Violence Denied: Violence, Non-Violence and the Rationalization of Violence in South Asian Cultural History

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RICHARD GOMBRICH OSKAR VON HINUBER . RICHARD GOMBRICH • OSKAR VON HINUBER KATSUMI TSUMI MIMAKI MIMAKI • ARVIND SHARMA KA ARVIND SHARMA •

•

VOLUME 16 VOLUME 16

VIOLENCE DENIED DENIED VIOLENCE Violence) Non- Violence and the Rationalization rif qf Violence in South Asian Cultural History EDITED BY BY EDITED

JAN JAN E.M. E.M. HOUBEN HOUBEN

AND AND

KAREL KOOI] KAREL R. VAN KOOIj

7" ,... ""'

..: r" ?o(" . I

68' .

c,Cl.

BRILL LEIDEN .. BOSTON· BOSTON' KOLN KOLN LEIDEN 1999 1999

This book book is is printed printed on on acid-free acid-free paper. paper. This

Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data

Violence Violence denied: denied: violence, violence, non-violence non-violence and and the the rationalization rationalization of of

violence in in South South Asian Asian cultural cultural history history // edited edited by by Jan Jan E.M. E.M. Houben Houben violence

and Karel Karel R. Van Kooij. Kooij. and R. Van p. p.

ill. :: ill.

v. 16) 16) . v.

;; cm. em. - (Brill's (Brill's Indologicailibrary,.ISSN Indologicallibrary,ISSN 0925-2916 0925-2916 ;;

Includes bibliographical bibliographical references references and and index. index. Includes ISBN ISBN 9004113444 9004113444 (cloth) (cloth)

1. Violence-South Asia-History. Asia-History. I. Violence-South

Asia-History. Asia-History.

2. 2. Political Political violence-South violence-South

3. Terrorism-South Terrorism-South Asia-History. Asia-History. 3.

-Religious aspects-South aspects-South Asia-History. Asia-History. -Religious 19601960-.

.

II. Kooij, Kooij, K.R. KR. Van. Van. II.

HN690.Z9V5748 HN690.Z9V5748

1999 1999

4. Violence­ Violence4.

1. Houben, Houben, Jan Jan E.M., E.M., I.

III.. Series. Series. III

99-29169 99-29169

303.6'0954--dc21 303.6'0954-dc21

eIP

elP

Die Deutsche Bibliothek - CIP-Einheitsaufnalnne CIP-Einheitsaufnalune

denied:: violence, violence, non non violence violence and and the the rationalization rationalization of of Violence denied

violence in South South Asian Asian cultural cultural history history // ed. ed. by by Jan Jan E.M. E.M. Houben Houben violence in

and and Karel Karel R. R. Van Van Kooij. Kooij. -- Leiden Leiden ;; Boston; Boston; Koln Kaln :: Brill, Brill, 1999 1999 (Brill's indological library;; vol. vol. 16) 16) (Brill's indological library ISBN ISBN 90-04-11344-4 90-04-11344-4

ISSN lSSN

ISBN ISBN

0925-2916 0925-2916

90 04 04 11344 ]]344 44 90

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CONTENTS CONTENTS Preface Preface

vii vii

Introduction: Introduction: violence, violence, non-violence non-violence and and the the rationalization rationalization of violence violence in in South South Asian Asian cultural cultural history history . . .. .. .. .. .. .. .. . . .. of 11 Hindu ahimsa ahirhsa and and its its roots, roots, 22.. Hindu Henk W. W. Bodewitz Bodewitz . . . . ... . . ... . . . . 17 Henk 17 Aspects of of the the Buddhist Buddhist attitude attitude towards towards war, war, . 33.. Aspects Lambert L. Schmithausen . .. .. . . .. , .. .. .. . . . . . . . . . . . 45 Lambert L. Schmithausen 45 4.. Ral).ayajiia: RanayajfJ.a: the the Mahabharata Mahabharata War War as as.aa Sacrifice, Sacrifice, 4 Danielle Feller latavallabhula Jatavallabhula . .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. . . . . . . . 69 Danielle Feller (yajiia-pasu)? To kill kill or or not not to to -kill 'kill the the sacrificial sacrificial animal animal (yajfia-pasu)? 55.. To Arguments perspectives in philosophy, Arguments and and perspectives in Brahminical Brahminical ethical ethical philosophy, Jan E.M. E.M. Houben Houben .. . .. .. . . .. . . .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. ,. .. .. .. . . . 105 1 05 Ian as the the religion religion oinon-violence, ornon-violence, Jainism as 66.. lainism Robert 1. J. Zydenbos Zydenbos . . . .. ... . . . . .. . . . .. .. . ,. . 185 . . . .. . .. .. Robert 185 7. "seen from from the the east," east," 7. Construction Construction sacrifice sacrifice in in India, India, "seen Roy E. Jordaan & RobertI. Robert J. Wessing Wessing . . . .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. . Roy E. 10rdaan 2211 11 of the the battlefield: battlefield: the the case case of of Chinnamasta, Chinnamasta, Iconography of 88.. Iconography Karel R. R. van van Kooij Kooij .. .. .. . . .. .. . .. , .. .. .. . . .. .. . .. .. .. 249 Karel 249 Expressions of of violence violence in in Buddhist Buddhist Tantric Tantric mantras, mantras, 99.. Expressions Pieter C. C. Verhagen Verhagen .. . .. .. .. . .. . . .. .. .. .. . .... .. . .. . . . 275 275 Pieter 10. The embarrassment embarrassment of of political violence in in Europe Europe and and political violence 1 0 . The South Asia, c. c. 1100-1800, 1 1 00- 1800, South Asia, los Gommans . .. .. .. . Jos Gommans . .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. . . . 287 287 11. Nationalism and and violence violence in in colonial colonial India: India: 1880-1910, 1880- 1 9 1 0, 1 1 . Nationalism VictorA.vanBijlert Victor A. van Bijlert .. . . . .. . . . . . .. .. . . .. . .. . . .. .. . .. . . 317 3 17 12 . Violent AjfJ.eya and and violence, violence, 12. Violent heroines: heroines: Ajiieya Theo Damsteegt . . .. .. . . . .. . .. .. . . .. . .. . .... .. . . .. 341 . . .. 341 Theo Damsteegt . .. .

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Index Index

373 373

of Contributors· Contributors . List of List

385 385

List List of of Plates Plates and and Acknowledgements Acknowledgements .

Plates Plates

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387 387

389 389

PREFACE

du�ran:z hin:zsayan:z, "evil "evil in the case of violence . " This This brief du~ran:z in the case of violence." brief Brahmin. statement refers to an evil B rahmin. II It is not meritorious to offer such a Brahmin food, the commentary further explains. explains . B rahmins are called c alled wicked? Brahmins Which Brahmins wicked? The answer is that Brahmins are wicked when they use violence (hin:zsa). (hin:zsa) . The text thus denounces Brahmins using violence rather than violence itself. obligatory , for Violence is permitted, indeed, even obligatory, for instance instance in of �atriyas ~atriyas.. the case of The statement quoted above was discussed at a seminar on the ," of "Violence in in South-Asian cultural traditions traditions," the theme theme of Institute , Leiden which was was organized organized by by Indologists of the Kern Institute, University. The discussion was opened by one of the editors of this volume, volum e , Karel R. van Kooij, Kooij , who argued that in the epic tradition-the Bhagavad-GTtii. included-the tradition-the included-the use use of of violence violence is not condemned. On the contrary, it is glorified. glorified . The greatest heroes ppractice ractice the most extreme forms of violence on the battlefield· and and are praised praised nevertheless nevertheless.. Furthermore Furthermore,, Hindu and Buddhist iconography seem to reflect a positive attitude towards violence which at first sight s ight is not expected in a culture which is usually associated with with non-violence non-violence.. These viewpoints viewpoints aroused lively reactions reactions.. time , other views In the course of of time, views were presented presented during seminars , and furthermore at a symposium on similar small-scale seminars, 1 996, jointly "Religions and and War, War,"" which was was held held 12 april 1996, jointly organized NWS and the CNWS the Leiden organized by by the the Research School C Institute for the Study of Religions. Religions . At this symposium Lambert aper which is included included in this this Schmithausen presented presented aa ppaper II Vaise~ika-Siitra Vaise�ika-Siitra 6.1.10. 6 . 1 . 1 0 . Problems in the int~rpretation int�rpretation of this and conj oining siitras (contextually du.rram seems to conjoining to refer to to 'a bad Brahmin' Brahmin' and is explained thus by commentators, commentators , though one would expect du.rraf;. in that case) have been discussed in Harunaga Isaacson's "Materials for the Vaise�ika system," system, " Dissertation 1 995 , p. Dissertation Leiden University 1995, p. 87 study of the Vaise~ika and 31. and note 31.

viii VI11

volume. In In order to to do do justice justice to to the the complexity of this this theme:, themE:, it volume. was decided to bbroaden roaden its sCope scope and to focus on "violence, " violenc e , violence." non-violence and the rationalization ooff violence . " Colleagues took interest in the theme and from outside the Kern Institute took. project. The volume presented here was taking shape. jjoined oined the proj ect . The shap e . This book is not about violence as such. such . It is rather the rrationalization ationalization of violence and the sometimes straightforward denial of of it it which which is is the the basic basic thread thread running running through through the the papers papers denial included.. Mechanisms which could expose the intricate ways included violence is transformed into seemingly positive categories are investigated. South-Asian cultural history is a particularly fasciinvestigated: fasci­ nating field field of of research research with with regard regard to to this this subject as it it includes includes nating subj ect as important religious religious streams like Hinduism, Hinduism, Buddhism Buddhism and and important streams like Iainism J ainism in in which which strong strong traditions traditions of of non-violence non-violence existed existed side side by side side with with all all sorts of rationalizations rationalizations and and legitimations legitimations of by sorts of of violence violence.. To To make make violence violence acceptable acceptable,, literature literature and and art art created created aa whole whole set set of of paradoxes paradoxes and and modifications modifications that that gained gained currency currency,, in long run becoming the in the the long run becoming the cliches cliches of of India's India's cultural cultural legacy. legacy. The papers papers of of this this book book are are arranged arranged according to aa rrather The according to ather arbitrary chronological chronological order order of of the the main main periods periods under under discus­ discusarbitrary sion. E Each presents general general views views next next to to aa case case study study of of the the sion. ach presents phenomenon phenomenon under under study study.. The The general general statements statements in in each each paper paper unavoidably reflect reflect aa difference difference of of opinion opinion among among the the vvarious unavoidably arious authors authors on on the the existence existence of of violence violence and and the the meaning meaning of of non­ noncontext.. The editors made no violence in an Indian cultural context attempt to to harmonize harmonize these these views views.. 22 If the the differences differences were were attempt streamlined this this would would weaken weaken substantia] substantial parts parts of of each each ppaper. streamlined aper . 22 While the Chicago Manual of Style ((14th ed.,, Univ Univ.. of Chicago Chicago,, 1 4th ed. 1 993) served served us 1993) us as as aa general general guide guide in in editorial editorial matters matters,, some some freedom freedom has has been to the the authors authors (several (several of of whom whom wrote wrote their their paper paper before before the the been allowed allowed to project of the book had started) with regard to stylistic and certain spelling preferences, from the as well well as as with with regard regard to to divergences divergences resulting resulting from the preferences, as backgrounds.. Thus, different disciplinary backgrounds Thus , geographical and proper names may in aa 'historical' 'historical' or or 'anthropological' 'anthropological' paper, may appear appear in in Anglicized Anglicized form form in paper, and in Sanskritic 'philologically'' oriented one. S anskritic spelling in a 'philologically one . Similarly, S imilarly, 'in quotations spelling and quotations and and references references deviating deviating spelling and transliteration transliteration have have usually usually to mark mark been maintained. maintained. Single quotation marks marks have have been been applied been Single quotation applied to meanings,, concepts, appended (lexical) word meanings concepts , and words/expressions in usage.. Double quotes indicate direct quotations and translations special usage (also of contextualized (also of contextualized single single words) words)..

ix NevertheThe theme simply is too complex to be generalized. generalized . Neverthe­ less,· editors·· hope that this volume may contribute to a better les s , · the editors the ways violence violence has has been enwrapped in the the understanding of the Values'' of one of the great civilizations of the ''Words Words and Values world.. world This volume would not have been realized without the help of a great many many persons persons.. Apart from from those those who contributed a T.E. who,, as the then paper, pape r , we are grateful to Professor T . E. Vetter who Institute , did the research research group of the the Kern Kern Institute, did much chairman of the to get the above-mentioned seminars organized, organized , and stimulated theme.. We would like to thank and encouraged us to pursue this theme Mrs r . Roy E van Westrienen Westrienen and and D Dr. E.. Jordaan for their Mrs.. Drs Drs.. L. van valuable assistance with proofreading. The editors

1. INTRODUCTION: VIOLENCE VIOLENCE,, NON-VIOLENCE NON-VIOLENCE AND AND 1 . INTRODUCTION: THE OF VIOLENCE THE RATIONALIZATION RATIONALIZATION OF VIOLENCE IN IN SOUTH SOUTH ASIAN CULTURAL HISTORY ASIAN JAN . M . HOUBEN R. VAN JAN E E.M. HOUBEN AND AND KAREL KAREL R. VAN KOOIJ KOOIJ

.. .. .. as Nathalie Davis has observed sixteenthof Catholic-Protestant violence in sixteenth­ century France and as we saw in the case of the Hyderabad riots, so long as rioters maintain a given religious commitment they rarely display guilt or shame for their acts of violence. Kakar,, The Colours of Violence, p: 249) 249) (Sudhir Kakar

1.1 1 . 1 'Violence' ' Violence' would be a good example of a 'thick ' thick concept' (Williams 198 5 , 1995) carrying (Williams 1985, carrying aa descriptive as well well as evaluative evaluative component too wide compone nt inextricably intertwined. In a slightly too. definition, violence has been said to bbee ""action action that injures or destroys ackburn 1994:394). 1994 : 3 94). An destroys that that to to which which it it is is applied applied"" (Bl (Blackburn An overview of of what what the the term term is is generally generally considered considered to to denote overview centrally and secondarily is given in Ruddick 1992a, where we instance:: "In central cases, damaged.. read, for instance cases , it is people who are damaged possible,, and some believe equally serious serious,, to However, it is also possible act violently violently toward toward non-human non-human animals animals and and the the natural natural world world." act ." M oreover, "Violence Moreover, "Violence is is typically typically inflicted inflicted by by one one person person upon upon an­ anconsent.. But it is possible to inflict other without the other's consent violence upon oneself-suicide and protracted hunger strikes are clear . . ."" (p. 1273). About 'evil ' character character of of violviol­ clear examples examples.. (p. 1273). About the the 'evil' e nce , the ence, the author writes writes:: "Although many people people act act violently violently without moral qualms, qualms , violence-the deliberate or predictable harming,, injuring injuring,, mutilating mutilating,, or or killing of of others without without harming paracompensatory benefit to them-is also often taken to be para­ digmatic of evil. facie evil . .. .. .. At the least, violent acts are prima jacie wrong"" (Ruddick 1992a:1274). wrong 1992a: 1274). Further, in typical cases "people charged ith violence charged w with violence will will redescribe redescribe their their act act so so that that its 'violent' 'violent' disappears"" (ibid (ibid.), character disappears .), while "In the most problematic cases, .

22

• 1. 1 . INTRODUCTION •

people simultaneously acknowledge the violence of their acts, acts , apap­ preciate the evil of violence, violence , and continue to act violently. violently . They must then account for and justify . apparently immoral actions" actions " (ibid.). . (ibid . ) . Violence, Violenc e , then, is hardly ever presented as a direct aim of huhu­ man activity. activity . Usually it is considered an undesirable but for some reason necessary or under circumstances unavoidable 'evil'; ' evil ' ; and even if violence is glorified-in the beginning of this century for instance in the work of George SoreJl-there are generally implicit or explicit justifications for it e.g. e . g . in the form of aims to be reached (even if these aims may be considered unrealistic or o r utouto­ pian). It It is easy enough to advise advis e individuals and societies to avoid employing violence completely, completely , but both may be' confronted with situations in which they have to manage persons tending to, to , or o r acac­ tively acts . For both s ituations tively involved in, violent violent acts. both there are also situations in which applying app lying 'a little violence' may seem justified or required in the light of the greater 'evil' 'evil ' (e.g. (e . g . violence on a larger scale) which would ensue without w ithout intervention. universally , to societies , to apply universally, to societies, These general remarks remarks seem to religions and ethical ethical systems 'east ' e ast and west' (and probably, p robably , though we are here not dealing with indigenous African or Australian ethics, ethics , 'north and south'). south ' ) . Universality can also be claimed for the Even for a social theorist like George Sorel (1847-1922), ( 1 847- 1 922) , famous or or rather infamous for praising and even glorifying it it,, violence w was a s no more than a means towards establishing better social and political conditions (cf. his statement "it " it is to violence that socialism owes the high moral values by which it brings salvation s alvation to the modern world," world , " Sorel 1976:226 1 976:226 [1908]), [ 1 90 8] ) , just as the violence recommended by Macchiavelli (and, (and , in ancient South Asia, "the Arthasastra) was a means towards maintaining and strengthening the order . established social and political order. If violence is desirable desirable,, and if it is the norm within certain groups and war-time,, revolutionaries under certain circumstances (e.g. (e . g . among warriors in war-time in a self-proclaimed revolution, etc.), etc . ) , a larger group is still presupposed (which is to be protected or which is to be established in a utopian future) where violence is basically rejected Moreover,, within the warrior rej ected or avoided. avoide d . Moreover or revolutionary group, group , norms of mutual help, help , non-betraying, non-betraying , etc. etc . are , generally required. 'exotically ' required . Ritualized violence and .strangely , or 'exotically' sarhsara' who were rationalized violence (such as that of the 'liberators from sarhsara' 'exotic'' also also- to South thinkers,, cf. Halbfass 1991:9lff), 'exotic S outh Asian thinkers 1 99 1 :9 l ff) , are still restricted forms of violence which presuppose a (quite large) area and group d. where the violence is to be avoide avoided.

1. INTRODUCTION INTRODUCTION 1.

33

tension general wish to avoid avoid violence, violence, and and its its acceptaccept­ tension between between the the general wish to ance as as aa means means to to prevent ' greater evil' evil' (or, (or , conversely, conversely , to to bring prevent aa 'greater bring ance about ' greater good'). good ' ) . But in the interpretatio n of crucial about a 'greater the specific interpretation variables in this picture, cultures differ widely. widely . Since violence in general is basically reprehensible and cultural variables are interinter­ nalized from an early age, age , there there may to notice notice the nalized from an early may be be aa tendency tendency to the violence one ' s eyes to that one ' s that in one's violence in in another culture and to shut one's own culture (in and personal daily practice, own culture (in governmental governmental and personal daily practice, iinn litera­ literaprograms).. ture and, art, nowadays also in television programs) South Asia has gone gone aa way way of of its its own own in in the the course course of of millennia millennia South Asia has of of violence, violence, its its avoidance avoidance and and managemanage­ of dealing dealing with with problems problems of ment. Even for those not not having having aa direct direct involvement ment. Even for those involvement with with the the area, there can be several reasons to take an interest in South Asian ways about and dealing with with violence, under­ to the the underways of of thinking thinking about and dealing violence, to which the the present volume volume wants wants standing or at least least awareness of which to make a modest contribution. contribution . 22 One reason may be a curiosity to spe­ see how the the universal problems referred referred to are dealt with with in a speimcific cultural area, perhaps with the the hope to find suggestions to im­ prove offered . Another prove the the (make-shift) solutions which which are usually offered. reason can be that that some complex ideas with with deep roots in South Asian cultural history history have have already already become globalized: here here we we Asian cultural become globalized: m ay think especially of the ' non-violence ' as it was given the notion of 'non-violence' may concrete shape shape by Mahatma Gandhi Gandhi (who was inspired inspired by different concrete by Mahatma (who was by different Hinduism , Buddhism, Jainism, but also by some Western strands in Hinduism, 2 Of other relatively recent publications dealing with problems of 2 violence and non-violence in South Asia we mention the following: following : Stietencron S tietencron (ed.) 1 97 9 , with chapters on the "Biologie " Biologie der Angst" and about the (ed . ) 1979, psychoanalytic relations between fear and violence before a number of (inc l . Hinduism); contributions on 'fear' 'fear ' and 'violence' 'violence ' in several religions (incl. Vidal et al al.. 1994, 1994 , with a number of anthropological and sociological, and a few historical-textual contributions dealing with the contrast between nonnon­ violent ideals and violent practices; Chapple 1993, 1 993, dealing with subjects subj ects ahirhsa , " to "The " The Jaina " Origins and traditional articulations of ahirhsa," ranging from "Origins path of nonresistant death"; 1 997 , dealing with media representations death" ; Brass 1997, quasiof collective violence and arguing against a structural linking (and quasi­ justification) of such violence with 'age-old' ethnic or religious hostilities. The last two publications came to our notion only when the present volume was this volume (often with further references) on largely finalized. finalize d . Discussions D iscuss ions in this on m o r e specific subjects such as 'war', 'war ' , 'human sacrifice', sacrifice ' , 'suicide' 'suicide ' c a n be found more can through the index.

44

1. INTRODUCTION

ideas,, and especially by the Russian author Tolstoy-the latter ideas l atter being in turn ppartly artly inspired by South Asian ideas e.g. e . g . as expressed in Tibetan Buddhism) Buddhis m) and taken up far outside South Asia by persons M artin Luther King. King . 33 . A persons like Martin A third third reason presents presents itself now: necessary for countries all all over over the world world to be be now : So far it was necessary well aware of Western ideas on violence, non-violence non-violence and jjustifications ustifications of of violence violence because because of of the powerful means (military the powerful means (military and economic) at the disposal of the U.S.A. U . S . A . and other Western countries to force their view (e.g. (e . g . on human rights and free trade) on , o thers . The The atomic atomic bomb bomb testing last year countries in in on .others. testing last year by by two two countries South Asia, Asia, India India and and Pakistan, Pakistan, has made made it more clear than ever is not just that understanding South Asian ideas on these subjects is ' stress management' in this of great great importance importance for a succesful 'stress this area e ns ue area,, but but also also for avoiding world-wide world-wide calamities which which may may ensue if this management is not entirely succesful. succesful . Decisions taken in both countries are are not not only guided by by 'Western' rationalities but but both also by rationalities which are, are , especially in India, well entrenched in South Asia's ast . 44 Asia's cultural cultural ppast. in South 1.2 1 . 2 South Asia's cultural history stands out iinn that iitt not only (inpresents and elaborates the ideal of a total avoidance of all (in­ cluding defensive) defensive) violence violence (this (this we we also also find e.g. in Christianity's e . g . in Christianity ' S 'turning ' turning the other cheek'): cheek' ) : iitt even provides 'non-violent' ' non-violent ' methods beings . for protection protection against against the the violence from from other other living living beings. Buddhists advocated the cultivation of 'friendliness ' friendliness towards all living beings beings'' as a protective measure (in which psychology and Even if there are cases of abuse of the term as w well e l l as the notion, the recommendations of Schwab 1994 1 994 to restrict and preferably avoid the use of of the (French) 'non-violence' 'non-vio lence ' and replace it with a paraphrase (p. (p . 281; 2 8 1 ; the author aut hor continues: continues : "1st " 1st der Sprachbenutzer dazu nich in der Lage, Lage , handelt es es urn leere,, ideologiebedingte Formel"; aass iiff ssich ich bei 'non-violence' 'non-violence ' u rn eine leere ideological connotations were nnot o t unavoidable and frequently even intended in discussions on this subject subj ect .. .. .. ) are preposterous and testify both to an overestimation of a scholar's scholar ' s ability to modify language use, use , and to an nonunderestimation of the ideological strength of current philosophies of o f non­ violence violence.. 4 4 In addition, of course, important but less easily determinable determinabl e Asia ass elsewhere. 'irrationalities' 'irrationalities ' influence decisions in South S outh A sia a elsewhere . As for South Asia, these too have a long history of antecedents in its cultural past, as would ( 1 995). appear from an essay like Sudhir Kakar's Kakar ' s The Colours of Violence (1995).

1 . INTRODUCTION 1. INTRODUCTION

55

'magic' border on each other) other) against against attacks attacks from from others, ' magic ' border on ,each others , including wild wild animals animals and snakes (cf. (cf. Schmithause Schmithausen including n 1997). 1997) . Similarly the followers claimed that that in Similarly,, the followers of of the the Yoga-system Yoga-system have have claimed in the presence presence of of aa Yoga-practitio Yoga-practitioner whose mind mind is is well-established well-established the ner whose in ''non-violence' or ''non-injury' the (ahirhsa) , enmity-even enmity-even' the non-violence ' or non-injury ' (ahimsi.i), eenmity nmity between between natural enemies like like mouse cat-subsides natural enemies mouse and and cat-subsides (Yoga-Sutra 2.35 and and commentaries).5 (Yoga-SUtra 2.35 commentaries) . 5 Success these methods methods seems seems to have been been vvariable and gen­ genSuccess in in these to have ariable and erally in addition addition to the recommendation of erally difficult difficult to to attain, attain, since since in to the recommendation of these methods methods,, South Asian traditions traditions offer offer numerous numerous arguments arguments these South Asian for under certain certain circumstances Also the for justifying justifying violence violence under circumstances.. Also the system system of ''non-violence' which was was in in more more recent recent years years developed developed and and of non-violence ' which put put into into practice practice by by Mahatma Mahatma Gandhi Gandhi,, and and which which played played aa vital vital and and renowned ' s struggle renowned part part in in India India's struggle for for independence independence,, has has gradually gradually receded into into the the background background after after his his assassination assassination in in 1948, with receded 194 8 , with as aa most most unequivocal unequivocal contrapunto contrapunto India' India'ss atomic atomic bomb bomb testings testings,, as now years later later.. Indeed, already in time there now fifty fifty years Indeed, already in Gandhi's Gandhi ' s time there were were numerous doubts the large-scale large-scale viability viability and and effectiveness effectiveness numerous doubts about about the of current: Lokamanya Lokamanya Tilak, Tilak, of his his methods methods.. Alternative Alternative views views were were current: Gandhi's contemporary, saw saw in in the the Bhagavad-Glta-some­ Bhagavad-GWi-someGandhi ' s elder elder contemporary, times regarded the 'Bible of the the Hindu Hindu'' -encouragements times regarded as as the 'Bible of -encouragements to to rere­ stricted violence violence under under certain circumstances (unlike (unlike Gandhi who stricted certain circumstances Gandhi who read amounting to read it it as as aa 'message message amounting to ahirhsa) ahirhsa).. just as as the the Christianity Christianity of ''turning one's other cheek' cheek' IInn short, just turning one ' s other , st war 'just war,66 (drawing on on was supplemented with an ideology of the 'ju Basic ttoo the methods advocated iiss that ''enmity' ann absolute enmity' iiss not a character trait of a person or community which can only be eliminated by

community: on the contrary, the 'enemy 'enemy'' is an eliminating that person or community: opponent who can change into into a friend friend or ally: an idea which can be

theories of non-violence as well well,, and which, in the recognized in modern theories 's one's Christian tradition, can perhaps be linked to the injunction to 'love' one

enemy (cf. Ruddick 1992a: 1 992a: 1275). 1 275) . 66 An overview of current ideas on ""war peace" war and peac e " and on "just war theorie s " is given in Ruddick 1992b. 1 9 92b . Even if one holds that under the modern theories" conditions of the availability of weapons destroying the entire world (10 ( 1 0 times over and more) more),, states have no more a "right bellum),, " right to wage war" (ius ad bellum) but only a duty to maintain peace (cf. Kimminich 1976:1235: 1 97 6 : 1 23 5 : "Damit ist das Recht zum K[rieg] vollstandig beseitigt. Vielmehr obliegt den Staaten eine Friedenspflicht")) , much of the violence-problem remains as it shifts algemeine Friedenspjlicht" to national and international 'police' functions of military forces, forces , and of the

66

1. 1 . INTRODUCTION

theju~tum bellum of Cicero and other classics,7 w:arthe ju�tum bellum class ics/ as well as oonn �ar­

in the Hebrew B BibleS), ideologies iN ible 8 ) , strands in South Asian cultural comhistory which recommend perfect abstention from violence com­ bined and and intertwined intertwined with with strands 'accepting accepting violence violence.. As As in the bined i n the West, the the violence violence generally generally required required justification justification either either in West, i n advance advance or after after the the fact fact,, especially especially in in confrontations confrontations with with small small groups groups or which ect it completely . In acts of of vviolence iolence which tried tried to to rej reject it completely. In various various ways ways acts were reconciled reconciled with with or or directly directly linked linked to to the the ideal ideal of avoidance of of were of avoidance violence, as in in the the case case of of those those with with aa 'blind 'blind faith' faith' iinn the the violenc e , uunless, nless , as tradition, this ideal was not accepted as generally vvalid alid at all; but to justify justify this this faith. faith. The The arguments arguments then an an argument argument was was needed needed to then and rationalizations rationalizations given given in this this context context are are intriguing intriguing in their their and specificity,, but at the same time they are of wider rele­ relecultural specificity vance ssince set of of crucial crucial parameters parameters are are involved involved as as iinn vance ince aa similar set the Western Western tradition tradition:: degrees degrees ooff violence violence;; hierarchies hierarchies of of subj subjects the e cts perpetrating or perpetrating and and objects objects undergoing undergoing violence violence;; the the body body,, soul soul or other entity entity (or (or no no entity entity at at all) all) as as locus locus of of identity identity of of living living other beings;; 'goods 'goods'' and prevented ''evils' beings evils ' which may jjustify ustify degrees of violence ility to violence,, etc etc.. Rationality Rationality and and its its applicab applicability to all all cases cases of of violence ect of outh violence have have themselves themselves become become subj subject of discussion discussion iinn the the SSouth Asian tradition. tradition. Even Even when when aa rationalization rationalization is is offered offered as as jjustiAsian usti­ fication of of acts acts of of vviolence, it never never stands stands on on its its own own,, but but is fication iolence , it is embedded in in presuppositions presuppositions (in (in philosophical philosophical works works often often identi­ identiembedded fiable as as the the traditionally traditionally accepted accepted tenets tenets of of aa school) school) and and uunfiable n­ realities.. Take for instance the kkilling discussed perceptions of realities illing iinn sacrifice,, oorr in in aa war war for for aa 'just' 'just' oorr even even 'holy 'holy'cause (as the the one one sacrifice ' cause (as described ahabharata) : Where Mahabharata): Where the the one one perceives perceives only only viol­ violdescribed iinn the the M ence ence against against aa living living being being,, the the other other perceives perceives aa careful careful and and perfectly permissible permissible operation operation which which transfers transfers aa soul soul fro from the perfectly m the earthly to to aa heavenly heavenly abode abode.. earthly While any any serious serious and more or less consistent consistent rationalization rationalization of­ ofWhile and more or less fered iinn justificatio justificationn of of vviolence deserves to to be be taken taken seriously seriously,, it it fered iolence deserves may very very well well be be that that the the rationalization rationalization is is an an invention invention or or second­ secondmay ary construction construction rather rather than than aa statement statement of of actual actual basic basic motives motives.. ary right of minorities to combat real or imagined injustices. 7

7

classical St.t . The Class ical theories were introduced into Christian thought by S

Augustine ""to lQ find justification for Christian participation iin n the wars of the

empire"" (Elfstrom and Potion Roman empire Fotion 1992:807; 1 992 : 807 ; cf. Kimminich 1976). 1 976).

88

On which see now Niditch 1993. 1 993 .

1. INTRODUCTION

77

The term 'rationalization' has aa career of its in ppsychoanalytic sychoanalytic The term 'rationalization' has career of its own own in theory, where where itwas it was introduced introduced in by E E.. Jones Jones,, aa disciple of theory, in 1908 1908 by disciple of Freud, soon also adopted by Freud came Freud, and and soon also adopted by Freud Freud himself. himself. Freud came to to regard rationalization' as which covers up regard ''rationalization' as aa preconscious preconscious process process which covers up " and misrepresents for aa certain (cf. and misrepresents the the It' It'ss real real motives motives for certain action action (cf. Gorlich 1992) . In in the of religions Gorlich & & Butzer Butzer 1992). In studies studies in the history history of religions and and ritual vviolence, the term term ''rationalization' was given given an important ritual iolence, the rationalization' was an important place by Jonathan Smith (cf. Smith 1982, 1982, and and introductory introductory sec­ place by Jonathan Z Z.. Smith (cf. Smith section of of van van Kooij Kooij's contribution).. A A gap gap and and conflict conflict between between tion ' s contribution) are pre­ ''accepted' accepted' and for aa violent and 'underlying 'underlying'' motives motives for violent act act are presupposed in Smith' s use as much in Jones supposed in Smith's use of of the the term term as much as as in Jones'' and and Freud' 'psychoanalytic ' gap many Freud'ss use use.. Such Such aa 'psychoanalytic' gap may may be be present present in in many actors,, also also beyond beyond Western Western and westernized societies, but need need actors and westernized societies , but not cultures and not be be accepted accepted beforehand beforehand for for actors actors of of all all cultures and periods periods.. The term in quite different conceptual The term 'rationalization' 'rationalization' appears appears in quite aa different conceptual framework avidson, where ration­ framework in in the the philosophy philosophy of of Donald Donald D Davidson, where ""rationalizations of of intentional intentional actions actions are are genuine genuine explanations in terms terms alizations explanations in agents'' reasons reasons"" (Mele 1995:675). agent's of agents 1995 : 675) . An agent ' s reasons for an action are are unavoidably unavoidably based based on on perceptions perceptions,, beliefs beliefs and and exaction ex­ In the the case case of, of, for for instanc instance, economic acts acts such such as as buy­ buyppectations. ectations . In e , economic ing an an obj object which is is expected expected to to be be instrumental instrumental in in attaining attaining aa ing ect which valued aim aim,, the perceptions,, beliefs beliefs and expectations may be valued the perceptions and expectations may be which pertain pertain regarded as as generally generally verifiable verifiable.. In In the the case case of regarded of acts acts which to tl).e the death death and and life life of of animals animals and and people people (including to (including oneself), oneself), however, doubt, and and beliefs however, perceptions perceptions may may be be open open to to serious serious doubt, beliefs and eexpectations xpectations art:: act leading and are basically basically unverifiable unverifiable.. If aa violent violent act leading to ' s death fully intentional, intentional, one to aa person's person's or or animal animal's death is is fully one may may expect expect it rationalizable ' as act of it to to be be as as much much ''rationalizable' as an an act of buying buying an an object, object, but but its acceptance acceptance or or rejection rejection by by others others as as 'justified' will its 'justified' or or ''desirable' desirable ' will to aa great great extent extent depend depend on on their their pperceptions and complex complex systems to erceptions and systems of beliefs beliefs and and expectations regarding life life and and death. of expectations regarding death . The senseless and and self-defeating character which which violent violent acts The senseless self-defeating character acts often of weak or unconvincing often have have in in the the light light of weak or unconvincing rationalizations rationalizations in aa 'Davidsonian' sense),, finds (whether in in aa ''psychoanalytic' (whether psychoanalytic ' or or in 'Davidsonian' sense) finds climax in in the the religious religious (or (or political) political) suicide suicide,, in which aa pparadoxical aradoxical climax in which the oone perpetrating the the act act and seeing some some benefit the ne perpetrating and supposedly supposedly seeing benefit of of it is is also also the the fatal fatal victi victim. The unavoidability unavoidability of of the the pparadox in aa it m . The aradox in sense' perspective (based (based on general and natural ''common common sens e ' perspective on the the general and natural instinct of of living living beings beings to to maintain maintain one one's makes such instinct ' s life) life) makes such acts acts both shocking shocking and and intriguing intriguing in in their their incomprehensibility incomprehensibility.. With With the the both

88

1. INTRODUCTION INTRODUCTION

acceptance that aa different different perspective perspective may be valid valid at least least for the the acceptance perpetrator of the act who apparently expects it to yield a benefit b enefit which greatly greatly outweighs and and transcends transcends that that of his his own life life,, the the which pparadox aradox somewhat somewhat subsides. subsides . Whetlier should allow allow or or dis­ Whetlier others others should discourage suicides and courage or or actively actively try try to to prevent prevent such such suicides and self-sacrifices self-sacrifices for some aim ' is is again again aa different and extremely for some 'higher 'higher aim' different and extremely intricate intricate problem problem..

1 . 3 While groups in in aa society able to live 1.3 While small small groups society may may have have been been able to live complete up to the high and theoretically attractive ideal of comp lete of abstention from violent acts against living being beings, a practice s, violence has has continued continued from the the remotest remotest ppast till the the present present.. The The violence ast till practice of violence against humans and other living beings seems ineradicable,, and and this this may may be be another another universal universal as ineradicable as it it applies applies elsewhere �s much Theorists have all much as as in in South South Asia. Asia. Theorists have blamed blamed it it all elsewhere a.s on the ''animal animal past' of humans (cf. Ruddick 1992: 1 992 : 1273) 1 273) which should be suppressed or overcome by morality morality;; conversely conversely,, the zoologist and specialist in in primate primate behaviour behaviour Frans Frans de Waal Waal has has rere­ cently argued that 'the animal' animal ' in humans may just as well bbee at the basis of cooperate and for others (Waal the basis of their their tendencies tendencies to to cooperate and care care for others (Waal 11996). 996) . Whatever the background of the tendency to violence, attempts .. to connect the high ideal with practicalities seem jjustified ustified and understandable.. It is also understandable that overly idealistic understandable interpretations or or definitions of violence violence (as (as a 'thick ter term' with interpretations m ' �ith practice.. But there is a evaluative connotations) are adapted to the practice non-violence'' danger that this opens the way to 'rhetorics of non-violence covering up acts which according to all normal interpretations are clearly employing clearly and and reprehensibly reprehensibly violent violent.. The The motivation motivation for for employing such ary from from the alleviate such rhetorics rhetorics may may vvary the need need to to prevent prevent or or alleviate personal doubts doubts and and feelings feelings of guilt, to to attempts attempts to to defend defend oneself personal of guilt, oneself against critics. While it it seems seems reasonable reasonable to against critics . While exclude from to exclude from the the definition of violence inj urious actions in violence injurious actions which which are are ultimately ultimately or or in definition of some respect respect beneficial beneficial to to a consenting consenting living being being undergoing undergoing it it some (as in in aa medical medical treatment treatment of a human or animal-this is why (as .B wide),, it Blackburn's l ackburn' s definition quoted at the beginning is too wide) becomes if this iving being in the this lliving being is is to to die die in the becomes more more problematic problematic if animal):: is there any soul process (as in the sacrifice of a human or animal) or It is is or entity entity which which benefitted benefitted from from undergoing undergoing the the violent violent act? act? It very well possible that those perpetrating the act seriously believe

1. INTRODUCTION 1. INTRODUCTION

9 9

.even on a victim (or its soul or spirit), spirit) , but in its beneficial effects .even we are dangerously close to a great ruse to get a thirst for violence (whether regarded as basically innate in the human animal or as pathological) satisfied at the expense of innocent living beings and under a cover of praiseworthy morals. If the Manu-Sm:rti says in an ooft-quoted ft-quoted verse (5.39) that slaughtering at a sacrifice is no slaughtering, slaughtering , it can hardly be denied that the act of which it is repre­ speaking is indeed violence violence,, whatever its acceptability or reprehensibility from different viewpoints. viewpoints . It is violence, violence , and it IS violence denied. Ajfieya's denied . And if the revolutionary heroine in Aj fieya's short sto:r:y sto:r:y "Vipathga" " Vipathga" (written in 1931), 1 93 1) , looking at the blood-stained sword with which she has just killed a police officer, says: say s : "there " there is no blood on it," it, " we recognize a theme with a long history in South Asian cultural history history.. One may have different opinions on the justifiability of the act of the heroine heroine,, which followed her· colleague,, a request request to the police to release a revolutionary colleague answered positively on the condition that she would have sex with inter­ police.. But the act, according to all normal interthe head of the police pretations of the term, is an instance of violence. And it is violence denied. denied . 2.1 2 . 1 After this brief introduction ooff the problematic which forms the main theme and thread of this volume, volume , an overview may be given of the essays of this volume, volume , which have been a~ranged a �ranged according to the chronological sequence of their main topics topics.. It is hoped and expected that the range of topics and the diversity of approaches adopted by the different authors will stimulate further reflection and discussion on this most intricate problem area of "violence, violence." " violence, non-violence and the rationalization of violence ." In "Hindu W.. Bodewitz searches ahirhsa and its roots," roots , " Henk W " Hindu ahirhsa ahirhsii, the term for the Smith Asian origins of the concept of ahirhsii, which is nowadays usually taken as the equivalent of 'non'non­ violence', texts,, remains concepviolence ' , but which, in the older Vedic texts concep­ tually quite distant from this concept as it usually refers to one's one ' s own (or the sacrificer's sacrificer 's own) 'safety'. 'safety ' . Bodewitz discusses the most important previous contributions to the discussion, and argues that a straight Vedic origin of the concept is quite unlikely. unlikely . The origin is to be sought not among Vedic ritualists but rather in ascetic circles which mayor may or may not have maintained some links with Vedism. ahirhsa [as non-injury of Vedism . In any case, "the concept of ahirhsa

10 10

1. INTRODUCTION 1. INTRODUCTION

playaa role only in a late phase of Vedism. Vedism."" others] started to play Lambert L. L . Schmithausen's Schmithausen ' s "Aspects " Aspects of the Buddhist AttitUde towards War" deals with one of the two religions originating in ascetiC circles and non- or anti-Vedic ascetic ahd according a high place to the ahirhsa, namely B uddhism . The major issues are illustrated ideal of ahirhsii, Buddhism. with references ranging from the Buddha (several centuries B.C.E.) B . C . E. ) to the Aum Shinrikyo-sect responsible for a poison-gas attack in the Tokyo subway, subway , March 1995. 1 995 . Attempts to harmonize political realism with Buddhist ethics (e.g. (e . g . by tacitly allowing defensive wars) are found in some texts texts,, as also relativizations of the norm not to kill (e . g . in a war which should defend the Buddhist (e.g. religion) religion).. Some (Mahayana and Vajrayana) texts also justify killing out of compassIon, in order. to 'liberate' ' liberate ' creatures from an un­ unviolence, fortunate existence existence.. Still, Still , "the old principle that all violenc e , let bad"" has generally remained the alone killing and waging war, is bad norm norm.. In the next paper paper,, Danielle Feller Jatavallabhula J atavallabhula discusses the frequent identifications and parallels of the "war as a sacrifice" s acrifice" as found in a major Hindu epic, epic , the Mahabharata. It is argued that metaphor , but that "the Mahabharata this is not just a pervasive metaphor, war is a full-fledged, albeit peculiar sacrifice, sacrifice , designed to meeJ meet and solve the peculiar problems posed by a specific time of crisis." crisis . " Some of the analogies between the war and regular Vedic sacrifice are the acceptability of violence and killing humans, humans , the validity of rules and expiations, the two-fold aim of "obtainment " obtainment of the earth" e arth" e and "maintenance of the cosmic world-order," "maint nance world-order, " and the involveinvolve­ ment of deities war/sacrifice.. dei ties to be propitiated by the war/sacrifice Jan E.M. E. M . Houben Houben discusses discusses reflections found found iinn ancient ancient South South Asian philosophical literature on on the whether or or not not Asian philosophical literature the ethical ethical problem problem whether a sacrificial s acrificial animal should be killed in a Vedic sacrifice. sacrifice . Special emphasis is placed on Sarhkhya and pre-Sarhkhya, Yoga and Vedanta (covering a period from the first centuries to the 17th). 1 7th) . It argued that in addressing the much-discussed issue whether is argued. humans were ever. offered in sacrifice a distinction is to to be made between periods in which this was generally acceptable in Brahminical circles, circles , and periods in which it was mainly rejected. rej ected . For the the proper evaluation of of an an argument in aa philosophical For proper evaluation argument used used in philosophical text on this ethical problem, the background, pr'esuppositiems, presuppositions , and environment of the author play a considerable role role.. Robert J. 1. Zydenbos deals with another religion arisen, like

1. INTRODUCTION

11 11

neglecting or opposing Vedic Buddhism, in ascetic circles neglecting ritualism, J ainism. Special Special attention attention is is paid paid to some ritualism, namely namely Jainism. to some historical events relating to the dynasty of the Gangas (Karnataka, rej ection of from 4th century onwards) onwards),, in which the Jainas Jainas'' strong rejection all sorts of violence is confronted with the exigencies of practical politics.. Under circumstances, Jaina kings were pragmatic enough politics to adopt violenc e . From the point of view of the JJaina karma­ violence. aina karmadoctrine, spiritual progress amounts to getting rid of all sorts of karma. This is a graded development, and it is accepted that lay people (including kings) "cannot avoid a certain degree of hirhsa life." in daily life . " Non-violence "has become a key concept in Jaina thought and preaching preaching"" which is also used to justify all kinds of other beliefs and practices, sometimes in a rather far-fetched way. way . Roy E. Jordaan and Robert Wessing discuss indications that the practice of construction sacrifice to ensure stable and safe constructs (from buildings to cities and states) was current in South Saiva Asia and neighbouring areas. areas . Findings in a 9th century Saiva temple complex in Prambanan, Central Java, form their starting point. They try to find an answer to the question whether these have any connections with Indian practices of human construction sacrifice. sacrifice . Textual sources such as the silpasastras (on architecture and art) give only very little and often equivocal indications for such a practice practice.. It is argued that in addition to the texts of the main religious traditions traditions,, general anthropological evidence concerning South and Southeast Asia must be taken into account as well. well . They conclude that construction sacrifice with human victims was not as absent in South Asian history as has sometimes been suggested in secondary literature on this matter matter.. IInn "Iconography " Iconography ooff the battlefield: the case ooff Chinnamasta," Chinnamasta, " Karel R R.. van Kooij discusses an eighteenth century miniature " the gruesome goddess Chinnamasta" who beheads painting of "the herself with a scimitar. Scholars have often written about this image in 'rationalizing' ' rationalizing ' terms which cover up the violence which is undeniably present in it. it . The image, image , produced in the Kangra painting,, "continues school of painting " continues a long tradition of sacrificial violence in Indian Iconography:" Iconography;" Its main motifs, motifs , drinking blood, trampling one's one ' s enemy, enemy , and self-immolation by severing one's head, all have a background in battlefield behaviour as represented esp . the in earlier iconography and in literature (the Mahabharata, esp. Tamil version) version).. The image was to be watched by the king. king . There

12

1. INTRODUCTION 1. INTRODUCTION

is no basis to regard it as an object used in Tantric practices. practices . In its self­ original context, it primarily represented "the warrior ideal of selfsacrifice. s acrifice . " While expressions of terror and violence in the Tibetan Buddhist B uddhist lesservisual arts are well known, Pieter C. Verhagen deals with lesser­ known linguistic expressions of violence in Tantric mantras of Tibetan Bllddhism. Buddhism . The author discusses a mantra supposed to have a mundane goal, bne regarded as conducive to the goal , as well as one liberation from the mundane mundane.. Both mantras contain incitations to violence . In the case of the latter mantra this violence is presented violence. as conducive to the lliberation iberation not only of the agent but also of the victim. The broad and basic problem of possible differences in the exex­ perience and valuation of violence in Europe and South Asia are Jos Gommans in a somewhat taken up for discussion by los provocative essay "The " The Embarrassment of political violence in Europe and South 1 100- 1800," which draws inter alia on South Asia, cc.. 1100-1800," discussions and ideas of two two philosophers of culture, culture , the historian Kakar.. Gommans starts Norbert Elias and the psychoanalyst Sudhir Kakar with the young Indian sultan Abu' Hasan ' s reactions to a Dutch Abu'll Hasan's painted scene of a cavalry battle. battl e . It is argued that his dislike of the scene was incidental incidental,, but at the same time rooted in South Asian cultural antecedents antecedents.. While "Indian " Indian paintings and sculpture display displ ay countless scenes full of conspicuous violence with all the conventional acts of killing, killing , dismembering, dismembering , disembowelling and destruction, " these generally appear in a other forms of gruesome destruction," mythical and/or religious context, and the sultan may have been by' "the especially shocked by " the more realistic and direct representation in the European painting." painting . " " Nationalism and Violence in Colonial India, 1880-1910," In "Nationalism 1880- 19 10 , " Victor A A.. van Bijlert deals with the Janus-like face of the modern nation-state nation-state,, "the most imitated modern political. and social institution,"" which "is institution, " is benign and aggressive at the same time," time , " especially in the context of the emerging anti-colonial Hindu nationalism of ca. 1880-1910. 1880- 19 10 . Here, Here , a distinction can be made between "a more radically Hindu mode which sought to sharply define and defend the Hindu identity"-represented identity " -represented e.g. e . g . by Bailkimcandra universaB ailkimcandra Ca!!opadhyay (Chatterjee)-and "a more universa­ listic and secular mode" mode " defining the Hindu identity with less explicit exclusion of "other " other cultural identies such as the Islamic or

1. INTRODUCTION 1. INTRODUCTION

13 13

one"" -represented e.g. Christian one e . g . by Rabindranath Tagore. Tagore . IItt was especially in the mentioned period that there was aa: transition from a cultural definition of the nationalists ideals to "political " political activism violence." including violenc e. " In the paper, Theo short story story In the concluding concluding paper, Theo Damsteegt Damsteegt discusses discusses aa short ofthe Ajfieya, of the Hindi author Aj iieya, namely ""Vipathga," Vipathga, " written in 1931. 1 931. There similarities between expressed in in this There are are some some similarities between the the ideas ideas expressed this story and those propounded several decades earlier by Lokamanya Tilak, in different modes , also Tilak, and and,, in different modes, also by by Bailkimcandra Bankimcandra Ca!!opadhyay Cat!opadhyay V.D. and V . D. Savarkar, but there does not seem to be a direct link. Ajfieya was rather influenced by a new phase in Indian revol­ revolAjiieya thinking,, in which socialist ideals had acquired a pro­ proutionary thinking minent place. place . Violent revolution is defended and even glorified, reand although religion is less central than in the preceding phase re­ presented by Tilak and others others,, religious metaphors like "sacrifices " s acrifices made at the altar of the common Goddess" Goddess " (calling to mind B ailkimcandra ' s personification personification of of the Indian Indian nation state as Bailkimcandra's Goddess) persist. Damsteegt further analyzes the narrative techniques used by Ajiieya Ajfieya to express his ideas ideas,, and to impress them on the reader. 2.2 More than in the situations and positions discussed in the preceding papers, Ajfieya's papers , violence is quite broadly permitted in Ajiieya 's story ahabharata equal story.. Perhaps only some ooff the episodes in the M Mahabharata this story in the atmosphere of general permissiveness to violence. Rev,olutionary cheque'' of legit­ legitRev, o lutionary violence receives almost a 'blanco cheque imization when the heroine makes it clear that in her view "non" non­ violence will only help the rulers rulers"" and that "Revolution " Revolution does not medicine which which aim at specific changes aim changes,, but it removes evil, like aa medicine drives away a disease but does not in itself lead to health health." . " But here,, with all the glorification of violence as if for its own even here sake (as in the work of Sorel and other thinkers in Europe of the justisame period),, violence is from the outset provided with a justi­ s ame period) fication which, in the view of the perpetrators, perpetrators , disqualifies it it as as full,, descriptive and (negatively) evaluative sense ''violence' violence ' in the full 'non-violof the term (and which, for them, turns 'violence' ' violence ' into 'non-viol­ ence'): ultience ' ) : it is an instrument contributing to a revolution, and ulti­ mately this revolution is to bring about better social and political conditions conditions..

1. INTRODUCTION

14

References Blackburn, Simon S imon 11994 994

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15

Smith, Jonathan Z Z.. Univ.. 11982 98 2 Imagining religionjrom Babylon to Jonestown. Chicago: Chicago Univ Press.. Press (ed.) .) Stietencron, H. von (ed Bewiiltigunglf iinn den 11979 97 9 Angst und Gewalt: Ihre Priisenz und ihre Bewiiltigun Religionen.. Dusseldorf: Patmos Verlag Verlag.. Religionen Sorel, S o rel, Georges 1 97 6 From Georges Sorel: Essays in Socialism and Philosophy ith an 1976 Philosophy.. Ed Ed.. w with C.. Stanley. introd. J.L. Stanley, trans!.. by J. intro d . by J,L. Stanley , transl J . and C Stanley . New York: Univ. Press.. Oxford Uni v . Press E.. Meyer Vidal, D., G. Tarabout and E 1 6 . Paris: 11994 994 Violences et Non-violences en Inde. Collection Purusartha, 16. E ditions de ll'Ecole ' Ecole des Hautes E Etudes Editions tudes en Sciences Sociales. S � ciales . Waal, Frans de 11996 99 6 Good natured: the origins of oj right and wrong in humans and other animals.. Cambridge, Mass Mass.:. : Harvard Univ Univ.. Press. animals Williams, Bernard 11985 9 8 5 Ethics and the Limits of oj Philosophy. London: Fontana Press // Collins. oj humanity and other philosophical papers. Cambridge: 11995 99 5 Making sense of Press.. Cambridge C ambridge Univ. Press

22.. HINDU AHIMSA AHIMSA AND ITS ROOTS

HENK W. BODEWITZ 11.. Before discussing the problem of the possible ongm of the ahirhsa doctrine it may be useful first to define the exact nature of

the concept and to establish its correct translation. In English translations the term is mostly rendered with 'non'non­ violence',, but this word is missing in the older English dictioviolence' dictio­ naries naries..11 Actually the term non-violence is closely connected with rejecting Mahatma Gandhi. Gandhi . 22 Its modern interpretation 'policy ' policy of rej ecting objective,3 violent means .. .. .. to gain a political or social obj ective ' 3 has nothing to do with the classical meaning of ahirhsa. ahirhsa . A more neutral non-injury term like e.g. e . g, . non-, injury is preferable. preferabl e . Some scholars have misinterpreted ahirhsa aass 'the wish not to kill',' , ii.e. nekill' or 'the absence of the wish to kill . e. they take it as the ne­ kill'.' . 44 This gation of a desiderative derived from the root han 'to kill jiis obviously untenable since the real desiderative of that root is ji­ ective *hirhsu (or *ahirhsu) is gharhsati and a corresponding adj adjective 1I The word does not occur for for instance in A A New New English English Dictionary Dictionary on on historical principles, principles, ed. by James A A.H. Murray,, Volume VI VI,, L to N, Part II II,, historical . H . Murray

Press, Oxford:: Clarendon Pres Oxford s , 1908. 1908. be noted, however however,, that iinn his understanding of ahirizsa, 22 It iiss ttoo be ahimsa, Gandhi was greatly inspired by the Russian author Tolstoy. Tolstoy . Cf. Schwab 1984:45lf: 1 984 : 45lf: ""It It was the Slavic shaping of 'ahllhsa' ' ahllhsa ' that would afterward impress impress the cus­ cus-

Gandhi sought his own personal inspiration in todians of the faith: in return, Gandl:li Tolstoy and through him rediscovered his path toward the law of love and passivity.. " passivity Oxford Advanced 1 974, 33 Oxford Advanced Learner's Learner's Dictionary Dictionary of of Current Current English; English, ed. 1974, 1987, p.. 5571. 1987, p 71. 44 For older literature ssee e e Mayrhofer 1976:595. 1 976 : 5 95 . The outdated etymology ff. (referring on pp.. 190 to publications by is still found in Dumont 1966: 1 966: 1188 8 8 ff. Caillat M. Biardeau), Schreiner 1979:287 1 97 9 : 287 and OguiMnine 1993:81. 1 993 : 8 1 . C aillat 1993: 1 993: 235, observes:: ""The HIl~fS is clear clear:: there can 23 5 , n. 91 rightly observes The definite aspect of RIMS evidence." be little doubt that the result (not the intention) is in evidence . " For the correct analysis now see also Schmidt 1997:207f. 1997 : 207f.

HENK W. W. BO:DEWITZ BOOEWITZ

18

missing. missing . . The verb originally was hinasti hinasti rather than hirhsati. hirhsati. Moreover ahirhsil ahirhsa in prepre-Upani�adic tex:ts means 'security, ' security, Upani~adic texts safeness ' , which cannot be connected with the desiderative. desiderative . For the safeness', (a)-hirhs-a see Wackernagel-Debrunner II,2 1954:246; 1 954 : 246; formation (a)-hirhs-il 248.. 248 true , however, that in most contexts the non-injury implies It iiss true, the absence of killing, 55 though sometimes the violence is extended to mental or verbal injury. injury . 66 One has has also also tried take the term ahirhsil ahirhsa not not quite quite literally, literally, One tried to to take the term ii.e. . e . as the absence of the use of violence or injury, injury , and then one arrives at definitions like 'love ' love towards all living beings' beings ' or 'posi' posi­ tive attitude'. attitude ' . This is especially the case with modern Hindu authors.. Radhakrishnan 1947:202 authors 1 947 :202 says: "Non-violence is not a phyphy­ love , " and elsewhere sical condition, but a mental attitude of love," (1940: ( 1 940 : 46) he also observes that "the marks of genuine religion are abhaya or freedom from fear, expressing itself in harmony, harmony , bal­ abhaya balance, perfect agreement between body and soul, between the hands and the brain, and ahirhsil ahirhsa or love. love . Abhaya Abhaya and ahirhsil, ahirhsa, awareness and sympathy, sympathy , freedom and love, love , are the two features, features , theoretical and practical, practical , of religion. " I am afraid that Radhakrishnan here stretches the meaning of the term, that connotations start to eclipse the basic meaning and that the author, author , driven by idealism, exaggerates the positive aspects of religion. After all, all , the negative term ahirhsil ahirhsa should not be disdis­ asteyam ('not ( ' not stealsteal­ sociated from other negative terms like e.g. e . g . asteyam ing'). ing ' ) . The latter l atter cannot be taken otherwise than as the prohibition of theft. ahirhsa On such terms Gonda wrote an article entitled "Why " Why are ahirhsil and similar concepts often expressed in a negative form" which forms a chapter of Gonda 1959 1 959 (namely 95-117). 95-1 1 7) . Here he interinter­ adroha (literally meaning 'non-injury') 'non-injury ') as "bene"bene­ prets a term like adroha volence ... . . . towards all creatures" creatures " (p. 102) 1 02) and he refers to other negative terms with a primarily positive meaning. meaning . He concludes: concludes : " The opposite of injuring . . .. and so on was a condition eagerly "The 55

han by hilhs hirhs and vice versa in Jain texts see han 1993:220. 1 993:220 . 66 See BaudhDhS 2.6.23 2 . 6 .23 "He (Le. (i . e . the ascetic) .shall not injure creatures with words words,, thoughts and acts." Here,, however, the term adrohin adrohin is found acts . " Here ahirhsti. and not ahirhsti. On the replacement of

Caillat

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desired and difficult to bbee obtained obtained oorr preserved. preserved . Thus Thus words like like ahirhsa . .. .. may may be considered not only to express that which is ahirhsil .

logically opposed ttoo the ideas of injuring ... . . . but also that what is to,, or inconsistent with thes thesee notions notions". emotionally opposed to " . (p.

103). 1 03 ) . This sounds interesting, but if we would replace injury (hirhsti) (hirhsa) desirby smoking and consider its opposite as "a " a condition eagerly desir­ ed and difficult to be obtained or preserved," then still we have preserved, " then to indicate this opposite by the term non-smoking and nothing else and we are not entitled to use high-falutin paraphrases like "to be a human being who has reached his balance and a perfect agreeagree­ ment between body and soul, soul , between the hands and the brains brains"" etc.. 77 etc 2 . 0 If we restrict the term to actual non-violence in the sense of 2.0

non-killing attention, especially non-killing three three modern modern concepts concepts require require our our attention, especially in connection with the problem of the origin of ahirhsti: ahirhsa : pacifism, hunting,, and vegetarianism vegetarianism.. rejection the rej ection of hunting 2.1 2 . 1 The first item hardly plays a role in the Hindu concept of aa­ hirhsa antihirhsa and its development. Hinduism misses a tradition of anti­ militarism.. Basham (1954: ( 1954 : 123) states that "positive " positive condemnations militarism literature"" and that "the doctrine of non:­ nonof war are rare in Indian literature violence, influential,, and violence , which in medieval India had become very influential had made most of the respectable classes vegetarian, was never at this time taken to forbid war or capital punishment." punishment. " He even India." speaks of ""the the intense militarism of ancient India ." It is true that Arjuna refuses to fight iinn the Bhagavadglta, but relatives.. his refusal was prompted by the fear of killing killing his own relatives Elsewhere in the Mahabharata epic he even states that ahirhsa ahirhsa is impossible. 88 In post-Vedic hirhsa is personified as pos t-Vedic lliterature iterature the female term hirhsa ahirhsa as the wife the wife of Adharma (('Umighteousness') ' Unrighteousness') and ahirhsa of Dharma, and so we might be induced to take ahirhsa ahirhsa as the law everybody. (dharma) prescribed for everyb disti nction to the �dy . However, in distinction

77 However, it has to be admitted that even ancient texts sometimes expand the compound in the meaning meaning of of the the negative negative compound in such such aa way way that that it it comes comes to to designate something like compassion with all beings (Caillat 1993:224). 1 993 : 224) . 88 MBh 12. pasyami jivantam jrvantarh loke loke kamcid karhcid ahimsayti. ahirhsaya. 1 2 . 15.20 1 5 . 20 na na hi hi pasyami

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uniChristian Ten Commandments the rules of Dharma are not uni­ versal . Killing in war was a prescript for the relevant social class versal. and and therefore pacifism can be ruled out as a decisive factor in the ahirizsa.. development of at least the Hindu concept of ahirhsti Even in modern Hinduism after Gandhi war and violence are not not principally rejected as such. such . As Radhakrishnan (1947:202) ( 1 947 : 202) states it: "Non-violence as a mental state is different from non-re­ non-resistance . . . We cannot say s ay that sistance.. It is absence of malice and hatred ... . . . Where non�iolence possible , violence is evil in itself. ... non-violence is not possible, violence is permitted." permitted. " Gandhi himself supported the British in 1 9 14 in their just war 1914 war.. 2 . 2 No more than the violence of war did the violence of hunting 2.2

play a role playa role.. It It is true that professional hunters are despised, which may partly be based on their social s()cial status status,, though their cruelty cruelty is mentioned.. The hunting of kings, critialso mentioned kings , however, is sseldom eldom criti­ epics. cized in the Indian epic s . In his forthcoming article on the subject, subj ect, Brinkhaus shows that Brahmins sometimes were (actively or pasB.rinkhaus pas­ sively) shooting-parties . Too sively) involved involved in in shooting-parties. Too much much hunting hunting,, just just like like too much drinking drinking,, gambling and sex, formed the traditional vices of the kings, kings , but hunting as such was not categorically rej ected (cf. rejected Wilhelm 1991). 1 99 1 ) . It It is remarkable that especially the meaningless Wilbelm killing in the shooting-parties was not condemned. 2.3 2 . 3 Vegetarianism and ahirizsa ahirhsti are sometimes so closely associated by scholars and Hindus that the two terms seem to bbee interchangeable interchangeable.. Not every Hindu, however, iiss a vegetarian and in the oldest period period the eating of of meat was quite acceptable acceptable (cf. (cf. Mitra India"). 1881:354-388 1 8 8 1 : 354-3 8 8 on "Beef " Beef in ancient India" ) . Vegetarianism misses ahirizsa the authority of the Veda. Moreover it is a consequence of ahirhsti rather than being entirely identical with it. 3 . 1 The 3.1 The heretic heretic religions religions of of Buddhism Buddhism and and J ainism ainism which which reacted reacted rule, against Vedism, had a rather strict application of the ahirizsa ahirhsti rul e, especially for the monks monks.. Since Vedism is dominated bbyy the ritual and in several sacrifices animals are killed as victims, victims , one might ahirhsti doctrine had its roots in the rej ection of rejection suppose that the ahirizsa rejection the bloody sacrifices of Vedism rather than merely in a rej ection of the eating of meat in ancient ancient Iran meat.. A reformer like Zarathustra in also protested against the bloody sacrifices sacrifices.. The ahirhsti ahirizsa might have

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a heretical background. On the other hand Hinduism itself also exceptions) . And the replaced the bloody rituals (be it not without exceptions). me the Brahmins Brahmins,, the authorities of Vedism and its ritual ritual,, beca became champions of vegetarianism. ' So the question remains whether new developments like the propagation . of ahirhsii ahirhsa took place within the continuum of Vedism and Hinduism or outside it. A formulation like ''inin- or outside Vedism' depends on the exact Vedism.. On the basis of a number of indications one definition of Vedism may assume besides the ritualistic mainstream several alternative movements movements,, which unfortunately did not get much attention in thesee alternative literature.. 99 There are some references to thes Vedic literature Vedists,, but these refer to their way of life rather than to their Vedists religious aims aims.. Therefore it is difficult to use terms like heterodox lO Anyhow, there seem to have been circles.. lO and orthodox Vedic circles groups outside the ritualistic mainstream which were not necessarily non-Vedic. Outside this Vedism we find heretical lainism, which are represented by movements like Buddhism and Jainism, an enormous literature literature,, but also less successful 'sects 'sects'' or movements,, ''religions'. religions ' . The differences between Vedic alternative movements Buddhism, 1Jainism ainism and less well-known other heretical groups are Bronkhorst 1993 Vedic from non-Vedic non-Vedic asceticism and assumes 99 Bronkhorst 1 993 discerns Vedic two different different roots roots or or sources sources for for them. them. Vedic Vedic asceticism asceticism would would have have two developed from "ascetic " ascetic restrictions in connection with the execution of the sacrifice . . . The normally confined confined to duration of of aa The Vedic Vedic restrictions restrictions,, normally to the the duration sacrifice ... sacrifice make of life , and were in in any case sacrifice,, inspired inspired some some to to make of them them aa way way of of life, and were any case believed to lead lead the the practitioner practitioner to to the the same same aims aims as as those those which which others others tried tried believed to sacrifices"" (p. 92).. Apparently Bronkhorst equates to reach reach by by performing performing sacrifices to (p . 92) Vedic with sacrificial sacrificial.. People permanently staying outside the village after having finished study of Veda and of the the Veda and continuing continuing to to recite recite their their mantras mantras having finished their their study would belong belong to to the the non-Vedic non-Vedic current current of of asceticism. asceticism. This This labeling labeling of of Vedic Vedic would convince.. See also Olivelle 1995:162-164. and non-Vedic does not convince 1 995 : 1 62- 1 6 4 . 10 10 See Olivelle 1993:69: 1 993 : 69 : "In the absence of an adequate definition of orthodoxy within within the the BrahmllI,lical Brahmalfical tradition tradition .. .. .. the the division of of these these conflic­ conflicorthodoxy ting and life styles into orthodox' and heterodox' is is not very ting theologies theologies and life styles into ''orthodox' and ''heterodox' not very useful ... . . . for historical purposes or for a phenomenological description of the data. traditional vedic view are are found across aa broad to the the traditional vedic view found across broad data. The The challenges challenges to spectrum of of religious some of of the authoritative texts spectrum religious literature literature,, including including some the most most authoritative texts n to accepted views of a tradition, after all, of BriihmllI,lism. Brahmalfism. Oppositio Opposition of all , can and often does does come come from from within within that that tradition. tradition. "" often

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. rather vague with regard to issues like ahirhsii. ahirhsa . We simply do not ' know. know . It is also not quite fruitful to connect this controversial' controversial point with the distinction between Aryans and non-Aryans, non-Aryans , since this distinction had already become blurred at the time when ideas ahirhsa as a way of life became developed (see e.g. e . g . Olivelle about ahirhsii 1993 : 6 8) . 1993:68). 3 . 2 IIn n spite ooff the probability ooff heretical oorr at least alternative 3.2 ahirhsa some scholars still have opted for a purely Vedic · roots for ahirhsii origin. Of Of course course the bloody sacrifices sacrifices of of Vedic Vedic ritualism ritualism create create aa the bloody origin. .44) the violence of (e . g . Manu 55.44) problem. In post-Vedic literature (e.g. Vedic ritual is said to be non-violence. non-violence . Denying the actual injury, however, does not solve the problem. Yaska, Nirukta 1.16 1 . 16 commenting on the impossibility of cutting a tree without injuring Maitrayal).l it (see M aitrayal.11 Sarhhita Sarilhita 3.9.3) 3 . 9 . 3) simply states that the authority of (ahirhsa) . This the Veda should explain this injury as non-injury (ahirhsii). late Vedic evidence (of which the date is uncertain) does not prove ahirhsa doctrine. doctrine . It is merely anything on the existence of a Vedic ahirhsii rejection a rej ection of a possible criticism which is based on the infallibiiity infallibi iity of the Veda ' doctrine ' (or rather dogma) can hardly have Veda.. Such a 'doctrine' inspired JJains ahirhsa occurs in ains and Buddhists. Buddhists . On the other hand ahirhsii the Dharmasutras ar­ Dharmasiitras and these texts being Vedic provided an argument. However, the absolute date of these texts is uncertain and gumertt. consequently also their relative date with regard to Jain and B uddhist material. material . Buddhist In the period before these Vedic Dharma texts ahirhsii, ahirhsa , in the sense of an aim in life or as an imperative rule of conduct, hardly played a role in Vedism. It is true that the term ahirhsii ahirhsa is used more frequently frequently in Vedic ritualistic prose texts than in the whole literature of the following five centuries. centuries . However, However , the word is only used in the dative in these texts and then it denotes "for " for the 195 9 : 1 16) . It is evident of" , "for " for the security of" (Gonda 1959:116). safety of", that here no ethical rule is concerned. In the further, further , early UpaUpa­ ni�adic missing . These texts indeed do not ni~adic literature the word is missing. deal with rules of conduct, but since these Upani~ads Upani�ads represent the turning-point in the development from Vedism to Hinduism, one might expect e xpect at least some references references to this innovative term which also played an importarit role in the new religions of Buddhism and Jainism.~ Jainism.� ahirhsa is associated with asceticism and renunciation. Mostly ahirhsii

HINDU AHIMSA AHIMSA 22.. HINDU

23

All concepts are in Jainism lainism and and Buddhism Buddhism but All these these three three concepts are found found in but also in the i . e . Hinduism Hinduism and its Vedic also in the so-called so-called Brahmanism, Brahmanism, i.e. and its Vedic roots.. There There has has been been aa tendency tendency in India and and in early Western Western roots in India in early Indology to to attribute attribute aa chronological chronological priority priority to to Brahmanism Brahmanism in this Indology in this respect. 111 1 Then Then the the problem problem remains remains that that aJzifhsa ahitizsa as as aa rule rule of life respect. of life occurs two passages in the Chandogya-Upani~ad,, occurs (apart (apart from from two passages in the Chandogya-Upani�ad which for the some which may may be be late late additions) additions) for the first first time time only only in in some relatively late late texts texts like like the the Dharmasiitras Dharmasutras.. relatively

4.11 The first Western Western Indologist Indologist who tried to to derive 4. The first who tried derive ahifizsa ahithsa from from

the orthodox orthodox mainstream mainstream of of Vedism Vedism and and its its ritual ritualism rather than than the ism rather from some Vedic movements movements,, was was H. P.. from some alternative, alternative, ascetic ascetic Vedic H.P Schmidt ((1968:625-655). After having having shown shown iinn his his treatment treatment of Schmidt 1 968 : 625-65 5) . After of the material material that that in in Vedic Vedic and and post-Vedic post-Vedic Dharma Dharma texts texts ahifizsa was ahithsa was the especially associated associated with with Saqmyasins or at at least with B Brahmins especially Saqmyasins or least with rahmins having similar ideals and practising similar similar observances, he having similar ideals and practising observances , he observed:: "From casual survey the material material collected collected in in the the observed " From aa casual survey of of the preceding idea of of ahirhsa preceding paragraphs paragraphs it it might might appear appear that that the the idea ahimsa . originated was gradually gradually adopted adopted by originated among among the the world-renouncers world-renouncers,, was by the BrahmaI).as Brahmanas and finally considered to be be aa rule rule for for the the and was was finally considered to the whole soCiety society whose whose values values were were determined determined by by the the precedent precedent of of whole the BrahmaI).as BrahmaI!as"" (p (p.. 642). However,, to to him this plaus plausible 642) . However him this ible sketch sketch of of the the development development seemed seemed too too simple simple.. He He also the the also considered considered the possibility of of connecting connecting the the ahithsa ahimsa doctrine doctrine with with the the A Atman possibility tman doctrine states that tman in living beings doctrine which which states that there there is is an an A Atman in all all living beings.. Killing aa living living being being would would mean mean kill killing the A Atman. Here it has Killing ing the tman . Here it has to tman doctrine doctrine is texts to be be observed observed that that the the A Atman is found found in in Upani�adic Upani~adic texts ahithsa and according to in the which and that that according to Krishna Krishna in the which do do not not mention mention ahimsa BhagavadgTta only the body not the the A Atman be killed killed.. Bhagavadglta only the body and and not tman can can be Schmidt'ss rejection rejection of the association association of of the the A Atman the ahithsa ahimsiJ. Schmidt' of the tman and and the doctrines him such such aa reconstruction doctrines is is different different.. According According to to him reconstruction would be be "a fallacy not explain the ssignificance of would "a fall acy ssince ince it it does does not explain the ignificance of ahimsa in in the the animistic animistic and and pluralistic pluralistic religion religion of the JJ ainas" ainas " (p. (p . ahirhsa of the 643).. There There would would be more agreement between early Vedism and 643) be more agreement between early Vedism and JJ ainism in this this respect. ainism in respect. 11

II Jacobi 1884:XXIII observed on on ahirhsa and and other other ascetic ascetic rules rules ""that 1 884 : XXIII observed that neither Buddhists nor regard any any claim claim to neither the the Buddhists nor the the Jainas Jainas have have in in this this regard to originality,, but but that that both only adopted adopted the the five vows of the Brahmanic Brahmanic originality both have have only five vows of the ascetics." further Bronkhorst Bronkhorst 1993:3. ascetics . " See further 1 993 : 3 . See also Sprockhoff 1976:4-5. 1 97 6 : 4-5 .

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There or two in the There are are indeed indeed one one or two passages passages in the Vedic Vedic prose prose texts texts is expressed that in yonder world the animals in which the fear fear is in which the expressed that in yonder world the animals may eat eat in in return return the the human human beings beings by by whom whom they they had had been been eaten. may eate n . Schmidt then Schmidt then observes observes:: "Killing and hurting hurting creatures had " KiIl ing and creatures had undesirable consequences which which must must be be eliminated" undesirable consequences eliminated " (p. (p . 645). 645) . II am, that this is relatively am, however, however, under under the the impression impression that this topic topic is relatively isolated iterature and isolated in in Vedic Vedic lliterature and that that it it rather rather deals deals with with the the reversal reversal of of everything everything in in yonder yonder world world.. Schmidt also also draws draws attention attention to to the the fact Vedic texts texts use use Schmidt fact that that Vedic euphemisms is not not euphemisms in in denoting denoting the the actual actual killing killing,, but but this this is exceptional s ince in all cultures living beings exceptional,, since in all cultures the the killing killing of of living beings is is not not 1 2 AIl All sorts of expiations may be be prescribed prescribed and affair.. 12 sorts of expiations may aa ssimple imple affair used her� incidentaIly used here../ And And in in this this context context the the term term ahirhsa ahirhsa may may incidentally occur fo r the occur,, but but then then it it is is only only used used in in the the dative dative,, meaning meaning ''for the security dangers for security of of so.mebody somebody'.' . One One is is always always afraid afraid of of dangers for the the weIl-being ' s offspring sometimes even even of of of oneself, oneself, one one's offspring,, and and sometimes well-being of one ' s cattle ahirhsa theory which forbids one's cattle,, but but this this is is not not an an ahirhsa theory which forbids the the killing Schmidt, however speaks of of "a "a ritual killing of of animals animals.. Schmidt, however,, speaks ritual ahirhsaahirhsa- . theory"" .. theory II have . 1 3 The of hithsa hirhsa have my my doubts doubts here hereY The fear fear of of whatever whatever kind kind of mostly has has no no relation relation to to the the hirhsa hithsa one one has has committed committed oneself. mostly oneself. There ' s own There is is often often no no expiation expiation for for one one's own hirhsa hirhsa and and consequently consequently aa real real ritual ritual ahirhsa-theory ahirhsa-theory is is missing missing.. Moreover Moreover the the assumption of assumption of such aa rritual ahirhsa-theory is is not not supported supported by by aa widespread widespread such itual ahirhsa-theory occurrence of the the term term ahirhsa ahirhsa in in all all the the Vedic Vedic ritual ritualistic texts.. In In occurrence of istic texts S ailkhB) it some . g . JB Brahmal!as (e (e.g. JB and and SailkhB) it is is even even totaIly totally missing missing.. some BrahmaI).as And as observed the term in the the dative And,, as observed before before,, the term ahirhsa ahirhsa used used in dative means means the safety safety of' of' and and therefore therefore cannot cannot refer refer to to an an ethical ethical theory theory.. ''for for the Schmidt, however, however, observes observes that the animistic animistic view view of life of the Schmidt, that the of life of the 1122 See See Doniger Doniger & & Smith XXXII,, n. n. 39: all this this is part and and Smith 1991 1 9 9 1 ::XXXII 39: "" .. .. .. all is part of sacrificial sacrificial ideologies ideologies everywhere everywhere." A typical typical Vedic Vedic argument is that that parcel of parcel ." A argument is ritual See e.g: e.g: ritual killing killing is is no no killing killing since since the the victim victim lives lives on on in in heaven. heaven. See not really really die here, nor nor are are you injured.. Rgvedasarphitil 1.162.21 �gvedasarphita 1 . 1 62 . 2 1 "You " You ddoo not die here, you injured go to to the the gods gods on paths pleasant pleasant to on" (nd va v6 u etdn mriyase nd na You go You on paths to go go on" devalif id 1 96 8 : 646 . This This ri�asi ri~asi devam fd e�i esi pathfbhifJ. pathfbhih sugebhifJ.) sugebhih).. See See Schmidt Schmidt 1968:646. textplace undoubtedly precedes the ahirhsa doctrine, but hardly forms a starting-point for for this this theory starting-point theory.. 1133 See also Halbfass 1991:87-129, 1 99 1 : 87-129, especially pp.. 113: 1 1 3 : ""Was Was there really a 'ritual ' ? " and 1 993 : 6-7 . ahirilsil-theory'?" and Bronkhorst Bronkhorst 1993:6-7. 'ritual ahiIDsa-theory

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Jains resembles resembles that that of of the the Vedic Vedic people people and and he he states states:: ""The Jains The conclusion suggests suggests itself itself that that the the ritual ritual ahirhsa-theory ahimsa:-theory is is the the conclusion ultimate of the later renunciatory is the the ultimate source source of the later renunciatory ahirhsa-doctrine ahimsa-doctrine.. It is Vedic ritual ritual which which makes makes us us understand understand the the magico-ritual magico-ritualistic Vedic istic ' background of of the the ahirhsa-movement ahimsa-movement"" (p. (p. 649-50) 649-50).. background Some ve accepted Some German German Indologists Indologists na have accepted this this view view without without question have regarded regarded "the 1 976 : 5 ) . Others Others have " the question (e.g. (e . g . Sprockhoff Sprockhoff 1976:5). magico-ritualistic dread of of destroying destroying life life in any form form"" of of the the Veda Veda magico-ritual istic dread in any as only only one one of of the the possible for one think that that th this as possible explanations. explanations . 14 14 II for one think is so-called " magico-ritual istic dread destroy ing llife" i fe " in so-called "magico-ritualistic dread of of destroying in the the Veda Veda should lot of ing in should not not be be overestimated. overestimated. There There was was aa lot of kill killing in Vedic Vedic ritual and and often often the the texts texts do do not not regard regard this this as problem.. ritual as aa problem Schmidt is realistic Schmidt is realistic enough enough to to admit admit that that the the actual actual abstention abstention from all all kinds kinds of of kill killing in the the classical classical ahilhsa ahilnsa theory theory is is aa far cry far cry from ing in from Vedic practice practice in which cattle cattle were were kil killed this cruelty from the the Vedic in which led and and this cruelty was expiated expiated by by magical magical strategics strategics.. He even states: ahimsawas He even states : "The " The ahirhsa­ doctrine' of the the renouncer in fact, complete reversal of the doctrine of renouncer is, is, in fact, aa complete reversal of the ritual view "the " the reform-rel igions of of the the ritual theory theory"" (p (p.. 650) 650).. In In his his view reform-religions the Buddha Buddha cannot cannot have have initiated initiated this JJina ina and and the this development" development" (p. (p . 650), this is either aa truism truism,, since since indeed indeed Buddhists Jains 650) , but but this is either Buddhists and and Jains did sacrifices and consequently could did not not have have bloody bloody sacrifices and consequently could not not make make this reversal reversal,, or misrepresentation of of the the actual actual situation: situation: Why Why this or aa misrepresentation could not not Jains Jains and and Buddhists Buddhists replace replace the the bloody bloody sacrifices could sacrifices of of Vedism by by their their own own ahimsa? Schmidt tries tries to to find starting-points Vedism ahirhsa? Schmidt find starting-points for the the development development of of ahirhsa ahimsa in the hirhsa-cum-regret-and-expi­ himsa-cum-regret-and-expifor in the ations of of Vedism Vedism.. ations This supposition implies that Buddhist and Jain views views on This supposition implies that Buddhist and Jain on ahimsa ahirhsa should have Vedic approach approach of of the should have developed developed out out of of this this Vedic the problem problem.. Here may have since Buddhism and Jainism Here one one may have doubts doubts,, since Buddhism and Jainism hardly hardly 15 Moreover consulted ike the Moreover these Brahma1)as.. 15 these texts texts consulted Vedic Vedic texts texts llike the Brahmal).as 1144 E E.g. 252.. See also Halbfass 1991:113: . g . Wezler 1978:87, 1 97 8 : 87 , n. 252 1991 : 11 3 : "But does this mean that the origin of ahirpsa has been identified, and that the Vedic ahirhsa?". Thire ritualistic world-view world-view itself itself constitutes constitutes the the one one true true source source of ritualistic of ahirhsa? " . Thite 1975 1 975 appears to be unaware of Schmidt's publication. He is rather cautious in " Even in animal his his evaluation evaluation of of the the ahirhsa references references in in the the BrahmaI).as Brahmanas:: "Even in the the animal (p . 151). 1 5 1 ) . For sacrifice remote sacrifice remote traces traces of of ahirhsa are are seen" seen" (p. For aa reaction reaction on on the the criticisms see Schmidt 1 997 : 2 1 9ff. criticisms expressed expressed about about his his article article see Schmidt 1997:219ff. 15 See Horsch 1966:462: 15 1 96 6 : 462 : "Auch " Auch geht aus dem Buddhistischen Kanon hervor, dass die Anhanger Gotamas keine Beziehung zum hieratischen

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W.. BODEWITZ BODEWITZ W

did not not actually actually deal deal with with ahifhsa itself, but but rather rather with with hirhsa hithsa and and did ahithsa itself, its i ation. The earliest Vedic on real its exp expiation. The earliest Vedic texts texts on real ahitizsa, ahifiJsa, the the as observed. observed before before,, and give Dharmasutras,, are are rather rather late late,, as Dharmasutras and do do not not give much on this much argumentation argumentation on this issue issue.. One One can can hardly hardly expect expect them them to to of the the heretical heretical views views on have been been the the sources sources of ahirhsa . have on ahithsa. According doctrine was " s i nce its its earliest earl iest According to to Schmidt Schmidt the the ahithsa alzifhsa doctrine was "since occurrenc;e ... connected with with the the belief belief in in metempsychosis metempsychosis"" (p (p.. occurrenc;e . . . connected 650) put in in the 650).. This This statement statement should should be be put the right right perspective perspective.. The The earliest occurrence occurrence is is in in two in the earliest two passages passages in the Chandogya-Upani�ad Chandogya-Upani~ad,, probably strata ooff the the rest probably belonging belonging to to late late strata the text text.. IInn the rest ooff the the older older Upani�ads can be examined in in its Upani~ads,, where where the the transmigration transmigration theory theory can be examined its // reference at at all to ahithsa. developments,, there there is eearliest arliest developments is not not any any reference all to ahithsa . In ChU last paragraph paragraph of of this this text text and consequently aa In Ch U 88.15, . 1 5 , the the last and consequently possibly late addition, there is indeed aa reference reference to to rebi rebirth or poss ibly late addition, there is indeed rth or rather to to its its avoidanc avoidance, but ahiriIsa is not not advocated advocated on on account of ahitizsa is account of rathec e , but the fact that killing killing living beings like like animals animals might might imply imply killing killing the fact that living beings one's own deceased deceased and reborn relatives·, relatives', as as is case with with one ' s own and reborn is the the case Eskimos and and the Greek Pythagoreans pythagoreans.. 1166 Eskimos the Greek In U 33.17.4 there is no reference reference to to rebi rebirth at all In Ch Ch U . 1 7 .4 there is no rth at all and and Schmidt Schmidt (p.. 653) has has to to admit admit that position of teacher (p that the the exact exact position of the the teacher mentioned in in this this context is not not quite his words words it it mentioned context is quite clear: clear : "From " From his seems to to appear appear that that he he did not yet yet know know the the karman-doctrine karman-doctrine and and seems did not the A Atman-theory." so one why Schmidt Schmidt holds holds the tman-theory . " This This being being so one wonders wonders why that ""since its earliest earliest occurrence occurrence the the ahirhsa-doctrine is connected that si nce its ahirhsa-doctrine is connected w ith the is . " with the belief belief in in metempsychos metempsychosis." Apparently Schmidt situates the the earl earliest of the the . Apparently Schmidt situates iest occurrence occurrence of ahithsa theory theory in the pre-Upani�adic pre-Upani~adic texts texts and and he he even states that that ahirhsa in the even states "the transmigration was was gradually developed in the " the conception conception of of transmigration gradually developed in the time the Brahmajfa-texts BrahmaJ.1a-texts"" (p. 650).. As As II have have tried to show show time of of the (p . 650) tried to elsewhere (Bodewitz this assumption assumption is highly debatable. 1 992) , this is highly debatable . elsewhere (Bodewitz 1992), Moreover one one may ask how this statement statement can can be brought into Moreover may ask how this be brought into line line w ith his observation that that the the author of aa later ike ChU own observation author of later text text llike Ch U with his own 33.17 . 1 7 apparently doctrine of apparently still still did did not not know know the the doctrine of karman. karman. The The of the the origin ahithsa as sketched by by Schmidt as sketched Schmidt hhistorical istorical setting setting of origin of of ahirhsa does convince . does not not convince. Indeed Schmidt deny that that the ahithsa and and Indeed Schmidt cannot cannot deny the association association of of ahirhsa Vedismus besassen. besassen."" Some rituals were were known known (see Falk 1988), but references references Vedismus Some rituals (see Falk 1 988) , but to esoteric commentaries commentaries in are missing to the the esoteric in the the Brahmalfas BrahmaI)as are missing.. 16 16 See Obeyesekere 1996:15. 1 996 : 1 5 .

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27 27

b vious . In renouncer is is oobvious. In order to save the continuity from Vedism renouncer order to save the continuity from Vedism to Hinduis Hinduism he now tries to discover preliminary stages of to he now tries to discover preliminary stages of � renunciation and in the the Vedic Vedic ritual ritual,, bas basing on renunciation and asceticism asceticism in ing himself himself on 17 He aa publication publication by by Heesterman. Heesterman. 17 tries to to show that the the Vedic He tries show that Vedic pupil of the pupil,, the the brahmacarin brahmacarin,, would would have have been been aa predecessor predecessor of the sarhnyilsin some striking striking resemblances smhnyasin.. There There are are indeed indeed some resemblances between between the two two,, but but resemblance resemblance does does not not imply imply that that the the one one originated originated the from the less so so since institution of from the other other,, the the less since the the institution of pupilage pupilage continued to exist. exist. Therefore Therefore remarks remarks like like "Sannyasa thus be continued to "Sannyasa can can thus be regarded as as aa return return to to brahmacarya brahmacarya"" (p. hardly carry carry regarded (p . 652) 652) hardly conviction.. conviction It is doubtful its roots in the It is doubtful whether whether renouncement renouncement had had its roots in the orthodox The so-called orthodox Vedic Vedic tradition tradition characterized characterized by by rituals rituals.. I188 The so-called ilsrama system formed asrama system formed aa rather rather late late development development.. Originally Originally renouncement of life life but an alternative renouncement was was not not the the last last period period of but an alternative to to the way way of of life life of of the the householder householder and the oldest oldest ee.g. . g . the and in in the Dharmasiltras (Olivelle Dharmasiltras this this institution institution was was not not favourably favourably judged judged (OliveUe 1993:73). 1 993 : 73) . According to to Schmidt, Schmidt, however however,, renunciation renunciation developed developed out out of According of Vedic ritual ritual by by way way of of the the interiorisation interiorisation of of Vedic Vedic sacrifices sacrifices:: "The Vedic " The step from certainly preceded step from external external to to internal internal sacrifice sacrifice certainly preceded the the emergence of of absolute absolute renunciation" renunciation" (p. In Schmidt's view 652) . In Schmidt ' s view emergence (p . 652). this stage , in only the also the this intermediary intermediary stage, in which which not not only the priests priests but but also the in sacrificial superfluous and some sort of ahirhsil sacrificial victims victims became became superfluous and some sort of ahirizsa in the sense came came into into being the classical classical,, renunciatory renunciatory sense being,, would would coincide coincide with with the the metaritualism metaritualism of of the the Upani�ads Upani~ads.. Again Again we we have have to to observe observe that Upani~ads the the term term ahirhsil ahiJizsa and and the the concept concept that in in these these Upani�ads represented emergence of of represented by by it it are are flatly flatly missing missing.. Moreover Moreover the the emergence 1 7 Heesterman 1964: 17 develop1 964: 1-31 1-3 1 who speaks of an "orthogenetic, internal develop­ of Vedic Vedic thought" thought" (p (p.. 24) 24).. See See also also Heesterman Heesterman 1982:251-271, ment of ment 1 982 : 25 1 -27 1 , espec. espec . 253:: ""Whatever pp.. 253 Whatever additional outside stimuli there may have been, the renunciatory tendency tendency can be seen to arise arise orthogenetically orthogenetically from within vedic vedic renunciatory can be seen to from within itself."" For For cautious cautious criticism criticism see see Olivelle Olivelle 1992:21, 70 and and sacrificial tradition tradition itself. sacrificial 1 992 : 2 1 , 70 Bronkhorst 1 993 : 6 . Bronkhorst 1993:6. 1 8 Otherwise Bronkhorst 1993, 18 1 993 , who assumes that sacrificing Vanaprasthas at the the end end of of their their lives lives and renouncers renouncers who who interiorized interiorized the the sacrifices sacrifices at and represent of ascetics. ascetics . Rather Rather than than the represent the the two two Vedic Vedic types types of the temporary temporary as­ asc eticism of of the the Vedic Vedic rituals rituals (Bronkhorst, 92) the the example by other other ceticism (Bronkhorst, p. p. 92) example set set by types of of renouncers renouncers was was decisive. types decisive.

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renuncIatIOn has to be situated before renuncIatIOn has to be situated before the the period of these Upani�ads , especially especially as Upani~ads, far as as far as circles circles outside Vedic orthodoxy are concerned And last last but but not concerned.. And not least we should take into account that least we should take Hindu (safhnyasa) iri iri the Hindu renunciation renunciation (safhnyasa) the Brahminical Brahminical theory the theory meant meant the giving up of Vedic giving up of Vedic ritual ritual (Olivelle While the heretics (Ol ivel le 1992:58-71). 1 992 : 5 8-7 1 ). While rejected Vedic ritual , the rejected Vedic ritual, the Vedic-Hinduistic Vedic-Hinduistic tradition tradition interiorized it. However, as soon the ritual ritual,, one to fulfil Howeve r , as soon as as one one interiorizes interiorizes the one stops stops to fulfi l the ritual ritual duties duties.. The the The one one who who does does ssoo calmot cal mot live oonn in society. society . This ritual before before This implies impl ies that that there there was was not not aa period period of of interiorized interiorized ritual the emergence the emergence of of Sarpnyasa, Sarpnyasa, since since internalizing internalizing the the sacred sacred fires fi res is is leaving leaving society. society . Indeed,, the the oldest oldest Vedic the term term ahithsa Indeed Vedic textplace textplace in in which which the ahithsa is is explicitly rule of the explicitly mentioned mentioned as as aa rule of life life (ChU (ChU 3.17.4), 3 . 1 7. 4) , occurs occurs in in the context of aa symbolic symbol ic sacrifice, sacrifice , which however , is is not same context of which,, however, not the the same as an an interiorized interiorized ritual as such such is is equated equated with with aa sacrifice. sacrifice . as ritual.. Life Life as Apparently this has has prompted prompted Schmidt Schmidt to to arrive arrive at at the fol l owing Apparently this the following lline i ne of of development: sacrifice -- interiorized interiorized csacrifice cs acrifice -- renunciation. renunciatio n . development: sacrifice context" however, wee ssee Examining the context" Examining the however, w e e i.a. i . a . aa homology homology of of aalll l kinds of profane items items with sacrificial items items in in whiCh ideal istic kinds of profane with sacrificial whiCh nnoo idealistic substitution of ritual by different ideal rol e : the songs and and substitution of ritual by aa different ideal plays plays aa role: the songs S astras) of with recitations of the the Veda Veda are are equated equated with recitations (Stotras (Stotras and and Sastras) joking l aughing and and sex. sex . 19 19 joking,, laughing

4.22 Heesterman, Heesterman, whose to have have inspired 4. whose ideas ideas seem seem to inspired Schmidt, Schmidt, did did

not agree and and wrote wrote another to the the discuss"ion not entirely entirely agree another contribution contribution to discuss"ion . (1984:119-127). this article rejected the ( 1 984 : 1 1 9- 1 27) . In In this article he he rej ected the the solution solution of of the problem the conflict conflict between between the of Vedic Vedic sacrifice sacrifice and and problem of of the the violence violence of the non-violence non-violence of of llater ater Dharma Dharma texts, texts , suggested suggested by in his his the by Alsdorf Alsdorf in well-known monograph monograph of of 1962 Indian vegetarianis vegetarianism. Alsdorf's well-known 1 962 on Indian m . Alsdorf's argumentation was based on argumentation was based on aa historical, historical , chronological chronological sketch. sketc h . First, meat w a s eaten eaten in in the the framework framework ooff ritual ritual and and even even outside outside First, meat was ahithsa came relegated the eating of of meat exclusively thi s ; then this; then ahithsa came and and relegated the eating meat exclusively to the the ritual sphere and and ultimately ultimately vegetarianism vegetarianism became became universal universal to ritual sphere .

1 9 For aa more serious symbolic sacrifice (denoted as kratu mtinasa) see 19 patience , Vasi~!ha-Dharma-Siltra 30.8, truthfulness,, patience, 3 0 . 8 , where meditation, truthfulness Vasi�!ha-Dharma-Siltra modesty, the purely ascetic modesty , ahirhsti, contentment and abhaya represent the of substitutes of sacrificial entities. entities . Is this, however, really the interiorisation of substi­ an actual, ritual,, or should not one rather interpret this this as the the substiactual , specific ritual renouncement? th~ ritualistic religious way of life by asceticism and renouncement? tution of th�

2 2..

HINDU AHIMSii HINDU AHIMSA

29

and sacrifice problematic observes : and the the bloody bloody sacrifice problematic.. Heesterman Heesterman observes: ""However, However, thi us why why and and thiss chronological chronological layering layering does does not not tel telll us from where ahirhsa and vegetarianism came" came" (p. This remark remark and vegetarianism (p . 120). 1 20) . This from where ahirhsa. is not not completely fair , since did mention is completely fair, since Alsdorf Alsdorf did mention aa possible possible origin origin n an of ahirhsa ahirhsa,, namely namely in in the the pre-Aryan pre-Aryan Indus Indus culture, but Heesten Heestennan culture , but of is rIght in in observing that referring referring to to aa culture which we we do observing that culture about about which do is right nnot have any documentation amounts to transferring transferring the problem ot have any documentation amounts to the problem (p. 1 20- 1 2 1 ) . (p . 120-121). He agrees agrees with with Alsdorf' Alsdorf'ss conclusion conclusion ""that ahitizsa was was not not aa He that ahirhsa monopoly and Buddhists on the of Jains Jains and Buddhists but, but, on the contrary contrary,, was was aa monopoly of common in which rahmanism, Buddhism and common Indian Indian movement movement in which B Brahmanism, Buddhism and conjectural Jainism equally equally shared. spares us us the the cumbersome lainism shared . This This spares cumbersome conj ectural history that that supposes supposes the the over-clever over-clever Brahmins Brahmins to to have have saved theirr history saved thei position position by by simply simply taking taking over over the the idea idea from from their their competitors competitors in in an ''if-you-cannot-beat-them-join-them' move"" (p (p.. 121). an i f-you-cannot-beat-them-join-them ' move 121). is doubtful doubtful,, however, however, whether whether this this historical historical sketch assumed IItt is sketch assumed .- by by some some scholars scholars should should be be ''cumbersome' and purely purely 'conjectural'. cumbersome ' and 'conjectural ' . Adaptation external developments developments is characteristic of Vedic­ Adaptation to to external is characteristic of the the VedicHinduistic Hinduistic tradition tradition and and without without this this versatility versatility the the Brahmins Brahmins could could not ition. One even say say that One may may even that not have have maintained maintained their their pos position. Heesterman ' s own own hypothesis will discuss discuss here, here , is is more Heesterman's hypothesis,, which which we we will more than the the one criticized by by him. that ''conjectural' conjectural ' than one criticized him . Therefore Therefore II think think that Dumont 1 966 : 192) 1 92) rightly Dumont ((1966: rightly assumed assumed that that the the Brahmin Brahmin became became vegetarian pour ne que vegetarian ""pour ne pas pas etre etre surclasse surclasse par par Ie Ie renon
BUDDHIST ATTITUDE ATTITUDE TOWARDS TOWARDS WAR WAR 33.. BUDDHIST

67 67

Schmithausen, Lambert Lambert Schrnithausen, 1 9 9 1 a The The Problem oj Plants 1991a Problem oj oj the the Sentience Sentience oj Plants in in Earliest Earliest Buddhism Buddhism.. (Studia (Studia Philologica Series VI . ) Toky o : The Philologica Buddhica, Buddhica, Monograph Monograph Series VI.) Tokyo: The International International Institute for Buddhist Studies. Studies . 1 9 9 1 b Buddhism Buddhism and and Nature ) . (Stadia 1991b Nature (Enlarged (Enlarged Version Version with with Notes Notes). (Studia Philologica Occasional Paper . ) Tokyo: Tokyo : The The Philologica Buddhica, Buddhica, Occasional Paper Series Series VII VII.) International Institute for Buddhist Buddhist Studies Studies.. International Institute for 1 996 "Buddhismus "Buddhismus und Glaubenskriege . " Glaubenskriege 1996 und Glaubenskriege." Glaubenskriege in in Vergangenheit Vergangenheit und P. Herrmann) : 63-92 . Gbttingen: Gottingen: Vandenhoeck & (ed.. P. Herrmann):63-92. Vandenhoeck & und Gegenwart Gegenwart (ed . Ruprecht. Ruprecht. Seyfort !l vid Seyfort Ruegg, Ruegg, DDavid probJ(:mes dd'exegese de pratique pratique tantriques tantriques."' and 1981 Tantrik and Deux problemes 'exegese eett de . " Tantrik 1 9 8 1 ""Deux in honour oj . R R.A. Stein (Melanges Taoist Studies Studies in (Melanges chinois chinois et et Taoist honour oj . A . Stein bouddhiques 20) 1:212-226. 1 : 2 1 2-226. Shimoda, Masahiro Masahiro Shimoda, Version oj 1 993 An 1993 An Annotated Annotated Japanese Japanese Translation Translation oj oj the the Tibetan Tibetan Version oj the the Mahayana MahaparinirvaIfasiitra. Mahaparinirval!asutra. Vol Vol.. 1. Tokyo: Mahayana I. Toky o : Sankibo. Sankibo . S nellgrove , David Snellgrove, David don: Serindia Indo-Tibetan Buddhism Buddhism.. Lon London: Serindia Publications Publications.. 11987 987 Indo-Tibetan Stein, Rolf Rolf A. A. Stein, 1957 Linga des danses masques lamaiques lamalques et la theorie des ames." Sino1 957 "Le .o Le LiIfga ames . " Sino­ Indian Studies, Studies, SSantiniketan, (Liebenthal Festschrift) Festschrift):200-234. Indian antiniketan, 55 (Liebenthal : 200-234. Tambiah, S. Tambiah, S. JJ.. 1976 and World Renouncer. Cambridge: Cambridge World Conqueror Conqueror and World Renouncer. Cambridge : Cambridge 1 976 World Press.. University Press University Terwiel,, B B.. JJ.. Terwiel Monks and and Magic. Magic. 33rd rev.. ed. White Lotus. rd rev ed . Bangkok: Bangkok: White Lotus . 11994 994 Monks Thurman, Thurman, Robert Robert A A.. F F.. Cultural Rights Rights iinn Buddhism Buddhism." Human Rights Rights and and the the 1988 1 988 "Social " Social and and Cultural . " Human Rouner):: 148-163. Notre Dame: Univ.. World's Religions (ed. World 's Religions (ed. Leroy Leroy SS.. Rouner) 148- 1 63 . Notre Dame : Univ of Notre Notre Dame Dame Press Press.. of Tola, Fernando Fernando and and Carmen Carmen Dragonetti Dragonetti Tola, 1993 India." 1 993 "Buddhism in face of justification of violence in ancient India . " The The Maha Bodhi Bodhi 1101.2:41-50. Maha 0 1 . 2 : 4 1 -50 . Vos,, Fritz Fritz Vos Religionen Koreas Koreas.. Stuttgart: Kohlhammer. Die Religionen 11977 977 Die Witzel, Witzel, Michael Michael Case of of the the Shattered Head." Studien zur zur Indologie Indologie und Iranistik 1987 1 9 87 ""The The Case Shattered Head . " Studien und Iranistik 1 3 - 1 4 : 363-4 1 5 . 13-14:363-415. Philip B B.. Yampolsky,, Philip Yampoisky 1990 Selected Writings oj Nichiren Nichiren.. New York York:: Columbia University Press Press.. 1 990 Selected Writings oj

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JAN E.M. HOUBEN JAN E . M . HOUBEN En :v aurait En morale morale comme comme en en art, art, if il nn:v aurait de solution solution pour pour celui celui qui d'abord pas de pas qui veut veut d 'abord sa marche, rester aa tout juste assurer assurer sa marche, rester tout instant instant juste et maitre maitre absolu absofu de de soi-meme. soi-meme. et le mouvement mouvement Nous nn 'aurions d 'autre' 'autre recours recours que que Ie Nous 'aurions d spontane aux autres lieaux autres pour pour Ie Ie malheur mafheur et et spontane qui qui nous nous lie le bonheur, bonheur, dans dans lI 'egoisme dans la fa generosite. generosite. pour Ie pour 'egofsme et et dans (Maurice Merleau-Ponty Merleau-Ponty,, Sens Sens et Non-Sens, p. 9) et Non-Sens,

PART PART

A. INTRODUCTION A. INTROD UCTION

1 . Killing animals in Vedic rituals as an ethical problem: Scope 1. and methodology of this study

1 . 0 For ing of of animals in Vedic rituals has has 1.0 For many many centuries centuries the the kill killing animals in Vedic rituals been an an ethicaF ethical l problem problem quite peculiar to to South Asia and and to to the been quite peculiar South Asia the tradition.. Nevertheless Nevertheless,, there there are Vedic Sanskritic-Prakritic tradition Vedic and and Sanskritic-Prakritic are inin­ deed several more more universal universal ssides to it. it. While While it is to to be be studied studied iinn deed several ides to it is iits t s pparticular articular South context, one one may e e reflected South Asian Asian historical historical context, may ssee reflected it the the universal universal problematic problematic themes themes of of life and death death,, of right iin n it l ife and of right of selfishness selfishness and and altruism altruism:: themes themes which which are are also and wrong,, and and wrong and of also reflected in major of modern societies all all over reflected in major ethical ethical problems problems of modern societies over the the 11 Both Both the the word word 'moral' and the the word word 'ethical' back to to aa word word which ' moral ' and 'ethical ' go go back which means ''habit', the Latin Latin mos, mos, moris moris in in the the former the means habit ' , 'custom', ' custom' , viz. viz. the former case case and and the ethos in in the the latter. latter. Since created the the term term moralis moralis,, the the terms terms Greek �thos Greek Since Cicero Cicero created philosophia lis and at least least till till philosophia mora moralis and ethica ethica have have been been practically practically synonymous synonymous at ddle a,ges the mi middle ages (Jiissen (Jtissen 1984: Nowadays, it it is usual to to attempt attempt to to the 1 9 8 4 : 149). 149) . Nowadays, is usual distinguish between between 'moral' and 'ethical', for instance instance by by saying that "An distinguish ' moral ' and ' ethical ' , for saying that "An rstood as ethical viewpoint viewpoint may may be be unde understood as aa more more or or less less systematic systematic attempt attempt to to ethical such as as ''right' right' and and 'wrong' ' wrong' provide of the of moral moral terms the meaning meaning of terms:� such provide an an account account of [,[, whereas] whereas] aa moral viewpoint .. .. .. consists the application term moral viewpoint consists in in the application of of the the term 'right' or ''wrong' to aa given given instance instance of human conduct" conduct" (Garvin ' right' or wrong ' to of human (Garvin 1956:309). 1 95 6 : 309) . It has It also been been said that ''morals' suits more more aa Kantian Kantian philosophy philosophy and has also said that morals ' suits and 'ethics' ' ethic s ' On both both accounts will be an Aristotelian Aristotelian (Blackburn (Blackburn 11994 an 9 9 4 s.v. s . v . 'morality'). ' morality ' ) . On accounts II w i l l be more concerned concerned with with 'ethics' than with with 'morals' in this this paper paper (although, (although, at at more ' ethics ' than ' morals ' in least quantitatively quantitatively,, the the Sanskrit sources probably probably deal deal more more with with ''morals'). least Sanskrit sources morals ' ) . The philosophy ' II will that iitt may may The term term ''philosophy' will take take iinn aa rather rather broad broad sense, sense, ssoo that include at at least least the the ethical thinking of of the the well-known well-known Brahminical Brahminical,, Buddhist include ethical thinking Buddhist and systems , as as well well as some precursors as some precursors.. and Jaina Jaina systems,

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(including South world world (including South Asia) Asia):: killing killing for a (political or religious) ' , suiCide, suieide , euthanasia, ''higher higher goal euthanasia, etc. goal', The problem of the kill killing etc . The ing of animals has occupied of animals iinn Vedic Vedic rituals rituals has occupied the the authors of numerous philosophical epical , poetical philosophical,, legal legal,, epical, poetical and and other other works in the SansSans­ kritic-Prakritic kritic-Prakritic tradition tradition up up to to the the present present day day.. 22 This tradition tradition,, therefore of aa rich rich variety of phenomena therefore,, gives gives not not only only evidence evidence of in field of of human in the the field human habits habits and and customs customs (ethos) which may be confronted confronted with with modern modern social and ethical ethical theories theories,, it also offers social arid reflections reflections and and theodzations theorizations of its own own on on the the basis basis of these phe­ pheof its nomena. 33 nomena. 1 . 1 In In this essay II will adopt aa special angle of approach and 1.1 this essay will adopt special angle of approach and limit limit my subject subject in in several ways.. To with the the latter, latter, one limitation my several ways To start start with one limitation in the is that especially interested in how is that II will will be be especially interested in how philosophers in the to the the 16th South Asian Asian classical classical philosophical philosophical systems systems (mainly up to South (mainly up 1 6th century) have have dealt with this this problem problem.. What What ancient ancient Vedic authors,, century) dealt with Vedic authors and non-philosophical or less philosophically philosophically incl inclined authors,, have have and non-philosophical or less ined authors said about this this subject subject has has already already been been frequently frequently studied said about studied and and disdis­ cussed by by several several scholars scholars.. II think think of the monumental monumental studies studies by by cussed of the P.. V V.. Kane Kane ((1930-62), and of the studies by Ludwig Ludwig Alsdorf Alsdorf P 1 930-62) , and of the studies by Hanns-Peter Schmidt now also also 1997), Jan C C.. Hees­ Hees((1962), 1 962) , Hanns-Peter Schmidt ((1968, 1 96 8 , now 1 997) , Jan terman ((1966, also 1993:34, Boris Oguibenine terman 1 96 6 , 1984; 1 984; also 1 993 : 3 4 , 881t), 1 t) , Boris Oguibenine (1994), ( 1 994) , Herman W W.. Tull Tull ((1996), most recently recently Henk Henk Bodewitz Bodewitz in the Herman 1 996) , and and most in the present been dealing present volume volume;; these these scholars scholars have have been dealing mainly mainly with with Vedic lliterature with Dharmasastric Dharmasastric authors. Here,, we will Vedic iterature and and with authors . Here we will have have to to pay pay some some attention attention to to these these sources sources as as wel well,l , but but only only to to prepare the the stage stage for for the the philosophers philosophers and and their their arguments perprepare arguments and and per­ spectives . spectives. 1 . 2 Another imitation is is that, that, among among the the philosophical philosophical systems systems,, II 1.2 Another llimitation will focus mainly on Sarhkhya The position will focus mainly on Samkhya and and Vedanta. Vedanta. The position taken taken by by Mlmarhsa ith regard of killing animal s , iinn opMfmamsa w with regard to to the the problem problem of killing animals, opModern discussions discussions on on this this topic ropic are are not not only held in English and and the the only held in English 22 Modem regional languages languages (e (e.g. in national national and and local local newspapers) newspapers),, but but also also in regional . g . in S astrin' s Pasv-alambha-mfmarhsa (n. d . ) Sanskrit, . g . SSrTnagesa rTnagesa Sastrin's Sanskrit, as as testified testified by by ee.g. Pasv-tilambha-mrmamsa (n.d.) Pasv-alambhana-ni~edhah Yajiiesu Srouty's and Viswanatha Srouty ' s Pasv-alambhana-ni�edhaf} Yaji'ie�u (Srouty 1993/94), 1 993/94) , the defence of of the offering of ghee (clarified the latter latter being being aa 'sastric 'sastric'' defence the offering of ghee (clarified butter butter,, in Vedic Vedic sacrifices sacrifices instead instead of of aa goat goat (aja). ajya) in (aja) . 33 Cf. also Schreiner 1979:294-295. 1 979 : 294-295 .

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pos ition mainly position mainly with with Buddhists Buddhists and and Jainas Jainas,, has has been been discussed quite extensively Wilhelm Halbfass extensively by by Wilhelm Halbfass (esp (esp.. 1991), 1 99 1 ) , who also tried to m e general spell out so spell out some general implications implications for for Hinduism Hinduism.. (See for this also Halbfass 1 98 8 : 3 1 0-348 on Halbfass 1988:310-348 on dharma; and and Gune to which we Gune 1994, 1 994 , to will sectio n . ) The will return return in in the the next next section.) The Mlmamsakas Mlmarhsakas adopted adopted aa posi­ position of extreme extreme reliance reliance on on traditional traditional texts texts,, and and fully fully rejected rejected the the tion of iindependent ndependent validity validity of of rational rationality with regard regard to to matters matters of ity with dharma dharma.. This This position position is is to to be be understood understood against against the the background background of the the B rahminical ritualism of Brahminical ritualism to to which which Mlmamsa Mlmarhsa is is so strongly comso strongly com­ mitted mitted.. But But not not all all Brahmins Brahmins took took the the same Mlmarhsa posi­ posisame extreme extreme Mlmamsa u pplement the tion is both both in in order order to to ssupplement the discussion by Halbfas Halbfass, tion.. It It is discussion by s, and own intrinsic intrinsic interest, and on on account account ooff their their own interest, that that II focus the focus iinn the present essay on on Sarhkhya Vedanta, taking taking into into account also present essay Samkhya and and Vedanta, Samkhya ' s sister-system Sarhkhya's Yoga.. In the relationship relationship between these sister-system Yoga In the systems systems and and Mlmamsa Mrmarhsa we we see see some some of of the the strongest dynamical strongest dynamical contrasts within within B Brahminical Hinduism.. However, However, these these are very contrasts rahminical Hinduism are very much overshadowed overshadowed by the even even stronger stronger contrasts between MI­ Mrmuch by the contrasts between mamsa and the and Jainas mamsa and the Buddhists Buddhists and J ainas.. Philosophers Philosophers of of the the remaining remaining two rahminical systems and Nyaya, to Vaise~ika and Nyaya, seem seem to two orthodox orthodox B Brahminical systems,, Vai§e�ika have been been caught caught in the Mlmamsa Mrmarhsa vs vs.. Buddhist Buddhist and Jaina con­ conhave in the and Jaina troversy and sided as far far as as the the problem problem of of killing killing sacrificial sacrificial ani­ anitroversy and sided,, as mals is is concerned concerned,, mainly mainly with with Mlmamsa. Mlmarhsa. 44 Early Early Vai§e�ika Vai§e~ika did mals did considerable attention attention to to ethical ethical problems problems,, but, but, as as far far as as II ppay ay considerable could discern, discern, the the problem problem of killing animals animals in Vedic rituals rituals is not could of killing in Vedic is not these.. 55 prominent among these Halbfass 1991:89; Handiqui 1949:389-390. 1991 : 89 ; Handiqui 1 949 : 3 89-3 90. 44 Halbfass Problems involved involved in in killing killing (but not at at aa regular regular Vedic Vedic sacrifice) are 55 Problems (but not sacrifice) are VaisS chapter chapter 6, where-as II wrote wrote elsewhere briefly discussed in VaisS briefly discussed in 6, where-as elsewhere (Houben (Houben 1994:741)-"results taking'' and ''killing dharma of ''giving giving and taking kill ing 1 9 94 : 74 1 );-" results in the field of dharma lled ' are made dependent upon the socio-religious status of the and being being ki killed' and other other person person (with (with reference reference to to oneself oneself as as actor) actor) involved involved in in the the act act (Va (Va isS isS the other other person person may may be be equal equal,, lower, lower, or or viSi�ra visista 'distinguished' 'distinguished' or or 66.l.4-18; . 1 . 4- 1 8 ; the atmatyaga used in this context is not equivalent to ''superior')." superior ' ) . " The term atmatyaga ''suicide' suicide ' (as . Halbfass 1991:115 1 99 1 : 1 1 5 note 5 suggests) but to 'letting ' letting oneself be killed'' (thUS (thus,, commenting commenting on on VaisS VaisS 6.l.18, writes:: atmano atman o killed 6 . 1 . 1 8 , Candrananda writes satruna praptasyatmana praptasytitmana eva eva ripuprayukto ripuprayukto vadho vadho 'ngrkaryah). 'dhikagurzena 'dhikagufJena satrufJa 'fzglkaryal.z) . According to to VaisS VaisS 6.1.10, following Candrananda' Candrananda'ss interpretation, Brahmin According 6 . 1 . 10 , following interpretation, aa Brahmin is employs violence is bad bad if if he he , employs violence which which inflicts inflicts bodily bodily and and mental mental pain. pain. VaisS VaisS enumerates the the means means to to produce produce an an invisible invisible effect effect (adrsta) which 66.2.2 . 2 . 2 enumerates (adrs!a) which to the the preceding preceding sutra sutra 6.2.1) to the (he ''elevation' should contribute (according (according to should contribute 6 . 2 . 1 ) to elevation'

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1.3 to approach the complexities of thi thiss problem 1 . 3 In order to p roblem in a historical fruitful fru itful way, way , it it will be be essential essential to to distinguish distinguish different different historical periods as well as contrasts contrasts between concurrent perspectives perspectives with­ periods,, as well as between concurrent withperiod.. A review of discussions of the problem in texts of MTMT­ in a period marhsakas Sarhkhyas , followers followers of of Yoga Yoga and and grammargrammar­ marhsakas,, Vedantins Vedantins,, Sarhkhyas, ians can be found found in a recent recent article by by Jayashree Gune (1994). ( 1 994) . This article article is is quite quite valuable as aa first first orientation, orientation, but but remains remains unun­ This valuable as satisfactory in in as as much much as as the material is is presented and discussed discussed satisfactory the material presented and without any sharp historical distinction (except for the large one between Vedic Vedic and post-Vedic) post-Vedic).. Gune's Gune ' s article can be considered cons idered typical for for the the South i\sian .e.. s ian doxographic doxographic approach approach to to philosophical philosophical diversity, diversity , which works with standard sets of doctrinal perspectives. perspectives . This approach allowed the continuation and conservation of much quite diverse philosophical philosophical material, material , but the historical dimension has almost entirely got out of sight. sight . A approach to to South South Asian Asian philosophy philosophy has has A rigorous rigorous historical historical approach been advocated advocated and and developed developed by by Erich Erich FrauwaIIner. Frauwal lner. FrauwaIIner's Frauwallner ' s been focus was was very the history history ooff ideas; ideas ; any any extra-philoextra-philo­ focus very much much oonn the sophical the statements sophical factors factors which which might might influence influence the statements of of phiphi­ losophers were relegated to a ,distant distant background. In the field of South Asian logic, was quite quite succesful and and led to logi c , this method was several convincing convincing results, results , among among them establishment of of hishis­ seve'ral them the the establishment torically clearly clearly identifiable landmarks and and turning points points in the the detorically de­ velopment velopment of of South South Asian Asian logic. logic . However, However , philosophers philosophers usually usually deal with more more than than logic alone, and logic was not the the only field alone , and within philosophy philosophy and science in in which has made re­ within and science which South South Asia Asia has made remarkable achievements. achievements . 66 markable

(abhyudaya) of the actor. ac tor. Among these means is yajfia yajfia 'sacrifice'. 'sacrifice ' . (abhyudaya) Candrananda's commentary, commentary , the oldest available one, explains it with pakayajfiadaya� S ince pakayajfias pakayajfiadayafJ.. Since ptikayajfias are are simple Vedic house house rituals which which usually do not include the sacrifice of an animal, animal , Vaise~ika Vaise�ika stays here again outside the problem area of the present essay. essay . 66 One may think e.g. e . g . of linguistics (cf. e.g. e . g . Cardona 1976), 1 976) , epistemology (e.g. (e . g . Vetter 1964), 1 964) , and philosophical semantics (cf. recently Rouben Houben 1997 1 997 and forthc.). Abhidharmastudies forthc . ) . In his Abhidharma studies (now also in English: Frauwallner 1995), 1 995) , Frauwallner's Frauwallner' s focus is not on logic any more but on Buddhist doctrinal systems . systems.

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In of philosophy In most most areas areas of philosophy,,· in South Asia Asia as well well as elsewhere, in South it easy to is not not that that easy to exclude exclude all all factors factors external external to to purely purely theo theoretiit is reti­ cal applies especially cal developments developments.. This This applies especially to to ethics and its considerethics and its consider­ ations Here,, it would not be . ations on on human human habits habits and and customs customs (ethos). (ethos) . Here of much ourselves to of much value value to to limit limit ourselves to the the mere mere arguments arguments taken taken at face value used in discussions (anuface value.. Apart Apart from from (1) ( 1 ) the the arguments arguments used (anu­ mana, mana, tarka) tarka),, we we have have to to take take into into account account (2) the philosophical commitments arguments and commitments which which precede precede the the arguments and which which in in the the SansSans­ krit krit tradition tradition are are usually usually attributable attributable to to aa number number of of traditionally traditionally established,, though though in in the the course time not not entirely entirely unchangeable unchangeable,, established course of of time to commitments of the the major schools of commitments of major schools of philosophy philosophy (agama, here here to some to Kuhn Kuhn's some extent extent comparable comparable to ' s 'paradigm', 'paradigm ' , Lakatos' Lakato s ' ''research research or Quine's scheme',' , cf. Aklujkar 1989); and pprogram', rogram ' , or Quine ' s 'conceptual ' conceptual scheme cf. Aklujkar 1 98 9) ; and (3) in spite (3) the the perception perception of of reality reality (pratyak�a) (pratyak~a) which which,, in spite of of its its relative objectivity ' , is is in relative independence independence and and ''objectivity', in some some respects respects strongly strongly influenced by by the the philosophical philosophical commitments commitments.. The philosophical influenced The philosophical (agama, 2), which a thinker usually is unwilling to to commitments commitments (agama , 2) , which a thinker usually is unwilling subj ect to argumentative discussion, and the perception of reality subject to argumentative discussion, and the perception of reality (pratyak�a ) , which is usually usually so is not (pratyaksa,, 33), which is so spontaneous spontaneous that that this this too too is not willingly subjected to argumentative argumentative discussion, these two two together together wiUingly subjected to discussion, these . of aa specific thinker'ss philosophical philosophical perspective perspective on form the the basis basis of form specifi c thinker' on reality. real i ty . A fourth factor, final ly , is is to into account the environenv iron­ A fourth factor, finally, to be be taken taken into account:: the ment-physical,, social social and and philosophical-and philosophical-and the the changes therein ment-physical changes therein over continue over time time.. A A philosopher philosopher or or aa school school of of philosophers philosophers may may continue to to maintain maintain aa similar yet the the perspective perspective resulting resulting from from s imilar position, position, yet this this position position may may change change when when philosophers philosophers or or schools schools occupying occupying neighbouring positions positions change change their their views views and and attitudes attitudes.. In the case neighbouring In the case of ethical ethical philosophy i n the of philosophy,, also also changes changes in the social social practice practice (ethos) and the the schoo school's orientation in these changes changes will will greatly greatly affect affect the and l ' s orientation in these the perspective of of aa school school even if the the position position remains remains similar perspective even if similar iin n wording wording.. Because crucial importance importance of perspectives resulting resulting B ecause of of the the crucial of the the perspectives school's position and and the the environment, environment, aa comfrom one's from one ' s own own school ' s position com­ prehensive of South South Asian prehensive history history of Asian philosophy philosophy including including ethics ethics,, can­ cannot not afford to look at the the hhistory of ideas ideas and and arguments arguments:: it afford to look only only at istory of it sshould hould pay considerable attention attention ttoo these and how pay considerable these perspectives perspectives and how they are historically ithin thi approach one one may ndeed they are historically situated. situated. W Within thiss approach may iindeed be confronted confronted w with more specific problems which which deserve deserve to to be be ith more specific problems be studied the ssingle dimension of the hhistory of ideas ideas.. Although Although studied iinn the ingle dimension of the istory of

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the one may of aa per­ the name name does does not not matter matter that that much, much, one may speak speak of perspectivistic-historical approach, spectivistic-historical approach, which which does does not not oppose oppose but but under­ underlies aa history-of-ideas scope . lies history-of-ideas approach approach with with its its more more restricted restricted scope. Also in other areas than and the of ideas it is is ideas it Also in other areas than philosophy philosophy and the history history of important linear developments developments and of ssyny n­ important to to be be aware aware both both of of linear and of chronic relations particular interest Of particular interest to to us us here here is is the the discussion discussion chronic relations.. Of on the the origin origin of of asceticism, asceticism, which which is is · to to be be sought, sought, according to on according to to others in aa some,, in in the the Vedic Vedic sacrificial tradition, according some sacrificial tradition, according to others in non-Vedic milieu milieu.. Against Against the the two alternative proposals proposals for for com­ comnon-Vedic two alternative paratively linear linear developments developments,, Bronkhorst Bronkhorst elaborated elaborated aa hypothesis hypothesis paratively according South Asian according to to which which South Asian asceticism asceticism would would have have two two distinct distinct sources milieu (Bronkhorst 1 993b) , sources,, each each belonging belonging to to aa different different milieu (Bronkhorst 1993b), or, as II would two different or, as would say say,, to to two different contemporaneous contemporaneous perspectives perspectives (each ori­ On the the parallel parallel problem problem of of the the ori(each with with further further subdivisions) subdivisions).. On In gin of gin of the the notion notion of of ahirhsa ahirizsa see see Bodewitz Bodewitz in in the the present present volume volume.. In of Alsdorf' Alsdorf'ss 1962 to the the history history of of "Vegehis review review of his 1 962 contribution contribution to " Vege­ tarismus 1 966) justly tarismus und und Rinderverehrung Rinderverehrung in in Indien, Indien,"" Heesterman Heesterman ((1966) justly of aa strictly strictly chronological chronological ap­ apdraws attention attention to to the the llimitations draws imitations of proach, and thinks it more fruitful fruitful to to focus on aa search for the the proach, and thinks it more focus on search for meaning of ahirhsa on an an acceptance meaning of ahirizsa,, and and to to base base oneself oneself on acceptance of of the the juxtaposition of the irreconcilable irreconcilable opposites opposites." In the the ""persistent persistent juxtaposition of the . " In present essay , it ntention to present essay, it is is my my iintention to provide provide aa sketch sketch of of how how aa per­ perspectivistic-historical approach approach can be developed developed on spectivistic-historical can be on aa chosen chosen problem.77 problem. 1 . 4 The roblem to be discussed, in Vedic of animals animals in Vedic 1.4 The pproblem to be discussed, the the killing killing of of ethics ethics.. And And this this term term brings brings rituals,, places places us us firmly in the the field rituals firmly in field of set of of much-discussed much-discussed comparative issues in in the the dialogue iin n aa set comparative issues dialogue between Europe and South Asia. Asia. About About aa century ago Richard Richard between Europe and South century ago Garbe said that ethics ethics was was hardly hardly attended to in the Indian Indian (South Garbe said that attended to in the (South Asian) philosophical philosophical schools schools.. g8 Also Also more recently it it has been said said more recently has been Asian) that ethics ""was was not subj ect that systematically pursued" in that ethics not aa subject that was was systematically pursued" in 77 SStrong trong and weak points of Frauwallner's approach ttoo the history of South Asian philosophy were pointed out by G. Oberhammer ((1992), 1992) , who drew attention to the importance of the ""Sitz. S itz . im Leben" of the philosophical systems . Cf. 1 994 and forthc . , bb (on (on Frauwallner Cf. also also Houben Rouben 1994 and forthc., Frauwallner on on early early systems. Vaise~ika and and on on early early Sarhkhya Sarhkhya respectively) respectively).. Vaisel?ika 8 Ethics is ""in unberuckg in der schulmaBigen schulmafiigen indischen Philosophie fast unberiick­ sichtigt gebJieben, geblieben,"" Garbe Garbe 1917:147. sichtigt 1 9 1 7 : 1 47 .

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ancient and and classical c lassical South South Asia (John Taber 1992, ancient 1 992 , in the EncycloEncyrlo­ pedia is true true that that we find in the Sanskrit pedia of of Ethics) Ethics).. It is Sanskri t tradition ~ei­ nei­ ther comprehensive comprehensive ethical ethical systems systems in the foundation and elabother elabo­ ration of which which rationality rationality would would be of major importance, ration of importanc e , as it is, is , for instanc e , in in Aristotle ' s ethics ethics (e.g. for instance, Aristotle's (e . g . in his Nicomachean Ethics) and Spinoza' s Ethica more geometrico demonstrata and Spinoza's demonstrata;; nor do we find investigations of ethics like l ike Hume's Hume ' s Enquiry Concerning the Prininvestigations of ethics Prin­ orals , in which rationality plays a more limited, cip les of M ciples Morals, l imited , ' Humean' role. rol e . 99 Even Even in Buddhism, Buddhism, a religion with much attention 'Humean' for ethical problems (Tachibana 1926, 1 926, "schayer 1938, for ethical problems (Tachibana 1 93 8 , Saddhatissa S addhatissa 1 970, Chappell Chappell 1995), 1 995) , there there is, in accordance with the Buddha's 1970, Buddh a ' s aversion theorizing , nnoo strong strong interest in philosophical or theoraversion ttoo theorizing, theor­ etical general theories etical ethics ethics:: general theories can be found only if one searches hard and is ready to infer and hard and is ready to infer and reconstruct reconstruct them them (cf. recently Hallisey 1995). 1 995) . It can certainly not be said that ethical problems Hallisey were neglected were neglected in in the the Sanskrit tradition, tradition , especially the HowBrahminical/Hindu tradition which interests us here most. How­ ever, Dhareve r , on the basis of the transmitted sources-the numerous Dhar­ ma-Sutras , the com­ ma-Sutras, the later lawbooks like the the one one of Manu, their commentaries, and eclectical compendialO-it compendia l O- it would seem that the most important instrument i nstrument in ethical and moral dilemmas was not a rationality which seeks to attain a solid basis in human reason or in i n generally accepted axioms and their logical elaboration, but the authoritative, authoritative , sacred· sacred · texts. texts . One may speak here of a 'tradi' tradi­ tionalistic' tionalisti c ' ethics of BrahmaI).ism-Hinduism-Hacker's B rahmaI).ism-Hinduism-Hacker ' s 'empirical ' empirical ethics' ethics ' terminology is to be rejectedll-for rejected l l -for which rationality is 99 Cf. Blackburn 1994:319 1 994: 3 1 9 s.v. s . v . 'rationality': ' rationality ' : "Some, " S o me , such as Hume, Hume , limit the scope of rationality severely, severely , allowing it to characterize mathematical mathematical and e rlie normal empirical processes of belieflogical reasoning reasoning,, but not to und underlie belief­ formation, nQr to play an important role in practical reasoning or ethical or deliberation. " Although rationality could therefore not be at the aesthetical deliberation." ethics,, it was important in the investigation and elaboration basis of Hume's Hume ' s ethics of p rincip les . of its principles. 1 0 Compendia like the SIITfty-Arthasara and the SIITfti-Candrika (all ca. 10 10th Kalivarjyas 1 0th or 11th. 1 1th. century?), are among the first to give lists of Kalivarj yas (Kane III:968). below,, section 5.0. III : 968) . Cf. below 5 . 0 . For the subordination of reason to tradition, and the negative view on those overemphasizing reasoning, reasoning , Halbfass 1988:278f{ 1 9 8 8 : 278f{ That the criticism was there shows that there were also ' rationalists' to be criticized. to be criticized. 'rationalists' · 1 1 Paul· 11 Paul Hacker (1965:99, ( 1 965 : 99 , 105 1 05 [1978:502, [ 1 97 8 : 502 , 508]; 508] ; cited by Halbfass

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mainly the iirrationally rrationally given i . e . the the trad i­ mainly an an instrument instrument to to protect protect the given ((i.e. tradi-

tionallaws) rational criticism. as much much as European laws) against against rational critic i s m . 1122 IIn n as as European tional philosophy nspi rati o n , century after century, c e ntury , iin n Socrates_and philosophy found found iinspiration, century after Socratesand

his critical and rational rational rather rather than than trad traditionalistic approach to to h is c r itical and itio nal istic approach not ccause that Euroethical and moral pproblems, ethical and moral roblems , 1133 it it need need not ause surprise surprise that Euro1 9 88 : 3 1 3-3 14) introduced context the empirische Ethik' 1988:313-314) introduced in in this this context the terms terms,, ''empirische Ethik' and and ''empiricism'; empiricism ' ; Hacker' e . g . by 1 979 : 295 ; Hacker'ss terminology terminology was was used used e.g. by Schreiner Schreiner 1979:295; he Halbfass 1988:333 accepts the the term term ''empiricism' without criticism criticism,, though Halbfass 1988 : 3 3 3 accepts empiricism' without though he places it it between between quotation quotation marks marks.. These These terms terms,, however, however, are are not not very very places of the the laws by no no means means felicitous, even even highly highly misleading misleading:: the the contents contents of felicitous, laws are are by established on on empirical empirical ground grounds. That the the laws are learned learned either either from from 'good 'good established s . That laws are is aa matter matter men' (who follow the the Vedas) Vedas) or or from from the the Vedas Vedas (Hacker men' (who follow (Hacker 1965: 1 965 : 100) 100) is Vedas'' 'authorlessness' of 'traditionalism', ' traditionalism ' , which is, if the Vedas ' authorlessness ' is emphasized, a ''traditionalism' traditionalism ' based on 'transcendentalism'; ' transcendentalism' ; but in no way can this be termed if we we take take into into account what the the term termusually the ''empiricism' empiricism ' if account what usually stands stands for: for : cf. cf. the Dictionary of of Religion Religion and and Ethics Ethics ss.v. philosophical or Dictionary . v. ''empiricism': empiricism ' : "A "A philosophical or scientific method method requiring requiring all all theories theories to to be be tested tested by by or or derived derived from from scientific experience all forms forms of 1 92 1 ) . is thus thus opposed opposed to to all of aa priori priori authority authority"" (Smith (Smith 1921). experience.. It It is And the the Lexicon Lexicon der der Ethik Ethik ss.. vv.. Empirismus Empirismus:: "1m Bereich der der normativen normativen And " 1m Bereich Ethik ... fiihrt die Ablehnung Ablehnung der der M5glichkeit Miiglichkeit nichtempirischer nichtempirischer Erkenntnis Erkenntnis Ethik . . . fii hrt die ' zu einer spezifischen Position beziiglich der 'Ziele Ziele sittlichen Handelns .. .. .. Praktische Vernunft Vernunft ... gewinnt ihre Zwecke Zwecke aus den den empirisch empirisch gege gegebenen Praktische . . . gewinnt benen Bediirfnissen, Interessen, Interessen, Wiinschen, Wiinschen, Gefii Gefiihlen etc.,. , die sie sie dann dann als als gut gut oder Bediirfnissen, h len etc (Forschner 1977:43). All this this clearly clearly does not apply schlecht qualifiziert qualifiziert ... apply schlecht . . . "" (Forschner 1 977 : 43 ) . All does not to Brahminical-Hindu Brahminical-Hindu ethics ethics of of dharmasastric dharmasastric texts texts which which Hacker Hacker wanted wanted to to to call Was Hacker Hacker in in the the choice of his his term term perhaps perhaps int1uenced by call ''empirical'. empirical ' . Was choice of influenced by dharma by Ortega y Gasset (1925:401), ( 1 925 : 40 1 ) , in a brief, loosely written essay on dharma which this philosopher writes writes:: ""No la idea dharma un un sublime sublime which this philosopher " iNo significa significa la idea del del dharma empirismo de de la la moral? moral? Lo Lo que que yo yo sostengo sostengo es es que no hay hay acto acto . alguno alguno empirismo que no bueno en en un un hombre hombre es es malo malo en otro.. ""?? indiferente,, yy que que 10 bueno indiferente en otro h the Western concepts of ''morality' 1 2 Several studies 12 studies,, some starting wit with morality ' and Hopkins 1924), others with with the the Sanskrit and ''ethics' ethics ' (McKenzie (McKenzie 1922, 1 922, Hopkins 1 924) , others Sanskrit notion notion of dharma dharma (Hacker, (Hacker, Halbfass Halbfass 1988:310-348), confirm the the importance importance of such 1988 : 3 10-348 ) , confirm of such of traditionalistic ethics ethics in in SSouth Asia. Further Further confirmation confirmation can be found found in in aa traditionalistic outh Asia. can be studies of more more specific specific 'ethical' notions and problems:: Alsdorf for studies of ' ethical ' notions and problems Alsdorf 1962, 1 962, for instance,, in in his his study study of 'cow worship worship'' and and vegetarianism, vegetarianism, says we should not instance of 'cow says we should not expect to to find find ethics ethics in in our our sense sense of of the the term term ("Ethik unserem Sinne"). expect ( "Ethik in in unserem Sinne " ) . 1133 A Ass early aass in Hellenistic times Socrates was seen aass the founder of philosophy also pre-socratics is clear clear that that also pre-socratics · and and thinkers thinkers philosophy,, although although it it is contemporaneous with Socrates Socrates have contemporaneous with have had had an an important important influence influence on on the the Greek Greek and European European philosophical philosophical tradition tradition (cf. Kranz Kranz 1989:573). notions of of and 1 9 89 : 573 ) . The notions ''philosophy' philosophy' and philosopher' in senses known to us us owe owe much much to to the the and ''philosopher' in the the senses known to Platonic Socrates, cf. cf. Plato' Plato'ss Apologia Apologia 20d-e, 20d-e, Symposion 203-204 203-204,, Lysis Lysis 2218: Platonic 18;

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pean scholars scholars did did not recognize the the Hindu-B Hindu-Brahminical ways of pean not recognize rahminical ways of dealing and ethical ethical problems contributi ons dealing with with moral moral and problems as as important important contributions to " freedom to to philosophical philosophical ethics ethics.. In In Europe Europe?, the the "freedom to criticize criticize,, to to e self" (Halbfass 1988: to think think for for on oneself" think rationally,, and and to thi nk rationally 1 98 8 : 157) 1 57) has been been seen as indispensable indispensable for for ''real philosophy',' , and and "every type seen as real philosophy " every type of came to even of traditionalism traditionalism came to be be viewed viewed as as unphilosophical unphilosophical or or even anti-philosophical"" (Halbfass (Halbfass,, ib ib.). Hence, not not only only large large chapters chapters anti-philosophical . ) . Hence, in the the Western Western history history of of thought thought (esp (esp.. the the Middle Middle Ages) Ages) were were re­ rein garded as as rather rather unimportant, unimportant, also Asian and and other other Oriental garded also South South Asian Oriental systems came to to be be looked looked upon upon as as hardly hardly deserving the name name systems came deserving the 'philosophy'' (Halbfass 1988: Arguments agai against Western 'philosophy 1 98 8 : 145ft). 1 45ft) . Arguments nst Western claims on on the the prerogative prerogative of of scientific scientific thinking thinking and and rational rationality have claims ity have been ( 1 988) . While ity would been put put forward forward by by Staal Staal (1988). While rational rationality would be be the the same in India and in in the same in India (South (South Asia) Asia) and the West, West, the the development development of of science in in the the West West would would have have followed followed the the paradigm paradigm of of the the science mathematician whereas India mathematician Euclid, Euclid, whereas India followed followed that that of of the the gram­ grammarian PaI!ini Pal).ini (Staal (Staal 1965, cf. Ingalls Ingalls 1954).14 As we we will will see see marian 1 965 , cf. 1 954) . 14 As below,, in in South South Asian Asian philosophy philosophy those those emphasizing rationality are below emphas izing rational ity are not entirely entirely absent absent,, though though they they often often appear appear in in the the secondary role not secondary role of objectors objectors who who are are refuted refuted by by defenders defenders of of the the dogmas dogmas of of the the of major systems (Halbfass (Halbfass 1988:278ft). And even if one one does does not not maj o r systems 1 98 8 : 278ff) . And even if subscribe views and ' s and subscribe to to all all of of their their views and commitments commitments,, Kumarila Kumarila's and SSarhkara's arhkara' s rational well as rational criticism criticism of of rationality rationality as as well as their their rational rational defences of of the the irrationality irrationality of of the the given given tradition tradition are are themselves themselves defences not not without without philosophical philosophical interest interest.. 15 15 For For the the following following review review of of and and Kranz Kranz 1989:576: 1989:576: ""Gegen Gegen die die Auffassung Auffassung der Sophisten, Sophisten, Ph[ilosophie] Ph[ilosophie] oder oder Sophia als als verfUgbares verfugbares Wissen Wissen wie wie Ware Ware fUr fur Geld Geld an Schiiler weitergeben weitergeben zu zu Sophia an Schiiler kannen, als ein ein ''Sich-Bemtihen' S ich-Bemiihen' urn kiinnen, versteht versteht Platon Platon Ph[ilosophie] Ph[ilosophie] als urn Wissen. Wissen."" The anecdote, in antiquity The anecdote, already already popular popular in antiquity,, according according to to which which Pythagoras Pythagoras would have been the one to use the term 'philosopher' for the first time in the Oberweg 1953: specific seeker for 1 9 5 3 : 1:2). 1 : 2) . specific sense sense of of aa seeker for wisdom, wisdom, is is to to be be distrusted distrusted C(Uberweg 1 4 Mention may also bbee made ooff a remark ooff R 14 R.G. . G . Bhandarkar iinn 1873, 1 873 , to my attention: attention: "Sanskrit which Prof. Prof. Dr. Dr. SS.D. Laddu (Pune) kindly drew drew my which . D . Laddu (Pune) kindly " S anskrit Grammar has has thus thus become become aa science science at at [Panini's and other grammarians'] Grammar [PliJ;lini ' s and other grammarians '] hands and its study possesses kind aass that hands,, and its study possesses aann educational educational value value ooff the the same same kind that of Euclid Euclid and and not much much inferior inferior to to it in in degree" (Bhandarkar, preface preface to to the the third edition edition [1873] of his Second Second Book Book of Sanskrit, Sanskrit, 1919:xi). third [ 1 873] of 1 9 1 9 : xi) . 1155 Cf. Halbfass 1991:32 1 99 1 : 32 on Kumarila: "The " The Veda . . .. .. is invoked and projected as aa response response to to fundamental fundamental problems problems of of epistemology epistemology,, semantics, proj ected as semantics , ethics,, etc etc., ethics . , and ttoo questions concerning concerriing the llimits imits of rationality and

5. NOT TO TO KILL KILL 5 . TO TO KILL KILL OR OR NOT

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material concerning concerning the the problem problem of killing in Vedic rituals rituals,, these these material of killing in Vedic issues are of of fundamental fundamental importance importance throughout, throughout, even even if if this this can­ canissues are be explicitized explicitized " at at each each point point.. On On some some aspects aspects,, however however,, we we not be not will briefly briefly touch touch agai againn in, in, the the concluding will concluding section. section.

2. Historical context of the problem of killing animals in Vedic 2. rituals What exactly is here the problem? problem? In In many many Vedic Vedic rituals rituals,, es22.0 . 0 What exactly is here the es­ pecially the larger ones, the killing of one or more victims pecially the larger ones , the killing of one or more victims (mostly (mostly non-human animal animals, occasionally humans) is is prescribed. prescribed. The The Vedic Vedic non-human s , occas ionally humans) ritual istic system, system , as as we ancient sources sources such as ritualistic we know know it it from from the the ancient such as S rauta-Siitras , shows BrahmaJ}as and Srauta-Sutras, certain ambivalence ambivalence in the B the rahmaI).as and shows aa certain in this regard regard:: on on the the one one hand, hand, killing killing is is important, important, and even this and it it is is even central sacrifice ; on of violence central in in the the sacrifice; on the the other other hand hand,, acts acts of violence are are avoided, arises when avoided, concealed concealed,, and and denied denied.. A A real real problem problem arises when the the two so strong two poles poles of of this this ambivalence ambivalence become become so strong that that they they become become " irreconcilable.. irreconcilable weak " form form w wee see see the the problem problem already early 22.1 . 1 IInn aa weak already iinn aann early Upani�ad . 1 5) , which Upani~ad,, the the Chandogya-Upani�ad Cbandogya-Upani~ad (8 (8.15), which emphasizes emphasizes that that no makes an an exex­ no living living beings beings should should be be injured injured or or killed, killed, but but " makes ception for for the the killing killing in Vedic sacrifices: ception in Vedic sacrifices : does not living being being,, except except at at sacred sacred (sa­ (sa(He,, who) who) ... (He . . . does not harm harm any any living crificial) laces ... . . . he crificial) pplaces he who who behaves behaves thus thus throughout throughout his his life. life attains attains 16 Brahma the world of B rahma ... 16 .

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In some ccircumstances ircumstances (at In this this statement statement it is is admitted admitted that that under under some (at sacred, sacrificial places) inflicted on sacred, sacrificial places) harm harm is is inflicted on living living beings beings.. philosophy itself" 1 99 1 : 13ff 1 3 ff on "Human " Human reason and Vedic revelation itself";; Halbfass 1991: Vedanta";; and Gellner 1992: in Advaita Vedanta" 1 992 : 179: 1 79 : ""The The Impotence of Reason is itself an independent truth of reason. " 16 16 .. . . ahirhsan sarvabhutany anyatra anyalra tii1hebhyal; trrthebhyah . .. .. sa khalv evarh ayusarh brahmalokam abhisarhpadyate .. . .. vartayan yavad tiyu�arh On the word tfrtha see Venkateswaran 1966, ~gveda 10.114.7 1 966, and �gveda 1 0 . 1 14 . 7 with Geldner' 3 .1.4-6, . 1 . 4-6, Kau�Itaki-Brahmal).a 18.9. .'?a~viri1sa-Brahmana 3 Kau~naki-Brahmal,la 18.9. Geldner'ss note note,, �a