Tourists with Typewriters: Critical Reflections on Contemporary Travel Writing

Tourists with. Typewriters Tourists with Typewriters Critical Reflections on Contemporary Travel Writing PATRICK HOL...

Author: Patrick Holland | Graham Huggan

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Tourists with. Typewriters

Tourists with Typewriters Critical Reflections on Contemporary Travel Writing

PATRICK HOLLAND AND GRAHAM HUGGAN

ANN ARBOR

The University of Michigan Press

F i r s t p a p e r b a c k e d i t i o n 2000 C o p y r i g h t © b y t h e U n i v e r s i t y o f M i c h i g a n 1998 A l l rights

reserved

Published in the U n i t e d States o fA m e r i c a b y T h e University o fM i c h i g a n Press M a n u f a c t u r e d in the U n i t e d States o f A m e r i c a © Printed o nacid-free p a p e r

2003

2002

2001

2000

5 4 3 2

N o part o fthis publication m a y b e r e p r o d u c e d , stored in a retrieval system, o rtransmitted in a n y

form

or b ya n y m e a n s , electronic, mechanical, o r otherwise, without the written permission o fthe

A CIP catalog record for

publisher.

this book is available from the British Library.

Library o fCongress Cataloging-in-Publication

Data

H o l l a n d , P a t r i c k , 1943T o u r i s t s w i t h typewriters : critical reflections o n c o n t e m p o r a r y travel writing / Patrick H o l l a n d a n d G r a h a m H u g g a n . p. c m . Includes bibliographical

references a n d index.

I S B N 0-472-10973-T ( a c i d - f r e e p a p e r ) 1. T r a v e l e r s ' w r i t i n g s , E n g l i s h — H i s t o r y a n d c r i t i c i s m . 2. E n g l i s h p r o s e l i t e r a t u r e - — 2 0 t h c e n t u r y — H i s t o r y a n d c r i t i c i s m . 3. A m e r i c a n p r o s e l i t e r a t u r e — 2 0 t h c e n t u r y — H i s t o r y a n d c r i t i c i s m . 4. T r a v e l e r s ' w r i t i n g s , A m e r i c a n — H i s t o r y a n d c r i t i c i s m . 5. V o y a g e s a n d t r a v e l s — H i s t o r y — 2 0 t h c e n t u r y — H i s t o r i o g r a p h y . 6. T r a v e l i n l i t e r a t u r e . I . H u g g a n , G r a h a m , 1958-

PR808.T72

H65

II. Title.

1999

820.9'355—ddc2i

98-25512 C I P

I S B N 0-472-08706-1 ( p b k . : alk. paper)

Contents

Preface

vii

Introduction. Travel Writing Today Chapter one. After Empire Chapter two. Zones

i

27

67

Chapter three. Gender and Other Troubles Chapter four. Postmodern Itineraries

157

Postscript. Travel Writing at the Millennium Notes

219

Works Cited Index

255

241

in

197

Preface

T H E R E ISA M O M E N T

Gulliver's Travels (1726),

I N SWIFT'S

O N TRAVEL WRITING, W H E N

ALREADY A

SATIRE

THE E X A S P E R A T E D GULLIVER SAYS H E CAN N O

S T A N D T OL O O K A T A N O T H E R T R A V E L B O O K .

"I THOUGHT,"

LONGER

H E DECLARES

ACIDLY,

THAT WE

WERE ALREADY OVERSTOCKED WITH

COULD NOW

PASS

WHICH

WAS

BOOKS

O F TRAVELS; THAT

NOT EXTRAORDINARY;

WHEREIN

S O M E A U T H O R S LESS C O N S U L T E D TRUTH T H A N THEIR O W N

NOTHING

I

VANITY,

DOUBTED

O R INTEREST,

O R T H E D I V E R S I O N O F I G N O R A N T R E A D E R S . (161-62) T W O

CENTURIES

S O M E — T O O F INTERWAR B E C O M E CLASSIC

LATER, THE

SITUATION

H A V E I M P R O V E D .

PAUL

BRITISH TRAVEL WRITING,

A H A V E N

LEVI-STRAUSS

WORDS

AMAZONIA,

HARDLY

Abroad,

FOR "SECOND-RATE

Tristes Tropiques,

CAN

B ES A I D — A C C O R D I N G

FUSSELL, FOR E X A M P L E , I NHIS COMPLAINS

[LITERARY]

ITR A T H E R M O R E

THAT THE G E N R E

TALENTS"

T H E F R E N C H STRUCTURAL

T O

STUDY

1980

(212).

1955

I N HIS

ANTHROPOLOGIST

HAS

C L A U D E

STRONGLY:

T I B E T , A N D A F R I C A FILL T H E B O O K S H O P S I N T H E F O R M O F T R A V E L

O G U E S , A C C O U N T S O F E X P E D I T I O N S A N D C O L L E C T I O N S O F P H O T O G R A P H S , I N ALL O F W H I C H THE DESIRE TO IMPRESS ISSO D O M I N A N T

AS TO M A K E IT I M P O S S I B L E

FOR T H E R E A D E R T O ASSESS THE V A L U E O F T H E E V I D E N C E P U T

BEFORE

HIM.

I N S T E A D O F H A V I N G HIS CRITICAL F A C U L T I E S S T I M U L A T E D , H E A S K S F O R M O R E SUCH P A B U L U M

A N D S W A L L O W S P R O D I G I O U S Q U A N T I T I E S O F IT.

OF

(17)

T H E S E CRITICISMS, WHILE IRONIC (SWIFT) OR O P E N TO QUESTION (FUSSELL, STRAUSS), ALWAYS

ARE B YN O M E A N S

H A D

A M I X E D

RECEPTION, BEING SEEN B YS O M E

LOUS OR E V E N MORALLY DANGEROUS. B U T I M M U N E ULAR

ALWAYS

WIDELY

HAD

SENSATION

READ

A KNACK,

M O N G E R I N G

G R A L L O( H E I R

FORMS

O F LITERATURE TODAY.

I NA N Y CASE, O F CAPITALIZING MIGHT

A SESSENTIALLY

THE GENRE HAS P R O V E N

TO E V E N THE HARSHEST CRITICISMS, B E C O M I N G

A N D

L E V I -

EXCEPTIONAL. T R A V E L WRITING, A SA GENRE,

B EA N A T H E M A

HAS

FRIVO

REMARKABLY

O N E O F THE M O S T

P O P

TRAVEL

H A V E

WRITERS

O N NEGATIVE

PUBLICITY;

L OT H E I R CRITICS, B U T I T I S I N T E

GENRE.

NONCLHELESS,

SUSPICIONS

PERSIST U ST OI H E WORTHINESS

O F TRAVEL

WRIT-

I N G AS A SERIOUS SUBJECT. A C A D E M I C S CASES

T OM O V E

M A N Y M O S T

B E Y O N D

DISCOURSES O F T H E M

O F DISPLACEMENT

popular

D O E S NOT A I M

T H E

MERCIAL

SUCCESS.

Y E T

M A D E

SPREAD

THE

ALWAYS

TOURISTS

LIKELY

(IRONICALLY?) IN

THIS

SUCCESSFUL

ITS

TRAVEL

ARE

TRAVEL

CONSCIOUS

FOR WHILE

WRIT

O NBEING

TRUE THAT

B E T W E E N

INDIVIDUALISTS,

RECENT

STUDIES

PREJUDICES, A N D

THAT

ADOPT

N I S PORTER'S

SPURR'S

A N D

T H E R O U X , N A I P A U L ,

MORRIS,

HERD.

B E

MIS

ARE

CRITICAL

BEING

ANALYSIS:

WHITE,

M A L E ,

O N E

MIDDLE-

AT THEIR R E A D E R S AS

A P P R O A C H

L O U I S E PRATT'S

A GREATER EXTENT O N C O N T E M P O R A R Y

STILL

VALUES.

" O T H E R E D " — G O O D S . THIS

A CRITICAL

Imperial Eyes, D E N The Rhetoric of Empire,

WERE

TO S O M E EXTENT A REFUGE FOR

A SR E T A I L E R S O F M O S T L Y

A N D

TRAV

WRITERS,

THE VULGAR

TRAVEL NARRATIVES

T R A V E L W R I T I N G CALLS O U T , T H E N , F O R A S U S T A I N E D

O F EXOTIC—CULTURALLY

AGAINST

TRAVEL

COMPLACENT, E V E N NOSTALGICALLY RETROGRADE, MIDDLE-CLASS

CONSUMERS

react

O F TRAVEL WRITING M A Y

READ B Y M O R E P E O P L E THAN EVER, THEY R E M A I N

CLASS, H E T E R O S E X U A L M Y T H S

THE

S O M E O F THE BEST-KNOWN

O F SEPARATING THEMSELVES F R O M

T H A T L O O K S A TTRAVEL WRITERS

M I D

W I T H

B E E N

IF C O N T E M P O R A R Y

O F THE POPULARITY

IT IS CERTAINLY

ARGUABLY

ITSELF—HAS

O F THE OTHERS) OFTEN S E E M TO

THEMSELVES

C O M

THAT IDENTIFY A

PROCESS. T H E M U C H - T O U T E D DISTINCTION

T OPRIDE

DISCUS

SPECTACULAR

B O O K S

THIS

CONTINUING

S K I L L F U L L Y T O ITS W H I M S .

AUDIENCE; BUT

IS S Y M P T O M A T I C — A S

SENSE, TO S P E A K

LEADING;

S O M E T I M E S

TRAVEL WRITING—LIKE

TO A WIDER

THIS D E M O C R A T I Z I N G

TO B E U N D E R T A K E N ;

A ST O S H O W

OR E V E N CHATWIN'S,

THEN P A N D E R

ERS ( A N D , AS WILL B E S E E N , M A N Y

ELERS A N D

INDICATE

M O S T

OR BRYSON'S

O F TOURISM,

AVAILABLE

SO M U C H

WRITERS,

STUDY O F C O N T E M P O R A R Y

O F TRAVEL WRITING ISITSELF A SUBJECT FOR

DLE-CLASS READERSHIP A N D GLOBAL

G A P

SALES FIGURES CERTAINLY

THOSE, LIKE M A Y L E ' S

N IN-DEPTH

P H E N O M E N O N REMAINS

T O FILL T H A T

PRESENCE. T H E POPULARITY SION.

" D I S C O V E R E D " IT, O N L Y I N M O S T

OR TO FOCUS O N T H E C A N O N I Z E D

F R O M EARLIER PERIODS. A

TRAVEL WRITING AS A B O O K

H A V E

IT, PREFERRING EITHER T OINTELLECTUALIZE IT A S S O

EAGER

B O O K

JOINS

T O TRAVEL WRITING

Haunted Journeys,

SEVERAL OTHERS), WHILE

"SPECIALISTS"

( M A R Y D A V I D

FOCUSING

I NTHE GENRE

TO

( C H A T W I N ,

B O W L E S , ETC.). ITS THESIS, U N S U R P R I S I N G L Y

PER

H A P S , ISTHAT TRAVEL WRITING F R E Q U E N T L Y P R O V I D E S A N EFFECTIVE ALIBI F O R T H E PERPETUATION OR REINSTALLMENT O F ETHNOCENTRICALLY SUPERIOR ATTITUDES " O T H E R "

CULTURES,

THOUGH,

B YT H E D E F A M I L I A R I Z I N G

ATTEMPTS,

PEOPLES,

A N D

PLACES. CAPACITIES

THIS

THESIS

O F " O T H E R "

CULTURES

A N D

READER'S

PERCEIVING

CULTURE. TRAVEL

BELONGS

T OA W I D E R

STRUCTURE

AFFILIATIONS A N D

LINKS

WRITING,

A N D

TO N E W

B Y ITS PERCEP

O F THE WRITER'S

A SIS N O W

O F REPRESENTATION WITHIN

C U L T U R E ITSELF

VIM

PLACES

A N D

A C K N O W L E D G E D , W H I C H

CULTURAL

CAN B E A N A L Y Z E D , QUESTIONED,

i' i: i i \ ( !•

TO

COMPLICATED,

O F TRAVEL WRITING, A N D

K E E P I N G P A C E W I T H C H A N G E , T O A D J U S T ITS S I G H T S

T I O N S — B O T H

IS

A N D

REASSESSED.

TRAVEL

H A S RECENTLY E M E R G E D A S A CRUCIAL

CATEGORY FOR T H E DISPLACEMENT ESSENTIALIST

VIEWS

(SAID,

O FN O R M A T I V E

CLIFFORD, C . K A P L A N ) .

" T R A V E L I N G T H E O R Y " IS A S I G N N O D O U B T PHYSICAL

M O V E M E N T ,

MIGRATING

ITSELF B U T O F A RISKS O N C E M O R E

INTELLECTUAL

ELITE. F U R T H E R ,

E L I D I N G T R A V E L writing,

L E C T U A L I Z E D M E T A P H O R S O FM O V E M E N T NONETHELESS POWERFUL M Y T H S T H E HYPERTHEORIZATION

BACK

CONCEPTUALLY F O R

T H A T IS A R G U A B L Y T H EP R O D U C T ,

"WORLDLY"

E M P H A S I Z I N G

INDI

N O TO FTHE TRAVELING

WORLD THEORY

OFTEN HIGHLY

INLEL-

AT THE E X P E N S E O FM O R E PROSAIC B U T

O F PLACE. T H I S B O O K SEEKS TOTURN THE TABLES O F TRAVEL-AS-DISPLACEMENT

WITHOUT

FALLING

O N ITS O P P O S I T E , T H EN A I V E L Y U N T H E O R I Z E D C E L E B R A T I O N O F T R A V E L - A S -

F R E E D O M . A M O R E

IT OCCUPIES

A MIDDLE

G R O U N D , THEN, B E T W E E N TRAVEL WRITING AS

O R LESS E L A B O R A T E T E X T U A L P E R F O R M A N C E ( B U T O R )

NOMICALLY (PRATT).

SANCTIONED

E M P H A S I Z E D

ACTIVITY,

A

CIRCUMSCRIBED

A N D AS A N

MATERIAL

N O M I C

ADVANTAGE,

RHETORICAL T H E

B U T ALSO I N PART TO M O R E

SOPHISTICATED

(WESTERN) CRUDE

ECO

TECHNIQUES O F

CONTROL.

TRAVELER-WRITERS

SCRUTINIZED

HERE

D O N O T ALL SHARE

D E G R E E O FP R I V I L E G E ; N O R D O T H E Y A L LS H A R E T H E S A M E C U L T U R A L SIMILAR

(NEO)IMPERIALIST

VIEWS.

T R A V E L W R I T I N G T H A T IT IS U N I F O R M L Y TRAVEL WRITERS

AS BEING HARMLESS

E V E R D E F I N E D , IS N O T A N A N T I D O T E TIALLY

POSITIVE,

B O O K

SEEKS TO E X A M I N E

CAPACITY

ECO

PRACTICE

H E R E ARE T H E PRIVILEGES THAT ACCRUE T O THE

TRAVELER-WRITER: PRIVILEGES D U E I N PART O F COURSE TO S O M E T I M E S

OR

O F

A S IT O P E N S U P T O

TO ACCOUNT

P E O P L E S , G O O D S , A N D I D E A S . Y E TTHIS WILL T O T H E O R I Z E A L S O

CATES A UTOPIAN I M P U L S E

O N

T H E UBIQUITOUSNESS

T H A T T H EW O R L D ,

R E Q U I R E S ITS C I T I Z E N S

EPISTEMOLOGICAL

VALUES A N D H O M O G E N I Z I N G ,

BOTH

AS WELL

TO FUEL

IT W O U L D

T H E

B A C K G R O U N D

B E AS FOOLISH T O CLAIM

I M P E R I A L I S T I C A S IT W O U L D

ENTERTAINERS. Y E TTRAVEL WRITING,

H O W

O F — P O T E N

NEGATIVE—interference.

AS CONSPICUOUSLY T H E"INTERFERING"

ASPECTS

AMBITIONS

O F

B E TO D E F E N D

T O TRAVEL; IT, T O O , IS A F O R M

T H EEXPANSIONIST

S A M E

T H I S

O F TRAVEL W R I T I N G : ITS O F M O D E R N

TOURISM

A N D , A T ITS B E S T , T O I N T E R V E N E I N A N DC H A L L E N G E R E C E I V E D I D E A S O N C U L T U R A L D I F F E R E N C E . T H E R E A R EO B V I O U S

L A C U N A E H E R E . F O R O N E , W H A T IS T H E A U D I

E N C E , O RC O N S T I T U E N C Y , O FTRAVEL W R I T I N G ? A ING'S B Y N O M E A N S CUE

PERHAPS

F R O M

UNIFORM JANICE

READERSHIP

R A D W A Y ' S

D E T A I L E D S T U D Y O FT R A V E L

N E E D S TO B E WRITTEN,

WORK

C O M P R E H E N S I V E INDUSTRY ANALYSIS O FTHE TRAVEL-WRITING

NESS W O U L D

ALSO B E USEFUL, ASSESSING

POSSIBLE

TO A GREATER EXTENT THAN

here T H EROLE O FTHE " N O N L I C L I O N A L "

G U I D E B O O K

LITIS B O O K ' S

A N D O FTHE

ITINERARY,

BUSI

H A S B E E N

V E H I C L E S THAT S E R V E T H EG L O B A L TOURIST

T H E S E A N D OTHER PROJECTS LIEOUTSIDE

ITS

O N T H ERECEPTION O F LITERARY

ROMANCE. A

OUS NUILLIMCDIA ADVERTISING

WRIT

TAKING

VARI TRADE.

ALTHOUGH T H E

G R O U N D IT C O V E R S W I L L H O P E F U L L Y O P E N U P F U R L h e r A V E N U E S O F E X P L O R A T I O N .

en i i \i i

i ood, with one or t w o best-sellers. Recent examples here include Peter Mayle's nostalgic memoir A Year in Provence (1989), which has sold over a million copies, been translated into seventeen languages, and been converted into a popular British T V serial; Paul T h e r o u x ' s sar donic travel narratives, several o f which have featured on the New York Times best-sellers' lists, m a k i n g their author one o f the bestk n o w n contemporary literary figures in A m e r i c a ; and the highly suc cessful R a n d o m H o u s e Vintage Departures series, which boasts a b o u t sixty current titles, and which has enjoyed a steady expansion since its inception in the mid-1980s. T h e shelves in the travel section o f the big bookstores are well stocked; top newspapers in the United K i n g d o m , I Inilcd States, and elsewhere feature thriving travel supplements; spe cialist magazines such as Granta (in Britain) and Conde Nast Traveler (in the United Slates) are reporting increased sales, while National Geo graphic, in 11 flurry o f publicity, has celebrated its hundredth year;

TRAVEL VEHICLES ( T V

P R O G R A M S A N D COMMERCIALS,

LIFERATE I N T H E VISUAL

M E D I A ;

INTERNET A N D W H A T M A R T I N (WORLD

LITERATURE,

INTEREST, STUDIES

TOO, SUCH

CINEMA,

IS GROWING,

WITH

WORLD

THE

MUSIC,

M A R Y

A G E

L O U I S E

O F GLOBALIZATION

THE CURRENT B O O M

A N D

A C A D E M I C CRITICAL

IMPLICATIONS

O F INTELLECTUAL A N D ( E D W A R D

[1983]; J A M E S C L I F F O R D , " T R A V E L I N G S O N E T A L . , E D S . , Travellers' Tales [1994]).

SAID,

" T R A V E L I N G

[1992];

CULTURES"

BILITY TO PREVIOUSLY A N D

THE

WORKS.

R O B E R T

I NTRAVEL WRITING? O N E O F T H E R E A S O N S IS O B V I

R E M O T E PARTS

O F THE WORLD

UNPRECEDENTED E X P A N S I O N

O W I N G

ACCESSI

TO C H E A P E R

TRAVEL

O F WORLDWIDE

TRANSPORTATION

NET

O P P O S E D TO THIS

O N E :

GLOBALIZING PROCESSES THAT H A V E

ACCESSIBLE

T H E

B E F O R E —

O F IDEAS, GOODS, PEOPLES; A N D AN INCREASING

A N O T H E R REASON, H O W E V E R , ISDIAMETRICALLY

FOR THOSE S A M E M O R E

O F

CULTURAL

O U S : T H E R E I SA G R E A T E R D E G R E E O F M O B I L I T Y I N T H E W O R L D T H A N E V E R A GREATER M O V E M E N T

THE

INDUSTRIES"

(1991), E R I C L E E D ' S P R A T T ' S Imperial Eyes

THE METAPHORICAL

T H E O R Y "

W H Y

1

PRO

THROUGH

O F INFLUENTIAL

Journeys

TRAVEL A SA NA N A L O G U E FOR DIFFERENT F O R M S I N THE

ETC.);

PUBLICATION

Haunted

PORTER'S

The Mind of the Traveler (1991), A N D (1992), A N D T H E A T T E M P T T O A N A L Y Z E DISPLACEMENT

VIDEOS, ETC.)

R O B E R T S CALLS T H E " G L O B A L C U L T U R E

WORLD

AS D E N N I S

FILMS,

SURROGATE TRAVEL IS AVAILABLE

TRAVEL

H A V E

ALSO ARGUABLY

LITERATURE

I N D U S T R Y — A N D

LITERARY-MINDED ELOGUES

A N D

GROWING

TRAVEL NARRATIVES

G U I D E B O O K S — H A S

M A D E

I N THIS

A N D

B E E N

FEARS O F H O M O G E N I Z A T I O N ,

M O R E QUICK

H E L P E D M A K E

IT LESS EXCITING, SHOULD

WORLD

DIVERSE.

B EI N C L U D E D

BOTH

INFORMATION-ORIENTED

TRAV

T OC A S H

P R O M O T I N G

ITS

I N O N WESTERNERS'

PRODUCTS

ALTERNATIVES TO THE SANITIZED SPECTACLES O F M A S S TOURISM; THE WORLD

THE

LESS

I S STILL H E T E R O G E N E O U S , U N F A T H O M A B L E ,

A S THRILLING

AS E V I D E N C E

BEWILDERING;

THAT

A S P R O O F

THAT T H E SPIRIT O F A D V E N T U R E C A N H O L D O F F T H E THREAT O F E X H A U S T I O N . I N THIS SENSE,

THE

TRIBUTING GLOBAL

TRAVEL TO,

(LITERATURE)

exotic:

A N E W

CULTURAL DIVERSITY

UNIVERSAL MARKET

BUSINESS

A CELEBRATION

THAT

IT ISN O

O F M A S S TOURISM—THAT

TINCTION. UNLIKE

3

SURPRISE TO

FIND,

T H E

DISTINCTION ARE

O N ,

O F THE M O D E R N

I S , O FC O U R S E ,

THEIR

D E A N STRATED

INSATIABLE

M A C C A N N E L L

CURIOSITY AND,

CONVINCINGLY,

2

M O R E

THIS

SPECTACLE

A B O U T

HIGHLY

VISITORS,

HAS

B E E N

TRAVEL

TRAVELER/TOURIST SPECIOUS:

MOTIVATED

OTHER COUNTRIES

RECENTLY, J A M E S

DISTINCTION

O F

SUCH A SPEC

O F C O N T E M P O R A R Y

LAZY DESIRE FOR INSTANT ENTERTAINMENT BUT B Y THE H A R D - W O N ISFY

CON

2

O F THE CONVENTIONAL

"NONEXPLOITATIVE"

WHILE

A G E N C Y — T H E

DOES M O S T TO M A K E

POSSIBLE.

T H E N , I NA N U M B E R

A HEATED DEFENSE

TOURISTS,

CAPITALIZED

FLIES I N T H E F A C E O F T H E V E R Y

T A C L E , A N D ITS L I T E R A R Y R E P R E S E N T A T I O N ,

NARRATIVES,

HAS

A N D

B U Z A R D

DIS

TRAVELERS, NOT

B Y THE

BATTLE TO

SAT

PEOPLES. A S H A V E

D E M O N

M A N I P U L A T E D

B Y THE

TOURISTS W I T H T Y P E W R I T E R S

tourist industry to serve its o w n commercial ends. F o r M a c C a n n e l l , travelers' seemingly plaintive need to dissociate themselves from "mere" tourists functions as a strategy o f self-exemption, whereby they displace their guilt for interfering with, and adversely changing, the cultures through which they travel onto tourists; see themselves as c o n tributing toward the well-being o f those cultures rather than as exploit ing them for their o w n benefit; and view themselves as open-minded inquirers rather than as pleasure-seeking guests. T h e tourist industry profits from this rhetoric o f m o r a l superiority ( M a c C a n n e l l ) , using it to lure the adventure-minded traveler onto an alternative beaten track (Buzard). T o see travel as merely another form o f tourism is to recog nize the increasing commodification o f place; w h a t travel writers offer in this context is not an insight into the "real," but a countercommodified version o f w h a t they take to be reality. T h e critical potential of travel writing—its capacity to expose and attack the invasive prac tices o f mass tourism—is further diminished when it is recognized, not as an out-and-out opponent o f tourism, but as a valuable adjunct to it. The armchair curiosity that Paul Fussell, a m o n g others, has seen as an inducement to read travel narratives should by n o means be thought o f as replacing the urge to travel; rather, travel writing sells while also helping to sell holidays. N o r are travel writers necessarily averse to tak ing their cut. Is it too cynical to suggest that m a n y o f t o d a y ' s travel writers are motivated less by the universal imperative o f cultural inquiry than they are b y the far more urgent need for another c o m m i s sion? Travel writing still remains lucrative only for a handful o f recog nized writers; m a n y others ply a more moderate trade in largely parttime journalism. Nonetheless, contemporary travel writers, whatever their status or their institutional affiliation, are continuing to provide sterling service to tourism—about to become the world's largest indus4

I ry even w h e n they might imagine themselves to be its most strident adversaries. Clearly, not all travel writers are alike (nor, for that matter, are all tourists). T o see contemporary travel writers merely as touristic scribes—as latter-day tourists with typewriters—is to fail to recognize their efforts to reexplore regions o f the w o r l d that, although "discov ered," remain unfamiliar, or to revive interest in familiar places, n o w seen from a fresh, informed perspective. It is also to underestimate the unsettling effects produced by travel writing: its ability to jolt its readers out o f complacent beliefs and altitudes, and its challenge to prevailing stereotypes and cultural myths of place. Finally, it is to miss the crucial ii

i i n i i > i ii • i l o t

3

R O L E P L A Y E D B YT R A V E L

NARRATIVES

CULTURAL S U B J E C T — A

ROLE M A D E

OF POSTMODERNITY,

BUT

O N E

I NINTERROGATING

THE "STABILITY"

M O R E CONSPICUOUS,

THAT

IS EVIDENT

OF

THE

TO B E SURE, I NT H E

A G E

THROUGHOUT

THE

HISTORY

TRAVEL WRITING, W H I C H SHOWS

A T E N D E N C Y TO BLUR THE LINES B E T W E E N

A N D "FALSE," DOCUMENTATION

A N D FABRICATION,

" O T H E R N E S S " — B O T H CONFIRM

BIOLOGICAL

A N D QUESTION THE POSITION

TRAVEL WRITING CAN POTENTIAL: HIS/HER CODES

A N D

I NALLOWING

O W N

SOCIETY,

ARGUABLY THE WRITER

O F B E H A V I O R — T O USEFULNESS

THEMSELVES

O F THE FREEDOMS

CODED--

THAT

O F THE INVESTIGATING

SUBJECT.

TO FLOUT CONVENTIONS

SCRUTINY.

THAT EXIST

O F TRAVEL

O F M A L E

NARRATIVES, M U C H TIME

A

EXPLORATION; A N D

CHARTING

neoimperial

AS

M A R Y

O F

L O U I S E

RECENTLY,

TO POSTCOLONIAL

a POSTIMPERIAL

TRAVEL

PRATT,

INDERPAL

SARA

MILLS,

D A V I D

W H O S E

ANALYZED SPURR,

THAT

THROUGH

WHICH

QUESTION

H U M A N S

O F W H O

" W E "

M A R K

AT

THE

A N D

S A M E

T I M

Y O U N G S ,

A NUNCRITICAL

I M P E

IMPERIALIST

B Y CRITICS

SUCH A S

AND,

VIEW

O F M O B I L I T Y THAT

TRAVEL WRITING, LIKE

C E L E B R A T E THIS

F R E E D O M " SUCH

ALLOWS

ARE

MOST

O F

TRAVEL

THAT HAS

DOMINANCE.

THE WORLD

TO C O N Q U E R .

WAS

RIPE

SUGNET, A M O N G

THIS

BEGS

TO CLAIM

ITS

THE 5

TO WRITE.

I N D E E D ,

F R E E D O M A T OTHERS'

THAN

C O C K E R

SUPRE-

TO SEE ITAS A N SAYS

MARTIN

A P L E T H O R A O F A D V E N T U R E TALES

THEIR

TWENTIETH-CENTURY

NOTIONS

IWCNIIELH-CENLURY

I ' . l'i ' W H I T l!HS

THAT THAT

COUNTERPARTS

LO THEIR PRIVILEGE, BUT

O T H E R S , has A R G U E D , M A N Y

I O U 1(1,SIS W i l l i

O F

M E D I U M

BENEFICIARIES?

THEY REINFORCED PREVAILING

LARGE, M O R E SENSITIVE

I

IS A

BETRAYS A N ATTITUDE O F CULTURAL

WERE A M O N G

O F E M P I R E :

BE, BY A N D

(260).

FREEDOM'S

I NTHE NINETEENTH CENTURY,

ENERGIZED THE M Y T H

JOURNEYS

.. . TRAVEL ISO N E

TO TRAVEL, A N D

L E D CRITICS LESS C H A R I T A B L E

G R E E N , TRAVEL NARRATIVES

"IN

THE

STUDY

I SN O T T H E F R E E D O M O F ALL: I TI S T H E

T H E M

TRAVEL ITSELF, I S A P T

E X P E N S E ; IN SO D O I N G , IT S O M E T I M E S

O F IMPERIAL

REMARKS,

ARE:

C L E A R L Y , T H E F R E E D O M O F TRAVEL WRITERS PRIVILEGE

C O C K E R

F R E E D O M , A N D THE TRAVEL B O O K

W H O

A

TRAVEL

L A N D S C A P E O F W H A T IS AS

THE NEWNESS O F THE WORLD.

THE GREATEST D O O R S TO H U M A N

MIGHT

O W N

F R E E D O M N E E D S TO B E ADJUSTED TO

BRITISH TRAVEL WRITING,

W E D I S C O V E R ALL O V E R A G A I N

AGENT

WRITERS,

T O RESIST. T H E P A T R I A R C H A L

G R E W A L — S U G G E S T

THE AVAIL

R E A L I T I E S O F C L A S S , R A C E , A N D G E N D E R P R I V I L E G E . I NH I S R E C E N T

O F M O D E R N

M A T I S M

W H O

SURROUNDING

AGE, DEMONSTRATE

WRITING—EXPERTLY

W R I T I N G AS A C E L E B R A T I O N O F H U M A N M O D E R N

RIGID

ARE

B E T W E E N TRAVEL WRITING A N D THE V E R Y (CULTURAL)

RIALIST A T T I T U D E S I TO F T E N C L A I M S UNDERTONES

HERE

I N ORDER TO CELEBRATE THEIR

C H A N G E S I NT H E G E O P O L I T I C A L

THE COMPLICITY

WITHIN

OFTEN

WRITERS,

I N D E P E N D E N C E , AS WELL AS TO REASSESS T H E P O W E R F U L M Y T H S HISTORY

TRANSGRESSIVE

E X A M P L E S

O F TRAVEL WRITING TO W O M E N

O F

ALTERNATELY

THOSE CONVENTIONS—THOSE

C L O S E CRITICAL

CONTINUING

A N D TO INVESTIGATE F O R M S

CULTURALLY

B E S E E N , T H E N , AS H A V I N G

IT SUBJECTS

O F

"TRUE"

as C H A R L E S TRAVEL

WRIT-

ers still arrogate the rights o f mobility and representation that once accrued to Empire. In a postcolonial world, they thus fight a rearguard action, concealing beneath their patronizing language and their persis tent cultural nostalgia a thinly disguised desire to resurrect the imper ial past. Sugnet, in his diatribe against the British magazine Granta, pulls n o punches: its travel articles are designed to "restore the lost dream o f empire in a w a y that allows y o u n g - f o g y readers to pretend that they're still living in the nineteenth century. . . . A curious fusion of the 1880s and the 1980s is what keeps all those Granta travel writers up in the air, afloat over various parts o f the globe, their luggage filled with portable shards o f colonialist discourse" (85). Sugnet's argument, in the nature o f polemics, is boisterously hyperbolic; its effect is reduced by his failure to account for c o n t e m p o rary travel writing's ubiquitous self-irony: its awareness o f its o w n belatedness (a point to which w e shall return). Nonetheless, Sugnet's frontal attack reminds us that travel narratives have proved remark ably effective over time in (re)producing the "foreign" world as an object o f Western k n o w l e d g e (Pratt 5). A t best, says Dennis Porter, [.ravel narratives "[have] been an effort to o v e r c o m e cultural distance through a protracted act o f understanding. A t worst, [they have] been a vehicle for the expression of Eurocentric conceit or racist intoler ance" (3). In either case, travel writing tends to reinforce the authority of its predominantly metropolitan readership; its world o f wonders is, in one sense, a w o r l d already k n o w n — o n e made available to readers "back h o m e " through the comforting reiteration o f familiar exotic myths. (Exoticism is precisely the mechanism for this process o f retrieval, a means by which the "otherness" o f the foreign w o r l d can be assimilated, and its threatening difference defused by taking on a lamiliar cast.) It is here that travel writing, for all its transgressive polenlial and vaunted claims to see the world anew, looks suspiciously conformist. " H o m e , " after all, is the frame o f reference for most con temporary travel writers (even when it is precisely the category o f " h o m e " that their writing calls in question). Their experiences o f I ravel are predicated on the possibility o f return; their adventure trips .no round trips. A n d their v o c a b u l a r y frequently reflects the security o f .1 s h a r e d culture; in this sense many travel writers, in spite o f their cullivuleil eccentricities and assertive individualism, operate within a readily identifiable semantic field. Travel writing in the late twentieth century continues to be haunted by the specter o f cliche: its catalogs o f anomalies lire often recorded in remarkably similar terms. T h e same 6

I N T H O D t n

1 1

I1 1

>,

WORDS

A N D PHRASES

CROP

S T E R E O T Y P E S , T H ES A M E TO

RECOGNIZE

ABOUT THAT

FACES.

C O N T E M P O R A R Y

BELIES THEIR A P P A R E N T

N O R THE

T H E S A M E

M A N Y

U P AGAIN

IS T H EM U T U A L WRITERS

FLESH"

U N D E R

I N D E E D ,

L E I G H

TRAVEL WRITERS—PARTICULARLY

BACKSLAPPING SCRUTINY

T OI C O N O C L A S M

CONFINED

HERE,

N E W B Y

H O U S E

MORRIS

I N G R E E C E ) ;

TRINIDADIAN

N A I P A U L

E D W A R D I A N

E N G L I S H M A N .

B U M P S

INTO

S E E M S

ANACHRONISTIC

T OW I S H

IDEALS O F(ENGLISH)

O FT H E WRITERS W H O S E W O R K

THAT,

OFTEN PARODIED,

BRITISH

O N E S —

A N D ADVENTURE.

R A B A N

A M O N G " I N T H E

I N

( A N DALSO

T H EC H R O N I C A L L Y

T OREINCARNATE

E V E N

CLUBBABILITY

T OCROSS-QUOTATION:

E V E N

B E H I N D M A N Y T H O U G H

M Y T H S A N D

ENCOUNTERS THESIGER

COLLABORATES WITH T H E R O U X O NPATAGONIA

F E R M O R ' S

T H E

T H E S A M E

THERE IS A GENTEEL

C O M M I T M E N T

I N T H EWILDS O FNURISTAN;

C H A T W I N

A N D AGAIN,

LITERARY ANALOGIES. O N E BEGINS AFTER A WHILE

CAIRO;

BORROWS DISPLACED

HIMSELF

AS A

POST-

GENTLEMANLINESS ARE AT W O R K

IS F E A T U R E D I N THIS B O O K :

IDEALS

A R E STILL L I K E L Y T O A T T E S T T O T H E T R A V E L E R ' S

H O N E S T Y A N DC O U R A G E , H I S S E N S E O F F A I R P L A Y . ( T H I S M I G H T A C C O U N T F O R T H E O U T R A G E S O M E O F THE WRITERS EXPRESS W H E N ERS' DECEPTIONS.)

B U T IT IS T H ECAPACITY

THEY ARE CONFRONTED WITH

OTH

F O RS E L F - D E P R E C A T I O N T H A T

MOST

M A R K S T H E G E N T L E M A N ' S P R O G R E S S : A N I N D I C A T I O N N O TO N L Y T H A T H E D O E S N ' T T A K E H I M S E L F T O O SERIOUSLY, B U TTHAT W E S H O U L D N ' T T A K E H I M T O O EITHER.

T H EI M P U L S E

T OTRIVIALIZE

WRITING, F R O M THE C A M P FOONERY

O F CAHILL

IS B E H I N D

A N D O ' H A N L O N .

T H E FOPPISHNESS

THAT

THEIR

ATTIMES,

OFTEN DUBIOUS

P E O P L E A N D C U L T U R E S A R E O N L Y T H EO P I N I O N S T H E NAIF;

O FS O M E

LIGHT O F THEIR M I S A D V E N T U R E S ,

FUL ALIBI FOR THEIR CULTURAL GAFFES A N D , A REMINDER

TRAVEL

PROVIDES A USE

P R O N O U N C E M E N T S

O FA N E N T H U S I A S T I C

ABOUT

AMATEUR.

TRAVELER-WRITER, I N THIS CONTEXT, CONTRIVES T O M A S Q U E R A D E A SA HIS/HER NARRATIVE

SUPERFICIALITY.

B O N A FIDE

BUF

O F THESE

THEIR ARROGANCE; IT ALSO

IS C O N T E N T T OB A S K I N A N A T M O S P H E R E

FAUX

O FC H E E R F U L

( T H E R E A L I T Y I S , O F C O U R S E , M O R E C O M P L E X ; A N DI T I S N O S U R

PRISE T OFIND THAT SEVERAL O F THESE W R I T E R S — O ' H A N L O N ,

FOR E X A M P L E — A R E

SCIENTISTS.)

OBVIOUSLY, THE

SERIOUSLY


A F F E C T A T I O N S O F C H A T W I N A N DB A R T H E S T O T H E

WRITERS, W H OT E N D T O M A K E

AFFORDS

M U C H

N O TALLTRAVEL NARRATIVES

G E N T L E M A N

NONETHELESS, INSTRUCTIVE.

TRAVELER

THIS

FIGURE,

IS

O N EO F M A N Y

A N D T H E IRONY

WITH

F O RT H ECULT O F G E N T L E M A N L I N E S S

P H O N E TRAVEL WRITING IS B O T H RECOGNITION

ONLY

A R EG I V E N

THAT

A THROWBACK

T OSUCH POSSIBLE

WHICH

I N C O N T E M P O R A R Y

THIS E R A , A N D T H EV A L U E S F O R W H I C H

A N AWARENESS

(I

FHNL

PERSONAS.

IT IS TREATED, IS A N G L O

T OA N O T H E R E R A A N D A N I R O N I C IT STANDS,

L O N G G O N E . S E L F - P A R O D Y , I N THIS C O N T E X T , D E M O N S T R A T E S BELNLEDNESS-

INDULGENCE:

inevitably

REMINDS

loniurrs w i i i i TVi'i'wWTWKs

A R E N O W

THE AWARENESS O F e o n t e m p o r a r y

7

travel writers o f their o w n limitations. It is an a x i o m o f recent travel writing that writers offer tribute to their predecessors, h o m a g e often paid in adulatory terms. C o n t e m p o r a r y travel writers thus c o n sciously place themselves in a tradition—a tradition as m u c h literary as historically based. N o r need these predecessors, literary or histori cal, h a v e actually traveled; for travel writers are fascinated, rather, by the imaginative texture o f place—the process by w h i c h places and their inhabitants are shaped and reshaped by (literary) m y t h . In p a y ing their statutory respects to previous writers and travelers, c o n t e m porary travel writers realize that their o w n endeavors have c o m e t o o late; it rests for them to emulate w h a t others before them have achieved. Hence their weakness for self-parody: their tendency to view themselves as pale imitations o f their distinguished forebears. H o w ever, the consideration o f their o w n insufficiencies is less likely to cause them anxiety than it is to cause amusement. Self-irony also affords a useful strategy o f self-protection—as if the writer, in reveal ing

his/her faults, might be relieved o f social responsibilities. S o m e

travel writers, hiding behind the m a s k o f escapist explorer-adventur ers, or lurching from one disaster to the next for the delectation o f (heir readers, are reluctant to be held accountable for their g a u c h e but "inoffensive" actions. Others, q u i c k to moralize a b o u t the ills o f other cultures, exempt themselves from complicity in the cultural processes they describe. O n e strategy o f self-exemption is to claim a cool detach ment—as if travel writers were neutral observers o f the places they visit. A n o t h e r strategy is for the writer to designate himself or herself as an eccentric—as if eccentricity excused mistakes usually based on cultural ignorance. T h e m o s t frequent strategy, h o w e v e r , is to assume a variety o f disguises. In their self-presentation, travel writers arc often extremely elusive, shifting roles with the same facility as they move from place to place. N o w the p e d a g o g u e , now the clown; n o w the traveler, n o w (even) the tourist. T h e y m a n a g e , thus, to benefit from alternative temporary privileges, one m o m e n t taking a d v a n t a g e of an h o n o r a r y insider's k n o w l e d g e , the next taking refuge in a for eigner's convenient incomprehension. This manipulation o f roles is one o f the skills of travel writing; to condemn the travel writer for one form or other o f artful dodgery is to forget that the genre has a long history—a license—of entertaining fraud. T h e ambiguity surrounding travel narratives

the uncertainty,

at given m o m e n t s , o f whether the writer is telling us the truth—is part of their a p p e a l ; t h e stories they tell are no less compelling if they h a p -

P E N

T OB EM E N D A C I O U S .

I T IS WORTH

R E M E M B E R I N G ,

WRITING, H O W E V E R ENTERTAINING, ISHARDLY APPARENT INNOCUOUSNESS

E R N " ) CULTURES. T VEHICLE

HARMLESS,

A N D ITSC H A R M I N G L Y

A SERIES O F P O W E R F U L L Y DISTORTING M Y T H S

THOUGH,

F O RCULTURAL

PREJUDICE

TRAVEL

A N DTHAT B E H I N D ITS

ANECDOTAL OBSERVATIONS

ABOUT

OTHER (OFTEN,

IS T OOVERLOOK

A SM E R E L Y A

T H E GENRE'S

SIGNIFICANT

O F C U L T U R A L C R I T I Q U E . ( T R A V E L is, A F T E R A L L , A T L E A S T

POTENTIALLY A LEARNING EXPERIENCE: A M E A N S

O F T E S T I N G , A N DT H E N

REVISING,

THE TRAVELER'S CULTURAL EXPECTATIONS.) N O N E T H E L E S S , TRAVEL WRITING S O M E

O FT H E P R O B L E M S

TOURISTS,

ALTHOUGH

DESCRIBED

LIES

" N O N - W E S T

OS E E TRAVEL W R I T I N G I N ITS C U R R E N T F O R M A T

I M P A C T AS A N INSTRUMENT

THAT

O FITS P O O R

RELATION,

TOURISM.

SHARES

TRAVELERS

are

O F A N I N D E P E N D E N T B R E E D , A N D T H ETHRILLS A N D SPILLS

I N TRAVEL NARRATIVES,

I FD I F F E R E N T I N K I N D

O R G A N I Z E D P L E A S U R E S O FT H E M U C H - D E R I D E D THEIR READERS WITH THE M A N U F A C T U R E D DALS, O FS U R R O G A T E T O U R I S M .

A N DSPIRIT F R O M T H E

" P A C K A G E

T R I P . " STILL

W O N D E R S , N O T T OM E N T I O N

T R A V E L WRITING, LIKE TOURISM,

PROVIDE THE

SCAN

GENERATES NOS

T A L G I A F O R O T H E R T I M E S A N D P L A C E S , E V E N A S I TR E C O G N I Z E S T H A T T H E Y M A Y B Y N O W

HAVE

TENDS

"LOST"

THEIR

ROMANTIC

AURA.

8


T OB ES E L F - C O N S C I O U S — S E L F - I R O N I C — A B O U T

SUCH

TRAVEL

WRITING

LOSSES: IT IS B O T H

N O S T A L G I C A N D , A T ITS B E S T , A W A R E O F T H E D E C E P T I V E N E S S O F N O S T A L G I A . Y E T I F THE

TOURIST

RHETORIC

INDUSTRY

O FL O S T

CYNICALLY

DRESSES

I N N O C E N C E — A S

ITSEXPANSIONIST

" O T H E R "

PLACES

DESIGNS

I N A

A R E DESTROYED,

OTHER

" O T H E R S " D U L Y E M E R G E T O T A K E T H E I R P L A C E — T H E T R A V E L W R I T E R I SM O R E A SHOCKED WITNESS THEIR

READERS, PARTICIPATE

R E C T L Y , T OB O T H

I N GLOBAL

TOURISM:

ITS B E N E F I T S A N D ITS W O R S T

AFTER ALL, I N B E L I E V I N G THAT B O O K

THAN

T O THIS S E L F - P E R P E T U A T I N G PROCESS. T R A V E L WRITERS, A N D THEY

A CERTAIN A P P R O A C H

IS N OLONGER POSSIBLE:

CONTRIBUTE,

E X C E S S E S . S OW A U G H

T H E O N ETHAT

I F INDI IS RIGHT,

T OT R A V E L A N D T H E T R A V E L

CRIES

FOUL

AT TOURISM A N D

E X P E C T S , I NT U R N , T O G O U N P U N I S H E D .

FACTUAL

B U T

WHAT,

EXACTLY,

is

A TRAVEL

FICTIONS

B O O K ?

B YWHICH

CRITERIA

J U D G E D ? W H O QUALIFIES A SA TRAVEL WRITER? A N D M O R E MERITS B E

INCLUSION

SAID, IS HARD

STRADDLES

I N A S T U D Y O FTHIS K I N D ? T R A V E L WRITING, I TN E E D T OD E F I N E , N O TLEAST B E C A U S E

CATEGORIES

A N DDISCIPLINES.

PICARESQUE ADVENTURE TO PHILOSOPHICAL ECOLOGICAL

SHOULD

PARABLE,

A N D SPIRITUAL

QUEST. T H E Y

M M I H I M •, W I T H

BORROW

I YI'UwMITHt

THAT

R U N FROM C O M M E N T A R Y ,

FREELY

SCIENCE, often

HARDLY

GENRE

NARRATIVES

TREATISE, POLITICAL

tory, G E O G R A P H Y , A N T H R O P O L O G Y , A N D social

8

ITIS A HYBRID

TRAVEL

IT B E

SPECIFICALLY, W H O

FROM

his

D E M O N S ! r a t -

ing great erudition, but without seeing fit to respect the rules that g o v ern conventional scholarship. Irredeemably opinionated, travel writers avail themselves o f the several licenses that are granted t o a form that freely mixes fact and fable, anecdote and analysis. N o t least o f these i s the license to exaggerate, or even to invent: as Percy A d a m s says in his entertaining survey, travel writers are under n o obligation to tell their readers the truth; instead, they are often practiced liars "infested with I h e itch to tell wonderful stories" or, in some cases, "inflicted with the desire to tell lies ' o f a darker c o m p l e x i o n ' " (5). N o t all travel writers, o f course, are liars; a m o n g the contemporary figures, Peter Matthiessen a n d Barry L o p e z w o u l d b e upset at the allegation, and even tricksters, such as (the late) Bruce C h a t w i n , w o u l d defend their selective use o f t a c t s . Travel writing i s best seen, then, as a "mediation between fact a n d fiction" (Fussell), referring to actual people, places, and events as I h e writer encounters them, b u t freely interspersing these with stories I h a t are often o f dubious provenance or derive from mythical or ficti t i o u s sources. But what, again, is a travel b o o k ? Perhaps it is better to begin b y defining w h a t it is not. Travel b o o k s , says Paul Fussell, referring t o the fully fashioned literary w o r k s that are the objects o f his study, are to b e distinguished initially from g u i d e b o o k s , which are not autobiographical and are not sustained by a narrative exploit ing the devices of fiction. A guide book is addressed to those who plan to follow the traveler, doing what he has done, but more selec tively. A travel book, at its purest, is addressed to those who do not plan to follow the traveler at all, but who require the exotic anom alies, wonders, and scandals of the literary form romance which their own place or time cannot entirely supply. (203) distinction i s a useful one, although it begs important quesF o r example, cannot certain travel b o o k s b e used, precisely, as nldebooks i s it not possible to combine the aesthetic and ideological unctions o f the "travel b o o k " with the pragmatic function o f the r . o i i l c " ? ( O n a recent visit to Patagonia, one o f the present authors " l i e e d several fellow travelers using C h a t w i n ' s In Patagonia as a a i d e , Clearly, t h e " e x o t i c anomalies" provided in plenty b y C h a t w i n ' s "iii'i'tilivc h a i l n o t prevented i t s r e a d e r s from checking out the terrain 1 0 1 ' themselves.) A s a r g u e d e a r l i e r , t r a v e l b o o k s d o not necessarily act id " U i h s l i t u l e s for a c t u a l t r a v e l ; o n t h e c o n t r a r y , I h e y may often funct l n i i u s i t s catalyzing agents. I iiHselfs

I M H S .

INTRDItlii

1 Ii i M

•)

FUSSELL'S NEXT DISTINCTION PROVES TOB E EQUALLY PROBLEMATIC: B O O K S , H EC L A I M S I NA VALIANT A T T E M P T T O R E A C H A PROVISIONAL are

a sub-species o f m e m o i r in w h i c h t h e autobiographical

narrative

arises f r o m t h e speaker's e n c o u n t e r w i t h distant o r u n f a m i l i a r and

(203)

FUSSELL'S F O R M U L A T I O N ISA D M I R A B L Y N E A T , B U TITSUFFERS A G A I N PLIFICATION.

B O T H

"REFERENCE

T O ACTUALITY"

NOVELS

A N D R O M A N C E S WITHOUT

C L A I M I N G "LITERAL VALIDITY." INFLUENTIAL

THESIS

C A N M A K E

NECESSARILY

ROMANCES,

ACTIVE O R

O NTHE ATTEMPT BOTH T O

9

H E REFERS, V I A F R Y E ,

DISTINGUISHING

HERE

T O TRAVEL

B E T W E E N

O FC O M I C M I S A D V E N T U R E A N DT H E P A S T O R A L M O D E

(206, 209-10).

A N D ELEGIAC REVERIE

(CONTEMPORARY)

THROUGH A REWORKING IRONIC

LESS

T H E RISE O F T H E N O V E L , I N D E E D — I F I A N W A T T ' S

FUSSELL C O M E S CLOSER W H E N

M A N Y

JUXTAPOSITION

O F CONTEMPLATION

T H E S E M O D E S ARE CERTAINLY RELEVANTT O

TRAVEL NARRATIVES, O FT H E " O R I G I N A L "

O F THEIR

NARRATIVES

T H E PICARESQUE

USUAL

A SIS THEIR D I S P L A C E M E N T ,

LITERARY F O R M S THAN

C O M P O N E N T S .

I N A


In

T H E R E A D E R IS C O N T I N U A L L Y SHUTTLED B E T W E E N ALTERNATIVE M O D E S

REGISTERS, S O THAT T H E H Y B R I D W O R K

LESS

THROUGH A N

TRAVEL NARRATIVE LIKE, FOR INSTANCE, C H A T W I N ' S A F O R E M E N T I O N E D

gonia,

SIM

I S T O B EA C C E P T E D — D E P E N D E D O N T H E R E A R R A N G E M E N T

(RE)PRESENT A N D T O SATIRIZE " R E C O R D E D FACTS."

DISPLACED

F R O M

FREQUENT, DETAILED

S E E M I N G

A N D EMBELLISHMENT O F "AUTHENTIC" INFORMATION:

M O D E

data,

in which the narrative—unlike that in a novel o r A r o m a n c e —

claims literal validity b y c o n s t a n t reference t o actuality.

AS

TRAVEL

DEFINITION,

THAT ACCUMULATES F R O M THESE

Pata A N D

VARIOUS

STYLISTIC F R A G M E N T S STARTS T O R E S E M B L E , O X Y M O R O N I C A L L Y , A C O N T E M P L A T I V E P I C A R E S Q U E E L E G Y O RA R O L L I C K I N G P A S T O R A L A D V E N T U R E . T H E

FORMAL

A P P R O A C H

T O TRAVEL WRITING RISKS R U N N I N G

A G R O U N D O N

THESE DEFINITIONAL INCONSISTENCIES, A N D O NTHE S E E M I N G DETERMINATION O F T H E G E N R E T O FLY I N T H E F A C E O F T R A D I T I O N A L APPROACH, SPACE

O F DISCURSIVE

E X A M P L E S TION":

PERHAPS,

O FW H A T

IS THAT

WHICH

CONFLICT.

TRAVEL

H A Y D E N W H I T E

THEY CLAIM VALIDITY—OR

BOUNDARIES.

SEES TRAVEL WRITING NARRATIVES,

CALLS "FICTIONS

M A K E

A

M O R E

FRUITFUL

A SO C C U P Y I N G

I N THIS

A

CONTEXT, A R E

O FFACTUAL R E P R E S E N T A

A SI FT O C L A I M I T — B Y

REFERRING T O

A C T U A L E V E N T S A N D P L A C E S , B U TT H E N A S S I M I L A T E T H O S E E V E N T S A N D P L A C E S T O A

HIGHLY

PERSONAL

VISION.

1 0

TRAVEL

B E T W E E N THE WRITERS' C O M P U L S I O N OFTEN REPRESSED DESIRE T O M A K E T I O N O F IT. ( T A K E INDIA

WRITING

THUS

CHARTS

T H E TENSION

TOREPORT THE WORLD THEY SEE A N D

THEIR

THE WORLD C O N F O R M TO THEIR P R E C O N C E P

T H E O B S E R V A T I O N S , D I S C U S S E D I N T H I S B O O K , O FN A I P A U L I N

O R IYER I N J A P A N ,

OBSERVATIONS

THAT

MIRACULOUSLY

C O N F O R M

T O A

CULTURAL " E S S E N C E " E A C H WRITER B E L I E V E S H E H A SD I S C O V E R E D . I N THIS S E N S E ,

10

roiJRISTS W i I II T Y I ' H W K I T I i l K S

IHERE ISSOMETHING

SOCRATIC

ABOUT

T H EI N Q U I R I E S

WRITERS: T H E Y S E E K AFTER " T R U T H S " T H E Y I M A G I N E

M A D E

B YM A N Y

TRAVEL

THEY ALREADY H A V E I N THEIR

POSSESSION.) T H E

SUBJECTIVITY

O FT R A V E L W R I T I N G M I G H T B E S E E N , I N THIS S E N S E , A S A

F O R M O F WILLFUL I N T E R F E R E N C E : ITI SN O T THAT TRAVEL WRITERS T R Y T O VEIL PERSONAL

INTERPRETATION

B U T , O N T H ECONTRARY,

IHEIR PUTATIVE

REPORTAGE. L I K E

I S M — A N O T H E R

M E M B E R

FORMS

THEY I M P O S E

O FINVESTIGATIVE

STATUS B E T W E E N SUBJECTIVE I N Q U I R Y

I N HIS B O O K

O N NAIPAUL'S

" A SEMI-ETHNOGRAPHIC,

AUTOBIOGRAPHICAL, ACTERISTIC WAY

ABOUT

U P THEIR OPINIONS

TRAVEL WRITING,

T H ESLIPPAGE

THE WRITER'S

OUSLY M E N T I O N E D ,

ANALYTIC

EMOTIONALLY TANGLED M O D E " NAIPAUL'S

IT NEGOTIATES

M A X I M I Z E

DISTANCED,

B E T W E E N

DISCURSIVE

R O B

O FTRAVEL WRITERS'

A N D " A N CHAR

T ON I X O N ,

IS T H E

I N ORDER T O

H E N C E THE PARADOX,

A M A T E U R

PREVI

EXPERTISE: THEY M A Y

BACK

B Y A P P E A L I N G I N S O M E M A N N E R O RO T H E R T O T H E R I G O R S O F SCIENCE TO C R A M P

THEIR

STYLE.

N I X O N ' S EDNESS

M O D E "

THESE T W O M O D E S

SCIENCE, B U T T H E Y U S U A L L Y FALL SHORT O FA L L O W I N G PERSONAL

N I X O N

ALTERNATES

( 1 5 ) . W H A T I SM O S T

ACCORDING

AUTHORITY.

WRITING

A N D OBJECTIVE

TRAVEL WRITING,

SIMILARLY IDENTIFIES TRAVEL LITERATURE AS A P O L Y V A L E N T G E N R E THAT BETWEEN

THEIR IT O N

JOURNAL

O FTHE GENRE'S E X T E N D E D F A M I L Y — T R A V E L

ENJOYS A N INTERMEDIARY DOCUMENTATION.

CERTAIN

THAT

O B S E R V A T I O N RAISES T H E M O R E SPECIFIC Q U E S T I O N O F T H E

O FTRAVEL WRITING T O E T H N O G R A P H Y .

O T H E R S , H A SN O T E D , T R A V E L E R S A N D A N T H R O P O L O G I S T S H A V E M O R E I N T H A N I SU S U A L L Y

INDEBT

A SVALERIE W H E E L E R ,

A M O N G C O M M O N

SUPPOSED:

B o t h traveler a n d a n t h r o p o l o g i s t a r estrangers w h o deliver t h e exotic to a n a u d i e n c e unlikely t o f o l l o w t h e m t o t h eplace they h a v e

visited,

but

neither

likely perhaps t o follow

their explorations

o f them. In

c a s e is t h e a c c o u n t w r i t t e n f o r t h e p e o p l e o r p l a c e s e x p e r i e n c e d , b u t

f o r p e r s o n a n d p r o f e s s i o n . (52) IN

THIS

CONTEXT,

EMPHASIS. LIONALLY

TRAVEL

WRITING

11

A N D E T H N O G R A P H Y

DIFFER PRIMARILY I N

TRAVEL WRITING ISSELF-CONSCIOUSLY AUTOBIOGRAPHICAL, ANECDOTAL,

A N D ( I N S O M E

CASES)

DELIBERATELY

INTEN-

ETHNOCENTRIC,

WHEREAS E T H N O G R A P H Y H A ST E N D E D UNTIL RECENTLY T O PLAY D O W N THE SONALITY

O F ITS A U T H O R ,

TION, A N D T O CRITIQUE DESCRIPTION TIME

T O SUBSTITUTE

SCIENTIFIC

ETHNOCENTRIC ASSUMPTIONS

O F"FOREIGN CULTURES" WHILE

O FI T S O W N P R E J U D I C E S A N D B I A S E S ,

WRITING

A N D E T H N O G R A P H Y

ANTHROPOLOGISTS

FOR ANECDOTAL

REMAIN,

H A V E SOMETIMES

T H ES T U D Y A N D

AWARE

AT THE

B U TDISTINCTIONS B E T W E E N

A T BEST,

M A D E

B E H I N D

REMAINING

PROBLEMATIC;

CONCERTED ATTEMPTS

I N 1 H o n o r 1TON

N

PER

INFORMA

A N D

S A M E TRAVEL WHILE

TO DISSOCI-

ATE THEMSELVES F R O M TRAVELERS

TRAVELERS—LEVI-STRAUSS

M A Y B EEQUALLY

ANTHROPOLOGISTS.

1 2

K E E N

T OSEE,

ARS)

U N A S H A M E D

audience

A N D

HERE, H O W E V E R , TIONS

POSITIONS

T H E M

APPEARS

TRAVELER

THE

E T H N O G R A P H Y

N U M

TENDS

LARGELY

TENDS T O D O W N P L A Y CLAIMING

THEY

AUTHORITY

T OA D V E R T I S E

ATTEMPTS

BOTH

DIFFERENCES ALLOW

SUBJECTS.

STATUS"

O F THE

A R EM E R E L Y

I N , " T O" G O

THESE PRIVILEGES

O C C U P Y

OVER THEIR

THAT

ISSUE

DISTINC

VISIT—THAT

T H E''SPECIAL

T O" M O V E

INSTEAD

CENTRAL

N O EASY

B Y T H EE C O N O M I C

OUTSIDER—PRIVILEGES

OUTSIDER

T H E

A G A I N ,

A N DT H E S O C I E T I E S

A N D

C O N

N A T I V E " —

T O OBVIATE

THE

T OR E L Y O N A D I F F E R E N T K I N D O F

C O N F E R R E D B Y THE P R O V E N TRUTHS O F SCIENCE.

T H E S E GENERALIZATIONS CAN O F COURSE B EQ U E S T I O N E D ; FOR TRAVEL I N G , T OR E P E A T , I SG E N E R I C A L L Y E L U S I V E , A S U N W I L L I N G D O C U M E N T A R Y

VERACITY

IT P U R P O R T S T O P R O V I D E A D O C U M E N T WHILE

USING

T H E M

N O T ALL O F T H E M

EXCESS.

INSOFAR AS

O F , O RR E P O R T O N , O T H E R P E O P L E S

A SA BACKDROP

Q U E S T . N O T ALL T R A V E L N A R R A T I V E S ,

WRIT

T OG I V E U P ITSC L A I M S T O

A SI T I S T O W A I V E I T S L I C E N S E T O R H E T O R I C A L

P E R H A P S IT IS BEST T O S E E TRAVEL W R I T I N G AS / W E W J O E T H N O G R A P H I C ,

CULTURES

ARE

SCHOL

A L A Y READERSHIP;

A N DA N T H R O P O L O G I S T S

A N OFTEN UNWARRANTED

O FPERSONALITY,

AUTHORITY,

WRITING

(TRAVEL WRITERS

FOR

T O B E O N E O FP O W E R .

A S A PRIVILEGED W H E N

IS WRITTEN

TRAVEL WRITERS

WRITING

method

SPECIALIZED AUDIENCE).

O F P O W E R — G R A N T E D

TRAVEL

FIRMED

WRITING

THEIR O W NSOCIETIES

T OE S T A B L I S H

W H I L E

OR B E T W E E N TRAVEL

ALTHOUGH THERE ARE A

DIFFERENCES I N

A T A M O R E

C A NB E M A D E :

B E T W E E N

B YFUSSELL

DILETTANTES; ETHNOGRAPHERS ARE RESEARCH

(TRAVEL

E T H N O G R A P H Y A I M S

CULT

E T H N O G R A P H Y ,

O F GENERALLY IDENTIFIABLE

BRICOLEURS,

E X A M P L E —

THEMSELVES A S

FICTION, T H E R E IS N OP R E S C R I P T I V E B A S I S F O R D I F F E R E N T I A T I N G

B E T W E E N TRAVEL WRITING A N D BER

BILL,

A SW I T H T H E T E N U O U S DISTINCTIONS M A D E

B E T W E E N THE TRAVEL B O O K A N D THE G U I D E B O O K , A N D (ROMANCE)

ISA F A M O U S

O R E V E N

OBVIOUSLY,

F O R T H EA U T H O R ' S

PERSONAL

ARE O F THE QUESTING

ASSIMILATE THEIR ENCOUNTERS T OTHE DICTATES

A N D

VARIETY;

O F PERSONAL

E X P E R I E N C E . N O N E T H E L E S S , I NT R A V E L N A R R A T I V E S , A S I N O T H E R F O R M S O F A U T O BIOGRAPHICAL ATTEMPT DESIRE,

O FTHE

DESIRE,

IS S E C O N D A R Y

T OA C H I E V E

ARE USUALLY AWARE O F THE DISCREPANCY A N D THE HAPHAZARDNESS

OBSERVATIONS

QUITE LITERALLY—WITH THEY

RULES A N DPRINCIPLES

T H E

T O T H E

SELF-UNDERSTANDING.

IS P E R H A P S T H E K E Y W O R D H E R E , F O R E V E N T H E M O S T E A R N E S T TRAVEL

CAL O B S E R V A T I O N S THOSE

UNDERLYING

O R THE M O C K E R Y

M O C K E R Y WRITERS

W R I T I N G , T H E S E L F I S W R I T L A R G E I N ITS A L I E N S U R R O U N D I N G S .

T OF I N D

K N O W

ARE DERIVED.

T R A V E L WRITERS,

CHARLATANISM,

THESE T O B E DUBIOUS.

routtr; i i

B E T W E E N THEIR

PHILOSOPHI

O F THE EXPERIENCE F R O M I N THIS RESPECT,

CLAIMING CERTAIN "TRUTHS" E V E N T H E

HISTORY

O FT R A V E L W R I T I N G ,

I TVI-CWRITBR8

WHICH FLIRT— W H E N UNSUR-

prisingly, reveals a propensity for hoaxes: either pseudointellectual "insights" that are embarrassingly believed in, or tall tales that mas querade as miraculous events. M a n y c o n t e m p o r a r y travel narratives follow in this profitable vein, exhibiting picayune " m e n t o r s " w h o s e wisdom is dispensed like so m u c h snake oil ( C h a t w i n , N a i p a u l ) , or declaring " m o m e n t o u s " happenings that taper off into sheepish anti climax ( N e w b y , O ' H a n l o n ) . S o m e hoaxes are revealed; others, left uncertain, b e c o m e the focus o f suspicion. (The M y l o d o n skin in In Patagonia

provides

an

object

lesson.

Allegedly

discovered

by

C h a t w i n ' s cousin in South A m e r i c a , it n o w p r o u d l y ornaments his grandmother's dining r o o m in southern England. T h e subject o f innu merable tall tales, the M y l o d o n skin is o f doubtful authenticity; it seems much m o r e than likely that it is an utter fake. Its value as a c o l lector's item remains, however, undiminished, its dubious origins merely serving as a catalyst for C h a t w i n ' s already vivid imagination 11-3,188-92].) The

value o f the M y l o d o n skin to a storyteller like C h a t w i n

increases e x p o n e n t i a l l y w i t h the n u m b e r o f anecdotes that s u r r o u n d il. In c o l l e c t i n g and r e c o u n t i n g such a n e c d o t e s , writers like C h a t w i n reveal themselves to be skillful raconteurs. Often, o n e a n e c d o t e or slory will tend to generate another: the m o r e uncertain the origin o f a w o r d , or p l a c e , or object, the greater the n u m b e r o f possible c o n lenders—and possible stories. L i k e o p p o r t u n i s t i c journalists, travel writers are often less c o n c e r n e d w i t h ascertaining the details o f a par ticular story t h a n w i t h j u d g i n g w h e t h e r it will m a k e g o o d c o p y . T h e less precise the story, the better c o p y it m i g h t m a k e ; for travel writ ing generates m u c h o f its revenue from r u m o r : it trades in the specu lations that are a t t e n d a n t on uncertainty. In this last c o n t e x t , travel narratives m e d i a t e b e t w e e n the written and the oral. O n e o f the min imum requirements o f the travel writer is that he or she be a g o o d lislener: R a b a n , T h e r o u x , and C h a t w i n , for e x a m p l e , spend less time recounting their o w n experiences t h a n garnering the a p o c r y p h a l stories o f their colorful " i n f o r m a n t s . " W h i l e , once a g a i n , similarities can

be detected here w i t h j o u r n a l i s m and/or e t h n o g r a p h y , a n o t h e r

c o n n e c t i o n is with the folktale: the a n e c d o t e that aspires to legend, t r a v e l writing, for all its trickery, remains a disseminator o f folk w i s d o m ; the travel writer, a r a c o n t e u r a m o n g raconteurs, often cher ishes this w i s d o m and is perfectly prepared to w a n d e r the g l o b e to seek it.

I N 1KOI:>H,K'TIOM

11

ROVING

"l"S

T R A V E L NARRATIVES ARTICULATE A POETICS O F THE W A N D E R I N G SUBJECT. I N M O S T CASES,

THIS

ROVING

SUBJECT REMAINS

AUTOBIOGRAPHICAL

THE FOCUS O F INQUIRY;

I N A FEW,

P E R S O N A O F THE TRAVELER (OR TRAVELING WRITER)

THE

IS SUB

S U M E D B Y W H A T M I C H A E L I G N A T I E F F CALLS A " M E T A P H Y S I C S O F R E S T L E S S N E S S " — A P H I L O S O P H Y O F LIFE B A S E D O N T H E A P P A R E N T N E E D FOR M O V E M E N T . WRITING, I NTHIS S E N S E , I SA DISTINCTIVE AUTOBIOGRAPHIES,

IT SEEKS TO M A K E

AUTOBIOGRAPHICAL

3

TRAVEL

F O R M ; LIKE

RETROSPECTIVE SENSE OUT

EXPERIENCES: TO CONVERT A M I S H M A S H O F IMPRESSIONS

1

O F

OTHER

DISCRETE

INTO A COHERENT NAR

RATIVE. B U T U N L I K E M O S T A U T O B I O G R A P H I E S — A T LEAST T H O S E S E E N F R O M A TRA DITIONAL P E R S P E C T I V E — T R A V E L NARRATIVES A R E LESS C O N C E R N E D W I T H R E C U P E R ATING, OR REINVENTING, A SINGLE SELF T H A N WITH F O L L O W I N G T H E TRAJECTORY O F A SERIES O F SELVES I N TRANSIT. T H I S DISTINCTION

FAILS T O A C C O U N T , O F C O U R S E , F O R

REVISIONIST STUDIES O F A U T O B I O G R A P H Y , W H I C H STRESS T H E INSTABILITY WRITING A N D VERSE

WRITTEN

SUBJECT, A N D

THE AUTOBIOGRAPHICAL

THAT I NM A N Y

THE MULTIPLICITY

TEXT-IN-PROCESS. I T REMAINS

TRAVEL NARRATIVES

THIS INSTABILITY

TRUE,

TRA

H O W E V E R ,

ISEXACERBATED, A N D

THE SELF-INQUIRIES C O N D U C T E D B Y TRAVEL WRITERS, E V E N THE M O S T UNSOPHISTICATED,

O F BOTH

O F PERSONAS THAT

THAT

APPARENTLY

ARE OFTEN LIKELY TO REVEAL A CONFLICTED SENSE O F B E L O N G

I N G A N D A L L E G I A N C E . P E R H A P S , I NTHIS S E N S E , T R A V E L W R I T I N G I SM O R E C L O S E L Y AFFILIATED WITH M E M O I R . OF AUTOBIOGRAPHY, OVER TIME,"

F O R L E E Q U I N B Y ,

WHICH

IS " P R E S U M E D

SUBJECTIVITY

TO B E

CONTINUOUS

ISAT O D D S W I T H T H E SUBJECTIVITY

(299).

PLE A N D DISCONTINUOUS"

"INDIVIDUALIZED

UNITARY

A N D

O F M E M O I R ,

T H E SUBJECTIVITY

FERS F R O M THAT O F A U T O B I O G R A P H Y , BIOGRAPHY'S

A M O N G OTHERS, THE

W H I C H IS "MULTI

O F M E M O I R

NOT ONLY

(299).

S E L F H O O D "

IT S E E M S W O R T H R E T U R N I N G H E R E F O R A M O M E N T O F TRAVEL WRITING A S" A SUB-SPECIES

O F M E M O I R

TO FUSSELL'S I NWHICH

DEFINITION

THE

AUTOBIO

GRAPHICAL NARRATIVE ARISES F R O M T H E S P E A K E R ' S E N C O U N T E R W I T H DISTANT

(203).

UNFAMILIAR

DATA"

DICTIONARY

S E N S E , AS A " W R I T T E N

OR BIOGRAPHY." OIR IS SEEN, A R O U N D

1

4

H I S

F U S S E L L IS P R E S U M A B L Y R E F E R R I N G T O M E M O I R

A PLURAL SUBJECT. T H E SUBJECTIVITY

PSYCHIC

travel

DISLOCATION—IS

RETURN TO THE EARLIER PROPOSITION

NARRATIVE

O F M E M O I R

M E M O I R ,

VIEW

OR ITS

FOR HISTORY M E M

REVOLVING

ISFRAGMENTED, OR

DISTANCE

A N D

O F TRAVEL WRITING SUGGESTS A

THAT IT D I S R U P T S

T l X I H I S T S W I T II

IN

THIS S E N S E O F F R A G M E N T A

R E I N F O R C E D B YP H Y S I C A L

THE EXPERIENCE O F ESTRANGEMENT. THIS

1 I

AS M A T E R I A L

M O R E SENSE, THOUGH, W H E N

S E E S I T ,A SA D I S C O N T I N U O U S

AT T H E V E R Y LEAST I N C O M P L E T E ; IN T I O N — O F

R E C O R D SET D O W N

DEFINITION M A K E S

A SQ U I N B Y

DIF

I TA L S O RESISTS T H E V E R Y N O T I O N O F A U T O

CONVENTIONAL

I Y I ' H W I U IT'.HS

OPPOSI-

tions between the self and its others, the domestic and the foreign; and that it provides a vehicle for the revision o f expectations concerning both individual subjecthood and the position o f the h o m e country with respect to the outside world. But while such a view certainly applies to many (contemporary) travel writers, it fails to account for others w h o use their travel writing, precisely, as a means o f confirming their iden tity and consolidating their status as imperial national subjects. Into such a category arguably fall Eric N e w b y , Peter M a y l e , and Patrick Leigh F e r m o r , and several others w h o s e w o r k s capitalize on w h a t 5

Renato R o s a l d o calls "imperialist n o s t a l g i a . " ' Clearly, there is a dan ger in claiming travel writing—and the metaphor o f "travel" in gen eral—for the purposes o f subverting metropolitan ties to race, class, and country. Indeed, one o f the characteristics o f contemporary travel writing is its reversion to earlier forms—its cultivated anachronism— and, in m o r e extreme cases, its studied reluctance to see the w o r l d as having irrevocably changed. A study o f this kind needs to account for these retrograde, but hardly vitiated, forms o f travel writing, as well as for those (post)modern forms that interrogate cultural identity and that provide a means for their writers and readers to learn, while also unlearning, modes o f cultural self-imagination and exchange. T h e "imperial I/eye" o f the travel writer, in M a r y Louise Pratt's conflation, is still operational in an age that, after Empire, has yet to settle imperialism's scores.

16

T h e connection between travel writing

and imperial conquest is a long-standing one; as Stephen Greenblatt argues persuasively, the travel narratives o f C o l u m b u s and other early European "discoverers" helped produce a "discourse o f w o n d e r " that both forestalled the act o f conquest and paradoxically legitimized it by stimulating greed (79-80, 132-34). A n d M a r y C a m p b e l l , delving back further into the premodern history o f travel writing, shows in detail how the " w o n d r o u s " beings embodied in medieval geographic fan tasies were behind some o f the stereotypical images that the Spanish (among other) conquerors used to perceive their " m o n s t r o u s " adver 7

saries and put them to the s w o r d . ' B o t h C a m p b e l l and Greenblatt stress the dangers attendant u p o n the supposed eyewitness: the traveler whose "factual report" on far-flung lands enhanced the lure o f differ ence while preparing the ground for plunder. F o r w h a t had been wit nessed really existed; if was empirically " p r o v e n " and thus available for those with (lie will and power to acquire it. T h e "eyewitness" reports o f early t r a v e l e r s

even the obviously mendacious

I N T i l l M II 11 "I n I N

1 \

thus acted as a

M E A N S ,

NOT

AUDIENCE,

ONLY BUT

ACQUIRED

O F D O C U M E N T I N G

O F

A D D I N G

THE FOREIGN

THE

B O D Y

OR IMPERFECTLY TRANSMITTED,

AS A N O P P O R T U N I T Y

FOR MATERIAL

C O N T E M P O R A R Y WITNESS,

TO

O F

CULTURE

FOR A

K N O W L E D G E ,

DOMESTIC

OFTEN

FALSELY

THAT LED TO THAT CULTURE B E I N G

GAIN.

TRAVEL NARRATIVES

ALSO RELY U P O N THE AUTHORITY

O F THE

E V E N IF T H E Y A R E LESS LIKELY TO B E T A K E N AT F A C E V A L U E O R TO

EXPECT

THEIR MYTHS,

PASSING

GREENBLATT

REMINDS

AS FACTS, TO B E ( M I S ) R C A D W I T H A N E Y E FOR PROFIT. US,

THE

EYEWITNESS,

REAL

OR

NOT,

FUNCTIONS

RHETORICAL STRATEGY TO P E R S U A D E THE READER O F THE "AUTHENTICITY" IS

REPORTED

OFTEN

SEEN

1 8

(129).

PLAYS

O N


SUCH

TRAVELER IMPOSES

NOTIONS

TRAVEL

WRITING,

O F AUTHENTICITY,

SUBJECTIVITY

IN

O N THE NARRATIVE

AS

A

O F W H A T

P O S T M O D E R N

EITHER

A S

SHOWING

VEIN,

H O W

OR LAYING BARE THE

THE

P O W E R

STRUCTURES U N D E R L Y I N G CLAIMS TO TRUTH. N E E D L E S S TO SAY, H O W E V E R , N O T C O N T E M P O R A R Y TIED

TO

TRAVEL

NARRATIVES

D O C U M E N T A R Y

M O D E S

D O

O F

THIS;

SEVERAL

PRESENTATION

RECORDING

SCATTERED OBSERVATIONS—USUALLY

N A L — T H E N

REARRANGES T H E M

MORRIS

A N D

REMINDING

COLIN

PROBABLY

ARE

O N

IN

B Y

M O R E

W H I C H

W A Y

THOSE

IN

UNRELIABLE M O D E

O F C O N T E M P O R A R Y

SHARE O F THOSE W H O

THE

CONVENTIONS

THIS LATTER CAN

TRAVEL

FEATURE IN

O F AN

STILL I N D U C E

WRITERS,

SELF-CONSCIOUS

CONTINUALLY

DIFFERENT ROLES. T H I S H E I G H T E N E D CONSCIOUSNESS DIMENSIONS THE

J A N

READ

T H O U G H —

ESSAY

A N D

THE

NOVEL,

IS

O N E

PERSONAS;

FOR

SHUTTLES

O F ROLE-PLAY A N D

A L S O — A N D FOR RAPID

TRAVEL WRITING D R A W S

B E T W E E N PER

EQUALLY

C L O S E L Y —

ROLE-PLAY A N D

THE

INSPIRATION

F R O M F U N —

O F THE M O R E SERIOUS-MINDED

OBVIOUS

ITS

CROSSBREED

T H E H I S T O R Y O F C O M I C T H E A T E R . N O T ALL T R A V E L E R S S H A R E A S E N S E O F T H E S O M E

O F MISFORTUNE,

SELF-CON

GENRE.

SUGGESTS THAT TRAVEL WRITING, ALREADY A

A F F I L I A T E D W I T H T H E D R A M A . W I T H ITS C A P A C I T Y STAGING

JOUR

CATEGORY,

THIS B O O K — P L A Y

ALREADY

T H E FIGURE O F T H E TRAVELER, LITERALLY M O B I L E ,

B E T W E E N

OR

NARRATIVE.

F O R M T H I S P L A Y F U L N E S S T A K E S IS T H E P R E S E N T A T I O N O F M U L T I P L E

FORMATIVE

TRAVELER,

O F A DIARY

O R LESS P L A U S I B L E

A M O N G

THE

ALL

CLOSELY

DISBELIEF. THE MAJORITY

THE LION'S

SCIOUSLY

T H U B R O N

A M O R E

US THAT A HISTORICALLY

ERS TO S U S P E N D

A N D

INTO

REMAIN

INSIST O N THEIR J O U R N E Y S B E I N G S E E N

SPIRITUAL Q U E S T S , AS S U R R O G A T E P I L G R I M A G E S — B U T

E V E N IN THE MOST

O F TRAVEL NARRATIVES,

T H E R E IS A N U N D E R L Y I N G H I N T

THE TRAVELER HIMSELF

OR HERSELF CUTS

DISPLACED

PLACES

TRAVEL

ONTO

WRITING

GRUITIES;

THE BUILDS

A FARCICAL

CULTURES

M O M E N T U M

PHILOSOPHICALLY

IN V E R I F Y I N G THE

OR

RELATIVISTIC,

F R O M

O F FARCE. I N

FIGURE; IN

TRAVELED THE

I Ol 1 IMS IS W i l l i

ACCUMULATION

I' Y l ' l ' W K I I I • K S

CASES, IS

L I K E

FARCE,

O F

INCON

IT E N J O Y S N O G R E A T E R P L E A S U R E

IMPROBABLE.

|6

S O M E

OTHERS, FARCE

THROUGH.

AS

EARNEST

THAN

T H E

VARIOUS

A G A M U T

F R O M

O F SLAPSTICK

COMIC

TECHNIQUES O F C O N T E M P O R A R Y

UNDERSTATED U R B A N E WIT

( O ' H A N L O N ) .

AUTOBIOGRAPHICAL

T H E S E TWO

( C H A T W I N )

WRITERS'

R A N G E O F TRAVEL WRITING:

T R A V E L E R IS P R I M A R I L Y

AN OBSERVER, HIDING

W O R K

IN

TRAVEL WRITING

TO THE CRUDEST

RUN

FORMS

ALSO ILLUSTRATES

CHATWIN'S

THE

NARRATIVES

B E H I N D T H E ECCENTRICITIES

THE

O F THE

C H A R A C T E R S H E O B S E R V E S ; I N O ' H A N L O N ' S , T H E T R A V E L E R H I M S E L F IS T H E G R E A T EST ECCENTRIC, M A K I N G

A

VIRTUE

O F HIS

M A D C A P

SEXUAL FANTASIES, P O S I N G AS A G R O W N - U P C A M P

R O M P .

ANTICS

A N D

HIS

W A Y W A R D

SCHOOLBOY IN A B A W D Y

O ' H A N L O N A P P E A R S TO B E S E L F - O B S E S S E D , C H A T W I N

ING. B U T THIS DISTINCTION

PROVES TO B E MISLEADING;

S U M M E R SELF-EFFAC

FOR CHATWIN,

ALTHOUGH

LESS O B V I O U S L Y E G O T I S T I C T H A N O ' H A N L O N , N O N E T H E L E S S FILLS H I S B O O K S

WITH

CHARACTERS W H O

ALSO

PARTLY RESEMBLE HIMSELF.

C H A T W I N ' S NARRATIVES

SIMILAR TO O ' H A N L O N ' S IN PRESENTING N O T SO M U C H M O C K I N G

SKIT O N T H E POSSIBILITIES

ARE

A SELF-INQUIRY AS A SELF-

INHERENT IN THE

FIGURE

O F THE TRAVELER-

WRITER. F O R T H E F O R M E R , T H E TRAVELER-WRITER E M E R G E S AS A CROSS B E T W E E N N O M A D ,

AN

INVETERATE WANDERER

A N D

SEEKER IN

FAR-OFF,

A

AWE-INSPIRING

PLACES, A N D A COLLECTOR, A PATIENT G A T H E R E R O F O T H E R P E O P L E ' S STORIES

A N D

CONNOISSEUR

THE

O F DISTANT

PLACES, R E M O T E CULTURES, EXOTIC THINGS.

F O R

L A T T E R , T H E T R A V E L E R - W R I T E R IS P A R T T E A C H E R , P A R T FALL G U Y : A S C I E N T I S T TO

PURSUE,

CLOWN A

OBTAIN,

A N D

RECORD

N E W

FORMS

PERFORMING O N E (INTENTIONAL?)

PERVERSE DELIGHT BOTH

EQUALLY CONTRIVED O ' H A N L O N H U M O R ,

IN

IT

O F T E N IS,

O W N

CONTRIVED

HIS

PLACE

A M O N G

IS

A

ALSO

MISFORTUNES

A N D ACTIONS

A N D

AROUSE IN

DIRECTED

SQUARELY

AGAINST

A

TAKING IN

THE

OTHERS.

O F THE SELF-INDULGENT TRAVELER, E V E N W H E N

M O R E U R B A N E , IS T H E D A N D Y C O N S C I O U S OF

BUT

BLUNDER AFTER ANOTHER, A N D

O U T R A G E THAT HIS W O R D S

IS T H E E P I T O M E

AS

HIS

O F K N O W L E D G E ,

EAGER

HIS

HIMSELF;

CHATWIN,

O F HIS COOLNESS, B U T ALSO

CONSCIOUS

GALLERY O F ITINERANT

WITS

A N D

FRAUDS.

A P P A R E N T I N E A C H C A S E IS T H E R E L A T I V E L A C K O F I N T R O S P E C T I O N ,

W H A T

IS

A N D THE TEN

D E N C Y TO PRESENT THE SELF T H R O U G H A N ARRAY O F STOCK CARICATURAL

MOTIFS.

(LIVEN M O R E CONFESSIONAL O R " Q U E S T I N G " TRAVEL WRITERS, LIKE D E R V L A

M U R

P H Y OR PETER MATTHIESSEN,

IDEN-

T E N D TO U S E T H E S E TROPES AS A M E A N S

LI L Y I N G T H E M S E L V E S A S T R A V E L E R S , A N D O F A V O I D I N G TION

THAT

MIGHT

SENSE, MIGHT PERHAPS

I M M O B I L I Z E

BETTER,

IT

MIGHT

/ W W C I A U T O B I O G R A P H Y : LIFE"

(TRAVELING)

T H E FACT ICILY B Y

THEIR

E V E N B E S E E N AS H A V I N G B E

TRAVEL

WRITING,

INTROSPEC IN

AN AN/ZAUTOBIOGRAPHICAL

CONSIDERED

AS

A

DISINGENUOUS

THIS ASPECT; F O R M

LAST OR O F

O N E THAT, WHILE P U R P O R T I N G TO E X A M I N E THE " R E A L -

WRITER'S

PERSONALITY,

O F THE (TRAVELING)

SWAPPING

QUESTS.)

THE EXCESSIVE

O F

MASKS

ANIL

ENDS

U P

INSTEAD

B Y

E M P H A S I Z I N G

WRITTEN

SUBJECT.

SHIFTING

ROLES, P R E V E N T I N G E A S Y

IM I K O I M K

I IIIN

1/

IDENTIFICA-

TION,

TRAVEL

WRITERS

SUCH

A SC H A T W I N

A N D

O ' H A N L O N

SELVES F R O M THEIR O W N ,

HIGHLY PERSONAL, NARRATIVES.

WRITERS

O FTHE

PLAY

IS THAT

O ' H A N L O N ' S

NARRATIVES,

MODELS; FOR E X A M P L E , A

FIELD

I N PARTICULAR,

O W E

A M E R I C A N

A FURTHER ROLE

B Y THEIR

ACCOUNT

RAIN FOREST, ISA P A R O D Y O F THE

O F

W O R K

H E R E THE NOTION O F THE "ROVING I" TAKES O N A DIFFERENT

OBJECTS

O F

STUDY,

TRAVEL

T H R O U G H THE ACT O F CULTURAL V O Y E U R I S M . AT T I M E S ,

BOTH

T O ANTHROPOLOGICAL

HIS R A U C O U S

CONNOTATION; FOR LIKE ANTHROPOLOGISTS FASCINATED TO THE POINT ENCE

T H E M

PARTICIPANT-OBSERVER:

M U C H

In Trouble Again (1988),

TRIP TO T H E S O U T H

O F LEVI-STRAUSS.

ANTHROPOLOGICAL

DISTANCE

AS I NT H E NARRATIVES

1

9

WRITERS

EROTICIZE

V O Y E U R I S M

O F M O R L E Y A N D

O F

PRURI

THEIR

WORK

TAKES M A N Y

FORMS:

B U S I , S E X I T S E L F IS T H E

SUB

JECT; AT O T H E R S , T H E " E X O T I C " P E O P L E O R P L A C E S D E S C R I B E D A R E A S S E S S E D F O R T H E I R S E D U C T I V E N E S S ( I Y E R , C H A T W I N ) ; A T STILL O T H E R S , T H E V E R Y S T R A N G E N E S S O F T H E C U L T U R E ISC O M P E L L I N G ( N E W B Y , CONFRONTING

BOWLES).

THE SPECTACLE O F (BRAZILIAN)

O ' H A N L O N , FOR E X A M P L E ,

Y A N O M A M I

RITUAL,

TURNS

THE

PRIVILEGE O F THE VISITING FOREIGNER INTO THE LICENSE O F THE V O Y E U R : M A Y B E

I H A D SIMPLY B E E N TRAVELLING I NTHE JUNGLE TOO LONG, BUT I JUST

SAT A N D S T A R E D AT T H E Y O U N G W O M E N , SUNLIGHT THREW L O N G CARESSING

FLICKERS

T O O A B S O R B E D E V E N TO CLAP.

T H E

O F LIGHT O V E R T H E M T H R O U G H T H E

M O V I N G FRONDS, THEIR UNCLOTTED SKIN WAS EXTRAORDINARILY S M O O T H .

T H E

W O M A N W I T H T H E M I R R O R , W H O W A S LAST I NL I N E , D A N C E D W I T H M O R E

PAS

S I O N T H A N T H E REST: S H E H A D D R A W N S Q U I G G L Y LINES D O W N H E R C H E E K S

AND

TWO

EYE

MORE

BROWS,

RAN

DOWN

THE CENTRE OF HER FOREHEAD, BETWEEN HER

TO EITHER SIDE O F H E R N O S E B E N E A T H T H E L O N G W H I T E STICK I N H E R

SEPTUM, WHERE

AND

TWO

THEN BENT OUTWARDS

TO THE CORNERS O F H E R B O T T O M

FRESH STICKS P R O J E C T E D . S H E

HAD

COVERED HER BODY

LIP WITH

LARGE, IRREGULARLY S P A C E D R O U N D BLOTCHES LIKE THE SPOTS O N THE COAT

OF

A J A G U A R ; T H O S E O N H E R BREASTS W E R E AS B I G AS T H E A U R E O L E S A R O U N D H E R ERECT NIPPLES; T H E Y STRETCHED VERTICALLY INTO

OVALS

A SSHE RAISED

A R M S A B O V E H E R H E A D A N D H E R BREASTS T A U T E N E D A N D

FLATTENED,

HER

AND THEN

B E C A M E CIRCULAR A G A I N AS H E R B R E A S T S FELL F O R W A R D A N D R O U N D E D I N T H E SHUFFLING DANCE.

IN

PASSAGES

DETAIL

WITH

REMINDED

LIKE

THIS

O N E , O ' H A N L O N

A FETISHIST'S

DELIGHT

COMBINES

FOR FORBIDDEN

A NATURALIST'S FLESH;

HERE O F THE "SOFT PRIMITIVIST" PHOTOGRAPHS

graphic,

WHICH

(NATIVE)

B O D Y .

IN

(In Trouble Again 225)

SO 2

THE WORK

OFTEN FOCUS

O N

O N E IS O F

E Y E

FOR

INEVITABLY

National

THE E R O G E N O U S ZONES O F THE

Geo FEMALE

0

O F NAIPAUL,

MEANWHILE,

A DIFFERENT K I N D O F

VOYEURISM

CAN

BE DETECTED, A SINDIA'S SQUALOR ISREDUCED TO A S H O W , WITH

CAST

INTHE ROLE O F HORRILIED

18

SPECTATOR:

11 it 1 it 1 v i s w 1 i l l 1 v r i w i d 11 «

HIMSELF

Y o u might think of taking an early morning walk along the balustraded avenue that runs beside the Mandoui River. Six feet below, on the water's edge, and as far as you can see, there is a line, like a wavering tidewrack, of squatters. For the people of Goa, as for those of imperial Rome, defecating is a social activity; they squat close to one another; they chatter. When they are done they advance, trousers still down, backsides bare, into the water, to wash them selves. They climb back on to the avenue, jump on their cycles or get into their cars, and go away. The strand is littered with excrement; amid this excrement fish is being haggled over as it is landed from the boats; and every hundred yards or so there is a blue-and-white enam elled notice in Portuguese threatening punishment for soiling the river. But no one notices. (An Area of Darkness 74) The voyeuristic fervor with which Naipaul documents this activity is matched by the moralism with which he denounces it—a combination often found in travel narratives, which are quick to register distaste for the "degenerate" practices of other cultures, but are less inclined to rec ognize their enjoyment of the tawdriness those cultures display. F o r travel writing, although it freely avails itself o f the license o f the exotic— a mode that, as G . S. Rousseau and R o y Porter describe it, "afford[s] a moral 'time out,' a local habitation and a name for a fantasy world where all the normal rules—of decorum, taste, narrative, plausibility, and causeand-effect—[can] legitimately be suspended" (13)—has the tendency, paradoxically, to see itself as an ethical commentary: as a critique of "declining standards," corruption, physical and spiritual decay. While it would be easy here to lambaste travel writers for their obvious double standards, what they are doing in effect is exploiting the doubleness already inscribed within the exotic. For if exoticists valorize difference, they are as eager to impugn it; exoticism functions-as a dialectic of attrac tion and repulsion through which (cultural) difference can be acknowl 21

edged but also, if need be, held at bay ( T o d o r o v ) . Travel writing tends to function this way, expressing itself through exotic registers that allow for often voyeuristic appreciation o f "different" places, cultures, and peo ples while reserving the right to judge them according to narrowly ethno centric tastes. The roving "I"s of travel narratives, like those of ethnogra phies, seek out difference; but they are less likely than their ethnographic counterparts to relativize their findings, to analyze the local systems through which cultures shape and reshape meaning. Instead, they are often drawn to surfaces

more particularly, to b o d i e s - o n t o which they

project I heir fears and fantasies ol'lhe elhnicized cultural "other."

t

NI

in n i l

11

I K IN

M)

LATE

T H E

VOYEURISTIC

DEPARTURES, EARLY

TENDENCIES O F TRAVEL WRITING SKETCHED A B O V E

HIGHLY PATRIARCHAL

THE

LARGE,

W O M E N ,

A N D

BOTH

BACKGROUNDS. FEMALE

M A R Y

A N D

ACCLAIMED

A M A L E - D O M I N A T E D M O R E

R O B Y N

D E S A I W H O ,

D A V I D S O N

I N "WRITING

A C H A L L E N G E TO

"LOST"

BACK"

LIKE V I R A G O ,

OR FORGOTTEN.

T H E

WRITTEN B Y

" N O N - W E S T E R N "

D E R V L A

ARE A M O N G

T OT H E

POPULAR

K I N C A I D ,

SARA COLO

IMPERIAL

CENTERS, RACIALLY

ARE

J A U N

WHICH SPECIALIZE I N W O M E N ' S O F NARRATIVES

CONSIDERABLE

THAT TRAVEL WRITING HAS B E C O M E A VIABLE

J A N

FORMERLY

SOMETIMES

N U M B E R

TRAVEL WRITING N O W E V I D E N T IN A C A D E M I C

THE MOST

F R O M

ITS

M U R P H Y ,

JAMAICA

T H O S E WRITERS

A R E R E C O V E R I N G A NINCREASING

PREVIOUSLY

NOW.

THEIR COMPLACENT,

A N D PUBLISHERS,

F R O M

THE

ACCOUNT

GENRE, TRAVEL WRITING HAS H A D

SO THAN

ARE A M O N G

FAILS TO

NARRATIVES

INCREASINGLY,

O F C O N T E M P O R A R Y TRAVEL WRITERS;

ANITA

DICED, VIEWS; WRITING

AND,

A M O D E L

O F TRAVEL

THE W E S T

A N D

S U C H

N U M B E R

F R O M

COUNTRIES

M O U N T I N G

BODY.

W H I L E

MORRIS,

SULERI, A N D NIZED

GROWING,

PRACTITIONERS—NEVER

A N D

SUGGEST A

M O D E L THAT INDULGES M A L E FANTASIES SURROUNDING

O B J E C T I F I E D — " O T H E R E D " — F E M A L E FOR

ARRIVALS

THAT

INTEREST I N

WERE

W O M E N ' S

C I R C L E S IS A F U R T H E R S I G N , N O T ACADEMIC

ONLY

SUBJECT, BUT THAT IT IS

BEING TAKEN ACCOUNT O F IN CURRENT RESEARCH O N GENDER CONSTRUCTION O N T H E C H A N G I N G P L A C E O F T H E G E N D E R E D S U B J E C T I NT O D A Y ' S

A N D

TRANSNATIONAL

WORLD. W O M E N ' S

T R A V E L W R I T I N G I SN O T I N S U L A T E D F R O M T H E C R I T I C I S M S

A T ITS M A L E C O U N T E R P A R T ; M O R E S P E C I F I C A L L Y , I TI SN O T I M M U N E RIALIST

A N D

IDENTITY TUTED

ETHNOCENTRIC

NOSTALGIA.

H O W E V E R ,

ITS

B YT H E C O M P L E X

INTERACTIONS

O F PATRIARCHAL S O M E W O M E N

A N D

RACE, A N D

IDENTITARY

NORMS.

S U C H AS D E R V L A M U R P H Y

D E S I G N E D TO C H A L L E N G E MASCULINIST

MYTHS.

T H E

THE

DISPLACEMENT

IRONIC

OR M A R Y

ROLE-PLAY

MORRIS,

O F

IS OFTEN

I NT H E SPIRIT O F I S A B E L L E

HARDT, B O T H TRAVELER-WRITERS "IMITATE," OR DISGUISE

AT

O F

CONSTI

CLASS—MARKS

TRAVEL WRITING AS A VEHICLE FOR T H E

IMPERIAL

WRITERS,

O F GENDER,

I M P E

INTERROGATION

O F T H E TRAVELING S U B J E C T — A SUBJECT R E C O G N I Z E D AS B E I N G

C O N T E M P O R A R Y W O M E N ' S

WHILE

LEVELED

F R O M

E B E R -

T H E M S E L V E S AS,

M E N ;

THIS CROSS-DRESSING SERVES AT O N E LEVEL TO FACILITATE THEIR J O U R N E Y S ,

ANOTHER

M U R P H Y

I T FLIES I N T H E

A N D

ASSOCIATED

MORRIS,

WITH THE

FACE

A M O N G FIGURE

O F CONVENTIONAL OTHERS,

P O K E

FUN

GENDER

A TTHE M A L E

TIONALLY ASSOCIATED WITH THEIR

MI

2 2

BRAVADO

O F THE EXPLORER, D E F Y I N G THE RESTRICTIONS

D R E S S , O F S P E E C H A N D , A B O V E ALL O F C O U R S E , O F M O V E M E N T )

IF TRAVEL, FOR W O M E N

DISTINCTIONS.

THAT ARE

(OF

TRADI

SEX.

LIKE THESE, ISA M E D I U M

O F EMANCIPATION,

' n n i ins i s w i i n T Y I - K W U I I i

INTERPRETER N I K I , BECAUSE

"THAT Y O U

M E

IT IS B E C A U S E W E R E ALL

N O T T O P R O C E E D W I T H I T " (86),

T U U H l : . ' '• W i l l i I Y l ' U W H I II 11

TO

ACQUITTED.

T H E P R O S E C U T O R C H A N G E HIS M I N D ? " T H E P R O S E C U T O R ASKS CARLESS'S

TO

AGAIN:

T H E TRAVELER N O L O N G E R R E P R E S E N T S A LITERAL I M P E R I A L P O W E R

SPECIFICALLY

T H E RIGHTS

PORT

I N SPITE

O F

B E A FIGURE O F FUN, A

TO THE FURTHERING O F THE CULTURAL P R E J U D I C E THAT TRAVEL WRITERS CRITIQUE

TO

REMINDS

S O

GEN

N E W B Y

A N D C A R L E S S A R E S A V E D , AFTER ALL, B Y T H E M Y T H O F G E N T L E M A N L I N E S S . WE, THEIR READERS, ALLOW T H E M ,

I NTURN, TO GET A W A Y W I T H

C O U N T E R T R A V E L AND

I N HER STUDY

REST

O F

THE

Imperial Eyes (1992), H A V E

WORLD'

M A N Y

M A R Y

E U R O P E A N

CRIT

N O R M S .

TO P R O D U C E

HAS B E E N

of Empire,

IDENTIFIES TRAVEL WRITING AS O N E O F THOSE "DISCOURSES

HIS

(4);

A N O T H E R "

STUDY

B Y

ALI

B E H D A D

I N

SUPPORTED

1993),

W H O

O F COLONIALISM" B Y

W H I C H " O N E CULTURE C O M E S TO INTERPRET, TO REPRESENT, A N D FINALLY TO INATE

THAT " 'THE

A T DIFFERENT POINTS

PRATT'S W O R K

(The Rhetoric

SPURR

DISCERNING

L O U I S E PRATT DEMONSTRATES OR INDIRECTLY,

READERSHIPS

T R A J E C T O R Y " (5).

RECENTLY B Y D A V I D

O F ITS M O R E

THAT REINFORCES E U R O P E A N

H E L P E D , DIRECTLY

FOR

E U R O P E ' S EXPANSIONIST M O R E

B Y

O F COLONIALIST DISCOURSE

TRAVEL NARRATIVES

WRITING

P O S T C O L O N I A L I T Y

TRAVEL WRITING HAS B E E N IDENTIFIED ICS AS A M O D E

S H O U L D

IT?

(Belated Travelers,

1994),

D O M

W H O

SEES

O F N I N E T E E N T H - C E N T U R Y E U R O P E A N TRAVEL WRITING A S CONTRIBUT

ING TO WHAT H O M I

B H A B H A

CALLS A " M E D I T A T I O N

O N THE M Y T H S

O F WESTERN

P O W E R A N D K N O W L E D G E W H I C H CONFINE THE COLONIZED A N D DISPOSSESSED A

HALF-LIFE O F MISREPRESENTATION

A N D B Y INDERPAL

G R E W A L

TIPLE

O F

DISCOURSES

" H A R E M " — " S P A T I A L CALLY

A N D

NATION (4).

A L L

TRAVEL

ANALYZE

I N " E U R O I M P E R I A L "

CONSTRUCTIONS,"

(QTD. W H O

VISIONS

AS S H E CALLS T H E M ,

CONSTRUCT

H O M E

I N B E H D A D

A N D

O F

A W A Y

" T H E HISTORICAL

O N E DEFINED SITUATION

B YS P U R R

M A R K E D

A N D

" M E T A P H O R I

O RE M P I R E

T OA G R E A T E R O R L E S S E R E X T E N T , A D O P T

M E T H O D O L O G Y :

M U L

" H O M E "

THAT

A

A SA NATTEMPT

B YTHE DISMANTLING

A N D

B O D I E S " "POST-

BOTH T O O F

TRADI

TIONAL INSTITUTIONS O F COLONIAL P O W E R " A N D TO "SEARCH FOR ALTERNATIVES THE DISCOURSES " P O S T , "

O F T H E C O L O N I A L E R A " (6).

A W A R E

S P U R R W I S E L Y RESISTS T H E T E M P T A T I O N

COLONIALISM—AS

IF COLONIALISM,

O F A PERIOD

" A F T E R "

A N D VIRULENT

FORMS,

W E R E N O T STILL V E R Y M U C H W I T H U S T O D A Y . N O N E T H E L E S S , H I S D E F I N I T I O N FOCUS O F M U C H

POSTCOLONIAL

C I S M , W H I C H D I R E C T S ITS A T T E N T I O N N O T S O M U C H T O T H E C U L T U R A L O F

THE

F O R M E R

METROPOLITAN FOUNDERS

COLONIES "CENTERS."

A S T O THOSE

O F

POSTCOLONIAL

O NTHESE DEFINITIONAL

THE

\]

S O M E

A N D

CRITI

IMPERIAL

M I G H T

O NT H E

FAILS

PRODUCTION

SELF-DESIGNATED

CRITICISM,

INCONSISTENCIES,

M ' T U H I'MI'MH

TO

O F T H E PERILS O F THE PREFIX

TO S P E A K

I NA VARIETY O F N E W

TO EXPLAIN THE /?RE-TWENTIETH-CENTURY

TO

138);

TRACES T H E

SITES I NT H E C O L O N I A L P E R I O D T H R O U G H G E N D E R E D

O F THESE WRITERS,

COLONIAL"

MIGRATION"

(Home and Harem, 1996),

M E T O N Y M I C A L L Y

AT V A R I O U S

A N D

ARGUE,

TOTALIZING,

ironically dehistoricized v o c a b u l a r y it often deploys in order to talk about irreconcilably different cultures and cultural issues. W i t h the increasing—mostly academic—commodification o f the postcolonial, a further discrepancy has arisen between the oppositional discourses invested in postcolonialism and the marketable exoticism o f socalled postcolonial products. Postcoloniality—not postcolonialism— best describes the present climate within which such strategically "othered" products circulate within the global market. T h e p o s t c o l o nial, in this context, is both an index o f awft'colonial resistance and a code w o r d for the weocolonial process by which cultural "otherness" is assimilated, reproduced, and c o n s u m e d . 18

19

W h a t is the status o f travel writing in the age o f postcoloniality? Historically, travel writing has capitalized on exoticist perceptions of cultural difference: it has made a virtue of, and a profit from, the strangeness o f foreign places and cultures, delivering up t o its mostly white metropolitan reading public what Paul Fussell calls "the exotic anomalies, wonders, and scandals . . . which their own place or time cannot entirely supply" (203). Clearly, travel writing at its worst has helped support an imperialist perception by which the exciting "other ness" of foreign, for the most part non-European, peoples and places is pressed into the service o f rejuvenating a humdrum domestic culture. However, travel writing has also served as a useful medium o f estrangement and as a relativist vehicle for the reassessment and poten tial critique o f domestic culture. Both o f these registers can be seen in contemporary travel writing, which acts alternately as a repository for exoticist forms o f cultural nostalgia and as a barometer for the record ing and calibration o f cultural change. A postcolonial approach to contemporary travel writing—such as that loosely adopted in this sec tion—might therefore seek to examine the continuing complicity between travel writing and cultural imperialism; to analyze new forms of travel narrative that resist these earlier models and that explore the possibilities inherent in travel writing as cultural critique; and, finally, to assess the extent to which these various revisionist or counternarratives are themselves bound up in an ideology o f exoticist consumption. Caryl Phillips's The European Tribe (1987) and Jamaica Kincaid's A Small Place (1988) are two recent examples o f travel narratives set up in opposition to European norms. Both are extended diatribes against European cultural prejudice and, more particularly, against the destructive value-systems enshrined in hierarchies of race. Racism is the subject o f Phillips's often caustic commenlnry, w h i c h draws o n s e v ,|K

11

PI

1 v,IM •» w r i

11 1

'1 r i

\i

n

111 H'I 1

eral o f the tacitly accepted conventions o f European travel writing— the assertion o f race and class privilege, the traveler's license to com plaint, the use o f a nonspecialist genre to pass off personal opinions as sociological observations—but then, twisting those conventions to meet their o w n unspoken biases, "wrestle[s] Europe's face around so that she might at least be forced to stare in the mirror" (xiii). A n d racism is the subject, too, o f K i n c a i d ' s jeremiad on her birthplace, Antigua, a tiny Caribbean island caught in the drifts o f a larger history, its people exploited playthings in the hands o f foreign companies, cor rupt officials, and the tourist trade. B o t h narratives are based on the authority o f their o w n bitter experience: Phillips's recalls a year-long trip as a black m a n in a white-dominated Europe; K i n c a i d ' s returns to an island home distorted out o f recognition by the neocolonial forces of tourism and despotic governments. W h a t is most striking about these narratives, though, is not the general quality o f their anger but the specific hostilities that they direct against their readers. These readers are identified, in each case, as being white Euro-Americans, o f the kind that might read travel writing for the consolations it brings. The consolations, for example, of a tempo rary escape from a work-obsessed society: an escape, however, that confirms rather than threatens the dominant (white) culture. Here, for instance, from Phillips: In your churches, education, government systems, architecture, music, arts, you belong to a group which exports a culture to every corner of the world. . . . Wherever you go in the world, you can carry with you evidence of your visible achievements, and they will be uni versally recognized. . . . [But] your eyesight is defective. Europe is blinded by her past, and does not understand the high prices of her churches, art galleries, and architecture. My presence in Europe is part of that price. (127-28) Or, here, from Kincaid: As your plane descends to land, you might say, What a beautiful island Antigua is—more beautiful than any of the other islands you have seen, and they were very beautiful, in their way, but they were much too green, much too lush with vegetation, which indicated to you, the tourist, that they got quite a bit of rainfall, and rain is the very thing that you, just now, do not want, for you are thinking of the h a r d and cold mid d a r k and long days you spent working in North America (or, worse, H u r o p e ) , earning some money so thai you could slay in this place ( A n l i n u s i ) w h e r e Ihc sun always shines and where

A I ' T K H

HMI'lItt',

t h e s u nis d e l i c i o u s l y h o t f o r t h e f o u r t o t e nd a y s y o u a r e g o i n g t o b e staying there; a n d since y o u a r e o n y o u r holiday,

since y o u a r e a

t o u r i s t , t h e t h o u g h t o f w h a t it m i g h t b e l i k e f o r s o m e o n e w h o h a d t o live d a y i n , d a yo u t i n a place that suffers c o n s t a n t l y f r o m and

drought,

sohas t o watch carefully every d r o p o ffresh water used (while a t

the s a m e time s u r r o u n d e d b y a sea a n d a n o c e a n — t h e C a r i b b e a n S e a o n o n e side, t h eA t l a n t i c O c e a n o n t h eo t h e r ) , m u s t n e v e r cross y o u r mind.

(3-4)

T H E T W OP A S S A G E S I N D I C A T E KINCAID'S O M O U S L Y

THE D I F F E R E N C E I NT O N E B E T W E E N PHILLIPS'S A N D

NARRATIVES—THE

FORMER

P R O V O C A T I V E — B U T

DRYLY

SARDONIC,

T H E LATTER

I NB O T H CASES, T H E WRITER DIRECTS A

V E N

SUSTAINED

A S S A U L T A G A I N S T T H E R E A D E R , D E S I G N E D N O T M E R E L Y T O J O L T H I M O RH E R O U T O F A

FAMILIAR

SENSE O FCOMPLACENCY,

B U T T OA S S O C I A T E

THAT

C O M P L A C E N C Y

W I T H T H E P R O C E S S O FT R A V E L A N DT H E G E N R E O FT R A V E L W R I T I N G . I N T H I S S E N S E , BOTH

WORKS M I G H T

BEST B E DESCRIBED

AS FORMS

countertrzveX

O F

THAT INTERROGATE THE PRIVILEGES THAT ACCRUE HISTORICALLY IN

PHILLIPS'S

TO THE

WRITING

GENRE.

C A S E , T H E S E P R I V I L E G E S A R EA L S O L O O S E L Y C O N N E C T E D T O A

SPECIFIC ITINERARY:

THE G E N T L E M A N ' S E D U C A T I V E CIRCUIT OTHERWISE K N O W N AS

THE G R A N D

T H EG R A N D

T O U R .

EIGHTEENTH

CENTURY

M E A N S — A

KIND

STUDY

O FSOCIAL

A SA FORMATIVE

O F PERIPATETIC GRACES—WAS

NOT SCORN, B Y M A N Y

APPLICATION, B E C O M E NEEDLESS

M O R E

DISSIPATED,

EITHER T O STUDY

I NS O SHORT A TIME TO S A Y ,SUCH

LATER VARIANTS

CASE, HOWEVER,

TOUR ISTAKEN

COMPARATIVE

T H EO U T S E T W I T H S U S P I C I O N , I F

BEST-KNOWN

WRITERS.

J A M E S

SELECTION) A D A M

"RETURNS H O M E A N D M O R E

B U Z A R D

SMITH,

M O R E CONCEITED,

INCAPABLE

O R T O BUSINESS,

THAN

H A DH E LIVED AT H O M E "

(QTD.

WELL

T H EW R Y R E E X A M I N A T I O N

O FTHE

O FTHE

T H EB A C K D R O P

TO, A N D CRIMES

PHILLIPS'S

I N T H E N A M E

O F , A

O FSOUTHERN

E U R O P E , T O M O S C O W

AGAIN TOHISH O M E T O W N ,

2

0

I N

"EDUCATIONAL" FOR A

C O M M E N

"SUPERIOR"

O W NE U R O P E A N TOUR TAKES H I M F R O M CASABLANCA,

BOUNDARIES BACK

C O M M I T T E D

66). THEIR

TRADITION—

TARY, N O T S O M U C H O N CLASS ( O R G E N D E R ) BENEFITS, A S O N T H E PRIVILEGES FALL

H A V E

I NB U Z A R D

WERE WHITE;

BILL B R Y S O N A N D P A U L T H E R O U X .

A STAGE FURTHER, B E C O M I N G

FOR

M O R E

O F A N Y SERIOUS

H E COULD

D E F L A T I N G T H EP R E T E N S I O N S

TRAVEL WRITERS

I N T H E

E N G L I S H M E N O F

F O RT H E

M E N O F L E I S U R E , B YD E F I N I T I O N ,

-IRONICALLY

INCLUDE THE A M E R I C A N PHILLIPS'S

TREATED F R O M

TOURIST

T O P R O M I N E N C E

J O U R N E Y F O R Y O U N G

O T H E R S I NA N A M U S I N G

THE TYPICAL G R A N D

UNPRINCIPLED,

WHICH C A M E

FINISHING-SCHOOL

O FTHE NATION'S

QUOTES F R O M ( A M O N G W H O M

T O U R ,

THAT RACE.

B E Y O N D T H E

O N ITS E A S T E R N E D G E , A N D

L O N D O N . E V E R Y W H E R E H EG O E S , HIS ORIGINAL

THESIS IS C O N F I R M E D : THAT E U R O P E IS A TRIBAL S O C I E T Y , C L O S I N G R A N K S

AGAINST

OUTSIDERS—ESPECIALLY THOSE CONSIDERED AS B E L O N G I N G TOA DIFFERENT RACE.

,>»

' l O d K I S I •. W l l O I Y l ' l W i l l I ' l ' K S

T H E G L O O M O F PHILLIPS'S

NARRATIVE, A L T H O U G H ALLEVIATED B Y A LIVELY SENSE

O F H U M O R , I S A S O P P R E S S I V E A ST H E H E A T I NM O R O C C O , T H E C O L D I N R U S S I A , A N D

T H ER A I N I N L O N D O N . C A S A B L A N C A ,

NEOCOLONIAL JACKBOOT; AN

A R M Y

O F BRITISH

T H ES P A N I S H

TOURISTS;

A N D RUSSIA

, A R R I V E S I NM A N Y

A N D G E R M A N Y

I M M I G R A N T

IDEOLOGICALLY

G E TT H EI M P R E S S I O N

A R E O P E N L Y

LABOR; SCANDINAVIA,

OPPORTUNISTIC.

O FT H E S E C O U N T R I E S T H A N H E W A N T S

:

W E

COASTS SUFFER F R O M T H ET H U G G E R Y O F

F R A N C E , ITALY,

RACIST I N THEIR ATTITUDES T O W A R D HOSTILE,

F O R ALL ITS G L A M O U R , I SU N D E R T H E

PHILLIPS

TOO, IS

N OSOONER

T O LEAVE; A N DOVERALL,

O FA DISAFFECTED, OFTEN FRACTIOUS TRAVELER,

M O R E

A N X I O U S T OP R O V E H I SP O I N T T H A N T OB R O A D E N H I SR A N G E O F E X P E R I E N C E , A N D M O R E

A N X I O U S STILL T O A F F I L I A T E H I M S E L F W I T H O T H E R , M O S T L Y

BLACKS

MUNICATE,

LITTLE I N C O M M O N .

PHILLIPS K N E W

MARGINALIZED,

I NE U R O P E , O N L Y T O D I S C O V E R T H A T H E A N DT H E Y H A V E LITTLE T O C O M

L E A R N S LITTLE F R O M

HIS TOUR, IT SEEMS,

OTHER THAN

WHAT H E

S O W E L L A L R E A D Y : T H A T R A C I S M I SI N G R A I N E D I NE U R O P E ' S S E N S E O F S E L F -

I D E N T I T Y ; A N DT H A T H E , A S A B L A C K B R I T O N , C U L T U R A L L Y A P A R T O F E U R O P E , C A N " F I N D LITTLE E M P A T H Y

(128).

W I T H T H EC U L T U R A L B R A V A D O

L I K E N A I P A U L — W I T H

W H O M ,

O FA EUROCENTRIC

IN C O M M O N — P H I L L I P S

USES TRAVEL WRITING T O E X A M I N E

I N G S O FD I S P L A C E M E N T ,

A N DT O A T T E M P T I NV A I N

DICTION

O F FEELING

BRITISH WHILE

PAST"

IDEOLOGICALLY, H E HAS NEXT TO NOTHING

BEING

HIS N A G G I N G

TO RECONCILE " T H E

CONSTANTLY

FEEL

CONTRA

TOLD I NM A N Y

SUBTLE

A N D U N S U B T L E W A Y S T H A T I D I D N O T B E L O N G " (9).

PHILLIPS POSITIONS

LIKE N A I P A U L ,

WANDERING THE MARGINS O F

A

CONTINENT

HOWEVER,

AS A CONSCIOUSLY LIMINAL THAT

LOCKS

PHILLIPS

RATHER TOC O M B A T

ITSD O O R S

H A S N OW I S H IT—TO M A K E

FIGURE,

AGAINST

" H I S K I N D " ;

T OC A P I T A L I Z E

UNLIKE

HIMSELF,

N A I P A U L ,

O N H I SM A R G I N A L I T Y ,

B U T

O T H E R S R E C O G N I Z E A N DA C C E P T H I S P R E S E N C E :

Black people have always been present in a E u r o p e that has chosen e i t h e r n o tt o see u s ,o r t o j u d g e u s a s a n insignificant temporary,

b u t dismissible,

mistake.

I looked

minority, o r asa

d o w n

at the G r a n d

C a n a l a n dr e a l i z e d t h a t o u r p e r m a n e n c e i n E u r o p e n o l o n g e r upon

white

European

tolerance,

b u t made

a much

more

relied radical

d e m a n d . E u r o p e m u s t b e g i n t o r e s t r u c t u r e t h e t i s s u e o f lies t h a t

con

tinues t o b e taught a n ddigested at school a n dat h o m e f o rw e ,

black

people, a r ea n inextricable peans

must

learn

part

o f this small continent.

A n d Euro

t o u n d e r s t a n d this f o r themselves, f o r there a r e

a m o n g u s f e w w h o a r e h e r e a s m i s s i o n a r i e s . (128-29) L I K E

The European Tribe, A Small Place

CRUSADE AGAINST AS A BLACK

WHITE

RACISM.

U N L I K E

IS T A N T A M O U N T T O A M O R A L

PHILLIPS,

LLRILON R E M A I N S E Q U I V O C A L , K I N C A I D

THOUGH, WHOSE IMMEDIATELY

POSITION

TAKES U P T H E

C U D G E L S O N B E H A L F O F T H E D I S P O S S E S S E D . O R S O IT A P P E A R S A T F I R S T F R O M T H E

AM'KW U M I M i o

'.1

STINGING

RHETORIC

O FACCUSATION

THAT

FLINGS I N THE FACES O F H E R "TOURISTIC" DRAWN,

KINCAID,

A SA NATIVE

A N T I G U A N ,

READERS. T H E BATTLE LINES ARE CLEARLY

A N D THERE CAN B EN OD O U B T AST OKINCAID'S

SIDE:

T H A T T H E N A T I V E D O E S N O T LIKE T H E TOURIST ISN O T H A R D T O E X P L A I N . F O R E V E R Y N A T I V E O F E V E R Y P L A C E IS A P O T E N T I A L TOURIST, A N D E V E R Y TOURIST IS A NATIVE

O FSOMEWHERE. EVERY

WHELMING

N A T I V E E V E R Y W H E R E LIVES A LIFE O F O V E R

A N D CRUSHING BANALITY A N D B O R E D O M A N D DESPERATIONA N D

DEPRESSION, A N DEVERY DEED, G O O D A N DBAD, IS A N ATTEMPT TO FORGET T H I S . E V E R Y N A T I V E W O U L D L I K E T O FIND A W A Y O U T , E V E R Y N A T I V E LIKE T O TAKE A TOUR. B U T S O M E N A T I V E S — M O S T C A N N O T G OA N Y W H E R E . T H E Y A R E T O O P O O R . S O M U C H

FOR ROMANTIC

MYTHS

NATIVES I NTHE

WOULD WORLD—

(18)

O F THE (CARIBBEAN)

N O B L E SAVAGE,

WHICH,

AS K I N C A I D RIGHTLY POINTS O U T , A R E PART O F T H E R A C I S M T H E Y D E N Y . B U T T H E STRENGTH

O FK I N C A I D ' S

ANTITOURIST—IS M A T E , VISITOR. PHILLIPS,

ANTIWHITE,

V E H E M E N T L Y

B Y H E R O W N STATUS AS A RETURNING, I F INTI

( K I N C A I D C U R R E N T L Y LIVES I NT H E U N I T E D S T A T E S , W H E R E ,

S H E M A K E S

HER AT TIMES

P O S I T I O N — V E H E M E N T L Y

C O M P R O M I S E D

A LIVING

LAPSING INTO

TEACHING CREATIVE WRITING.) T H U S ,

NOSTALGIA FOR THE " O L D A N T I G U A , "

HER FELLOW A N T I G U A N S WITH WHAT LOOKS SUSPICIOUSLY I L O O K AT THIS P L A C E ( A N T I G U A ) ,

LIKE

W E FIND

O R VIEWING

LIKE CONDESCENSION:

I L O O K ATTHESE P E O P L E ( A N T I G U A N S ) ,

AND

I C A N N O T TELL W H E T H E R I W A S B R O U G H T U P B Y , A N D S O C O M E F R O M ,

CHIL

D R E N , E T E R N A L I N N O C E N T S , O R ARTISTS W H O H A V E N O T Y E T F O U N D E M I N E N C E I N A W O R L D T O O STUPID T O U N D E R S T A N D , O R LUNATICS W H OH A V E M A D E O W N LUNATIC A S Y L U M , O R A N EXQUISITE COMBINATION L I K E PHILLIPS,

O F ALL T H R E E .

THEIR (57)

K I N C A I D I SO C C A S I O N A L L Y T R A P P E D W I T H I N T H E S A M E

R O M A N

T I C C O N V E N T I O N S O F A G E N R E S H E O T H E R W I S E D E R O M A N T I C I Z E S , S T R I P S O F ITS U M P H A L TIVES

MYTHS.

SUCH

CONCERNED

PHILLIPS'S

A N DK I N C A I D ' S TRAVEL WRITING O P P O S E S

A S N E W B Y ' S

O R O ' H A N L O N ' S ,

WITH D O C U M E N T I N G

WHICH

NARRA

A R E ARGUABLY

LESS

T H E ACTUAL P L A C E S THEIR WRITERS VISIT

THAN

WITH SETTING U P A P L A Y G R O U N D FOR THE ACTING OUT O F THEIR O W N , READERS', PRIVATE FANTASIES.

The European

Tribe

A N D

A N DTHEIR

A Small Place

SOCIOLOGICAL I N THEIR O R I E N T A T I O N , H I G H L Y POLITICIZED I NTHEIR I M P A C T , A B O V E ALL, D E E P L Y C O M M I T T E D

TRI

ARE AND,

T OT H E DRIVE FOR SOCIAL C H A N G E . Y E T T H E Y A R E

ALSO TRAVEL NARRATIVES, I F P O S T C O L O N I A L I NTHEIR P E R S U A S I O N , A N DA S S U C H THEY

REMAIN

COMPLICIT

WITH

T H E TOURISM

THEY

D E N O U N C E .

E S S A Y , F O R E X A M P L E , I SI T S E L F A R G U A B L Y T H E P R O D U C T O F A T O U R I S T I C

KINCAID'S SENSIBIL

racist M O T I V A T I O N , B U T IT A L S O D E R I V E S F R O M A G E N R E T H A T traditionally S E E S itself as A N L I T O U R I S T I C . P H I L L I P S A N D K I N C A I D b o t h s h o w t h e ad van I ages O F A certain k i n d O F T R A V E L W R I T I N G I T Y ; ITS R H E T O R I C O F B L A M E H A S A N A N T I

yi

l O U t U S I S W i l l i T V I'll W W I l | Wt

O N E

THAT

RESISTS,

RATHER THAN

PANDERS

T O , T H EESCAPIST

READERS, A N D THAT INTERROGATES, RATHER THAN ACCRUE TO T H E TRAVELER-WRITER—WHILE HINTING, DICTIONS

INSCRIBED

WITHIN

A GENRE

VERY E C O N O M I C FORCES THAT M A K E T H E

LIMITS

NARRATIVE

O N C E AGAIN, AT THE

SETS ITSELF I N O P P O S I T I O N

SEEKS

Jaguar Smile (1987).

document

TO

O FITS

T OT H E

D E M O N S T R A T E D I N A TRAVEL

RESISTANCE:

S A L M A N

RUSHDIE'S

A S A G U E S T O FT H E S A N D I N I S T A A S S O C I A T I O N

O F C U L ARTISTS,

M U S I C I A N S , C R A F T S P E O P L E , D A N C E R S A N D S O O N ,U N D E R T H E S A M E R O O F I N PHILLIPS'S

CLEARLY

WITH

The

T H E B O O K IS T H E RESULT O F R U S H D I E ' S T H R E E - W E E K TRIP

I N 1986

TURAL W O R K E R S , A N U M B R E L L A O R G A N I Z A T I O N " T H A T B R O U G H T WRITERS,

A S

THAT

CONTRA

IT P O S S I B L E .

O F RESISTANCE A R EALSO A M P L Y

THAT

TO N I C A R A G U A

THAT

FANTASIES

ASSERTS, T H EPRIVILEGES

A N D KINCAID'S

T H E U N D E R D O G :

NARRATIVES,

T H E B O O K

RUSHDIE'S

IS A TRIBUTE

SYMPATHIES

(12). LIE

T O T H E SPIRIT O F

E N D U R A N C E I N W H I C H A N O P P R E S S E D A N DM A R G I N A L I Z E D P E O P L E C O N T I N U E T O RESIST T H E I R S T R O N G E R F O E . T H EE N E M Y I SW I T H I N , I N T H E S H A P E O FT H E ING C O N T R A FORCES, B U T ITISS U P P O R T E D F R O M WITHOUT A N T I - C O M M U N I S T U N I T E D STATES. T H E S C E N E IS A F A M I L I A R COLONIALISM, F O R — O F T E N

A N D I T I S S K E T C H E D B YR U S H D I E C O M I C — D E T A I L

A N D A POLITICAL

WITH

LURK

B Y A NEUROTICALLY O N E O FU . S .

N E O

A TRAVEL WRITER'S E Y E

JOURNALIST'S

E A R F O R CONTRO

V E R S Y A N D S E N S A T I O N A L I S T D E B A T E . T H I S M I X T U R E O FC O M I C T R A V E L O G U E A N D H Y P E R B O L I C POLITICAL C O M M E N T A R Y

R U N S T H E RISK O FTRIVIALIZING

THE OBJECT

O F ITS O S T E N S I B L Y " S E R I O U S " S T U D Y . R U S H D I E C L E A R L Y S I D E S W I T H T H E

SANDIN

ISTAS, AFFILIATING H I M S E L F W I T H THEIR STRUGGLE: W h e n the R e a g a n administration

b e g a n its w a r against N i c a r a g u a , I

recognized a deeper affinity with that

small

country

in a

continent

( C e n t r a l A m e r i c a ) u p o n w h i c h I h a d n e v e r set f o o t . I g r e w d a i l y interested

successful revolt against a great p o w e r , m yconsciousness the of the triumph those

more

i n its affairs, b e c a u s e , after all, I w a s m y s e l f the child o f a

o fthe Indian revolution.

product

It w a s perhaps also true

o f u s w h od i d n o t h a v e o u r origins

in t h e countries

mighty West, o r North, had something in c o m m o n — n o t ,

that

o fthe

certainly,

a n y t h i n g a s simplistic asa unified " t h i r d w o r l d " o u t l o o k , b u ta t least s o m e k n o w l e d g e o f w h a t w e a k n e s s w a s like, s o m e a w a r e n e s s o ft h e v i e w f r o m u n d e r n e a t h , a n d o f h o w it f e l t t o b e t h e r e , o n t h e b o t t o m , looking

u p at the descending

heel.

I

became

a

sponsor

o f the

N i c a r a g u a Solidarity C a m p a i g n in L o n d o n . I m e n t i o n this t o declare an

interest;

wholly

when

[

finally

visited

Nicaragua . . .

n e u t r a l o b s e r v e r . 1 w a s n o ta b l a n k slate.

I did n o t g o as a

(12)

R u s h d i e ' s ties t o N i c a r a g u a t u r n o u t , h o w e v e r , t o b e m o r e c o m p l e x . L o r o n e t h i n g , h e is n g u e s t a n d is t r e a t e d as s u c h w i t h g r a c e a n d c o u r -

A t 1 I:K I'.Mi'iKi'

Y \

TESY, M I X I N G (MOSTLY) A N D

WITH CELEBRITIES A N D THE C O S M O P O L I T A N

FOR A N O T H E R , HIS

MENTARY,

NARRATIVE,

ISC O N T E N T TO R E M A I N

AT T H E LEVEL

LITERARY SET.

TRAVELER'S TALE THAN

FOR THE MOST

SOCIAL

N I C A R A G U A

C O M M E N T ,

ALSO CONTAINS

" T H E

LEADERS (INCLUDING

ASIDES,

FOR INSTANCE, THAT THE " B E A U T Y "

BEAST"

D A N I E L

C O M

PART (AS TRAVELER'S TALES WILL)

O F SURFACES: H E N C E T H E SURFEIT O F A N E C D O T E S , J O K I N G

A N D FOLKSY A P H O R I S M S — H I S

POLITICAL

M O R E

A L O N G S I D E

(90).

INTERVIEWS

O R T E G A A N D HIS F O R E I G N M I N I S T E R )

A CLUTCH O F JOCULAR REFERENCES TO P O P U L A R E U R O P E A N A N D

O F

WITH ARE

A M E R I C A N

CAR

TOONS: THE P O E T E R N E S T O C A R D E N A L IS DESCRIBED AS A " G A R R Y T R U D E A U

CAR

TOON

(43);

O F HIMSELF:

THE RADICAL

A N D AT O N E P O I N T R U S H D I E ,

PRIEST

C O M P A R I N G

THE ANCIENT G A U L S I NTHE F A M O U S U D E R Z O , "

Smile, CAN

NICARAGUA'S

ITSELF B E

C O M P A R E D

G A U L :

NARRATIVE—A TO

THEREBY ROBBING

WRITER'S O W N ENTHUSIASM

VIEW

ILLUSTRATES

POLITICAL

IT ALSO

RAISES

POSITION.

NICARAGUA, CHARGE,"

O F THE

FOR ADULTS,

W H E R E

E N D E M I C

INVESTIGATIVE

H E

WRITER":

A SD O

W H O S E THIS

T OTHE

JOURNALIST

THE H O N O R E D

PHILLIPS

ROLE INCLUDES

A N D

IS NOT

ONLY

" O N

T O A N OPPRESSIVE VIEW

O N T H E RIGHTS,

M A N Y ,

CRITICAL C H U M M Y

LITERARY

A SH E

GUEST. H

E

O F

ANTAGONIST

READILY

ADMITS, I N

SIDE W H O ,

A STHE

P E O P L E I N

ALMOST

WITHOUT

T H E WRITER'S

CAPACITY

INTELLECTUAL

R U S H D I E

NOT

1

SHIES

T H U S ,

, I

POWER:

O F THE OPPOSITIONAL

A W A Y

IS CONTAINED

F R O M

THIS

WRITER—A

THE IDEA

UPSETS

I N

VIEW

RUSHDIE'S APPARENTLY

O F THE INDIVIDUAL. O F THE WRITER

U N D E R

A SA

I D E A O F T H E WRITER AS A "LITERARY M I G R A N T "

LEAST B E C A U S E

WORLDS. '

OUTSIDE

NOT O F THE COLLECTIVE BUT

I D E O L O G U E ; Y E T HIS O W N SUSPECT,

THE

K I N C A I D , A SA " W R I T E R I N

WRITERS

"DISSIDENT"

SERI

A S T O THE

WITHIN A LARGER HISTORY O F RESISTANCE. R E S I S T A N C E IS E M B O D I E D

STATE

STANDABLY,

A N D

THE S A M E

B Y OTHER

FREE-THINKING

LARGELY ROMANTIC BASED

DISCOURSE, MORAL

GENRE,

" T H E FUNCTION

ROLE IS M O D I F I E D ,

IS SURROUNDED

A S A

N I C A R A G U A

M O C K I N G

THE EFFECTIVENESS O F TRAVEL WRITING A SA

E X C E P T I O N , S U P P O R T T H E E X I S T I N G G O V E R N M E N T (70). RESIST

B E H I N D

BUT

T O U N D E R C U T ALL F O R M S O F P U B L I C

"INVITED

Y E T

(70).

BUT

POLITICAL

R U S H D I E ISS E E M I N G L Y C A U G H T B E T W E E N T H E

A WRITER

THE STATE"

INTENDED

DOUBTS,

CLEARLY LIKES TO SEE HIMSELF, OPPOSITION,"

THE

S P E E C H O F ITS P R E T E N S I O N S T O H I G H

O F THE PART-TIME

C O M P L A C E N C Y

THE

Jaguar LIMERICK,

NOVELS, THERE ISA STRATEGIC INFANTILISM

CHILD'S-EYE

B O O K

O U S N E S S — B U T

ITINCORPORATES:

O F A N D

TRUTH.)

RUSHDIE'S

in

B Y G O S C I N N Y

(163). (The

SANDINIX"

TO THE G E N R E THAT

POLITICAL V E H I C L E — I T S CAPACITY

TO

STRUGGLE TO "THAT

F R E N C H COMIC-BOOKS

LIKENS O R T E G A TO " AN E W

ADULT CLAIMS

TO

T O' D O O N E S B U R Y ' "

W H I C H T A K E S ITS T I T L E A P P R O P R I A T E L Y F R O M A N A N O N Y M O U S

C A R T O O N . A SI N R U S H D I E ' S THE

ACCORDING

IT S E E M S

TO A L L O W

I N(HE EPILOGUE

11

H1111

••:

H I M

THE

BEST

of

PARTY IS ALSO

BOTH,

t o The Jaguar Smile, W C L L T U L

1:. " 1 1 1 1 n i ' i ^ 1 1 1 1 1 i r

OR HIM

SWAPPING

STORIES W I T H A N O T H E R AFFLUENT M I G R A N T ,

A N I C A R A G U A N

W O M A N

RETURNING H O M E TOF R A N C E AFTER ATTENDING HER MOTHER'S FUNERAL. BOTH O F THEM

SYMPATHIZE

TIONS.

WITH

(PROPHETICALLY

RUSHDIE'S

We

T H ESANDINISTAS, PERHAPS,

PRESS

WITH A F E W PERTINENT CENSORSHIP

RESERVA

IS T H E HIGHEST O N

LIST.) A F T E R T A L K I N G O N T H E P L A N E ,

parted

in

Madrid,

a n d returned

t o o u r separate

lives, t w o

m i g r a n t s m a k i n g o u r w a y in this W e s t stuffed w i t h m o n e y , p o w e r

and

things, this N o r t h t h a t t a u g h t u s h o w t o see f r o m its p r i v i l e g e d

point

of v i e w . B u t m a y b e w e w e r e t h el u c k y o n e s ; w e k n e w that o t h e r spectives existed. W eh a d seen the v i e w f r o m elsewhere.

UNLIKE N O N E

N A I P A U L — O R ,

O F T H EDISADVANTAGES

OTHER WORK, H E

I N A DIFFERENT CONTEXT,

CO-OPTS

O F MIGRATION

THESE DISADVANTAGES MIGRATION

INTO

P H I L L I P S — R U S H D I E

(ALTHOUGH

T O B EF A I R ,

A R ES H O W N I N A B U N D A N C E ) .

HIS O W N HYBRID

per

(170)

AESTHETICS,

2

2

SEES I NHIS

INSTEAD,

WHICH,

E X P L A I N S THREE Y E A R S L A T E R I N A R E S P O N S E T O T H EF A T E D P U B L I C A T I O N

A S H E O F

The

Satanic Verses, " R E J O I C E S I N M O N G R E L I Z A T I O N A N D F E A R S T H E A B S O L U T I S M O F P U R E . Melange, H O T C H P O T C H , A B I T O F T H I S A N D A B I T O F T H A T I S H O W newness enters the world. I T I S T H E G R E A T P O S S I B I L I T Y T H A T M A S S M I G R A T I O N G I V E S T O T H E W O R L D , A N D I H A V E T R I E D T O E M B R A C E I T " (Imaginary Home lands 394). M I G R A T I O N A F F O R D S T H E P R I V I L E G E O F A M U L T I P L E P E R S P E C T I V E THE

BUT

T H E N S O T O OD O E S T R A V E L I N ITS M O S T

MIGRANTS,

O F C O U R S E , A R EA L W A Y S

O F T W O ( O RMORE) CULTURES THAN H O W E V E R MUCH INFORMATION RARY S O J O U R N S O R TRIPS. DISCOURSE QUENTLY

A DEEPER

FOR VACATIONING

O FMIGRATION,

IN

AVAILABLE TOTHE COSMOPOLITAN

STILL, M I G R A T I O N

A N D HIS A M B I V A L E N T

NICARAGUA.

CONTINUES

F O R

ELITE. ( O B V I O U S L Y ,

FRE

RUSHDIE,

LESS

OBVIOUSLY

S I 11 N E E I S T A K E N

RESIDES

SUCH

I N SHORT SUPPLY.

LUX M O R E

NEED.)

MIGRANT-ORIENTED

STATUS A S A N " O P P O S I T I O N A L "

A

AES

TRAVELER-WRITER

IN T H E WRITER'S

A RHETORIC THAI ALLOWS

T O GIVE H I M SERVICE,

S E A R C H O FA S O L I D A R I T Y A

2 3

IS D R I V E N A B O V E ALL ELSE B Y E C O N O M I C

A N D THIS C O N N E C T I O N

R H E T O R I C O FD I S P L A C E M E N T THAT

T E M P O

LIKE T H E W I D E R

S E E M S T O P R E S U P P O S E A L U X U R Y O FPERSPECTIVE A N DA F R E E D O M

C O N N E C T I O N A P P A R E N T L Y EXISTS B E T W E E N R U S H D I E ' S THETICS

TRAVELERS,

A PART, I S R I V E N B Y ITS O W N CONTRADICTIONS.

A N D F R E E D O M S — H O W E V E R H A R D - W O N — A R E

OBVIOUSLY

SENSE.

UNDERSTANDING

THESE LATTER M I G H T G L E A N F R O M THEIR

Y E TT H EDISCOURSE

O F T R A V E L O FW H I C H IT F O R M S

O F M O V E M E N T URIES

ISATTAINABLE

U N A C K N O W L E D G E D — I N T E R N A L

MIGRATION

G E N E R O U S , CROSS-CULTURAL

LIKELY TO GAIN

UTOPIAN

H I M T O RESIST T H E S T A L E

A N D L OM O V E

ABOUT

T H EWORLD

IN

O F( H E O P P R E S S E D . "OPPOSITIONAL,"

B U TN O N E L H E L E S S

U P B Y T W OCONTEMPORARY

A l l I'M I ' M I ' l l i I

linvrl

UNORLHODOX.

wi ITERS, A L S O O F I N D I A N

BACKGROUND:

A M I T A V G H O S H

Land (1992)

IS, A S ITS SUBTITLE

A N D V I K R A M EXPLAINS,

ELER'S T A L E " : IT U S E S T R A V E L A S A B R I D G I N G TEMPORARY

NARRATIVE

O F G H O S H ' S

E G Y P T WITH H I S HISTORICAL M I D D L E

(1983) STUDIES

A TN A N J I N G

TIBET,

M E T A P H O R TOINTERWEAVE THE

CON

ANTHROPOLOGICAL

RESEARCH

I N RURAL

O FT H E LIFE STORY, O F A

MEDIEVAL

B E N YIJU.

From Heaven

SETH'S

TROUBLED PASSAGE, WHILE

UNIVERSITY

I N C H I N A ,

A N DN E P A L O N H I S W A Y B A C K

CLEARLY

A NADAPTABLE

SCHOLARS GUAGES ABOUT A N D

TRAV

IS, I N A P P E A R A N C E AT LEAST, A M O R E C O N V E N T I O N A L

RELATING T H ESTORY O FSETH'S

F R O M

ACCOMPLISHED

THOSE COUNTRIES'

CULTURAL

HISTORY.

THE MAJORITY

H O M E

A N D ENTERPRISING

O FTHE COUNTRIES

I N D I A N

In an Antique

I N THE GUISE O F A

RECONSTRUCTION

EASTERN TRADER, A B R A H A M

SETH. G H O S H ' S

"HISTORY

TRAVEL

NARRATIVE,

O N LEAVE F R O M HIS

THROUGH

NORTHWEST

W H A T

TRAVELER: BOTH

FAMILIES,

SOCIAL

SEPARATES

O FC O N T E M P O R A R Y

C H I N A ,

TO D E L H I . SETH, LIKE G H O S H , IS

WELL

M E N A R E GIFTED

VERSED I N T H E LAN

T H R O U G H W H I C H T H E Y TRAVEL A N DWELL RESPECTIVE

Lake

CUSTOMS,

SETH

A N DG H O S H ,

TRAVELER-WRITERS

INFORMED

RELIGIOUS

PRACTICES,

THOUGH,

F R O M

IST H EPERSPECTIVE

THAT

T H E Y B R I N G F R O M A HISTORICALLY S U B J U G A T E D CULTURE. T H U S , G H O S H IS INTRO D U C E D TOA FAMILY I N THE VILLAGE O F N A S H A W Y

B Y HISFELLOW SCHOLAR

U S T A Z

SABRY AS a

to Egypt

to d o

research. I Tw a s their d u t y t o w e l c o m e m e [ G h o s h ] into their

student

midst

and

from

India

. . .

a guest w h o h a d c o m e

m a k e m efeel a t h o m e b e c a u s e o f t h e l o n g t r a d i t i o n s o f f r i e n d s h i p

b e t w e e n India a n d E g y p t . O u r countries were v e r y similar, f o r India, like E g y p t , w a s largely A N a g r i c u l t u r a l n a t i o n , a n d the m a j o r i t y o fits p e o p l e lived I N villages, their

like t h e E g y p t i a n fellaheen, a n d p l o u g h e d

l a n d w i t h cattle. O u r countries

ransacked b y imperialists, similar had SETH,

were poor, f o r they h a d been

a n dn o wthey were both

trying,

I N very

w a y s , t o c o p e w i t h p o v e r t y a n dall t h e other p r o b l e m s

b e e n b e q u e a t h e d t o t h e m b y their t r o u b l e d histories.

I NCONTRAST,

M U S T

NEGOTIATE A HISTORY

O FMUTUAL

that

(134) IGNORANCE A N D

CONFLICT: If I n d i a a n d C h i n a were amicable t o w a r d s each other, almost half the w o r l d w o u l d b e a t peace. Y e t f r i e n d s h i p rests o n u n d e r s t a n d i n g ; a n d the t w ocountries, despite their contiguity,

have had almost n o con

tact i n t h e course o f history. . . . [ N ] e i t h e r s t r o n g e c o n o m i c nor

thenatural

affinities o f a c o m m o n culture

interest

tie I n d i a a n d C h i n a

t o g e t h e r . (177-78) C O N C E D I N G NATIONS'

THAT

TIME

A N D PATIENCE

BORDER PROBLEMS,

Mi

WILL

SETH CONCLUDES

I o i . m t s I '1 W 1 I I I

B EN E E D E D THAT

rvniWHI'l

II

T OSOLVE

T H ET W O

t o l e a r n [ o na p e r s o n a l level] a b o u t a n o t h e r g r e a t c u l t u r e is t o e n r i c h o n e ' s life, t o u n d e r s t a n d o n e ' s o w nc o u n t r y better, t o feel m o r e a t h o m e i n t h ew o r l d , a n d indirectly

t o a d dt o t h a t r e s e r v o i r o f i n d i v i d

u a l g o o d w i l l t h a t m a y , g e n e r a t i o n s f r o m n o w , t e m p e r t h ec y n i c a l of national power. G O O D W I L L

IS CLEARLY

A

BELIEVE I N ; B U T UNLIKE N O W

I M P O V E R I S H E D

QUALITY

THAT

G H O S H ,

A S WELL,

W O U L D

LIKE T O

S E T H , H E RELATES ITFURTHER T O T W O O N C E RICH B U T

COUNTRIES

" A C C O M M O D A T I O N

use

(178)

(INDIA

A N D E G Y P T ) ,

A N D C O M P R O M I S E " — B A S E D

R E S P E C T — H A V E HISTORICALLY

M A D E

W H O S E

CULTURES O F

O NM U T U A L

TRUST

A N D

T H E M VULNERABLE TO THE AGGRESSION O F

THE E U R O P E A N IMPERIAL POWERS.

I NTHIS C O N T E X T , G H O S H ' S FINELY CRAFTED

RECONSTRUCTION O FTHE M E D I E V A L

HISTORY O FTHE I N D I A N O C E A N

REGION LINKED GIOUS

B Y C O M M E R C E

A N DT H E CROSS-FERTILIZATION

C U L T U R E S — E M E R G E S A SA C O U N T E R N A R R A T I V E

TORICAL

RECORD: A RECORD M A R K E D

RELI

T O T H EE U R O P E A N

HIS

B Y VIOLENT C O N Q U E S T , T H E WILL T O C O N

TROL L A N D A N D R E S O U R C E S , A N D A U S EO FM I L I T A R Y P E R S O N A L A N DC O L L E C T I V E

R E G I O N — A

O FA N C I E N T

F O R C E I N T H ES E R V I C E O F

GREED.

G H O S H , H O W E V E R , LIKE SETH, TAKES CARE N O T T OPRESENT I N D I A AS A M E R E HISTORICAL ISON

W E I G H E D THE

VICTIM. I N

From Heaven Lake,

O FM O D E R N - D A Y

INDIA

I NF A V O R O FT H E M O R E

ADVANTAGES

BROUGHT

CORUSCATING

ATTACK

COMPARISON

"DEMOCRATIC"

ABOUT

B Y STATE

TAKES O NH I S TRAVELS A C O P Y O F N A I P A U L ' S A

THIS ENTAILS T H E CAREFUL

A N D C H I N A — A

WHILE

NONETHELESS

SHOWS

(SIGNIFICANTLY,

SETH

NATION,

CONTROL.

India: A Wounded

O NT H E " D E G E N E R A T I O N "

C O M P A R

THAT,

O F INDIAN

Civilization: CULTURE

WITH

W H O S E T H E S I S H E C A N N O T A G R E E , B U T A B O O K T H A T STILL I M P R E S S E S H I M W I T H I T S GREAT PASSION G H O S H — A N

A N D RHETORICAL FORCE.) M E A N W H I L E ,

INFORMANT:

In an Antique

INEXPERIENCED ANTHROPOLOGIST, M O R E AT H O M E

THAN I N THE FIELD—IS M A D E MEDICINE.

I N

I N A KIND

O FREVERSE ETHNOGRAPHY,

A RESPONDENT

ABOUT HISH I N D U

I NT H E

T O T A K E A D O S E O F H I S O W N( C U L T U R A L L Y )

T OOTHERS'

G H O S H

ANNOYINGLY

HIMSELF

PERSISTENT

CULTURE A N D , M O R E PARTICULARLY, A B O U T ITS—TO

M U S L I M E Y E S — " B A R B A R I C "

RELIGIOUS PRACTICES.

I NA TETCHY,

CALLY SELF-DEPRECATING E X C H A N G E WITH THE VILLAGE I M A M , T H E LATTER'S ATTACK

O N INDIA

A SA " B A C K W A R D "

Land, ARCHIVE

RELATIVIST B E C O M E S QUESTIONS E G Y P T I A N

CHARACTERISTI

G H O S H FENDS OFF

CIVILIZATION B Y

APPEALING

IRONICALLY T O INDIA'S SUPERIOR MILITARY TECHNOLOGY:

"In m y country ... w ehave guns and tanks a n d b o m b s . A n d they're better t h a n a n y t h i n g y o u ' v e g o t in F g y p t you."

...

"I tell y o u , h e ' s l y i n y , " c r i e d

we're a long w a y ahead o f the

Imam,

his voice rising in

liny. " O u r g u n s a n d b o m b s are m u c h bettor t h a n theirs. O u r s are sec-

AI "I IHU KM I'll!

1

O N D O N L Y TO THE W E S T ' S . " TWO

. . . T H E I M A M

S U P E R S E D E D CIVILIZATIONS,

VYING

A N D I [WERE] DELEGATES F R O M

WITH EACH

OTHER TO ESTABLISH

PRIOR CLAIM TO THE T E C H N O L O G Y O F M O D E R N VIOLENCE. . . . [D]ESPITE

A THE

VAST G A P THAT LAY B E T W E E N US, W E U N D E R S T O O D E A C H OTHER PERFECTLY. WERE

TRAVELLING, H E A N D

I:

WE

T H E

O N L Y DIFFERENCE WAS THAT I H A D B E E N THERE IN P E R S O N : I C O U L D H A V E

TOLD

A G R E A T D E A L A B O U T I T , S E E N A T FIRST H A N D , I T S L I B R A R I E S , I T S

ITS T H E A T R E S , B U T IT W O U L D N ' T BOTH

HAVE MATTERED. W E

O F U S , T H A T ALL T H A T W A S

MILLIONS

MERE

FLUFF:

G H O S H ' S

WOULD

HAVE

AND ONLY

B O O K

ATTEMPTS

O F DESTRUCTION

WITH

A N D

CHALLENGE TO THE FAMILIAR THE W E S T

PHYSICAL

S O M E

SUCCESS

A N D

KIND

A S ITS F R A M E M E N T A L

INTERNATIONAL

(235-36)

TO SET U P

REALPOLITIK.

O F NEOIMPERIALIST

O F REFERENCE,

CONQUEST.

RHETORIC O F R A P P R O C H E M E N T

A N

Y E T

TACITLY

HIS

ESTS O F T H O S E W H O

H A V E

OR WANT

IT. A N D

THIS M A S T E R

IT

ALSO

SUPPORTS

G H O S H

SURROUNDING

ALTERNATIVE— DIA

M O U N T S

TRAVEL WRITING THAT,

IS

A N

WELL

O W N ,

TIC, I D E A O F T R A V E L T E N D S T O O C C L U D E T H E W O R K I N G S

M E A N S

KNOWN,

O F P E O P L E O N T H E L A N D M A S S E S A R O U N D US, T H E W E S T M E A N T

B A S E D O N A HISTORY O F FRIENDSHIP A N D N O N A L I G N M E N T — T O LOGUE

MUSEUMS,

IN T H E E N D , FOR MILLIONS

THIS—SCIENCE A N D TANKS A N D GUNS A N D BOMBS.

ING

W E

W E R E TRAVELLING IN T H E W E S T .

HIM

BOTH

I D E O L O G Y

AWARE

THAT

ESSENTIALLY

O F EFFECTING TRADE B E T W E E N DIFFERENT REGIONS A N D

O F THE

H U M A N I S

O F P O W E R A N D THE

THIS A P P L I E S B O T H

A

TAK

INTER

TO TRAVEL AS AS A

A

M E T A P H O R

FOR THE PROCESS B Y W H I C H K N O W L E D G E CAN B E RELOCATED IN TIME A N D

SPACE.

H E N C E

TO

HIS

CAN

B E

G H O S H ' S

EMPHASIS

O N

ARCHIVAL

RESEARCH

AS

A

COROLLARY

A N T H R O P O L O G Y : A STUDY N O T O N L Y O F THE W A Y S IN W H I C H D O C U M E N T S U S E D

TO (RE)DEFINE CULTURAL HISTORY

E D G E

M O V E S

A N D ,

THROUGH

THAT

BUT

O F THE M A N N E R

M O V E M E N T ,

IS

IN W H I C H

KNOWL

TRANSFORMED.

E D W A R D

S A I D ' S A C C O U N T O F T H E W A Y S I N W H I C H " T H E O R Y " T R A V E L S IS U S E F U L

HERE.

L I K E P E O P L E A N D SCHOOLS O F CRITICISM, IDEAS A N D THEORIES T R A V E L — F R O M PERSON

TO P E R S O N , F R O M

SITUATION

ANOTHER. . . . SUCH M O V E M E N T

TO SITUATION,

FROM

ONE PERIOD

I N T O A N E W E N V I R O N M E N T IS N E V E R

P E D E D . IT N E C E S S A R I L Y I N V O L V E S P R O C E S S E S O F R E P R E S E N T A T I O N A N D T I O N A L I Z A T I O N D I F F E R E N T F R O M T H O S E AT T H E P O I N T O F O R I G I N .

T H E O R Y " 226) O N E SIS:

THE

INSTITU

("TRAVELING

24

RECOGNIZES THE BASIS HERE FOR SAID'S INFLUENTIAL THAT

" O R I E N T , "

AS

IT E M E R G E D

OTHER (EASTERN) REGIONS A N D

AS

A

B O D Y

CULTURES, INVOLVED

" O R I E N T A L I S M "

O F K N O W L E D G E

IMPERIAL

2

5

ORIENTALISM

GOES H A N D

IN

H A N D

WITH WHAT

" I M A G I N A T I V E G E O G R A P H Y " : IT R E D I S T R I B U T E S

TO S E R V E T H E N E E D S O F A D O M I N A N T

i ' 1 1 1 1 1 is I'M

1 u

1 wn|

11

AUTHOR

SAID

K N O W L E D G E IN

CULTURE."' G H O S H ' S

w i i n

THE A B O U T

TECHNIQUES O F REPRESEN

TATION THAT W E R E D E S I G N E D TO ASSERT O R R E C O N F I R M THE INTELLECTUAL ITY O F T H E W E S T .

TO

UNIM

v

NNMILIVE,

CALLS SPACE

IN

THIS

SENSE,

FULFILLS A " C O U N T E R - O R I E N T A L I S T "

TELLS—INCLUDING M I D D L E

THE CIRCULATION

EASTERN/INDIAN

O C E A N

O F A RECUPERATIVE HISTORICAL

FUNCTION:

THE TRAVELS O F W H I C H IT

O F INFORMATION

A B O U T

R E G I O N — A R E F R A M E D

NARRATIVE:

POINT

O F ORIGIN

In an Antique Land,

TURES. T R A V E L WRITING, I N

TATION

THAT

E U R O P E A N

PREDATES

O FHISTORY

MEDIATES

( G H O S H ' S

A N D ,

I NTHE PROCESS, G H O S H

A B O V E

INTERVENTION:

ALL, ITINERANT

K N O W L E D G E THEY ACQUIRED BACK IF G H O S H , I N

B E T W E E N THE

T E M

A N T H R O P O L O G Y A

CAPITALIZED

THE D E M A N D S

IDEAS

O F WAR

SKETCHES A HISTORY

A HISTORY

MERCHANTS;

WAXES

COULD M O V E

M E D I MASTER

B Y PREO F TRAVEL

P E O P L E D B Y PILGRIMS,

A N D

O N E THAT

T OA N O N - E U R O P E A N

In an Antique Land,

GOODS, A N D

Heaven Lake, N O W

CUL

A N D A TRIBUTE T OA " L E G A C Y O F T R A N S I E N C E " E P I T O M I Z E D

(173).

PEOPLE,

Eastern

A N D THE SPATIAL R A N G E O F A N

POLITICS

COLONIAL TRADE

SCHOLARS,

CONTEXT

F O R M E R L Y C O L O N I Z E D C O U N T R I E S . T H E RESULT ISB O T H

O NT H E P O W E R

NARRATIVE)

THE

THE

THAT RESEARCH B A C K T O

A TTHE CONFLUENCE B E T W E E N INTERRELATED

PORAL REACH O F HISTORIOGRAPHY THAT LINKS TWO

WITHIN

WITHIN

O N E THAT, A L T H O U G H S U P P O R T E D I N

P A R T B Y R E S E A R C H D O N E I NW E S T E R N L I B R A R I E S , B R I N G S ITS

A N D

TRACES

THE

SOURCE.

NOSTALGIC FOR A TIME

RELATIVELY FREELY,

W H E N

U N I M P E D E D B Y

From

A N D THE INTRICACIES O F FOREIGN POLICY, S E T H , I N

R E C O G N I Z E S THAT SUCH H E A D Y D A Y S (IF T H E Y E V E R EXISTED)

OVER, A N D THAT M O D E R N - D A Y

T R A V E L E R S , L I K E I TO R N O T , M U S T L E A R N

ARE H O W

BEST TO NEGOTIATE BORDERS THAT ARE THE PRODUCTS O F O F T E N INVISIBLE LINES GEOPOLITICAL SUCH

FORCE. SETH

IS D R A W N

C O N T E S T E D O RM A R G I N A L

K N O W N

A M B I G U O U S L Y

" A U T O N O M O U S " TIBET.

PREDICTABLY,

AUTHORITIES, ERS' RIGHTS.

A S " T H E

B U T STILL

FINDS

XINJIANG,

J O U R N E Y T O PRECISELY

A NORTHWESTERN

N E W BORDERLAND,"

CLOSELY

SETH

I N H I SC H I N E S E

AREAS:

G U A R D E D

HIMSELF

TRAVEL,

A RUNNING BATTLE WITH

FOR SETH,

S E E M S

T OB EL E S S A C E L E B R A T I O N

A CONFRONTATION O F T H E POLITICAL

IN F R E E D O M ' S PATH. T H E DISPUTED

RELATIONS THAT

(178).

HAS

SETH

TRAVEL

O F

H U M A N PLACED

I N D I A - C H I N A B O R D E R ISO N E SUCH

INSUR

KEPT "THESE TWO REALIZES THAT

THE

A N D

OBSTACLES THAT ARE

M O U N T A B L E O B S T A C L E — T H E R E M I N D E R O F A FRAUGHT HISTORY O F

APART

COUNTRY O F

ARGUING ENDLESSLY O V E R ENTRY VISAS, EXIT PERMITS,

F R E E D O M THAN

PROVINCE

A N D T H E PARTLY

A N DS U P E R V I S E D

FIGHTING

O F

GREAT CULTURE Z O N E S "

HIS J O U R N E Y H O M E

(AN

INTERNATIONAL IRRECONCILABLY

UPHILL

STRUGGLE I N

M O R E W A Y S T H A N O N E ) I SO N L Y A S M A L L P E R S O N A L V I C T O R Y I NT H E F A C E O F C O N TINUING TIVE,

CULTURAL I G N O R A N C E A N D

PARTICULARLY

FRIENDSHIP NATIONS NOTE, CAUGHT

ARE

O V E R S H A D O W E D

OR WRENCH

WITH

THE

I N THE

ITSM O D E R N

T H E M

APART.

ATTEMPTED HYSTERIA

POLITICAL SECTIONS, B Y THE

DISTRUST. THE

A SI N G H O S H ' S

RECIPROCITIES

COLLECTIVE

FORCES THAT

In an Antique Land

E X O D U S

O FE G Y P T I A N

O F S A D D A M ' S

" H O L Y "

Al I i n I M I ' I K I

y )

BREAK U P

ENDS O N A

WORKERS

WAR.

NARRA

O F INDIVIDUAL

F R O M

PLAINTIVE A N IRAQ

From Heaven

Lake

ENDS WITH THE TRAVELER'S SUCCESSFUL NEGOTIATION O F A CUSTOMS

BARRIER AT T H E INTERNATIONAL

POSITION

O F THESE TWO

TICS

TO ARRIVE

G H O S H WATCHES

O F N E W

SETH,

THE

"FOREIGN

SAFELY H O M E ,

WHILE

GUEST,"

AS W A R

" B O R D E R " :

DELHI.

E N D I N G S AFFORDS A N INSTRUCTIVE

O F DISPLACEMENT:

DIFFICULTY

AIRPORT

FINAL

T H E

JUXTA

LESSON I NTHE IS ABLE

BREAKS

POLI

AFTER

M U C H

OUT I NTHE

G U L F ,

A N X I O U S L Y I NE G Y P T , AS T H E T E L E V I S I O N S C R E E N R E V E A L S

THOUSANDS A N D T H O U S A N D S O F M E N [ITINERANT E G Y P T I A N WORKERS IN ...

THE

IRAQ]

S O M E IN TROUSERS, S O M E IN JALLABEYYAS, S O M E CARRYING THEIR T V

SETS

O N T H E I R B A C K S , S O M E C R Y I N G O U T F O R A D R I N K O F W A T E R , S T R E T C H I N G ALL T H E WAY

FROM

THE HORIZON

T OT H E R E D

SEA,

T H O U G H WAITING FOR THE WATER TO PART.

G O O D W I L L , CAN

F O R ALL ITS

IT REPAIR

W O R L D S H A M

O F TIME

B E N

SEEKING B E H I N D THAT

Y I J U ,

THE A N D

WILL

O W N

ALLOW

ON

HIS

ALLEVIATE E C O N O M I C

SCHISMS

B E T W E E N

DESCENDANTS,

H O M E .

IMPULSE

TRAVEL

G H O S H ,

H I M — O T H E R S

M A Y

F R O M HIS

NARRATIVES

LIKE

SETH,

NOT

RECOGNIZES

THE CHANGING

THAT

CHALLENGE ETHNOCENTRIC

DISCERNIBLE

GLOMERATE: THE I N D I A N SUBCONTINENT. (OR,

BETTER, DE-WESTERNIZES)

AID

TRADE BLOC W H O S E

O F CAREFUL HISTORICAL

N O M I C SETH,

N O R CULTURAL "THAT

THEY

THE

W E S T E R N

THESE CONNECTIONS,

VIEWS

O F A

G E O P O C O N

D E M Y T H O L O G I Z E S

RELOCATING T H E M

I N A N

ARE RETRACED WITH

THE

LESS S A N G U I N E A B O U T

THE

U N I O N . A F T E R ALL, T H E R E A R E N E I T H E R S T R O N G

LINKS B E T W E E N PART

INDIA

A N D

C H I N A :

O F THE S A M E

" T H E

LANDMASS

ECO

FACT,"

M E A N S O F

SAYS

NEXT T O THINKING"

CONSTRUCT,

M O R E

FANTASY THAN O F I N D I G E N O U S CULTURAL CONTACT.

AS P I C O I Y E R S H O W S IN HIS CLEVERLY O B S E R V E D TRAVEL NARRATIVE

(1988),

FINAL

LINKS WITH ANOTHER EASTERN

" A S I A , " L I K E " T H E E A S T , " IS O F C O U R S E A M Y T H I C I Z E D

in Kathmandu

THE

COUNTER-ORIENTAL

G H O S H ' S NARRATIVE

R E S E A R C H . S E T H I SM U C H

ARE BOTH

A PRODUCT O F IMPORTED

FORTUNE

CROSS

N O T H I N G . T H E R E IS N O S U C H T H I N G A S A N A S I A N E T H O S O R M O D E

(178).

PRIVILEGE

O F

EAST—ITSELF A W E S T E R N

LINES O F C O M M U N I C A T I O N

POSSIBILITIES O F P A N - A S I A N

A B R A

DESPERATELY

TIDES

B E SO L U C K Y — T O

N O R

PEOPLES.

H O M E .

EAST. F O R G H O S H , THE M I D D L E

LITICAL C O N F I G U R A T I O N — H A S

A S I A N

A N D

MIGRANTS

G H O S H A N D S E T H P R O D U C E , IN THEIR DIFFERENT WAYS, IST

SCARCITY;

NATIONS

E C O N O M I C

TO TRAVEL, A N D

B O R D E R THAT DIVIDES H I M

MYTHICIZED

THE BEACH AS

DIFFERENCE SEPARATE THE TRAVELING MERCHANT,

F R O M

A PASSAGE HIS

BENEFITS, C A N N O T

HISTORICAL

STANDING

(153)

A S I A N

COUNTRIES

H A V E

C O M E

Y E T

Video Night

INCREASINGLY

TO

SEE

T H E M S E L V E S T H R O U G H W E S T E R N E Y E S . M O R E PARTICULARLY, A S I A , I N S O F A R AS IT CAN G A M

B E U N D E R S T O O D AS A C O M P O S I T E

CULTURAL

O F RESPONSES TO A N D ADAPTATIONS

T H R O U G H

ENTITY,

O F WESTERN COMMERCIAL

A SERIES O F ARRESTING E X A M P L E S D R A W N

III I

I(

I I t \ ' A '. I \

REPRESENTS AN

M I L

I

1

I'L

PRODUCTS.

F R O M T H E D I F L A C 111

I> •' I I

I

|L '.

AMAL

A S I A N

R E G I O N S — R A M B O PHILIPPINES,

I NCHINA,

BASEBALL

E X P O S U R E TO A M E R I C A N NEW,

EXOTICALLY

M U C H

OUT O F AN

E X C H A N G E W A Y

CULTURAL

IMPERIALIST

B YM A R Y

" H O W

FORMS.

SUBORDINATED

rial Eyes 6). READILY

W H A T

PRATT

OR MARGINAL

" W H I L E WHAT

O F IMPORTED

A M E R I C A N

"EXPRESS PLIGHT"

J A P A N E S E

BASEBALL,

NATIONAL

WAYS

THAT

O R DEGREES,

O F A M E R I C A LOCAL

M U C H

A

A N D

A TWO-WAY

TO

SHOW,

CULTURE,

THEY D O

THEIR

O W N ,

INTO

T O THE

PROFITABLE

[THE

CULTURES

POP-CULTURAL

INFLUENCE

M Y T H S CAN B E

E A S T - W E S T

CONTACT

ADAPTED IS VERY

PROCESS:

D E C A D E A G O . . . LINES O F C O M M U N I C A T I O N

W E R E SO CROSSED THAT

E A S T L O O K E D TO T H E W E S T TO B R I N G ITT H E W I S D O M O F T H E E A S T ; N O W , PROCESS WAS REVERSED. F O R WHAT THE ASIANS W E R E OFTEN N O T SO M U C H

BROUGHT O V E R TO THE

F R A G M E N T S O F T H E E A S T AS N E W A N D

VERSIONS O F THE WEST: THE J A P A N E S E PROVIDED T O K Y O - M A D E THE THAIS

ARE

SUBJECT,

IMPERIALISM.

THE IMPERIALIST

IMPERIALIST

A SWELL, THAT

BANDS,

E C O N O M I C

IS REINVENTED A S THE

ALL O F T H E S E A S I A N

TO INDICATE

THIS GIANT

EAST-WEST

COUNTRY'S]

IMPORT,

A N D

E X A M P L E S O F

S T A T E S ; N O R A R E ALL O F T H E M

AS TO S H O W H O W A M E R I C A N

ENDS.

(Impe " C A N N O L

INTO

P R O D U C E

T OA M E R I C A N

I Y E R ' S T A S K , H O W E V E R , I SN O T S O M U C H

MATERI

TO PRATT,

D O M I N A N T

FED

BOR

DESCRIBE

INVENT F R O M

ABSORB

DEFIES

CLEARLY, NOT

TO THE U N I T E D

A TERM

B Y NOTE-PERFECT FILIPINO

A N O T H E R CULTURAL

SPORT.

A N O T H E R

A N T H R O P O L O G Y TO

FILMS,

INDUSTRY,

O P T I M I S M

STRICTLY " S U B O R D I N A T E " SIMILAR

H O L L Y W O O D

M O V I E

NOT S O SYMBOLIC

FORMS.

LISTS N U M E R O U S

P O P SONGS, IMITATED

A MATERIAL (N.P.);

THE

THEY

IYER'S B O O K

PROCESS:

ARISE,

OR METROPOLITAN CULTURE"

F R O M

EXTENTS WHAT

O F THE I N D I A N

HYBRIDS;

EAST'S

THE

transculluration,

CULTURAL

G R O U P S SELECT A N D

E M A N A T E S

T OV A R Y I N G

TRANSCULTURATIVE

I N THE

PRODUCTS

SUBJUGATED P E O P L E S , " ACCORDING

T H E Y U S E I T F O R " (6).

M A C H I N E

F R O M

TO T H E M B Y A D O M I N A N T

CONTROL

D E T E R M I N E

TO

T H E S E

THE REINDIGENIZATION

L O U I S E

ALS T R A N S M I T T E D

WILLIAMS THAT

I M P O S I T I O N AS O U T O F A PROCESS O F

T O A C C O U N T F O R T H I S P R O C E S S IS T H R O U G H

ROWED

IN

DEMONSTRATES

P O P U L A R CULTURE H A S RESULTED I NT H E E M E R G E N C E O F

HYBRID

INVOLVING

FAST F O O D I N N E P A L , H A N K

I N J A P A N — I Y E R

FILLED

L . A .

WITH BANGKOK-STYLE AMERICAN

THE THE WEST

IMPROVED PLYMOUTHS;

BARS; THE

CHINESE

SERVED U P S W E E T - A N D - S O U R P O R K ( ADISH CREATED EXPRESSLY FOR W E S T E R N PALATES). J A P A N E S E C O U N T R Y - A N D - W E S T E R N BARS, K O R E A N GROCERY STORES, VIETNAMESE

FRENCH

THAT THE A S I A N S AND

RESTAURANTS,

HAD ABSORBED

M O R E SUBTLY THAN

INDIAN-RUN

MOTELS—ALL

SUGGESTED

T H E W E S T , A N D M A S T E R E D IT, M O R E

ANYTHING

THAT

COULD

B E IMAGINED

FULLY

in R E V E R S E .

(360) IYER CONCLUDES FROM BE M U D )

THIS,

V E R Y LOOSELY, HINT

GREATER I NTHE FUTURE H U M

M i l l

1110 A M E R I C A N

I M l I II I

I, I

THE A S I A N E M P I R E

E M P I R E ISAT

WILL

PRESENT:

"THE

TWENTIETH CENTURY [HAS

[WILL] S U R E L Y B E . . . A S I A N " RESULT

BEEN] A M E R I C A N ,

(363).

O F A W E S T E R N — M O R E

27

THE TWENTY-FIRST

SPECIFICALLY,

W E S T E R N

SPRING F R O M T H E M TO THEIR C O M M O D I T Y

THE

CAPITALIST—VIEW O F

"GLOBAL CULTURE" THAT REDUCES CULTURAL RELATIONS A N D

N O

CENTURY

Y E T THIS C O N C L U S I O N ISA R G U A B L Y

THE PRODUCTS

THAT

VALUE O N THE WORLD MARKET.

I T IS

SURPRISE TO FIND, THEN, ALONGSIDE IYER'S FASHIONABLE C O M M E N T A R Y

THE A S C E N D A N C Y O F ASIA, A N EQUALLY GLIB REHEARSAL O F M C L U H A N ' S RIES

O N

THAT

M E D I A

CHIMERA,

H A D

SENT THE WORLD

THE

SPINNING

"GLOBAL

A R O U N D

VILLAGE":

O N

THEO

" C O M M U N I C A T I O N S

S OF A S T T H A T

EVERY

WHEEL

C A M E

A R O U N D FULL CIRCLE. T R A V E L FAR E N O U G H E A S T A N D Y O U ' D Q U I C K L Y E N D U P I N THE WEST;

G O ACROSS THE G L O B E A N D

(102).

H O M E AT A L L "

M E D I A

Y O U ' D

SIMULATIONS

FIND

THAT Y O U H A D

N E V E R LEFT

A N D INSTANT INFORMATION

CREATE THE ILLUSION THAT CULTURAL DISTANCE CAN C O N V E N I E N T L Y B E MEANWHILE,

CULTURAL PRODUCTS F R O M B O T H E A S T A N D W E S T CIRCULATE IN

GLOBAL MARKETPLACE, ENCE,

O N C E

TRANSFER R E M O V E D ;

CREATING THE FURTHER ILLUSION

C O N S U M E D ,

IS UNDERSTOOD.

IYER'S

THAT

"GLOBAL

CULTURAL

DIFFER

CULTURE,"

SPEAR

H E A D E D B Y A S I A , IST H E CULTURE O F T H E GLOBAL S H O P P I N G M A L L , W H E R E TURAL

ARTIFACTS

CONSUMPTION. WORLD'S

F R O M

BOTH

tourism,

A N D

LARGEST A N D

EAST

A N D

W E S T

M A D E

FASTEST G R O W I N G

INDUSTRIES

THEIR

LITERARY B Y - P R O D U C T ,

HIS

BUT

THE M O S T

T H E M O S T

OBVIOUS

THAT HIS

CHARACTERISTIC

BALI,

FOR INSTANCE, WHICH

PROVIDES

TRAV

COMPLICIT

T H E Y S E E K TO D O C U M E N T O F I Y E R ' S W R I T I N G I S ITS

V A T E D G L I B N E S S : ITS A W A R E N E S S O F I T S E L F A N D O F ITS S U B J E C T A S A IN

CONSPICU

TRAVEL W R I T I N G — A R E

WITH THE VERY PROCESSES O F COMMODIFICATION EXPLORE.

FOR

O N A GLOBAL SCALE. H E N C E THE

N E V E R FAR B E N E A T H THE SURFACE O F IYER'S NARRATIVE,

E L S — A N D

CUL

AVAILABLE

AS I Y E R R E C O G N I Z E S , IS N O T JUST O N E O F T H E

OUS MANIFESTATION O F CULTURAL C O N S U M E R I S M IRONY,

ARE

THE

A N D CULTI

C O M M O D I T Y .

THE O P E N I N G S E Q U E N C E FOR

IYER'S

NARRATIVE, THE WRITING TENDS TO M I M I C THE SUPERFICIALITY O F THAT W H I C H IT DESCRIBES:

B A L I , F O R A L L T H E V A R I E T Y O F ITS C H A R M S , W A S R E L E N T L E S S I N ITS C H A R M , IT M E A N T T H E S A M E T O E V E R Y O N E W H O

C A M E HERE. I TOFFERED

AND

PARADISE,

A N D P R O V I D E D IT. I T W A S P R E T T Y A S A P O S T C A R D , A N D J U S T A B O U T A S

DEEP.

O N L Y A SPECIAL K I N D O F P E R S O N CAN R E M A I N FOR L O N G IN PARADISE, I N G HIS P E A C E WITH TRANQUILLITY. M O S T P E O P L E , I SUSPECTED, T O O K

M A K TAKING

IT E A S Y P R E T T Y H A R D . H U M A N K I N D , T O I N V E R T E L I O T , C A N N O T S T A N D T O O LIT TLE R E A L I T Y . H E R E A N D

(51)

AGAIN

P H O N E Y

O N E NOTICES, AS I N R U S H D I E ' S

APHORISTIC

REFLECTING IRONICALLY

(I.

1

QUALITY

BACK

O N

THAT

ARE

ITSELF. B A L I ,

11 M I H I S T S W I T H

WORK, THE ANECDOTAL

THE EFFECTS O F TRAVEL TIBET,

and C H I N A ,

l V i ' I W ML M 1

TONE

WRITING

1educed T O

THEIR O W NADVERTISING JINGLES, ARE LIKENED T OA GIANT V I D E O SCREEN O F C O N SUMABLE

TOURISTIC

IMAGES.

W E A P O N I N THE A M E R I C A N [A]s

V I D E O ,

AS IYER'S

POP-CULTURAL

TITLE I M P L I E S ,

IS A

PRIMARY

ARSENAL:

t h e w o r l d g r e w s m a l l e r a n d e v e r s m a l l e r , s o t o o d i d its p r o p s :

only

had

distances

in

time

and

space

been

shrunk,

but

the

w e a p o n s o f cultural w a r f a r e — v i d e o s , cassettes a n d c o m p u t e r

not

latest disks—

w e r e far m o r e portable t h a n the big screens a n d h e a v y instruments a

decade

points,

before. T h e y

could

under barbed-wire

a l m o s t , as a w h i m .

be

smuggled

fences a n d

through

into distant

border

of

check

h o m e s as

easily,

(5-6)

I Y E R ' S P R O J E C T IS T O D E M O N S T R A T E A S I A ' S C O U N T E R T H R U S T T O CULTURAL I M P E R I A L I S M , T O S H O W

ITS C A P A C I T Y

VENT W E S T E R N CULTURAL PRODUCTS

WHILE

TO ABSORB,

PROVIDING

A M E R I C A N

ADAPT,

A MIRROR

A N D REIN

THAT

REFLECTS

THE W E S T BACK

O N ITSELF A T N E WA N G L E S A N D I N N E W F O R M S . B U TT H I S P R O J E C T

IS U N D E R M I N E D

B Y IYER'S RELUCTANCE TOC O M E TOTERMS WITH HISO W N TECH

N O L O G I E S O FR E P R E S E N T A T I O N , A N D T O A D M I T T H E I R I N V E S T M E N T OGY

O FCONSUMERISM

H E SETS O U T T O CRITIQUE.

CONFESS HIS RELATIVE IGNORANCE AS A

IN T H E IDEOL

H E IS C E R T A I N L Y

READY TO

TOURIST:

I m a k e n o claim to be authoritative

a b o u t the places I visited.

Quite

the o p p o s i t e , in fact. I s p e n t n o m o r e t h a n a f e w w e e k s in e a c h

coun

try, I speak n o t a w o r d o f a n y o f their languages a n d I h a v e never mally studied any Asian culture....

for

I n s t e a d , I let m y s e l f b e l e d b y cir

cumstance. Serendipity was m y tour

guide, assisted b y caprice.

. . .

W h a t r e s u l t s is j u s t a c a s u a l t r a v e l e r ' s c a s u a l o b s e r v a t i o n s , a s e r i e s first

impressions and second thoughts loosely arranged around a

b r o a d ideas. T H E

(24)

O N L Y SPECIAL

CULTURAL INDIAN

QUALIFICATION

I QUICKLY

ALIES A N D T H EM I X E D W H E R E " (24). TRADITION RATIVE

H E CLAIMS,

I N FACT, IS H I S O W N

HERITAGE: " A S A BRITISH SUBJECT, A N A M E R I C A N CITIZEN,

B E C A M E

ACCUSTOMED

" H Y B R I D "

RESIDENT A N D A N

TO CROSS-CULTURAL

FEELINGS O FEXILE. N O W H E R E

W A S H O M E ,

A N O M

A N D EVERY

Y E T DESPITE HISAPPARENT HONESTY (WHICH BELONGS TOA LONG

I N TRAVEL WRITING, THE AUTHOR'S O P E N I N G DISCLAIMER),

ARGUABLY

IDEOLOGY

of few

CONCEALS

O N WHICH

T H EE C O N O M I C

IT IS B A S E D .

IYER'S

MOTIVES

WRITING,

IYER'S

NAR

A N D T H E CONSUMERIST I N THIS SENSE,

O FTHE A M B I V A L E N C E

O N

IT D E M O N S T R A T E S C L E A R L Y T H A T T R A V E L E R S , I N A L A T E - T W E N -

T H EO N E H A N D ,

TIETH-CENTURY CHANGING WORLD,

CONTEXT,

MUST

CONFRONT

O FPOSTCOLONIAL TRAVEL

PROVIDES

ANOTHER REMINDER

A. W O R L D

O F SHIFTING

BORDERS, A N DD E N S E L Y P A T T E R N E D TRANSNATIONAL

TRAVELER-WRITERS

SUCH

UK IYER, COSMOPOLITANS

M ' T I I H KM

MI

FLOWS. FROM

NARRATIVE.

ALLEGIANCES, I N SUCH

A

M I X E D C U L -

TURAL B A C K G R O U N D S ,

ARE N OLONGER THE EXCEPTIONS THEY O N C E WERE; O N THE

CONTRARY, THEY M I G H T YET I NTIME

B E C O M E

THE GENERAL RULE. T H U S ,

THEIR TRAVEL B O O K S M I G H T B E S E E N I N A SENSE AS COURA/ERNARRATIVES, AS

THEY PIT THEMSELVES AGAINST

I M P E R I A L I S M STILL D O M I N A N T THAT

WORLD,

WITH

A ST H E A N T H R O P O L O G I S T

DIFFERENCES EXTENSION IMAGES,

THEIR

A R J U N

A N D DISJUNCTURES, T H EW E S T ]

FORMS

O FW E S T E R N

CULTURAL

W I T H I N T H E G E N R E , T H E Y ALSO REFLECT O N A W O R L D

accords

INCREASINGLY

T H EV A R I O U S

WHILE INSOFAR

O W N E X P E R I E N C E — A

A P P A D U R A I

I N WHICH

DESCRIBES

" T H EU N I T E D

DIASPORIC

IT,O F G L O B A L

STATES

ISN O LONGER T H EP U P P E T E E R O FA WORLD

B U T IS O N L Y O N E N O D E O FA C O M P L E X

O F IMAGINARY

LANDSCAPES"

WRITING, SUCH

A SI Y E R ' S , W H I C H

("DISJUNCTURE

TRANSNATIONAL

[ A N D , B Y SYSTEM O F

CONSTRUCTION

A N D D I F F E R E N C E " 327).

TRAVEL

SIFTS T H E C O M P L E X C O D E S O FW H A T

M A R T I N

R O B E R T S CALLS T H E " G L O B A L I M A G I N A R Y , " SERVES A U S E F U L P U R P O S E I N A D J U S T ING

A N D COMPLICATING

ITSREADERS'

PERCEPTION

O F T H E WIDER

WORLD.

N O N E T H E L E S S , O N E W O N D E R S W H E T H E R I Y E R ' S W O R K M I G H T B E S E E N LESS RATELY AS A G A U G E THAN

symptom

AS A

O F THE C O M M O D I F L E D

W H I L E

Video Night in Kathmandu

NIZATION"

OSTENSIBLY

O FA S I A , A N A L Y Z I N G T H E VARIOUS

OPPOSES THE

RATHER THAN

D U R I N G

A CRITIQUE,

GICALLY CONJURES. almost

2

9

AS E X E M

A CELEBRATION,

O FT H E I N T E R C O N N E C T E D N E S S O FC O N S U M E R

CULTURE,

H U M A N I S M THAT SUCH A CULTURE STRATE

ITSEEMS, SAYS D U R I N G ,

THAT

everyone, almost everywhere, loves the global

popular a n d

s o m e t i m e s c o n s u m e s it: it p r o d u c e s a m o o d i n w h i c h e x o t i c i s m , mality a n dt r a n s w o r l d

SERVES.

"COUNTER-STRATEGIES" THAT A R E

CALLS " T H E G L O B A L P O P U L A R " :

A N D A TRIBUTE T O THE TRANSNATIONAL

CUL

" C O C A - C O L O

P L A N N E D I N ITS R E S I S T A N C E , ITM I G H T A L S O B E S E E N P A R A D O X I C A L L Y PLIFYING WHAT S I M O N

8

ACCU

"GLOBAL

T U R E " O N W H I C H I TR E P O R T S A N D I N W H O S E I N T E R E S T S I TI N A D V E R T E N T L Y

2

s h a r e d n e s s c o m b i n e , a n di n w h i c h

nor

consump

tion w a r m l y glows. T h e global p o p u l a r ' s h u m a n i s m c a n n o t b e dis missed, precisely

b e c a u s e it is s o o p e n l y c o m m e r c i a l .

Its

"general

m a g i c " relies o n t h e t r i c k b y w h i c h g l o b a l m a r k e t s , t e c h n o l o g i e s a n d information

flows

fuse

into

a

humanism

transcending

national

b o u n d a r i e s a t t h es a m e t i m e as, i n its clear d e p e n d e n c e o n m a r k e t i n g , it l e a v e s i n t a t t e r s t h e i d e a l i s m a n d n a i v e a p p e a l t o h u m a n n a t u r e s o integral t o older h u m a n i s m s . "POSTCOLONIALISM," CIPATION

THAT

SAYS D U R I N G ,

TENDS TO OBSCURE

(343) RELIES O N A LOCALIZED RHETORIC O F T H ELARGER " R H Y T H M S

E M A N

O F GLOBALIZATION"

THAT D E T E R M I N E O U R CULTURAL FUTURES. P O S T C O L O N I A L I T Y , A S H A SB E E N A R G U E D HERE, ISA BETTER TERM TO DESCRIBE T H E CONDITIONS TIONAL"

CULTURAL

PRODUCTS

UNDER WHICH

ESPECIALLY THOSE PRODUCTS,

I N G , THAT A R E I N V E S T E D I NT H E POLITICS O F (CROSS-)EULLURNL

((14

loiJKIS'M

Willi

I YI'tSwHIl 1 1

" O P P O S I

LIKE TRAVEL

WRIT

REPRESENTATION

ARE

SUBJECT

POTENTIAL

TO

GLOBAL

MARKET

FOR RESISTANCE.

"ANTIRACIST"

OR KINCAID'S; "RESISTANCE" ENTALIST" NARRATIVES

FORCES THAT

SUCH

S U C H AS

AS R U S H D I E ' S ;

THEIR

PHILLIP'S

"COUNTER-ORI

OR SETH'S; "ANTI-IMPERIALIST"

T I V E S S U C H A S I Y E R ' S : ALL O F T H E S E A R E T H E P R O D U C T S MODELS,

OR MYSTIFY

TRAVEL NARRATIVES

NARRATIVES

S U C H AS G H O S H ' S

U N D E R M I N E

NATIVES

TO E U R O P E A N

COMBAT

CENTURIES O F E U R O P E A N PREJUDICE, A N D

DIFFERENT WAYS

NARRA

O F WRITERS S E E K I N G ALTER

O F SEEING THE WORLD THAT E N J O I N THEIR

THAT

READERS

I N T U R N T O A D J LIST T H E I R A T T I T U D E S A N D P E R C E P T I O N S T O A C O N T E M P O R A R Y TURAL CLIMATE

I N W H I C H " D I F F E R E N C E " IS I N C R E A S I N G L Y

SARILY BETTER U N D E R S T O O D .

Y E T THESE WRITERS

A PERCEPTUAL LEGACY O F EXOTICISM: ING,

FUELING E U R O P E A N

PRODUCTION

FANTASY,

A N D CONSUMPTION

A M O D E HAS

LOOK VERY DIFFERENT IN KIND

POSTCOLONIAL THEY MUST

STRUGGLE TO M A T C H

M A N Y

WAYS

NESS"

E V E N

ESTRANGES

TRAVEL WRITERS,

ANTITHETICAL AS

O N

IT C L A I M S THE

THESE MYTHOLOGIES THESE

MYTHS

MOST

IN

THEIR POLITICAL

A N D

IT.

THEIR

TRAVEL

NARRATIVES

INVENTORY O F FAMILIAR REVISION

A N D

A N D

IMAGES

IS

A N D

DOUBLE

NATURE,

i

0

E V E N

AS

A N D

THOSE

IT

A M O N G

FORM

PROVIDING

TOWARD

IN

"OTHER

PLACES. S O M E

UNDERPINNINGS,

A N D A M E A N S

HMI'IIM,

PLACES.

LEAST

3

U P

EMBATTLED:

RELIANT N O T

SELECTIVE—CHAPTER.

CRITIQUE.

A I i IN

THAT

MYTHS.

THE

POSTCOLONIAL

MANUFACTURES

TO PARTICULAR

IDEOLOGICAL

REVEAL THEIR SPATIAL

THAT

O F WESTERN

SUBJECT FOR THE FOLLOWING—NECESSARILY TOO,

VEHICLE FOR

V I E W S W I T H A G E N R E T H A T IS

GENRE

DEMYSTIFY

FAMILIAR

WITH WRIT

E V E N I F T H E E X O T I C A IT T H R O W S

ARE THE ONES ATTACHED

O F PLACE,

AS A P R I M A R Y

CONTEXT, ARE NECESSARILY

TO T H E M — A TO

IN W H I C H TRAVEL

F R O M THOSE O F EARLIER TIMES

THIS

CUL

NECES

C O N T E N D , AS WELL,

O F VISION

ACTED

BUT NOT

O F CULTURAL " O T H E R N E S S . " IN A

E R A , " O T H E R N E S S " IS A P R O F I T A B L E B U S I N E S S , MIGHT

MUST

VISIBLE

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BOTH

AN

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Chapter two Zones

T H E DESIRE TO TRAVEL TO, A N D A C C O U N T FOR, PARTICULAR REGIONS O F THE OFTEN IN

FIGURES

FACT,

I NT H E F R A U G H T M O T I V A T I O N S


E U R O P E — H A S TION

TRAVEL

WRITING—AT

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O F REGIONS

THAT

ARE

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TO THE

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T OA C C R U E E V E R D E N S E R L A Y E R S O F T E X T U A L I T Y

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A N D

PROCESSES

CENTURY.

WORLD

WRITERS.

IT IS N O T

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TRAVEL

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VERSIONS.

TRAVELER'S

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CHAPTER

A T BEST

T OREPEAT A N D

E X A M I N E S

THE

A M A Z O N

("EXOTIC"); A N D

FICTION

A N D

("TROPICAL");

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(MAINLY)

A N D

J A P A N

("LIMINAL").

D E P L O Y T H E M ,

POLITICAL,

THEY

B E C O M E

BRIAN

M C H A L E

ANTHROPOLOGICAL, C O M P L E X

TEXTUAL

ARE A TBEST

1

I N

INCIDENTALLY

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O F POSTMODERNISM.

P R O D U C E D

B Y SUCH

LID IONS

ii'

G E O

E X P E R I E N T I A L —

Fiction (1987),

IN. P O S T M O D E R N I S T

IS I N E V I T A B L Y

SEAS

WRITING

K N O W L E D G E — H I S T O R

A C C O R D I N G T O M E L T A L E , G E O G R A P H I C A L S P A C E ISC O N T I N U A L L Y SPACE

C O N G O

SOUTH

USES " Z O N E S " LO D E N O T E THE ONTOLOGICAL SCRAMBLING

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T H E

WRITING

THE

REGIONS, A STRAVEL

CULTURAL, MYTHICAL,

zones.

THE

C O N

TROPOLOGI-

TRAVEL

REGIONS:

("ORIENTAL"); S U C H

EARLIER

IS INHERENTLY

POSTWAR

GRAPHICAL; BUILT U P OUT O F SEVERAL DIFFERENT KINDS O F ICAL,

S U P P L E M E N T

CONSOLIDATE

AS IT RELATES T OS E L E C T E D G E O G R A P H I C A L / T R O P O L O G I C A L A N D

REFUTATION.

C H A N G E O R FRESH PERCEPTION,

WILL

F O R ALL I T S S E N S A T I O N A L I S M ,

ITS NARRATIVES

MYTHS.

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THAT FICTIONS,

RECONSTRUCTED.

OVERDCTCRMINED:

IT

NEEDS

TO

M E R E L Y

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GEOGRAPHICAL,

IS,

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TERMS.

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THEIR A G E N D A

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47).

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Y E T AS FAR AS TRAVEL

ALREADY

TOPOI

WRITTEN:

WRIT

C O M P O S E D

O F "CONVENTIONAL

O F

W I S D O M

T H E M IN THE OVERDETERMINED

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TURAL DISCOURSE

4).

CATALOGUES O F PLACES A N D

ENDLESSLY R E D E P L O Y THE

A N D C O M M O N

THAN

THIS

CHAP.

GEOGRAPHICAL/TEXTUAL

THE UNWRITTEN

K N O W L E D G E "

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ACCOUNTS

(SEE, H O W E V E R ,

A N D

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Z O N E ,

G E N E R A L L Y T A K E S ITS C O L O R I N G F R O M

PREVIOUS

SEAS,

FOR

PROSPECTIVE

INSTANCE,

HEDONISTIC A W A K E N S L O U I S

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APPEAL

TO

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VISITORS

AS

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TODAY,

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WITH PROFESSIONAL ETHNOGRAPHERS THE Y E A R N I N G TO ESTABLISH

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AS P E R S O N A L , THAT A R E A L W A Y S

MOBILIZES

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ENTIAL CATEGORIES O F THE Z O N E : IN THE ARCTIC, PURGATION

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Z O N E S O F TRAVEL WRITING, T H E N , ARE Z O N E S O F REPETITION,

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SEEKS EXPERIENCE O F THE FEMINIZED

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W I T H T H E P E O P L E A N D PLACES T H E Y VISIT A N D A B O U T W H I C H T H E Y WRITE. M O S T

IT

55)

MELVILLE OR

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PETER

F L E M I N G

STEPPING EASILY IULO LO E X C E E D

11 >i 11-: is 1 s w 1 1 M 1 v i'i

IT

» 11

IN

THE ROLE THE

WHETHER VACATED

A M U / O N ,

OR

R o l a n d Barthes assuming the stock m e t a p h o r o f penetration—to con test i t — i n J a p a n . T h e ( W e s t e r n ) m y t h o l o g i e s t h a t a d h e r e t o w o r l d sites seem u n s h a k a b l e a n d offer a n e c o n o m i c a l , i f fairly basic, w a y o f get ting t o k n o w the w o r l d . B u t can the travel b o o k offer more? A s " p o p ular" c o m p e n d i u m s o f different kinds o f disciplinarity—history, geog r a p h y , politics, a n t h r o p o l o g y — t r a v e l b o o k s offer c o m p r e h e n s i v e a n d i n f o r m e d c o m m e n t a r y , a route along w h i c h travelers, w h e t h e r a r m c h a i r o r field, c a n b e c o m e k n o w l e d g e a b l e a n d o p e n - m i n d e d a b o u t t h e c o n t e m p o r a r y w o r l d . A f e w o f these b o o k s d o u b t l e s s d o p r o v i d e such routes. M a n y m o r e , h o w e v e r , either contain the travel z o n e w i t h i n the cultural stereotypes they p r e s u p p o s e f r o m the outset o r c a n n o t n e g o t i ate those b o u n d a r i e s , m a i n t a i n e d b y a n e c o n o m i c a l l y a n d culturally p o w e r f u l t r a v e l i n d u s t r y , w i t h i n w h i c h t h e t r a v e l b o o k cleaves t o its preassigned generic p a t h .

ZONE

THE

ONE: THE

TROPICS

CONGO 2

N e a r l y every m o d e r n travel b o o k that features the C o n g o as travel z o n e a t s o m e l e v e l r e i n s c r i b e s C o n r a d ' s classic n o v e l l a Heart of Dark ness (1898). I n Heart of Darkness, as is w e l l k n o w n , C o n r a d set o u t t o contest aspects o f B e l g i a n imperial practice in the late nineteenth c e n t u r y w h i l e expressing, a t the s a m e time, the imperialist p a r a d i g m i n its starkest f o r m . N e a r l y a c e n t u r y later P a u l H y l a n d , i n his C o n g o n a r r a t i v e The Black Heart (1988), c e r t a i n l y h a s C o n r a d i n m i n d w h e n h e observes that "[i]n a n age o f optimistic materialism [white m e n ] held u p t h i s b a r e l y m a p p e d t e r r i t o r y as a m i r r o r t o t h e d a r k side o f t h e i r s o u l s " (63). S i n c e C o n r a d , t h e C o n g o h a s b e c o m e t h e t e x t u a l site o f a f e b r i l e metaphysics: a n abject z o n e o f e x t r e m e yet undifferentiated " o t h e r ness" in w h i c h every aspect o f life- landscape, people, culture, poli t i c s — p r e s e n t s i t s e l f as a l w a y s a l r e a d y w r a p p e d i n m e t a p h o r a n d m y t h . 3

T h e C o n g o t r a v e l e r is first a p t t o l o c a t e u n d i f f e r e n t i a t e d " o t h e r ness" in the landscape. T h e celebrated Africanist Basil D a v i d s o n — n o t o t h e r w i s e k n o w n f o r his travel w r i t i n g — o f f e r s t h e f o l l o w i n g p a r o d y o f C o n r a d a n d G i d e in a formulaic view f r o m a boat: The

checks its d i l a t o r y p u c e o n c e a d a y o r s o m e t i m e s halls at small l o g q u a y s i d c i H , e a c h w i t h its h a n d f u l o f b u t t h e s e arc figure* In a b r o o d i n g v o i d . D n y s a h e a d t h e r e

river s t e a m e r

more,

and

humanity,

w i l l bo 11 r i v e r s i d e l o w n l e l U ' l m i ^ i i i j ! 10 l l i r " m o d e r n

w o r l d " o f futile

b u s y w o r k . B u t this w i l l be a b r i e f glimpse o f u r b a n dust a n d d e c a y b e f o r e the b u s h a n d the trees close i n a g a i n , a n d e v e r y t h i n g is o n c e a g a i n as it w a s b e f o r e . N o t h i n g changes; there is o n l y the i m m e m o r ial m e r g i n g o f o n e d a y i n t o the next. (254) A t t h e b e g i n n i n g o f h i s e a r l i e r j o u r n e y , d o c u m e n t e d i n Travels in the Congo (1927), G i d e h a d p r o n o u n c e d h i m s e l f d e p r e s s e d b y " [ f j h e a b s e n c e o f i n d i v i d u a l i t y , o f i n d i v i d u a l i z a t i o n . " " E v e r y t h i n g is u n i f o r m , " complains G i d e ; "there can be n o possible predilection f o r a n y p a r t i c u l a r s i t e " (137). T h e C o n g o , t h a t is, o f f e r s n o p o i n t w h e r e t h e W e s t e r n observer m i g h t f r a m e , perspectivize, a n d i m p o s e spatial pat tern. B u t t h e absence o f spatial pattern also denotes a historical absence: C o n g o travelers like G i d e b e c o m e i n v o l v e d in a j o u r n e y that o b l i t e r a t e s h i s t o r y as E u r o p e a n s c o n c e i v e it, a j o u r n e y i n w h i c h , w h i l e " t r a v e l l i n g b a c k t o t h e e a r l i e s t b e g i n n i n g s o f t h e w o r l d " ( C o n r a d 66), they are simultaneously "sucked . . . into the continent's m a w " ( H y l a n d 13). T h e t e m p o r a l " o t h e r n e s s " o f t h e C o n g o a c t s i n t a n d e m w i t h its spatial " o t h e r n e s s , " impressing itself u p o n t h e prospective traveler w i t h a p o w e r g r e a t e r t h a n m o t i v a t i o n — w i t h n o t h i n g less, it a p p e a r s , t h a n the inexorable force o f fate. T h u s , the n i n e - y e a r - o l d C o n r a d , p o r i n g o v e r a m a p o f " d a r k e s t " A f r i c a , a n d " p u t t i n g [his] finger o n t h e b l a n k space representing the u n s o l v e d m y s t e r y o f that continent, . . . said t o [him]self w i t h absolute assurance a n d a n a m a z i n g a u d a c i t y . . . ' W h e n I g r o w u p I s h a l l g o there'" ( q t d . i n H y l a n d 21), j u s t a s G i d e r e m a r k s o f h i s j o u r n e y , " I h a d n o t s o m u c h w i l l e d i t . . . a s h a d it i m p o s e d u p o n m e b y a s o r t o f i n e l u c t a b l e f a t a l i t y " (4). T h i s a t a v i s t i c c a l l n o t o n l y d r a i n s t h e p o w e r o f t h o s e w h o h e a r it; i t a l s o b u r d e n s t h e m w i t h a metaphysical l o a d . C o n t e m p o r a r y narratives b y writers like H y l a n d , N a i p a u l , a n d S h o u m a t o f f h a r k b a c k t o this p a t t e r n , reinscribing C o n r a d ' s z o n e i n different w a y s . W i t h i n t h e zone, history disappears; t h e landscape b e c o m e s sinisterly p r i m e v a l ; h u m a n figures b e c o m e either h y p e r s e n sual o r abject; politics b e c o m e s a n a r c h y ; n o n c o n t i n u o u s p h e n o m e n a are sucked into a n "essential" stigmatized center. T r a v e l into t h e C o n g o disfigures, b e c o m e s a f o r m o f d y s t o p i c transgression. B y f o r e g r o u n d i n g p e r s o n a l sensitivity, a c c o u n t s such as H y l a n d ' s The Black Heart s e e k , h o w e v e r , t o m i t i g a t e t h e s e n s e o f radical " o t h e r n e s s " that decades o f travel n a r r a t i v e s have stamped o n t h e C o n g o . A c c o r d i n g t o this f o r m u l a , H y l a n d represents himself

/11

11 n 1 K I M , W I T H

1 \ I-I w M ' j I 1

as altered: he is the alienated one, the "other"; m o d e r n m a n in search o f a soul, in search o f h o m e . A l t h o u g h H y l a n d sees himself as the "inheritor o f S t a n l e y ' s self-glorifying vision o f the D a r k C o n t i n e n t , o f Joseph C o n r a d ' s a m b i g u o u s and anachronistic c h r o n i c l e " (22), his ultimate destination is a mission station, far upriver even from C o n rad's Inner Station, f o u n d e d b y his great-uncle D a n C r a w f o r d on the shore o f L a k e M w e r u at L u a n z a . W h e n he arrives there, a villager greets him: " E e h B w a n a , Bibi, y o u h a v e c o m e home. T h i s is y o u r vil l a g e " (243). Y e t even while the narrative situates the L u a n z a mission as an alternative reality (an " o t h e r " heart) to C o n r a d ' s Inner Station and affirms H y l a n d ' s inheritance there, it is not quite " h o m e . " Selfc o n s c i o u s m o d e r n angst plays between the senses o f provisionality and nostalgia: Can you run away from home? Escape can feel like homecoming, love and success like death. Travel is gloriously promiscuous: the shifting destination, arrival again and again, the unknown possessed, the quest for an illusory home. So I may have travelled light with a heavy heart. The quest for a cure. I'm in the air, unearthed like Antaeus, needing to make touch. (211) T h e perplexing ambivalence o f this passage suffuses The Black Heart, poising H y l a n d between the figures o f doubtful quester and mission ary-inheritor. A t L u a n z a , H y l a n d plays the latter role, participating in the work o f building and repairing the mission station, while his wife Nocllc shares in the lives o f the w o m e n teachers, nurses, housekeepers, and children. R e c o u n t i n g the life o f D a n C r a w f o r d , C r a w f o r d ' s wife, and the mission's history, H y l a n d adopts something o f the authority o f I he heroic male missionary, producing a framed narrative that installs order, progress, and traditional Western paradigms in Africa. Describ ing a mission that his brother-in-law once administered, Hyland becomes proprietary. He w a l k s past "the orange grove Peter had planned," where "Peter's water-tank still stood high," and notes that an African m a n "had served as a corporal in the F o r c e Publique for six years before Peter, 'Petrus' he called him, t o o k him on to w o r k " (89). T h e link between missionary consecration and appropriation is comi cally posed when the Hylands, arriving in Zaire, "[lay] hands on the surface o f A f r i c a " (13; emphasis added). Seen in this context. The Black Heart affirms the very mythology it wishes to reject:. Hyland wishes Mini "all while nivlhs and histories for

/i>NI".

/1

w h i c h t h e p e o p l e h a v e n o u s e s h o u l d v a n i s h , as i f f l u s h e d a w a y b y t h e rains"

Y e t his mission m o v e s i n the w a k e o f S t a n l e y , w h o

(136).

a r r i v e d b e f o r e t h e m o u t h o f t h e r i v e r t o a s c e n d it, [ t o s o w ] a l o n g i t s b a n k s c i v i l i s e d s e t t l e m e n t s , t o p e a c e f u l l y c o n q u e r a n d s u b d u e it, t o remould

it i n h a r m o n y

with modern

ideas into

within w h o s e limits the E u r o p e a n m e r c h a n t

National

States,

shall g o h a n d in

hand

w i t h the dark A f r i c a n trader, a n d justice and l a w a n d order shall pre vail, a n d m u r d e r and lawlessness a n d the cruel barter o f slaves shall f o r e v e r c e a s e . (28-29)

W h i l e H y l a n d glancingly critiques the ideal o f the nation-state, he nev ertheless casually d r a w s f r o m t h e s t e r e o t y p e reservoir t h a t w r i t e r s f r o m Stanley t o V . S. N a i p a u l h a v e i n v o k e d — o n e in w h i c h , for e x a m p l e , the t r a v e l e r c a n feel " a t o n c e , t h e d e p t h o f t h i s s o i l , t h e d e p t h o f t h o s e e y e s , t h e h i s t o r y i n t h e b l o o d " (124); c a n o b s e r v e s o m e o n e p r a c t i c i n g " t h e A f r i c a n a r t o f b l a n k n e s s " (50); a n d c a n a t t r i b u t e t o a c o l o n i a l b u i l d i n g a n " A f r i c a n s o u l " (54). L i k e w i s e , H y l a n d essentializes the A f r i c a n s he describes, p o r t r a y i n g t h e m as e i t h e r m y s t e r i o u s l y s e n s u a l o r e x t r e m e l y a b j e c t . T h r e e y o u n g w o m e n c a v o r t i n g b y the ocean, d o i n g a " n a i v e , self-conscious s t r i p - t e a s e , " stir h i m f a v o r a b l y : o n e " d a n c e d a s h a p e l y d a n c e t o t h e waves in a white b r a a n d green p a n t s , " a second "wriggled w i t h p l u m p breasts held h i g h , . . . p i n k d r a w e r s clinging d a r k l y t o p r o u d b u t t o c k s , " w h i l e a t h i r d w a s " a b u d d i n g t w i g o f a g i r l i n w h i t e p a n t s " (39). O n t h e other h a n d , a m a n w h o " h a u n t s " h i m "fell a b o u t , raving, . . . wearing t a t t e r s o f c l o t h , f i l t h y m u l t i - c o l o u r e d b a n d s o n a r m s a n d legs, w i d e e y e s s t a r i n g t h r o u g h glassless w e l d e r ' s g o g g l e s , l o s t s o m e w h e r e b e t w e e n i n i 4

t i a t i o n i n t h e f o r e s t a n d t w e n t i e t h - c e n t u r y Z a i r e " (194). W h e n H y l a n d finally

arrives at the d e m o n i c center, t h e I n n e r S t a t i o n w h e r e K u r t z

once reigned supreme, he has a vision o f C o n r a d ' s gorgeous phantas mal woman: I saw K u r t z ' s familiars and, w i t h M a r l o w ' s eyes, the w o m a n , " s a v a g e and

superb,

wild-eyed and

magnificent,"

bedecked

with

fetishes,

gleaming with ivory, a g l o w with brass, w h o s e arms flung s k y w a r d s , w h o s e s h a d o w m o v e d o n earth and river and gathered the steamer into her embrace.

But

tin-pot

(203)

soon, he conjures a fallen descendant o f that

figure,

another

"essential" A f r i c a n w o m a n w h o b u r s t f r o m t h eh o s p i t a l gates w i t h h e r a r m s f l u n g h i g h , w a l k i n g in a trance,

wailing

an extraordinary

T O d H I N T S

tune,

W I T H

strong

a n d plaintive,

TYI'tiWHITIHtlt

an

e x a l t e d dirge, her spirit straining after the spirit o f the d e a d . S o m e t i m e s I c a n a l m o s t r e c a l l t h e fierce q u a l i t y o f t h a t s o u n d . it s e e m s l i k e t h e a n t h e m o f A f r i c a .

Sometimes

(227)

I t is w i t h p o r t e n t o u s s y m b o l i s m l i k e t h i s t h a t t r a v e l e r - w r i t e r s i n t h e C o n g o offer glimpses into the heart o f the deadly " A f r i c a n " z o n e . I f V . S. N a i p a u l ' s incursions into the C o n g o — " t h e h o t z o n e " — a r e b o t h less f a n c i f u l a n d m o r e l i t e r a r y - m i n d e d t h a n H y l a n d ' s , t h e y a r e a l s o w i t h o u t t h e l a t t e r ' s a m b i v a l e n c e . I n t h e n o v e l A Bend in the River (1979), a n d i n t h e " N e w J o u r n a l i s m " pieces r e p u b l i s h e d as The

Return

of Eva Peron (1980), N a i p a u l c l a i m s t o w r i t e i n t h e s p i r i t o f a C o n r a d p o r t r a y i n g t h e disintegration o f the colonial w o r l d . F e e l i n g that his o w n i n h e r i t a n c e is a " m i x e d , " " s e c o n d - h a n d , " a n d " r e s t r i c t e d " w o r l d , N a i p a u l first a c c o u n t s f o r t h e C a r i b b e a n e x - c o l o n i e s i n t h o s e t e r m s , then proceeds t o i n v o k e them again t o analyze decolonization in other 5

p a r t s o f t h e T h i r d W o r l d . T h u s i t is, i n A f r i c a , t h a t h e feels t h e g r o u n d m o v e b e n e a t h me. T h e n e w politics, the c u r i o u s reliance o n m e n a n d institutions they were yet w o r k i n g to undermine, the sim plicity o f beliefs, and the h i d e o u s simplicity o f actions, the

corrup

tions o f causes, half-made societies that seemed to remain half-made: these w e r e the things that b e g a n to p r e o c c u p y me. . . . I f o u n d C o n r a d had been everywhere before me.

that

(Return 207-8).

W h e n h e v i s i t s Z a i r e , t h e n , N a i p a u l t r e a d s i n t h e steps o f C o n r a d , b u t w i t h a r e v e r s a l i n m i n d . W h e r e c o r r u p t i o n i n Heart of Darkness is r e p resented b y a E u r o p e a n , in N a i p a u l ' s " A N e w K i n g f o r t h e C o n g o : M o b u t u a n d t h e N i h i l i s m o f A f r i c a " it is m a n i f e s t e d i n b l a c k A f r i c a n s , c r a z e d b y c i v i l i z a t i o n . R o b N i x o n ' s c o m m e n t , " W h e n t h e w o r d primi tive o c c u r s i n [ N a i p a u l ' s ] t r a v e l w r i t i n g s , it d o e s s o , n o t i n t h e c o n t e x t o f a l a s t - g a s p r o m a n t i c d e s i r e t o s a l v a g e a p u r e r p a s t , b u t as a s t r a i g h t f o r w a r d t e r m o f a b u s e " (London Calling 54-55), is c e r t a i n l y a p p r o p r i ate f o r N a i p a u l ' s A f r i c a n essays a n d n o v e l . N a i p a u l r e p l a c e s C o n r a d ' s c h a r a c t e r i z a t i o n o f t h e C o n g o as m y s teriously savage w i t h a simplistic analysis o f neocolonial d e r a n g e m e n t . T a u g h t t o m i m i c their civilized colonial masters, N a i p a u l ' s A f r i c a n s h a v e b e c o m e c a r i c a t u r e s , f i g u r e s o f f u n , y e t s t r a n g e l y sinister. W h a t C o n r a d h a d o n c e r e a d as n e b u l o u s a n d i n a c c e s s i b l e , N a i p a u l r e a d s as the c o n f u s i o n , b e w i l d e r m e n t , a n d r e s e n t m e n t o f " p r i m i t i v e "

people

w h o h a v e been r e m o v e d f r o m the bush then offered the b l a n d i s h m e n t s o f a civilization they are incapable o f attaining. T h e i r resentments " c a n at a n y t i m e b e c o n v e r t e d i n t o a w i s h t o w i p e o u t a n d u n d o , a n A f r i c a n

/ . O N its

yi

n i h i l i s m , t h e r a g e o f p r i m i t i v e m e n " (Return 187). N a i p a u l p r o c e e d s t o n a t u r a l i z e this " p r i m i t i v e n e s s " w i t h i n a drastically simple historical f r a m e : i n " A N e w K i n g , " f o r e x a m p l e , h i s t o r y is c o n s t r u e d a s a b r i e f interval b e t w e e n a n " A f r i c a o f the ancestors" a n d a n e w " m i m i c " civi l i z a t i o n (169). B e t w e e n t h e s e t w o is a c o l o n i a l w o r l d w h o s e p a s s i n g N a i p a u l n o w regrets, as h e deplores h o w " t h e B e l g i a n past recedes a n d is m a d e t o l o o k a s s h a b b y as its d e f a c e d m o n u m e n t s . " T h a t " t h e s t a t u e o f Stanley that o v e r l o o k e d the rapids has been replaced b y the statue o f a t a l l a n o n y m o u s t r i b e s m a n w i t h a s p e a r " is p a r t , f o r h i m , o f t h e silli ness o f n e w Z a i r e — t h e s a m e silliness t h a t l e d t h e d e c o l o n i z i n g state t o c h o o s e f o r i t s e l f a " n o n s e n s e " n a m e , a n d its p r e s i d e n t t o reject J o s e p h M o b u t u f o r t h e ludicrously grandiose " M o b u t u Seso Seke K u k u N g b e n d u W a Z a B a n g a " (167). N a i p a u l ' s c o m m e n t a r y o n Z a i r e d e s c r i b e s t h e s a m e p h e n o m e n a as a m u l t i t u d e o f c o n t e m p o r a r y A f r i c a n a c c o u n t s : i m p o v e r i s h e d , d e g r a d e d cities; a c h a n g e l e s s l a n d scape; grotesque people; g o v e r n m e n t ostentation a n d c o r r u p t i o n . T h e list s t r e t c h e s o n a n d o n . W h a t m a k e s N a i p a u l ' s v e r s i o n s t r i k i n g is its extreme c h a r a c t e r i z a t i o n o f t h e C o n g o as a n o v e r h e a t e d z o n e , a H e a r t o f N o t h i n g n e s s d o o m e d t o d r a g itself b a c k into t h e v a c a n c y o f b u s h a n d ancestors: T o arrive at this sense o f a c o u n t r y t r a p p e d a n d static, eternally v u l nerable, is t o begin t o h a v e s o m e t h i n g o f the A f r i c a n sense o f t h e v o i d . I t is t o begin t o fall, i n the A f r i c a n w a y , into a d r e a m o f t h e p a s t — t h e v a c a n c y o f river a n d forest, the h u t in the b r o w n y a r d , t h e d u g o u t — w h e n the d e a d ancestors w a t c h e d a n d protected, a n d t h e enemies were o n l y m e n . (196) I n t h e passage, typically, N a i p a u l ' s chosen adjectives—"trapped," "static," " v u l n e r a b l e " — d e n o t e a collective p s y c h o l o g y i m m u n e t o the Western rational mind. I n m o r e recent C o n g o narratives, t h e d a r k fascination w i t h t h e " h o t z o n e " h a s escalated once again w i t h t h e e m e r g i n g scandal o f A I D S . F o r D a v i d W i l l s , f o r i n s t a n c e , t h e A I D S crisis r e p r e s e n t s " t h e w h o l e m y t h o l o g y a l l o v e r a g a i n o f a m o n k e y o n a h o t c o n t i n e n t " (91): It is i n a neglected A f r i c a once again that a n obsolete t e c h n o l o g y m e a n s d e a d bodies b y t h e t h o u s a n d s , t h e threat o f millions that w o u l d likely h a v e m e as dead as y o u were I o n e o f t h e m , f o r some strange reason they just keep o n d y i n g there in wholesale quantities o f causes as o l d as b a d water a n d as n e w as A I D S , while the f i r s t W o r l d disingenuously searches f o r the software glitch thill: limit he

I

H M I H I K T H Wl'l M I V I ' K W H I I "

causing it all, so A f r i c a c o m e s b a c k t o h a n g o n o u r necks, the w e i g h t and m o v e m e n t o f it has y o u d i z z y , it is A f r i c a y o u balance o n y o u r h e a d (91). I n Wills's account, the association between A f r i c a a n d A I D S h a s upped the ante b e y o n d C o n r a d ' s dark imperial metaphysics, H y l a n d ' s m y s t e r y , guilt, a n d sentimentality, a n d N a i p a u l ' s essential a t a v i s m , t o reach the all-encompassing hysteria o f deathly "systemic d y s f u n c t i o n . " I n African Madness (1988), A l e x S h o u m a t o f f a l s o r e c o r d s a j o u r ney into the d a r k heart o f A I D S . S h o u m a t o f f does n o t present himself i n a g l a m o r o u s l i g h t : h e is a p r o f e s s i o n a l j o u r n a l i s t w i t h a l i k i n g f o r t r o p i c a l r e g i o n s , a l w a y s o n t h e s c e n t f o r stories t o b e t r a c k e d d o w n i n A f r i c a a n d S o u t h A m e r i c a . S h o u m a t o f f writes a direct, c o n v e n t i o n a l , and unpretentious prose, f r o m a n A m e r i c a n liberal point o f view, w i t h s o m e resistance t o A m e r i c a n h e g e m o n y a n d m i n i m a l a n i m u s t o w a r d t h e A f r i c a n c o u n t r i e s h e visits. N e v e r t h e l e s s , h e d o e s n o t r e a l l y c h a l lenge the f o u n d a t i o n a l m y t h s a b o u t " d a r k e s t " A f r i c a that h a v e p r o v e d i n d i s p e n s a b l e t o g e n e r a t i o n s o f t r a v e l e r - w r i t e r s . N o r c a n h e resist t h e t e m p t a t i o n t o t r a n s f o r m a scientific investigative c o n c e r n t o locate t h e s o u r c e o f t h e A I D S v i r u s i n t o a p r o c e s s a c t i v e l y s y m b o l i z i n g it as " t h e A f r i c a n disease"; a n d h e seems repeatedly surprised that professional researchers h a v e n o t shared his mission o f " t r a c k i n g d o w n the source." 6

" H o w c u r i o u s it w o u l d b e , " m u s e s S h o u m a t o f f , " i f t h e s o u r c e o f the N i l e arid the source o f A I D S p r o v e t o b e o n e a n d the same, the vast t e e m i n g l a k e d e e p i n t h e d a n g e r o u s h e a r t o f d a r k e s t A f r i c a " (133). A m o r e economical f o r m u l a t i o n j o i n i n g the traveler's personal quest t o the c o n v e n t i o n a l r o m a n c e a n d h o r r o r o f A f r i c a (searches f o r the source of the Nile, the R i d e r H a g g a r d romances o f the M o u n t a i n s o f the M o o n , a n d so o n ) can hardly be imagined. A n d a l t h o u g h S h o u m a t o f f t e n d s t o q u e s t i o n m y t h s a b o u t A f r i c a a n d A I D S , h e still f o r e g r o u n d s the m y t h - l a d e n impulse b e h i n d his trip: "despite there being evidence o f A I D S as e a r l y a s 1972 i n n o r t h w e s t e r n U g a n d a , i n t h e N i l e p r o v i n c e , Idi A m i n ' s h o m e l a n d , . . . a t s o m e level, p e r h a p s o n l y m y t h i c a l , K a n s e w e r o is t h e f o n t o f A I D S " (132). I n S h o u m a t o f f s s e a r c h f o r t h e source, A f r i c a becomes a portent o f apocalypse, a promise o f horrors that will i n v a d e the W e s t in a parody-reversal o f the E u r o p e a n colonial m i s s i o n i n A f r i c a : " [ M a n y scientists] c l a i m t h a t w h a t is h a p p e n i n g i n A f r i c a is a n i g h t m a r e v i s i o n o f t h e f u t u r e o f t h e W e s t " (134-35). S e v e r a l o f S h o i m i a t o f P s interviewees, t o o , "believed that the curtain w a s f a l l i n g , l h a t t h e f l o o d w a s c o m i n g . . . . A I D S w a s t h e hist s t r a w , t h e

,m>NIK«

•»«

final flail. I t p l a y e d right i n t o t h e g a t h e r i n g m i l l e n a r i a n t e r r o r " (170). S h o u m a t o f f displays a skeptical irony that holds his account b a c k f r o m p r o m o t i n g w i l d e r m i l l e n a r i a n i s m . H e is r e a d y t o a c k n o w l e d g e i g n o r a n c e a n d d o u b t , t o pass o n q u i p s that m i g h t easily u n d e r m i n e his project, a n d t o report personal encounters w i t h o u t condescension. H e asks, f o r e x a m p l e , "[I]s the clinical picture o f A I D S really A f r i c a n ? " (140), r e p o r t s a c o l l e a g u e ' s c o m m e n t , " I t ' s f u n n y h o w t h e y a l w a y s s a y it's u s . . . . F i r s t i t ' s t h e A f r i c a n k i l l e r b e e s . N o w i t ' s A I D S " (180), a n d q u o t e s a m e d i c a l officer w h o , w h e n a s k e d a b o u t a n A f r i c a - t o - H a i t i - t o A m e r i c a r o u t e , " replied, " [ W ] h y c o u l d n ' t it h a v e b e e n t h e o t h e r w a y a r o u n d ? " (163). U l t i m a t e l y , t h o u g h , S h o u m a t o f f s a c c o u n t d o e s l i t t l e to shake u p the established m y t h s a n d symbolic patterns that h a v e long since m a r k e d t h e C o n g o a s a d i s t i n c t d i s c u r s i v e z o n e . T h u s , h e l i n k s A f r i c a n A I D S historically which

populations

with the maelstrom o f decolonization, in

"mushroom,"

"upheaval"

occurs,

and

H I V

" s w e e p s " f r o m its " h i d i n g p l a c e " (139). M o r a l l y , h e l o c a t e s t h e v i r u s i n " d e g e n e r a t e " scenes l i k e t h e b a r i n U g a n d a w h e r e , a h o r r i f i e d s p e c t a t o r , h e w i t n e s s e s " t h e c l o s e s t t h i n g t o S o d o m " (195). A n d

finally,

as i f

to c o n f i r m t h a t A f r i c a n p h e n o m e n a a l w a y s exist i n a " n a t u r a l , " dehistoricized z o n e rather than a cultural a n d political one, he evokes the specter o f A I D S i n a n a n o d y n e d o m e s t i c allegory: A c o l o n y o f m a g n i f i c e n t . . . egrets h a d t a k e n o v e r a h u g e tree a b o v e [a b u n g a l o w ] a n d the r o o f a n d y a r d were spattered w i t h their g o o e y w h i t e d r o p p i n g s . T h e o w n e r seemed t o be l i v i n g w i t h the situation, t o be m a k i n g n o effort t o d r i v e t h e birds a w a y . Il was a case study in tropical acceptance. (145; e m p h a s i s a d d e d ) I n scenes s u c h as t h i s o n e , S h o u m a t o f f c o n f i r m s t h e m y t h i c i z e d C o n g o o f C o n r a d , N a i p a u l , a n d H y l a n d . T h e C o n g o r e e m e r g e s as t h e t r o p i c a l z o n e o f s a d inevitability,

the terminus—the

endzone—of

extreme,

death-driven abjection.

THE

AMAZON

T h e A m a z o n , like the C o n g o , has a m y t h i c i z e d history o f abjection, a legacy

o f remorse—"tristes

tropiques"—that

anticipates

its o w n

7

d e s t r u c t i o n . B e f o r e r e c e n t y e a r s , h o w e v e r , w h e n it h a s b e c o m e t h e p r e e m i n e n t z o n e o f the sensitive e n v i r o n m e n t a n d threatened i n d i g e n o u s cultures,

the A m a z o n

ground

f o r the "tropical traveler": the adventurer-hero or, perhaps

/it

w a s also a ludic

space—a happy

l o n i n s 1 \ w i 111 I V I ' l f W H I i 11

hunting

better, the w o u l d - b e hero o f the g u n g h o type m o s t p o p u l a r l y expressed in the B o y ' s O w n a d v e n t u r e tale. T h i s tradition, primarily t h o u g h b y n o means exclusively British ( t h e l e a d i n g " f o r e i g n p r e t e n d e r " is p r o b a b l y t h e A m e r i c a n T i m C a h i l l ) , has been kept alive m o s t conspicuously b y the traveler-natu ralist R e d m o n d O ' H a n l o n . T h e genre w i t h i n w h i c h O ' H a n l o n writes, like the tradition h e s t u b b o r n l y u p h o l d s , has thrived o n turning out d o o r danger into a r m c h a i r c o m e d y . O n e o f the genre's " o l d h a n d s , " P e t e r F l e m i n g , n e a t l y d e m o n s t r a t e s its a w a r e n e s s o f its o w n c l i c h e s : 8

T h e w h o l e t e c h n i q u e o f e x p l o r i n g [in the tropics] is o v e r l a i d w i t h c o n v e n t i o n s so u n m i s t a k e a b l e a n d so o f t e n m o c k e d — h a s a j a r g o n so impressive a n d so easily g u y e d — t h a t the m a n w h o at his first essay a d o p t s t h e c o n v e n t i o n s a n d e m p l o y s t h e j a r g o n m u s t lack b o t h s h a m e a n d h u m o u r . (122) F l e m i n g , w h o s e 1 9 3 3 t r a v e l b o o k Brazilian Adventure is a classic o f its k i n d , a p p a r e n t l y lacks neither: his o w n experiences in the jungle, h e a d m i t s self-ironically, w e r e " a l w a y s perillously close t o t h e pages o f those b o o k s w h i c h publishers catalogue u n d e r the heading o f T r a v e l and A d v e n t u r e ' " ( 1 2 2 ) — p r e c i s e l y the b o o k s that that other wellk n o w n tropical traveler, C l a u d e Levi-Strauss, derides, in w h i c h "actual e x p e r i e n c e is r e p l a c e d b y s t e r e o t y p e s , " a n d i n w h i c h " p l a t i t u d e s a n d c o m m o n p l a c e s [are] t r a n s m u t e d i n t o r e v e l a t i o n s b y t h e sole fact t h a t their a u t h o r , instead o f d o i n g his plagiarizing at h o m e , h a s . . . s a n c t i f i e d it b y c o v e r i n g t w e n t y t h o u s a n d m i l e s " (Tristes Tropiques 3 9 , 1 8 ) . "I hate traveling a n d explorers," are the f a m o u s o p e n i n g w o r d s o f Tristes Tropiques ( 1 9 5 5 ) ; " y e t h e r e I a m p r o p o s i n g t o tell t h e s t o r y o f m y e x p e d i t i o n s " (17). " A d v e n t u r e is o b s o l e t e , " d e c l a i m s F l e m i n g , t h e n proceeds t o regale us w i t h his adventures ( 3 1 ) . I t appears the tropical t r a v e l o g u e needs t o disclaim itself i n o r d e r t o b r i n g itself into b e i n g . D r a w n i n s p i t e o f i t s e l f t o c l i c h e , t h e g e n r e is a l s o i r r e s i s t i b l y a t t r a c t e d to p a r o d y . M o r e than just attracted; for in the danger-ridden jungles o f Brazil, p a r o d y provides b o t h the a m a t e u r explorer ( F l e m i n g ) a n d t h e p r o f e s s i o n a l a n t h r o p o l o g i s t ( L e v i - S t r a u s s ) w i t h n o t h i n g less t h a n a strategy o f s u r v i v a l . P a r o d y f u n c t i o n s as p r o t e c t i v e c o v e r i n g , as c a m o u f l a g e ; it c o n s t i t u t e s a n e c e s s a r y a c t o f s e l f - d e f e n s e . H e r e , a g a i n , f r o m Brazilian Adventure: II' I n d i a n s a p p r o a c h e d us, w c referred to t h e m as the O n c o m i n g S a v never said, " w a s thai 11 s h o t ? " b u t a l w a y s , " w a s that the

ages. W e

w e l l - k n o w n b a r k o f a M a u s e r ? " A l l insects o f a harmless n a t u r e a n d ridiculous a p p e a r a n c e w e p o i n t e d o u t t o each o t h e r as creatures " w h o s e slightest glance spelt D e a t h . " A n y b i r d larger t h a n a t h r u s h w e credited w i t h the a b i l i t y t o " b r e a k a m a n ' s a r m w i t h a single b l o w o f its p o w e r f u l w i n g . " W e s p o k e o f w a t e r a l w a y s as the " P r e c i o u s F l u i d . " W e referred t o ourselves, n o t as e a t i n g meals, b u t as d o i n g " A m p l e Justice t o a F r u g a l R e p a s t . " ( T 2 2 ) A n d so the s h o w c o n t i n u e s . " T o a n y o n e w h o did n o t t h i n k it f u n n y as w e d i d , " concedes F l e m i n g , "it must have been an intolerably tiresome k i n d o f j o k e " (122). B u t t h e j o k e a l s o s e r v e s i t s p u r p o s e , b e c o m i n g , f o r F l e m i n g , " a n important feature in that private code o f nonsense which w a s o u r c h i e f d e f e n c e a g a i n s t h o s t i l e c i r c u m s t a n c e " (122). T w o options a p p e a r t o be o p e n here t o aspiring tropical travelers: either they can strike u p a pose o f m o r a l rectitude, t h e r e b y

allowing

t h e m s e l v e s t o i n t e r p r e t their e x p e r i e n c e as a p a r a b l e o f e c o l o g i c a l d e v astation a n d / o r civilizational decline (the L e v i - S t r a u s s m o d e l ) ; o r they can p l a y o u t p a r o d y t o the full, t r a n s f o r m i n g their experience into the stuff o f high m e l o d r a m a (the F l e m i n g m o d e l ) . Several c o n t e m p o r a r y A m a z o n t r a v e l b o o k s — m o s t n o t a b l y t h o s e o f J o e K a n e (Running the Amazon,

Savages)—succeed

with

i n c o m b i n i n g these t w o m o d e l s . O t h

ers, s u c h a s P e t e r M a t t h i e s s e n ' s The Cloud

Forest (1961) o r , m o r e

r e c e n t l y , B r i a n A l e x a n d e r ' s Green Cathedrals: A Wayward Traveler in the Rain Forest (1995) a r e b e t t e r s e e n as m o r a l i s t i c " e c o t r a v e l o g u e s " i n c o n t e m p l a t i v e L e v i - S t r a u s s i a n v e i n . A n d still o t h e r s a r e e t h n o g r a p h i c studies, p o p u l a r i z e d f o r a w i d e r audience: e x a m p l e s here m i g h t include Alan

Campbell's

Getting

to Know

Waiwai

(1995) a n d P h i l i p p e

D e s c o l a ' s r e c e n t l y r e i s s u e d The Spears of Twilight (1996). T h e s e b o o k s , a n d m a n y others like t h e m , a d d themselves t o the steady f l o w o f " r a i n forest" products that h a v e transformed the vivid colors o f the A m a z o n into a swathe o f political green. Y e t w o r k s like O ' H a n l o n ' s

indicate

t h a t t h e z o n e o f t r o p i c a l c o m e d y is f a r f r o m e m p t y , a n d t h a t i t o c c u p i e s a residual space b e n e a t h even the m o s t serious accounts. T h e p o p u l a r i t y o f O ' H a n l o n ' s b o o k s o w e s m u c h t o t h e i r use o f k n o c k a b o u t farce a n d j u v e n i l e h u m o r t o offset their scientific ratio nale: the observation o f local flora a n d f a u n a . I n his tropical travel o g u e s t o d a t e , Into the Heart of Borneo (1984) a n d In Trouble

Again

(1988) ( t h e m o s t r e c e n t , Congo Journey [1996], is r a t h e r d i f f e r e n t , b e i n g m u c h m o r e "serious" a n d introspective), O ' H a n l o n combines D a r w i n ian science w i t h a k e e n sense o f t h e theatrical: his n a m * lives, like his p r e d e c e s s o r F l e m i n g ' s , a r e e x u b e r a n t b u r l e s q u e s , 11 ( i T H K K I I "

111111

i-\

11 t

Iket, o r f r o m t h e w i d e r a n g e o f r e c e n t c r i t i c a l s t u d i e s t h a t f o c u s o n w o m e n ' s travel w r i t i n g . Interestingly, t h o u g h , m a n y o f these latter e m p h a s i z e the nineteenth century, tending t o s u c c u m b in the process t o the v e r y n o s t a l g i a o n w h i c h m e n ' s t r a v e l w r i t i n g is o f t e n b a s e d . ) F i n a l l y , a t e m p t a t i o n exists t o c o n s c r i p t w o m e n ' s t r a v e l w r i t i n g i n t o the service o f a n e m a n c i p a t o r y politics, m o s t o f t e n t h r o u g h a c o m b i n a t i o n o f w o m e n ' s l i b e r a t i o n a n d a n t i c o l o n i a l i s m . S a r a M i l l s ' s Discourses of Difference (1991) is v a l u a b l e h e r e i n s h o w i n g h o w w o m e n ' s t r a v e l n a r r a t i v e s m a y be " f e m i n i s t " i n s o m e respects w h i l e r e m a i n i n g " i m p e rialist" in others. Mills's study o f nineteenth-century w o m e n travelerwriters e x a m i n e s , precisely, the interface b e t w e e n w o m e n ' s travel writ ing a n d imperialism, s h o w i n g h o w w o m e n such as Isabella B i r d , N i n a M a z u c h e l l i , a n d M a r y K i n g s l e y reached in their travels f o r f r e e d o m f r o m the constraints placed u p o n t h e m b y a Victorian patriarchy while r e m a i n i n g b o u n d w i t h i n the d o m i n a n t imperialist discourse o f the d a y (27-66). T h e s e w r i t e r s , a c c o r d i n g t o M i l l s , o c c u p i e d a n i n t e r m e d i a r y p o s i t i o n like t h a t o f the ( A n g l o - I n d i a n ) m e m s a h i b : w h i l e t h e y w e r e rel atively e m a n c i p a t e d a n d sometimes c h a m p i o n e d w o m e n ' s rights, they were a l s o c a l l e d u p o n t o u p h o l d a n d p r o t e c t t h e c o l l e c t i v e i n t e r e s t s o f E m p i r e (58-80; see a l s o B a r r ) . A s i m i l a r p o s i t i o n is a r g u a b l y o c c u p i e d b y s o m e o f t h e i r l a t e - t w e n t i e t h - c e n t u r y c o u n t e r p a r t s , w h o i n a n a g e a f t e r E m p i r e a r e still a p t , i n spite of t h e m s e l v e s , t o exercise i m p e r i a l rights. T w o p o s t w a r w o r k s w r i t t e n i n t h i s v e i n a r e D c r v l a M u r p h y ' s Full Tilt (1965) a n d , m o r e r e c e n t l y , M a r y M o r r i s ' s Nothing to Declare (1988). B o t h a r e c o n f e s sional narratives that illustrate M o r r i s ' s v i e w that w o m e n ' s travel writ i n g is m o r e d i r e c t l y p e r s o n a l — m o r e r e v e a l i n g o f t h e w r i t e r ' s o w n e m o tions—than men's. M u r p h y , f o r example, favors a n epistolary f o r m — s e l d o m used b y male travel writers—to recount her experiences o f t r a v e l i n g a l o n e b y b i c y c l e to A f g h a n i s t a n , P e r s i a , a n d I n d i a . A n d M o r r i s , p r a c t i c i n g w h a t s h e p r e a c h e s , sees t h e n a r r a t i v e o f h e r e x t e n d e d j o u r n e y t o C e n t r a l A m e r i c a as a n o p p o r t u n i t y f o r i n q u i r y a n d o f t e n a g o n i z e d self-debate. B o t h o f these narratives enact a dia logue b e t w e e n a d v e n t u r e a n d introspection: their external j o u r n e y s are a c c o m p a n i e d b y a n inner quest f o r self-understanding. A t times, the c o n f e s s i o n a l strain o f t h e w r i t i n g b e c o m e s u n d u l y narcissistic, l a p s i n g in M u r p h y ' s case i n t o a b r e a s t - b e a t i n g e x a m i n a t i o n of h e r o w n i n a d e quacies o r , in M o r r i s ' s , into trancelike reveries redolent of N e w A g e psychobabble:

114

TWIKINTS W i l l i

TVI'I'lwHITIIMft

At various times ghosts or gods run my life. The ghosts I find in my room a t night, in the eyes of brujas [witches], in the bird nailed t o the tree. While the past struggles to keep me back, the gods propel me forward. Into risk and sacrifice, choice and responsibility. The ghosts are in charge of memory, the gods' domain is destiny. . . . I listen to the ghosts and obey the gods. The ghosts whisper, the gods prod. I listen like a cat at an opening t o a wall, and then when it is safe, I pass through. When the gods recede, the ghosts take over and when I let go of the ghosts, some of whom mean me no harm, the gods send me out on my missions. I return to find the infiltration of ghosts. (125-26) M o r e endearing than such indulgences are Morris's and, especially, M u r p h y ' s efforts to analyze their compromised status as white West ern w o m e n travelers. T h u s , despite her

entirely conventional—revul

sion for "busloads o f French and G e r m a n tourists." M o r r i s manages (unlike some o f her male counterparts) to admit that she is a tourist too; M u r p h y , meanwhile, irritated at being taken for and deferred to as a memsahib during her travels, nonetheless recognizes that her bohemian demeanor cannot mask her Western privilege. M u r p h y and, in a different context, M o r r i s emerge as variations on what, adapting Albert M e m m i , we might call the "memsahib w h o refuses."

For

M e m m i , "the colonizer w h o refuses" plays an impossible historical role: He may openly protest, or sign a petition, or join a group which is not automatically hostile toward the colonized. This already suffices for him to recognize that he has simply changed difficulties and discom fort. It is not easy to escape mentally from a concrete situation, to refuse its ideology while continuing to live with its actual relation ships. From now on, he lives his life under the sign of a contradiction which looms at every step, depriving him of all coherence and all tranquillity. (20) The colonizer, however much he dissents, is still part o f the oppressing g r o u p and—at least as M e m m i sees it—will be forced to share its des tiny. M e m m i ' s opposition is overdrawn, essentializing "the c o l o n i z e d " as a victim and "the colonizer" as an oppressor w h o k n o w s h o w to use his greater force; nonetheless, his critical description has relevance for F u r o - A m e r i c a n traveler-writers-especially for those, like M u r p h y , who

have leftist anticolonial views. M u r p h y is certainly

genuine

enough in her anticolonial sentiments, and Full Till includes several full-blooded lirades against the First World's depredations on the

UHNIII'K

A N l l I H I I I I I I I K I I I 111

I I t

T h i r d . B u i s h e b e l o n g s , l i k e it o r n o t , t o a p r i v i l e g e d g r o u p o f F i r s t W o r l d wanderers: her romanticization o fT h i r d W o r l d plight and her fierce c r i t i q u e o f W e s t e r n m a t e r i a l i s m a r e i n p a r t t h e p r o d u c t o f a c u l tural b a c k g r o u n d that allows her freedom o f m o v e m e n t a n d expres sion, in part the result o f a genre t h a t tends t o t a k e such f r e e d o m s f o r g r a n t e d . M u r p h y ' s i n t e r m e d i a r y s t a t u s as a t r a v e l i n g " m e m s a h i b w h o refuses" scotches the binaries o f the " c o l o n i z e d w o m a n " a n d the " c o l o n i z i n g m a n . " B u t t h e s l i p p a g e b e t w e e n t h e s e c a t e g o r i e s c r e a t e s its o w n h i s t o r i c a l a n x i e t i e s ; a n d i n r e c o g n i z i n g t h e s e , M u r p h y resists t h e t r a v eler's s t o c k t e m p t a t i o n t o ( f a l s e ) e s c a p e . M u r p h y , a n I r i s h w o m a n in India, a n d M o r r i s , a n A m e r i c a n w o m a n in M e x i c o , are conscious t h r o u g h o u t their narratives o f the a m b i v a l e n c e o f their position. O n the o n e h a n d , they are F i r s t W o r l d tourists in relatively i m p o v e r i s h e d T h i r d W o r l d countries; o n t h e other, they are w o m e n travelers l a b o r i n g u n d e r the (heightened) disad v a n t a g e s o f t h e i r sex. B o t h w o m e n , t r a v e l i n g a l o n e , a r e t h e o b j e c t s o f u n w e l c o m e m a l e a t t e n t i o n , a n d M o r r i s , i n p a r t i c u l a r , is c o n s t a n t l y alert t o the threat o f r a p e . I n M e x i c o , she rides i n t o t h e j u n g l e , a c c o m panied b y a taciturn guide: I l o o k e d at A b o n d i o carefully. H e w a s a silent, h a r d e n e d m a n . I h a d entrusted m y s e l f to h i m t h r o u g h this j u n g l e that h a d n o trail. A n d he c o u l d d o a n y t h i n g he w a n t e d to m e . B u t there w a s a softness to his eyes, a gentle c u r v e to his lips, a n d I k n e w he w o u l d n o t h a r m

me.

W h e n y o u travel alone, y o u learn to read those inner maps. Y o u l e a r n t o t r u s t a l a n d s c a p e t h a t is f a m i l i a r o n l y i n s i d e y o u r h e a d . ( 7 9 )

L a t e r , d a n g e r r e a p p e a r s a f t e r she h a s t a k e n a m o o n l i t s w i m . B e l i e v ing- - i m a g i n i n g ? - - t h a t s h e is b e i n g p u r s u e d b y t w o m e n w h o a p p e a r s u d d e n l y o n t h e h o r i z o n , she dives b a c k i n t o t h e w a t e r a n d s w i m s slowly u n d e r the surface: 1 t h o u g h t h o w e a s y it w o u l d b e f o r t h e m t o p l u c k m e f r o m t h e s e a . I k e p t s w i m m i n g u p the s h o r e , a w a y f r o m the p l a c e in the m o o n l i g h t I h a d found, oblivious o f the urchins, the barracuda, the night eaters, the reaching

fingers

o f j e l l y f i s h . I s w a m into the d a r k e s t w a t e r o f all

and stayed there, until they were g o n e .

(102)

T h e f a n t a s y o f being chased recurs m a n y times in M o r r i s ' s narrative; c o n t i n u a l l y s u r r o u n d e d b y things a n d , especially, people m e n that f r i g h t e n h e r , she c o n v e r t s h e r w r i t i n g i n t o a g r a p h o f h e r s u b l i m i n a l fears a n d desires. T h e s e fears a n d desires a r e c e n t e r e d o n h e r o w n e r o t i -

I Id

1 I >I II'1 •-1w

I

1

I

' I

I I

cized body. Morris's b o d y has its o w n geography, its o w n itineraries and landscapes; it acts both as a sensor for her experience in the present and as a receptacle for collective memories o f experiences in the past: " W o m e n remember. Our bodies remember. Every part o f us remem bers everything that has ever happened. Every touch, every feel, every thing is there in our skin, ready to be reawakened, revived" (101). F o r Morris, travel is a register for the experience o f embodiment: it sets in motion a process that provides the stimulus for "revival." But travel is also a site o f risk where the "reawakened" female body becomes the object o f others' desire and threatens to turn into a trap. Morris c o m pares her situation to that o f other w o m e n travelers, some of w h o m she befriends; she feels, as she imagines they do, that her journey is a test o f mettle, a trial not only of her own strength but of the collective strength of her sex. M o r e apparent, however, are the moments o f weakness with which she punctuates her narrative—moments that draw her nearer, perhaps, to her target female readership, but that also show the gap between her and her fellow w o m e n travelers' aspirations to greater freedom and the awareness o f their movement between alternative forms o f confinement. If the freedom o f travel turns out, in some respects, to be an empty promise, it m a y yet hold consolations, Pyrrhic victories for the dispos sessed. N o t least a m o n g these is the capacity to play with gender stereotypes. Morris and M u r p h y try to draw attention away from themselves as w o m e n travelers by pretending to imitate men, both in their attitudes and styles of dress. Both travelers favor men's clothing, and M u r p h y , in particular, takes on a persona "so beyond the imagin ing o f everyone [in India and, especially, Afghanistan] that it's univer sally assumed I'm a m a n " (27). Eric N e w b y , w h o negotiates similar geographical territory in A Short Walk in the Hindu Kush (see chap. [), is seemingly horrified o f being found to be effeminate. M u r p h y , in contrast, takes advantage o f her ambiguous sexual status; in Afghani stan, for instance, she grows accustomed to being the only w o m a n present, on more than one occasion being asked to share in the locals' macho jokes: 5

It c e r t a i n l y is a c u r i o u s e x p e r i e n c e t o b e a w o m a n t r a v e l l i n g a l o n e i n -

M u s l i m c o u n t r i e s . M o s t o f o n e ' s t i m e is s p e n t i n t h e c o m p a n y o f m e n o n l y , being treated w i t h the respect d u e t o a w o m a n , b u t being talked t o n i i i n - l o - m a n , s o t h a t i n t h e e n d o n e begins t o feel s o m e w h a t h e r m a p h r o d i t i c . (213)

' . 1 '•; 1 > 1;it AND i l l i n 11 1 in m i l l 1 \

11 /

W h i l e neither M u r p h y n o r M o r r i s goes t o the lengths o f a n o t h e r c o n t e m p o r a r y w o m a n traveler, S a r a h H o b s o n , w h o , e m u l a t i n g Isabelle E b e r h a r d t , f o l l o w s a f o r b i d d e n t r a i l i n I r a n b y p o s i n g as a m a n , t h e y b o t h question the b o u n d a r i e s separating m a l e f r o m female travelers, counteracting the perceptions associated w i t h their sexuality b y delib e r a t e l y m a n i p u l a t i n g s t e r e o t y p i c a l g e n d e r r o l e s . I n t h i s sense, t h e y p r o v i d e o b l i q u e e x a m p l e s o f w h a t M a r j o r i e G a r b e r w i t t i l y calls " c r o s s d r e s s i n g f o r s u c c e s s " : t h e i r " h e r m a p h r o d i t i c " s t a t u s is, i n G a r b e r ' s w o r d s , " a m e c h a n i s m o f d i s p l a c e m e n t , " o p e n i n g u p a " c a t e g o r y cri sis," r e v o l v i n g a r o u n d t h e figure o f g e n d e r , t h a t " d e s t a b i l i z e s t h e c o m f o r t a b l e b i n a r i t y " o f c o n v e n t i o n a l s e x u a l d i f f e r e n c e (16-17). 6

T h i s d e s t a b i l i z a t i o n is t a k e n a s t a g e f u r t h e r b y t h e p o p u l a r W e l s h w r i t e r J a n M o r r i s , w h o s e e a r l i e r n a r r a t i v e s w e r e n o t o n l y w r i t t e n as, b u t l i v e d a s , t h e male t r a v e l e r - w r i t e r , J a m e s . O n e o f t h e m o s t p r o l i f i c a n d highly rated o f c o n t e m p o r a r y travel writers, w i t h m o r e t h a n t w e n t y b o o k s t o h e r n a m e , J a n M o r r i s w a s b o r n i n 1926 a s t h e m a l e child J a m e s M o r r i s . James's c h i l d h o o d , affectionately rendered i n the a u t o b i o g r a p h i c a l v o l u m e Conundrum (1974), r e s e m b l e s t h a t o f t h e C h a r l e s R y d e r figure o f E v e l y n W a u g h ' s Brideshead Revisited: sensi tive, s o m e w h a t f e m i n i z e d , sexually u n f o r m e d , a n d avidly aestheticizi n g . A l s o l i k e R y d e r , t h e y o u n g M o r r i s p r o c e e d e d i n t o t h e a r m y as t h e Second W o r l d W a r ended, j o i n i n g the N i n t h Q u e e n ' s R o y a l L a n c e r s after a formulaic high school education at L a n c i n g , one o f E n g l a n d ' s g r e a t p r i v a t e s c h o o l s . A s Conundrum p r e s e n t s t h e m , t h e n e x t f i f t e e n y e a r s o f M o r r i s ' s life w e r e " d o u b l e d " : f o r w h i l e o n t h e s u r f a c e h e f o l l o w e d a n e x e m p l a r y m a l e career pattern, e m e r g i n g f r o m the a r m y o f B r i t a i n ' s last i m p e r i a l d e c a d e t o t a k e u p the p r o f e s s i o n o f f o r e i g n cor r e s p o n d e n t , he also felt o n a d e e p e r level t h a t he w a s a w o m a n i m p r i s o n e d i n the b o d y o f a m a n . A s these feelings increased, M o r r i s b e g a n t o p r e p a r e h i m s e l f p s y c h o l o g i c a l l y f o r the sex c h a n g e — i n i t i a t e d a d e c a d e l a t e r a n d c o m p l e t e d i n 1972 a f t e r a n o p e r a t i o n i n C a s a b l a n c a — f r o m w h i c h M o r r i s , J a m e s ( m a l e c o r r e s p o n d e n t ) e m e r g e d as M o r r i s , J a n ( w o m a n travel writer). G i v e n t h e associations in other w o m e n travel writers' w o r k b e t w e e n travel a n d sexual transgression, o n e m i g h t expect t h e sex change t o have h a d p r o f o u n d implications f o r Morris's travel writ i n g s . Y e t , s t r a n g e l y p e r h a p s , t h e p o t e n t i a l f o r t r a v e l t o b e f i g u r e d as a f r a u g h t c r o s s i n g o f s e x u a l b o u n d a r i e s is u n d e r e m p h a s i z e d i n , i f n o t entirely absent f r o m , J a n M o r r i s ' s later w o r k . O n o n e level, M o r r i s s e e m s in h e r t r a v e l w r i t i n g t o d i s a v o w h e r s e x u a l i t y : " M u c h o f t h e IlK

T O U R L S I S W I T H T V T ' K W U I I I'.HS

e m o t i o n a l force . . . that m e n spend in sex, I s u b l i m a t e d i n t r a v e l " (101). M o r r i s a p p e a r s t o h a v e s e e n t h e s e x / g e n d e r s p l i t t h a t m o t i v a t e d h e r s e x c h a n g e m o r e as a p r a c t i c a l p r o b l e m s/he n e e d e d t o s o l v e t h a n as a p s y c h o l o g i c a l c o m p l e x ; c o n s e q u e n t l y , t h e r e s e e m s l i t t l e s c o p e f o r r e a d i n g h e r t r a v e l n a r r a t i v e s a s screens f o r f a b l e s o f ( g e n d e r ) s u b v e r sion. Issues o f g e n d e r t h r o u g h o u t J a n M o r r i s ' s w o r k t a k e a distant s e c o n d p l a c e t o t h e a t t e m p t — p a r t i c u l a r l y e v i d e n t i n t h e Pax Britannica t r i l o g y — t o r e c u p e r a t e a n d i m a g i n a t i v e l y r e p o s s e s s t h e B r i t i s h i m p e r i a l w o r l d . S u c h a v i e w o f M o r r i s ' s w o r k implies t h a t she m i g h t b e b e t t e r s e e n , a l o n g s i d e N e w b y a n d O ' H a n l o n , as a t o n g u e - i n - c h e e k chronicler o f Britain's f o r m e r imperial "glories." B u t m o m e n t s o f sex u a l t e n s i o n do e x i s t i n M o r r i s ' s w o r k , b o t h b e f o r e a n d a f t e r t h e o p e r a t i o n , t h a t suggest a m o r e conflicted v i e w t h a n t h e o n e she wishes t o present i n her a u t o b i o g r a p h y . F o r J a m e s M o r r i s , ideally p o s i t i o n e d as a foreign correspondent f o r the romantic observation o f a male w o r l d in t h e s e r v i c e o f E m p i r e , g i v e s t h i s w o r l d a n u n m i s t a k a b l y F o r s t e r i a n homoero'tic twist. 7

A t o u c h s t o n e l o c a t i o n h e r e is C a i r o , w h e r e M o r r i s , i n t h e fifties, was clearly responsive t o the same M i d d l e E a s t e r n / A r a b i a n m y s t i q u e , w i t h its r e s o n a n c e s o f a r i s t o c r a t i c m a s c u l i n i t y , a l l u r i n g l y v e i l e d f e m i ninity, a n d a m b i v a l e n t sexual impulse, that W e s t e r n writers a n d i m a g e - m a k e r s h a v e invested i n icons like L a w r e n c e o f A r a b i a . W h i l e M o r r i s might n o t have h a d a n y long-term fascination with exploring the b o r d e r l i n e territories o f sex a n d g e n d e r , the L e v a n t i n e sphere o f his a c t i v i t i e s a s a c o r r e s p o n d e n t d u r i n g t h e fifties p r o v i d e d a s i t e — a " c o n tact z o n e " ( P r a t t ) — f o r t h e r o m a n c i n g o f h i s p e r s o n a l " c o n u n d r u m , " a n d f o r t h e s e l e c t i o n o f t h e v a r i o u s i m a g e s t h a t h e m i g h t call u p o n t o s y m b o l i z e it. C a i r o , t h e p l a c e w h e r e " I s l a m . . . is t r a n s l a t e d i n t o w o r l d l y terms, into t h e languages o f art, politics, s h o w m a n s h i p a n d e c o n o m i c s , i n t o the dialectics o f thinkers a n d t h e f o r m u l a s o f science" (171) is t h e f o c a l p o i n t o f t h i s L e v a n t i n e w o r l d ; it is a c i t y t h a t a c h i e v e s a n a l m o s t m a g n e t i c r e s o n a n c e i n M o r r i s ' s w o r k , a city t h a t lures h i m ( a n d , later, h e r ) i n , a n d d r a w s b o t h o f t h e m b a c k f o r m o r e . I n t o this s y m b o l i c site M o r r i s i n t r o d u c e s s e v e r a l o f t h e s t r a n d s t h a t E d w a r d S a i d l a t e r u n r a v e l s i n Orientalism (1978)- - t h e W e s t e r n e r s ' O r i e n t o f sexual allure, religious fanaticism, a n d political/moral duplicity. C a i r o , and the L e v a n t in general, although described a b o v e in material lerms, gather u p elsewhere the m o r e predictable associations o f d e s p o t i s m a n d e s p i o n a g e . H e r e , f o r e x a m p l e , is a b r i e f p a s s a g e f r o m t h e n o v e l Lust Letters from /lav (1985): 8

9

O I S N D H U A N I.) O T I I l i U T H O I I I t l . l i S

119

T h e longer I l o o k e d a t t h e G o v e r n o r t h e less h e seemed like t h e benevolent figurehead o f an idiosyncratic M e d i t e r r a n e a n b a c k w a t e r , a n d t h e m o r e like o n e o f those spidery despots o n e reads a b o u t i n o l d b o o k s o f O r i e n t a l travel, c r o u c h i n g there at the heart o f his w e b . (117) N o t , o f c o u r s e , t h a t C a i r o i t s e l f is a n " i d i o s y n c r a t i c b a c k w a t e r , " a n d i n Farewell the Trumpets (1978), t h e final v o l u m e o f t h e Pax Britannica trilogy, M o r r i s goes so f a r as t o declare, " F o r s o m e years o f the w a r C a i r o w a s t h e m i l i t a r y c a p i t a l o f t h e B r i t i s h E m p i r e " (438). A c r o s s t h e r a n g e o f passages, essays, a n d chapters i n b o o k s w h e r e C a i r o a p p e a r s , it d o e s s o i n a n u m b e r o f g u i s e s : as t h e s e t t i n g f o r a l a t e c o l o n i a l s h o w d o w n between British a m b a s s a d o r Sir Miles L a m p s o n a n d E g y p t i a n K i n g F a r o u k ( a t r i u m p h , in Morris's view, o f British integrity o v e r L e v a n t i n e w e a k n e s s ) ; as a n o s t a l g i c a l l y m e m o r i a l i z e d b a s e f o r M o r r i s ' s a c t i v i t i e s as a f o r e i g n c o r r e s p o n d e n t ; a s a n " a r c h a i c " a n d m e d i e v a l c i t y , c a p i t a l o f t h e A r a b a r t i s t i c w o r l d ; a n d , l a t t e r l y , as a h e d o n i s t i c a n d v o l a t i l e c i t y d u r i n g t h e last d a y s o f P r e s i d e n t A n w a r S a d a t . T h e " e s s e n tial" C a i r o , h o w e v e r ( w h i c h , like so m a n y other travel writers, M o r r i s i m a g i n e s h e r s e l f t o h a v e d i s c o v e r e d ) , is a p l a c e o f e v o c a t i o n a n d l o n g ing, a vestige o f the " m y s t e r i o u s E a s t " : Y e t there remains f o r m e still that sediment o f the sinister, a sugges t i o n o f stealth, secrecy a n d subversion. I sense it always i n that i m m e n s i t y o f desert, so e m p t y , so close a n d s o m e h o w so threatening. I feel it in t h e detestable folds o f the E g y p t i a n b a n k notes, w i t h a smell o f their o w n a n d evocations o f s l u m a n d bordel; i n t h e postures o f t h e silent, l o n g - r o b e d w a t c h m e n , sleepless i n the night streets; in the tall presences o f t h e minarets, elegant b u t a l w a y s w a t c h f u l ; a n d m o s t p a l p a b l y o f all, in those terrible m o n u m e n t s o f e g o i s m a n d e n i g m a , the p y r a m i d s o f G i z a . {Destinations 176-77) I f here the E g y p t i a n b a n k n o t e s are "offensively" folded, the folds o f t h e alert w a t c h m a n ' s r o b e s a r e n o t s o c o n s p i c u o u s l y s t i g m a t i z e d ; a n d it s e e m s , i n d e e d , as i f t h e f o l d i n g s , d r a p i n g s , a n d o b s c u r i n g s o f t r a ditional L e v a n t i n e costumes are offering M o r r i s t h e possibility o f i n t r i g u e o f a d i f f e r e n t , s e x u a l , k i n d . T h e v e i l e d figure is i n f a c t a r e c u r r e n t m e t a p h o r o f s e l f - r e p r e s e n t a t i o n i n M o r r i s ' s w o r k . I n Conundrum, M o r r i s r e f e r s t o h e r p r e v i o u s p o s i t i o n as a s e l f - c o n s c i o u s l y a m b i v a l e n t m a l e a m o n g t h e British soldiery i n t h e s a m e terms she will later use t o describe m o r e c o n v e n t i o n a l f o r m s o f espionage. T h u s , she likens her s e l f a t o n e p o i n t t o " a s p y in a e o u r l e o u s e n e m y c a m p " ( 3 3 ) , " c a m o u f l a g e d " a nil v i e w i n g t h e w o r l d " f r o m s o m e silenl c h a m b e r o f

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[her] o w n " (56); t h e t e x t t h e n e x p l i c i t l y finds a n i m a g e f o r t h e s e i d e a s o f d e t a c h m e n t a n d i s o l a t i o n i n t h e figure o f t h e M u s l i m w o m a n , w h o s e veil " p r o t e c t s h e r f r o m so m a n y nuisances, a n d a l l o w s h e r t o be a t h e r b e s t o r h e r w o r s t i n s i d e " ( 1 1 3 ) . F i n a l l y , she r e t u r n s u s t o t h e N o r t h A f r i c a n M e d i t e r r a n e a n , a n d t o a series o f i m a g e s s h e m i g h t e q u a l l y w e l l h a v e a p p l i e d t o C a i r o . H e r e , f o r i n s t a n c e , is a v i v i d , p h a n t a s m i c vision o f C a s a b l a n c a — t h e place w h e r e the t r a n s f o r m a t i o n f r o m m a l e to female was eventually accomplished: T h e office b l o c k s m i g h t n o t l o o k m u c h like castle w a l l s , n o r the taxis l i k e c a m e l s o r c a r r i a g e s , b u t still I s o m e t i m e s h e a r d t h e l i m p i d A r a b music, and smelt the p u n g e n t A r a b smells, that h a d for so l o n g per v a d e d m y l i f e , a n d I c o u l d s u p p o s e it t o b e s o m e c i t y o f f a b l e , o f phoenix

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R e f l e c t i n g b a c k o n a f o r m e r life, M o r r i s h i n t s a t its s e x u a l r e a w a k e n i n g — a t r a n s f o r m a t i o n that m i g h t be effected i f " t h e o m e n s are right a n d t h e m o o n i n its p r o p e r p h a s e . " S u c h h i n t s a r e as f a r as M o r r i s g o e s in " t r a n s g r e s s i n g " s e x u a l b o u n d a r i e s ; h e r p r i m a r y p r o j e c t lies else where, in the restoration o f imperial m y t h s . Nonetheless, i n using a n O r i e n t a l m y s t i q u e t o veil h e r p e r s o n a l feelings, M o r r i s suggests a tactic a v a i l a b l e t o w o m e n (as well as t o h o m o s e x u a l ) traveler-writers: t h e mystification o f their sexual preferences—the m a s k i n g o f their sexual being - that allows t h e m t o m o v e m o r e freely i n a m a l e - d o m i n a t e d world. 1 0

F o r M o r r i s , f r e e d o m o f a k i n d c a n be f o u n d b e h i n d the veil, c o n c e a l e d . F o r o t h e r t r a v e l e r - w r i t e r s , h o w e v e r , s u c h as t h e A u s t r a l i a n R o b y n D a v i d s o n , f r e e d o m is b e s t l e a r n e d i n t h e o p e n , i n t h e s u n l i t glare o f "desert places." L i k e several o f her m a l e c o n t e m p o r a r i e s — Bruce C h a t w i n and Paul T h e r o u x are the best-known e x a m p l e s — D a v i d s o n is d r a w n t o t h e d e s e r t as a site o f b o t h a d v e n t u r e a n d c o n t e m p l a t i o n . Tracks (1980), o n e o f t h e c a n n i e s t o f c o n t e m p o r a r y w o m e n ' s t r a v e l n a r r a t i v e s , is h e r a c c o u n t o f a s i x - m o n t h t r i p a c r o s s t h e C e n t r a l A u s t r a l i a n desert, a c c o m p a n i e d (for the m o s t p a r t ) o n l y b y her p a c k c a m e l s a n d h e r e v e r - f a i t h f u l d o g . Tracks c o n t a i n s t h e classic ingredients f o r a w o m a n ' s survival narrative: the c o u r a g e o u s solitary t r a v e l e r , d e f y i n g t h e r e s t r i c t i o n s p l a c e d o n h e r sex; t h e fearless c o n f r o n t a t i o n o f total strangers a n d " h o s t i l e " s u r r o u n d i n g s ; the g r a d u a l a d a p t a t i o n t o a n d c o m m u n i o n w i t h the e n v i r o n m e n t . Y e t D a v i d s o n , 1 1

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t o h e r credit, c o u n t e r a c t s these e a s y cliches, resisting o t h e r s ' a t t e m p t s to corral her experiences into profitable m y t h : It w o u l d s e e m t h a t the c o m b i n a t i o n o f e l e m e n t s — w o m a n ,

desert,

c a m e l s , a l o n e n e s s — h i t s o m e soft s p o t in this e r a ' s p a s s i o n l e s s , h e a r t l e s s , a c h i n g p s y c h e . I t fired t h e i m a g i n a t i o n o f p e o p l e w h o s e e t h e m selves as alienated, powerless, unable to d o a n y t h i n g a b o u t a w o r l d g o n e m a d . A n d w o u l d n ' t it b e j u s t m y l u c k t o p i c k t h i s c o m b i n a t i o n . . . . I w a s n o w public property. I w a s n o w a feminist s y m b o l . 1 w a s n o w a n object o f ridicule for small-minded sexists, a n d I w a s a crazy, irresponsible adventurer (although n o t as c r a z y as I w o u l d have been h a d 1 failed). B u t w o r s e t h a n all t h a t , I w a s n o w a m y t h i c a l b e i n g w h o h a d d o n e s o m e t h i n g c o u r a g e o u s a n d outside the possibilities that other people could h o p e for. A n d that w a s the antithesis o f w h a t I w a n t e d to share. T h a t a n y o n e c o u l d do anything. If 1 c o u l d b u m b l e m y w a y a c r o s s a desert, t h e n a n y o n e c o u l d d o a n y t h i n g . A n d this w a s especially true for w o m e n , w h o h a v e used c o w a r d i c e for so l o n g to p r o t e c t t h e m s e l v e s t h a t it h a s b e c o m e a h a b i t . ( 2 3 7 - 3 8 )

Instead o f playing u p the hardships o fher j o u r n e y — t a k i n g a d v a n t a g e , like m a n y o f her peers, o f travel writing's p r o p e n s i t y f o r self-congratu l a t i o n — D a v i d s o n e m p h a s i z e s its f e a s i b i l i t y , e v e n c a l l i n g it, a f t e r w a r d s , " e a s y " (254). H e r m a j o r d i f f i c u l t y c o n s i s t s , r a t h e r , i n d e a l i n g w i t h p u b licity: i n c o p i n g w i t h those i m a g e m a k e r s , such as h e r s p o n s o r s National Geographic, w h o s e e k t o c a p i t a l i z e o n h e r " a d v e n t u r e s " b y t u r n i n g t h e m i n t o lucrative m e d i a spectacle. D a v i d s o n c o u l d b e accused h e r e o f a c t i n g i n b a d f a i t h ; after all, she accepts t h e s p o n s o r ship o f a m a g a z i n e she s e e m i n g l y despises, t h e n p r o c e e d s t o t u r n h e r j o u r n e y i n t o a n o t h e r c o m m o d i t y , a t r a v e l b o o k . Tracks is b e t t e r s e e n , t h o u g h , as a self-consciously critical e x a m i n a t i o n o f the m e d i a sensa t i o n a l i s m t h a t c o n t i n u e s t o d o g — a n d p a r t l y , t o d e f i n e — b o o k s o f its g e n r e . I n t h i s r e s p e c t , it r a n k s a l o n g s i d e C a t h e r i n e L u t z a n d J a n e C o l l i n s ' s r e c e n t c r i t i q u e o f National Geographic, w h i c h l a m b a s t e s t h e p o p u l a r m a g a z i n e f o r its m e d i a i m p e r i a l i s m a n d i t s v o y e u r i s t i c a p p r e c i a t i o n o f p h o t o g e n i c " p r i m i t i v e " p e o p l e s . ' H e r e , f o r i n s t a n c e , is a n e x c h a n g e b e t w e e n D a v i d s o n a n d t h e t r i g g e r - h a p p y National Geo graphic p h o t o g r a p h e r R i c h a r d S m o l a n , w h o j o i n s h e r p e r i o d i c a l l y , n o t a l w a y s happily, o n her trip: 3

W h a t e v e r justifications for p h o t o g r a p h i n g the A b o r i g i n e s I had c o m e u p w i t h b e f o r e , n o w w e r e t o t a l l y s h o t . It w a s i m m e d i a t e l y a p p a r e n t t h a t t h e y h a t e d it. . . . I a l s o r e a l i z e d t h a i c o v e r a g e in a c o n s e r v a t i v e m a g a z i n e l i k e Gt'o^mp/iic

w o u l d d o the p e o p l e n o g o o d al a l l , n o

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m a t t e r h o w I w r o t e the article. T h e y w o u l d r e m a i n q u a i n t primitives t o be g a w k e d at b y readers w h o c o u l d n ' t really give a d a m n w h a t w a s h a p p e n i n g t o t h e m . I a r g u e d w i t h R i c k t h a t he w a s i n v o l v e d in a f o r m o f parasitism. . . . H e c a m e u p w i t h all the o l d a r g u m e n t s , but w a s t o r n , I k n e w , because h e r e c o g n i z e d it was true. (49) D a v i d s o n ' s n a r r a t i v e resists, b y a n d l a r g e , s u c h o p p o r t u n i t i e s f o r c u l t u r a l v o y e u r i s m : h e r s u p p o r t f o r t h e A b o r i g i n e s is o f a n e n t i r e l y d i f f e r e n t k i n d t o , s a y , C h a t w i n ' s i n The Songlines: it is b a s e d o n a n u n d e r standing o f their material situation rather than o n a n aestheticized a d m i r a t i o n o f t h e " m y t h i c " q u a l i t i e s o f t h e i r c u l t u r e . D a v i d s o n is e q u a l l y r e s i s t a n t t o t h e m y t h i c i z a t i o n o f h e r o w n p e r s o n a : s h e m a k e s it c l e a r t h r o u g h o u t t h a t s h e is ( o r , p e r h a p s b e t t e r , w o u l d l i k e t o b e ) a w o m a n w h o travels rather t h a n a credentialed " w o m a n traveler," a candidate f o rthe anthologies a n d a c o m m o d i f i e d "tribute t o her sex." N o n e t h e l e s s , h e r n a r r a t i v e is w r i t t e n , t o s o m e e x t e n t , f r o m a f e m i n i s t viewpoint, berating her A u s t r a l i a n f e l l o w m e n f o r their crudeness a n d " s m a l l - m i n d e d s e x i s m " (237); finding c o n s o l a t i o n , s o m e w h a t r o m a n t i cally, in a n older A b o r i g i n a l system in w h i c h , " w h i l e m e n a n d w o m e n h a v e s e p a r a t e r o l e s , t h e s e r o l e s . . . a r e m u t u a l l y r e s p e c t e d " (174); a n d vigorously dismantling the m y t h s that surround the supposedly " w e a k e r sex," m y t h s that support the view o f her o w n "uniqueness" o r "exceptionality": [ G i r l s ] w a s t e so m u c h o f [their] e n e r g y seeking . . . t o p u s h u p the m i l lions o f tiny t h u m b s t h a t h a v e tried t o quelch . . . creativity a n d strength a n d self-confidence; t h a t h a v e so effectively caused [ t h e m ] t o b u i l d fences against possibility; t h a t h a v e so effectively k e p t [them] i m p r i s o n e d inside [their] n o t i o n s o f s e l f - w o r t h l e s s n e s s . . . . A n d n o w a m y t h w a s b e i n g created w h e r e I w o u l d a p p e a r different, e x c e p t i o n a l . Because society n e e d e d it t o be so. B e c a u s e i f p e o p l e started living o u t their fantasies, a n d refusing t o accept the fruitless b o r e d o m t h a t is offered t h e m as n o r m a l i t y , t h e y w o u l d b e c o m e h a r d t o c o n t r o l . (238) Tracks raises u n a n s w e r e d q u e s t i o n s a b o u t D a v i d s o n ' s c o l l a b o r a t i o n i n the m y t h o l o g i e s o f " e x c e p t i o n a l i t y " she seeks so u r g e n t l y t o d i s c l a i m . N e v e r t h e l e s s , h e r u n e a s i n e s s w i t h t h e g e n r e i n w h i c h s h e is w o r k i n g , a n d her readiness t o expose that genre t o internal critique, are valuable correctives t o those travel n a r r a t i v e s — a n d here b o t h w o m e n a n d m e n are implicated that d r a w attention t o themselves ( a n d their writers) as s a l e a b l e c o m m o d i t i e s a n d ( h a t p r o f i t u n a s h a m e d l y f r o m m a r k e t a b l e romantic myths. T w o e x a m p l e s o f t h i s l a t t e r k i n d o f t r a v e l wrilini?, a r c I , u c y I r v i n e ' s l.U'NI»tH ANI> nj'MI'H

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Castaway (1983) a n d J o a n a M c l n t y r e V a r a w a ' s Changes in Latitude (1989). I r v i n e ' s a n d V a r a w a ' s t r a v e l n a r r a t i v e s a r e p e r h a p s b e s t s e e n as exercises i n c o n t r o l l e d s e l f - c o n g r a t u l a t i o n , a i m e d a t a c o m m e r c i a l m a r k e t that k n o w s h o w t o retail W e s t e r n " i s l a n d p a r a d i s e " m y t h s . B o t h writers celebrate their o w n ability t o survive in, a n d a d a p t t h e m selves t o , a w h o l l y u n f a m i l i a r e n v i r o n m e n t ; s c o r n i n g the n o n c o m m i t t a l a t t i t u d e o f t h e l e i s u r e d t r a v e l e r o r , still w o r s e , t h e t o u r i s t , I r v i n e a n d V a r a w a take o n demanding—self-consciously heroic—roles: I r v i n e as a " c a s t a w a y " o n t h e t i n y P a c i f i c i s l a n d o f T u i n , V a r a w a as a n " i n i t i a t e " i n t o t h e F i j i a n w a y o f life s h e h a s a d o p t e d b y m a r r y i n g a local fisherman. I n w r i t i n g a b o u t their respective experiences, Irvine a n d V a r a w a c o n f r o n t t h e p a r a d o x o f seeking independence t h r o u g h apparentlyd e p e n d e n t m e a n s . I r v i n e ' s o n e - y e a r stay o n T u i n results f r o m h e r a n s w e r i n g the call t o j o i n E n g l i s h eccentric a n d l a t t e r - d a y C r u s o e G e r a l d K i n g s l a n d , n o t j u s t a s h i s W o m a n F r i d a y b u t as h i s w i f e — a r o l e t h a t , a s s h e d i s c o v e r s , b r i n g s w i t h it t h e u s u a l " c o n j u g a l o b l i g a t i o n s . " V a r a w a , m e a n w h i l e , a d o p t s a n o t h e r culture as h e r o w n , b u t i n s o d o i n g loses m u c h o f t h e i n d e p e n d e n c e s h e h a d p r e v i o u s l y e n j o y e d , as a single w o m a n i n t h e i n d i v i d u a l i s t i c — a n d s u p p o s e d l y " l i b e r a t e d " — s o c i e t y o f h e r n a t i v e U n i t e d S t a t e s . Castaway a n d Changes in Latitude c a n b e s e e n , t h e n , as s e m i - i r o n i c c o n t e m p l a t i o n s o n t h e n a t u r e o f f r e e d o m : as e x p l o r a t i o n s , m e d i a t e d t h r o u g h t h e escapist c o n v e n t i o n s o f travel writing, o f the cultural relativities o f i n d e p e n d e n c e . I r v i n e a n d V a r a w a assert their i n d e p e n d e n c e , i n part, b y m a n i p u lating the m a l e c o n v e n t i o n s o f travel w r i t i n g t o serve their o w n ends. Irvine, o n T u i n t o p l a y the part o f W o m a n F r i d a y t o K l n g s l a n d ' s C r u s o e , f o r g e t s t o r e a d t h e s c r i p t , a n d b e c o m e s i n s t e a d a k i n d o f selfa p p o i n t e d i s l a n d m o n a r c h : " T u i n l a d y . " T h e " c a s t a w a y " m y t h is f e m i n i z e d as I r v i n e , t a k i n g o v e r f r o m t h e w o e f u l l y i n a d e q u a t e K i n g s l a n d , plays o u t p r o p r i e t a r y fantasies o n a n otherwise u n i n h a b i t e d island, a n d r e g a r d s t h a t i s l a n d as " a p r i v a t e s p a c e , r e m o t e f r o m t h e rest o f t h e w o r l d , i n w h i c h a n y t h i n g c o u l d h a p p e n " (17). F o r V a r a w a , a s f o r I r v i n e , " h e r " i s l a n d ( G a l o a ) is " r o m a n t i c a l l y r e m o t e " (1); t h e o p p o r t u n i t y f o r r o m a n c e is t h e n p u s h e d f u r t h e r w h e n V a r a w a m e e t s a l o c a l fisherman a n d , after a w h i r l w i n d courtship, marries h i m a n d begins t o l e a r n " t h e p s y c h i c r e a l i t y o f a n o t h e r w a y " (219). Q u i t e h o w V a r a w a proposes t o learn "the Fijian w a y " w i t h o u t learning the Fijian lan guage remains a mystery. W e are given to understand, nonetheless,

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that t h r o u g h a c o m b i n a t i o n o f sensory experience a n d a n t h r o p o l o g i cal r e a d i n g s a b o u t " p r i m i t i v e " c u l t u r e s , V a r a w a e v e n t u a l l y a r r i v e s a t an intuitive grasp o f the "essence" o f F i j i a n culture; a n d at a n a w a r e ness t h a t s h e a n d h e r n e w h u s b a n d , c o l l i d i n g " l i k e m u t e p l a n e t s i n t h e n i g h t , i n a q u i e t e x p l o s i o n o f d a r k a n d l i g h t " (55), a r e " b r i d g i n g a g a p d e e p e r t h a n d i f f e r e n c e i n l a n g u a g e , a d e e p s e a - t r e n c h t h a t lies b e t w e e n o u r c u l t u r e s " (227). A s t h e f l o r i d p r o s e s u g g e s t s , V a r a w a ' s n a r r a t i v e belongs t o t h e rarefied w o r l d o f exotic r o m a n c e ; y e t , like Irvine, she m a n i p u l a t e s a genre t h a t h a s o f t e n b e e n u s e d t o cater t o m a l e f a n t a s i e s , t u r n i n g it i n s t e a d i n t o a n o u t l e t f o r h e r o w n p r e v i o u s l y repressed e m o t i o n a l n e e d s . ' 4

W h a t is m o s t a p p a r e n t i n b o t h n a r r a t i v e s , t h o u g h , is t h e flagrant e x h i b i t i o n i s m o f t h e i r w r i t e r s — a f l a u n t i n g o f self, i n V a r a w a ' s c a s e , t h a t belies h e r d e s i r e t o n a r r o w c u l t u r a l d i v i d e s . Castaway is c o n structed, i n p a r t , o u t o f clippings f r o m Irvine's "secret" diary: a n effec tive m e a n s o f " r e v e a l i n g " herself t o a m i l d l y stimulated readership. Less a sharing o f intimacies, then, than a baring o f them; a n d Irvine certainly wastes n o time in literally shedding h e r clothes, declaring her self w i t h e x c r u c i a t i n g c a n d o r t o b e a n u n r e g e n e r a t e s u n - w o r s h i p e r , r e a d y ( a n d c a n w e d o u b t it?) t o " c o m m i t a d u l t e r y w i t h a s u n b e a m " (125). I r v i n e ' s t i t i l l a t i n g g e s t u r e s a n d s o f t - p o r n p o s t u r i n g {Castaway includes several p h o t o g r a p h s o f t h e scantily clad a u t h o r ) m o c k t h e same (male?) readers t h e y a p p e a r t o b e attracting, as d o h e r p l a y f u l reiteration o f m a l e p i o n e e r i n g cliches a n d h e r p a r o d i c c a p i t u l a t i o n t o erotic m a l e fantasies (as in h e r pledge o f allegiance t o a "phallic m u s h r o o m ! " [166]). T h e s e i r o n i c t r i b u t e s t o m a l e h o o d a r e e n t e r t a i n i n g e n o u g h ; less e n d e a r i n g is h e r s u p e r i o r a t t i t u d e t o w a r d t h e n e i g h b o r i n g (Torres Strait) Islanders w h o " i n v a d e " T u i n , daring t o land o n a n i s l a n d s h e t h i n k s is h e r s — t h e site o f " h e r s u r v i v a l p r o j e c t " — b u t t h a t is b y e n t i t l e m e n t theirs a n d that, like t h e islands t h a t s u r r o u n d it, consti t u t e s t h e i r p r i m a r y s o u r c e o f s u s t e n a n c e . V a r a w a is g u i l t y , l i k e w i s e , o f p u t t i n g h e r o w n desires a n d fantasies a b o v e t h e needs o f t h e p e o p l e w h o s e g u e s t s h e i n i t i a l l y is, a n d o n w h o s e g e n e r o s i t y s h e c o n t i n u e s t o rely. T h u s , e v e n after t h e n o v e l t y h a s w o r n o f f o f b e i n g " a star a t t r a c t i o n , o b j e c t o f s p e c u l a t i o n a n d d e s i r e " (9), s h e m a i n t a i n s h e r selfi m p o r t a n c e b y s w i t c h i n g roles t o G r e a t C o n c i l i a t o r — a n e m i s s a r y o f Hie ( w h i t e ) c i v i l i z a t i o n she r e c o g n i z e s as b e i n g f l a w e d , b u t w h o s e gift o f " r e a s o n " s h e c a n still f i n d il in h e r s e l f t o b e s t o w o n h e r y o u n g e r , volatile h u s b a n d .

W h a t I w i l l t e a c h h i m is u n c e r t a i n ; a g e n t l e r s e n s e , a k i n d l i n e s s , I h o p e . M o s t l y I w a n t t o t e a c h h i m t h a t t h e r e is n o n e e d f o r t h a t d a r k ness to enter his eyes, the darkness that blots o u t t h o u g h t a n d reason, t h a t m a k e s h i m w a n t t o s m a s h a n d h i t a n d flow w i t h b l o o d , t o w a s h clean with anger.

(37)

W h a t I r v i n e a n d , particularly, V a r a w a a p p a r e n t l y fail t o c o m p r e h e n d is t h a t t h e d i f f e r e n c e s t h e y p e r c e i v e b e t w e e n t h e i r o w n " d e v e l o p e d " societies a n d t h e r e l a t i v e l y " b a c k w a r d " i s l a n d societies t h e y e n c o u n t e r are differences they ( a n d , indirectly, the b o o k s they h a v e written) help p r o d u c e . I r v i n e , a t l e a s t , is a w a r e o f h e r o w n e s c a p i s t p r o c l i v i t i e s ; b u t despite h e r f r e q u e n t self-irony, h e r m o c k i n g awareness o f herself as "less o f a G r e a t

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E s c a p i s t " (139), I r v i n e s e e m s r e l u c t a n t t o t a k e r e s p o n s i b i l i t y f o r c o n tributing toward thediscrepancy between First and T h i r d Worlds—the s a m e d i s c r e p a n c y o n w h i c h h e r n a r r a t i v e o f isolation a n d its c o m m e r c i a l v i a b i l i t y s o o b v i o u s l y d e p e n d . A f t e r all, h e r s t a y o n T u i n is a carefully orchestrated touristic event; a n d as J o h n F r o w points o u t , " t h e l o g i c o f t o u r i s m is t h a t o f a r e l e n t l e s s e x t e n s i o n o f c o m m o d i t y relations a n d the consequent inequalities o f p o w e r between center a n d periphery, First a n d T h i r d Worlds, developed a n d underdeveloped r e g i o n s " (151). T h e i s o l a t i o n o f T u i n , a n d t h e a p p a r e n t b a c k w a r d n e s s o f T o r r e s Strait Island culture, m a y be attractive t o I r v i n e because they s e e m s o d i f f e r e n t , s o r e m o v e d f r o m t h e w o r l d s h e k n o w s . Y e t as F r o w t e r s e l y c o n c l u d e s ( v i a S u s a n B u c k - M o r s s ) , it is " p r e c i s e l y t h e lack o f d e v e l o p m e n t w h i c h m a k e s a n a r e a a t t r a c t i v e as a t o u r i s t g o a l " ( q t d . i n F r o w 151).

15

V a r a w a , f o r h e r p a r t , seeks t o a b s o l v e h e r s e l f f r o m t h e s t i g m a s associated w i t h W e s t e r n tourism b y " g o i n g n a t i v e " : b y a d o p t i n g a n o t h e r c u l t u r e a s i f it w e r e h e r o w n . W h i l e t h e g e s t u r e s b e h i n d h e r a t t e m p t a t cultural conversion are clearly heartfelt, t h e m a n n e r in w h i c h t h e y a r e d e s c r i b e d is s u s p e c t i n t h e e x t r e m e . T h u s , w h i l e s h e r e p e a t e d l y states h e r w i s h t o d i s s o c i a t e h e r s e l f f r o m t h e " m a t e r i a l W e s t , " she reinforces t h e Islanders' p e r c e p t i o n o f h e r b y p l a y i n g t h e part o f w e a l t h y benefactor. V a r a w a b u y s her h u s b a n d M a l e clothes, a s p e a r g u n , a b o a t : s h o u l d s h e r e a l l y e x p e c t h i m n o t t o see h e r a s a n affluent Westerner? V a r a w a acknowledges t h e d i l e m m a : " I realized t h a t I k n e w n o t h i n g , " s h e s a y s a f t e r b u y i n g M a l e m e d i c i n e t h a t h e is unable t o stomach, a n d " c o u l d o n l y offer the coldness o f m o n e y a n d t h e b u r d e n o f g u i l t t h a t a c c o m p a n i e s it. . . . T h e useless m e d i c i n e s t a i n i n g his face in t h e l i g h t o f t h e ii.U

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w r o n g , J o a n a , y o u have n o heart, only a wallet t o trade f o r l o v e " (82-83). S u c h i n s t a n c e s o f b l e e d i n g - h e a r t l i b e r a l i s m o n l y e m p h a s i z e V a r a w a ' s dependence o n the material culture o f the W e s t ; behind her a t t e m p t t o b r i d g e t h e g a p b e t w e e n t w o " v a s t l y d i f f e r e n t " c u l t u r e s lies an awareness, albeit repressed, o f the e c o n o m i c s u p r e m a c y o f her o w n . V a r a w a ' s rhetoric o f reconciliation—a rhetoric derived n o t so m u c h f r o m h e r u n i v e r s i t y a n t h r o p o l o g y t e x t b o o k s as f r o m t h e a r c h e t y p e s o f light a n d d a r k that p e r m e a t e J u n g i a n p o p p s y c h o l o g y — c a n n o t dis guise the u n e q u a l p o w e r relations b e t w e e n F i r s t a n d T h i r d w o r l d s , h e r c o u n t r y a n d M a l e ' s ; a n d i n this sense, V a r a w a ' s l o v e m a t c h , a l o n g w i t h t h e n a r r a t i v e t h a t p r e s e n t s it, o n l y h e l p s i r o n i c a l l y t o d r i v e t h e i r r e s p e c t i v e societies f u r t h e r a p a r t . Changes in Latitude is p e r h a p s b e s t s e e n a s a n e x e r c i s e i n f l a g r a n t c u l t u r a l v o y e u r i s m , a n a d a p t a t i o n o f a n t h r o p o l o g i c a l t r o p e s t o selfingratiating ends. T h e F i j i a n islands satisfy V a r a w a ' s c h i l d h o o d fasci nation w i t h the "primitive," a fascination nurtured b y the (limited) a n t h r o p o l o g i c a l k n o w l e d g e she h a s a c q u i r e d a b o u t " e x o t i c c u l t u r e s . " V a r a w a seems t o use a n t h r o p o l o g y p r i m a r i l y as a m e a n s o f legitimat i n g h e r e r o t i c f a n t a s i e s ; a n d i n s o f a r as t h e t e x t c a n b e s e e n a t a l l as c o n v e y i n g e t h n o g r a p h i c i n f o r m a t i o n , it d o e s s o t h r o u g h t h e filter o f " s o f t primitivist" r o m a n c e . I n a typical passage, V a r a w a , while sitting d r i n k i n g yaqona ( a l o c a l c o n c o c t i o n ) w i t h M a l e ' s f r i e n d s a n d f a m i l y , casts f u r t i v e g l a n c e s a t t h e m e n s i t t i n g w i t h s u c h c o m f o r t o n t h e g r a s s , noting 1 6

strong bodies, m u s c u l a r a r m s a n d chests, the seductive careless w a y t h e y w r a p t h e i r sulit w h e n t h e y g e t u p , t h e p e r v a s i v e c o u r t e s y o f t h e i r t a l k a n d m o t i o n . A timeless g r a c e drifts here, a n eternal d r e a m

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of people comfortable with where they are a n d w i t h each other.

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F o r a l l i t s p r e t e n s i o n s t o a n t h r o p o l o g i c a l a c c u r a c y , its o n - t h e - s p o t explanations o f local customs a n d events t o a n u n a c c u s t o m e d audi ence, Changes in Latitude is b e s t seen a s r o m a n t i c t r a v e l o g u e — a n d i n its m o s t m e l o d r a m a t i c v e i n . I n its d e t e r m i n a t i o n t o e x o t i c i z e its P a c i f i c island e n v i r o n m e n t , t o p l a y self-consciously o n E u r o p e a n paratlisal m y t h s , Changes in Latitude p r o b a b l y o w e s as m u c h t o t h e l u r i d talcs o f R o b e r t L o u i s S t e v e n s o n as it d o e s to t h e m e t i c u l o u s o b s e r v a t i o n s o f its m o r e o b v i o u s model, M a r g a r e t M e a d . ' L i k e Irvine, V a r a w a m a n i p u lates E u r o p e a n c o n v e n t i o n s o f t h e t r o p i c a l i s l a n d p a r a d i s e s o a s to c a t e r t o h e r o w n d e s i r e s a n d liiiiliisuiN. I n thin HCIIIKC, ill least, b o t h w r i t ers p r o v i d e a l t e r n a t i v e s | o l i i n l i t i n u i i l b n u t l r o h m i c d m y t h s : the 7

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resourceful castaway c o m i n g t o terms with, a n d eventually conquer ing, " h i s " island; the irresistible h e r o seducing " h i s " d u s k y m a i d e n ; a n d so o n . I n a n o t h e r s e n s e , h o w e v e r , b o o k s l i k e Castaway a n d Changes in Latitude s h o w t h e c o n t i n u i t i e s b e t w e e n w o m e n ' s t r a v e l n a r r a t i v e s a n d the masculinist p a r a d i g m s o f conquest they seemingly wish t o disavow. B o t h n a r r a t i v e s seek t o m a k e capital o u t o f a k i n d o f c u l t u r a l v o y e u r i s m , a n d t o m a r k e t themselves as quests f o r " f r e e d o m " f r o m t h e i r o w n ( a n d t h e i r r e a d e r s ' ) societies. B o t h n a r r a t i v e s c o n t r a d i c t t h e antimaterialist pretensions o f their writers, merely accentuating the a f f l u e n c e o f t h e societies t o w h i c h t h e y b e l o n g . B o t h n a r r a t i v e s , f i n a l l y , place a n emphasis o n fantasies o f individual achievement, advertising the exploits o f their intrepid traveler-writers a n d exhibiting, h o w e v e r i r o n i c a l l y , t h e i r i n d e p e n d e n c e , c o u r a g e , s t r e n g t h . I t is u n f a i r , p e r h a p s , to bracket the b o o k s o f Irvine a n d V a r a w a w i t h those of, say, M u r p h y or D a v i d s o n : writers w h o are m o r e o b v i o u s l y a w a r e o f the b r o a d e r implications o f travel writing, a n d whose w o r k s arguably reach out t o a m o r e d e m a n d i n g , c r i t i c a l a u d i e n c e . Castaway a n d Changes in Lati tude a r e , h o w e v e r , b y n o m e a n s u n t y p i c a l o f a c e r t a i n k i n d o f m i d d l e b r o w travel narrative, one that continues t o enjoy considerable c o m m e r c i a l success. T h i s t y p e o f n a r r a t i v e u n a b a s h e d l y s u p p l i e s e s c a p i s t e n t e r t a i n m e n t , d e l i v e r i n g T h i r d W o r l d e x o t i c a t o its t a r g e t F i r s t W o r l d r e a d e r s h i p , b u t e i t h e r t e m p e r i n g its c u l t u r a l v o y e u r i s m w i t h a m e a s u r e o f s e l f - i r o n y o r a s s i m i l a t i n g it t o t h e w r i t e r ' s a l l e g e d l y c a t h a r t i c p e r sonal quest. I n the e n d , narratives like these d o n o t so m u c h celebrate i n d e p e n d e n c e as r e i n f o r c e t h e i r w r i t e r s ' ( a n d r e a d e r s ' ) ties t o t h e s o c i eties f r o m w h i c h t h e y w i s h t o e s c a p e . A n d t h e w r i t e r s t h e m s e l v e s k n o w t h i s ; f o r t r a v e l n a r r a t i v e s o f t e n c o n t a i n a n e l e m e n t o f strategic w i s h f u l f i l l m e n t , a n d w h i l e it m a y b e t r u e t h a t I r v i n e a n d V a r a w a , a n d o t h ers l i k e t h e m , a r e " r e a c h i n g f o r a k i n d o f l i b e r t y " ( M e l c h e t t 3 ) , it a l s o seems that t h e y e n d u p c o n v e r t i n g potentially liberating narratives into self-admiring confessions a n d recycled versions o f m a r k e t a b l e r o m a n tic m y t h s . Irvine's a n d V a r a w a ' s travel narratives, focusing o n the " o t h e r e d " b o d y , assimilate " p r i m i t i v e " experience t o the dictates o f W e s t e r n c o m m o d i t y culture. Irvine's b o d y , in " n a t i v e " posture, turns into a vehicle f o r c o n s u m p t i o n , j u s t as t h e F i j i a n s ' s e d u c t i v e b o d i e s b e c o m e c o m m o d i f i e d objects o f desire. T h i s " o t h e r i n g " o f the T h i r d W o r l d b o d y , o r o f its s i m u l a c r a l r e p r e s e n t a t i o n , is c h a r a c t e r i s t i c o f m e t r o p o l i t a n travel narratives that aestheticize their m a r g i n a l subjects.'" S a r a S u l e r i ' s p o e t i c a l a u t o b i o g r a p h y Meatless D a y s ( l ' ) K ' i ) p r o v i d e s a n 1 •:;

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alternative to this model: one in which the b o d y remains a focal point—an instrument—for w o m e n ' s travel narrative, without being turned into and exploited as an "otherness machine" (105). Meatless Days arguably belongs to a category of postcolonial autobiography in which the autobiographical subject is grafted onto a wider ethnic or "creolized" community (Lionnet). Suleri's w o r k , however, is distinc tive in that it utilizes travel as a metaphor for the dispersal o f its subject in both time (history) and space. 19

Travel has many connotations in Suleri's intricately structured text. O n one level, travel refers to the diasporic movements o f Suleri's family: across various cities, countries, continents; across linguistic and cultural borders. (Suleri's Pakistani father and Welsh mother form the nodes around which a multicultural family organizes itself, is disas sembled, partially coheres.) O n another level, the text itself is a densely patterned geographic circuit, traversing a variety o f physical and cul tural bodies, mapping out arcane itineraries and complex structures o f speech and thought. A n d on still another, the b o d y itself constitutes its own private geography: it has its o w n distributing mechanisms, its o w n structured patterns of response; and in acting on other bodies, it also has its o w n communicative signals: its register o f facial gestures, its semiology of touch. Meatless Days, as a travel text, traces the m o v e ments within the b o d y as it acts upon, and is acted upon by, the various environments that surround it; but it also records the movements between separate, related bodies as they interact with one another at different times or in a different space. These movements take place across cultural borders in what is clearly a transnational space; in this sense, Meatless Days interrogates t he kind o f national (travel) narrative that it associates with ethnocenI ric vision and a patriarchal view o f place. Such a view is affectionately ironized through the treatment of Suleri's father, an itinerant journal ist committed to the cause of the Pakistani nation but "in too many places at once, recounting different histories for e a c h " (112). A b o v e all, though, Meatless Days enacts a family romance between different women's bodies: Suleri's and her sisters'; her sisters' and her mother's; all o f theirs and their maternal grandmother's. These intimate connec tions establish a bond o f shared affection that persists despite the tur bulence o f a new nation's (Pakistan's) history and the pressures o f a family in bereavement, often, and almost always displaced. Suleri's text mourns personal losses while seeking out new paths and connec tions; it refuses to succumb 1.0 w i l f u l n e s s or the paralysis o f nostalgia, I N U I ' . H A M I 1

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w o r k , l i k e t h e s u b j e c t s h e t e a c h e s , r i s k s b e i n g a p p r e c i a t e d p r i m a r i l y for its e x o t i c c a c h e t . Meatless Days, i n t h i s c o n t e x t , r e a c t s p r e e m p t i v e l y a g a i n s t its o w n r e c e p t i o n ; its n a r r a t i v e o f p o s t c o l o n i a l t r a n s i e n c e c h a l l e n g e s t h e c o m m o d i f i e d d i s t i n c t i o n b e t w e e n " s e l f " a n d " o t h e r , " reject ing a wholesale v i e w o f difference that " p a y s n o a t t e n t i o n t o the cul t u r a l n u a n c e s t h a t d i f f e r e n t i a t i o n i m p l i e s , " a n d r e l o c a t i n g it i n s t e a d a t t h e site w h e r e a c o l o n i a l / p o s t c o l o n i a l h i s t o r y is p l a y e d o u t a n d r e e n acted across the g e n d e r e d ( a n d / o r ethnicized) b o d y . F o r Suleri, as f o r M a r y M o r r i s , memories are channeled t h r o u g h the b o d y : e m b o d i m e n t is n o t j u s t a n a n a l o g u e f o r t h e i n c o r p o r a t i o n o f e x p e r i e n c e b u t a m n e m o n i c device f o r the recuperation o f a personal o r collective past. I n Meatless Days, e m b o d i m e n t f u n c t i o n s as a k i n d o f c o u n t e r m e m o r y t h a t sets i t s e l f o v e r a n d a g a i n s t t h e p o l i t i c s o f c u l t u r a l n o s t a l g i a . Suleri's text travels b a c k in time, n o t t o recover a n i m a g i n e d w h o l e ness, b u t t o c o n s t r u c t a l t e r n a t i v e h i s t o r i e s t o t h e o n e s i n s c r i b e d i n official records—histories that w e r e w r i t t e n o v e r , a n d are n o w rewrit ten b y , the female b o d y . 2 0

T h e s e abstractions d o n o t d o justice t o t h e sensual i m m e d i a c y o f Suleri's w r i t i n g o r t o the intricacy o f a prose t h a t aspires t o , a n d s o m e times reaches, t h e height o f lyric. T h e y indicate, nonetheless, that a case c a n b e m a d e f o r s e e i n g Meatless Days, n o t j u s t as a n i d i o s y n c r a t i c a u t o b i o g r a p h y o r m e m o i r , b u t as a self-consciously gendered travel n a r r a t i v e t h a t raises s e v e r a l i m p o r t a n t q u e s t i o n s : a b o u t t h e p o s i t i o n i n g o f t h e traveling subject w i t h i n a rhetoric o f displacement ( t o u r i s m , m i g r a t i o n , e x p a t r i a t i o n , etc.), a n d a b o u t t h e n e e d t o u n d e r s t a n d t h e p a s t , b o t h i n its b r o a d e r s w e e p o r t r a j e c t o r y a n d i n t h e m u l t i p l e , e m b o d i e d m i c r o n a r r a t i v e s t h a t g o t o m a k e u p w h a t w e call history. Meatless Days p r o v i d e s a r e m i n d e r , a s w e l l , n o t o n l y t h a t w o m e n travel differently, b u t that their j o u r n e y s can be used t o install "differ e n c e " i n t o t h e m o d e r n c u l t u r e o f t r a v e l . A n d t h i s is a c u l t u r e , as I n d e r p a l G r e w a l r e m i n d s u s , t h a t is i n m u c h n e e d o f r e a s s e s s m e n t : T h e r e is m u c h in the culture o f travel that needs e x a m i n a t i o n . . . . P a r ticularly in the area o f sexuality, m o r e texts that a t t e m p t t o d e c o l o nize c u l t u r a l a n d n a t i o n a l f o r m s are necessary, creating narratives o f the travel o f sexualities t h a t w o u l d , once a g a i n , fracture disciplinary practices t h a t were part o f E u r o p e a n m o d e r n i t y a n d colonial m o d e r nities. (232) S u l e r i ' s is o n e s u c h t e x t , a l t h o u g h , a s h e r c r i t i c i s m w a r n s u s , " d i f f e r e n c e " s h o u l d n o t b e c o m e a c a t c h a l l a c a d e m i c c a t e g o r y t h a t enlists l H i l l T H l M I I I U i S

1 |*i

as s o o n a s it h a s b e g u n . I n s u c h e p i s o d e s W e l c h p l a c e s t h e r e a d e r a t a cusp where incidents o f a w a k e n i n g defer, rather t h a n impel, m o m e n t s o f disclosure; travel occurs in t h e gap between r e m e m b e r e d incident a n d its l a t e r e m e r g e n c e as n a r r a t e d m o m e n t . A t m u c h the same time that the y o u n g D e n t o n W e l c h was running a w a y f r o m s c h o o l , J . R . A c k e r l e y ' s classic Hindoo Holiday: An Indian Journal a p p e a r e d — a v e r y f u n n y b o o k t h a t cast a w h i m s i c a l r e t r o s p e c t i v e g l a n c e a t a n e a r l i e r y e a r , 1924, w h e n A c k e r l e y h a d s e r v e d a f i v e m o n t h stint as private secretary t o t h e M a h a r a j a h o f a small H i n d u n a t i v e s t a t e . I n 1924, a l s o , E . M . F o r s t e r ' s l i t e r a r y m o n u m e n t t o t h e l a t e p h a s e o f t h e B r i t i s h R a j , A Passage to India, a p p e a r e d : a n o v e l t h a t m e m o r i a l i z e d a British I n d i a t h a t h a d , i n the v i e w o f m a n y , a l r e a d y dis a p p e a r e d . F o r s t e r ' s n o v e l is e x p l i c i t l y a b o u t t r a v e l , a b o u t a w o m a n v e n t u r i n g u p o n d i f f e r e n t c u l t u r a l t e r r i t o r y t h a t s h e is d e t e r m i n e d t o e m p a t h i z e w i t h a n d u n d e r s t a n d . B u t it is, a b o v e all, i n t h e r e l a t i o n s h i p between t h e E n g l i s h m a n F i e l d i n g a n d t h e M u s l i m A z i z that F o r s t e r addresses his b i g t h e m e o f the testing o f cultural barriers a n d b o u n d aries ( t h e s a m e t h e m e t h a t , l a t e r , w a s t o d o m i n a t e t h e p o s t h u m o u s l y p u b l i s h e d Maurice). A t t h e s a m e t i m e , t h e s m o l d e r i n g i n t e n s i t y o f t h e affection between F i e l d i n g a n d A z i z draws attention t o the centrality o f I n d i a ( a l o n g w i t h E g y p t ) t o F o r s t e r ' s a t t e m p t s t o find h u m a n — i n c l u d i n g s e x u a l — s a t i s f a c t i o n d u r i n g t h e p e r i o d , 1917-25, w h e n h e w a s a w a y f r o m E n g l a n d o n c o l o n i a l s e r v i c e . T h e fictional F i e l d i n g - A z i z r e l a t i o n ship d r a w s u p o n Forster's loyal b u t frustrating a n d u n c o n s u m m a t e d friendship w i t h the I n d i a n M u s l i m S y e d M a s o o d . I n fact, virtually all o f F o r s t e r ' s experiences in the L e v a n t i n e w o r l d a n d in I n d i a w e r e inflected b y s e x u a l p r e s s u r e s . W h e n h e w e n t t o I n d i a f o r a s e c o n d t i m e i n 1921, as private secretary t o the M a h a r a j a h o f D e w a s , t h e latter f o u n d h i m a y o u n g retainer t o satisfy his sexual needs, e v e n t h o u g h he h i m s e l f cus t o m a r i l y d i d his u t m o s t t o e r a d i c a t e s a m e - s e x i n t i m a c i e s a t c o u r t ( F u r b a n k 2:81-86). I t w a s F o r s t e r w h o t h e n g o t A c k e r l e y t h e p o s t o f p r i v a t e s e c r e t a r y a t C h h a t a r p u r ( C h h o k r a p u r i n Hindoo Holiday). Hindoo Holiday is p r e s e n t e d i n t h e f o r m o f a j o u r n a l , o n e s o e l e g a n t l y w r i t t e n a n d s t r u c t u r e d t h a t it b e s p e a k s c a r e f u l r e t r o s p e c t i v e e d i t i n g . I t is e s s e n t i a l l y t h e s t o r y o f A c k e r l e y ' s q u e s t t o k i s s S h a r m a , m o s t beautiful o f t h e M a h a r a j a h ' s y o u n g cup-bearers. T h e text's e r o t i c s a r e set u p e a r l y o n : first, i n c o m m e n t s o n t h e s c u l p t u r e s i n a J a i n temple, w h o s e "indecencies, M a j o r P o m b e y [was] considerate e n o u g h t o m e n t i o n , [ i n c l u d e d ] a l o n g file o f s o l d i e r s m a r c h i n g g a i l y a l o n g , a n d a n o t h e r s m a l l e r , m o r e e l a b o r a t e d e s i g n . . . b o l h s o d o m i l i e " ( 1 7 18); 2 6

I td

I'd I HI IS I -, W I I'M I V IMOA

and second, in a n exchange w i t h the M a h a r a j a h w h o , after asking A c k e r l e y a b o u t a literary reference t o " N e r o m a r r y i n g P y t h a g o r a s in public," receives t h e c o y r e p l y , " W e l l , . . . it m a y m e a n either t h a t N e r o , as a p a t r o n , g a v e P y t h a g o ras in m a r r i a g e t o s o m e y o u n g l a d y , o r t h a t he p u b l i c l y e m b r a c e d Pythagorean philosophy." " B u t , m y g o o d sir," said his H i g h n e s s , "this w a s n o t that P y t h a g o ras; this w a s a n o t h e r P y t h a g o r a s , a b o y . " " O h , " I said hastily. " W e l l , in t h a t case p e r h a p s it m e a n s exactly w h a t it s a y s . " H i s H i g h n e s s simpered i n t o his sleeve. (21) T h i s a r c h e x c h a n g e is a p r e l u d e t o A c k e r l e y ' s a c c o u n t s o f t h e M a h a r a jah's " G o d s ' " entertainments in w h i c h c o m e l y m a l e H i n d u y o u t h s d a n c e f o r t h e c o u r t , e n a c t i n g s t o r i e s f r o m t h e m y t h s . I t is a t o n e o f these c r o s s - d r e s s e d e n t e r t a i n m e n t s t h a t t h e M a h a r a j a h singles o u t t h e barber's s o n S h a r m a f o r his guest's attention. A c k e r l e y ' s desire t o take S l i a r m a f o r h i s v a l e t is i n i t i a l l y f o i l e d , t h o u g h , w h e n h e a l a r m s t h e s h y hoy w i t h a d e m a n d f o r a kiss. A c k e r l e y is e v e n t u a l l y g r a t i f i e d w i t h s o m e d e g r e e o f i n t i m a c y a t court, a t r i a n g u l a t e d succession o f exchanges b e t w e e n A c k e r l e y , S h a r m a , a n d S h a r m a ' s friend, the guest house clerk N a r a y a n , allowing for a measure o f physical contact. T h e E n g l i s h - s p e a k i n g N a r a y a n r e v e a l s t h a t h e h i m s e l f is t h e o b j e c t o f S h a r m a ' s a f f e c t i o n s ; A c k e r l e y , m e a n w h i l e , seems increasingly d r a w n t o b o t h , o n o n e occasion a d m i r i n g N a r a y a n ' s g r a c e f u l n e s s " i n h i s w h i t e m u s l i n c l o t h e s , t h e sleeves o f his l o o s e v e s t w i d e n i n g o u t a t t h e w r i s t , t h e l o n g s t r e a m e r s o f h i s t u r b a n f l o a t i n g b e h i n d h i m " (217). T h e d e s c r i p t i o n c o n t i n u e s i n s i m i l a r v e i n : The b r e e z e p u f f e d at his dhoti as he a p p r o a c h e d , m o u l d i n g t h e soft s t u f f t o t h e shape o f his t h i g h ; t h e n as he t u r n e d a b e n d in the p a t h a n o t h e r gentle gust t o o k the g a r m e n t f r o m b e h i n d a n d blew it aside, m o m e n t a r i l y b a r i n g a slim b r o w n leg. I t o o k his h a n d a n d led h i m into m y tent. (217-18) O n this, t h e a c c o u n t ' s m o s t c h a r g e d o c c a s i o n , N a r a y a n d r a w s t h e l i n g l i s h m a n i n t o t h e s h a d o w o f a tree a n d kisses h i m o n t h e c h e e k ; not a b o u t t o lose a n o p p o r t u n i t y , A c k e r l e y seizes N a r a y a n a n d p l a n t s t w o kisses o n h i s l i p s a m a r k e d t r a n s g r e s s i o n , s i n c e t h e h i g h - c a s t e H i n d u neither eats n o r deigns lo dally w i t h t h o s e w h o e a t m e a t . Shnrmu, t o o , unbends on o n e occasion, holding hands with the amorous liuglishman. |(WUITIi',lt

late W e i m a r period, characteristically moving from bourgeois host families into the resources their own English-contemporary circles a Horded, and from there either into the G e r m a n intellectual/profes sional set or into a sort o f underworld populated by "adolescent boys who hung about many o f the Berlin bars and cafes, and were willing to have sex with English visitors in return for presents and m o n e y " (90). In the earlier part o f the period, the English affectionately ex changed news about their antibourgeois sexual experiments against a background of heady conversation about sex, class, and politics. Y o u n g G e r m a n males brought out in them a sort o f boastful hedo nism, evoking an interesting vacillation as the rugged Berlin hustler competed for favors with the noble blond Teuton. Both types, far from the delicate Oriental favored by Forster and Ackerley, shared the advantage o f seeming to m o v e around publicly, offering their privi leged English clients a way out o f the genteel closet. Unsurprisingly, the homosexuality o f the English circle in preNazi G e r m a n y does not declare itself openly in their writings from the period but is displaced, in A u d e n ' s case, onto enigmatic Freudian lyrics and, in Isherwood's, onto the iconic evocation that eventually emerged as Goodbye to Berlin in 1939, more than half a decade after Nazi successes had made it impossible to view G e r m a n y as a healthy homosexual haven. Spender's major contribution to the literature came only with the (somewhat embarrassed) publication of The Tem ple in 1988. T h e rapid collapse of W e i m a r G e r m a n y brought the h o m o sexuality o f reasonably affluent, well-educated, "liberated" English youths up against G e r m a n Fascism, rendering their admiration for blond nobility and tough physicality extremely fraught. Goodbye to Berlin refracts Isherwood's homosexuality through the febrile atmosphere o f Berlin between 1930 and 1933, giving it unstable definition. The first-person narrator is an observer, a shadowy figure providing sharply realized portraits o f others in a relationship with himself that remains equally elusive. A m o n g these is the legendary Sally Bowles, but the male figures are also piquant and suggestive. The depressed Peter has escaped from his father and family home, passing through the hands o f several psychiatrists before imagining that he can finally settle d o w n with the blond y o u n g G e r m a n Otto. Then there is < )llo himself, "squatting . . . on the b e d , . . . so animally alive, his naked brown body so sleek with health" (118), his youthful vigor and work ing-class vulgarity as seductive to the narrator as it is to the unfortu nate P e t e r . A n d then there are the street boys, w h o hang out at the l;ll< A N I > O T I I I ' . U T t U H J I H i s

139

A l e x a n d e r C a s i n o " w h i l e their girls w e r e o u t w o r k i n g t h e F r i e d r i c h s t r a s s e a n d t h e L i n d e n f o r p o s s i b l e p i c k u p s " (123), a n d w h o i n d e x I s h e r w o o d ' s a n d A u d e n ' s p a r t i c i p a t i o n i n casual same-sex liaisons i n Berlin. T h e m o s t i n t r i g u i n g p o r t r a i t , p e r h a p s , is t h a t o f B e r n h a r d L a n d a u e r , w h o , i n r e c o u n t i n g his h i s t o r y t o t h e n a r r a t o r , d e s c r i b e s h i m s e l f as h a v i n g b e e n " a q u e e r s o r t o f b o y . " S o n o f a w e a l t h y J e w i s h d e p a r t m e n t store o w n e r , B e r n h a r d invites t h e n a r r a t o r t o his a p a r t m e n t a n d , later, t o h i s lakeside villa. T h e n a r r a t o r registers h i s h o s t ' s b i d f o r attention (he answers t h e d o o r " w e a r i n g a beautifully e m b r o i d e r e d k i m o n o " [ 1 5 6 ] ) a n d gestures o f i n t i m a c y (the h a n d o n the shoulder), p r e s e n t i n g h i m as f a s t i d i o u s , o v e r l y i r o n i c , a n d e v i d e n t l y p l e a d i n g f o r friendship. W h i l e B e r n h a r d ostensibly distinguishes himself f r o m the n a r r a t o r i n t h e w o r d s h e uses t o express h i s o w n a l i e n a t i o n , these w o r d s tacitly suggest a deeper c o n n e c t i o n b e t w e e n the t w o m e n : R e m e m b e r t h a t 1 a m a c r o s s - b r e e d . P e r h a p s , a f t e r a l l , t h e r e is o n e d r o p o f pure Russian b l o o d in m y polluted veins. . . . Y o u , Christo pher, with y o u r centuries o f A n g l o - S a x o n freedom behind y o u , with y o u r M a g n a C a r t a e n g r a v e d u p o n y o u r heart,

cannot

understand

t h a t w e p o o r B a r b a r i a n s n e e d t h e stiffness o f a u n i f o r m t o k e e p u s s t a n d i n g u p r i g h t . (161-62)

S t i f f u n i f o r m s , o f c o u r s e , will n o t suffice l o n g t o k e e p B e r n h a r d u p r i g h t ; e q u a l l y , M a g n a C a r t a is n o t t h e g u a r a n t e e o f a b s o l u t e f r e e d o m f o r C h r i s t o p h e r that B e r n h a r d thinks it t o be. T h e b r u t a l N a z i a s s a u l t s o n t h e streets o f B e r l i n , e s c a l a t i n g t h r o u g h t h e 1930s, e v e n t u ally force the visitor t o c o n f r o n t a c o n t r a d i c t i o n b e t w e e n y o u t h f u l , b l o n d m a l e b e a u t y a n d N a z i i d e o l o g y , as w e l l as a p a r a l l e l b e t w e e n t h e marginality o f Jews and homosexuals. T h e m o m e n t o f disengagement c o m e s d u r i n g C h r i s t o p h e r ' s visit t o a m e e t i n g o f pathfinders w h e r e , t o his d i s c o m f o r t , h e d e c o d e s a N a z i i c o n : A b o v e the table with the candlesticks w a sa sort o f icon—the framed d r a w i n g o f a y o u n g pathfinder o f unearthly beauty, gazing steadily i n t o t h e f a r d i s t a n c e , a b a n n e r i n h i s h a n d . The whole place made

feel profoundly

uncomfortable.

me

(198; e m p h a s i s a d d e d )

S t e p h e n S p e n d e r ' s The Temple r e q u i r e d a f a r g r e a t e r t i m e - l a p s e between experience, writing, a n d publication t h a n the w o r k o f A u d e n a n d I s h e r w o o d . The Temple is a n a l l e g o r i c a l r o n i a n a c l e f i n w h i c h S p e n d e r h i m s e l f f i g u r e s as n a r r a t o r P a u l , A u d e n us S i m o n W i l m o t , a n d I s h e r w o o d as W i l l i a m B r a d s h n w / " The Teni/ilc is m o t i v a t e d b y P a u l ' s l.|o

l'" 11 M U X I •. " I I I I I I I ' I ' W I ' I I I I'

infatuation with fellow undergraduate M a r s t o n , a n idealizing h o m o sexual attraction that misfires, a n d that leads h i m t o accept the invitalion o f E r n e s t S t o c k m a n n . a visiting student at O x f o r d ( a n d a figure w h o recalls B e r n h a r d L a n d a u e r i n Goodbye to Berlin), t o j o i n h i m i n H a m b u r g . I n t h e first p h a s e o f t h e n o v e l , G e r m a n y signifies b e a u t i f u l — a n d beautifully p h o t o g r a p h e d m a l e bodies, carefree, generous c o m panionship, and the trappings o f m o d e r n i t y : " P a u l watched the y o u n g G e r m a n s . T h e y h a d a s t y l e w h i c h h e t h o u g h t o f as e x c i t i n g l y ' m o d e r n . ' T h e fashions they w o r e were sun a n d air a n d their b r o n z e skin. T h e b o y s g e n t l e a n d s o f t , t h e g i r l s s c u l p t u r a l , finely m o u l d e d " (42). P a u l ' s visit t o G e r m a n y , t h e n , seems like a d i s c o v e r y o f the b o d y — p a r t i c u larly the y o u n g m a l e b o d y — a n d the potential f o r a quality a n d inten sity o f c o m p a n i o n s h i p , s e x , a n d l o v e . T h i s s y n e c d o c h i c b o d y c o n s o l i dates itself aesthetically i n p h o t o g r a p h i c images, like t h e o n e that provides the novel's central e m b l e m : It w a s o f a b a t h e r s t a n d i n g n a k e d a t t h e r e e d - f r i n g e d e d g e o f a l a k e . The

picture w a s taken slightly from b e l o w so that the torso,

rising

a b o v e the thighs, receded, a n d the w h o l e b o d y w a s seen, layer layer o f hips a n d rib-cage and shoulders, up to the t o w e r i n g

on

head,

with dark hair helmeted against a dark sky. V - s h a p e d s h a d o w s o f wil low

l e a v e s fell l i k e s h o w e r s

of arrows

on

San

Sebastian,

on

y o u t h ' s sunlit breast and thighs. " O h , wonderful!" said Paul, temple o f the body!"

the "The

(69)

I . a t e r , P a u l tries t o r e p l i c a t e t h i s p h o t o g r a p h w i t h o n e t h a t s t a g e s h i s f r i e n d L o t h a r as t h e S e b a s t i a n figure. A n o t h e r s c e n a r i o , i n t h e n o v e l t h a t W i l l i a m is w o r k i n g o n w h e n P a u l visits h i m p r i o r t o l e a v i n g f o r H a m b u r g , i n v o l v e s the " i m a g e o f a ( l e r m a n b o y w h o m [ M r . S] has t o seek o u t i n the l o w e s t bars a n d dives of B e r l i n . . . . T h e r e a r e s o m e p e o p l e w h o , t o b e r e d e e m e d , h a v e t o g o into the lowest kennels o f the gutter—like Ibsen's W i l d D u c k diving t o I h e b o t t o m o f t h e p o n d a m o n g t h e m u d a n d w e e d s " (21). T h e s e " l o w csl k e n n e l s , " i n The Temple, i n c l u d e n o t o n l y t h e w a t e r f r o n t s t r e e t - a n d b a r life o f H a m b u r g , b u t a l s o c h a r a c t e r s w h o e x p l o i t t h e i r m o n e y e d linglish p a t r o n s , w h o b e c o m e N a z i s , a n d w h o fail t o realize the d r e a m of u n r e p r e s s e d c o m r a d e s h i p a n d s e x u a l i t y . I n f a c t , t h e n o v e l , i n t h e l o r m in w h i c h it w a s f i n a l l y p u b l i s h e d , s e e m s t o g o b e y o n d s i g n a l i n g i t s a u t h o r ' s critique o f a n earlier E n g l i s h h o m o s e x u a l i d e o l o g y . M a r k i n g a break f r o m the a n d r o g y n i z e d a n d f e m i n i z e d figures o f the c o l o n i a l R a j , the iilctilizcd m a s c u l i n i t y a n d heroic physieality o f N a z i G e r m a n y I

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I I I It T R O I I I I I I N

I ,|l

p u t h o m o s e x u a l i t y i n t o a different k i n d o f closet, proleptic o f later urban gay b a r scenes.

29

S p e n d e r ' s r e w r i t i n g o f t h e n o v e l h e h a d first

c o m p o s e d s e v e r a l d e c a d e s b e f o r e e v i d e n t l y enlists t h e p i c a r e s q u e h e d o n i s m o f t h e E n g l i s h B e r l i n c i r c l e t o p r o d u c e a n a l l e g o r y o f t h e rise o f fascism. S u c h m o r a l strictures are scarcely e v i d e n t in the w o r k o f A l d o Busi, a practitioner o f the Italian n e w novel w h o exploits the travel narrative's ability to scandalize. O n e o f Busi's m o r e cryptic observa t i o n s is t h a t " [ a ] h e t e r o s e x u a l d o e s n o t t r a v e l — h e m o v e s f o r w a r d " (102). W h a t d i s t i n c t i o n is B u s i s u g g e s t i n g h e r e ? P e r h a p s it is t h e d i s t i n c t i o n b e t w e e n e x p e r i e n c i n g a p l a c e as other a n d

queer—"travel

i n g " — a n d e x p e r i e n c i n g it as a v a r i a t i o n o f t h e same—and

thus " m o v

ing f o r w a r d . "

3 0

C o m p a r i s o n o f Busi with P a u l Bowles, celebrated

d o y e n o f t h e T a n g i e r circle o f e x p a t r i a t e s a n d visitors, establishes this d i f f e r e n c e m o r e c l e a r l y . I n t e r v i e w i n g B o w l e s f o r Rolling Stone i n

1974,

M i c h a e l R o g e r s suggested that M o r o c c o was "really a v e r y bisexual c u l t u r e " ( C a p o n i 6 9 ) — t o w h i c h B o w l e s a s s e n t e d , m o r e o r less. R o g e r s thus neatly eliminated the need to deal w i t h M o r o c c a n sexual codes a n d p r a c t i c e s as d i f f e r e n t a n d c u l t u r a l l y

specific, a s s i m i l a t i n g

them

i n s t e a d , as h e a n d o t h e r s h a v e a s s i m i l a t e d A r a b d r u g u s e , t o a " l i b e r a t o r y " A m e r i c a n c o u n t e r c u l t u r e . S u c h elisions p r e s u m a b l y facilitate the m o v i n g f o r w a r d — a n d m o v i n g o n — o f Busi's " n o r m a l " (hetero s e x u a l ) t r a v e l e r . B u t i f t h e q u e e r s u b j e c t is a t t h e c e n t e r o f B u s i ' s fictionalized

travels, w h a t constitutes that traveling? D o e s the queer

subject articulate

particular and differentiated

w a y s o f acting

and

reacting in the situations o f travel? D o e s he engage differently w i t h the p l a c e s h e visits? A n d t o w h a t d e g r e e c a n h e c l a i m t o s i t u a t e a u t h o r i t a t i v e l y — t o k n o w — t h e other culture? S o m e reflection o n P a u l B o w l e s a n d W i l l i a m B u r r o u g h s , a l o n g w i t h B u s i , will b r i n g these q u e s t i o n s into clearer focus. P a u l B o w l e s has m a d e M o r o c c o — m o r e specifically, h o m e s i n c e 1947.

Tangier—his

U n l i k e B u s i , B o w l e s has n e v e r p u b l i c l y defined his

sexuality; a n d in the M o r o c c o t h a t emerges f r o m his writings, h o m o s e x u a l i t y is a b o v e a l l a n a t m o s p h e r e : d i f f u s e d l a r g e l y t h r o u g h l e g e n d , passing increasingly

into

m y t h . T h e literary

h o m o s e x u a l i t y o n l y b y n u a n c e , is h i s n o v e l The filmed

foundation, Sheltering

Sky

evoking (1949),

b y B e r n a r d o B e r t o l u c c i s o m e d e c a d e s later u n d e r the s a m e title.

B o t h n o v e l a n d film l o o s e l y a s s o c i a t e d t r a v e l in N o r t h A f r i c a w i t h f r a u g h t m a r r i a g e , a l o v e t r i a n g l e , a n d v i o l e n c e : all o f w h i c h , in c o n j u n c t i o n w i t h t h e h a l l u c i n a t o r y d e s e r t s e l l i n g , m e d i a t e d a. g e n e r a l i z e d I,I J

In 11 it I M S W i l l i 1 »

>> I'll I MN

image o f existential extremity, particularly for A m e r i c a n readers. S u b sequently, B o w l e s w a s t o d r a w e n o u g h literary a n d p o p - c u l t u r a l figures t o T a n g i e r — a m o n g t h e m J a c k K e r o u a c , A l l e n G i n s b e r g w i t h his l o v e r Peter O r l o v s k y , T r u m a n C a p o t e , W i l l i a m B u r r o u g h s , Tennessee W i l l i a m s , B y r o n G y s i n , a n d G r e g o r y C o r s o — t o suggest the A m e r i c a n experience o f a cult p h e n o m e n o n . Bowles's wife J a n e , herself a lesbian writer, w a s v i v i d l y present, i f n o t precisely a t h e r h u s b a n d ' s side. T o b e p a r t o f c u l t life w a s t o i n d u l g e b o h e m i a n , s o m e t i m e s e x p e n s i v e , tastes for chic parties, d r u g s , spectacles, sorcery, a n d a freewheeling a p p r o a c h t o f r i e n d s h i p a n d s e x u a l i t y . M i c h e l l e G r e e n ' s The Dream at the End of the World (1991), i t s e l f a b r e a t h l e s s s y n t h e s i s , i n d e x e s g o s s i p as a n o t h e r k e y i n g r e d i e n t o f c u l t life. I n e f f e c t , t h e c o m b i n a t i o n o f t h e s e elements a n d their transmission t h r o u g h a variety o f m e d i a has given M o r o c c o a c u l t u r a l m y s t i q u e — a domesticated m y s t i q u e — t h a t m i g h t w e l l p r e e m p t t r a v e l i n B u s i ' s sense. B u t Bowles's authority as traveler-interpreter o f M o r o c c a n ( h o m o ) s e x u a l i t y derives f r o m m o r e t h a n the m i x o f chronicle, reminis cence, a n d gossip that m a k e u p G r e e n ' s b o o k . A r o u n d the time he w a s c o m p l e t i n g w o r k o n his n o v e l Up Above the World, i n 1963, B o w l e s i n i tiated a project that has s p a n n e d several decades. H e b e g a n t a p i n g Driss b e n H a m e d Charhardi's ( L a r b i L a y a c h i ' s ) autobiographical episodes, delivered i n M o g h r e b i ; the edited result w a s the translated " n o v e l , " A Life Full of Holes, p u b l i s h e d b y G r o v e P r e s s i n 1964. According t o J a y M c l n e r n y , Bowles had "virtually invented] a new g e n r e " ( C a p o n i 192). M o h a m m e d M r a b e t ' s s i m i l a r l y p r o d u c e d Love with a Few Hairs f o l l o w e d i n 1967, a n d M o h a m m e d C h o u k r i ' s m o r e e l a b o r a t e For Bread Alone i n 1973. O f fifteen g e n e t i c a l l y s i m i l a r b o o k s , C h o u k r i c o n t r i b u t e d t h r e e , i n c l u d i n g Jean Genet in Tangier (1974) a n d Tennessee Williams in Tangier (1979), b u t M o h a m m e d M r a b e t ' s titles constitute the b u l k o f the project. N e w Y o r k ' s I n a n o u t Press p u b l i s h e d t h e latest B o w l e s - M r a b e t c o l l a b o r a t i o n , Chocolate Creams and Dol lars, as r e c e n t l y as 1992 i n a n e x p e n s i v e a r t e d i t i o n , g a r n i s h e d w i t h p h o lographic illustrations b y Philip Taaffe. T h e project has u n d o u b t e d l y succeeded in c o m m o d i f y i n g the c u l t u r a l m y s t i q u e o f M o r o c c o f o r p o s t B e a t N o r t h A m e r i c a a n d , t o a lesser e x t e n t , B r i t a i n . T h e t r a n s l a t i o n theorist R i c h a r d J a c q u e m o n d h a s described a process that seems appropriate to Bowles's work:

In t r a n s l a t i o n une, the

f r o m ti d o m i n a t e d

translator appears

Iniijuiage-eullurc inlo a h e g e m o n i c

as the a u t h o r i t a t i v e

1 I I M I It It \ M 1 u I I I I I!

1 i n .11 I I I 1 ,

mediator

I |\

through

w h o m t h e d o m i n a t e d l a n g u a g e - c u l t u r e is m a i n t a i n e d o u t s i d e t h e l i m i t s o f t h e s e l f a n d a t t h e s a m e t i m e a d a p t e d t o t h i s s e l f i n o r d e r f o r it to be able to c o n s u m e the d o m i n a t e d linguistic-cultural object. (Qtd. in V e n u t i 155)

J a c q u e m o n d ' s c o m m e n t , h o w e v e r , suggests that g a y travelers—like h e t e r o s e x u a l o n e s — c a n p r o d u c e alibis t h r o u g h c u l t u r a l a p p r o p r i a t i o n f o r their o w n m o t i v a t i o n s a n d performances. Characteristically, the chronicles o f Bowles's " n e w genre" are nar ratives o f native i m p r o v e m e n t a n d a d v a n c e m e n t . T h e i r m a i n charac t e r s , v e r s i o n s o f t h e i r T a n g i e r a u t h o r s , b e g i n as s t r e e t - s m a r t v i c t i m s o f class p o v e r t y a n d p a r e n t a l a b u s e . I l l i t e r a t e b u t r e s o u r c e f u l , t h e y a l l y t h e m s e l v e s w i t h f e l l o w M o r o c c a n s w h o s c a v e n g e , steal, a n d , a t t h e h i g h e n d . r u n small cafes. T h e y m e e t u p w i t h a n d b e f r i e n d A m e r i c a n a n d E n g l i s h visitors w h o , in return f o r sexual f a v o r s , s u p p o r t t h e m . M r a b e t ' s m a l e h e r o i n Love with a Few Hairs m a n a g e s a d o u b l e s u c cess, p a r l a y i n g t h e e c o n o m i c r e s o u r c e s a f f o r d e d b y h i s i n t i m a c y w i t h a n E n g l i s h p a t r o n i n t o o w n e r s h i p o f a f i s h i n g fleet a n d a p a r a l l e l c a r e e r as a s u c c e s s f u l f i s h e r m a n a n d w h o l e s a l e r . H e w e d s a M u s l i m w o m a n a n d has children, while r e m a i n i n g loyal t o his p a t r o n , continuing t o p e r f o r m services f o r h i m a n d t o receive his d u e r e w a r d . R e c u r r i n g patterns in several o f these narratives indicate h o w B o w l e s , a l o n g w i t h o t h e r E u r o - A m e r i c a n expatriates a n d visitors, suc ceeded in constructing a mythicized " M o r o c c a n " culture. T h e (native) p r o t a g o n i s t generally searches f o r a n d marries a M u s l i m w i f e , w h o r e m a i n s largely invisible; his o t h e r (hetero)sexual e n c o u n t e r s inject r o m a n t i c fantasy into a misogynistic stance; he entertains sexual activ ity w i t h o t h e r m e n , m o s t l y w h i t e p a t r o n s , b u t o n l y w h e n such activity n e e d n o t b e c o n s t r u e d a s h o m o s e x u a l — t h a t is, w h e n t h e p a r t n e r is a n o l d e r E u r o p e a n a n d t h e h e r o is n o t a t r i s k o f b e i n g f e m i n i z e d ; t h e r e is m u c h k i f c o n s u m p t i o n ; M u s l i m identification

is r e t a i n e d

through

p i e t y , a b s t i n e n c e f r o m a l c o h o l , a n d p a r t i c i p a t i o n i n d a n c e c u l t s s u c h as jilala; a n d t h e r e is a c o n s t a n t t h r e a t o f s o r c e r y , u s u a l l y i n v o l v i n g p o i son

(tsoukil),

following

the betrayal o f sexual/marital

contracts.

N a t i v e M o r o c c a n c u l t u r e , t h e n , is I s l a m i c , s o d o m i t i c a l , d r u g f r i e n d l y , s o r c e r o u s , a n d ecstatic. F o r t h e t r a v e l e r - e x p a t r i a t e circle, it offers a n e x p a n s i v e field f o r l i c e n s e d , i f t r i c k y , p l a y . E u r o p e a n a n d native encounter each other in t h e shiftingly a s y m metrical p a t r o n - p r o t e g e contract. M r a b e t ' s m o s t explicit a c c o u n t o f this e n c o u n t e r a p p e a r s in t h e a u t o b i o g r a p h i c a l

Look and Move

On

(1989). M r a b e t r e c o u n t s h o w h e lirsl niel t w o v i s i t o r s , R e e v e s a n d i-M

101 'IMS 1 s w i 1 n rvi-i'WKi 1 n o l

M a r i a , o n a c a f e t e r r a c e . H e tells t h e m t h a t h e is " g l a d t o h a v e m e t s o m e A m e r i c a n s " ( 1 3 ) , s u b s e q u e n t l y visits t h e m at their h o t e l , a n d travels w i t h t h e m to M a r r a k e s h . H e u n d e r s t a n d s v e r y well their inter est i n h i m : I said t o myself: B o t h o f these p e o p l e are vicious. T h e y b o t h w a n t to sleep w i t h m e . A n d w i t h all the k i f a n d w h i s k e y I h a d in m y h e a d , M a r i a l o o k e d v e r y b e a u t i f u l to m e , a n d R e e v e s l o o k e d v e r y h a n d s o m e , a n d I felt like m a k i n g l o v e to b o t h o f t h e m . (14) H i s attentions later lead to his a c c o m p a n y i n g M a r i a o n h e r r e t u r n t o N e w Y o r k . F r o m t h e r e M a r i a , d i s c o v e r i n g s h e c a n n o t c o n t r o l his q u e s t for experience, p a c k s h i m o f f t o R e e v e s ' s f a m i l y in I o w a , w h e r e he p r o ceeds t o o f f e n d R e e v e s ' s a b s t i n e n t m i d d l e - A m e r i c a n p a r e n t s a n d t o e m b a r r a s s R e e v e s h i m s e l f , w i t h his d e f i a n t p u r s u i t o f a l c o h o l a n d s e x . F o r g o o d m e a s u r e , h e i n f o r m s R e e v e s ' s m o t h e r , " I l o v e t o s t a y u p all n i g h t a n d l o o k f o r g i r l s t o sleep w i t h " (52), a d d i n g , p r o v o c a t i v e l y , " W h a t d i d h e h a v e o n his m i n d , y o u r s o n , w h e n h e a s k e d m e t o c o m e h e r e ? " (55). S o h e is d i s p a t c h e d t o N e w Y o r k a n d f r o m t h e r e b a c k t o T a n g i e r , s h a k i n g t h e A m e r i c a n d u s t o f f his feet. T h e R e e v e s e s h a v e financed M r a b e t , p r o v i d i n g h i m w i t h resources a n d opportunities o t h erwise u n a v a i l a b l e to the M o r o c c a n d e p e n d e n t ; he, in t u r n , has offered sexual services t h a t seem t o j u s t i f y s o m e t h i n g m o r e t h a n d e p e n d e n t m a i n t e n a n c e — b u t o n his o w n t e r m s . T h e r e w i l l a l w a y s b e o t h e r p a t r o n s . M r a b e t ' s ( o r is it B o w l e s ' s ? ) s k i l l c o n s i s t s i n t h e d i s c r e t i o n w i t h w h i c h he negotiates the r a w e r edges o f such a r r a n g e m e n t s . B u t M r a b e t , all t h e s a m e , d o e s n o t r e p e a t t h e l i m i t c a s e t h a t t h e R e e v e s e s represent. Look and Move On i n v i t e s t h e r e a d e r t o s i t u a t e M r a b e t ' s v a r i o u s n a r r a t i v e s o f p a t r o n a g e w i t h i n t h e w i d e r f r a m e w o r k o f his r e l a t i o n s h i p w i t h B o w l e s ; t h e e p i s o d e i n v o l v i n g R e e v e s sets u p f o r a n a c c o u n t o f M r a b e t ' s m e e t i n g w i t h P a u l a n d J a n e B o w l e s o n the b e a c h at M e r k a l a , after w h i c h p o i n t t h e a u t o b i o g r a p h y d e v o t e s e q u a l a t t e n t i o n t o life at I he Bowleses a n d to M r a b e t ' s courtship o f a n d eventual m a r r i a g e to Z o h r a . M r a b e t recounts h o w J a n e B o w l e s hailed h i m o n the b e a c h — " Y o u s m o k e a lot o f k i f f o r s o m e o n e so y o u n g " — a f t e r he h a d a l r e a d y i d e n t i f i e d t h e c o u p l e , P a u l w a l k i n g in t h e c o m p a n y o f " a t a l l A m e r i c a n I h c y call B l H o m b r e I n v i s i b l e [ W i l l i a m B u r r o u g h s ] " (90). A n d it w a s llms that M r a b e t a c q u i r e d , not o n l y a n o t h e r p a t r o n , b u t i n c o r p o r a t i o n i n t o a n i n s i d e r g r o u p w h o s e p r e s t i g e lie h a s d o n e his p a r t t o p r o m o t e . 3 1

T h e M o r o c c o translation project c o m p l i c a t e s (he sexual c o n t r a c t i . l ' N I M t H AND I 111' 14 I'ltul'iii r\

|,p,

b y situating it w i t h i n a c o l o n i a l c o n t e x t i n w h i c h s e x u a l acts m e d i a t e shifting p o w e r gestures a n d relations. T y p i c a l l y , the native protege will a s s u m e o n l y the d o m i n a n t role i n the s o d o m i t i c a l act. H e will also b e q u i c k t o characterize t h e acts o f s o d o m y h e witnesses in terms o f p o w e r , especially colonial p o w e r . T h e E u r o p e a n s o d o m i t e , f o r t h e native c o m m u n i t y , displays the n o r m a t i v e decadence o f t h e West; M r a b e t consistently " o t h e r s " t h e g r o u p h e likes t o call " t h e N a z a r e n e s , " dissociating h i m s e l f f r o m their values. I n t h e strongest m o m e n t o f resistance, his rejection o f W e s t e r n decadence explicitly l i n k s s e x u a l / s a d i s t i c p e r f o r m a n c e w i t h c o l o n i a l d o m i n a t i o n . I n Look and Move On, h e a c c o m p a n i e s a f r i e n d t o a T a n g i e r p a r t y a t w h i c h t h e E n g l i s h h o s t , A l b e r t , p r e s i d e s w i t h a w h i p , l a s h i n g t w o S p a n i s h b o y s as t h e y lie f a c e d o w n o n a r u g . T h e n , a t A l b e r t ' s b e h e s t , a l a r g e b l a c k m a n publicly s o d o m i z e s t w o other S p a n i s h b o y s w h o are lying o n the same r u g . A s a " m a n w h o h a t e s E u r o p e a n s " (17), M r a b e t r e p o r t s h i s c o m m e n t s t o t h e b l a c k m a n w h o is " w o r k f i n g ] o n " o n e o f t h e b o y s : Happy

with

any American

or Jew

or Englishman,

or

any

F r e n c h m a n , yes? T h e y c o m e here and y o u s h o w t h e m your

filthy

backside

a n d e v e r y t h i n g else y o u ' v e g o t . A n d they t a k e pictures o f y o u d o i n g y o u r w o r k , a n d s e l l t h e m l a t e r i n E u r o p e . A n d y o u l i k e t h a t . (19)

M r a b e t t e m p o r a r i l y enters into the colonial contract, o n l y t o e x p o s e a n d r e p u d i a t e it. I n s e d u c i n g M a r i a a n d s o d o m i z i n g R e e v e s , b e f o r e e v e n t u a l l y s p u r n i n g b o t h , M r a b e t uses t h e i r c u l t u r a l a s s u m p t i o n s a n d fantasies in o r d e r t o dissolve the contract. S e d u c i n g a n d being seduced ( a t least figuratively) b y M r a b e t , B o w l e s a s s u m e s t h e a u t h o r i t y o f p r e senter a n d m e d i a t o r , s t a n d i n g outside o f t h e e n g a g e m e n t s b e t w e e n W e s t e r n visitors a n d M o r o c c a n natives, a n d c o n t a i n i n g t h e m w i t h i n t h e l i t e r a r y f r a m e ( t h e " n e w g e n r e " ) h e i n v e n t s . T h e m a t e r i a l , w h i l e it e m b o d i e s s o m e sort o f critique o f the colonial/sexual contract, remains a t t h e s a m e t i m e d e p e n d e n t o n a n d c o m p l i c i t o u s w i t h it. B y this time, t h e T a n g i e r experience h a d a l r e a d y a s s u m e d m o r e g e n e r a l i z e d f o r m i n t h e c u l t classic Naked Lunch (1959) b y " E l H o m b r e I n v i s i b l e " h i m s e l f , W i l l i a m B u r r o u g h s . Naked Lunch, o f f e r i n g a n e x o t i c i z e d , f a n t a s i z e d p a r a d i g m o f e n c o u n t e r b e t w e e n t h e s t a t e a n d its d r o p o u t s , stands o n the threshold o f p o s t m o d e r n i s m . L i v i n g in T a n g ier c o n t i n u o u s l y f o r a b o u t f o u r y e a r s , B u r r o u g h s p l a y e d a c o m p r e h e n sive r o l e as p a r t o f t h e B o w l e s c i r c l e ; in Naked Lunch, h o w e v e r , h e d i s tances h i m s e l f f r o m t h e city m o r e decisively t h a n B o w l e s h a d d o n e . T a n g i e r , in f a c t , d o e s n o l i t s e l f a p p e a r , b u t b e c o m e s i c o n i c a s I n t e r -

h|fi

r o i < HIS i s W i l l i I ' V l ' i ' W H I 1 if MM

z o n e : a t r a v e l site t h a t d r a w s o n , m a g n i f i e s , a n d t r a n s f i g u r e s s e x , d r u g , a n d p o w e r t h e m e s a l r e a d y p r e s e n t i n B o w l e s ' s w o r k . I n t e r z o n e is a l i m inal, surreal territory w h e r e regimes o f law e n f o r c e m e n t a n d m e d i c i n e jointly control a total culture o f transgression, including heroin c o n sumption, s o d o m y , and coprophagy. Burroughs's A r a b boys charac teristically disport themselves in a sexual athleticism c h a r g e d w i t h v i o lence: A l i seize h i m b y o n e ankle, t u g the a n k l e u n d e r the a r m pit, l o c k his a r m a r o u n d the calf. T h e b o y k i c k d e s p e r a t e l y

at A l i ' s face.

Other

a n k l e p i n i o n e d . A l i tilt t h e b o y b a c k o n his s h o u l d e r s . T h e b o y ' s c o c k e x t e n d s a l o n g h i s s t o m a c h , f l o a t free p u l s i n g . A l i p u t his h a n d s o v e r his h e a d . Spit o n his c o c k . T h e o t h e r sighs d e e p l y as A l i slide his c o c k in. T h e m o u t h s g r i n d t o g e t h e r s m e a r i n g b l o o d . S h a r p m u s t y o d o r o f penetrated rectum.

Nimun

d r i v e in l i k e a w e d g e , f o r c e j i s m o u t

the

o t h e r c o c k in l o n g h o t s p u r t s . ( T h e a u t h o r h a s o b s e r v e d t h a t A r a b c o c k s tend to be w i d e and w e d g e shaped.)

(ji)

Passages such as this s t r i p p e d - d o w n , o b s e r v a t i o n a l n a r r a t i v e — w h i c h a l s o o c c u r i n B u s i ' s Sodomies in Elevenpoint—are intercut w i t h scenar ios i n a v e r y d i f f e r e n t m o d e ; o n e p h a n t a s m i c s e q u e n c e , f o r e x a m p l e , c e l e b r a t e s a M o r o c c a n f u n e r a l : " T h e h o g is d r e s s e d i n a j e l l a b a , a k e i f pipe j u t s f r o m its m o u t h , o n e h o o f h o l d s a p a c k e t o f feelthy pictures, a m e z u z z o t h h a n g s a b o u t its n e c k s [sic]. . .. I n s c r i b e d o n t h e c o f f i n : ' T h i s w a s t h e n o b l e s t A r a b o f a l l ' " (95). S e v e r a l i n t e r v i e w e r s since t h e sixties h a v e p e r s i s t e n t l y p r e s s e d Bowles t o p e r f o r m the t i m e - h o n o r e d task o f the travel writer a n d authoritatively s u m m a r i z e " M o r o c c a n culture." Bowles's characteris tic r e s p o n s e s h a v e b e e n a d r o i t a n d c o y . H i s r e p l y t o o n e q u e s t i o n , f o r instance, w a s , No

M o r o c c a n w i l l e v e r tell y o u w h a t h e t h i n k s , o r d o e s , o r

means.

H e ' l l t e l l y o u s o m e o f it a n d tell y o u o t h e r t h i n g s t h a t a r e c o m p l e t e l y false a n d t h e n w e a v e t h e m t o g e t h e r i n t o a v e r y b e l i e v a b l e c o r e , w h i c h you

s w a l l o w , a n d that's w h a t ' s considered civilized. W h a t ' s the pur

pose o f telling the truth? ( C a p o n i

66)

B o w l e s ' s a p p a r e n t reticence gives the impression that h e has c a n nily p l u m b e d f a r beneath the cultural surface; in contrast, B u s i — i n line w i t h c o n t e m p o r a r y c o n v e n t i o n s o f " r e a d i n g c u l t u r e s " — r e g a r d s t h e c h a l l e n g e as i n h e r e n t in c o d e s t h a t t h e v i s i t o r m u s t c r a c k : " I k n o w w h e r e I a m u n b e a t a b l e in a c q u i r i n g i n five m i n u t e s w h a t is e s s e n t i a l in t h e e t h i c a l c o d e s o f a n y p e o p l e o r s o c i a l c l a s s . . . . T h e i m p o r t a n t

11

1

U I ' . N O H H A M I ' 1 1111M IH O U U U ' S

147

t h i n g is n o t t o h i t t h e n a i l o n t h e h e a d r i g h t a w a y b u t n o t c o m m i t h o w l e r s r i g h t a w a y " (44). B u s i o f f e r s a l i n e o f r e a s o n i n g : M o r o c c a n c u l t u r e is s o d o m i t i c a l . B u t s o d o m y is i m b r i c a t e d i n a t i s s u e o f e t h i c a l c o d e s a n d p r a c t i c e s ; t h e v i s i t i n g W e s t e r n e r s h o u l d assess t h e s e c o d e s rather t h a n indulge the illusion o f a liberated h e d o n i s m — t h e c a n n y s e x u a l t o u r i s t is t h e o n e w h o " l e a v e s [his] p s y c h o l o g i z i n g a t h o m e " (39). A r m e d w i t h t h i s a t t i t u d e , B u s i e n v e l o p e s f r a n k r e p o r t s o f s e x u a l episodes in witty discourses o n the writer a n d writing, c o n t e m p o r a r y l i t e r a r y t h e o r y , a n d s u b j e c t i v i t y . A n d , n o less, o n t r a v e l a n d t r a v e l w r i t i n g : " T h i s is a n o - t r a v e l a n d n o - s e x b o o k , " h e d e c l a r e s a t o n e p o i n t , s i g n a l i n g his a v e r s i o n t o " t r a v e l j o u r n a l s a n d t r a v e l

literature"

(65). T h e a p h o r i s m t h a t f o l l o w s — " P e o p l e w h o d i s c o v e r n o t h i n g u s u a l l y d i s c o v e r g e o g r a p h y " (65)—is c h a r a c t e r i s t i c a l l y

ironic,

demon

strating the extent o f Busi's impatience f o r t h e travel writer's s o d i e s o f n a t u r e . Sodomies

in Elevenpoint,

f o r a l l t h a t , is a b o n a

rhap fide

t r a v e l n a r r a t i v e , w h i c h d i s c l a i m s its o w n s t a t u s p a r t l y i n o r d e r t o c l e a r a cant-free space f o r its o w n resistances a n d assertions. B u s i m o s t n o t i c e a b l y resists t h e s o r t o f d o m e s t i c a t i o n s t h a t e a r l i e r

American

expatriates h a d p e r f o r m e d . H e foregrounds, for e x a m p l e , the colonial r e l a t i o n s t h a t e n a b l e his o w n s e x u a l p l e a s u r e : " t h e w h i t e m a n . . . w h i l e h e fills t h e bellies o f t h r e e g e n e r a t i o n s o f m i x e d b l o o d , lets h i m s e l f b e s t u f f e d , c o m f o r t a b l y s e r v e d a n d r e v e r e d . C o l o n i a l s h u d d e r s ! " (38). M o r e forcefully, h ereports the c o m m e n t o f an " e d u c a t e d M o r o c c a n s t a l l i o n , " w h o tells h i m . T h e t o u r i s t s d o n ' t g r a n t u s a g l a n c e t h a t i s n o t sentimental—that say

erotic. . . . T h e public organizations a n d the Jewish

is t o

shop-and

h o t e l - o w n e r s tell t h e m w e a r e a l l t h i e v e s — t h i e v e s a n d r a p i s t s a n d murderers, a n d the tourists give u s a w i d e berth o r c o m e u p t o u s only sufficiently to take o u r measurements.

(60)

F o r B u s i , the sexual pleasure h e takes ( a n d gives) a m o u n t s t o " m a x i m u m privilege"

(217).

A setting free f r o m q u o t i d i a n life, it d o e s n o t

n e e d a t r a v e l n a r r a t i v e t o j u s t i f y i t ; a n d it is o n t h i s b a s i s t h a t B u s i o f f e r s h i s o w n fiction as " n o n - h e t e r o s e x u a l . " B u s i ' s s h a r p e s t e p i s o d e o f t r a v e l / s e x i n M o r o c c o , h o w e v e r , is f a r f r o m t h e i r o n i c h e d o n i s m t h a t g e n e r a l l y i n f o r m s his w o r k . T h e e p i s o d e recalls t h e B o w l e s - M r a b e t a c c o u n t o f t h e d o u b l y v i o l a t e d S p a n i s h b o y s i n Look and Move On; i n it, B u s i d r a m a t i z e s t h e l i n k b e t w e e n c o l o n i a l i s m a n d t h e M o r o c c a n s e x u a l e c o n o m y , i n w h i c h t h e s e x u a l a s s a u l t is s t a g e d as t h e c o l o n i z e d ' s v i n d i c t i v e r a g e . A s c h o o l t e a c h e r a c q u a i n t a n c e

I4H

1 o 111v|tj

runs

IJfreedom, these selfsame spaces are b e h o l d e n t o specific c o d e s t h a t c o n strain p e r f o r m a n c e . E v e r y t r a v e l o g u e u l t i m a t e l y discloses a different r e l a t i o n b e t w e e n s e l f a n d ( c u l t u r a l ) s p a c e i n w h i c h t h e l a t t e r is e r o t i c i z e d — a n d sexualized—through nuances o f perception. O n e o f the m o r e d i s t i n c t i v e t r a v e l o g u e s i n t h e s e t e r m s is t h a t o f a n o t h e r W h i t e , P a t r i c k , w h o s e a c c o u n t o f his t r a v e l s i n t h e G r e e k i s l a n d s f o r m s a secl i o n o f his a u t o b i o g r a p h y Flaws in the Glass (1981). A l t h o u g h (Patrick) W h i t e pays statutory tribute to that darling o f travel w r i t e r s , P a t r i c k L e i g h F e r m o r . his r e c o r d o f his travels in G r e e c e a n d the G r e e k Islands could h a r d l y be further f r o m L e i g h t e r m o r ' s , o r L a w r e n c e D u r r e l l ' s . W h i t e sets o u t t o s h o w " h o w [ t h e G r e e k islands] a d d t o this self-portrait I h a v e u n d e r t a k e n , a n d [to] the m o s t i m p o r t a n t r e l a t i o n s h i p o f m y l i f e " (171). W h i t e is r e f e r r i n g h e r e t o h i s c o m p a n i o n s h i p w i t h M a n o l y L a s c a r i s , w h o m h e h a d first m e t in A l e x a n d r i a d u r i n g t h e S e c o n d W o r l d W a r , w h o l a t e r a c c o m p a n i e d him back to Australia and a lifelong relationship, a n d w i t h w h o m he t r a v e r s e d G r e e c e a n d its o f f s h o r e i s l a n d s o n s e v e r a l o c c a s i o n s . W h i t e , l i k e B u s i , is a n a c e r b i c t r a v e l e r : t o u r i s t s i r r i t a t e ; f o o d d i s g u s t s ; c e l e b r a t e d sights d i s a p p o i n t , disillusion e v e n . N o t h i n g c o u l d be f u r t h e r f r o m the traveler's characteristic blend o f scenery a n d society w i t h r o m a n c e t h a n W h i t e ' s c a n t a n k e r o u s c h r o n i c l i n g o f his j o u r n e y s through Greece with M a n o l y . White's frankness and candid vulgar ity d o m a n a g e t o p r o d u c e t h e o c c a s i o n a l i l l u m i n a t e d m o m e n t o f travel: " A n y G r e c o p h i l e will u n d e r s t a n d w h e n I say that the unsinkable c o n d o m a n d the smell o f shit w h i c h precede the m o m e n t o f illu m i n a t i o n [ a first g l i m p s e o f O l y m p u s ] m a k e it m o r e r e w a r d i n g w h e n it h a p p e n s " (157). 3 5

W h i t e p e p p e r s his n a r r a t i v e w i t h v i v i d c h a r a c t e r i z a t i o n s t h a t s u g gest a c a m p , o p e r a t i c p e r c e p t i o n : " O r t h o d o x m o n k s s c r e a m l i k e e n r a g e d q u e e n s " (158), a n d " e x q u i s i t e a c o l y t e s t i t t u p e d o n s o m e e r r a n d f o r a n i m p e r i o u s s u p e r i o r " (160). Y e t h e s t a y s a w a y f r o m f a m i l i a r m o d e s o f sexual suggestiveness: n o arch i n n u e n d o s , n o gentle h o m o e r o t i c i s m , n o b r a v u r a sexual e x p l o i t s . W h i t e enlists t h e G r e e k islands, r a t h e r , as a s p a c e i n a n d t h r o u g h w h i c h h e c a n e x p l o r e his r e l a t i o n s h i p w i t h M a n o l y . I f t h e y a r e o n a p i l g r i m a g e , W h i t e s u g g e s t s , it is o n e s p l i t b e t w e e n " m y l u s t i n g s p i r i t a n d M a n o l y ' s o r t h o d o x d e v o t i o n " (177). W h i l e p e r s i s t e n t l y p u r s u e s " t h e idea o f " G r e e c e (175), m o v i n g f r o m dellalion to the edge o f disillusionment. T h e m o r e patient M a n o l y a c c u s e s W h i l e o f h a l i n g G r e e c e , s p u i rimj, h i m t o r e e x a m i n e his r e l a t i o n s h i p w i t h his l o v e r : 1

t . H N P I 1 \ M O 1 > 1 III 1»: I I- • 'i i' 1 1 '

1,1

[ E a c h o f a disparate g r o u p o f islands] p l a y s a p a r t i c u l a r role in m y relationship

with

Greece

and

Manoly.

Over

and

over . . . when

M a n o l y tells m e I h a t e G r e e c e , I c a n n o t e x p l a i n m y love. . . . I c a n n o t p r o v e that w h a t I believe in m o s t d e e p l y , the n o v e l s for w h i c h m y c o n s c i o u s self c a n ' t t a k e full r e s p o n s i b i l i t y , o u r d i s c o m f o r t i n g e x h i l a r a t i n g t r a v e l s t h r o u g h G r e e c e , o u r l i f e t o g e t h e r , its

but

eruptions

a n d r e w a r d s , m y o w n c l u m s y w r e s t l i n g w i t h w h a t I see a s a r e l i g i o u s f a i t h — t h a t a l l o f t h i s i s w h a t k e e p s m e g o i n g . (187-88)

" T r a v e l s t h r o u g h G r e e c e " turn o u t t o b e travels w i t h , a n d t h r o u g h , M a n o l y ; a n d these a r e , tautologically,

" w h a t keeps [the traveler]

going." S u c h a disarmingly casual, y e t startling, e l a b o r a t i o n o f the triang u l a t i o n b e t w e e n self, c o m p a n i o n , a n d p l a c e t w i s t s t h e c o m m o n p l a c e " b a d t r i p , " q u e e r i n g it i n t o a n e n c o u n t e r b e t w e e n a n t i t r a v e l e r a n d o v e r d e t e r m i n e d s p a c e . W h i t e , i n i n t e r r o g a t i v e m o d e , s u g g e s t s as m u c h by w o n d e r i n g : " L a c e r a t i o n s ["Lascarations"?] alternating w i t h visions: is t h i s w h a t h o o k s t h e m o r e p e r v e r s e G r e c o p h i l e ? " (162). P a t r i c k W h i t e ' s j o u r n e y s suggest t h e scope f o r associating g a y travel w i t h m e m o r y a n d desire rather t h a n free spaces, w i t h personal a n d p h e n o m e n a l differences rather t h a n w i t h quests f o r gay-liberated territories. E d m u n d W h i t e , m e a n w h i l e , w r i t i n g a t t h e e n d o f the " g a y l i b e r a t i o n " era, concedes t h a t f o r w o m e n a n d g a y s (as f o r o t h e r m i n o r i ties) " t h e g o a l h a s a l w a y s b e e n a c h a n g e i n o u r s o c i e t y t h a t w o u l d b r i n g equality o f opportunity a n d restored dignity a n d a u t o n o m y t o all" (62). H e m a k e s c l e a r , t h o u g h , t h a t t h e r e is a s i g n i f i c a n t i m p e d i m e n t t o this g o a l ' s a c h i e v e m e n t : " a steadfast denial o f the real sources o f p o w e r i n o u r s o c i e t y , i.e., m o n e y . R i c h a n d m i d d l e - c l a s s g a y s a r e n o t l i k e l y t o identify w i t h t h e p o o r ; they retain a loyalty t o m e m b e r s o f their o w n c l a s s , w h e t h e r s t r a i g h t o r g a y " (62).

36

T o theorize the writing o f h o m o

s e x u a l / g a y / q u e e r t r a v e l e r s is t o c o n f r o n t , o n c e m o r e , t h e p r o b l e m o f t h e p r i v i l e g e o f t h e t r a v e l e r — t h e o n e w h o s e " l i b e r a t i o n " is l i k e l y t o t a k e t h e f o r m o f e x p l o i t a t i v e license, o r t h e o n e , p u l l e d this w a y a n d t h a t , w h o s e " t o u r i s t m a p [is c o n t i n u a l l y ]

traversed b y n e w trails"

( H o l l i n g h u r s t 99). I n b o t h c a s e s , w h a t m u s t c l e a r l y b e r e s i s t e d is t h e a l l t o o - e a s y i m p u l s e t o c e l e b r a t e t r a v e l e i t h e r a s necessarily as essentially

perceptive o r

liberating. T h e n e x t c h a p t e r takes this a r g u m e n t i n a

slightly different direction, l o o k i n g at t h e s u p p o s e d l y l i b e r a t o r y dis course

o f p o s t m o d e r n i s m , a n d at t h e g r o u n d

it o p e n s

up for

textual/generic play. In negotiating the tensions between playfulness

1v |

1 oniuft i s w i i i i 1

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I^nd r e s p o n s i b i l i t y , t h e c h a p t e r a l s o s u g g e s t s t h a t t r a v e l w r i t i n g ' s a e s t h e t i c f e a t u r e s m a y b e a t o d d s w i t h its e t h i c a l c r e d o s ; a n d t h a t its c a p a c i t y t o reflect o n i t s e l f r i s k s b e i n g a c c u s e d o f s e l f - i n d u l g e n c e i n a p o s t m o d e r n era characterized b y destructive o v e r c o n s u m p t i o n , a n d b y the split b e t w e e n m a t e r i a l e x h a u s t i o n a n d t e x t u a l excess.

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h a v e " (29). A m e r i c a is t h e n e g a t i v e m i r r o r h e r e , i n d u c i n g a " [ n ] o s t a l g i a b o r n o f t h e T e x a n h i l l s a n d t h e s i e r r a s o f N e w M e x i c o " ( B a u d r i l l a r d 1). D r a i n i n g l a n d - a n d cityscapes into abstractions o f horizontality, vertic a l i t y , a n d e m p t i n e s s , B a u d r i l l a r d c e l e b r a t e s h i s f a n t a s t i c " A m e r i c a " as a " c o l l a p s e o f m e t a p h o r " (27), e v e n a s h e s o p a t e n t l y m e t a p h o r i z e s b e y o n d t h e h o r i z o n o f B a r t h e s ' s e a r l i e r " e m p i r e o f s i g n s " (see c h a p . 2), w h i c h h a d insisted that " J a p a n " w a s a semiotics, w i t h o u t reference t o a n y " r e a l " p l a c e . B a u d r i l l a r d ' s " n o n - r e f e r e n t i a l d e s e r t " (10), l o c a t e d a t the h e a r t o f A m e r i c a , b e c o m e s " a n ecstatic critique o f culture, a n d e c s t a t i c f o r m o f d i s a p p e a r a n c e " (9). T h i s A m e r i c a is b o t h p r e - a n d p o s t c u l t u r a l , i n v o l v i n g a s it d o e s t h e virtual a b o l i t i o n o f E u r o p e ' s d i s c r i m i n a t i o n s , i r o n i e s , a n d s u b t l e t i e s . I t s v a r i o u s sites c a l l t h e v i s i t o r t o an experience b e y o n d that o fthe tourist o r holiday traveler, t o " p u r e " object-free itineraries i n t o t h e gloriously " b a n a l " z o n e s o f desert a n d m e t r o p o l i s , w h i c h a r e " n o t a t a n y s t a g e r e g a r d e d as p l a c e s o f p l e a s u r e o r c u l t u r e , b u t [ a r e ] s e e n t e l e v i s u a l l y as s c e n e r y , a s s c e n a r i o s " (9). B a u drillard's "extraterritorial" virtual scenarios, appealing t o the fantasy s c r e e n s o f " s o p h i s t i c a t e d , n u c l e a r , o r b i t a l , c o m p u t e r t e c h n o l o g y " (4), m a k e B a r t h e s ' s n o n r e f e r e n t i a l signs seem c u r i o u s l y o l d - f a s h i o n e d . B a u d r i l l a r d ' s t e x t c a n n o t h e l p b u t recall E c o ' s earlier essay o n hyperrealist A m e r i c a ; b u t B a u d r i l l a r d , u n l i k e E c o , salutes the A m e r i can processes o f t h e s i m u l a c r u m w i t h all t h e h e a d y e n t h u s i a s m o f someone greeting a m a r v e l o u s future: [ S i n c e the A m e r i c a n s ] w e r e n o t t h e first t o b e in o n h i s t o r y , t h e y w i l l b e the

first

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process nature t o o k millions o f years to c o m p l e t e ) . B u t the c o n c e p t i o n t h e A m e r i c a n s h a v e o f t h e m u s e u m is m u c h w i d e r t h a n o u r o w n . T o t h e m , e v e r y t h i n g is w o r t h y o f p r o t e c t i o n , e m b a l m i n g ,

restoration.

E v e r y t h i n g c a n h a v e a s e c o n d birth, the eternal birth o f the

simu

l a c r u m . (41)

A n d as f o r t h e p a s t , s o f o r t h e f u t u r e : w h e r e a s , f o r E u r o p e a n s , f i c t i o n is a m e a n s " t o a n t i c i p a t e r e a l i t y b y i m a g i n i n g i t , " f o r A m e r i c a n s it " a n t i c i p a t e s i m a g i n a t i o n b y g i v i n g i t a f o r m o f r e a l i t y " (95). A n d t h i s a n t i c i p a t o r y " f o r m o f r e a l i t y " is n o n e o t h e r t h a n t h e s i m u l a c r u m . Baudrillard endorses the transformation o f dense materiality into the s m o o t h surfaces o f the s i m u l a c r u m ; a n d yet, at the s a m e time, h e ^ m a t e r i a l i z e s t h e p h e n o m e n a o f t r a v e l i n t o a series of a b s t r a c t i o n s , s o t h a t t h e d e s e r t " a s s u m e s t h e s t a t u s o f a p r i m a l scene" (?.X); L o s A n g c -

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1 oill< 1'•• 1 •. W I I 11 i"i in W H I T M N K

les becomes "merely an inhabited fragment o f the desert" (53); speed is "simply the rite that initiates us into emptiness" (7); and change embodies "the aesthetic form o f a mutation" (23). F o r the E u r o p e a n traveler, the experience o f travel through A m e r i c a becomes a glimpse in C a l v i n o ' s "negative mirror": T h i s is o n e o f t h e a d v a n t a g e s , o n e o f t h e p l e a s u r e s o f t r a v e l . T o see a n d feel A m e r i c a , y o u h a v e t o h a v e h a d f o r a t least o n e m o m e n t i n some d o w n t o w n jungle, in the Painted Desert, o r o n some bend in a f r e e w a y , t h e f e e l i n g t h a t E u r o p e h a s d i s a p p e a r e d . (104-5)

Nonetheless, it is Europe (though less obviously than in E c o ' s essay) that continues to haunt the nexus o f political, historical, cultural, and geographical affairs to which Baudrillard attaches the label " A m e r ica." A n d w h a t is more, the very c o m m e n t a t o r w h o had seemed to abolish metaphor and m y t h from the travel b o o k has ended u p smug gling it in—and not so surreptitiously—by the b a c k door. In Baudrillard's text, the experience o f travel in A m e r i c a is con verted into surface, or—to be willfully, if appropriately, p a r a d o x i c a l — into the essence o f surface. Recalling "the immensity o f the T e x a n hills and the sierras o f N e w M e x i c o , " Baudrillard insists that photographs cannot, will not, recreate the experience: W e ' d n e e d t h e w h o l e film o f t h e trip in real time, including t h e u n b e a r a b l e h e a t a n d the m u s i c . W e ' d h a v e t o r e p l a y it all f r o m e n d t o e n d at h o m e i n a d a r k e n e d r o o m , rediscover t h e m a g i c o f the free w a y s a n d the distance a n d t h e ice-cold alcohol i n the desert a n d t h e s p e e d a n d live it all a g a i n o n v i d e o a t h o m e i n real t i m e , n o t s i m p l y f o r the pleasure o f r e m e m b e r i n g b u t because the fascination o f sense less r e p e t i t i o n is a l r e a d y p r e s e n t i n t h e a b s t r a c t i o n o f t h e j o u r n e y . (1)

" R e a l time" is, o f course, reel time or, perhaps better, an a p p r o x i m a tion o f it, since Baudrillard's virtual travel depends on the "futurist" technologies o f the shallow surface: the video screen and the computer monitor. T h e drained landscapes o f A m e r i c a find their mirror in the reduplicative surfaces o f simulation technology. V i r t u a l travel, as experienced on the video screen, promises an "interactive" experience that m a k e s simulation m o r e real than actuality. A s Baudrillard implies, it is the very abstractness o f the surface that enables such sat isfying travel. In the viewer's " d a r k e n e d r o o m , " the combination o f visual and aural effects melds i n l o a l o l a l but absolutely abstracted and thus perhaps essential experience, al the same time as the

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"futurist" technologies o f fast-forwarding a n d hypertextuality evoke an instant nostalgia. A s w i t h other aspects o f a c o m m o d i f i e d c o n t e m p o r a r y m e t r o p o l i t a n l i f e s t y l e — f o o d a n d sex b e i n g t w o o b v i o u s c o m m o d i t i e s — v i r t u a l technologies hold out the promise o f participatory, interactive experi ence. B u t such experience a m o u n t s , in E c o ' s terms, t o a n o t h e r f o r m o f " f a k e r y " ; t h e i n t e r a c t i o n it p r o d u c e s is w i t h a v a r i e t y o f s u r f a c e s — s u r faces t h a t o v e r l a y t h e subject i n a u n i f o r m , a b s t r a c t b l a n k e t i n g . T h i s "travel o f the f u t u r e " precludes travel f r o m t h e outset; u b i q u i t o u s instantaneity converts labored m o v e m e n t into abstract patterns o f "senseless r e p e t i t i o n . " V i r t u a l t r a v e l is t h e l a t e s t l i n k i n a c h a i n t h a t r u n s f r o m t h e t r a v e l b o o k t h r o u g h t h e t r a v e l g u i d e , film, a n d v i d e o , ft is t e m p t i n g , a g a i n , t o i n v o k e nostalgia: lament for the progressive evacuation o f " r e a l " expe r i e n c e f r o m t r a v e l . B u t " t r a v e l , " i n w h i c h e v e r f o r m it is m e d i a t e d , is a l w a y s t e x t u a l a n d s u p p l e m e n t a r y ; it r e s p o n d s t o p e r s o n a l a n d c o l l e c tive m a n d a t e s that a r e necessarily o v e r d e t e r m i n e d . C o m p l e x tracts, these m a n d a t e s seek t o s u p e r i m p o s e o n e g r i d o r a n o t h e r o n a n e x p e r i ence ( o f travel, o f the w o r l d , etc.) t h a t r e m a i n s irreducible. T h i s s t u d y h a s a l r e a d y d i s c u s s e d P i c o I y e r ' s " g r i d , " i n Video Night in Kalhmandu (1988), a s a p o s t c o l o n i a l r e s p o n s e t o A s i a ' s e n t r y i n t o a " g l o b a l c u l t u r e " (see c h a p . 1). B u t Video Night is, e q u a l l y , a n o f f - t h e s h e l f p o s t m o d e r n i s t r e s p o n s e : i n its s t r e t c h e d c o m p a r i s o n s , its s t a r t l i n g p a r a l l e l s , a n d its s e l f - c o n s c i o u s l y i n g e n i o u s t e x t u a l e f f e c t s . I y e r s p r i n k l e s h i s e s s a y s w i t h r e f e r e n c e s t o l e a d i n g t h e o r e t i c a l figures ( B a r t h e s , M c L u h a n , etc.), a l o n g w i t h n u m e r o u s p o p - c u l t u r e allusions, designed t o a s s u r e h i s r e a d e r s t h a t h e is m o v i n g a r o u n d i n t h e a g e o f g l o b a l c u l t u r e w i t h e a s y a u t h o r i t y . I y e r ' s " v i d e o n i g h t " is h y p e r r e a l i s m a t l o w t e m p e r a t u r e . W e n e e d t o a s k w h a t specific c o m m e n t a r y — a b o u t m o b i l ity, c u l t u r a l representation, a n d m y t h — I y e r ' s supple t o u r p r o v i d e s . I y e r ' s b o o k offers s o m e t h i n g o f a thesis a b o u t l a t e - t w e n t i e t h - c e n tury capitalism—a phase in w h i c h the older f o r m s o f imperial conquest have given w a y t o a " n e w i n v a s i o n " b y tourists, the latter-day "terror ists o f c u l t u r a l e x p a n s i o n i s m " (13). B u t t h i s thesis is r e a l l y n o m o r e t h a n a n enabling f r a m e w o r k : a space w i t h i n w h i c h Iyer can operate relays o f incongruities. T h i s A s i a , ironically recolonized in free-floating p o s t m o d e r n i s t f a s h i o n , is a l a n d o f s u r f a c e s t h a t I y e r c o m p o s e s a c c o r d ing t o the " l a w s " o f pastiche, collage, the crazy quill. K a t h m a n d u strikes I y e r , f o r e x a m p l e , as " e x a c t l y t h e k i n d o f cross-cultural cross r o a d s ' * h e h a d h o p e d t o f i n d (94); yet a l t h o u g h this s i t u a t i o n i n v i t e s lf»i|

T O O M I S T S W i l l i 'I VIM: w i l l T h l t N

d e f i n i t i o n a n d a n a l y s i s , it is less c o m p e l l i n g t o I y e r t h a n a r e its s u r f a c e incongruities. T h e s e I y e r describes in a flippant l o n e o f c o m i c h o r r o r , as t i m e a n d a g a i n h e finds h i m s e l f f a l l i n g " l i k e A l i c e t h r o u g h t h e l o o k i n g g l a s s " i n t o " u p s i d e d o w n w o r l d s " (78). A t o n e m o m e n t , h e d i s c o v ers t h a t h e h a s " t r a v e l e d 8,000 m i l e s o n l y t o e n d u p . . . i n a f a c s i m i l e o f t h e E a s t v i l l a g e " (103); a t a n o t h e r , W e s t e r n v i s i t o r s t o B a l i — " b e e f y m e n w i t h sunglasses p r o p p e d u p in their h a i r " a n d "freshly t u r n e d blondes in halter tops and miniskirts"—have transformed K u t a Beach i n t o " t h e p o o r m a n ' s C l u b M e d " (47); a t still a n o t h e r , B a l i n e s e sales assistants, " n o w s p o r t [ i n g ] tight j e a n s a n d sun-glasses . . . h a d scarlet h e a d b a n d s a b o v e their m a s c a r a e d eyes . . . [and] w o r e T - s h i r t s t h a t said ' p r o u d l y A u s t r a l i a n ' a c r o s s t h e i r c h e s t s " (68). Video Night is, t o b e s u r e , a n a t t r a c t i v e a n d s u p e r i o r t r a v e l b o o k . Well informed (to thepoint o f sometimes appearing too k n o w i n g , t o o u p - t o - t h e - m i n u t e ) a n d s t y l i s h l y w r i t t e n , it n e v e r t h e l e s s b e g s s e v e r a l questions that readers m i g h t well w a n t t o a s k a b o u t t h e " n o t - s o - f a r E a s t " as a conjunction o f postcolonialism w i t h p o s t m o d e r n i s m . T h e m o s t o b v i o u s q u e s t i o n h e r e is: h o w d o t h e s e t w o " p o s t s " r e l a t e t o o n e another? Tyer's response typically vacillates b e t w e e n w o n d e r m e n t a n d controlled nostalgia: h e marvels, f o r e x a m p l e , at the Japanese a p p r o p r i a t i o n o f b a s e b a l l b u t insists, a t t h e s a m e t i m e , t h a t J a p a n h a s n o t s u c c e e d e d i n m a k i n g t h e s p o r t f u l l y its o w n , i n d i c a t i n g a w i s t f u l p r e f e r ence f o r e x h i b i t i o n s o f m o r e " d i s t i n c t i v e " J a p a n e s e social codes. A r a t h e r less o b v i o u s q u e s t i o n ( i f t h e first o n e p r o v e s u l t i m a t e l y u n a n s w e r a b l e ) is: w h a t k i n d o f a n a l y s i s m i g h t t h e t r a v e l b o o k o f f e r t h a t w o u l d e x e m p t a u t h o r a n d reader f r o m t h e charge o f b a d faith? Iyer seems a t his m o s t v u l n e r a b l e w h e n h e targets " o v e r l a n d e r s " - t h o s e ubiquitous hordes o f global b a c k p a c k e r s toting their L o n e l y P l a n e t g u i d e b o o k s — a s a tribe o f "counter-cultural imperialists that w a n d e r s t h e p l a n e t i n s e a r c h o f c u t - r a t e p a r a d i s e s " (78). I n t h e A s i a n " o u t b a c k , " travelers like these h a v e t o " t u r n themselves into locals" t o sur vive, eating cheaply a n d locally, w a s h i n g clothes in streams, a n d a d o p t ing t h e locals' dress styles. A n d y e t , s i m u l t a n e o u s l y , these travelers " w e r e f o r c i n g [places like] L h a s a t o t u r n [themselves] i n t o a r o u g h v e r s i o n o f t h e h o m e s t h e y h a d q u i t " (81). I y e r , it b e a r s r e m e m b e r i n g , u n d e r t o o k h i s t r i p u n d e r t h e s p o n s o r s h i p o f Time: a g l o b a l m a g a z i n e pur excellence. L o n g - h a u l b a c k p a c k e r s ; s h o r t - t e r m visitors o n p a c k a g e tours; peripatetic E n g l i s h - l a n g u a g e teachers; international business t r a v e l e r s ; a n d , n o t least, I y e r a n d his r e a d e r s : all o f t h e s e g r o u p s a r e i n t e r e s t e d , n o t t o m e n t i o n i m p l i c a t e d , in b o t h t h e p r e s e r v a t i o n o f t h e

( • O N T M r i W . K N I T I N t. IIA II11

165

E a s t a s a site o f c u l t u r a l d i f f e r e n c e a n d its p r o p u l s i o n i n t o a w o r l d t h e m e - p a r k , a g l o b a l v i s i t o r - f r i e n d l y a r e n a . A n d i r o n i c a l l y , it is t h i s l a t t e r d e v e l o p m e n t t h a t k e e p s t h e a d r e n a l i n e o f n o s t a l g i a flowing; I y e r , a f t e r all, is v e r y m u c h p a r t o f t h e p r o c e s s t h a t p r o d u c e s r e g r e t t h a t " t h e r e a l B a l i n e s e smiles s e e m e d t o b e f a d i n g " (68). Iyer invokes techniques o f identification a n d reduction that are related t o those o f , say, Baudrillard (likening exotic K u t a t o " D u v a l S t r e e t i n K e y W e s t o n a S a t u r d a y n i g h t " [47]), b u t h e s t o p s j u s t s h o r t o f collapsing layered actuality into virtual representation b y t a k i n g care t o discriminate b e t w e e n surfaces a n d depths: " T h e w h i r l i n g surfaces [of K a t h m a n d u ] existed, n o d o u b t , but they seemed to be n o m o r e t h a n s u r f a c e s " (105). H i s r e p r o a c h s e e m s less d i r e c t e d t o w a r d t h e O r i e n t ' s " p r o v i s i o n o f a l l t h e latest i n p o s t - p o s t - M o d e r n i s t c h i c " t o A m e r i c a t h a n t o w a r d its c o n s p i c u o u s ( a n d c o n s p i c u o u s l y l a t e ) c o n s u m p t i o n o f its o w n e l e c t r o n i c p r o d u c t s (105). O n a n o t h e r level, Iyer's descriptions lead b a c k t o C a l v i n o a n d his r e v i s i t a t i o n o f M a r c o P o l o ' s t r a v e l s . S o m a n y o f C a l v i n o ' s cities split, e n g e n d e r i n g r e f l e c t i v e o r r e v e r s e d d o u b l e s , t h a t t h e c i t y b e c o m e s a mise en abyme, t h a t f a v o r i t e a m o n g c o n t e m p o r a r y t e x t u a l effects o f d e s t a b i lization. " [ A ] s each o f t h e three tourist havens h a d g r o w n m o r e bloated," Iyer comments about Bali, "each o f them h a d spawned a k i n d o f s h a d o w self, a n a n n e x - t o w n t h a t h a d m a t e r i a l i z e d b y its side t o c a t e r t o t h e o v e r f l o w " (53). I y e r ' s b o o k , i n f a c t , r e f e r e n c e s p o s t m o d e r n w r i t i n g p r a c t i c e m u c h less i n its d e s c r i p t i o n s o f c r a z y - q u i l t s u r f a c e s t h a n i n t h o s e m o m e n t s o f a b s t r a c t f o r m u l a t i o n w h e n it r e a d s l i k e a p a r ody o fCalvino: E v e r y t h i n g , in f a c t , a p p r o x i m a t e d t o its P l a t o n i c i m a g e : e v e r y Z e n garden w a s a picture-perfect i m a g e o f w h a t a Z e n g a r d e n should be; the E m p e r o r disappeared within the idealized role o f an

Emperor;

and every geisha c o r r e s p o n d e d exactly to the proto-typical m o d e l o f a geisha (a T o k y o rose w a s a T o k y o rose w a s a T o k y o rose).

(386)

E n c o u n t e r i n g this k i n d o f d i s t a n c e d c o m m e n t a r y , readers m i g h t well b e d r a w n t o reflect o n t h o s e p a s s a g e s o f a c t u a l t r a v e l w h e r e t h e u n f a m i l i a r v i l l a g e , t o w n , o r c i t y a w a k e n s n o t s o m u c h a sense o f m a t e r i a l e s t r a n g e m e n t as o n e o f m e t a p h y s i c a l d i s - e a s e . F o r a l l its v i v i d c e l e b r a t i o n o f p a r a d o x a n d h y b r i d i t y i n t h e e n c o u n t e r o f E a s t a n d W e s t , Video Night, c o m m u n i c a t e s a s t r o n g sense o f w h a t Iain C h a m b e r s has called the " E u r o c e n t r i c domestication o f s p a c e " (31). I y e r ' s d e s t i n a t i o n s f e a t u r e as d i v i s i b l e " c h a p t e r s o f t r a v e l 1 1

l

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Mutant Message Down Under (1994). These narratives attempt, in very different w a y s and with varying degrees o f self-consciousness, to account for "disappearing" realities or perceptions o f reality, and to articulate " c a r i n g " alternatives to the destructive material culture o f the West. N o n e o f these texts is identiiiably postmodern in its aes thetics, and V a n der Post's and M o r g a n ' s are resolutely antimodern (if still arguably modern/.?/) in their primitivist nostalgia. W h a t links them is their reverence for more or less threatened nature. This reaction is characteristic o f the modernist desire for ecological reconnection; but it has been assimilated in an age o f increasing environmental awareness to a postmodern c o m m o d i t y culture: one in which nature is presented as an edifying spectacle for consumption, and as a repository for spiri tual wisdom available at market price. T w o postwar narratives o f disappearance that present similar eco logical dilemmas are V a n der Post's previously mentioned The Lost World of the Kalahari and Peter Matthiessen's The Cloud Forest: A Chronicle of the South American Wilderness (1961). Both narratives fol l o w the pattern o f the spiritual quest into the interior, V a n der Post's taking him into the South African K a l a h a r i desert-region in search o f the talismanic Bushman, Matthiessen's taking him on a more labyrin thine j o u r n e y through South A m e r i c a that ends in another "lost w o r l d " : the ancient rain forests o f Peru. Both o f these journeys, spiri tually motivated, a m o u n t to a kind o f surrogate pilgrimage: for V a n der Post, the desert and its original—now endangered—inhabitants are spiritual entities, an antidote to the destructive material culture o f the West; for Matthiessen, the wilderness is a site o f personal (and col lective) redemption: the place he goes to purge himself o f the corrupted values o f Western civilization. The tone in b o t h w o r k s is Levi-Straussian: serious, moralistic, lamenting the plight o f "primitive" peoples whose authenticity has gone unrecognized, and whose w a y o f life, irrevocably altered by their contact with (Western) modernity, is n o w "degenerating" (Matthiessen) or residual in the face o f extinction ( V a n der Post). T h e following passage illustrates the melancholic awareness o f deterioration that suffuses The Cloud Forest: " A t present the C a s h i b o [Indians] are in a degenerate state and m a y soon disappear; unlike the river C h a m u s , they have failed to adapt to civilization. N o t only is their culture disappearing, but they manifest such s y m p t o m s o f decline as indiscriminate exchange o f mates and two husbands for each wife" (257). The Lost World of the Kalahari, meanwhile, is redolent o f the nostalgia o f N o b l e Savagery: 12

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1 O I U K S 1 s v i n i l s

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a t t a c k p o s t c o l o n i a l i s m t h a n t o d e f e n d it; b u t i n spite ( o r p o s s i b l y because?) o f this, p o s t c o l o n i a l studies prospers. 19. F o r a n e x p l o r a t i o n o f t h i s d i s c r e p a n c y , see A p p i a h ' s c h a p t e r " T h e P o s t m o d e r n a n d t h e P o s t c o l o n i a l " i n Africa in the Philosophy of Culture. 20. S e e , f o r e x a m p l e , B r y s o n , Neither Here Nor There (1991); a n d T h e r o u x , The Pillars of Hercules: A Grand Tour of the Mediterranean (1995). S e e a l s o , o n t h e g r a n d t o u r , P o r t e r ; L e e d , 184-85; a n d B u z a r d , 97-110. 21. S e e t h e title e s s a y o f R u s h d i e ' s c o l l e c t i o n Imaginary Homelands, w h e r e h e d e s c r i b e s h i m s e l f as a " l i t e r a r y m i g r a n t , " a p r o d u c t o f c u l t u r a l t r a n s p l a n t a t i o n a n d o f t h e " l i t e r a r y c r o s s - p o l l i n a t i o n " o f a n i n t e r n a t i o n a l e r a (20-21). F o r a c r i t i q u e o f t h i s p o s i t i o n , a n d o f t h e c o s m o p o l i t a n p r i v i l e g e s i t d i s g u i s e s , see B r e n n a n , Salman Rushdie and the Third World; a l s o H u g g a n ' s " T h e P o s t c o l o n i a l E x o t i c , " w h i c h d i s cusses t h e i m p l i c a t i o n s o f R u s h d i e ' s s t a t u s as a b e l e a g u e r e d c e l e b r i t y . 22. S e e , p a r t i c u l a r l y , The Satanic Verses (1988), w h i c h is, a m o n g m a n y o t h e r things, a ludic allegory o f the d e m o n i z a t i o n o f British immigrants. 23. S e e , f o r e x a m p l e , t h e s o m e w h a t n a i v e c e l e b r a t i o n o f " m i g r a n c y " i n C h a m b e r s . A s C a r e n K a p l a n p o i n t s o u t i n Questions of Travel, t h e f a s h i o n a b l e t h e o r i e s s u r r o u n d i n g t h e figure o f t h e d i a s p o r i c m i g r a n t m a y b e l i t t l e m o r e t h a n p o s t m o d e r n u p d a t e s o f e a r l i e r , e q u a l l y u n c r i t i c a l , n o t i o n s o f t h e m o d e r n i s t e x i l e (140). S u c h theories, in i n v o k i n g t h e universal poststructuralist m a n t r a o f "displace m e n t , " risk " o b f u s c a t i n g a n d e v e n erasing the r e p r e s e n t a t i o n o f social relations i n h i s t o r i c a l l y g r o u n d e d a n d p o l i t i c a l l y m e a n i n g f u l w a y s " (140). F o r f u r t h e r d i s c u s s i o n s o f " m i g r a n c y " a n d / a s " d i s p l a c e m e n t , " see c h a p t e r s 3 a n d , e s p e c i a l l y , 4 o f t h i s book. 24. S a i d ' s e s s a y is t h e ( d i r e c t o r i n d i r e c t ) i n s p i r a t i o n b e h i n d a w h o l e n e w s c h o o l o f c u l t u r a l critics w h o practice " t r a v e l i n g t h e o r y , " G e o r g e s v a n d e n Abbeele, C a r e n K a p l a n , James Clifford, Iain C h a m b e r s , and R e y C h o w a m o n g t h e m . F o r a n o v e r v i e w , see C l i f f o r d , Routes; K a p l a n , Questions of Travel; a n d t h e essays i n C l i f f o r d a n d D h a r e s h w a r . 25. S e e , p a r t i c u l a r l y , t h e i n t r o d u c t i o n a n d " T h e S c o p e o f O r i e n t a l i s m " i n S a i d ' s Orientalism. A l t h o u g h it h a s a t t r a c t e d a g o o d d e a l o f n e g a t i v e c r i t i c i s m , t h i s r e m a i n s o n e o f the f o u n d a t i o n texts f o r c o n t e m p o r a r y postcolonial studies. 26. S e e t h e s e c t i o n o n " i m a g i n a t i v e g e o g r a p h y " i n Orientalism, 49-72. I m a g i n a t i v e g e o g r a p h y , f o r S a i d , p r o v i d e s a n e x p a n s i v e i m a g e - r e p e r t o i r e t h a t legiti mates distinctions b e t w e e n t h e familiar, " i n s i d e " spaces o f d o m i n a n t (imperial) cultures a n d the " o u t e r " reaches o f the " b a r b a r i a n s " w h o s e territories they i n v a d e a n d w h o s e cultures t h e y subjugate. A s S a i d suggests, a n d as h i s f o l l o w e r s (e.g., B e h d a d ) h a v e g o n e o n t o d e m o n s t r a t e i n m o r e detail, travel writing—particularly E u r o p e a n travel w r i t i n g — h a s tended t o bolster preconceived cultural distinctions: it h a s s e r v e d as a v e h i c l e o f " i m a g i n a t i v e g e o g r a p h y " t h a t a n s w e r s t h e d o m i n a n t culture's needs. 27. S e v e r a l c o n t e m p o r a r y t r a v e l n a r r a t i v e s h a v e c o n t r i b u t e d t o p o p u l a r m y t h s o f A s i a n a s c e n d a n c y : see, f o r e x a m p l e , W i n c h e s t e r , Pacific Rising, a n d Viviano. 28. R o b e r t s ' s w o r k , c u r r e n t l y i n p r o g r e s s , c h a r t s t h e t r a n s i t i o n f r o m E u r o p e a n " p l a n e t a r y c o n s c i o u s n e s s " ( P r a t t , Imperial Eyes 9 10) t o I h e t r a n s n a t i o n a l " g l o b a l i m a g i n a r y , " s e e i n g t h e b o o m in t r a v e l w r i t i n g a n d t o u r i s m i n g e n e r a l as s y m p t o m s o f a p o s t m o d e r n c o n d i t i o n in w h i c h O u t c a p i t a l i s t w o r l d - s y s t e m p r o d u c e s a n d m a n i p u l a t e s i m a m ' s (if H " g l o b i i l c u l t u n ,"

29. T i m o t h y B r e n n a n , i n At Home in the World (1997), t a k e s t h i s c r i t i c i s m f u r t h e r , s e e i n g I y e r ( a n d o t h e r t r a v e l w r i t e r s l i k e h i m ) as e n d o r s i n g a Utopian g l o b a l i s m t h a t f a i l s t o a c k n o w l e d g e its o w n , p o i n t e d l y E u r o - A m e r i c a n , f r a m e o f c u l t u r a l r e f e r e n c e . F o r B r e n n a n , I y e r ' s t r a v e l writing f u s e s a n a i v e l y " u p - t o - d a t e " i n t e r n a t i o n a l i s m w i t h a n o s t a l g i c " c o l o n i a l e r o t i c s . " T h e r e s u l t is a r e f a s h i o n e d e x o t i c i s m , m o r e c o n t i n u o u s w i t h imperialisms o f the past t h a n critical o f i m p e r i a l i s m s o f the p r e s e n t , a n d w h o l l y c o m p l i c i t w i t h t h e g l o b a l p r o c e s s o f A m e r i c a n i z a t i o n it c l a i m s to resist. W h i l e B r e n n a n ' s c r i t i c i s m s h a v e s o m e v a l i d i t y , his a r g u m e n t is w e a k e n e d b y h i s t e n d e n c y t o c o n t r a s t w r i t e r s like I y e r , s e l f - s e r v i n g c o s m o p o l i t a n s , w i t h w r i t ers like R u s h d i e , D o r f m a n , a n d G o r d i m e r , w h o s e t r a v e l o g u e s t a k e t h e f o r m o f p o l i t i c a l i n t e r v e n t i o n s . A s w i t h t h e e x a m p l e o f The Jaguar Smile, a n a l y z e d e a r l i e r in t h i s c h a p t e r , s u c h d i s t i n c t i o n s — p r e s u m a b l y b a s e d o n p o l i t i c a l s t a n c e a n d d e g r e e o f p e r c e i v e d c o m m i t m e n t — a r e c o m p l i c a t e d b y a g e n r e t h a t t e n d s (as B r e n n a n r e c ognizes) t o aestheticize the dispossessed. 30. T h e t r a v e l " z o n e s " s e l e c t e d f o r d i s c u s s i o n i n t h e f o l l o w i n g c h a p t e r a r e i n t e n d e d t o p r o v i d e s o m e b a l a n c e ; c o m p r e h e n s i v e c o v e r a g e is o u t o f t h e q u e s t i o n , t h o u g h , so t o s o m e e x t e n t t h e " z o n e s " c h o s e n reflect t h e a u t h o r s ' c u r r e n t i n t e r e s t s and preferences. T h e popularity o f particular " z o n e s " — a n d t h e narratives attached t o t h e m — s h i f t s according t o fashion, a recent instance being the spate o f I ravel b o o k s ( n o t a b l y J o n K r a k a u e r ' s ) o n M o u n t E v e r e s t expeditions.

C H A P T E R T W O 1. F o r a r a t h e r d i f f e r e n t , b u t i n f l u e n t i a l u s a g e , see a l s o P r a t t ' s i n v o c a t i o n o f the " c o n t a c t z o n e " i n Imperial Eyes. T h e c o n t a c t z o n e is " a n a t t e m p t t o i n v o k e t h e spatial a n d t e m p o r a l copresence o f subjects p r e v i o u s l y separated b y g e o g r a p h i c a l II n d h i s t o r i c a l d i s j u n c t u r e s , a n d w h o s e t r a j e c t o r i e s n o w i n t e r s e c t . . . . A ' c o n t a c t ' perspective e m p h a s i z e s h o w subjects are constituted i n a n d b y their relations t o each other. I t treats the relation a m o n g colonizers a n d c o l o n i z e d , o r travelers a n d 'Inivelees,' n o t i n terms o f separateness o r apartheid, b u t i n terms o f copresence, interaction, interlocking understandings a n d practices, often within radically a s y m m e t r i c a l r e l a t i o n s o f p o w e r " (7). P r a t t ' s " z o n e " e m p h a s i z e s , t o a g r e a t e r extent t h a n M c H a l e ' s , t h e often intricate w o r k i n g s o f (imperial) p o w e r ; like M e l l a l e ' s , h o w e v e r , it is a site o f c o n t e n t i o n , o f c o n t i n u a l r e n e g o t i a t i o n : it is shaped a n d r e s h a p e d b y a h i s t o r y o f social interaction a n d ideological conflict. 2. T h e B e l g i a n C o n g o (1908-60) t o o k t h e n a m e Z a i r e i n 1971. O n M a y 17, i')97 after a p e r i o d o f instability a n d internal resistance t o M o b u t u — i t b e c a m e 1 lie D e m o c r a t i c R e p u b l i c o f t h e C o n g o . 3. H y l a n d d e s c r i b e s h i s A f r i c a n j o u r n e y a s " t r a n s g r e s s i n g t h e h o t l i m i t " I) 1 22), b o r r o w i n g t h e p h r a s e t h e " h o t l i m i t " l o o s e l y f r o m C a m o e s ' s Os Lusiades, 1 lie s i x t e e n t h - c e n t u r y P o r t u g u e s e e p i c p o e m . F o r C a m o e s , w h a t w a s l a t e r t o I income C o n r a d ' s / M a r l o w ' s " d a r k " river h a d never before been "seen b y t h e II i i e i e n l s " ; this c o n v e n i e n t l y c l e a r s t h e w a y f o r C a m o e s t o c e l e b r a t e t h e " d i s c o v e r y " n i l he C o n g o b y t h e P o r t u g u e s e e x p l o r e r G i o r g i o C a o i n 1482. 4. O n t h e p r e v a l e n c e o f " l o w , " d e m o n i z e d i m a g e s ( s t r a t e g i e s o f " d e b a s e i i i e n l " a n d " a b j e c t i o n " ) i n c o l o n i a l d i s c o u r s e s , see S p u r r . 5. F o r 11 f u r t h e r d i s c u s s i o n o f t h e i m p a c t o f N a i p a u l ' s c o l o n i a l b a c k g r o u n d m i Ins t r a v e l w r i t i n g , see N i x o n , London Calling, a n d t h e s e c t i o n o n N a i p a u l ' s The h'nifiiiiti of Ai•rival in t h e p i e v i o u s c h a p t e r o f this h o o k . N
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p a r a d i s e , " h o w e v e r t i r e d a n d t i r e s o m e , is still p r o d u c t i v e , as h a s b e e n d e m o n s t r a t e d b y , a m o n g o t h e r s , P a u l T h e r o u x . S e e t h e d i s c u s s i o n o f T h e r o u x ' s The Happy Isles of Oceania i n c h a p t e r 2 o f this b o o k a n d , m o s t r e c e n t l y , D e a B i r k e t t , w h o s e S e r p e n t in P a r a d i s e ( 1 9 9 7 ) p r o v i d e s a u s e f u l a n t i d o t e t o t h e excesses o f I r v i n e a n d V a r a w a . 18. O n t h e p r a c t i c e o f " o t h e r i n g " i n t r a v e l w r i t i n g , see M i l l s , 8 8 - 9 2 . C o n d e n s ing the w o r k o f S a i d , L e v i - S t r a u s s , F a b i a n , P r a t t , a n d others, Mills demonstrates t h a t t h e " o t h e r i n g " p r o c e s s is i n t r i n s i c t o E u r o p e a n t r a v e l n a r r a t i v e s , w h i c h t e n d t o assert, explicitly o r i m p l i c i t l y , the s u p r e m a c y o f the traveler-writer's culture, e v e n w h e n t h a t c u l t u r e ( a s i n I r v i n e ' s a n d V a r a w a ' s cases) is s u b j e c t t o c r i t i q u e . O n t h e c o n n e c t i o n b e t w e e n " o t h e r i n g " a n d t h e e t h n i c b o d y , see a l s o L u t z a n d C o l l i n s , e s p . c h a p . 3; T r i n h M i n h - h a , e s p . 7 9 - 1 1 8 ; a n d t h e i n f l u e n t i a l w o r k o f S p i v a k . 19. I n h e r w o r k o n p o s t c o l o n i a l a u t o b i o g r a p h y , L i o n n e t d i s t i n g u i s h e s — p e r h a p s t o o s h a r p l y — b e t w e e n t h e m o r e o r less i n d i v i d u a l i s t i c t r a d i t i o n o f w h i t e W e s t ern a u t o b i o g r a p h y a n d the m o r e c o m m u n i t y - o r i e n t e d autobiographies o f "ethnic" ( n o n - W e s t e r n ) w r i t e r s . F o r f u r t h e r r e l e v a n t d i s c u s s i o n s o f a u t o b i o g r a p h y , see C a r e n K a p l a n ' s a n d W a r l e y ' s e s s a y s i n AIB, a n d t h e e s s a y s i n S m i t h a n d W a t s o n . 2 0 . T h e t e r m " c o u n t e r m e m o r y " is d e r i v e d h e r e f r o m t h e w o r k o f t h e F r e n c h historian M i c h e l F o u c a u l t . F o r F o u c a u l t , c o u n t e r m e m o r y opposes a progressivist view o f history underpinned b y notions o f identity, continuity, a n d tradition. Suleri's text also implicitly u n d e r c u t s this " a n t i q u a r i a n " v i e w o f history, replacing it w i t h t h e d y n a m i c , r a d i c a l l y d i s c o n t i n u o u s m i c r o h i s t o r i e s o f t h e b o d y . 2 1 . T h e q u e s t i o n o f a u d i e n c e is p a r a m o u n t i n a n y s t u d y o f t r a v e l w r i t i n g . S e e the preface o f this b o o k f o r s o m e p r e l i m i n a r y observations, w h i c h are connected t o p e r c e p t i o n s o f t r a v e l a n d t r a v e l w r i t i n g as p o p u l a r p h e n o m e n a . A n i n - d e p t h s t u d y o f audience, similar perhaps to R a d w a y ' s w o r k o n the reception o f r o m a n c e , remains t o be u n d e r t a k e n — s o m e u s e f u l p o i n t e r s a r e p r o v i d e d b y M i l l s i n c h a p t e r 4 o f Dis courses of Difference. T h e d e t a i l e d s o c i o l o g i c a l a p p r o a c h t h a t s u c h a s t u d y r e q u i r e s is u n f o r t u n a t e l y b e y o n d t h e s c o p e o f a n i n t r o d u c t o r y s u r v e y s u c h as this o n e . 2 2 . M i l l s ' s e m p h a s i s is o n t h e r a n g e o f " d i s c u r s i v e p o s s i b i l i t i e s " a n d r o l e s i n w o m e n ' s t r a v e l w r i t i n g . T h i s " d i s c u r s i v e " a p p r o a c h is v a l u a b l e i n c o m p l i c a t i n g , a n d sometimes correcting, naive celebrations o f w o m e n ' s travel/travel writing that c h a m p i o n female bravery. 2 3 . T h e list a b o v e c o u l d o b v i o u s l y be a d d e d t o ; f o r w o m e n ' s t r a v e l w r i t i n g is in a " b o o m " p h a s e , f o r r e a s o n s p a r t l y e x p l a i n e d a b o v e , e v e n i f w o m e n ' s n a r r a t i v e s c o n t i n u e ( f o r r e a s o n s a l s o p a r t l y e x p l a i n e d ) t o b e o u t n u m b e r e d b y m e n ' s . I t is interesting t o note that w o m e n ' s travel writing, t o a far greater extent t h a n men's, is d o m i n a t e d b y t h e a n t h o l o g y ( a r e p r e s e n t a t i v e s e l e c t i o n h e r e m i g h t i n c l u d e M o r ris's Maiden Voyages, d e T e r a n ' s Indiscreet Journeys, G o v i e r ' s Without a Guide: Contemporary Women's Travel Adventures, a n d , m o s t r e c e n t l y , B i r k e t t a n d W h e e l e r ' s Amazonian: The Penguin Book of Women's New Travel Writing). W h i l e t h i s is a s i g n , as p r e v i o u s l y s u g g e s t e d , o f t h e c u r r e n t c o m m o d i f i c a t i o n o f " w o m e n ' s w r i t i n g , " it m i g h t a l s o b e t a k e n as a n i n d i c a t i o n t h a t w o m e n ' s t r a v e l n a r r a t i v e s a r e seen as o c c u p y i n g a special p r o v i n c e o f travel w r i t i n g , a n d are thus i m p l i c i t l y f a l s e l y — c o n s i d e r e d as b e i n g less w i d e - r a n g i n g t h a n m e n ' s . F o r f u r t h e r t h o u g h t s o n t h i s issue ( a m o n g o t h e r s ) i n w o m e n ' s t r a v e l w r i t i n g , see K r o l l e r . 2 4 . T h e issue o f t e r m i n o l o g y homosexual, gay, o r queer h a s r e c e n t l y b e c o m e p a r t i c u l a r l y t r i c k y . I n t h e d i s c u s s i o n t h a t f o l l o w s i n this s e c t i o n , homose.s mil a p p e a r s as a p r o v i s i o n a l c a t e g o r y m u r k e r ; gay signifies h o m o s e x u a l (sell'-jpic s e n l a l i o n w h e r e a l i b e r a l i n n i s l inlli-ciuui seems a p p r o p r i a t e ; a n d queer is u s e d t o • ;1

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s u g g e s t a p r o v o c a t i v e c o u n t e r d i s c o u r s e . Queer is t h e m o s t p r o b l e m a t i c o f t h e t e r m s , since u n t i l r e c e n t l y it t e n d e d t o s i g n a l t h e t r a n s g r e s s i o n o f b o u n d a r i e s ; its i n e x p l i c i t n e s s , h o w e v e r , f r e q u e n t l y s e p a r a t e s it f r o m c o n t e m p o r a r y d e p l o y m e n t . F o r a g e n e r a l d i s c u s s i o n o f t h e t h r e e t e r m s i n t h e i r h i s t o r i c a l c o n t e x t s , see J a g o s e . 2 5 . A B e l g i a n c h a r a c t e r i n A l a n H o l l i n g h u r s t ' s n o v e l The Folding Star ( 1 9 9 4 ) tells a y o u n g e r E n g l i s h f r i e n d o f his e a r l i e r s e x u a l a t t a c h m e n t t o a n o l d e r , w o r k i n g class m a n : " I ' m s u r e t h e r e w a s t h a t class t h i n g , t o o , w h i c h y o u ' r e s u p p o s e d t o h a v e m u c h w o r s e than u s — t h e place a n d the event conspired t o m a k e m e think o f h i m as a , w h a t ' s t h e w o r d , a w o o d l a n d e r " ( 4 0 8 ) . 26. A c k e r l e y ' s m a l e selection contrasts w i t h that o f F o r s t e r , w h o " u n d e r s t o o d M o h a m m e d a n s as h e d i d n o t u n d e r s t a n d H i n d u s " ( F u r b a n k 2 : 9 9 ) ; i n Hindoo Hol iday, A c k e r l e y ' s M u s l i m t u t o r is t h e r e j e c t e d y o u t h , a f o i l f o r t h e a t t r a c t i v e y o u n g Hindus Sharma and Narayan. 27. Saros C o w a s j e e provides useful i n f o r m a t i o n a b o u t A c k e r l e y ' s b o o k a n d its r e c e p t i o n i n his i n t r o d u c t i o n t o a r e p r i n t i n g o f t h e s e c o n d ( 1 9 5 2 ) e d i t i o n , w h i c h was w i t h d r a w n before publication. 2 8 . I n 1985 J o h n F u l l e r " f o u n d " t h e m a n u s c r i p t , d a t e d 1 9 2 9 , i n t h e U n i v e r s i t y o f T e x a s l i b r a r y . I t r e m a i n s u n c l e a r t o w h a t e x t e n t The Temple ( 1 9 8 8 ) is a r e w r i t e o f t h e o r i g i n a l l y u n p u b l i s h e d w o r k o r w h e t h e r it is v i r t u a l l y a n e w n o v e l ; S p e n d e r h i m s e l f h a s . s a i d t h a t h e relied h e a v i l y o n t h e e a r l i e r m a n u s c r i p t f o r t w o s e c t i o n s . B u t h e h a d a l r e a d y sent a n " i n t e r m e d i a t e v e r s i o n " t o A u d e n a n d I s h e r w o o d , a m o n g o t h e r s ; it is e v e n p o s s i b l e t h a t I s h e r w o o d d r e w o n it f o r Goodbye to Berlin, a l t h o u g h it is e q u a l l y l i k e l y t h a t S p e n d e r , i n t u r n , d r e w o n e a r l i e r w o r k b y I s h e r w o o d ( t h e n o v e l t h a t t h e y o u n g B r a d s h a w is w o r k i n g o n as P a u l leaves L o n d o n f o r H a m b u r g m a y w e l l r e p r e s e n t a p r o j e c t o f I s h e r w o o d ' s ) . A t a n y r a t e , t h e r e are c l e a r i n t e r t e x t u a l l i n k s b e t w e e n S p e n d e r ' s w o r k a n d t h a t o f his f r i e n d , p a r t i c u l a r l y i n t h e figure o f O t t o , a n I s h e r w o o d p r o t e g e i n b o t h Goodbye to Berlin a n d The Temple. A l s o c l e a r is t h a t S p e n d e r , r e v i s i t i n g a m a n u s c r i p t piece t h a t h a d p a r t i c i p a t e d i n a shared experience o f E n g l i s h h o m o s e x u a l i t y i n G e r m a n y , heightened the earlier w o r k ' s quotient o f political a n d m o r a l allegory. 2 9 . A n o t h e r p a s s a g e i n H o l l i n g h u r s f s A Folding Star (see n . 2 5 ) s u g g e s t s t h e c o n n e c t i o n : " O n c e i n s i d e t h e h e a v y s o u n d - p r o o f e d d o o r w i t h its little w i r e d j u d a s I w a s i n a p l a c e so f a m i l i a r . . . T h e r e w a s t h e s a m e m a d d e l u s i o n o f g l a m o u r , t h e same over-priced lawdriness, the s a m e ditsy p a r o c h i a l i s m a n d sullen l a r d y q u e e n e r y , a n d u n d e r n e a t h it all t h e s a m e u r g e n c y a n d d e f i a n c e " ( 2 1 ) . 30. A u s t r a l i a n g a y w r i t e r R o b e r t D e s s a i x p e r h a p s e c h o e s B u s i i n h i s p o s t m o d e r n t r a v e l m e m o i r / f i c t i o n Night Letters ( 1 9 9 6 ) . F o r a d i s c u s s i o n o f Night Let ters, see c h a p t e r 4 o f t h i s b o o k . 3 1 . M r a b e t is s o m e w h e r e o n t h e sidelines, r e s i s t i n g m a r g i n a l i z a t i o n , i n m a n y o f t h e i n t e r v i e w s c o l l e c t e d i n C a p o n i ' s Conversations with Paid Bowles ( 1 9 9 3 ) . 32. I n My Kenya Days ( 1 9 9 4 ) , W i l f r e d T h e s i g e r a l s o a u g m e n t s a n d a u t h e n t i cates a h o m o e r o t i c , q u a s i - a n t h r o p o l o g i c a l a c c o u n t o f his t r a v e l s i n E a s t A f r i c a with idealizing photographs o f attractive native y o u t h . ' 33. W h i t e ' s b o o k m a y well b e the inspiration b e h i n d the emergence o f the s u b g e n r e o f " g a y t r a v e l g u i d e s , " a s i g n i f i c a n t c a t e g o r y t h a t is r e l a t e d t o t h e g a y I r a v e l o g u e , b u t is n o t u n d e r s c r u t i n y i n t h i s s t u d y . 34. F o r a n a o c o u n l o f q u e e r p e r f o r m a t i v i t y a n d its c o n t e s t a t i o n s , see J a g o s e , /.'. 1 2 6 . J u d i t h B u t l e r ' s i n f l u e n t i a l Gender Trouble s h o u l d a l s o b e a c k n o w l e d g e d , m i l least for its i i i d i u r i link i n t h e title c h o s e n for this cluipk-i'.

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35- P a t r i c k L e i g h F e r m o r a r g u a b l y m e r i t s m o r e t h a n a p a s s i n g r e f e r e n c e . P a r t o f the m a n d a r i n tradition o f E n g l i s h gentleman-eccentric-stylists that perhaps cul m i n a t e s i n B r u c e C h a t w i n , h e a c h i e v e d t h e s t a t u s o f m i n o r c u l t figure w i t h t h e a n a c h r o n i s t i c A Time of Gifts (1977). M a r k C o c k e r ' s t r i b u t e is c h a r a c t e r i s t i c : " I n a literary age c o n s u m e d w i t h t h e literary p r i z e , f o u r o f his w o r k s h a v e b e e n h o n o u r e d w i t h s i x a w a r d s . H e is t h e m o s t o b v i o u s h e i r t o [ R o b e r t ] B y r o n ' s p r e - w a r m a n t l e as leading philhellene a m o n g s t British writers a n d as the travel b o o k ' s great stylist" ( C o c k e r 195). 36. T h i s p o i n t e m e r g e s v e r y c l e a r l y f r o m a r e c e n t t r a v e l o g u e , i n w h i c h a h i g h l y a r t i c u l a t e b u t t e m p o r a r i l y d e s t i t u t e g a y m a n t a k e s t o t h e streets a n d r o a d s o f t h e A m e r i c a n S o u t h w e s t . I n Travels with Lizbeth (1993), L a r s E i g h n e r m a k e s a v i r t u e o f e c o n o m i c p o w e r l e s s n e s s , a p p a r e n t l y r e f u s i n g t o enlist h i s s e x u a l e n d o w m e n t s t o p r o d u c e e c o n o m i c g a i n s . H e p r e s e n t s h i m s e l f as e c o n o m i c , n o t g a y , v i c t i m : he c a n t a k e his sexuality f o r g r a n t e d , b u t n o t his joblessness o r his p o v e r t y .

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1. I t is p o s s i b l e t o a r g u e , a l s o , t h a t s p a c e a n d p l a c e h a v e b e c o m e i n c r e a s i n g l y " < f e o n t o l o g i z e d " ; a s U m b e r t o E c o , f o r e x a m p l e , h a s it, " t h e l o g i c a l d i s t i n c t i o n b e t w e e n R e a l W o r l d s a n d P o s s i b l e W o r l d s h a s b e e n d e f i n i t i v e l y u n d e r m i n e d " (14). 2. S e e . f o r e x a m p l e , t h e r e c e n t , c h a r a c t e r i s t i c a l l y s n i d e a c c o u n t s b y B r o o k and Amis. 3. S e c a l s o t h e d i s c u s s i o n o f C h a t w i n ' s w o r k i n c h a p t e r 1 o f this b o o k . 4. F o r a n o t h e r , t h e o r e t i c a l l y i n f l e c t e d a c c o u n t o f " n o m a d i c " c u l t u r e , a l s o d i s t i n c t f r o m C h a t w i n ' s e n t e r p r i s e , see D e l e u z e a n d G u a t t a r i . S e e a l s o A s c h e r s o n ' s h i s t o r y / t r a v e l b o o k Black Sea (1996), e s p . 55-86, f o r a l a y e r e d , h i s t o r i c i z e d d i s c u s s i o n o f n o m a d i s m a n d n o m a d o l o g y . A s c h e r s o n , glancing particularly in Bruce C h a t w i n ' s direction, writes p o i n t e d l y o f " E u r o p e ' s long, unfinished ballad o f y e a r n i n g f o r noble savages, f o r hunter-gatherers i n t o u c h w i t h themselves a n d their ecology, f o r c o w b o y s , cattle-rievers, gypsies a n d C o s s a c k s , f o r B e d o u i n n o m a d s a n d aboriginals w a l k i n g t h e i r s o n g - l i n e s t h r o u g h t h e u n s p o i l e d w i l d e r n e s s " (83). A s c h e r s o n alerts u s t o the t e n d e n c y (present in C h a m b e r s as well as C h a t w i n ) t o a b n e g a t e history a n d context, eliding enforced m i g r a n c y w i t h the " f r e e d o m " o f the n o m a d . 5. N e i t h e r H I V n o r A I D S is e x p l i c i t l y n a m e d a s t h e c o n d i t i o n o f D e s s a i x ' s traveler. Interestingly, as in a surprising n u m b e r o f c o n t e m p o r a r y travel fictions, t h e t r a v e l e r tells a s t o r y a b o u t C h a t w i n t h a t s u g g e s t s t h a t t h e " o u t i n g " o f A I D S , i n t h e c o n t e x t o f t r a v e l , is t r a n s g r e s s i v e : " H a r r y s t a r t e d t e l l i n g t h e s t o r y o f B r u c e C h a t w i n ' s s l o w d e c l i n e . . . . I t w a s a l o n g s t o r y — t h e illness i n I n d i a , t h e t w o - h o u r struggles t o get t o t h e b a t h r o o m a n d b a c k u n a i d e d , e v e r y tiny, ghastly detail. T h e consensus, o f course, w a s that C h a t w i n h a d A I D S , although the m o m e n t H a r r y m e n t i o n e d t h e w o r d o n t h e t e l e p h o n e [ t o C h a t w i n ] , t h e calls c e a s e d . A t a b o o h a d b e e n b r o k e n . V e r y E n g l i s h " ( D e s s a i x 104). F o r a f u r t h e r d i s c u s s i o n o f t h e i m p l i c a t i o n s o f t h e A I D S e p i d e m i c f o r t r a v e l w r i t e r s , see c h a p t e r s 2 a n d 3. 6. D e s s a i x ' s t r a v e l e r b e l i e v e s t h a t " [ t ] h e r e w i l l a l w a y s b e s o m e t h i n g a b o u t the bisexual a n d h o m o s e x u a l male which favours a picaresque existence—and s o m e t h i n g a b o u t a picaresque existence w h i c h will a l w a y s h a v e h o m o s e x u a l o v e r t o n e s " (225). S e e a l s o t h e d i s c u s s i o n o f A l d o B u s i ' s w o r k in c h a p t e r 3 o f I his b o o k . 7. F o r a f u r t h e r d i s c u s s i o n of 1 Ins m c l a l i c t i o n i i l a n d s e l f - r e f l e x i v e a s p e c t s o f I I U T O U X ' S work, see (lie e s s a y s hy t i l a s e r . • |(>

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8. O n e e x a m p l e is N a i p a u l ' s The Enigma of Arrival a n a l y z e d i n c h a p t e r i o f this b o o k . 9. O n m i l l e n a r i a n i s m , see C o h n ; see a l s o t h e e s s a y s i n R a b k i n , G r e e n b e r g , and Olander. 10. L e v i - S t r a u s s is a s p e c t r a l f i g u r e h o v e r i n g b e h i n d m u c h o f t h e c o n t e m p o r a r y e n v i r o n m e n t a l l i t e r a t u r e . Tristes Tropiques, i n p a r t i c u l a r , h a s h a d a g r e a t i n f l u e n c e o n w h a t J a m e s C l i f f o r d calls t h o s e " s a l v a g e n a r r a t i v e s " t h a t t a k e it u p o n themselves t o "rescue" e n d a n g e r e d peoples, animals, a n d cultures ( " O n E t h n o g r a p h i c A l l e g o r y " ) . L e v i - S t r a u s s h a d seen h i s f a m o u s e t h n o g r a p h y o f t h e " d e t e r i o r a t i n g " i n d i g e n o u s t r i b e s o f c e n t r a l B r a z i l a s n o t h i n g less t h a n a n a c t o f a t o n e m e n t f o r t h e " c i v i l i z a t i o n " — h i s — t h a t c o r r u p t e d t h e m ; this spiritual d i m e n s i o n , a n d t h e guilty conscience t h a t inspired it, c a n also b e f o u n d i n several c o n t e m p o rary travel narratives that popularize Levi-Strauss's sentiments w i t h o u t imitating his s t r u c t u r a l m e t h o d s . F o r e m o s t a m o n g t h e s e a r e t h e e t h n o g r a p h i c / n a t u r e s t u d i e s o f P e t e r M a t t h i e s s e n , w h o s e e c o l o g i c a l j e r e m i a d The Cloud Forest (1961) w i l l b e dealt w i t h later i n this section. 11. T h e t e r m is e x p l a i n e d m o r e f u l l y i n C l i f f o r d ' s " O n E t h n o g r a p h i c A l l e gory." 12. M a t t h i e s s e n , i n k e e p i n g w i t h s e v e r a l o t h e r p o s t - L e v i - S t r a u s s t r a v e l w r i t ers, l a m e n t s t h e l o s s o f " a u t h e n t i c i t y " t h a t h a s c o m e w i t h t h e i n c u r s i o n o f t h e w h i t e m a n . E n c o u n t e r s w i t h t h e white m a n , he implies simplistically, can o n l y h a v e neg ative consequences: " I n S o u t h A m e r i c a , w i t h few exceptions, the tribe that permits itself t o c o m e i n t o c o m p l e t e c o n t a c t w i t h the w h i t e m a n , o n t h e w h i t e m a n ' s t e r m s , h a s p e r h a p s a h a l f - c e n t u r y o f e x i s t e n c e left t o i t " {The Cloud Forest 223). F o r a c r i t i q u e o f t h i s r o m a n t i c v i e w , see t h e w o r k o f M a c C a n n e l l a n d C l i f f o r d , f o r w h o m " a u t h e n t i c i t y " is a t a l i s m a n o f white p e r c e p t i o n s o f t h e " n a t i v e o t h e r " : it is " s o m e t h i n g p r o d u c e d , n o t s a l v a g e d " ( C l i f f o r d , The Predicament of Culture 250), a n d s e r v e s t h e d o m i n a n t c u l t u r e ' s n e e d s . I t is s t r i k i n g h o w o f t e n t h e t e r m i n o l o g y n o w c o n s i d e r e d d a t e d i n a n t h r o p o l o g y is p i c k e d u p i n c o n t e m p o r a r y t r a v e l w r i t i n g a s p a r t o f its n o s t a l g i c s t o c k - i n - t r a d e . S e e h e r e t h e t r e a t m e n t o f V a r a w a ' s " u n c o m m o n a n t h r o p o l o g y " in t h e p r e v i o u s chapter; also t h e discussion o f V a n der P o s t ' s w o r k that follows i n this section. 13. T h e w o r k o f A l i B e h d a d is u s e f u l h e r e i n e l u c i d a t i n g t h e v a r i o u s s t r a t e g i e s that travel writers d e p l o y t o recuperate o r " c o n s e r v e " — a n " o t h e r " u n d e r threat o f disappearance. B e h d a d distinguishes between t h e i n f o r m a t i o n a l g u i d e b o o k , w i t h its c u r a t o r i a l r e t e n t i v e n e s s , a n d t h e t r a v e l o g u e , w h i c h e n c o u r a g e s a n i l l u s i v e i d e n t i f i c a t i o n w i t h t h e ( q u e s t i n g ) t r a v e l e r - w r i t e r (44-45). C o n t e m p o r a r y t r a v e l n a r ratives, b a l a n c e d b e t w e e n d o c u m e n t a t i o n a n d fabrication, m a y use b o t h o f these r e c u p e r a t i v e s t r a t e g i e s , a l t h o u g h — a s is t h e case w i t h M a t t h i e s s e n ' s a n d V a n d e l P o s t ' s — w h a t i n f o r m a t i o n t h e y p r o v i d e is o f t e n o v e r s h a d o w e d b y t h e t r a v e l e r ' s i n y t h o l o g i z e d quest. F o r further attempts t o clarify, a n d complicate, t h e distinc t i o n b e t w e e n t r a v e l n a r r a t i v e s a n d g u i d e b o o k s , see t h e i n t r o d u c t i o n a n d t h e p o s t ' script t o t h i s b o o k . 14. T h i s is p a r t i c u l a r l y t r u e o f N e w A g e I r a v e l o g u e s , w h i c h a r e o f t e n p r o d u c e d " i n c o n j u n c t i o n " w i t h A b o r i g i n a l s h a m a n s , o r in w h i c h t h e t r a v e l e r - w r i t e r , t i d i n g its a n i n t e r m e d i a r y , " c h a n n e l s " A b o r i g i n a l w i s d o m . S e e t h e d i s c u s s i o n o f C H H I I I I N N I I I ' S a n d . e s p e c i a l l y . M o r g a n ' s w o r k l a t e r in this s e c t i o n . 1 v It is o n e o f tin; i r o n i c ; o l 1 r a v e l wiiiiii),' t h a i its f r e q u e n t appeals t o " t u n e N O

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less n a t u r e " o r t h e " t i m e l e s s e s s e n c e s " o f n a t i v e c u l t u r e s e f f e c t i v e l y r o b t h e v e r y cultures they celebrate o f their h i s t o r y — a n d their agency f o r change. 16. F o r f u r t h e r b a c k g r o u n d o n t h e l i n k s b e t w e e n t r a v e l w r i t i n g , t o u r i s m , a n d s p i r i t u a l q u e s t , r e f e r b a c k t o c h a p t e r 2 ( t h e w o r k o f B a r r y L o p e z ) ; see a l s o c h a p t e r 5 o f L e e d ; the w o r k o f N e l s o n G r a b u r n : the essays i n B h a r d w a j , R i n s c h e d e , a n d S i e v e r s ; a n d , p a r t i c u l a r l y , G i t a M e h t a , Karma Cola: Marketing the Mystic East (1979). M e h t a ' s b o o k , a n acerbic backlash at t h e pretensions o f the "spiritual t o u r i s t , " s h o u l d b e r e q u i r e d r e a d i n g f o r t r a v e l w r i t e r s w h o see t h e i r j o u r n e y s , u n c r i t i c a l l y , as " p i l g r i m a g e s . " A m o n g t h o s e w h o s h o u l d r e a d it is R u d o l p h W u r l i t z e r , t h e s c r e e n w r i t e r f o r B e r t o l u c c i ' s The Little Buddha, w h o s e b o o k Hard Travel to Sacred Places ( 1 9 9 4 ) is v e r y m u c h grist t o M e h t a ' s m i l l . A m u c h s u b t l e r e x a m p l e , a n d t h e a c k n o w l e d g e d classic o f i t s s u b g e n r e , is P e t e r M a t t h i e s s e n ' s The Snow Leopard ( 1 9 8 7 ) . 1 7 . F o r a n i n t r o d u c t i o n t o N e w A g e c o n c e r n s , see R h o d e s ; see a l s o t h e e s s a y s in L e w i s a n d M e l t o n a n d i n H o y t a n d Y a m a m o t o . 1 8 . C a s t a n e d a ' s " D o n J u a n " t r i l o g y (The Teachings of Don Juan, 1 9 6 8 ; A Sep arate Reality, 1 9 7 1 ; Journey to Ixtlan, 1 9 7 2 ) c a n p e r h a p s o n l y b e c o n s i d e r e d p e r i p h e r a l l y as t r a v e l w r i t i n g , e v e n t h o u g h it f a m o u s l y d o c u m e n t s a v a r i e t y o f w e i r d a n d w o n d e r f u l d r u g - i n d u c e d " t r i p s . " T h e r e c o r d o f the h a l l u c i n a t o r y " t r i p , " itself a s u r r o g a t e f o r m o f travel, b e c o m e s a n o t h e r limit case f o r travel w r i t i n g ' s o n t o l o g i cal s t a t u s : a s t a t u s t h a t , as p r e v i o u s l y a r g u e d , is n o t a n d c a n n o t b e r i g o r o u s l y f i x e d . 1 9 . H a r v e y (Condition of Postmodernity, e s p . c h a p . 1) a n d F r e d r i c J a m e s o n are the best k n o w n o f a large g r o u p o f p o s t m o d e r n theorists w h o insist o n p o s t m o d e r n i s m ' s connections w i t h late-capitalist c o m m o d i t y culture. Seen in this c o n t e x t , t h e N e w A g e e m e r g e s as v e r y m u c h a p o s t m o d e r n p h e n o m e n o n : a n o t h e r s i g n o f t h e m a s s i v e r e a c h a n d s c o p e o f W e s t e r n c o m m o d i t y c u l t u r e , a n d o f its c a p a c i t y to ransack the w h o l e range o f h u m a n experience—material a n d spiritual—for c o n sumer goods. 2 0 . N e w A g e s o u l - s e a r c h i n g is a l s o a s y m p t o m o f t h e p o s t m o d e r n c u l t o f self: see h e r e D e a n M a c C a n n e l l ' s e x t r a o r d i n a r y a t t a c k o n p o s t m o d e r n i s m i n " T h e D e s i r e t o b e P o s t m o d e r n " (Empty Meeting Grounds 1 8 3 - 2 2 9 ) . " [ I ] n C a l i f o r n i a , " says M a c C a n n e l l sneeringly, " i n precisely those regions that are the m o s t m a r k e d l y p o s t m o d e r n , w e also hear a l m o s t constant chatter a b o u t 'getting i n t o u c h w i t h ' o n e ' s o w n ' t r u e , ' ' i n n e r ' f e e l i n g s , ' c e n t e r i n g ' a n d s o o n . T h e p r e d i c t a b l e r e s u l t is a n aggressive p r o m o t i o n o f the ego a n d i n d i v i d u a l i s m " (188). 2 1 . S e e , b y w a y o f c o m p a r i s o n , H e n r y S h u k m a n ' s Savage Pilgrims ( 1 9 9 6 ) . S h u k m a n , a l t h o u g h e q u a l l y w h i m s i c a l i n c a t a l o g u i n g N e w A g e e c c e n t r i c i t i e s , is less a c e r b i c t h a n M c G r a t h , a n d less r e v e a l i n g o f t h e w r i t e r ' s a n g s t .

POSTSCRIPT 1. F o r o t h e r c o m m e n t s o n T i s d a l e ' s p r o v o c a t i v e a r t i c l e , see K r o t z , 1 8 3 - 8 4 . 2. V a r i a t i o n s o n t h i s t h e m e i n c l u d e M i l l m a n , Last Places ( 1 9 9 0 ) ; M i d d l e t o n , The Last Disco in Outer Mongolia ( 1 9 9 2 ) ; W i n c h e s t e r , Outposts ( 1 9 8 5 ) ; a n d I y e r , Falling Off the Map ( 1 9 9 3 ) . 3. R o b e r t B y r o n ' s The Road to O.xiana, v o l u m e 2 i n t h e series, c a r r i e s a n i n t r o d u c t i o n b y C h a t w i n ; t h e f o u n d i n g v o l u m e is A p s l e y C h e r r y - G a r r a r d ' s The Worst Journey in the World. 4. T h e o m i s s i o n o f w o m e n ' s lexl.s l i m n I Y . i m u t t ' s s e l e c t i o n s e e m s l o b e a r o u t

T i s d a l e ' s o b s e r v a t i o n a b o u t t h e c l a s s i c t r a v e l b o o k , t h a t it is " a little b i t s a c r e d a n d m a s c u l i n e . I t despises the masses a n d loves the u n b e a t e n t r a c k , the s e l f - i m p o s e d b u t p u b l i c e x i l e " (67). S e e c h a p t e r 3 o f t h i s b o o k f o r a n e x t e n d e d d i s c u s s i o n o f m a s culine m o d e l s a n d p a r a d i g m s in travel writing. 5. T h e p h e n o m e n o n is s o w i d e s p r e a d t h a t it s e e m s p o i n t l e s s t o p r o v i d e specific e x a m p l e s . 6. T h e p r a c t i c e a m o n g l e a d i n g w r i t e r s o f i n t r o d u c i n g t h e i r c o l l e a g u e s o r f r i e n d s , a n d t h e n s t a g i n g e n c o u n t e r s w i t h t h e m i n t h e i r t r a v e l o g u e s , is s u r e l y a n elaboration o f the courtesies o f the b l u r b . 7. L o n e l y P l a n e t is a p p a r e n t l y e x p a n d i n g i n a l l d i r e c t i o n s . A n o t h e r n e w s p a per article observes, " T h e y ' r e o n the Internet, o f course, a n d n o w o n o u r television screens.. .. Y o u can't h e l p b u t like [the presenter] I a n W r i g h t . H e ' s a great L o n e l y P l a n e t m a n . T r y a n y t h i n g o n c e . A n d p e r f e c t f o r A l a s k a w h i c h , as W r i g h t t o l d u s . is a w i l d p l a c e . F u l l o f m o o s e , t h e c a u s e o f s o m e r a t h e r m a n u f a c t u r e d a n x i e t y f o r W r i g h t " (New Zealand Herald, F e b r u a r y 19, 1997, B i o ) . E v e n t h e n e w s p a p e r p l u g a s s u m e s t h e flippant L o n e l y P l a n e t t o n e . 8. T h e c h a p t e r o n A f r i c a m a k e s c o n s i d e r a b l e u s e o f J o s e p h C o n r a d a n d G r a h a m G r e e n e , t h o u g h n o t , s u r p r i s i n g l y , o f V . S . N a i p a u l . H o w e v e r , it c l e a r l y " r e a d s " A f r i c a f r o m w i t h i n t h e C o n r a d - N a i p a u l t r a d i t i o n (see N i x o n , London Calling; a l s o c h a p . 2 o f t h i s b o o k ) . 9. K a p l a n p r o t e s t s t h a t " m i n e w o u l d b e a n u n s e n t i m e n t a l j o u r n e y [ u n l i k e that o f L a u r e n c e Sterne]. M y impressions m i g h t be the ' w r o n g ' ones t o have, b u t t h e y w o u l d b e b a s e d o n w h a t I s a w " (11); l a t e r , h e asserts t h a t h e is " a t i m e t r a v e l e r , but n o t necessarily a r o m a n t i c o n e . . . . I chart places w h e r e a literary tourist w o u l d r a r e l y g o " (131). The Ends of the Earth, n o n e t h e l e s s , is s a t u r a t e d w i t h l i t e r a r y r e f e r ences; despite his a t t e m p t s t o p r o v i d e alibis, K a p l a n u l t i m a t e l y invites r e c o g n i t i o n as s e n t i m e n t a l t r a v e l e r , l i t e r a r y t o u r i s t , a n d a d v e n t u r e r — p r e c i s e l y t h e m o d e l s o f the traveler h e wishes t o disclaim. 10. F o r a r e c e n t , c o r u s c a t i n g c r i t i q u e o f K a p l a n ' s w o r k , w h i c h sees its " p r o g n o s e ^ o f d i s i n t e g r a t i o n " as p o s s i b l y " t e s t i n g c o n s e r v a t i v e w a t e r s f o r t h e d e p t h s o f a r e e m e r g e n t p o s i t i v i s t r a c i s m , " see B r e n n a n , At Home in the World, 125-27. A s B r e n n a n a r g u e s , K a p l a n ' s " r h e t o r i c o f f e a r a n d l o a t h i n g " is " e n t i r e l y a t o d d s w i t h m a i n s t r e a m h u m a n i t i e s d i s c o u r s e " (126). B u t as w i l l b e c l e a r f r o m t h i s b o o k , it is n o t a t o d d s w i t h a c e r t a i n s t r a n d o f " p o l i t i c a l " t r a v e l w r i t i n g , w h i c h uses t h e g e n r e to j u s t i f y — a l t h o u g h also, i n s o m e cases, t o i r o n i z e — x e n o p h o b i c s e n t i m e n t s a n d cultural m y t h s . Sophisticated e x a m p l e s o f this f o r m o f political travelogue are the " A f r i c a n " a n d " I n d i a n " w o r k s o f V . S . N a i p a u l (see c h a p s . 1 a n d 2). 11. T w o o t h e r r e c e n t n a r r a t i v e s s u c c e s s f u l l y n e g o t i a t i n g b e t w e e n i n d i v i d u a l travel experience a n d the stuff o f history, in layered a n d n u a n c e d fashion, are N e i l A s c h e r s o n ' s Black Sea (1996; see c h a p . 4, n o t e 4 a b o v e ) , a n d D o r o t h y C a r r i n g t o n ' s The Dream-Hunters of Corsica (1995).

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