang Lu, the Code of the Tang Dynasty, was a statute book that still exists today. It was called Tanglu Shuyi and its statutory system of lü, ling, ge, and shi, referring to different kinds of law, was relatively complete. Criminal law underwent great changes during the time from the Han to the Sui dynasties. In the broad sense, this originally meant doing irrevocable harm to the body and it was also called corporal punishment. Corporal punishment was abolished by Emperor Wen of the Han Dynasty, but castration was put into practice again during the reign of Emperor Jing of the Han Dynasty. Castration was done away with in the early years of the Sui Dynasty. From the Sui and Tang dynasties, five types of punishment began to be practiced, i.e. whipping, flogging with a stick, imprisonment, banishment, and execution. Execution included decapitation and death by hanging. During the Yuan Dynasty, the central part of China was under the control of the non-Han people who preferred cruel mistreatment to law making. There was only decapitation then, and no death by hanging. Those who committed serious crimes were put to death by dismemberment of the body. This criminal law was still used during the Ming and Qing dynasties. During the Ming Dynasty, criminal law was confused with military and political affairs, and banishment for penal servitude was added besides these five types of punishment. Reform on criminal law began with the revision of the old laws at the end of the Qing Dynasty. At that time, whipping and flogging with a stick were changed into impositions of a fine, and work replaced imprisonment and banishment. Later, the Xin Xinglu (List of New Punitive Measures) included the death penalty, life imprisonment, term imprisonment, custody, a fine for the principal criminals, and confiscation for accessories to the crime.

Judicial Organ In ancient times in China, the judiciary was never separate from the government, whereas judicial independence was a feature of European law. In China, the lower classes had limited authority in conviction cases. Emperor Taizong of the Han Dynasty was the only authority to decide whom to execute. By modern times, the administrative levels of fu, ting, zhou, and xian could deliberate and decide the crimes less serious than imprisonment. Banishment had to be decided by anchasi

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(Provincial Judicial Commissioner) while capital punishment could only be decided by the emperor.

VIII. Science and Technology Li Shizhen and Bencao Gangmu

Li Shizhen (1518–1593) was born in Qizhou (present-day Qichun County of Hubei Province). His father, Li Yanwen, was a famous doctor. Li Shizhen had been going to the mountains with his father to pick herbs since childhood, and had acquired a lot of knowledge about pharmacy. However, his father expected him to become an official. When Li Shizhen was only 14 years old, he passed the imperial examination at the County level (called Xiucai), but failed to pass the provincial examinations (called Juren) after three attempts. He was determined not to pursue official ranks, and started to concentrate on medical study and practice. In the thirtieth year of the reign of Jiaqing of the Ming Dynasty, Li Shizhen was invited to serve as a medical official under Zhu Youjian, the Prince of Chu. When he cured Prince Chu’s son who had suddenly fainted, the Prince was very grateful and recommended him for the post of assistant president at the Imperial Medical Institute in Beijing. However, he left a year later to return and practice medicine. In 1552, when he was thirty-five years old, Li Shizhen started to compile Bencao Gangmu (Compendium of Materia Medica). Li Shizhen read and referred to eight hundred medical books and other relevant works. He did field investigations on herbs, making long journeys all over the country. On the basis of the old Chinese Materia Medica, he corrected mistakes, eliminated inaccurate sections, reorganized the classification, collected samples, drew pictures, added a large quantity of new content, and systematically organized the abundant traditional Chinese medicine knowledge from before the sixteenth century. It took him nearly thirty years, and was finally completed in 1578, titled Bencao Gangmu. It was later revised three times. The book contains details of over 1,800 kinds of herbs and other medicinal materials, ten thousand prescriptions, and over a thousand illustrations. It also touches upon many scientific fields including medical science, materia medica, biology, mineralogy, chemistry, environment and organisms, and genetic variation. In the book, Li Shizhen creates a systemic medicine, dividing medicines into the three categories: items from the inorganic world, the plant kingdom, and the animal world. Substances of these categories are arranged in order from a lower to a higher grade, reflecting the idea of the evolution of organisms, something that attracted the attention of Darwin, the British biologist.


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Darwin cited the materials in Bencao Gangmu for his book The Variation of Animals and Plants under Domestication. In the beginning of the seventeenth century, this work was introduced to Japan, and then to Korea and European countries. It has been translated into Japanese, English, French, German, Russian, and Korean. It is not only a traditional Chinese pharmacopoeia, but also a book which categorizes plants and minerals in great detail. Therefore, it has had tremendous influence in the world.

Wu Tang and Wenbing Tiaobian

Wu Tang (1758–1836), also called Wu Jutong, was born in Huaiyin, Jiangsu Province. He was a famous physician in the Qing Dynasty. He practiced medicine in Jiangsu, Zhejiang, and Beijing. Based on Wenre Lunzhi (Treatise on Epidemic Febrile Diseases) written by Ye Tianzhi of the Qing Dynasty, Wu Tang compiled a book titled Wenbing Tiaobian (Treatise on Differentiation and Treatment of Epidemic Febrile Diseases).The book, comprising six volumes in total, was completed in 1798. The book is arranged in three categories: upper jiao, mid jiao, and lower jiao diseases and their differentiation and treatment. The formulas are taken mostly from Ye Tianshi’s book, A Guide to Clinical Practice with Medical Records.

Xu Guangqi and Nongzheng Quanshu

Xu Guangqi (1562–1633) was a native of Shanghai in the late Ming Dynasty. He was an outstanding scientist and author of Nongzheng Quanshu, an encyclopedia of agriculture. His book contains sixty volumes, and one third of the whole book was devoted to wasteland reclamation, reflecting his concern for the miseries of the people and the severity of famine in China. Together with western priests, he translated the contents of Taixi Shuifa and included this in the book so as to introduce European advanced instruments for water conservation. The book also touches upon all theories and scientific methods used in agriculture in ancient China, and this section held an important position in the history of agriculture. In cooperation with Matteo Ricci, Xu Guangqi translated the first six volumes of the book The Elements written by the Greek mathematician, Euclid, and this work was of great significance for the development of mathematics in China.

Xu Xiake and Xu Xiake Youji

Xu Xiake (1586–1641), also named Xu Hongzu, Zhenzhi, and Xiake, was a famous geographer who dedicated his whole life to geographic studies. He spent more than thirty years traveling to fourteen provinces and regions on foot on tours of inspection, and he recorded his observations in the forms of prose and journals. This is the famous Xu Xiake Youji.

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The present-day Xu Xiake Youji has twenty volumes with four hundred thousand Chinese characters. The work faithfully records the economic situation, administration, and social customs of various places, and accurately records his detailed observations of the mountains, rivers, topography and landforms, and animals and plants. His record of karst topography is particularly rich and accurate, and was of high academic value. Xu Xiake inspected more than one hundred grottos for which he made a precise description and analysis of their structure, location, features, and causes. He did this over one century earlier than the European investigations of the same kind. Xu Xiake had his unique views about river course geography. He inspected many rivers and rectified many mistakes in chronicles, such as those made about the Xiaojiang, Xiangjiang, Lijiang River, Nujiang, and Lancangjiang rivers. He carried out detailed inspections and in-depth studies on the Yangtze and the Panjiang rivers and completed the “Jiangyuankao” and “Panjiangkao.” These two papers are important works in the history of the science of water conservation.

Song Yingxing and Tiangong Kaiwu

Song Yingxing a native of Fengxin County of Jiangxi, was a scientist of the Ming Dynasty. He was once a local official and later took part in the anti-Qing struggle. Song’s main contribution lies in the illustrated Tiangong Kaiwu (Exploitation of the Works of Nature). It records in detail various kinds of crops and the types of raw materials used in the handicraft industry, their origin, method of planting, processing, and production techniques. He adopted a scientific attitude when writing this work, and applied quantitative and proportionate concepts in his description of the proportions of gold, silver, and copper, as well as statistics on the rate of oil extracted from oil crops, thus providing much highly accurate data. Known as one of the great encyclopedias of the seventeenth century, Tiangong Kaiwu was translated into Japanese, English, German, French, Italian, and Russian, and exerted some considerable influence on the transition of world science and technology from the traditions of the ancients, on to the middle ages, and into the modern science and technology era.

Biography of Chou Ren

The Biography of Chou Ren or Chouren Zhuan is the title of a book that was compiled by Ruan Yuan and his associates. It includes the biographies of four hundred astronomers and mathematicians from ancient times up to the Qing Dynasty, and the biographies of fifty-two foreigners. The first edition was compiled by Ruan Yuan of the Qing Dynasty, the second by Luo Shilin, the third by Zhu Kebao, and the fourth by Huang Zhongjun, the latter which had as an annex Ji dai Chou Ren Zhushuji by Hua Shifang. All these editions were based on relevant historical ma-


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terials in ancient books. The biographies of important personages were followed by comments. It is an important reference book for a study of astronomy, calendar science, and mathematics.

T H E L AT E Q I N G DY N A S T Y A N D T H E R E P U B L I C O F C H I N A

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CHAPTER 7

The Late Qing Dynasty and the Republic of China I. George McCartney’s Visit to China

In the fifty-eighth year of Qianlong’s reign (1793), Britain had defeated the Netherlands in its colonies and had taken the leading role in the world. At that time, Britain sent George McCartney, an extraordinary former British envoy to Russia, as an envoy to China. He led a large delegation of 135 people who brought astronomical geographical instruments, clocks and watches, armaments, and model ships as gifts. They went to meet Emperor Qianlong and asked for permission to trade with China. The royal court called the gifts presented by the British king “tribute,” and these people were asked to kowtow (bow down) to the Chinese emperor. The British special envoy refused and the permission for trade was refused. When the envoy delegation left, Emperor Qianlong informed Britain in the form of an imperial edict: “The heavenly dynasty is rich in all kinds of resources and does not depend on foreign countries for its fortunes.” George McCartney threatened when leaving China that if China banned trade with Britain or if the latter incurred any heavy losses, a few British battleships could easily destroy the fleet on the shore. Before long, the seemingly absurd prophesy came true. When the Opium War broke out, Emperor Daoguang felt that it was humiliating and abominable that two foreign ships could not be re- George McCartney’s delegation to China

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pelled. He deplored that with the lax defense preparations, it was no wonder that foreigners looked down upon the Chinese. In fact, the ignorant, conceited, and self-complacent Qing Empire despised technology both at home and abroad, and did their best to destroy modern culture, science, and technology at every turn. At that time, Dai Zi invented some kinds of guns, including a magazine gun. The Qing rulers, however, maintained that shooting on horseback was the time-honored tradition of the Manchu, and so, instead of adopting the new invention, they sent Dai Zi into exile. During the reign of Emperor Kangxi, Zhang Yuanlong, a large merchant from Shanghai, bought many ships to pursue trade by sea, and attempted to sail one hundred oceangoing sailing ships to compete with the foreign merchant ships. Xunfu (the governor of a province) of Jiangsu wronged him, falsely charging him of ganging up with pirates. He extracted his confession by torture, and killed twelve seamen under false pretenses. George McCartney saw the weakness of the backward China during his visit and foresaw the approach of Doomsday for the Chinese empire. He wrote in his Journal of the Embassy to China that before China was occupied by the Manchu Dada, the Chinese had reached their pitch of civilization, but not having improved, or rather having gone backwards, at least, for these hundred and fifty years past, whilst we have been rising in the arts and sciences, they are actually becoming a semi-barbarous people in comparison with the present nations of Europe.” He noted that the Manchus were fond of using arrows in war and when he told them that the Europeans had replaced bows and arrows with rifles, they were surprised, thinking that it was more heroic to shoot arrows while on galloping horses than simply firing with a rifle.

II. The First Opium War

Opium is a form of drug extracted from the opium poppy. If a person smoked it regularly and in quantity, he would soon become an opium addict, his spirit would be destroyed, and he would be reduced to a skeleton.To reap fabulous profits, British capitalists made opium out of opium poppies planted in India, a British colony then, and sold opium in large quantities to China through the British East India Company as a way of addressing the trade imbalance. In the forty years before the Opium War, Britain exported more than four hundred thousand trunks of opium to China while taking away about three to four hundred million US dollars. The outflow of silver dollars pushed up the price of silver, resulting in financial difficulties for the Qing government and adding heaven burden on the ordinary people. As many bureaucrats, landowners, and soldiers were addicted to opium, the ruling


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classes became even more decadent, and the nation’s fighting capacity was weakened enormously. Opium addiction was a major tragedy for the Chinese nation. Both powerful and knowledgeable individuals and the ordinary Chinese people strongly demanded a ban on opium. Lin Zexu, the Governor-General of Hu-Guang wrote to Emperor Daoguang, arguing that if drugs were allowed to spread unchecked, there would be no soldiers to fight against enemies and no soldiers’ pay and provisions in a couple of years. Emperor Daoguang was also aware of the threat of a “weak army and scarce money.” In December 1838, Emperor Daoguang appointed Lin Zexu as Imperial Commissioner and sent him to check and ban opium in Guangdong. Statue of Lin Zexu After arrival in Guangzhou, with the assistance of Deng Tingzhen, the governor-general of Guangdong and Guangxi, Lin Zexu consolidated coastal defenses and punished opium smuggling. Meanwhile, foreign opium traffickers were notified that they had to hand over all opium in three days and promise not to bring opium into China in the future. Charles Elliot, British Chief Superintendent of Trade tried hard to sabotage this effort, instructing British merchants to refuse to hand over opium. Lin Zexu sent soldiers to besiege the British and forced them to hand over nearly twenty thousand trunks of opium, more than 1.15 million kilograms. Lin Zexu went in person to the beach in Humen, threw the trunks of opium into a big pond, and destroyed it all with bittern and lime. This demonstrated the determination and strong will of the Chinese people to ban opium and to fight against invaders. China’s just action of banning opium became an excuse for the British to launch a war against China. In June 1840, a fleet of forty-eight warships with four thousand soldiers was sent from Britain and stationed itself in the sea near Guangdong, where the war started. Lin Zexu, the troops, and the ordinary people were well prepared, forcing the British invaders to move to attack Xiamen in Fujian. Deng Tingzhen, who was then the governor-general of Fujian and Zhejiang, was also prepared and defeated the British invaders. They moved to Zhejiang and captured Dinghai. They continued northward to Dagukou in Tianjin and forced the government of the Qing Dynasty at gunpoint into negotiation. The timid Emperor Daoguang had Lin Zexu and Deng Tingzhen dismissed from office and prosecuted. He dispatched Qi Shan

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as his special envoy to Guangzhou to negotiate with the invaders for a peaceful settlement. Upon arrival in Guangzhou in November 1840, Qi Shan withdrew the defense installation and dispersed the armed masses. He signed an agreement with the British invaders, promising to cede Hong Kong and paying an indemnity of six million dollars. Humiliated, Emperor Daoguang sent his nephew Yi Shan to preside over military affairs in Guangzhou and fight with the British invaders again. Yi Shan indulged himself in various pleasures and made merry day and night after his arrival in Guangzhou. He withdrew all the Qing troops, which were twenty times more than the British to the city area, leaving no coastal defense. In 1841, before the arrival of Yi Shan in Guangzhou, the British attacked Humen once again. Guan Tianpei, naval commander of Guangdong, put up an indomitable resistance with his soldiers, but Qi Shan only sued for peace and refused to send reinforcements. Under the circumstances of no relief troops, Guan Tianpei kept up the defense and even fired guns himself at the enemy. When the British soldiers entered the fort, he fought hard with just a knife and died heroically, while Yi Shan loitered in the city after arriving in Guangzhou and surrendered immediately with a white flag when the British fired guns at the city. British invaders burned, killed, and looted wherever they went in Guangzhou, while the Guangzhou people fought bravely against the invaders. On May 30, 1841, some British soldiers went to the northern suburbs of Guangzhou and were surrounded by hundreds of people in Sanyuanli where they had seized the Sifang fort. Viscount Hugh Gough, Field Marshal of the British troops made a sally. The Guangzhou residents fought and retreated, luring the enemy to Niulangang. At the sound of a gong, seven to eight thousand people who had remained hidden suddenly came out and fought with the enemy with knives, spears, and spades. It was pouring quite heavily at the time, and the gunpowder of the British got drenched and the guns and canons could not fire. The Guangzhou people rallied their strength and fought on even more bravely. Some British soldiers staggering along with difficulty in their high boots in the muddy field were captured, some were killed, and some knelt down to beg for mercy. The British army asked the local authority of Guangzhou for help.Yi Shan sent his men to dismiss the people. This Sanyuanli resistance struggle against the British displayed the heroic spirit of the Chinese people. In the autumn of 1841, Xiamen was seized by the British troops and Dinghai was once again under attack. Ge Yunfei, the Dinghai zongbing (military governor) staged a heroic resistance against the invaders and was shot to death. Dinghai and Ningbo were captured one after the other. Farmers in Ningbo organized a Hei Shui Dang and killed many British soldiers. In 1842, the British pushed their way into Wusong, gateway to the mouth of the Yangtze River. Chen Huacheng, the Jiang-


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nan Military Governor, aged almost seventy at the time, remained at the fort. Although severely wounded, he fought bravely and eventually died. Thereafter, the British attacked Zhenjiang where they suffered heavy losses. In August 1842, the British warships came to Nanjing along the Yangtze River. Representatives of the two countries negotiated for peace in Nanjing. The British invaders forced the representative of the Qing government to sign the first unequal treaty of China—the Treaty of Nanjing. The main drift of the treaty was that Hong Kong was to be ceded to Britain, twenty-one million US dollars was to be paid as indemnity to the British, the five cities of Guangzhou (Canton), Xiamen (Amoy), Fuzhou (Foochow-fu), Ningbo (Ningpo), and Shanghai were to be opened as ports to the British for the purpose of carrying on their mercantile pursuits, and tariff of export and import customs on British merchants were to be discussed with the British. In the following year, Ge Yunfei the British forced the Qing government to sign an appendix to the Treaty of Nanjing, according to which, Britain got consular jurisdiction, a one-sided “most favored nation status,” and the right to build houses in concessions in the port cities. After the conclusion of the Treaty of Nanjing, the United States and France threatened the Qing government to sign the unequal treaties of the Sino-US Treaty of Wangxia and the Sino-French Treaty of Huangpu with them, respectively, so as to enjoy the same kinds of privileges in China as did the British. After that, Chinese society was reduced to a semi-colonial and semi-feudal society.

III. Destruction of Yuanmingyuan, the Garden of Gardens

In October 1856, the naval force of Guangzhou searched for pirates on board the Chinese boat, the Ya Luo, but met with interference from the British consul, saying that the boat was under the protection of the British and that the naval forces had insulted the British flag. He demanded that China set free those who had been arrested and apologize. China let the arrested go but refused to apologize. The French also claimed that a French priest named Auguste Chapdelaine had been killed in Guangxi.

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Britain and France carried out joint armed provocation under this excuse. They wanted to further compel the Qing government to yield amid the Heavenly Kingdom revolution and to expand the rights and interests in China that they had won as a result of the Opium War. The war was called the Second Opium War.The British-French allied forces captured Guangzhou Yuanmingyuan in December 1857, attacked the Dagu fort in May of the following year, and headed toward Tianjin. The United States and Russia acted as intermediaries but in fact they supported the BritishFrench allied forces and together, they forced the Qing government to sign the Treaty of Tianjin. According to the treaty, foreign diplomats could be stationed in Beijing, ten more cities including Hankou and Nanjing were opened as ports to merchants, and foreign mercantile and war ships could navigate freely among the ports along the Yangtze River. Britain and France gained a huge amount of money as indemnity. The British-French allied forces withdrew from Tianjin after the conclusion of the Treaty of Tianjin. They were still not satisfied, however, and the British and French sent troops in again in August 1860 to occupy Tianjin and approach Beijing under the pretext that they had met with obstruction in exchanging the treaty in China. Emperor Xianfeng was so frightened that he fled to the summer resort in Chengde, leaving behind his brother Prince Gong Yi Xin to negotiate peace. The allied forces burned and killed all along the way and seized Beijing in October, where they barbarously looted. The looters eventually came to the Yuanmingyuan (the Garden of Perfect Splendor) in the northwest suburb of Beijing. The construction of Yuanmingyuan, known as “the garden of gardens,” began in the forty-eighth year of Emperor Kangxi’s reign and lasted for 150 years. As a world-famous garden, the three closely adjoining gardens of Yuanmingyuan, Changchunyuan, and Qichunyuan (Garden of Perfect Splendor, Garden of Eternal Spring, and Garden of Blossoming Spring, respectively) embodied the cream of Chinese and western architectures.There were elegant palaces, innumerable and valuable treasures and works of art, antiques, calligraphy, paintings, and classical books. All the British and French soldiers, from commanders to soldiers, looted wantonly, and finally burned down this magnificent royal palace. The fire lasted for three days and


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nights. The great French writer Victor Hugo (1802–1885) angrily condemned the brutal act of the British-French allied troops, expressing in prose that two bandits had broken into a garden belonging to other people, snatched their wealth, set fire to their garden and carried back to Europe trunks of gold and treasures. When finally brought to court, Hugo wryly remonstrated, one bandit would be France and Victor Hugo the other, Britain. After the British-French allied forces looted and burned down Yuanmingyuan, they forced the Qing government to sign the Treaty of Beijing, according to which, the Qing government recognized the validity of the Treaty of Tianjin, opened Tianjin as a port for trade, ceded an area of Kowloon to the British, and also paid indemnity.

IV. Taiping Heavenly Kingdom

During the Opium War, the military expenditure by the Qing government was huge and a large amount of war indemnity was paid after the war, all of which added to the heavy burdens on the Chinese people who had staged continuous revolts. From 1840 to 1850, more than one hundred peasant uprisings took place across the country, and then came the large-scale Taiping Heavenly Kingdom revolution led by Hong Xiuquan. Hong Xiuquan (1814–1864), was born into a peasant family in Huaxian County, Guangdong, and was once a rural teacher. He sat for the the imperial examination but always failed to pass it. He obtained a Christian evangelic book (Quanshi Liangyan) from a priest when he was in Guangzhou. The book said that only God was the real divine god and all other idols worshipped by people were demons. All people were the children of God and were equal. Enlightened by this book, Hong Xiuquan created the God-Worshipping Religion in 1843. He appealed to people by claiming to be the second son of God who had come down to the earth to exterminate evil and overthrow the Qing government.The following year, he went to the mountainous areas of Guangxi with his former classmate Feng Yunshan and spread the religious word among the masses. Later, he wrote Yuandao Jiushi Ge,Yuandao Xingshi Ge, and Yuandao Jueshi Ge, calling on people to overthrow the rule of the Qing government and to realize the ideal, that the world was one family and that peace was to be enjoyed by all. After its establishment, the God-Worshipping Religion carried out activities in the mountainous area of Zijing in Guiping County, Guangxi, with a membership of

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over two thousand people, including Yang Xiuqing, Xiao Chaogui, Wei Changhui, and Shi Dakai. In the process of expansion, Guangxi was successively hit by natural disasters and more uprisings broke out. On January 11, 1851, Hong Xiuquan started an uprising in Jintian village, established a state called Tai Ping Tian Guo (Taiping Heavenly Kingdom), and the rebels were called the Taiping troops. Hong Xiuquan made himself Tianwang (Heavenly King). They then seized Yong’an, where Hong Xiuquan had established his official system. Yang Xiuqing was appointed dongwang (East King); Feng Yunshan was appointed nanwang (South King); Xiao Chaogui was made xiwang (West King); Wei Changhui, beiwang (North King); and Shi Dakai, yiwang (Wing King). All of them were under the control of Yang Xiuqing, Dongwang. A preliminary state of power was set up. In the spring of 1852, the Taiping troops broke through the enemy siege and continued to move northward. They had grown to half a million people when they attacked Wuchang and moved eastward along the Yangtze River, quickly occupying Nanjing. They changed the name Nanjing into Tianjing and made it the capital of the Taiping Heavenly Kingdom. They expanded their activities to seventeen or eighteen provinces, such as Hubei, Anhui, Jiangxi, and Jiangsu. In the later period of the Taiping Heavenly Kingdom, Hong Xiuquan, Yang Xiuqing, and some other high-ranking officials led a dissolute life, distanced themselves from the masses and Hong himself was jealous of anyone who appeared more capable than himself. All of this led to a split and internal fighting among the ruling clique and eventually to complete failure.

Land System of the Taiping Heavenly Kingdom After the Taiping Heavenly Kingdom had made Nanjing its capital, a land system was promulgated and the system of ownership of land by feudal landlords was abolished. In accordance with the principles of “all farm land must be tilled by all” and “equality everywhere,” land was equally distributed, on the basis of households, according to the number of people and age (those under the age of fifteen could get half the amount of an adult), and regardless of gender. With regard to the distribution of products, the principle of “nobody should keep products to himself and everything belonged to the state” was adopted, meaning that every household should retain sufficient grain for the family while submitting the rest to the state treasury.The Taiping Heavenly Kingdom adopted this principle with the aim to build an ideal society where “farmland was tilled by all, food, clothes, and money were shared equally by all, there was equality everywhere and nobody was underfed or without clothes.”The land system was the revolutionary program of the Taiping Heavenly Kingdom that reflected the strong desire of farmers to do away with feudal land ownership, and which was an ideological crystallization of the long anti-feudal struggle by farmers.


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However, it was never practiced in reality.This stipulation that land should be distributed equally and products and all means of production belonged to the state treasury was utopian and could never be put into practice. Moreover, there was no peaceful environment to guarantee the implementation of this principle of land distribution.

Zizheng Xinpian

After the leading group of the Taiping Heavenly Kingdom had split up, Hong Xiuquan appointed the young generals Chen Yucheng and Li Xiucheng as military commanders. In 1859, Hong Rengan, cousin of Hong Xiuquan, came to Tianjing from Hong Kong and was appointed as Prince Qian to take care of routine work. As one of the first members of the GodWorshipping Religion, Hong Rengan was dispatched by Hong Xiuquan to Guang- Zizheng Xinpian dong in 1852 to start uprisings but he failed and was arrested. He soon escaped and went to Hong Kong where he became a teacher while studying western political, economic, and social theories. Next he came to Tianjing, believing that there was no reason why changes could not take place. He wrote the book Zizheng Xinpian, arguing that measures should be suited to local conditions and those actions should be taken in accordance with current circumstances. He advocated learning from the west, reforming domestic politics, and rebuilding the country. He held the view that China should develop modern industrial, mining, and communications and transportation enterprises, make trains and steamboats, encourage people to develop the mining industry, run banks, and set up post offices and newspapers and encourage and reward private inventions. He was against the closed-door policy and advocated trade with foreign countries. His ideas mirrored the desire of some advanced Chinese thinkers to develop capitalism after the Opium War. Hong Rengan was a far-sighted thinker, but it was a pity that his ideas were not implemented. Soon after the publication of Zizheng Xinpian, the Taiping Heavenly Kingdom came to a complete end under a heavy attack from Chinese and foreign reactionary forces, and Hong Rengan tragically died in Jiangxi.

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V. Modern Intellectual Enlightenment

After the Opium War, some patriotic intellectuals, upset by the failure of the Qing government, began to look to the outside world for reforms and alternative ways out for China to restore its former status of a great nation. Gong Zizhen, Wei Yuan, and some other people were pioneers who had ideas about such a reform. Gong Zizhen (1792–1841), with the courtesy name Seren and nickname Ding’an, was from a bureaucratic and land-owning family in Hangzhou, Zhejiang. As a youngster, he received education from Duan Yucai, his grandfather, a famous philologist. Unruly and unrestrained, he did not concentrate fully as he was meant to on detailed textual research, but instead read widely and made use of whatever he had learned. He pursued his studies on the basis of reality and had a profound and sober understanding of the era he lived in. He pointed out that the feudal society was moribund and had entered its declining stage. In its decline, right and wrong and good and evil were confused, intelligence and wisdom were suppressed, and the whole society was just like a dying person. All this was caused by social inequality. The poor were dying while the rich were enjoying themselves, and this polarization would necessarily lead to the collapse of the feudal dynasty. He proposed, therefore, that land reform should be carried out in the first instance, that highly centralized land ownership should be replaced by land redistribution, and that all those with working ability should be entitled to a piece of land. Politically, Gong Zizhen advocated a reform of the state apparatus. He argued that the decadent landowner-bureaucratic system would give rise to a parasite class who gave no thought to the peril that the nation was in, but only sought pleasure and wealth. The country was doomed if these people were to rule the country. This bureaucratic system was inseparable from the imperial examination system and the personnel system. He said that it was of no practical use to memorize the Sishu Wujing (Four Books and Five Classics), and the rote-answer imperial examination made no sense at all. Seniority in appointing officials led to a decline in political efficiency and the degenerate bureaucracy shackled fresh ideas, causing society to become stagnant. Therefore, he cried out for sweeping transformations, for the emergency of a contingent of talented people, and for a lively political situation. Wei Yuan (1794–1857) was from Shaoyang in Hunan. He took part in the anti-British struggle during the Opium War and compiled a booked titled Yingjili Xiaozhi based on statements given by British prisoners. In August 1841 in Zhenjiang, Wei Yuan met Lin Zexu who had been dismissed from office and they talked long into the night. Entrusted by Lin Zexu, he was determined to write a book to inspire the people to fight against the foreign invaders. On the basis of Sizhou Zhi edited by Lin Zexu, he collected extensive materials and compiled Haiguo Tuzhi (Illustrated Treatise on the Maritime Kingdoms) in fifty volumes. Supplements were


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made afterward, and ten years later the book had grown to one hundred volumes. Haiguo Tuzhi gave a systematic introduction to the geography, history, and developments in science and technology of all countries, and advocated “learning from the strengths of foreign countries in order to deal with them.” His ideas posed a challenge to the closed-door tradition. Zheng Guanying (1842–1921), also named Zheng Xiang and Tao Zhai, was from Xiangshan County (today’s Zhongshan County) in Guangdong. He once worked in the British firms Bao Dhun and Tai Gu and donated money to get the title Daoyuan. He worked in several places: in Shanghai Jiqi Zhibu Ju (the Mechanical Textile Office) supervising the manufactured textile industry; at Lunchuan Zhaoshang Ju (the Steam Navigation Company) where he was responsible for maritime trade; at the Hanyang Iron Works, with the Yuehan Railway Company; and he also founded trade and shipping companies. He proposed the “learning from the west” principle that Chinese learning was the mainstay, which could be supplemented, by western learning. He also advocated the establishment of a parliament and adoption of a constitutional monarchy. In his view, foreign countries had commerce as their foundation, worked to make them strong through trade and to protect trade with armed forces. Consequently he put forward the policy of using military war and trade war respectively to challenge foreign military and trade wars. He pointed out that manufacturing was the main source of commerce while machinery was a precondition of invention, upholding the development of the machine building industry. He asked the Qing government to adopt policies to protect merchants and pointed out that control over merchants was the fundamental reason for the lack of development of commerce in China. He proposed many protective measures, including the imposition of protective tariffs and that no foreigners should be allowed to work in the customs, merchants should be freely allowed to make investments, interests should be paid by the state for merchants to build railways, and merchants could be elected as parliamentary members. He was the author of Yiyan and Shengshi Weiyan and some other works. Rong Hong (1828–1912), also named Chun Fu, was from Xiangshan County in Guangdong. In 1847, he went to the United States to study and later became a United States citizen. He returned to China in 1855 and purchased silk and tea for the British firm Bao Shun in Shanghai. In 1863, he was appointed by Zeng Guofan to go to the United States to buy machines to prepare for the establishment of the Jiangnan Zhizao Ju (the Jiangnan Manufacture General Bureau) responsible for manufacturing. In 1867 he proposed to the Qing government that Sino-foreign funded steamship companies should be set up, students should be sent to study abroad, the mining industry should be developed, the church should be forbidden to interfere in civil lawsuits, and other proposals. Later, he served as superintendent of those Chi-

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nese students who were studying in the United States and deputy head of the Chinese embassy in the United States. During the 1894 Sino-Japanese war, he introduced Sun Yat-sen to Li Hongzhang and then presented books to Li. He attended the meeting in Zhang Yuan, Shanghai, chaired by Tang Caichang.This meeting was known as “the congress of China” and he was elected chairman. He fled to Hong Kong because he was wanted by the Qing government. He migrated to the United States two years later and wrote Xixue Don jian Ji (My Life in China and America) and some other works. Huang Zunxian (1848–1905), also named Gongdu from Jiayingzhou (today’s Meishan city), Guangdong, was a poet of the late Qing period. As a juren during the reign of Emperor Guangxu, he was an attaché at the Chinese embassies to Japan and Britain and a consul general at the Chinese consulates general in San Francisco and Singapore. Later, he served as changbao yanfadao and shu anchashi (official titles) and took part in the Reform Movement of 1898. He was sent as an envoy to Japan, but before his departure, the Empress Dowager Cixi staged a coup d’état and kept Emperor Guangxu in captivity. Huang composed poems, claiming “I write what I speak.” His early works laid bare the imperialist invasion and decadence of the ruling clique of the Qing government and demanded political reform. Taiwan Xing, a patriotic poem written after the conclusion of the Treaty of Shimonoseki, expressed his anger over the cession of Taiwan and his strong will to defend Tai- Statue of Huang Zunxian wan. His works include Renjinglu Shicao, Ribenguo Zhi, and Riben Zashishi, among others. Yan Fu (1853–1921), from Houguan (today’s Minhou), Fujian, was an enlightened thinker and translator of modern times. He graduated from Fuzhou Shipping School and studied in a naval school in Britain. He became an officer in charge of the Beiyang Fleet School after returning to China. During the Sino-Japanese War of 1894–1895, he published the articles Shibian zhiji,Yuanqiang, Pihan, and Jiuwang Juelun, among others, to oppose stubborn conservatism and uphold reform, claiming that without reform, China was doomed. He was critical of the theory stating that “laws come be- Statue of Yan Fu


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fore substance” of the Cheng Zhu School of Confucian idealist philosophy and the theory of “inborn talent and instinct” held by Lu Wang. He translated Evolution and Ethics by Thomas Henry Huxley, which upheld natural selection and the survival of the fittest, and he called on people to save the nation from extinction. His idea of “competing with heaven” was very influential in intellectual circles. He also advocated the idealistic view of philistine evolutionism. He edited Guoyan, Fayi, and the Logic of John Stuart Mill, to publicize western bourgeois political and economic ideology and logic, and added comments to voice his opinions. He was the first to put forward the standard of “faithfulness, expressiveness, and elegance” for translation from other languages. He became more conservative after the 1911 Revolution. His works included Yumaotang Shiji and Yan Jidao Shiwenchao.

VI. Westernization Movement

After the Second Opium War,Yi Xin, Prince Gong, and local officials such as Zeng Guofan realized that China lagged far behind the west in weaponry and military technology, and advocated learning advanced production technology and troop training methods from the west so as to build a modern national defense. Known as the “School of Westernization,” these people launched a westernization movement to learn from the strengths of foreign countries. Under the signboard of “self-improvement,” people of the school of westernization at first bought foreign machines, studied western technology, and set up some war industry enterprises. Representatives of this school included Zeng Guofan, Li Hongzhang, Zuo Zongtang, Zhang Zhidong, and others. Zeng Guofan (1811–1872) was from Xiangxiang, Hunan. He was the commander of the troops for Hunan, Governor-General of Liangjiang, and Governor-General of Zhili. He made great contributions to the suppression of the Taiping Heavenly Kingdom and enjoyed the trust of Dowager Empress Cixi. After he was appointed as the governor-general of Liangjiang, he was entrusted with the military affairs of the four provinces of Jiangsu, Zhejiang, Anhui, and Jiangxi. Li Hongzhang, Zuo Zongtang, and some others he had recommended were all appointed governors, or xunfu. While putting down the Taiping Heavenly Kingdom, he set up small-sized munitions factories to make rifles and guns. Later in Anqing, Anhui, he founded an ordnance institute to develop firearms effectively. Zeng Guofan

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Li Hongzhang (1823–1901), from Hefei, Anhui, was the chief commander of the troops of Anhui during the Qing Dynasty. He served as Jiangsu xunfu, governor-general of Liangjiang, and governor-general of Zhili, while concurrently acting as the Beiyang minister, and he was one of the major decision-makers in military and foreign affairs in the late period of the Qing government. While suppressing the Taiping Heavenly Kingdom, he also set up some small-scale munitions factories to manufacture firearms. Later, he moved part of the equipment to Shanghai, purchased foreign machinery and iron steel, bought more machinery from the United States.With over two thousand workers, Jiangnan Zhizao Zongju (the Jiangnan Manufacture General Bureau) was well appointed and had a careful division of labor, including the sub-bureaus of machinery, carpentry, casting, wrought iron, firearms, gunpowder, cartridges, shells, submarine mines, steelmaking, and so on. There were also a Fanyi Guan or Translation Bureau, Jixie Xueguan or the Machinery Academy and Capao Xuetang, Arsenal Academy, all of which were new at that time. In 1892, the Mauser Jiangnan Manufacture General Bureau made with its own steel was as good as the new Mauser made in Germany, and the plant was also successful in copying new types of European cannons. In 1895, the Jiangnan Manufacture General Bureau developed the world’s first-rate smokeless gunpowder. It was run by the government with funds allocated by the Qing government and products distributed by the government for military use.Therefore, it gave no consideration to cost or economic benefits and lacked the driving force for development. The administrative agency of the Jiangnan Manufacture General Bureau was like a bureaucratic department that was manipulated by feudal bureaucrats. They used restrictive methods to control and oppress workers, just as they did in the case of military soldiers, thus dampening the enthusiasm of workers. They gave no consideration to technological renovation, affecting the quality of products. For instance, the shell copper hoop was of such poor quality that the firing speed was slowed down, thus bringing heavy losses to the Beiyang Fleet during their fight. Li Hongzhang


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Later on, the Tianjin Zhizao Zongju (the Tianjin Manufacture General Bureau) was taken over by Li Hongzhang. At first, the Qing government feared that the royal court had less power than outsider officials, since the modern war industry in China was under the control of Han people. In 1867, Chong Hou, a Manchu official, was sent to prepare for the establishment of Tianjin Zhizao Zongju (the Tianjin Manufacture General Bureau) . Without any knowledge of westernization, Chong Hou entrusted a British man, J.A.T. Meadows, to take care of the preparation work, which lasted for three to four years and cost a great deal of money but made little progress.When taking over, Li Hongzhang dismissed J.A.T. Meadows and reorganized Tianjin Manufacture General Bureau. It became a center of westernization in the northern part of China in the early 1880s. Holding high the banner of “seeking wealth,” the school of westernization developed some civilian industries to support the war industry. Shanghai Merchants Steamship Bureau and Tianjin Kaiping Coal Mining Company founded at this time were large in scale. In the Lunchuan Zhaoshangju (Bureau for Inviting Merchants to Operate Steamships), there were more than thirty steamships, forming a strong fleet of merchant ships. For a long time, it made use of government funds that had low interest, and postponement in tax imposition or even tax exemp- Kaiping Coal Mining Company tion, and so underwent rapid development. From 1873 to 1893, it made a profit of over six million dollars, most of which became the private property of Li Hongzhang. Besides providing coal to relevant departments at home, the Tianjin Kaiping Coal Mining Company also sold coal on the market. Good in quality but low in price, it soon replaced foreign coal in the market in Tianjin. In 1900, the British seized the Tianjin Kaiping Coal Mining Company. Zhang Zhidong (1837–1909) was from Nanpi, Zhili. While serving Bureau for inviting merchants to operate steamships

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as governor-general of Liangguang, he founded the Zhibu Guanju (Weaving Bureau), supervising textile industry in Guangzhou, and this produced one hundred dans of cotton yarn per day. It made raw cloth, twill, and cotton print and sold these products to Hunan, Sichuan, among other places. In 1889, when appointed governor-general of Huguang, he moved the machines and equipment he had bought from foreign countries to Wuhan where he bought new machines and created a steelworks plant. In 1893, Hanyang Iron Works was set up, including ten branches with two blast furnaces, two converters, one open hearth, and equipment to roll on iron tracks. It employed more than Zhang Zhidong three thousand workers with a daily output of over fifty tons of iron, and was the first modernized iron and steel industry. Later on, Zhang Zhidong also ran the Hubei Daye Iron Company and the Jiangxi Pingxiang Coal Mining Company to provide raw materials and fuel for production. Zuo Zongtang (1812–1885) was from Xiangyin, Hunan. He was famous for suppressing the Taiping Revolution and served as governor-general of Minjiang and governor-general of Shaangan. He opened the Fuzhou Shipping Bureau and first recruited foreigners who were arrogant and profiteering because of their expertise. All foreign employees were dismissed in 1873. Later, when new technology was developed, a few foreign employees were temporarily employed. In 1888, the armored ship Pingyuan was manufactured by the Chinese workers themselves, and it performed as Zuo Zongtang well as the warships that the Beiyang Fleet had bought from abroad. During the naval war of 1894–1895, the Pingyuan shocked the enemy by hitting the submarine Matsushima, the Japanese flagship, with its cannons. After the Second Opium War, the western powers set their eyes on the northwestern, southwestern, and southeastern parts of China. In the 1860s, Mohammad Yaqub Beg, commander-in-chief of the army of Kokand Khan in Central Asia, led troops to invade Xinjiang and occupied many areas to the south and north of


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Tianshan Mountain. In 1871, Russia sent its troops to invade Yili, and Xinjiang was then in danger. In the view of Zuo Zongtang, Xinjiang was the gateway to northwest China, and if Xinjiang was lost and tsarist Russia came to the south, the inland areas would be threatened. He wrote to the imperial government, advocating the reclaiming of Xinjiang. In 1876, Zuo Zongtang led troops to Xinjiang and scored victories one after the other, using “slow movement but rapid fight” strategies. With the support of the people of various ethnic groups in Xinjiang, Mohammad Yaqub Beg was defeated and he later committed suicide. A vast area outside Yili was reclaimed. Zuo Zongtang reorganized the army and was ready to head for Yili. Admitting defeat, Russia signed an agreement with China in 1881, and Yili was reclaimed. To strengthen the management and defense of border areas in the northwest, the Qing government set up Xingsheng (province) in Xinjiang at the suggestion of Zuo Zongtang. Liu Mingchuan (1836–1895), style named Shengsan, was from Hefei, Anhui, and was commander of the Anhui army at the end of the Qing Dynasty. He was credited with suppressing the Taiping Revolution and was thereafter appointed governor-general of Zhili. In 1884, he was entrusted with the military affairs of Taiwan, and in the fall of the same year, French troops invaded Taiwan. Liu Mingchuan guarded Danshui and repelled the French troops. He fought with the French troops for eight months. He served as the governor of Taiwan from 1885 to 1891 and at one time oversaw the railways and coal mines. Ding Ruchang (1825–1882), was from Fengshun, Guangdong. He was once a zhixian (county magistrate) of Wan’an, and later became an assistant to Zeng Guofan. He helped Zeng Guofan and Li Hongzhang with their westernization movement, and recommended Tang Tingshu, a comprador, and some other people to open the Kaiping mei kuang (Tiajin Kaping Coal Mining Company) and lun chuan zhao shang ju (the Steam Navigation Company). He became the governor of Jiangsu in 1868 and governor of Fujian in 1875, while supervising the shipping industry. In 1880, he was in charge of coastal defense affairs in Nanyang and was concurrently the Foreign Minister. Statue of Ding Ruchang

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VII. Sino-Japanese War of 1894–1895

In January 1894, the Tonghak Rebellion broke out in Korea. Korea asked the Qing government to send troops to suppress the uprising and Japan also sent troops to Korea. After the Tonghak Rebellion was put down, Japan continued to send troops to Korea and was ready to start the The capture of Zuo Baogui Sino-Japanese War. On July 25, the Japanese navy bombarded and sank a ship that carried soldiers of the Qing government on the sea off Asan. Seven hundred soldiers died and the Qing government was forced to declare war against Japan on August 1. The war started in Korea and Pyongyang was occupied by Japanese soldiers after the death of Zuo Baogui, the commander-in-chief of the Qing army. In September, the Beiyang Fleet of the Qing Dynasty was attacked by the Japanese fleet in Dadonggou in the Yellow Sea. The navy commander Ding Ruchang and his forces fought with the enemy fleet. Deng Shichang, Captain of the Zhiyuan, was the vanguard. Seriously hit, the Zhiyuan tilted. Deng Shichang, determined to perish together with the enemy, instructed the soldiers to open the throttle and make a desperate run toward the enemy ships. The Japanese ships did their best to dodge this onslaught while launching torpedoes. The Zhiyuan was hit again and Deng Shichang and his men all died heroically. This battle on the Yellow Sea lasted for more than five hours. The Beiyang Fleet lost five battleships, while the Japanese fleet also suffered heavy losses.The main force of the Beiyang Fleet still existed. Li Hongzhang, governor-general of Zhili and Beiyang Minister, ordered that the Beiyang fleet should hide in the military harbor of Weihai and that they were not to cruise or fight back. At this time, the Japanese troops invaded China in two ways. One way was to cross the Yalujiang River to storm and capture the city of Jiulian, while the other way was to launch a surprise attack on Dalian and Lüshun. The commanders in Dalian ran away instead of fighting with the enemy, while only Xu Sculpture of Zuo Baogui


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Bangdao, Zongbing in Lushun, led his men to fight bravely. Both Dalian and Lüshun were captured one after the other, and the Japanese soldiers barbarically slaughtered more than eighteen thousand residents in Lushun. In early 1895, the Japanese naval and ground forces attacked Weihaiwei and the whole Beiyang Fleet, attacked from the front and rear, was destroyed. Ding Ruchang, the Shuishi Tidu (Naval Commander), preferring to die rather than surrender, committed suicide.The sixteen-year old Beiyang Fleet under the helm of Li Hongzhang was thus destroyed. Ding Ruchang (1836–1895) was from Lujiang, Anhui. The navy was founded by Li Hongzhang in 1874 and Ding Ruchang went to the United States to purchase battleships the following year. After the outbreak of the War of 1894–1895, Ding Ruchang escorted the fleet and troops of the Qing Dynasty to Dadonggou at the mouth of the Yalujiang River on September 16. On September 17, when the fleet was ready to return to port, it had a fierce fight in the Yellow Sea with the Japanese fleet. As the commander, Ding Ruchang was in the flagship Dingyuan, and he was injured when the control tower collapsed while launching cannons. He was replaced by Liu Buchan, Captain of the Dingyuan. After the fight in the Yellow Sea, he was ordered by Li Hongzhang to defend Weihaiwei. In November, Lushun was attacked by the Japanese troops. Liu Buchan went to ask Li Hongzhang in Tianjin for a battle assignment but was refused. Lushun was seized by the enemy and Liu Buchan was dismissed from office. In February 1895, Weihaiwei was captured by the Japanese troops and Ding Ruchang organized many attacks on Liugong Island to fight back, managing to bombard and sink seven Japanese ships. Commanded to surrender by foreigners and begged to do so by some Chinese officers and soldiers in the Beiyang Fleet, Ding Ruchang refused, saying he would rather die than submit, and finally took poison to kill himself in December. The foreigners in his fleet surrendered to the Japanese in his name and handed over eleven battle ships.There is a Memorial Hall for Ding Ruchang on the Liugong Island for people to pay their respects to him. Deng Shichang (1849–1894) was from Fanyu, Guangdong. He joined the Beiyang Fleet after graduating from the Fuzhou Shipping Academy. During the fierce fight in the Yellow Sea, he steered his ship the Zhiyuan forward to defend the flagship the Dingyuan.The Zhiyuan was surrounded by four Japanese battleships and the Japanese shot at the Zhiyuan until it leaned over. Seeing that the Japanese in their well- Deng Shichang

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equipped Japanese ship the Yoshino displayed great complacency and arrogance, he told his men: “Go all out to sink the Yoshino so as to puncture the enemy’s arrogance and greatly inspire our soldiers.” The Zhiyuan started the throttle and proceeded toward the Yoshino, when it was hit by mines and sank, and Deng Shichang fell into the sea. His men threw him a life buoy but he expressed his determination to live or die together with the officers and men of the Zhiyuan and he sank into the sea and died heroically.

Treaty of Shimonoseki Having seized Weihai, the Japanese were eager to attack Beijing. The Qing government hurriedly sent Li Hongzhang as plenipotentiary to Japan for peace negotiations. In April 1895, Li Hongzhang signed the Treaty of Shimonoseki with Ito Hirobumi, Signing the Treaty of Shimonoseki Prime Minister of Japan, an act of great national betrayal and humiliation. The main contents of the treaty stipulated that the Qing government should cede the Liaodong Peninsula, Taiwan, and the Penghu islands to Japan, pay two hundred million US dollars for Japanese military expenditure incurred, open as trade ports the cities of Shashi, Chongqing, Suzhou, and Hangzhou, and permit the Japanese to set up factories in these cities.This was the most unequal treaty since the conclusion of the Treaty of Nanjing, greatly worsening the Chinese national predicament.

Taiwan’s Anti-cession Struggles

Liu Yongfu

When the news about the outcome of the Treaty of Shimonoseki spread, people all around the country strongly opposed the cession and peace negotiation, and condemned the Qing government for its surrender and betrayal. People on the island of Taiwan wrote articles and protested: “It is hoped that everybody will fight to death to save Taiwan and refuse to hand it over.” Volunteers were organized to defend Taiwan. At the end of May 1895, the Japanese troops landed in Audi,Taiwan, and soon captured Jilong. Tang Jingsong, the Governor of Taiwan fled to Xiamen. In early June, the Japanese seized Taibei. The Taiwanese people and the Qing troops remaining in Taiwan made Liu Yongfu their


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leader, a man who had defeated the French army many times when he was the commander of the Black Flag Army. In mid-August, the Japanese troops moved southward from Xinzhu to attack the Dajia River in Taizhong.They suffered heavy casualties in the ambush laid by the Black Flag Army and volunteers on the bank of the Dajia River. The Japanese returned the following day. Yuan Jingqing, a battalion commander of the Black Flag Army, led over fifty soldiers to fight with the enemy and they all died together. Xu Xiang led the volunteers to stage a fierce resistance and retreated to guard Zhanghua. In October, the Japanese troops assaulted Jiayi, gateway to Tainan. More than seven hundred Japanese soldiers were blown up by mines sown by Wang Debiao. Later on, the Japanese bombarded the city walls until they collapsed. The Japanese entered the city and soon Jiayi fell into enemy hands. Xu Xiang led the volunteers to withdraw to defend the Zengwen River to the north of Tainan. After being shot in the fight, Xu Xiang shouted loudly: “It is not to be regretted if a true man dies for his country!” Tainan was soon lost and the whole province of Taiwan fell to Japanese troops. The fight to defend Taiwan lasted for five months with around one hundred battles. More than thirty thousand Japanese soldiers were killed or injured, half of the Japanese main forces were wiped out, and Kitashirakawanomiya Yoshihisashinno and Major General Yamane Nobunari were shot dead. The fight to defend Taiwan fully demonstrated the strong will and highly patriotic spirit of the military and civilians in Taiwan to safeguard the territory of their motherland, and it added an illustrious chapter in the history of the antiaggression war of the Chinese people. Henceforth, the Taiwanese people never stopped fighting for their return to the motherland during the fifty years of Japanese control over Taiwan.

VIII. Reform Movement of 1898

China was faced with the crisis of being divided after the Sino-Japanese War of 1894–1895. Kang Youwei, Liang Qichao, and some others started the Reform Movement with the aim of saving the country. Kang Youwei (1858–1927) was from Nanhai, Guangdong. He received feudal education in his childhood, but finding no wisdom in the old books that would help China rid itself of the overbearing foreigners, he became skeptical of Confucian classics. Later, he read some foreign books from which he learnt that Japan and Russia had developed

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quickly through political and social reforms. He came to Beijing to take the imperial examinations in 1888, and wrote to Emperor Guangxu about the reforms). Then he returned to Guangzhou to write books and give lectures to explain the reasons for such reforms. Liang Qichao (1873–1929) was from Xinhui, Guangdong. He was an intelligent child and was eager to learn, even thought to be a child prodigy. He went to visit Kang Youwei who told him how reforms in Russia and Japan had made these nations strong and prosperous and said that China should also Liang Qichao become strong through reforms. Liang Qichao was greatly enlightened and inspired and made Kang Youwei his teacher. In 1895, when the outcome of the Treaty of Shimonoseki came to be known in Beijing, Kang Youwei and Liang Qichao were taking their examinations. They united more than 1,300 juren (the former second degree candidate in the provincial examination) who had come for examinations from various provinces to write a statement to Emperor Guangxu to express their opposition to the peace negotiation with Japan and request for reforms.This is historically known as Gongche Shangshu. This submission came to nothing due to the intervention of traditional diehards, but it exerted a great influence publicly and was a prelude to the Reform Movement. The former residence of Tang Sitong Thereafter, efforts were made across the country to publicize the reform movement. Kang Youwei and Liang Qichao created the Wanguo Gongbao in Guangdong and organized Qiangxuehui and Yuexuehui. Lin Xu organized Minxuehui, Yang Rui organized Shuxuehui, Yang Shenxiu started Shaanxuehui, while Tan Sitong initiated Nanxuehui. They publicized the reform movement by producing newspapers, giving lectures, writing articles, and holding classes. By 1898, there were twenty-four learned societies, nineteen lecture rooms, and eight newspaper offices in the whole country and Changsha, Shanghai, and Guangzhou became centers of the reform. After Germany forcibly took control of Jiaozhou Bay, Kang Youwei immediately went to Beijing and wrote to Emperor Guangxu again, stressing the importance of the reforms. He pointed out that foreign invaders would intensify their efforts


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at aggression and the Chinese would be more resistant if no reforms were made. Touched by the statement, Emperor Guangxu declared that he was not willing to be the ruler of a conquered country. He ordered Kang Youwei and some others to make preparations for reform. In April 1898, Kang Youwei and Liang Qichao organized the Baoguohui in Beijing, formulated rules and regulations, called on various provinces, prefectures, and counties to set up branches and save the country, and produced propaganda to win support for the reform. On June 11, Emperor Guangxu promulgated Dingguoshi Zhao to carry out the reform.This was later called the Reform Movement of 1898. A few days later, Emperor Guangxu met with Kang Youwei in the Summer Palace, asked him about the implementation of the reform, and appointed him zongli yamen zhangjing xingzou (an official title). Emperor Guangxu also asked the reformists Tan Sitong, Liu Guangdi,Yang Rui, and Lin Xu to take part in the reform. From June 11 to September 21, Emperor Guangxu issued fifty to sixty imperial edicts relating to reform. The main contents included points such as the reform was to dismiss redundant staff, clear up personnel management, allow officials and ordinary people to submit statements about state affairs, abolish the privileges of banner men to be supported by the state and to make them live on their own, to set up NGOs such as a chamber of commerce and farmers associations, and to advocate the development of agriculture, industry, and commerce, to reform the imperial examination system, to abrogate the system of recruitment through the eight-part essays, to establish universally middle and primary schools, and to set up the Jing Shi Da Xue Tang (the Metropolitan University), to allow for the establishment of newspaper offices and learned societies and for the translation of foreign books, to reward scientific invention, to dissolve the old army, to train ground forces, to practice foreign military drill, and to expand the navy, among other reform initiatives. The promulgation of these imperial edicts for reform was conducive to the development of capitalism in China, to the dissemination of western science and technology and to the participation of intellectuals in state affairs. Therefore, it won the support of the bourgeoisie and patriotic intellectuals. It played an enlightening role for society as a whole, and laid a foundation for the dissemination of bourgeois ideas. The reformists carried out a series of political, economic, cultural, and military reforms, which violated the interests of the diehards headed by Dowager Empress Cixi. On September 21, because of the whistle-blowing of Yuan Shikai, Dowager Empress Cixi and Rong Lu, her trusted follower and governor-general of Zhili, staged a coup d’état. Emperor Guangxu was kept in captivity. Dowager Empress Cixi declared herself in charge of state affairs and ordered the reformists to be arrested. Kang Youwei and Liang Qichao fled abroad when warned beforehand of the decree. Tan Sitong was unwilling to flee and vehemently protested that he would die for the

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reform. Tan Sitong, Liu Guangdi, Lin Xu,Yang Rui,Yang Shenxiu, and Kang Guangren were arrested and executed. This group was known as the “Six Gentlemen of the year 1898.” All the imperial edicts issued by Emperor Guangxu were annulled except for the Jing Shi Da Xue Tang. The reform failed. It lasted for 103 days and it was thus later called the “Reform of One Hundred Days.” The name Jing Shi Da Xue Tang changed to Peking University in May 1912, and is still in existence today.

IX. Boxer Uprising and the Allied Forces of the Eight Powers

After the War of 1894–1895, imperialists came to China to open up mines, set up factories, and build railways while foreign missionaries also forcibly seized land and bullied and oppressed the Chinese people. The Boxer Uprising was an attempt to oust these imperialists. In the areas of Henan, Shandong, and Zhili, there was originally an organization named the “Boxers.” Martial arts were usually taught there, and in times of suppression by foreigners or the Qing government, people of this organization would form a resistance. Most of the Boxer members were poor farmers, handicraftsmen, poor people, small peddlers, and transportation workers in rural areas. The Boxers underwent rapid development in Shandong and by 1899, its members were all over the province. It had turned from a secret organization into an open one and was renamed the “Boxers.” They did not have a unified leading agency and the grassroots organizations were usually called tan. Most of the members were young people and there were also many women.Young female participants were called hongdengzhao (the Red Lanterns), whereas middle-aged women participants were landengzhao (the Blue Lanterns). Boxer leaders were called Lao Zushi (the founder of the sect), Da Shixiong (the big brother), and Er Shixiong (the secA boxer ond brother).


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With the increase in imperialist aggression, foreign missionaries became increasingly intrusive. The Boxers began to direct their target at imperialists and held high the banner: “Supporting the Qing Dynasty while repudiating foreigners.” In 1900, the Boxers expanded their influence to Beijing and Tianjin. Empress Dowager Cixi wanted to The allied forces of the Eight Powers use the Boxer forces to resist foreign invaders so as to achieve the devious intention of weakening the strength of the Boxers.Thus, the Qing government recognized the Boxers as a legal organization and the Boxers came to Beijing and Tianjin. They put up statements to lay bare the crimes of the invaders and called on people to fight against the invaders. Beijing and Tianjin appeared to be under the control of the Boxers for a while. In June 1900, to suppress the resistance of the Chinese, the eight countries, namely, the United States, Britain, Russia, Japan, France, Germany, Italy, and Austria sent more than two thousand soldiers to invade Beijing from Tianjin via Dagu. The Boxers pulled down the railways between Tianjin and Beijing to block the enemy. Surrounded by Boxer members in Langfang, nearly four hundred invaders were killed or injured and the rest returned to Tianjin. At the same time, the allied forces sent eighteen thousand soldiers to attack the forts in Dagu and to assault Tianjin. In mid-July, Tianjin was captured by the allied forces. Dowager Empress Cixi sent people to meet the invaders for a peace negotiation, but the allied forces ignored the request and continued to move toward Beijing. In mid-August, they entered Beijing. Dowager Empress Cixi fled in a panic together with Emperor Guangxu. On the way, Dowager Empress Cixi ordered the Qing troops to put down the Boxers and even shamelessly asked the allied forces to help with the suppression. Having occupied Beijing, the allied forces burnt, killed, and looted, and committed all manner of base crimes. In his report to the German emperor, Alfred von Waldersee, supreme commander of the joint forces, confessed that “having seized Beijing, the allied forces once openly permitted their soldiers to loot for three days and private looting continued to happen thereafter,” and that “the exact amount of losses China has suffered this time can never be known.” Important cultural treasures in Beijing, such as the Yongle Dadian (Yung-lo Encyclopedia) and other national

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treasures were sacked by the allied forces. The state treasury was looted and burnt. A group of Chinese refugees were driven to the dead end of a Hutong (alley) and shot dead. The invading forces also captured and raped women. When the allied forces were assaulting Tianjin, Russian troops drove the Chinese residents living in Hailanpao to the bank area of the Heilongjiang River. They killed many people on the way with knives and axes and pushed several dozens of the residents into the river, in an appalling massacre of the people of Hailanpao. The Russian troops also forcibly seized the sixty-four villages of Jiangdong, and cruelly slaughtered local residents.The atrocities of the Russian troops aroused a fierce resistance in the Chinese people.

X. The Treaty of 1901

In 1901, the Qing government was forced to sign the Treaty of 1901, one of national betrayal and humiliation, with Britain, France, the United States, Russia, Germany, Japan, Italy, and Austria.The main clauses stated that 450 million taels of silver were to be paid as indemnity over a course of thirty-nine years to the eight nations involved, and Boxer and Government officials were to be punished for crimes or attempted crimes against the foreign governments or their nationals. The Taku Forts should be destroyed and imperialist countries should be allowed to station their troops in the areas along the railway from Beijing to Shanhaiguan. The Legation Quarters were to be occupied by the foreign powers as a special area reserved for their use and under their exclusive control, in which no Chinese person had the right to reside, and which could be defensible. China recognized the right of each foreign power to maintain a permanent guard in these quarters for the defense of its legation. The Treaty of 1901 added more heavy burdens to the Chinese people and harmed China’s sovereignty. The Qing government became a puppet with the imperialists pulling the strings of power over China.

XI. The 1911 Revolution

After the Reform Movement of 1898 and the Boxer Uprising, the contradictions between the Chinese people and imperialism and feudalism were mainly reflected in the anti-Qing struggles, which were led by the bourgeois democratic revolutionaries. Democratic revolutionaries headed by Sun Yat-sen went around campaigning for the cause, and wrote books and articles to spread the ideas of bourgeois democratic revolution, organize societies, establish political parties, and accumulate strength for the revolution. All this promoted the democratic revolutionary movement in China.


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Sun Yat-sen, the great democratic revolutionary, was was born into a poor farmer’s family in Xiangshan County in Guangdong in 1866. He went to school in Honolulu with his elder brother and later came to study in Guangzhou and Hong Kong. He graduated in 1892 from the New College of Medicine and during this period, he received education about western capitalism. After graduating from the New College of Medicine, Sun Yat-sen became a doctor in Guangzhou and Macao. After the Sino-French War, national crises became more serious and people’s anti-Qing enthusiasm ran higher and higher. In 1894, Sun Yat-sen wrote a statement to Li Hongzhang, a bureaucrat, putting forward his propositions for political and social reforms, but he was turned down. Sun Yat-sen realized that the only way out for China was to overthrow the rule of the Qing Dynasty. He went to Honolulu again to publicize his revolutionary ideas among the overseas Chinese. In 1894, he set up the first revolutionary organization, Xingzhonghui (Society for China’s Regeneration). China failed in the Sino-Japanese War in 1895 and was compromised under the Treaty of Shimonoseki, which aroused the indignation of people all over the country. Sun Yat-sen returned to Hong Kong to develop the organization and made preparations for an armed uprising in Guangzhou. Due to leakage of information, those involved in the preparation were persecuted by the Qing government and several comrades-in-arms including Lu Haodong were killed. Sun Yat-sen fled abroad with his hair cut short and clothes changed. In 1900, the Boxer Uprising broke out. Sun Yat-sen returned to China and in October of the same year, he started the Huizhou uprising. He had amassed more than twenty thousand people and defeated the Qing troops several times, but had failed in the end. However, this uprising enhanced the consciousness of the people and the tide of democratic revolution began to run high. Many young students wrote articles at that time, organized revolutionary societies, publicized the revolution, and prepared for armed revolts. Bo Kang Youwei Lun Gemingshu (A Refutation of Kang Youwei and Defense of Revolution) by Zhang Taiyan and Gemingjun (The Revolutionary Army) by Zou Rong were published in some newspapers and magazines such as Su Bao in Shanghai and with the publication of thouZhang Taiyan

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sands of copies, they exerted a great influence. Chen Tianhua wrote the two books Menghuitou and Jingshizhong, in which he pointed out that the Qing government was the “imperial court of foreigners,” and encouraged people to sharpen their knives and load their guns so as to drive away the foreign invaders, restore national sovereignty, and overthrow the Qing government. The two books were reprinted dozens of times as they inspired the revolutionary will of the people. At this time, Huang Xing, Chen Tianhua, Song Jiaoren, and some others who had studied in Japan organized a huaxinghui (Society for the Revival of China) in Changsha with Huang Xing as its head. In Shanghai, some young people including Statue of Huang Xing Zhang Taiyan and Tao Chengzhang who had studied in Japan organized a guangfuhui (Society for the Restoration of China) with Cai Yuanpei as its leader.Young revolutionaries in Hubei Province set up a ke xue bu xi suo (A Remedial Class for Science) in Wuchang. In 1905, Sun Yat-sen travelled to Japan from America. He found that revolutionary organizations had sprung up one after another, and were disconnected. In this way, he saw the necessity of forming a united political organization. His idea was supported by Huang Xing and others. The various revolutionary societies decided to Song Jiaoren set up the Zhongguo Tongmenghui (the United Allegiance Society) with their political objective being the proposition of Sun Yat-sen to drive away the Manchus, restore the rule of the Hans, establish the Republic of China, and divide land equally. On August 20, the Tongmenghui was founded in Tokyo, Japan, with its headquarters in Tokyo, and Sun Yat-sen was elected as its president. In November, the Tongmenghui created the Minbao, and in the introduction, Sun Yat-sen expounded the program as nationalism, de-


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mocracy, and the people’s livelihood, which served as the guiding ideology of the revolution. Nationalism, democracy, and the people’s livelihood played a promotional role for the revolution at that time. After the establishment of the Tongmenghui (The Chinese Revolutionary League), its members The United Allegiance Society organized armed uprisings across the country. Sun Yat-sen set up a revolutionary agency in Hanoi,Vietnam, to plan and prepare for an uprising in Guangxi. At the end of 1907, Sun Yat-sen and Huang Xing seized Zhennanguan and assaulted Guangxi. Sun Yat-sen himself directed the battle at the beginning and the uprising, which lasted for seven days and nights and ended in failure due to a lack of ammunition. Xu Xilin, a Tongmenghui member, assassinated En Ming, Governor of Anhui in Anqing in the summer of 1907 and staged an uprising. It failed and Xu Xilin died. Qiu Jin, the person responsible for the Tongmenghui in Zhejiang, was ready to respond in Shaoxing, Zhejiang, but was suppressed and died heroically. Qiu Jin had been a supervisor at Datong Academy created by Xu Xilin in Shaoxing. This Datong Academy organized military drills in name, but in reality, it was fostering the revolutionary backbone. After Qiu Jin assumed the post, the school was in perfect order and students went out to drill with guns every day, while Qiu Jin, wearing men’s clothes, rode a big horse, giving people an impression of the reform. After the death of Xu Xilin, Datong Academy was besieged. Qiu Jin ordered some of the students to retreat while she stayed on and was arrested.When interrogated by zhifu of Shaoxing, Qiu Jin remained calm and silent. She was killed the following day. In 1910, Sun Yat-sen and Huang Xing discussed plans for another uprising in Guangzhou. After the meeting, Sun Yat-sen went to talk to overseas Chinese in Europe and the United States to raise funds, while Huang Xing set up a planning department in Hong Kong, which served as the leading agency for the preparation of the uprising in Guangzhou. He also organized a “diehard” team, each member of which had to express their willingness to die for the revolution. Lin Juemin, a revolutionary, wrote a farewell note to his wife, asking her to raise their five-yearold son, and to let him fulfil the wishes of his father in carring out the revolution through to the very end.

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On April 27, 1911, the Guangzhou uprising broke out. Huang Xing led over one hundred revolutionaries to forcibly enter the governor’s office. Because of the great disparity in strength, the uprising ended in failure after a whole night of fierce fighting and the death of many revolutionaries. Seventy-two corpses were buried in Huanghuagang, Guangzhou, and these were called the seventy-two martyrs of Huanghuagang. The uprising was known as the Huanghuagang Uprising.

XII. Founding of the Republic of China The Wuchang Uprising When the Protecting the Railway Movement was taking place in Sichuan and the Qing troops were sent there, the revolutionary societies in Hubei, propelled by Tongmenghui (United League), made active preparations for an uprising. The main force was the New Army with revolutionary leanings. Most soldiers of the New Army, a new type of military force at the end of the Qing Dynasty, were young intellectuals and some Revolutionary Party members were conducting underground work among them. At that time, the Revolutionary Party members set up the uprising headquarters in Wuchang with Jiang Yiwu as the chief commander and Sun Wu as chief of staff. Liu Fuji and Peng Chufan were preparing for military action. On October 9, 1911, some bombs exploded during their making in the leasehold in Hankou, which resulted in a search by the police.The police collected the name list of the Revolutionary Party members and also statements for the uprising use. Jiang Yiwu informed the Revolutionary Party members to stage an uprising that very night. Liu Fuji and Peng Chufan were arrested and died while being besieged by Qing troops. On the evening of October 10, Xiong Bingkun, a Revolutionary Party member in the engineering battalion of the New Army in the city of Wuchang led an uprising ahead of time. They rushed into the barracks and were greeted by the New Army soldiers in the ordnance depot. Soldiers of the artillery and infantry of the New Army also staged uprisings. The rebels attacked the governor’s office and Rui Wei, the Governor-General of Huguang, fled. The rebels seized Wuchang the following day and the New Army soldiers in Hankou and Hanyang also responded with their uprisings and the revolution was successful in the three areas of Wuhan. The year was 1911, which was how the 1911 Revolution got its name. On October 11, the rebels set up a Hubei military government. They forced Li Yuanhong, xietong (an official post in the army) of the New Army, to hold the position of the dudu (a military governor), and declared the abolishment of the reign title of Xuantong and founded the People’s Republic.


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Soon after the happenings in Wuchang, other provinces echoed the uprising one after another. Over half of the provinces declared independence and the Qing government was on the verge of collapse.

Establishment of the People’s Republic When the Wuchang Uprising took place, Sun Yat-sen was busy publicizing the revolution in the United States and raising funds for military expenses. He went to London and Paris immediately upon learning the heartening news about the Wuchang Uprising and carried out over forty days of diplomatic activities in order to cut off backup forces for the Qing government. In December 1911, representatives of the provinces that had declared independence attended a meeting in Nanjing and elected Sun Yat-sen as the provisional President of the People’s Republic. On November 25, Sun Yat-sen arrived in Shanghai and was warmly welcomed by people from all walks of life. On January 1, 1912, a grand ceremony was held and with a 108-gun salute, Sun Yat-sen was sworn in.The provisional government of the People’s Republic was established and the more than two thousand-year long feudal monarchy finally came to an end. After the establishment of the Nanjing provisional government, Sun Yat-sen promulgated the Provisional Constitution of the People’s Republic formulated by the senate. It was stipulated in the Provisional Constitution that the sovereignty of the People’s Republic belonged to the nationals of the whole country, that all nationals were equal regardless of their race, class, or religious belief, that nationals enjoyed the freedom of residence, publication, speech, assembly, association, and religious belief, and that the senate exercised legislative power and had the right to impeach the President. The Provisional Constitution had the character of the constitution of a bourgeois republic.

The Anti-Yuan Struggle Yuan Shikai, a native of Xiangcheng, Henan, was a warlord in modern Chinese history. In 1895, he trained the ground forces in Xiaozhan,Tianjin, which was the starting point of the Northern Warlords. During the Reform Movement of 1898,Yuan Shikai joined the reformists, but later betrayed them in order to win the trust of the Dowager Empress Cixi. Before his death in 1901, Li Hongzhang nominated Yuan Shikai as the governor-general of Zhili and Beiyang minister. With gradual promotion, he controlled the army and government and had frictions with the royal family of the Qing Dynasty. Although dismissed from office, he was still surreptitiously manipulating the Beiyang Army. The Wuchang revolution broke out and the Qing government had to ask Yuan Shikai for help, appointing him as prime minister of the cabinet and asking him to lead the troops to put down the Revolutionary Army.Yuan Shikai sent the

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troops to attack Wuhan and seized Hanyang. Taking advantage of the situation in a chilling way, he threatened the Qing government, as had the Revolutionary Army, to force the Qing Emperor to give up his power on the one hand, and threatened with the Qing troops the Revolutionary Party members to compromise on the other hand. Imperialists whipped up opinion for Yuan Shikai. At the end of November when representatives of the independent provinces attended a meeting in Wuhan, the British consul proposed a ceasefire and Yuan Shikai sent his representatives to negotiate with the Revolutionary Party. An agreement was reached quickly with the manipulation of imperialists. In fact, the Revolutionary Party was forced to compromise. After returning to China, Sun Yat-sen was dissatisfied with the compromise and said: “The aims of the revolution have not been achieved and there is no question of a peace negotiation.” When Sun Yat-sen was elected the provisional President, Yuan Shikai instigated the Beiyang Army to publish an open telegram to express its opposition and to launch attacks.Yuan Shikai also hastened his pace in betraying national sovereignty in exchange for financial support from the imperialists, while the Nanjing provisional government was in a financial predicament and constitutionalists and old bureaucrats in the revolutionary camp imposed pressures and echoed Yuan Shikai’s demands. Under such internal and external pressure, Sun Yat-sen had no choice but to declare that he would resign if the Emperor abdicated the throne and if Yuan Shikai openly expressed his support for republicanism.Yuan Shikai forced Emperor Xuantong to give up the throne formally on February 12, 1912 and he himself expressed his support for republicanism. Sun Yat-sen resigned as the provisional President and Yuan Shikai succeeded him.To restrict the power of Yuan Shikai, Sun Yat-sen maintained that the President should abide by the Provisional Constitution, that the capital city should be Nanjing, and that Yuan Shikai should be sworn in at Nanjing. On March 10, Yuan Shikai became the provisional president in Beijing and set up a Northern Warlord government. After Yuan Shikai usurped state power, there were still seven to eight provinces and more than one hundred thousand troops in the south that were under the control of the Revolutionary Party. Yuan Shikai, claiming that the army was much too great a burden for the people, had the aim of weakening the Revolutionary Party. Huang Xing, who at that time was taking care of the rear office in Nanjing, was forced to disband more than one hundred thousand soldiers. In March 1912, Sun Yat-sen promulgated the Provisional Constitution and the Revolutionary Party formed the Kuomintang (the Nationalist Party), on the basis of the Tongmenghui, by uniting several smaller parties and carrying out parliamentary struggles. Sun Yat-sen was elected President of the Kuomintang, but in fact,


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it was Song Jiaoren who performed the duties of the President. The Kuomintang hoped to reorganize the cabinet through national election so as to curb the power of Yuan Shikai. Soon after, the Kuomintang won most seats in the senate and congress and became the largest party in the congress. Song Jiaoren was working to organize a “cabinet” so as to carve up the power of Yuan Shikai. In March 1913, when Song Jiaoren was to go to Beijing for the election contest, he was assassinated at the Shanghai East Railway Station by people sent by Yuan Shikai. When the truth of the “Song Jiaoren assassination case” came out, the devious nature of Yuan Shikai was exposed, and people all over the country were enraged. Strongly condemned in the country, Yuan Shikai was determined to suppress the Kuomintang by force, ordering that the dudu of the three provinces of Jiangxi, Anhui, and Guangdong be dismissed and troops be sent to the south. At the end of March, Sun Yat-sen returned home from Japan and together with Huang Xing, he called on the provinces in the south to unite in the fight against Yuan Shikai, and so began the “Second Revolution.” In July, Li Liejun, dudu of Jiangxi pledged at a rally in Hukou to fight against Yuan Shikai and thereafter, the provinces of Jiangsu, Guangdong, Anhui, Hunan, Sichuan, and Fujian became independent one after the other. However, the Kuomintang was not strong enough, and the “Second Revolution” was soon suppressed.Yuan Shikai consolidated his influence.

The Chinese Revolutionary Army With the failure of the Second Revolution, Sun Yat-sen called some Kuomintang members together and organized the Chinese Revolutionary Party in 1914 in Japan. Once again, they raised the banner of the bourgeois democratic revolution and made as their objectives the implementation of civil rights and livelihood and the sweeping away of autocratic politics and the building of a full republic. Sun Yat-sen was prepared to continue to fight against Yuan Shikai. Because of military adventurism, the armed revolts organized in Guangdong, Shandong, and Hunan suffered setbacks. In 1916, he moved to Shanghai after the death of Yuan Shikai. He led the law-defending movement in 1917 and reorganized the Kuomintang in October 1919.

Yuan Shikai as President After Yuan Shikai put down the “Second Revolution,” he violated the legal procedure that a constitution was formulated before the election of a formal president and forced the congress to elect him as the formal president. He then ordered the Kuomintang to be disbanded. In early 1914, he ordered the congress to be dissolved again. He soon abrogated the Provisional Constitution, promulgated a new constitution for the People’s Republic, changed the cabinet government into a presidential

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government, and stipulated that the president enjoy the same power as the emperor. He also revised the presidential electoral law to enable the president to stay in office indefinitely. By then, Yuan Shikai had completely destroyed the democratic system and the People’s Republic existed only in name. In the autumn of 1914, Japan invaded Shandong when European countries were involved in the First World War. Japan assisted Yuan Shikai to become president and proposed the “Twenty-one Demands” in the hope of extinguishing China. On May 9, 1915,Yuan Shikai accepted the requirements in the “Twenty-one Demands,” hoping to attain the throne by betraying national sovereignty. With Japan’s support, Yuan Shikai intended to restore the monarchy. Representatives of the provinces under the control of Yuan Shikai were asked to vote for monarchy, and at the end of 1915, Yuan Shikai changed the People’s Republic into “Chinese Empire.” On January 1, 1916, Yuan Shikai ascended the throne and the title of his reign was Hongxian. Working against the revolutionary fervor, Yuan Shikai met with strong opposition across the country. Sun Yat-sen published the Taoyuan Xuanyan (the Declaration of Anti-Yuan), calling on the people to safeguard republicanism. At the end of 1915, together with Li Liejun and Tang Jiyao and some other people, Cai E, former dudu in Yunnan, published an open telegram to the nation to denounce Yuan Shikai, and declared the independence of Yunnan. They organized the Defend-the-Country Army and sent troops to Sichuan, Guizhou, Guangdong, and Guangxi. The Beiyang Army was defeated, and some provinces including Guizhou and Guangxi became independent. Duan Qirui and Feng Guozhang, two high-ranking officials under Yuan Shikai, adopted a passive attitude toward the restitution of the monarchy. Utterly isolated,Yuan Shikai had to abolish the monarchy on March 22, 1916, but he still desired to be president. Sun Yat-sen published the Second Taoyuan Xuanyan (the Second Declaration of Anti-Yuan), calling on the people to carry the anti-Yuan struggle to the end.Yuan Shikai died in despair not long after.

XIII. Science, Engineering, and Culture Xu Shou Xu Shou (1818–1884), a scientist, was a native of Wuxi, Jiangsu, and was also called Xue Tun. He was at first an engineering technician in the Anqing ordnance institute, and later worked in the translation department of the Shanghai Jiangnan Zhizao Ju (Jiangnan Manufacture Bureau), and was famous for his translation. In cooperation with Hua Hengfang, he consulted foreign materials and built China’s first steam engine, as well as a steamboat with the exterior of its hull sheathed with planking, a new achievement in the modern history of science and technology in China. In 1871, Xu


Shou published his six-volume translation of Huaxue Jianyuan (the Origin of Chemistry). The most crucial issue in the process of translation was that some chemical terms and symbols did not have exact equivalent terms in Chinese, and so names had to be coined. In the Chinese translation of the names of the chemical elements, Xu Shou applied Chinese characters with the radical meaning “metal” attached on the left to the names of solid metals. These simple and clear Chinese characters have on the right side of the metal Chinese characters whose pronunciations are similar to the first syllable of the original language of the elements. He thus created Chinese names for chemical elements such as zinc, manganese, and magnesium, and his method is still used and accepted in chemistry circles today.

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Xu Shou

Zhan Tianyou and the Beijing-Zhangjiakou Railway With the rise of modern industry in China, a contingent of engineers and technicians came to prominence in China, and Zhan Tianyou was one such outstanding railway engineer.

Zhan Tianyou Zhan Tianyou (1861–1919) was from Nanhai, Guangdong. He was one of the first students sent by the government to study in the United States. He once said that China should build railways with her own engineers and capital. In 1904, he became the chief engineer presiding over the construction of the Beijing-Zhangjiakou Railway. It was the first time in China’s railway construction that explosives were used to demolish rock faces and construction was carried out in many places at the same time. A special method was adopted for laying tracks in order to reduce the incline. The construction of the Beijing-Zhangjiakou railway cost less, was of good quality, and was com- Zhan Tianyou pleted quickly. In 1909, the whole railway line was open to train travel. This was the first trunk line that had been designed and built by the Chinese, and its completion inspired the national spirit and won a reputation for China’s engineering circles.

324


Zhang Taiyan Zhang Taiyan (1869–1936), a native of Yuhang, Zhejiang, was also named Zhang Binglin. He joined Cai Yuanpei to set up Guangfuhui (the Restoration Society). He wrote “Bo Kang Youwei Lun Gemingshu,” denouncing Kang Youwei for upholding the constitutional monarchy and for his loyalty to the emperor, pointing out that revolution was a good medicine to do away with the old and set up the new, and that republicanism was an irreversible trend. This article was very famous and popular at that time. Zhang Taiyan also published a preface for Zou Rong’s Gemingjun in Subao, bringing great fame to Gemingjun, which was printed in a separate edition and sold more than one million copies. The Qing government was so unnerved by this that it colluded with the authorities of the British leased territory in Shanghai to arrest Zhang Taiyan and have him jailed for three years. When released, Zhang Taiyan was sent by Sun Yat-sen to Japan where he joined Tongmenghui and was chief editor of Minbao, the official newspaper of the organization, and where he engaged in debates with the reformists. He returned to China in 1911 when Shanghai was restored, and was chief editor of the Da Gonghe Ribao (Rebuliean Times) and a pivotal advisor to the office of the president. He was one of those who condemned Yuan Shikai when Song Jiaoren was assassinated. He was confined by Yuan Shikai, but was released after Yuan’s death. In 1917, he joined the government of the Constitution Protection Army and was the secretary general. In 1924, he broke up with the Kuomintang that had been reorganized by Sun Yat-sen. He set up a school in Suzhou and lived on his teaching. Later on, when Japan invaded China, he sponsored the anti-Japanese resistance campaign. His philosophical ideas included materialistic thinking and he denied the concept of God’s will. However, under the influence of the Buddhist Vijnanavadin and modern European subjective idealism and with the failure of old democratism, he later inclined toward idealism. He made contributions in the fields of literature, historical science, and linguistics, and he published Xin fangyan, Wenshi, Xiaoxue Wenda, Zhangshi Congshu, zhangshi Congkan Xubian. Some of his posthumous articles were included in the Zhangshi Congshu Sanbian.

325

I ND E X A

Abacus, 230 Art of War, 53, 54, 57, 68, 81

B

Battle of Guandu, 98–101 Battle of Red Cliffs, 103–105 Beijing, 244, 246, 248, 249, 253, 258, 262, 293–295 Bencao Gangmu, 284-285 bronzeware, 15, 21, 22

C

Calligraphy, 149, 150, 155–160, 174, 218, 274, 294 Cao Cao, 100–101, 127, 143, 279 Central Plains, 5, 11, 35, 46, 111, 114, 139, 174, 176, 202, 206, 242 Compass, 225 Confucius, 44, 47–48, 50, 56, 59, 65, 88, 106, 111 Contention of Chu and Han, 82–86

D

Disputation of the Hundred Schools of Thought, 45, 54 Donglin Academy, 248-249 Du Fu, 175, 213, 214 Dujiangyan Irrigation Project, 63–64

F

Five Overlords in the Spring and Autumn Period, 33 Four Books and Five Classics, 267, 298

G

Golden Age of Kaiyuan, 185–186 Grand Canal, 170–171, 254 Grey pottery, 11

Grottoes, 153–155, 159, 166 Gunpowder, 225, 247, 292, 302

H

High Tang, 173–174 Huangdi, 3–5, 7

I

Imperial Examination System, 131, 170, 184, 267–268

K

Kuomintang, 320, 321, 324

L

Lantian Man, 8 Laozi, 46–47, 52, 87, 151, 160–162 Li Bai, 179, 213 Li Hongzhang, 302–303, 306, 308 Li Longji, 172, 185 Liu Bei, 100–103, 105, 279

M

Matteo Ricci, 260–261, 285 Mencius, 44, 50–51, 206, 232, 267 Missionaries, 231, 260, 312 Movable Type Printing, 226, 227, 272

N

Neo–Confucianism, 231–234 New Stone Age, 10 Nine–Grade Official Selection System, 130, 131

O

Old Stone Age, 9 Opium War, 290–293, 294, 295

326

P

Papermaking technique, 108, 109 Peking Man, 8, 9

Q

Qin Shi Huang, 60, 71, 75–80, 81, 90, 114, 119, 156

INDEX

Treaty of Nanjing, 293, 308 Tuoba Gui, 133–136

U

Upper Cave Man, 9

W

R

Red Turban Rebellion, 241, 243

War of the Eight Princes, 136, 137 Western Regions, 91–93 Westernization Movement, 301–305

S

X

Sancai Glazed Earthenware, 176 Sanxingdui Site, 15 Seismograph, 109 Seven Literati of Jian’an, 144 Seven Powers in the Warring States Period, 33, 41 Seven Sages of the Bamboo Grove, 145 Shang Yang’s Reforms, 69–71 Silk Road, 91–94, 97, 174 Simuwu Ding, 22 Sinicization, 134, 135, 205 Six Arts, 65 Song Ci, 230 Sun Yat–sen, 314–321

T

Tai Xue, 87–88 Taiping, Heavenly Kingdom Revolution 295–297 Tang poetry, 213 Taoism, 44, 46, 160–163 Terracotta Warriors and Horses, 119–120 The 1911 Revolution, 301, 314–318 Three August Ones and the Five Emperors, 7 Three Humble Visits to the Thatched Cottage, 102

Xuanzang, 177, 237

Y

Yongle Encyclopedia, 271, 272 Yuanmou Man, 8 Yuefu Poetry, 116, 117

Z

Zheng He, 244–245 Zhu Yuanzhang, 243–244, 266 Zhuangzi, 44, 51, 52, 160

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