Современное автомобилестроение: Учебное пособие по английскому языку для автотранспортных специальностей

Министерство общего и профессионального образования Российской Федерации Оренбургский государственный университет Кафедра иностранных языков

Сахарова Н.С.

Современное автомобилестроение Учебное пособие по английскому языку для автотранспортных специальностей Рекомендуется УМО вузов РФ по автотракторному и дорожному образованию в качестве учебного пособия по специальности 150200 Автомобили и автомобильное хозяйство и 230100 - Сервис и техническая эксплуатация транспортных и технологических машин и оборудования (автомобильный транспорт).

Оренбург 1999

ББК 81.2 Англ. + 39.33 я 7 С-22 УДК 802.0 = 20 + 629.113/115] (075.8)

Введение Настоящее учебное пособие предназначено для студентов автотранспортных специальностей высших учебных заведений. Основной целью пособия является подготовка студентов к самостоятельному чтению на английском языке оригинальной технической литературы по специальности, что соответствует требованиям Программы по иностранным языкам для вузов неязыковых специальностей (Москва, МГЛУ, УМО по лингвистическому образованию, 1995г.). Текстовый материал заимствован из оригинальной британской и американской научно-технической литературы и расположен в определённой логической последовательности. Тематический отбор материала позволяет широко ознакомить студентов с терминологией по данной специальности. Пособие состоит из 15 уроков, текстов для самостоятельного чтения, словника, грамматических таблиц. Большая часть уроков построена по адаптивной системе. Некоторые тексты снабжены переводом, что позволяет студентам разработать адекватный вариант перевода. Структура всех уроков одинаковая. Работе над текстом предшествуют лексико-грамматические упражнения. Они предназначены для выполнения в аудитории. Послетекстовые упражнения направлены на развитие речевых навыков и умений по данной тематике. Тематические предречевые и речевые упражнения тесно связаны со специальностью студентов. Предусмотрена тренировка в постановке вопросов и формулировании ответов. Грамматические упражнения затрагивают явления грамматики английского языка, характерные для данных грамматических текстов и, таким образом, позволяют снять грамматические трудности при их восприятии. В грамматическом справочнике излагается грамматический материал в виде таблиц. Данный материал рассчитан для самостоятельной работы студентов при выполнении заданий и переводе текстов. Пособие включает сборник текстов для самостоятельного чтения по теме «Развитие автостроения в Европе». Тексты – оригинальные, аутентичные. Каждый текст снабжён системой вопросов и проблемных заданий. В словник вошла общетехническая и специальная терминологическая лексика. Лексика текстов для самостоятельного чтения в словник не включена. Их следует переводить, пользуясь специальным словарём. Источниками текстов послужили оригинальные научно-технические журналы: - Saab 9000. Form & Function. – Sweden 1995. - The National Motor Museum a Pictorial Guide to motoring history. – Surrey, Great Britain 1997. 2

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Урок 1. Двигатель Lesson 1. Engine Exercise 1. Read the following words. Mind their meaning. 1) 2) 3) 4) 5) 6) 7) 8) 9) 10) 11) 12) 13) 14) 15) 16)

engine power (Syn. Output) bulk ratio cylinder combustion camshaft cam follower injection exhaust gases intercooler reliability fuel octane rating shaft power unit

- двигатель; - мощность; - объем; - отношение (соотношение); - цилиндр; - сгорание; - кулачковый вал; - фоллоуэр кулачка; - впрыск топлива; - выхлопные газы; - промежуточный охладитель; - надежность; - топливо; - октановое число; - вал; - узел, блок, агрегат.

Exercise 2. Read the following verbs. Mind their meaning. Pay attention to the principal forms. 1) 2) 3) 4) 5) 6) 7) 8)

to scavenge (-ed; -ed-) to run (ran, run) to ensure (-ed; -ed-) to utilize (-ed; -ed) to use (-ed; -ed) to equip (-ed; -ed) to charge (-ed; -ed) to aspirate (-ed; -ed) to ignite (-ed; -ed)

- продувать цилиндр; - работать (о двигателе); - обеспечивать; - использовать, применять; - оснащать, оборудовать; - заряжать; - всасывать; - воспламенять.

Exercise 3. Read and translate the following groups of words. 1) engine - turbocharged engine - normally aspirated engine; 2) to combust - combustion - combusting; 3) cam - camshaft - cam follower; 4) to cool - cooler - cooling - intercooler; 5) to inject - injection - injector - injecting; 6) to charge - charger - turbocharger; 7) to ignite - ignition - direct ignition. 4

Exercise 4. Pay attention to the following abbreviated words. Read the words. DI - Direct Ignition -прямое зажигание; APC - Automatic Performance Control - следящая система контроля эксплуатационных параметров. Exercise 5. Write down the principal forms of the following verbs. Translate them. To design, to ensure, to adopt, to equip, to be, to develop, to enable, to increase, to aspirate. Exercise 6. Choose the proper equivalent to the following verb groups. 1) has been 2) has adopted 3) ensures 4) will be utilized

a) будет b) был c) есть a) примет b) принимает c) принял a) обеспечивает b) обеспечил c) обеспечит a) был использован b) будет использован c) используется

Exercise 7. Pay attention to comparative structures with «such as», «as ... as», («такой как», «настолько ... насколько; так ... как»). Translate the following sentences. 1) The firm has adopted reliable design features such as double overhead camshafts. 2) To ensure that the engine will be as reliable as an ordinary injection engine the firm has equipped its models with an intercooler. 3) The system ensures that the fuel energy will be utilized as efficiently as possible. Exercise 8. Read the following text. Translate it. Compare with the Russian translation given to the text. Use it as a clue if necessary. Engine

Двигатель

Сааб известна на протяжении многих Saab has long been acknowledged as one of the leading manufacturers of лет как одна из ведущих фирм, car engines-both turbocharged and производящих автомобильные двигатели 5

normally aspirated. Saab’s objective has always been to design compact, lightweight power to weight and power-to-bulk rations. Four valves per cylinder ensure smooth gas flow, good scavenging and efficient combustion.

Saab has adopted reliable design features such as double overhead camshafts and maintenance-free hydraulic cam followers. And electronic fuel injection ensures optimum fuel economy, cleaner exhaust gases and livelier performance. Saab has equipped its Turbo models with an intercooler, and water-cooled turbocharger, to ensure that the engine will be reliable as an ordinary injection engine.

с турбонадувом и обычным типом подачи топливной смеси. В цели Сааб всегда входило создание компактных, легких, мощных двигателей с высоким соотношением: мощность/вес и мощность/объем. Наличие четырех клапанов в цилиндре обеспечивает непрерывный поток газа, надежное продувание и эффективное сгорание. Сааб разработала надежную систему дизайна, в которую входят верхние двойные кулачковые валы и гидравлические кулачковые фоллоуэры, не нуждающиеся в ремонте. Электронное топливное впрыскивание обеспечивает оптимальную топливную экономию, экологически чистые выхлопные газы. Сааб оборудовала свои турбомодели охладителем и турбозарядником с водяным охлаждением для того, чтобы такие двигатели не уступали в надежности двигателям с обычным типом подачи топливной смеси. Система прямого зажигания также является изобретением фирмы Сааб и способствует максимальной надежности в любом климате. Следящая система контроля эксплутационных параметров дает возможность использовать топливо, тем самым повышая мощность двигателя.

Saab has developed the Saab Direct Ignition (Saab DI) system to achieve maximum reliability in any climate. And the Automatic Performance Control (APC) system enables the engine to run on fuel of any octane rating, ensures that the fuel energy will be utilised as efficiently as possible and also increases the engine output. Сааб сконструировала экологически Saab has also developed silent and refined high-performance engines- чистые, с низкой степенью шумности обладающие высокими utilising counter rotating balancing двигатели, эксплуатационными характеристиками shafts. благодаря использованию балансирующих валов с противоположным расположением. Сааб 9000 может быть оборудован The Saab 9000 can be equipped with two different power units-all двумя типами двигателей на базе 16-ти based on the 16-valve injection engine. клапанного инжекторного двигателя: с обычным типом Normally aspirated or turbocharged двигателем power units, with swept volumes of 2.0 впрыскивания и с турбонадувом объемом от 2.0 до 2.3 литров. and 2.3 litres. 6

Exercise 9. Make up a reverse translation of the 4th paragraph of the text in written form. Exercise 10. Answer the following questions to the text. 1) What engines has adopted Saab? 2) What features can be included into Saab reliable design? 3) What makes a turbocharged engine as reliable as an ordinary injection engine? 4) What makes a turbocharged engine silent and refined high performance? Exercise 11. Speak on the topic «Saab Engine» using the following words. Turbocharged engine, normally aspirated engine, compact, lightweight, efficient combustion, electronic fuel injection, intercooler, turbocharger, direct ignition, fuel economy, reliable, silent power unit, swept volume.

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Урок 2. Двигатель объёмом 2.3 литра Lesson 2. The 2.3 – litre Engine Exercise 1. Read the following words. Mind their meaning. 1) 2) 3) 4) 5) 6)

intake air system torque [to:k] speed weight consumption in-line engine

7) 8) 9) 10) 11) 12) 13) 14) 15)

piston stroke upward downward crankshaft connecting rod vibration reversal smooth

- воздухозаборная система - крутящий момент - скорость - вес, нагрузка - потребление - двигатель с последовательным расположением цилиндров или рядный двигатель - поршень - ход, такт (в работе двигателя) - вверх - вниз - коленчатый вал - шатун - вибрация - обратный - гладкий, плавный

Exercise 2. Read the following verbs. Mind their meaning. Pay attention to the principal forms. 1) 2)

to idle (-ed; -ed) to drive (drove, driven)

3) 4) 5) 6)

to reciprocate (-ed; -ed) to lack (-ed; -ed) to mount (-ed; -ed) to counteract (-ed; -ed)

- пребывать в состоянии холостого хода - приводить в движение; водить (транспортное средство) - двигаться возвратно-поступательно - испытывать недостаток - устанавливать, монтировать - противодействовать, нейтрализовать

Exercise 3. Read and translate the following groups of words. 1) to idle - idling - idliness; 2) speed- high speed - low speed - low engine speed; 3) consumption - fuel consumption - low fuel consumption; 4) stroke - upward stroke - downward stroke; 5) to reciprocate - reciprocating - reciprocating motion; 6) to weigh - weight - to outweigh; 7) to reverse - reversal - reversal position; 8

8) shaft - balancing shaft - rotating balancing shaft - counter rotating balancing shaft; 9) smooth - smoothly - smoothness; 10) to connect - connection - connecting - connecting rod. Exercise 4. Write down the principal forms of the following verbs. To idle, to drive, to reciprocate, to travel, to lack, to mount, to counteract, to represent, to connect, to weigh. Exercise 5. Choose the proper equivalent to the following verb groups. 1)

offers

2)

is optimised

3)

is running

4)

can balance

5)

are driven

a)предлагал b)предлагает c)предложит a)была оптимизирована b)будет оптимизирована c)оптимизирована d)должна быть оптимизирована a)работал b)работает c)будет работать d)проработал a)может балансировать b)будет балансировать c)должен балансировать a)приведены в движение b)будет приведен в движение c)приводятся в движение

Exercise 6. Pay attention to comparative structures with «as...as», «more than...», «at twice...» (настолько...насколько; больше чем; в два раза ...). Translate the following sentences. 1) Engine’s raw power is as impressive as its silky smoothness. 2) The Saab 2.3-litre engine runs as smoothly as most 6-cylinder engines. 3) But this is more than outweighed by the many benefits. 4) The balancing shafts rotate at twice the crankshaft speed. Exercise 7. Read the following text. Translate it. Compare with the Russian translation given to the text. Use it as a clue if necessary. The 2.3-litre engine Part I

Двигатель объемом 2.3 литра Часть I 9

The Saab 2.3-litre engine is the base of a new generation of 4-cylinder engines with balancing shafts. The engine is equipped with the Saab Direct Ignition system and other innovative design features that characterise Saab 16-valve engines. It represents the ultimate in today’s engine technology.

The Saab 2.3-litre engine offers the same standard of driving enjoyment as much bigger 6-cylinder engines. The engine incorporates counter rotating balancing shafts, and the intake air system is optimised for high torque at low engine speeds.

At normal motoring speeds, the Saab 2.3-litre engine runs as smoothly as most 6cylinder engines. The only area in which it lacks some of the comfort of the 6-cylinder engine is when idling and at very low speeds. But this is more than outweighed by the many benefits-lower weight, more compact design, lower fuel consumption and a higher torque at low engine speeds.

Двигатель Сааб объемом 2.3 литра представляет собой основную модель в новом поколении 4-х цилиндровых двигателей с балансирующими валами. Двигатель снабжен системой прямого зажигания Сааб и другими конструкторскими новинками, присущими 16-ти клапанным двигателям Сааб. В настоящее время этот двигатель является последним достижением технологии двигателей. Двигатель Сааб объемом 2.3 литра представляет собой такой же эксплутационный уровень как и большинство 6-ти цилиндровых двигателей. Двигатель включает балансирующие валы с противоположным расположением, а воздухозаборная система оптимизирована для достижения мощного крутящего момента при низких оборотах двигателя. При нормальных эксплутационных скоростях, двигатель Сааб объем2.3 литра работает также плавно, как и большинство 6-ти цилиндровых двигателей. Лишь в случаях холостого хода или на очень низких оборотах этот двигатель уступает по комфорту 6-ти цилиндровому двигателю. Однако этот недостаток более чем окупается другими преимуществами - низким весом, компактным дизайном, экономным потреблением топлива и мощным крутящим моментом при низких оборотах двигателя.

Exercise 8. Make up a reverse translation of the last paragraph of the text in written form. 10

Exercise 9. Answer the following questions to the text. 1) 2) 3) 4) 5)

What is the base of a new generation of 4-cylinder engines? What does the 2.3-litre engine incorporate? Does the 2.3-litre engine run as smooth as most 6-cylinder engines? What is the area in which the 2.3-litre engine lacks some of the comfort of the 6cylinder engine? What are the benefits of the 2.3-litre engine?

Exercise 10. Speak on the benefits of the 2.3-litre engine using the following words. New generation, balancing shafts, direct ignition system, intake air system, high torque, smooth, lower weight, compact design, low fuel consumption, low engine speeds. Exercise 11. Read the second part of the text. Translate it. Use the Russian translation as a clue if necessary.

Virtually vibration-free Part II

Двигатель фактически не подвержен вибрации. Часть II

When an in-line, 4-cylinder engine is running, one pair of pistons is on the upward stroke while the other pair is travelling downwards. The two piston pairs can not balance out one another perfectly.

Когда функционирует 4-х цилиндровый рядный двигатель одна пара его поршней находится в верхнем положении, в то время как другая пара двигается вниз. Двупоршневые пары не способны

Due to the geometry of the crank mechanism, the two pairs of pistons travel at somewhat different speeds as they approach their reversal positions. To compensate for the resulting forces, the 2.3 litre engine is equipped with counter rotating balancing shafts.

обеспечивать четкую балансировку. Благодаря геометрии механизма коленчатого соединения, обе пары поршней двигаются на различных скоростях по мере приближения к реверсивным позициям. В целях балансировки итоговых сил двигатель объемом 2.3 литра оснащен балансирующими валами. Балансирующие валы приводятся в движение и вращаются вдвое быстрее, чем коленчатый вал. Нагрузка, эксцентрично расположенная на балансирующем валу,

The balancing shafts are driven by a chain and rotate at twice the crankshaft speed. Weights that are eccentrically mounted on the balancing shafts counteract and smooth out the vibrations caused by the

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reciprocating pistons and connecting rods. нейтрализует и сглаживает вибрацию, возвратно-поступаThe result is a «silky smooth», virtually вызываемую тельным движением поршней и vibration-free engine. шатунов. В результате двигатель освобождается от вибрации, приобретая безупречную «шелковую» плавность. Двигатель Сааб объемом 2.3 литра The Saab 2.3-litre engine represents the собой последнее ultimate in today’s engine technology. Its представляет достижение технологии двигателей. raw silky smoothness. Его мощность впечатляет также, как и его плавность. Exercise 12. Make up a reverse translation of the 2-nd paragraph of the text in written form. Exercise 13. Answer the following questions to the text. 1) Why can not the two piston pairs balance out one another perfectly? 2) What compensates for the resulting forces in the 2.3-litre engine? 3) How are the balancing shafts driven? 4) What counteracts and smoothes out the vibrations caused by pistons and connecting rods? Exercise 14. Speak on the vibration-free feature of the 2.3-litre engine, using the following words. Piston pairs, to balance out, crank mechanism, reversal positions, resulting forces, counter rotating balancing shafts, chain, to rotate, to smooth out the vibrations, connecting rods, smoothness. Exercise 15. Summarise your knowledge of the Saab 2.3-litre engine. Discuss with your partner the benefits of the Saab 2.3-litre engine. Use the following plan. 1) Maximum reliability in any climate. 2) The 16-valve injection engine. 3) The base of a new generation of 4-cylinder engines with balancing shafts. 4) Virtually vibration-free engine.

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Урок 3. Шестнадцатиклапанная технология Lesson 3. 16-Valve Technology Exercise 1. Read the following words. Mind their meaning. 1) 2) 3)

car rally car competition car

- автомобиль - гоночный автомобиль - спортивный автомобиль

4) 5)

economy durability

6) 7) 8) 9) 10) 11) 12) 13) 14) 15) 16)

reliability combustion chamber piston crown intake manifold spark plug flame path compression ratio knock sensor engine load valve clearance wear

- экономия, экономичность - долговечность, износоустойчивость, прочность - надежность - камера сгорания - головка поршня - входной патрубок - свеча зажигания - поток пламени - степень компрессии - сенсор удара - нагрузка на двигатель - зазор клапана - износ, амортизация

Exercise 2. Read the following verbs. Mind their meaning. Pay attention to the principal forms. 1) 2) 3) 4) 5) 6) 7)

to spread (spread, spread) to pre-ignite (-ed; -ed) to adjust (-ed; -ed) to reduce (-ed; -ed) to decrease (-ed; -ed) to raise (-ed; -ed) to increase (-ed; -ed)

- распространять(ся) - возгораться преждевременно - регулировать - сокращать, понижать - уменьшать(ся) - поднимать, повышать - увеличивать(ся)

Exercise 3. Read and translate the following groups of words. 1) to adjust - adjusting - self-adjusting; 2) to ignite - to pre-ignite - ignition - pre-ignition; 3) to rely - reliable - reliability; 4) duration - durable - durability; 5) economy - economic - economical; 6) to perform - performance - performing; 7) to combust - combustion - combustion chamber; 13

8) to use - using - usage; 9) silence - silent - silently; 10) effective - effectiveness - effectivety. Exercise 4. Write down the principal forms of the following verbs. Translate them. To mark, to develop, to compete, to perform, to accumulate, to dominate, to produce, to contribute to, to improve, to spread, to raise, to increase. Exercise 5. Choose the proper equivalent to the following verb groups. 1) has been optimised

2) are developing 3) will dominate 4) enables 5) can be run

a) оптимизируется b) будет оптимизироваться c) было оптимизировано d) следует оптимизировать a) развивают b) развивались c) будут развиваться a) преобладают b) преобладали c) будут преобладать a) обеспечивает b) обеспечил c) будет обеспечивать a) можно эксплуатировать b) необходимо эксплуатировать c) следует эксплуатировать

Exercise 6. Pay attention to the use of tenses in if-clauses. Translate the following sentences. 1) If the temperature is high, the fuel/air mixture may pre-ignite before the flame has reached it. 2) If the engine has four valves per cylinder and the spark plug is located centrally, the compression ratio can be raised without the risk of pre-ignition and knocking. Exercise 7. Translate the following sentences from Russian into English, using ifclauses. 1) Если зазор клапанов всегда точен, долговечность двигателя может быть увеличена. 2) Если использовать гидравлические фоллоуэры кулачков, можно избежать периодический ремонт клапанов.

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Exercise 8. Pay attention to the conjunction «since» in the following sentences, which is synonymous to «as». Translate the sentences. 1) Since the engine has four valves per cylinder instead of two, the individual valves are subjected to far less demanding working conditions. 2) Since the valve clearances are always correct, engine wear will also be reduced. 3) Since the hydraulic cam followers of the Saab 16-valve engine are selfadjusting, periodic adjustment of the valve clearances is no longer necessary. Exercise 9. Translate the following sentences from Russian in English using «since» or «as». 1) Так как Сааб использует следящую систему контроля (АРС), двигатель может работать на топливе с любым октановым числом от 91 до 98. 2) Так как входной патрубок имеет улучшенный дизайн, турбулентность в камере сгорания повышается. Exercise 10. Read the following text. Translate it. Compare with the Russian translation given to the text. Use it as a clue if necessary. 16 - Valve Technology Part 1 Engines with four valves per cylinder have long been used to power rally and competition cars including Saab cars. But the Saab 16-valve engine is not a competition engine designed for the highest possible performance within a narrow range of engine speeds. On the contrary, it is an everyday «workhorse», with good lowspeed performance, and has been optimised for the best possible economy, durability and reliability.

Most car manufacturers are developing engines with four valves per cylinder, and this design will probably dominate in the future. But Saab has already accumulated several years of experience in the production of such engines, for economical

16 - ти клапанная технология Часть I Двигатели с 4-мя клапанами в каждом цилиндре уже давно получили применение на гоночных и спортивных моделях, включая Сааб. Однако 16-ти клапанный двигатель Сааб не является двигателем для спортивных моделей. Предназначенным для максимальной эксплуатации в условиях узкого диапазона оборотов двигателя. Напротив, это скорее ординарная «рабочая лошадь» с хорошими низкоскоростными характеристиками, высоким уровнем экономии, прочности и надежности. Большинство автопроизводителей выпускают двигатели с 4-мя клапанами на каждый цилиндр и, возможно, эта конструкция и будет доминировать в будущем. Сааб имеет многолетний приоритет в 15

everyday motoring.

производстве таких двигателей, рассчитанных для экономичной повседневной езды.

Exercise 11. Make up a reverse translation of the last paragraph of the text in written form. Exercise 12. Answer the following questions to the text. 1) Is the Saab 16-valve engine a competition engine or an everyday «workhorse»? 2) What engine design will dominate in the future? 3) What features are optimised by the Saab 16-valve engine? Exercise 13. Give general characteristics of the Saab 16-valve engine using the following words. To power, rally car, competition car, narrow range of engine speeds, good lowspeed performance, economy, durability, reliability, economical everyday motoring. Exercise 14. Read the second part of the text. Translate it. Compare with the Russian translation given to the text. Use it as a clue if necessary. Ideal Combustion Chamber Part 2 The design of the combustion chamber is extremely favourable - it is dome-shaped, with a relatively flat piston crown - which contributes to high efficiency, low knocking tendencies and uniform combustion. The intake manifold is shaped to improve the turbulence in the combustion chamber, and Saab has lodges patent applications for this design. Each of the two pairs of valves has a large flow area, and the engine can thus breathe efficiently. Since the engine has four valves per cylinder instead of two, the individual valves are subjected to far less demanding working conditions. The thermal stresses, for instanse, are appreciably lower at a given engine rating than those of an engine with only one intake and one exhaust valve per cylinder. 16

Идеальная камера сгорания часть 2 Конструкция камеры сгорания чрезвычайно удачна куполообразной формы с относительно плоской головкой поршня - что способствует высокой эффективности, сниженным ударным тенденциям и равномерному сгоранию топлива. Форма входного патрубка способствует турбулентности в камере сгорания; это изобретение запатентовано фирмой Сааб. Каждая их двух пар клапанов имеет достаточное пространство для движения, что дает возможность свободно дышать двигателю. Поскольку двигатель снабжен 4-мя клапанами вместо двух на каждый цилиндр, это снижает требования в рабочих условиях для

The four-valve arrangement enables the spark plug to be located in the centre of the combustion chamber. So the flame spreads uniformly throughout the combustion chamber. Engine designers describe this as a short and uniform flame path. In an engine with two valves per cylinder and the spark plug located on one side of the combustion chamber, the flame path is long and asymmetrical. If the temperature at the far end of the combustion chamber is high, the fuel/air mixture may pre-ignite before the flame has reached it, and the engine will then «knock». To avoid such harmful knocking, the compression ratio in this type of engine must be fairly low.

If the engine has four valves per cylinder and the spark plug is located centrally, the compression ratio can be raised without the risk of pre-ignition and knocking. A high compression ratio increases the engine efficiency, enables the engine to use the energy in the fuel more effectively, and raises the engine power, although at a low fuel consumption. The Saab APC system plays an important role in this respect. Using a knock sensor and an electronic control unit, the system continuously monitors the engine load. Due to the APC system, the engine can be run at any grade of fuel between 91 and 98 octane, and the fuel consumption is reduced at the same

каждого из них. Так, например, терминальные нагрузки значительно ниже в этом типе двигателя по сравнению с двигателем. Имеющим только один впускной и один выпускной клапан на цилиндр. 4-х клапанная конструкция дает возможность располагать свечу зажигания в центре камеры сгорания. Таким образом, пламя распространяется равномерно по всей камере сгорания. Конструкторы двигателей квалифицируют это как короткий и равномерный поток пламени. В двигателе с 2-мя клапанами на цилиндр и свечой зажигания, расположенной ближе к стенке камеры сгорания, поток пламени длинный и асимметричный. Если температура в отдаленном отсеке камеры сгорания высока, топливновоздушная смесь может подвергнуться возгоранию прежде чем пламя достигнет его. И двигатель будет «стучать». В целях предотвращения подобного вредного стука в таких типах двигателей, необходимо значительно снизить степень компрессии. Если двигатель снабжен 4-мя клапанами на цилиндр, и свеча зажигания располагается в центре, Степень компрессии можно повысить без риска преждевременного возгорания и стука. Высокая степень компрессии увеличивает эффективность двигателя, позволяет ему более рентабельно использовать энергию топлива, а также повышает мощность двигателя даже при низкой степени потребления топлива. Следящая система контроля эксплутационных параметров Сааб в этом случае играет важную роль. При помощи противоударного сенсора и электронного 17

time.

контроля система постоянно фиксирует на мониторе нагрузку двигателя. Благодаря следящей системе контроля двигатель может работать на топливе с октановым числом от 91 до 98, при этом потребление топлива снижается.

Exercise 15. Make up a reverse translation of the last paragraph of the text in written form. Exercise 16. Answer the following questions to the text. 1) Why is the design of the combustion chamber extremely favourable? 2) What improves turbulence in the combustion chamber? 3) What are the benefits of the four valve per cylinder design? 4) What is the benefit of the spark plug being located in the centre of the combustion chamber? 5) Due to what system the engine can be run on any grade of fuel? Exercise 17. Give general characteristics of the ideal combustion chamber using the following words. Dome-shaped, flat piston crown, spark plug, fuel/air mixture, harmful, knocking, compression ratio, pre-ignition, low fuel consumption, knock sensor, electronic control unit, any grade of fuel. Exercise 18. Read the third part of the text. Translate it. Compare with the Russian translation given to the text. Use it as a clue if necessary. Self-adjusting Hydraulic Cam Followers Part 3

Саморегулируемые гидравлические кулачковые фоллоуэры. Часть 3

Since the hydraulic cam followers of the Saab 16-valve engine are self-adjusting, periodic adjustment of the valve clearances is no longer necessary. This simplifies service work and therefore reduces costs. Since the valve clearances are always correct, engine wear will also be reduced. Valve noise will be lower, and the engine will thus run silently and smoothly. Patent applications have been lodged for certain

Благодаря тому, что гидравлические кулачковые фоллоуэры 16-ти клапанного двигателя Сааб саморегулируемые, периодическая регулировка зазоров клапанов не требуется. Это упрощает сервис и, таким образом, снижает цены. Поскольку зазоры клапанов всегда точны, снижается износ двигателя. Шум клапанов

18

parts of the cam followers. Saab was among the first manufacturers to present practical multi-valve and turbocharging technology. Many of the plucky Swedish make’s innovative engineering features, including front wheel-drive, free-wheeling, unit bodies and torsion bar suspension, were ahead of their time. The uncommon was always common at Saab.

уменьшается и двигатель будет работать бесшумно и плавно. Детали кулачковых фоллоуэров были запатентованы.

Exercise 19. Make up a reverse translation of the text in written form. Exercise 20. Translate the last paragraph of the text from English into Russian without a dictionary. Exercise 21. Be ready to speak on the topic «16-Valve Technology» according to the plan. 1) The 16-valve engine is an everyday «workhorse». 2) Engine design of the future. 3) Ideal combustion chamber. 4) Self-adjusting hydraulic cam followers.

19

Урок 4. Система турбонадува Lesson 4. The Turbocharging System Exercise 1. Read the following words. Mind their meaning. 1) 2) 3) 4) 5) 6) 7) 8) 9)

turbocharger exhaust gases rpm - revolutions per minute bearing lubricating oil radiator boost pressure converter unleaded fuel

- турборазрядник - выхлопные газы - обороты в минуту - подшипник - смазочное масло - радиатор - повышенное (растущее) давление - конвертор, преобразователь - неэтилированное топливо

Exercise 2. Read the following verbs. Mind their meaning. Pay attention to the principal forms. 1) 2) 3) 4) 5) 6) 7) 8) 9) 10) 11) 12)

to overtake (overtook; overtaken) to yield (-ed; -ed) to convert (-ed; -ed) to induce (-ed; -ed) to deliver (-ed; -ed) to consist of (-ed; -ed) to change (-ed; -ed) to give (gave; given) to prevent (-ed; ed) to switch off (-ed; ed) to feed (fed; fed) to keep (kept; kept)

-обгонять - производить, получать - преобразовать - побуждать, заставлять - доставлять, предоставлять - состоять из - изменять, менять - давать - предотвращать - отключать - снабжать, подавать - держать

Exercise 3. Read and translate the following groups of words. 1) 2) 3) 4) 5) 6) 7)

to charge - charging - turbocharging - turbocharger to discharge - discharging - discharged gases to develop - developing - development to perform - performance - four-cylinder performance to heat - to overheat - overheating consumption - fuel consumption - low fuel consumption economy - fuel economy - excellent fuel economy

Exercise 4. Write down the principal forms of the following verbs. 20

To overtake, to keep, to give, to deliver, to convert, to make, to eliminate. Exercise 5. Choose the proper equivalent to the following verb groups. 1) is needed 2) is switched off 3) increases 4) use

а) требуется b) требовался с) будет требоваться а) был отключен b) будет отключен с) отключен а) увеличивается b) увеличился с) будет увеличен а) использовал b) использует с) будет использовать

Exercise 6. Pay attention to comparative structures with «the more ...the better», «as...as». Translate the following sentences. 1) The colder a given amount of air (at constant pressure), the smaller its volume. 2) To obtain the highest output and fuel efficiency, the boost pressure is maintained as high as possible. Exercise 7. Translate the following sentences from Russian into English using comparative constructions. . 1) Чем выше октановое число бензина, тем дольше долговечность двигателя. 2) Следящая система контроля (АРС) позволяет двигателю работать при более высокой степени сжатия, чем обычный турбодвигатель. Exercise 8. Read the following text. Translate it. Compare with the Russian translation given to the text. Use it as a clue if necessary. The Turbocharging System Part 1 The Saab turbocharging system consists principally of a turbocharger, an intercooler and the APC system. The turbocharger uses the exhaust gases discharged by the engine to drive a compressor which, when extra power is needed, delivers more air to the engine. Since the Saab turbocharger has

Система турбонадува Часть 1 Система турбонадува состоит главным образом из турбозарядника, промежуточного охладителя и следящей системы контроля эксплутационных параметров. Турбозарядник использует выхлопные газы двигателя с тем, чтобы привести в 21

small rotating masses, it can start to function at very low engine speeds. At only 1500 rpm, for example, it increases engine torque by as much as 20%, and at 3000 rpm the engine develops maximum torque. This means that you have substantial reserve power when overtaking even if you do not change down. The turbocharger gives the four-cylinder Saab engine performance as good as that delivered by many, much larger «sixes» and «eight’s».

The turbocharger has a water-cooled bearing housing - a feature that prevents overheating and carbonising of the lubricating oil when the engine is switched off and oil circulation stops. During normal driving, the turbocharger is used only 15-20% of the time. For 8085% of the time, the engine operates identically to a conventional naturallyaspirated engine and has the same low fuel consumption.

движение компрессор, который в случае необходимости снабжает двигатель воздухом. Так турбозарядник Сааб имеет малую вращающуюся массу, он способен к функционированию на очень низких оборотах двигателя. Лишь только на 1500 оборотах в минуту, например, он увеличивает крутящий момент двигателя на 20%, а на 3000 оборотах в минуту двигатель развивает максимальный крутящий момент. Это означает, что у вас имеется значительный резерв мощности в ситуациях обгона. Турборазрядник ставит в один ряд 4-х цилиндровый двигатель Сааб с более мощными «шестерками» и «восьмерками». Турбозарядник имеет подшипниковый картер с водяным охлаждением, что предотвращает перегрев и карбонацию смазочного масла в момент отключения двигателя и остановки масляной циркуляции. Во время обычной эксплуатации турборазрядник используется только в 15-20% от всего времени. В течение остальных 80-85% времени двигатель функционирует как двигатель с обычной подачей топливной смеси и имеет также низкое потребление топлива.

Exercise 9. Make up a reverse translation of the 2nd paragraph of the text in written form. Exercise 10. Ask all possible questions to the following sentence. The turbocharger uses the exhaust gases to drive a compressor which delivers more air to the engine. Exercise 11. Choose from the text all if-and when-clauses. Rewrite and translate them. Exercise 12. Give short summary of the text using the following words. 22

Turbocharging system, to consist of, turbocharger, intercooler, APC system, compressor, exhaust gases, bearing housing, overheating, maximum torque. Exercise 13. Read the second part of the text. Translate it. Compare with the Russian translation given to the text. Use it as a clue if necessary. Intercooler Part 2 The colder a given amount of air (at constant pressure), the smaller its volume. Therefore cooling the intake air in the intercooler makes it possible to feed more air into each cylinder. With the introduction of correspondingly more fuel, the combustion power, and thus the total engine power, increases too. The intercooler is mounted ahead of the normal radiator. The APC system The Automatic Performance Control (APC) designed and patented by Saab yields maximum torque and excellent fuel economy; it also allows our engines to run on fuel with any octane rating from 91 RON upwards. The APC system controls the boost pressure of the turbo to keep it at the optimum operating level for every driving situation. To obtain the highest output and fuel efficiency, the boost pressure is maintained as high as possible without producing engine knocking. The «knock limit» is determined by engine speed, load, temperature and fuel octane. The APC system always optimises the boost pressure and eliminates the risk of harmful

Промежуточный охладитель Часть 2 Чем ниже температура определен-ного количества воздуха (при постоян-ном давлении), тем меньше его объем. Следовательно охлаждение подаваемого воздуха охладителем дает возможность увеличить количество воздуха в каждом цилиндре. Соответственно с введением большого количества топлива, мощность сгорания и общая мощность двигателя также увеличиваются. Промежуточный охладитель устанавливается впереди обычного радиатора. Система контроля эксплутационных параметров. (СКЭП) СКЭП, сконструированная и запатентованная Сааб, производит максимальный крутящий момент и превосходную топливную экономию; она также дает возможность двигателю функционировать на топливе любого октанового числа от 91 и выше. СКЭП осуществляет контроль за растущим давлением турбо и удерживает его на оптимальном рабочем уровне для каждой конкретной ситуации вождения. В целях достижения высокой мощности и эффективности использования топлива нагнетается как можно более высокое давление, не вызывающее, тем не менее, стука двигателя. «Предел стука» определяется скоростью вращения двигателя, нагрузкой, температурой и октановым числом топлива. СКЭП призвана оптимизировать высокое давление 23

и уменьшить риск опасного стука. СКЭП дает возможность двигателю Сааб функционировать при более высоком уровне компрессии по сравнению с обычными турбодвига-телями. Следовательно благодаря СКЭП в большей мере осуществляется топливная экономия. Благодаря СКЭП у турбодвигателей Сааб есть преиму-щество: они могут работать на топливе с довольно низким октановым числом, если это необходимо, а также использовать топливо с высоким октановым числом для достижения большей мощности. N.B. Автомобили с катализными N.B.Cars with catalytic converters must use only unleaded конверторами должны использовать только неэтилированное топливо. fuel. knocking. The APC system enables the Saab engine to operate at a higher compression ratio than conventional turbo engines. It therefore makes a major contribution to fuel economy. It also gives Saab turbo engines the advantage of running on relatively low-octane fuel if desired, or using higher-octane fuel for greater maximum power.

Exercise 14. Make up a reverse translation of the 1st paragraph of the text in written form. Exercise 15. Answer the following questions to the text. 1) 2) 3) 4) 5) 6)

What makes it possible to feed more air into each cylinder? Where is the intercooler mounted? What does the APC System yield? What does the APC System control? How is the «Knock limit» determined? What is the advantage of Saab turbo engines?

Exercise 16. Speak on the topic «Turbocharging System» using the following words. Intercooler, constant, pressure, volume, combustion power, radiator, maximum torque, fuel economy, boost pressure, «knock limit», compression ratio, low-octane fuel, unleaded fuel.

24

Урок 5. Прямое зажигание Сааб Lesson 5. Saab Direct Ignition Exercise 1. Read the following words. Mind their meaning. 1) 2) 3) 4) 5) 6) 7) 8) 9) 10) 11) 12) 13) 14) 15)

ignition timing starting high-tension leads distributor cap current leakage film moisture coil spark plug N-fold cartridge burst of sparks soot measurement deviation

- расчет времени зажигания - запуск двигателя - вводные провода высокого напряжения - распределительная крышка - утечка тока - пленка - влага - катушка - свеча зажигания - - Н - количество раз - патрон - поток искр - сажа - измерение - отклонение

Exercise 2. Read the following verbs. Mind their meaning. Pay attention to the principal forms. 1) 2) 3) 4) 5) 6) 7) 8) 9) 10)

to ignite (-ed: -ed) to rely (-ed: -ed) to distribute (-ed: -ed) to leak (-ed: -ed) to moist (-ed: -ed) to step up (-ed: -ed) to step down (-ed: -ed) to cope with (-ed: -ed) to measure (-ed: -ed) to deviate (-ed: -ed)

- воспламенять, зажигать - надеяться опираться - распределять - течь, вытекать - смачивать, увлажнять - повышать - понижать - справиться с чем-либо - измерять - отклоняться от чего-либо

Exercise 3. Read and translate the following groups of words. 1) 2) 3) 4) 5)

to time - time - timing to leak - leaking - leakage - current leakage to ignite - ignition - ignition coil to measure - measuring - measurement to devite - deviating - deviation 25

6)

to distribute - distributing - distributor - distributor cap

Exercise 4. Write down the principal forms of the following verbs. Translate them. to time, to preset, to lead, to mount, to guarantee, to generate, to allow, to fail, to move, to adjust, to deviate, to extract. Exercise 5. Choose the proper equivalent to the following verbs groups. 1)

can provide

2)

is generated

3)

call

4)

ensure

5)

is adjusted

6)

is extracted

а) б) в) а) б) в) а) б) в)

мог снабжать может снабжать будет снабжать генерируется генерировался будет генерироваться называет называла будет называть

а) б) в) а) б) в) а) б) в)

обеспечил обеспечивает будет обеспечивать регулируется регулировался будет регулироваться извлекается следует извлечь будет извлечен

Exercise 6. Pay attention to comparative structures with «so ... that», «as well as», (« такой ... что, как ... так, чем») 1) 2) 3)

The Saab DI coils are so small that they can be mounted in a cartridge immediately above the spark plugs. Charging is twenty times faster than in a conventional system. As well as providing a good spark at high engine speeds this allows a whole of a single one. Exercise 7. Choose the proper equivalent to the Russian adjective. 1) 2) 3) 4) 5)

26

низкий меньше самый тяжелый длиннее бóльший

- low, lower, the lowest - small, smaller, the smallest - heavy, heavier, the heaviest - long, longer, the longest - large, larger, the largest

Exercise 8. Give the three degrees of comparison to the following adjectives. Translate them. 1) 2) 3) 4) 5)

great little cold good bad

Exercise 9. Read the following text. Translate it. Compare with the Russian translation given to the text. Use it as a clue if necessary. Saab Direct Ignition Part 1

Система прямого зажигания Сааб (СПЗ) Часть 1

The Saab Direct Ignition system is yet another example of Saab’s innovative technology. This ignition system ensures reliable starting, reduced service costs and lower fuel consumption. The Saab DI system is a capacitive ignition system that has no moving parts. The ignition timing is permanently preset at the factory. This ensures reliable starting in any weatherand minimizes the service costs.

Система прямого зажигания (СПЗ) Сааб еще один пример конструкторской инновации. Эта система зажигания обеспечивает надежный старт двигателя, снижение сервисных цен и потребление топлива. СПЗ Сааб - это мощная система зажигания, не имеющая двигающихся деталей. Расчет времени зажигания постоянно устанавливается на заводе, что обеспечивает надежный старт двигателя в любую погоду - снижает до минимума сервисные цены.

Reliable starting. Damp weather and low temperatures can both make a car difficult to start. The Saab Direct Ignition system eliminates all such problems. The Saab DI system has no high tension leads and no distributor cap, both of which can provide a current leakage path along a film of moisture. In the Saab DI system, an ignition coil is mounted directly on each spark plug, which guarantees a reliable spark.

Надежный старт двигателя. Двигатель сложно запускать во время влажной погоды и низких температур. СПЗ Сааб снимает все подобные проблемы. Система прямого зажигания Сааб не включает в себя вводных проводов высокого напряжения и лишена распределителя, которые могут быть причиной утечки тока по водяной пленке. Надежность искры в СПЗ Сааб гарантируется расположением катушки зажигания - непосредственно на каждой свече зажигания. 27

In extremely cold weather, the Saab Direct Ignition system offers additional security. It generates an ignition voltage of 40.000 volts, instead of the 25.000 volts delivered by a conventional ignition system. Even if the battery voltage is low, the Saab DI system will still fire a reliable spark. The high voltage is generated in two stages. In the first stage, 12 volts is stepped up to 400 volts by capacitive charging. In the second stage, the 400 volts is stepped up to 40.000 volts in the four ignition coils one on each spark plug. Since the ignition coils step up the voltage «only» 100-fold (as against the 2000 - fold step-up in a conventional ignition system), the Saab DI coils are so small that they can be mounted in a cartridge immediately above the spark plugs. The cartridge provides effective protection against moisture and dirt.

На случай суровых холодов СПЗ Сааб предлагает дополнительную надежность. Она вырабатывает напряжение зажигания в 40.000 вольт вместо 25.000 вольт, обеспечиваемых обычной системой зажигания. Даже если напряжение в батарее низкое, СПЗ Сааб способна дать надежную искру. Высокое напряжение генерируется в две стадии: 12 вольт доводят до 400 вольт за счет мощного заряда. На второй стадии от 400 вольт переходят к 40.000 на четырех катушках зажигания - каждая из которых расположена на свече зажигания. Поскольку катушки зажигания поднимают напряжение «только» в 100 раз (по сравнению с возрастанием напряжения в 2000 раз в обычной системе зажигания), и размеры их весьма невелики, они могут быть смонтированы в патронах на свечах зажигания. Патроны обеспечивают надежную защиту от влажности и загрязнения.

Exercise 10. Make up a reverse translation of the last paragraph of the text in written form. Exercise 11. Answer the following questions to the text. 1) 2) 3) 4) 5) 6) 7)

What is the Saab Direct ignition system? Has the Saab DI system high - tension leads and distributor cap? Where is an ignition coil mounted in the Saab DI system? What does the Saab DI system offer in extremely cold weather? Is a spark reliable if the battery voltage is low? How is the high voltage generated? Why are the cartridges used?

Exercise 12. Give general characteristics of the Saab DI system using the following words. capacitive ignition system, to preset, moving parts, reliable starting, damp weather, high - tension leads, current leakage, moisture film, spark plug, cartridge, 28

additional security, to generate, high voltage, ignition coils, to provide, effective, protection. Exercise 13. Compare the systems of ignition: conventional ignition system and Saab DI system. Discuss advantages of the latter with your partner. Exercise 14. Read the second part of the text. Translate it. Use the Russian translation as a clue if necessary. Multi - spark Part 2 Another advantage of Saab DI is very rapid spark generation. Charging is twenty times faster than in a conventional system. As well as providing a good spark at high engine speeds this allows a whole burst of sparks to be produced instead of single one, e.g. when starting a cold engine. We call this «multispark». This burst of sparks effectively burns off any soot or fuel residue on the spark plug electrodes, providing quick, sure starting every time. If the engine should, for some reason, fail to start at the first attempt, Saab DI brings a further feature into play: When the ignition key is released from the starting position, the system produces a massive stream of approximately 1000 sparks-on all cylinders at once-to ensure that even the heaviest deposits have been burned off. Reduces service requirements. Spark plugs last several times longer than those fitted into conventional ignition systems. This is because Saab DI copes with larger variations in the spark plug electrode

Мульти - искра Часть 2 Стремительное генерирование искры - это также достижение СПЗ Сааб. Процесс зарядки происходит в 20 раз быстрее, чем в обычной системе. Наряду с обеспечением хорошей искры на высоких оборотах двигателя это преимущество Сааб позволяет получить целую вспышку вместо одной искры, в частности, при запуске холодного двигателя. Мы называем эту вспышку «мульти искра».Эта вспышка эффективно сжигает любую сажу или топливо, оставшиеся на электродах свечи зажигания и обеспечивает быстрый надежный запуск. На тот случай, если двигатель все-таки не удается запустить с первого раза, у СПЗ Сааб существует дополнительное средство: когда ключ зажигания убирается с позиции запуска, система производит мощный поток примерно в 1000 искр - на все цилиндры одновременно - с тем, чтобы обеспечить полное выгорание всех остатков топлива. Снижение сервисных требований. Свечи зажигания служат в несколько раз дольше по сравнению с теми, которые установлены в обычной системе зажигания. Это происходит благодаря тому, что СПЗ Сааб 29

gap. Saab DI has no moving parts and располагает большими возможностями the timing is set once and for all at the в использовании зазора электрода свечи зажигания. СПЗ Сааб не имеет factory, thus minimizing service costs. двигающихся деталей и расчет времени раз и навсегда устанавливается на заводе, что снижает сервисные цены. Низкое потребление топлива. В 2.3 литровом двигателе потребление постоянно контролируется в каждом цилиндре посредством «ионизационных измерений». Всякий раз, когда процесс сгорания отклоняется от оптимального варианта, соотношение воздух/топливо регулируется автоматически. Постоянный контроль за каждым цилиндром обеспечивает эффективное использование энергии, таким образом, повышая топливную экономию. Exercise 15. Make up a reverse translation of the last paragraph of the text in written form. Lower fuel consumption. In the 2.3 - liter combustion is monitored continuously and individually in each cylinder by «ionization measurement». Whenever the combustion process deviates from optimum, the air/fuel ratio is adjusted automatically. This constant supervision of each cylinder ensures that energy is extracted from the fuel with the greatest possible efficiency, thus maximizing fuel economy.

Exercise 16. Answer the following questions to the text. 1) 2) 3) 4) 5) 6) 7)

How many times faster is the rapid spark generation in Saab DI? What is the advantage of the rapid spark generation? What is a «multi-spark»? What does Saab DI bring into play if the engine should fail to start? Do the spark plugs last several times longer than those fitted into conventional ignition system? Why? Has Saab DI any moving parts? In what way is the air/fuel ratio adjusted?

Exercise 17. Compare the system of spark generation in Saab DI and conventional system. Discuss the two systems with your partner. Exercise 18. Look through the following abstract. Try to translate it without the dictionary. How the Saab DI system works. The microprocessor initiates the spark at precisely the right moment, with the help of the transmitter on the crankshaft and signals from the monitoring unit of the DI system (ionization measurement). 30

Урок 6. Впрыск топлива Lesson 6. Fuel Injection Exercise 1. Read the following words. Mind their meaning. 1) 2) 3) 4) 5) 6) 7) 8) 9) 10) 11) 12) 13) 14)

ambient temperature verve attitude ratio meter volume oxygen content wire quantity speed limited deposit regardless power steering

- температура окружающей среды -живость, яркость, сила изображения - высота (над уровнем моря) - отношение, соотношение - счетчик - объем - кислород - содержание - провод - количество - ограничитель скорости - отложения, осадок - независимо от, несмотря на - силовое (механическое) управление

Exercise 2. Read the following verbs. Mind their meaning. Pay attention to the principal forms. 1) 2) 3) 4) 5)

to heat (-ed; -ed) to switch off (-ed;-ed) to switch on (-ed; -ed) to burn off (burnt; burnt) to contribute to (-ed;-ed)

- нагревать, обогревать - отключать - включать - сжигать - способствовать чему-либо, вносить вклад

Exercise 3. Read and translate the following groups of words. 1) 2) 3) 4) 5) 6) 7)

system - injection system - fuel injection system to flow - air flow - air flow meter to steer - steering - power steering to press - pressing - pressure - atmospheric pressure to transmit - transmitting - transmission to clean - cleaning - self-cleaning to control - control -idling control - automatic idling control

Exercise 4. Write down the principal forms of the following verbs. Translate them. To burn, to transmit, to require, to measure, to flow, to control. 31

Exercise 5. Choose the proper equivalent to the following verb groups. 1)

will be transmitted

2)

employs

3)

can be metered

4)

will not lose

a) b) с) a) b) c) a) b) c) a) b) c)

будут переданы передаются следует передать выполняет выполнил будет выполнять должен быть измерен был измерен может быть измерен не утрачивает не утратил не утратит

Exercise 6. Pay attention to the infinitive in the following sentences. Translate them. 1) 2) 3) 4)

Fuel injection enables the fuel/air to be controlled very accurately. The system makes the engine very easy to start. A microprocessor measures the electrical energy necessary to maintain the wire at a constant temperature. A microprocessor senses the engine speed and temperature, which enables it to meter out the correct quantity of fuel to suit the requirements of the engine at all times.

Exercise 7. Read the following text. Translate it. Compare with the Russian translation given to the text. Use it as a clue if necessary. Впрыск топлива

Fuel Injection Saab 16-valve engines are equipped with an electronically controlled fuel injection system. The system makes the engine very easy to start - be it hot or cold - and also minimizes its sensitivity to variations in atmospheric pressure and ambient temperature. So the engine will not lose its verve at high altitudes. An electronic control monitors the fuel/air ratio. system also includes an air meter which measures the mass 32

unit The flow flow

16-ти клапанные двигатели Сааб снабжены электронной системой впрыска топлива. Эта система обеспечивает хороший запуск двигателя - будь он горячий или холодный - а также снижает его чувствительность к изменениям в атмосферном давлении окружающей температуры. Таким образом, двигатель не потеряет своей работоспособности даже на больших высотах над морем. Система электронного контроля осуществляет мониторинг отношения топливо/воздух. В систему входит счетчик потока воздуха (вместо счетчика объема

of the air instead of its volume, so that the fuel can be metered more accurately in relation to the oxygen content of the air. The operation of the air mass meter is as follows: the air flows across an electrically heated platinum wire in a tubular air meter. A microprocessor measures the electrical energy necessary to maintain the wire a constant temperature which is a measure of the mass of air flowing across the wire. At the same time, the microprocessor senses the engine speed and temperature, which enables it to meter out the correct quantity of fuel to suit the requirements of the engine at all times. Moreover, the microprocessor incorporates a speed limited which ensures that no opening signals will be transmitted to the fuel injection valves at engine speeds above 6000 rpm. The system is self - cleaning, since the platinum wire is quickly heated to about 10000C every time the ignition is switched off. This burns off any deposits on the wire. Automatic idling control. The Saab 16-valve engine is also equipped with a system which maintains the idling speed constant, regardless of the engine load. The automatic idling control system employs an electronically controlled valve, which ensures that the engine speed will remain constant, regardless of any additional load applied by the air conditioning, power steering etc. This system contributes to the high standard of comfort and is of

воздуха) с тем, чтобы топливо более точно подавалось в соответствии с содержанием кислорода в воздухе. Принцип действия счетчика потока воздуха: поток воздуха пересекает платиновый провод, раскаленный электричеством, в трубчатом счетчике воздуха. Микропроцессор измеряет электрическую энергию, необходимую для поддержания постоянной температуры провода, что и является мерой массы потока воздуха, текущего через провод. В то же время, микропроцессор ощущает скорость и температуру двигателя, что дает ему возможность измерять правильное количество топлива, требуемого двигателю во всех случаях. Более того, в микропроцессор входит ограничитель скорости, который обеспечивает блокирование входных клапанов при скорости двигателя более 6.000 оборотов в минуту. Система - самоочищаемая, так как платиновый провод быстро нагревается до температуры около 10000, всякий раз когда зажигание отключено. Это сжигает любые отложения на проводе. Автоматический холостого хода.

контроль

16-ти клапанный двигатель Сааб также оснащен системой, которая поддерживает постоянную скорость холостых оборотов независимо от нагрузки двигателя. Автоматический контроль холостого хода использует электронно контролируемый клапан, обеспечивающий постоянную скорость двигателя независимо от дополнительной нагрузки, вызванной воздушным кондиционированием механического управления. Эта система обеспечивает высокий уровень комфорта 33

particular benefit to the driver.

особенно для водителя.

Exercise 8. Make up a reverse translation of the last paragraph of the text in written form. Exercise 9. Answer the following questions to the text. 1) 2) 3) 4) 5) 6) 7) 8)

Is the fuel injection system of Saab 16-valve engine electronically controlled? What does an electronic control unit monitor? How is the air mass meter operated? Why does a microprocessor measure the electric energy? What does the microprocessor incorporate? Why is the system self-cleaning? How is the automatic idling control system designed? Does this system contribute to the high standard of comfort?

Exercise 10. Read the following abstract and try to translate it without the dictionary. How the fuel injection system works. The intake manifold is equipped with one injection valve for every cylinder. The injection valve is fitted upstream of the corresponding intake valve and is controlled electromagnetically by signals from the electronic control unit. The control unit calculates the opening time for the injection valve to suit the engine running conditions, so that the quantity of fuel injected will be correct in relation to the quantity of air flowing to the engine. Exercise 11. Speak about the fuel injection using the following words. Fuel injection system, atmospheric pressure, ambient temperature, fuel/air ratio, air flow meter, air mass meter, to sense, engine, speed temperature, automatic idling control, air conditioning, power streering.

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Урок 7. Контроль катализной эмиссии Lesson 7. Catalytic Emission Control Exercise 1. Read the following words. Mind their meaning. 1) 2) 3) 4) 5) 6) 7) 8) 9) 10) 11)

catalytic emission converter noxious = harmful innocuous substance hydrocarbon carbon monoxide carbon dioxide nitrogen precious metals vaporization

- катализная эмиссия - преобразователь - вредный - безвредный - вещество - углеводород - окись углерода - двуокись углерода - азот - ценные металлы - испарение

Exercise 2. Reads the following verbs. Mind their meaning. Pay attention to the principal forms. 1) 2) 3) 4) 5) 6) 7)

to supply (-ed; -ed) to prove (proved, proven) to compare (-ed; -ed) to vaporize (-ed; -ed) to remove (-ed; -ed) to destroy (-ed; -ed) to succeed (-ed; -ed)

- снабжать, обеспечивать - оправдывать, подтверждать - сравнивать - испаряться - устранять - разрушать - удаваться, пользоваться успехом

Exercise 3. Read and translate the following groups of words. 1) to convert - conversion - converting - converter - catalytic converter 2) to complete - complete - completing - incomplete 3) temperature - combustion temperature - high combustion temperature - low combustion temperature 4) system - fuel system - closed fuel system 5) lead - leaded - unleaded - leaded fuel - unleaded fuel 6) system - control system - emission control system climate - related emission control system Exercise 4. Write down the principal forms of the following verbs. Translate them. To vaporize, to relate, to succeed, to exhaust, to inject, to mix, to convert. 35

Exercise 5. Choose the proper equivalent to the following verb groups. 1)

has been proven

2)

has developed

3)

have succeeded

а) в) с) а) в) с) а) в) с)

был оправдан оправдается следует оправдать развивался развился развивается удалось удается удастся

Exercise 6. Pay attention to the passive constructions. Translate them. 1) 2) 3) 4)

Saab cars are equipped with three-way catalytic converters. Nitrogen oxides are formed at high combustion temperatures and pressures. The fuel/air ratio of the mixture supplied by the engine must be controlled. Every time an engine is started, it emits harmful substances.

Exercise 7. Translate the following sentences paying attention to non-finite forms (infinitive, gerund) 1) 2)

To ensure the best possible performance of the converter, the fuel/air ratio of the mixture must be accurately controlled. By equipping the engine with an electrical heated Lambda sensor and carefully adapting the fuel and ignition systems, Saab engineers have succeeded in minimizing the content of noxious substances in the exhaust gases.

Exercise 8. Read the following text. Translate it. Compare with the Russian translation given to the text. Use it as a clue if necessary.

36

Catalytic Emission Control Saab cars are equipped with threeway catalytic converters that remove noxious substance from the exhaust gases. The catalytic converter neutralizes the carbon monoxide and hydrocarbons caused by incomplete combustion of the fuel, and also the nitrogen oxides that are formed at high combustion temperatures and pressures. The active part of the catalytic converter is a ceramic core which is perforated with small, square holes and is coated with a thin layer of precious metals. The catalyst converts chemically 80-90% of the harmful substances to innocuous gases-carbon dioxide, steam and nitrogen (which makes up four-fifths of the air we breathe). To ensure the best possible performance of the converter, the fuel/air ratio of the mixture supplied to the engine must be accurately controlled. The fuel injection system is therefore controlled by signals from a Lambda sensor which senses the oxygen content of the exhaust gases. Cars equipped with catalytic converters have a closed fuel system which minimizes the vaporization of hydrocarbons from the fuel system of the car. A car equipped with a catalytic converter must be run on unleaded fuel. Leaded fuel will quickly destroy the catalyst and make the catalytic converter useless.

Climate-related exhaust emission control. Every time an engine is started, it

Контроль катализной эмиссии Автомобили Сааб оснащены катализными преобразователями 3-х видов, которые удаляют вредные вещества из выхлопных газов. Катализный преобразователь нейтрализует окись углерода и углеводороды, образуемые вследствие неполного сгорания топлива, а также окись азота, получаемые при высоких температурах и давлении. Активная деятельность катализного преобразователя это керамический сердечник, перфорированный небольшими квадратичными отверстиями и покрытый тонким слоем драгоценных металлов. Катализатор преобразует химическим способом 80-90% вредных веществ в безвредные газы двуокись углерода, пар и азот (которые составляют 4/5 всего воздуха и которыми мы дышим). С целью обеспечения наилучшей эксплуатации преобразователя необходимо осуществлять контроль за соотношением топливо/воздух той смеси, которая поступает в двигатель. Таким образом система впрыска топлива контролируется сигналами Ламбда сенсора, который улавливает содержание кислорода в выхлопных газах. Автомобили, оснащенные катализными преобразователя- ми, имеют замкнутую топливную систему, которая снижает испарение углеводородов из топливной системы автомобиля. Автомобиль, оснащенный катализным преобразователем, должен работать на неэтилированном топливе. Этилированное топливо быстро разрушает катализатор и делает бесполезным катализный преобразователь. Контроль эмиссии выхлопных газов с учетом климатических условий. Всякий раз, когда запускается 37

emits harmful substancesin larger quantities when the engine is cold than when it is warm. The exhaust emission tests specified by law are usually run at a temperature of about 200C. But in many countries, the temperature is much lower during a large part of the year. Saab has therefore developed a climate-related emission control system which has much more effective performance than that specified by law. By equipping the engine with an electrically heated Lambda sensor and carefully adapting the fuel and ignition systems, Saab engineers have succeeded in minimizing the content of noxious substance in the exhaust gases.

двигатель, он является источником вредных веществ в больших количествах в случае холодного двигателя, чем теплого. Тесты на эмиссире выхлопных газов, принятые законом, обычно действуют при температурах около 200С. Но во многих странах температура гораздо ниже в течении большей части года. Фирма Сааб разработала контроль эмиссии выхлопных газов с учетом климата; этот контроль эффективнее того, который принят законодательно. Инженерам Сааб удалось снизить содержание вредных веществ в выхлопных газах путём оснащения двигателей сенсорами Ламбда и тщательным подбором топлива и системы зажигания.

Exercise 9. Make up a reverse translation of the last paragraph of the text in written form. Exercise 10. Answer the following questions to the text. 1) 2) 3) 4) 5) 6) 7) 8) 9)

What do catalytic converters remove from the exhaust gases. What substances are neutralized by the catalytic converter? How are nitrogen oxides are formed? What makes the active part of the catalytic converter? Why must the fuel mixture be accurately controlled? How is the fuel injection system controlled? What is the function of closed fuel system? Why only unleaded fuel must be used in cars equipped with a catalytic converter? What is a climate-related emission control system?

Exercise 11. Translate the following abstract with the dictionary. The parts of the catalytic converter. The interior of the catalytic converter consists of a perforated core with a very large area, exposed to the exhaust gases. The whole of this surface is coated with a thin layer of precious metal principally platinum and rhodium. The precious metal 38

coating is the active part that controls the chemical conversion of harmful gases to innocuous substances. Exercise 12. Speak on catalytic emission control using the following words. The remove, noxious substances, exhaust gases, ceramic core, perforated, precious metals, fuel/air ratio of the mixture, Lambda sensor, closed fuel system, to equip, unleaded fuel, to develop, a climate-related emission control system, to convert to, carbon dioxide, steam, nitrogen.

39

Урок 8. Трансмиссия Lesson 8. Transmission Exercise 1. Read the following words. Mind their meaning. 1) 2) 3) 4) 5) 6) 7) 8) 9) 10) 11) 12) 13) 14) 15) 16) 17) 18)

gearbox gear fuel consumption ratio transversely mounted final drive differential front-wheel drive torque drive shaft suspension bearing universal joints taper roller bearing load gear gate reverse gear latch

- коробка передач - передача, шестерня - потребление топлива - передаточное число - поперечно смонтированный - главная передача - дифференциал - передний привод - крутящий момент - приводной вал - подвеска - подшипник - универсальные шарниры - конусный роликоподшипник - нагрузка - кулиса передачи - шестерня обратного хода - замок, затвор

Exercise 2. Read the following verbs. Mind their meaning. Pay attention to the principal forms. 1) 2) 3) 4) 5) 6) 7) 8) 9) 10)

to drive (drove, driven) to lubricate (-ed; -ed) to load (-ed; -ed) to transmit (-ed; -ed) to reduce (-ed; -ed) to select (-ed; -ed) to choose (-ed; -ed) to comprise (-ed; -ed) to weight (-ed; -ed) to project (-ed; -ed)

- приводить в движение - смазывать - нагружать - передавать - снижать - избирать, выбирать - отбирать - включать в себя, вбирать - весить - выдаваться вперед

Exercise 3. Pay attention to the following abbreviated words. Read the words. Translate them. 1) EDU - Electronic Display Unit 2) Lb - Libra - pound 40

Exercise 4. Choose the proper equivalent to the following verb groups. 1)

must not waste

2)

has been

3)

is mounted

4)

weighs

5)

are moving

6)

has been specified

7)

cannot be engaged

a) b) c) a) b) c) a) b) c) a) b) c) a) b) c) a) b) c) a) b) c)

не должен терять не может терять не потеряет являлось является будет являться смонтирован был смонтирован будет смонтирован весит будет весить весил двигается двигались будут двигаться был предназначен будет предназначен предназначен не мог быть зацеплен не может быть зацеплен будет зацеплен

Exercise 5. Pay attention to the sentences with non-finite forms of the verb (infinitive). Translate them. 1) 2) 3) 4) 5) 6)

The function of the gearbox is to transmit the engine power to the wheels as efficiently as possible. Saab’s four-cylinder engine allows gear ratios to be chosen for more lively performance than is usually provided by cars with bigger engines. It is designed to transmit very high power and torque, with ample margins of safety. The fifth gear ratio has been specified to ensure optimum fuel economy. All unnecessary covers and connection have been eliminated, to provide virtually perfect sealing. The gear lever is spring-loaded to the 3rd/4th gates and is thus automatically centers in neutral, to ensure that the driver will never be in doubt as to the actual position of the gear lever.

Exercise 6. Translate the following sentences with «due to» (благодаря чемулибо). 1)

Gear - changing is easy due to the favourable locations of the synchromesh 41

2)

mechanisms. Due to the strategies locations of taper roller bearings, the shafts have high stiffness under load.

Exercise 7. Read the following text. Translate it. Compare with the Russian translation given to the text. Use it as a clue if necessary. Transmission. Part 1

Трансмиссия. Часть 1

Функция коробки передач заключается в передаче энергии двигателя к колесам с наибольшей степенью эффективности. Коробка передач не должна допускать потерь энергии и быть простой в эксплуатации. Кроме того, коробка передач должна обеспечивать низкое потребление топлива, отбирая соответствующее передаточное число либо автоматически, либо вручную в зависимости от вида. Это явилось основой This has been the basis for the design work on the Saab 9000 gearboxes. As a конструкторской работы на Сааб 9000 result, they are lightweight, compact and коробках передач. В результате коробки передач - легки, компактны и высоко highly efficient. эффективны. 4-х цилиндровый двигатель Сааб Saab’s four-cylinder engine, with its low internal friction, allows gear ratios с низкой степенью внутреннего трения выбор передаточных to be chosen for more lively обеспечивает для более эффективной performance than is usually provided by чисел по сравнению с cars with bigger enginesyet fuel эксплуатации economy is unimpaired. This advantage автомобилями, снабженными большими proves particularly valuable in hill двигателями - при этом сохраняя топливную экономию. Это country. преимущество особенно важно в условиях холмистой местности. Exercise 8. Answer the question to the text. The function of the gearbox is to transmit the engine power to the wheels as efficiently as possible. It must not waste power and must be easy to use. In addition, the gearbox must contribute towards low fuel consumption by enabling appropriate reduction ratios to be selected - either automatically or manually, depending on the type.

1) What are the technical requirements to Saab gearbox? You may use: highly efficient, lightweight, easy to use, compact, durable, easy to service, low fuel consumption. Exercise 9. Read the following text. Translate it. Compare with the Russian translation given to the text. Use it as a clue if necessary. 42

pre-

Коробка передач с поперечным типом установки. Часть 2

The integrated power unitcomprising the engine and gearbox is transversely mounted. The gearbox is located to the left in the engine compartment. By mounting the engine transversely, the power transmission line between the engine and gearbox is straight, and power is transmitted to the driven wheels along the shortest possible path, thus minimizing power losses. The gearbox is compact, with the final drive and differential integrated into the gearcase. The manual gearbox weighs no more than 93 1b (42kg), and the automatic transmission weighs 172 1b (78kg). As opposed to many other cars with front-wheel drive and with the power unit mounted transversely, the Saab 9000 does not pull to one side when accelerating. This absence of «torque steer» has been achieved by both drive shafts being of exactly the same length and by front suspension. The drive shafts are thus always at the same angle in relation to the wheels. The design incorporates an extra support bearing for the right-hand drive shaft, which is connected to the differential by a short, torsionally rigid shaft.

Силовой узел, включающий двигатель и коробку передач, имеет поперечный тип монтажа. Коробка передач занимает левостороннее положение в отсеке двигателя. Поперечный тип монтажа двигателя обеспечивает подачу энергии на колеса через прямую систему трансмиссии по кратчайшему пути, снижая энергетические потери.

The drive shafts and universal joints are permanently lubricated and are designed for a very long life cycle. The universal joints are designed to ensure smooth transmission of power, regardless of the wheel angles. The gearbox, together with the

Приводные валы и универсальные шарниры смазываются и предназначены для длительной эксплуатации. Дизайн универсальных шарниров обеспечивает передачу энергии безотносительно колесных углов.

Transversely-mounted, assembled gearbox. Part 2

Коробка передач - компактна; основная передача и дифференциал смонтированы в один узел. Ручная коробка передач весит не более 93 фунтов (42 кг), а автоматическая - 172 фунта (78 кг). По сравнению с другими автомобилями с передним приводом и поперечным расположением коробки передач, Сааб 9000 не дает крена во время ускорения. Такое отсутствие «реактивной тяги» достигается тем, что приводные валы имеют одинаковую длину, а передняя подвеска - соответствующую геометрию. Таким образом, приводные валы всегда расположены под одинаковым углом к колесам. Конструкция предусматривает дополнительный опорный подшипник для правого приводного вала, который соединяется с дифференциалом коротким, устойчивым к кручению валом.

Коробка

передач

вместе

с 43

engine, front suspension and the radiator assembly, is pre-assembled on a sub-frame. As a result, the gearbox is easily accessible for service, without the need for removing the engine from the car.

двигателем, передней подвеской и радиатором установлены на под-раме. В результате коробка передач доступна для сервиса; нет необходимости демонтировать двигатель.

Exercise 10. Make up reverse translation of the first paragraph of the first paragraph of the text in written form. Exercise 11. Answer the following questions to the text. 1) 2) 3) 4) 5)

How is a gearbox mounted? What is the advantage of the gearbox being mounted transversely? How much does the manual gearbox weigh? How much does the automatic gearbox weigh? What is the angle of the drive shafts to the wheels?

Exercise 12. Read the following text. Translate it. Compare with the Russian translation given to the text. Use it as a clue if necessary. Manual gearbox. Part 3 The five-speed manual gearbox is of simple design and has small rotating masses, which minimize the gear - shifting effort. It is designed to transmit very high power and torque, with ample margins of safety. The fifth gear ratio has been specified to ensure optimum fuel economy-but without impairing the drivability. Gear-changing is easy due to the favorable locations of the syncromesh mechanisms. Due to the strategic locations of taper roller bearings, .the shafts have high stiffness under load.

Ручная коробка передач. Часть 3 Пяти- скоростная ручная коробка передач имеет простую конструкцию, малую вращающуюся массу, что снижает затраты энергии на переключение передач. Дизайн коробки передач позволяет передавать большой объем энергии и крутящий момент, соблюдая обширные поля безопасности. В спецификацию пятого передаточного числа входит оптимизация топливной экономии без ущерба для условий вождения.

Переключение передач упрощается благодаря благоприятному расположению механизмов, синхронизирующих зацепление зубчатых пар. Благодаря стратегическому расположению конических роликоподшипников, валы остаются жесткими при нагрузках. The gearcase of the manual Ручная коробка передач имеет только gearbox has only two joint faces, две совмещенные поверхности; все лишние 44

and all unnecessary covers and connections have been eliminated, to provide virtually perfect sealing. A special oil supply system limits the friction by maintaining a low oil level and makes gear-shifting easy, even when starting from cold. The gear-shift mechanism is contained inside the gearbox itself, so it is always well lubricated. The gear shift rod enters the gearbox at the point around which the gearbox moves when the engine accelerates or decelerates. As a result the gear lever travel is short and distinct. The only part of the gear-shift mechanism that projects outside the gearbox is a long, straight rod, fitted with a rubber joint to minimize the sound transmission to the interior. The gear lever is spring loaded to the 3rd/4th gates and is thus automatically centered in neutral, to ensure that the driver will never be in doubt as to the actual position of the gear lever. The pattern of gearshifting is designed so that reverse gear cannot be engaged by mistake. Reverse gear is provided with a latch and it has a separate gate to the right of the 5th gear gate.

оболочки и соединения отсутствуют, что обеспечивает эффективную герметизацию. Специальная система подачи масла снижает трение, поддерживая низкий уровень масла и облегчает переключение передач даже в условиях холодного зажигания. Механизм переключения передач находится в самой коробке передач и всегда хорошо смазан. Стержень переключения передач входит в коробку в той точке, вокруг которой она двигается во время ускорения или замедления работы двигателя. В результате траектория движения рычага переключения скоростей короткая и определенная. Единственная деталь механизма переключения передач, выходящая за пределы коробки передач, это длинный прямой стержень, оснащенный резиновым шарниром для снижения звуковой трансмиссии. Рычаг переключения передач й й помещается в кулису 3 и 4 передач при помощи пружинного устройства и автоматически возвращается в нейтральное положение, что способствует постоянной уверенности водителя в фактическом положении рычага. Схема переключения передач сконструирована таким образом, что исключена возможность случайного зацепления шестерни обратного хода. Шестерня обратного хода снабжена задвижкой и имеет отдельную кулису справа от 5й передачи.

Exercise 13. Make up a reverse translation of the first paragraph of the text in written form. Exercise 14. Answer the following questions to the text. 1) 2) 3) 4) 5)

Has the five-speed manual gearbox small rotating masses? Why has the fifth gear ratio been specified to? Why is gear-changing easy? What has been done in the gearcase to provide virtually perfect sealing? Why is the gear-shift mechanism always lubricated? 45

6) 7)

Is the gear lever travel short and distinct? Why? What makes it impossible to engage a reverse gear by mistake?

Exercise 15. Read the following text. Translate it. Compare with the Russian translation given to the text. Use it as a clue if necessary. Automatic transmission.

Автоматическая трансмиссия.

Part IV

Часть IV

The Saab 9000 is equipped with four-speed automatic transmission. Third gear features split torque transmission, and lock-up is employed in the fourth gear. In the split-torque third gear, 39% of the power is transmitted through the torque converter, and the remainder is transmitted mechanically. The lock-up function in the fourth gear bypasses the torque converter, and the drive is purely mechanical. This minimizes power loss and lowers sound level, in addition to improving performance and reducing fuel consumption. As compared to automatic transmission of other manufacturers, the new four-speed Saab unit is extremely compact and light-weight. The drive shafts, etc. are the same as those fitted to the manual gearbox, which simplifies the service and fitting work, thus reducing the costs. As in the case of the manual gearbox, the automatic transmission can be removed from the car separately, by lowering the split sub-frame. The selector lever is of ergonomic design, is correctly angled towards the driver and offers a firm grip. The gear indicator, located beside the gear46

Сааб 9000 оснащен 4-х ступенчатой автоматической трансмиссией. Третья передача предназначена для трансмиссии расщепленного крутящего момента, а четвертая для блокировки. Во время третьей передачи 39% энергии передается через преобразователь крутящего момента, а остальная часть энергии передается механически. Блокировка четвертой передачи имеет целью обойти преобразователь крутящего момента и сделать движение чисто механическим. Это снижает потери энергии и шумовой уровень в дополнение к улучшенной эксплуатации и уменьшению потребления топлива.

По сравнению с автоматической трансмиссией автомобилей других производителей новая 4-х ступенчатая система Сааб чрезвычайно компактна и легка. Приводные валы и другие детали в автоматической трансмиссии такие же как и в ручной трансмиссии, что значительно облегчает сервис и монтирование, снижает цены. Так же, как и ручная, автоматическая коробка передач может быть извлечена из автомобиля путем опускания разъёмной под-рамы. Рычаг переключения находится под нужным углом к водителю, его дизайн удобен. Рядом с переключателем передач находится индикатор передач, подсвечиваемый изнутри консоля. В автомобилях с автоматической

выбранная передача также shift, is clearly illuminated from трансмиссией the inside of the console. On cars высвечивается на электронном дисплее впереди with automatic transmission, the водительского места. gear selected is also clearly indicated by the EDU instrument in front of the driver. Exercise 16. Make up a reverse translation of the first paragraph of the text. Exercise 17. Answer the following questions to the text. 1) 2) 3)

What is employed in the third and fourth gears of automatic transmission? What minimizes power loss and lowers sound level? Is the four-speed automatic transmission compact and light?

Exercise 18. Compare manual and automatic gearboxes in Saab 9000 according to the following plan. 1) 2) 3) 4) 5) 6)

The number of speeds in a gearbox; Rotating masses; Design; Weight; Fuel economy; Reverse gear.

Exercise 19. Discuss with your partner the two kinds of transmission using the following words. Manual gearbox, simple design, gear-shifting effort, optimum fuel economy, synchromesh mechanisms, perfect sealing, well lubricated mechanisms, gear lever travel, reverse gear, automatic gearbox, split-torque third gear, to transmit, reducing fuel consumption, compact, light, sub-frame, EDU instrument.

47

Урок 9. Шасси Lesson 9. Chassis Exercise 1. Read the following words. Mind their translation. 1) chassis [‘ ∫ ∂l si] шасси, ходовая часть 2) seat [si:t] сидение 3) steering wheel [sti ∂ ri η ] руль управления 4) lateral forces боковые, поперечные, горизонтальные силы 5) aid = help помощь, средства 6) mature [m ∂ ‘tju ∂ ] зрелый, хорошо обдуманный 7) emphasis [‘emf ∂ sis] выразительность, акцент 8) accurate точный 9) weight distribution распределение веса, нагрузки

Exercise 2. Choose the proper equivalent to the following verb groups. 1. has been designed

a) был разработан b) разрабатывается c) будет разработан

2. has been built

a) был построен b) строится c) будет построен

3. has been

a) являлся b) является c) будет являться

4. must be conveyed

a) должна быть передана b) передается с) следует передать

5.are conveyed

a) передаются b) передавались с) будут переданы

Exercise 3. Pay attention to the use of conjunction “so that” (для того чтобы, с тем чтобы). Translate the following sentence. It gives the driver fast and accurate information, so that he can immediately take the necessary corrective action - often instinctively. 48

Exercise 4. Read the following text. Translate it orally with the help of a dictionary. Answer the question about the starting points in the design of the Saab 9000 chassis. Chassis

Since Man is highly sensitive to even the smallest changes in his surroundings, but has poor ability in detecting static changes, this situation has been one of our most important starting points in the design of the Saab 9000 chassis. It is vitally important that the car should give the driver immediate information - through the seat and steering wheel - on the lateral forces, for instance, acting on the car when it is cornering. It is important for the driver to receive this information as quickly and distinctly as possible. Information on whether or not the car is cornering correctly, for instance, must be conveyed to the driver in a matter of tenths or hundredths of a second. The difference between a mature chassis and a dangerous chassis often lies in how these small, almost immeasurable information signals are conveyed to the driver. Many car manufacturers describe how computerised methods are used for designing the chassis of their cars. Saab obviously also employes advanced computerised aids for this purpose. But the computer alone is not enough. So we have taken a further step - we have used Man as the ultimate aid. Exercise 5. Finish up the following sentences beginning with “it is important” (важно). 1) It is vitally important... 2) It is important for the driver... Exercise 6. Answer the following questions to the text. 1) What is important for the driver when acting on the car? 2) What is the difference between a mature chassis and a dangerous chassis? 3) Does Saab employ advanced computerised aids? Exercise 7. Give a short annotation of the text. Exercise 8. Read the following text. Translate it with the help of the dictionary (20 min). Weight distribution

The weight distribution of the Saab 9000, combined with the chassis geometry, gives excellent roadholding - regardless of the road surface and the load in the car. With only the driver weight in the Saab 9000 is distributed 60% on the front wheels and 40% on the rear wheels. 49

With a full load, most of the weight in all Saab 9000 models is still positioned above the frontwheel drive and steering. This provides excellent roadholding and, most important of all, predictable behaviour in any situation. Exercise 9. Answer the following questions to the text. 1) What gives excellent roadholding? 2) How is weight distributed in Saab 9000? 3) Where is most of the weight positioned in all Saab 9000 with a full load? Exercise 10. Agree or disagree with the following statements. 1) With only the driver weight in the Saab 9000 is distributed 60% on the front wheels and 40% on the rear wheels. 2) With a full load, most of the weight in all Saab 9000 models is positioned above the rear wheel drive. Exercise 11. Read the following text. Translate it. Use the words given below. Front assembly

The subframe is a vital part of the front assembly. It carries most of the front suspension, as well as the engine, gearbox and radiator assembly. The equipment of the subframe is assembled separately before the entire subframe unit is fitted into the car. The 9000 is equipped with McPherson struts. The top mounting of the strut is secured to the body in a conventional manner, but incorporates an end stop of special Saab desigh. The bottom of the strut is secured directly to the steering knuckle housing. This is a vibration-damping arrangement that improves durability. The system is simple, robust, reliable and compact, and provides a long spring travel. The long spring travel (8.27 in./210 mm at the rear wheels and 7.28 in./185 mm at the front) gives good contact with the road surface, even when the car is driven fast across the brow of a hill or when it is cornering fast. The long spring travel also contributes to a comfortable ride. The wishbones, anti-roll bar and other chassis components are mounted in wellmatched rubber bushes. These provide good roadnoise insulation, but are sufficiently firm to give correct “road contact information”. Words to the text. 1) front assembly - передний узел (агрегат) 2) suspension - подвеска 3) front suspension - передняя подвеска 4) radiator - радиатор 5) subframe - под-рама 50

6) strut - стойка 7) to secure - сохранять 8) steering - управление 9) knuckle [n ∧ kl] - шарнир 10) rubber - резина 11) bush - вкладыш 12) insulation - изоляция Exercise 12. Answer the following questions to the text. 1) What is a vital part of the front assembly? 2) What does the sub-frame carry? 3) How is the equipment on the sub-frame assembled? 4) What struts are used in Saab 9000? 5) What arrangement impoves durability? 6) What are the components of chassis? 7) What provides good road-noise insulation? Exercise 13. Characterize front assembly desigh. Use the following words. Simple, complex, robust, fregile, reliable, safe, conventional, durable, long spring travel, short spring travel, good road-noise insulation, bad road-noise insulation. Exercise 14. Read the following text. Translate it with the help of a dictionary. Integral wheel bearing

The Saab 9000 is equipped with integral wheel bearings which are simple and durable. Conventional wheel bearings require a certain amount of clearance and regular service and lubrication. The new Saab wheel bearings are double row ball bearings with the front driving hub and the rear trailing hub, respectively, integrated in the bearing. These hub units are adjusted, greased for life and sealed and they need no maintenance. The bearings will last the car’s life time, and the design facilitates the removal of the brake disc. Exercise 15. Compare the two types of wheel bearings: conventional and new Saab. Arrange the following words into two columns: left column - conventional wheel bearings; right column - new Saab wheel bearing. Simple, durable, amount of clearance, regular service, lubrication, double row ball, front driving hub, rear trailing hub, adjusted, greased, sealed, lifetime. Exercise 16. Discuss with your partner the advantages of the new Saab wheel bearings. 51

Exercise 17. Read the following text. Translate it. Use the words given below. Steering

The steering is of rack-and-pinion type and is power-assisted. The number of steering wheel turns lock-to-lock is 3.2. The turning circle diameter is 35 ft 6 in. (10.9 m). The three-spoke steering wheel has an extra thick rim and is inclined at 28o to the vertical plane, which gives restful seating to drivers of virtually any stature. In addition, it is axially adjustable by 2 in. (50 mm) along the steering column. The rack-and-pinion design ensures fast and faithful response to the steering wheel. It is highly accurate and has no backlash. The effect of suspension spring deflection on the front wheel angels has been minimised. The steering gear is permanently lubricated and needs no maintenance. The steering system is mounted in well-proportioned rubber bushes which, together with the front-wheel suspension, effectively absorb the shocks from irregularities in the road surface at all speeds. The system also provides the driver with the best possible information on what is happening between the tyres and the road surface. The steering servo acts by hydraulic pressure directly on the rack and is of “progressive type”, i.e. it provides increasing assistance towards each lock, which is particulary useful when parking the car in confined spaces. Words the text. 1. steering - управление (рулевое) 2. rack-and-pinion [‘ræk ∂ nd’pinj ∂ n] - механизм реечной передачи 3. three-spoke steering wheel - рулевое колесо с тремя спицами 4. rim - обод 5. backlash [‘bæklæ ∫ ] - отдача 6. deflection – отклонение 7. tyre [tai ∂ ] - шина Exercise 18. Answer the following questions to the text. 1) Which is the type of Saab steering? 2) What gives restful seating to drivers? 3) What ensures fast and faithful response to the steering wheel? 4) Does the steering gear need maintenance? 5) What absorbs the shocks from irregularities in the road surface at all speeds? 6) What kind of information is provided to the driver by the steering system? Exercise 19. Characterize the steering system. Use the following words. Rack-and-pinion type, steering wheel turns, three-spoke steering wheel, accurate, backlash, permanently lubricated, rubber bushes, shocks. 52

Exercise 20. Read the following text. Translate it with the help of a dictionary. Rear axle

The rear axle is straight and rigid, and is very firmly and accurately located laterally. This feature, combined with the short overhands of the car, is one of the most important reasons for the fast and distinct response of the Saab 9000. The roll centre is very low, which prevents body roll. The rear axle consists of a light-weight but rigid tube, secured to the body by two leading and two trailing arms. In addition, it is equipped with a Panhard rod and antiroll bar. In a car with rear-wheel drive, the design of the rear axle would have to be appreciably more complicated to eliminate the undesirable side effects of this type of design. The Panhard rod of the Saab 9000 is fitted at a low level and is secured to the body at a low point, to eliminate the undesirable and fatiguing lateral swaying movements of the body. In the same manner as the anti-roll bar, the Panhard rod is mounted in wellmatched rubber bushes. The rear axle suspension consists of conical coil springs of “hemispherical” form at the top, thereby contributing to the large luggage compartment capacity. The gas shock absorbers are direct-acting and are secured directly to the axle. The arms are long and are mounted in relatively soft rubber bushes. Due to their length, soft springs with a long travel can be used. The design contributes to extremely good roadholding and high comfort. Exercise 21. Find paragraphs in the text where the assembly of the rear axle is described. Answer the question. What constitutes the rear axle? Exercise 22. Speak on the topic “Chassis” according to the plan: 1) The new emphasis of the Saab 9000 chassis; 2) Weight distribution; 3) Front assembly; 4) Integral wheel bearings; 5) Steering; 6) Rear axle.

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Урок 10. Тормозная система Lesson 10. Brakes

Exercise 1. Read the following words. Mind their translation. 1) brakes - тормоза 2) to split - расщеплять(ся), раскалывать(ся) 3) circuit [‘s ∂ :kit] - цепь, контур, цикл 4) handbrake - ручной тормоз 5) corrosion - коррозия 6) facia [ ‘fei ∫ ∂ ] = fascia - вывеска, щиток 7) reservoir [‘rez ∂ vwa:] - резервуар, бак 8) fluid [‘flu:id] - жидкость, жидкий 9) clutch - сцепление 10) asbestos-free - не содержащий асбес 11) to pollute - загрязнять окружающую среду 12) calipers [‘kælip ∂ z] - нутромер 13) floating - плавучий Exercise 2. Choose the proper equivalent to the following verb groups. 1. must perform

a) может выполнить b) должен выполнять с) cледует выполнить

2. is split

a) расщеплена b) была расщеплена с) будет расщеплена

3. are protected

a) защищены b) были защищены с) будут защищены

4. should fail

a) должен отказать b) могут отказать с) откажут

5. will be lost

a) утеряна b) была утеряна с) будет утеряна

6. contributes towards a) способствовал b) способствует 54

с) будет способствовать Exercise 3. Pay attention to the use of the infinitive. Translate the sentence. 1. Saab was one of the first manufacturers to introduce this non-polluting friction material. Exercise 4. Read the following text. Translate it orally with the help of a dictionary. Brakes

The brake system is diagonally split into two circuits (three on cars with ABS). Each brake circuit actuates the brakes of one front wheel and the diagonally opposite rear wheel. The handbrake is selfadjusting and acts on the rear wheels. The brake lines are protected against corrosion and are run in ventilated passages inside the car. A warning lamp in the facia lights up when the handbrake is applied, and also if one of the brake circuits should fail or if the brake fluid level should drop below the minimum. The hydraulic fluid reservoir is common to the brake system and clutch, and the warning lamp thus has a twin function. In the event of hydraulic fluid leakage, the clutch function will be lost first, which serves as an added warning to the driver. The brake-pad friction material is asbestos-free. Saab was one of the first manufacturers to introduce this non-polluting friction material. This was principally due to the favourable design of the Saab brake system - with disc brakes all round, floating calipers, and brake discs with large effective cooling areas. This design contributes towards keeping the brake fluid cool. Exercise 5. Finish up the following sentences begining with “it must”(должна) 1) It must perform... 2) It must not fade... 3) It must have... Exercise 6. Answer the following questions to the text. 1) What are the aims of the brake system in a car? 2) Into how many circuits is the brake system split? 3) How is the brake system split? 4) How does each brake circuit actuate the brakes? 5) On what wheels does the handbrake act? 6) How are the brake lines run inside a car? 7) What happens in case of hydraulic fluid leakage? 8) What is the modern design of the Saab brake system? 55

Exercise 7. Describe the new Saab brake system using the following words: Disc brakes all round, floating calipers, large effective cooling areas, cool brake fluid, brake-pad friction material, asbestos-free, the hydraulic fluid reservoir, vital safety feature. Exercise 8. Give a short annotation of the text. Exercise 9. Read the following text. Translate it with the help of the dictionary (20 min.). Smooth braking

The foot-brake system is equipped with a servo unit. So relatively light pedal pressure is sufficient for a given braking effort. The master cylinder is designed so that both hydraulic circuits will be actuated at exactly the same instant and with the same pressure. This reduces the risk of the car pulling to one side when the brakes are applied, and ensures more uniform wear of the brake pads. Exercise 10. Answer the following questions to the text. 1)What is the foot-brake system equipped with? 2) In what way is the master cylinder designed? 3) What ensures more uniform wear of the brake pads? Exercise 11. Agree or disagree with the following statements. 1) The foot-brake system is equipped with a servo unit. 2) Relatively light pedal pressure is sufficient for a given braking effort. 3) The master cylinder is designed so that both hydraulic circuits will not be actuated at exactly the same instant. Exercise 12. Read the following text. Translate it. Use the words given below. ABS anti-lock brakes

The Saab ABS+3 anti-lock brake system has been specially designed for cars with front-wheel drive. Since the system prevents locking of the wheels, the driver can brake as hard as the situation merits, and he can swerve at the same time to avoid an obstacle. This enhances the safety in practically all motoring situations and under any road conditions. The safety of the Saab system is duplicated. Two mutually independent electronic systems check and compare one another’s signals. A sensor at each wheel senses the 56

speed of rotation of the wheel and transmits the information to a microprocessor which compares the signal with those from other wheels. If one or more wheels are about to lock or if they roll at a lower speed than the others, the control system will immediately reduce the hydraulic pressure to the corresponding wheel or wheels. Pressure adjustments are carried out at the rate of up to twelve times per second. The anti-lock brake system has three brake circuits, one of which serves the rear wheels and one serves each of the front wheels. The brake system is self-monitoring, and checks itself automatically every time the engine is started. The checks include the brake fluid pressure, brake fluid level and performance of the wheel sensors. If the system is in good condition, the warning lamp that lights up on the facia when the engine is started will be switched off after five to ten seconds. Moreover, the safety functions are continually monitored while the car is travelling. The main components of the Saab ABS system and the ordinary brake system of the car are integrated into one lightweight, compact unit. The entire system is preassembled and inspected at the factory before it is installed in the car. This ensures high production quality and high reliability. Words to the text. 1. anti-lock -анти- блокирующие 2. front-wheel drive - передний привод 3. to prevent - предотвращать 4. to swerve [sw ∂ :v] - отклоняться от прямого пути, сворачивать в сторону 5. to enhance - усиливать 6. to duplicate [‘dju:plikeit] - дублировать 7. mutually independent - взаимно независимые 8. pressure - давление Exersice 13. Answer the following questions to the text. 1) What enhances the safety of Saab 9000? 2) What does a sensor at each wheel sense? 3) At what rate are pressure adjustments carried out? 4) How many brake circuits has the anti-lock brake system? 5) Is the entire system pre-assembled and inspected at the factory? Exersice 14. Charactarise ABS anti-lock brakes. Use the following words: Front-wheel drive, to enhance the safety, mutually independent electronic systems, hydraulic pressure, three brake circuits, rear wheels, front wheels, self-monitoring, lightweight, compact. Exercise 15. Speak on the topic “Brakes” according to the plan: 1) The number of brake circuits. 2) Smooth braking . 57

3) ABS anti-lock and ordinary brake systems. Complementary exersice Task I. Give short characteristics of the four-cylinder engine with double overhead camshafts (DOHC), 16-valves and domeshaped combustion chamber: — High power. — Low fuel consumption. — Limited service requirements. — High reliability. — Efficient combustion-cleaner exhaust gases. Task II. Give short characteristics of the turbo-charging with intercooler: — Offers the same acceleration and top speed as a six-cylinder or eight-cylinder engine but with lower fuel consumption. — Favourable working temperature for better resistance to wear and longer useful life. — High reliability. Task III. Give short characteristics of the balancing shafts in the 2.3-litre engine. — Superbly smooth and comfortable driving. Task IV. Give short characteristics of the self-adjusting hydraulic cam followers: — Highly reliable and self-adjusting-limited service requirements. — Reduced noise. — Increased accuracy. Task V. Give short characteristics of the microprocessor-based APC system and LH fuel injection: — The engine can run on fuel of octane rating (between 91 and 98 RON), without adjustment. — Improved fuel economy. — High performance, above all on starting and at low speeds. — High reliability under all condition. — Efficient combustion-cleaner and exhaust gases. — Reliable starting, from hot or cold. — Maintains correct fuel/air ratio at all altitudes. Task VI. Give short characteristics of Saab Direct Ignition: — Reliable starting in difficult conditions. — Entirely protected from moisture and dirt. — No moving parts--no adjustment ever required. — Longer intervals between spark plug replacement. — Lower servicing costs. 58

Task VII. Give short characteristics of the sub-frame: — Simplified service work. — Faster clutch replacement. — The gearbox is easy to remore.

Task VIII. Give short characteristics of the transversely mounted gearbox integrated with the engine and differential: — Compact power unit--limited space requirements. — Good cooling of the engine and gearbox. — Effictive protection in a collision. Task IX. Give short characteristics of the split torque in the third gear of the automatic transmission: — Saves fuel and lowers sound level. — Improves performance. Task X. Give short characteristics of the lock-up function in the fourth gear of the automatic transmission: — Direct drive saves fuel and lowers sound level. Task XI. Give short characteristics of the front-wheel drive: — Excellent grip and cornerning charactaristics, even on a slippery surface. — Excellent roadholding. — High road safety. Task XII. Give short characteristics of the power-assisted rack-and-pinion steering: — High precision, fast response. — Good feel of the road. — Effective damping of the irreqularities in the road surface. Task XIII. Give short characteristics of the front suspension by McPherson struts secured to the steering knuckle housing: — Simple, robust design. — Long spring travel-- excellent travelling. Task XIV. Give short characteristics of the dual-circuit, diagonally-split brake system: — Maximum braking effect in all types of surfaces. — Minimised risk of locking the rear wheels. — Safe braking charactaristics. — Long useful life. 59

Task XV. Give short characteristics of the three-circuit anti-lock ABS brake system. — Prevents Locking of the wheels. — Enhances the safety. — Electronic systems check and compare one another’s signals. — Reduces the hydraulic pressure to the wheels.

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Урок 11. Безопасность Lesson 11. Safety

Exercise 1. Read the following words. Mind their pronunciation. 1) collision – 2) accident – 3) to enhance, to upgrade – 4) average – 5) injuries – 6) dividend –

столкновение, авария; ДТП; усиливать, укреплять; средний; повреждение; дивиденд.

Exercise 2. Read the following verbs. Mind their meaning. Pay attention to the principal forms. 1) 2) 3) 4) 5) 6) 7) 8)

to know (knew, known) to prove (proved, proven) to occur ( -ed, -ed ) to contribute to ( -ed, -ed ) to define ( -ed, -ed ) to allow ( -ed, -ed ) to show (showed, shown) to pay (paid, paid)

– – – – – – – –

знать; доказывать; происходить, случаться; способствовать чему либо, делать вклад; определять; позволять, допускать; показывать, демонстрировать; платить.

Exercise 3. Read and translate the following groups of words 1) 2) 3) 4) 5) 6) 7)

to design – designing – designation; to drive – driving – front-wheel drive; to occur – occuring – occurance; to protect – protection – protector – collision protection; to define – defining – definition; to standard – standard – safety standard; to injure – injuring – the injured – injuries.

Exercise 4. Pay attention to the following abbreviated words. Read the words. HLDI – the Highway Loss Data Institute – Институт исследования информации дорожных потерь. Exercise 5. Write down the principal forms of the following verbs. Translate them. To know, to become, to prevent, to occur, to contribute, to develop, to design, to enhance, to produce, to pay. 61

Exercise 6. Choose the proper equivalent to the following verb groups. 1) having studied 2) would become 3) has been designed 4) may occur 5) is being enhanced 6) have produced 7) pays

а) изучая b) изучив с) изучать a) стал b) станет c) стал бы a) проектируют b) спроектирован c) будет проектироваться a) может произойти b) происходит c) должен произойти a) увеличилось b) увеличивается c) увеличится a) производят b) произведены c) произвели a) платил b) платит c) платят

Exercise 7. Pay attention to the translation of nominative groups. Mind the order: the last word in a group is the kernal one. Example: insurance company – страховая компания Driving characteristics; front-wheel drive; maximum collision protection; safety standards; passenger car; safety statistics; Saab owners and passengers. Exercise 8. Read the following text. Answer the questions given below. Safety

The Saab 9000 has been designed to prevent, as far as possible, accidents occuring in the first place – i.e., for active safety. Consistent driving characteristics (no surprises in critical situations) contribute to active safety, as do effective brake systems, front-wheel drive, superior stability, and an ergonomic interface between car and driver. No matter how highly active safety is developed, of course, an accident may still occur. So the body and interior of the Saab 9000 have been designed for maximum collision protection of every occupant. this protection defines passive safety. Passive safety is continuously being enhanced through close cooperation between Saab 62

engineers and a team of medical specialists who analyse the causes and effects of actual accidents. Their conclusions allow us constantly to upgrade the safety standards of all Saab cars. The safest car in its class

Through HLDI (the Highway Loss Data Institute), the American insurance companies have produced the most comprehensive passenger car safety statistics in the world. The latest annual figures available (for 1989) show the Saab 9000 to be number one in its class, with only about half the average number of personal injuries per kilometer. Here is hard, statistical evidence that a rigorous and thoroughgoing safety programme pays really big dividends for Saab owners and passengers alike. The driver has total control over the Saab 9000. Should an accident occur however, the design of the body and interior play an important protective part. There is, for example, a generous amount of room between passengers and the heavily padded interior fittings in order to minimise risk of injury. Questions 1) What is the safest car on the market? 2) What is active safety? 3) What is passive safety? 4) Who analyzied the causes and effects of actual accidents? Exercise 9. Speak on the topic “active and passive safety” using the following words. To prevent, consistent driving characteristics, effective brake systems, front-wheel drive, superior stability, ergonomic interface, maximum collision protection, medical specialists, causes and effects of actual accidents, safety standards.

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Урок 12. Безопасность (продолжение) Lesson 12. Safety

Exercise 1. Read the following words. Mind their pronunciation. 1) occupant – пассажир; 2) inertia-reel type – инерционно-катушечный тип; 3) lap – нахлёстка, перекрытие; 4) strap = belt – ремень; 5) fore – and – aft – нос и корма (мор.); 6) to adjust – регулировать; 7) tension – натяжение, растягивающее усилие; 8) to eliminate – сокращать; 9) obstacle – препятствие; 10) to overturn – переворачивать. Exercise 2. Read the following verbs. Mind their meaning. Pay attention to the principal forms. 1) to provide ( -ed, -ed ) 2) to secure ( -ed, -ed ) 3) to move ( -ed, -ed ) 4) to carry out ( -ed, -ed ) 5) to fasten ( -ed, -ed ) 6) to keep (kept, kept) 7) to overturn ( -ed, -ed ) 8) to absorb ( -ed, -ed ) 9) to fit ( -ed, -ed ) 10) to cover ( -ed, -ed ) 11) to pad ( -ed, -ed ) 12) to reduce ( -ed, -ed )

– – – – – – – – – – – –

обеспечивать, снабжать; сохранять, обеспечивать безопасность; двигать(ся); выполнять, исполнять; застёгивать, закреплять; держать, содержать; переворачивать(ся); впитывать, абсорбировать, поглощать; снабжать, оснащать; покрывать; снабжать прокладками; снижать, уменьшать.

Exercise 3. Pay attention to the following abbreviated words. Read the words. MPH – Mile Per Hour (миль в час); KM/H – Kilometre Per Hour. Exercise 4. Write down the principal forms of the following verbs. Translate them. To be, to provide, to point, to secure, to move, to carry, to fasten, to adjust, to eliminate, to reduce, to wear, to crash, to keep, to fit, to cover, to pad, to back. Exercise 5. Read and translate the following groups of words 1) to provide – providing – provided that; 64

2) to secure – securing – having secured; 3) to move – moving – being moved – movement; 4) to adjust – adjusting – adjustment – adjustable; 5) to improve – improving – improvement; 6) to equip – equipment; 7) to eliminate – eliminating – elimination; 8) to reduce – reducing – reduction; 9) to protect – protecting – protection; 10) to crash – crashing – a crash. Exercise 6. Choose the proper equivalent to the following verb groups. 1) is provided

a) обеспечивает b) обеспечивая c) обеспечен

2) are secured

a) b) c) a) b) c) a) b) c) a) b) c) a) b) c) a) b) c) a) b) c) a) b) c) a) b) c)

3) will move 4) can be carried out 5) enables 6) have been improved 7) might reduce 8) must wear 9) are fitted 10) is padded

закреплены закрепляются закрепляют двигает будет двигаться двигается должен выполнять может выполнять может быть выполнен обеспечивают обеспечил обеспечивает был улучшен были улучшены улучшаются могут сократить должны сократить сократят должны носить могут носить вынуждены носить соответствует соответствуют соответствовали защищает защищён защищается

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Exercise 7. Pay attention to the translation of nominative groups. Mind the order: the last word in a group is the kernal one. Example: safety programme – программа безопасности Seat belts, inertia-reel type, lap strap, centre passenger, anchor point, fore – and – aft adjustment, door pillar, collision protection, third – floor window, whiplash effect, foam padding, impact – absorbing surfaces, impact injuries. Exercise 8. Read the following text. Answer the questions given below. Seat belts

Seat belts are standard equipment for all five occupants of the Saab 9000. The seat belts for the front occupants and the outer two passengers on the rear seat are of the three-point, inertia-reel type. A lap strap is provided for the centre passenger. Since the bottom anchor points of the front seat belts are secured to the seat, they will move with the seat on fore – and – aft adjustment. This adjustment can easily be carried out even when the occupants seat belt is fastened. The anchor point on the door pillar is vertically adjustable in four steps. This enables the occupant to adjust the strap to a comfortable position. The front seat belt safety characteristics have been further improved in cars equipped with automatic tensioners. In a collision, a small explosive charge tightens the belt almost instantaneously, thus eliminating any slackness that might otherwise reduce the safety provision. In order to obtain full collision protection, all occupants must wear their seat belts. Crashing into a solid obstacle at 30 mph (50 km/h) is approximately equivalent to falling from a third-floor window. The seat belts also keep the occupants secure in their seats if the vehicle overturns. Head restraints

In a rear-end collision, the seat backs must rapidly absorb the reverse impact of occupants heads and bodies, particularly the whiplash effect. Therefore the front and outer rear seats are fitted with strong, adjustable head restraints, built up on sheetsteel frames and covered with soft foam padding. Impact – absorbing surfaces

The whole interior is heavily padded, and free of sharp edges and hard surfaces. The top and bottom sections of the facia are backed by soft, moulded polyurethane foam. The spaciousness of the interior, with generous room between front passengers and facia considerably reduces the risk of impact injuries. The steering wheel has a thick, padded rim and a large, impact – absorbent central pad. 66

Engine location designed to absorb collision forces and protect the interior. Front seats with “anti-submarining” protection in a collision. Fuel tank in a safe location, forward of the rear axle and between the rear wheels. The passenger compartment is enclosed in a safety cage. The cage is protected by large crumple zones at the front and rear that absorb collision forces. The bottom anchors are secured directly to the seat and are thus re-adjusted together with the seat. Adjustable top anchor points for the front seat belts. The automatic belt tensioners further improve the safety effectiveness of the seat belts. On collision, the seat belt is tightened by means of a wire connected to a piston which is pushed by a small explosive charge detonating. Questions 1) What is the type of the seat belts for the front occupants? 2) What belt is provided for the centre passenger? 3) What is the advantage of the fore – and – aft adjustment? 4) In what way are the anchor points adjustable? 5) How is the front seat belts safety improved? 6) What is the role of head restrains? Exercise 9. Speak on the topic “Various kinds of seat belts” using the following words. Seat belts, standard equipment, front seats, rear seats, lap strap, anchor points, are secured, fore – and – aft adjustment, automatic tensioners, to eliminate, safety provision, collision protection, head restrains.

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Урок 13. Безопасность (продолжение) Lesson 13. Safety

Exercise 1. Read the following words. Mind their pronunciation. 1) steering column 2) to collapse 3) collision 4) joint 5) to fit 6) bellows 7) to crumple 8) cage 9) rugged 10) to reinforce

– – – – – – – – – –

рулевая колонка; прекращаться, останавливаться; столкновение; общий, совместный; соответствовать по размеру; сильфон, гофрированная мембрана; мять, морщить; кожух, каркас; неровный, укреплять, придавать жёсткость.

Exercise 2. Read the following verbs. Mind their meaning. Pay attention to the principal forms. 1) 2) 3) 4) 5) 6)

to crumple ( -ed, -ed ) to fit ( -ed, -ed ) to test ( -ed, -ed ) to absorb ( -ed, -ed ) to reinforce ( -ed, -ed ) to mould ( -ed, -ed )

– – – – – –

мять, морщить; подходить по размеру; подвергать проверке; впитывать, поглощать; усиливать; формовать, отливать в форму.

Exercise 3. Read and translate the following groups of words 1) 2) 3) 4) 5) 6) 7)

to steer – steering – steering column; to collide – colliding – collision; to locate – locating – location; to protect – protecting – protection; to create – creating- creator – creation; safe – safety; to except – excepting – exception – exceptionally.

Exercise 4. Pay attention to the following abbreviated words. Read the words. MPH – Mile Per Hour (миль в час); KM/H – Kilometre Per Hour. Exercise 5. Write down the principal forms of the following verbs. Translate them. 68

To design, to collapse, to crumple, to protect, to test, to absorb, to collide, to reinforce, to mould, to show, to correspond. Exercise 6. Choose the proper equivalent to the following verb groups. 1) is designed 2) has been created 3) absorb 4) are protected 5) provides 6) is covered 7) corresponds to 8) shows

a) b) c) a) b) c) a) b) c) a) b) c) a) b) c) a) b) c) a) b) c) a) b) c)

был спроектирован будет спроектирован спроектирован создан был создан создаётся поглощают поглощает поглощается защищены были защищены будут защищены обеспечивают обеспечен обеспечивает покрыт покрывается покрывает соответствовали соответствуют соответствует показывают показывает показывал

Exercise 7. Pay attention to the translation of nominative groups. Mind the order: the last word in a group is the kernal one. Example: Safety steering column – безопасная колонка управления Three – section steering column, sheet metal bellows, steering gear, engine compartment, crumple zones, collision forces, reinforcing door members, safety cage. Exercise 8. Read the following text. Answer the questions given below. Safety steering column

The three – steering column is designed to collapse in stages in a frontal collision. The upper section is telescopic and the lower section is jointed and fitted with a patented Saab sheet – metal bellows that crumples under abnormal stress. The 69

steering gear is located low and far back in the engine compartment, so that it is well protected by the engine itself.

Safety cage The body of the Saab 9000 has been created around a cage of rugged steel members. Its design has then been carefully tested for safety under realistic conditions in the Saab laboratories. Large crumple zones at the front and rear smoothly absorb the collision forces and maintain the shape of the interior. Because of the reinforcing door members and the very strong safety cage, you and your passengers are exceptionally well protected in a Saab 9000. The roof lining of flame-resistant, moulded glass fibre material provides effective impact absorption. The entire body is designed as a large steel safety cage in which the passengers sit protected from outside forces. The body is built of a network of protective members and reinforcing plates – entirely covered by soft, energy absorbing padding. The collision process is simulated in computers, so that a number of alternatives can be evaluated before being confirmed through tests on actual cars. The illustrated sequence shows how the Saab 9000 body crumples when it hits a solid barrier at 30 mph (50 km/h). The first picture corresponds to the instant of collision; the second a third show the results 20 and 40 milliseconds later. 1) 2) 3) 4) 5)

Questions What is a safety steering column? How is the three – section steering column designed? What kind is the upper section of? Where is the steering gear located? How is the safety cage designed?

Exercise 9. Speak on the topic “Safety Steering Column and Safety Cage” using the following words. Three – section steering column, frontal collision, sheet metal bellows, engine compartment, rugged steel members, crumple zones, collision forces, reinforcing door members, moulded glass fibre material.

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Урок 14. Безопасность (продолжение) Lesson 14. Safety

Exercise 1. Read the following words. Mind their pronunciation. 1) 2) 3) 4) 5) 6) 7)

to boost [u:] – поднимать, подталкивать; built - in – встроенная; to relay; a relay – передавать; реле; impact – удар, толчок; pictogram – пиктограмма; instrument panel – приборная панель; to restrain – удерживать.

Exercise 2. Read the following verbs. Mind their meaning. Pay attention to the principal forms. 1) 2) 3) 4) 5) 6) 7) 8) 9)

to provide ( -ed, -ed ) to add ( -ed, -ed ) to boost ( -ed, -ed ) to afford ( -ed, -ed ) to buid in (built, built) to relay ( -ed, -ed ) to light (lit, lit) to turn on ( -ed, -ed ) to provide ( -ed, -ed )

– обеспечивать; – добавлять; – поднимать; – быть в состоянии, предоставлять; – встраивать; – передавать; – высвечивать(ся); – включать; – обеспечивать.

Exercise 3. Read and translate the following groups of words 1) 2) 3) 4) 5) 6) 7)

to protect – protecting – protection; to locate – locating – location; to inform – informing – information; to include – including – inclusion; to identify – identified – identification; to indicate – indication – indicator; to check – checking – a check.

Exercise 4. Pay attention to the following abbreviated words. Read the words. SRS – Supplemental restraint system – Дополнительная система безопасности. Exercise 5. Write down the principal forms of the following verbs. Translate them. To restrain, to provide, to add, to boost, to protect, to afford, to build, to locate, to relay, to include, to identify, to add, to indicate, to display, to turn on, to operate. 71

Exercise 6. Choose the proper equivalent to the following verb groups. 1) provides 2) includes 3) are identified 4) will light up 5) has been turn on

a) b) c) a) b) c) a) b) c) a) b) c) a) b) c)

обеспечивает обеспечивают обеспечиваются включаются включает включается определяется определяются определяют высвечиваются высветятся высвечивались включаются будут включены были включены

Exercise 7. Pay attention to the translation of nominative groups. Mind the order: the last word in a group is the kernal one. Example: Safety feature – признак безопасности Saab Supplemental Restraint System, seat belts, airbag module, built-in diagnostic system, impact sensors, front wheel housing, electronic control unit, service indicator lamp, pictogram display section, ignition switch. Exercise 8. Read the following text. Answer the questions given below. Supplemental Restraint System

The Saab Supplemental Restraint System (SRS) provides added protection in the event of a severe frontal collision, to boost substantially the protection afforded by the seat belts. The SRS incorporates an airbag module in the steering wheel, a control unit with built-in diagnostic system and two impact sensors located in the engine compartment, forward of the front wheel housing. These sensors relay impact information to the electronic control unit, which includes a special safety sensor. Cars with the SRS are identified by the letters SRS on the centre pad of the steering wheel. In addition, there is an SRS service indicator lamp in the pictogram display section of the instrumental panel. This pictogram will light up for about 6 seconds when the ignition switch has been turned to the “on” or “start” position, to provide a check that the system is operative. 72

1) 2) 3) 4) 5)

Questions What does the SRS provide? What does the SRS incorporate? What relayes impact information to the electronic control unit? In what way are cars with SRS identified? Where is the indicator lamp located?

Exercise 9. Speak on the topic “The advantages of SRS”, using the following words. Added protection, severe frontal collision, airbag module, built-in diagnostic system, impact sensors, front-wheel housing, impact information, electronic control unit, special safety sensor, pictogram display section, ignition switch.

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Урок 15. Безопасность (продолжение) Lesson 15. Safety

Exercise 1. Read the following words. Mind their pronunciation. 1) to occur 2) arc 3) retardation force 4) to inflate 5) to prevent 6) facia 7) to actuate 8) rollover 9) self-diagnostic unit 10) self-contained capacitor pack 11) to intend 12) sequence

– – – – – – – – – – – –

происходить; дуга; сила торможения; накачивать, наполнять воздухом; предотвращать; вывеска, приборная панель; приводить в действие; переворот; самодиагностирующий блок; автономный энергоузел; предназначать; последовательность.

Exercise 2. Read the following verbs. Mind their meaning. Pay attention to the principal forms. 1) to occur ( -ed, -ed ) – происходить; 2) to trip ( -ed, -ed ) – продвигать(ся); 3) to absorb ( -ed, -ed ) – поглощать; 4) to inflate ( -ed, -ed ) – накачивать; 5) to prevent ( -ed, -ed ) – предотвращать; 6) to contain ( -ed, -ed ) – содержать; 7) to replace ( -ed, -ed ) – заменять; 8) to wear (wore, worn) – носить; 9) to design ( -ed, -ed ) – проектировать; 10) to throw (threw, thrown) – бросать, выбрасывать. Exercise 3. Read and translate the following groups of words 1) to occur – occuring – occurance; 2) to retard – retarding – retardation; 3) to progress – progressing – a progress – progressed; 4) to absorb – absorbing – absorbed; 5) to inflate – inflating – inflation; 6) to prevent – preventing – prevented; 7) tо activate – activation – activating; 8) to equip – equipped – equipment; 9) to damage – damaging – a damage; 10) to intend – intending – intention. Exercise 4. Pay attention to the following abbreviated words. Read the words. 74

MPH – miles per hour – миль в час; g – gramme – грамм. Exercise 5. Write down the principal forms of the following verbs. Translate them. To occur, to retard, to trip, to apply, to progress, to absorb, to inflate, to prevent, to throw, to activate, to actuate, to contain, to provide, to damage, to intend, to restrain, to design. Exercise 6. Choose the proper equivalent to the following verb groups. 1) should occur 2) will trip 3) progress 4) will be absorbed 5) must trip 6) is equipped 7) is not intended 8) must wear 9) is not designed

a) b) c) a) b) c) a) b) c) a) b) c) a) b) c) a) b) c) a) b) c) a) b) c) a) b) c)

происходили могут произойти должны произойти двигаются будут двигаться двигался прогрессируют прогрессирует прогрессировал поглощаются поглощены будут поглощены должен двигаться будет двигаться вынужден двигаться оснащены оснащен оснащается не предназначен не был предназначен не будет предназначен должен носить будет носить носит не спроектирован не был спроектирован не проектируется

Exercise 7. Pay attention to the translation of nominative groups. Mind the order: the last word in a group is the kernal one. Example: a 60 degree Arc – арка в 600. 75

Retardation force, control unit, impact force, crumple zone, safety sensor, front safety impact sensor, self – contained capacitor pack, self – diagnostic unit. Exercise 8. Read the following text. Answer the questions given below. Effective supplement

If a frontal collision should occur either head-on across a 60 degree arc in front of the car, and at a speed higher than around 10 mph (with a retardation force of at least 16 g), one or both of the front sensors will trip and apply a signal to the electronic control unit. as the collision progresses, the impact forces will be absorbed by the special “crumple zones” at the front of the car. The safety sensor inside the control unit will trip at a retardation force of around 2 g. So the airbag will inflate within 20 to 30 milliseconds – thus preventing the driver from being thrown against the steering wheel and facia. At least one of the front impact sensors and the safety sensor must both trip before the Supplemental Restraint System will be activated in a minor frontal collision, a rollover, or a side or rear collision. In addition to the safety impact sensor, the electronic control unit contains a selfdiagnostic unit for the Supplemental Restraint System. The control unit is also equipped with a self-contained capacitor pack, which provides power for the system even if the car’s electrical system should be damaged in the collision. The Supplemental Restraint System is just that – supplemental. It is not intended to replace the primary restraint system – the seat belts. The seat belt provides restraint in the sequence of events after the initial impact, which the airbag is not designed to inflate. 1) 2) 3) 4) 5) 6) 7) 8)

Questions What happens if a frontal collision should occur? What absorbs the impact forces as the collision progress? What is the necessary retardation force which enables the safety sensor to trip? What is the time needed for the airbag inflation? What are the instances when the SRS won’t be actuated? What is the role of a self-contained capacitor pack? What is the intention of the SRS? What makes the SRS to be the maximum safety means?

Exercise 9. Speak on the topic “Effective Supplemental Restraint System ”, using the following words. Frontal collision, 60 degree arc, retardation force, electronic control unit, to absorb, impact forces, crumple zones, safety sensor, airbag, to inflate, rollover, side or rear collision, self-diagnostic unit, self-contained capacitor pack, primary restrained system, non-frontal collision. 76

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16 Грамматический справочник 16.1 Таблица 1. Личные местоимения в именительном и объектном падеже Именительный падеж

Объектный падеж

who?

whom?

кого?

кому?

I you he she it we you they

me [mi:, mi., mi] you [ju:, ju., ju] him [hım] her [h∂:, h∂:] it [ıt] us [Λs, Λs] you [ju:, ju., ju] them

меня вас его её его (её) нас вас их

мне вам ему ей ему (ей) нам вам им

16.2 Таблица 2. Личные и притяжательные местоимения Притяжательные местоимения

Личные местоимения

Присоединяемая форма I you he she it we you they

my your his her its our your their

Абсолютная форма mine yours his hers its ours yours theirs

16.3 Таблица 3. Указательные местоимения

Местоимение this (это) that (то)

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Единственное число this that

Множественное число these those

16.4 Таблица 4. Возвратные местоимения

Личное местоимение I You He She It We You They

Возвратное местоимение Возвратное местоимение; мн. число myself yourself himself herself itself ourselves yourselves themselves

16.5 Таблица 5. Неопределённые местоимения и их производные

Неопределённое местоимение Some (утвердительные предложения) Any (Вопросительные и отрицательные предложения)

+ thing something что-то anything что-то

Производные + body + one somebody someone кто-то кто-нибудь anybody кто-то

anyone кто-нибудь

+ where somewhere где-нибудь anywhere где-нибудь

16.6 Таблица 6. Степени сравнения прилагательных и наречий

Прилагательное, наречие односложные: small easy многосложные: beautiful Interesting исключения: good bad little many far

Положительная степень

Сравнительная степень

Превосходная степень

small easy

smaller easier

the smallest the easiest

beautiful interesting

more beautiful more interesting

the most beautiful the most interesting

good bad little many far

better worse less more further, farther

the best the worst the least the most the furthest, the farthest 79

16.7 Таблица 7. Числительные

Вид числительных Количественные (Cardinals) Даты Порядковые (Ordinals)

Дробные (Fraction) простые десятичные

В цифрах 839

Прописью Eight hundred thirty nine

1999 1ый 2ой 3ий

Nineteen ninty nine the first the second the third

корневые

the fourth

4ый и далее – суффикс “th” 2/5

two fifth

3.4 0.2

three point four point two

16.8 Таблица 8. Видо-временные формы. Активный залог Формы

Indefinite

Continuous

Perfect

(факты, повторяющиеся действия)

(действие, происходящее в данный момент)

(предшествование данному моменту, законченность)

I He We I He We I shall (will) He will We shall (will) I should (would) He would We should (would)

I He driving We I He driving We I shall (will) He will be driving We shall (will) I should (would) He would be driving We should (would)

I He driven We I He had driven We I shall (will) have He will driven We shall (will) I should (would) have He would driven We should (would)

Время

Present Past Future Future in the Past

*

drive drives drive drove

Эти формы употребляются редко

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drive

drive

Perfect Continuous (действие, начавшееся в какой-либо момент и продолжающееся до другого данного момента, часто включая его) I He been driving We I He had been driving We I shall (will) have He will been We shall (will) driving I should have (would) been He would driving We should (would)

16.9 Таблица 9. Видо-временные формы. Пассивный залог Формы

Indefinite

Continuous

Perfect

Perfect Continuous

Время

Present Past Future Future in the Past *

I am He is driven We are I was He driven We were I shall (will) He will be driven We shall (will) I should (would) be He would driven We should (would)

I am He is We are I was He We were

being driven being driven — — — — — —

I have He has been driven We have I He had been driven We I shall (will) have been He will driven We shall (will) * I should (would) have He would been We should (would) driven

— — — — — — — — — — — —

Эти формы употребляются редко

16.10 Таблица 10. Модальные глаголы Модальные глаголы и их значения may (might)

must

can

should

1. разрешение 2. предположение с оттенком сомнения, допускаемая возможность 1. обязанность, приказание; приглашение; необходимость 2. предположение (почти уверенность)

Примеры

Возможный перевод

He may (might) be here any time. They may still be reading.

возможно, может быть

He must be there already. They must have left it.

должно быть, очевидно, вероятно, наверно

1. разрешение, возможность, умение, способность 2. сомнение, удивление, недоверие, невероятность

They can’t (couldn’t) be there. He can’t have left.

не может быть, вряд ли, неужели

личный совет, мнение, рекомендация; упрек, порицание.

You should change your mind. She shouldn’t have done it.

следует, следовало, следовало бы, должен был бы, нужно, нужно было бы

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16.11 Таблица 11. Сослагательное наклонение в главном предложении – сослагательное I I shouldn’t (wouldn’t) say a word. He would help you. I should (would) have done it long ago. в придаточном предложении - изъявительное наклонение I wish

в придаточном предложении условия – сослагательное II if they did it in time if he knew in what way if I had had time. в дополнительном придаточном и придаточном сопоставления – сослагательное II I were there as if she were afraid he had come yesterday

She speaks I wish

к настоящему или будущему времени к прошедшему времени

к настоящему времени (одновременность) к прошедшему времени (предшествование)

16.12 Таблица 12. Причастие I и II

Причастие I простое – doing выражает одновременность I. обстоятельство а) времени б) причины в) образа действия

While reading the books, he made up his mind to prepare the course paper. Being acknowledged of the departure time, she hurried up for the train. She stood looking askance at him.

Читая литературу, он решил подготовить курсовую работу. Зная время отправления, она поспешила к поезду. Она стояла, в упор смотря на него.

Р. Киплинг писал книги, R.Kipling wrote his books showing the life of animals and показывающие жизнь животных и людей people. Причастие I перфектное – having gone выражает предшествование I. обстоятельство Опоздав на поезд, они не Having missed the train they а) причины могли прийти в себя. couldn’t pull themselves together. Закончив урок, она ушла. Having finished the lesson б) времени she went away. Он знает того спортсмена, He knows the sportsman II. определение который достиг вершины. having reached that peak. Причастие II – done, made имеет значение страдательного залога определение I was depressed by the scene Я был подавлен сценой seen in that film. увиденной в том фильме. II. определение

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17 Сборник текстов для самостоятельного чтения студентов «Из истории европейского автостроения» 17.1 Text 1 The pioneer motorist

Roger Bacon in the thirteenth century prophesied that ‘one day we shall endow chariots with incredible speed without the aid of any animal‘, and was promptly imprisoned for being in league with devil. The dream of a self-propelled vehicle occupied inventive minds for many centuries. Sails, clockwork and kites were all tried and failed. Steam-powered vehicles seemed to be the answer but their slowness and tendency to explode were serious drawbacks. A new kind of engine was developed in 1860 by Lenoir using gas in an internal combustion engine. The next step forward – the first petrol engined car, is shrouded in controversy and false claims. The first person to build internal combustion vehicles for sale to the public, and not purely experimental vehicles, was the German Karl Benz. He ran his first car in 1885, the same year as Gottleib Daimler produced a high speed, four – stroke petrol engine, the fore – runner of a modern car engine. Benz and Daimler between them had found the solution to the centuries – old dream of a self – propelled form of a private transport – a motor car. However the architect of the modern car was Emile Levassor who realised that a vehicle had to be designed from the outset to incorporate an engine and not with a motor super-imposed on to a horse drawn carriage (minus the horse). The Panhard – Levassor of 1891 established the layout for front-engine, rear-drive cars which remains till this day-radiator, engine, clutch, gearbox, transmission and rear axle, in that order. The car was born in Germany, flourished in France, but was woefully neglected in Britain. In France, pioneers were buying German Daimler and Benz engines and fitting them into cars of their own design. The French forged ahead with suspension, transmission, brakes and all other aspects of development. Motor racing began in France with huge crowds of spectators turning out for every event. Across the Channel, there was little incentive for British innovators due to the restrictive ‘Red Flag’ Act. This law, first passed in 1865, required a mechanical road vehicle to travel at a maximum of 4 m.p.h. with a person walking ahead with a read flag (the flag was not required after 1878). This law was aimed at steam traction engines, but motor cars were confined in the same category. In 1896 the law was repealed and a new speed limit of 12 m.p.h. introduced. The few motorists there were, with their imported cars, received this news with great rejoicing and an Emancipation Run was held from London to Brighton on 14 November 1896. It was not quite a triumphant parade since the weather was poor, a pedestrian was killed at Crawley and some motorist put their cars on a train to Brighton!

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Exercise 1. Read, translate and render the text Exercise 2. Answer the question: - Why is Lenoir engine is considered to be a new kind of engine? 17.2 Text 2 The pioneer motorist

The first British petrol-engined car is still a subject of debate but both John Knight and Fredrick Lanchester built cars in 1895. Herbert Austin, working with Wolseley at the time but later to become famous for his own marque, built the first Wolseley four wheel car in 1899. Another pioneer, F.R. Simms, purchased in Germany the rights to build Daimler cars in Britain and formed the Daimler Motor Syndicate in 1893. The most famous partnership in motoring – Rolls Royce – began in 1904. Rolls & Royce were men of completely different character and came from different backgrounds. Rolls was well educated and came from a wealthy home. He became a successful racing driver but his real passion was flying and he became the first man to fly the Channel both ways. Rolls sold cars in Mayfair, London and in his search to find a good English car to sell, he went to Manchester to meet Fredrick Henry Royce. Royce came from poor home, had little education and started work at the age of twelve. After an engineering apprenticeship, Royce went on to start a small business making electrical equipment before building his first car in 1904. The partnership agreed that Rolls would sell all the cars made by Royce. In 1906 the famous 40/50 Silver Ghost appeared. The Silver Ghost set new standards of reliability, refinement and silence. To publicise the car’s qualities, a drive from London to Edinburgh was made in top gear alone. The Silver Ghost stayed in production for nineteen years and 7,870 were built. Another milestone in motoring appeared in 1908; the Ford Model T. Rarely in the history of motoring has an individual make of car had such a revolutionary impact, for the Model T could claim to have put the world on wheels. Henry Ford built his first car in 1896; seven years later the Ford Motor Company was founded. Ford’s aim was to produce a light, simple, rugged car to a standard design which would be made in vast numbers at a low price to become the universal family car. In 1908 10,000 Model T’s were made, 500,000 in 1916 and the magic million was achieved in 1922. The price of the car fell from $850 in 1908 to $290 in 1925. Ford was capable of producing the Model T in vast numbers at a low price by installing a moving assembly line as part of a huge manufacturing complex. Technically the car was very basic and equipment on the early models amounted to nothing more than a horn. The splash-‘n-spit lubrication and gravity-feed fuel system meant that steep hills were best tackled in reverse. Despite the Model T’s peculiarities, Ford’s success was due to the correct assumption of the time, that people wanted reliable and basic transportation and not necessarily smart styling and complex mechanical equipment. . . . 85

. Exersice 1. Read, translate the text. . . Exersice 2. Find information in the text concerning the inventions of: - John Knight - Fredrick Lanchester - Herbert Austin - Wolseley - F.R. Simms - Rolls - Royce - Ford . . 17.3 Text 3 The pioneer motorist The early cars offered little or no weather protection. Passenger sat up high, more ’on’ the car than ‘in’ it. Some cars were fitted with a windscreen and canvas hood but most cars had no roof, doors or windscreen. Exposure to the elements meant that Edwardian motoring was mainly a summer pastime. However, the greatest curse to early motoring occured in prolonged dry weather – road dust. Roads were constructed of compacted stone or gravel which was easily loosened by horses and cars. The clouds of dust thrown up enveloped motorists and pedestrians, and settled like snow on houses and gardens. Motorists wrapped themselves up in the most amazing array of protective clothing. A whole new branch of fashion was created for the motorist. Men wore dust coats of leather or cotton, tweed caps and fur-lined goggles. The ladies’ range in dust coats were made from Alpaca, linen or cotton, and available in a wide variety of colours. Popular furs were made from Russian sable, beaver and ocelot. At first, horrific looking leather face masks with lenses of mica were worn but later more elegant head wear appeared. The most common covering was the crêpe de chine or gauze veil pinned to a hat. A full motoring wardrobe in 1904 could cost up to £300. Fashion columnists in weekly newspaper and the motoring press warned that a lady in a car could not keep her soft, peach-like bloom. They advised a rigorous cold water face wash and application of a skin cream. The Icilma Company promoted a mineral water, ‘drawn from a natural African spring welling up from 900 feet depth. Apply before going out’. The dust problem intensified the public’s hostility towards the motorist. High speed motoring was another bone of contention. In 1903 an Act set the speed limit of 20 m.p.h., the same year in which the 60 h.p. Mercedes, capable of 80 m.p.h., appeared. The police and magistrates waged a war against speeding ‘scorchers’ and thousand of prosecutions followed. Magistrates, horsemen to the last, detested the noisy motors that frightened their mounts. As landowners they objected to the dust that covered their crops, and they were adamant that England was not going to be turned into a honking, polluted, roaring race track for a few ‘upstarts’. Fines were as high as £5 by 1902, a considerable sum then. Police hid behind hedges with a handkerchief (to signal a colleague) and a stop watch. A small group of motorists called the Automobile Association set up bicycle patrols to scout for police speed 86

traps and then to warn oncoming motorists. The police counter attacked by moving their position so that the AA scout was inside the trap and so prosecute him for aiding a criminal. The AA then introduced the system of not saluting motorists to indicate a ‘hazard’ ahead. The first problem facing the novice car owner was how to start the motor. Handbooks warned of thumbs dislocated by incorrectly gripping the starting handle, of broken wrists from a back-fire swing and hernias from standing in the wrong position. With those thoughts firmly in his mind the motorist followed a set routine; check petrol tank, turn on tap to carburettor, switch on accumulator, engage brake, disengage clutch, place speed change lever in neutral, open throttle, retard ignition, tickle carburettor float, insert crank handle and pull up against compression. The motor may then splutter into life. Since anything could happen on a journey, a variety of spares was carried, for example, outer tyre covers, numerous inner tubes, puncture repair kit, sparking plugs, exhaust and inlet valves, magneto, wire, water pump and tool kit. Tyres were the motorist’s largest item of expenditure during the year, with punctures expected on every on every journey. Exercise 1. Read and translate the text. Exercise 2. Answer the question: - Why was it a problem to start the motor? 17.4 Text 4 The pioneer motorist

Most motorists used their brakes sparingly. In most cases they were handoperated, contracting band brakes on the rear wheels. Stopping on a hill was hazardous and one handbook for motoring advised ‘when the car begins to slip backwards on a steep hill, and you find you cannot control it, you had best to jump out promptly and block the wheels with the biggest thing you can pick up quickly’. In the event of a break-down in a rural area there were no garages. Even patrol supplies were scattered, with the main sources being chemists and hardware stores selling two-gallon cans of fuel. Yet for all the breakdowns, dust, chills, boiling radiators and speed traps, the Edwardian motorist persevered. The car gave him the freedom to go wherever he liked, whenever he liked. Picnics, touring holidays, visiting friends, and the sheer novelty and exhilaration of motoring itself, were the real pleasures. At first motorists were the exception, with children running to the garden gate to see a car go by, but by 1912 it was members of the gentry still with horses who were the exception. The First World War (1914-1918) was the first major conflict to make use of the motor vehicle. Military vehicles had been under discussion for many year but generally there was little interest. The horse was considered the only suitable source of mobility. That was in 1914, but as the war progressed the need and the value of the motor car became more apparent. On the Front with its mud and shell-craters, 87

vehicles were virtually useless. Behind the line, however, trucks were used for transporting troops and supplies and motor ambulances evacuated the wounded. Rolls-Royce, Vauxhall and Crossley were mainly used as staff cars. Armoured vehicles comprised steel plates over a conventional chassis, like a 60 h.p. Hotchkiss, 15 h.p. Napier and Rolls-Royce Silver Ghost. The most significant motor event of the war was the arrival in 1916 of the tank. On the Home Front the Government never actually placed a ban on all nonessential motoring. However, the public reaction became extremely hostile to the motoring minority, who continued pleasure motoring and were labelled un-patriotic, even ‘traitors’. In 1916, car taxes were trebled, petrol tax doubled and eventually rationed. Everything was going to be different when peace came. Exercise 1. Read and translate the text. Exercise 2. Find recommedations about the rules how to use the brakes. 17.5 Text 5 The twenties

The First World War was a water-shed in our social history and for the car and motorist the following decade saw many major changes. Cars of the 20s were so different from their Edwardian predecessors that they have since been differentiated as ‘vintage’. In 1919 there was an insatiable demand for any kind of car. Thousands of young people serving in the war had driven or ridden in motor vehicle and now no longer considered it to be just for the gentry. They wanted to own a car themselves. Coupled with this demand were the many munition and aircraft factories, once at peak production but now with empty order books, who turned to making cars. The explosion in the number of car manufacturers was reflected in the 1920 Motor Show when 149 different British makes alone were on offer. Newcomers included Bentley, Alvis, Aston-Martin, Bean, Clyno and Beardmoor. The 1920s saw a new emancipation and self confidence for women. In the war, women had demonstrated their equality at the wheels of ambulances and buses and in munition factories. For wealthy young ladies, called ‘flappers’ or ‘bright young things’, driving a car became a tangible symbol of their new-found freedom. Technical advances like the introduction of electric self starting and easy gear change overcame the final barriers and encouraged women to take up motoring. Car manufacturers were not slow to see this new market and advertisements appeared directly aimed at the woman driver. These advertisements highlighted the pleasures of motoring, the outdoor life, adventure, the open road and freedom, with not a chaperon in sight. Even in selling the family car, companies were convinced of the dictum ‘while men buy cars, women choose them’. Colour options had taken on exotic names to appeal to feminine tastes like Southsea turquoise, Venetian green and mahogany maroon. Prejudice against women drivers increased in ferocity during the mid-1920s. Letters to the ‘Autocar’ contained such inflammatory statements as 88

‘whenever I meet a woman driver I get right down into the gutter and go dead slow. It has become a habit’. Or ‘the driver was a woman of the no hair bare-headed type’ referring to the short hair style of the Eton Crop. The 20s have been called the Golden Age of motoring. It was a time when there was little traffic, few restrictions on the motorists, and unspoilt country beauty spots. Cars were far more reliable and easier to control. Garages with petrol pumps became a common place with petrol costing on average 1s. 6d. (71/2p) a gallon. A motorist would pay 5/-(25p) for a licence, 3 gns car tax on a 61/2-12h.p. car, while insurance was an option and not compulsory. Roads were still narrow but even in 1924 John, Lord Montagu of Beaulieu had the vision to propose a motorway scheme to link London with Liverpool. The House of Commons, however, was not convinced. Traffic lights were introduced in 1928 and white lines as road dividers in 1927. The car owner in the 20s still came from the wealthy and professional classes. Advertisements of the period portray an image of motorists with plenty of leisure time, leaving their mock-tudor house, going to tennis parties and country house weekends. A picnic in the country and touring became increasingly popular. For the young smart point treasure hunts became fashionable crazes. The 20s will always be remembered for the luxury cars, probably the finest ever made. Rolls Royce continued with the Silver Ghost until the Phantom I and II were introduced in 1925 and 1929. Daimler, Napier, Lanchester and Leyland were the other top British makes. Italy’s premier car was a huge Isotta-Franschini Tipo 8 weighing three tons, with a 12ft. 1 in. Wheel base and a 5.9 litre straight eight engine capable of 80 m.p.h. This was a fashionable car with Hollywood film stars. The Hispano-Suiza H6, of French/Spanish origin was another luxury car whose engineering qualities became world famous. America too had fine cars in the Cadillac V8, the Packard Straight 8 and the Duesenberb J capable of an amazing 119 built by craftsmen and the 20s saw new heights for the coachbuilder’s art. What would now be called a sportscar really began to emerge in the 1920s. The finest British types were the Vaxuhall 30/98 E-type, the Bentley 3 litre, and the Alvis 12/50 which was strong and soundly made with a 1,5 litre engine giving 75 m.p.h. top speed. From the Continent came the beautiful and nimble Bugatti type 22 Brescia and type 35. Mercedes on the other hand produced vast cars like the 6 cylinder, 7.1 litre 38/250, but they had produced a 1.5 litre machine which offered commercially for the first time in Europe, a supercharger. The Italian Alfa Romeo 6C super sport of 1928 was a masterpiece with a lively engine and a top speed of 100 m.p.h. For the less flamboyant and impecunious car buyer, a real bargain was to be found in the outstanding small car of the period, the Austin Seven. ‘It is a decent car for the man who, at present, can only afford a motorcycle and sidecar and yet has the ambition to become a motorist’. – Herbert Austin. The Austin Seven offered all the features of a large car, only in miniature, and cost £165 when introduced in 1922. The arrival of ‘baby’ cars like the Rover 8 and Austin 7 virtually killed off the cyclecar which had become popular at a time of high demand for basic motoring. Basic these cars certainly were, for they used twin cylinder motorcycle engines, belt or chain drive, a spidery chassis and elementary suspension and steering. The most famous of this group were the Morgan three-wheelers. 89

During the 20s, four wheel brakes, electric lighting and starters all became standard. Car bodies became roomier with more comfort and greater weather protection. The major trend in car design was from open tourers to closed saloons and coupes. The development by Weymann of a flexible wood frame saloon covered in fabric cut the cost of making closed cars. The Americans pioneered longer lasting low pressure balloon tyres and safety glass was introduced in 1926. Windscreen wipers operated on suction pressure from the engine but had the disadvantage of going slower as the engine struggled up hills. In engine technology one notable advance was the use of aluminium for pistons which permitted much higher engine speeds, a lesson learnt from wartime aero engines. The vintage age was one of transition. In America a revolution in motoring was taking place. It became everyone’s ambition to own a car. The nine million cars on America’s roads in 1920 had leapt to twenty-seven million by 1929. In that year eighty-five percent of the world’s companies. It was not until the 1930s that the motoring revolution began to gather speed in Europe. Exercise 1. Read the text and answer the question “What was the social role of the First World War in the development of car industry?” 17.6 Text 6 The thirties

The 1930s was not the dull depression era as generally painted. The world-wide economic slump of 1929/1934 certainly hit the car industry hard, leaving many small companies near bankruptcy and prey to takeovers by larger firms, and some disappeared altogether. The period should more correctly be recalled as the time when living costs fell substantially while wages increased. It really was cheaper to live then, when the average annual family income was £420, and you could buy a semi-detached house for £300/£400. Many more people could afford a car but the new buyers wanted cars to be inexpensive, reliable, simple, offer some comfort and be cheap to run. The new mass market for cars was the most significant motoring trend in the Thirties. The ‘Big Six‘ companies – Austin, Morris, Ford, Vauxhall, Rootes, and Standard, mass produced small family cars predominantly in the under – 12h.p. range. There was an obsession to produce the first £100 car, first achieved by Morris in 1931 but Ford’s 1935 model Y saloon was more widely accepted. These companies were ruled by tycoon millionaire dictators. William Morris, Lord Nuffield from 1934, was seen by the public as a great benefactor by giving £28 million of his personal fortune to charitable causes. Yet in business he was he was a tyrant, quarrelsome and mean but he built up a small company to become an empire. Herbert Austin had a more friendly reputation and was widely respected. Other tycoons of the age were John Black at Standard and Lord Rootes. During the Thirties huge strides were made in the technical development of the car. Saloons replaced open tourers, tyres and electrical equipment improved and there were synchronised gears. Most cars were made of pressed steel and in the late 30s 90

many models had unitary construction of chassis and body. Yet in the days of no antifreeze, a paraffin lamp was hung under the bonnet on winter nights. There were no cars heaters and decarbonisation with the grinding in of valves was required every few thousand miles. At the beginning of the Thirties, motorist still had the freedom of the road. There was little traffic, parking was not a problem and car thefts were so rare that few cars had locks. To drive a car one simply bought a license, purchased the car of your choice from the showroom and drove it away. It was as simple as that and no driving test was required. However from the mid-Thirties road traffic increased. In 1930 there were one million cars in Britain, but by 1939 the number had doubled. With the increase of traffic, greater controls were placed on the motorist. Between 1931 and 1934 Britain had no speed limit at all but in 1935 a 30 m.p.h. speed limit was imposed in built up areas. The driving test and Highway Code were also introduced in 1935. Roads were still narrow and meandering but the surface was greatly improved, and ‘Cats Eyes’ were introduced in 1934, thus making night driving less perilous. The thirties motorist was still mainly from the middle and upper classes. A working man would not consider owning a car. Many new car owners lived in the rapidly developing suburbs and commuted to work. Motorist paid 1/6d for petrol and £3 for a tyre and inner tube. Driving through London they might encounter the new traffic lights or Belisha beacons at pedestrian crossings. Road safety began to be seriously considered since the road death toll had reached 7,343 in 1934 (nearly the same numbers as 1973 despite ten times more traffic on the road). Although the increasing trend was to use the car as part of everyday life, the opportunities for leisure motoring was still a novelty. Holidays to the seaside, visiting beauty spots, attending sports events further afield, were all becoming fashionable, but leisure motoring came to an abrupt halt in September 1939. Exercise 1. Read the text and speak on the topic “Big Six Motor Companies” 17.7 Text 7 The Forties

On 16 September 1939, two weeks after the outbreak of the Second World War, petrol rationing was introduced. Branded fuel was replaced by the inferior ‘pool petrol’ and petrol for commercial vehicles was dyed red to prevent its illicit use by civilians. It was soon discovered that straining red petrol through a gas mask filter would get rid of the colour. The monthly ration depended on the horse-power of a car so the quantity varied from four gallons for an Austin 7 to ten gallons for a 20 h.p. Rolls Royce. Additional coupons were given for the Government ‘help your neighbour’ free lift scheme of October 1940. After July 1942 the basic petrol ration was abolished, which meant that drivers had to prove their journey was essential. No one was exempt. The composer Ivor Novello was jailed for a month for what was considered an unnecessary journey. 91

Wartime motoring was hazardous. There were no sign posts due to the imminent possibly of invasion. Driving in the black-out meant only one headlamp could be lit and even then masked, and bumpers were painted white. The horse and bicycle made a dramatic comeback and queueing for buses, compulsory in April 1942, continued into peace time. Car manufacturers changed over to producing military vehicles, munitions and aircraft. Vauxhall-Bedford designed the 38-ton Churchill Tank, tested it, built a factory and went into production, all within a year. Following the war, petrol rationing continued and materials for making cars were in short supply. Manufacturers continued to sell pre-war models but by 1948 exciting new designs appeared. The Morris Minor, Standard Vanguard and the 1800 Triumph Saloon were the start of a new era. However exporting cars became the priority of British Government so sales on the home market were severely restricted. The sensational Jaguar XK120 was a totally new sports car. The pre-war company SS Cars Ltd., had been reformed in 1945 as Jaguar Cars Ltd., and the intention was for only a few XK120’s to be built. However the world wide interest created by the car at the 1948 Motor Show caused revision of plans. The XK120 became the world’s fastest production sports car with a top speed of 120 m.p.h. from the 3.4 litre six cylinder engine. Another revolutionary car had emerged from Germany. The Volkswagon Beetle was reject by British companies who were offered the opportunity to built them, calling them ugly and impractical. Under Germany control from 1949, the Beetle became the most popular car ever built. Exercise 1. Read the text and find the information concerning difficulties in European motor industry in 1940s 17.8 Text 8 The Fifties

Out of the dull austerity of the 1940s and early 50s emerged a new generation of cars. The ‘50s saw car stylings taken to extremes with the American influence of bulbous shapes, an abundance of chrome and long tail fins. Wrap around windscreens, bench-type front seats and column gear change were ‘in’ and running boards and separate wings were gone. The 1957 Vauxhall Cresta and Ford Zephyr, zodiac range reflected the new style. Car manufacturers were still preoccupied with export sales but by the mid 50s domestic sales increased and there began a boom in motoring which lasted until the late 1960s. It was also a time of mergers, rising new companies and the demise of others. In 1952 Austin and Morris merged to become the British Motor Corporation. Lotus and Porsche appeared in the sports car market but casualties of the 50s included Lea Francis, Lanchester, Invicta, Healey, Armstrong Siddeley and Jowett. During this decade, the heyday of cars for the everyman began. For really low cost transport there were the Bubble Cars, particularly popular in Germany and Italy. Britain’s cheapest four seater saloon was the Ford Popular at a basic price of only £295 in 1958 plus £149 for purchase tax. 92

In 1959 the Triumph Herald appeared, the car with the ‘Italian look’, but the year is best remembered for the Mini. This revolutionary car with its space saving features influenced design in every major car producing country. Sports cars had emerged from the doldrums of the 40s with some exciting new models. From Britain came the Jaguar XK series, Austin-Healey Sprite and 3000, Triumph TR2 and MG, of course. The Italian masters Ferrari and Maserati were stylish and expensive. Lancia and Alfa Romeo were also trend setters. From Germany came the stunning Mercedes 300 SL. The trend in sports car design towards closed cars offering weather protection and greater comfort began on the Continent. Vintage sports car drivers scorned the trend as ‘going soft’. Two other new areas of design were reinforced glass fibre bodies from Lotus, and rear engines from Porsche. The boom in car sales meant that by 1959 one in three families in Britain owned car. With 5.5 million cars about, a road building programme got underway. In 1959 the M1 from London to Birmingham was opened. The 1957 motorist would pay 5/(25p) for petrol, £12.10/-(£12.50p) car tax and about £800 for a medium sized family car. So motoring was still expensive on the average annual wage of £506. Exercise 1. Read the text and think of a title for it. 17.9 Text 9 The Sixties

On the eve of the 1960s Prime Minister Macmillan made the famous statement ‘you’ve never had it so good’. It was a time of increasing affluence and a boom in consumer goods. Car ownership became possible for most people and between 1957 and 1962 new car sales in Britain nearly doubled. The car became an indispensable part of domestic life like the fridge or washing machine. It also became a measure of personal success – a status symbol. The car could cut across class barriers. The humble Mini for example was cherished by film stars, improverished students, city stock brokers, as a second family car, or granny’s runabout. The family car of the Sixties was comfortable, with many extras now standard to make motoring easier and pleasant, like heaters and demisters. Two-tone colours were fashionable and so was the term ‘De Lux’ for that certain car with a little more. For the ‘getaway people’, as a petrol company slogan ran, there was a new car named after an Italian ski resort. In 1962 Ford introduced the Cortina at £639 and this was justly described to have a ‘small car price and economy with big car speed and space’. It gave people more for their money than they had ever dreamed possible. Stylish body work, a spacious interior and from the 1198 cc engine, a top speed of 78 m.p.h. was possible. The Cortina was thoroughly conventional but the opposite was true of a Jaguar E-Type – a classic and, like the Mini, a true symbol of the Sixties. With its stunning looks and 150 m.p.h. maximum speed it obviously had, as another petrol slogan put it, ‘a tiger in its tank’. Yet the E-Type, for all its looks, was inexpensive at £2,200 when a comparable Ferrari cost over £6,000. Porsche produced a fine sports car in 1963, the 911. It had tremendous performance and established the company’s reputation for engineering quality. From Italy came a startling new name 93

in spots cars. Lamborghini with their 1966 Muira placed the engine transversely across the chassis behind the driver and so started a new generation of sports cars. Their V12 engine could produce a staggering 170 m.p.h. The Ferrari Dino followed Lamborghini’s principle and became for many, the ultimate in small sports cars. Exotic sports cars were certainly one image of the Sixties, but there was another aspect, far less glamorous. Between 1958 and 1971 British road traffic doubled and problems raised by the motor car bagan to cause concern. Cities became clogged with traffic, the air was polluted with fumes and noise, and a forest of signs directed traffic. Road safety became a burning issue. The car had become one of the greatest killers in peace time. Legislation controls were introduced, like the MOT vehicle test in 1960, compulsory fitting of seat belts, the 70 m.p.h. speed limit and a breathalyser test of 1967. The motor industry was changing shape too. This was a time of mergers culminating in the formation of British Leyland in 1966, and Chrysler of America bought the Rootes group. Japan became a major car manufacturer in sixties, beginning in 1960 with an annual car ouput of 200,000 rising to 3,000,000 by 1970. Exercise 1. Read, translate the text and be ready to discuss the topic “Exotic sports cars”. 17.10 Text 10 Conservation and Restoration

Workshop is essential to a museum such as the National Motor Museum, which has a policy to keep as many vehicles as possible in running order and to use them whenever it can. The Workshop is now part of the Museum display itself and visitors are able to look down on it from above, to see the work that is taking place. In this way, they get same idea of the problems involved in keeping old vehicles running and at the same time they see proof that the cars, commercials and motor cycles, are being used. Beside the viewing window there are displays relating to how old vehicles are found, and to some of the techniques used in restoration. Repair and maintenance are the normal jobs. Every Museum vehicle travelling on the roads has to have an M.O.T. certificate. Whilst older vehicles have certain exemptions, the car’s major components have to be in good road-worthy condition. For example, recent legislation has made it necessary for us to fit double dipping headlamps and windscreen washers to certain cars of the 1930s. Much ingenuity has been used to disguise these alterations. Complete ground-up restoration is the work which takes the time. It is not unusual to spend up to 5,000 hours on one vehicle, these hours being spread over several years. Spare parts are of course a great problem. If you have to replace a crown wheel and pinion on a 36/200 Mercedes (as we had to recently) it is unlikely that you will ever find another. It has to be specially made, which is both very expensive and very time consuming. For the more common make of car, a surprising amount of spare parts can be found, if you only know where to look. Many of the specialist car clubs have a Spares Registrar who keeps close tabs on the wereabouts of spare parts for his 94

club members. Specialist sales such as the outdoor Autojumble (of which Beaulieu’s in September is the largest) have put huge quantities of old car parts into circulation. The Museum finds, however, that often parts have to be specially made, after all most of the spares which you can find are all used items anyway, and are possible in worse condition than the part which you have got! We are often asked about the availability of tyres, particularly those unusual beaded edge tyres used on older cars. Dunlop in particular still manufacture the majority of tyre sizes for older cars. Using old patterns they use modern materials, so a very high degree of reliability is now obtained. Exercise 1. Read the text and answer the question “Why is it so difficult to find the appropriate spare parts?” 17.11 Text 11 The Grand Prix

The first motor races were held on the open public roads of France. This soon proved to be too dangerous as cars became faster. Brakes were poor, and dogs and children ran freely across the road. The first Grand Prix was held in 1906 on a 64 mile circuit near Le Mans, France. The race took place over two days in the heat and dust. Racing cars before 1908 had become a type very distinct from touring cars. They were monster machines weighing 1000 kg with engines up to 20 litres and capable of 90 m.p.h. During races a mechanic rode with the driver for the many repairs and tyre changes which were to be expected. Between 1922 and 1925 power outputs doubled, and with superchargers speeds of 130 m.p.h. could be attained. The great teams of the 1920s were Alfa Romeo, Fiat, Sunbeam, Delage and Bugatti. 1930s Grand Prix racing was dominated by the Italians and Germans. The mighty Mercedes and Auto-Unions were the most powerful racing cars built and capable of 200 m.p.h. The Italians continued their supremacy in the 1950s but then Britain became a force to be reckoned with. Were British teams such as Cooper and Lotus led others followed, for they revolutionised racing car design. Since the World Championship began in 1950 the drivers have become the focus of public attention. Juan Manuel Fangio was a living legend winning 5 World Championships in the 1950s, and Jackie Stewart won a record 27 Grand Prix. Other great British drivers were Stirling Moss and Graham Hill. The driver today dresses more like an astronaut in his protective suit, helmet and life support attachments. Their cars cost £250,000 and are the product of the latest technology. Exercise 1. Read and translate the text Exercise 2. Answer the question – Why does the driver today dress like an astronaut? 95

17.12 Text 12 Motor Sport

Ever since the early days of motoring, manufacturers have realised the publicity potential of their products being successful in motoring competitions. The reputation of many companies have been founded on certain races, Bentley and Jaguar at Le Mans for instance. Motor sports became the test-bed for technical development notably in tyres, brakes, lights and engine performance. The world’s toughest sports car event is the Le Mans 24 Hour Race. Hours upon hours of sustained high speed strain drivers and cars to the limit. Outstanding cars with numerous victories in this race have included the Bentley 3 litre, Alfa Romeo 8c, Jaguar C and D types, Ford GT 40 and Porsche. Rallies evolved from trials events held in the early 1900s. These long distance trials like the German Herkomer Trophy of 1904 were tests of reliability but they were generally leisurely affairs. The world’s toughest rally today is the East Africa Safari. Drivers can experience tropical storms, scorching heat, dust and the roughest tracks. Only a faction of the starting cars survive this punishing event. The once prestigious Monte Carlo Rally began in 1911 and required cars to start from various points in Europe to converge on Monaco. The British R.A.C. Rally is now Europe’s toughest rally. Hill climbs provided exciting sport for amateur drivers at very little cost. Shelsley Walsh, Worcestershire became Britain’s most famous hill climb, with its heyday in the 1920s and 30s. Exercise 1. Read the text and answer the question “Why are sports cars and motor sports the test – bed for technical development?” 17.13 Text 13 Record Breakers

The fastest car event driven went at 739 m.p.h. – the speed of a rifle bullet. This was Stan Barratt in 1979 but this speed is not an official record. To achieve a World Land Speed Record a car must be driven through a measured mile, turn around and refuel within one hour and return through the mile again. The final speed figure is an average of the two runs as timed by F.I.A. officials. Barratt’s rocket car could only make a one way run. The first Land Speed Record was set by an electric car at 39.24 m.p.h. in 1898. As record speeds increased so the sites for attempts changed, beginning with ordinary roads and race tracks to long beaches and huge desert plains. Popular sites included Daytona Beach, Florida and Bonneville Salt Flats, Utah. Electric, steam and petrol engines have all achieved record speeds but by the 1960s rocket power had appeared. In 1970 Gary Gabelich, a trained astronaut, drove Blue Flame to a new record of 622.407 m.p.h. The rocket engine was based on 96

technology learnt from the space flight programme. Thirteen years later jet power retook the record when Britain’s Richard noble’s Thrust II achieved 633.468 m.p.h. Exercise 1. Read the text and render it Exercise 2. Answer the question – What is the record of G.Gabelich? 17.14 Text 14 The motorbike story

The origins of the motorcycle are fairly obscure. As soon as the bicycle appeared in the early nineteenth century inventors began to consider easier ways of propulsion than pedalling. One idea put into practice was for dogs to be encased in treadmills each side of the rider. In 1818, a French cartoon portrayed a velocipede with a totally impractical steam boiler and given the equally impractical name of ‘velocipedraisiavaporianna!’ The first motorcycles were made by Michaux-Perreaux in France and Roper in the United States both, coincidentally in 1859. Both machines used steam engines on ‘bone shaker’ cycles, but they must surely have been uncomfortable with a boiler so close to the saddle. For the invention of the petrol engined motorcycle the credit goes to the German Gottleib Daimler. In 1885 Daimler fitted his internal combustion engine, precursor of all modern motorcycle engines, into wooden-frame bicycle. Unfortunately, when Daimler'’ seventeen-year-old son took the motorbike out for a ride, the saddle caught fire and Daimler’s attention turned to motor cars. The next major advances were the 1894 Hildebrand and Wolfmuller, the world’s first production motorcycle, and the 1985 De Dion Bouton single cylinder engine widely used by European manufacturers. It seems strange now, but by 1900 the problem of where to place the engine was still unresolved. Some engines were behind the saddle above the rear wheel, others on the handlebar driving a front wheel or high within the bicycle frame. The high centre of gravity of these engines made the whole bike very unstable. Finally it was the Werner brothers in 1901 who placed the engine where the pedals used to be, at the base of the bicycle frame, and the modern motorcycle layout was born. Between 1901 and 1916 the technical development of the motorcycle was so rapid that every feature of a modern machine appeared at this time. Many of these early machines were bicycles with clip on engines and petrol tanks. Transmission was via a belt which was prone to slip and stretch in wet weather. With a single gear and no clutch it was a case of ‘push and hop on’. As with the automobile, so the early motorcycle benefited from the test of road racing. In 1907 the famous Isle of Man T.T. (Tourist Trophy) began and, within four years, it had become the world’s most important motorcycle race. The fierce competition spurred on technical developments. By 1911 there were transmissions with clutches and gearing by belts running on variable diameter pulleys. However, in 1911, shock waves were sent throughout the motorcycle industry. The TT organisers changed from the old 15miles St John’s course to the 37¾-mile ‘mountain’ circuit. The other shock came 97

when in that year the first three places in the senior race were taken by the very advanced Indian from the USA using a two-speed countershaft gearbox and all-chain drive. The single-speeder was doomed. There followed the magnificent Sunbeam of 1912. It was advanced in every way with two-speed gearbox, kick-start, enclosed all-chain drive, clutch control on the handlebar and everything constructed to ‘Rolls Royce’ standards. The pioneer motorcyclist needed enthusiasm, tenacity, and the adventurer’s spirit. Riding a single speed machine was by no means easy. Throttle, air and ignition levers controlled the engine. There was no clutch; the cycle type stirrup brakes were almost useless and the narrow, treadless tyres easily side-slipped on wet, rough roads. Heavy clothing was essential for protection against cold, wind, rain or dust, yet the frequent need for pedalling to help the engine soon had the rider in a lather of sweat. During the First World War rugged machines were developed by several famous manufacturers for use by despatch riders over rough terrain. The British Army used the Douglas and Triumph for messenger work, while bigger two-cylinder Royal Enfields and Clynos were employed for mobile machine gun mounts. Following the war, orders flooded in for new motor bikes, many of them from ex-servicemen with first-hand riding experience. The years 1919 and 1920 were a boom time for the industry, with ninety new makes appearing, but spiralling prices and a shortage of materials soon caused the orders to dry up. The market did recover and Britain became established as the maker of the finest machines in the world. The 1920s was the ‘Golden Age’, with BSA, Triumph, Douglas, Ariel, Matchless and Norton at the top of the league. Throughout the inter-war years technical advances continued. Stronger and lighter metals were used, overhead-valve engines replaced side valves and the foot gear change came in. For the motorcyclist, roads were improving, garages and petrol stations were commonplace, and machines were easier and safer to ride. The sidecar combination, costing about £70, offered economical family transport but the arrival of baby cars such as the Austin 7 at £135 (1928) caused many families to desert their sidecar outfits. The motorbike itself continued to be popular with for example 646,295 registered in 1926 compared to 695,634 cars. During the Second World War the American army relied on the Harley-Davidson and Indian, Britain used the Ariel, BSA, Matchless and Norton; the Germans had BMW and Zundapp. Convoy escort and despatch work were the primary duties of the motorcycle at this time. In the post-war world the motorcycle market changed dramatically. The great British firms continued to produce large machines and failed to introduce light runabouts like the scooter and moped. The Japanese saw the signs and took the market by storm. In 1948 Soichiro Honda bought some army surplus generator engines and fitted them to bicycle frames. In 1958 came the C100, a step through motorcycle ridden like a scooter, which revolutionised motorcycling. These universal bikes were popular with all ages, particularly women and sold in millions throughout the world. The superbikes of the 1980s with their turbos, digital fuel injection and the power to reach 160 m.p.h., would seem science fiction to the Edwardian motorcyclist. 98

Exersice 1. Read the text and match the appropriate title to it. 17.15 Text 15 Commercial Vehicles

The new exhibition of commercial vehicles centres around a 1930s street scene, showing home deliveries, road making, and passenger hire vehicles. The 1930s were a time of transition in the commercial vehicle world. Mass produced light delivery vans and lorries flooded onto the roads, and the horse was now only used for local delivery work. Diesel engines were used by heavy lorries and steam wagons disappeared. The inter-war years were a boom time for the bus, coach and charabanc. In the 1920s bus companies leapt from a few hundred to four thousand. Bus design developed rapidly with solid tyres, oil lamps and some open cabs disappearing and double deckers had covered tops. The charabanc was a favourite for the company outing or weekend excursion. Chilly and cramped, the charabanc opened up many parts of Britain beyond the reach of railways and created a new leisure for the working man. The lorry today carries just about everything we buy, sell, dispose of, or build. Fuel delivery, removals, defence work, containers, supermarket supplies, tipping, mixing, fire fighting; the list of tasks is endless. Exercise 1. Read the text and render it 17.16 Text 16 Motoring magazines

It was the bicycle and the tricycle which first gave people the freedom to tour the countryside in the 1870s. Into this background the motor car came to Great Britain in 1894. The first motoring magazine to appear was The Autocar in 1895 at a time when there were less than seventy cars in the country – a far-sighted publisher! The first journalist had to invent many of the motoring terms. If you did not know what an autocar was, the magazine’s sub-title told you: The journal of the mechanically propelled road carriage. New magazines then appeared thick and fast, The Auto-Motor and Horseless Carriage Journal in 1896; The Motor Car Journal in 1899; Motor Traction in 1904 (later to become Motor Transport); and in 1902, the other great weekly, The Motor. Car Illustrated, published by Lord Montagu, was launched in 1903 and was a sort of Tatler of the motoring scene. In parallel with these were the motorcycling magazines, some attracting even more readers than those about cars. The Motorcycle in 1903, affectionately known as ‘The Blue’un’, was the first and for many years the most successful. Its great rival through the decades, Motorcycling began in 1909. The early magazines contained articles about touring as the car gave people the oportunity to travel more widely for pleasure than the bicycle ever could. There were 99

articles on cars and how to drive them, and many on maintenance. It must be remembered that few drivers knew anything about the motor car that they had just bought. Later, the great annual trade and social occasion was the London Motor Show at Olympia, then Earls Court, and now at The National Exhibition Centre in Birmingham. The showguides produced by magazines such as The Motor were often the size of a small telephone directory, there being so much editorial and advertising to be crammed in. The first magazine wholly devoted to motor racing was The Brooklands Gazette. This magazine quickly broadened its sports coverage from just the track at Weybridge and was renamed Motor Sport in 1924. At the time, the major motoring weekly magazines gave a lot of space to competition of all kinds and were like the Monte Carlo Rally and the 24-hour race at Le Mans. The most competitive years for the press were to come after the Second World War. Many of the smaller publishing houses were swallowed up and a few big rival groups took over. Many specialist magazines came into being and chiselled away from their traditional rivals, fringe readers and advertising. The do-it-yourself brigade emerged very strongly with magazines such as Practical Motorist (founded as long ago as 1934). Even though repair and maintenance material is available from specialist handbooks there are still plenty of people who want a monthly magazine to help them with the upkeep of their motor car. Whatever type of magazine it is, top of the list for popularity in the contents has consistently been road-test reports on new models. Road testing has become a precise and highly technical activity. More recently a number of publishers have put out magazines for the enthusiast for the older car. The Vintage and Thoroughbred Car, first published in 1953, was soon changed to Veteran and Vintage Magazine edited by the present Lord Montagu, and later this magazine was taken over by the largest circulation journal of its type. thoroughbred and Classic Cars, which is now into its second decade. Today only a few enthusiasts can afford the car they would really like to own. This was exactly the situation at the very beginning. Today’s motoring magazines such as Fast Lane with their colourful descriptions, dramatic action pictures and road tests of the futuristic and astronomically expensive turbo this, or turbo that, ‘beam’ their readers briefly into a different exotic world of motoring. Nowadays we have something like 140 British Automotive magazines and that does not include many hundreds of publications put out by a thousand or so motor clubs. the National Motor Museum recognises the importance of motoring magazines and with the help of Business Press International has mounted a special audiovisual programme on the subject. The information contained within magazines such as the ones mentioned here and many others, is now of great interest to the present-day journalist, to the motoring author and to the enthusiast. Reference libraries such as the one at Beaulieu have grown up to serve these collectors and reporters. Exercise 1. Read the text and say how many motoring magazines there existed in Europe in 1920s. - 1970s. 100

18 Словник к текстам «Европейское автостроение» A

ABS (Anti-lock Braking System) acceleration accident, crash acid, sulphuric acid add, add oil additive adjust air air cleaner air conditioner air-intake port all-wheel-drive (AWD) allow, permit aluminum ammeter angle anti-blocking system anti-fog antifreeze ash-tray assembly assemble, to reassemble assist, help automatic axial axle axle shaft axle, rear axle

АБС (антиблокировочн. тормозн. сист.) разгон происшествие кислота, серная доливать, масло присадка регулировать воздух воздухоочиститель кондиционер воздухозаборник полноприводной разрешать алюминий амперметр угол (геометрич.) антиблокировочная система противотуманный антифриз пепельница сборка собирать помогать автоматический осевой ось, полуось осевой вал мост, задний мост

B

back, bed baggage balance, wheel balance ball bearing barrier battery battery cell belt bicycle, cycle

кузов (грузовика или пикапа0 багаж балансировка, (колеса) подшипник шариковый шлагбаум аккумулятор банка аккумулятора ремень велосипед 101

block blocking blow body body panel, instrumental panel bonnet, hood booster boot box, gear box brake disc brake fluid brake, drum brake, disk brake built-in bulb bulb socket bumper bumper bumper button button, key

блок блокировка продувать кузов (несущий) панель, кузовная, приборная капот усилитель багажник коробка, передач диск тормозной тормозная жидкость тормоза, барабанные, дисковые встроенный лампа патрон отбойник буфер, амортизатор бампер кнопка клавиша

C

cab caliper camshaft cap capacity car, lorry, truck carburetor cause ceramic chamber, carburetor’s (venture) charge chassis check, test checking checking oil level close, shut coal coil collision column, steering column compression compression ratio 102

кабина суппорт, захват скоба распредвал, кулачковый вал пробка емкость автомобиль, легковой, грузовой карбюратор причина керамический камера карбюратора (диффузор) заряжать шасси проверять контроль контроль за уровнем масла закрывать уголь катушка столкновение колонка, рулевая компрессия ступень, компрессии

compressor condition, performance connecting rod connector, terminal consumption cool coolant cooling, water cooled engine corrosion coupling, one-way clutch of starter cover crack crankshaft crash current, AC, DC

компрессор состояние шатун разъем, конечный расход охлаждать охлаждающая жидкость охлаждение, (двигатель водяного) коррозия муфта, обгонная, стартера чехол, наконечник шарнира трещина коленвал авария (столкновение) ток, переменный, постоянный

D

damage danger diagnostic diagram diameter diesel differential direction disassemble disc distributor cap distributor/ignition cam driver driveshaft drum, brake drum

повреждение опасность диагностика схема диаметр дизель дифференциал направление разбивать диск крышка распределителя кулачок прерывателя водитель карданный вал барабан тормозной

E

eight-cylinder electric plug electrical circuit electrode electronic ignition engine, internal combustion engine exhaust, exhaust gases exhaust pipe, tail pipe external

восьмицилиндровый вилка электрическая цепь электрическая электрод зажигание электронное двигатель, внутреннего сгорания выхлопной, -ые газы выхлопная труба внешний 103

F

fan, heater fan, electric fasten, tie file fill up, refuel flange float float chamber floor flywheel flywheel rim foam foot foot, feet four-cylinder freeze friction front suspension front-drive fuel fuel pump, high pressure fuel system fuel tank fuel tank capacity

вентилятор, -отопителя, электрич. привязывать, приклеивать напильник заправляться фланец поплавок поплавковая камера пол маховик обход маховика поролон, пенопласт ножной фут четырехцилиндровый замерзать фрикционный мост, передняя подвеска переднеприводной топливо бензонасос, высокого давления система питания бак вместимость топливного бака

G

gallon gas, compressed gas, exhaust gasket gauge gear generator, AC-generator, DC-generator grease, lubricant

галлон газ, сжатый, выхлопные прокладка указатель (прибор) редуктор генератор, перем. тока, постоянного смазка

H

handle hatch, ventilation port hatchback head headlight heater heating, warming up 104

ручка, рукоятка люк, вентиляционный пяти-дверная машина головка фара обогреватель подогрев

height highway hole (tyre) hose

высота автострада прокол в шине шланг

I

idle ignition key ignition system, cooling system inch indicator, indicator light injection jet injection, dual injection insure install insulate, seal, insulate a wire insulation insulation, insulating/sealing tape insulator, spark plug insulator insurance intake, outlet iron J

холостой ход ключ зажигания система зажигания, охлаждения дюйм индикатор, лампа форсунка впрыск (топлива) двойственный страховать устанавливать, монтировать изолировать, провод, уплотнение изоляция изоляционный, лента изолятор, свечи страховой полис коллектор впускной, выпускной железо

jack jet, air jet, fuel jet

домкрат сопло, струя, топливный

K

kerosene knock up (engine) knocking

керосин застучать (о двигателях) стук

L

lead leak leak, leakage level lift, jack light liquid load lorry, truck

свинец течь утечка уровень поднимать фонарь жидкость нагрузка грузовик 105

loss, loss of power low octane

потеря, мощности низкооктановый

M

manifold manual, schedule micrometer milliampere mixture, fuel mixture moulding

коллектор (трубопровод) руководство микрометр миллиампер смесь молдинг, формовка, отливка

N

net, cage noise, noisy

сетка шум, шумный

O

octane rating/number odometer oil overheat overtaking overturn

октановое число одометр масло перегреваться обгон опрокинуться

P

pad pad, engine support pad petrol, gasoline pipe piston piston pin piston ring, snap ring plug power supply pressure pressure, clutch release bearing pressure, oil pressure, tyre pressure pump up, inflate pump, oil pump, fuel pump pump, water pump 106

колодка тормозная подушка (техн.), опоры двигателя бензин трубка поршень палец кольцо поршневое, стопорное заглушка питание нажимной, давление выжимной, подшипник давление, масла, в шинах подкачать (шины) насос масляный, топливный помпа

R

rack radiator rim ring, compression ring road clearance rpm rust

рейка зубчатая, стойка стеллаж радиатор обод кольцо, компрессионное клиренс, дорожный зазор вращения в минуту ржавчина

S

safe safety safety glass screen, shield, heat screen screw screwdriver seal self-adjusting shaft, secondary shaft, propeller shell shell main bearing shock, absorber short circuit shoulder six-cylinder slide slip, clutch slipping socket socket solder spare, spare parts spark spark gap spark plug sparkling speed speedometere, speedo speedy spider spline spline joint spot, stain spray, sprayer

безопасный, травмобезопасный безопасность тримплекс экран, тепловой винт отвертка сальник саморегулирующийся вал, вторичный, карданный, пропел вкладыш вкладыш корневой толчок, удар, амортизатор замыкание обочина шестицилиндровый скользить пробуксовывать, буксировка гнездо (электр. и т.д.) розетка паять запасной, запасные части искра искровой (исправлять), прорыв свеча зажигания искрение скорость спидометр скорый, проворный крестовина шлиц шлицевое соединение пятно пульверизатор 107

spring standard start up steam steering wheel steering gear stroboscope stroke stub axle surface suspension switch switch off switch on, switch on ignition synchronizer

пружина стандарт заводить пар руль рулевая колонка стробоскоп такт (работы двигателя) цапфа поверхность подвеска переключатель выключить выключить фары/зажигание синхронизатор

T

tachometer tap cock, faucet TDC (Top Dead Center) temperature pick up temperature, operating temperature tensioner thermostat throat, tank filler neck, oil filler throttle thumb a lift tie, tie rod tighten timer timing tin tip transport, to convey to unscrew tools top torch, acetylene torch torque, tightening torque, rotation torsion bar tow-car-car, tow truck, wrecker (US) traffic-jam turbocharger turn 108

тахометр кран (трубопровода) в.м.т. (верхняя мертвая точка) датчик температуры температура, рабочая натяжитель термостат горловина, бензобака, маслозаливная дроссель голосовать тяга подтягивать таймер опережение зажигания олово наконечник транспортировать отвинчивать инструменты крыша горелка, ацетиленовая момент силы, затяжки, крутящий торсион, штанга кручения тягач затор (на дороге), пробка турбо нагнетатель (нагнетатель) поворот

turn over, crank two-stroke tyre (Am.), tire (Br.)

поворачивать двухтактный шина

U

U-turn underframe side member

разворот лонжерон

V

V-joint yoke vacuum valve valve cam valve clearance/gap valve, choke, throttle valve valve, inlet valve outlet valve van vapour, petrol/gas vapour vehicle voltage

вилка карданного шарнира разрежение, вакуумный, вакуум вентиль кулачок, распредвала зазор тепловой привода клапанов заслонка, воздушная, дроссельная клапан, впускной, выпускной фургон пары бензина транспортное средство напряжение

W

warm up water, distilled water wear weight, full/total weight weld welding wheel base wheel disc wheel studs wheel wrench, box wrench wheel, steering wheel winch, power winch winding wrench, torque

прогревать вода, дистиллированная износ вес, полный заваривать сварка база колеса диск колесный шипы колесные ключ колесный, накидной колесо, рулевое лебедка механическая обмотка ключ (инструмент), динамометрический

109

19 Библиография 1. Saab 9000. Form and Function. Saab automobile AB. - Trollhättan, Sweden, 1992. - 95 p. 2. The National Motor Museum. A Pictorial Guide To Motoring History. - Red Business Publishing. Quadrant House, Sutton, Surrey SM2 5AS, 1993. - 40 p. 3. Мюллер В.К. Англо-русский словарь. - М.: Советская энциклопедия, 1979. - 912 с. 4. Десов А.Е. Англо-русский технический словарь. - М.: Советская энциклопедия, 1979. - 463 с. 5. Мюллер В., Боянус С. Англо-русский словарь. - Киев: Каннон, 1997. 1390 с.

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