Toolbox for Sustainable City Living: A do-it-Ourselves Guide

ADVANCE PRAISE

"This important _manual will become even more necessary as people

increasingly recognize the end of the age of oil-and increasingly

relocalize. Toolbox for Sustainable Ciry Living should be on the shelves

of all city dwellers," Derrick Jensen, author Endgame

"These simple, yet powerful steps can transform your life and your concept

of sustainability. Radical sustainability-intimately connected to urban living and urban people doing for themselves-is critically important.

This book provides us with relevant tools to change what we do and valuable thoug"hts to push the conversation forward. If you care about

low income urb"an people and their/ouf future you are going to read this book." Renee Toil-DuBOis, Eagle Eye Institute

"The Rhizome Collective is a force that gets stuff done... it's a surprisingly

effective model for connecting people with dreams to the resources they need." Austin Chronicle

"They had a-nially great idea of where they're going with the site. It was

so sustainable, and the practices they're using are very innovative. We

didn't see... them anywhere else,H Amber Perry, Environmental Protection Agency (EPA)

"One group distinguishing themselves as a major environmental force is the Rhizome Collective." The Green Building Program Newsletter

'This is so cool. I can't wait to get home and try it myself," Anonymous,

overheard at one of the R.U.S.T. workshops

•

TOOLBOX FOR

SUSTAINABLE CITY LIVING

SCOTT KELLOGG AND STACY PETTiGREW I LLUSTRATIONS BY JUAN MARTINEZ

TOOLBOX FOR

SU STAINABLE CITY LIVING (A DO-iT-OU RSELVES GU iDE)

SOUTH END PRESS CAMBRIDGE, MASSACHUSETTS

Copyright () 2008 by Scott Kellogg and Stacy Pettigrew Anv p roperl� footnoted quotation of up to 500 sequen�al ... ordl may be used w it hout permislion, as Icng as

the t otal

number of words quoted do�s not

exceetl 2,000. fo, longe' �uotiti(mS or for a greater numm. , 01 total wo rds

please wrote to South I'nd Pr�IS for permission Dosco....nted bulk qu�"tities of

this book Me

available lor

organizing.

educati o nal. or fundrals .ng purposes. Plea,e cont�ct South End Press for more

information.

Cover design by Beol3mm ShaV�in

Cover illustr�tlO!' bV Juan Martinez Jnd Beth Ferguson

Interior des.gn by AleHnder Dwinell. South End

p�s colleCtive

PriMed In Canada by un .on ·abor on recycled paper

library of Congress Cat"alogins· in ·PublicatlOn

Data

KelloB&, Scort T. Toolbox/or sustainable city lIVing . a dO·it-ourselves guide' Scott Kellogg and

Stacy Perug,ew , illu", ations by Juan Ma,tllle, p em.

"Mc>st of th e 'y,tem, deScribed ore ones th�t we have b�11t and experirr.ented

with O�e, the past eight ye�rs at the Rh"ome Collective (formed in 20001 •."

Au,�n. Texas"--IMrod

Includes bibliographIcal reiefenCeS and

ISBN 978-0-89608-780-4 (pbk

. �Ik

index. pa per)

I. SuStamable Iiv;nB-·Handbooh, manuals, etc. 2. Organ.c Iivlng··H�ndbooks,

manuals. etc 3.

Cc>n,ervation of nat ural reSOurces·· Handbooks, manuals. etc.

·Handbooks, manu al s. etc. 5 Urban ecology·-Handboo;". I. Pettigrew, Stacy. II. Title. III. T itle: Sustainable city IivmB' a do­

4 Self-rehant livi ng

m anu als, etc.

iI-ourSelves guide Gf78.K4S 2008 640--11(22

200801173B

12 11 10 09 08 South

End PrfSI

lea d .""" ite.revolt.

7 Brookl ine Street III

Camb rid ge. MA02139 www.Southendpress.orll

1 23456789

CONTENTS "

Introduction

1

FOOD

Mlcrolive�tock (4) Tree Crops and fdible Forests (14) Mushroom Log Cultivation (171 Aquaculture (21) Depave the Planet (47) Siosnellers

(50) Insect Culture (55) Putting It All Together (60)

61

WATER

Rainwater Coliecl1on (64) Code, and lOlling (72) Water Purincatiorl (75) Barrels, Bunt:holes, & Bulkheads (80) Floatlllg Trash Islands (84) Putting ItAl1 Together (8S)

91

WASTE

Wastewater Recycling ,94) CompOS!lng (111) Verm.eompostmg (118)­ Recyciir'lg Hum�n Wastes (121) Putting ItAll Together lUI)

ENERGY SiOfuels "(139) BIO(har Jnd Gasification

(151)

13J Bioga5 and.JMthane

Generilnon (153) Wind Power (160) Passive Solar (164) Roc�et Stoves (173) Puttlng It All Togt'lher (176)

179

BIOREMEDIATION Pollutants (183)

(181)

Bactenal

Phytoremediation

Comong

up

Remediation

(1gS)

with {184)

Compost

a

Remediation

Str�tegy

Mycoremedl�tion 81oremediatlOrl

(191)

(201)

Air

Purification (202) Putting It All Together (204) Hurricane Katrma A Case Study in Applied Btoremediation (205) Acce,s to land (206) Susta,nability and Gentrifi(ation 1210)

CONCLUSION

213

Resources and Note�

216

Glossary

126

Indc�

231

IllustratIOn & Photo Credits

'"

About the Authors

143

AbOut South End Press

'"

•

•

ACKNOWLEDGEM ENTS We would like to thank our parents-Bill and Karen Pettigrew and Norm and Cind.y Kellogg-whose

numerous hours of babysitting. made this book

possible; Juan Martinez, Beth Ferguson, and David BaileY,John DolleyJr. for their drawings and woodcuts;

Starhawk and Lisa Fithian for their photographs; leah Penniman, Javid Afzali, Richard Linel. and Lauren

Ross for their comments; Aunt Barbara for typing

Stacy's first stories; our grandparents; and everyone

involved with the Rhizome ColleCtive and the Albany Free School Community.

This book is dedicated to Eleanor Elodea Kellogg. •

•

INTRODUCTION In the coming decades, humanity will be faced with an enormous challenge-to

survive the implosion of a society that has overextended its natural limitations

in every capacity. The converging crises of climate change, energy depletion, and

environmental degradation seriously threaten our speciesi surv.ival. Despite the growing awareness of the severity of these threats, the mechanisms that drive them are well in motion and are terribly difficult to stop.

The future is unknown. Climate models and oil consumption projections can be analyzed. but precise details of what and when changes will occur cannot be completely pred icted. What is certain, however, is that if our current trajectory remains unchanged devastating collapse is unavoidable. A massive social transformation is

needed. Driven by the current economic modelfs need' for perpetual growth, todayrs society is marked by unrelenting consumption and an increasing-disparity between

rich and poor. This path has no future. In order to survive, we must become a culture that consumes drastically1ewer resources and is strongly rooted" in the principles of

sustainability, egalitarianism, and cooperation.

Accomplishing this tr.aosition will be no easy task. To be successful a diversity of

tactics will need to be employed on every level of society. The largest and most

important changes will take place on a grassroots level. While people acting on the

f

grassroots are no individually responsible for the looming crises� the scale and depth

of the changes necessary must be based and emerge from the grassroots. One critical component of this transition is the design of ecologicaJly sustainable, community­

based infrastructure. It is this component that this book addresses. This manual is a

toolbox of skills, technologies, tactics, and information to giv� people access to, and

f

control over, lifers necessities: ood, water, energy, and waste management.

WHAT I S S USTA I NABLE? When first coined, the word sustainabilitycaptured a very powerful concept. Its many

definitions essentially boil down to the idea of living in such a way that the resources

available today will continue to be available for an indefinite number of future INTRODUCTION

I ..

generations. Sadly, the term has been almost completely co-opted by corporations,

governments, and international financial institutions.

For example, a mainstream sustainable development program might propose insta�lin9

a series of solar panels in a rural village. But solar panels only have about a 25-year life span, provided theyire not damaged sooner, and after this period the panels are useless.

Typically these projects don it consider whether or not the village will have the technical

expertise, access to tools or manufacturing, or money necessary to repair or replace

the panels. Without these resources the village finds itself in a position of dependency.

When the panels fail they must wait for someone to donate another set. These types of projects maintain a colonial traj�_ctory.

Sustainable development has joined the lexicon of the International Monetary Fund

(lMF), the World Bank, and the United Nations and is often used in their public relations campaigns as a euphemism for neoliberal economic development. The only sustainability created by a program which forces people to abandon their traditional

means of sustenance in favor of exclusively raising a single cash crop for export is

the ability of wealthier nations to sustain their monopolies of power.

The ideologies of _narural capitalism and green consumerism dilute the concept of sustainability even further. The mainstream sustainability mov..ement puts the

emphasis on green consumerism6the idea that environmental devastation can be

avoided simply through changes in consumer spending habits. This has led to

businesses from large retail stores to the petroleum industry attempting to sell themselves and their products as being green. As the genuine sustainability of many of

these products is dubious, the use of green, sustainable, and environmentally friendly

as marketing terms has only further devalued the concept of sustainability.

Green consumerism encourages consumption of a different variety. It does nothing

to challenge the patterns of over-consumption and excess that have created the environmental crisis. Green consumerism only reinforces the destructive capitalist paradigm while giving people a dangerously false sense that real change is being made. Capitalism, natural or not, requires infinite expansion and consumption of

material resources. In a world that is fragile and finite, such a system is inherently

xii I TOOLBOX FOR SUSTAINABLE CITY LIVING

unsustainable. Any Usustainable" solution that fails to take this into account will not address the fundamental cause of planetary and human degradation. Radical sustainability, on another hand, is- distinct from what mainstream "sustainability" has come to mean. Radical sustainability means rebuilding and

reorganizing homes, neighborhoods, and communities in order to create a world

that is both sustainable and equitable. It is fundamentally an approach to enable

people who do not have political power to gain control over basic resources.

So instead o f installing solar panels a radical sustainable development project might use locally harvested wood to construct a windmill that powers alternators made from scrap cars and other salvaged materials that are locally plentiful.

The windmillis design would be simple enough to be easily repaired, giving it a lifespan considerably longer than solar panels. Equally important, the design could be replicable, giving neighboring villages independence from charity.

RADICAL SUSTAINABILITY

-

Radical sustainability is the philosophy that underlies this book. We use the word radical (derived from the Latin word radix, meaning root)

to stress that we need to address i'ssues at their fundamental root callje, not just the symptomatic manifestations. Radical sustainability confronts the

underlying reasons our current path is not sustainable and works to cr�ate genuinely sustainable alternatives.

A radically sustainable viewpoint recognizes the inseparability of ecological and social issues and the necessity of ensuring the solution to one problem

does not create or worsen another. For this reason it develops autonomous

energy infrastructures and it opposes US imperialism around the world and

gentrification in inner cities of the United States. It simultaneously supports

indigenous movements, womenis rights, and police accountability campaigns and works to create healthy soii. These issues-and many others-are as

critical to our future as preserving the worldis remaining wilderness, fighting

global warming, and creating global sustainable food production.

INTRODUCTION

I

.iii

AUTONOMOUS DEVELOPMENT . This Central to radical sustainability is the concept of autonomous de....elopment. form of development designs systems that give control over basic resources to the

p

peo le using them, increasing community self-reliance and aiding resistance to resource monopolies. Design criteria include: _affordability

use of salvaged and/or locally abundant materials

•

simpliCIty

•

user serviceability

ease of replication d&lI!otralization

Primarily, the systems must be ableio be used and built by people without capital

or monetary wealth. Many of the tools and technologies proclaimed as "sustainable" such as.solar panels and hybrid vehicies are extremely expensive, making them

inaccessible to the average person. Such technologies often function as novelties for the wealthy or as a salve for guilty consciences. .

Use of salvaged andlor locally abundant materials helps minimize expense arid keeps

production local. In a society that produces as much excess as ours does, there

is an abundant supply of trash that can be re-used for constructing many of the

XIV

I TOOLBOX fOR SUSTAINABLE CITY LIVING

systems described in this book. Recycling these materials reduces the demand for virgin supplies and slows consumption overall.

Simple and user serviceable designs ensure that the systems can be built and

maintained with skills and knowledge found within the community making use of the system. This avoids a reliance on foreign experts and ensures the long­

term functioning of the project.

All of these criteria lead to systems being replicable. Replicable systems are capable of being transferred and adapted to other communities and locations

without significant redesign, and therefore have the potential to be implemented on a broad level. Though designs may need to· change dramaticiJ,lIy from one community to the next based on particular resources or local dimate,

a commitmem to openly sharing technologies and experiences will lead to a

greater rate o f success.

Las(ly, autonomous development ·systems are decentralized. The decentralization

of critical resources is the best defense against resource monopolization. When the means of production and distribution of food, energy, and water are simple,

affordable, and replicable, it is very difficult for any single entity to gain complete

control over them. The most egalitarian· method of resource management is to have multiple, redundant sources that are held in common by the people using

them, thus ensuring continuing supply, democratic control, and overall quality.

AUTONOMOUS COMMUNITIES _

Along with the development of autonomous design, radical sustainability

promotes the development of autonomous communities-that is, egalitarian

communities that value equality, justice, and mutualism. Not only do these

communities work together to provide members with the essential needs of food, water, energy, and waste management, they also develop their own

horizontal political structures, transportation systems, media, health care,

education, and so forth. Autonomous communities can exist everywhere-

INTRODUCTION

I xv

from rural to urban, north to south. Autonomous communities are especially adapted to creating and maintaining a sustainable world.

- SUSTAINABLE CITY LIVING Cities are highly paradoxical places. On one hand they are vital cultural and economic

centers, and on the other they are resource vacuums, supporting extraordinarily high population densities at the expense of the surrounding region. Currently, over SO

percent of the global po pulation lives in cities, As this percentage is increasing and the rate of environmental degradation is quickening, it is critical to sustainably meet the needs of the worldis urban populations.

A radically sustainable response is to empower urban residents to make their cities capable of providing sufficient food, water, energy, and waste management within their local region. Having access to these resources on a decentralized, local level will

promote a community mindset of self-sufficiency and encourage further independence

from the destructive and dangerously unstable dominant systel!ls that cities currently

rely on for providing their needs. Permaculture, a multi-disciplinary practice usedio design long lasting human communities,

is a valuable tool. Its essential goal is to create intensively -(Oultivated spaces capable of providing-for as many human needs as possible in a,. small of an area as possible. By doing so, humans can be self-reliant and lessen thejr impact on their surrounding

environments in a way that doesnit rely on outsourced eaergy and resources.

Because they are already so intensely cultivated, cites are an ideal location for permaculture designs. (ities have plenty of existing infrastructure that can be utilized: food can be grown in former parking lots, rain collected off rooftops, wastewater recycled in scavenged bathtubs, and power generated from wind turbines mounted on buildi�gs.

T H E TRANSITION Humanity has entered an e r a o f decreasing energy resources. Modern agriculture

is highly dependent on cheap energy not only for growing food, but distributing it. Will cities still be capable of supporting their populations when big trucks

.vi I

TOOLBOX fOR SUSTAINABLE CITV LIVING

How To U�e This Book

are no longer delivering food? What will happen

Thf� book IS desi8ned as a toolbox of

skills �nd IIlformation for the reader Introducing

sy,temi,

technologIes,

and ideas Important for autonomous development in urb�n aH'as The book '5

dIvided inlo the 'hapter> Food, Waler,

Waste, Energy.

and Bioremediation.

Chapters are divided into sections, each detailing the various aspects of autonomous design relevant to the chapter'; theme. Mos! of the systems deScribed are ones

that

we have built

and experimented with over the past

when it becomes too costly to heat buildings?

Will basic sanitation collapse as water becomes scarcer and more expensive to pump? What will

happen to society?

It is critical to plan ahead- and start building

radically

sustainable infrastructure capable of

supporting future urban populations while the

resources to do so are still available. Instead

of

waiting

for

governments,

corporations,

or

city planners to start being responsible, radical

sustainability is about people taking initiative

today, Transformation from,the ground up is our

greatest hope for the future_

e,ght years at me Rhizome Collective ,n Austln, Te�as. Some sectiOi1!'contain detaIled step · by·step deSCriptions of how..ta..build a system with accompanying dqgrams. while other >'1st.eJlJ; Me more briefly explained iq. order to ,nsp,re, share .nformation, and mdlCate paths for further research. While some of the systems described in the book are highly innovative and hlye little written about them elsewhere, most of them can be 'itudled in further depth. A lesources section at the end of the book provides lists of further readings and websites related to (,3eh section. The reader IS encollraged to use It Words and phrases In

bold are defined 111 the glossMY at the

end of the book.

THE HISTORY OF THE RHIZOME COLLECTIVE lhe Rhizome Collective was formed in 2000 out oft he momentum (reated by th� then nascent global justice movement. Inspired by the catc hphrase "another world is possible," we and the Rhizome's other founding members ca me together with the shared intention of making that vision a re ality.:..Rhi:zome was planned to provide secure space for activist and social justice groups, while si multane­ ously serving as a demonstI'lltion oe urba n susuinabilitr, The project began with the purchase of an old wareho\lse in Austin's industrial corridor. "Ve set about the task of conve rt ing the derelict STn!cture into a center for community organizing in which the Rhizome Collective would make its home. Many months were spent making badly needed repairs to the building and jumping through the many bureaucratic hoops that stood in the way. Once

INTRODUCTION 1 .�ii

basic fixes were made, we began experimenting with, constTllcting,

A N o te on Failure

and demonstrating sustainable, autonomous, urban projects. An asphalt wasteland was transformed into a vibram space housing a constructed wetlands, a bicyde wind turbine, rainwater collection tanks, gardens, fish ponds,

SOIH ovens, fruit trees, and chickens.

Failure-is a

great teacher. M;st�kes

expose wealnesses and lead to better .-

designs Tho>1' fortunate enough

not

to

\".'e built these systems in order 10 demonstmte the possibility of

be living at a subsi,tence level today have

implementing these I>crmacuhure tools and technologies as well

the luxury of

mak ing mistakes_ Because

as to serve the building's live-in caretakers. In 2004, the Rhizome

the gll/tol surplus created by capItalism's

Collective received a S200,000 grant from the EPA to deanup a

wastes

provides us with

a safety net, a

9.8-acre brownfield that we were donated and plan 10 turn into an

small scale crop failure

or fish die·off

ecological justice education park.

is not likely to be catastrophic. In the

Developing the internal structure of the Rhizome has been'

future, that surplus safety net may be

Olle of the biggest challenges. By deciding 10 use consensus for

unava ila ble

ils decision making process, the collective hoped to be horizontal

experiment. Now

and egalitarian in its structure. While it has gone through many

,

leavmg less Ireedom to

errors and learn

is the time

to

make

from t hem.

transitions, the Rhizome Collective evemually evolved into a spokescouncil. Persons appointed as representatives by Ihe various

In the

process of c reating

arld living wilh

spokes of the Rhizome meet regularly to report on their respec­

the

susta,nable >ystem>

tive group's activities, review proposals, and plan the collective's

this

book, we have learned from many

direction.

mistakes.

'Iht 1l1an}' organizations based in the warehouse hal'e worked

course

desCflbed

III

IS ccrt�11l t hat over the of tlme: more de"sign flaws Will be It

to bring about cultural lransformation on many level�.lhey in­

dIscovered. We encourage readers loshare

clude Bikes Across Borders, l1te Inside Books Project, 111e Austin

the succe,ses and failures they e..per�J1(e

Independent Media Center, Food Not Bombs, Art and Revolution,

tn tmplemennng these systems so that we

and KPWR-People's Will Radio. In keeping with the metaphor

may all coilC(:tively ben efit.

of the rhizome, an underground root-like network linking individ­ ual p13nts, these groups operate autonomously, ret share common resources and pledge mutual support to each other. All of these elements combined are a manifestation of our phi­ losophy of dual power anarchism: to be working for social change within today's society while at the same time building functional alternatives 10 oppressive dominant institutions.

xvi,i I TOOLBOX FOR SUSTAINABLE (tTV LIVING

FOOD

-

Global food production is perilously dependent upon massive petroleum inputs. The processes of mechanical tilling, planting, harvesting, irrigation, fertilization, pest

control, processing, and distribution all require vast amounts of fossil fuels. As fuel

prices begin.ro increase and the truer cost of industrial farming surfaces, food will

become more expensive and inevitably decrease as it becomes more difficult for large

industrial farms to continue to operate. This could result in food shortages around the world, In order to avert widespread starvation, humanity will be challenged to

rapidly reverse decades of poor agricultural practices and relocalize food production.

As transportation costs increase, it will be critical to bring food production back

into the vicinity of Cities, or into cities themselves, where the majority of the world's population lives.

In today's world, urban communities rarely have access to affordable nutritious foods.

This does not have to be the case, Comf!lunity autonomy is based on food security, and cities have the potential to become centers of food production.

N,ot only can existing community gardens and urban farms be greatly expanded, but

within most cities there are numerous other spaces that could be used to produce

food. Vacant lots can be transformed into thriving gardens. Roadways and parking lots

dedicated exclusively to cars can be dosed to vehicular traffic, depaved, and.r.eclaimed

•

- for food production. Potential gardening spots also exist overhead: window boxes and rooftops (with sufficient reinforcement) have the potential to produc,e significant

quantities of food. Many urban homes have a small plot of dirt in their backyards

that hopefully receives some sun. Sh'ad - y areas can be used for raising microlivestock

or growing mushrooms. Manicured parks and golf courses are begging to be made

into edible food forests. By developinQ these many unused spaces, communities can ensure their food security.

In ada-ition to being localized, the development of a food production system that

is organically based, diverse in the variety of foods it grows, and centered around

local economies needs to be encouraged. Such a system is a logical response to large agri,businesses' increasing domination of agriculture, which has resulted in genetically modified monocultures that poison the environment, pose health risks,

and are susceptible to disease and failure. 2 I TOOlBOX FOR SUSTAINABLE (lTV LIVING

Building healthy soil. the foundation of aU land-based food production, is a long and laborious process_ It is also something everyone can do. It is essential that this work begin today. while surplus energy and organic matter are available. Each day, enormous quantities of organic maner are dumped into landfills. Instead of being reused, food waste, wood chips, manure, and grass clippings rot in landfills and produce methane, a potent greenhouse gas. This organic material is exactly what neetls to be diverted from waste streams and properly composted to create good SQir. It is also equally important to take advantage of the remnants of petroleum energy to transport this material to the sites of future food production. Once energy shortages are apparent, it will be far more difficult to do this work. The waste streams of surplus organic matter that exist today will dry up. This chapter contains very little about techniques for straightforward vegetable gardening. This in no way diminishes its importance. Actual gardening techniques

(p @nting, cultivating, harvesting, seed saving, eating) are well covered in many other

worthwhile books. Some of those specifically discuss urban gardening, and the lessons of others can be eaSily applied to urban areas. Rather than duplicate existing material, this book focuses on the creation of environments in which such growing is possible and this chapter explores less-common methods of food production. As with all the tactics in this manual, the reader is encouraged to build connections between the skills discussed here and skills already possessed, while creating autonomous_ sustainable infraslructures in whi�h to apply them.

�

By using intensive gardening methods to best utilize available space and focusing on producing the foods most suitable for the local climate, a significant portion of a community's vegetables could be grown within city limits. It is also good to focus

on those vegetables that are least suited for import; that is, those that consume the . ·most processing and transportation energy when grown far away. Bioshelters and cold frames can extend a community's growing season well into winter months. Major obstacles to urban gardening are gaining access to space and poor soil quality. These issues are addressed in the chapter on bioremediation (page. discussion of access to land (page 206).

179) and the

fOOO j 3

This chapter focuses on methods of food production

Strah!gles to combat global warming

appropriate to urban areas that are not as thoroughly

have placed emphaSiS on reducing

demali po x.

The

populations.

im mune systems of

like

Native

American

Large animals are also I·ery inefficient at con verting pr otein from fl.."ed to body mass. Ten pollnds of feed are r«Jllired for a cow to pllt on o ne pound of weight, a

1O:) ratio. In com par iso n, the protein con­

I"ersion ratio for chickens is 5:1, and it is less than 2:1 for fish. In an urban setting, iT makes f.'1r better sense to raise micro­ livestock, dom e,ticated small anim als that consume rcbti\"ely little and have minimal impact on the land:" E�amplcs of microlivcstock include chickens, turkeys, ducks, and _ other fowl, as well as sma!! mammals such as mbbits and guinea pigs. '(bese an i mals are all ef­

peoples, that did not widely domesticate

ficient protein converters, req uire little space, are lightweight and

IJrge Jnimal� were not conditioned

don't compact soil, and produce few offcnsivc odors whcn properly

to anim al viruses .lncl therefore more

allended. For these reasons, microlivestock are apllropriate for cities.

>usceptible to th em. When Europeans carry,ng

diseases came into

anImal

contact With non-re,i st ant populatlons,

CHICKENS

the wnsequences were devastating.

Chickens can be found in cities throughout the world. Kept either

Native

in small coops or allowed to freely roam the streets, they are at

American

morttollty

approJched 96 percent.'

rates

home in urban environments. Bred from a Southeast Asian wild Jungle bird, chickens were among the first animals to be domesti­ cated. Valuable for more than just meat and eggs, chickens control

•

insect, and build and fertilize soil. Chickens arc constantly moving around, scratching at the soil in search ofinsects and seeds. This action has the combined efe f ct of i ; aeraTing The upper layer of soi nd breaking down leafy material . into dirt. Simultaneously, t heir nitrogen-rich droppings fertilize the soil. Voracious predators, chickens will hunt everrthing from grass­ hoppers to lizards to cockroaches to ticks.

MANAGING CHICKENS 111cre arc several ways to manage a chicken system in a n urban setting. Options range from keepin g birds cooped at all times to allowing them partial to full access to a yard or open area (free

FOOD I S

range). Available space and time, along with neighbor relations, will determine what is realistic.

COOPS Many chicken owners build coops for their chickens. Some lIse coops as � nighttime sheller, when predators are more acti.·e. Others may keep thcir birds inside all day. A coop can also provide shelter from rain and winter in cold climates and may be required by law in some places. A coop with an open door can also serve as a nesting area for frce-l"lIngc birds. Coops can be built OUI of a variety of materials and can be beautiful additions to a city landscape� While some predators found in the country (coyotes, hawks, and snakes) are not as COlllmon in cilies, r;u:coons, opossums, skunks, cats, rats, dogs, and hungry humans can cause their own share of

Attlany free School Cilic;,en Coo�-(0 .�c�,.ety

problems. A coop must be well built to provide eRecti"e protection.

m�n3gpd by neighbors tn the '��er c ty

If a predator manages to get in, a coop becomes a deathtrap-the

Albany. NY

of

birds are unable 10 es
TREE CROPS AND EDIBLE FORESTS '!lrc limited supply of horizontal space i n dries demands that verti­ cal space be maximized. Because fruit and nUl trees produce food in an ovc:rh.:ad canopy, they fit well into a metropol itan 12ndscape.

Food-producing m:es 1150 contribute to lIir quality and prm'idc shade and windbreaks.

ANNUAL AND PERENNfAL CROPS [n the ecological sciences there is a (oncept oiled succession. Succession is the nalUral process where openii.dds slowly fill in with weeds and brush), plams and eventually lTansform imo forests. Auuual crops arc those that grow from new seed ever)' grow­

� ing scaSQn. Most vegetables we eat arc annuals. To grow annu-

als, the SQil must be titled and the garden plot must be frequently weeded to allow the crops the chance to grow without competition. Keeping a field open rescts the processes ofsuccession. Since a nat­ ural progression is being worked against, growing ,'egetable crops is a fairly labor-intensive method offood production. 14 I TOOlBOK fOR SUSTAINABLE CITY LIVING

SlIlee 1900, 93 percent of American food diverSity has been lost. The Slow

food

moweme nt

is a global network

of local groups striving to bring back food diwersity in a sustainable aud social'v Just way. HOfflfied by the loss of warietv caused bv mass-produced food, the group has created the "Ark of Taste; a listing of endangered products. Through

differe nt

programs,

they

encourage people to support produc� rs

of these food p roducts and to be producers themselves

Numerous old

m>croltvestock breeds are on the US IISI, IIlcluding the HOld Type" Rhode Island Red chiCken, Plymouth Rock 'hic�en. the AmeTICan Buff goose. American rabbi!, Bourbon Red turkey, and Narragansett

tur key.1

Fmit and nut trees are examples of perennial crops. meanin g they continue to produce food without requiriltg replanting. Gct!ing perennial crops started requires an initial high investment ofenergy, but once they have become established, thcy produce food rear after rear with relatively lIlinimal energy input on the grower's part. (Most 'pedes of food trees requi re several years of growth before they produce nuts or fruits.) Food trees can be planted with perennial vegetables to pro­ duce simulated ecosystems, or �food forests," that mimic the natural processes of succession. A food forest docs not need to be tilled annuaUx_and needs considerably less weeding than a \'eget�blc ga rden .

PLANTING TREES

A peach blossom

Trees are ideally planted when the cold has caused them to become dormant (after their leaves have dropped off and bdore new buds have opened) but when the ground i, not frozen. Plan ti ng trees while they are dormant minimi'�es the shock of being t ransplanted . D are pumps.

V�n�non of intensive recircularmg s��tem

34 I

TOOLBOX FOR SUS1AINA6LE (In LIVING

attached to air

Cells 3 and 4: Cells three and four :HI: WlIu:r purifters. 'Iltelr job s i (0

begin processing the wastes produced by the fish in cell (wo. lilese

cells have severa! inches of gravel :It the bottom,

and have subrner­

gelil plantS, like mUroU and hornwort. rooted in them. When fish

wastes suspended in the "-,ller come into contact with these pbnts,

they bounce offof them and sink 10 the bottom of the barrel, where they form a layer ofsedimentary 00"l.C thai provides habitAt to a num­ ber ofsmall organisms, FasJ-growing plants such as duck.weed, awl­ la, and water hyacinth Aoat al the tOp of these barreb whert they an as scrubbers, removing excess nUlfiems from the water. 'Ihesc plants should be harvested regularly and fcd to humans, fish, or mkrolive­ stock; (ompostoo; Of made into methane. (See Bi�s, page 153.) 'Ihick lay.:rs ofgreen al/f.I.pccics that are most ideal fOf raiSing in small-scale J(]uJculwfc sys tems have diets consisting primarily of plant matter, insects, and decomposing material-all considered to be low on the food chain. Sources of this food can include compost scraps, worms (rom a \"crmicornpost system , spent barley hulls from a heer brewery, tr:1pped cockroaches , or duckweed

harvested from an aql!ac\dture pond. It is also possible to purchase

high-protein fish tOOd from pet stores . Hanging a light bulb abo� a pond wi!! attmct insects. Flying in er­ ratic cin:b, they

will frtquentl�, cr�sh into the pond and become fish

food. Another tC\":hnique. Otle that would likely-bettnJlopular with neighbo.", is 10 hang a pi«e of rotting mc� above a pond. Housefly

IllJg).,'Ots eating the meat will fall into therend and be d�voured

F I S H WASTE AS ftRTILIZER An added benefit of raising fish i, that their mamtre is an excellent fcrtilizer ior gardcns. Lt can b� collected trom the botto m of ponds with a Siphon vacuum a tld be :lpplied to soils. [t is also possible to

preserve it in containers for later lise by adding one teasPM'n of pho sphoric acid peT gall on offish manurc .

AQUAPO N I C S Aquaponics is the pr.tctice ofgrowing plants in the nutrient-rich wastewatcr produced by fish in an aquaculture system, rather than fOOD I 37

•

in soil. TIlt plants arc /lwcoo on rafts with their roots dangling into the nutriellt-rich waters. In addition to providing the plants them­ selves for harvest, this method also lISCS the plants to purify the wa­ ter by la�ing lip exccss nutrients. Aquaponks works beSt with plants that arc naturally adapted to living in water, like W'�ternc:ss, duckv;c:ed, and water spinach. II is possible to grow some non-aquatic plalllS, li�c basil aud lettuce, aquaponically, but these plants will e"o'cntually-su/fcr from a lack of soil nutrients. Trellising aquaponic plants like watcrt;rcs$ and water spinach can be grown on a cage. "lhis is made by bending plastic chicken fenc­ ing material into the shape of a cylinder and standing il vertically in the WlI.tcr with 25 10 SO percent of the (age $ticking out of the water. The rylinder shape will allow the rOOli of the plants to grow into the center of the cylinder, while supportil'g the phnts' stems. (See cdl four in lmensive System Illustration, page 33.) Aquaponics should not be confused with hydroponics, a system that invoh·cs growing terrestrial plant� using recirculating water that has �en synthetically fertilized. Since h)-droponics is energy imensive and rdies on artificial fertilizers, it has limited application in sustainable autonomous systems.

AQUAT I C ANIM ALS I;Vith a high rate of protein conversion, omnivorous diet, and good use of three-dimensional space, fish .nako-an ideal choice of animal to raise in concentrated conditions in urban environments.

TILAPIA Tilapia is the most common species offish grown in urb�n aqua­ culture. Originally from Africa and the Middle East, it is a prolific breeder and is tolerant ofcrowding and less than pristine water quality. An omnivorous fish, tilapia is rdatively nsy to feed. It will

38 l lOOl80X fOR SU$TAINA6lE CITV LIVING

eat earthworms, duckweed, or vegetable scraps. Tilapia is also a filter feeder, meaning it can eat microalgac suspended in the warer. a food niche at the bottom of the tood chain e�ploit"ed by few fish species. All these factors combined make tilapia a good choice for aquaculture. Tilapia·s main drawback is its imlbility 10 survive at temperatures below 55 degrees. In cooler climates, this requires that the fish be grown either seasonally, in bioshelters, or with considerable energy inputs for heating water. Olle option is to grow tilapia in outdoor ponds in the warm months, harvest the fish, and then collect the yotmg to

�� raised (in a smaller tank) indoors in the winter.

J\·lixed-sex tibpia, needed to keep the fish population going for multiple generations, are difficult to obtain. Many /ish hatcheries only sell all-male population,. Anothcr obstacle to raising tilapia is that it is illegal in some ,tates. Tilapia is considered an invasive fish 311d should [leVer be released into the wild.

OTHER FISH SPECIES 1l1ere arc many fish specie� native.or 1l31l1rali7-o suited fur small scale aquaculture. Bullhe-;'ds, cat­ fish, sllnfish, and carp meet thes.: characteristics and feed dose to the bonom or the foOO chain. [f the), are provided with J rocky, covered shelter, bullheads arc known to breed in small-scale pond systcms. Trout and bass can al>o be raised, but require high kids of protein and prccise watcr tempemlUrcs and conditions.

CLAMS Part of a family of organisms called bivalves, clams play an impor­ tant role in aquatic ecosystems. As filter feeders, clams constantly pass water through their bodies, cleaning it at the same time. Fifcy percent offreshwater clam species in the United States have gone utinct, largely due to habitat degradation. Raising endangered spe-

fOOO 1 39

-

cies in capliv;t), lor release into wilJ w',uerways ooulo. gf('�dy boost their chance. for survival. Unfortunately, it is imflO$sible to breed mOST dams in sm.all anditions, harvesting, and preparation are quite similar to those of duck weed, the two can easily be grown together, forming an interesting mix of fI�ating green edible stuff. Azolla also has an important agricult...ral use. Like legu mes and dovers, it has a symbiotic relationship with the blue-green algae, or cyanobacteria,1iving on its roots. the algae·s role is ro pull nitrogen out of the atmosphere, "fixing" it into a form where it is usable by plants. Azolla can be harveste d alld tilled into soH as a nitrogen supplement, effectively performing the •

same function as a nitrogen-fixing cover crop. Low-tech awlla cultivation ,·ould reduce global dependence on synthetically pro· duced nitrogen fertilizer, an energy imensive, polluting product llsed worldwide in conjunction with chemical pesticides. In SOlltheast Asia, azolla is commonly grown with rice, ducks, and tilapia in a system called poly,ulture. The different elements in polycultu!e all benefit each other in an integrated pattern of inputs and yields: the wastes of one be,ome the food of another.

CATTAIL (TYPHA SPP.) A reed plant found commonly across the United States, '�ttails hal·c brown, fuziy seed heads that resemble cigars. In addition to

FOOD 1 41

bdng a valu�d wellands plant, callail produc�s edible tubers and shoots.1"h \.

deg:rees warmer than surrounding rurd areas.

( _�"t:ly _

7-

):.�

J

'--..... .:. ..

2 inches

thick and comes offin sizt'!lble sheets rather than small bits. It is CJ(-

tremel), satisfying co feel the soil beneath t,lke its first bn:�th in reus, How to:

1. Start from an edge or make a hole With the picka�e.

One pef10n pries up the edge of the asphalt with the pickaxe while the other thl1Jsts the rockbar as far·under the 2.

asphalt as possible.

3. lift up a piete of asphalt usinS the leverage of the rockbar.

48 I TooL80X FOR SUSTAINABLE CITV LIVING

Supplies needed:

RockbJr, a 4-6 1001 heavy Ifon fod with one etld pointed illld the other ch,sel­ shaped Pi,ka�e

4. Hold the asphalt up with the plcka�e and thrust the rockbar farther under. S. ere�k off the piettms inside of it, without the living systems it could be u·sed 3S a p�ssi"e solar heal collector for a building. A structure built over a door or window leading into a building would col­ IcC! heat during the day. At night, opening the window or door

would allow th� day's heat to enter the building. Such a system could assist with lowering a building's heating expense,;. In the summer. a bioshelter needs to be ventilated so it doesn't over­ l l C\'I'T}'Ihing inside. Walls made with plastic gia7jog can be heat and ki rolled up, and doors and windows can be opened for cross ventilation.

Remember that heat rises, so opening a window near the top ofthe shelter will have a superior cooling effect to opening (lne on the bottom. Even with maximum venrilation, it maybe necessary to place a tempo­ raryshade cloth Q\'l:f the stn.lCture in the summer to prevent Q\-erheating.

S4 I TOOlBOX fOR SUSTAtNABLE CITY lIVtNG

INSECT CULTUR E Compared (0 other livestock, insects rank high in ovcfdll sustain­ abi lity. 111(; amount ofb'ld and food needed to raise in':leCTS is

minimal compared to canle, pOl/lfry, or fish. In,c(ts cat dose to the

bottom of the 100d chain and are highly efficient protein conven­ ers. 'Iher arc abl� to feed on garbage, turni ng it into conccntrllted nutrients.

Fish and fowl S;lvor insects and will change them into � palatable protein in the form ofmeat or eggs. Supplementing Ii"estock's diets

with insects can reduce the need to buy commercial feed.

INSECT C U LTIVATION Insect cultivation is ideal lor the urban environment because in­ sects

can

be raised in small plastic cages kept indoors and stacked

on each other. P,a several individuals oLthc same variety into the same cage and pro"ide table scraps and Water. They will rapidly

multiply.

Insects can be collecled from the wild using nets or traps.

Study the lifecydes of di ffcrc�l spc-cies to cnsure they are raised in optinlal (onditions. Commonly raised species include: meal­

worms, crickets, gr3sshoppel"S, butterAies, beetles, bees, ants, and many others.

SIMPLE INSECT BREEDING METHODS FOR CHICKENS An casy, loll' intensity method of breeding inSC'Cts is to create con­ ditions idc31 for their reproduction. Laying sheets of cardboard or

pieces of",uod on rhe ground and keeping them wet will create

an excellem bug habitat. The sheets should be big enough so lhey

cannot be fUrned over by chickens. Periodically turning them over with lhe chickens nearby will provide a bug lunch for the birds.

FOOD I 55

BARREL BREEDER Another insect breeding techn iqu e is the barrel breeder. This method is used in col�unclion with the woodchip bio-filter on a ki !f50il structure

Enhancement of moisture retention Neutralizal10n of soil pH Fertilization

•

tncrease in microbiologicill diversity and activity

•

Bind ing and degradation of toxins

Cl>mposting is a simple way for urban residents to reduce the amouut of food wastes they throw imo the g�rb3ge and to retl>fn nutrients to the soil. Small oornpoSiing I>perations need little sp�ce �nd can fit imo � b�ckyard. !kcau!;(: sunlight is 1101 required. com­ post piles can be located in fully shaded areas. Composting involves mixing carbon-based m�terials, like dead le�ves, woodchips, I>r stT:lW, with niuogen·b�sed m�teri�ls, like food SCl":ll'S, illll> 3 pile. Within this mixture, there i� 3 teeming population of microscopic life forms. ll1cse include bacteria, fungi, nematooes, protozoa, actinomycctes, and micro and macro arthropods. \\fhen the correct ratio of carbon :1Ild nitrogen is present, these organisms become activated and begin cOIl�uming the organic matter. Their metabolic Ilroces!;(:s I,roouce consider' able amounts of heat that raise the tem�ratur� of the compost

pile. After sufficient time. the orvnic matter in the pile will ha"e

been largely consumed. Stable, nutrient-rich compost will be left. I fdone correctly. the process of colllposting will even degrade some contaminants, such as certain t}'p·es of pesticides. (Sre

Biorclllediation. page 179.)

COLLECTING COMPOSTABLE M ATERIALS IN THE CITY Millions of tons o forganiC wastes are dumped i n landfills each day, taking up a huge amount ofspace. When this material is buried. it

decomposes anaerobiCally and produces mcthane, a major grern­

house gas. 1hc process of collecting, transporting. and bndfilling organic wastes is energy intensive. It all'O robs poI:cntial nutrients

112 I TOOLBOll FOR SUSTAINABLE CITY lIVtNG

Pedal People is

a human·powered

from the soil. 1his organi, matter should be diverted from the

delivery and h,llJ li!lg service based rn

waste stream and tllmed into compost. If a community were to col­

Northampton,

le't these matotentially produce smell. or

EL Food �craps: 15:1 x 10 pou nds "-

attr-dct vermin. Experienced (oml>osten can add them sl) �ringly 10 a well-functioning pile.

150:10

_

Composting is an aerobic, or oxygen-using, process. If a eompost C:N rario of ingredient Y

..

weighl of

pile is deprived of oxygen. it will iurn anaerobic, smelling horribly and producing alcohol, which should nOI be PUt direclly on planls.

ingredient Y fl.: leaves: 54:1 .. 2

pounds a 108:2

\\lhil(' oxygen can diffu� into lhe pile from the outside to $Orne extent. t he oxygen-filled spaces between ingredients arc essential.

C;N rario of Ingredient l � weight 01

E.

Finished, mature compost should be dark brown in color. not black. l31ack compost is a sign that the compost wellt anaerobi( at solne

ingredient l

point.

Straw: 80:1 � 1 pounds" 160:2

MoiSlUre l"Qntent is also impon"il.nt. When a handful of compost TOlal Pi le Ratio " Total C 01 Ingredient

is squec:zc:d, there should only be: a few drops of moisrur(', like: a

C of ingredient 'll t tot..! C of

moist sponge, nO! a wet one. Excess moisture can turn composl

)(

• lotal

ingredient l t

:

Tolal N of ingredient )(

tola l N of ingredient Y • 1 0la l N of

Ingredient l

anaerobic. while the composting process will Ix hindered if it is roo

dry. A pile llIay need to be protectco+from rain or occasiona!!y

waten:!. ,

E_.. 418 14" 150 � 108 + 160 10 + 2 + 2

In some Jllaccs. rat, and dogs can c"il.use problems by gelling into compost piles. llle key to thW;lrrifl&.illelll is to \Onp metal h"il.rd­

Simplify and COI'npareto target ,..tio of

Ex,

418+14 :: 29.9, or nearlV 30,1 Pile

bal a nced

ware doth around the pile a� 1)l;lce a $Olid lid on top. Finished compost should appear as dark brown, rich dirt. It will

30:1

I,

have a pleasant. earthy smelr. lller( should be few to no remaining recognizable pieces of food. !lm:!11 :l Inoullts of non-broken down materiJls like 11C:ldl pilS, nut shells. or woodchips C3n be sifted oul and Jdded b:k:k into a new compost pile for further composting. Finished compost can be added direclly to gardens and pul around the basc� offood uees.

Composling methods primarily differ in the labor and toe time needed to produce compost. Using p:lSSi\'e compo.ting, a properly layered pile left to sit may take a yenor more. With the active method, rnanu"il.!!y turned compost that has its temperature moni­ toted c:J.n bc: made in as little :lS sc:vcr.t1 weeks.

WASTE 1 115

PASSIVE COMPOSTI N G In passive composting, carbon and nitrogen materials are layered into a pile and left to sit. lhis method involves no labor other than adding the materials. The tradeoff is that it can take up 10 a year to break down into finished compost. lhe compQst cOlltaina can be a·circular cage m:ldc from live­ stock panel fencing or a box constructed from wooden freight pallets. lhe container gives the pile shape, allowing it to build up \·crtically. [t should be large enough that the volume of the compost can be at !east three cubic fect.lhis volume is necessary to create sufficient internal heal. Ingredients arc added over lime, 3S they are collected. Once the container has been filled, it is left alone to break down. A second container can b� buih next to it ami filled while the first is breaking down. AftcHufficient time has past (ahout a year), the container is opened and its content's remo" ed. lhe con­ tainer ca n be used again for a new pile.

ACTIVE COMPOSTING Activc composting produces finished compost far qllicker than the passive method. In this labor-intensive method, the tcmper.l(ure of the pile is carefully monitored and it is regularly turned. It rcquires a composting thermometer--a thermometer with a long stem that can be inserted into the center of a compost pile to give imernal tcmperdture readings. Composting thermometers arc available at mlrseries and gardeningsupply stores. In active composting, the �ompost materials are put in a pile that can be easily accessed for turning. When the temperature of the center ofthe pile rtaches hetween 13S and ISS degrees Fahrenheit, it is turned: the contents are moved to a new pile with a pitchfork. Turning the pile brillgs the temperature down. When it rises again, il is turned agaill. Ideally, the pile should be turned five times in

116 I

TOOLBOX FOR SUSTAINABLE Cln LIVING

the first

15 days. When the compost temper�ture suys t<Jual to the

outdoor temperature after turning. the compost is finished.

A.plle that reaches temperatures abo\·e 160 degrees F can kill

ilS beneficial microbial popobiions. Adding more carbon-rich material will bring the temperature of a I)ik down. Piles that fail

10

reach high temperatures need more nitrogen-rich mate­

riaL (Urine is very nitrogen rich and can be added for a quick nitrogen boosl.) If the temperature fails to increase even after morc nitrogen is added, it may indicate thaI some of the materi­ als have been treated with strong pesticides and the pile's con­ tents should Ix: landfil1ed.

COMPOST FIRST A I D [t is not uncommon to find ao e)Cistingcomposl l'ile that has been

poorly maintained for years and smells b:ldly whencver wind blows across it. [n most cases, this is a result of people JUSt piling up food

scr�ps with l ittle or no carbon material mi)Ccd in. Fortunately, these embarrassing piles can be salvaged. -[he contents of the pile will need to be 5hoveled out, and then put back with copiott;n ;..,u ounts of carbon malerial dumped in between SllO\·d loads. This first aid m:ument should t�rn a bad pile around. Nose.; should be held during the process, however.

• •

SHEET COM POSTING Shce! COlnlXlsting is a method of quickly producing soil i n areas with no or poor soil. It is a quick war to process large amounlS of food scraps thaI docsn·t involve making a pile, or having to turn anything. Sheers of cardboard are laid A·n across an area, serving as a weed barrier. Layers of food wa5tes and nitrogen materials are piled on top of Ihe cardboard. lite pile is capped with brown leaves or straw. -!he sheet can be over a fOOl thick. It is watered and allowed to st;tnd. "Ihe pile will break down into Sheet (ompostin,

usable soil in a year.

WASTE j 117

S I O T H E R M A L HEATING 'fhe bioiogicai processes occurring inside a compost pile generate a . consicrerablc amount of heat. Rcf�rreJ to as biothcrmal heat, it can Ix: used to heat water, or even a greenhouse or bio,helfer. Water in

a hose or tubing dml is run through a compost pile will be heated, and can be used as a compost hand wa�h. A compost pile located in a bioshelter will produce considerable warmth that helps

to moder­

;I(C the internal Icmpcrall.m:. (See Bioshclters, page 50.)

OTHER OPTIONS Composliflg is an ideal process for moderate amounts of food waste. A Rock of chickens can also rapidly reduce the I'olume of food waste and create nluab!c manure. (Sec Microlivestock, page 4.) Vermicomposting, discussed below, can process smaller amounts of food, yielding incredibly rich compost. A combination of all these methods can be tailored to meet differing needs while building soil.

V E R M I CO M POST4N G •

Vermicompos!ing ("vefmi" means worm) is a method of compost­

t

ing that uses worms 1O break down food wast s into a nutrie.nt-rich manure that is excellem for gardens. \·Vonn composting is great for urban residents because it can be done without access to land. Worm composting boxes can fit neatly underneath the kitchen sink. If dOlle correctly, the process is odorless. Worms can eat their own weight in food during a 24-hour period under optimal c0r:!.di­ tions. When fed regularly, worms will multiply and can be used to start new worm boxes or be ted to birds or fish. Large operations are capable of processing institutional-scalc food wastes. The worm manure, or castings, is rich in nutrients and mi(fobio­ logical life. As a worm has no acids in its stomach, all the digestion

118 I TOOLBOX FOR

SUSTAINII.BLE CITY liVING

•

is performed by bacteria living in its gut. These bactcri�-rich cast­ ings are often used as an inoculalll in compost tea. (Sec Compos! Tea, page 185, lor a definition.)

WORMS Red wigglers

(Eismillfilida) are the type ofworm most rommonly

used in vcrmicoinposting. Unlike the common e�rthworm, which prefers a m;nec:l!-base{] environment like soi!' red wigglers require a nutriCIlHkh environment like compost. Red wigglers wouldn't survive long in regular garden soil. Red wigglers have another properly that makes them ideal for treating food wastes: they secrete a subst�nce that kills patho­ genic bacteril. If placed on a Petri dish colltaininK E (ofi bacteria, a wigglcrwo�dd not only kill all the bacteria it ale, it would kill any bacteria tll:!{ touched its skill. For this reason, vermicompost­ Lng systems would be an ideal choice to process restaurant waste. Hundreds of\vorms wriggling about in the food scraps would dis­ infect them of any possible b�cteria from customers' saliva. lhe best place to get wigglers is from an existing vermicompost system. Simply dig through a friend's worm bin for a smalr contain­ er's worth. A pint ofworms will soon multiply to create a healthy vermicomposting system. They can also be bought from bait stores or some garden supply stores.

BINS The ,vorm hin is a wood or plastic container with a lid. The dimen­ sions can"\'JIry depending on the size of the operation. A guideline is 1 square foot of bin for every pound of food waste put in the box at any given time. Bo:<es should be shallow. Piled up food waste will begill to compost thermally, producing heat. Because the worllls are trapped in the box, the heat can kill them. 111(: sides of the box should have holes covered with screen to al­ low for ventilation while preventing Aies from becoming a problem.

WASTE 1 119

lhe lid should keep lighl OUI, as worms prefer a dark environment. As the worms reproduce and the vennicornpost system expands, bins can be added and stacked on top ofeach Olhcr. Worm bins made of stacking, shallow trays are also commercially

�vai1abk and (an probably be con:;!ructed with a little ingenuity.

B U I LDING A CHEAP AND EASY WORM BIN How to;

Supplies needed:

1. Using either a utility knife or hole saw, ClJI two. 2·inch

Plastic or wood storage bin WIth

hole� on each of the long sides of the bin, near its top.

2. Cut pieces of window screen slightly larger than the holes.

3_ Attach to the O\Jtside of the bin, over the holes, using silicone Of other adhesive_

Make sme a bead ofadhesive spans the entire

circumference of the hole so worms will

flOl be able to eS(::lpe.

4. Allow silicone to ClJre. 5. Add

bedding, worms, and food.

r�movable. snug·fntmg lid that measures roug.-i ly 18 inches wide, 24 inches long, and 8 Inches deep.

DimenSIOns can vary. Utility knife or 2-inch hole iiJW Silicone or other adheSIve Window screen

BEDDIN G Fill � of the box with bedding. lhe bedding absorbs excess mois­

ture and is s omething to bury Ihe food llllder. 111e best bedding is sbreddl-d newopaper. It can also be made from cardboard. sawdust,

old leaves, or straw. Bedding is a starting material: the worms will eventually eat the bedding and turn it into castings. More bedding can be added if moist ure becomes a problem, but Ihe worms are generally happy to live in their own castings.

FOODS A worm has no teeth. It can only eat what it is able to pass its body through, making soft foods ideal. Smaller pieces of food are more quickly digested. Avocadoes, mangos, bananas, apples, melon, cof-

120 I TOOlBOX fOR SUSTAINABLE (lTV LIVING

fee grounds. pasta. rice, tofu. and tomatoes are all favorite worm foods. Worms do not handle meat, dairy. oils, or :;piey foods well. Initially. give the worms small amounts of food. Add more only

'.,

'

..-

when it has all been eaten.

MOISTURE AND TEMPERATURE l\'ioisture levels need to be monitored. A slight dampness is ideal. Too much liquid will make the box go an:lerobic and kill all the Worm b,n

worms. Too little moisture wi!! dry them out. As worms do be�t in temperatures in the human oomfort range, indoor \'crmkomposting is easier. Outdoor operations must be i'1sllbted and heated.

HARVESTING A N D U S I N G THE CASTINGS Periodically. th� castings should be harl'e,ted for use as a fertilizer. The easiest way is to push all the material in the bin to one side and pbce fresh food and bedding on the other side. The worms will mi­ grate to the new food. !caving the old castings worm-free and ready to harvesf.-Anmher method is ro spread the finished compost on a screen with holes big enough fonlre-worms ro crawl through. Put the screen in the sun. The light-sensitive worms will burrow away from the top byer. Keep r'i/llol'ing the wortnlcss top byer ltntil all the worms have crawled tlw-ough the screen. \Vorm castings can be applied directly as a fertilizer to gardens. They can also be used to make comp-ost tea. (Sec Compost Tea, page 185.)

REC YCLI N G H U MA N WA STES Nutrients exist in limited supplies in soil and are replenished at a I'ery slow rate. When food is grown in soil, it removes nutrients

WASH 1 121

from the ground. Unless those nut[iem� are returned to the dirt, there will be a net loss of nmrients. Eventually, the soils will be­ come depleted and ine311ablc of supporting agricultllre Nutrients .

returned in several ways. FOod-scrap composting is one the majority of food gets eaten and not compos­ ted, the bulk of nutrients arc not being returned in this way. tI'lost nutrients pass through human digestive systems, are e�creted, and flushed away. 1he crcation of uruly closed-loop system, where the nutrients used to grow food are being rchlrned to the soil, requires some form oflllHlIan-walte recycling. lhroughout history, many cultures have returned their feces to the soils that grew their food. \Nhile this practice did restore soil can be

method, but since

fertility, in some cases it also was responSible for causing illness.

In a raw, uncompostcd state, human feces can spread disease if improperly handled or applied to agricultural soils. Today, with advances in the fields of microbiology and disease transmission, the knowledge exists to compost numan manures safely, without chem­ icals or mechanical systems. \Vhcn properly cOlllpostcd, hu man feces (or human manure or humanure) can add fertility to urban soils and create a truly closed loop offood production and nutrient replacement.

PROBLEMS WITH STANDARD SEWAGE TREAT M E N T The typical municipal method o fprocessing human fcres is terribly

begins with defcrating into dum water. Not only is this an incredible waste of an increasingly scarce re­ source, but once harmful pathogens enter water they can proliferate and possibly make others sick. Untreated sewage is pumped to a central processing f!Cility and mixed with everything poured down the drain, flushed, or washed into the sewers: metals, pesticides, toxic household cleansers, and industrial and medica.l wastes. 111e sewage is treated with energywasteful on many level; It

122 I TOOLSOX FOR SUSTAINABLE CITY LIVING

and chemically-intensive processes. Treated sewage is either il1(in­ erated, dumped at sea, or sprayed on golfcourses. None of thes� di,posal methods are environmentally sound. In some places it is resold as compost, which would be a bener idea if it were not mixed

with all the 1l;Iricties ofhaz�rdous mH!erials thM also make th�ir w�y into sewers. '[he inefficiency of modern waste treatmen! systems only strengthens the argument for human manure eomposting.

CARBON AND COM POSTING TOI LETS In a composting toilet, human mHnurc is collected in a conminer and mixed with a carbon-based nmteriaJ. 1l1e mixlllre is allowed to sit for a two-year period to ensure that any possible pathogens are dead. (Pathogens cannot survive that length of time outside of a human host.) Following this two-year period, there are differ­ ent choices for handling the finished compost. There arc some who feel confident that the compost is now �afe and choose to add it to garden soil. However, due to the small chance that some pathogen mar have survived the composting pr()(e�s it·�ccommendcd that compostcd human manure be applied only to nOll-edible p!arlts. Hopefully in the future, as more experiments are done and more data gathered, the absolute safety of applying human manure com­ POSt to food crops will be assured. Success in composting relics on a proper balance of carbon and nitrogen. 1l1e same applies to human manure composting as well. Feces are high in nitrogen and need to be bahnced with a high carbon material. Sawdust is most commonly used. It is carbon-rich, absorbent, and will soak up urine and other moisture. Sawdust comes in many varieties and using the right kind is important. The ideal sawdust s i light and fluffy, closer to a shaving than a dust. Actual wood dust compacts and blocks oxygen from diffusing into the compost pile. Often wood mills or lumber yards are happy to WASH I 123

gIve aw:ty sawdust. Be cerrain dIe sawdust is nOI from pressure­

It is Important to make a dlstincnon

Ire�led wood, as pressuro: tro:atcd wood contains arsenic and otho:r

between

toxic substances that :Ire bad for compost. U�ed toilet paper shou ld be th rown into compOSling loilets.

outhol,l!>e$.

u wclL

with the human manure. creating a

Other high-c�rboll matcr i:.ls suit:lblc for ust: in a composting

toilet

include dead leave"

Sfl'JW,

alld shrcdded paper. As a general

compostmg

In

carboniKt'OUS

a

toilets

afld

composting toilet.

material

is

mixed

in

balanced ration of carbon to nitrogen. Composting toilets keep human manure

rulc, selltr�1 handfuls of carbonaceous material should be added

on tne surface of the ground, where anv

aftt:r every lime someone poops. A wcll-m�naged oomposIing loi­

pathogens in its leachate are deacnvated

let should nOt smell. Presence ofodors indiC2tes 100 little carbon and/or tOO much moi5tuTe. fo,'lakc SUTe the poop is wcll CO\·cred, 10 pre\oem Rics from gel ling to il. (Remember, Ales pick up pathogens from feces and tr:lI1smit them ro what they bnd on next. This C21l be espedally dangerous if they land on food someone is about to

bV mICroorganisms lIving in the top few

COMPOSTING TOILET DESIQ.JS \Vhile there arc many w!Tl!Tlt:rtially available wm]losling roile!., they arc all fairly expensive aiiOdifficuh to get pcrmits for in cities.

(See Legalit ies, plge 126.) Discusso:d below are sei'eHI designs for user-built composling toilet systems !llll c"ln"'bc built cheaply and OUI of recycled materials.

•

FIVE GALLON B UCKET-IN -A-BOX A N D THERMOPHILIC METHOD 'Ihis simple (omposring toilet design consists of a

den box with

woo

toilet scat mounted on top. A 5-gallon bucket lined with a brown

paper bag is placed beneath the seat.

tanks wor� on the same prlllclple

Full buckets are clumpell into

a design3tcd human 1ll3nUre composting pile or a larger, separate

container. lhe main drawback to the bucket method is th:1.I it's fairly labor intensi\'C: a 5-g;I,I and " coll ENERGY 1 147

amo...nts of waste oil that currently exist are a by-prod...ct of the ex­ cesses ofpetroleum culture. As oil price. rise, wrpillses of anything

will become scarce. Vegetable oil will most likely bcouree, where it collid cause an ex­ plosion_ While the positive pressure from rhe-flow of gas from the source is usually ,ufficicnt to prcI'cnt a flame from tr. l yciing back, a backfio\\' preventcr is a wise precalllion when burning gas from a source container larger than 5 gallons. This design is appropriate only for gas kept under low pressure, like in the systems described in this section. lhc backfiow preworcr is made of a scaled bucket filled ,nostly with,water. Gas enters the bucket through a line that pushes it out at the bottom of the huckt;t, ulldcrwatcr. It then bubbles upward, through the W'�tcr into the airspace at the lOp of the bucket, and then travels on through the exit pipe to tbe stove. 'Ow water pre­ vents any flame from tm,-ding past it back to the stored gas.

L£J I : ::: ·'.

�:

.

'• . ," , . . ..

:

I

\Vhile small inline backflow prcvcntcrs can be purchased at gas and plumbing supply stores, the water buck�t design also helps clean the homemade gas. l3ecause carboll dioxide is much more soluble in water than methane, the water �scrubsH OUI an)' residual

J?

carbon dioxide as the gas bub les up. It will also remOl'e any hydro­ gen slilfide that may be in the biogas. For 10ng-lCrm use, it is ideal to remove hydrogen sulfide as if is highly corrosil'e and will cl'entu­ ally mst out metal parts.

LEFTOVER SLURRY When the material i n {he digester no longer produces gas, dispose of the spent slurry. Slurry can be composted i1\ a compost pile. Keep in mind that human pathogens breed in anaerobic condi­ tions. Anaerobic bacteria can also prodlIce compounds that arc harmful to plants. \Vhile the temperatures reached in a biogas di­ gester arebigh enough to kill some pathogens, there cOlild be some harmful pathogens left in the spent slurry. Spent manures are !i�ly

ENERGY 1 159

to have started with more pathogens than plant material and shOldd be handled with particular care. Usc calltion when handling any spent slurry and ne\'er apply it directly to plants.

W I N D POWER Winds are created by the uneven heating of the Earth's surface. When the sun shint"" s on a particular part of the atmosphere, it heats the air and causes it to rise, creating a low-pressure area. When air from a higher pressure area moves into the lower one, wind is created. Wind power has great potential to provide renewable energy to people while resulting in relatively little pollution or cnvitonrnental damage. Centuries before th� disco\'ery ofelectricity, wind was used to power mechanical equipment and for sailing. Today, wiud turbines convert wind power into electrical energy. The size and scale of turbines range widely, from massive wind farms with gi­ gantic towers to tiny turbines made from recycled parts. Wind e. Direct sunshine is necessary for most passi"e solar technologies

p

to function. For this n:ason, they will erform better in �",micr

climates. TIley arc still useful in less sunny regions, hOll'el'er, as

pplem

when the sun is shining they can significantly redlLce or su people's reliance on other energy sources.

em

i

J>assil'e solar technologies differ fooln act ve sohr technology, or-

photovoltaic pands (PV).

\'0ik

-­

pY uses scmiconducturs to tran,-

form the sun's rays into dectricity, passive solar has no electronic components. Although solu panels an provide power ·off the

grid" and utiliu the sun's rem:W"Jble energ�, the) are nOl examples of autonomous energy. TIle manufacture of solar panels is an ex-

i

pensh'e, energy-intensive,. polluting, and techn cally complicated process. Few people ha"e the expertise or the �ccess to the technical

infrastructure needed to build solar l)and,. Panels have a limite d lifespan and are subject to damage by falling objects. Once their

period of usefulness is used up, they have little polt:ntial to be re-

paired Of reused. J\lost DIY-built sol:u panels afe terribly inefficient aocl hardl.y worth the effort. PholO\"()ltaks are not the magic bullet solution

10 world

energy problems that many hope Ihey are. Despite

Iheir limitalions, howc\'Cf, PVs are enormously pree i rable to coal or I:NERGY I 16S

nUl:lear power for elec tricity geueration ;lnd can be useful tools in the transition to a more ;usr-ainable future. Many different low-tech passive solar designs have been invented and arc in lise by people worldwide. Designs using p.i,lssive solar technology to provide clean water and maintain a hioshelter have been dis.:ussed. -Ihis section describes how to build a few simple devices: a sohr oven. a p;,rabolic solar cooker, and a passive solar water heater.

SO LAR OVEN Solar ovens cook food o\'er the course of a day. Although it may take several hOllrs to bakt;t potato, slow cooking's conversion of starches to sugars makes up lor the "' Jit. Food cooked in this way is especially tasty. Sobr ovens proollce deliciously cooked food with no energy inpuls other th.\!l the sun and arc great for tasks from cooking vegetables and to(u to toastil� nuts. In their most basic form, solar ovens are boxes covered by glazing that heat up when set in the_slln..lheir designs c�n be highly elaborate or plain and simple. Solar o\'cnl call be cons\fJlilld out of wood or even layers of cardboard. • 1hc sheet of glazing that co\"ers a solar oven allows sun rays in, htH doesn't Ie! heat back oUI. 'Illis trapped high heat sometimes nears 200 degrees and wilicr;lck regular glass. Tempered glass must be used for glazing. Store-bought tempered glass is vcry expensive. However, one salvageable source of tempered glass is the heat-resis­ tant glass doors found on some ovens. Another cheap option is to use ba king bags-plastic bags designed to roast turkey. These can � cut open and stretched leross l solar ove �. For the same reason that regular glass can't be used for glning, only oven-safe cookware (�n be used inside of � solar oven. Below are instructions for building a simple solar oven. TIle dimensions given �re just suggestions; it is best to size an oven ac­ cording to what size cookware and glazing are av�ilable. "

166 ' TOOlBOX FOR SUSTAINABLE CITY LlVtNG

DIagram of s()lar ()ven

Supplie� needed:

How to:

4 loot � 4 loot sheet of Y,·inch plywood

4 loo� � 4 loot sheet of rigid foam

1. Cut out pieces of wood according to the dimensions in the

diagram. 2. Attach the wood With screws or nails and glue to construct

board insul"tion

the box.

24 inch x 2S Inch piece of glazing

3. Using a utility knile, cut pieces 01 rigid foam insulation to

Grill rack .maller than 2 feet x 2 feet

line the inside of the box. Put the pieces in place. They should lit together snugly, sealing the corners.

and two bricks

4. Paint the exposed face of insulation with heat-resistant

98 inches of weather stripping or

black paint to help absorb the heat.

silicone

5.

Heat-resistant black paint

Put the bricks in the oven and place the grill rack on top of

them. The rack will allow hot air to circulate beneath the_pot.

Wood 5aw

6. Place weather stripping around the perimeter of the top of

Utility knife

the box. 7. Add glazing to the lap of the box, making an airtight

Hammer, nails, and glue; or screws and �crew gun

seal. If the glazing is glass, ils weight will make a seal. II a lighter material is used for glazing. it can be sealed using duct tape. Wetting the weather stripping can help make

Optional: ,andpaper

a ,eal. 8. To put in or take out cookware, the glazing can be lifted

off or a simple hinged door can be made In the back of the

box. If a door is cut, the glazing can be p��manently attached with silicone sealant and less heat will escape when pots are accessed.

COOKING WITH A SOLAR OVEN Place the sohr oven in a sunny spot with the glazing angled towards the sun. An ol'en thermometer can be ust"d

to

trac k the

temperature inside the oven. Generally, the hotter it is, the bet­ ler. The temperature can be regulated if necessary by moving the stove into the shade or covering it with a shading object. As some foods take many hours to cook, planning ahead i s neces­ sary. Check periodically thro ugho ut the course of the day to be ,

sure that the sun is still shining on the oven .

Solar oven ENERGY 1 167

PARABOLIC SOLAR COOKER DMk sunglasses or welding goggles should be worn to protect ey!."

when using this cooker. Never look directly into the reflective si d e of the dish when It is facing the sun.

lhis device focuses the SUIl'S rays onto

�

small area, producing

highly conwlIrnlcd heat capable of cooking, lighting fires, or pro­ ducing steam. It is made by lining the (Qf1(�ve side of:1.II old satel­ lite dish with n:Rectrvc material. The object to be heated is placed at the dish's focal point. While any size dish will work, a larger dish will produce more heal, boili n g a gallon ofwater in about ten minUles. Older 8-1001

diameter models c:tn be found in rural areas and �t metal scrap prd•. Smaller, 30-inch dishes arc more commonly used today,

and are more likely to be scal'enged in orb,lIl areas. Lightweight

and ponabk, the 30-inch dishes maybe

J

sm�rter option for non­

homeowners. i\"lirror-plated aluminum sheets, My!ar p!�tic, o( mirror shards

on be

used as reflective matcria!s.lhe aluminum sheeting will cre­

ate a perfectly smooth surfaee, but is I":iirly expensin:. Mylar pbstic is inopensive, but degrades in the sun fairly rapidly. Tin foil has low reflectivity and easily becomes dented. llle dents create distor­ tions in light that eql1al i nefficien cy. Mirror shards can be broken into small pieces and made into a mosaic Olllhc dish's sur[1.ce with

an

adhesive, similar

(0

a disco ball. 111e smaller the mirror pieces,

the more concentrated the heat will b-t:. Broken mirrors can be eas­

ily scavenged. Use gloves when handling the dish and broken mir­

ror shards, as they can be quitt sharp. To al'oid a continuous dusty mess of tiny mirror shardS tilt grout can be used to seal between Iht pieces.

168 I TOOLBOX FOR SUSTAINABLE (ITY LIVING

• •

TESTING T H E DISH Before taking tllis step, protect eyes witll dark sunglasses or welding Goggle�. Again, never look directlv into the reneetive side 01 the dish

when it is latin g the sun.

The dish needs to be used in nearly direct sunlight with little to no clolld cover to function corrcctly. To align the dish cre­ ate a sm�11 hole directly in the center of the dish and aim it �t the sun. Hold � piece of paper directly beneath the hole on the shaded side of the disk. The light shining on the paper should run perpendicularly through the dish. This will indicate that the disk i� keyed i n properly. Ifit is not correctly aligned, the light will shint: off to an angle. This step will need to be taken every time the cooker is used. "lllc next step is

to find the

focal point ofthe cooker. '[he focal

point is exactly wm:re the receiving apparatus sits. If the apparatus is missing, the focal point can still be easily found. Face the dish

toward the sun and hold a piece of cardboard up to its face. As the cardboard is. m!ll:ed toward and away from the dish, the light re­ Aected Q,(I it will appear more concentrated or scattered. The focal point is where the light appears about the sit-e of a quaner. Hold

�

the car board in place for 30 se(onds. It should begin to darken,_

smoke, and burst into Aames. If the cardboard ignites, you've fOUJId the focal point. TI\e focal point is where you want to place objects to

be hc�te{1. To usc the dish for (ooking, a stand must be constructed that . will hold a pot exactly at the dish's focal point. The stand can be .

�

independent of the dish or can be connected to it.

As the sun moves across the sky, the focal point shifts. The dish

must be moved every 10 minutes

or so

in order to properly track the

sun.lhis feature can be a benefit as a forgotten pot will cool instead A �mall pardhohc d'lh solar cooker

ofburn.

€NERGY I 16
keep my air conditioning?" a� more

frel[uently asked than the important ones like "Where will our food and water toille (rOI1l?� or �How will our waste be processed'· Energy is necessar y fo r providing society with ils most basic needs. This is comm only fo rgotten in an ag� wh�n cn�rgy is.primarily as­ sociated with

ti�e el ectr icity that powers the telcvision.

In thc ncar future, enormous investments will be made trying to dcvelop energy so u rces that can maiO{:lin the status quo. Sincf no known energy source is c;lpable of thi s, th� only rational option is for el'cryunc to get by with le$8. While many of the autonomous technologies described in this book arc helpful mmsitional tools, they will be of no usc unless an ethic of conserv,lIion, effic iency,

and r«Iuced co nsumption is adopted. Ultimately, the best w:ay to

harness energy is to grow food for fewing people, thereby produc­ ing human power. While underrepresentcd in this book, bikes, wheds, gean, flywheels, levers, and pullc� are aU enormous labor­ saving devicc$th:l.I can maximiu human energy. TIleir inteHigcnt

usc can reduce reliance on external power 5OUfCe.

176 I TOOl80� fOR SUSTAINABLE CITY l1VlNG

A Word About Wood Ash Wood ash is made from burning \'load in a flre pIt or a wood nove An excelle nt I11sufatOf, ash has Peat­

but � are po or at slOWIng down the I05S of it

ENERGY 1177

BIOREMEDIATION -

I Teday's urban soils have been poisoned by years of the irresponsible use of toxic metals and chemicals. These contaminants pose a great risk to human health and have rendered much of the land that CQuid potentially be used for urban food production dangerously u-nfit. Not only can plants grown in polluted soil. pass pollutants on to those who eat them, but mere exposure to contaminated dirt and dust can be hazardous. The problem is so extensive that along with gaining access to land, contaminated soil is

one

of the greatest obstacles to growing food in the city.

The approaching era of declining energy resources will most likely necessitate a relocalization

of food production.

The increasing urbanization of the world's

population makes this issue particularly significant to cities. If cities are to become potential centers of food production, current available resources must be used to begin eraSing industrialism's toxic urban legacy. Fortunately, there is hope for doing this work. Bioremediation is the process of using the natural abilities of living organisms (typically plants, bacteria, and fungi) to speed the degradation of or assist in the removal of contamwants. In relatively short periods of time, bioremediation can break down chemicals or absorb metals that otherwise might persist indefinitely or ta���ars to degrade. Usjng bioremediation to treat contamination is not radical in and of itself-it is an accepted method in mainstream engineering.\ovhat is radical is an approach that uses techniques that are cheap and simple and Gln be carried out by people with little to no background in science and without beirrg dependent on engineers and massive funding. These techniques give people a genuine hope of proactively cleaning the soil in their backyards, community gardens, playgrounds, and parks. Bioremediation differs greatly from conventional ex-situ (off-site) methods of soil remediation. Typically,

such methods destructively excavate huge amounts of

contaminated soil. The soil is then either landfilled and replaced with sterile fill dirt or transported to a facility for chemical- and energy-intensive treatment and then returned, all at great financial cost. Such investments tend not to benefit poor communities. In contrast, bioremediation is an in-situ (on-Site) process, All treatments

180 I TOOl60X FOR SUSTAINABLE CITY UYING

are done o n location. No soil is removed from the site. Bioremediation's processes result in an improvement of the overall quality and health of the soil.

CAVEAT Most bioremediation research has been done in controlled laboratory settings. Community-based, DIY appli cations of b i oremediation have been few. The interactions between molecules, micro-organisms, and human bodies are complex and not entirely understood. Much of the information in this chapter is still of an experimental nature. At minimum, these treatments will not cause harm to the soil or to people a p p lying them. There is no guarantee that soils will be safe following remediation. It will take many people participating in this experiment a n d recording their results to create a more complete picture of what processes work in what concentrations, against what contaminants, and under what conditions.

P O Lb.UTA N TS The two JOOS! gener,ll categories ofsoil contaminants are heavy metals and molecularcontaminams.

'·Ieavy metals H e elements. Elements are the basic building

blocks of maner. They cannot b e broken down any further by •

regular natural processes. The Periodic Table lists all known

elements, incl uding oxygen, hydrogen, carbon. The elements

lead, cadmiu m, mer��ry, chromium, and arsenic a r e called

heavy metals. Ifleft alone, heavy metals present in soils remain indd"initely.

\'Vhile some heavy tll etals, l ike iron and magnesium, are essen­

tial nutrients in smal l amounts, humans and most other life forms did not evolve with heavy metals present in the high concentra­

tions found today. Fueled by the demands of industry, enormous

amounts of heavy metals han� b e e n brought to the surface of the planet by extractive mining and concentrated through smelting

and re fining. Excessive exposure to heavy metals can result in a

SIOREMEDIAnON

I

lSI

-

number of negative heal th effects, including orgm damage, binh

defects, and immune system disorders.

Since ther cannot be destroyed, there arc limited methods for

treating elemental contaminants. Phytorcrnclliation and compost

rcmcdialioll am the biorcmediation methods most commonly used

to treat heavy metal C<JJlt:tminarion. Phytoremcdiation accumulates

metals in certain metal-loving plants that are then removed :tlld

disposed ofelsewhere. Compost binds I.lp metals with organiC mol­

ecules in the soil, reducing the percentage that is absorbed by plants

or human tissue.

Molecular cOl1tamina,,� art: made up of molecules: ele­

ments hound toge ther in d iffe re nt ways to create substa nces

with.varying chemical properties. Some molecular contami­

nants found in soils arc p e sticides (dieldrin and chlordane),

fuels (diesel and gasol i ne), and by-products of indus !ry (PClh

and dioxin). Others, like polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons,

can result from'either human or natural events, such as fires or

volcanic eruptions.

lhe industrialized world is a virtual toxic soup. Poisons pervade

almost all e!l\ �ironmellts, from air to soil to water. Potential

health

eAeCIS from exposure to these contaminants indude cancer, repro­ ductive dirordcl), and liver and nen'e damage. Even when present

in rdatively low concentrations, toxins pose a health risk over a life­ time of exposure. Mycorcrnediation, hach:rial remediation, and compost biore­

mediation are the mosl appropriate melilOds for treating molecular contaminants. lhe natural metabolic processes ofbacteria and fun­

gi are capable of ripping apart molecular contaminants into Ixnign components, which they then usc as food. These processes occur

naturally over time, but the rate of degradation can be accelerated by adding beneficial organisms to a site a[Jd providing the proper

e

habitat and nutri nts.

182 I TOOLBOX FOR SUSTAINABLE CITY LIVING

D EVELO P I N G A R E M E D I AT I O N STRATEGY Once :1 site has been identified as being possibly contaminated, it will be necessary to come up with a remediation plan. Different oontaminatlls reql,lill: different treatment methods, and unique site conditions require OOflsider:uion. liackgroond research on the site history will gi\'C dues to its p:m uscs and posSible pol1ut:mls. Towns oflen keep hisloriaJ Tel:OroS and aerial photographs. These on be used to identify potential hnnrds such as factories, fud

storJgc t�nk$, or landfills. P�SI building permits can reveal prt\'i­ QU! site conditions and uscs of the prO!JC:rty. Knowing the bnd and

what pollutants are present is the first step in crafting an effective c1callllp pbl1.

TO TEST O R NOT TO TEST? Soil tests tell which pollutants arc present It Nlli:h concentrations. Testing m�y e�cn reveal that dangerous l.I:\els of toxins are not pr�5�nt and that 00 action is nl:o:ssary.

�

Wilh Ih� c)((tption ofl�ad, il i� Irpi� lly exp�nsivc to ttst for cOnilunin3ntS in soil. lherc is no on� single test that will comprc­ hensh·dy tell which toxin. arc present. Ea�h suspected contaminant must be tested for individually. A single soil test c;m potcntially

COSt hundreds of dolbrs, so narrowing the range of possible con­ taminants s�ves money! Sometimes lUlivcrsities or agricu!mral

extensions :Ire able to conduct tests cheaply or fr«, or sympathetic engineering firms may be convinced to donate their services. DJY testing options are limited.

lhc other option s i ro 001 resl :md assume the site s i contaminated.

In Ihis case, utilizing a variety of mClhods

10 coltCr a

number of

810REMEOIATION 1 183

potential toxins is a good idea. At a minimum, building soil health and microbial dh'crsity through regular applications of compost and other organic matter provides some degree of protection.

T Y P ES O F B I O R E M E D I AT I O N Bioremediation can be broken down into fo�r categories: bacterial remediation, myroremcdiation, phytoremediation, and compost bioremediatio!1.

BACT ERIAL REM ED IATION Bacterial remediation is the process ofusing"bacteria to break down

molecular contaminants like hydrocarbons jrUo simpler, safer com­

ponents. It can be accomplished by culturing (breeding) bacteria in high numbers and then introducing them into a contaminated arca, and/or by turniu)5 growth.

the affected

soil into an ideal habitat for bacterial

Large numbers ofbenefidal bacteria can be introduced into soil by brewing something called compost tea or through use of 2. prod­

UCI called Effective Microorganisms.

THE ECOLOGY OF BACTERIA Bacteria are simple, single-celled orlfiniSAlS found in abundance in almost all regions ofthe world. They are found in dil'erse environ­ ments, from extremes like the human intestine to hot oceanic sulfur

·VCfllS. A

single teaspoon of healthy garden soil contains o\'Cr a bil­

lion of them. Although often associated with disease, most bacteria are not harmful to humans. Many arc essential [0 human health. Ten percent ofhurnan body mass s i made of bacterial cells.'

184 1 TooLBOll fOR SUSTAINABlE (tTY LIVING

BaCleria nl�y be aerobic (ox)'gen using), anaerobic (non-oxygen using), or somewhere octween the two on an overlapping continu­ um. Aerobic bacteria are l)'picaUy found in healthx...r.oii Anaerobic .

bacteria are found in low-oxygen environments such as I)()nd muck, I)()()rly maintaincd compost piles, and intestinal tracts. \Vhile sollle anacrobes are pathogcnic (discaSC'--causing) organisms, nuny, likc acidophilus and bctobacillus, an: e$SCnti�1 to eftectiw human di­ gcstion.

COM P OST T EA Compost n:a is a water-based, oxygen rich culture containing l�rge -

populations ofbeneficial aerobic bacteria, nem�todes, fungi, and proto:roa, which can be used to bioremediatc toxins. It is maclc by adding an inoculant and 11 food 5OUoce to non-chlorinated water and aerating it. lhe microorganisms present il i the inocul31l1 rJpitily multiply wh�n put in oxygen-rich W".n�r with ample food. 'lhis br�w is applied \0 contaminated soil, where the microbial p opulations go to work bn:aking down certain types

of mol<xular contaminants.

The e�se and low cost of making compost tea make it a method of biorcmcdiation with the potcntial for widespread applint�.

T H E C O M P O N ENTS O F COM POST TEA I NOCULANTS A cup ofworm Cllstings m�ke an ideal inoculant for compost tea. The eastings can be harvested from a worm composting box or bought from a specialty nursery. Worms have no digestive adds in their stomachs. Instead, they lise bacteria to break down

food..

Worm excretion is an excellent fertilizer i n itself, rich in beneficial b�cteria, fungi, protozoa, and nematodes Another inoc.u[�nt choice .

is aerobic compost, teeming with microbial life. It is important (or

810l'lEMEOlATION

1 18S

•

the oompQSI to havt: been well-made, Of few bene/ie i:!.l (filiuS will

be: preSem.

-[he inoculant is (?U! into a nylon stocking that is suspended into

the water. 111;5 a�ows the microbes to enter. hut prevents the pas­

��ge of larger objects lhal could dog a sprayer's screen filter du ring application.

FOOD Rapidly reproducing organisms need food 10 fud their cdlular divi­

sions.

Microbial foods arc added to compost tca to help the process

�long. ll1c most commonly used foods arc molasses, humic acid, and fish h)·drolasc. lhe mobsS!:;, whkh should be unsulfured, is

widely 3\'3.iJabJe al grocery stores. !lumic acid and fish hrdrobsc, both fertilizers, need to be purchased from garden stores.

l\'lolasscs primarily feeds hacteria, while humic acid and fish hydrolase feed fungi. lhcteri:d tcas enhance �1l111ml gardens. whilc _ tfCes prder fungal lcas. i\ Illixture "f these oods f will crClilC a fin­

ished lea with bOlh bacteria and fungi, which is idul for remedia­ tion of contaminants. -

WATER

•

Chlorine, a powe rful microbicide found in !l1uniciJlllI wafer, will kill ihe microbial life being cultivated in compOSt lea. W'hi1c it is far prefernblc to use collecled rainwater or healthy pond water,

municipal water can also be dechlorinated by allowing it to sit un­ co�red for at bst 24 hours. Most of the chlorine will volatilize during this period. Aernting the water speeds up the procrss.

AERATION Proper aeration is critical. As compoSl lea is being brewed, the

population of microorganisms is rapidly expanding. Like humans, aerobic bactera need OX)'gen for survival . There needs to be enough i

oxygen present in the W1ltCr to kap the bacteria a[i�. If [00 liule

186 I TOOLBOX FOR SUSTAINABlE CITV LIVING

"

. 0

· .

'".

810REMEOIATION 1 187

•

oxygen is available, anaerobic org'Jnj�ms will begin to grow instead. Some anaerobes produce alcohol as a by-product, whi of oyster fungi spawn can be grown from a single bag of sterile spawn. When a fungus has been grown in a sterile environillent, its �im­ mum� syslcm� is weak. It has never had to compete with other organ­ isms to survive. BeC:l.llSC it has so [ell' defenses, fUIlKi directly from

the lab would stand little chance of sur viving if mixC(i into outdoor

soil right away. One strategy to cncourJgc fungi growth and nurture its defenses is 10 first cultiv; \ te it un a substrate. Substr:1te.> are the

nutrient-rich materials on which mycelia grow-for example, straw, sawuuSl, coffee grounds, coffee hulls, and cardboard. As the mycelia grow, they break the substrate down and absorb its nutrients. CofFee grounds are an ideal suhstl"&te. When coffee is brewed, the heat ster­ ilizes the g!:?unds, killing any competing organisms in it. By growing

in a sterile substrate, yet exposed to open air, fungi can slowly build

up their immune system while still being pampered. Oncc· the fungi have colonized the substr.ue, they can be mixed

with denser, non-sterilized materials {like woodchips} in a "wilder"

Supplies needed:

environment. How to: 1. Drill Six J{·inch drainage holes in the bottom of the bucket.

2. ln the bucket, mix the sterile 5P�wn with the coffee

grounds by breaking apart the block of spawn. 3. Wet the midure with non-chlorinated water. Keep it moist, but not saturated. Placing a pla�ti c bag with holes poked into

it over the top of the bucket will help retain humidity in dry climates.

194 1 TOOLSO� FOR SUSTAINABLE CITV LIVING

S·�al lon bucket 1 gallon bag of oyster mushroom

spawn (pleurolus oslreo/tls) 4 g allons of used coffee grounds (lilte's ale okay) 1 gallon non·chlorinated w�ter

Drill with :4·inch bit

Plastic bag large enough to cover bucket

A note about coffee grounds: If i�

important that the coffee grounds do not Sit around I£lng enough for mold to

grow on them. If a large amount can't be

obtained all at once from a local coffee

shop, small �mounlS can be stored in

4. Put the bucket in a shady (but not lightless) S!)QI.

5. After three to six weeks. the mycelia will colonize the

grounds and mushroom, will begin to form. Because the coffee grounds are de�n, these mushrooms can be picked and eaten or sold regrowths of m ushroo ms or nushes, can occur. Mushrooms will keep srowing as long as there are nutrients

6. Successive

,

the freeler until enough are gathered.

available to them. When mushrooms have stopped forming,

Reject any grounds With mold growing

the contents of the bucket can be further propagated by

on them. While harder to find, coffee chaff (the hull of the beanl is also a great substrate. It is completely dehydrated .so it won't get moldy.

mixing the colonized grounds in with other buckets of fresh grounds. 7. Once enough spawn has been made, it can be used for remediation. (See Remediation Using Mycelia, page

197.)

Because the final spawn should be used for remediation as soon as possible after the bucket is colonized, the final batch of spawn should be cultured all at the same time. For

example, i l lS gallons are needed, the first 5 gallon batch can be mixed in with three other 5 gallon buckets of coffee grounds to produce a final batch of 15 gallons.

R H I ZOMORPH-CARDBOARD METHO D Bypassing the need to pllrchase sterile sp a\l'n ;-the rhizomorph m..,thod uses native ,·arieties oHungi to generate spawn. Rhizomorphs arc root-like fungal st�uctures. Like stem cells, they are capable ofregeneration and can s.£:nd out mycclia of their own. Gathered from wild llIushrOOIllS, rh izomor phs arc used to colonize

cardboard and turn it into spawn usable for mycorcmediation.

Rhizomorphs are found at the bases of the stems of mushrooms

.

\-Vhen a m ushroom is dug out of the ground or a log, dangling,

thread-like roots are attached

to its

base. 'lbest rootS :Me the rhizo­

morphs, and can be CUT off from the stem. Oyster mllShrooms can be found in woody areas in urban parks, often growing on logs or the ground. A good tim e to hu nt for them is several days after a hea,,), rain, when Ih.., tempcrature is between 55 and 85 degrees. A mushroo m field guide is needed for identificaBtOREMEOIATtON

1 19S

•

lhere are m;!!))" poisonous mushrooms-mrrte! identification is extremely important! To collect rhiwmorphs from a log, CUIOIlt a chunk ofthe rotten wood at the base ofthe mushroom with a knife and remove it i n a whole p;t'(c. If the"mushroom is growing on the ground, carefully dig up the dirt un­ der the stem with a hand trowel. Separate the rhizomoTphs from the dirt or wood and the mushroom stem, being careful oor to damage them. Ik sure that they do not dry oot while being handled. lion.

How to:

1. Soak the cardbO, 2004), 20

2. �or a thorough e.amonalion of see Cleo Woelne·Erskine, Jllty O,kar Cole. afld Laura A!le�, I'd, Dom dams and Ihe" consequences.

Nanan' Disporches Fro'l'l r�e WOler UnderlJrolJnd INew Yorx

Soft Skull

Press, 2007), 3. Alexantler Co-ckburn and Jeffrey 51, Clai re. "rothe Last Drop: Why the Colorado Rover Doesn't Meet the Sea­ CO!JnterPunch 3/14/01 http://www counterpUllch.org/colorado.html. 4, Clarke and King, (2004). 24.

5 Peter H, Gleick, Dirty Warer:

;>.0\11

Estimated Deaths from Water· Related Disease 2000�2020 10aklarld.

Starnets.

M�celfrum Running, Berkeley, CA Ten Speed Press,

CA Paclftt Irlstltute for Studies in

m l.I�hroom ·growif"lg techniq lies,)

2005 (Contains basic informanon on log cuit\lre, as well as other

Development, €nvironment. and Security, 2002).

WAT E R

4.

6, Committee on Fluoride in Dnnking

FLOAT I N G ISLANDS

Water, Board on Envirorlmentai Studies and Toxicology, Division on Earth and Ufe Studies. National Research Courlcii

of the National Academies, Fluoride in Drinking Wafer: A Scientific Review of

EPA's Srondords. (Washington, DC: The

National Academies Press. 2006).

7. American DenIal ASSOCiation, ADA eGRAM. lnferim Guidance on

Reconstituted Infant Formula, 1Chicago:

ADA, November 9,

2006), www.ada

org/prof/resources/pubs/epubs/egram/ egram�061109,pdf,

g, Fluoride Action Network.

"Communities Wliich Ha�e Rejected Fluoridation 5mce 1990," www.

nuoridealert.org/communlnes.htm 1accessed Jan. 3. 2008).

9. Certain strains of hep,anns can iiVl:! up to a half hour in boiling water, and baclenal endospores can survive for hours. Some bacteria have the ability to turn into endo>pOrei and essentially hibernate. These if"lacnve cell, have strorlg coats Jnd are very hard to �iII. Thous,mds-of-years­ �d endospores have been discovered 3f"ld coaxed back into living cells. Gerard

Qceaf"l Arks Imefrlational hnp//oceanarks,org/restorer/ This Massachusetts-based operatiof"l is an ifll1ovator of noatif"lg island restorer technology

RAI NWATER COLLECTION/PU R I F I CATIO N Banks, $UlY and Richard Heinichen. Ramwoter Co!lection for the Merhi)n'�i);Jy (hal.'pngej. Orippif"lg Sprif"lgs. TX Tan� Town. 2006 Hu;sman. l. afld W E Wood. Slow Sand Filtranon Geneva World Health Dr�anilation, 1974 ldnca'>tef, Br'!t!�worer Hor�'esnng for Drylands (Vol. 1): Gooding

P"nclpl"s to Welcome Rain inlo Your Ufe ond LondKope, White River

JunctiOf"l, VT: Chellea Green Publishirii."1006. •

ludwig,

Aft Wote' 5toroge: To'1!S. Cisterns, Aquifers and Ponds. Santa

BMbMil CA OlSlS O",lgfl, 200�

53nd filt-at'o,",

www.oa.isdesign.flet/water/treatment/slawsandfilter.htm 50iJr Water Olsll'Ifecnon SWISS Federal lnstHute for Environmental ScienU'-'pf"ld Techrlology

WIVW,so(liS.ch

WATER PRIVATIZATION BarlolV, Maude and Tony Clark. Blue Gold, New York: New Press. 2003.

Tortora, Berdell Funke, and Christine

RESOURCES AND NOTES 1 119

Olivera, Oscar and Tom lew s jCocllobambol Water Warin BoliVIa.

Case, Micrabiology: An Introdu(tion (San

Reisner, Marc. Cadillac Desert. london, Pimlico, 2001

10. The Swiss federal Institute for

ShlVa, Vandana. Water Wars: PflVatllahon, Pollution, and Profit.

(EAWAG) has conducted numerous

'

,

Cambridge, MA: South End Press, 2004,

Francis(Q: Pearson Education, Inc.. 2(04)

Environmental Science

afld Techflology

te�ts on solar diSinfection. For more

Cambridge, MA South End Press, 2002,

information, including charts of Woelfle·Erskine, Cleo, July OslGJr Cole, ilfld laura A ll en. Dam Nonon:

Dispatches/rom the Warer Undergrormd. N�w York: Soft Skull Press, 2007,

patho�ens killed and lists of research studies, see www.sodis.ch.

WASTE

THREE-WASTE 1 lynn Margulis and DOrian Sagan,

AI R PURIFICATION

Wolve rton, S.c. How to Grow Fresh Air: 50 House Plants that Purify Your Home or Office. New York ; Penlluin, 1997.

Microcosm05: Four Billion Years

0/ Microbial Evolullon (Berkeley: UnIverSIty of California Press, 1997), 88,

and http)lenwikipedia .or�!wiki/Pilu s.

COMPOSTING

Gershuny, Grace a nd Deborah L M Monster Mushroom is World's Biggest Uving Thing," The iandon Independent, August 6,

2000.

3. Ehterina Dadachova, et ai., "Ionizing Radiation Changes the Electronic Properties of Melarlin and Enhances the Growth of Melaniled Fungi: PLoS ONE 2(5): e4S7

(2007), www.plosofle.

org/article/fetchArticle.action'art

Biomass gasification http://tech5ci,msun.edu/cot.l/biomass_ga5ihcation.htm

CliMATE CHANGE

flannery. Tim. The Wet"ltherMakers: How Man Is Cho� the.(limote and What II Meansfor Life on Earrh. New YOfk: Atlantic Monthly Press, 2006. Rising Tide (a climate justice organizatlon) hnp://risingtidenorthamericli, 91-

humanure, 14, 114, 121-22. 128.155 5et also loilet,

93. SU aisa wast�

human wastes, 93-94. 111-24; compostmg toMts aM, 12421, 129-30, UrIne �nd. 128-19

land trusts, 11l Las Veg�l, Ne�ad., 61

humic ac,d, 186

latitude, 54

humid,tv, 10, 53. 193-94

leachate. 124

Ilumus, 111

Hurrleane �atrina. 190,205

lead, 12. 99, 109. III. 145, a�u"ulture and, 30;

bioremedlation and, 181. 183, 198-201. 206; paint w,tll, 53, 198. 201; wat... and, 65, 11

Ilybfids, 140 Itydrocen, 140. 151, 181, 192 hydrosen pero�ide, 81, 106 hydrGIen sulfide, 154, 159

legahlV' compostln, 10,lets and. 126; grilywale. and, 110; mictofiveslock and, 12; waler pUfificanon and, 15, 110. 5et olro bu,Id,", codes; 100'"1

hydrologKill cycko, 63-64

l>l:hens,45

hydropomc:s, 38

111lW!,200

Ind,geflOus people.... 141-42

logs. 4, 10, 60, 195-
16,84

Saccharomyce< urevisioe lyeastl,

190

saltwater aqu�cultu,e, Z4 san.lanon, .v,i, 62. 9� Santa Fe, New Me�i,o, 207 Savonius wmdmills. 164 schmutldecke, 80 ,,,ubbe", 3S

rabbits, S, 14 racism, 142. 198 ramfall, .vi,i. 20, 4B, 52. 63 214; b,oremed,a�on and, 186; collection of, 64-68, 75: contamonatlon and, 77: ,aincalch potenMI and, 71-72, 75; roof flusher and. 71-73; solar water heater and. In; uses for, 74-75; water pUfFfication and, 75 rainlorelll, 23. 151 rec,((led bic'((le part wmd l�rbme. 163 red wigglers, 119 refrigerator's, 165, 170-72. 1'12 Relshi mushrooms, 20 _ remediation. 3, 180-82. 184-85. 202-6: air pu(OticatlOn 89; Grove and, 202-4; compost tea �nd, 185.... brownfield and, 209-10; Hurricane Katrina and. 201-6; mushrooms and. 191-93. 1'15-98; mycelia and, 197-98; phytoremedlation and. 19B-201; Iteriie spawn method and, 194-95 rent control, 212 Rhizome Coliecnve, XV"', ....,,', 107, 209; coop aI, 6 rhimmes, 42 rhizomorph, 193, 195-97 rhllosphere, 96. 203 Rhode Island Red chickenl. 10 rice. 41, 43-44, 121, 152 .

nch,20

Rising Tide, 137 RNA, 78

seJfarrng cultures, 21 Sea of Cortel. 63 secu"t�, 53, 64. 88, 142, 206 seed s....mg. 3

lepn� tanks, 124 sewage, :12, �6. 48, B8, '12. 94; b.oremecianon �nd, 205; d;,pola' m�thodl of, 122�23 se....er gales, 97 \�ade, 2, 14. 16-17: b'o5helters and, 52, 54 5�ampoo'. lOS s�eep. 4 s,ee!compo>ti�� 117 • \�owef\, 109 ,,do: bu,ld.ng Iyncirome. 203 I !ver. ,99 ,'nk�. 99. 109 s at�, 13 510.... food nlo.emenl, 1.1 ,:0'"' sand filters, 80 II�rry. 149, 157, 159-160 smart growth, 211 snails, 24, 29. 34, 40 soap'>, '14. lOS, 109 sodium b'carbonale Ibak,ng soda). 4& \oil. 'i'i. 3-5. 7. 214: aquaculture and, 20, 27. 29, 37-38. 41-44; baC1ena and. 184-85; btoremediation and, 180-B3. 202-6; compacting of, 5; compost and. lll-B, 117-19; compo>flng toilet, �nd, 126, 131; compolt

INDEK 1 239

•

tea and, 185, 189; crops and, 14-17; depavenent a�d, 47-49; �nel8Y and, 140, 151-S3. 176; human waste

tar, 73

pnvtoremediation J nd, 198-201; testlng of, 183. 199,

tee valvel, 111

and, 121-24, mycoremed,atioll alld, l92-94, 197-98; 204; wa$lewatl" and. 93-95, 97. 99; water and, 65, 86

talO, 43. 98

tempoculture, 207

'olar COllec\or, �

t�rm preto (dar�, so' I), lSI, 153

>olar energy, 164-67; archItecture and, Ill; cooking wilh,

therator. 161

solar d'�h. 169

166-69; dison/ectJon with, 80, 2201110; pan�l$ for, xi;-�I'I, 138, 162, 165. 210-11, waler heatmg with, 170-72

solar oven, 167; diagram ot 166

thalia. 98

thermal mass, 48, 51, 53, 165, 173, 176

three-w�y valve Ivstems, 97 tidal power, 138

solar p;!neh, �;i·�IV, 138, 162, 165, 210-11

tilapia, 38-39, 4\-42

Southern Hemisphere, 52

tin, 73, 92, 174

wlar watet healer, 170-71

;outll·lacing wall., 54

SOllth (United State�), n space heaters, 9

spawn, 193-94 spifogyra, 155

spirulina.45-46

.lquatting, 106, 208

...tator, 160--61

,terlle .oawn-(olfe� ground method, 193-95 'tocking den5lhel, 23, 29, 36

tilling, 7, 49, 164; oil and, 2

tofu wastes, 113 toMt paper, 124

toil�ts, 74-75, 81, 125-28. 209, 214; mobile 10,let and, 12930.. 5.... olst> compt>lt

total suspended sohdl lm), 106

Toxic S observer in the conflict ZOlles ofChiapas, - served -

Mexico, and trained human rights observers with the International Network for Human Rights in Qtctzaltcnango, Guatemala. In ad-

.dition to her activities with the Rhizome Collecti\'e, Stacy is a journatis! and producu with WINGS: 'l'Vomem International News . Gathering Service. Currently she is studying biochemistry, health, and herbal medicine. She is also a granrwritcr, accounts manager, artist, gardener, and most importantly, a mom.

VMJDANA SHWA

Manife�tos on the f'ulUre of food and Seed; Earth Democracy; Ju�tice, Sustainability, and

Peace; Water Wars:

Pri�atization, Pollution,

and Profit; Stolen Harve\(: The Hijacking of the Global food Supply; eiopiracy' The Plunder of Nature and Knowledge GEORGE MONBIOT

Heat: How to Stop the Planet From eurning ARUNDHATI ROY An Ordinary Person's Guide to Empire; Power Polihcs;

War Talk;

The Ched:bool