LINCOM Studies in Asian Linguist ics
LINCOM Studies in Asian Linguistics
Yunnanese and Kunming Chinese: A Study of the Language Communities, the Phonological Systems, and the Phonological Developments
In this series
Ming Chao Gui
01 Karen Ebert
A Grammar of Athpare
02 Stefan Georg
Marphatan Thakali
03 Tsutomu Akamatsu
Japanese Phonetics. Theory and Practice
04 D.N.S. Bhat & M.S. Ningomba
Manipuri Grammar
05 Siew-Yue Killingley
Learning to Read Pinyin Romanization and its Equivalent in Wade-Giles: A Practical Course for Students of Chinese
07 Barbara Niederer
Les langues Hmong-Mjen (Miao-Yao). Phonologle hlstorlque
12 Duck-Young Lee
Korean Phonology. A Principle-based Approach
25 Heinrich Werner
Probleme der Wortbildung in den Jenissej-5prachen
26 Yogendra Yadava
Issues in Maithili Syntax A Government-Binding Approach
27 John Newman & Anand V. Raman
Chinese Historical Phonology
28 Ming Chao Gui
Yunnanese and Kunming Chinese: A Study of the Language Communities, the Phonological Systems, and the Phonolog ical Developments
30 Yavar Deghani
A Grammar of Iranian Azari Including Comparisons with Persian
32 Xiaonong Sean Zhu
Shanghai Tonetics
33 Nikolai Vakhlin
The Old Slrinek Language
38 Tsutomu Akamatsu
Japanese Phonology A Functional Approach
39 Ago KUnnap
Contact-induced Perspectives in Uralic Languages
40 Lau Chunfat
The Decline of the General Hakka Accent In Hong Kong
2001 LINCOM EUROPA
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Abstract
This book is based on the author's doctoral dissertation with the same title completed at the University of Texas. It is an interdisciplinary study composed of extensive research and detailed analyses of Yunnanese, a Southwestern Mandarin language spoken in Yunnan province, China, and Kunming Chinese, one of its major varieties spoken in the city of Ku1uning, the capitol of Yunnan . The research work is conducted in three major areas: the language commumt1es, the phonological systems, and the phonological developments in the past seven decades. The language communities are discussed from the perspectives of ethnology, sociolinguistics, and dialectology. The discussion covers the following area~: 1) the history of the civilization of Yunnan and Kunming, 2) the ethnographical and ethnohistorical account for the twenty-four ethnic groups inhabiting in Yunnan province, 3) the demographic statistics of these groups, and 4) the dialect geography of Yunnanese and its varieties and the members of Southwestern Mandarin subgroup. A language survey has been conducted in some detail on the varieties of Yunnanese represented by one hundred and thirty-five locations with a comparative study of their segmental and suprasegmental features. A comparative study on the language data representing two different varieties of Kwuning Chinese spoken in two different periods of time, i.e. before and after 1950s, discloses the striking phonological changes undergone by this dialect. Analyses of the tone sandhi in autosegmental and metrical framework have revealed the edge sensitive characteristic of its tone system. The constraints of tone sandhi imposed by syntactic structure and lexical category are also discussed with ample examples. Computer aided acoustic experiments provide evidence in support of the arguments regarding the significant phonological changes undergone by both Ywmanese and Kunming Chinese in the past seven decades. Some major causes of the changes have been investigated from the historical and sociolinguistic perspectives. The author Ming Chao Gui is Assistant Professor of Chinese and Linguistics at the Department of Modern Languages, Literatures, and Linguistics of the University of Oklahoma, Norman He has regular publications on Chinese dialects, Chinese teaching campus, U.S.A .. methodology, and comparative studies in Chinese and English phonology and translation in the past ten years.
Table of Contents
Abbreviation 0. 0.1. 0.2. 0.3. 0.4.
0.5. I. 1.1. 1.1.1. 1.1.2. 1.2.
1.3. 1.4.
1.5. 1.6. 2. 2. 1. 2.1.1. 2.1.2. 2.2. 2.2.1. 2.3 . 2.3. 1. 2.3. 1.1. 2.3. 1.2. 2.3. 1.3. 2.3.1.4. 2.3.2. 2.3.2. \. 2.3.2.2. 2.3.2.3. 2.3.2.4. 2.3.3.
3. 3. 1. 3.1. \. 3.1.2. 3.2. 3.2.1. 3.2.2. 3.2.3. 3.2.4. 3.2.5. 3.3. 3.3. 1. 3.3.2.
Introduction Defining Yunnanese and Kuruning Chinese Changes ofYunnanese and Kunming Chinese The originality and significance of the study The major goal Organization Yunnan and Kunming as language communities Introduction Defining variation Parameters in language community division The geographic perspective Ethnological background of Yunnan and Kunming An ethnohistorical view of Yunnan people A brief review of language situation in Yunnan A brief view ofKuruning hinese Survey and analysis of the varieties of Yunnanese Introduction The mutual intelligibility ofYunnanesc and Mandarin The terminology ofYunnanese and Kunming Chinese Literature ofYunnancse Wu and Yan's work Classification and distribution of Yunnanese varieties Yang's classification The first type ofYunnanese The second type ofYunnanese The third type ofYunnanese The fourth type of Yunnanese Wu and Yan's classification Dianzhong region (Region I) Diannan region (Region 2) Dianxi region (Region 3) Diandongbei region (Region 4) Observations of the two systems The phonological system ofYunnensc Initials in Yunnancse The inventory ofYunnanese initial consonants The functions of the diagnostic initial consonants Rhymes in Yunnanese The structure ofYunnancse Rhymes Rhyme inventory in Yunnanese varieties The underlying vowels in Yunnanese rhymes Yunnanese phonological idiosyncrasy The changes of the rhymes Tones in Yunnanese Tone category and tone value Comparison of two different tonal systems
OS 05 05
OS 06 08 08 08 08
II II
13 16 19 20 21 21 21 22 22 24 24 24
25 25 25 25 27 28 28 29 29 30 31 31 32 34 38 38 43
45 47 49 51 51 51
3
2 3.3.3. 3.3.4. 3.3.4.1. 3.3.4.1.1. 3.3.4. 1.2. 3.3.4.1.3. 3.3 .4. 1.4. 3.3.4.2. 3.3.4.3 . 3.3.4.4. 4. 4.1. 4.1.1. 4.1.2. 4.1.2.1. 4 . 1.2.2. 4. 1.2.3. 4.2. 4.2. 1. 4.2.2. 4 .2.2. 1. 4.2.2.2. 4.2.3. 4.2.3.1. 4.2.4. 4 .2.5. 4.3. 4.3 . 1. 4.3.2. 4.3.2.1. 4.3.2.2. 4.3.2 .3 . 4.3.3. 4.3.3.1. 4.3.3 .2. 4.3 .3.3. 4.3.4. 4.3.4.1. 4 .3.4.2. 4.3.5. 4.3.6. 4.3 .7. 4.3. 8. 4.4. 4.4.1. 4.4.2. 4.4.2.1 . 4.4.2.2. 4.4.2.3. 4.4.3. 4.4.3.1.
A historical perspective of tonal systems Tone groups ofYunnanese varieties Four-tone group Tone I of Yunnanese varieties and the conditions Tone 2 and the modified conditions Tone 3 and the modified conditions Tone 4 and the modified conditions Five-tone group Three-tone group Seven-tone group The phonology of Kunming Chinese Introduction Chinese dialect classification An overview of Kuruning Chinese Population and current status Linguistic comparison with Mandarin Chinese A brief account on the changes and their causes Initials in Kunming Chinese Data source Controversy over initial [v] in KC Evidence of lwl as the underlying form of [ v] Rule I: the resegmentation rule Loss of the retroflex series Rule 2: the fronting mle Free variations: In!- Ill and l xl- lfl Summary of the initials in CKC Rhymes in KC Types and structures ofthe rhymes in KC The vowels of KC Three surface manifestations of Iii Rule 3: the backness rule Rule 4: vowel tensing rule Controversy over nasal rhymes Rule 5: the vowel fronting and nasal deletion rule Rule 6: the friction rule Rule 7: Further change of nasal rhyme [eiJ] Changes of the complex rhymes Rule 8: the nucleus rai sing rule Rule 9: the diphthongization rule Syllable fusion of the rhotacized words Desulcalizati on of the rhotacized words Vowel devo icing in emphatic mood Summary Tones in Kuruning Chinese Tone derivation of Kunming Chinese Difference in OKC and CKC tonal systems Difference in value of Tone 2 Difference in value of Tone 4 Summary Tone sa ndhi in Kumning Chinese The general tendency
53 54 54 55 56 57 58 60 61 63 65 65 65
68 68 68 68 69 69 69 70 71 72 72 73 73 74 75 76 79 81 81
82 82 87 87 88
88 89 89 91 92 92 95 95 97 97
98 99 100 100
4.4.3.2. 4.4.3.3 . 4.4.3 .3.1. 4.4.3.3.2. 4.4.3.3.3. 4.4 .3 .3 .4. 4.4.3.3 .5. 4.4.4. 5. 5.1. 5.2. 5.3. 5.4. 5.5 . 5.6. Appendix Appendix Appendix Appendix Appendix
A briefautosegm ental acount Tone sandhi Tone I sandhi Tone 2 sa ndhi Tone 3 sandhi Tone 4 sandhi Tone sandhi in three-syllable reduplicated structure Summary The causes of the phonological changes in OKC Introduction A multi-lingual and multi-dialectal community The role of political factors The influence of Sichuan lfua Influence from the Wu dialects Influence from minority languages A Administrativ e regions in Yunnan Province B Reduplicated Structure in Kunming Chinese C Tones ofYunnanese varieties D Wave forms and tone contours E Census of Kunming urban area (obtained in 1999)
100 104 104 106 109 110 Ill 115 115 115 115 115 116 117 117 118 122 130 134 139
4
LSASL28
Abbreviation Ant Asp
Bk CKC Cons Coni Cor Glot Grav
H KC
L MC Nas OKC Rd Retro Son Strid Syll Vd
LSASL28
5
0. lntrodction Anterior Aspirated
Back Contemporary Kunming Chinese Consonantal Continuent Coronal Glottal Grave High Kunming Chinese Low Mandarin Chinese Nasal Old Kunming Chinese Rounded Retroflex Sonorant Strident Syllabic Voiced
0.1. Defining Yunnanese and Kunming Chinese "Yunnanese" (-i;-~1-k), like Cantonese (f- ,y, it-) or Hubeinese (iJJJ~!:.it-), has been used and understood by scholars nationally and internationally as the lingua franca of the Province of Yunnan, a remote province in southwest China. In fact, Yunnanese is an allencompass ing name. It is a general yet loose lingui stic name representing all the Chinese dialectal variations in the area of Yunnan in different geographical areas and in different historical periods. Kunming Chinese (it fl}]it-), the variety of YUJmanese spoken in the city of Kunming, capital of Yunnnan Province, is considered the lingua franca because of its predominant position in politics, economy, and culture in the province. So in a very narrow se nse, Yunnanesc and Kunming Chinese arc referring to the same form of Chinese dialect.
0.2. Changes of Yunnanese and Kunming Chinese For various reasons, Yunnanese as well as Kunming Chinese, has not been as well stud ied as some other Chinese dialects such as Cantonese, Mandarin, and even some varieties of Min family dialects. However, due to many historical and political reasons, especially the practice of "open-door" policy in China since the early 80s, many areas of Yunnan especially Kumning city and its vicinities have undergone rapid developments in many aspects because of the influence from other more developed cities in China as well as from many western countries. Yunnanese and Kunming Chinese, exposed to the outside world and experiencing all types of influence, have also undergone many linguistic changes. Historically the province was isolated from the rest of the country due to its geographic location and physical characteristics. The area has been viewed as a closed, "static", and backward "alien" place. However, in 1981 while on a business trip to the world renown scenic spot: the Stone forest of Lunan (3tifJkA,f.) in Kunming's vicinity, the author was utterl y surpri sed by the fact that some obviously illiterate elderly peasant women could use simple English to bargain with western tourists when peddling their local goods. The area, full of peasant villages and inhabited by several different minority groups, used to be known for its poverty and high rate of illiteracy. However, due to the influence brought inevitably by the increasing number of tourists, profound changes have been found throughout the province. These changes in tum bring profound changes to the languages in these areas.
0.3. The originality and significance of the study As a result of various influences, Yunnanese and Kunming Chinese are inevitably undergoing changes. As the same time, their importance among the variations of Chinese is also changing. However, the available data so far show that the studies and analyses done in the past are limited and elementary, lacking both scope and depth . For thi s reason, Yunnanese and Kunming Chinese can be viewed as less-well-studied varieties in the I Ian language system. The research and analyses recorded in this book can thus, in some sense, be considered new because of its extensive research scope and detailed analysis. In addi tion. to the best of the author's knowledge, up till now, no studies have dealt with the changes of the phonological system of Kunming Chinese in the past several decades, nor have any analyses discussed the factors that have contributed to the changes.
6
LSASL28
With the aid of modern technology of analysis, especially the utilization of computer and acoustic experimental equipment, accurate results have been obtained. Some of them have helped explain some long time controversial problems. Some sentimental reasons have also become the source of the enthusiasm and courage for this vast task. Kunming is the place where both the author and his parents were born and grew up. It is the place that the author has strong emotional attachment to. Kunming Chinese is the author's first language and it is also the language that the author has been speaking most of his life even though he left his hometown at the age of three. The place reminds the author from time to time of a happy chi ldhood and keeps stirring up a neverceasing nostalgia in his mind for it. He always feels like he needs to do something for it.
0.4. The major goal The major goal of this book is to give a relatively complete description, discussion and ana lysis of 135 varieti es of Yunnanese and Kunming Chinese as separate speech communities, each with its own different phonological system. It is also the hope placed in this book to bring to the attention of scholars the rapid and extensive phonological changes and developments taken place in the past several decades in the language con tinuum in the southwestern part of China. Yunnanese, one of the major topics of this investigation, is a member of the Southwestern branch of the Northern Mandarin subfami ly U!:.~~-ik) known as Xinan Guanhua ( & r*J 'tit )- Southwestern Court Language, or Shangjiang Guanghua (..l.i.J..~-it)-Upper Yangtze River Court Language. Southwestern Mandarin includes the varieties in Sichuan, Yunnan , Guizhou, Guangxi, and some areas of Hunnan and Hubei. Northern Mandarin is one of the seven stocks of the Han language or Mandarin Chinese spoken in Mainland China. Mandarin Chinese has been further divided into four subgroups: Northern Mandarin, Northwestern Mandarin, Southwestern Mandarin, and Jianghuai Mandarin (i.J..)fi,~it) . The province of Yu1111an has a unique geographic location. It shares borders with three countries: Vietnam, Laos, and Burma and three provinces: Sichuan, Guizhou, and Guangxi. Yunnan has the richest ethnicity in China. It is the home of twenty-three out of China's fifty-six nationalities. The province also has been affected by the influence from many metropolitan cities such as Beijing, Shanghai, and Guangzhou because of the large scale of influx of people from those cities during several major political campaigns in the Chinese history. These factors contribute to the multicultural and intricate situation in the languages in Yunnan. Kunming Chinese is another major topic of this investigation. It is one of the major varieties of Yunnanese. Kunming Chinese as spoken in the urban area of the city of Kunming and its vicinities is regarded as the lingua franca of the province. The population of 111 urban Kunming and is not inconsiderable---over 1.6 millions according to the 4 National Census in 1994. But paradoxically, the number of Kunming Chinese speaker is only around 650,000 whi e other 950,000 are the so-called " floating population" who are not the regular residents of the city but they bring along their own languages. Kunming Chinese has a rather limited distribution because of its geographical isolation from the rest of the country. However, in the past several decades, Kunming Chinese has undergone extensive, systematic, and dramatic changes in almost all its linguistics aspects: phonology, grammar, semantics, and lexicon. As a result, The Old Kunming Chinese, the version spoken before the mid 1950s, from which the contemporary variety has derived , sounds archaic or even exotic to the ears of younger generations in Kunming.
-~
"'c.>r::
·;;
e 0.
r::
"' ~ >""~
"'r:: :.a u 0 0.
"'
~
8
LSASL28
0.5. Organization
9
LSASL28
variation "affects language in more fundamental ways" (Francis 1983: 19). Several domains of language can be affected by such variation, especially lexicon, phonology, and grammar.
Language does not exist in a cultural vacuum. This book is presenting an interdisciplinary rather than purely linguistic description and analysis of Yunnanese as well as Kunming Chinese. The first chapter is devoted to discussion, in ethnological and sociolinguistic perspective, of Yunnan and Kunming as language communities. In this chapter, the most sa lient parameters that have caused the subdivision of the language communities are discussed in detail. An ethnological background and an ethnohistorical view are also provided with respect to the origin, history, demography, cultural tradition , and religious beliefs of the minorities of Yunnan province as well as of the Han residents in Kunming city. ln an overview of the language situation in Yunnan and a brief introduction to Kunming Chinese, other factors that impose impact on the dialectal variations in these areas, such as political, social, and economic factors, are also reflected. The central part of this book is in the second, the third, and the fourth chapters. In the second chapter, a survey is conducted on the extra-linguistic complexity of 135 Yunnanese varieties. Information in this chapter is based on the research recently done by a number of Chinese scholars and language data provided by a large number of native speakers. Some observations have been made regarding the classification, distribution, phonological changes, and the internal as well as external motivations of the changes. Some phonological generalizations have been made on the assumption that common underlying forms can be found for the different subsystems of syllable initials consonants, rhymes, and tones of these 135 varieties of Yunnanese. The third and the fourth chapters, a key part in the book, contain a detailed discussion of the phonological system ofYunnanese as well as Kunming Chinese, which is based on the studies of six different sources including the Old Kunming Chinese (OKC) and the Contemporary Kunming Chinese (CKC). Variation and changes of language are often taken for granted by the speakers. Some even claim that language change cannot be observed. The discussions in this chapter show that these changes are rapid and dramatic in the past several decades. Some generalizations di scussed in this chapter suggest the changes in the phonological system of Kunming Chinese. More discussion, supported by first-hand language data, is also given on the changes in the tonal system ofKunming Chinese from the historical as well as autosegmental perspective. The fifth chapter includes the discussion on the assumed causes of the phonological changes undergone by the Old Kunming Chinese.
Map 0.2 The administrative regions of Yunnan province'
J. Yunnan and Kunming as language communities
1.1. Introduction
3. Zhaotong Region
I. Kunming City area
2. Dongchuan City area
4. Qujin Region
5. Chuxiong Yi Autonomous Region
6. Yuxi Region
7. 1-/ongh e 1/ani and Yi Autonomous Region
8. Wenshan Miao Autonomous Region
9. Simao Region
1.1.1. Defining variation I 0. Xishuangbanna Dai Autonomous Region Variation is a natural and normal produce of the social and linguistic complexity, of which every individual partakes. American linguist C-J Bailey says: "a language is a millipede not a monopod". (C-J Bailey 1973) Every individual, being multidialectal, knows and actively employs on varying degrees to different dialects of his or her language. Language variation can be incidental or systematic. Incidental variation affects only "the individual linguistic items without upsetting the whole system" whereas systematic
II . Dali Bai Autonomous Region 12. Baoshan Region
1
13. De hong Dai and Jingpo Autonomous Region
For the Chinese version of these regions, refer to Appendix A.
10
LSASL28 14. Lijiang Region
15 . Nujiang Lisu Autonomous Region
16. Diqing Tibet Autonomous Region
17. Lingcan Region
II
LSASL28 Malong ~k
Luliang p£- til
Lunan 3&. rtJ
9-t
Shizong ~ifi :t
Luxi if §
Luoping
Fuxi
'ff;,~!j
(
;t~)
1.1.2. Parameters in language community division •
Hufze '\'ongchuan '
'Yongren
..
..
.. ..
..... ·... ·
.
• •
•\
•, ,
;
Mudlng .'
....'
Chuxlong
~··
I \J· •
Xundfan
Zhanyl
• • '
, , , ',, Fuxf
'.Qujfn : •• Ma I ong • • •• • • :"· ,' ',
•• • ,'.
Song~~~lng
Cheng-)
Yfllll!n
,'
•• • :
:'
Lunan
0vuxi
: : •Jfang-' •• •• chuan, • Hua-l £shan • •• , ;' • • • ·: nfng} • ._: •
• -·
l.,..-
•••
Mile
·~r...i:.
•
• •
Qfubef
(
Map 0.3 The city of Kumning and its vicinity
:Jc +it
Yongren ,)
:t1 ~~ illi~~0i}.lJ~.1;J-i;-I*)00 )5(,:i~Ji.1ry~Jt.t';;jJL J •
22
LSASL28
2.1.2. The terminology ofYunnanese and Kunming Chinese As mentioned briefly at the beginning of this book, Cantonese (or the older designation Yue Yu, ~;.g.), or rather, Guangdonghua ct· ,f, -if;, meaning "Guangdong Speech"), has been used by non-native speakers to refer solely to the variety used in the city of Guangzhou (i.e. Canton). In fact , it has a broader reference psychologically in the minds of native speakers. In other words, it could pertain to all the varieties in the Yue, or Guangdong area. By the same token, Yunnanese is not necessarily limited to the variety used in the city of Kunming as Chao employed it in his preface to Yang's book (Yang 1969). Instead, Kunming is considered the representative of Yunnanese. It is true that the name of province has been traditionally used by people to name the lingua franca of their own province. For instance, Guangdonghua refers to the language spoken in the city of Guangzhou; Yunnanhua (~rtJif;, meaning "Yunnan speech", also "Yunnanese") refers to Kunming Chinese, the variety spoken in the city of Kunming; Hunanhua (;".lJJrf)if;, meaning "Hunan speech") could refer to Chan gshahua ( ·I.E.i~·if;, meaning "Changsha speech"), the variety spoken in the city of Changsha. In reality, however, this type of designation is inaccurate, if not misleading, as far as the true variable situation is concerned. Therefore, in this book Kunming Chinese is used to refer to the particular variety spoken in Kunming to differentiate it from all the other varieties in the province of Yunnan. Based on the discussion given above, two major conclusions can be drawn: I) Kunming Chinese is quite different from its cousin, Northern Mandarin; 2) there exists significant diversity in the phonology among the local varieties of Y unnanese.
2.2. Literature ofYunnanese The last seven decades have seen some major contributions to the studies of the languages and language situation in Yunnan province. The most important ones are, without doubt, Yang Shih-feng's two-volume Report on a Surve of the Dialects of Yunnan 14 and the research of Wu Jicai and Yan Xiaoyun first appeared in the article entitled Yunnan Fangyan Gaishu ( ~~f)?f"t~llt.i!, An introduction to the Yunnan Dialects) collected in the anthology published by Yunnan Normal University and Yuxi Normal College in 1985. The essence of this same research was published in ~m .:~f.t: 4-li.+A i~i.g.?f"t ;t (Annals of Yurlllan Province: Vo1.58 : Annals of Han Dialects in Yunnan) by Yunnan People's Publishing Housein 1989 and then in ~m?f"tii.fiE.. (On the Sounds and Sound Systems of Yunnan Dialects) by Yunnan Education Publishing House in 1991.
2.2.1. Yang Shih-feng's work Based on the data elicited in early 1939 (from February to May) by Ding Shengshu and Dong Tonghe from 121 native speakers representing 101 regional dialects in Yunnan Province, Yang Shi-feng conducted the analyses following the samples provided by Y.R.
14 Yang' s book, with Y.R. Chao' s preface, was published in 1969 by the Institute of History and Philology of Academica Sinica in Taipei. It is understood that all the data cited in Yang's presentation were elicited by the late Ding Shengshu (T /> :j;J), a renowned Chinese linguist and the late Dong Tonghe (i"llililiof), except for the data from Yanfeng, Jinggu, and Longchuan, which were elicited by Zhang Kun (Hh f>z..i The following charts show how these diagnostic consonants function as the distinctive feature in the differentiation of the different dialect regions in Yunnan province.
Chart 3 .I D Region 2 distinguished from Region 3
Chart 3.1A Region I distinguished from Region 2
Chart 3. 1E Region 2 distinguished from Region 4 Region I
+ l rj tf> tf>h f> z..l Region I
+ l zl Region I
+ lz v/
Region 3A
- I 'fJ tf> tf>h
[?
z..l
Region 38
- l zl Region 3C
Region 3A
Region 38
+ l rjl
- l rj l
Region 3A
Region 3C
+ lvl
- /v /
- l z vi
Chart 3.18 Region I distinguished from Region 3
Chart 3 .IF Region 3A distinguished Region 3 B & 3C Chart 3 . I C Region I distinguished from Region 4
LSASL28
36
Region 3B
Region 3C
+lv /
-/vi
37
LSASL2 8
ln I 0 I locations
/zl
/vi
/rj/
Yang (1938)
34.65%
55 .45%
11.88%
Wu & Yan (1985)
49.60%
86%
7.78%
Chart 3. 1G Region 3B distinguished from Region 3C
Initial /n / and Ill have also been used by Wu and Yan as diagnostic consonants in the
Chart 3.2A Diachronic changes of initial consonants /z v rj/
variety classification . But in most cases with these two consonants, it is more a matter of free variation of In! and Ill than of presence or absence of these two consonants. Therefore, it would be better not to use them for classification purposes. The occurrence of the consonants I'll, J'lhJ, and /h/ is very limited, or rather, they are
Data in Chart 3.2A can be demonstrated in the following chart, which gives a clearer picture of the increasing and decreasing of these three initial consonants in the past four decades.
idiosyncratic to the vernacular ofYuxi county. In fact, in this variety, these three consonants correspond to the consonants /k/, /kh /, and /x/ respectively in other varieties. As mentioned earlier, it is unlikely that "sharp" isogloss can be provided for Yunnanese varieties due to the fact that there is always overlapping of the varieties across the geographical borders of different dialectal regions. Therefore, it is understood that the divisions are only based on a general tendency regarding the presence or absence of certain linguistic characteristics. Among these characteristics, some phonological features are more salient than lexical or semantic ones. For instance, by checking the available data, it can be noticed that it is generally true that the retroflex series of consonants /t~ t~h ~ z./ are in
100 80 Q)
Ol
g
complementary distribution with voiced alveolar fricative /z / in many areas. But this fact is
cQ)
not absolute. In some varieties of Yunnanese, such as the varieties in Muojian, Pu ' er, Quxi, Xinping, Eshan , and Yimen, both the retroflex series and the voiced alveolar fricative /z/ are
Cl_
~
Q)
present. However, the occurrence of /z/ in syllables is under certain type of constraint: it
consonants. However, in Wu and Yan's data published in 1985 , 49.60% had /z/, 85% had /v /
40 20
onl y precedes high front vowel /i / while the occurrence of the retroflex series is not restricted to this phonetic environment. The isoglosses presented at the end of this section show the overlap of the diagnostic consonants in the four regions. They can also be used as further evidence for the relative, rather than absolute, division of the variety regions. Analysis of the changes of the varieties in the past seven decades or so reveals a general tendency towards trans-regional uniformity, or rather, assimilation among these varieties. This tendency is manifested in two major forms of sound change: I . some diagnostic consonants have spread to an increasing number of varieties, while 2. some diagnostic consonants have been lost in a n increasing number of varieties. Statistics of the occurrence of the diagnostic consonants show that these consonant segments can be found in an increasing number of locations. According to Yang ' s data in 1939, only 34.65% of I 0 I locations had /z/, 55.45% had /v / and 11.88% had /rj / as initial
60
~
10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 Years Chart 3.2B Diachronic changes of initial consonants /z v rj/ The loss of initial consonants is also reflected in the loss of some consonants that are in general rarely found in modern Chinese. f-or instance, according to Yang' s data, the initial consonant /rj / is present in Huaping, Menghua (in today ' s Wenshan area) , and Yongren at least until 1939. In Yang's system, Huaping and Yongren were classified to Region I and Region 2 respectively. These areas are located next to each other and on the border of Yunnan and Sichuan provinces. By checking the segmental inventory of Chengdu 21 , it is
and 7. 78% had /rj/. The figures below show that the occurrence of /v i and /z / has increased, whereas the occurrence of /rj/ has decreased slightly during U1e four decades .
21
See the section of Chengduhua shengyundiao ( r.\:t]\i-5 ;t -.i!Ji)1] [The Initials, finals , and to nes ofChengdu speech]) in the book 1/anyufangyan cihui (i:l.. i;t~i;iOJ i [ [Vocabulary of Chinese dialects]) edited by the Language Teaching and Research Group of the Departmeni of the Chinese Language and Literature of Beijing University in 1964.
LSASL28
38
obvious that this consonant is present in Chengdu. Therefore, it is reasonable to assume that ITJI sound in the varieties of Huaping and Yongren could be the result of dialect borrowing or
at least could have arisen under the inOuence of Sichuan dialects. Since this consonant is present in the Yi language (Chen et al 1985), it is also reasonable to assume that it has found its way into the varieties of Menghua from the Yi language. The assimilation of the varieties of Yunnanese has resulted in the increasing mutual intelligibility and greater phonological similarity and a loss of previous diversity. This fact is also evident in Wu and Yan's map of variety of divisions, where the four regions appear more uniform than the four in Yang's map. Interestingly enough, according to Wu and Yan's data and the table of initials, rhymes, and tones presented in Hanyu fangyan cihui (Vocabulary of Chinese Dialects), /v/
LSASL28
39
3) a rhyme consists ofyuanyin + yunwei: /an (4;-), l aTJP (.!!!.),or /au/ (W:) (which can be phonetically transcribed as [a w)), and 4) a rhyme consists ofyuntou + yuanyin + yunwei: !"an!(~), or l jOTJI (Jilt).
and /z/ are not present in modem Kunming Chinese but the retroOex series (i.e. /tg:; tg:;h g:; z../) are. However, the author' s research and analysis based on data collected in
1987 show the opposite fact. In other words, the two voiced fricatives /v/ and lzl are present in modern Kunming Chinese while the retroOex series has been lost, or rather, they have been replaced by the "alveolar series": /ts ts h s z/. In the following pages are the isoglosses of the initial consonants /z/, /vi, ITJI, and /tg:; tg:;h g:;
z../.
3.2. Rhymes in Yunnanese 3.2.1. The structure ofYunnanese Rhymes Rhyme ( -«!}-/ij:') refers to the part of a syllable excluding the initial consonants. Traditionally, rhymes can be further divided into three smaller parts: I. yzmlou ({~-!},),which is usually an on-glide type vowel, 2. yuanyin (J(,..g-), which is a full vowel functioning as the nucleus of the syllable, and 3. yunwei ( fh/t), which may be a consonant or an off-glide type vowel. Yuntou and yunwei can be optional. The structure of a rhyme can be represented in the following formula:
(yuntou I ih-!J,) + [yuanyin I J(,..g- + (yunwei I -«Jilt)]
Map 3.1 The isogloss of the initial /z /
[I]]
D?.
In Yunnanese, yuntou and yuanyin of a rhyme are always vocalic while yunwei could be either a vowel or one of the three nasals: In/, IT]/, or /m/, for example (assuming all the examples are with Tone 1), I) a rhyme consists of yuanyin only: I ii(:{- quslumg), the distinction of upper and lower reflecll~ns has been lost and they have merged (or perhaps never split) to become the modern Departmg tone ( -i;- P, qusheng). 4. The Entering category (.A.P, rusheng) has been merged with the Lower Level tone. Consequently, the Entering category has been completely lost in most of Yunnnanese varieties. This is also true in most Chinese dialects. With Kunming Chinese as an example, the discussion on tone derivation from Middle Chinese into modern Yunnanese can be summarized and presented in Table 3.7 on the fo llowing page.
+
54
LSASL28
3.3.4. Tone groups of Yunnanese val'ieties
3.3.4.1. Four-tone group Four-tone Group includes most of the Yunnanese varieties. According to Wu and Yan, 125 out of 135 Yunn~ese varieties, or 92.59% of Yunnanese dialects belong to this group. The fo~r. tones of th1s group are: l'inping (Upper Level), Yangping (Lower Level, Sh~ngsheng (R1smg), and Qusheng (Depruting). The tonal development from Middle Chmese to the modern forms fo ll ows the same developmental patterns presented in Table 3.6. The vernaculars of 133 counties, or 98.52% of the varieties of Yunnanese have the tone value of 1441 as Yinping tone. However, among the I 33 counties in 49 counties the tone va lue is slightly different. It is 1551 instead of /44/. The only ~xceptions from ' this general tendency include the followings: Yinping tone in the variety of Boashan has the tone value of(42] Yinping tone in the variety of Lijiang has the tone value of (31] Yinp~ng tone ~n the var~ety of Yongping has the tone value of (434], and Ympmg tone 111 the vanety of Lanping has the tone value of (45].
Level
Rising
Departing
Entering
Voicing
Tones ofKC
Tone Category
Tone Value
Upper Level
vi
Upper Level
44
Lower Level
com . vd part. vd
Lower Level .._ (Entering)
31
Upper Rising
vi
Upper Rising
53
Level Rising
com. vd part. vd
(Lower Rising)
Upper Departing
vi
Lower Departing
com. vd part. vd
Upper Entering
vi
Lower Entering
com. vd part. vd
55
3 .3.4. 1.1. Tone 1 of Yunnanese varieties and the conditions
According to the different tone categories, Yunnanese varieties can be classified into four major groups.
Tone Category of Middle Chines
LSAS L28
~
Departing
212
(Lower Level)_
(31)
Table 3.7 Tone derivation of Kunming
hinese
By studying the majority of Yunnanese varieties, the predominant tendency in the overall total system can be observed: only one tone is a level tone, that is the Yinping tone whereas the other three have contour features. Moreover, as stated above, 98% of the varieties in the 135 counties have the same tone value: /44/ of the Yinping tone. This fact may indicate that contrast does not exist among the Yinping tone in most forms of Yunnanese. In other words, the contrast on ly exists between level tone category and contour tone category. However, level tone category can be found of different tone values in differen t locations. TI1is fact creates some problems for the assumption stated above: there is no contrast among Yinping tone in different varieties. Some questions may arise: Question I: ru·e the level tones with different tone values in contrast as different underl ying tones. or Question 2: are they simply of the same underlying level tone but with different manifestations as the surface forms? It cou ld be argued that with regard to the varieties of YUimanese, the answer to the first question is negative. TI1erefore, the answer to the second question is positive. To be more specific, regarding the tonal system of Yunnanese, all the varieties can be reduced to a si ngle underlying system. Under this assumption, it could be further assumed that if the difference between the level tones of different varieties is no greater than one level when presented on the tone chart, such as the different tone value of yinping tone (Upper Level Tone) discussed earlier, that is 44 - 55, then the two level tones would not behave as two different underlying tones but as different surface manifestations of the same underlying level tone. The assumption made here needs to be placed under some constraints to warrant the valid generalization: Condition I : there is only one level tone in the same tonal system of the same variety. Condition 2: the level tones in comparison across varieties should be found in the same category. Condition 3: the geometric shapes of the tones in comparison should be parallel in the tone-marking chart, and the difference in the level of tone value cannot be more than one. Based on these assumptions, it could be argued that the tone value [55] of the level tone in some varieties is actually the surface manifestation of the underlying tone value /44/ of the level tone in a greater number of the varieties of Yunnanese. Based on the same assumption, it can also be anticipated that the four varieties as exception mentioned above could be qlllte different from the majority of the Yunnanese varieties. It is understood that the assumptions are supposed to be valid only in the majority forms ofYunnanese. Whether the validity of the assumptions can stand across the dialects in different families needs further investigation and evidence. After checking a great number of words with Yinping tones in both Mandarin Chinese and Kunming Chinese, it can be concluded that the assumption is also valid for the dialects across the boundary of the two cousi n dialects of Northern Mandarin and Southwestern Mandarin. For instance, the followi ng list of words with Yinping tone, the only level tone in both systems, sele_cted fro~n both dialects shows no interference in communication although the tone value IS d1fferent m the two systems.
56 LSASL28 Kunming Chinese pa44
ph ass
Chinese ~
pha44
L\
mass
lie down
pa44
~!;
Mom
kua44
xua55
xua44
Gloss Dad
~
melon
.jt,
flower
...
surfa~e ~?orTohf:~~~~~~!~~lgyl;:ar:ples from some representing varieties show that the .
Mandarin pass
kua55
57
LSASL28
ti rm /J I/ since they meet two of the three conditions
to be .. . assumpllon the the of answer to this question IS pos111ve: Pronunciation jiQ31
Variety
Chinese
Krmming
4tl
ji42
Gejiu
wa55
wa44
ji55
*l
frog
ji44
meJI
Dali
wu55
..fa2
4L
to tie
z;_a2 xul - z;_e2 ful
tsalkui4
t'[;>al kui4
;:fi: ~e
trash can
tb4 tsha2
tio4 t'{;>ha2
i)!]-!
investigation
san2 t hau2 ta4
'{;>ay2 t hau2 ta4
iii' -k k
smart; capable
tshau4
t'[;>hau4
J!:.
malodorous
4.2.5. Summary of the initials in CKC Presented below is a matrix of the distinctive features of a ll the underlying forms of the consonants that can occur as initials in CKC.
4.2.3.1. Rule 2: the fronting rule The loss of the retroflex series in CKC can be generalized in the following formu la: Retroflex initials in OKC have become alveolar in CKC.
The rule can be designated as the Fronting Rule. The "backness" feature of the retroflexion has been replaced by the "frontness" feature of the alveolar initial series in CKC. The two rules discussed so far suggest that physiologically, lhe initials in CKC tend to be pronounced with greater cease. As a result, the CKC sounds somewhat "sloppy" to the ears of the OKC speakers. Due to the complex language situation Yunnan as well as in Kunn1ing, it is understood that it is impossible to draw a clear-cut line between the speakers of lhe CKC and those of the OKC. In other words, it is difficult, if not impossible, to find out how many of the people in Kunming speak the CKC without any interference ofOKC. Therefore, the rules
rice porridge
cons syll high back ant cor vd coni nasal asp del rei
p
ph
m
f
t
th
+
+
+
+
+
+
-
+
-
-
-
-
+
-
+
-
-
+
-
-
-
-
+
+ +
~
+ + +
-
+
-
-
+
-
-
-
+
-
-
-
+
-
-
n
-
-
-
+
-
+
-
-
+
-
l
k
kh
+
X
+
+
+
-
-
-
-
-
+ +
+ +
+
-
+ + + +
-
-
-
Table 4.2 Matrix of distinctive features of CKC initials
-
+
-
1-
+
-
-
74
LSASL28
t~h
t~
cons + syll high + back ant cor + vd cont nasal asp del + rei
+
+
-
-
+
+
+
-
-
-
+
+
+ +
-
-
+
-
-
+ +
tsh
ts
~
-
+
s
+
+
-
-
+ +
+ +
-
-
-
+
-
+ +
Yang (1939)
+ +
+
+
UE
+
+
ua
+
-
-
-
-
-
ua/ua-
uo
-
-
+ +
ua
ua
+
+
+
+ +
au
-
AU
+
-
-
-
au
au
AU
-
+
+
iau
-
-
-
-
+
+
+
j
+
-
-
ue
+
+ +
-
+ + + +
+ +
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
4.3. Rhymes in KC Presented below is a table of different inventories of the rhymes in Kunming Chinese.
i
+ +
Sands (1989)
+
Yang (1939)
Wu& Yan (1985)
0
+
+
a
a
a
+ + + + + + +
ie
+
+
+
+
ic
+
-
+
e
-
E
+
a•
-
0
+
+ + +
ia-
-
+ +
iu io
+ +
+ +
+ +
io
+
+
+
ia
ia
ia
+
Zhang (1985)
Beijing (1964)
+
+
+
+
+
+
+ +
-
-
-
+
+
+
-
-
+
+
+
+ +
+ +
-
-
-
+ +
+ +
+ +
+ +
-
-
+
+
hinese rhymes
r
il)
a
ay
a
a
+
ia
ia
if ua
Zhang ( 1985)
Beijing (1964)
uai
+
+
+
+ +
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+ +
+
+ +
+ +
+
-
+
+
+
+ +
+ +
ua
+
+
+
+
+ +
+
ue
uay
+
+
ue
-
-
-
ue
-
+
-
OIJ
+
UIJ
+
+
+
+
iul)
ioiJ
+
iOIJ
-
iol)
iOIJ
+
+
Table 4.3 Different inventories ofKunming
Wu& Yan (1985)
Sands ( 1989)
w
-
75
Gui ( 1988)
z
Table 4.2 Matrix of distinctive features of CKC initials (continued)
Gui (1988)
LSASL28
Table 4.3 Different inventories ofKunming Chinese rhymes (continued)
4.3.1. Types and structures of the rhymes in KC As discussed in section 3.1. the rhyme of a Yunnanesc syllable is composed of two parts: the nucleus and the coda. The coda could be optional. The coda is either a vowel or one of the three nasals: In/, 11)1, and /m/. In Kunming Chinese, only vowels I i i , Ia/, and lui can occur in the position of onset of a complex rhyme. Not every vowel can be the component of a nasal rhyme. The following tables show the possible structures of the complex rhymes and the nasal rhymes in KC .
76
LSASL28
a
e
£
0
0
u
'iJ'/e
i
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
u
+
+
+
+
-
+
a
-
-
-
-
-
+
77
LSASL28
Syllable
Vowel
Fl
F2
F2 - Fl
+
mi53
i
385
2462
2077
-
t:;q53
1
385
1730
1345
tsl53
I
385
1269
884
khu53
u
385
769
384
X£53
£
692
2000
1308
Table 4.4 Possible complex rhyme structure in KC
rna 53
a
769
I !54
384
n
1)
(m)
ma53
a
1000
1615
615
+
-
-
ka53
a
615
1385
770
a
-
423
-
0
654
+
kho53
1077
e
-
-
kho53
0
385
769
384
+
615
1385
-
(+)
e
2000
u
me 53
-
(a)y
654
+
-
1269
i
615
ia
+
-
-
iu
-
+
(+)
ua
+
-
-
£
Table 4.5 Possible nasal rhyme structure in KC Table 4.5 calls for some explanations. The structures of the nasal rhymes presented in this table are the underlying forms, whereas those presented in Table 4.3 , as in most of the data, are the surface manifestations. For instance, nasal rhymes [a], [a], and [i] are the surface forms of /an/, /at)/, and /it)/ respectively. The nasal rhymes ending in [m] are actually the
ley53
Table 4.6 Vowel fom1ant measurements By using the measurements, a logaritlunical plotting of the vowels is done on two cy~le semilogarithmic graphic paper to get the vowel formant chart as presented on the followmg page. Based on this vowel formant chart, it has been assumed that 111 KC, there are _three vowel heights. The distinction of tense and Ia~ also plays an Important role 111 phoneme differentiation. The KC vowels are presented m the followmg chart.
Back
Front
variant forms of the ones ended in /1)/.
1 )
u
High
e
0
Mid
Tense
i
Tense
(e)
Lax
£
0
Tense
(a)
a
( I
4.3.2. The vowels of KC It is not surprising that the six sources cited above differ with respect to the inventory of the rhymes in KC since their data were elicited from speakers representing different versions of the language spoken in different time spans. In fact , a scientific and accurate way in describing vowels is to study the sound spectrograms of the vowels. Twelve words of CV syllable structure in OKC were recorded by the author on a sound spectrograph, and then on the sound spectrograms, format frequencies of Formant I and Formant 2 of every vowel were measured and the difference between the two formant frequencies were calculated. The measurement and the result of calculation are given in the following table.
Chart 4.2 Kunming Chinese vowels
Low
'N' -::z::
,..••
.•
0
.:
••
. I 0
0
!
..,
• !
0
·~ HS
.., 'N'
.,
[;!
_,•••
ju
0
•
t:l
§ §
"
i}.IJ1ti}IJ lliJi.iL.!'i ~.lt '#." [Discussion and research on Chinese tones and intonations). Beijing: Beijing Language Institute Press. Gussenhoven, Carlos & Haike Jacobs. 1998. Underslanding phonology. Oxford University Press. Hammond, Michael. 1999. The phonology ofEnglish: a prosodic oplimalily-lheorelic approach. New York: Oxford University Press. Hao, Zhengzhi. 1998. )X*# 1\Ai./i.:t.i5 : rtr;Y.~jpit-ti;t ~..bJ.k [A historical perspective of the llan immigrants to Yunnan: Gaoshikan village of Liushiwan in Nanjing). . Yunnan University Press. Hock, Hans Henrich & Brian D. Joseph. 1996. Language hislory, language change, and
language relalionship: an inlroduction lo hislorical and compara/ive linguislics. Mouton de Gruyter. Hombert, Jean-Marie. 1973. Consonanl types, vowel qualify, and lone. Southern California Occasional papers in Linguistics. Howie, John Marshall. 1976. Acouslical sllldies of Mandarin vowels and rones. New York: Cambridge University Press. Hu Hua, et al. 1992. -i:"m.:li.R.i!l!l-illt (Road atlas of Yunnan province). Chengdu: Chenddu Map Publisher. Huang, Huangzong et al. 1989. f"'l+li5;;ji:f1 [Guangzhou dialect text book). Guangzhou : Zhongshan University Press. Hyman, Larry M. 1975. Phonology: 1he01y and analysis. New York: Holt, Rinehart and Winston. Jin, Shunde. 1985. Shanghai morphotonemics: a preliminary study of tone sandhi behavior across word boundaries. Shanghai, China: Shanghai Foreign Language Institute Press. Karlgren, Bernhard. 1915. Estudes sur Ia phonologic chinoise. Leyden & Stockholm. Kenstowicz, Michael, charles Kisseberth. 1979. Generalive phonology: descriplion and lheoty. New York: Academic Press. Labov, William. 1972. Sociolinguislic pallerns. Philadelphia: University of Pennsylvania Press. Ladefoged, Peter. 2001. A course in phonelics, 4rd edition. New York: Harcourt Brace Jovanovich Publishers. --. 200 I. Vowels and consonants: an introduction to the sounds of languages. Cambridge: Blackwell Publishers. Lass, Roger. 1984. Phonology: an introduction to basic concepts. Cambridge University Press. Li, Dejin & Cheng Meizhen. 1982. A Praclical Chinese Grammar for Foreigners. Beijing: Sinolingua. Li, Charles N . & Sandra A. Thompson. 1981 . Mandarin Chinese: A Funcliona/ Reference Grammar. California: The University of California Press. Li, fangkwei. 1966. The relalionship between Iones and inilials in Tai. In N.H. Zide, ed. Studies in comparative Austro-Asiatic linguistics. The Hague: Mouton. Li, Yongting. 1989. 'H
