The Roman Near East: 31 BC-AD 337 (Carl Newell Jackson Lectures)

THE R O M A N NE AR EAST 31 BC - AD 337 • •• F ERG US M I H A R HARVARD UNIVERSITY C A M B R I D G E , PRESS M A S ...

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THE R O M A N NE AR EAST 31 BC - AD 337 • ••

F ERG US M I

H A R

HARVARD UNIVERSITY C A M B R I D G E ,

PRESS

M A S S A C H U S E T T S

L O N D O N , E N G L A N D

C o p y r i g h t © 1 9 9 3 by tlıe Prcsidenr and Fcllovvs o f H a ı v a r d C o l l c g e Ali r i g h t s reserved P r i n t e d in t h e U n i t e d S t a t e s o f A m c r i c a F o u n l » printing, 2 0 0 i ' f h i s b o o k has been snpported by a grant frora thc N a t i o n a l Endovvment for thc H u m a n i t i c s , a n independent federal agenıy.

Libtary

of Congress

(ZattiIogirıg-in-Pı/blicalion

Dala

M i Har, F c r g u s . 'Ihe R o m a n N e a r East, 3 1 B.C.-A.D. 3 3 7 / Fergus Millar. p.

cm.

Includes bibliographical rcfcrcnccs and indcx. ıSBN 0 - 6 7 4 - 7 7 8 8 5 - 5 ( c l o t h ) ISBN 0 - 6 7 4 - 7 7 8 8 6 - 3 (pbk.) 1. Middlc F.asr—History—To

611.

2 . R o m c — H i s t o r y — 3 0 B.C. - 4 7 6 A . D . I. T î r l c . Ds62.25.Mj3 919-4—e Batlle of Actium the Great

to the Deatb of

Herod

27

2.2. From the Deatb of Herod of Tiberius'

Reigtt

the Great to the F.tıd

43

2.3. From the Reign of Gaius to the of the Jeıvish \Var

Outbreak

56

2.4. The Jeu/ish War and Its Aftermath

70

I M P E R I A L I S M A N D E X P A N S I O N , AD 7 4 - 1 9 5 }.ı.

Vespasian: A Neıv Near Eastern Empire

3.2. Trajan: Fjcpansion and Rearrangement Southern

Near East

3.3. The Roman Presence,

8 80

in the

90 ad i i4-161

3.4. Emperors and Pretenders

99

in the Near East from Lucius

to Septimiııs Severus: 1 'be Conquest

of Mesopotamia

Verıts 111

4.

R O M E A N D M E S O P O T A M I A : F R O M PARTHIA T O PHRSIA

127

4.1. The Severan Near East as a Military Structure

127

4.2. Emperors on Campaigtt, frortt Caracalla to Philip the Arab

141

4.3. Shapur's Inuasions and the Ernpire of Palntyra, ad 252—273

159

5. T H E T E T R A R C H Y A N D C O N S T A N T I N E

174

$.x. The Tetrarchy: Persian Wars and Fortifıed Lines

174

j.2. The Near East in the Tetrarchic Ernpire, ad 284-312 5.3. Licinius and Constantine, a Christianised

ad 313—337: Retrospect

Empire

190 frotn

207

II. R E G I O N S A N D

COMMUNITIES

(,. C O M M U N A L A N D C U L T U R A L I D E N T I T I E S

225

7. T H E T E T R A P O L I S A N D N O R T H E R N SYRIA

236

7. z. The Geographical

Context

7.2. Local Cult-Centres:

23 6

Ilierapolis

and Dol iebe

7.3. Vıllages and Rural Temples 7.4. The Majör Cities: Aparnea

242

250 256

8. T H E P H O E N I C I A N C O A S T A N D ITS H L N T E R L A N D 8.1. History and Geography

264

8.2. Phoenicia: The Southern

Region

8.). The Northern

Coastline

#.5. Sidon and Tyre

267

and Its Hinterland

8.4. The Majör Cities: liyblos

264

and Berytus

270

274

285

9. E A S T E R N S Y R I A P H O E N I C E : M O U N T A I N , OASIS A N D STEPPE

296

9.1. Geographical

Cotmections

296

9.2. Emesa and Elagabal 300 9.3. Damascus and Its Region 310 9.4. Palntyra

319

ıo.

F R O M JUDARA T O SYRIA PALAESTINA io.i

History, Religion and Geograplry

10.2. Judaea before the First Revolt

337 351

10.3. Fronı the First Jeıvish Revolt to the Second 10.4. Syria Palaestina 11.

366

374

A R ABI A

387

I M . Regions and Cultures

387

11.2. The Kingdom

of Nabataea

1 1 . 3 . The Decapolis

in the First Century

11.4.

400

The Neıv Province of Arabia

z 1. j . The Nomadic

Presence

408

414

418

12. T H E EUPHRATES A N D M E S O P O T A M I A 12.1. Geograplry, Cullure and Language 1 2 . 2 . Dura-Europos n.3.

437 437

in the Parthian Period

445

The Middle Euphrates and the Corning of Ronıe

12.4. Roman Dura-Europos

452

467

12. j. Edessa as a Kingdom and Roman Colony until the of the Third Century 12.6. Social and Religious

Middle

472 Currents in the Fourth Century

481

1 3 . E P I L O G U E : E A S T A N D \VEST 1 3 . 1 . East?

489

13.2. West?

523

489

Appendix A . T h e Inscriptioııs of the Tctrarchic Larıd-Surveyors Appendix B. Documcnts fronı the Bar Kochba War

535

545

Appcndix C . Materials for the History of Roman Edessa and Osrhocne, AD 1 6 3 - 3 3 7 Maps

553

563 I. The Near East: Areas Covered by Maps 11-XII

II. The Roman Near East: Main Sites and Features III.

565

Geographical

566

Northıvestern

Syria and Mount Anıanus

IV. The Phoenician

567

Coast and Western Syria Phoenice

V. The Central Syrian Steppe, Palmyra and the Euphrates VI. Judaea/Syria Palaestina, VII. Southeastern

Western Arabia

Syria Phoenice,

Northern

570 Arabia

571

568 569

VIII. IX.

Petra and South-Central

Arabia

572

Arabia, ıvith Sinai, the Red Sea and the Hedjaz

573

X. Eastern Syrta, the Euphrates and Westertı Mesopotamia XI. XII.

Central Mesopotamia

and Mons Masius

575

The Eastern Syrian Steppc and the Middle Euphrates

General Index

577

Index of Literary Sources Index of Documencs

587

586

574 576

PREFACE

T h e subject of this b o o k can h c dcfincd in threc diffcrcnt w a y s : g e o g r a p h i cally, c h r o n o l o g i c a l l y and linguistically. in geographical tcrms I mean b y ' t h c R o m a n N e a r East' ali those a r e a s vvhich lie between the T a u r u s M o u n t a i n s a n d Egypt, and vvhich w e r c , o r c a m e t o bc, undcr R o m a n rule. T h e rcgioıı concerned overlaps the territories of eight modern states: T u r k c y , Iraq, S y r i a , L e b a n o n , Jordan, Israel, E g y p t a n d Saudi A r a b i a . T o the west it is of c o u r s c b o u n d c d by thc M c d i t c r r a n c a n , a n d t o thc north, somcvvhat less clearly, b y M o u n t A m a n u s a n d the foothills o f the Taurus. T o the cast a n d south t h c eventual limits o f R o m a n military o c c u p a t i o n did not correspond vvith a n y ver)' definite geographical boundaries. T h e middlc Euphrates, vvhich f o r l o n g served as a symbolic b o u n d a r y b c t w c c n thc empires of R o m c and of P a r t h i a , ceascd to d o s o in the course of t h e second ccntury. W i t h that great change, t o w h i c h I will c o m e b a c k maııy times, the R o m a n Empire in the east e x p a n d e d dccisivcly beyond thc M c d i t c r r a n c a n seaboard, with c o n s c q u e n c e s o f i m mense significance. B y the end o f the third century R o m a n control e x t e n d e d to, a n d in s o m e not very clear sense b e y o n d , the upper-ıniddle Tigris. In thc s o u t h - w c s t of thc arca, similarly, thc R o m a n military presence has left t r a c c s in part but not ali o f the H e d j a z , thc barren mountain-range running a l o n g the eastern side o f the R e d Sea. W h a t seems to be thc furthermost R o m a n outpost here is M e d a i n Saleh, a little ö v e r 300 km north of M e d i n a . T h c a r c a c o n c e r n c d thus rep resents a largc scction of thc Fcrtilc C r c s c c n t ; its definition as fertile refleets the f a c t that ali o f it shades o f f into w h a t is o f t e n callcd desert, but is in f a c t a t a l m o s t ali points not desert but a flat, largcly dry a n d o f t e n very stony steppe, in p l a c c s c o l o u r c d dark-grey o r b l a c k f r o m thc prcscncc o f v o l c a n i c r o c k . T o emphasise the fact that thc z o n c a l o n g w h o s e ınargins a great üne of R o m a n roads and forts, f r o m the R e d Sea t o

the Tigris, evcntually strecched w a s not a 'desert' o f saııd-dunes, I h a v e conısistently used the w o r d ' s t e p p e ' . H o w w e should understand the mutual relations o f the R o m a n g o v e m r a e n t , the settled p o p u l a t i o n and the p c o p l c s o f the s t e p p e — s k s n i t a i ('tent-dwellcrs'), nomades,

Arabes, o r Saraceni—is

precisely

o n e of the m a j o r p r o b l e m s w h i c h the b o o k attenıpts t o c o n f r o n t . In c h r o n o l o g i c a l terms, as its sub-titie indicates, the b o o k starts f r o m the m o m e n t o f the battlc o f A c t i u m and ends w i t h the death of C o n s t a n t i n e . It might reasonably h a v e begun a little further b a c k , w i t h the arrival o f Porapey's f o r c e s in Syria in the m i d - 6 o s BC. But the c o m p ! e x narrativc o f events in the late Republic w o u ! d h a v e either taken u p t o o m u c h space o r failed to reveal m u c h a b o u t the N e a r E a s t itself, o r m o s t p r o b a b l y both. B u t s o m c evidence, a b o v e ali f r o m S t r a b o ' s Geography,

w h i c h relates to that p e r i o d has

been used. Similarly, it c o u l d h a v e b c e n rcasonable to end w i t h the treaty o f 2 9 8 or 299 w h i c h gave R o m e firm c o n t r o l of the upper-middle Tigris; 01; eveıı nıore reasonably, t o take as the terminal point the m o m e n t w h c n , after the death o f Julian in 3 6 3 , J o v i a n w a s f o r c e d to cede Nisibis and the eastern part o f the M e s o p o t a m i a n shelf to the Persians. A s it is, the b o o k deliberately stops just vvhen t w o related but s e p a r a t e m a j o r developments in rcligious history began; first, the f o r m a l rccognition o f the Christian C h u r c h b y C o n s t a n t i n e , a n d the construction o f churches as visible, public features o f the urban landscapc; and s e c o n d , something of p e r h a p s equal significancc in the c v o l u t i o n o f Christianity: the ascctic m o v e m e n t , w h i c h s o far as the R o m a n N e a r East is cotıcerned began s i m u l t a n e o u s l y in the south-western corner of the region, a r o u n d G a z a , a n d in its north-eastern cortıer, a r o u n d N i s i b i s , both in the early years o f the f o u r t h century. L o n g a g o , I imagined t h a t I might vvrite a social history o f the N e a r East w h i c h w o u ! d c o v e r the vvhole period f r o m A l e x a n d e r to M a h o m c t . But the Hellenistic period has its o w n problems, w h i c h I tricd to e x p l o r e in a c h a p t e r in A . K u h r t and S. S h c r w i n - W h i t e , Hellenism

in the East ( 1 9 8 7 ) . A s f o r the

period o f precisely three c e n n ı r i e s f r o m the d e a t h o f C o n s t a n t i n e to the firit Islamic conquests, that must represent a m a j o r challengc f o r s o m e o n e else. For a b o o k o n these ccnturies vvould h a v e t o embrace the great conflicts vvith Sasanid Persia w h i c h b r o k e o u t again in the sixth century, a n d o f course providcd the c o n t c x t of the Islarnic invasions o f the seventh; late paganisra and the definitive C h r i s t i a n i s a t i o n o f the region; the great C h r i s t o l o g i c a l controversies a n d the flowering of S y r i a c C h r i s t i a n literatüre; the beginnings of Armenian Christian literatüre; p a g a n a n d Christian A n t i o c h as a m a j o r political a n d cultural centrc; J u d a i s m — i n e l u d i n g the c o m p i l a t i o n of the 'Jerusalem' T a l m u d , contacts with B a b y l o n i a , a n d influcncc in the H e d j a z in the time of M a h o m e t ; the Samaritans as an important c o m m u n i t y , c a p a b l e o f m a j o r re-

voltsj a n d thc significant role p l a y e d b y nevvly Christianised A r a b peoples in the unsettled steppe z o n e b e t w e e n R o m e and Persia. It is thus very casy to scc w h y n o such ovcrall history o f the l a t e - R o m a n and early-Byzantine N e a r Kast h a s ever been attempted; w h y o n c n o w d o e s require t o be w r i t t e n ; and w h y it w a s beyond m y p o w e r s at a n y rate t o e m bracc these centurics aloııg vvith the earlier period o f nearly four centuries. Even so, it w a s impossible t o deny myself ali hindsight, o r ali use of the vivid testimony of A m m i a n u s M a r c e l l i n u s , T h e o d o r e t a n d S o z o m c n u s f o r t h c social history of the N e a r East, o r of the Notitia

Dignitaium

f o r the strueture

of the 'desert frontier' as it h a d c v o l v e d by thc end o f the fourth ccntury. Nonetheless there w e r e very g o o d historical and teehnieal rcasons f o r treating thc period f r o m the mid-fırst c e n t u r y BC t o the m i d - f o u r t h century AD as a distinetive phasc. First, f r o m the point o f vicw o f R o m a n Imperıal history, t h c step-by-step advance o f R o m a n direct control demonstrates that, in the N e a r East a t least, the idea that R o m a n imperialism and expansionism died o u t after thc carly Empirc is s i m p l y falsc. M o r e important, however, is thc f a c t that these centuries s a w the m a i n f l o w c r i n g of thc 'cpigraphic h a b i t ' as c x pressed in the N e a r East. It s h o u l d be stressed here that inseriptions represent thc f u n d a m e n t a l material o n w h i c h the b o o k is based. I have o f course used ali the literary evidence that I c o u l d find, a m o n g w h i c h thc \vorks of J o s c p h u s p l a y an important role. I h a v e a l s o tricd to m a k e sense, f o r myself and t h c reader, o f thc c o m p l c x g e o g r a p h y o f thc rcgion, w i t h its very distinetive s u b regions. T h u s , w h i l e the Iong first part is designed t o g i v e a conception o f evolution över time, it is also intended as an introduetion to the g e o g r a p h y o f thc rcgion. T h c various d i f f e r e n t sub-regions and local areas arc then treated in the core of the b o o k , thc even longer second part. T o m a k e e a c h section intelligible b y itself, there has been s o m e deLiberate repetition at p a r ticular points.

In ali this I have o f course a l s o used archaeoiogica! and iconographic c v î dence, t h o u g h w h a t follovvs is in no vvay an a d e q u a t e study o f the p h y s i c a l evidence. T h e b o o k is primarily based o n inseriptions, f o r t w o linked reasons: political struetures, and l a n g u a g c . First, my a p p r o a c h is cssentially a b o u t p o l i tics a n d 'ethnicity'; a b o u t w h a t political f o r m a t i o n s , ineluding the Kmpire itself, vvere present in the r e g i o n , and h o w people identified themselves a n d w h a t e v e r w i d e r political c o m m u n i t y they conceivcd of themselves as b c l o n g ing to. T h c b o o k is thus c o n c e r n e d w i t h 'imagined c o m m u n i t i e s ' in the sense used by Benedict A n d e r s o n . F o r that, inseriptions are all-important. T h e Christian e p i g r a p h y of the late Empire, in G r e e k , m o r e rarely in Syriac a n d (very occasionally) in A r a b i c , refleets a different o u t l o o k a n d a m u c h - c h a n g e d

w o r l d . It is in the first f e w oenturies, as is w e l l k n o w n , that the 'epigraphic habit' does most t o revcal political a n d c o m m u n a l structures. It is this w h i c h then brings me to the third w a y in w h i c h the ' R o m a n N e a r E a s t ' can be defincd: b y l a n g u a g c . T h e ' N e a r E a s t ' is, on this definition, tha: area of the R o m a n Empire w h e r e G r e e k (rather than I-atin) co-existed w i t h a family c>f Scmitic laııguages. T h e r e is no simple w a y o f listing these withouc being misleading. N a b a t a e a n , P a l m y r e n e a n d Syriac are to bc scen as dialeets of A r a m a i c , w r i t t e n in the s a m e alphabet, but \vith slightly different seripts. But that leaves us w i t h o u t a parallel term f o r the A r a m a i c used by J e w s (and p r o b a b l y gentiles) in J u d a e a , o r later 'Syria Palaestina', or that used b y gentiles in the broad z o n e between the Jordan and the steppe, and n o r t h o f the N a b a t a e a n k i n g d o m . G r e e k observers tended t o speak o f ali these laııguages o r dialeets, \vithout distiııction, as 'the languagc of the Suroi\ p e o p l e using it (or them) as s p e a k i n g

and to refer to

Suristi.

T h e n there w a s P h o e n i c i a n , w r i t t e n in the same a l p h a b e t o f t w e n t y - t w o letters, and o n l y very slightly attested, o n coin-legends and a c o u p l e of inseriptions, in our period; a n d Hebrevv, n o r m a l l y written in the square A r a m a i c seript, but f o r w h i c h the aııcieııt 'Palaeo-Hebrevv' seript could be r c - d e p l o y e c f o r nationalistic rcasons. T h e n , o u t in the steppe, but also attested at p l a c c s in the settled z o n e , f o r instance at D u r a and in Palmyrene territory, there are m a n y thousands o f graffiti w r i t t e n in ' S a f a i t i c ' — a mere nickname b o r r o w e c from the v o l c a n i c steppe c a l l e d the S a f a east o f the Jcbel H a u r a n . Finally, there is A r a b i c itself, attested o n only t w o d o c u m e n t s f r o m our p e r i o d — b u t that it is s o attested is stili a f a c t o f the greatest importance. O n e of the prime p u r p o s e s of the b o o k is to use the surviving inseriptions to d r a w a geographical a n d c h r o n o l o g i c a l m a p of the placcs a n d times w h e r e a n d w h c n these various l a n g u a g c s o r dialeets are attested, and t o g i v e s o m c initial impression (it c a n n o t be more) of h o w they \vere used and h o w they related to G r e e k . Latin t o o p l a y s a sigııificant p a r t , a b o v e ali (obviously) in military c o n t e x t s a n d in the ' c o l o n i a l ' z o n e of Berytus and the Bekaa Vallcy, T h e reader will also find m a n y instances of h o w the G r e e k actually used in this r c g i o n , aKvays the p r e d o m i n a n t l a n g u a g c , \vas shot t h r o u g h w i t h Latin w o r d s and p r o p e r n a m e s on t h e o n e h a n d , and \vith Semitic w o r d s a n d proper n a m e s o n the other. H o w e v e r limited their content, inseriptions have the o v e r w h e l m i n g advantage for the historian of being tied t o place a n d time: that is, o f being f o u n d (generally speaking) w h e r c they w e r c set up, and o f being either c x p l i c itly dated o r (at worst) b r o a d l y datablc. A g e o g r a p h y o f l a n g u a g c — o r at least of public

l a n g u a g c — i s thus a t t a i n a b l c . But in the N e a r East the c v i d c n c c of

inseriptions is also, now, being ever m o r e fully s u p p l e m c n t e d by d o c u m e n t s o n perishable materials, that is, p a p y r u s o r p a r e h m e n t : the pricclcss c o l l e c t i o n f r o m D u r a - E u r o p o s ; the d o c u m e n t s in H e b r c w , A r a m a i c and G r e e k f r o m the

Judaean Desert, largely bur n o t vvholly relating t o the Bar K o c h b a w a r j the 'archive of B a b a t h a ' , of w h i c h the G r c e k items, sadly w i t h o u t thcir N a b a taean and A r a m a i c c o u n t e r p a r t s , w e r e a d m i r a b l y published in 1 9 8 9 by N a p h tali Levvis; a n d the r c m a r k a b l c G r e e k and Syriac archive o f the third c e n t u r y f r o m the middle Euphrates, stili in the course o f (very rapid) publication b y Javier Teixidor, Deniş Feissel a n d Jean G a s c o u .

H o w t o represent rhis p r o f u s i o n and interplay o f languages (in w h i c h a S y r i a c , N a b a t a e a n o r PaLmyrene text m a y contain a transliteration of a Greek transliteration of a Latin w o r d ) in an English text is an insoluble p r o b l e m , in vvhich true consistency simply c a n n o t b e achieved. T h i s p r o b l e m is paralleled b y t h e equally insoluble p r o b l e m that there is n o agreed transliteration o f m o d e r n A r a b i c placc-namcs. A s f o r the latter, so far as possible I have used the simplified f o r m s which the reader w i l l find on m o d e r n English maps of the N e a r East, sometimes giving variants w h e r e this seems necessary. But this hardly solves the p r o b l e m , since there is n o modern English m a p \vhich gives m o r e than a tiny p r o p o r t i o n o f v i l l a g e names. T h e text of the b o o k tries a b o v e ali to m a k e sense o f w h e r e places a r e in functional relation to each other. T h e m a p s provided in the b o o k f o l l o w a p p r o x i m a t e l y the sequcncc o f r e gions discussed in Part II. T h e y try to set at least a seleetion of the p l a c e s n a m e d i n t o an intelligible g e o g r a p h i c a l context. It should be stressed t h a t there are no cross-references to the maps in the main b o d y o f the text. T h e first m a p covers the \vhole area and indicates the sub-regions t o w h i c h t h e f o l l o w i n g m a p s relate. N o a t t e m p t h a s been m a d e t o list ali the sites w h i c h can be identified o r t o give a consistent picture of vvhat placc-namcs w c r e officially in use a t any o n e m o m e n t ; f o r o n e of the themes of the b o o k İs precisely h o w malleable these n a m e s were. T h e aim is t o p r o v i d e an intelligible guide t o location. T h e m a p s , especially m a p II, are based o n the excellent one in D . L. K c n n e d y a n d D . Riley, Rome's

Desert

Frontier

from

the

Air

(Batsford, 1990), p . 2 5 . M a p I X , vvhich f o r o b v i o u s reasoos of g e o g r a p h y h a s to be o n a smaller scale than the others, is based o n the m a p in G . W. B o w e r s o c k , Roman

Arabia ( 1 9 8 3 ) , f a c i n g p. 1 . 1 am very g r a t e f u l to M r s . A . W i l -

kins of the Institutc o f A r c h a e o l o g y , O x f o r d , f o r d r a w i n g the maps ineluded here.

A s regards the use o f G r e e k in t h e b o o k , s o m e rather s h o r t q u o t a t i o n s in t h e G r e e k a l p h a b c t are given w h e n necessary in the notes. Othcrwi.se e v e r y t h i n g is transliterated, in particular vvith the intention o f r c p r o d u c i n g as a c c u r a t e l y as possible the precise f o r m o f l o c a l rustic G r e e k , whethcr f o r m a l l y ' c o r r e c t ' o r n o t ; and, m o r e i m p o r t a n t , o f shovving the e x a c t spelling of place-names

(often inconsistent in the original) and o f Semitic or Latin ternıs or propcr nanıes in G r e e k transliıeration. T h e l o n g v o w e l s omega a n d ela h a v e hccn indicated as 'ğ' and ' ö \ O u t s i d e q u o t a t i o n s , I h a v e largcly used Latin f o r m s , f o r instance ' A n t i o c h i a ' (or ' A n t i o c h ' ) a n d 'Aurelius'; but in q u o t a t i o n s f r o m G r e e k , ' A n t i o c h e i a ' and ' A u r e l i o s ' . T h e inevitable inconsistency is e m p h a sised by leaving such terms i n vvhatever f o r m they appear w h e n I h a v e ustd published translations. It will do n o harm if this t o o serves t o remind the reader that 'representing' the ancient w o r l d in an English text involves clıoiccs at every level. A s regards ancient Semitic scripts, I h a v e adopted the device o f u s i n g the s a m c Standard transliteration into capitals f o r ali the Semitic l a n g u a g e s inv o l v e d . T h i s m a y sometinıes l o o k o d d , as w i ı h extracts f r o m lıterary t e x t s in Syriac, o r even m o r e so w i t h rabbinic texts in H e b r e w . But it has the practical merit o f a v o i d i n g the presentation of material printed right-to-ieft w i t h i n an English text; and it has the m u c h m o r e important f u n c t i o n of instantly distinguishing transliterations f r o m Semitic tcxts f r o m those f r o m texts in G r e e k ; of e x h i b i t i n g the vvidespread a d o p t i o n of G r e e k (and s o m e Latin) l o a n - w o r d s into these languages; and o f revealing ho\v close, as languages, they a r e to e a c h other.

I should m a k e explicit w h a t w i l l be instantly o b v i o u s t o m a n y rcaders, t h a t I a m n o t a Semitist b y training. A s is clear t h r o u g h o u t , the b o o k represents an e x p e d i t i o n by a Classical a n c i e n t lıistorian into N e a r Eastern

territory.

\Vhethcr this m a k c s it a m o r e o r a less rcprchcnsible c x a m p l e of ' O r i c n t a l i s r a ' in Edvvard Said's sense is not f o r me to say. O n the other hand the d e p l o y m e n t o f Semitic languages here is n o t based o n pure ignorance. I h a v e a reasonable reading knovvledge of Biblical Hcbrcvv, and hence a basic g r a s p of the g r a m mar of the languages c o n c e r n e d , other than A r a b i c . I need the assistance of m o d e r n w o r k s in a p p r o a c h i n g these various texts. But in the case o f w h a t e v e r is q u o t e d , I w o u l d c l a i m to h a v e understood not merely w h a t it m e a n s but w h y it m e a n s it. If the b o o k serves, b y its manifest imperfections, t o g o a d s o m e Semitists into a c q u i r i n g a vvider historical training, or s o m e G r a e c o - R o m a n historians i n t o gaining a vvider linguistic base, s o much the better. M y concern w i t h the N e a r East as it w a s in the Classical period g o e s bac.< s o m e q u a r t e r of a century, a n d should h a v e been given expression in boo.< f o r m long since. But the stimulus to bring it t o vvhatever fruition I could w a s provided b y the very vveleome invitation t o deliver the C a r i Ncvvcil J a c k s o n Icctures at H a r v a r d University, w h i c h I gave in the spring of 1 9 8 7 . T h e hospitality of A l b e r t H c n r i c h s a n d his colleagues in the D e p a r t m e n t of G r e e k and Latin has left the happiest of m e m o r i e s o f the vveek w h i c h m y w i f e and I spent

in C a m b r i d g e . W i t h no disrcspect t o colleagues of my o w n generation, o n e particular privilege of the o c c a s i o n w a s the presence of persons then in retiremcnt: f r o m H a r v a r d itself Sterling D o w , J o h n Finley and M a s o n H a m m o n d ; a n d f r o m outsidc it N a p h t a l i L c w i s and M c y e r R c i n h o l d . A s vvill be o b v i o u s , even a C a m b r i d g c audicnce c o u l d n o t h a v e s u p p o r t c d the ordeal of hcaring the w h o l e text as it n o w is, or anything like it. It h a s taken a n o t h e r five years to deal w i t h the subject in a w a y w h i c h I h o p e is n o t t o o inadequatc; a n d in thc c o u r s e o f that time thc length of thc tcxt has itıcreased far beyond w h a t the benevolent c d i t o r s o f H a r v a r d Univcrsity Press w o u l d h a v e w a n t e d . I can o n l y plead that I think the subject is i m p o r t a n t , and that cveıı n o w thc c h o i c e o f ancient evidence and m o d e r n w o r k s to b e referred to is at ali p o i n t s ruthlessly sclcctivc. T h a t seleetion itself could h a v e been carried o u t , at least b y myself, o n l y \vith the unique resources of the Ashmoleatı Library and its N e a r Eastern w i n g , the G r i f f i t h Institutc; o f t h c O r i e n t a l Institutc just n e x t d o o r ; a n d of t h e Bodleian Library, in particular the Oriental R e a d i n g R o o m . It is a b o v e ali w h e n oııe attempts a topic w h i c h erosses s o m e establislıed boundaries t h a t o n c rcalises just hovv r e m a r k a b l e this c o m b i n a t i o n o f resources is. But m y ' b a s e ' has been, as alvvays, the A s h m o l c a n I.ibrary, and cvcrything is o w e d t o the help o f Brian M c G r e g o r a n d his staff. It w a s thus there that during a sabbatical year in 1 9 9 0 - 9 1 this b o o k w a s at last vvritten. A f t c r p r o m p t a n d hclpful critiqucs from t w o readers a p p o i n t c d b y H a r vard University Press, a final revision w a s carried out in June T992. E v e n those unacquainted w i t h m y haııdvvriting w i l l appreciatc that preparation o f the text w a s an c x t r e m e l y d c n ı a n d i n g task. S o I a m very grateful t o Priscilla L a n g e f o r thc c f n c i c n c y and g o o d h u m o u r vvith \vhich it w a s d o n e .

It wi!l be clcar that s u c h a b o o k , e v e n vvith its m a n y impcrfcctions, vvould have been a great deal w o r s e b u t f o r the guidance of friends and c o l l e a g u e s . M y greatest single academic d e b t is to Sebastiaıı Brock, vvho not only translatcd f o r m c s o m c reconditc Syriac material whcn n o printed h c l p \vas t o h a n d , but ansvvcrcd a l o n g scrics of qucstions, s o m c of them on points s o elementary that he must h a v e felt a m a z e d that a n y o n e could both be p u z z l e d by t h e m and have the temerity to write on these subjects at ali. N o t conterıt vvith that, he kindly rcad thc vvholc of C h a p t c r 1 2 , o n thc Euphrates a n d M e s o p o t a m i a , and saved me f r o m m a n y further errors. M a r t i n

Goodman

also added to his m a n y b u r d e n s as the nevvly appointed R e a d e r in Jevvisiı Studies at O x f o r d University by reading the vvhole text, vvith immense benefit to its clarity and accuracy. O f his prcdecessor, G e z a Vermes, I need o n l y state the o b v i o u s , t h a t this b o o k is in m a n y vvays the inheritor of our tvvo d e c a d e s of joint vvork o n the nevv edition of Schürer's History

of the Jetvish

People;

and f r o m h i m t o o I learned a n immense a m o u n t b o t h during the w r i t i n g of this b o o k and long before.

T h i s is n o t the p l a c e f o r a r e v i e w o f the n a m e s of the great figures, f r o m Ernest R e n a n onvvards, w h o h a v e vvorked o n the history of the N e a r East in the Classical period. But it vvould be improper^ at the m o m e n t of the disapp-carance of the Soviet U n i o n , n o t t o mention M i c h a e l R o s t o v t z e f f ; a p a r t f r o m his y e a r s o f w o r k on D u r a - E u r o p o s , his paper ' L a Syrie r o m a i n e ' in historique

Revue

( 1 9 3 5 ) remains the most brilliant brief portrait of the area. T h e n

there is H c n r i S c y r i g , w h o m I w a s f o r t u n a t e to mcet in Princeton in 1 9 6 8 , and w h o s e w o r k sums up the p r o f o u n d French involvement in the e x p l o r a t i o n o f ancieııt Syria in the tvventieth century. T h i s involvement is refleeted a l s o in t w o m a j ö r rcccnt w o r k s , o f w h i c h the earlier reccivcs very inadcquatc reilection in w h a t f o l l o w s , and t h e later none at ali: J . - M . D e n t z e r and W. O r t h maım (eds.), Archeologie L'Orient d'Auguste

et bistoire

romain: Provinces

de la Syrie II ( 1 9 8 9 ) ; and M . Sartre,

et societes provitıciales

aux Seueres (31 /.-C-235

aprbs J.-C.)

en Mâditerranee

orientale

( 1 9 9 1 ) , an invaluable vvork

w h i c h covers A c h a e a , M a c e d o n i a , Asia M i n ö r and Egypt, as w e l l as the Syrian region (but not as such M e s o p o t a m i a ) . O f c o n t e m p o r a r i c s , I w o u l d particularly like to thank Pcter Fraser; if in reality I h a v e aKvays seen R o m e a n d its E m p i r e f r o m a R o s t o v t z e f f i a n perspeetive, in other w o r d s f r o m the G r e e k East, it is due t o his influence w h e n I w a s at A l i Souls in 1 9 5 8 - 1 9 6 4 . A s f o r o t h e r s on w h o s e geııerous help I h a v e d e p e n d e d , I w o u l d like t o name Jean-Charlcs and Jcaninc Balty, G l c n Bovversock, H a n n a h C o t t o n , H a z e l D o d g e , H a n D r i j v e r s , Deniş Feissel, M i chal G a w l i k o w s k i , D a v i d G r a f , C h r i s H o w g e g o , Ben Isaac, D a v i d Kennedy, N i k o s K o k k i n o s , Sam Lieu, M i c h a e l M a c D o n a l d , D a v i d Pottcr^ Jean-Paul R e y - C o q u a i s , M a u r i c e Sartre a n d Javier Teixidor. H a z e l D o d g e and D a v i d K e n n e d y a l s o provided v a l u a b l e practical guidance before a visit to J o r d a n and Syria in 1 9 8 6 . D u r i n g that visit I h a d very generous assistance f r o m the Syrian A r c h a c o l o g i c a l Scrvicc, a n d in particular f r o m Dr. A d n a n Bounni. It is not fortuitous that the b o o k begins b y implicitly recalling the m a n y hours w h i c h I spent e x a m i n i n g the m a r v e l l o u s collections in the N a t i o n a l M u s e u m in D a m a s c u s , not least the reconstruction there of the s y n a g o g u e at D u r a - E u r o p o s . D u r i n g that trip I also spent a \vonderful day on a t a x i - j o u r n e y f r o m H o m s to the remote site of Baetocaece (which proved e x t r c m e l y difficult t o find), a n d then över the Jebel A n s a r i y c h t o the O r o n t c s Valley a n d A p a m e a , vvhere t h e w e ! c o m e f r o m the Baltys and thcir t e a m rem a i n s an ındelible m e m o r y . In 1 9 8 9 I a l s o h a d the greatest g o o d f o r t u n e in being able to m a k e a carjourney w i t h Chris L i g h t f o o t of the British Institutc in A n k a r a , f r o m A n k a r a

t h r o u g h the T a u r u s to Cilicia, t h e A m a n u s , A ı ı t i o c h , U r f a , N i s i b i s , Aıııida ( D i y a r b a k i r ) , C o m m a g e n e w i t h S a m o s a t a and N e m r u d D a g , and back via M a l a t y a (Melitetıe). If in the c o u r s e of it I gained a deeper understanding o f w h y C a r a c a l l a had needcd t o step aside on the journey from U r f a to visit t h e temple of the M o o n - G o d d e s s a t Carrhae/I Iarran, it w a s stili an a b s o l u t e l y essential and invaluable e x p e r i e n c e , w b i c h w o u l d never have been possible w i t h o u t such expert guidance. I a m very grateful t o the British A c a d e m y a n d the C r a v e n C o m m i t t e e for granes t o assist this journey.

A s o n e w h o has visited Israel m a n y times (ineluding in 1 9 6 9 an a d v c n t u r o u s trip w i t h Z v i Yavetz up t o the s n o w b o u n d peak of M o u n t H e r m o n ) and w h o has a l s o l o o k e d out f r o m ancient G a d a r a ö v e r the Sea o f Galilee, the Plain o f Jczrccl a n d M o u n t Tabor, as w c l l as d o w n the Bekaa Valley from Teli N e b i M e n d (l-aodicea ad I.ibanum, just on the Syrian side of the Syrian-l.ebanese border), it is impossible not to lıope that these years will bring peace, and atı o p e n i n g o f borders, t o ali o f the haunting landscapcs of the N e a r East. B y dovvn-playing, as it explicitly d o e s , the significance, and even the reality, o f a n y coherent ' A r a b ' identity in the period in question, this b o o k might seern to take o n e side in the p r o f o u n d rcligious and comınunal tensions o f the m o d ern vvorld. It does not. Religious affiliations, mythical origins and ethnic identities are lıuman constructs, a n d w e simply falsify history by fathering o n peoples in the past idcntities vvhich they did not construct, or had not y e t constructed, f o r themselves. If a n y t h i n g , this b o o k vvill serve t o suggest hovv nevv, ho\v p r o f o u n d and original and hovv totally u n e x p e c t e d in its effects the messagc o f the Prophet vvas to be; but also, in its appcal t o the O l d T e s t a m c n t , t o the inheritance o f A b r a h a m , H a g a r a n d Ishmael, hovv m u c h İslam vvas t o ovve t o the Judaeo-Christian traditioıı: Say you: *Wc bclicvc in G o d , a n d in that vvhich has been sent dovvn on us and sent dovvn on Abraham, Ishmael, Isaac and Jacob, and the Tribes, and that vvhich vvas giveıı t o M o s e s and Jesus and the Proplıets, of tlıeir Lord; vve make no division bctvvcccı any of them, and to H i m vve surrender'. {Koran, Sura II, trans. A. J. Arberry) At the point vvhere this b o o k s t o p s , i s l a m stili lay threc centuries in the future. But ali three versions o f the R e l i g i o n o f the B o o k vverc f o r m e d in o r o n the borders o f the R o m a n and late-Romaıı N e a r East. Brasenose Oxford

College

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MILLAR

ABBREVIATIONS

AAAS

Annales archeologiqııes

AAES

Publications

arabes syrientıes ( 1 9 6 6 - )

of an Atnerican Arcf)aeological

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Expedi-

Topography and Itinerary

(1914), b y R. Garrett; II, Architecture

and Other

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Arts

InscripInscriptions

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Annales arcbeologiques

ADAJ

Annual of the Department

AR

AnnSe

AHS

J.-M. Dcntzcr and W. Orthmann (cds.), Archeologie

de Syrie ( 1 9 5 1 - 1 9 6 5 } of Antiquities

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American

Anal.

Boll.

Anot.

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Anc. Hist. ANRW

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Archaeology Bruxelles,

Anatolian

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The Ancient

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Aufstieg und Kultur Niedergang Gescbiebte und Roms der im römiscben Spiegel der Welt. ııeueren Forscbutıg

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Sodetedes

Bollandistes Bitli

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İJatıtUjuitS

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Archdologisebe Arcbiu für

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M . Avi-Yonah, Gazetteer

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BA

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Baldus, Uratıius Antoninus

H . R- Baldus, Uranius Antoninus:

Barnes, New

T. D . Barnes, The Nctı> Empire of Diocletian

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BASOR

Bulletin

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BASP

Bulletin of the American Society of

BCH

Bulletin de correspondance

BE

Bulletin

epigraphique,

Con-

Research

I'apyrologists

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Bulletin d'epigraphie

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M . Schvvabe and B. Lifshitz, Beth She'arim II: The Greek inseriptions {1974) K. Bcyer, Die aramaiseben

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A . R . Birley, The African Emperor: Septimius

BMB

Bulletin dtt Musee de

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Beyrouth

G . F. Hill, Catalogue of the Greek C.oins of

Arabia

Mesopotamia

BMC BMC

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Pboenicia

BMC Syria

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Arabia,

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G . F. Hill, Catalogue of the Greek Coins of Palestine in the British Museum ( 1 9 1 4 )

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BMC Roman

Mesopotamia

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G . F. Mili, Catalogue of the Greek Coins of BMC

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H . Matringly, ct al., Coins of the Roman Empire in tbe British Museum (191 o-) W. W r o t h , Catalogue of the Greek Coins of Galatia, Cappadocia, and Syria in the British Museum (1899)

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Landesmuseutns

Bonn un d des Vereins von Altertumsfreunden

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Rheinlande Bowersock, Roman

G . W. Bcnvcrsock, Roman

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BSOAS

Bulletin

C a n t i n e a u , btv.

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CPL

CCID

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Papyrorum Latbıarum

M . H ö r i g and E. Schwerthcim, Corpus Dolicheni Corpus

CPb

Classical

CRAI

Comptes-rendus

CSCO

Corpus Scriptorum Mitt.

Dentzer, Hauran

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Cultus

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Sentiticarunı

Philology

Damaszcner

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Christianorum

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H . Devijver, Prosopographia quae fuerunt

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DJD

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Archeologia in the Judaean

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H . J. W. Drijvers, Old-Syriac

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Oaks

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M . D u n a n d , Le rnusâe de Soueida

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Musee de Soueida Dunant,

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FHG

C . Müllec, T h . Müller et al., Fragmenta Graecorum

Fitzmycı, PAT

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T H E R O M A N NEAR EAST 31 B C - A D •

337

CHAPTER 1

PROLOGUE: IN SEARCH O F T H E O R I E N T

T h c visitor to t h c N a t i o n a l M u s e u m o f D a m a s c u s , c o n f r o n t e d by the p r o d u c t s o f fivc t h o u s a n d y c a r s o f N e a r E a s t e r n h i s t o r y , m i g h t b c f o r g i v e n f o r n o t n o ticing a small s t o n e altar standiııg in a c o r n e r o f the r o o m called the Hali o f D u r a - E u r o p o s . B u t i f t h e v i s i t o r vvere i ı ı t e r e s t e d iti t h e h i s t o r y o f t h i s r e g i o n w h i l c it w a s u n d e r R o m a n r u l e i n t h c c a r l y c e n t u r i e s o f o u r c r a , t h i s a l t a r w o u l d r e p a y h i s o r h e r a t t e n t i o n . T h c a l t a r is i n s e r i b e d o n t h c f r o n t f a c c vvith e i g h t b r i e f l i n e s in G r e e k , v v h i c h n o t o n l y teli u s a g r e a t d e a l a b o u t t h e N e a r E a s t a s it vvas i n t h e p e r i o d o f R o m a n d o m i n a t i o n , b u t a l s o s e r v e t o i l l u s t r a t e hovv a m b i g u o u s m u c h o f o u r e v i d c n c e i s . O u r d i f f i c u l t y i n s t u d y i n g t h c a n c i e n t N e a r E a s t i s n o t o n l y t h a t m o d e r n E u r o p e a n s a p p r o a c h i n g it c a n n o t h e l p d o i n g s o vvith a h o s t o f c o n f u s e d a n d h a l f - f o r m e d p r e c o n c e p t i o ı ı s a b o u t t h c ' O r i c n t ' . N o r is it m c r c l y t h a t t h c c v i d c n c c vvhich vvc h a v e — a r c h a e o l o g i c a l r e m a i n s , i n s e r i p t i o n s , p a p y r i , c o i n s , a l l u s i o n s in a n c i e n t l i t e r a r y v v o r k s — is s c a t t e r e d , i n a d e q u a t e a n d o f t e n d i f f i c u l t t o r e l a t e t o a n y i n t c l l i g i b l e c o n t c x c . T h e greatest p r o b l e m is p r c c i s c l y t h a t t h c m o r e c x p l i c i t a n d i n f o r m a t i v c a n i t e m o f e v i d e n c e a p p a r e n t l y is, t h e m o r e it is l i k e l y t o e m b o d y i t s ovvn p r e c o n c e p t i o n s . B u t it vvill s t i l i b e v a l u a b l e , p r o v i d e d t h a t w e r e a d it n o t a s a s i m p l e r e p o r t a b o u t t h e s o c i c t y v v h i c h wc a r e t r y i n g t o a p p r o a c h , b u t a s t h c e x p r e s sion o f a v i e w p o i n t o r i n t e r p r e t a t i o n o f t h a t socicty, vvhether f r o m inside o r outside. It is t i m e to t u r n t o thc little a l t a r f r o m D u r a - E u r o p o s itself, a n d t h e b r i e f d c d i c a t i o n in G r c c k i n s e r i b e d o n i t : T o thc A n c c s t r a l G o d , Z c u s B c t y l o s , o f t h o s e b y t h c O r o n t c s , A u r c l i o s Diphilianos, soldicr o f thc legion IV Scythica Antoniniana, has offcrcd ( t h i s ) in f u l f i l m c n t o f a p r a y c c . 1 X. Dura

Report

I V ( 1 9 3 3 ) , 6 8 , n o . 1 6 8 {Pl. X V , 1); S E G V I I , n o . 3 4 1 : Qp.râ mzıpüKû / A ı i

BF.T6XÜI / TÛV npoç I Û / O p o v q ı Aûp(fiXıoq) / Aı$ıXın, s c c (or c x a m p l c E . G c l l n c r , Nations ( 1 9 8 3 ) ; B . A n d c r s o n , Imagined tions

(1986).

Communities

( 1 9 8 3 ) ; A . D . S m i t h , The

Ethnic

and

Nationalism

Origins

of

Na-

o f an 'ınsider' w h o h a p p e n c d also t o be a R o ı n a n soldier o r o f an outsider p a y i n g h i s r e s p e c t s (as R o m a n s o i d i e r s c a n be f o u n d d o i n g t h r o u g h o u t the p e r i o d ) t o a l o c a l , o r r e g i o n a l , deity. H o w h e a c t u a l l y d e s c r i b c d the d c i t y will c o n c c r n us latcr. F o r t h e m o m e n t it is s i g n i f i c a n t , in e i t h e r c a s e , t h a t h e t h o u g h t o f t h a t d e i t y a s b e i n g the a n c e s t r a l o n e ' o f t h o s e b y the O r o ı ı t e s ' . M a k i ı ı g his d e d i c a t i o n b y t h e b a ı ı k s o f the E u p h r a t e s , d i d he ı n e a n t o distiııg u i s h ' t h o s e b y t h e O r o n t c s * f r o m t h e c o m m u n i t y in w h i c h he n o w f o u n d h i m s e l f ? O r ( a s s e e m s m u c h r n o r e p r o b a b l e ) d i d h e i n t e n d t o use the O r o n r e s , w h i c h flows f r o m t h e B e k a a V a l l e y n o r t h w a r d s b e h i n d a m o u n t a i n - e h a i n , £iıd t h e n t u r n s w e s t t o A n t i o c h a n d t h e M e d i t e r r a n e a n , a s the g c o g r a p h i c a l s y m bol o f the p o p u l a t i o n o f t h e w h o l e r e g i o n ? If the latter, h e w a s i n d e e d c l a i m i n g a n a n c e s t r a l c u l t c o m m o n t o t h e m ali. S o f a r as \ve k n o w , A u r e l i u s D i p h i l i a n u s t h o u g h t u p this c o n c c p t i o n ı f o r h i m s e l f ; a t a n y r a t e it h a s n o p a r a l l e l in t h e l i t e r a t ü r e o r d o c u m e n t s a v a i l a b l e t o us. N o r i n d e e d c a n w e find a n y s e n s e o f a c o m m o n p a s t u n i t i n g the c o n t e m p o r a r y p o p u l a t i o n s o f the r e g i o n a n d i d e n t i f y i n g t h e m vvith t h e life o f : h e cities o f the a n c i e n t O r i e n t , o r vvith t h e e x p e r i e n c e o f t h e A s s y r i a n , B a b y l o n i a n o r P e r s i a n E m p i r e s . N o r i n d e e d , e x c e p t a m o n g t h e Jevvs, a n d p e r h a p s iıı P h o e n i c i a , c a n vve find, in i n d i v i d u a l a r e a s , a n y s e n s e o f a c o n t i n u i t y l i n k . n g c o m m u n i t i e s t o t h e i r m o r e r e m o t e p a s t . If t h e telis c o v e r i n g t h e r e m a i n s o f a n c i e n t cities w h i c h d o m i n a t e d ( f o r i n s t a n c e ) S a m o s a t a o n the E u p h r a t e s , I ^ o d i c e a a d I . i b a n u m a t t h e m o u t h o f t h e B e k a a V a l i c y o r S c y t h o p o l i s in : h c J e z r e e l Valley p r o v i d e d a s e n s e o f h i s t o r i c i d e n t i t y f o r t h o s e vvho lived t h e r e , o r e v e n p r o v o k e d c u r i o s i t y , t h e r e is n o t h i n g t o shovv it. S o f a r as o u r c v i d e o c e gocs (an i m p o r t a n t qualificatîon), a notcvvorthy ' a m n e s i a ' m a r k e d the historic a l c o n s c i o u s n e s s o f the i n h a b i t a n t s o f t h e N e a r E a s t in this p e r i o d . 9 I f ı h e p a g a n i n h a b i t a n t s o f S c y t h o p o l i s h a d l i s t e n e d a t ali t o their Jevvish n e i g h b o u r s a n d f c l l o v v - i n h a b i t a n t s , t h e y c o u l d l ı a r d l y n o t h a v e knovvn t h a t t h e i r teli w a s t h a t o f t h e a n c i e n t B c t h s h a n , vvhere t h e P h i l i s t i n c s h a d ö n c e h u n g up t h e b o d ies o f S a u l a n d his s o n s : ' o n t h e vvalls o f t h e c i t y o f B e t h s h a n , vvhich is novv c a l l e d S c y t h o p o l i s ' , a s J o s e p h u s r e c o r d e d i t . 1 0 W a s it becattse

o f this n o n -

G r e e k p a s t o r in i g n o r a n c e o f it t h a t the c i t i z e n s o f S c y t h o p o l i s d e s c r i b c d t h e m s e l v e s , in a G r e e k i n s e r i p t i o n o f t h e s e c o n d c e n t u r y , in t e r m s vvhich c m p h a t i c a l l y a s s e r t e d the G r e e k c h a r a c t e r o f t h e p l a c e ? T h e y a d d r e s s e d the ruling E m p e r o r a s ' l o r d o f t h e N y s a e a n s a l s o c a l l e d S c y t h o p o l i t a n s , ( a c i t y vvhich is) h o l y a n d i n v i o l a t e , ( o n e o f ) t h e G r e e k c i t i e s o f C o c l c S y r i a ' . 1 1 T h e y m i g h t

9 . I h e i K p r e s s i o n i s b o r r o v v e d f r o m W . W i r a k o w s k i , The sius ofTel-Mahre:

A Sludy

1 0 . J o s e p h u s , Ant.

in the

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of Historiography

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0/

Pieı/dö-Dimy-

(1987), 76.

VI, 14, 8 (374).

1 1 . G . Forster a n d Y. T s a f r i ç " N y s a - S c y t h o p o l i s — A N c w Inscripıion and the Tities o f t h e C i t y o n Its C o i n s " , INJ

9 ( 1 9 8 6 - 8 7 ) , 5 3 . N o t e t h a t t l ı c y >vere u s i ı ı g ' C o e l e S y r i a ' in a w a y w h i c h

d i d n o t a t ali c o t r e s p o n d t o t h e o f f i c i a l d e s i g n a t i o n o f a p r o v i n c e used f r o m the 190S o n w a r d i .

i n d e e d h a v e b e e n a w a r e , f r o m t h e Bible o f their Jevvish n e i g h b o u r s , o f t h e p r e G r e e k p a s t o f the city. If s o , t h c y w e r e corısciously d i s a s s o c i a t i n g t h e m s e l v e s f r o m it. F.qually, it is t h e o r e t i c a l i y

possible, Aurelius Diphilianus might

have

k n o w n f r o m t h e Jevvish c o m m u n i t y of D u r a - E u r o p o s o f a m y t h i c a l p a s t i n vvhich m a n y of the p e o p l e s o f t h e N e a r E a s t a n d b e y o n d b e l o n g e d \vithin a single d e s c e n t - g r o u p . But it is m o r e t h a n unlikcly. A c o m m o n p a s t \vhich h a d t h e N e a r East a s its f o c u s vvas t o b c c o m e p a r t o f a g e n e r a l w o r l d - v i e w o n l y w h e n C h r i s t i a n i t y t r i u m p h e d . F o r t h e m o m e n t it w a s o n l y a J e w , J o s e p h u s (\vriting in G r e e k , in R o m e ) , w h o in setting o u t his v e r s i o n of G e n e s i s 9 - 1 0 c o u l d link S h e m a n d his s o n s t o the prescnt i n h a b i t a n t s of t h e N e a r East a n d its n e i g h b o u r i n g regions: S h e m , the third o f N o a h ' s sotıs, had five sons, w h ö itıhabited Asia as far as the Indian O c e a n , beginning at the Euphrates. Elymus had for his descendants the Elymaeans, ancestors of the Persians. A s s y r a s founded the city of N i n u s , and g i v e his n a m e to his subjects, the Assyrians, \vho rose to the height of prospcrity.

A r p l ı a x a d c s named thosc under his rule

A r p h a x a d a c a n s , the C h a l d a c a n s of today. A r a m u s ruled the A r a m a e a n s , \vhom the G r e e k s term Syrians . . . O f the f o u r sons of A r a m u s , User f o u n d e d Trachonitis a n d D a m a s c u s , situated bctvvecn Palcstine and C o c l c Syria . . . A r p h a x a d c s w a s the father of Selez and he of H e b e ^ after w h o m the Je\vs were originally called Hebrevvs.' 2 F.ven if a n ethnic c a t e g o r i s a t i o n b a s e d o n attributing p e o p l e s to d i f f e r e n t b r a n e h e s o f d e s c e n t f r o m N o a l ı h a d c o m e to be m o r e w i d e l y used in a n t i q u i t y , it w o u l d n o t h a v e d o n e m u c h t o s u g g e s t t o a n y o n e t h a t ' S e m i t e s ' w o u l d b e the right d e s i g n a t i o n f o r ali the p e o p l e s living e i t h e r vvest o r i m m e d i a t e l y e a s t o f the E u p h r a t e s . F o r o n e t h i n g J o s e p h u s h i m s e l f h a d a l r e a d y , earlier in t h e s a m e lx>ok, listed s o m e of t h e n c a r e r n e i g h b o u r s of the Jevvs a m o n g the d e sccndants not o f Shem but o f H a m : T h e clıildren of H a m held t h e countries branchiııg f r o m Syria and the mountaiıı-ranges of A m a n u s a n d Libanus, o c c u p y i n g ali the district in the direetion of the sca and a p p r o p r i a t i n g the rcgion reaching to the ocean . . . C h a n a n a e u s , the fourrh son of H a m , settled in the country novv called Judaea and named it after himself, C h a n a n a e a . . . C h a n a n a e u s also had sons, of vvhom Sidonius b u i h in Phoenicia a city named after him, stili called Sidon by the Greeks, a n d A m a t h u s f o u n d e d Amathus, vvhich the inhabitanrs to this d a y cali A m a t h e , though the M a c e d o n i a n s renamed it Epiphaneia after one of A l c x a n d c r ' s succcssors. 1 3 1 2 . J o s e p h u s , Ani.

I, 6, 4 ( 1 4 3 - 1 4 5 ) .

1 3 . J o s e p h u s , Ant.

I, 6, 2 ( 1 3 0 - 1 3 8 ) ; L o c b i r a ı ı s .

Hovvever c o n f u s i n g it m a y be, Josephus' attempr t o offer a c a t c g o r i s a t i o n o f the peoples f o u n d in Genesis in terms o f k n o w n g r o u p s to be f o u n d in the long-sincc Heileniscd N e a r East o f the R o m a n Empire is o f great interest, and w o u l d deserve further s t u d y ; it o w e s m u c h o f course t o the G r e e k tradition o f portraying the 'origins of p e o p l e s ' in terms of descent f r o m m y t h i c a l f o u n d ers, the subject of a justly f a m o u s paper b y Elias Bickerman. 1 4 T h i s f o r m o f c a t c g o r i s a t i o n can a l s o be c x t e n d e d by Josephus t o the A r a b p e o p l e s of the region, f o r he sees them as the descendants o f Ishmael, the son o f A b r a h a m and Hagar. O n c c again he brings his pictııre of their imınediate mythical descendants into relation w i t h peoples currcntly t o be f o u n d in the N e a r East: When the child (rshmael) reached manhood, his mother (Hagar) found him a \vife of that Egyptian race from whieh she herself had originally sprung; and by her tvvelve sons in ali vvere born to Ishmael, Nabaioth(es), Kedar, Abdeel, Massam, M a s m a s , Idum(as), Masnıes, C h o d a m , T h a i m a n , Jetur, Naphais, Kadınas. T h e s e occupied the whole couııtry extending from the Euphrates to the R e d Sca and callcd it Nabatene; and it is these w h o conferred their names o n the Arabian nation and its tribes in honour both of their o w n provvess and of the fame of Abraham. 1 9 Josephus h a s thus both e m b r a c e d ali the A r a b tribes of the steppe and desert b c t w e c n the R e d Sea and the Euphrates in the category o f the d e s c e n d a n t s o f Ishmael, a n d introduccd f o r that region the n a m e ' N a b a t e n e ' , w h i c h is not in the Septuagint text of Genesis 2 5 , a n d w a s the n a m e of the c o n t e m p o rary k i n g d o m w i t h its capiral at Petra. T h e designation of c o n t c m p o r a r y A r a b s as the descendants of Ishmael w a s later to be of m o m e n t o u s sigtıifıcance. F o r by the mid-fifth ccntury S o z o m c n u s , the C h u r c h historian and a native of G a z a , not o n l y repeats the story o f the descent o f Saracen tribes f r o m Ishmael a n d Hagar, b u t claims that s o m e o f them had c o m e t o accept this tradition themselves: ' S o m e o f their tribe a f t c r w a r d s h a p p e n i n g to c o m e in contact w i t h the Je\vs, gathercd f r o m them the facts of their truc origin, returned to their k i n s m e n , and inclined to the H e b r e w c u s t o m s and l a w s \ If there is a n y truth in this, its potential relevance to the origins o f islam is very considcrablc. 1 6 Josephus' aseriptions of e t h n i c identity and relationship are thus highly significant. But w h a t his w o r d s vvill not d o is to o f f e r a n y support at ali for 1 4 . "Origines 1 5 . Ani.

GeHtium",

CPb 4 7 ( 1 9 5 1 ) , 6$.

I, 1 2 , 4 ( 2 2 0 - 1 2 1 ) ; L o e b t r a n s .

1 6 . S o z o m c n u s , H E V I , 3 8 , 1 0 - 1 3 , t r a n s . C . D . H a r t r a n f t in NPNF.

F o r a s t ı i k i n g and

c o n t r o v c r s i a l v i c w o f t h e o r i g i n s o f i s l a m , in w h i c h s e l f - i d e n t i f ı c a t i o n a s ' I s h m a e l i t e s ' o r ' H a g a r ices' p l a y s a c e n t r a l r o l e , s e e P. C r o n e a n d M . C o o k , Hagarism:

The Making

( 1 9 7 7 ) . T h i s p a s s a g c is a l s o h i g h l i g h r c d in M . C o o k , Mubammad,

of the Islamic

^ 9 8 3 ) , Hoff.

Wo-ld

ıhe m o d e r n notion o f 'Semites* as s o m e sort o f racial category e m b r a c i n g the d i f f e r e n t p o p u l a t i o n - g r o u p s o f t h e N e a r Kast; f o r t o h i m s o m c o f t h e m descended from H a m . J o s c p h u s is, hovvcvcı^ very c o n s c i o u s o f t h c i m p a c t o f I I c l l c n i s a t i o n o n p l a c c - n a m e s , c t h n i c t e r m i n o l o g y a n d p o l i t i c a l s t r u e t u r e s in t h c N e a r E a s t . H i s s w e e p i n g a n a l y s i s o f t h i s is vvorth q u o t i n g : O f the nations some stili preserve the n a m e s wlıich wcre given them by their founders, s o m c have e h a n g e d them, \vhile yet others have modified them t o make t h e m m o r e intelligible to their neighbours. It is the Greeks w h o are responsible f o r this c h a n g e o f ııomenclature; f o r when in after ages they rose t o power, they appropriatcd even t h c glorics o f t h c past, cmbellishing the nations vvith names vvhich they could understand and imposing on them f o r m s o f g o v e r n m e n t , a s though they vvere descended from themselves. 1 7 J o s e p h u s t h u s o f f e r s h e r e a v i v i d (and it s c c m s u n i q u e ) ' i n s i d c r V vicvv o f t h c t r a n s f o r m a t i o n s vvhich h a d o v e r t a k e n t h e region s i n c e t h e c o n q u e s t s b y Alex> a n d e r j u s t ö v e r f o u r c e n t u r i e s previously. B u t h e a l s o , in t h e p a s s a g e q u o t e d earlier, asserts aıı i d e n t i t y o f t h c a n c i c n t c i t y o f H a m a o n t h c O r o n t c s vvith t h c H c l l c n i s t i c f o u n d a t i o n o f E p i p h a n i a , n a m e d a f t e r t h e Seleucid k i n g A n t i o c h u s E p i p h a n e s . 1 8 M o r e i m p o r t a n t stili, h e a p p e a r s t o c l a i m t h a t t h e i n h a b i t a n t s ( b e t t e r ' l o c a l s ' o r even ' n a t i v e s ' — e n c h ö r i o i ) stili used t h c a n c i c n t n a m e f o r i t . If ' l o c a l s ' m c a n s t h c p e o p l e o f t h a t p r c c i s c a r c a , t h a t raises a d i f f e r e n t q u c s t i o n ; for, a s w e vvill see later, t h c O r o n t e s V a l l e y is o n e o f t h e fevv r e g i o n s o f t h e N e a r E a s t w h e r e t h e r e is t o d a t e n o d o c u m e n t a r y e v i d e n c e o f t h c usc o f a n y S c m i t i c l a n g u a g e in t h c R o m a n p e r i o d . In t h i s c o n t e x t , the c a t e g o r i s a t i o n o f l a n g u a g e s , t h e u s e o f the t e r m ' S e m i t i c ' is h a r m l e s s a n d u n a v o i d a b l e ; t h c m u t u a l r c s e m b l a ı ı c c s in v o c a b u l a r y and g r a m m a t i c a l f o r m , thc identity of alphabet a n d the similarities o f seript o f ali the l a n g u a g e s c o n c e r n e d a r e u n m i s t a k a b l c ; 1 * a n d t h e c o n t r a s t a n d i n t e r p l a y betvveen t h e m o n o n e hatıd a n d G r e e k ( a n d L a t i n ) o n the o t h e r in t h c N e a r E a s t is o n c o f t h c m o s t c l c a r l y d e f i n a b l e f c a t u r c s o f t h c c u l t u r a l h i s t o r y o f the p e r i o d . T h e f a c t t h a t the r e g i o n c o n c e r n e d is o n e in vvhich a g r o u p o f S e m i t i c l a n g u a g e s vvas in u s e c a n t h e r e f o r e s e r v e a s o n e f u r t h e r n o n - a r b i t r a r y m e a n s o f defining it. B u t even in this r e s p e c t , l a n g u a g e , it s h o u l d b e s t r e s s e d t h a t t h c c u r r c n c y o f this l a n g u a g c - g r o u p r c c c i v c d v e r y littlc a t t e n t i o n f r o m ' i n s i d e r s ' a n d even less f r o m ' o ı ı t s i d e r s ' .

1 7 . Ant.

I, 5, 5 ( i z i ) ; I . o c b t r a n s .

1 8 . S c c G r a i n g e r , o p . cir. ( n . x ) , 1 3 8 - 1 3 9 . 1 9 . F o r t h c S c m i t i c l a n g u a g e s as a g r o u p , n o o v e r a l l h i s t o r y h a s r c p l a c c d E . R c n a n , gtnârale

et systeıne

compare

des langues

semitiquess

Histoire

( 1 8 7 8 ) . But sec, e.g., S. M o s c a t i e t a l . ,

An

J o s e p h u s , w h o , a s vve savv, identifics rhe A r a m a e a n s o f t h e B i b l e a s t h o s e 'vvhom the G r e e k s cali S y r i a n s ' , d o e s , hovvever, ııote t h e r e l a t i o n s h i p o f lang u a g e a n d seript as betvveen A r a m a i c a n d Hebrevv. Significantly i n d e c d , he a l t e r s a p a s s a g c in his s o u r c e , t h e H c l l e n i s t i c Letter

of Aristeas,

g i v i n g a leg-

e n d a r y a c c o u n t o f the t r a n s l a t i o n o f t h e B i b l e i n t o G r e e k in t h e third c e n t u r y BC, t o assert a s m u c h a r e s e m b l a n c e a s a c o n t r a s t betvveen Hebrevv a n d A r a m a i c : 2 0 ' T h e c h a r a c t c r o f t h e i r vvriting s e e m s t o r e s e m b l e t h e distinetive forrn o f t h e S y r i a n letters a n d t h e l a n g u a g e s o u n d s s i m i l a r t o theirs, but it is in fact distinet'. J o s e p h u s o f c o u r s e , f o r a l i t h a t he vvrote his entire surviving vvorks G r e e k a n d vvhile living in R o m e , w a s an ' i n s i d e r ' , f o r vvhom t h e n a t i o n a l trad i t i o n c a r r i e d b y vvriting in Hebrevv a n d A r a m a i c vvas o f c c n t r a l s i g n i f i c a n c e . O t h e r s , o n t h e o t h e r h a n d — t h a t is, p e r s o n s vvriting in I.atin o r G r e e k f r o m o u t s i d e t h e N e a r E a s t — p a i d very little a t t e n t i o n t o the seripts a n d l a n g u a g e s o f the r e g i o n , a n d h a r d l y h e l p u s t o define in vvhat t e r m s e t h n i c a n d c u l t u r a l g r o u p i n g s t h e r e s h o u l d be identified. T h e r e s e e m s , f o r i n s t a n c e , t o b e n o single a l l u s i o n anyvvhere in C l a s s i c a l l i t e r a t ü r e t o t h e l a n g u a g e a n d s e r i p t o f Palm y r a . B u t D i o d o r u s , in a m u c h - q u o t e d p a s s a g c , a t t r i b u t e s t o t h e N a b a t a c a n s o f the late f o u r t h c e n t u r y BC t h e a b i l i t y t o vvrite a letter 'in S y r i a n c h a r a c t e r s ' , 2 1 as their ( l a t e r ) i n s e r i p t i o n s a n d p a p y r i shovv t h a t they did. M o r e generally, S t r a b o , q u o t i n g a n d a d a p t i n g P o s i d o n i u s , s p e a k s o f the r e s e m b l a n c e in l a n g u a g e , c u l t u r e a n d p h y s i c a l type betvveen A r m e n i a n s (vvhosc then h o m e l a n d l a y n o t in t h e C a u c a s u s b u t j u s t b e y o n d the u p p e r - m i d d l e T ı g r i s ) , S y r i a n s and Arabs: F o r the nation o f the A r m e n i a n s and that of the Syrians and A r a b i a n s betray a elose affinity, n o t only in their language, but in their modc of life and their bodily build, and particularly vvherever they live as e l o s e neighbours . . . Indeed Poseidonius conjectures that the n a m e s o f these n a t i o n s also are a k i n ; for, says he, the people vvhom vve cali Syrians are b y the Syrians themselvcs callcd Arimacans and Arammaeans. 2 2 E v e n t h o u g h S t r a b o (or P o s i d o n i u s ) h e r e c o m e s e l o s e r t h a n o t h e r c o m m e n t a t o r s t o suggesting c o m m o n r a c i a l o r p h y s i c a l c h a r a c t c r i s t i c s f o r a t İ c a s t s o m e o f t h e peoples o f the N e a r E a s t , e n o u g h h a s b e e n said t o i n d i c a t e t h a t any single term used in the m o d e r n vvorld t o d e n o t e t h e m a l i , vvlıether ' S e m i t e s ' o r

iHtrodurtioH lingue

to the Cottıpantive

semitiche:

2 0 . Ant.

Sindi di storia

Grammar lirtguistiaı

X I I , 2 , 1 ( 1 5 ) , a d a p t i n g Lelter

of the Settıitic

languages

( 1 9 6 4 ) , or G . G a r b i n i , l.e

(197a). of Aristeas

2J11.

2 1 . D i o d o r u s X X , 9 6 , 1. 2 2 . S t r a b o , Geog. and K i d d , F.280.

I, 2, 3 4 ( 4 1 - 4 2 ) , L o e b i r a n s . — P o s i d o n i u s , F G r H 8 7 , R ı a ç a = Edclscein

a n y other, w o u l d r e p r e s e n t a purely a r b i t r a r y c h o i c e , vvith n o basis in a n c i e n t terminology." ' S e m i t i c ' in this b o o k vvill be used s o l e l y t o refer t o the f a m i l y o f l a n g u a g e s c o n c e r n c d , vvhosc mutual r e s c m b l a n c e s a r c a m a t t e r o f o b s e r v a b l e f a c t . B u t even if \ve a b a n d o n the use o f r a c i a l t c r m i n o l o g y , t h e q u c s t i o n rcrnains o p e n o f hovv far a n d in vvlıat senses t h e r e vvas a c o m m o n c u l t u r e , p a t t e r n o f reli g i o u s c u s t o m s o r sense o f m u t u a l identity o r r e l a t i o n s h i p a m o n g t h e p e o p l e s o f t h e N e a r E a s t vvho s p o k c S c m i t i c languages. G i v c n t h e f u n d a m e n t a l i m p o r t a n c e o f l a n g u a g e t o t h e e m e r g e n c e o f n a t i o n a l i s m in the m o d e r n w o r l d , it i s n a t u r a l t h a t vve s h o u l d p o s e the q u e s t i o n , p r o v i d e d t h a t vve r e m a i n avvare t h a t it m a y e m b o d y c o m p l c t c l y i n a p p r o p r i a t e p r e c o n c e p t i o n s . S u c h q u c s t i o n s vvill b e p u r s u c d t h r o u g h o u t this b o o k , a n d c a n n o t b e a n svvered fully a t this p o i n t ( o r i n d e e d , given the limits o f o u r e v i d e n c e , a t a l i ) . But they d o n e e d t o b e posed in a p r e l i m i n a r y vvay, a b o v e ali in the sphere o f religious p r a c t i c e . " T h e R c l i g i o n o f the S e m i t e s ' , o f vvhich Jevvish

cult-

p r a c t i c e s , a s p o r t r a y e d in the O l d T e s t a m e n t , a r e t o be c o n c e i v e d o f as o n c aspect, h a s l o n g been the s u b j e c t o f s c h o l a r l y enquiry. 2 4 E v e n if this vvere c o n c c d c d t o be a l c g i t i m a t c t e r m , i t vvould n o t follovv t h a t c o m m o n c h a r a c t c r i s tics o f religious p r a c t i c e , p e r h a p s vvith a p a r t i c u l a r c o m p a t i b i l i t y vvith Jevvish o b s e r v a n c e s , w e r e stili t o b e f o u n d in this region in t h e H e l l e n i s t i c o r R o m a n I m p e r i a l p e r i o d s . But in f a c t t h e r e a r e s o m e i n d i c a t i o n s , hovvever partial a n d u n s a t i s f a c t o r y , t h a t this vvas i n d e e d t h e c a s e . T a k e f o r c x a m p l c t h e c u s t o m o f c i r c u m c i s i o n . H e r e again J o s c p h u s r e l a t e s Jevvish a n d A r a b p r a c t i c e , a n d p u t s t h e r e s e m b l a n c e in the c o ı ı t e x t o f their s u p p o s e d c o m m o n d e s c e n t . S p e a k i n g o f I s a a c , he says: ' E i g h t days l a t e r they p r o m p t l y c i r c u m c i s c d him; a n d f r o m t h a t d a y forvvard t h e Jevvish p r a c t i c e h a s b e e n t o c i r c u m c i s e s o m a n y d a y s a f t e r birth. T h e A r a b s defer the c e r e m o n y t o t h e thirteentlı year, because I s h m a c l , t h e f o u n d e r o f their r a c c , b o r n o f A b r a h a m ' s c o n c u b i n e , vvas c i r c u m cised a t t h a t a g e \ " J o s e p h u s ' c o m m e n t a b o u t t h e a g e o f c i r c u m c i s i o n a m o n g t h e A r a b s is his ovvn a d d i t i o n t o the B i b l i c a l a c c o u n t , a n d is in t h e p r e s e n t t e n s e . W e h a v e t o t a k e it t h a t he intends t o refer t o t h e c o n t c m p o r a r y vvorld o f t h e first c e n t u r y AD. I f c o n f i r m a t i o n is needed, it is provided b y a n i m p o r t a n t vvork t o vvhich vve vvill r e t u r n , B a r d e s a n e s ' Book Coutıtries,

of the Laıvs

of

vvritten in S y r i a c in t h e first part o f the third century, a n d p e r h a p s

t h e o n l y rival t o J o s c p h u s ' Anliquities

as a c o n t r i b u t i o n t o the a n t h r o p o l o g y

o f t h e R o m a n N e a r E a s t . G i v i n g i n s t a n c e s o f the fact t h a t c u s t o m s c a n 2 3 . It f o l ! o w s , as w ı l l be d c a r , t h a t I c a n n o t a c c c p t t h e l o g ı c a l basis of a n a p p r o a c h s u c h a s t h a t o f S. M o & c a t i , The Semites and Their

Political

Establishmeııt

in Ancient

History:

An lnquiry

into the SeUlcment

of the

Bedouht

(1959).

2 4 . 1 refer a b o v e ali o f c o u r s e t o t h e c i a s s i c v o l u m e o f W . R o b e r t s o n S ı n i t h , The Religion

the Semites 1 5 . Ant.

(1894). I, i l , 2 ( 2 1 4 ) .

of

c h a n g c , a n d a r e n o t d e t e r m i n e d i m m u t a b l y b y the s t a r s , he s a y s : 2 6 ' R e e e n t l y the R o m a n s h a v e c o n q u e r e d A r a b i a a n d h a v e d o n e a w a y w i t h t h e old Iaws t h e r e used t o be, p a r t i c u l a r l v c i r c u m c i s i o n , w h i e h w a s a c u s t o m t h e y u s e d ' . G i v e n t h a t ' A r a b s ' w e r e t o b c f o u n d in t h e s t e p p e b o r d e r i n g ali o f t h e Fertile C r e s c e n t , it is q u i t e u n e l e a r w h e t h e r he m e a n s t o refer b a c k t o t h e a c q u i s i t i o n o f N a b a t a e a in AÜ I O 6 , t o t h e c o n q u e s t o f M e s o p o t a m i a in t h e 1 9 0 S o r t o s o m e o t h e r c v e n t . B u t t h e p o i n t , a n d i t s r e l c v a n c c t o the R o m a n I m p e r i a l period, remains. M o r e essential stili is the q u e s t i o n o f w h e t h e r t h e N e a r E a s t e r n region was c h a r a c t e r i s e d in a n y g e n e r a l w a y by the a v o i d a n c e o f i m a g e s , o r t h e w o r s h i p o f c u l t - o b j c c t s w h i e h w e r e d i s t i n e t f r o m the a n t h r o p o m o r p h i e images typical o f G r a e c o - R o m a n anriquity. T he p r o p o s i t i o n t h a t this vvas s o in t h e Hellentstic p e r i o d f o r m e d t h e c o r e o f the r e v o l u t i o n a r y a p p r o a c h t o the crisis o f J u d a ism in the 1 7 0 S a n d ı 6 o s BC, put forvvard b y E l i a s B i c k e r m a n . 2 7 O n this vievv t h e c u l t w h i c h w a s set up in t h e H o l y o f H o l i e s in 1 6 7 BC vvas n o t a n c x a m p l e o f H e l l c n i s a t i o n , that is t o say, an a n t h r o p o m o r p h i e G r e e k c u l t i n s t i t u t e d by A n t i o c h u s E p i p h a n e s . I n s t e a d it w a s a r e f o r m i n g a d o p t i o n o f ' S y r i a n ' c u l t p r a c t i c e s , in w h i c h t h e a l t a r itself b c c a m e t h e o b j e c t o f w o r s h i p . T h i s brillia.it h y p o t h e s i s c a n n o t be p r o v e d , a n d runs c o u n t e r t o the f a c t t h a t o u r best evid e n e e distinguishes a p h a s e o f H e l l c n i s a t i o n vvithin J u d a i s m f r o m a

suc-

c c c d i n g p h a s e o f o v e r t i n t e r v e n t i o n b y t h e Scleucids. 2 8 M o r e p r o b l e m a t i c for B i c k e r m a n ' s vievv, b u t m o r e r e l e v a n t f o r t h e p r e s e n t discussion, is the f a c t that ali the evidenee c i t e d f o r t h e vvorship o f a l t a r s in p a r t i c u l a r o r f o r a n i c o n i c cults in g e n e r a l , usually o f l a r g e s t o n e s , c o m e s n o t f r o m the H e l l e n i s t i c b a t f r o m t h e I m p e r i a l p e r i o d . 2 9 W e will r e t u r n l a t e r t o the h i l l - t o p t e m p l e s o f the l i m e s t o n e m a s s i f in n o r t h e r n S y r i a , built in the R o m a n E m p i r c , 3 0 vvhtch inc l u d c o n e o f Z e u s B ö m o s , ' Z c u s (the) A l t a r ' , paralleled a few miles avvay by t h e t e m p l e o f ' Z e u s M a d b a c h o s a n d S e l a m a n e s , the A n c e s t r a l G o d s ' ; h e r e the a d j e c t i v e f o r this l o c a l Z e u s c l e a r l y derives f r o m the A r a m a i c r o o t D B K , or Hebrevv Z B K , m e a n i n g ' s a c r i f i c e ' : this Z e u s t o o vvas a ' Z e u s (the) A l t a r ' . T h e o n l y litcrary evidenee vvhich c a n be citcd f o r t h e c o n c e p t o f the a l t a r as itself t h e o b j e c t o f vvorship again c o m e s f r o m t h e Imperial p e r i o d , n a m e l y t h e f a s c i n a t i n g w o r k On Abstinence

z6. The

Book

from

Living

of the Laıvs of Gountries:

Thitıgs vvritteıı by P o r p h y r y , a ııative

Dialogue

on Fate of Bardaisan

of F.dessa,

c d . and

crans. I I . J . W . D r i j v c r s ( 1 9 6 5 ) , 5 6 - 5 7 . S e e f u r t h e r 1 2 . 5 belovv. 2 7 . E . B i c k c r m a n , Der

Gott

der Makkabâer

( 1 9 3 7 ) , csp. 9 o f f .

1 8 . S o F. M i l l a ı , " T h e B a c k g r o u n d t o t h e M a c c a b c a n R e v o l u u o n : R e l l e c t i o n s o n

Manin

H e n g c l ' s ' J u d a i s m a n d H c l l c n i s m " ' , JJS 2 9 ( 1 9 7 8 ) , r . 2 9 . S e c F. M i l l a r , " T h e P r o b l e m o f H e l l e n i s t i c S y r i a " , i n A . K u h r t a n d S . S h e r w i n - W h , t e (eds.)» Hellenism

and the East

30. 7.3 below.

( 1 9 8 7 ) , 1 1 0 , o n p. 1 3 1 .

of T y r e , in the later third century. T h e reference in this case is purely incidental, f o r he is in f a c t assenıbling instances of h u m a n sacrifice. But a m o n g these he adds: ' A n d the D o u m a t e ı ı o i of A r a b i a used each year to sacrifice a b o y w h o m they buried beneath an altar, vvhich they trcat as a cult-statue non)\3i

(xoa-

T h e place referred to i s o f great interest f o r other reasons, f o r it is

D u m a t h a , present-day J a w f , at t h e far end o f the W a d i Sirhatı, a w i d e depression w h i c h carries a routc f r o m D a m a s c u s south-cast into thc Empty Q u a r t e r and evcntually t o the Persian G u l f . Scattcred epigraphic evidcncc f r o m there s h o w s it t o h a v e been just w i t h i ı ı the limits of both N a b a t a e a n and later R o m a n control. 3 2 Whethcı^ again, w e should read Porphyry, an important N c o Platonist philosophcr a n d pupil of Plotinus, as an 'insidcr', even as an ' O r i e n tal', w h e n he speaks of c u s t o m s at different locations in the N e a r East is a question t o w h i c h w e will h a v e t o r e t u r n . " It is more than unlikely that h e ever visited D u m a t h a , vvhich lies o v e r 500 k m south-east of D a m a s c u s . N o n e theless it vvas not a vvholly r e m o t e and f a b u l o u s place, but on a route visited b y R o m a n soldiers. It is also n o t i c e a b l e that Porphyry s p e a k s of h u m a n sacrüficc there in thc past tense, but o f thc status o f the altar there as a cult-object in the present. T h e evidence f o r this precise f o r m o f aniconic cult in the N e a r East, w h i l e it exists, is thus very slender a n d hardly o f f e r s m u c h support for B i c k e r m a n ' s typically brilliant hypothesis.

But in a w i d e r f o r m , the use o f a

non-

representational object, usually a large stone, in place of a cult-statue is v e r y well attested, by literary, epigraphic and visual cvidcnce, b o t h o n coins a n d on relicf-carvings. We even g a i n f r o m Hcrennius Philo of B y b l o s , vvriting his Phoenicica

early in the second century AD, a glimpse of hovv such s a c r e d

stones might h a v e been u n d c r s t o o d . For in thc course of his exposition o f Phoenician beliefs he makes the brief statement, \vithout further e l a b o r a t i o n : ' m o r e o v e r T h e o s O u r a n o s t h o u g h t u p baitulia, having devised stones invested vvith life'. 5 4 This allusion, unfortunatcly for us, presumes rather than d o c s m u c h t o illuminatc the role of large stones as cult-objects, vvhich is attested on the c o i n s o f v a r i o u s Phoenician cities, and is knovvn also elsevvhere in the N e a r East. 3 5 Beyond this, the vvord ' S y m b e t y l o s ' o r ' S y m b a i t y l o s ' a p p e a r s o n c c o r tvvice as thc n a m e of a g o d in the G r e e k inseriptions f r o m thc villagcs of the limestone massif in northern Syria, a n d seems to m e a n 'the o n e vvho 3 1 . P o r p h y r y , De abst.

II, 5 6 , 6: KCI AoupaTnvoi 8E xîy, 'ApajJıaç x a t £toç e c a o t o v EÖUOV

tıaı&a, ov \mo pö^ıov eöasıov, oı ^pûvtaı ıi>î ÇOÛVCO.

3 1 . Scc TI.T belovv. 33. Scc 8 . j belovv. 34. Q u o t c d b y E u s c b i u s , Praep. Ev. I, 1 0 , z j = J a c o b y , FOrll

7 9 0 , F , z (23): ÊVÖTIOE ÖEOC;

O v p a v ö ç (Soıııj'.ıa, X(0ou; Ep^vôı»; tıııâvnoâjiEvoç. O n P h i l o scc f u r t h e r 8.4 b c ! o w . 3 5 . See 8 . 4 , 9 . Z a n d ı r . 4 b c l o w .

shares the betyl', o r cult-object. 3 6 But here immediately, as s o o f t e n in the N e a r East, w e enter the area o f vvhere linguistic, cultural a n d religious speculations interact, a n d the c o n c l u s i o n w h i c h emcrges is ali t o o likely t o reprcsent a b o v e ali the presuppositions of the investigator. Nonetheless, it s e e m s difficult t o set aside the long-established vievv that G r e e k w o r d s ıısing the roat ' b e t y l ' o r 'baityl' reflect v a r i a n t transliterations of the Semitic-language terrn 'betheP ( B T L ) , m e a n i n g ' h o u s e of El (god)'. T h i s conceprion in itself gains s o m e force f r o m the f a c t t h a t the term seems novv t o be attested o n an A r a maic inscription f r o m the R o m a n Impcrial p e r i o d , f o u n d a t the village o f £1M a l in southern Syria, s o m e 4 0 k m south-vvcst o f D a m a s c u s . 3 7 T h e inscription, vvhich dates f r o m 7/6 ac, seems t o record that s o m e o n e 'built a house o f g o d ' ( B N H B Y T ' L H ) , t h a t is, a temple. T h o u g h there vvere Jevvish settlements in this region, b o r d e r i n g on G a u l a n i t i s (the G o l a n Hcights), the conte.nt is surely p a g a n . Hovvever, it is clear that vvhat is referred to here is not a ' b e t y l ' as understood by Philo, and t a k e n as a general c o n c e p t i o n b y m o d e r n s , that is, a stone housing a divinc spirit, but a building, n o d o u b t one of those s m d l rural sanctuaries s o vvell attested ö v e r large parts of the N e a r East. A s so often, if vve try to generalise t o o confidently vvhen c o n f r o n t e d w i t h the intcrmingling of l a n g u a g e s , cultures and forms of religious bclicf ar.d practice vvhich vve encounter in the N e a r East, the evidence vvill not quite fail into the patterns vve vvould like. T h i s is indeed partly because, vvhen a n d if literary o r d o c u m e n t a r y e v i d e n c e f r o m the period is particularly c x p l i c i t , or o f f e r s s o m e vvider characteri&ation or interpretarion of the culture o r cultures o f the region, it in itself m a y constitute an observer's interpretarion, n o t a report vvhich can be taken at face valuc. It is precisely f o r these r e a s o n s that the dedication inseribed by Aurelius D i p h i l i a n u s on the iittle altar vvhich he p u t u p at D u r a - E u r o p o s is o f such significance. T h e c o n t c x t is o n e vvhere papyri, parehments and inseriptions m a n u m b e r of different l a n g u a g e s , like the i c o n o g r a p h y , sculpture and architecture o f the tovvn, d e m o n s t r a t e the co-existence of an e x t r a o r d i n a r y v a r i e t y of cultures and religious systems, 3 8 just as tıcvvly discovercd papyri a n d parehments o f the third century, m a i n l y relating t o an area not far u p the E u p h r a t e s f r o m D u r a , also reveal a bilingual vvorld to vvhich until novv vve h a v e hardly had a n y a c c e s s . " T h e r e can b e n o question therefore that Aurelius Diphilianus, in dedicating his altar in G r e e k 'to the Ancestral G o d , Z e u s Betylos, of those by the O r o n t e s ' , vvas m a k i n g an a f f i r m a t i o n vvhich vvas intended t o be 36. IGLSII, no. 376 (Kaff Nako); 383 (Qalota). For a d«ail«i discuMion .w Duya Reprvt IV, 6«>ff. 3 7 . Sec J. N a v e l ı , " A n A r a m a i c Inscriprion f r o m F ! - M a l — a Surviva) o f 'Sclcucid A r a m a k * S c r i p t " , IE) 25 ( 1 9 7 5 ) , 1 1 7 - C f . J. T c i x i d o r , BES (197*»), 3 8 . S c c n ı o r c fıılly 1 2 . 2 a n d 1 2 . 4 b c l o w . 39. Scc csp. 4 . 2 b c l o w .

">7- Scc further I I . I bctow.

s i g n i f i c a n t at the t i m e , a n d d e m a n d s o u r a t t e n t i o n n o w . H e c i e a r l y s a w t h e o b j e c t o f his d e d i c a t i o n b o t h a s i n h e r i t e d f r o m p r e v i o u s g e n c r a t i o n s ( t h o u g h w h e t h e r his a n c e s t o r s o r o t l ı e r s ' is a d i f f e r e n t q u e s t i o n ) a n d as b e i n g w o r s h i p p e d b y the p o p u l a t i o n o f a w i d e r g e o g r a p h i c a l r e g i o n . W e m i g h t c v e n s u p p o s e t h a t h e i n t e n d e d ' t h o s e b y the O r o n t e s ' t o r e f e r t o ali t h e p a g a n i n h a b i t a n t s o f the S y r i a n r e g i o n . I Iovvever, the divitıe a p p e l l a t i o n h e u s c d , ' Z e u s B c t y l o s ' , r e m a i t ı s uxıique i n o u r e v i d e n c e . It d o e s n o t e v e n s e e m c l c a r w h e t h e r ' b e t y l o s ' h e r e is a n a d j e c t i v c ( ' B e t y l i a n Z e u s ' ) o r a n o u n , a s i n ' Z e u s B ö m o s ' . I n the l a t t e r c a s e it w o u l d b e ' Z c u s ( t h e ) B e t y l ' \vhich D i p h i l i a n u s c l a i m s t o h a v e b e e n t h e l o n g - s t a n d i n g o b j e c t o f vvorship o f a vvider p o p u l a t i o n . T h a t in its t u r n may m c a n t h a t h e c o n c e i v e d o f this d e i t y a s b e i n g e m b o d i e d in a s t o n e . F u r t h c r m o r e , as w e \vill see, o n e c o n t c m p o r a r y w r i t c r , t h e h i s t o r i a n H e r o d i a n , c i e a r l y a s s e r t s t h a t t h e s t o n e w h i c h r e p r e s e n t e d the g o d F.lagabal a t E m c s a w a s i m a g i n e d t o h a v e fallen f r o m heaven. H i s w o r d s provide a c l e a r e x a m p l e o f h o w a Classical w r i t e r o f the l m p e r i a l p e r i o d m a y p u t t h a t s a m e d i s t a n c c betvveen h i m s e l f a n d t h e c u s t o m s o f the ' O r i e n t ' a s t h e m o d e r n F . u r o p c a n o b s e r v e r t e n d s t o d o : ' T h e r e vvas n o a e t u a l m a n - m a d e s t a t u e o f t h e g o d , the s o r t G r e e k s a n d R o m a n s put u p ; b u t t h e r e vvas a n e n o r m o u s b l a c k s t o n e , r o u n d e d a t the b a s e a n d c o m i n g t o a p o i n t a t t h e t o p , c o n i c a l in s h a p c a n d b l a c k . T h i s s t o n e i s vvorshipped as t h o u g h it vvere s e n t f r o m h e a v e n ' . 4 0 W h e t h e r the s t o n e a c t u a l l y vvas a m e t e o r i t e vve c a n n o t k n o v v ; vvhat is s i g n i f i c a n t is the c o n c e p t i o n . B u t i t is a h n o s t i n e v i t a b l e t h a t s p c c u l a t i o n s h o u l d l c a d o n e t o t h i n k o f a p o s s i b l e c o n n e c t i o n betvveen the p a t t e r n s o f c u l t - p r a c t i c e visible h e r e a n d the c e n t r a l r o l e vvhich M a h o m e t vvas t o g i v e t o the b l a c k s t o n e built i n t o the K a a b a in t h e nevv c u l t h e i n s r i t u t c d a t M c c c a ; t h i s vvas o n e e l e m e n t vvhich h e t o o k ö v e r f r o m the e x i s t i n g p a g a n vvorship t h e r e . 4 1 E n o u g h h a s b e e n s a i d t o g i v e s o m e i m p r e s s i o ı ı o f the d i v e r s i t y a n d r i c h n e s s o f the e v i d e n c e vvhich is p o t e n t i a l l y a v a i l a b l e f o r a n y a t t e m p t t o u n d e r s t a n d t h e s o c i e t y a n d c u l t u r e o f the N e a r Kast in t h e p e r i o d vvhen R o m a n rule s t e a d ily e x t e n d e d t o r e a c h its f u r t h e s c limits. B u t , vvhile t h e e v i d e n c e is i n d e e d r i c h a n d d i v e r s e , a n d s t e a d i i y b e c o m i n g m o r e s o , it is a l s o v e r y s e a t t e r e d , c a n n o t yield a n y t h i n g a p p r o a c h i n g s t a t i s t i c s , o r e v e n o r d e r s o f m a g n i t u d e , a n d a b o v e ali l e a v e s t h e e c o n o m i c b a s i s o f s o c i e t y t h e r e in a l m o s t t o t a l o b s c u r i t y . W h a c , f o r i n s t a n c e , vvas t h e r o l e o f l o n g - d i s t a n c e t r a d e in f o r m i n g N e a r E a s t e r n s o c i e t y in t h i s p e r i o d ? T h e q u c s t i o r t is o f m u c h m o r e t h a n p u r e l y e c o n o m i c s i g n i f i c a n c e . F o r if t h e r e vvere i n d e e d i m p o r t a n t t r a d e - r o u t e s b y l a n d t h r o u g h t h e H e d j a z , a s ( p e r h a p s ) in t h e t i m e o f M a h o m e t ; t h r o u g h t h e \Vadi S i r h a n t o

4 0 . I l c r o d i a ı ı V , 3 , 5 , l . o c b t r a n s . S c c f u r t h e r 9 . 2 bcJovv. 4 1 . S c c n o w t h e h i g h l y s c c p t i c a l a c c o u n t o f t h e o r i g i n s o f i s l a m in M c c c a b y P, C r o n c , can Trade and the Rise of islam

(1987), 192.

Mec-

thc P c r s i a n G u l f ; o r via P a l m y r a t o t h e E u p h r a t e s , o r via the Fertile C r e s c e n t t o t h e T i g r i s , c o n t i n u i n g t o B a b y l o n i a o r C e n t r a l Asia, thcıı \vc m a y h a v e to see the r e g i o n vvhich vvas i n c o r p o r a t e d in t h c R o m a n E m p i r e a s b e l o n g i n g n o t j u s t g e o g r a p h i c a l l y but in s o m c m o r e p r o f o u n d sense t o the ' O r i e n t ' . F o r c x a m p ! c , vverc the Jcvvs o f J u d a e a the o n l y s p e a k e r s o f a S e m i t i c l a n g u a g e in t h e R o m a n N e a r E a s t vvho m a i n t a i n e d aetive a ı ı d c o n t i n u o u s c o n t a c t s vvith a r e l a t e d c o m m u n i t y in B a b y l o n i a ? M o d e r n vievvs o f t h e e c o n o m y o f t h e a n c i e n t vvorld tend strongly t o nıir.im i s e the d e p e n d e n c e o f a n y c o m m u n i t y on l o n g - d i s t a n c c t r a d e . 4 2 B u t a n c i c n t o b s e r v e r s , f r o m S t r a b o at t h c b e g i n n i n g o f o u r period t o P l i n y the F.lder and t o A m m i a n u s M a r c e l l i n u s in t h e f o u r t h century, s t r o n g l y affirm the i m p o r t a n c e o f l o n g - d i s t a n c e t r a d e o n ali t h e r o u t e s m e n t i o n e d a b o v c , if less clcarly in t h e c a s e o f that t h r o u g h t h e W a d i S i r h a n . S h o u l d vvc t h e n see a t least s o m e o f thc citics o f t h e N e a r E a s t a s striking a n d significant e x c e p t i o n s t o a g e n e r a l rule, a s h a v i n g b e e n , in R o s t o v ı z e f f ' s p h r a s c , ' c a r a v a n c i t i e s ' ? H e used thc t e r m o f Petra, o f D u r a - E u r o p o s , o f J e r a s h ( G e r a s a ) a n d a b o v c ali o f c o u r s e o f P a l m y r a . 4 3 But vvhilc n o o n c c a n d o u b t t h a t ' c a r a v a n s ' (synodiai

in G r e e k )

did g o f r o m P a l m y r a t o t h e e a s t , a s t u d y o f w h a t seems a s if it vvould b e the best e v i d e n c e f o r P a l m y r e n e trade, the bilingual customs-lavv f r o m thc rcign o f H a d r i a n , shovvs t h a t it a c t u a l l y dcals m a i n l y vvith p r o d u e t s c o m i n g i n ı o thc c i t y f r o m its s u r r o u n d i n g territory, vvhich vvas far f r o m being i n e r e d e s e ı t , o r even {as a b o v e ) steppe, b u t ineluded a l a r g e n u m b e r o f s m a l l s e t t l e m e n t s o r vitlages. 4 4 B o t h t h e c u l t u r a l a n d the e c o n o m i c i m p o r t a n c e o f l o n g - d i s t a n c e t r a d e vv:ll h a v e t o be d i s c u s s e d further belovv. S o vvill the c o n t r a s t i n g e l e m e n t in c c o n o m i c a n d s o c i a l life m e n t i o n e d a b o v c , t h c s m a l l c r s e t t l e m e n t s a n d villages o f t h c r c g i o n . F o r i f t h e r e is a single feature o f N e a r E a s t e r n s o c i e t y vvhich e m e r g e s m o r e c l e a r l y t h a n a n y o t h e r f r o m the m a s s o f i s o l a t e d a n d c n i g m a t i c i t e m s o f e v i d e n c e — a r c h a e o l o g i c a l (înds, i n s e r i p t i o n s , papyri a n d p a r e h m e n t s , a n d literatüre, vvhether p a g a n , C h r i s t i a n o r Jcvvish, a n d vvhether vvritten :n L a t i n , G r e e k o r a variety o f S e m i t i c l a n g u a g e s — i t is the life o f t h e dense netvvork o f villages a n d small s e t t l e m e n t s vvhich c a n b e shovvn t o h a v e c o v c r c d l a r g e p a r t s o f the r e g i o n . T h i s is o f c o u r s e n o t c q u a l l y t r u c o f ali a r c a s . T h e c x t c n t o f s c t t l c m c n t a n d c u l t i v a t i o n a l o n g t h e fringes o f t h e s t e p p e h a s alvvavs been a c u t e l y d e p e n d e n t on p o l i t i c a l a n d m i l i t a r y f a c t o r s ; b u t it is q u i t e c l e a r

4 1 . S e e , a b o v e a l i , M . L F i n l c y , The

Ancient

Economy

( 1 9 7 3 ; ı n d c d . 1 9 8 5 ) — q u a l i f i c d in

P. G a m s e y , K . H o p k i t ı s atıd C . R . W h i t t a k e r (cds.), Trade in the Ancient 4 3 . M . I. R o s t o v t z e / f , Caravan Gnomon

Cities

Economy

(1983).

( 1 9 3 1 ) . N o t e ıhc important rcvicw by D . Schlumbcrger,

1 1 (193 5), 8 1 .

4 4 . J. F. M a t t h c w s , " T h c T a x L a w o f P a l m y r a : E v i d c n c c f o r E c o n o m i c H i s t o r y i n a C i t y of t h c R o m a n F . a s t " , / R S 7 4 ( 1 9 8 4 ) , 1 5 7 , a s t u d y t o w h i c h this b o o k is v e r y m u c h i n d c b t e d .

t h a t the E m p i r e r e p r e s e n t s , in c o m p a r a t i v e t e r m s , a p e r i o d o f t h e v e r y w i d e e x t e n s i o n o f c u l t i v a t i o n , h a r d l y p a r a l l e l e d until t h e p r c s e n t day. O n t h e o t h e r h a n d it h a s n e v e r b e e n s u f f i c i e n t l y c l e a r l y a e k n o w l e d g e d t h a t w i t h i n the R o m a n N e a r E a s t t h e r e a r e m o u n t a i n o u s a r e a s w h i c h h a v e n e v e r b e e n s e r i o u s l y e x a m i n e d for a r c h a e o l o g i c a l a n d d o c u m e n t a r y r e m a i n s . O n e , o n t h e n o r t h - e a s t friııge o f t h e r e g i o n , is M o u n t A m a n u s ; h e r e a l m o s t the l a s t v i l l a g e c o m m u n i t y w e c a n e n c o u n t e r in o u r e v i d e n e e is the f o r t i f i e d v i l l a g e c a l l e d P i n d e n i s s u m , svhich C i c c r o s p e n t

fifty-six

d a y s b e s i e g i n g in 5 0 BC. 4 5

S e c o n d , t h e r e is the c h a i n o f m o u n t a i n s b e t w c c n the m i d d l e O r o n t e s V a i l c y and the M e d i t e r r a n e a n , stretchitıg south f r o m A n t i o c h a n d terminating at t h e g a p b e t w e e n E m e s a a n d the s e a f o r m e d b y the river E l e u t h e r o s ( N a h r e l K e b i r ) . T h e s e l i m e s t o n e hills r i s i n g t o s o m e 1 5 0 0 m , the a n e t e n t M o n s B a r g y lus o r p r c s e n t J e b e l A n s a r i y e h , i n h a b i t e d b y an Alavvi p o p u l a t i o n s i n c e t h e M i d d l e Ages, have never been o p e n to archaeological investigation, and r e m a i n an a l m o s t c o m p l c t c b l a n k in t h e a r c h a e o l o g i c a l a n d s o c i a l m a p o f t h e r e g i o n . 4 6 Yet t h e r e is c u l t i v a b l e l a n d , f o r m e d i n t o s m a l l fields, u p t o t h e v e r y s u m m i t o f the r i d g e ; a n d the g r e a t t e m p l e o f B a e t o c a e c e n e a r the s o u t h e n d o f the c h a i n , a n d lying a t s o m e 1 0 0 0 m a b o v e s e a - l e v e l , itself s u g g e s t s t h a t t h e r e vvas a s i g n i f i c a n t p o p u l a t i o n h e r e u n d e r the E m p i r e . 4 7 P a r a d o x i c a l l y , in the m u c h h i g h e r M o u n t I . e b a n o n c h a i n , s t r e t e h i n g s o u t h o f t h e E l e u t h e r o s R i v e r a s f a r as t h e L e o n t e s ( L i t a n i ) River, a vvhole series o f r u r a l s a n c t u a r i e s a r e knovvn, t h o u g h n o t the v i l i a g e s vvhich m u s t h a v e b e e n n o t t o o d i s t a n t l y a s s o c i a t e d vvith t h e m . 4 9 B u t a b o v e ali, a t the v e r y h e a r t o f t h e r e g i o n , t h e r e is t h e g r e a t m a s s o f A n t i - L e b a n o n , r e a c h i n g s o m e 2 4 0 0 m , a n d its s o u t h e r n c x t e n s i o n , M o u n t I l e r m o n , vvhich a t t a i n s j u s t ö v e r 2 8 0 0 m. T h e eritire m o u ı ı t a i n - e h a i n e x t e n d s s o m e 2 3 0 k m f r o m t h e n o r t h - e a s t , vvhere it a l m o s t t o u c h c s o n the s t e p p e , t o t h e s o u t h - w e s t , vvhere it r e a c h e s the G o l a n H e i g h t s , t h e headvvaters o f t h e J o r d a n a n d t h e hills o f G a l i l c c ; a n d it is s o m e 3 0 k m vvide betvveen t h e B e k a a V a l l e y a n d D a m a s c u s . I n v c s t i g a t i o n s o f t h e s o u t h - w c s t c r n e n d o f this c h a i n in r e c e n t y e a r s h a v e shovvn the s a m e vvidespread t r a c e s o f c u l t i v a t i o n a n d s c t t l c m e n t a s elsevvhere, n o t t o s p e a k o f o l i v c - p r e s s e s f o u n d a t h e i g h t s o f up t o 1 2 0 0 m . 4 9 O u r l i t e r a r y a n d d o c u m e n t a r y e v i d e n e e f o r t h e s o c i a l h i s t o r y o f t h e r e g i o n h a r d l y t a k e s us b e y o n d r e f e r e n c e s t o r a i d i n g b y the I t u r a e a n p o p u l a t i o n o f t h e s e m o u n t a i n s in t h e e a r l y R o m a n p e r i o d , a n d

4 5 . C i c c r o , ad fam. X V , 4, 1 0 . 4 6 . F o r a study o f this r e g i o n , see J . Weulersse, Le pays des Alaouiies

İ-II (1940).

4 7 . O n B a e t o c a e c e see further 8.3 b c l o w . 48. See the r e m a r k a b l e s u r v e y b y D . K r e n c k e r a n d W . Z s c h i c t z n ı a n n , R ü n ı i s c h e Tempel

in

Syriert I—II ( 1 9 3 8 ) . N o t c the m a p in v o l . II, ' l a f . 1. In f a c t , vvith the c x c c p t i o n o f B a e t o c a e c e , m o s t o f ı h e t e m p l e s s u r v e y e d lie in the t e r r i t o r y o f p r e s e n t - d a y 1 - c b a n o n , a fevv on A n t i - I . c b a n o n a n d M o u n t I l e r m o n b e i n g just on t h e Syriars side o f the border. 4 9 . S. D a r , a T h e H i s t o r y o f t h e H c r m o n S c t t l c m c n t s " , PF.Q 1 2 0 ( 1 9 8 8 ) , 2 6 .

e x p e d i t i o n s a g a i n s t t h e m u n d e r A u g u s t u s . S 0 B u t h e r e a b o v e ali w e o u g h t t o t h i n k o f b o t h a n i n n e r ' f r o n t i e r ' , p o s s i b l y m o r e real than that vvhich lay a l o a g t h e fringes o f t h e s t e p p e , a n d a m a j o r r c s c r v c o f p o p u l a t i o n vvhosc h i s t o r y a n d c u l t u r e a r e stili virtually u n k n o w n . T h e stress j u s t l a i d o n e x t e n s i v e r u r a l s e t t l e m e n t , vvhich vvould b e v a l i d a l s o o n either side o f the E u p h r a t e s a n d its t r i b u t a r y the C h a b u r , vvhich runs s o u t h f r o m n o r t h e r n M e s o p o t a m i a , is i m p o r t a n t f o r several r c a s o n s . O n e is t h a t vve o u g h t t o be o p e n t o t h e p o s s i b i l i t y t h a t t h e r e g i o n as a w h o l e c o n taitıed a far l a r g e r p o p u l a t i o n than c o m p a r i s o n vvith m o s t m o r e r e c e n t p e r i o d s vvould suggest. S e c o n d , it m e a n s t h a t t h o s e p l a c c s vvhich a n c i e n t e v i d e n c e a n d m o d e r n t r e a t m e n t s label a s ' c i t i e s ' (poleis)

have t o b e seen in the c o n t e x t o f a

netvvork o f o t h e r s e t t l e m e n t s , vvhich in s u m vvill h a v e b e e n far m o r e i m p o r t a n t in t e r m s o f o v e r a l l p o p u l a t i o n , vvhile t a k e n iııdividually t h e y m a y h a v e been i n d i s t i n g u i s h a h l c f r o m s m a l l poleis.

It s h o u l d n o t indeed b e p r e s u m e d in ad-

v a n c e t h a t the distinetion betvveen city (polis)

a n d village (körne) vvas alvvays

entirely elear. T h e fact that J o s e p h u s c a n use polis

o f v a r i o u s s e t t l e m e n t s in

G a l i l e c (for i n s t a n c e G i s c h a l a a n d J o t a p a t a ) vvhich vve vvould n o t Üst a s ' G r e e k c i t i e s ' , a n d c a n even u s e s o m e t i m e s the o n e t e r m a n d s o m e t i m e s t a e o t h e r f o r t h e s a m e p l a c e t h e r e , is n o t n e c e s s a r i l y j u s t c a r e l e s s n e s s . " N o r is it in t h e least c e r t a i n t h a t the vvhote r e g i o n vvas n c a t l y divided u p a m o n g t e r r i t o r i e s (cl)örai)

d e p e n d e n t o n r e c o g n i s e d poleis.

A t the very l e a s t it is c l e a r in s e v e ı a l

r e g i o n s , t h e H a u r a n in s o u t h e r n Syria a b o v e a l i , t h a t villages c o u l d c o ı ı d u c t their ovvn c o m m u n a l lives vvithout a n y a p p a r e n t r c f c r e n c e t o a polis

under

vvhosc a u t h o r i t y t h e y lived. O f c o u r s e in o u r p e r i o d , b e g i n n i n g t h r e e c e n t u r i e s a f t e r t h e c o n q u e s t by A l e x a n d e r , the c e n t r a l role o f cities, vvhether I Iellenistic f o u n d a t i o n s o r a n c i e n t cities (like D a m a s c u s o r T y r e ) vvhich h a d evolved i n t o G r e e k c i t i e s , is u n d e n i a b l e . M o r c o v e r the n u m b e r o f places vvhich ' b e c a m e ' G r e e k c i t i e s in this p e r i o d is c o n s i d e r a b l e ( f o r i n s t a n c e F l a v i a N e a p o l i s , p r e s e n t - d a y N a b l u s ) . S u c h t r a n s f o r m a t i o n s c o n t i n u c t h r o u g h o u t t h e p e r i o d . E v e n vvithin t h e few y e a r s c o v e r e d by the i m p o r t a n t nevv G r e e k a n d S y r i a c arehive f r o m t h e m i d d l e E u p h r a t e s r e g i o n , f r o m t h e 1 3 o s t o t h e 250S, the s e t t l e m e n t o f A p p a d a ı ı a turns i n t o a n o t h e r G r e e k c i t y c a l l e d N e a p o l i s , d u l y c q u i p p c d vvith t o w n c o u n c i l l o r s (bouleutai).sl

A fevv d e c a d e s later, u n d e r t h e T e t r a r c h y , the village

o f S a k k a i a in t h e n o r t h e r n I l a u r a n vvas t o e m e r g e a s t h e G r e e k c i t y o f M a x i m i a n o p o l i s , n a m c d a f t e r o n e o f the E m p c r o r s ; a n d later stili, in t h e 320S, the p o r t o f G a z a , M a i o u m a s , vvas t o be m a d e a c i t y vvith t h e title C o n s t a n t i n a . " 50. 2.1 b c l o w . 5 1 . Scc M . G o o d m a n , State and Society

in Roman

(Salilee,

AD

ıjz—ıız

(1983), 27.

5 2 . D . Fcissci a n d J . G a s c o u , " D o c u m c n t s inedits d u M o y c n E u p h r a t e (III' sieclc a p r e s J . - C . r , CRAI

( 1 9 8 9 ) , 535» o » PP- S 4 ' - 5 4 * .

5 3 . E u s c b i u s , VCIV,

3 8 - 3 9 ; S o z o m e n u s , HE V , 3, 6 - 8 .

But the very ease vvith \vhich these transformations could apparently be effected raises a m a j ö r qucstion a b o u t the culture of the region. It is n a t u r a l to think of 'the G r e e k city' as a n alien importation, a f o r m o f c o l o n i s a t i o n and d o m i n a t i o n över a 'native' p o p u l a t i o n ; and indeed there is s o m e truth in this v i c w for the early I l c l l c n i s t i c period. 5 4 But centuries had passed; m a n y villages in the region bore m o r e t h a n a mcre o u t w a r d o r physical resemblance to G r e e k cities. A n d if it is a p p r o p r i a t e to think in terms o f a contrast betvveen ' G r e e k ' o n the o n e hand and ' n a t i v e ' o r 'Semitic' o r ' O r i e n t a l ' elemeııts in the culture a n d social structure o f t h e region on the other, it is by no mcans c l c a r that any such contrast coincides vvith a division betvveen city and country. A s nevvly publishcd docunıents m a k c e v e r cleareı^ the life of villages in this region could bc m a r k c d b y c o m p l e x property-rclations; by privatc legal transactions carried out vvith the use of d o c u n ı e n t s in G r e e k ; and b y direct e x c h a n g e s vvith represcntativcs o f the state. T a k e f o r e x a m p l e the marriagc-contract agreed in AD IZ8 in the village o f M a o z a in the district of Z o a r a , vvhich lies in the deep depression, the W a d i A r a b a h , vvhich e x t e n d s b e y o n d the south end of the D e a d Sea. Both families c o n c e r n c d vvere Jevvish, a n d o n e c a m e from Engcdi in the province of J u d a e a . But M a o z a f o r m e d p a r t o f the nevv p r o v i n c e of A r a b i a , ereated in AD I o 6 b y the a b s o r p t i o n o f the kingdoııı o f N a b a t a e a . T h e marriage-contract c o m e s f r o m the 'archive of B a b a t h a ' , f o u n d in a c a v e in the Judaean Desert and n o w published by Naphtali I-evvis. İt is vvritten in Greek a n d begins in a style vvhich e m p h a t i c a l l y rccalls the attachnıent o f this rural w o r l d to a vvider povverstrueture: In the consulship o f Publius Metilius N e p o s for the ı n d time and Marcus Annius Libo on the nones of April, and by the compute of the nevv province of Arabia year tvventy-third on the fifteenth of month Xandikos, in M a o z a , Z o a r a district, Judah son of F.leazar also knovvn as Khthusion, gave över Shelamzion, his very ovvn daughter, a virgin, to Judah surnamed Cimber son of Ananias son of Somalas, both of the village lln-gcdi in Judaea residing here. 55 Both the families define themselves b y village and province, and o n e b y t h e attachnıent o f their village t o the district o f Z o 3 r a (literally 'around Z o a r a ' ) ; no Greek poleis c o m e itıto the picture at ali. But the f a c t that the people c o n 54. Scc c s p . P. Brianc, " C o l o n i s a t i o n h e l l c n i s t i q u e ct p o p u l a t i o n s i n d i g e n e s : L a p h a s c d ' i n s t a l l a t ı o n " , Kİ 10 (îo ( 1 9 7 8 ) , 5 7 = Rois, Moyen-Oricnt

aııcien

5 5 . N . L c w i s , The

l'ibtıls

et pasteıın;

P.tudes sur les formatloııs

tribııtaires

du

(1982), 227. Documents

from

the Bar-Kocbba

Papyri ( 1 9 8 9 J , n o . 1 8 ( h c n c e f o n v a t d P. Yadin).

Period

in the Cave

of Letlers:

Greek

G . W. Bowen>ock, " T h e Babatha Papyri, M a s a d a

a n d R o m e n , / J M 4 ( 1 9 9 1 ) , 3 3 6 , 011 p. 3 3 9 , a r g u c s t h a t t h e t r a n s l i t e r a t c d L a t i n w o r d s h o u l d b c libelhrius,

not

librarins.

c e r n e d c o u l d h a v e the very d e t a i l e d p r o v i s i o n s o f t h c c o ı ı t r a c t set o u t in G r e e k d o e s n o t m e a n t h a t they w e r e fluent G r e e k s p e a k e r s o r w r i t e r s . O n t h e c c n trary, the d o c u m e n t w a s vvritten by a seribe, T h e e n a s s o n o f S i m o n , w h o identifies his r o l e , s o m c w h a t o d d l y , by using the t r a n s l i t e r a t e d L a t i n w o r d

librar-

ius. A n d vvhen t h e p a r t i e s c o m e a t t h e e n d o f t h e d o c u m e n t t o g i v e t h e i r s u b s c r i p t i o n s in their ovvn h a n d s , t h e y d o so in A r a m a i c : ' Y e h u d a h s o n o f E l a z a r K h t h u s i o n : I h a v e g i v e n m y d a u g h t e r S h e l a m z i o n , a virgin, in m a r r i a g c to Yehudah . . ( Y H W D H B R ' L ' Z R K T W S N H Q H T Y T S L M Ş Y N B R T Y BTWLH LYHDH ...). B u t t h e m o s t s t r i k i n g f e a t u r e o f t h e d o c u m e n t m u s t b c t h e visible p r e s e n c e in it o f thc w i d c r R o m a n E m p i r e . I n this c a s c t h e n a m e o f the E m p e r o r h i m s s l f ( H a d r i a n ) d o e s n o t a p p e a r . B u t the ' n e w p r o v i n c e ' o f A r a b i a d o e s . S o d o e s a R o m a n system o f d a t i n g , a n d the n a m e s o f t h e t w o c o n s u l s holding o f f i c e in R o m c . B o t h o f t h c nevv a r e h i v e s , from t h c J u d a e a n D e s e r t a n d f r o m thc m i d d l e E u p h r a t e s , g i v e a povverful a n d u n e x p e c t e d i m p r e s s i o n o f the signific a n c e in private life, in r e l a t i v e l y r e m o t e c o u n t r y districts, o f b e l o n g i n g t o the E m p i r e . T h a t f r o m the m i d d l e E u p h r a t e s , vvhich i n c o r p o r a t e s s o m c d o c u m e n t s f r o m the cities o f n o r t h e r n M e s o p o t a m i a , a l s o refleets a n o t h e r a s p e c t o f the t r a n s f o r m a t i o n vvhich c i t i e s undervvent in this p e r i o d : t h a t is, the rapid s p r e a d , f r o m t h e 1 9 0 S onvvards, o f t h c c o n f e r m c n t o f thc R o m a n s t a t u s o f colorıia,

vvhich vvas n o m e r e title b u t involved thc r e s t r u e t u r i n g o f t h e city

m a g i s t r a c i e s a n d (at least i n p r i n c i p l e ) t h e u s e o f L a t i n in p u b l i c t r a n s a c t i o n s . " In this nevv a r e h i v e , N i s i b i s , C a r r h a e a n d Edcssa in M e s o p o t a m i a ali a p p e a r a s coloniae;

a n d b y t h a t t i m e thc s a m e title h a d been c o n f e r r c d on

J e r u s a l e m (novv A e l i a C a p i t o l i n a ) in J u d a e a (novv Syria P a l a e s t i n a ) a n d on B o s t r a a n d Pctra in A r a b i a . İt vvas a l s o , a l m o s t certainly, e n j o y e d by D u r a E u r o p o s , vvhere Aurelius D i p h i l i a n u s c r c c t e d his a l t a r t o Z c u s B e t y l o s . F o r hovvever e v o c a t i v e , i f b a f f l i n g , is the d e s i g n a t i o n vvhich D i p h i l i a n u s gave t o this deity, the m o s t s i g n i f i c a n t f a c t a b o u t his d e d i c a t i o n m a y stili b e t h c very s i m p l e o n e t h a t it r e p r e s e n t s the s c i f - c x p r c s s i o n o f a R o m a n I c g i o n s r y s o l d i e r vvriting in G r e e k . T h e fact t h a t he c o n s t r u e s his ' Z e u s B e t y l o s ' as thc a n c e s t r a l g o d o f t h o s e by t h e O r o n t e s m u s t b e t a k e n , a s vve h a v e s e e n , as refleeting s o m e avvareness o f a distinet c u l t u r e , c h a r a c t e r i s t i c o f this r e g i o n . W c c a n a l s o a c c c p t t h a t ' B e t y l o s ' is a loan-vvord f r o m A r a m a i c o r o n e o f its dialccts, a n d (less c e r t a i n l y ) t h a t it e m b o d i e s the c o n c e p t o f a n a n i c o n i c c u l t o b j e c t , a ' s t o n e invested vvith spirit', as Philo o f B y b l o s h a d put it. D i d t h a t in its turn reflect a system o f b e l i e f native t o this r e g i o n , vvhich o f f e r e d , a s a c o n t r a s t t o t h e m u l t i p l i c i t y o f g o d s p o r t r a y e d in the c u l t - s t a t u e s o f G r a c c o -

5 6 . F. M i l l a r , " T h c R o m a n Coloniae H . S o l i n a n d M . K a j a v a ( c d s . ) , Roman («990), 7-.

of t h e N e a r E a s t : A S t u d y o f C u l t u r a l R c l a t i o n s " . in l'olicy

in the

East and

Other

Studies

in Roman

History

R o m a n p a g a n i s m , a f u n d a m e n t a l p r e f e r e n c e for m o n o t h e i s m a n d f o r the c o n c e p t i o n o f a s i n g l e d e i t y w h o c o u l d n o t b e r e p r e s e n t e d in h u m a n f o r m ? If s o , it c a n h a v e beeıı n o m o r e t h a n a t e n d e n c y , for the a r r a y o f d i s t i n c t i v e d i v i n e i m a g e s , t o w h i c h w e c a n o f t c n a t t a c h n o m y t h o i o g y , a n d s o m e t i m e s n o t evecı a n a m e , f o r i n s t a n c e at P a l m y r a o r in N a b a t a e a , is p r e c i s e l y o n e o f the m o s t diffıcult p r o b l e m s f o r the r e l i g i o u s h i s t o r y o f t h e r e g i o n . 5 7 B u t it m a y stili b e c l a i m c d , as it h a s b e e n in a m a j ö r m o d e r n w o r k o n the p o p u l a r r e l i g i o n o f the N e a r Kast in t h i s p e r i o d , t h a c t h i s t e n d e n c y t o m o n o t h e i s m m a d e the N e a r E a s t f e r t i l e g r o u n d b o t h for a t t r a c t i o n t o J u d a i s m and f o r the s p r e a d o f C h r i s tianity, a n d later o f i s l a m . 5 8 W c s h o u l d bc v e r y c a r e f u l b e f o r e i m p o r t i n g a n y such presumptions. T h e s p r e a d o f C h r i s t i a n i t y m u s t i n d e e d be t a k e n as the s i n g l e m o s t i m p o r t a n t d e v e l o p m e n t vvhich o c c u r r e d in t h e p e r i o d f r o m t h e r e i g n o f A u g u s t u s t o the d e a t h o f C o n s t a n t i n c . B y t h a t m o m e n t a C h r i s t i a n l i t e r a t ü r e in a S e m i t i c l a n g u a g e , S y r i a c , h a d b e e n in e x i s t e n c e for a t l e a s t a c e n t u r y . C h u r c h e s h a d b e e n built evcryvvhcre, f r o m M c s o p o t a m i a t o A n t i o c h , T y r c , J c r u s a l c ı t ı o r s o u t h e r n Syria ( w h i l e t h e o n l y k n o w n p r e - C o n s t a n t i n i a n h o u s e - c h u r c h h a d b e e n o b l i t e r a t e d vvhen the P e r s i a n s c a p t u r e d D u r a - E u r o p o s in the 2 5 0 S ) . Pil g r ı m a g e t o B i b l i c a l s i t e s a n d t o the m a g n i f i c e n t n c w c h u r c h e s o f the H o l y L a n d vvas a l r e a d y vvell e s t a b l i s h e d . B u t had

the N e a r E a s t really offered a distinetively favourable cultural

and religious setting for Christianity since the time o f J c s u s ? H a d there been in this r e g i o n g e n t i l e C h r i s t i a n c o m m u n i t i e s u s i n g A r a m a i c o r a d i a l e c t o f i t ? T h e Jevvish c o m m u n i t y o f D u r a - E u r o p o s h a d c e r t a i n l y u s e d A r a m a i c , a s vveLİ a s G r e e k . B u t had t h e C h r i s t i a n c o m m u n i t y n c a r b y ? E v c n if w c d o n o t t r c a t the q u e s t i o n as a p u r e l y l i n g u i s ı i c o n e , vvas t h e r e , a s s o m a n y m o d e r n b o o k s p r e s u m e , a d i s t i n c t i v e ' S y r i a n ' C h r i s t i a n i t y using G r e e k , vvhich ovvcd its c h a r a e t e r t o its r e g i o n a l e n v i r o n m e n t ? If s o , vvhat vvould t h a t m e a n ? O f vvhich o f the m a n y s u b - r e g i o n s o f t h e N e a r E a s t a r e w e t a l k i n g , a n d vvhat a r e the c r i t e ria o f ' S y r i a n ' C h r i s t i a n i t y ? T h e s e q u e s t i o n s vvill h a v e t o b e d i s c u s s e d later, a n d s o m e m a y p r o v e u n a n svverable. B u t i f s u c h issues r e m a i n b a f f l i n g , vvhat is a b u n d a n t l y c l e a r is t h e influence o f the R o m a n E m p i r e , a s m e d i a t e d in the first i n s t a n c c t h r o u g h c o m m o n R o m a n s o l d i e r s l i k e A u r c l i u s D i p h i l i a n u s . It vvould b e i l l e g i t i m a t e , b e c a u s e c i r c u l a r , t o c l a i m t h a t it vvas R o m a n rule vvhich c r e a t e d the u n i t y o f t h e r e g i o n , f r o m the R e d S e a t o t h e T ı g r i s a n d the T a u r u s M o u n t a i n s . F o r t h e 57. Scc n o w the m a j ö r s u r v c y s b y M . Gavvlikovvski, " L e s d i e u x de P a l m y t e " , ANR\V

II.18.4

( 1 9 9 0 ) , 2.605, a n d " L e s dicu.v des N a b a f i e n s " , i b i d . , 2 6 6 0 . 58. J . T e i x i d o r , The Pagan God: Popular

Religion

in the Ancient

Near F.ast ( 1 9 7 7 ) , 1 7 : ' H u t

the incrcasing e m p h a s i s o n s u c h bclicfs is e v i d e n e e o f a trend tovvards m o n o t h e i s m , n a m e l y t o w a r d the c x c l u s i o n o f other g o d s ' c x i s t c n c c . In t h e N e a r E a s t of G r c c o - R o m a n times this t r e n d facilitates t h e s p r e a d o f J u d a i s m , C h r i s t i a n i t y a n d islam*.

( c v c n t u a l ) c x t c n s i o n o f R o m a n n ı l e h a s been t a k e n here a s defining t h e a r e a in q u e s t i o n . B u t w h a t is i n d i s p u t a b l e is t h a t n e a r l y ali the f o r m s o f e x p r e s s i o n o f the c u l t u r e o f this r e g i o n , o r its s u b - r e g i o n s — a r c h i t e c t u r c ; s c u l p t u r c ; vvallp a i n t i n g s ; i n s c r i p t i o n s in G r e e k , L a t i n ( o c c a s i o n a l l y ) a n d a v a r i c t y o f S e m i t i c languages, including A r a b i c — t h e m s e l v e s

came into existence within

the

framevvork o f the R o m a n E m p i r e o r o f its d e p e n d e n t k i n g d o m s . S o far a s o j r e v i d e n c e g o c s , the p r e c e d i n g I l e l l c n i s t i c period h a s left us a l m o s t n o t h i n g w h i c h c a n c o u n t as t h e e x p r e s s i o n o f a r e g i o n a l o r l o c a ! p a g a n c u l t u r e . \Vhatever m a y h a v e been t h e c a s e a t the time, t h o s e a s p e c t s o f the local c u l t u r e or c u l t u r c s o f the N e a r E a s t vvhich survivc f o r us t o e n c o u n t e r c a m c i n t o c x : s t e n c e in the R o m a n E m p i r e . T o d a i m t h a t t h e y a c t u a l l y o w e d their e x i s t e n c e , o r their c a p a c i t y t o flourish a n d find s e l f - e x p r e s s i o ı ı , t o R o m a n r u l e vvould oe t o g o f u r t h e r t h a n c a n b e p r o v e d . F o r w c can never knovv vvhat the r e g i o n vvould h a v e been like if R o m a n rule h a d n o t been i m p o s e d . B u t it is suggestive t h a t in t h e later s e c o n d c e n t u r y the b i s h o p M e l i t o o f Sardis acknovvledged t h a t it h a d been b y d i v i n e p r o v i d c n c c t h a t C h r i s t i a n i t y , b e g i n n i n g a m o n g barbaroi,

h a d c o i n c i d c d vvith the f o u n d a t i o n o f t h e I m p e r i a l m o n a r e h y

(hasi-

leia) b y A u g u s t u s . S i n c e t h a t t i m e the povver o f t h e E m p i r e h a d grovvıı, a n d Christianity had

flourished

vvith it. 5 9

A t the t i m e o f J c s u s it c o u l d n o t n c c e s s a r i l y h a v e been e x p e c t e d t h a t R o m a n s o l d i e r s a n d officials vvould l c a v c t r a c e s o f their activities d e e p i n t o the H c d j a z , far into the J o r d a n i a n s t e p p e a n d dovvn t h e W a d i S i r h a n a s f a r as Javvf; t h r o u g h the s t e p p e f r o m D a m a s c u s via P a l m y r a t o t h e E u p h r a t e s ; a l o n g the C h a b u r , in n o r t h e r n M e s o p o t a m i a a n d o n the T i g r i s , vvhere t h e vvalis o f A m i d a ( D i y a r b a k i r ) , vvhich A m m i a n u s vvas t o deseribe, vvere t o b e c r e a t e d u n d e r C o n s t a n t i n e . 6 0 By t h a t t i m e t h e P a r t h i a n E m p i r e vvhich h a d c o n f r o n t e d R o m e a e r o s s the E u p h r a t e s in the first tvvo cetıturies h a d been r e p l a c e d b y a P c r s i a n E m p i r e in t h e z 2 o s , a n d n o r t h e r n M e s o p o t a m i a h a d b e c o m e an e n d lessly c o n t e s t e d b a t t l e g r o u n d b e t w e e n the t w o povvers. R o m a n direct rule h a d been s u b s t i t u t e d f o r a vvhole series o f d e p e n d e n t k i n g d o m s , a m o n g t h e m Judaca, Commagcne, Emesa, Nabataca and Osrhoene. B u t it vvas n o t o n l y t h a t t h e E m p e r o r s novv ruled a solid b l o c k o f territory, vvhich e x t e n d e d t o the l i m i t s o f c u l t i v a b l e l a n d a n d s t r e t e h e d a l o n g the e d g e o f t h e steppe c o n t i n u o u s l y ö v e r a distatıce o f s o m e 7 5 0 k m . It vvas a l s o t h a t , vvhether vve c o n c e i v e o f the a r m y in this r e g i o n a s being d e v o t e d p r i m a r i l y ro c o n q u e s t , t o d e f e n c e o r t o o c c u p a t i o n , it represented a l a r g e p r o p o r t i o ı ı of the f o r c e s o f t h e E m p i r e . M o r e significant stili, t h e c o n f r o n t a t i o n vvith P a r t h i a a n d then vvith Persia h a d g i v e n the n o r t h e r n p a r t o f this region a p r i m e rele as a field f o r t h e activities o f the R o m a n E m p e r o r s in p e r s o n . A vvhole series 59. Rusebius, HE V, 16, 7 - 8 . 60. Ammianus XVIH, 9, 1.

o f t h i r d - c e n t u r y E m p e r o r s h a d died o r been c a p t u r c d in the N e a r E a s t , o r eıı r o u t e t o o r f r o m it: C a r a c a l l a {2.17}, M a c r i n u s ( 2 1 8 ) , G o r d i a n ( 2 4 4 ) , V a l e r i a n (260), C a r u s (282). It w a s c n t i r e l y a p p r o p r i a t c in s y m b o l i c t c r m s t h a t t h e c n d o f t h e period vvith vvhich vve are c o n c e r n e d s h o u l d be m a r k e d b y the dcath o f C o n s t a n t i n e in 3 3 7 , vvhen p r e p a r i n g for y e t a n o t h e r c a m p a i g n a g a i n s t t h e Persians. O n e effect o f t h a t o b s e s s i o n vvith c a m p a i g n s in the E a s t vvas t h e s t c a d i l y i n c r e a s i n g use o f A ı ı t i o c h a s a n I m p e r i a l r e s i d e n c e a n d m i l i t a r y h e a d q u a r t e r s , a n d its c i e a r l y c s t a b l i s h c d s t a t u s a s a p c r m a n e n t I m p e r i a l c a p i t a l in t h e T c t r a r c h i c p e r i o d . 6 1 W i t h t h e reign o f M a x i m i n u s a s ' C a e s a r ' a n d then ' A u g u s t u s ' in 3 0 6 - 3 1 1 , a n E m p e r o r vvas f o r the first t i m e t o be f o u n d c o n t i n u o u s l y r e s i d c n t in this r e g i o n , a n d visiting n o t o n l y A n t i o c h b u t s o m e o f the o t h e r m a j ö r cities. T h e last p h a s e o f p a g a n I m p e r i a l rule as e x p r e s s e d in t h e N e a r E a s t is aptly s u m m e d up in E u s e b i u s ' vivid p o r t r a i t o f M a x i m i n u s , vvhile present in C a c s a r c a (novv officially a R o m a n colottia)

in AD 3 0 6 / 3 0 7 , presiding in p e r s o n

a t vvild-bcast shovvs ( o n e o f t h e m o s t distinetive o f R o m a n i m p o r t a t i o n s t o the G r e e k E a s t ) , a n d h a v i n g G l ı r i s t i a n m a r t y r s e x e c u t e d in the arena b e f o r e him.* 2 C h r i s t i a n i t y vvas t o t r i u m p h o n l y a fevv ycars later, vvith c h u r c h c s b e i n g built everyvvlıere, a n d J e r u s a l e m (officially A e l i a C a p i t o l i n a , a n o t h e r R o m a n colottia)

b e c o m i n g a r e c o g n i s e d p l a c e o f p i l g r i m a g e . But that itself vvas y e t

a n o t h e r c x p r e s s i o n o f t h e I m p e r i a l vvill, a n d o f t h e povvcr o f the R o m a n s t a t e . If t h e social a n d c u l t u r a l history o f the N e a r E a s t betvveen A u g u s t u s a n d C o n s t a n t i n e c a n b e u n d e r s t o o d a t a l i , it is o n l y vvithin the framevvork c r e a t e d b y t h a t I m p e r i a l povvcr. 6ı.

Sec F. M i l l a r , The

Emperor

ERW); T . D . B a r n e s , The New 6 2 . Rusebius, Mart.

in the Romun

Ernpire of Diocletian

Pal. 6—7.

World

( 1 9 7 7 ) , csp. 4 8 - 5 0

and Constantine

(hcnccfonvard

(1982), 65-66.

I

• •• EMPIRE

C H A P T E R

2 T H E B R I D G E H E A D AND T H E DEPENDENT KİNGDOMS, 31 B C - A D 7 4

2.1. F R O M T H E

BATT1.E O F ACT1U.M T O T H E OF IIEROD THE

DEATH

G RE AT

W h e n the n e w s s p r e a d o f t h e v i c t o r y o f A c t i u m in 3 1 BC, w h i c h b r o u g h t t h e R o m a n civil w a r s t o a n end a n d e n a b l e d O c t a v i a n , t h e f u t u r e A u g u s t u s , t o e x c r c i s e e f f e c t i v e s o l e povvcr, R o m e p o s s e s s e d n o m o r e t h a n a b r i d g e h e a d i n the N e a r E a s t . T h e p r o v i n c e o f ' S y r i a 1 h a d b e e n e s t a b l i s h e d b y P o m p c y o n l y t h r e e a n d a h a l f d e c a d e s b e f o r e . 1 B y 58 BC it h a d b e c o m e a c o n s u l a r p r o v i n c e a n d a b a s c f o r a m b i t i o n s for c o t ı q u e s t b o t h s o u t h v v a r d s , t o P t o l e m a i c E g y p t , a n d e a s t w a r d s , t o P a r t h i a , B u t a t t h e s a m c t i m e , e v e n the r e s t r i c t e d t e r r i t o r y \vhich R o m e o c c u p i e d d i r e c t l y — i n e f f e c t the P h o e n i c i a n c o a s t , a l o n g w i t h t h e O r o n t c s V a l l e y a n d n o r t h e r n S y ı i a , the m a i n a r e a o f H e l l e n i s t i c s e t t l e m e n t — h a d b e e n r a v a g e d by l o c a l d y n a s r i c r i v a l r i c s , by w a r s f o u g h t by R o m a n a r m i e s a g a i n s t e a c h o t h e r , a n d by a m a j o r P a r t h i a n i n v a s i o n in 4 0 BC. It is n o t n e c e s s a r y t o retail t h e e v e n t s o f t h e s e y e a r s in d e t a i l . I t is e n o u g h t o r e c a l l t h a t e v e n vvithout t h e P a r t h i a n i n v a s i o n (vvhich 110 o n e c o u l d h a v e knovvn vvas t o b e the l a s t vvhich vvould e v e r b e s u c c c s s f u l l y m o u n t c d ) R o m a n c o n t r o l vvas t e n u o u s a n d e r r a t i c , a n d d i d litıle o r n o t h i n g t o r e d u c e the l o n g s t a n d i n g i n s c c u r i t y o f the r e g i o n . T h u s vvhen J u l i u s C a e s a r p a s s e d r a p i d l y t h r o u g h S y r i a in 4 7 BC, o n his vvay f r o m A l c x a n d r i a t o A s i a Minor^ h e c o u l d e x e r c i s e d i p l o m a c y o n l y in s a t i s f y i n g t h e c o m m u n i t i e s a n d d y n a s t s o f t h e r e g i o n a s best h e c o u l d :

1 . F o r a sketeh o f its history s c c S c h ü r c r , HJPI,

z^H.

F o r the s i t u a t i o n o f the r e g i o n in this

p e r i o d , a n d after, s c c the i m p o r t a n t s u r v e y b y J.-P. R e y - C o q u a i s , " S y r i e r o m a i ı ı e d e Pomp6c D i o c l c t i c n " , JRS 68 (ıj>78), 4 4 , t o vvhich this w h o l e b o o k o w e s m u c h .

[ 2-7 1

i

Stopping in almost ali those citics which wcrc of greater prestige, he gave revvards to those w h o desecved it, both individually and collectively, and held jurisdietion and issııed decisions on long-standing controversies. A s for kings, tyrants and dynasts neighbouring on thc provincc, w h o had ali hastened together to him, hc rcccived them into his trust on condition o f proteeting and defending the province, and dismissed them as being n o w the most loyal friends of hinıself and the Roman people. 2 A c o u p l e of years later, in 4 5 a n d 44 BC, Caecilius Bassus, a follovver of P o m pey, had been able t o seize t h c G r c c k city of A p a m c a o n the O r o n t e s and hold out against t w o succcssive R o m a n armies f r o m the C a e s a r i a n side. A s s o often, our best a c c o u n t of the area in the first century BC, and our m o s t vivid impression of the d y n a m i c s o f the highly disturbed p o w c r rclations b c t w c c n different g r o u p s , c o m c s f r o m thc Geography

of Strabo, vvritten in the last p a r t

of Augustus* reign: Caecilius Bassus, with t w o cohorts, caused Apameia to revolt and, t h o u g h besieged by t w o large R o m a n armies, strongly resisted them for so long a time that he did not come under their povver until he voluntarily put himself in their hands upon his o w n terms; for the country supplicd his a r m y vvith provisions, and hc had plenty of allics, I mcan the neighbouring chieftains, vvho possessed strongholds; and a m o n g dıese places vvas Lysias, vvhich is situated above the lake that lies near Apameia, as also Arethusa, belonging to Sampsiceramus and his son iamblichus, chieftains of the tribe of the Emeseni; and at n o great distance, also, vvere Heliopolis and Chalcis, vvhich latter vvas subject to Ptolemaeus the son of Menııaeus, vvho possessed Massyas and the mountainous country of thc Ituracans. A m o n g the allics of Bassus vvas also Alchaedamnus, king of the Rhambaeans, vvho vvere nomads this side of the Euphrates River; and he vvas a friend of the Romans, but upon the belief that he vvas bcing treated unjustly by thc R o m a n governors hc retired to Mesopotamia and then vvent into the service of Bassus as a mercenary.-' In thc Triumviral period vvhich follovvcd, vvhen the N e a r East ali fell under the rule of M a r c u s A n t o n i u s , if R o m a n armies n o longer f o u g h t e a c h o t h e r in the region, m a j ö r local k i n g s , in C o m m a g e n e , in Judaea (vvhere H e r o d vvas formally rccogniscd as k i n g i n 4 0 BC) and in N a b a t a e a , gained considerable povver; thc Parthians invadcd in 40 BC, bcing repelled fully only in 3 7 ; and large parts of thc coast and s o m c o f thc inland territory in thc south vvere granted t o C l c o p a t r a of E g y p t . A t thc time of thc battle of A c t i u m , thc f o r c c s of H e r o d of J u d a c a vvere o n c a m p a i g n , o n A n t o n i u s ' orders, against those of z. j C a c s a r ] , Bell. Alex. 3. S t r a b o , Geog.

6 5 , 4.

X V I , z, TO ( 7 5 1 — 7 5 3 ) , L o c b t r a n s .

M a l i c h u s I o f N a b a t a e a , w h o h a d n o t paid the tribute due for the territory given to Cleopatra."' Nonetheles-s M a l i c h u s had sent f o r c c s t o join A n t o n i u s , as had M i t h r i d a t e s II of C o m m a g e n e , the builder of the last of the series o f great dynastic m o n u m e n t s there. 5 S o m e very i m m e d i a t e c o n s e q u e n c e s o f the victory can be traced in o u r sources. T h e most immediate is t h e letter w h i c h O c t a v i a n w r o t e f r o m E p h e s u s tovvards the end of 3 1 BC in r c s p o n s e t o an cmbassy f r o m the little city o f R h o s u s , situated o n the c o a s t on the northcrn side of the A m a n u s M o u n t a i n s . A c k n o v v l e d g i n g the c r o w n (stephanos)

sent in recognition of his victory, a n d

referring to the merits o f a naval captain (muarehos)

f r o m there n a m c d S c l c u -

c u s , w h o had served vvith him i n his w a r s , O c t a v i a n promises benefits f o r t h e city vvhen he c o m e s to the arca." H e did indeed d o s o very s o o n , as w e vvill see. But the d o c u m e n t , significant o n the o n e hand o f the involvement of s m a l l c r c o m m u n i t i e s also in the civil vvars, and of the nevv relationship to an u n c h a l lenged single ruler, is also i m p o r t a n t in a quite different vvay. For the N e a r East proper, beginning, as defincd here, o n the other side o f the A m a n u s M o u n t a i n s , c a n n o t c o m p a r c vvith Asia M i n ö r f o r the vvcalth of d o c u m e n t s vvhich vvould f r o m novv on illustrate relations betvveen the subject c o m m u n i ties a n d R o m e , o r the Empcror. Thus, if vve can rcconstruct t h e impact of R o m e in the N e a r East, o r t h e role o f the N e a r East vvithin the Empire, it is f r o m a variety of other s o u r c e s , aivvays partial a n d inadcquate. F o r instance o n c of the most crucial steps i n the strategic shape of the E m p i r e in the N e a r East seems a l m o s t certainly t o have been taken as an i m m e d i a t e c o n s e q u c n c c o f A c t i u m . Since 64 BC Seleucia on the Euphrates, the main erossing of the r i v e r — a n d hence knovvn m o r e often as Z e u g m a , 'the b r i d g e ' — h a d been part of the k i n g d o m o f C o m m a g e n e ; one of the sanctuaries o f the r o y a l cult vvas located tlıere. 7 Novv, in spite o f his support of A n t o n i u s , M i t h r i d a t e s II vvas cvidcntly c o n f î r m c d in his kingd o m b y O c t a v i a n — b u t at the price, as it seems, o f yielding Z e u g m a t o R o m e . N o evidenee explicitly says so; but coins of Seleucia/Zcugma under the R o m a n Empire usc an cra g o i n g b a c k precisely to 3 1 BC. 8 If that is s o , then it vvas at this m o m e n t that the m i d d l e Euphrates bccame the accepted b o u n d a r y o f the R o m a n atıd Parthiaıı E m p i r c s , a f a c t repeatedly symbolised in diplo-

4. S c h ü r e r , HJP I, 580. 5. P l u t a r c h , Ani. 6. IGLSIII,

61.

n o . 7 1 8 , iii = R . K . S h c r k , Roman

Documents

(rom the Greek

F-ast ( 1 9 7 1 ) , n o .

5 8 , iii. E v e n t h o u g l ı t h e a r c a ı m m c d i a t e l y n o r t h o f t h e A m a n u s m a y l ı a v e f o r m e d p a r t o f t k e province of Syria, a s argııed by H . Taeuber, " D i e syrîseh-kiliktsehe G r e n » w â h r c n d der Prinzip a r s z e i r " , Tyche

6 ( 1 9 9 ' ) , 2 0 1 , ir is n o t t r e a t e d h e r e as p a r t o f t h e N e a r Kast.

7. S e e t h e s k e t e h - m a p o f the m o n u m e n t s o f t h e r o y a l cult o n p . 1 8 9 o f the f u n d a m e n t a l p a p e r b y J . W a g n c r , " D y n a s t i c u n d I l c r r s c h c r l c u l t in K o m m a g c n e " , 8. S c c J. W a g n c r . Seleukeia

aın F.uphrat/7.eugma

(1976), 64.

ist. Mitt.

33 (1983), 177.

m a t i c meetings in the course o f the first century. But the role o f Z e u g m a as a legionary base c a m e o n l y later. 9 Under A u g u s t u s and Tibcrius the legions of Syria w e r c t o bc disposed intcrnally, as an a r m y o f o c c u p a t i o n . 1 0 It m a y also have been at this m o m e n t that the cult-centre o f D o l i c h e , s o m e 4 0 k m \vest o f Z e u g m a , b e c a m e part of the provincial territory. But f o r th:s period wc h a v e no significant evidence a b o u t it, or a b o u t the largc triangle of fertile land, betvveen the E u p h r a t e s a n d the Taurus, vvhich f o r m e d the kingd o m o f C o m m a g e n e itself. A c o u p l e o f episodes refleeting dynastic strife are n o substitute f o r a social history of this region. 1 1 We can o n l y rccail t h a t it vvas there, flanking the p r o v i n c e p r o p e r o n the north, as other d e p e n d e n t k i n g d o m s did t o the south. If the conscqucnces o f A c t i u m f o r the northern part of Syria h a v e t o he d c d u c c d indirectly, the situatîon is quite different f o r the southern part o f the region, a b o v e ali because o f the tvvo m a j ö r lıistorical vvorks o f J o s e p h u s , d:e Jeu/isb War and the Atıliquities.

T h e importance of these vvorks f o r Jevvish

history in the Classical p e r i o d needs n o emphasis. T h e significance of the Atttiquıties

as representing the oııly 'insider's' history o f any N e a r Eastern people

to carry through from the second millennium to the R o m a n Ernpire h a s also already been stressed, as has t h e importance of that narrative f o r our vievv of the n e i g h b o u r i n g peoples. 1 2 T h e s a m e is true, hovvever, o f these tvvo narratives as o f f e r i n g a v i c w of the strueture of the R o m a n Empire in this region a n d of the vvorking of povver-relations, u p t o vvhere the Jeıvisb

War stops, in AD 74.

A g a i n the light east extends f a r outside the arca of Jevvish settlement; if vvhat it primarily illuminates is t h e region o f southern Syria and N a b a t a e a , in the end it returns to C o m m a g e n e , to offer the best available a c c o u n t of the forcible provincialisation o f a d e p e n d e n t k i n g d o m . 1 3 It is thus f r o m Josephus t h a t vve knovv that H e r o d reacted to the nevvs of A c t i u m by setting o f f to m e e t O c t a v i a n 011 the island o f R l ı o d e s in 30 BC. L a y i n g aside his r o y a l diadern as a sign o f submission, the king argued that his l o y a l t y t o A n t o n i u s s h o u l d bc construed as a sign o f his prospeetive loyalty to O c t a v i a n . Whether c o n v i n c e d b y these arguments or n o t , O c t a v i a n d u l y assented. 1 4 H e r o d , thus c o n f i r m e d as king, eseorted O c t a v i a n t h r o u g h Syria on his vvay t o Egypt, entertained him lavishly at Ptolcmais a n d p r o v i d c d supplies f o r the erossing of the desert; and on Octavian's return after the c o n q u e s t 9. 2.7 and 3.1 belovv. 10. 2.2 belo\v. TI. For Doliche scc 7.1 belovv. Rpisodcs of dynastic strife: Dio ıJı, 43, T (29 BC); the su sion of Mithridaccs (III) in 10 BC: I.l V, 9, 3. Sec R. O. Sullivan, "The Dynasty of Commagene", ANR\V 11.8 (1977), 7 3 3 . o n p p . 7 7 5 « >2. C h . 1 a b o v e .

13. 3.1 belovv. 1 4 . J o s e p h u s 8/

1 ° , »"3 ( 3 ^ 3 9 3 ) ;

A

"'-

x v

.

6>

6 - 7 («87-193)-

of E g y p t , h e e s c o r t c d h i m n o r t h a s far as A n t i o c h . In betvveen, he h a d b e e n t o see O c t a v i a n in E g y p t , a n d r e c e i v e d a d d i t i o n s t o h i s k i n g d o m in t h e f o r m o f H i p p o s o n the eastern s h o r e o f the S e a o f G a l i l e e ; G a d a r a b e y o n d the J o r d a n ; J e r i c h o in the J o r d a n V a l l e y ; S a m a r i a ; a n d a line o f small places on t h e coast, Straton's Tower, J o p p a and Anthedon.15 W h a t m a t t e r s a b o u t these e x c h a n g e s is n o t t h e e x a c t details, s o m e o f \vhich a r e u n c e r t a i n , b u t the s t r u c t u r e s o f povvcr r e v e a l c d , vvhich shovv a fluc n c y a n d c h a n g e a b l e n e s s vvhich vvas t o c o n t i n u c f o r m a n y d e c a d e s . T h e nevv ruler, O c t a v i a n , o p e r a t e s b y p e r s o n a l c o n t a c t a n d f a v o u r , a r b i t r a r i i y t r a n s f e r ring places f r o m R o m a n d i r c c t rule t o royal c o n t r o l (or, a p p a r c n t l y , in t h e o p p o s i t e d i r e e t i o n , a s vvith Z e u g m a ) . H e c a n m a r c h his f o r c e s t h r o u g h r o y a l territory, t a k i n g t h e land r o u t e t o Egypt a n d b a c k , j u s t a s H e r o d c a n e s c o r t h i m in either d i r e e t i o n t h r o u g h S y r i a , a n d offer lavish e n t e r t a i n m e n t s at P t o l e m a i s , a city vvhich vvas n e v e r u n d e r his c o n t r o l , a n d m u s t t h e r e f o r e h a v e b e e n t h o u g h t o f as p a r t o f t h e R o m a n p r o v i n c e o f S y r i a . E x a c d y vvhat t h e b o u ı ı d a r i c s o f t h a t p r o v i n c e vvere (if indeed t h e p r o b l e m s h o u l d b e stated in t h o s e t e r m s ) c a n be left aside f o r t h e m o m e n t . ' I o u n d e r s t a n d the n a t u r e o f R o m a n c o n t r o l in the r e g i o n , it is necessary, first, t o r e c a l l t h e w e l l - k n o w n truth t h a t t h e t e r m provitıcia

meant both a sphere of opera-

t i o n a n d a g e o g r a p h i c a l l y d e f i n e d a r e a . S e c o n d , the R o m a n p r e s e n c e in t h e N e a r E a s t a t this m o m e n t c o n s i s t e d o f a single ' p r o v i n c i a ' c a l l e d S y r i a . T h i r d , u n d e r t h e c o n s t i t u t i o n a l a r r a n g c m e n t s m a d c in R o m e in J a n u a r y 2 7 BC Syria b c c a m c vvhat S t r a b o , t h e best c o n t e m p o r a r y vvitness, c a l l e d a p r o v i n c e o f C a e s a r a s o p p o s e d t o a p r o v i n c e o f the R o m a n p e o p l e . T h e difference vvas e s s e n tially that the g o v e r n o r s o f the ' p r o v i n c e s o f C a c s a r ' vvere t o be a p p o i n t e d b y t h e E m p e r o r ( A u g u s t u s , as he h a d novv been officially n a m e d ) , a n d vvere c a l l e d legali, e n v o y s ; in the p r o v i n c c s o f the R o m a n p e o p l e the g o v e r n o r s stili vvere a p p o i n t e d b y the a r c h a i c p r o c c d u r e o f using t h e l o t , a n d vvere c a l l e d proconsules.'6 T h e s e details o f t h e nevv R o m a n s t r u e t u r e a r e o f s o m e i m p o r t a n c c , f o r t h e b r o a d p r i n c i p l c o f the d i s t i n e t i o n vvas in t h e o r y (and largely in p r a c t i c e ) t h a t t h e ' p r o v i n c e s o f C a e s a r ' vvere t h e m i i i t a r y a r e a s . In t e r m s o f t h e vvorkiııgs o f the R o m a n E m p i r e , S y r i a , like a l i the o t h e r p r o v i n c e s s u b s e q u e n d y a c q u i r c d in t h e I m p e r i a l p e r i o d , vvas a m i i i t a r y a r c a , a n d o n e in vvhich a t ali t i m e s c o m p a r a t i v e l y large m i i i t a r y f o r c e s vvere s t a t i o n e d . A s e c o n d c o n s e q u e n c e vvas t h a t ali t h e h i g h e r o f f i c i a l s vvho o p e r a t e d in this r e g i o n vvere t h r o u g h o u t , 1 5 . S c h ü r c r , HJPI,

289.

16. S c c F. M i l i a r , " T h e E m p e r o r , t h e S e n a t e a n d t h e P r o v i n c c s " , JRS

5 6 ( 1 9 6 6 ) , 1 5 6 , vvith

s o m e c o r r e c t i o n s a s r e g a r d s t e r m i n o l o g y in " ' S e n a t o r i a l ' P r o v i n c c s : A n Institution3İiscd G h o s t " , Ancient

\Vorld 2 0 ( 1 9 8 9 ) , 9 3 . T h e l o n g - c s t a b l i s h c d p r o p o s i t i o n t h a t ' s p h e r e o f o p e r a t i o n ' r e p r e -

s e n t e d t h e o r i g i n a l m e a n i n g o f provincia p r o v i n c i a " , Journal

des savants

is c h a l l e n g e d b y J . - M . B e r t r a n d , " A p r o p o s d u m o t

(1989), 191.

w i t h o u t exception, personal a p p o i n t e e s o f the Emperor, serving untîi recalled. 'AJI the higher officials' raight give a false impression. In fact they vvere very fevv indeed. T h e most i m p o r t a n t vvas thc legatus o f thc p r o v i n c e o f Syria. T h c position vvas held t o bc o f m a j ö r i m p o r t a n c e , and ali holders vvhose careers are knovvn vvere ex-coıısuls, the highest senatorial rank. U n d e r them vvere the senatorial c o m m a n d e r s o f thc legions, also called legali, and i n the cstablishcd Impcrial system n o r m a i l y of ex-practor rank. In thc latter p a r t o f the reign of A u g u s t u s there s e e m to have been three legions in Syria. 1 7 I f we assume (as a guess) a c o m p l e m e n t of five thousand men each, t h a t meant a garrison of fifteen t h o u s a n d citizcn legionarics, vvith an unknovvn number of auxiliaries. T h c significance of these figures lics in the fact that they represent a c o n scious dccision at thc c c n t r c o f povver a b o u t thc a p p o r t i o n m e n t of f o r c c vvithin the Empire. W h a t e v e r else might h a v e occurred b y accident o r oversight, o r as an impcrceptible development t o vvhich no attention vvas paid, the disposition of thc legions bctvveen provinccs vvas a matter of deliberate c h o i c e . It vvas one of the m a t t e r s o n vvhich A u g u s t u s ' successor, Tiberius, regularly coıısulted the Senate; a n d it is Tacitus* a c c o u n t of Tiberius' r e p o r t t o thc Scnatc in AD 13 vvhich reveals that by then thc n u m b e r o f legions in Syria h a d risen to four. 1 8 T h e second level o f significance of suclı figures f o r the legions lics in the fact that they represent a l m o s t thc vvholc o f thc R o m a n prcscncc in thc rcgion. A s elsevvhere in the R o m a n p r o v i n c c s , vvhat vve might bc tempted to think of as civilian administration remained at a very restricted level. O u t s i d e ehe strueture just d e s e r i b e d — a c o n s u l a r legatus of thc province, and three practorian legati o f the legions, vvith under them s i x military tribunes and sixty centurioııs f o r each l e g i o n — t h e o n l y civilian official vvho can be attested f o r this period is a procurator

o f cqucstrian rank vvhose duties vvill h a v e been con-

cerned vvith the raising o f t a x a t i o n a n d the p a y m e n t of the troops. T h e o n l y o n e of these vvhom vve can scc at vvork under A u g u s t u s is thc Sabinus v v h o m Joscphus shovvs intervening «o secure the r o y a l treasures in Jerusalem after thc dcath o f H e r o d in 4 BC. 19 In terms of personnel e m p l o y e d b y the R o m a n state, these legionarics, an unknovvn number of auxiliaries and the officers of each, u n d e r the o v e t a l l c o m m a n d o f the legatus of S y r i a , 1vere the Empire as expressed in this carly 17. Thc number is not certain; but Josephus, BJ II, 3, x (40); 5, x (67); Ant. XVII, 10, 9 that in 4 BC fherc were three in ali. Since his nnrrativc relies ar least in pare on Nicolaus of Damascus, a contemporary vvho vvas closcly involvcd in thc events in qucs:tion, he is likely to bc corrcct. T8. Consultatıon of thc Scnatc: Suctonius, Tib. 30; Tiberius* report of AU 1 3 ; Tacitus, Anıı. IV, 519. Scc below. ( 2 8 6 ) ,FTRRNLYstates

period in the N e a r E a s t . T h e r e is ı ı o t h i n g t o suggest, a n d n o r e a s o n t o b e l i e v e , t h a t there vvas a n y strictly c i v i l i a n a d n ı i n i s t r a t i o n . L e a s t o f ali vvas t h e r e a p y r a m i d o f local R o m a n a d m i n i s t r a t o r s c u l m i n a t i n g in t h e legatııs,

or any

b u r c a u c r a t i c hierarehy. In e s s e n c e , t h e r e f o r e , Syria vvas stili a m i l i t a r y ' p r o v i n c e ' , o r s p h e r e o f o p e r a t i o n s , vvhere t h e R o m a n s t a t e ıvas its m i l i t a r y f o r c e s , vvhose role vvas t o c o n f r o n t P a r t h i a a e r o s s t h e E u p h r a t e s on the o n e h a ı ı d , a n d t o k c c p at least a potential e o n t r o l o f d e p e n d e n t k i n g d o m s a n d t o i m p o s e order internally o n the other hand. M i l i t a r y r e l a t i o n s vvith P a r t h i a a r e ııot as s u c h tlıe s u b j e c t o f this b o o k . T h e r e l e v a n c c h e r e o f t h e o f t e n - d i s c u s s e d c o n f r o n t a t i o n s vvhich t o o k placc a t intervals över the first tvvo a n d a half c e n t u r i e s o f the E m p i r e is o n l y in t h e c o n c c p t i o n o f vvhere t h e ' e a s t e r n f r o n t i e r ' o f t h e E m p i r e Iay; in the vvay t h a t the R o m a n f o r c c s vverc d i s p o s e d ; a n d in t h e degree t o vvhich R o m e rclicd o ı ı the f o r c e s vvhich c o u l d b e p r o v i d e d by the d e p e n d e n t kings o f t h e r e g i o n . A s f o r t h e frontier, Z e u g m a , t h e m a i n e r o s s i n g o f the E u p h r a t e s , s e e m s t o have passed from C o m m a g e n e t o R o m e immediately after the battle of A c t i u m . T h a t t h e E u p h r a t e s , o r r a t h e r this section o f it, vvas novv c o n c c i v e d o f as t h e s y m b o l i c f r o n t i e r betvvcen R o m e a n d P a r t h i a is m a d e c l c a r b y S t r a b o : ' T h e E u p h r a t e s a n d t h e l a n d b e y o n d it c o n s t i t u t c the b o u n d a r y o f tlıc P a r tlıian e m p i r e . B u t the p a r t s this side o f the river are h e l d b y t h e R o m a n s a n d t h e c h i e f t a i n s (phylarchoi)

o f t h e A r a b i a n s a s far as B a b y l o n i a , s o m e o f t h e s e

c h i e f t a i n s p r e f e r r i n g t o g i v c c a r t o the P a r t h i a n s a n d o t h e r s t o t h e R o m a n s ' . 2 0 T h a t is t o say, vvhere t h e river t r a v e r s e d the Eertile C r e s c e n t t h e r e vvas a c l e a r frontier. B u t in t h e vvidc s t e p p e z o n e t o t h e s o u t h it vvas a m a t t e r o f u t ı s t a b l e a l l i a n c e s a n d d i p l o m a t i c r e l a t i o n s . T h e role o f t h e river a s a f r o n t i e r vvas in a n y c a s e clearly s y m b o l i s e d in A D I , w h e n A t ı g u s t u s ' g r a n d s o ı ı , a n d a d o p t e d s o n , G a i u s , m e t P h r a t a c c s , t h e k i n g o f P a r t h i a , on a n island in the E u p h r a t e s , vvatched b y their a r m i e s o n e i t h e r b a n k . 2 1 Iıı this e a r l y period it is i m p o s s i b l e t o s a y vvhere the t h r e e , a n d then f o u r ; l e g i o n s o f Syria vvere r c g u l a r l y s t a t i o n c d , o r even vvhether it is riglıt t o a s s u t n e t h a t e a c h h a d a regular s t a t i o n a n d vvas k e p t t o g e t h e r as a s t r a t c g i c u n i t ; o r indeed t o g a i n a n y i m p r e s s i o n at ali o f lıovv a legion a n d the s u r r o u n d i n g p o p u l a t i o n i n t c r a c t c d in n o r m a l t i m e s . It is o n l y in AD 18/19 t h a t p a s s i n g r e f c r e n c e s in T a c i t u s ' n a r r a t i v e reveal t h e ' w i n t c r - q u a r t e r s ' (hiherııa)

of the

X t h l e g i o n , a t t h e G r e e k city o f C y r r h u s in t h e b r o a d fertile region in t h e n o r t h o f the p r o v i n c c , b o r d e r i n g 011 C o m m a g e n e , a n d on the r o u t e betvveen Antioch a n d Z e u g m a ; a n d a l s o t h a t o f t h e V l t h legion a t L a o d i c e a o n t h e c o a s t . " - It is q u i t e likely that a l e g i o n vvill h a v e been there on a regular b a s i s .

20. S t r a b o , Geog.

X V I , ı,

28 ( 7 4 8 ) .

2 t . V e l l c i u s ı ı , TOI. 2 2 . TacİtUS, Ann.

II, 5 7 , 2; 7% 3 -

B u t t h a t , i f a c c e p t e d , s h o u l d I c a d t o n o p r e s u m p t i o n s a b o u t a n y m o r e precise r e l a t i o n s h i p b e t w e e n e a c h c i t y a n d ıhe c a m p ; it is o n l y later, a n d o n l y a t certain s p c c i f i c places { B o s t r a , D u r a - E u r o p o s , P a l m y r a ) t h a t w c c a n a c t u a l l y see s u c h a r e l a t i o n s h i p in c o n c r e t e f o r m . T h e s ı a t i o n s , o r c a m p s , o f the o t h e r l e g i o n s in Syria u n d e r A u g u s t u s and T i b e r i u s a r e n o r m a l l y givcn a s A n t i o c h f o r III G a l l i c a a n d R a p h a n e a e in the O r o n t e s Valley f o r X I I F u l m i n a t a . " E v e n if the a s s u m p t i o n t h a t t h e y h a d regular s t a t i o n s is c o r r e c t , t h e e v i d e n c e f o r this period is very slight. B u t , t o put it simply, t h e r e w e r e n o t m a n y o t h e r places w h c r c they c o u l d h a v e b e e n . T h e a r e a directly o c c u p i e d by R o m e c o n s i s t c d o f t h e c o a s t a n d t h e m o u n t a i r . r a n g e s b e h i n d it as far s o u t h as P t o l e m a i s ; t h e hilly b u t fertile r e g i o n s t r e t c h ing f r o m the A m a n u s M o u n t a i n s a c r o s s t o the E u p h r a t e s ; a n d t h e O r o n t e s Valley as far s o u t h a s its s o u r c e in the B e k a a Valley. B u t even in the O r o n t e s Valley, w h e r e t h e t a b l e l a n d t o the east o f t h e river shades o f f g r a d u a l l y into barren s t e p p e , R o m a n direct rule vvas n o t c o n t i ı ı u o u s . F o r a t E m e s a (I l o m s ) t h e Iocal d y n a s t y o f S a m p s i g c r a m u s a n d I a m b l i c h u s , the ' p h y l a r c h o i o f the t r i b e (ethnos)

o f t h e E m i s e n i ' , w h o m vve savv in t h e 40S BC in c o n t r o l a l s o o f

a s m a l l p l a c c c a l l e d A r e t h u s a t o the n o r t h , persisted t h r o u g h m o s t o f t h e first c e n t u r y AD. 2 4 In t h e early y e a r s o f T i b e r i u s a n o t h e r S a m p s i g c r a m u s vvas in povver there, f o r he is n a m e d a l o n g vvith G e r m a n i c u s ( h e n c e in AD 1 8 / 1 9 ) in a P a l m y r e n c inseription f r o m the t e m p l e o f Bel. H e r e he s e e m s t o bc d e s c r i b c d as ' g r e a t k i n g ' , as he is in r e t r o s p e c t in a L a t i n inseription (calling h i m magnus)

rex

put u p a t H e l i o p o l i s t o h o n o u r h i s s o n . "

T h i s dynasty, a n d its f o r c e s , vvill r e a p p c a r sevcral times; b u t its r e l e v a n c e here is t h a t its territory, hovvever r c s t r i c t e d , m u s t h a v e r e p r e s e n t e d a 7.one vvhich the R o m a n f o r c e s d i d n o t o c c u p y , a n d vvhere the R o m a n E m p i r e did n o t raise t a x e s . I Iovv far this t e r r i t o r y s t r e t e h e d t o t h e vvest vve d o n o t knovv; b u t t o t h e e a s t it s e e m s t o h a v e b e e n very e x t e n s i v e . A b o u n d a r y - m a r k e r ins e r i b e d in L a t i n shovvs t h a t o n e p o i n t o n t h e b o u n d a r y betvveen E m e s e n e and P a l m y r e n c t e r r i t o r y vvas Q a s r el H a i r , 6 o k m vvest-south-vvest f r o m P a l m y r a , and some 90 k m south-east from Emesa.26 T h i s b o u n d a r y - m a r k e r is o n e o f several i n d i c a t i o n s t h a t P a l m y r a itself vvas a l s o fırmly vvithin the R o m a n sphere o f i n f l u e n c e . It itself is n o t d a t e d . But a n o t h e r , f o u n d a t K h i r b c t e l - B i l a a s , 7 5 k m north-vvest o f the city, shovvs t h a t the ' b o u n d a r i e s o f the regio Paltnyrena' 2.5. S o , c . g . , J . W a g n c r , Die Römet

an Euphrat

had been cstablished under Creticus und Tigris (Die Anlike

Welt,

SondernuramiT,

1 9 8 5 ) , 16, a n i m p o r t a n t study t o vvhich the vvhole o f this p a r t u f the b o o k i? g r e a d y i n d e b t e d . 2 4 . F o r the d y n a s t y see R. D . S u l l i v a n ,

aThc

D y n a s t y o f E m e s a " , ANRW

II.8 ( 1 9 7 7 ) , 1 9 8

2 5 . J. G a n t i n e a u , " T c x t c s p a l m y r e n i e n s p r o v e n a n t de la fouille d u t e m p l e de B e l " , 1 2 ( 1 9 3 1 ) , " 6 , on p . 1 3 9 , 110. ı 8 , U : ( S M ) S G R M M I . K ( H M Ş M I J K ' R S Y \ İGLS 2 7 6 0 (Heliopolis). 2 6 . AF ( t 9 3 9 ) , n o . 1 8 0 .

Syrtt

V I , no.

S i l a n u s , legatus

o f Syria in AD 1 1 — 1 7 .

TAX_'AW

o f AD 1 3 7 a l s o q u o t c s a

r e g u l a d o n m a d e by G e r m a n i c u s , e v i d e n t l y w h e n in Syria in AD 18/19; t h e s a m e t i m e , as it seems, a legatus

ar >d

a t

o f t h e legion X F r e t c n s i s p u t up a L a t i n

d e d i c a t i o n t o T i b e r i u s , D r u s u s a n d G e r m a n i c u s , f o u n d in the t e m p l e o f B e l . " T h e r e is 110 r e a s o n t o s u p p o s e ı h a t R o m a n t r o o p s w c r e regularly s t a t i o n e d t h e r e a t this c a r l y p e r i o d . B u t t h e city p r o b a b l y paid t r i b u t e , a n d s h o u l d b c seen as part o f t h e E m p i r e . T o r e a c h s o u t h e r n Syria o r J u d a e a , as they on o c c a s i o n did, R o m a n f o r c e s m u s t , a s it s e e m s , c i t h c r h a v e h a d t o m a r c h t h r o u g h the t e r r i t o r y o f t h e k i n g s o f E m e s a o r have taken the c o a s t a l r o u t e t h r o u g h Berytus a n d T y r e t o P t o l e m a i s . T h e r e is n o t h i n g s u r p r i s i n g in t h a t in itself. B u t it d o e s serve t o e m p h a sisc t h a t it vvas o n l y in the n o r t h t h a t R o m a n direct c o n t r o l vvas firmly e s t a b lished. A s s o o n as vve l o o k s o u t h , t o t h e M o u n t I . e b a n o n c h a i n , t h e B e k a a Valley, A t ı t i - L e b a n o n , M o u n t H e r m o n a n d then the t e r r i t o r y t o the s o u t h o f D a m a s c u s , a m u c h m o r e c o m p l c x p i c t u r c o f the i n t c r p l a y o f R o m a n a n d l o c a ! f o r c e s presents itself. T h e r e is n o simple vvay o f r e p r e s e n t i n g this interplay, but the best m a y b e t o o u t l i n e its m a i n features a r c a by a r c a , m o v i n g southvvards. T h e c o n t r a s t betvveen the z o n e o f settled R o m a n c o n t r o l in the valley o f the O r o n t e s o n the o n e h a n d and poliçe o r m i l i t a r y o p e r a t i o n s in the m o u n t a i n o u s t e r r i t o r y on the o t h e r is in f a c t p c r f c c t l y c a u g h t in the f a m o u s L a t i n inseription r e c o r d i n g the c a r e e r o f a n A u g u s t a n m i l i t a r y officer n a m e d Q . A e m i l i u s S e c u n dus. 2 R U n d e r Sulpicius Q u i r i n i u s a s legatus

Caesaris

Syriae, so a r o u n d AD 6 ,

h c h a d c o n d u c t e d a c e n s u s in t h e civitas Af>amena a n d r e c o r d c d 1 1 7 , 0 0 0 p e r sons. L e a v i n g aside this c r u c i a l d a t u m f o r the m o m e n t , vve m a y n o t e t h a t h c a l s o says h c had been sent b y Q u i r i n i u s a g a i n s t the I t u r a e a n s o f M o u n t L e b a n o n a n d h a d c a p t u r e d a castellum

of theirs. Full-scale military operations

vvere t h e r e f o r e stili g o i n g o n in s o u t h e r n Syria in t h e early y e a r s AD, s o m e seventy y c a r s a f t e r t h e f o r m a t i o n o f t h e p r o v i n c e . A further picture o f these I t u r a e a n s o f the m o u n t a i n z o n e , a n d their r e l a t i o n s vvith t h e B e k a a Valley (the M a s s y a s Plain) a n d t h e c o a s t , is p r o v i d e d , a s alvvays, by S t r a b o : After M a c r a s o n e comcs t o t h e Massyas Plain, vvhich contains also some mountainous parts, a m o n g vvhich is Chalcis, the aeropolis, as it vvere, o f the Massyas. T h e beginning o f this plain is the Laodiceia near Libanus. Novv ali the m o u n t a i n o u s p a r t s are held by Ituraeans a n d Arabians, ali o f vvhom are rohbers, but the p e o p l e in the plains are farmers; and vvhen the latter are harassed by the r o b b e r s at different times they requirc different 2 7 . For ıhis e v i d e n c e s c c H . S e y r i g , " L ' i n c o r p o r a t i o n dc Palmyrc â 1'empire r o m a i n * , Syrra 1 } ( « 9 3 1 ) , 2 6 6 ; S t a r c k y a n d G a w l i k o w s k i , Palmyre 28. ILS,

no. 2683.

2 (1985), 37.

kinds o f help. T h e s e r o b b e r s use strongholds as bases o f oper3tion; t h o s e , for examplc, vvho hold L i b a n u s posscss, high up on thc m o u n t a i n , Sinna and B o r r a m a a n d orher fortresses likc them, and, dovvn belovv, Botrys a n d Gigartus and the caves by t h c sea aııd the castle that vvas ereeted on T h e u prosopon. P o m p c y destroyed these placcs; and from them the r o b b e r s overran both Byblus and thc city t h a t c o m e s n c x t after Byhlus, I mean thc city Berytus, vvhich lie betvveen Sidon and T h e u p r o s o p o n . 2 ' L a t e r vve vvili c o m c b a c k briefly t o this r e g i o n a n d t o S t r a b o ' s i d e a t h a t the p o p u l a t i o n o f M o u n t L c b a n o n c o u l d bc classificd as ' I t u r a e a n s a n d A r a b i a n s ' . 3 0 W h a t is c l e a r is t h a t S t r a b o sees s o m e r e i a t i o n s h i p betvveen r a i d ng f r o m t h c m o u n t a i n t o t h e p l a i n a n d t h e c o a s t a n d vvhat he then g o e s o n t o r e c o r d , the f o u n d a t i o n o f a colonia

a t B e r y t u s , vvith a t e r r i t o r y s t r e t e h i n g t o

t h e s o u r e e s o f the O r o n t e s in t h e B e k a a Valiey. H e r e again it will be n e e e s s a r y t o return later t o t h e c o m p I e x c o n s e q u e n c e s o f the s e t t l e m e n t o f t h e v e t e r a n s o f tvvo legions in this a r c a in 15 BC; 31 this c o l o n y , C o l o n i a Iulia A u g u s t a F e l i x B e r y t u s , n o t o n l y vvas t h e s o l e c o l o n i a l s e t t l e m e n t in thc N e a r E a s t u n d e r A u g u s t u s , b u t represented b y far t h e m o s t p r o f o u n d a n d l o n g - l a s t i n g R o m a n , o r L a t i n , i n t r u s i o n into t h c c u l t u r c o f the r c g i o n in the e n t i r c R o m a n period. S t r a b o m o v e s on f r o m t h e r e t o r e c o r d the security s i t u a t i o n o n the s o u t h c r n side o f A ı ı t i - L e b a n o n a n d M o u n t H e r m o n , vvhere lay t h e a n c i e n t c i t y o f Damascus: T h c city o f Damascus is a l s o a ııotevvorthy city, lıaving been, I might a l most say, even the most f a m o u s o f thc citics in that part of thc vvorld in the time o f the Persian e m p i r e ; and above it are situated tvvo T r a c h o n e s , as they are callcd. And t h e n , tovvards the parts inhabited promiscuously by the Arabians and Ituraeans, a r e mountains hard t o pass, in vvhich t h e r e are deep-mouthed caves, o n e o f vvhich can admit as m a n y as f o u r t h o u sand people in times o f incursions, such as are made against the D a m a s ceni from m a n y placcs. F o r thc m o s t p a r t , indccd, thc barbarians have been robbing the ınerchants from Arabia Felix, but this is less the case novv that thc band of robbers under Z e n o d o r u s has been broken up t h r o u g h thc g o o d govcrnmcnt cstablishcd by thc R o m a n s and through the security established by the R o m a n soldiers that are kept in Syria.' 2 It is n o t q u i t c c l c a r c x a c t l y vvhat s u b - r e g i o n s S t r a b o is r e f e r r i n g t o ,

and

vvhether h c is distinguishing t h c slopes o f M o u n t H e r m o n a n d A n t i - L e b a tıon f r o m the very d i s t i n e t i v e z o n e vvhich lies s o u t h - e a s t o f D a m a s c u s , a n d vvas ı«>. Geog.

X V I , 2, 1 8 ( 7 5 5 ) , L o e b t r a n s .

3 0 . 8.3 belovv. 3 1 . 8.4 belovv. 3 2 . S t t a b o , Geog.

X V I , 2, 2 0 I . F o r G a i u s ' p o s s i b l e i n v o l v e m e n t i n N a b a t a e a , s c c E E . R o m e r , " G a i u s C a c s a r ' s M i i i t a r y D i p l o m a c y ı n t h e E a s t " , TAPbA 2 . J o s c p h u s , BJ II, 7 , 3 { 1 1 1 - 1 2 3 ) ; Ani. 10.1 below.

109 (1979), 1 9 9 .

X V I I , 1 3 , 2^3 { 3 4 2 - 3 4 4 ) . F o r t h e S a m a r i t a n s « e

T h c s t r u c t u r c o f t h a t rule m a y b c bricfly s k e t c h c d . 3 T h c praefecti

wcrc

a p p o i n t e d a n d dismissed b y t h e E m p e r o r , a n d s t a y e d in office a s long a s h e c h o s c . It s c c m s c l c a r t h a t f r o m t h c b c g i n n i n g their n o r m a l r c s i d c n c c w a s n o t J e r u s a l e m itself b u t t h e city o f C a e s a r e a on the c o a s t , vvhich h a d been r e f o u n d e d vvith t h a t n a m e b y H e r o d . B u t R o m a n t r o o p s vvere s t a t i o n e d , p r o b a b l y p e r m a n c n t l y , in J e r u s a l e m , a n d used b o t h the fortress c a l l c d A n t o n i a n e x t t o the T e m p l e , vvhich H e r o d h a d built, a n d p r o b a b l y a l s o t h e p a l a c e o f H e r o d in the u p p e r city, t h e s o - c a l i e d C i t a d e l . T o o u r knovvledge, d i r e c t g a r r i s o n i n g o f a p r o v i n c i a l c i t y vvas very r a r c in thc early E m p i r e . B u t t h c c x p ! a n a t i o n in this c a s c is n o t in d o u b t , n a m e l y t h e i m p o r t a n c e o f the T e m p l e and the d a n g e r o f m a j ö r d i s o r d e r s a t the main a n n u a l festivals, P a s s o v e r a b o v c ali. T o a very r e m a r k a b l e d e g r e e the e n t i r e s t r u c t u r c o f t h e g o v e r n o r ' s a c t i v i t y vvas d e t e r m i n e d by t h a t o f t h e d y n a s t y vvhich he h a d r e p l a c e d . It is p r o b a b l e that in C a e s a r e a t o o these praefecti

used royal buildings a s their h e a d q u a r t e r s .

At a n y r a t e A c t s r c v c a l s a R o m a n g o v e r n o r o f a fevv d e c a d e s later u s i n g ' t h e praitörion

o f H e r o d e s ' t o d e t a i n a p r i s o n e r in. 4 M o r e i m p o r t a n t , it s e e m s

that a t least s o m c o f t h e a u x i l i a r y u n i t s u n d e r thc praefectus'

c o m m a n d vvere

s i m p l y thc r o y a l units r c c r u i t c d f r o m S c b a s t e a n d C a e s a r e a , the tvvo m a i n cities f o u n d e d by H e r o d . 5 T h i s c a n n o t be quite c c r t a i n , s i n c e t h e direct e v i d e n c e f o r s u c h a t r a n s f e r r e l a t e s t o t h e period a f t e r AD 4 4 . B u t it vvould fit vvith ali thc o t h e r e v i d c n c c . P e r h a p s t h e m o s t s t r i k i n g o f t h e r o l e s inherited by these R o m a n

praefecti

f r o m H e r o d a n d A r c h e l a u s vvas t h c a p p o i n t m c n t a n d dismissal o f t h e I i i g h Pricsts. T h u s ali t h c I-Iigh P r i e s t s vvhom vve see in thc G o s p e l n a r r a t i v e s vvere R o m a n a p p o i n t e e s , c h o s e n f r o m vvithin a restrictcd c i r c l e o f priestly f a m i l i e s , a fact vvhich h a s a c o n s i d e r a b l c beariııg o n t h c politics o f t h c time. 6 B e y o n d t h a t , t h c praefecti

a l s o i n h e r i t e d t h c role o f g u a r d i n g t h c high-pricstly r o b e s ,

as Herod and Archelaus had d o n e before them. Josephus' a c c o u n t rccords a unique e l e m e n t in t h e h i s t o r y o f R o m a n provincial g o v c r n m c n t : After him, vvhen thc R o m a n s t o o k over thc government, they retained c o n trol o f the high priest's vestments and kept them in a stone building, vvhere they vvere under the seal both of the priests and o f the custodians o f thc trcasury and vvhere the vvarden o f the guard lightcd thc l a m p day by day. Seven days before each festival the vestments vvere delivered t o the priests 3 . F o r f u l l d e t a i l s s c c S c h ü r c r , HJP

I, 3 5 7 - 3 8 2 .

4. A c t s 2 3 , 3 5 . 5 . F o r H e r o d "s f o r c c s s c c M . H . G r a c c y , " T h c A r m i e s o f t h c J u d a c a n C l i e n t K i n g s " , i n F r c c m a n a n d K e n n e d y , DRRE Herod

II, 3 1 1 . S e c n o v v I. S h a t z m a n , The

Armies

of the Hasmonaeans

( 1 9 9 1 ) , esp. i 7 o f f .

6. F o r t h e list o f these a p p o i n t e e s s c c S c h ü r c r , HJP II, 2 3 0 . M o r e f u l l y i n 1 0 . 2 belovv.

and

by the vvarden. After they had been purified, the high priest w o r e t h e m ; then after the first day o f t h e festival he put them b a c k again in the building vvhere they were laid avvay before. This was the proccdurc a t the t h r e e festivals each year and on t h e fast day. 7 T h e ' t h r e e festivals' vvere Passovcr, P e n t e c o s t a n d T a b e r n a c l e s , a n d ' t h e fast day,' t h e D a y o f A t o n c m e n t . S o f a r a s w e k n o w , a l t h o u g h individual R o m a n s o l d i e r s c a n b e f o u n d o b s e r v i n g m a n y l o c a l cults t h r o u g h o u t t h e N e a r E a s t , t h e r e is n o parallel t o this d e e p official i n v o l v e m e n t in t h e a n n u a l eyele o f festivals o f a local c o m m u n i t y . If m a n y f e a t u r e s o f t h e g o v e r n m e n t o f J u d a e a a s a R o m a n p r o v i n c e vvere t h u s highly l o c a l i s e d , o n e a t l e a s t vvas n o t : t h e i m p o s i t i o n o f t h e c e n s u s a n d t h e raising o f t r i b u t e . It is i m p o r t a n t t o stress t h a t the t a k i n g o f a c e n s u s o f this t y p c , t h e c o u n t i n g o f a p r o v i n c i a l p o p u l a t i o n a n d the a s s e s s m e n t o f their p r o p e r t y for the p u r p o s e o f t h e p a y m e n t o f t r i b u t e , vvas n o t a l o n g - s t a n d i n g f e a t u r c o f R o m a n g o v e r n m e n t , b u t a n i n n o v a t i o n b y A u g u s t u s . T h e earliest ever a t t e s t e d is t h a t t a k e n by A u g u s t u s in G a u l in 2 7 BC; 8 in G a u l the i m p o s i tion o f t h e c e n s u s vvas t o p r o v o k e d i s t u r b a n c e s a n d r e s i s t a n c e in t h e c o u r s c o f A u g u s t u s ' rcign.* S o it did a l s o in J u d a e a , vvhere religious f a c t o r s a d d e d a m o r e p r o f o u n d m o t i v e for r e s i s t a n c e . It is n o t surprising, t h e r e f o r e , t h a t the m o m e n t vvhen t h e c e n s u s vvas i m p o s e d vvas long t o be r e m e m b e r e d . i t s m o s t f a m o u s refleetion is o f c o u r s e in L u k c ' s G o s p e l : ' I t c a m c t o p a s s in t h o s e d a y s t h a t a n edict vvent o u t f r o m C a e s a r A u g u s t u s , that t h e vvhole vvorld s h o u l d b e r e g i s t e r e d ' . 1 0 G i v e n t h a t s u c h a c e n s u s vvas a n i n n o v a t i o n , L u k e ' s a l l u s i c n t o i t , t h o u g h t o o d r a m a t i c i n i m p l y i n g t h a t a t this m o m e n t t h e r e vvas s i n g l e edietum

a p p l y i n g t o ali p r o v i n c e s , is n o t f u n d a m e n t a l l y m i s l e a d i n g . T h e use

t h a t he m a k e s o f i t — i n o r d e r t o r e c o n s t r u c t hovv J e s u s , a s t h e p r o m i s e d M c s s i a h , vvill h a v e been b o r n in B c t h l c h c m — i s , hovvever, vvholly m i s l e a d i n g a n d u n h i s t o r i c a l . F o r n o R o m a n c e n s u s vvas i m p o s e d in G a l i l e e , vvhere he r e p r e s e n t s J e s u s ' f a m i l y as living, o r c o u l d have b e e n . F o r t h e r e vvas n o m o m e n t in the l i f e t i m c o f J e s u s vvhen R o m a n t r i b u t e vvas raiscd in G a l i l e e , vvhich vvas p a r t o f the t e t r a r e h y o f H e r o d e s A n t i p a s . " T h e c o n t r a s t betvveen G a l i l e e , und e r t h e tetrarehy, a n d J e r u s a l e m , u n d e r R o m a n rule, is vital t o a n y u n d e r s t a n d i n g o f the G o s p e l s .

7. Josephus, Ant. XVII, 4, 3 (93-94). 8. See F. Millar, "State and Subject: The Impact of Monarchy", in F, Millar and E. Scgıl (eds.), Caesar Augustus! Seven Aspetfs (1984), 37, on p. 43. 9. For the imposition of the census in Gaul, and the resistance vvhich it provoked, see I.ivy, Epit. 134 and Dio UII, 23, S (27 BC); Livy, Epit. 139 (12 UC); Tacitus, Ann. I, 31, 2 (AD 14). ro. Lk 2, 1. ı ı . For an exhaustive analysis of ali the problems relating to the ccnsus and the rcfcrencc 10 it in I.uke, see Schürer, HfP I, 399!!.

L u k e , w h o m s o m e m o d e r n s m a n a g c t o see as a real ' h i s t o r i a n ' , is h a r d l y m o r e succcssful vvlıen he m a k e s G a m a l i e l , addressing the Saııhedrin in (in o u r t e r m s ) t h e 30S, allude first t o T h e u d a s , a p r o p h e t a n d p o p u l a r l e a d e r vvho b e l o n g s in t h e 40S, a n d then t o the c e n s u s : ' A f t e r h i m t h e r e a r o s e J u d a s t h e G a l i l e a n , in t h e days o f the c e n s u s , a n d rouscd u p t h e p e o p l e b e h i n d h i m . H c t o o vvas d e s t r o y e d , a n d ali t h o s e vvho believed in him vvere s e a t t e r e d ' . 1 2 H e r e a g a i n , t h o u g h the c o n t e x t is h o p e l e s s l y c o n f u s e d , c e r t a i n essentials a r e p r e s e r v e d : a b o v e ali the underlying p r e s u m p t i o n that p o p u l a r m o v e m e n t s vvould typically b e o p p o s e d by t h e ruling g r o u p in J e r u s a l e m , a n d b e repressed. S o indeed it h a d been in AD 6 , vvhere J o s e p h u s ' a c c o u ı ı t s , s e a t t e r e d a t v a r i o u s p o i n t s in his tvvo m a j ö r vvorks, p r o v i d e a glimpse o f a c l a s s i c rural r c s i s t a n c e m o v e m e n t , direeted a s m u c h o r m o r e a g a i n s t c o l l a b o r a t o r s a s a g a i n s t t h e o c c u p y i n g povver. J o s e p h u s ' n a r r a t i v e s m a k c c l c a r t h a t a t this m o m e n t o f renevved crisis t h e legatus

o f S y r i a , novv Sulpicius Q u i r i n i u s , again m a r e h e d s o u t h t o i n t e r v e n e

in p e r s o n , a c c o m p a n i e d by C o p o n i u s , vvho vvas t o b e the

first

praefectus.

W h e n t h e c e n s u s vvas i m p o s e d , the Jevvish a u t h o r i r i e s urged c o m p l i a n c e , b u t J u d a s ' t h e G a l i l e a n ' (or ' G a u l a m t e ' ) a n d a p h a r i s e e n a m e d S a d d o k a r g u e d t h a t s u b m i s s i o n vvas a f o r m o f slavery, a n d that H e a v e n vvould assist the

fight

f o r f r e e d o m . 1 3 T h i s is n o t the p l a c e f o r a n a n a l y s i s o f vvhat J o s e p h u s c a l l s t h e ' f o u r t h p h i l o s o p h y ' , vvhich s a w political f r e e d o m a s a religious duty, o r o f his ela im t h a t t h e r e vvas a s e q u e ı ı c e o f events leading f r o m this m o m e n t t o s a c r i l c g i o u s i n t e r n a l strife, t o t h e loss o f divinc f a v o u r a n d t o the d c s t r u c t i o n o f the T e m p l e . It is m o r e i m p o r t a n t , vvhile a n a i y s i n g vvhat E m p i r e m e a n t i n t h e N e a r E a s t , t o turn t o a p a s s a g e later in the Jeıvish

XUar vvhere he m a k e s a

direct link betvveen t h e Sicarii vvho o c c u p i c d M a s a d a d u r i n g the g r e a t r c v o l t a n d the resistatıce in AD 6 , as w e l l a s giving a m o r e c o n c r e t e p i c t u r e t h a n clsevvherc o f vvhat r e s i s t a n c e h a d m e a n t in t e r m s o f i n t e r n a l conflict: T h i s fortress vvas called M a s a d a ; a n d the Sicarii vvho had occupicd it had at their head a m a n o f influence named Eleazar. H e vvas a descendant o f the J u d a s vvho, as vve have prcviously stated, induced multitudes o f Jevvs t o refuse t o enrol themselves, w h c n Quirinius vvas sent as ccnsor t o J u d a c a . F o r in those days the Sicarii clubbed together against those vvho consented t o submit t o R o m e and in every vvay treated them as enemies, plundering their property, rounding up their cattlc, and setting fire t o their habitations; protesting that such persons vvere n o other than aliens, vvho so ignobly sacrificed the hard-vvon liberty of the Jevvs and admitted their prefcrencc for the R o m a n y o k e . " i z . A c t s 5 , 3 7 . F o r t h e r e a l T h e u d a s , a s r e c o r d c d b y J o s e p h u s , s e e Ant. 1 3 . Ant.

X V I I I , 1 , 1 ( 1 - 1 0 ) ; less f u l l y i n B] II, 8 , 1 ( 1 1 7 ) .

ı . \ . B J VII, 8 , 1 ( 2 5 1 - 2 5 5 ) , L o e b trans.

X X , 5, 1 (97-99).

N o t h i n g is said b y J o s e p h u s a b o u t either t h e arrival o f R o m a n f o r c e s f r o m S y r i a o r the r o l e of t h e royal f o r c e s , vvhich (as it s e e m s ) passed directly u n d e r the c o n t r o l o f t h e nevv praefectus.

Ali t h a t is said othervvise o f Q u i r i n i u s ' ae-

t i o n s vvhile in J e r u s a l e m is t h a t he sold o f f t h e p r o p e r t y o f A r c h c l a u s , a n d , b c c a u s c t h e H i g h Pricst J o a z a r h a d been o p p o s c d b y the p e o p l e , d i s m i s s e d h i m a n d a p p o i n t e d A n a n u s ( o r A n n a s ) i n s t e a d . ı s T h i s m a n w a s t o r e m a i ı ı iti o f f i c e f o r s o m e ten y e a r s , a n d o n l y t h r e e brief t e n u r e s s e p a r a t e d his p e r i o d f r o m the long o c c u p a t i o n b y J o s c p h C a i a p h a s , vvho J o h n ' s G o s p c l ( a l o ı ı c ) says vvas his son-in-lavv; a n d J o h n ' s G o s p e l is a l s o a l o n e in r e c o r d i n g t h a t J e s u s vvhen a r r e s t e d vvas t a k e n first t o the h o u s e o f A n n a s a n d then t o t h a t c f his son-in-lavv C a i a p h a s , t h e I l i g h Pricst then in o f f i c e . 1 6 By c o n t r a s t vvith t h e e v e n t s o f 4 BC, the d i s t u r b a n c e s o f AD 6 s e e m t o h a v e represented a m o r e profound and ultimatcly insoluble problem for R o m e . T h e c c n s u s vvas c v i d e n t l y c o r n p l c t c d , hovvcver, a n d t r i b u t e b e g a n t o b e p a i c . T h e f a c t s t h a t this nevv s t r u e t u r e c a m e i n t o b e i n g , that the tvvo a s p c c t s o f it vvere c l o s e l y c o n n e c t e d in t h e p o p u l a r i m a g i n a t i o n , a n d t h a t t h e t r i b u t e vvas t h o u g h t o f a s a p a y m e n t ' t o C a e s a r ' are ali reflccted in the different v c r s î o n s o f a d i a l o g u e betvveen J e s u s a n d s o m e P h a r i s e c s a n d '1 l e r o d i a n s ' , vvhich a J t h r e e S y n o p t i c G o s p c l s c o r r c c t l y set in J e r u s a l e m . 1 7 T h e p o i n t o f the d i a l o g u e , a s n c c d n o t b e a r g u e d , is t h a t it vvas i m p o s s i b l e t o g i v c a s t r a i g h t ansvver t o t h e q u e s t i o n o f vvlıether ' t h e c e n s u s ' s h o u l d b e paid o r n o t . F o r t o s a y t h a t it s h o u l d vvould b e t o risk l o s i n g t h e role o f a p o p u l a r religious l e a d e r ; a n d to s a y t h a t it s h o u l d n o t vvould c x p o s e o n e t o a c c u s a t i o n s o f inciting r e v o l t (a c h a r g e vvhich L u k e ' s G o s p e l , t h o u g h n o t t h e o t h e r s , c l a i m s vvas a c t u a l l y b r o u g h t vvhen J e s u s a p p e a r e d b e f o r e Pilate). 1 8 It h a d a p p a r c n t l y been m e r e a c c i d e n t t h a t a c c u s a t i o n s a g a i n s t A r c h c l a u s h a d led t o the p r o v i t ı c i a l i s a t i o n o f J u d a e a a t the t i m e vvhen, as vve savv, Q u i r i nius vvas c o n d u c t i n g a c e n s u s in t h e c x i s t i n g p r o v i n c e o f S y r i a . 1 9 T h a t the i m p a c t o f t a x a t i o n vvas felt ini b o t h p r o v i n c c s is a t t e s t e d b y a p a s s i n g a l l u s i o n in T a c i t u s u n d e r the y c a r AD 1 7 : ' t h e p r o v i n c e s o f Syria a n d J u d a e a , e x h a u s t e d b y i m p o s i t i o n s , petitioned f o r a r e d u e t i o n o f t r i b u t e ' . 2 0 Somevvhat typicalljr, T a c i t u s fails t o s a y hovv, o r b y vvhom o r t o vvhom t h e p e t i t i o n vvas presen ted, o r e v e n vvhether it vvas a c c e p t e d o r r c j c c t e d . G i v e n t h a t o u r e v i d e n c e l a r g e l y c o n s i s t s o f later n a r r a t i v e s , vve c a n n o t c x 1 5 . Ant.

X V I I I , 2, t 3n F . m p i r c " , JRS 7 0 ( 1 9 8 0 ) , r 2 6 . T h e m o r e s o p h i s t i c a t c d d i s c u s s i o n b y R . W . G o l d s m i t h , " A n E s c i m a t c of t h c Sİ7.c a n d S t r u c turc o f t h e N a t i o n a l P r o d u c t o f t h c E a r l y R o m a n E m p i r e " , Revietu

of Inconıe

and

Wealth

30

( 1 9 8 4 ) , 2 6 3 , vvould s u g g e s t a ' n a t i o n a l p r o d u c t ' v v h i c h vvas c o n s i d c r a b l y larger, b u t a s h a r c t a k c j ı

(he circulation of tribute w e r e s o immediate a n d signilicant w i t h i n the overall e c o n o m y can bc, a n d has been, questioned. 2 4 But t\vo m a j ö r p r o b l c m s arise o n a n y interpretation of the systcm. First, if large quantities of c o i n aris.ng f r o m tribute w e r e regıılarly rnoved o u t of these (or a n y other) regions o f rhe Empire, l ı o w w a s this d o n e ? Silver (the R o m a n detıarius)

is the m o s t likcly

m e d i u m . W e should not undcrestimatc the purcly physical p r o b l c m s involved. O n a purcly scheıııatic c a l c u l a t i o n , the entire tribute of the Empire, if moved at o n e m o m e n t in silver, vvould h a v e required ö v e r 1 6 0 0 h e a v y vvaggons and o v e r 6000 draught animals. 3f vvc s u p p o s e , simply for the sake o f argunıent, t h a t in the first century AD the tvvo N e a r E a s t e m provinces o f Syria a n d Judaea provided 1 0 percent o f the tribute revenuc of the Empire, that vvonld h a v e m e a n t , if it vvere ali e x p o r t c d elsevvhere, the use of a total o f o v e r 1 6 0 vvaggons a n d o v e r 600 a n i m a l s . " But of course it vvas not ali e x p o r t e d . O n the contrary, the N e a r E a s t alvvays remained a heavily g a r r i s o n c d area, and the p r o p o r t i o n o f the R o m a n a r m y vvhich vvas required f o r it stcadily inereased. O n the m o d e l proposed a b o v e , it c a n n o t even be q u i t c certaiıı a priori that it vvas not a net tributei m p o r t i n g region. It is not a n impossible notion that the R o m a n E m p i r e expended m o r e there tlıan it raised in revenue. In the only survey o f the provinces and (in outlinc) their 'profitability 1 vvhich vvc h a v e , that by A p p i a n in the preface to his Rotnan History,

the idea that Britain cost m o r e than it c o n -

tributed is clearly expresscd. ? 6 A l t h o u g h n o figures o n vvhich w e can rcly are available, s o m e relevant statements are m a d e by o u r s o u r c e s and at least deserve mention; and s o m e scheıııatic calculations can b e made vvhich can serve to create a framevvork vvithin vvhich vve can pose qucstions. T h e revenue of the E m p i r e under Augustus, f o r e x a m p l e , has been calcuiated at roughly 1 1 2 million silver denariiP

T h e m o d e l discusscd a b o v e vvould givc a rather highcr estimate lor

the period vvith vvhich vve are concerned at this m o m e n t , the early first century AD, namely something over 2 0 0 million denarii.2*

T h a t is quite sufficient to

put s o m e figures vvhich J o s e p h u s gives us f o r Judaea and its s u r r o u n d i n g regions into some sort o f perspeetive. 2 9 A c c o r d i n g ro these figures H e r o d ' s king-

b y Imperial ta v a t i o n w h î c h vvas c o n s i d e r a h l y snıallcr, p r o d u c i ı ı g a m o r e o r less c o m p a r a b l e fhypochctical) t a x - r c v c n u c . 2 4 . Scc D u n c a n - J o n c s , o p . c i l . (11.22), ch. 2, " T r a d c , T a x c s a n d M o n c y " . 2 5 . S e c F. M i l l a r , " L c s e o n g i a i r e s â R o m e et la m o n n a i e " , in A . G i o v a n n i n i (cd.), Nourrir plebe,

aetes du colloque

2 6 . A p p i a n , IIist.

tenu a Genevc Rom.,

praef.

2 7 . T c n n e y F r a n k , Economic

. . . en hommage

â D. van Bercbem

la

( 1 9 y ı ) , 143.

7. Survey

of

the

Roman

Empire

V (1940), 7 (.jjo

million

sestcrccs). 28. H o p k i n s , o p . c i t . (n.23), 1 1 9 . 2 9 . See E. G a b b a , " L e f i n a n z e d e l rc E r o d c " , Clio 1 5 ( J 9 7 9 ) , 6; i d e m , " T h e F i n a n c c s o f King H c r o d " , in A. Kasher, U . R a p p a p o r c , a n d G . F u k s (eds.), Greece

and Rome

in F.retz Israel:

Col-

d o m a t its fullest e x t e n ı h a d p r o v i d e d the k i n g w i t h a r e v e n u c c q u i v a l e n t t o 5.4 m i l l i o n denarii

per annum

{ p l u s vvhatever h a d e a r l i e r b e e n p a i d by G a -

d a r a , H i p p o s a n d G a z a ) . F o r t h e r e v e n u e s of t h e e t h n a r c h y of A r c h e l a u s a n d the tctrarclıies of A n t i p a s a n d P h i l i p , a t the m o m e n t w h e n they r e c e i v e d t h e m in 4 BC, w c r e the e q u i v a l c n t of 3 . 6 m i l l i o n , 1 . 2 m i l l i o n a n d 6 0 0 , 0 0 0

denarii

respectively. 5 " T h e r e is n o s e l f - e v i d e n t w a y of k n o w i n g w h c t h c r t h e R o m a n state w o u l d e x p c c t , o r a c h i e v e , a h i g h e r o r l o w e r r c v e n u e f r o m a g i v e n a r e a than a d y n a s t ruling the s a m e r e g i o n . B u t s o m e increasc o f r e v e n u e is a p p a r c n t . \ V h e n , as w e w i l l see, ali o f H e r o d ' s k i n g d o m w a s bricfly re-unificd u n d e r h i s g r a n d s o n , A g r i p p a ı , in AD 4 1 - 4 4 , his total r e v e n u e s a r e given a s 1 2 m i l lion draehmai,

or

denarii,J1

T h a t r e - u n i f i c a t i o n is itself an e x a ı n p l c o f t h e

flexibility

betvveen d i r c c t

rule a n d d y n a s t i c rule visible d u r i n g the first c c n t u r y , a n d there is n o d o u b t t h a t s u c h c h a n g c s in cithcr d i r c c t i o n did h a v e e f f e c t s o n the t a x a t i o ı ı o f t h e p o p u l a t i o n . W e c a n see this in J o s e p h u s ' brief but e x t r e m e l y r e v e a l i n g a c c o u n t o f t h e t a x a t i o n - h i s t o r y of a c o l o n y o f B a b y l o n i a n Jevvs vvhom H e r o d s e t t l e d a t a p l a c c c a l l e d B a t h y r a in B a t a n a e a , o n the e d g c o f T r a c h o n i t i s . T h e c o l o n y vvas led by a Jevv c a l l e d Z a m a r i s , a n d vvas desigııed t o i m p r o v c sccurity i n the area: A n d so his land became very p o p u l o u s because of its immunity from ali t a x a t i o n — a state of things vvhich lasted so fong as Herod lived. But vvhen his son Philip succeeded to the kingship, he subjected them to taxation, though it vvas not m u c h and o n l y for a short time. A g r i p p a the G r e a t , hovvever; and his son of the s a m e name did indeed grind them dovvn and yet vvere unvvilling to take their freedom avvay. A n d the R o m a n s , vvho have succeeded these kings a s rulers, also preserved their status a s free m e n but by the imposition of tribute h a v e completely crusbed them. 3 1 T h e s t o r y c o v e r s a p p r o x i m a t c l y a c e n t u r y , a n d a n t i c i p a t c s e v e n t s t o vvhich vve vvill c o m e , the r u l e o f A g r i p p a I a n d then his son A g r i p p a II, a n d the f i n a l p r o v i n c i a l i s a t i o n of his t e r r i t o r y , vvhich p r e c e d c d b y a fevv y e a r s t h e p r o v i n c i a l i s a t i o n o f N a b a t a e a to t h e s o u t h , a n d is h i g h l y r e l e v a n t to i t . " B u t it a l s o m a n a g e s to o m i t tvvo brief i n t e r l u d e s of R o m a n direct rule: a f t e r t h e d e a t h o f

lected

Essays

L'impero

{ 1 9 9 0 ) , 1 6 0 ; c f . A . G a r a , "II m o n d o g r c c a - o r i c n t a i c " , in M . H . C r a v v f o r d ( e d . ) ,

romano

e le strutture

economiche

e sodali

delle province

(Bibliuteca

di Athenaeum

4,

1 9 8 6 ) , 8 7 , o n p. 9 1 . j o . J o s e p h u s , Ant, 1 0 0 ) . A t 6 0 0 0 dracbmai

X V I I , 1 1 , 4 ( 3 1 8 - 3 2 0 ) . T h e figures a r e g i v e n in t a l e n ı s {600, 2 0 0 , a n d — denarii

t o the taient, these revenues c o m e o u t therefore at a total o f

S-4 m i l l i o n . 3 1 . J o s e p h u s , Ant. 32. Ant.

X I X , 8, 2 ( 3 5 2 ) .

X V I I , 2, 2 ( 2 7 - 2 8 ) , L o c b t r a n s .

33. 3.2 below.

Philip in AD 33/34 his territory had been nıade part of Syria before being g i v e n t o A g r i p p a I in AD 3 7 ; and after the lattcr's death in AD 44 B a t a n a e a and Trachonitis w e r e n o t g i v e n t o A g r i p p a II until AD 5 3 . " O n the first of these occasions, ho\vever, the attachment t o the p r o v i n c e o f Syria s e e m s to h a v e been regarded as t e m p o r a r y ; f o r Joscphus rccords, somcvvhat cnigmarically, t h a t Tiberius ' o r d e r e d , however, that the tributes vvhich vvere collectcd in his (Philip's) f o r m e r tetrarehy should be stored u p ' . " T h e r e seems to b e a c l e a r impiication both that t h e s e revenues vvould othervvisc h a v e been shipped o u t clscvvhcrc a n d that a r o u g h equivalence betvveen R o m a n a n d dynastic tribute revenues could be a s s u m e d . We can indeed see this balatıce being taken into a c c o u n t in R o m e in AD 1 7 , vvhen K i n g A r c h c l a u s of C a p p a d o c i a vvas accuscd in R o m e and c o m m i t t c d suicide, and his k i n g d o m vvas m a d e a provincia;

Tiberius e x p l a i n e d , evidently addressing the Senate, that its reve-

nues vvould allovv the j o o t h - p a r t sales t a x levied clscvvhcrc t o bc r c d u c c d to a i o o t h - p a r t one. 3 6 C a p p a d o c i a vvas a large area, vvhich in the event h a d o n l y an a u x i l i a r y garrison, s o a n e t surplus could be expected; even so, the level of t a x a t i o ı ı vvas somevvhat r c d u c e d , t o m a k e R o m a n direct rule m o r e a c c e p t a b l e to the p o p u l a t i o n . 3 7 If vve may t a k e the attested r o y a l o r dynastic revenues as roughly e q u i v a lent t o vvhat might be e x p e c t e d f r o m R o m a n taxation, s o m e m c a n i n g c a n be given to the available figures. T h e c o s t of vvhole legions is very d i f f i c u l t to calculate, becausc vve c a n n o t construct an a d e q u a t e m o d e l o f the p a y o f the p y r a m i d of ranks betvveen o r d i n a r y footsoldiers and ccnturions. But vve k n c v v that in this period the o r d i n a r y soldicr receivcd 2 2 5 denarii

per year. S o 12

million denarii vvould h a v e p r o v i d e d p a y f o r s o m e t h i n g över fifty thousand R o m a n c o m m o n soldiers, t h a t is, those of s o m e ten legions. 3 9 T h u s vvhatever c a l c u l a t i o n s vve m a k e a b o u t o t h e r expenses, o r the pay of higher ranks (and, later at least, procuratores

vvould receive betvveen 1 5 , 0 0 0 a n d 50,000

denarii

a year, and a coıısular legatus presumably s o m e t h i n g like a proconsul, namely 250,000 denarii),

the total revenues of the Syrian region should h a v e meant

that the area vvas at least self-supporting in terms of Imperial

finance.

But, as has already been indicated, the region continued t h r o u g h m o s t o f the first c e n t u r y to be s u b j c c t to considerable fluetuations betvveen R o m a n and dynastic rule. O n e i m p o r t a n t instance conccrned C o n ı m a g e n e , vvhose king A n t i o c h u s III dicd in AD 1 7 ; Tacitus notes briefly that C o m m a g c n c , like Cilicia, vvhosc king had a l s o died, vvas in turmoil 'because m o s t preferred 34. Tevt to n.4j; and 1.3 bdow. 3 5 . Ant.

X V I I I , 4 , (, { 1 0 8 ) .

3 6 . T a c i t u s , Anıı.

II, 4 1 , 4 .

3 7 . T a c i t u s , Ann.

II, 5 6 , 4 .

38. F o r some uscful calculations scc R. M a c M u l l c n , Uıtomus

43 (1984), 5 7 1 .

u

T h c R o m a n E m p e r o r s ' A r m y Co<sti",

R o m a n , but othcrs royal rule'. A s hc notcs a littlc later, C o m m a g e n e w a s i n f a c t provincialised, t h o u g h this time he says nothing o f the financial a s p e c t . But a contemporary, thc g e o g r a p h e r Strabo, m a k i n g vvhat must h a v e beeıı o n e of the last additions to his v v o r k , attaches to his deseription of this s m a l l but fertile country, vvith its f o r ı i f ı e d r o y a l capital, S a m o s a t a , thc note ' b u t novv it has bccomc a p r o v i n c c ' . " A s such, it t o o sccms to h a v e c o m e under thc legatus of Syria, but only f o r s o m e tvventy years. For in AD 38 G a i u s restored the throne to A n t i o c h u s ' s o n , A n t i o c h u s IV, vvho vvas t o rule until t h c early 70S. W i t h that period, as vvill bc sccn, w c enter a quite nevv phase, vvhen in f o u r and a half decades ali t h e dependent k i n g d o m s vvest o f the E u p h r a t e s vvere sııccessively s w e p t avvay. For the m o m e n t vve arc stili in a phase vvhen kings played a very significant part in thc N e a r East, in terms o f territories and populations ruled, o r o f armies supplied; and also in terms of the c o n t c x t in vvhich thc highcr R o m a n offıcials operating in this arca f u n e t i o n e d . T h e highest of ali these officials vvas G e r m a n i c u s , the nephevv a n d adopted son o f Tiberius, vvho in AD 1 7 - 1 9 vvas invested vvith the rank o f proconsul

and sent to t a k e eharge of ali t h e

eastern provinccs. T h c formal rccord o f his role embodied in the dccrees passed by the Senate after his d e a t h in AD 1 9 in A n t i o c h clearly exprcsscs t h c c o m b i n a t i o n of provinces and k i n g d o m s vvhich made up thc R o m a n E m p i r e in this arca: 'sent as proconsul t o the provinces aeross the sea vvith the fuııction of putting them and the k i n g d o m s o f that rcgion (traetus) in order, i n accordaııce vvith the mandata

o f Tiberius C a c s a r Augustus'. 4 0 H i s missioıı

c m b r a c c d also regions other t h a n the N e a r East as defined here. But thc n a r r a tive of his aetions there c a p t u r e s m a n y features of thc structurc of thc arca a t this m o m e n t . Corning back f r o m A r m e n i a in AD 1 8 , he m e t C a l p u r n i u s Piso, the legatus o f Syria, and a p e r s o n a l enemy, at C y r r h u s , 'the vvinter q u a r t c r s of the X t h legion'. It vvas perhaps there also that 'thc king of the N a b a t a e i ' (Arctas IV), vvho had cvidently travelled north t o p a y his respects, gave a dinner to both, and caused f u r t h e r o f f e n c e b y o f f e r i n g h e a v y gold crovvns t o G e r m a n i c u s and his vvife A g r i p p i n a , a n d lightcr oncs t o Piso and the o t h e r gucsts. 4 1 Mcanvvhile a m b a s s a d o r s f r o m A r t a b a n u s of Parthia arrived to c o n firm the current friendship of the tvvo empires, and o f f e r c d G e r m a n i c u s t h c honour that thc king should m c c t him at thc Euphrates. 4 2 A f t e r a visit t o E g y p t G e r m a n i c u s returned to A n t i o c h , the chief city of Syria, fell ili, a n d temporarily recovered. When prayers vvere o f f c r e d by the city f o r his rccovcry,

3 9 . T a c i t u s , Atın.

ı ı , 4 2 , 7 ; 5 6 , 2 . S t r a b o , Geog.

4 0 . AE ( 1 9 8 4 ) , n o . 5 0 8 , Fr. I ( t h c Tabuta

X V ı , 2, 3 ( 7 4 9 ) .

Siarensis).

Scc n o w W. I x b c k , " D e r l'roconsulat

d e s G e r m a n i c u s u n d d i c A u c t o r i t a s d e s S e n a t s : T a b . Şiar. F r g . I, 2 2 - 2 4 " , Z P E 8 7 ( i 9 9 t ) , ro3> 4 1 . T a c i t u s , Ann. 4 2 . Ann.

D, 57.

ıı, 5 8 ; o n t h c E u p h r a t e s a s t h c s y m b o l i c f r o n t i e r , 2 . 1 a b o v c .

Piso's lictors b r o k e u p t h e c e r e m o n y , w i t h its sacrificial a n i m a l s , t h e a t t e n d a n t s a n d t h e c r o w d in festal e l o t h i n g . T h e s c e n e is a s m a l l r e m i n d e r thac the p r i m a r y c o n t e x t of t h e a c t i v i t y of R o m a n o f ü c i a l s in t h e Rast w a s t h a t o f the c o m m u n a l life of the G r e e k c i t i e s . P i s o then left S y r i a , e m b a r k i n g f r o m Seleucia Pieria o n t h e c o a s t , a n o t h e r of the m a j ö r f o u n d a t i o n s of S e l e u c u s I, and d u e later to p l a y a n i m p o r t a n t p a r t in the strueture of t h e E m p i r e in t h e N e a r East.41 W h e n G c r m a n i c u s d i e d , w h e t h e r by p o i s o n or o t h e r w i s e , his b o d y l a y in state in the f o r u m (or rather agora) of A n t i o c h b e f o r e b e i n g c r e m a t e d , w h ı l c P i s o , h e a r i n g t h e n e w s , r u r n e d b a c k to r e g a i n c o n t r o l of S y r i a , c o l l e c t i ı ı g s o n e i r r e g u l a r f o r c e s f r o m deserters ( a p p a r e n t l y f r o m t h e Syrian l e g i o n s ) , c a m p f o l l o w e r s (lixae)

a n d a d e t a e h m e n t o f l c g i o n a r y recruits o n the w a y to S y r i a ,

a n d a l s o w r i t i n g t o the m i n ö r d y n a s t s o f C i l i c i a to s u p p l y forces. O n e o f his f r i e n d s l a n d c d a t L a o d i c c a , a n o t h e r o f S e l e u c u s ' m a j ö r f o u n d a t i o n s , a n d tried t o r e a c h the q u a r t e r s o f t h e V l t h legion, w h i c h w e r e e v i d e n t l y l o c a t e d there. 4 4 T h e mitıor civil w a r vvhich follovved in C i l i c i a need n o t b e d e s e r i b e d lıeıe. It is m o r e i m p o r t a n t t o s t r e s s t h e c o m p l c x i t y of the r e l a t i o n s vvhich this o d d e p i s o d e r c v e a l e d , betvveen t h e Imperial h o u s e , vvhich vvas l a t e r t o b e m o r e and m o r e f r c q u c n t l y represented in this r e g i o n , the R o m a n o f f i c i a l s o f the p r o v i n c e , t h e l e g i o n s , the p o p u l a t i o n of A n t i o c h a n d the k i n g s . T h e c a s u a l r e f e r e n c e to deserters f r o m the l e g i o n s vvho c o u l d be f o u n d a n d c o l l e c t e d t o g e t h e r o n the c o a s t of A s i a M i n ö r is a l s o strikiııg. T h e r o l e o f t h e k i n g s vvas to b e c o m e t e m p o r a r i l y m o r e i m p o r t a n t in the f o l l o w i n g y e a r s , a b o v e ali d u r i n g t h e reign of G e r m a n i c u s ' s o n G a i u s ( C a l i g ula) in 3 7 - 4 1 . In 3 3 / 3 4 , it is t r u e , t h e t e t r a r c h Philip h a d d i e d , a n d h i s territory vvas p r o v i s i o n a l l y a d d e d t o S y r i a . 4 5 A l s o in t h e 30S, H e r o d e s A n t i p a s becarnc i n v o l v e d in c o m p l e x d y n a s t i c a n d b o r d e r c o n f l i c t s vvith A r e t a s I V o f N a b a t a c a , vvhich rcsulted in a r e g u l a r vvar, f o u g h t vvithout R o m a n k n o v v l c d g c or p e r m i s s i o n , in vvhich A n t i p a s vvas d e f e a t e d . R o m e b e c a m e i n v o l v e d

only

vvhen H e r o d e s vvrote to T ı b e r i u s (novv o n h i s n o t o r i o u s r e t r e a t in C a p r i ) , and he sent instruetions to L u c i u s Vitellius, t h e legatus

o f S y r i a , t o i n t e r v e n c by

f o r c e a g a i n s t Aretas. 4 f i T h i s i n t e r v e n t i o n vvas ali the m o r e s i g n i f i c a n t in t h a t in tlıese y e a r s the p r i m a r y R o m a n c o n c c r n vvas r e l a t i o n s vvith P a r t h i a . L u c i u s V i t e l l i u s , t h e father of t h e f u t u r e E m p c r o r , h a d been s e n t a s legatus to support

a pretender

to

in AD 3 5 , vvith a m i s s i o n

the Parthian throne, Tiridates. H e

there fore

m a r e h e d vvith a f o r c e of l e g i o n s a n d a u x i l i a r i e s ' t o the b a n k of the E u p h r a t e s ' ,

4 3 . Anıt.

II, 6 9 ; o n S e l e u c i a P i c r î a see 3 . 1 belo\v.

4 4 . Ann.

II, 7 8 - 7 9 -

45. Tcxt t o n.34 above. 4 6 . J o s e p h u s , Ani.

XVIII, 5, 1 ( 1 0 9 - 1 1 5 ) .

prcsumably at Z e u g m a . A b r i d g e o f boats \vas m a d e , and the R o m a n a r m y crossed the river, to be joined b y O r n o s p a d e s , the Parthian c o m m a n d e r o f M c s o p o t a m i a (vvho had carlicr g a i n e d the R o m a t ı citizenship for military service w i t h Tiberius), and tvvo local dynasts, Sinnaccs a n d A b d a g a e s c s . T h e later R o m a n i n v o l v e m e n t in M e s o p o t a m i a vvas thus ciearly foreshadovved. But at this period the Euphrates stili fuııctioned as a frontier, a n d the R o m a n a r m y crossed back into Syria. T i r i d a t c s , hovvcvcr, a d v a n c i n g further in 3 6 , enjoyed s o m e success, vvinning över the G r e e k cities of N i c e p h o r i u m on the Euphrates, A n t h e m u s i a in M e s o p o t a m i a and even Seleucia on the Tigris. B u t hefore long he vvas driven o u t . T h i s brief episode is stili significatıt as a sign of the surviving G r e e k influence in the Parthian Empire, a n d as a foretaste o f later R o m a n ambitions. 4 7 In 36, hovvcvcr, Vitcllius vvas occupied elscvvherc. For in that year, follovving complaints b y the S a m a r i t a n s , he d e p o s e d the long-standing praefectus

of

J u d a e a , Pontius Pilatus, a n d seııt him to Ronıe to statıd trial. O n this o c c a s i o ı ı Vitcllius in fact c a m c to Jcrusalcm in person; vvhilc there he remitted t a x c s , deposed a H i g h Priest, Joseph C a i a p h a s , a n d appointed J o n a t h a n son o f A n anus instead. But, muclı m o r e i m p o r t a n t , he made the diplomatic c o n c e s s i o n of restoring t o Jevvish control the c u s t o d y of the high-pricstly robes, vvhich the praefecti

had retained since the f o r m a t i o n of the p r o v i n c e . " If vve follovv

the a c c o u n t vvhich Josephus g i v e s elsevvhcrc of the s a m e visit, hc made t h e concession o n l y a f t e r vvriting to T i b e r i u s t o ask permission. 4 9 It vvas in the spring o f 37 t h a t Vitellius vvas forced, as mentioned a b o v e , to intervene in the southern r e g i o n again, in order t o take military a c t i o n against Arctas IV. T h e s e measures involved a p p r o x i m a t e l y half the R o m a n forces in Syria, tvvo legions a c c o m p a n i e d by infantry and c a v a l r y auxiliaries. A s vvas e v i d e n d y n o r m a l , they t o o k the coastal route southvvards t o P t o l c mais, and vvould apparently h a v e m a r e h e d through Judaea but f o r entreaties saying that images carried there vvould be a rcligious o f f e n c c . S o the a r m y marehed through the Plain o f Jezreel, intending to eross över t o the T r a n s j o r danian plateau. Meanvvhile Vitellius m a d e a visit t o Jerusaleın t o t a k e p3rt i n a festival, vvhich m u s t h a v e been Passover. For vvhile he vvas there, nevvs c a m c of the death of T i b e r i u s on M a r c h 1 6 , AD 37. O n rcceiving this nevvs, h c a b a n d o n c d the c a m p a i g n a n d returned to A n t i o c h . The intention t o use f o r c e against A r c t a s vvas simply d r o p p e d . 5 0 M a n y different items of evidence f r o m a r o u n d these y e a r s tend to suggcst hovv c o m p a r a t i v c l y tenuous a n d uncertain R o m a n control of the s o u t h e r n

4 7 . F o r L . V i t c l l i u s a n d T i r i d a t c s s c c T a c i t ı ı s , Ann. 4 8 . J o s e p h u s , Ant.

X V I I I , 4 , 1 - 3 (8 5 - 9 5 ) .

4 9 . Ant.

XV, 1 1 , 4 (404-405).

5 0 . Ant.

XVIII, 5, 3 ( 1 2 0 - 1 1 5 ) .

VI, 32—37; 41—44.

region w a s , a n d Iıow m u c h ic depended on d i p l o m a c y aııd on the erralic effects of persona! presence. It s h o u l d o f course be strcsscd that the o n l y continu o u s narratives are provided b y Joscphus, and thcrefore tend t o highlight this area; w e h a v e 110 c o m p a r a b l e v i c w o f power-rclations in northern Syria. But, as regards the southern a r e a , it is vvorth noting that I Icrodcs A n t i p a s left his tctrarchy t o a c c o m p a n y Vitcllius t o Jerusalem, an aspect o f the d i p l o m s t i c relations between dynasts a n d governors w h i c h w e can see repeated m s n y times. W h i l e in Jerusalem, Vitcllius a g a i n assumed the povvcrs n o r m a l l y e x e r ciscd by the praefectus,

g r e a t l y his inferior in r a n k , d e p o s i n g o n e H i g b Priest

and a p p o i n t i n g another. T h i s time it w a s J o n a t h a n son of A n a n u s w h o w a s d e p o s e d in his turn as I ligh Pricst, after o n l y a year, to bc replaccd b y his brother T h e o p h i l o s . s l W i t h that n a m e w e reach a m o m e n t w h c n s o m e very different strands in our c o m p l c x and erratic \veb o f evidence intcrscct. For this I ligh Pricst, vvith his G r e e k name transliterated, a p p e a r s o n the nevvly published Hebrevv ossuaryiııscription of his g r a n d d a u g h t e r : T P L O S H K H N H G D L , ' T h e o p h i l o s :hc I ligh Pricst'. 5 2 I lis succcssor, hovvcvcr, vvas to bc appointed b y a Jevvish king, o n e sign of the very rapid c h a n g e s in the shape of the R o m a n N e a r East över the n e x t fevv years.

2.3. F R O M T H E

REIGN OF

OF

THE

GAİUS T O THE

JEVVİSH

OUTBREAK

WAR

T h e accession of G a i u s in M a r c h AD 37 began a series o f changes in the structurc o f R o m a n rule in tlıc N e a r East vvhich were to have important cffects över the follovving decadcs. In essence this period represents the last flovvering of the system o f depcndcnce o n kiııgs a n d dynasts, before its rapid repressıon tovvards the end of the century. In the south the interplay o f events and pcrsonalities again iliustratcs the unstable and vacillatory n a t u r e o f R o m a n c o n t r o l in this period. In the later 30S the regions in southern Syria prcviously rulcd by the tetrareh Philip vvere, as vve savv, p r o v i s i o n a l l y a t t a c h c d t o the provincc. İn the spring o f 3 7 , the R o m a n a r m y dispatclıed t o repress A r e t a s I V of N a b a t a e a vveııt back t o Syria on hearing of tlıc death of T i b e r i u s . A s before, there is n o t h i n g vvhatevet to suggest that a n y R o m a n f o r c e s vvere present in the D e c a p o l i s , in the f o r n e r territories o f Philip, or even in Damascus. İt may even be that in this per:od of f l u x , tovvards the end o f A r e t a s ' l o n g reign* the N a b a t a e a n s gained s o m e measure of control in D a m a s c u s . T h e r e m u s t at least h a v e been s o m e degree 5x.

Ant.

X V I » , 5, 3 (123).

5 1 . D . B a r a g a n d D . F l u s s c r , " T h e O s s u a r y o f Y c h o h a n a h , G r a n d d a u g h t e r of t h e H i g h P r i c s t T h e o p h i l o s " , IF.J 3 6 ( 1 9 8 6 ) , 3 9 . S c c f u r r h e r 1 0 . 2 b c l o w .

of povver v a c u u m there. F o r uııless vve reject thc entire narrative of A c t s a n d its a c c o u n t o f the c o n v e r s i o n of Paul, w e have t o accept the surprising i n f o r mation that a H i g h Priest (we d o not knovv vvhich) in Jerusalem could s e n d an emissary t o D a m a s c u s , a city in thc R o m a n p r o v i n c c of Syria, t o arrest Jevvish c o n v e r t s to Christiaııity a n d bring them back to Jerusalem. 1 But vvhile Paul vvas there thc danger in vvhich hc f o u n d himself c a m c not f r o m a n y representatives of the R o m a n state o r even f r o m the city magistrates, but (in the story as told b y A c t s ) f r o m the Jevvish c o m m u n i t y there, after his ovvn conversion, a n d on his ovvn a c c o u n t f r o m 'thc cthnarch of A r c t a s thc k i n g V If t h a t m e a n s that D a m a s c u s vvas ııovv actually under N a b a t a e a n c o n t r o l , the u n n a m e d ethnarch m u s t have been in a position s o m e t h i n g like that of Pheroras, vvhen he vvas made c t h n a r c h o f Peraea in 20 BC, vvhile his brother H e r o d vvas k i n g of Judaea. 3 Bul in fact there is no i n f o r m a t i o n 011 either the f o r m a l or thc aetual circumstances of D a m a s c u s in these ycars, and for that matter vve c a n n o t teli vvhat year is referred to, ex*cept t h a t it c a n n o t be later than AD 40, vvhen A r c tas died, t o be succeeded by his son M a l i c h u s II. H i s rule in N a b a t a e a , a n d that o f his son Rabbcl II, in AD 7 0 - 1 0 6 , vvas to p r o v i d c o n c element of c o n t i nuity, h a ı d l y matehed elsevvhere in the region. Early in his reign G a i u s reversed the temporary attaehment of T r a c h o n i t i s and its n e i g h b o u r i n g regions t o t h c province of Syria, and gave them, in principle, t o a g r a n d s o n of H e r o d , A g r i p p a I, vvho had gained his f a v o u r in the Iast years of Tiberius. A l o n g vvith that vvent thc little-knovvn 'tetrarehy o f Lysanias', locatcd o n A n t i - I x b a n o n , straddling the road betvveen D a m a s c u s and the B e k a a Valley.' 1 A s there vvas a c o m m o n b o u n d a r y betvveen the territory of D a m a s c u s a n d that o f Sidon o n the coast, 5 it sccms clcar that A g r i p p a ' s nevv d o m a i n s represented tvvo g c o g r a p h i c a l l y separate areas. In a n y case it vvas n o t until the a u t u m n o f the year 38 that he c a m c back f r o m R o m e t o begin his rule. A s he passed t h r o u g h A l e x a n d r i a o n his vvay, thc sight o f his b o d y g u a r d , vvith their a r m o u r inlaid in g o l d and silver, is said by Philo, a c o n t e m p o r a r y vvitness, to h a v e a r o u s e d the resentmeııt both o f the city m o b and o f the prefect o f E g y p t , Avillius Flaccus. 6 T h i s vicvv o f thc rclations o f k i n g a n d prefcct is not a triviality, f o r such questions of prestige, precedence

1 . Acts 9, 1 - 2 5 ; 22, 3 - 1 6 ; 26, 1 2 - 2 0 . 2. 2 C o r 1 1 , 32. 3 . 2 . 1 a b o v c . RPC1,

6 6 3 , a c c c p t s clıc vicvv t h a t t h e g a p iıı t h e d a t e d c o i ı ı a g e o f D a m a s c u s

betvveen AD 3 3 / 3 4 a u d 6 5 / 6 6 refleets Î \ ' a b a t a e a n d o ı n i n a t i o n , a t h e o r y v v h i c h r e m a i n s t o

bc

proved. 4 . J o s e p h u s , Ant.

X V I I I , 6 , 1 0 ( 2 3 7 ) . For thc fragmcnrnry information avaitable on this

t e t r a r e h y , r e f e r r e d t o b y L k 3 , 1 , s c c Scfoürcr, HJP I, 5 6 9 - 5 7 1 . 5. 2 . 1 a b o v e . 6 . P h i l o , Fbcc.

5/29-35.

a n d d i p l o m a c y w e r e inregral t o the u n s t a b l e r e l a t i o n s b e t w e e n R o m a n g o v e r n o r s a n d local d y n a s t s . T h e s a m e p o i n t c a n be i i l u s t r a t e d b y c o n t e m p o r a r y e v e n t s else\vherc in the r e g i o n . A t t h e b c g i n n i n g o f G a i u s ' reign H e r o d e s A n t i p a s w a s stili ruling G a l i l e e a n d P c r a e a as t e t r a r c i ı , a n d it s e e m s to h a v e been under G a i u s , in AD 3 7 o r 3 8 , t h a t he t o o k c a r c t o b c prcsent a t a m e e t i n g betvveen Vitellius and A r t a b a n u s of Parthia, w h o h a d just driven o u t the R o m a n - b a c k e d p r e t e n d e r T i r i d a t e s . A s o n earlier o c c a s i o n s , the m e e t i n g t o o k p l a c c o n t h e E u p h r a t e s , e v i d e n t l y at Z e u g m a , a n d b o t h sides w e r e f e a s t e d b y H e r o d e s in a t e n t e r e c t e d o n t h e bridge itself. A c c o r d i n g to J o s e p h u s , he also sent n e w s of these e v e n t s t o the E m p c r o r , f o r c s t a l l i n g t h e m e s s e n g e r s sent by V i t e l l i u s . 7 But p e r s o n a l c o n f l i c t s a n d j c a l o u s i c s a f f c c t c d the d y n a s t s as w e l l as R o m a n o f f i c i a l s . A c c o r d i n g to an e l a b o r a t e s t o r y in J o s e p h u s , H e r o d e s A n t i p a s w a s urged by his w i f e H e r o d i a s , A g r i p p a ' s sister, to g o to Italy t o p e t i t i o n G a i u s f o r the s t a t u s of k i n g , to e q ı ı a l his brother-in-la\v. But vvhile he vvas there, letters c a m e to G a i u s f r o m A g r i p p a a l l e g i n g , a m o n g other t h i n g s , t h a t H e r o d e s vvas in l e a g u e vvith A r t a b a n u s o f Parthia a n d h a d vveapons in s t o r c sufficient f o r s e v e n t y t h o u s a n d m e n . H e r o d e s vvas u n a b l e to d e n y this, a n d w a s e x i l e d . H i s t e t r a r e h y vvas a d d e d to the a r e a ruled b y A g r i p p a . " T h e figüre o f s e v e n t y t h o u s a n d m a y s c e m f a n t a s t i c b u t is c o n s i s t e n t vvith the lcvel o f f o r c e s vvhich J o s e p h u s c l a i m s (at o n e p o i n t ) t h a t he later raised in G a l i l e e in t h e Jevvish r e v o l t . 9 It deserves s o m e stress; the R o m a n s vvere a t t e m p t i n g , vvith a d e g r e e of s u c c c s s , to c o n t r o l a densely p o p u l a t e d a r c a a t a r m ' s l e n g t h , f r o m their base in n o r t h e r n S y r i a , t h e fertile region bctvveen t h e M e d i t e r r a n e a n a n d the E u p h r a t e s settled in t h e e a r l y Hellenistic p e r i o d — a n d stili, a f t e r a vvhole c e n t u r y , the s a m e a r c a vvhich t h e y h a d o c c u p i e d in t h e 6 o s o f the first c e n t u r y BC. H o v v d i f f i c u l t t h a t c o n t r o l m i g h t b e vvas g r a p h i c a l l y iilustrated in AD 39/ 4 0 , vvhen m a j ö r d i s t u r b a n c e s vvere c r e a t e d in J u d a e a itself, a t this t i m e stili u n d e r direct rule. A c o n f l i c t in J a m n i a bctvveen t h e Jevvish i n h a b i t a n t s a n d s o m e g e n t i l e o n e s v v h o p r o v o k e d t h e m by setting u p a n a l t a r to the E m p c r o r Icd to G a i u s ' o r d e r (in itself entirely u n t y p i c a l of R o m a n attitudes) d u t a s t a t u e o f himself s h o u l d bc set u p in the H o l y of I lolies. T h e o r d e r vven: t o the legatus

of S y r i a , vvho vvas o n c e a g a i n t o t a k e h a l f his l e g i o n a r y f o r c e , that

is, tvvo l e g i o n s , a n d m a r c h s o u t h . B o t h in t h e e a r l y s u m m e r of AD 4 0 a t P t o l e mais (the n o r m a l p o i n t of e n t r y ) a n d a g a i n in t h e a u t u m n a t T i b e r i a s , t h e city f o u n d e d by H e r o d e s A n t i p a s in G a l i l e e , he vvas c o n f r o ı ı t e d by v a s t , n o n -

7 . J o s e p h u s , Ant.

X V I I I , 4 , 5 ( 1 0 1 - 1 0 5 ) . Josephus bclievcd that these events took

u n d e r H b c r i u s . F o r t h e ( p r o b a b l e ) c h r o n o l o g y s c c S c h ü r c r , HJP I, 3 5 1 .

8. Ant. XVin, 7 , 1 - 2 (140-254!. 9. 1 . 4 belovv.

plato

violent demonstrations b y the Jevvish p o p u l a t i o n . In the end Petronius, h a v i n g b o u g h t as m u e h time as p o s s i b l e , o p e n l y asked G a i u s by letter t o r e v o k e the order. T h e reply to that is r e c o r d e d to h a v e been a letter o r d e r i n g him t o c o m m i t suicide; but it vvas o v e r t a k e n en route by another in vvhich G a i u s agreed t o a b a n d o n the plan, h a v i n g been persuaded by A g r i p p a I, a l r e a d y back in R o m e at court. In a n y c a s c the murder of G a i u s on January 1 4 , A D 4 1 , brought this vvhole episode t o an end. 1 0 T h e richly c o l o u r e d n a r r a t i v e s of Philo a n d Josephus o n vvhich vve d e p e n d f o r these events do nonetheless servc t o illustrate further the indireetness o f R o m a n c o n t r o l . N o t o n l y did a n y significant effort t o exert force in the s o u t h ern region entail m a r e h i n g a large proportioıı o f the legionary garrison o f Syria dovvn the c o a s t t o P t o l c m a i s and b e y o n d , but ali dccisions ultimately depended on the Kmperor in R o m e , vvho could be reached only b y letter. T h e three m o n t h s it t o o k G a i u s ' letter o r d e r i n g his suicide t o reach Petronius vvere indeed c x c e p t i o n a l . But a h u n d a n t evidence shovvs hovv c o m m u n i c a t i o n s d e pended o n the unreliable sea-route vvhich funetioned counter-clockvvise f r o m R o m e t o A l e x a n d r i a a n d then up the Phoenician coast; it then vvent vvestvvards a l o n g the coast of Asia M i n ö r for the return journey t o southern Italy. T h e cffective integration o f the N e a r East into the Empire vvas not g o i n g i n the end t o depend o n this sea-route, but first o n laııd-communications aeross Asia M i n ö r a n d sccond o n an e v e r m o r e frequent dircct Imperial prcscnce. F o r the m o m e n t , hovvever, the tendeney vvas the o p p o s i t e , a svving b a c k to indirect control through k i n g s . In 37 G a i u s restored the son of A n t i o c h u s III to the throne o f C o m m a g e n e : a R o m a n citizen, like the H e r o d i a n s , hc had as his full n a m e G a i u s Iulius A n t i o c h u s Epiphanes. T h e territory he received ineluded also a large part o f Cİlicia, and Suetonius claims that he vvas a l s o given back reserves of 100 million sesterces,

o r 25 million denarii,

accumu-

lated since the death of his f a t h e r in AD 1 7 . While vve can hardiy t a k e these figures

literally, they suggest o n the face of it that C o m m a g e n e p r o d u c e d a

tax-revenue o f s o m e t h i n g ö v e r o n e million denarii

per ycar. A n t i o c h u s I V

seems t o h a v e been d e p o s e d a g a i n by G a i u s , only t o be restored finally b y C l a u d i u s on his accession in AD 4 1 . " T h e k i n g d o m vvas to play an i m p o r t a n t role until its dcstruction in AD 7 2 . T h e successive phases o f r o y a l rule in Judaea and southern Syria vvere e v e n m o r e c o m p l e x . A s soon as C l a u d i u s c a m e to the throne, he revvarded A g r i p p a I, vvho had been in R o m e a n d h a d hclped in the d r a m a t i c and c o m p l c x p r o c e s s of his accession, b y giving him J u d a e a and Satnaria, thus n o t o n l y r e s t o r i n g the vvhole k i n g d o m as it had been under H e r o d the G r c a t , but giving u p an established R o m a n p r o v i n c e vvhich had had its ovvn g o v e r n o r . indeed, since

1 0 . F o r t h e d e t a i l s , a n d t h e e h r o n o l o g y f o ! l o w e d h e t e , s c c Schtırcr, H J P I , 3 9 4 — 3 9 8 . 1 1 . F o r t h e d e t a i l s s c c PIRz

!, 149.

the tetrarclıy of Lysanias w a s ineluded, the boundaries of A g r i p p a ' s k i n g d o m w e r e wider, itıciuding s o m e (quitc undefinablc) territory o n o r a r o u n d A n : i L e b a n o n . A s a significant e l e m e n t in the strueture o f the R o m a n E m p i r e in the N e a r East, it presents a f e w w e l l - k n o w n but crucial features, w h i c h necd t o be put in c o n t e x t here. First, the a r m e d forccs of the k i n g d o m continue (as it seems) t o illustrate the r e m a r k a b l e ease of the transference, in either direetion, b e t w c c n R o m a n and dynastic rule. A s w e h a v e scetı, it is only a very p r o b a b l e infcrcnce that the units recruited f r o m Sebaste a n d C a e s a r e a h a d passed i n t o R o m a n service on the deposition o f A r c h c l a u s in AD 6. 1 2 But it is beyond question that such units vvere f o u n d in A g r i p p a ' s a r m y in AD 41—44, and that they passed into R o m a n service o n the king's d e a t h . Josephus deseribes vividly h o w the people of Sebaste and Caesarea r e j o i c e d at the king's death, and hovv C l a u d i u s had intended to punish the c a v a l r y ala and the five infantry cohortes

recruited

f r o m these cities by transferring them to Pontus, replacing them f r o m the units (presumably auxiliary units) statioııed in Syria. But they (the units or the cities?) sent an embassy t o C l a u d i u s a n d obtained the cancellation o f the transfer. T h u s , j o s e p h u s clainıs, they vvere able t o contributc t o the conflicts leadiııg up t o the Jevvish revolt, and the transfer t o o k place o n l y under Vcspasian.u S e c o n d , various aspects o f the reign serve to illustrate hovv such kitıgs c o u l d stili attempt t o o p e r a t e an independent foreign policy. A t a local Icvcl vve find the king, as represented in the one chapter of A c t s vvhere he appears, receiving embassies f r o m the Tyrians and Sidonians, vvho h a v e incurred his anger, and vvho bcsccch his f a v o u r bccausc they depend c c o n o m i c a l l y o n the royal territory. 1 4 A glance at the m a p vvill shovv that indeed a large part o f the hinterlaııd of both cities vvas under his rule. W h a t e v e r the nature of the dispute, it is striking that it is c o n d u c t c d vvith n o rcfcrence to the (normally distant) legatus o f Syria. T h e legatus

in fact stili intervened in this southern region o n l y vvhen

f o r c c d b y circumstanccs. O n o c c a s i o n the intervention could be indicect. T h u s , as Josephus also r e c o r d s , vvhen s o m e G r e e k youths set u p a s t a t u e o f the E m p e r o r in a s y n a g o g u c a t D o r a in southern Phoenicia, A g r i p p a v v e n t t o appear b e f o r e Petronius, vvho vvas stili legatus; a n d hc vvrote t o the 'first m e n ' of the city ordering them to haııd över the guilty partics t o a ccnturion, vvho vvould bring them f o r trial b e f o r e himself. T h e implication seems t o be that

i z . Z.Z a b o v e . 1 3 . Ani.

X I X , 9, ı-z

(356-366).

1 4 . A c t s x ı , t o . A g r i p p a a p p e a r s here as ' H e r o d c s ' { 1 1 , 1 ) , a n a m e vvhich n o o t h e r s o u r c e g i v e s h i m . A s a R o m a n c i t i z e n h i s n a m e w a s I u l i u s A g r i p p a . T h e r e is n o d o u b r , h o v v e v e r , o f ıhe identity o f the king concerııcd.

the little t o w n (polis) o f D o r a , lying between Ptolemais and C a e s a r e a , a n d south o f M o u n t C a r m e l , w a s w i t h i n thc b o u n d s o f thc provincc. But A g r i p p a c o u l d stili exercise influence vvith the legatus ö v e r the protection of Jevvish rights

thcrc. 1 5

M o r e a m b i t i o u s plans o n h i s part vvere met vvith a m o r e repressive attîtude. W h e n the king began the construction o f a nevv n o r t h vvall f o r Jerusalem, the nevv legatus o f Syria, D o m i t i u s M a r s u s , vvrote to C l a u d i u s , a n d h e vvrote in turn to A g r i p p a , instrueting İlim t o s t o p the w o r k . 1 6 M o r e signifîcantly, A g r i p p a vvas visited at T i b c r i a s , evidently at his invitation, b y f o u r other kings: tvvo f r o m Asia M i n ö r , C o t y s o f A r m e n i a M i n ö r and Polemo o f Pontus, a n d three f r o m the N e a r East, A n t i o c h u s IV of C o m m a g c n c , S a m p s i g cramus of E m c s a and his ovvn brother H e r o d o f Chaicis. By accident or othervvise, M a r s u s also arrived at Tiberias at this m o m e n t . T h e diplomatic gesture on A g r i p p a ' s part o f taking thc four other kings vvith him in his carriage t o greet M a r s u s o n his a p p r o a c h h a d the opposite effect f r o m that intended: ' T o M a r s u s their c o n c o r d and such a degree o f mutual friendship vvas suspect, f o r he took it that the meeting o f m i n d s of such important dynasts vvas not t o the a d v a n t a g c o f thc R o m a n s ' . S o they vvere ordered to return at o n c e t o their k i n g d o m s . 1 7 W h e n A g r i p p a died in AD 4 4 , his s o n , thc later Agrippa II, vvas at R o m e being brought up at thc c o u r t of C l a u d i u s . A c c o r d i n g t o Josephus, the Emperor's fîrst inclination vvas t o g i v e h i m his father's k i n g d o m . But his f r e e d m e n a n d friends persuaded him that the ' b o y ' (novv sixteen) vvas t o o y o u n g . S o t h c vvholc arca reverted t o bcing a p r o v i n c c , vvith an equestrian official, novv vvith the title procurator,

to g o v e r n it.

\Vhether the motivatioıı r e c o r d e d by Josephus is correct o r n o t , vvhich w c o b v i o u s l y c a n n o t knovv, thc rcsult vvas as hc said. S o far as Judaea vvas c o n cerned, it vvould bc only in tvvo p e r i o d s o f rebellion that in the future the area vvould not be under R o m a n direct rule. A century later, after thc sccond o f those rebellions, the p r o v i n c c vvould bc given a nevv n a m e , 'Syria Palaestitıa*, f r o m vvhich ali rcfcrence to the Jevvish character o f its p o p u l a t i o n vvas lacking; it vvould h a v e a garrison of tvvo R o m a n legions a n d bc thc l o c a t i o n o f tvvo R o m a n coloniae,

C a e s a r e a and A c l i a C a p i t o l i n a (Jerusalem). T h e long lıesita-

tion o f R o m a n rule vvas över, vvith c o n s e q u e n c e s vvhich vvould be felt in full o n l y vvhen the Emperors themselves bccame C h r i s t i a n a n d savv thc c o u n t r y as the H o l y L a n d . A similar hesitation vvas f a r f r o m över, hovvever, as regards the n o r t h -

1 5 . Ant.

X I X , 6, 3 ( 3 0 0 - 3 1 t } . N o r e l i a n c e s h o u l d be p l a c e d o n t h e t c x t o f t h c Icttcr o r e d i c t

of P c t r o n i u s as q u o t c d b y J o s e p h u s . F o r D o r a s c c f u r t h e r 8 . x b e l o w . 1 6 . J o s e p h u s , Ant.

X I X , 7, 2 ( 3 2 6 - 3 2 7 ) .

1 7 . J o s e p h u s , Ant.

X I X , 8, r ( 3 3 8 - 3 4 1 ) .

easiern regions, aııd indeed p a r t o f Galilee, w h i c h h a d belonged to A g r i p p a ' s k i n g d o m . While ali of Galilee for the m o m e n t became part o f the p r o v i n c e of J u d a e a , w h a t o f B a t a n a c a , T r a c h o n i t i s a n d Auranitis? A s it happens, a c o n v e nient series o f G r e e k and A r a m a i c inseriptions d u l y refleets the changing overlords o f the latter area: a statue-base at Si4 dedicated in G r e e k t o ' K i n g Hero d e s ' (unfortunatcly the statııc itself is missing) is f o l l o w e d b y the d c d i c a t i o n of an altar there in the year 3 3 ' o f the lord Philip' ( I . M R N ' PLPS), and then by the record of the c o n s t r u c t i o n o f a gate at H e b r a n in the year 7 of C l a u d i u s C a e s a r ( I . Q L D Y S Q Y S R ) ; b u t then H e r o d i a n rule rcappcars, vvith d a t i n g s by years 1 6 and 2 1 of ' K i n g A g r i p p a , (our?) l o r d ' in a G r e e k inseription f r o m S a n a m a y n . ' 8 T h e north-eastern parts of the k i n g d o m had first, therefore, been made part of a province, a n d prcsumably (though it is novvhcrc explicitiy stated) of Syria rather than J u d a e a , briefly recreating a g e o g r a p h i c a l u n i t y of provincial territory in that a r e a . T h e arrangement did not last long, and reversion to H e r o d i a n rule vvent i n parallcl vvith a series of developments in Judaea vvhich added a unique degree o f c o m p l e x i t y to the strueture of povver there. A g a i n , the history of J u d a e a betvveen AD 44 and 66 is exceptionally w e l l knovvn, for the period is that o f the education a n d early m a n h o o d of J o s e p h u s (born in AD 37/38), vvho b y the end of it vvas a central figüre in the Jevvish ruling elass. C o n s c q u e n t l y o n l y certain features bearing o n the e x e r c i s e of povver there need be isolatcd here. Direct rule of the area f r o m Idumaea in the south to Galilee in the north, and ineluding Pcraea aeross the J o r d a n , reverted, as vve have seen, t o a R o m a n eques,

novv vvith the title procurator.

But vvhen the first o f these, Cuspius Fa-

dus, d e m a n d e d the r e s t o r a t i o n t o h i m of the custody of the high-priestly robes, held b y the earlier praefecti

f r o m AD 6 to 3 6 , " the Jevvish authorities

petitioned him, and also the nevv legatus o f Syria, C a s s i u s L o n g i n u s , f o r the right t o retaitı them. J o s e p h u s notes, in a vvay vvhich vvill novv be familiar, that L o n g i n u s had c o m e t o Jcrusalem vvith a largc force in casc F a d u s ' d e m a n d s p r o v o k e d resistance. In the event, the Jevvish leadcrs vvere allovvcd t o send an embassy to C l a u d i u s in R o m e ; and he, influenced by the y o u n g e r A g r i p p a , vvho vvas in R o m e , by the elder A g r i p p a ' s brother ' K i n g H e r o d ' and by the latter's son A r i s t o b u l u s , agreed t o the request. 2 0 T h e significance of r o y a l d j nasties in this period did not lie only in the extent of ' R o m a n ' territory vvhich they actually ruled, but in t h e decision-making at the centre, vvhere personal influence could p l a y a crucial role. 18. H c r o d : L c Bas-W., nû. 2 J 6 4 t-Onva w v d v 8 p ( a v x a . Philip: RES.

IC,R III, » ö . 1 2 4 3 : IBö|«TtXft H p ^ C t ' O P ö t o û t ö ^ I t t ö f o u

n o . 2 1 1 7 — PAES

IV, p . 7 8 , n o . 1 0 1 . C l a u d i u s : CIS II, n o .

1 7 0 : B Y R H T S R Y S N T SB' L Q ! . D Y S Q Y S R (buildıng o f a g a t e at H e b r a n ) . A g r i p p a : see Schurcr, H / P I , 4 7 3 , " S. 19. 1 . 2 above. t o . Ant. X X , r , ı - ı

(6-T4).

' K i n g I l e r o d ' , as J o s e p h u s g o e s o n to explaiıı, vvas currently the ruler o f Chalcis (an undefinable small territory based in the southern part o f the B e k a a Valley). T h i s t o o w a s a rcsult o f r o y a l influence, f o r A g r i p p a I had a s k c d it o f C l a u d i u s f o r his brother. 2 1 H e r o d n o w asked f o r the f a v o u r vvhich vvas t o produce a crucial a n o m a l y in the f u n c t i o n i n g o f povver in Judaea f o r the tvvo d e c a d e s up to the revolt, n a m e l y that h e should h a v e authority n o t only ö v e r the Tcmplc and its funds but o v c r the selectioıı o f H i g h Priests, a right vvhich he immediately used. 2 2 T h e H i g h Priests vvere thus no longer, as in AD

6-4R.

R o m a n nomiııees; and Judaea experienced the cotıcurrent, and conflicting, cxercisc o f the govcrnor's and a king's povver at the same time. T h e complications thus c r c a t c d incrcased steadily vvith the progressive CJCtension o f the territory and r i g h t s given to A g r i p p a the y o u n g e r . " In AD 50, as it seems, vvhen his unclc d i e d , he vvas given his k i n g d o m of C h a l c i s as vvcll as the 'care of the T c m p l c ' , vvhich vvas evidcntly a c c o m p a n i c d by the right t o depose and appoint the H i g h Priests. C o n s e q u e n t l y six o f the lası seven o f the l o n g linç o f eighty-thrcc H i g h Priests, vvhich Josephus regarded as having been c o n t i n u o u s f r o m the time o f A a r o n , vvere appointees of A g r i p p a II; there remained o n l y the last of ali, a p p o i n t e d as part o f a popular m o v e m e n t d u r i n g the revolt. 2 4 In AD 53 C l a u d i u s took b a c k the small k i n g d o m of C h a l c i s , vvhich pres u m a b l y vvas added to the p r o v i n c e of Syria, and g a v e A g r i p p a the f o r m e r tetrarehy of P h i l i p — t h e ill-defincd n c i g h b o u r i n g districts callcd G a u l a n i t i s , Batanaea, Trachonitis and A u r a n i t i s — a s well as the 'tetrarehy of Lysanias' (based on A b i l a , betvveen D a m a s c u s aııd the B e k a a Valley) a n d 'the f o r m e r tetrarehy of V a r u s ' , vvhich s e e m s t o h a v e been somevvhere in Ituraea. C e r tainty as to the g e o g r a p h y h e r e (vvhich is vvholly unattainable) is less i m p o r t a n t than the visible ease vvith vvhich these areas o f M o u n t L c b a n o n a n d Anti-I.ebanon could bc transferred f r o m o n e dynast to another; as they h a d f r o m the beginning, those high m o u n t a i n o u s areas remained an a n o m a l o u s and ill-controllcd z o n c , of c o n s i d e r a b l c c x t c n t , at the h c a r t of ' R o m a n ' Syria. It is very significant t o o t h a t the extensive districts vvhich lay betvveen M o u ı ı t H e r m o n and D a m a s c u s on the o n e hand and the provincial G r e e k cities o f the Decapolis o n the other n o w passed, f o r at Icast forty ycars, o u t of R o m a n dircct rule. B y the m o m e n t , in the early second century, vvhen these areas, divided betvveen the provinces o f Syria, A r a b i a and J u d a e a , b e c a m e s o l i d l y integrated into the R o m a n provincial systcnı, they had been under R o m a n ovcrall c o n t r o l for more than a century a n d a half, vvhile Auranitis and its

2 1 . Ant.

X I X , 5, I ( 1 7 7 ) .

2 2 . Ant.

X X , 1, 3 (15-16).

2 3 . F o r t h e d e t a i l s s e e S c h ü r c r , HJP I, 4 7 i f f . 2 4 . F o r J o s e p h u s ' s u r v e y , Ant.

X X , ı o , r - 5 ( 2 2 4 - 2 5 1 ) ; s c c S c h ü r c r , HJP II, 227~i3.

a t t a c h e d a r e a s h a d been u n d e r H e r o d i a n direct rule a l r n o s t c o n t i n u o u s l y f o r ö v e r a century. W h a t h a s b e e n c a l l e d t h e p r e - p r o v i n c i a l p h a s e in the h i s t o r y o f t h e H a u r a n a n d the o t h e r districts o f p r e s e n t - d a y s o u t h e r n Syria vvas b o t h long and o f considerable significatıce." Iıı n a r r a t i v e terms, hovvever, w e k n o w very littlc o f events h e r e (as in N a b a t a e a ) in t h e s e c o n d half o f the first century. O u r o n l y a v a i l a b l e n a r r a t i v e e v i d e n c e is r e p r e s e n ı e d by t h e t w o m a j o r h i s t o r i c a l vvorks o f J o s e p h u s , vvhich tıaturally c n o u g h t o u c h o n t h e history o f o t h e r g r o u p s o n l y w h c n t h e y b e c a m e i n v o l v e d in s o m e vvay vvith t h e Jevvs. T h u s f o r i n s t a n c e t h e first o f t h e

procura-

h a d t o deal vvith v i o l e n t confiicts betvveen t h e Jevvish i n h a b i t a n t s o f

tores

P e r a e a ( p a r t o f his provincia)

a n d t h o s e o f P h i l a d c l p h i a ( A m m a n ) över t h e

b o u n d a r i e s o f a village c a l l e d Z i a . By luck vve knovv the precise l o c a t i o r . o f this village, vvhich J o s e p h u s s a y s vvas 'full o f vvarlike m e n ' . T h e

Onomasticon

o f E u s e b i u s , a pricelcss s o u r c e f o r t h e s o c i a l g e o g r a p h y o f the r e g i o n , shovvs t h a t it lay fifteeıı R o m a n m i l e s ( s o m e 2 0 k m ) vvest o f P h i l a d e l p h i a , h e n c e on the b o u n d a r y betvveen the p l a t e a u a n d the great d e p r e s s i o n t h r o u g h vvhich t h e J o r d a n r u n s . 2 * T h e e p i s o d e c a n bc secn a s a small f o r e t a s t e o f t h e c o m ı t ı u nal c o n f i i c t s vvhich vvere t o b r e a k o u t iti A D 66 ali r o u n d J u d a e a ; a n d a l s o a s a n o t h e r small i n d i c a t i o n o f t h e vvay in vvhich the d e m o g r a p h y o f t h e region vvas d o m i n a t e d by large villages. M o s t o f t h e c o n f i i c t s vvhich J o s e p h u s deseribes in this period b e l o n g t o the i n t c r n a l history o f the Jevvish c o m m u n i t y , a n d did n o t a f f c c t t h e s t r u e t u r e o f t h e R o m a n N e a r E a s t as a vvhole. B u t o n e o f t h e m i n v o l v e d n o t o n l y o p e n confiicts betvveen Jevvs a n d S a m a r i t a n s but the i n t e r v e n t i o n o f t h e legatus

of

S y r i a , a judicial h c a r i n g b e f o r e C l a u d i u s in R o m e a n d t h e c o ı ı d e m n a ı i o ı ı o f the procurator.

In t h a t sense it illustrates very clearly t h e m e a n s by vvhich a

local c o n f l i c t , o n c e again iııvolving villagcrs f r o m different g r o u p s , c o u l d m a k e its vvay t h r o u g h t h e e n t i r e d e c i s i o n - m a k i n g s t r u e t u r e o f the E m p i r e . It may a l s o h a v e p r o v i d e d t h e c o t ı t e x t f o r the c r e a t i o ı ı o f the s e c o n d colonia

Roman

o f tlıc r e g i o n , P t o l e m a i s , vvhich foilovvcd i m m e d i a t c l y after.

I n o u t l i n e , t h e issuc, vvhich s e e m s t o b e l o n g t o AD 5 1 o r 5 2 , a r o s e f r o m c o n f i i c t s betvveen Jevvish t r a v e l l e r s f r o m G a l i l e e , o n their vvay t o J e r u s a l e m f o r a festival, a n d t h e S a m a r i t a n i n h a b i t a n t s o f a village o n t h e b o r d e r betvveen S a m a r i a a n d the Plain o f J e z r c c l . G c t t i n g n o satisfactioıı f r o m the procurator,

Ventidius C u m a n u s , t h e G a l i l c a n Jevvs callcd in a b r i g a n d

from

the m o u n t a i n s a n d s a c k e d v a r i o u s S a m a r i t a n villagcs. C u m a n u s r e a c t c d by d e p l o y i n g a c a v a l r y ala o f S e b a s t e n e s a n d f o u r i n f a n t r y c o h o r r s , the

Samaritans

and

launehing

an

assault

on

arming

t h e Jevvs ( o f G a l i l e e ,

as

seems clear). 25.11.1

below.

2 6 . J o s c p h u s , Ant. X X , 1 , 1 ( 2 - 4 ) ; E u s e b i u s , Onom.

( c d . K l o s t c r m a n n ) 9 4 , 3 ( c a l l i ı ı g it

lıa).

T h e 'leaders o f the S a m a r i t a n s ' ( w h o s e c o m m u ı ı a l structures a r e q u i t e u n knovvn) then w e n t t o a p p e a r b e f o r e t h e legatus

o f Syria, Ummidius Q u a d r a -

t u s , vvho vvas a t t h a t m o m e n t a t T y r e . H a v i n g h c a r d t h e m , Q u a d r a t u s c a m c t o J u d a c a a n d hcld further h e a r i n g s in S a m a r i a a n d a t Lydda ( ' a villagc o f a si/e n o less t h a n t h a t o f a polis',

a s J o s e p h u s d e s c r i b e s it). H a v i n g put v a r i o u s

p e r s o n s t o d e a t h , h e sent t h e l e a d e r s o f b o t h the S a m a r i t a n s a n d thc Jevvs ( t h c H i g h Priest A n a n i a s a n d t h c ' C a p t a i t ı o f the T e m p l e ' , A n a n u s ) t o thc E m p e r o r , a l o n g vvith C u m a n u s h i m s e l f a n d a t r i b ü n e n a m e d Çeler. H e himself visited J e r u s a l e m t o see t h a t ali vvas q u i e t , a n d returned t o A n t i o c h . In R o m e the influence o f A g r i p p a II (vvho vvas stili t h e r e , j u s t b e f o r e t h c d e c i s i v c c x t c n s i o n o f his d o m a i n s ) e n s u r e d t h a t t h e S a m a r i t a n l e a d e r s vvere c o n d e m n e d a n d put t o d e a t h , C u m a n u s exiled a n d Çeler, very r e m a r k ably,

brouglıt

back

to J e r u s a l e m ,

draggcd r o u n d

thc city a n d

publicly

cxccuted.27 A l t h o u g h t h e e p i s o d e i l l u s t r a t e s again the e x t r e m e difficulty vvhich vvas presented b y trying t o keep o r d e r a m o n g t h e very large a r m c d p o p u l a t i o n o f t h e villages, t h e r e is n o t h i n g in J o s e p h u s ' a c c o u n t t o indicate t h a t Q u a d r a t u s b r o u g h t a n y significant f o r c e s vvith h i m f r o m S y r i a . N o legions are kııovvn t o h a v e been s t a t i o n e d a s far s o u t h a s Tyre, a n d h c m a y h a v e b e e n t h e r e o n t h e n o r m a l j u d i c i a l c i r c u i t o f a R o m a n governor. N o n c t h c l e s s , it is c l e a r t h a t P t o l e m a i s vvill o n c c again h a v e been the p o i n t f r o m vvhich a legatus

of Syria

e n t e r e d J u d a c a t o i m p o s e o r d e r ; a n d this fact m a y serve t o c x p l a i n vvhy in t h e last c o u p l e o f y e a r s o f C l a u d i u s ' rcign t h c c i t y vvas r e f o u n d e d as a R o m a n colonia,

vvith the title ' C o l o n i a C l a u d i a Stabilis G e r m a n i c a Helix P t o l e m a i s ' .

T h e very f r a g m e n t a r y e v i d e n c e is j u s t e n o u g h t o ı t t a k c it c c r t a i n t h a t v e t e r a n s vvere in f a c t settled there, a n d s c c m t o have c o m c f r o m ali f o u r o f t h e l e g i o n s o f S y r i a . T h c r c f o u n d a t i o n vvas t h e r e f o r e c l e a r l y n o t s i m p l y a g r a n t o f s t a t u s a n d privileges t o an existing city, o f a sort vvhich vvas t o b e c o m c very c o m m o n latcr. 2K i t s s i g n i f i c a n c e is f u r t h e r e m p h a s i s c d b y a L a t i n inseription f r o m AD 5 6 r e c o r d i n g t h c building o f a r o a d a l o n g the c o a s t southvvards ' f r o m A n t i o c h i a t o the nevv colonia

o f Ptolemais'. This inseription, from a point just

s o u t h o f Beirut, is the earliest R o m a n m i l e s t o n e s o far d i s c o v e r e d in t h e N e a r East.29 It c a n n o t bc c l a i m e d t h a t t h i s f o u n d a t i o n o f t h e o n l y colonia

o f thc J u l i o -

C l a u d i a n period in the N e a r E a s t , vvith its e x p l i c i t l y related r o a d , is e n t i r c l y intelligible. But b o t h s e r v e t o s u g g c s t thc i m p o r t a n c c o f c o n c e r n direeted 17. B/II, 12, 3-7

Ant.

1 8 . F o r P ı o l e m a i s a s a colonia

XX,

1-3

(nö-136).

s c c M i l l a r , " R o m a n Coloniae13-26,

and thc very f u î l

d i s c u s s i o n b y S . A p p l c b a u m , " T h c R o m a n C o l o n y o f P t o l e m a i s — ' A k c a n d its T e r r i t o r y " , in h i s Judaca

in Hellenistic

and Roman

Times

(1989), 70.

2 9 . S e c R . G . G o o d c h i l d , " T h c C o a s t - R o a d o f P h o e n i c i a a n d its R o m a n M i l e s t o n e s " , tus 9 ( 1 9 4 8 - 4 9 ) , 9 1 ; T h . B a u z o u , " I x s r o u t c s r o m a i n e s de S y r i c " , i n AHS,

205.

Bery-

southvvards, t o t h e e v e r - t r o u b l e d a r e a o f J u d a e a . T h i s b e c o m e s ali t h e m o r e significant w h e n it is realised that the e a r l y 50S s a w the beginnings o f a m a j ö r c o n f r o n t a t i o n in the o p p o s i t e d i r e c t i o n , a c r o s s the o n l y real ' f r o n t i c r ' , the Euphrates. T h e c o m p l e x i t i e s o f the e n d l e s s rivalries f o r the P a r t h i a n a n d A r m e ı ı i a n t h r o n e s in this p e r i o d do n o t c o n c c r n us here, e x c e p t a s revealing t h e s t r u e t u r e o f the R o m a n E m p i r e in t h e N e a r E a s t . T h r o u g h o u t , t h e E u p h r a t e s — a n d p a r t i c u l a r l y the m a i n e r o s s i n g at Z e u g m a — c o n t i n u e d t o b e treated a s the b o u n d a r y . S o , in AD 4 9 , the legatus

o f S y r i a , C a s s i u s L o n g i n u s , had e s c o r t e d

a p r e t e n d e r ro t h e P a r t h i a n t h r o n e , M e h e r d a t e s , a s far as Z e u g m a a n d entrusted h i m t o leading P a r t h i a n s a n d ' t h e k i n g o f t h e A r a b s , A c b a r u s ' , v/ho e s c o r t e d h i m t o E d c s s a . 3 0 It vvould b c o v e r a c e n t u r y b e f o r e the little k i n g d o m o f O s r h o e n e , vvhose c a p i t a l vvas a t E d e s s a , e n t e r e d the R o m a n o r b i t , vvhile in the m e a n t i m e giving birth t o a nevv literary l a n g u a g e , S y r i a c . M e h e r d a t e s vvas s o o n d c f c a t c d a n d b e t r a y e d t o the P a r t h i a n king. A q u i t e nevv level o f crisis c a m c by AD 5 4 , a t the b e g i n n i n g o f N c r o ' s r c i g n , vvhen t h e t h r o n e o f A r m e n i a w a s c l a i m e d by T i r i d a t e s , the b r o t h e r o f the k i n g o f P a r t h i a . F o r t h e first time it is p o s s i b l e t o see vvhat r c s o u r c c s t h e R o m a n s h a d in t h e N e a r E a s t a n d h o w t h e y vvould b c disposed. T h e first step vvas t o levy soldiers in the n e i g h b o u r i n g p r o v i n c e s ( e x a c t l y vvhich, T a c i t u s d o e s not say), t o place the legions i n relatioıı t o A r m e n i a a n d t o o r d e r ' t h e longe s t a b l i s h e d k i n g s Agrippa a n d A n t i o c h u s t o send f o r c e s f o r t h e i n v a s i o n o f Partlıia'." Tacitus might have noted that the heart of Antiochus' kingdom vvas C o m m a g e n e , vvhile its c a p i t a l vvas S a m o s a t a , vvhich o v e r l o o k c d P a r t h i a n t e r r i t o r y a c r o s s the E u p h r a t e s . B y c o n t r a s t it vvould h a v e been u n d c r s t a n d a b . c if he h a d felt t h e difficulty, s h a r e d b y m o d e r n s , o f stating vvhat A g r i p p a II's t e r r i t o r y a c t u a l l y c o n s i s t e d o f . A t any r a t e he passes over the f a c t , r e c o r d e d b y J o s e p h u s , t h a t a b o u t novv N c r o a d d e d t o it p a r t o f G a l i l c c , vvith t h e cities o f T i b e r i a s a n d T a r i c h a e a e , a n d o f P e r a e a , vvith A b i l a a n d J u l i a s . " It is, h o w ever, a refleetion o f the very c o n s i d e r a b l e e x t e n t a n d p o p u l a t i o n o f A g r i p p a ' s d o m a i n s t h a t his forces vvere t h o u g h t r e l e v a n t t o o p e r a t i o n s a c r o s s t h e Eup h r a t e s . B r i n g i n g t h e m t o Z e u g m a i n v o l v e d a m a r c h o f s o m e 4 0 0 - 4 5 0 km f r o m his n e a r e s t border. Itı f a c t the a r r a n g e m e ı ı t s novv m a d e , since they p r i m a r i l y c o n c e r n e d A r m e nia, lying b e y o n d t h e u p p e r T i g r i s , foreshadovved t h o s e t h a t vvere t o be m a d e p e r m a n e n t b y V e s p a s i a n in t h e 70S. T h e f o r c e s ' o f t h e E a s t ' (that is, S y r i a ) vvere divided, o n t h e basis t h a t tvvo legions a n d a u x i l i a r i e s r e m a i n e d vvith

30. T a c i t u s , Atın. X I I , 1 1 . 3 t . Ann, X I I I , 7 . 3 2 . J o s e p h u s , B / II, 1 3 , 2 ( 2 5 2 ) ; Ant. Schürcr, HJl'l,

4 7 3

.

X X , 8, 4 ( 1 5 9 ) . F o r r o p o g r a p h i c a l p r o b l e m s scc

U m m i d i u s Q u a d r a t u s in S y r i a , w h i l e t w o , a l o n g w i t h nevvly b r o u g h t a u x i l i a ries a n d t h o s e already t h e r e , vvere put u n d e r D o m i t i u s C o r b u l o in C a p p a d o c i a t o t h e n o r t h . N o t h i n g m o r e is then r e p o r t e d in T a c i t u s ' n a r r a t i v e until A D 5 8 , vvhen C o r b u l o is f o u n d t r a i n i n g his legionaries, long u n a c c u s t o m e d t o discipline, r e c e i v i n g e x t r a r e c r u i t s f r o m G a l a t i a a n d C a p p a d o c i a , a n d a n c x t r a legion ' f r o m G e r m a ı ı y , a l o n g vvith a u x i l i a r y alae a n d cohortesV'3

In fact vvhat

h a p p e n c d vvas t h a t t h e legion I V Scythica vvas m o v e d f r o m M o e s i a (not G e r m a n i a ) , p e r h a p s a l r e a d y a y e a c o r tvvo carlicr, t o Syria ( n o t C a p p a d o c i a ) , vvhere it vvas t o f o r m part o f t h e p e r m a ı ı e n t g a r r i s o n f o r the vvhole o f o u r p e r i o d . 3 4 i t s arrival t h u s m a r k s o n e m o r e small s t a g c in the very slovv e v o l u t i o n o f a n integrated provincial system in t h e N e a r R a s t . I n the e s t a b l i s h e d system o f the eastern frontier, I V S c y t h i c a vvas t o b e the p e r m a n e n t g a r r i s o n o f Z e u g m a on t h e E u p h r a t e s . In AD 6 2 , vvith the arrival o f yet a n o t h e r legion from M o e s i a , t h e

V

M a c c d o ı ı i c a , vvc c a n see a f u r t h e r r e d i s t r i b u t i o n o f f o r c e s on t h e frontier. F o r a c a m p a i g n in A r m e n i a , C a e s c n n i u s P a e t u s vvas t o have the V M a c c d o n i c a , I V Scythica and X I I Fulminata, a n d auxiliarics from Galatia and C a p p a d o c i a , vvhilc t h e III G a l l i c a , V I F c r r a ı a a n d X F r e t c n s i s , a l o n g vvith n o r m a l a u x i l i a rics s t a t i o n e d in S y r i a , stayed t h e r e vvith C o r b u l o , vvho c o n c e n t r a t c d

on

p r o t e e t i n g tlıc e r o s s i n g at Z e u g m a , a d v a n c i n g o n l y very slovvly, a n d

too

late, t o r c s c u c P a e t u s ' f o r c e i n A r m e n i a f r o m a c c c p t i n g c o n d i t i o n s

and

retreating. 3 1 Finally, in 63, vvhen it b e c a m e c l e a r in R o m e t h a t t h e P a r t h i a n s h a d s u c cessfully o c c u p i c d A r m e n i a , C o r b u l o vvas giveıı c o m m a n d o f ali the f o r c e s o n t h e eastern frontier, vvithout t h e g o v e r n o r s h i p o f a n y p r o v i n c e . 3 6 A f u r t h e r l e g i o n , the X V A p o l l i ı ı a r i s , vvas b r o u g h t f r o m P a n n o n i a . T h e t r a n s f e r o f leg i o n s f r o m t h e D a ı ı u b e , c i t h e r f r o n ı P a n n o n i a o r c a r l i c r from M o e s i a , vvas p r e s u m a b l y carried o u t b y m a r e h i n g t h e m via B y z a n t i u m and a e r o s s A n a t o l i a . I f s o , vve are b e g i n n i n g t o see t h e f u n e t i o n i n g o f tlıc l a ı ı d - r o u t e vvhich vvas vvith t h e passage o f t i m e t o r e p r e s e n t the ı n e a n s by vvhich t h e N e a r E a s t vvas firmly integrated, s o far a s t i m e a n d d i s t a n c e allovved, in t h e m i l i t a r y s t r u e t u r e o f the E m p i r e . Tacitus c o n t i n u c s b y listing ali t h o s e officials o r dynasts vvho vvere p l a c c d u n d e r C o r b u l o ' s o r d e r s : ' I . e t t e r s vvere vvritten t o t h e t e t r a r e h s a n d kings, t o praefecti

a n d procuratores

a n d t o vvhatever praetores

vvere g o v e r n i n g t h e

n e i g h b o u r i n g provitıces instrueting t h e m t o o b e y C o r b u l o ' s o r d e r s ' . 3 7 T h e rc£-

3 3 . Arttı.

XIII, 35.

3 4 . R E X I I , s.V. " L e g j o " , 3 5 . T a c i t u s , Aıttt.

XV,

3 6 . Anı.

XV, 2 4 - 3 1 .

3 7 . Atın.

X V , 2 5 , 6.

i5j8ff.

1—17.

e r e n c e , vvhich is far f r o m c l e a r , m u s t be m a i n l y t o Asia M i n ö r . In t h e N e a r E a s t t h e r e vvere, o f R o m a n o f f i c i a l s , o n l y the legatus

o f Syria a n d the procurator

of

Judaea. T h e l e g i o n s I V a n d X I I vvere left in S y r i a , u n d e r the legatus,

Cestius Gallııs,

vvhile C o r b u l o erossed the E u p h r a t e s f r o n t i e r a t M c l i t e n e in C a p p a d o c i a , ta.e f r o m a s a i l o r o f t h e s a m e fleer o f a s l a v e - b o y ' f r o m a c r o s s t h e river [ t r a n s f l u m c a i l c d A b b a o r a l s o E u t y c h e s . 2 5 T h e n , a s in ı i 4 - r ı 6 , R o m a n ar-

iniattunı]',

m i e s vvere o p e r a t i n g b e y o n d t h e r i v e r E u p h r a t e s , c a p t i v e s vvill h a v e been availa b l e in l a r g e r t h a n n o r m a l n u m b e r s , a n d ships f r o m o t h e r fieets vvill have c o m e t o S e l e u c i a . D . van B c r c h c m m a y vvell b c right t o s u g g c s t t h a t vve n c c d t o envisage a netvvork o f c o m m u n i c a t i o n s a n d supplies s t r e t e h i n g f r o m the M e d i t e r r a n c a n t h r o u g h S c l c u c i a t o n o r t h e r n Syria a n d the E u p h r a t e s . T h a t vvould e x p l a i n vvhy o n e o f t h e very r a r e L a t i n h o n o r i f i c i n s e r i p t i o n s f r o m S y r i a vvas e r e e t e d t o a p r c f e c t o f t h e M i s e n u m fleet, M a r c i u s T u r b o , in about

1 1 4 , precisely a t C y r r h u s , on o n e o f t h e tvvo main r o u t e s

Antioch

Zeugma.26

to

from

W h e t h e r vve vvould t h i n k o f supplies, r a t h e r t h a n

f o r c c s , t r a v c l l i n g o v e r s u c h d i s t a n c c s is u n c c r t a i n ; b u t in later c a m p a i g n s vve d o knovv t h a t supplies vvere shipped f r o m s o u t h e r n Asia M i n ö r t o Syria f o r t h e a r m i e s ; 2 7 a n d , vvhile vve m u s t resist t o o c o n f i d e n t a r e c o ı ı s t r u c t i o n o f a s u p p l y netvvork, a n i n s e r i p t i o n from C a r i a d o e s r c c o r d a n c q u e s t r i a n o f f i c e r vvho h a d been 'in c h a r g e o f supplies in t h e P a r t h i a n vvar on

the

bank o f the Euphrates'.28 I f t h e P a r t h i a n vvar m a r k s a n o t a b l e step in t h e e v o l u t i o n o f the E m p i r e :n the N e a r E a s t , a n d a s i g n i f i c a n t f o r e t a s t e o f future s t r a t e g i c c o m m i t m e n t s , the very f a c t t h a t a reigning E m p e r o r vvas novv resident t h e r e f o r s o m e t h r e e years vvas a l s o i m p o r t a n t . F i r s t , t h e r e vvas the simple f a c t t h a t it vvas p o s s i b l e ; that t h e E m p i r e vvas n o t s u c h t h a t it had t o h c ruied f r o m R o m e , W h a t e v e r an E m p e r o r n e e d e d t o d o by vvay o f t h e c i v i l i a n g o v e r n m e n t o f the E m p i r e c o u l d b e d o n e f r o m his s t o p p i n g - p o i n t s on a j o u r n e y , o r in the intervals o f c a m p a i g n i n g . 2 9 B u t in s o s t a r k a f o r m this t o o vvas a sign o f t h e future r a t h e r t h a n o f established practicc; n o t since Augustus, m o r e than a c e n n ı r y before, had a n y E m p e r o r s p e n t s o l o n g a c o n t i n u o u s period in ( o r b e y o n d } the p r o v i n c e s . W h a t this m e a n t f o r t h e E m p i r e is p e r f e c t l y e x p r e s s e d by D i o in recouııtir.g the c o n s e q u c n c c s o f the g r e a t c a r t h q u a k e vvhich struck A n t i o c h vvhen T r a j a n vvas t h e r e in D e c e m b e r 1 1 5 : 2 4 . IGLS

III, n o s . 1 1 5 5 - 1 1 8 2 .

1 5 . P. Lond, 2 6 . AE PIR2

otk,

n o , 119

* C a v e n a i l l e , GPL,

no. 1 1 0 .

< 1 9 5 5 ) , n o . 2 2 5 ; f o r t h e p r e f e c r , Q . M a r c i u s T u r b o F r o n t o P u b l i c i u s S e v e r u s , «ee

M 2 4 9 . F o r this i n t e t p r e t a t i o n , D . v a n B e t c h c n ı , Bonn.

Jahrb.

185 (1985}, 4 7 , csp. 7 7 f f .

2 7 . 4 . 2 belovv. 1 8 . ILS, n o . 9 4 7 1 ; c f . L . R o b c r c a n d J . R o b c r t , La Carie II ( 1 9 5 4 ) , 1 8 0 , n o . 7 8 . 2 9 . F o r t h i s t h c m c . M i l l a r , ERW,

passim.

W h i l c he w a s staying in A n t i o c h an extraordinary earthquake took place. M a ı ı y cities suffered from it, b u t Antioch vvas the most unfortunatc. F o r as 'I'rajan vvas vvintering there, and m a n y soldiers had gathered there as well as many civilians, whether for judicial hcarings or on cmbassics o r as traders o r o u t o f curiosity, t h e r e w a s n o t a province o r a c o m m u n i t y \vhich rcmained uııharmed, and thus in Antioch the vvhole vvorld under the R o mans suffered disaster. 3 0 T h e slovvly e m e r g i n g r o l e o f A n t i o c h a s a s e c o n d a r y I m p e r i a l ' c a p i t a l ' is vividly c a p t u r e d . T r a j a n e s c a p e d on this o c c a s i o n , t o die o f natural vvhile sailing b a c k

f r o m Syria

a l o n g the C i l i c i a n c o a s t

in August

causes 117.

W h e t h c r he h a d intended it o r n o t , t h e s u c c c s s i o n vvent t o a s o n o f h i s c o u s i n , P. Aelius H a d r i a n u s , vvell placed a s legatus

o f S y r i a , vvho h e a r d t h e

nevvs vvitlıin days a n d p r o e l a i m e d h i m s e l f E m p e r o r 'in A n t i o c h , the m e t r o p olis o f S y r i a ' . 3 1 Setting o f f from there, a n d sending s o m e f o r c e s b e f o r e h i m , h e t o o k the l a n d - r o u t e a e r o s s A s i a M i n ö r , t h r o u g h A n c y r a , l u l i o p o l i s a n d N i c o m c d i a , t o t h e B a l k a n s , a r r i v i n g in R o m e n e a r l y a year a f t e r his p r o c l a m a t i o n , in J u l y

118."

H i s reign, a s is vvell knovvn, vvas t o be unique in t h a t s o m u c h o f it vvas spent otı s y s t e m a t i c j o u r n e y s t h r o u g h t h e p r o v i n c e s , vvith b o t h civilian a n d m i l i t a r y e n d s in vievv. B u t t h e m i l i t a r y aspcct a r o s e largely n o t f r o m the n e c e s sities o f c a m p a i g n s b u t f r o m a desire t o inspect t h e a r m y . T h e fact t h a t h i s j o u r n e y s ineluded the N e a r F a s t is t h u s n o t distinctive in itself. W h a t is distinctive is first t h e strongiy local c o l o u r i n g o f the d o c u m e n t a r y evidenee vvhich h a p p e n s t o refleet his p r e s e n c e t h e r e ; then t h e s e c o n d o f the tvvo g r e a t Jevvish revolts, u n d e r B a r K o k h b a o r B e n K o s i b a , in 1 3 2 - 1 3 5 , a g a i n s t vvhich t h e E m p e r o r t o o k c o m m a n d in p e r s o n ; a n d finally his f o u n d a t i o n o f the last ' r e a l ' colonia

in the history o f R o m e , Aelia C a p i t o l i n a , J e r u s a l e m .

H a d r i a n m a y h a v e been in Syria in 1 2 3 , b u t t h e period vvhen his visit left the c l e a r e s t traces in o u r e v i d e n e e s e e m s t o be f r o m the a u t u m n o f 1 2 9 t o t h e s u m n ı c r o f 1 3 0 . M u c h o f a n y p o s s i b l e r c c o n s t r u c t i o n depends on later s o u r c e s a n d m a y b e left a s i d e . F o r i n s t a n c e the f a c t t h a t t h e r e vvere ' H a d r i a n i c B a t h s ' in A n t i o c h is novv m a d e c e r t a i n b y t h e nevv arclıivc o f t h e third c e n t u r y f r o m the m i d d l e E u p h r a t e s . 3 3 B u t vvhether, as M a l a l a s r e c o r d s in t h e s i x t h c e n t u r y , I l a d r i a n o r d e r e d t h e c o n s t r u c t i o n o f these b a t h s h i m s e l f , as vvell a s o f o t h e r j c . D i o LXVIII, 24,

ı-z.

3 1 . D i o L X Î X , 2, 1 . 3 2 . R . H a l f m a n n , Ilitcnı o f H a d r i a n " , ZPE

Pıiııeipum

İ1986), ı 8 8 f f . For rcfinemenıs sec R . Symc, "Journeys

7 3 ( 1 9 8 8 ) , 1 5 9 = Roman

Papers

VI ( 1 9 9 1 ) , 3 4 6 ; T D . B a r n c s , " E m p c r o r s o n

the M o v e " , / R A 2 ( 1 9 8 9 ) , 2 4 7 . 3 3 . D . Fcisse! a n d J. G a s c o u , CRAI

( 1 9 8 9 ) , 5 3 5 , n o . 1: a s u b s c r i p t i o n p o s t e d in 2 4 5 , EV z a ı ç

' A S p ı a v a i ç O e p j ı a ı ç . S c c f u r t h e r 4 . 2 beIo%v.

p u b l i c buildings, o r did s o \vhile p r e s c n t in p e r s o n , is q u i t e u n c c r t a i n . 3 4 W h a r m a t t e r s is t h e very vivid d o c u m c n t a r y e v i d e n c e o f his presence in c e r t a i n a r e a s . P e r h a p s the m o s t d i s t i n e t i v e is the earliest d o c u m e n t a r y r e c o r d o f an I m p e r i a l visit t o P a l m y r a , vvhich in this r e i g n gained the G r e e k title ' H a d r î a n c P a l m y r a ' . It c o m e s from a b i l i n g u a l h o n o r i f i c inseription f r o m t h e t e m p l e o f B a ' a l s h a m i n r c c o r d i n g t h a t a m a n c a l l e d M a l e s h a d been s e c r e t a r y

(gratnnıa-

teus) o f the c i t y d u r i n g t h e visit o f H a d r i a n , h a d p r o v i d e d oil f o r s t r a n g e r s a n d citizens a n d h a d seen t o the r e c e p t i o n o f t h e t r o o p s . I n the P a l m y r e n c t e x t H a d r i a n is ' o u r lord H a d r i a n , (the) g o d : [ M R ] N H D R Y [ N ' ] ' L H ' . " T h e inseription dates the d e d i c a t i o n o f the s t a t u e o f M a l e s t o 1 3 0 / 1 3 1 , but d o e s n o t o f c o u r s e serve t o date t h e e x a c t m o m e n t o f the visit. N o n e t h e l e s s it is highly significant t h a t the I m p e r i a l e n t o u r a g c a n d e s e o r t t r o o p s d i d visit Palm y r a a t this t i m e , vvhen it vvas r e a c h i n g the s u m m i t o f its a r c h i t e c t u r a l develo p m e n t ; 011 the o t h e r h a n d t h e r e is n o t h i n g vvhatsoever in the l i t e r a t ü r e o f thi: s e c o n d c c n t u r y t o suggest t h a t t h e c u l t u r e o f P a l m y r a h a d been r e g i s t e r e d as s o m e t h i n g o f p a r t i c u l a r i n t e r e s t t o intellectual c i r c l e s elsevvhere in the E m p i r e . P r o b a b l y o n the s a m e j o u r n e y H a d r i a n a l s o travelled s o u t h t o t h e p r o v i n c e o f A r a b i a . A G r e e k i n s e r i p t i o n put up in his h o n o u r by G e r a s a , ' t h e c i t y c f t h e A n t i o c h c n e s by t h e C h r y s o r h o a s , t h e f o r m e r G c r a s e n e s ' , s e e m s t o r e f e r t o t h e vvhole p e r i o d o f h i s stay, a n d t o h i s h a v i n g held j u r i s d i e t i o n vvhile tlıere, a n d d a t e s t o 1 3 0 . It is m a t e h e d b y a L a t i n d e d i c a t i o n on his b e h a l f by s o m e o f his e s e o r t t r o o p s , his ecjuites singulares

vvho h a d vvintcred 'at A n t i o c h i a by

t h e C h r y s o r h o a s , a l s o called G e r a s a , s a c r e d , i n v i o l a t e a n d a u t o n o m o u s ' . T h e t r i u m p h a l a r c h vvhich s t a n d s t o t h e s o u t h o f G e r a s a vvas d e d i c a t e d by the city on b e h a l f o f the E m p e r o r a t t h e s a m e t i m e , 1 3 0 . 3 * I l e r c , t o o , n o E m p e r o r had ever b e e n b e f o r e . It is very likely t h a t t h e E m p e r o r did g i v e j u r i s d i e t i o n vvhile t h e r e , a s C a r a c a l l a vvas later t o d o in A n t i o c h . 5 7 W e vvould h a v e knovvn anyvvay t h a t I l a d r i a n visited A r a b i a , f o r contcrr.p o r a r y c o i n s r e c o r d AUVF.NTUS AUG ARABIAE, a s t h e y do ADVKNTUS AUG ı ı DAEAE. But precise c o n ı ı e c t i o n s betvveen his p r e s e n c e , t h e plan t o f o u n d a nevv colonia

a t J e r u s a l e m , vvith a t e m p l e t o luppiter C a p i t o l i n u s , a n d t h e o u t b r e a k

o f the great revolt in 1 3 2 c a n n o t b c c s t a b l i s h c d . T h e r e is, hovvever, n o g o o d r e a s o n t o disbelieve the i m p l i c a t i o n s o f C a s s i u s D i o ' s a c c o u n t , a c c o r d i n g t o vvhich it vvas this plan, i n v o l v i n g the s e t t l e m e n t o f a g e n t i l e p o p u l a t i o n , vvhich p r o v o k e d r e b e l l i o n (a r e p o r t e d ban o n c i r c u m c i s i o n m a y a l s o h a v e been relc34. F o r h i s a l l e g c d c o n s t r u c t i o n s , s o m e p e r h a p s siıııply d e d u c c d f r o m t h e f a c t t h a t b u i l d i n g s vvere n a m e d a f t e r t h e E m p e r o r (as vvas v e r y c o m m o n t h r o u g h o ı ı t t h e F m p i r e ) , s e e M a l a l a s , Cbron.,

277—278.

3 5 . CVS II, n o . 3 9 5 9 = C a n t i n e a u , Inu. I, n o . 2 = C . D u n a n t , Le sattcluaire a Palnıyre

III: Lcs inseriplions

3 6 . Gerasa,

(«971), n o . 44.

i n s . n o . 3 0 (equites

3 7 . 4.2 bclow.

singulares);

5 8 (arch); 1 4 4 (visit).

de

Raalsbamin

vant). According to D i o ,

fighting

did n o t b r e a k o u t w h i l e H a d r i a n vvas in

E g y p t o r again in S y r i a , but o n l y vvhen he vvas far avvay. 38 H a d r i a n c e r t a i n l y visited G a z a in 1 3 0 , vvas in Egypt o v e r the vvinter o f 1 3 0 / 1 3 1 a n d m a y have sailed u p the P h o e n i c i a n c o a s t b e f o r e s p e n d i n g t h e vvinter o f 1 3 1 / 1 3 2 in A t h c n s . S o it is n o t u n r e a s o n a b l e t o r c g a r d t h e plan f o r a nevv colonia,

vvith t h e title ' C o l o n i a Aelia C a p i t o l i n a ' , reflecting the n a m e

o f the E m p e r o r , P. Aeiius H a d r i a n u s , a s a p r o d u c t o f his p e r s o n a l initiative vvhile t h e r e . W h c t h c r it vvas p l a n ı ı e d b e f o r e t h a t c a n n o t b e kııovvn. AH t h a t is c l e a r is t h a t J u d a e a vvas t r a n s f c r r c d f r o m being a o n c - l e g i o n p r o v i n c e , u n d e r a legatus

o f e x - p r a e t o r status, t o being a tvvo-legion p r o v i n c e under an e x -

c o n s u l , n o t a f t e r t h e revolt, a s vve m i g h t e x p e c t , but b e f o r e it. If this c h a n g e did n o t t a k c p l a c c , as h a d been a r g u c d , under T r a j a n , 3 9 it h a d c e r t a i n l y o c c u r r e d b y the 120S, vvhen first t h e legion II T r a i a n a ( b e f o r e g o i n g t o E g y p t ) a n d t h e n , o n a permatıent b a s i s , the VI Kerrata vvere s t a t i o n e d there. At this point n o details o f t h e r e v o l t itself a r e n e c d c d e x c c p t t o e m p h a s i s e t h a t it iasted s o m e t h r e e a n d a h a l f y e a r s , savv t h e f o u n d a t i o n o f a r e g u l a r a d m i n i s t r a t i o ı ı in t h e a r e a s free o f R o m a n c o n t r o l a n d again r e q u i r e d a m a j ö r c o n c c n t r a t i o n o f f o r c e by the R o m a n a r m y . T h e c o n t c m p o r a r y d o c u m e n t s vvhich refleet life in t h e Jcvvish-hcld a r e a b e l o n g in t h e s o c i a l h i s t o r y o f J u d a e a ; they s t r o n g l y suggest t h a t t h e r e v o l t b e g a n in the s p r i n g o f 1 3 2 a n d c o n t i n u e d until the a u t u m n o f 1 3 5 . 4 0 E v e n f o r the R o m a n a r m y it is e n o u g h t o r e c a l l t h a t a p a r t f r o m X F r e t c n s i s a n d V I F c r r a t a , III C y r e n a i c a f r o m B o s t r a a n d ( a t least) I V G a l l i c a f r o m Syria t o o k p a r t ; a s the c o n s u i a r legatus

o f Syria left t h e

p r o v i n c e t o c o t ı f r o n t the u p r i s i n g in J u d a e a , p r o b a b l y o t h e r units f r o m S y r i a c a m c t o o . M o r e o v e r , the t r i b ü n e o f a legion in P a n n o n i a vvas a p p o i n t e d b y H a d r i a n t o bring d e t a c h m e n t s f o r the war. 4 1 M o r e significant stili, it c a n b e t a k e n as c e r t a i n t h a t the E m p e r o r t o o k c o m m a n d in p e r s o n , a t least f o r a t i m e ; i n s e r i p t i o n s r c c o r d i n g m i l i t a r y h o n o u r s novv g r a n t e d b y the E m p e r o r deseribe t h e c a m p a i g n a s an expeditio

Iudaica,

o n e on vvhich t h e E m p e r o r

vvas p r e s e n t . 4 2 T h e r e v o l t thus left J u d a e a as a m a j ö r , a n d on the s u r f a c e a highly R o m a n i s e d , e l e m e n t in t h e s t r u e t u r e o f t h e E m p i r e : tvvo coloniae,

Cacs-

a r e a a n d Aelia; a n e x - c o n s u l a s g o v e r n o r vvith tvvo l e g i o n s e a c h u n d e r a p r a e t o r i a n legatus;

a n d a s u b s t a n t i a l n u m b e r o f a u x i l i a r i e s . A diploma

of

139

shovvs t h a t there vvere then at l e a s t t h r e e c a v a l r y alae a n d tvvelve cohortes

in

3 8 . D i o L X I X , 1 1 , 1 - 2 . T h e b a n o n e i r c u m c i s i o n is r e p o r t e d d i r e c t l y o n l y b y H A , v.

Had.

1 4 , 2, g i v e n m o r e w e i g h t b y t h e p e r i n i s s i o n f o r it g r a n t e d by A n t o n i n u s P i u s , as r c c o r d c d

by

M o d c s t ı n u s m Dıg.

in

Roman

Imperial

X L V 1 I I , 8, i r . S c c S c h ü r c r , IIJP

Legislation

I, 5 3 4 - 5 4 3 , a n d A . I.indcr, The

( 1 9 8 7 ) , n o . 1.

3 9 . W . E c k , " Z u m k o n s u l a r e n S t a t u s v o n I u d a c a i m f r i l h c n 2 . J h . " , BASP

21 ( 1 9 8 4 ) , 55.

40. 10.3 below, and f o r a c a t a l o g u c A p p . C . 4 1 . F o r t h e d e t a i l s s c c S c h ü r e r IIJP 4 2 . S o R . S y ı n e , ZPE

fews

I, 5 4 7 , n . 1 5 0 .

7 3 ( 1 9 8 8 ) , 1 6 6 - 1 6 7 = Roman

Papers V I ( 1 9 9 1 ) , 5 5 3 — 5 5 4 .

the p r o v i n c e . 4 3 N o o t h e r p r o v i n c e vvith n o e x t e r n a l f r o n t i e r h a d s o l a r g e a g a r r i s o n . B u t vvhat the diploma

o f 1 3 9 a l s o shovvs is t h a t the n a m e ' I u d a c a ' ,

vvith its e t h n i c . v f e r e n c e , h a d a l r e a d y d i s a p p c a r e d , t o b e replaced by a nevv n a m e , 'Syria Palaestina'. W i t h these c h a n g e s the e v o l u t i o n o f t h e s t r u c t u r e o f t h c E m p i r e in thc N e a r E a s t vvest o f thc E u p h r a t e s vvas a l m o s t c o m p l c t e . If \vc l o o k a t it in very local t e r m s , vve c a n see t h a t it c o n s i s t e d o f a s p r e a d o f m a j ö r l e g i o n a r y b a s e s : f r o m S a m o s a t a ( X V I F l a v i a F i r m a ) a n d Z e u g m a ( I V S c y t h i c a ) in the n o r t h o v e r l o o k i n g the E u p h r a t e s , t o the O r o n t e s Valley, vvhere III G a i l i c a s c e m s : o h a v e b e e n a t R a p h a n c a e , t o S y r i a P a l a e s t i n a , vvhere X F r e t e n s i s vvas at A e l i a a n d VI F e r r a t a a t C a p a r c o t n a in the J e z r e e l Valley; a n d İÜ C y r e n a i c a a t B o s t r a in A r a b i a , vvhere, as vve h a v e s c e n , the c a m p is stili visible f r o m the air, a t t a c h e d t o t h c n o r t h side o f t h c city. E v e n here vve are h a r d l y in a p o s i t i o n : o assess the c o m p l e x m u t u a l i n f l u e n c e s a n d r e l a t i o n s h i p s betvveen the c i v i l i a n p o p u l a t i o n a n d these large m a s s e s o f s o l d i e r s . Stili less is this t h c c a s c vvith a u x i l i a r y units, vvhose l o n g - t e r m l o c a t i o n s , i f they h a d t h e m , a r e h a r d l y ever knovvn. ö n e p l a c e vvhere a fevv s u c h sidelights a r e a v a i l a b l e , hovvever, is Palm y r a , vvhere thc earliest c v i d c ı ı c e for thc p r c s c n c c o f R o m a n a u x i l i a r y units b e l o n g s t o the middle o f t h c s c c o n d c e n t u r y . Typically, vvhat little vve knovv is a p r o d u c t o f the ' e p i g r a p h i c b a b i t ' , a n d specifically o f the h a b i t o f p u t t i n g up h o n o r i f i c inseriptions. S o G r e e k i n s e r i p t i o n s f r o m t h e t e m p l e o f Bel a t Palm y r a shovv u s thc pracfectus

o f thc Ala H e r c u l i a n a o f T h r a c i a n s , Iulius l u l i a -

n u s , in 1 6 7 ; a n d a r o u n d t h e s a m e p e r i o d a different praefectus, vvho h a d a l s o b c c o m c a t o v v n - c o u n c i l l o r (bouleutes)

V i b i u s Çeler,

o f thc city; h c is deseribed

a s *thc p r e f c c t o f t h c ala ( s t a r i o n e d ) h e r e ' , p r e s u m a b l y the s a m e o n e . " Hovv t h e different u n i t s o f t h e a r m y vvere distributed a c r o s s the l a n d s c a p e , hovv they vvere houscd a n d s u p p l i e d a n d vvhat f u n e t i o n s t h e y p e r f o r m e d , ftır i n s t a n c e as a p o l i c e - f o r c c , in relation t o the civilian p o p u l a t i o n are q u e s t i o n s i m p o s s i b l e t o ansvver in g e n e r a l t e r m s . T h e r e is n o vvay in vvhich the i m p a c t o r presence o f the R o m a n s t a t e in the N e a r E a s t c a n be a d e q u a t e l y assessed. i t s m o r e p r o f o u n d , l o n g e r - t e r m c f f c c t s , f o r i n s t a n c c the s p r e a d o f t h c R o m a n citizenship o r the t r a n s f o r m a t i o n o f collective idenrities (in vvhat sense did a n y C o m m a g e n i a n o r N a b a t a e a n i d e n t i t y survive the i t n p o s i t i o n o f p r o v i n c i a l s t a t u s ? ) m u s t b c reserved f o r a e l o s e r l o o k a t thc different s u b - r e g i o n s o f t.ıc a r e a . But it is stili rclevant t o pick o u t , b y vvay o f i l l u s t r a t i o n , a fevv f e a t u r e s o f thc p r e s c n c c o f thc R o m a n s t a t e vvhich vve c a n d i s c c r n f r o m o u r s c a t t e r e d cvidcncc. O n e , vvhich c a n n o t h a v e e s c a p e d a n y o n e , vvas the c o n s t r u c t i o n o f r o a d s . T h o u g h a r o a d m i g h t b e a n y t h i n g f r o m a fully p a v c d c o n s t r u c t i o n , like the 43. C / L X V I , no. 87. 4 4 . C a n t i u e a u , İni/. I X , 110. zı

(= İLS, n o . 8 8 6 9 ) , n o . 1 3 .

m u c h - p h o t o g r a p h e d section stili visible betvveen A n t i o c h a n d B e r o e a , o r a t r a c k f r o m w h i c h stones h a d b e e n s y s t c m a t i c a l l y c l c a r e d , o r j u s t a t r a c k , m i l c s t o n e s b e a r i n g tlıe n a m e o f t h e E m p e r o r , \vherever they \vere p l a c e d , vvill h a v e been an u n m i s t a k a b l e sign o f t h e I m p e r i a l p r e s e n c e . F o r i n s t a n c e , stili c i e a r l y visible f r o m t h e air a n d from ehe g r o u n d is the r o a d l i n k i n g D a m a s c u s t o B o s t r a c u t , in the middle o f the s e c o n d c e n t u r y , directly a c r o s s the L e j a , t h e plate o f b r o k e n v o l c a n i c r o c k k n o w n a s T r a c h o n i t i s , o n c e p a r t o f H e r o d i a n d o m a i n s . 4 5 T h e r o a d is lined vvith vvatch-tovvcrs a n d m i l e s t o n e s , o n e o f vvhich r e c o r d s t h a t in 1 8 5 / 1 8 6 the r o a d vvas r e s t o r e d ' f r o m P h a e n a t o A e r i t a ' , t h a t is, f r o m the n o r t h e r n edge o f t h e r o c k plate a t P h a e n a ( M i s m i y e h ) a l m o s t t o the s o u t h e r n c d g c a t A e r i t a ( A h i r e o r A r i q a h ) . H e r e a G r e e k inseription f r o m a b o v e a surviving gate, d a t i n g t o 1 6 9 / 1 7 0 , p e r f e c t l y exemplifies o n e f o r m o f i n t e r a c t i o n betvveen E m p i r e a n d s u b j e c t s . F o r the g a t e vvas built a t his ovvrı e x p c n s c b y a m a n f r o m A e r i t a vvith a p e r f e c t l y R o m a n n a m e , T . C l a u d i u s M a g n u s , a v e t e r a n ( o u e t r a n o s , t r a n s l i t e r a t e d ) , a n d the vvork vvas s u p e r v i s e d b y a c e n t u r i o n o f III G a l l i c a . T h e s a m e c e n t u r i o n , as vvell as o n e f r o m X V I F l a v i a F i r m a , a p p e a r s e n g a g e d i n building a t P h a e n a . M o s t o f the i n s e r i p t i o n s f r o m P h a e n a c o m e f r o m a m o n u m e n t a l c o n s t r u c tion, finally destroyed in 1 8 9 0 , vvhich m a y h a v e been a t e m p l e o r s o m e sor t o f official building. 4 * Its m o s t s t r i k i n g feature is a letter, e n g r a v e d beside t h e m a i n c n t r a n c e , o f Iulius S a t u r n i n u s , legatus o f Syria in 1 8 5 - 1 8 7 : Iulius Saturninus t o the Phaenesians, metrokömia

of T r a c h ö n , greeting. If

anyone imposes himself on you by force, vvhether a soldier o r a private person, send to rac and you •vvill have justice. F o r you do not ovve any contribution to strangers, and having a guest-house you c a n n o t be forced to receive strangers in your houses. Put up this letter o f mine in a prominent place in your metrokömia,

so that no o n e may be able t o excuse

himself on grounds of ignorance. 4 7 T h i s letter thus t a k e s its p l a c e , a l o n g vvith the e x t r a c t f r o m t h e mandata

of

D o m i t i a n f r o m H a m a / E p i p h a n i a , in a l o n g list o f d o c u m e n t s i l l u m i n a t i n g t h e m o s t c o ı ı t c n t i o u s a r c a o f f r i c t i o n betvveen the s t a t e a n d its s u b j e c t s . T h e u s e o f a distinetive local t e r m , metrokömia

( ' m o t h e r - v i l l a g e ' ) , as vvell a s the f a c t

t h a t the legatus addresses this c o m m u n i t y directly, a l s o illustrates the c i t y - l i k e f u n e t i o n o f the m a j ö r villages o f this region. W h e t h c r the e h a n g e vvas f o r g o o d o r ili, n o o n e t h e r e c o u l d m i s t a k c t h e f a c t t h a t since the d i s a p p e a r a n c e o f 4 5 . S c c M . D u n a n d , " L a v o ! c t o m a î n c d u L e d g â " , Mim.

Ac. Ins. 1 3 ( 1 9 3 0 ) , 5 2 1 ; T h . R a u -

z o u , " L e s v o i e s d e c o m m u n i c a t i o n s d a n s Ic H a u r a n â l * c p o q u e r o m a i n e " , D c n ı z c r , Hauran 1 3 7 ; K e n n e d y a n d R i l e y , RDF. 4 6 . le

B a s - W . , n o . 2 4 3 8 ( A e r i t a ) ; IGR

t o r i u m a t M u s m i y c " , DOP

I,

78-79. III, n o s . 1 1 1 3 - 1 1 1 8 ( P h a e n a ) . S e e S . M i l i , " T h e P r a e -

29 (1975), 349.

4 7 . L e B a s - W . , n o . 4 J 5 1 = IGR

III, n o . 1 1 1 9 = OGIS,

n o . 609.

A g r i p p a II s o m e d e c a d e s b e f o r e , they b e l o n g c d to a vvider a n d quite d i f f e r e n t state-system. A s w e h a v e seen in t h e c a s e s b o t h o f t h e c o l o n y of B a b y l o ı ı i a n Jevvs established in B a t a n a e a b y H e r o d t h e G r e a t a n d of the villagers o f M a o z a vvhen N a b a t a e a b e c a m e the p r o v i n c c of A r a b i a , it vvould h a v e b e e n e q u a l l y i m p c s sible t o ignore the i m p o s i t i o n o f R o m a n t a x a t i o n a n d the R o m a n census. 4 8 Y e t , a s elsevvhere in the E m p i r e , o u r d o c u m e n t a t i o n for the N e a r E a s t h a r d l y allovvs us to g a i n a n y c o n c e p t i o n of this p r o c e s s , or e v e n to be sure vvhether direct t a x a t i o n vvas p a i d p r e d o m i n a n t l y in c a s h or in k i n d . 4 9 W h a t vve d o knovv, or a r e told, a b o u t this in o u r s o u r c e s m a n a g e s t o c o m b i n c svveeping a s s e r t i o n s vvith a l a c k of c o n c r e t e d e t a i l . So, f o r i n s t a n c c , A p p i a n , vvritiııg in t h e m i d d l e o f the s e c o n d c e n t u r y , m e n t i o n s in p a s s i n g t h a t f o r ' S y r i a n s ' a n d ' C i l i c i a n s ' there is a n a n n u a l t a x , a t i p c r c e n t o f their census-rating. $ 0 T h a t vvould i m p l y a t o t a l v a l u a t i o n of l a n d e d p r o p e r t y , as a basis f o r t h e p a y m e n t ; a n d it a l s o implies a very h i g h levcl o f t a x a t i o n . F o r if vve s u p p o s e t h a t l a n d y i e l d c d 7 p e r c e n t per y e a r o n its c a p i t a l v a l u e , t h e r a t e o f t a x a t i o n vvould h a v e been s o m e t h i n g l i k e 1 5 p e r c e n t o n i n c o m c . But t h e tvvo knovvn census-retur.ıs f r o m J u d a e a shovv n o trace o f a n y s u c h s y s t e m — e a c h piece of p r o p e r t y h a s a c o n v e n t i o n a l rate of t a x a t i o n , in c a s h or k i n d , a t t a c h c d to it. s ı N o r d o vve g a i n a n y c o n c e p t i o n of hovv t a x a t i o n of p r o p e r t y related to t a x a t i o n of indiv i d u a l s , the ' h e a d - t a x ' , or tributum

capitis.

S o the m o s t i m p o r t a n t of t h e R o -

m a n lavvyers of t h e early t h i r d century, U l p i a n , a citizcn of T y r e , vvrites o f the census:

'It is necessary to r e c o r d a p e r s o n ' s a g e in the census-returıı, b e c a u s e

c e r t a i n g r o u p s g a i n e x e m p t i o n b y r e a s o n of a g e ; f o r c x a m p l c in Syria m a l e s a r e l i a b l e to the tributum

capitis

f r o m 1 4 years, f e m a l e s f r o m 1 2 , until the

6 5 t h y e a r ' . W e h a v e to a s s u m e t h a t b o t h a l a n d t a x (tributum

soli)

and a

' h e a d - t a x ' vvere p a y a b l e . F o r the jurist Paulus, a c o n t c m p o r a r y of U l p i a n , n o t e s t h a t vvhen V e s p a s i a n m a d e C a e s a r e a a colonia, tributum

capitis;

he remitted o n l y the

but his s o n T i t u s e x e m p t e d their land (solum)

also.12 Ba-

b a t h a , m a k i n g h e r c e n s u s - r e t u r n in the p r o v i n c c of A r a b i a in 1 2 7 , m a k e s n o r e f e r e n c e to h e r ovvıı a g e , hovvever, o r to a n y o n e else as b e i n g resident o n the properties concerncd.53 In o t h e r vvords the r e a l i t i e s o f the p r o c e s s b y vvhich the R o m a n state lived o f f its s u b j e c t s , in this a s in o t h e r arcas, c s c a p c us. A l m o s t c q u a l l y f r a g m e ı ı t a r y c v i d e n c c s u r v i v e s f o r t h e c o l l e c t i o n of t o l l s (portoria) (publicani)

by contractors

on the m a i n routes. T h e c o m p l e x question o f long-distancc trade

48.1.1 and 3.1. 49. See 2.2. 50. Appian, Syr. 50/253. 51. 3.2 above. 52. Dig. L, 15, 3 pr. (Ulpian); I , 15, 8, 7 (Paulus). 53. 3.2 above.

will c o n c e r n us l a t e r ; 5 4 so it is s u f f i c i c n t h e r e t o m e n t i o n the c o l l e c t i o n o f t o l l s a t G a z a on t h e c a r a v a n - t r a d e c o r a i n g up f r o m t h e Y e m e n ( A r a b i a F e l i x ) , a n d t h e l q u a r t e r - c o l l e c t o r ' (tetartânes),

a t t e s t e d ( a g a i n ) 011 an h o n o r i f ı c G r e e k a n d

P a l m y r e n e inseription f r o m the a g o r a a t P a l m y r a put up in 1 6 1 . T h e h o n o r a n d , M a r c u s Aemilius M a r c i a n u s Asclepiades, was a town-councillor o f A n t i o c h , a n d w a s h o n o u r e d by fithe traders w h o had c o m e u p f r o m S p a s i n o u C h a r a x ' a t the h e a d o f t h c P e r s i a n G u l f . It is a c c o m p a n i e d by aııother, o f 1 7 4 , w h i c h h o n o u r s a n o t h e r tetartönes,

a n d is o n e o f t h c very fevv knovvn trilingual

i n s e r i p t i o n s , in L a t i n , G r e e k a n d P a l m y r e n e — b r i e f a s it is, a p e r f e c t e x p r e s s i o n o f the c o m p l c x c u l t u r a l f r a m e v v o r k c r e a t e d b y the e x t e n s i o n o f R o m a n povver i n t o t h e steppe. 5 5 A q u i t c different p c r s p c c t i v c is o f f e r e d by a scene in P h i l o s t r a t u s ' h i s t o r i c a l novel t h e Life of Apollonius

of'lyana,

vvritten in t h c

early third c e n t u r y : vvhen A p o l l o n i u s a n d his party a r e a b o u t t o e r o s s t h e K u p h r a t c s into M e s o p o t a m i a , t h c telönes

(fmblicanus)

stationcd at Z e u g m a

t a k e s them t o a b o a r d o n vvhich Standard c h a r g e s f o r v a r i o u s items a r c listed. 5 6 T h i s vvork, set in t h c later first c e n t u r y , p r o p c r l y t a k e s n o a c c o u n t o f t h e great c h a n g e s a n d u p h e a v a l s vvhich o c c u r r e d in the later s e c o n d c e n t u r y a n d early third. T h e s e events vvere t o give Syria a nevv a n d u n e x p e c t e d c e n t r a l i t y in thc f u n e t i o n i n g o f t h c E m p i r e , a n d t o e x t c n d R o m a n rule b o t h far dovvıı t h e middle E u p h r a t e s a n d a c r o s s n o r t h e r n M e s o p o t a m i a t o the T i g r i s .

3.4. F.MPF.RORS A N D P R E T E N D E R S

IN T H E NEAR

F R O M J.UCIUS VF.RUS T O SF.PTIMIÜ.S THE CONQUEST OF

EAST

SF.VERUS:

MESOPOTAMİA

F o r a q u a r t c r o f a c c n t u r y a f t e r t h e end o f thc B a r K o c h b a revolt, 110 signific a n t c h a n g c s t o o k placc in thc s h a p c o f thc F.mpirc in t h c N e a r E a s t . W h c n they did c o m e , it vvas a g a i n t h e result, so o u r R o m a n s o u r c e s r e l a t e , o f P a r thian a m b i t i o n s : 1 for V o l o g a c s e s IV o f P a r t h i a , t a k i n g a d v a n t a g c o f t h e a c c c s s i o n in \6ı

o f tvvo nevv j o i n t E m p e r o r s , M a r c u s Aurelius a n d I.ucius V c r u s ,

installed P a c o r u s , a m e m b e r o f his family, a s k i n g o f A r m e n i a . T h e e a r l y fighting

t o o k p l a c e on the u p p e r E u p h r a t e s a n d i n v o l v e d the d e f e a t a n d SUL-

c i d e o f thc legatus

o f C a p p a d o c i a . T h c s u b s c q u c n t R o m a n r c a c t i o n vvas o f

5 4 . 1 3 . 1 belovv. 5 5 . C a n t i n e a u , f i m X , n o s . 2 9 a n d z 15. A f u r t h e r t r i l i n g u a l i n s e r i p t i o n r e f e r r i n g t o t h c s a m e m a n is p u b l i s h e d b y K h . A l - A s ' a d a n d J . T c i x i d o r , Syria 62 ( 1 9 8 5 ) . J-79> n o . 9. 56. P h i l o s t r a t u s , V. Ap. I, 2 0 . 1 . F o r a d e t a i l e d a n d p c r c e p t i v c a c c o u n t o f t h e s e e v e n t s , o n vvhich I dravv f o r t h o s e d e t a i l s r c l c v a n t t o t h e N e a r E a s t i n t h e s e n s e u s e d h e r e , s e c A . Birley, Marcus

Aurelius:

A

Biograpby1

( 1 9 8 7 ) , 1 2 1 - 1 2 6 ; 1 2 8 - 1 3 1 . O n V o l o g a e s e s ( I V ) , s e e novv A . P e n n a c h i c t t i , " L ' i s c r i z i o n e b i l i n g u e g r c c o - p a r t i c a d c I l ' E r a c l e di S e l e u c i a " , Mesopotamia

22 ( 1 9 8 7 ) , 1 6 9 , on p p . 1 8 1 - 1 8 2 .

great significanee f o r the n a t u r e o f the I m p e r i a l system f o r c e n t u r i e s t o c o m e . O n e E m p e r o r , M a r c u s A u r e l î u s , s t a y c d in R o m e , while t h e other, L u c i u s Verus, t r a v c l l e d ( s l o w l y a n d l u x u r i o u s l y , it \vas said) t o A n t i o c h t o c o n d u c t the c a m p a i g n , a p p a r e n d y a r r i v i n g in 1 6 2 o r 1 6 3 . I n the event, vvhen the R o m a n s t o o k t h e initiative, first in 1 6 3 a n d then decisively in 1 6 5 , it p r o v e d p o s s i b l e t o p l a c c a R o m a n n o m i n e e o n the t h r o n c o f A r m e n i a a n d t o m a r c h ali the vvay t o t h e c e n t r e o f the P a r t h i a n E m p i r e , c a p t u r e C t c s i p h o n a n d s a c k the m a j ö r G r e e k city o f Seleucia on the T i g r i s . A s s u c h , these c a m p a i g n s a r e p e r h a p s m o s t significant f o r h a v i n g b e e n the s u b j e c t o f a satire by a n a t i v e o f S a m o s a t a vvith t h e H e l l c n i s e d L a t i n n a m e o f L o u k i a t ı o s , o r L u c i a n , vvhose How

History

Should

Be Wriltcn

mocks pane-

g y r i c a l a n d i l l - i n f o r m e d c o n t c m p o r a r y a c c o u n t s . W h a t it m c a n t t h a t a m a j ö r G r e e k vvriter s h o u l d c o m e f r o m the a n c i e n t c a p i t a l o f C o m m a g e n e m u s t be d i s c u s s c d later. 2 B u t his c o n t e m p r u o u s a n a l y s i s o f the instant histories p r o d u c e d t o c c l c b r a t e the e v e n t , vvritten a l r e a d y in 1 6 6 , is c n o u g h t o c o n f i r m the facts o f fighting in n o r t h e r n M e s o p o t a m i a , a r o u n d Edessa a n d N i s i b i s , as •svell as the c u r r e n c y o f f a n t a s t i c r e p o r t s o f h o w t h e third legion (III G a l l i c a ) and s o m e a u x i l i a r i e s , under ' C a s s i u s ' , h a d e v e n e r o s s e d the Indus. 3 D o c u m e n t a r y e v i d e n e e shovvs m o v c m c n t s n o t m u c h less r e m a r k a b l e t h a n t h a t : o n e legion vvas m o v e d f r o m B o n n a n d c a m e vvith o t h e r d e t a c h m e n t s t h r o u g h the O r i e n ı t o O s r h o e n e a n d A n t h e m o u s i a , a n d a n o t h e r f r o m the lovver D a n u b e . 4 I n fact the river vvhich Avidius C a s s i u s , t h e legatus

o f III G a l l i c a , vvill have e r o s s e d

vvill have been the T i g r i s ; a n d it vvill have been his a d v a n c e i n t o M c d i a vvhich e a r n e d L u c i u s Verus the title ' M e d i c u s ' . But t h e i m a g e o f A l e x a n d e r vvas not a n u n r c a l o r insignificant e l e m e n t in R o m a n t h i n k i n g a b o u t m i l i t a r y g l o r y iıı the E a s t . W h a t if a n y t h i n g r e a l l y c h a n g e d as a result o f the M e s o p o t a m i a n c a m paign is q u i t c unclear. W h a t s e e m s c e r t a i n a t least is t h a t the king, M a n n u s , o f O s r h o e n e t o o k t h e R o m a n side a n d vvas t e m p o r a r i l y exiled t o R o m a n territory. F o r tvvo y e a r s as it s e e m s ( a p p r o x i m a t e l y 1 6 2 / 1 6 3 - 1 6 4 / 1 6 5 ) , a P a r t h i a n * b a c k e d king ruled t h e r e . T h e c o i n a g e o f E d e s s a in fact b e g i n s vvith issues shovving V o l o g a e s c s I V o n t h e o b v c r s c a n d ' W a e l the king 1 , n a m c d in S y r i a c ( W I . M L K ' ) , o n t h e reverse.. B u t then t h e r e c a m e issues either vvith ' M a ' n u the k i n g ' in S y r i a c (M'NNV M L K ' ) o r vvith m e m b e r s o f t h e A n t o n i n e d y n a s t y on the o b v c r s c , a n d ' K i n g M a n n o s , friend o f R o m a n s ' (Basileus lorötnaios),

r e p o r t by a n c i g h t h - c e n t u r y S y r i a c c h r o n i c l c r — a d m i t t c d l y

1 . S c c H . H o m e y c r , Lukian, and Society

Marınos

Phi-

on t h e reverse. T h e c o i n s , very r e m a r k a b l y , fit e x a c t l y vvith the

in Lucian

3 . L u c i a n , llist.

Wie man Geschichle

scbreiben

placing

these

soll ( 1 9 6 5 ) ; C . P. J o n c s ,

Culturr

a r i a n o v o m u n i e r u n t , p e r

Aclium lanuarıum proc. A u g .

prov. Osrhocnae m.p. X X X X V I I F . 55. For w h a t follovvs scc D . L . K c a n c d y , " H . C l a u d i u s S u b a t i a n u s A q u i l a , 'First Prefect o f M e s o p o t a m i a ' " , ZPE

36 (1979), 255; a n d

ine a n d E a r l y S e v e r a n P e r i o d s " , Antichtbon

uThc

G a r r i s o n i n g of M e s o p o t a m i a i n t h e L a t c A n t o n -

21 (1987), 57.

e n t f e a t u r e s o f the nevv p r o v i n c i a l a n d miiitary s t r u e t u r e a r e clear. F i r s t , Severus c r e a t e d t h r e e nevv l e g i o n s (an inerease o f ı o percent in t h e l c g i o n a r y c s t a b l i s h m e n t o f the F . m p i r c ) , called the I - I I I P a r t h i c a c , o f vvhich I a n d II vvere s t a t i o n e d in M e s o p o t a m i a . F*xactly vvhere I vvas s t a t i o n e d is n o t knovvn; but II P a r t h i c a vvas in the s o u t h - e a s t c o r n e r o f the p r o v i n c e a t S i n g a r a , o n die s o u t h e r n s l o p e s o f t h e J c b c l S i n j a r : 'vvhich legion is a t S i n g a r a in M e s o p o t a m i a b y the river l l g r i s ' , a s a l e g i o n a r y ' s t o m b s t o n e f r o m A p h r o d i s i a s in C a ; i a vvas t o r e c o r d , e x a g g e r a t i n g a little. 5 6 Moreovet^ at least tvvo c i t i e s in the nevv p r o v i n c e found t h e m s e l v e s t r a n s f o r m c d , a l r e a d y in S e v e r u s ' reign, i n t o R o m a n coloniae.

In t h e c a s e s o f N i s i b i s a n d C a r r h a e / H a r r a n ( o n l y 5 0 k m f r o m

E d e s s a but cvidently o u t s i d e the r e m a i ı ı i n g regnum

o f A b g a r ) this is c e r t a i n .

It is q u i t c likely a l s o in tvvo o t h e r c a s e s , R c s h a i n a a n d S i n g a r a , b o t h o f vvhich later in the c e n t u r y h a d titles i n c l u d i n g the vvords ' S e p t i m i a c o l o n i a ' . " M e s o p o t a m i a , vvhose greatest e x t e n s i o n vvas yet t o c o m e , presents t h e elearest p o s siblc c x a m p l c o f c o n t i n u i n g R o m a n m i i i t a r y e x p a n s i o n i s m f r o m t h e later Imperial p e r i o d . B u t f o r a f u l l e r a p p r e c i a t i o n o f t h a t e x p a n s i o n i s m vve n e e d t o l o o k n o t j u s t a t the c o ı ı t e s t e d f r o n t i e r vvith P a r t h i a , b u t a t the vvhole b o r d e r land o f R o m a n control, f r o m M e s o p o t a m i a t o the R e d Sea, över m u c h o f vvhich R o m a n f o r c e s c o n f r o n t e d n o t t h e a r m y o f a rival k i n g d o m b u t the little-knovvn p e o p l e s o f the s t e p p e . 5 6 . J. R e y n o l d s and M . S p e i d e l , " A V e t e r a n o f I P a r t h i c a f r o m C a r i a n A p h r o d i s i a s " , grapbica

Anatolica

j ( 1 9 8 5 ) , 3 1 = AE

Epi-

( 1 9 8 5 ) , n o . 800. T h e c r e a t i o n o f these t v v o l e g i o n s b y

S c v c r u s , a n d t h e f a c t t h a t t h e y vvere s t a t i o n e d i n M e s o p o t a m i a , is r c c o r d c d b y D i o I.V, 2 4 , 4. 5 7 . Millar, " R o m a n

Coloniae38-39.

C H A P T E R

4 ROME AND MESOPOTAMİA: F R O M P A R T H I A T O PERSIA

4 . 1 . T H E S E V E K A N N E A R E A S T AS A MİLİTARY

STRUCTÜRE

T h e m i l i t a r y h i s t o r y o f t h e N e a r E a s t , a s o f any o t h e r r e g i o n , c a n n o t be s e p a rated f r o m its s o c i a l history. F o r a s t a r t , the life o f t h e units o f the R o m a n a r m y , distributed a c r o s s the i m m e n s e l y varied l a n d s c a p e s o f t h e N e a r E a s t , i s itself a n a s p e c t o f s o c i a l a n d e c o n o m i c history. It is a l s o , in m a n y i m p o r t a n t w a y s , a n a s p e c t o f c u l t u r a l a n d r c l i g i o u s history. T h e soldiers, d r a w n f r o m m a n y different p a r t s o f t h e E m p i r e , m a y often h a v e b r o u g h t their o w n c u l t s vvith t h e m . But vvhat vve a c t u a i l y see m u c h m o r e ciearly, f r o m H a t r a in I r a q t o D u r a - E u r o p o s , o r f r o m D u m a y r betvveen D a m a s c u s a n d P a l m y r a t o t h e g r e a t t e m p l e o f B a e t o c a e c e high up in the m o u n t a i n - r a n g e b e h i n d A r a d o s , i s hovv soldiers o f t h e R o m a n a r m y m a d e d e d i c a t i o n s t o local deities, a n d t h u s (as in so m a n y o t h e r vvays) i n t e g r a t e d themselves i n t o the life o f t h e r e g i o n . T h e a p p r o a c h t o t h e N e a r E a s t a d o p t c d here b e g a n vvith t h e d c d i c a t i o n vvhich a soldier o f I V S c y t h i c a m a d e a t D u r a - E u r o p o s in the first h a l f o f the third century, in h o n o u r o f 4 the a n c e s ı r a l g o d , Z e u s B e t y l o s , o f t h o s e by the O r o n t e s ' . An even m o r e c o m p ! c x c x a m p l c is providcd by the d c d i c a t i o n o f a s t a t u c o f ' I u p p i t c r O p t i m u s M a x i m u s H e l i o p o l i t a n u s ' , m a d e , p r o b a b l y in the s e c o n d half o f t h e s e c o n d century, by S e x t i u s R a s i u s P r o c u l u s , praefectus

o f the C o -

h o r s I I T h r a c u m S y r i a c a . It c o m e s f r o m a p l a c e o f s o m e significance, n a m e i y S u h n e h ( S u k n a h ) , on t h e r o a d n o r t h from P a l m y r a t o S u r a on t h e E u p h r a t e s , a n d vvhere a r o a d m a y h a v e d i v e r g e d east t o r e a c h the river a t C i r c e s i u m . A s it h a p p e n s , this is o n c o f o n l y tvvo e x p l i c i t l y labelled r e p r e s e n t a t i o n s o f t h e I u p p i t e r o f H c l i o p o l i s . B u t it vvill n o t in fact help vvith the c o n t r o v c r s i a l q u c s I

I 2

7 1

t i o n o f the g o d ' s i c o ı ı o g r a p h y ; f o r P r o c u l u s sinıply used a s t a t u e o f purely P a l m y r e n e local v v o r k n ı a n s h i p . ' B u t d o e s t h c m a k i n g o f a L a t i n d c d i c a t i o n a t this p l a c c h y a R o ı r . a n praefectus

m e a n t h a t his u n i t , w h i c h w e knovv t o h a v e been s t a t i o n e d in

S y r i a , o c c u p i e d a post o n this s t r a t e g i c r o a d ? J A n a c r i a l p h o t o g r a p h reveals a r e e t a n g u l a r s t r u e t u r e o f circa

by 80 m t h e r e , vvhich m a y

have

been a s m a l l a u x i l i a r y f o r t . ' B u t if this a n d perhaps o t h e r f o r t s ,

n o m

ly.ng

vvithin the /.one o f P a l m y r e n e s e t t l e m e n t a n d o c c u p a t i o n in the steppe and a l o n g the E u p h r a t e s , vvere o c c u p i e d by R o m a n units, hovv d i d this m i l i t a r y p r e s e n c e vvork in r e l a t i o n t o P a l m y r e n e poliçe activity a n d the p r o t e e t i o n o f c a r a v a n s against t h c n o m a d s ? W a s this r o u t e , g o i n g northvvards, in

fact

a t r a d e - r o u t e a t ali? A s k e t e h o f s o m e o f t h e m o r e salient features o f vvhat little vve knovv o f t h e a r m y in thc d c c a d c s b e f o r e a n d a f t e r AD 2 0 0 vvill o f c o u r s e r e v e a l hovv e r r a t i c o u r e v i d e n c e i s , a n d hovv rarcly vve c a n p r o v c t h a t a m i l i t a r y p r c s c n c c atıyvvhere vvas c o n t i n u o u s ö v e r m o r e t h a n a very s h o r t p e r i o d . B u t vve s h o u l d n o t yield t o o readily t o s c e p t i c i s m . E v e n o u r f r a g m e n t a r y e v i d e n c e refleets great c h a n g e s a n d a n c x t c n s i o n o f t h c R o m a n m i l i t a r y p r c s c n c c over vast a r e a s vvhere in the first c e n t u r y AD it had been q u i t e unknovvn. It vvas o f c o u r s e in M e s o p o t a m i a t h a t the c h a n g e s , a l r e a d y d i s c u s s e d , had b e e n m o s t d r a m a t i c . If vve c a n n o t b e sure vvhere the l c g i o n III P a r t h i c a vvas s t a t i o n e d , p e r h a p s N i s i b i s , 4 i t is c c r t a i n t h a t I P a r t h i c a vvas a t S i n g a r a , vvhere it stili a p p e a r s in A m m i a n u s ' narrative o f events in 3 6 0 . B y then S i n g a r a vvas a fortified city, d e f e n d e d b o t h by its i n h a b i t a n t s a n d by tvvo o f thc novv s m a l l e r R o m a n legions, b u t t h r o u g h lack o f vvater h a d been c a p t u r e d scveral t i m e s already, a s it vvas again novv. 5 T h c Üne o f the R o m a n f o r t i f i c a t i o n s , o f u n c c r tain d a t e , is stili visible f r o m the a ir/ T h e n o r m a l c o n s t r u c t i o n o f r o a d s a l s o follovvcd ( b r o a d l y r e p r o d u c i n g thc a b o r t i v e p r o c e s s under T r a j a n a c e n t u r y e a r l i e r ) , a n d a R o m a n m i l e s t o n e o f 2 3 1 / 2 3 2 h a s been f o u n d s o m c 5 k m s o u t h vvest o f S i n g a r a ; 7 given i t s p o s i t i o n , it m i g h t p e r h a p s i n d i c a t e a r o a d leading tovvards the C h a b u r a n d t h e n dovvn t h e E u p h r a t e s . R o m a n o u t p o s t s vvill very p r o b a b l y h a v e c x t e n d e d a l s o t o the T i g r i s ; it vvas p r o b a b l y in t h e early tlıird c e n t u r y t h a t a R o m a n v e t e r a n (buetranos)

put u p beside t h c T i g r i s a bilingual

1. F o r the i n s e r i p t i o n ( A E 1 9 1 1 , n o . 114) a n d the s t a t u e see Y . H a j j a r , la Baalbek

triaded'Htliopolis-

I < 1 9 7 7 ) , 2 1 1 , n o . 1 8 6 a n d Pl. L X X .

ı. T h e u n i t is listed otı a diploma 3. K e n n e d y a n d Riley, KOF, 4 . S o K c n n c d y , Anticbthon

of 1 5 7 , C//. X V I , no. 106.

143-144. 21 (1987), 61.

5 . A m m i a n u s X X , 6, r - 8 . 6. K c n n c d y a n d Riley, RDF,

125-131.

7 . J. N . Ficy, " A R o m a n M i l e s t o n e f r o m S i n j a r " , Sümer 3 4 ( ' 9 5 7 ) . *-94> a n d D . O a t e s , Studies

in thc Ancient

History

8 ( 1 9 5 2 ) , 2 2 9 ; see A . M a r i c q , Syria of Northern

lraq (r9f»8), 7 3 .

d e d i c a t i o n t o Z e u s , in G r e e k a n d A r a m a k . " B u r o u r n ı o s t vivid e v i d e n c e f o r r h c limits o f R o m a n o c c u p a t i o n c o m c s f r o m H a t r a , s o m e 1 1 5 k m s o u t h - e a s t o f S i n g a r a . A l i t h a t vve k n o v v f r o m n a r r a t i v e s o u r c e s is t h a t b o t h T r a j a n a n d S e v e r u s h a d f a i l e d t o c a p t u r e t h i s vvalled c i t y vvith its g r e a t t e m p l e o f the S u n . A n aerial p h o t o g r a p h a g a i n b r i n g s o u t vvith r e m a r k a b l e e l a r i t y the r o u g h l y c i r c u l a r line o f vvalls, the s t r e e t - p l a n a n d t h e o b l o n g e n e l o s u r e o f t h e t e m p l e at t h e c e n t r e . 9 B y the 230S R o m a n f o r c e s vvere t h e r e . A g a i n the e v i d e n c e c o m e s f r o m d e d i c a t i o t ı s , o n e t o t h e l o c a l deity: o f t h r e e L a t i n

inscriptiotıs

f r o m t h e r e , c o n t r a s t i n g vvith a l o n g s e r i e s o f s c v c r a l h u n d r e d A r a m a i c o n e s , 1 0 o n c g i v e s the d a t e 2 3 5 ; o n e is a d e d i c a t i o n t o H e r c u l e s b y a t r i b ü n e o f I P a r t h i c a , a p p a r e n t l y a l s o t r i b ü n e o f C o h o r s I X M a u r o r u m G o r d i a n a ( s o in t h e r e i g n o f G o r d i a n , 2 3 8 - 2 4 4 ) ; a n d o n e , b y t h e s a m e m a n , is t o the ' U t ı c o n q u c r c d S u n G o d ' ( ' D e u s S o l I n v i c t u s ' ) o f H a t r a . 1 1 W h e t h c r this vvas a n allı a n c e o r a n o c c u p a t i o n , a n d vvhen it b e g a n , is n o r knovvn. B u t it is c e r t a i n t h a t H a t r a vvas c a p t u r e d by t h e P e r s i a n s in a b o u t 2 4 0 , a n d it s e e m s n e v e r t o h a v e been retaken.12 H a t r a vvas t h u s a m e r e o u t p o s t , vvhich d i d n o t s t a y l o n g in R o m a n h a n d s . I f t h e r e vvas a ' f r o n t i e r ' o f M e s o p o t a m i a o t h e r t h a n the T i g r i s , it s h o u l d h a v e l a i n a l o n g t h e C h a b u r R i v e r , r u t ı n i n g south-vvest dovvn t o the E u p h r a t e s . B u t t h e r e is n o specific e v i d e n c e , d a t a b l e t o t h i s p e r i o d , t o teli us vvhether t h e r e vvas a l i n e o f f o r t s , o r a r o a d , a l o n g the river. As s o o n as vve c o m e vvithin t h e r a n g e o f the e v i d e n c e p r o v i d e d b y e i t h e r t h e p a p y r i atıd p a r e h m e n t s o f D u r a E u r o p o s o r t h e nevvly a v a i l a b l e o ı ı e s f r o m the m i d d l c E u p h r a t e s , o u r a b i l i t y t o c a t c h a t l e a s t s o m e g l i m p s e s o f the s y s t c m is r e s t o r e d . i n d e e d o n e c o n t r i b u t i o n f r o m t h e nevv d o c u m e n t s is p r e c i s e l y t o s u g g e s t r e g u l a r c o n n e c t i o n s b e tvveen the z o n e o f villages n e a r the m i d d l e E u p h r a t e s , a b o v e a n d its c o n f l u c n c e vvith the C h a b u r , a n d t h e c i t i e s o f O s r h o e n c a n d

belovv

Mesopo-

t a m i a : F.dessa, M a r c o p o l i s , N i s i b i s , C a r r h a e , S i n g a r a . ' 3 T o give tvvo p r e c i s e e x a m p l e s , tvvo s e p a r a t e s a l e s o f s l a v e s c o n d u c t e d a t B e t h P h o u r a i a o n

the

E u p h r a t e s r e f e r b a c k t o p r c v i o u s s a l e s o f the s a m e s l a v e s a t N i s i b i s ; a n d in

8. Scc D . L . K c n n c d y , " A L o s t L a t i n inseription f r o m t h e B a n k s o f the T i g r i s ' , 7,PF.

73

( 1 9 8 8 ) , 3 2 5 . T h e rcality of this inseription is d o ı ı b t c d b y C . S. L i g h t f o o t a n d J . F. H c a l e y ,

"A

R o m a n Vctcran on the T i g r i s " , Epig. Anat.

17 (1991),

1, p u b l i s h i ı ı g t h e v e r y significant b î l i n g u a l

inseription, on vvhich see further 1 3 . 1 belovv. 9. K e n ı ı e d y a n d Riley, RDF,

106-107.

10. Scc F. Vattioni, Le iserizioni Edessa",

di Hatra ( 1 9 8 1 ) ; scc 11. J. W . D r i j v c r s , " H a t r a , P a l m y r a a n d

II.8 ( 1 9 7 7 ) , 7 9 9 . A s H a t r a vvas s o brıcfly ıındcr R o m a n o c c u p a t i o n , it w i l l n o r

b c c o n s i d c r c d f u r t h e r in this ehapter. 1 1 . See A . M a r i c q , " L e s d e r n i e r e s annees d ' H a t r a : L'alliancc r o m a i n c " , Syria 3 4 ( 1 9 5 7 ) , 2 8 8 ; AE ( 1 9 5 8 ) , n o s . 2 3 8 - 2 4 0 . 1 2 . 4 . 2 belovv. 1 3 . 4.2 a n d 1 2 . 5 belovv.

o n e o f these cases t h e seller h a d b e e n the w i f e o f a c e n t u r i o n o f t h e l e g i o n I P a r t h i c a . 1 4 A g a i n it is i m p o r t a n t t h a t w e c a n n o w a t least glimpse t h e econ o m i c a n d s o c i a l i n t e g r a t i o n o f t h e soldiers i n t o local society. B o t h t h e m i d d l e E u p h r a t e s a n d D u r a lay w i t h i n the nevv p r o v i n c e o f Syria C o e l e , vvhose tvvo legions, t h e X V I E l a v i a F i r m a a n d the I V S c y t h i c a , m a y or m a y n o t h a v e k e p t as their m a i n bases S a m o s a t a a n d Z e u g m a far t o t h e n o r t h . It is n o t knovvn vvhen they m o v c d s o u t h t o t h e s t a t i o n s vvhere they a r e f o u n d at the e n d o f the f o u r t h c e n t u r y : X V I a t S u r a a n d I V a t O r e s a ( T a y i b e h ) on the r o a d t o P a l m y r a . 1 5 N o r i s there a n y i n s c r i p t i o n a l o r a r c h a e o l o g i c a l evid e n e e f o r the R o m a n posts a l o n g t h e E u p h r a t e s betvveen t h e B a l i k h a n d the C h a b u r , a n d belovv the C h a b u r as far a s D u r a , in t h e third century. B u t t h e r e vvas a line o f p o s t s a b o v e a n d belovv D u r a , even t h o u g h this vvas novv n o r a f r o n t i e r facing hostile t e r r i t o r y . It vvas b o t h a narrovv strip o f c u l t i v a b l c l a n d a n d a n i m p o r t a n t m i l i t a r y a n d c i v i l i a n r o u t e . W h e n t h e Persians i n v a d e d in t h e 250S, t h e y vvere t o m o v e n o t a e r o s s b u t a l o n g it, d e s t r o y i n g a l o n g series o f small places a s t h e y vvent. A l t h o u g h t h e r e is n o e v i d e n e e o n t h e g r o u n d d a t a b l e t o this p e r i o d , the evidenee f r o m the nevv a r c h i v e f r o m t h e middle E u p h r a t e s a n d f r o m the e x t e n sive m i l i t a r y a r e h i v e s f r o m D u r a c a n c o m b i n e t o give a r e a l i m p r e s s i o n o f the m i l i t a r y p r e s e n c e . It vvill b e vvorth listiııg a fevv e x a m p l e s . 1 6 F o r

instance

vvc find t h a t a villagcr living at B i r t h a O k b a n o n h a d c o m p l a i n e d (vvithout c f f e c t ) t o a c e n t u r i o n s t a t i o n e d t h e r e , saying t h a t his v i n e y a r d h a d beeıı o c c u p i e d by a neiglıbour. A n o t h e r , f r o m a village c a l l e d M a g d a l a , corr.p l a i n e d in 2 4 3 t o t h e c e n t u r i o n 'in e h a r g e o f p u b l i c o r d e r in S p h o r a o e n c ' a b o u t a m u r d e r a n d r o b b e r y ; vvhen t h e c o m p l a i n t vvas l a i d a t A p p a d a n a , t e s t i m o n y vvas given by a

v e t e r a n a n d a serving soldicr o f X V I

Flavia

F i r m a . B o t h a place c a l l e d B i r t h a a n d o n e c a l l c d M a g d a l a a p p c a r in the Dura

arehives a s p o s t s t o vvhich small d c t a c h m e n t s vvere sent o u t ;

and

B i r t h a O k b a n o n a n d S p h o r a c e n e a p p e a r in t h e Üst o f his c o n q u e s t s in the 250S set up b y the P c r s i a n k i n g S h a p u r I . T h e soldicr o f legion X V I , testifying as a p r i v a t e p e r s o n , is m a t e h e d b y the o n e f r o m the s a m e legion vvith t h e historic n a m e 'Aurelı'us C o r b u l o ' , vvho is r e c o r d e d in a d o c u m c n t o f 2 3 2 as m a k i n g a c o n t r a c t at B e t h P h o ı ı r a i a , a village on t h e E u p h r a t e s in t h e t e r r i t o r y o f A p p a d a n a ; A u r c l i u s C o r b u l o vvas a pilot (gubernator)

in l e g i o n X V I , a n d vvas selling a b o a t (in bad repair)

l o c a t e d o n t h e river. F i n a l l y vvc find a s o l d i c r f r o m a nunıerus

o f Palmyrenes

1 4 . Scc D . Fcissel a n d j . G a s c o u , " D o c u m e n t s r o m a i n s i n f d i t s d u M o y e n - E u p h r a c e (III' ?. a p r e s J . - C . ) " , C R A İ ( 1 9 8 9 ) , 5 5 9 , n o s . 8 a n d 9. Sec m o r e f u l l y 4 . 2 belovv. 1 5 . Not.

Digtt..

Or. 3 3 , 1 8 ( S u r a ) ; 1 3 ( O r c s a ) ,

16. Feissel a n d G a s c o u , o p . c i c . , 5 5 7 - 5 5 8 , n o s . 1 a n d 5 (complaints); 5 5 9 , n o . 1 1 ( s a l e of b o a t j ; 5 6 0 , n o . 1 4 (settlcment o f d e b t ) .

m a k i n g a f o r m a ! a g r e e r a e n t a t A p p a d a n a t o r e g a r d as s e t t l e d a d e b t due t o h i m f r o m a \voman living a t D u s a r i s {perhaps

the p l a c e D a u s a r a far t o t h e

north near Callinicum). T h e s e vievvs o f l o c a l s o c i e t y a n d t h e r o l e ( b o t h o f f i c i a l a n d p r i v a t e ) o f s o l d i e r s vvithin it a r e c l o s e l y p a r a l l c l c d , f o r j u s t t h i s a r c a , b y the d o c u m c n t s f r o m D u r a - E u r o p o s . O n e o f t h e m o s t n o t a b l e d o c u m e n t s f r o m t h e r e is a G r e e k d e c d o f s a l e o f AD 2 2 6 , d r a w ı ı up in t h e w i n t e r - q u a r t e r s

(paracbei-

rnas'ta) o f t h e C o h o r s III A u g u s t a T h r a c u t n a t a v i l l a g e c a l l e d S a c l ı a r e . T h e p u r e h a s e r w a s a v e t e r a n o f t h e s a m e c o h o r t living in t h e a r c a ; a n d the l a n d , c o n s i s t i n g o f v i n e y a r d s a n d o r c h a r d s , \vas b o u n d e d b y the C h a b u r R i v e r o n t h e o n e s i d e a n d a c a n a l o n the o t h e r . F i v e s e r v i n g s o l d i e r s signed a s vvitnesses, f o u r in L a t i n a n d o n e in G r c c k . T h e v i l l a g e o f S a c h a r c m a y h a v e lain s o m e 2.ş k m u p t h e C h a b u r f r o m t h e E u p h r a t e s . B u t t h e d o c u m c n t is b e y o n d p r i c e in r e v e a l i n g t h a t t h e r e w e r e a u x i l i a r y c a m p s o n t h i s r i v e r a l s o , a n d in s a y i n g s o m u c h a b o u t the c c o n o m y o f t h e s t r i p a l o n g the river. 1 7 In s u c h a d o c u m e n t vve see t h e role o f m i l i t a r y u n i t s a n d i n d i v i d u a l s o l d i e r s as it vvere f r o m belovv, f r o m vvithin l o c a l s o c i e t y . T h e m i l i t a r y a r e h i v e s p r o p e r f r o m D u r a o f c o u r s e give a d i f f e r e n t i m p r e s s i o n . B u t t h e y t o o shovv hovv s m a l I d c t a c h m c n t s vvere s t r u n g a l o n g t h e E u p h r a t e s in t h i s p e r i o d , as vvell as illust r a t i n g hovv d e t a c h m e n t s f r o m t h e tvvo l e g i o n s o f t h e p r o v i n c e , I V a n d X V I , c o u l d b e present a s f a r s o u t h a s t h i s . T h e b e s t i m p r e s s i o n o f hovv the r i v e r f u n e t i o n e d a s a r o u t c , l i n c d vvith m i l i t a r y p o s t s , is p r o v i d e d by t h e letter vvhich t h e legatus

o f S y r i a C o e l e , M a r i u s M a x i m u s , vvrote in 2 0 7 o r 2 0 8 a b o u t p r o -

v i s i o n s f o r a P a r t h i a n e n v o y o n his vvay t o o r f r o m t h e c o u r t o f S e v e r u s a n d C a r a c a l l a . I t vvas a d d r e s s e d t o t h e tribuni nutneri,

a n d praefecti

a n d the praepositi

of

a n d e n d e d by listing five p l a c e s o n t h e river, in o r d e r f r o m n o r t h t o

s o u t h : G a z i c a ( n e a r the c o n f l u e n c e vvith the C h a b u r ) , A p p a d a n a , D u r a , E d d a n a a n d B i b l a d a . ' " A p p a d a n a in p a r t i c u l a r a p p e a r s m a n y t i m e s in the D u r a d o c u m c n t s as a p l a c c t o vvhich d e t a c h m e n t s vvere sent, a n d vve c a n a s s u m c t h a t t h e r e vvere m i l i t a r y p o s t s a t ali t h e s e p l a c e s . T h e h i s t o r y o f D u r a a s a g a r r i s o n tovvn f r o m t h e 1 9 0 S t o its e n d in t h e 2 5 0 S is very vvell a t t e s t e d , a n d c a n b e b r i e f l y s u m m a r i s e d h e r e . 1 9 D e t a c h m e n t s o f l e g i o n s I V a n d X V I a r e f o u n d b u i l d i n g a s h r i n e t o M i t h r a s in 2 0 9 , a n d o n e s o f I V a n d III C y r e n a i c a ( f r o m B o s t r a in A r a b i a ) an a m p h i t h e a t r e in 2 1 6 . R e f e r e n c e s t o X V I c o n t i n u e in the 220S, a n d a l m o s t the l a s t d o c u m c n t o f R o m a n D u r a is a G r c c k d i v o r c e - d c c d o f 2 5 4 , i n v o l v i n g a s o l d i e r o f l e g i o n IV, novv c a l l e d I V S c y t h i c a V a l e r i a n a G a l l i e n a . T h r e e y e a r s e a r l i e r tvvo G r e e k

1 7 . P. Dura, n o . 2.6. 18. P. Dura, n o . 6 0 B . Scc M . L . C h a u m o n t , " U n d o c u m e n t m f e o n n u c o n c e r n a n t l ' e n v o i d ' u n a m b a s s a d c u r p a r t h e v e r s S c p t i m c S e v e r e (P. D u r a f l o B ) " , Historia 1 9 . Scc J . F. G i l i i a m , o p . c i t . (3.4, n . 1 5 ) .

36 (1987), 4 1 3 .

d e d i c a t i o n s s h o w t h a t a n a u x i l i a r y unit vvith the title ' C o h o r s II P a p h l a g o n u m G a l l i e n a V o l u s i a n a ' vvas a l s o a t D u r a . 2 0 B u t these passing m e n t i o n s c a n n o t o f c o u r s c bc m a d e i n t o a h i s t o r y o f the g a r r i s o n . T h e s t a b l e e l e m e n t , vvhich is very fully a t t e s t e d , is the X X t h c o h o r t o f P a l m y r e ı ı e s , p e r h a p s r a i s e d first in t h e 1 9 0 S ; vvhether it h a d a n y c o n n e c t i o n vvith the P a l m y r e n e a r c h e r s vvho vvere t h e r e b e f o r e is n o t knovvn. It is first r e c o r d c d a t D u r a in 208, a n d s e e m s t o h a v e been there t o the e n d . O f the vast r a n g e o f detail revealed a b o u t m i l i t a r y life, vve m a y pick o u t , first, t h e h i n t s o f the r a t h e r strikingly d e t a i l e d c o n t r o l e x e r c i s e d by t h e legatus,

from north-

c r n S y r i a , b y letter. O n e d o c u m c n t r c v c a l s s o l d i e r s sent vvith letters ' t o the h e a d q u a r t c r s o f thc g o v e r n o r ' , a n d tvvo o t h e r s c o n t a i n letters o f t h e

legatus,

M a r i u s M a x i m u s , assigning h o r s e s t o individually n a m e d soldiers; o n e is vvritten f r o m H i e r a p o l i s a n d o n e from A n t i o c h . 2 ' S c c o n d , o f s o m c t e n o r praepositi

tribuni

o f t h c c o h o r t vvhose n a m e s a r c knovvn, o n e , Iulius T e r e n t i u s ,

h o l d i n g h i s post in the l a t e 230S, h a s achieved a p a r t i c u l a r f a m e . F o r it is he vvho is r e p r e s e n t e d , a n d n a m e d , in t h e vvell-knovvn vvall-painting f r o m thc t e m p l e o f Bel shovving him l e a d i n g his m e n in a sacrifice t o the Tycf>ai (personified F o r t u n e s ) o f P a l m y r a a n d D u r a a n d t o three o t h e r g o d s vvho m a y be P a l m y r e n e . 2 2 O n c e a g a i n , a m e m b e r o f t h e R o m a n a r m y c a n be s c c n paying his r c s p c c t s t o local deitics. It is c e r t a i n t h a t t h e Iulius T e r e n t i u s vvho is identificd on the m u r a l is a t r i b ü n e o f this c o h o r t , f o r he is n a m e d a l s o in the G r e e k verse e p i t a p h vvhich his vvife put u p t o h i m vvhen he died in b a t t l e . 7 3 T h e o c c a s i o n vvas p e r h a p s the m o m e n t in April 2 3 9 vvhen ' t h e P e r s i a n s d e s c c n d e d u p o n us', as a g r a f f i t o r e c o r d s . 2 * T h i r d , since its e x c a v a t i o n D u r a h a s alvvays b e e n r e g a r d e d as p r o v i d i n g thc m a j ö r c a s c vvhere vve c a n s e e the o c c u p a t i o n o f a vvhole q u a r t e r o f a vvallcd tovvn b y the a r m y , a n d its p h y s i c a l r c c o n s t r u c t i o n t o serve t h e needs o f the a r m y . T h u s o n e b u i l d i n g vvith a n u m b e r o f L a t i n i n s e r i p t i o n s is i n t e r p r e t e d as a praetorium

( h e a d q u a r t e r s - b u i l d i n g ) vvith a ' h o u s e o f t h e p r e f e c t ' b e s i d e it;

a n d a b r i c k vvall vvhich c a n b c t r a c e d f o r s o m e d i s t a n c c t h r o u g h thc c i t y is t a k e n t o m a r k the b o u n d a r y o f t h e nevv m i l i t a r y q u a r t e r . " O t h e r b u i l d i n g s

1 0 . P. Dura,

n o . 32; Dura Report

z ı . P. Dura.

n o . 8 z , col. ii, I. 7 ; 5 6 B - C ( M a t i u s M a n m u s ) .

I X . 3 , 1 10-114,

1 1 . Published by F. C u m o n l , Fnuilles

nos. 9 7 1 a n d 9 7 2 .

de Dııra-F.uropos

( 1 9 2 6 ) , 8 9 f f . (vvhere thc t e m p l e is

stili called thc t e m p l e o f t h c P a l m y r e n e g o d s ) ; A . Pcrkins, The Art of Dura-F.uropos and Pl. 1 1 (novv in Y a l c U n i v e r s i t y A r t G a l l c r y ) ; c f . M . A . R . C o l l e d g c , The

(1973), 42ff. Art of

Palmyra

3 4 ( 1 9 4 1 ) , 7 9 ; Dura

Repo'ts

( 1 9 7 0 ) , 1 1 8 - 2 2 9 . Scc further 1 1 . 4 belovv, 1 3 . Scc C . B. W c l l e s , " T h c E p i t a p h o f Julius T e r e n t i u s " , HThR I X . x , 176,

no. 9 3 9 .

2 4 . Dura Reports

IV, n o , n o . 2 3 3 B .

2 5 . Dura Reports

V, 2 0 1 - 2 3 7 .

( b a t h s , t h e M i t h r a e u m , a n a m p h i t h e a t r e ) in w h o s e c o n s t r u c t i o n s o l d i e r s t o o k p a r t a r e a l s o held t o be p a r t o f t h i s d e v e l o p m e n t . M o s t e o n t r o v e r s i a l l y o f a l i , o n e e l a b o r a t e building vvith a p o r t i c o o v e r l o o k i n g t h e E u p h r a t e s h a s b e e n labelled ' t h e P a l a c e o f t h e D u x R i p a c \ B u t t h e e v i d e n c e f o r t h e i d e n t i f i c a t i o n c o n s i s t s o f tvvo p a i n t e d i n s e r i p t i o n s in G r e e k f r o m this building, c o m m e m o r a t i n g slaves o f D o n ı i t i u s P o m p e i a n u s , vvho in o n e o f these is c a l l e d dux pae,u

ri-

T h i s identification, and t h e excavators' conception of the miiitary take-

o v e r o f t h e vvhole q u a r t c r , m a y b c c o r r c c t . B u t it is ali very u n c c r t a i n , a n d c a n n o t be used f o r h i s t o r i c a l p u r p o s e s . W h a t is c e r t a i n is (in g e n e r a l ) n o m o r e than t h e c l e a r e v i d e n c e f o r the e l o s e i n t e g r a t i o n o f t h e a r m y i n t o t h e life o f the tovvn. But a m o r e p a r t i c u l a r p o i n t vvhich these a n d o t h e r d o c u m e n t s d o e s t a b l i s h is t h a t t h e l a t c - R o m a n m i i i t a r y r a n k o f dux, n o t a t e e h n i e a l term i n the H i g h E m p i r e , h a d c o m e i n t o use at D u r a in t h e first h a l f o f t h e t h i r d c e n t u r y . " B u t dux ripae—'commander in G r e e k a s doux

of the b a n k or frontier' (transliterated

tSs reipes)—appears

o n l y in t h e o n e p a i n t e d i n s e r i p t i o n

just m e n t i o n e d . Until t h e r e is e l e a r e r evidence, t o o m u c h e f f o r t s h o u l d n o t b e devoted t o c o n s t r u c t i n g a p i c t u r e o f h i s r e g i o n a l m i i i t a r y r e s p o n s i b i l i t i e s — o r t o a d m i r i n g the i u x u r y o f his r e s i d e n c e . F o r o u r c o n c e p t i o n o f the m i i i t a r y s t r u e t u r e o f the E m p i r e , it vvould b e m o r e i m p o r t a n t t o knovv hovv m u c h f u r t h e r dovvn t h e E u p h r a t e s belovv D u r a R o m a n miiitary o c c u p a t i o n e x t e n d e d , a n d hovv it related t o P a l m y r e n c c o n t r o l . A s vve have s c c n , t h e r e vvere c e r t a i n l y R o m a n o u t p o s t s a t places c a l l e d F.ddana a n d B i b l a d a ; t h e l a t t e r may be the little fort o f the S e v e r a n p e r i o d vvhich l o o k s o u t över the E u p h r a t e s a t E r t a j e , f r o m t h e east b a n k . 2 8 N o t f a r belovv t h a t , vve c o m e t o t h e i s l a n d o f A n a , o r A n a t h a , vvhich J u l i a n vvas t o c a p t u r e f r o m the Persians d u r i n g his invasion o f 3 6 3 . " In t h e l a t e 250S, hovvever, it is listed first by S h a p u r I in h i s r e c o r d o f the places c a p t u r e d in his t h i r d i n v a s i o n , a n d vve vvould thus t a k e it t o h a v e been then a R o m a n o u t p o s t . 3 0 B u t P a l m y r e n c i n s e r i p t i o n s o f 1 3 2 a n d o f a r o u n d 2 0 0 shovv t h a t P a l m y r a k e p t a c a v a l r y f o r c e t h e r e ( o r in the l a t t e r c a s e ' a t G a m l a a n d ' A n a ' ) . M o r e i m p o r t a n t , a n o t h e r P a l m y r e n e i n s e r i p t i o n , o f AD 2 2 5 , m e n t i o n s a 'strategos

at

' A n a a n d G a m l a ' ( ' S T R T G ' L ' N ' W G M I . ' ) . W h a t is significant a b o u t t h i s inseription is a b o v e ali its l o c a t i o n , a t U m m es S e l a b e i k h , s o m e 1 2 0 k m vvest16. Dura Reports IX.3, The Palace of the Dux Ripae and the Dolichenum (1951): for the inseriptions 3 o f f . , n o s . 9 4 5 (6 A o p m ' o u i n o l p n n t a v o ü ™ ö ö y v o û Kal 5ı 5 o w d ç rqç (Jet*tiç ö p e n ı ö ^ and 946.

17. Gilliam, op. cit. (3.4, n.15), 23, and idem, "The Dux Ripae at Dura"1, TAPhA (194»). 157. 2 8 . K c n n c d y a n d Riiey, RDF, 29. A m m i a n u s X X I V , 1 , 30. 4 . 3 b c l o w .

224~*2j.

6-TO,

71

south-vvest o f P a l m y r a o n t h e r o a d e r o s s i n g the s t e p p e t o the lovvcr-middle Euphrates.31 T h e r e c a n b e n o d o u b t t h e r e f o r e t h a t even a f t e r R o m a n o c c u p a t i o n ext e n d c d t o this a r c a o f t h e E u p h r a t e s , the P a l m y r c n e s c o n t i n u c d t o c x e reise s o m e m i l i t a r y o r p o l i ç e role o n the r o u t e a e r o s s t h e steppe, a n d o n t h e river itself. Hovv did t h a t relate t o t h e R o m a n p r e s e n c e t h e r e , if a n y ? E q u a l l y sign i f i c a n t ( a n d p e r h a p s m o r e s o t h a n m i g h t a p p e a r a t first sight) is the q u e s t i o n o f vvhether a n y R o m a n t r o o p s s t a t i o n e d on this streteh o f the river b e l o n g c d t o Syria C o e l e (as did t h o s e a t D u r a ) o r t o Syria P h o e n i c e , vvith its o n e legion s o m e 3 0 0 k m avvay a t R a p h a n e a e . T h e f a c t that tlıc P a l m y r c n e s r e t a i n e d a f o r c e a t Aııa even in the 22.0S might suggest t h a t B i b l a d a vvas the last o u t p o s t o f Syria C o e l e , a n d t h a t t h e lovver streteh o f t h e river b e l o n g c d t o Syria P h o e n i c e , a n d vvas militarily d e p e n d e n t on P a l m y r a . 3 2 If s o , t h a t vvould fit perfecrly vvith the discovery o f a P a l m y r e n e i n s e r i p t i o n o f t h e late s e c o n d c e n t u r y s o m e 2,0 k m s o u t h o f E r t a j e vvhich s e e m s t o say t h a t the person c o m m c m o r a t c d " c a m e t o the limit o f the f r o n t i e r ' in t h e strategia

(B'STRTGNVT) of I a r h a ; . "

Hovvcvcr, a r c h a e o l o g i c a l e v i d e n e e ( c o i n s , a n d graffiti in G r e e k ) f r o m t h e sett l c m e n t o f K i f r i n , vvhich lies belovv A n a , on t h e left b a n k o f the river, might suggest a R o m a n o c c u p a t i o n t h e r e in t h e first half o f t h e third c e n t u r y . If t h a t is s o , a n d i f Kifrin is t h e p l a c e c a l l e d B e c h u p h r c i n t o vvhich t r o o p s vvere o c c a s i o n a l l y p o s t e d f r o m D u r a , 3 4 then the n o t i o n o f tvvo c l e a r l y distiııguished military/provincial z o n e s is n o t valid. Archaeological evidenee (pottery, Imperial coins and some fragmentary graffiti in P a l m y r e n e , A r a m a i c a n d — a s i n g l e n a m e — L a t i n ) a l s o suggest a R o m a n , o r R o m a n o - P a l m y r e n c , o c c u p a t i o n o f the island o f B i d j a n , 1 5 0 k m dovvnstream f r o m D u r a , in t h e first fevv d e c a d e s o f t h e third c e n t u r y , vvithout allovving a n y g r e a t e r p r e c i s i o n . " B u t , a s vvc vvill see, S h a p u r ' s r c c o r d o f his v i c t o r i c s in the 250S identifies n o p l a c e dovvnstream from A n a , o r A t ı a t h a , a n d t h e r e is n o knovvn e v i d e n e e f o r either a R o m a n o r a P a l m y r e n e m i l i t s r y 3 1 . F o r the P a l m y r e n e i n s e r i p t i o n s referring t o A n a scc A . N o r t h c d g c , A . B a m b e r a n d M . R o a f , Exctwalions Rume

dans le dtserl

at 'Âna, Qal'a

Island

( 1 9 8 8 ) , 6 - 7 ; for t h e r o a d s c c A . P o i d e b a r d , IA tıace

de Syrie I ( 1 9 3 4 ) , 1 0 5 - 1 1 4 , aııd K e n n e d y a n d Riley, RDF,

de

8o-8r.

3 2 . S o M . G a w l i k o w s k i , " T h e R o m a n Frontier o n the E u p h r a t e s " , Mesopotamia

21 (1987),

7 7 . o n p. 7 8 . 3 3 . J . S t a r c k y , " U n e i n s e r i p t i o n palmyr^nienne t r o u v 6 c p r e s d e l ' F . u p h r a t e " , Syria

40

(«963», 473 4 . S e c , e.g., A . I n v c r n i z z i , " K i f r i n a n d the E u p h r a t e s L i m e s " , in F r e e m a n a n d K c n n c d y , DRRE,

3 5 7 . In P. Dura,

n o . 4 6 , a s o l d i c r m e n t i o n s in a letter that h c has been o n c a m p a i g n t o

Br(XXov. III, n o . 2 2 .

e x a n d e r s e e m s a t least t o h a v e intended t o visit E g y p t (as C a r a c a l l a had), and it m a y have been in t h a t c o n n e c t i o n t h a t B o s t r a joiııed t h e r a n k s o f N e a r E a s t e r n coloniae.

It novv b c c o m e officially ' C o l o n i a B o s t r a N ( o v a ? ) T r ( a i a n a )

A ( l e x a n d r i n a ? ) ' a s its c o i n s shovv, s o m e t i m e s a l s o calling it b y the G r e e k tide 'metropolisV" T h e m a i n p u r p o s e o f A l e x a n d c r ' s p r e s e n c e vvas, hovvever, a c o u ı ı t c r - a t t a c k a g a i n s t Persia. 3 1 H e r o d i a n ' s v a g u e a c c o u n t m a k e s c l e a r o n l y t h a t the R o m a n f o r c e s vvere divided i n t o t h r e e g r o u p s , vvith o n e e n t e r i n g A r m e n i a , o n e g o i n g s o u t h ( a p p a r e n t l y dovvn t h e E u p h r a t e s tovvards its c o n v e r g e n c e vvith the Tigris) a n d o n e in the c e n t r e c o m m a n d e d b y the E m p e r o r , evidcntly o p e r a ring in t h e c l a s s i c b a t t l e g r o u n d o f n o r t h e r n M e s o p o t a m i a . Ali t h a t vve knovv for c e r t a i n is t h a t in 2 3 2 t h e R o m a n s vvere a b l e t o build a r o a d leading f r o m S i n g a r a tovvards C a r r h a e ( s o n e a r l y ali o f R o m a n M e s o p o t a m i a , i f l o s t , m u s t h a v e been regaitıed), a n d t h a t by 2 3 5 , the y e a r o f A l e x a n d e r ' s d e a t h , R o m a n f o r c c s vvere a t H a t r a , vvhere t h e y stili vvere ( o r vvere a g a i n ) in t h e first tvvo y e a r s o f G o r d i a n ' s reign ( 2 3 8 - 2 4 0 ) , b e f o r e it vvas finally t a k e n b y S h a p u r 1 in a b o u t 2 4 0 . 3 2 T h e relatively b r i e f c a m p a i g n t h u s s e e m s t o h a v e r e g a i n e d vvhatever t e r r i t o r y R o m e h a d lost, a n d A l e x a n d e r returned t o R o m e in 2 3 3 t o celeb r a t e his v i c t o r y a n d t h e n t o m o v c t o the n o r t h e r n frontier, vvhere he vvas killed b y his ovvn t r o o p s a t M a i n z in 2 3 5 . It is possible, a s S y n c e l l u s r e c o r d s , t h a t t h e Persians c a p t u r e d N i s i b i s a n d C a r r h a e u n d e r M a x i m i ı ı u s ( 2 3 5 - 2 3 8 ) , " b u t t h e first c l e a r e v i d e n c e o f m a j o r confiicts b r e a k i n g o u t c o m e s f r o m 2 3 9 . A s vve h a v e seen, in t h a t y e a r the P e r s i a n s ' d c s c e n d e d ' on D u r a , p e r h a p s t h e o c c a s i o n o f the d e a t h in b a t t l c o f t h e t r i b ü n e o f the X X t h c o h o r t o f P a l m y r e n e s , Iulius T e r e n t i u s . 5 * B u t t h e y c e r t a i n l y d i d n o t o c c u p y t h e m i d d l e E u p h r a t e s , vvhich the nevv arehive f r o m t h e r e shovvs vvas R o m a n until t h e m i d - 2 5 0 s . ' 5 T h e m a j o r c o n f i i c t s b e g a n elsevvhere, vvirh the c a p t u r e o f I I a t r a b y Ardashir. F o r t h e novv f a m o u s m i n i a t u r c c o d e x vvith a t c x t i n c o r p o r a t i n g a l a t e r G r e e k version o f M a n i ' s ovvn a c c o u n t o f h i s p r e a c h i n g shovvs t h a t h e d a t e d his cali t o p r e a c h , o n April 1 8 / 1 9 , 2 4 0 , as h a v i n g c o m e in t h e year in vvhich A r d a s h i r s u b j u g a t e d H a t r a , a n d in vvhich his s o n S h a p u r a s s u m c d t h e d i a d e m ; t h e fail o f H a t r a m i g h t t h u s b e l o n g c i t h c r

3 0 . F o r t h e i n t e n d e d visit t o E g y p t , H a l f m a n n , Itinera, loniae",

2 3 2 ; Bostra: Miilar, " R o m a n

Co-

52.

3 1 . H e r o d i a n V I , j , 1 - 6 , 6. 3 2 . S e e A . M a r i c q , " L e s d e r n i e r e s a n n e e s d ' H a t r a " , Syria 3 4 («9S7>>

33. Syncellus, CJıron., 681. For a ver)' detailed account of the events of these years, and the diffictılt s o u r c c s f o r t h e m , s c c X , L o r i o t , " L c s p r c m i c r e s a n n e e s dc la g r a n d c crisc d u Di* sicclc: D c P a v c n c m c n t d c M a x i m i n Ic T h r a c c ( 2 7 5 ) i «975İ» 6 5 7 . 34. 4.1 above. 3 5 . 4 . 1 belovv.

la m o r t d c G o r d i a n

III ( 1 4 4 ) " , ANRW

İL2

t o 2 3 9 / 2 4 0 o r t o 2 4 0 / 2 4 1 . 3 6 W i t h t h a t , s o far a s w c knovv, a very distinctive: local c e n t r e , ruled by a line o f vassal kings under P a r t h i a n suzerainty, r e novvncd f o r its t e m p l e o f t h e S u n , a n d p r o d u c i n g several huııdred A r a m a i c i n s e r i p t i o n s , c a m e t o a n e n d . A t a n y r a t e , vvhen R o m a n f o r c e s r e a c h c d it d u r ing their retreat up t h e T i g r i s in 3 6 3 , it vvas ' a n old tovvn l o c a t e d in t h e m i d d l e o f the desert, a n d long s i n c e d e s e r t e d ' . 3 7 In R o m a n t e r m s , hovvevcr, I l a t r a vvas oııly an o u t p o s t , even if it deserves s o m e n o t e as t h e furthest p o i n t south-castvvard ever c o n t i n u o u s l y o c c u p i c d by R o m a n f o r c e s . A m a j ö r c o n f l i c t did n o t b r e a k o u t until A r d a s h i r h a d d i e d , in 2 4 1 o r 2 4 2 , a n d S h a p u r b e c a m e s o l e k i n g , vvhile 2 4 2 vvas the y e a r in vvhich G o r d i a n III ( 2 3 8 - 2 4 4 ) c a m e t o c a m p a i g n o n t h e eastern f r o n t . In t h e m e a n t i m e s t r a n g e t ı a n s f o r m a t i o n s h a d been t a k i n g p l a c e in E d e s s a , a n d m u s t h a v e h a d s o m e r e l a t i o n t o politieal t e ı ı s i o n s in M e s o p o t a m i a . 3 8 I n 2 1 2 / 2 1 3 , vvith the d e p o s i t i o n o f its k i n g , E d e s s a h a d b e c o m e a colonia,

a n d its c o i n - l e g e n d s

(ali in G r e e k ) shovv t h a t it r e m a i n e d so under t h e follovving reigns, t h o u g h n o c o i n s are knovvn f r o m t h a t o f M a x i m i n u s ( 2 3 5 — 2 3 8 ) . B u t t h e n , u n d e r G o r dian III, the city r e v e r t s t o c a l l i n g itself b y its S y r i a c n a m e , O r h a i ( ' W R H Y ) , a n d a king liııked d i r e c l l y t o t h e previous dyııasty r e a p p e a r s . A s he is des e r i b e d in a d o c u m c n t f r o m the nevv a r c h i v e f r o m the m i d d l e E u p h r a t e s , he i s 'Aelius Septimius Abgar, k i n g , s o n o f M a n u P S G R Y B ' ('crovvn-prince'), s o n o f A b g a r , k i n g ' . T h e date is D e c e m b e r 1 8 , 2 4 0 , a n d it is year 2 o f t h e k i n g a n d year 3 o f ' A u t o k r a t o r K a i s a r M a r k o s A n t o n i n o s G o r d i a n o s ' (ali t r a n s l i t e r a t e d i n t o S y r i a c ) . T h e king's first year vvas t h e r e f o r e t h e S c l c u c i d year O c t o ber 2 3 9 - S e p t e m b e r 2 4 0 , a n d his s e c o n d 2 4 0 / 2 4 r . B u t this vvas n o t on t h e f a c e o f it a r e v o l t a g a i n s t R o m e ; f o r G o r d i a n is m e n t i o n e d a l s o in the h e a d i n g o f the d o c u m e n t , a n d in a n y c a s e c o i n s o f Edessa/Orhai shovv ' A b g a r t h e k i n g ' (Abgar basileus) m a n coloniae,

o f f e r i n g G o r d i a n a s t a t u e t t e . At E d e s s a a l o n c , a m o n g ali R o t h e r e h a d e v i d e n t l y been a d y n a s t y in vvaiting s i n c e 2 1 2 / 2 1 3 .

T h e p e r i o d o f t w c n t y - s i x y e a r s is e x a c t l y the l e n g t h o f reign vvhich an e i g h t h c e n t u r y S y r i a c e h r o n i e l e gives t o a k i n g M a n u ; b u t o u r nevv S y r i a c d o c u m e n r m a k e s c l e a r t h a t he h a d n o t in f a c t been a r c i g n i n g king b u t a n ' h c i r - a p p a r e n t ' o r 'crovvn-prince' ( P S G R Y B ' ) . \Ve c a n n o t teli vvhether t h e E m p e r o r h a d a c t u a l l y a p p r o v e d this c h a n g e o r ( m o r e likely) h a d been f o r c e d t o t o l e r a t e a fait a c c o m p l i . If s o , t o l e r a t i o n d i d 3 6 . F o r rhe C o l o g n e M a n i C o d e x , c o n t a i n i n g a G r e e k v e r s i o n vvritten i n t h e f o u r r h o r e a r l y fifth c e n t u r y o f a n o r i g i n a l t h o u g h t t o h a v e b e e n i n e a s t e r n A r a m a i c , s e e L . K o e n e n a ı ı d C . R ö m e r ,

Derkühıer Mani-Kodex The

Cologne

Mani

and in Medieval

Codex

Chinaz

( 1 9 8 5 ) , Fr. 1 8 , a - 6 . S e e t h e t r a n s l a t i o n b y R . C a n ı e r o n a n d A . ( 1 9 7 9 ) . S e e S . N . C . I Jeu, Manichaeism

in ıhe IMter Roman

J.

Dewey, Empire

(1991), j y f f .

3 7 . A m m i a n u s X X V , 8 , 5 , Scc 4 . 1 a b o v e . 3 8 . F o r v v h a t f o l l o v v s scc M i l l a r " R o m a n Coloniae", App. C.

4 6 - 5 0 , and more fully 12.5 belovv a n d

n o t l a s t l o n g . F o r a n o t h e r S y r i a c d o c u m e n t f r o m t h e s a m e a r c h i v c shovvs t h a t b y O c t o b e r 2 4 2 t h e k i n g h a d d i s a p p e a r e d , a n d the l o c a l d a t i n g is g i v e n a s y e a r 3 0 4 o f the l i b e r a t i o n o f A n t o n i n a E d e s s a , the renovvııed C o l o n i a M e t r o p olis Aurclia A l c x a n d r i a ' ( D H R W R ' D ' N T W N Y N ' ' D Y S ' N S Y H T '

QLWNY'

M T R P W I . S ' \ V R I . Y ' ' L K S N D R Y ' ) , j u s t a s it is in t h e f o l l o v v i n g ' y e a r ( 3 1 , t h a t is, A p r i l / M a y 2 4 3 ) in t h e f a m o u s S y r i a c c o n t r a c t o f s a l e f o u n d a t D u r a . T h o u g h S y r i a c is stili used (a n o t a b l e f a c t ) , the p l a c e h a s l o s t its S y r i a c n a m e , O r h a i , a n d the k i n g h a s v a n i s h e d . W c h a v e n o e v i d e n c e as t o hovv t h e s e SJCcessive t r a n s f o r m a t i o n s o c c u r r e d ; b u t t h e y m u s t a t l e a s t s u g g e s t t h a t a R o m a n , o r G r a e c o - R o m a n , i d e n t i t y vvas s o m e t h i n g less vvell e s t a b l i s h e d h e r e t h a n vvest o f t h e E u p h r a t e s . A t a n y r a t e , the c o i n s shovv t h a t u n d e r D e c i u s ( 2 4 9 — 2 5 1 ) E d e s s a stili c o u n t e d a s a R o m a n colonia,

a s a l s o ( a s shovvn in d o c -

u m e n t s f r o m t h e nevv a r e h i v e ) did N i s i b i s a n d C a r r h a c . N o t l o n g a f t e r t h a t , hovvever, R o m a n M e s o p o t a m i a vvas t o e n d u r e m a j ö r c o n v u l s i o n s , set o u t f o r us m o s t c l e a r l y in t h e t r i l i n g u a l r e c o r d o f his v i c t o r i e s vvhich S h a p u r I h a d c a r v c d a t N a q s h - e R u s t a m n e a r P e r s c p o l i s , the c a p i t a l o f the a n c i e n t Persian dynasty.3,9 T h i s part o f t h c inseription divides into three s e e t i o n s : a c a m p a i g n i n t o B a b y l o n i a b y G o r d i a n I I I , in 2 4 2 - 2 4 4 , a n d his d e a t h a n d r e p l a c c m e n t by P h i l i p ; an i n v a s i o n o f S y r i a a n d C a p p a d o c i a b y S h a p u r , follovving o n a vvrong d o n e by an u n n a m e d R o m a n E m p e r o r , vvhich, as it novv s e e m s , b e l o n g s t o 2 5 2 ; a n d a n i n v a s i o n o f R o m a n M e s o p o t a m i a by S h a p u r , evidently in 2 6 0 , in vvhich V a l c r i a n vvas c a p t u r e d , a n d a f t e r vvhich Persian raids spread into Syria, C a p p a d o c i a and Cilicia. S h a p u r t h u s m a k e s n o c l a i m t o a n y m i l i t a r y o p e r a t i o n s in R o m a n M e s o p o t a m i a until 2 6 0 , a n d ( a s vve vvill s e c ) n o c l a i m a n y t i m e t o h a v e a d v a n c e d f u r t h e r s o u t h up t h e O r o n t e s t h a n A r e t h u s a . A p a r t f r o m p l a c e s a l o n g the E u p h r a t e s , S y r i a P h o e n i c e , i n e l u d i n g P a l m y r a , as vvell as S y r i a P a l a e s t i n a s n d A r a b i a , r e m a i n c d o u t s i d c t h e s e m a j ö r c o m b a t s . T h a t is n o t t o s a y t h a t e v e n t s , a n d c h a n g e s o f E m p e r o r , a t t h e c e n t r c vvere n o t r e f l e e t e d a t t h e f u r t h e s t c o r n e r s o f the E m p i r e , in t h e N e a r E a s t a s elsevvhere. T h u s in J u n e 2 3 8 , a f t e r the a c c c s s i o n o f G o r d i a n İ Ü , a c e n t u r i o ı ı a t S a k k a i a in the n o r t h e r n

Hauran

e r e e t e d a s t a t u e , m a d e in t h c l o c a l b l a c k b a s a l t , o f the ' G r e a t F o r t u n e o f S a k k a i a ' , d e d i c a t i n g it ' o n b e h a l f o f t h e s a f e t y a n d [ v i c t o r y o f o u r l o r d ? ] t h c E m p e r o r [ M . A n t o n i u s G o r d i a n u s ) A u g u s t u s ' . T h e n a m e o f t h e E m p e r o r vvas s u b s e q u e n t l y erased." 1 0 F o r r h e l o y a l c c n t u r i o n vvas n o t t h e n t o knovv t h a t s i x 3 9 . S e e A . M a r i c q , " R c s G c s t a e D i v i S a p o r i s " , Syria 35 ( » 9 5 8 ) , 2 9 5 ; F.nglish t r a n s l a c i o n in R . N . F r y c , Tbe

History

of Ancient

Iran ( 1 9 8 3 ) , A p p . 4. T h c m o s t dccailcd h i s t o r i e a l s t u d y ,

o n vvhich v v h a t f o l l o w s g r e a d y r c l i c s , is E . K e t t e n h o f e n , D/e ramiseh-persisehen Jabrhuıtderts iseb-römiseben

n. CJır. ( 1 9 8 2 ; h c n c c f o r v v a r d , K e t t e n h o f e n , Kriege). Friedensvertrage

4 0 . M . S a r t r c , " I x dies ( ' 9 8 4 ) . 49-

des

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S e e a l s o E . W i n t e r , Die

da

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(1988).

d c G o r d i a n III: U n e i n s e r i p t i o n i n e d i t e d e S y r i e " , Syria 6 ı

y e a r s l a t e r G o r d i a n vvould be m u r d e r e d o n the E u p h r a t e s , a n d r e p l a c e d b y Iulius P h i l i p p u s , vvho c a m e f r o m a p l a c e a s l ı o r t d i s t a n c e f r o m S a k k a i a , vvhich then b c c a m e a s p l e n d i d nevv tovvn vvith the n a m e ' P h i l i p p o p o l i s ' . I t vvas in 2 4 2 t h a t G o r d i a n I I I s e t o f f o n his expeditio

Orientalis;

the l e r m

is used o n a n i n s e r i p t i o n f r o m M i s e n u m vvhich r e c o r d s t h e p a r t i c İ p a t i o n o f the fleets f r o m M i s e n u m a n d R a v c n n a . B u t t h e E m p e r o r p r o b a b l y t o o k t h e n o r m a l r o u t e t h r o u g h the B a l k a n s a n d A n a t o l i a t o A n t i o c h , a g a i n a c c o m p a nied by a t l e a s t d e t a c h m e n t s o f the l e g i o n II P a r t h i c a , o n c c a g a i n t o be s t a t i o n e d a t A p a m e a . 4 1 W h a t c i r c u m s t a n c e s t h e n p r e v a i l e d in t h e N e a r E a s t i s n o t c c r t a i n . W c knovv o n l y t h a t the Persiatıs h a d r a i d c d the D u r a a r c a in 2 3 9 a n d t a k e n H a t r a in a b o u t 2 4 0 . G i v e n t h a t d a t e , t h e c l a i m b y tvvo B y z a n t i n e c h r o n i c l e s t h a t N i s i b i s a n d C a r r h a e h a d b e e n c a p t u r e d by the P e r s i a n s u n d e r M a x i m i n u s ( s o b y 2 3 8 ) , a n d vvere n o t r e t a k e n by G o r d i a n , m u s t b c d u b i o u s . 4 ' At a n y r a t e d o c u m c n t s o f G o r d i a n ' s r c i g n in t h e nevv a r c h i v e f r o m the m i d d l e E u p h r a t e s shovv n o i n t e r r u p t i o n o f R o m a n rule t h e r e in 2 3 9 - 2 4 4 ; 4 3 s o t h e P e r s i a n r a i d o f 2 3 9 h a d n o l a s t i n g c o n s e q u e n c e s in t h a t a r e a . M e s o p o t a m i a p r o p e r , a g a i n s t vvhich the P e r s i a n s vvould n o r m a l l y h a v e a d v a ı ı c e d up t h e T i g r i s , is o f c o u r s c a n o t h e r m a t t e r . B u t it is c l e a r t h a t E d e s s a , o r O r h a i , b o t h as a r e s t o r e d k i n g d o m in 2 3 9 / 2 4 0 a n d 2 4 0 / 2 4 T ( a n d p e r h a p s 2 4 1 / 2 4 2 ? ) a n d o b v i o u s l y as a r e - e s t a b l i s h e d colonia

f r o m 2 4 2 onvvards r e c o g n i s e d the s u z e r -

a i n t y o f G o r d i a n I I I ; s o it vvas t h e r e f o r e n o t u n d e r P e r s i a n c o n t r o l . I t is, hovvever, c l c a r t h a t t h e first o b j c c t i v e o f G o r d i a n ' s c a m p a i g n s vvas M e s o p o t a m i a , and that a battle took place on R o m a n provincial territory, n e a r t h e colonia

o f R e s l ı a i n a , a t vvhich S h a p u r vvas d e f e a t e d . 4 4 I t is t h u s p o s -

sible that Nisibis and C a r r h a e , rcspcctivcly s o m e 1 0 0 k m t o the east and t h e vvest o f R e s h a i n a , h a d b e e n t a k e n b y t h e P e r s i a n s ( b u t p r o b a b l y a f t e r the f a i l o f H a t r a ) , a n d vvere novv r e c o v e r e d . If s o , S i n g a r a is l i k e l y t o h a v e b e e n c a p t u r e d b e f o r e N i s i b i s , b u t m a y a l s o h a v e b e e n r e c o v e r e d at s o m e p o i n t . \Vhat is c e r t a i n is t h a t b o t h C a r r h a e a n d N i s i b i s vvere f u n e t i o n i n g as R o m a n loniae

co-

in the r e i g n o f D e c i u s ( 2 4 9 - 2 5 1 ) / 4 1

G o r d i a n ' s M e s o p o t a m i a n c a m p a i g n m u s t b e l o n g t o 2 4 3 , a n d it vvas c e r t a i n l y in this y e a r t h a t the i n f l u e n t i a l P r a e t o r i a n P r c f c c t T i m c s i t h c u s , his f a t h e r - i n - l a v v — a c c o m p a ı ı y i n g t h e E m p e r o r 011 c a m p a i g n as a P r a e t o r i a n P r e f e c t 4 1 . S e e H a l f m a n n , Itinera,

2 3 3 - 2 3 4 , a n d ILS, n o . 9 2 2 1 . F o r i l P a r t h i c a , 4 . 2 a b o v e .

4 2 . S e e 4 . 1 ( D u r a ) a n d t e x t t o n . 3 6 a b o v e . T h e r e p o r t is, h o w e v c r , a c c c p t e d in t h e i m p o r t a n t n e w s t u d y o f this p e r i o d b y D . S . Potter, Prophecy A llistorıcal te r, Si by İline

CoHtmeHtary

OH the Thirteenth

and History

Sibylline

önde

in the Crisis of the Roman (1990),

189li.

F.mpire:

(Hcnceforvvafd Por-

Oracle.)

4 3 . S e e Feissel a n d G a s c o u , " D o c u m c n t s " , ç j 7 f f . , n o s . 1 6 (circa AD 2 3 9 - 2 4 1 , E u p h r a t e s r e g i o n ) ; 1 4 (AD 2 4 1 , A p p a d a n a ) ; 13 (AD 2 4 3 , B c t h P h o u r a i a ) ; 1 2 (AD 2 4 4 , B c t h P h o u r a i a ) . 44. A m m i a n u s X X I I I , 5, 17. 4$. T e x t to n.52 below.

norraally d i d — d i e d a n d w a s r c p l a c c d b y M . Iulius l'hilippus, a n equesrrian o f f i c c r o r o f f i c i a l f r o m t h e H a u r a n , \ v h o s e p o s t b e f o r e t h a t m o m e n t is n o t knovvn. His brother, C . Iulius Priscus, already held the other of the t w o posts as P r a e t o r i a n Prefect.46 T h e c h o i e e w a s t o h a v e i m p o r t a n t c o n s e q u e n c e s . F o r in t h e f o ! l o w i n g y e a r t h e R o m a n f o r c e s w e n t ö v e r t o t h e o f f e n s i v e a n d r e a c h e d c l o s e t o t h e h e a r t o f Persian t e r r i t o r y b e f o r e b e i n g d e f e a t e d at M i s i k h e o n the E u p h r a t e s , ö v e r 2.00 k m in a s t r a i g h t l i n e f r o m t h e n c a r e s t R o m a n o u t p o s t s o n the m i d d l e E u p h r a t e s , a n d n o t far f r o m C t c s i p h o n o n t h e Tigris. H o \ v the a r m y r e a c h e d there, w h e t h e r directly f r o m M e s o p o t a m i a d o w n the C h a b u r o r f r o m S y r i a , is n o t k n o v v n . It i s v v i t h t h i s c a m p a i g n a n d its d e f e a t t h a t S l ı a p u r ' s a c c o u n t o f h i s c o n f i i c t s vvith R o m e o p c n s : W h c n a t first vve h a d b c c o m c c s t a b l i s h e d in the E m p i r e , G o r d i a n C a e s a r raised in a l i o f the R o m a n E m p i r e a f o r c e f r o m the G o t h a n d G e r m a r . r e a l m s a n d m a r c h e d o n B a b y l o n i a [ A s s y r i a ] a g a i n s t t h e E m p i r e o f Irar. a n d a g a i n s t u s . O n t h e b o r d e r of B a b y l o n i a at M i s i k h e , a g r e a t ' f r o n t a l ' b a t t l c o c c u r r c d . G o r d i a n C a e s a r vvas killed a n d t h e R o m a n f o r c e vvas destroyed. A n d the R o m a n s m a d e Philip Caesar. T h e n Philip C a e s a r c a m e t o u s f o r t e r m s , a n d t o r a n s o m their lives, g a v c u s 5 0 0 , 0 0 0 denars,

and

b c c a m c t r i b u t a r y t o u s . A n d f o r t h i s r e a s o n vve h a v e r e n a m e d M i s i k h e Peroz-Shapur.47 Shapur thus omits the carlier phase of Persian initiativc, perhaps because hc w a n t s t o record o n l y events vvhile he vvas sole k i n g . H e a l s o flatly c o n t r a c i c t s t h e R o m a n v e r s i o n o f t h e s e q ı ı e n c c o f e v e n t s v v h i c h led t o t h e p r o c l a m a ı i o n o f P h i l i p a s E m p e r o r . F o r in t h i s v e r s i o n it vvas o n l y a f t e r t h e R o m a n a r m y h a d r c t r c a t c d u p t h e E u p h r a t e s t o n e a r C i r c c s i u m t h a t G o r d i a n vvas a s s s s s i n a t e d , a n d P h i l i p t o o k h i s p l a c e . 4 8 W h a t is c e r t a i n a t l e a s t i s t h a t a t o m b vvas built f o r G o r d i a n at a place c a l l e d Z a i t h a n e a r C i r c e s i u m , vvhere A m m i a n u s savv it d u r i n g J u l i a n ' s e x p e d i t i o n o f ) 6 ) . 4 9 T h i s first p h a s e o f u n s u c c c s s f u l i n v a s i o n s b y b o t h s i d e s vvas f o l l o v v e d , p e r h a p s surprisingly, b y several y e a r s of p e a c e . W h e t h e r or n o t S h a p u r is t r u t h f u l in r e p o r t i n g t h a t P h i l i p a c k n o v v l e d g e d h i s s u z e r a i n t y a n d m a d e a p a y m e n t o f m o n e y a s a s i g n o f t h a t , p e a c e e v i d e n t l y vvas c o n c l u d e d ; a n d P h i l i p d e p a r t e d f o r R o m e , a p p a r e n t l y (as u s u a l ) v i a t h e B a l k a n s . 5 0 P e a c e i n t h i s a r e a i n d e e d s e e m s t o h a v e l a s t e d u n t i l 2.52, 46. PIR 11461

a n d t h e r e f o r e a l s o t h r o u g h the othervvise

(Philippus); 484 (Prisoıs).

4 7 . See 11.39 a b o v e ; t r a n s . F r y e , o p . cit. ( n . 3 9 ) , 3 7 1 . 4 8 . F o r t h e v e r y c o m p i e x n a r r a t i v e t r a d i t i o n s , s e e X . L o r i o t , o p . cit. (n.33 a b o v e ) ,

770li.

49. A m m i a n u s X X U I , 5, 7 . 3 0 . F o r a r e v i s c d e h r o n o l o g y s c c D . E . T r o u r , " V i c t o r i a R c d u x a n d t h e First Y e a r o l t h e R e i g n o f P h i l i p t h e A r a b " , Chirott

19 ( 1 9 8 9 ) ,

xxı.

t r o u b l c d reign o f D e e i u s , vvho iıı 2 $ t vvas t o die in b a t t l e a g a i n s t the G o t h s (vvhether h e vvas t h e first o f ali R o m a n E m p e r o r s t o die in b a t t l e d e p e n d s o n vvhether S h a p u r ' s v e r s i o n o r t h e R o m a n v e r s i o n o f e v e n t s in 2 4 4 is c o r r e c t ) . O u r e v i d e n e e d o e s novv allovv u s t o g a i n s o m e g l i m p s e s o f this p h a s e o f e s t a b l i s h c d R o m a n r u l e in the N e a r E a s t . i n d e e d , s l i g h t as this e v i d e n e e is, i t is e n o u g h t o s u g g e s t t h a t , c o n t r a r y t o vvhat o n e m i g h t s u p p o s e , vvc c o u l d s e e this d c c a d c as r e p r e s e n t i n g the h c i g h t o f o v e r t ' R o m a n i s a t i o n ' in this r e g i o n . It vvas novv, f o r i n s t a n c e , in the r e i g n o f P h i l i p ' t h e A r a b ' , t h a t the last knovvn g r 3 n t s o f t h e s t a t u s o f colonia

vvere m a d e . T h e best-knovvn i n s t a n c e vvas o f

c o u r s c P h i l i p p o p o l i s itself, vvhere the g r a n t o f c o l o n i a ) s t a t u s a c c o m p a n i e d i t s f o u n d a t i o n a s a city. B u t e v e n t h e m o d e s t little g a r r i s o n - t o v v n o f D u r a s e e m s by novv t o h a v e g a i n e d this s t a t u s , as did D a m a s c u s a n d F l a v i a N e a p o l i s . 3 1 I n M e s o p o t a m i a the f a m o u s c o n t r a c t o f s a l e f o u n d in D u r a , d a t i n g t o 2 4 3 , e x presses in S y r i a c the c o l o n i a l c h a r a c t e r o f t h e tovvn a t t h a t m o m e n t ; vvhile d o c u m e n t s f r o m the nevv a r c h i v e i n e l u d e , f o r i n s t a n c e , a c o n t r a c t o f sale o f 2 5 0 f r o m C a r r h a e — ' i n Aurelia C a r r h a c C o l o n i a , M c t r o p o l i s o f M e s o p o t a m i a ' — a n o t h e r ^ o f 2 5 1 , r e f e r s b a c k t o a p r e v i o u s c o n t r a c t m a d e at N i s i b i s , a l s o in 2 5 0 — ' i n S e p t i m i a C o l o n i a M e t r o p o l i s N e s i b i s ' . 3 2 T h e first o f the nevv d o c u m e n t s t o b e fully p u b l i s h e d a l s o refleets t h e s a m e s t a t u s as novv e n j o y e d by A n t i o c h , vvhile s h e d d i n g a v i v i d light b o t h o n t h e s t r u e t u r e o f R o m a n g o v e r n m e n t in t h e r e g i o n a n d o n the l i m i t s o f its e f f e c t i v e n e s s . 5 3 T h i s is the p e t i t i o n (libellus)

o f s o m e villagers f r o m B e t h P h o u r a i a , a

v i l l a g e ovvned b y t h e E m p e r o r a n d s i t u a t e d o n the E u p h r a t e s in the r e g i o n o f A p p a d a n a , i t s e l f l o c a t c d , a s vve h a v e s e e n , just belovv the c o n f l u e n c e o f t h e E u p h r a t e s a n d t h e C h a b u r . 5 4 T h e r e p l y 'vvritten u n d e r ' t h e i r p e t i t i o n ( h e ı ı c e c a l l c d subscriptio,

o r in G r e e k trypographe)—and

p e r h a p s a l s o the p e t i t i o n

i t s e l f — h a d b e e n p o s t e d at A n t i o c h in 2 4 5 : ' I n the c o n s u l s h i p o f the E m p e r o r C a e s a r M a r c u s Iulius Philippus Augustus and of Messius Titianus, the 5 t h d a y b e f o r e the K a l e n d s o f S e p t e m b e r , in t h e y e a r 2 9 3 ( o f A n t i o c h ) , t h e 2 8 t h o f the m o n t h L ö o s , at A n t i o c h , colonia

a n d metropolis,

in the H a d r i a n i c

B a t h s ' . A s clscvvherc, t h e vvider s t r u e t u r e o f t h e E m p i r e vvith its u s u a i l y d i s t a n t E m p e r o r , his fellovv-consul h o l d i n g o f f i c c , a n d e v e n t h e R o m a n

calendar-

s y s t e m , a r e ali v i s i b l y p r e s e n t in the d o c u m e n t . T h e p e t i t i o n vvas a d d r c s s e d t o the m o s t s e n i o r R o m a n official in the r e g i o n , Iulius P r i s c u s , t h e b r o t h e r o f the E m p e r o r , h e r e d e s e r i b e d as (eparchos)

o f M e s o p o t a m i a , a n d as ' h o l d i n g the hypateia\

an

praefectus expression

vvhich s e e m s t o i n d i c a t e his o v e r a l i c o m m a n d o f the r e g i o n . T h a t p e a s a n t s 5 1 . M i l l a r , " R o m a n Coloniae",

52-55.

5 2 . Feissel a n d G a s c o u , " D o c u m c n t s " , 5 5 9 , n o s . r o ( C a r r h a c ) a n d 8 ( N i s i b i s ) . S c c M i l l a r , " R o m a n Coloniae",

39.

$ 3 . Fcisscl a n d G a s c o u , " D o c u m e n t s " , n o . 1 . 54. 4.1 a b o v e .

f r o m a village in a r e m o r e c o r n c r o f t h c E m p i r e c o u l d a d d r c s s s o h i g h a n official in p e r s o n is a very s i g n i f i c a n t f a c t . N o n e t h c l e s s , the o u t e o m e f r o m their point o f vicvv h a d b e e n , a n d vvas evidently t o r e m a i n , v e r y d i s a p p o i n t i n g : ' H a v i n g , I . o r d , a dispute w i t h o u r fellovv-villagers över l a n d a n d o t h e r m a t ters, vve c a m e up here t o s e e k j u s t i c e b e f o r e y o u r G o o d n e s s , a n d h a v i n g vvaitcd c i g h t m o n t h s . . . ' . E v e n t h e n , hovvcver, t h e c a s e h a d been o n l y h a l f h e a r d , a n d t h e y novv asked f o r o r d e r s t o b e given t o C l a u d i u s A r i s t o n , t h e resident at A p p a d a n a , t o t a k e i m m e d i a t e steps. T h e rcply vvas m i n -

procurator

imal: ' A r i s t o n , vir egregius,

vvill c x a m i n c y o u r p e r i d o n ' . E v e n s o , it is s t r i k i n g

t h a t t h c villagcrs h a d felt a b l e t o refer t o ' t h e I m p e r i a l o r d e r s , vvhich you r e v e r e ' , vvhich allovved the c u r r e n t p o s s e s s o r s o f l a n d in dispute t o r e m a i n in o c c u p a t i o n until t h e c a s e vvas settled. A sense o f b e l o n g i n g t o a w i d c r legal system i n f o r m s t h c vvhole d o c u m e n t , hovvcvcr c r r a t i c its a p p l i c a t i o n m i g h t b e in p r a c t i c e . In a different vvay a sense o f b e l o n g i n g t o t h e vvider Imperial s y s t e m is a l s o e x p r e s s e d very c l e a r l y b y a m a n f r o m t h c colonia

o f Heliopolis, L. Trcborius

S o s s i a n u s , vvho served a s a l e g i o n a r y c e n t u r i o n . " In R o m e , u n d e r G o r d i a n , he m a d e a d e d i c a t i o n t o I u p p i t e r O p t i m u s M a x i m u s H e l i o p o l i t a n u s ,

'conser-

vator o f the i m p e r i u m o f o u r lord, G o r d i a n u s ' . A n d a fevv y e a r s later he put up a L a t i n d e d i c a t i o n t o Iulius P r i s c u s , the b r o t h e r o f t h c E m p e r o r Philip, a t their p l a c e o f o r i g i n , novv a c i t y (and colonia)

vvith t h e n a m e ' P h i l i p p o p c l i s '

o n the north-vvest tip o f the J e b e l H a u r a n , s o m e 8 0 k m s o u t h - s o u t h - e a s t o f D a m a s c u s . T h e s u d d e n c r e a t i o n o f a n e l a b o r a t e nevv G r a c c o - R o m a n city, built in t h e local black b a s a l t a n d n a m e d a f t e r t h e E m p e r o r , vvas a significant m o m e n t in t h e h i s t o r y o f the a r e a , c h a r a c t e r i s e d in g e n e r a l b y large v i l l a g e s . ' 6 In the present c o n t e x t it is r e l e v a n t t h a t S o s s i a n u s deseribed P r i s c u s by a title vvhich s e c m s t o c x p l a i n thc o d d c x p r e s s i o n hypateia 'Praefectus

Praetorio

a n d reetor

Orientis'.

in the p e t i t i o n , n a m e l y

H e must mean some overail c o m -

m a n d o f t h e E a s t , as indeed Z o s i m u s vvas later t o r e c o r d : ' a p p o i n t e d t o n ı l c t h c p r o v i n c c s t h e r e (in t h c E a s t ) ' . 5 7 It s h o u l d p e r h a p s bc n o t e d t h a t this i n s e r i p t i o n s e c m s t o be the first o c c a s i o n on vvhich ' O r i e n s ' is used t o refer t o ' t h e N e a r E a s t ' in t h e s e n s e e m p l o y e d h e r e . Z o s i m u s r e p o r t s t h a t P r i s c u s ' rule vvas o p p r e s s i v e , a n d b o t h h c a n d A u r e lius V i c t o r s a y t h a t s o m c o n c c a l l e d I o t a p i a n u s novv lcd a r e v o l t in t h e E a s t A fevv c o i n s vvith L a t i n legends a n d giving I o t a p i a n u s I m p e r i a l titles a r c c n o u g h t o c o n f i r m that t h e r e really vvas s u c h a s h o r t - l i v e d p r e t e n d e r in Syria. But vve ktıovv effectively n o t h i n g a b o u t h i m . " T h e i n f o r m a t i o n vvould be totally

S s - S c c M i l l a r , " R o m a n Coloniae",

34.

5 6 . S e e 1 1 . 4 belovv. 5 7 . İLS. n o . 9 0 0 5 ; Z o s i m u s I, 2 0 , z. 5 8 . PIR'

l , 4 9 . S e e P o ı t c r , Sibylline

Oracle,

esp. 1 4 8 - 2 4 9 .

i n s i g n i f i c a n t if it v v e r e n o t f o r t h e r e a l i m p o r t a n c e o f o t h e r N e a r R a s t e r n p r e tenders over the follovving c o u p l e o f decades. For the m o m e n t , hovvever, far f r o m b e i n g in g e n e r a l a p e r i o d o f d i s t u r b a n c c i n t h e N e a r R a s t , t h e l a t e r 2 4 0 S after the defeat a n d d e a t h of G o r d i a n a n d the retreat a n d d c p a r t u r e of P h i l i p m i g h t be s e e n as a p e r i o d o f s o l i d l y e s t a b l i s h e d R o m a n g o v e r n m e n t a n d

of

the c c l e b r a t i o n of the ' R o m a n n e s s ' of the cities a n d of the ruling class o f t h e r e g i o n . S u c h at a n y rate m i g h t vvell b c the i m p r e s s i o n g i v e n by a s t a t u e - b a s e p u t u p at T y r e a b o u t t h i s t i m e a n d i n s e r i b e d in G r e e k a s f o l l o v v s : ' S e p t i m i o s O d a i n a t h o s , lamprotatos,

Septimia

C o l ( o n i a ) T y r o s t h e metropolis'.S9

The

c i t y ' s s e l f - d e s c r i p t i o ı ı , o f c o u r s e , r e f l e e t s its a c q u i s i t i o n o f t h e s t a t u s o f under Septimius Scvcrus. G r e e k f o r elarissimus,

The

honorand

is deseribed

colonia

a s lamprotatos,

the

t h a t is t o s a y , t h e c o n v e n t i o n a l s t a t u s - d e s i g n a t i o n o f a

R o m a n senatör. T h e p e r s o n c o n c c r n e d , stili a p p a r e n t l y n o m o r e t h a n a n o t h e r e x a m p ! c o f a local d i g n i t a r y v v h o h a s risen to senatorial r a n k , is S e p t i m i u s O d e n a t h u s f r o m P a l m y r a , v v h i c h i t s e l f v v a s n o v v a n o t h e r R o m a n colonia.

The

d a t e is n o t c e r t a i n , b u t i s p r o b a b l y t h e 2 4 0 S . If s o , t h e r i s c t o p r o m i n c n c c

of

t h e f a m i l y , v v h i c h vvas b r i c f l y t o g i v e P a l m y r a a q u i t e e x c e p t i o n a l r o l e in t h e Empire, vvas not l o n g delayed.

For by 2 5 1 Septimius Airanes (Hairan),

the

s o n ( a s it n o v v s e e m s ) o f O d e n a t h u s , v v a s a l r e a d y a s e n a t ö r h i m s e l f , a n d

had

also gained

the position

of

'exa[rchost]

of

the P a l m y r e n e s '

(or

'head

of

T a d m o r ' i n P a l m y r e n e — R S T D M W R ) . H e is h o n o u r c d a s s u c h b y a s o l d i e r o f t h e l e g i o n III C y r e n a i c a ( e x p r e s s e d i n P a l m y r e n e a s ' v v h o is i n t h e at B o s t r a ' — D B L G Y W N ' D Y

legion

B Ş R ) , a n d v v h o c a l l s h i m h i s patronus.60

The

i m p o r t a n c e o f the f a m i l y vvas p e r h a p s b e g i n n i n g t o be f e l t e v e n b e f o r e

the

m a j ö r P e r s i a n i n v a s i o n o f 2 5 2 . N o n e t h e l e s s , it is n o v v c l e a r t h a t t h e r e is n o r e a s o n to scc the p r o m i n c n c c of S e p t i m i u s O d e n a t h u s , a R o m a n s e n a t ö r f r o m a R o m a n colonia,

as refleeting the importance of an established 'dynasty' a t

P a l m y r a . T h e v v h o l l y e x c e p t i o n a l r o l e vvhich t h e f a m i l y p l a y e d vvas t o b e p r o d u e t of very spccial circumstances, a n d of the provincial

and

a

military

strueture o f t h e r e g i o n , a n d lasted just tvvo d e c a d e s . T h a t already in 2 5 1 Septimius O d e n a t h u s ' son, Septimius Airanes,

had

t h e r a n k o f s e n a t ö r ( a n d h e n c c s h o u l d in p r i n c i p l c h a v e b e e n at l e a s t t v v e n t y f i v c ) a n d t h e p o s i t i o n o f (exarcbos{})

o f the P a l m y r e n e s ' ( R S T D M W R ) ,

and

have been h o n o u r c d by a centurion f r o m another province, suggests a real p r o m i n e n c e of the family. A s it h a p p e n s , his father s e e m s to h a v e h a d

the

s a m e title, as a nevvly p u b l i s h e d i n s e r i p t i o n o f 2 5 2 r c v c a l s . 6 1 B u t vvhat c o u l d s u c h a t i t l e , h e l d i n a R o m a n colonia

by a father a n d s o n vvho vvere

59. F o r t h e h o n o r i f i c inseription f r o m T y r e , scc M i l l a r , " R o m a n Coloniae37, M . Gavvlikovvski, " L c s princcs dc P a i m y r c " , Syria 60. S o G a v v l i k o v v s k i , o p . cit., 2 5 8 - 2 6 0 . 6 1 . Gavvlikovvski, 2 5 7 , n o . 13.

62 (1985), 251.

both

follovving

s e n a r o r s , h a v e m e a n t ? Is it, a s o f t e n s u p p o s c d , a s i g n o f a n e m e r g i n g m i i i t a r y c o m m a n d separate from the R o m a n a r m y proper? Perhaps so. O n the other h a n d t h e t e r m exarcbos

c a n b e u s e d in I m p e r i a l G r e e k t o d e s c r i b e a

Roman

p r i e s t h o o d . " It m i g h t s e e m e q u a l l y likely that a s e n a t ö r f r o m P a l m y r a , vvith his s o n , vvho w a s p e r h a p s r e a l l y o n l y a b o y o f s c n a t o r i a l r a n k h c l d a n o f f i c c o f t h i s t y p e i n h i s n a t i v c colonia,

(ctarissimus),

A m o n g the f u n c t i o n s

per-

f o r m e d b y s e n a t o r s in t h e i r n a t i v e c i t i e s , in t h e G r e e k E a s t a s e l s e w h e r e , p r i e s t h o o d s a r e v e r y p r o m i n e n t . " A s f o r R S , vve vvill s c c l a t e r t h a t i n c o n t c m p o r a r y A r a m a i c it c o u l d b c u s e d i n a p h r a s c v v h o s c G r e e k e q u i v a l e n t m e a n t s i m p l y Mcading citizen'.64 W h a t v v a s r e a l l y i m p l i e d b y t h e t v v o n o t v e r y c o m m o n t e r m s exarchos

a ad

, ncithcr of vvhich h a d a n cstablishcd technical m e a n i n g , t h u s c a n n o t a s c c r t a i n e d . N e i t h e r c a n be u s e d t o d e m o n s t r a t e a n e m e r g i n g

x

independeııt

miiitary role for Palmyra, a vvhole decade before our narrative sources suggcst any such thing. T h e p o v v c r o f e s t a b l i s h e d R o m a n r u l e in t h e N e a r E a s t v v a s , h o v v e v e r , a h o to b e felt in q u i t e a d i f f e r e n t v v a y in these years. F o r u n d e r D e c i u s the q u e s t i o n o f t h e v v o r s h i p o f t h e p a g a n g o d s b e c a m e a n i s s u c in a v v a y t h a t it h a d n e v e r b e e n b e f o r e . I t v v a s h e v v h o i n t h e first v v i n t e r o f h i s r e i g n ( 2 4 9 / 2 5 0 ) i s s u e d a general order, c o m m u n i c a t e d

b y edieta

p o s t e d in t h e p r o v i n c e s , t h a t c v e r y

i n h a b i t a n t o f the E m p i r e s h o u l d sacrifice t o the g o d s , a n d o b t a i n a ccrtificatc o f h a v i n g d o n e so. B u t t h e v e r y full e v i d e n c e a v a i l a b l e f o r elsevvhere f o r the ' D e c i a n p e r s c c u t i o n ' i s m a t e h e d f o r t h e N e a r E a s t o n l y b y a b r i e f r e p o r t by E u s e b i u s (born a b o u t ten y e a r s later) o f the m a r t y r d o m o f A l e x a n d e r , b i s h o p o f J e r u s a l e m ( f o r m a l l y A e l i a C a p i t o l i n a ) ; o f t h e d e a t h in p r i s o n o f

Babylas,

b i s h o p of A n t i o c h ; and of the prolonged torture suffered by O r i g e n , novv l o n g s i n c e r e s i d e n t a t C a e s a r e a in S y r i a P a l a e s t i n a , v v h o d i e d n o t l o n g a f t e r . 6 5 T h e l a c k o f e v i d e n c e is c e r t a i n l y j u s t a n a c c i d e n t ; f o r t h i s , t h e first o f t h e g e n e r a l p e r s e c u t i o n s , vvas felt i n the N e a r E a s t a s elsevvhere. T h u s t h e a u t h o r o f the XIIIth

Sibylline

Oracle,

probably

from

Emesa,

and

vvriting his

pscudo-

p r o p h e t i c n a r r a t i v e o n l y a f c \ v y e a r s later, r c c o r d s o f D e c i u s ' r e i g n : ' i m m c c i a t e l y t h e r e vvill b c s p o l i a t i o n a n d m u r d e r o f t h e f a i t h f u l ' . 6 6 T h e i m p a c t

of

D e c i u s ' edict, o f i m m e n s e significance a s a p r e c u r s o r o f vvhat vvas t o c o m e , v v a s u n m i s t a k a b l e . B u t i t is i m p o r t a n t t o s t r e s s t h a t in m i i i t a r y t e r m s t h e y e a r s u p t o a n d j u s t a f t e r t h e m i d - c e n t u r y vvere o n e s o f p e a c e a n d e s t a b l i s h e d

6 2 . H . J. M a s o n , Greek

Terms for Roman

Inslilutions

Ro-

(1974), 43.

6 3 . See W . E e k , " D i e P r S s e n * s e n a t o r i s e h e r F a m i l i e n i n d e n S t a d t e n d e s ü t ı p e r i u m R o m a n u m bis 7.ura s p â ı e n 3 . J a h r h u n d e r t " , i n W . E c k , H . G a l s t e r e r a n d H . W o l f f (cds.), Studien Sozialgescbicbte

(»980), 1 8 3 .

64. 4.3 bc!ow. 6 5 . E u s e b i u s , HE V I , 3 9 . 66. Sib. Or. X I I I , 8 7 - 8 8 , t r a n s . Poıtcr.

zurantiktn

m a n r u l e in t h e N e a r F a s t , f r o m t h e M e d i t e r r a n e a n t o t h e m i d d l e E u p h r a t e s a n d a e r o s s n o r t h e r n M e s o p o t a m i a a l m o s t t o t h e T i g r i s . T h e n e x t fevv y e a r s vvould be v e r y different.

4.3. SHAPUR'S INVASIONS A N D THE PAI.MYRA, AD

EMPİRE

OF

252-273

In 252. t h e c i t y o f A p a m e a o n t h e O r o n t e s a g a i n \ v i t n e s s e d a c o n c e n t r a t i o n o f t r o o p s : n o t o n t h i s o c c a s i o n t h e l e g i o n II P a r t h i c a , b u t m o u n t e d

auxiliary

units transferred there f r o m P a n n o n i a . O n e w a s the A l a I U l p i a C o n t a r i o r u m , a s w e k n o \ v f r o m t h e g r a v e - s t e l e o f a sigttifer

w h o died there on April

252,

t h e c o n s u l s h i p o f t h e E m p e r o r s G a l l u s a n d V o l u s i a n u s . A n o t h e r vvas t h e A l a I F l a v i a A u g u s t a B r ı t a n n i c a . A t least ten m e n f r o m these units a r e novv k n o v v n t o have died at A p a m e a in 2 5 2 , e n o u g h to suggest that m a j ö r military conflicts h a d t a k e n p l a c e a l r e a d y in t h a t y e a r . 1 T h i s a n d o t h e r i t e m s o f e v i d e n e e a r e e n o u g h a l s o t o s u p p o r t a r e - d a t i n g t o 2 5 2 , r a t h e r t h a n 2 5 3 , of the s c c o n d o f t h e t h r e e g r e a t c o n f l i c t s d e s e r i b e d b y S h a p u r , v v h i c h vvill t h u s h a v e

begun

i n t h e brief r e i g n o f T r e b o n i a n u s G a l l u s a n d h i s s o n V o l u s i a n u s , i n 2 5 1 - 2 5 3 . 2 T h i s is i n d e e d v v h a t t h e n a r r a t i v c o f Z o s i m u s c l a i m s , v v h i l e Z o n a r a s r e l a t e s t h e i n v a s i o n t o a d i s p u t e o v e r A r m e n i a in t h e s a m e r e i g ı ı . s G a l l u s vvill t h u s h a v e been the u n n a m e d ( b c c a u s c s o short-livcd?) E m p e r o r vvho, a c c o r d i n g t o S h a p u r , ' a g a i n lied a n d d i d v v r o n g vvith r e g a r d t o A r m e n i a ' . S h a p u r ' s a c c o u n t of t h e b a t t l e s then f o u g h t vvhen he i n v a d e d , a n d

the

p l a c c s r a v a g e d , i s a p r i c e l e s s d o c u n ı e n t , e v e n if it i s n o t l a i d o u t i n t h e s o r t o f g e o g r a p h i c a l s e q u e n c e vvhich vvould allovv t r o o p - m o v c m e n t s t o b e f o l l o v v e d vvith c o m p l e t e c o n f i d e n c e o n t h e m a p . 4 B u t t h e b r o a d l i n e s a r e c e r t a i n . F i r s t , it is c l e a r t h a t , u n u s u a l l y , t h e P e r s i a n a d v a n c e v v a s d i r e e t e d u p t h e E u p h r a t e s , a n d vvas a i m e d a t S y r i a , n o t a t R o m a n M e s o p o t a m i a . T h e m a j ö r b a t t l e , a t vvhich S h a p u r c l a i m s that a R o m a n f o r c e of s i x t y t h o u s a n d vvas d e s t r o y e d , t o o k p l a c e a t B a r b a l i s s o s , o n t h e E u p h r a t e s a b o v e its c o n f l u e ı ı c e vvith t h e C h a bur. B u t t h e n ( a s s e e m s c l e a r ) t h e k i n g t u r n s t o t h e f o r t s a n d c i t i c s a n d poleis)

(kastelloi

' v v h i c h vve b u r n e d a n d r a v a g e d a n d c a p t u r e d ' . H e b e g i n s v v i t h

A n a t h a , t h e i s l a n d o f A n a o n t h e lovver-middle E u p h r a t e s vvhere there vvas a

1 . F o r ı h e relevanc a r g u r a e n t s , n o t r e p e a t e d h e r e i n d e t a i l , see J . - C . B a l t y , " A p a m f e ( 1 9 8 6 ) " , CRAI

( 1 9 8 7 ) , 2 z 8 i f . , a b b r e v i a t e d in i d e m , " A p a m e a i n S y r i a " , JRS

78 (1988), 1 0 2 - 1 0 3 . Sec

Z o s i m u s I, 2 7 , 2, a n d Z o n a r a s X I I , 2 1 A . 2 . F o r S h a p u r ' s Kes Gestae, Ancient

A. M a r i c q , Syria 35 ( 1 9 5 8 ) , 2 9 5 ; crans. R . N . F r y c , Hislory

of

Iran ( 1 9 8 4 ) , 3 7 i f f .

3 . Z o s i m u s I , 2 7 , 2; Z o n a r a s X I I , r ı . 4. F o r such a ı n a p , m a k i n g a s g o o d a r e c o n s t r u c ı i o n as is p o s s i b l e , s c c K e t t e n h o f e n , map 1.

Kriege,

R o m a n g3rrison;5 then B Y R T ' ' K W P N o r ' R W P N , m e n t i o n e d only in the Part h i a n t e x t , b u t s u r e l y t h e s a m e a s t h e s m a l l p l a c e in t h c r c g i o n o f A p p a d a n a n a m e d B c r t h a O k b a n ö n in t h e n e w a r e h i v e f r o m t h e m i d d l e K u p h r a t e s .

Un-

f o r t u n a t e l y w e h a v e n o e x a c t d a t e f o r t h e p e t i t i o n i n t h i s a r e h i v e in v v h i c h s o m e o n e f r o m ' B e r t h a O k b a n ö n ' c l a i m s t o h a v e fled b e f o r e t h c P e r s i a n s , o n l y t o find t h a t s o m e o n e e l s e h a d t h e n o c c u p i e d his v i n e y a r d a n d r e f u s e d t o g i v e it up. f i N e x t , in S h a p u r ' s a c c o u n t , c o m e s ' B e r t h a A s p ö r a k o u ' , s u r e l y t h e district o n t h e E u p h r a t e s c a l l e d S p h ö r a k e n e , v v h i c h a l s o a p p e a r s in t h e a r e h i v e . 7 T h c littlc p l a c c s v v h i c h l a y a l o n g t h c m i d d l e E u p h r a t e s t h u s b e g i n t o e m e r g e into the light. T h e y h a d n o t b e e n S h a p u r ' s o b j e e t i v e , h o v v e v e r , a n d vve c a n n o t e v e n be c e r t a i n vvhether the ' D o u r a ' a n d ' K o u r k i s i ö n ' m e n t i o n e d quite s e p a r a t c l y in S h a p u r ' s list a r c o r a r c n o t ' t h c ' D u r a a n d C i r c e s i u m o n t h e E u p h r a t e s . W h a t i s c l e a r is t h a t S h a p u r t o o k first S u r a o n t h e E u p h r a t e s , t h e n B a r b a l i s s o s i t s e l f , a ı ı d t h e n a d v a n c e d i n t o R o m a n S y r i a p r o p e r , vvest o f t h e river. T h c

placcs

listed m a k e a c l c a r g e o g r a p h i c a l s c q u c n c c : H i e r a p o l i s , B e r o e a , C h a l c i s , A p a m e a , R a p h a n e a e . T h e g e o g r a p h i c a l picture then b e c o m e s v e r y c o n f u s e d , but t h e list a t a n y r a t e i ı ı c l u d e s A n t i o c h a n d S e l e u c i a , a n d a s c q u e n c c o f p l a c c s in northern Syria a n d C o m m a g e n e , ineluding Z c u g m a , D o l i c h e , G c r m a n i c i a , N i c o p o l i s , G i n d a r u s a n d C y r r h u s . T h e i n v a s i o n thus t o o k the E u p h r a t e s r o a t e u p t o t h e vvestern p a r t o f the Fertile C r e s c e n t , s k i r t i n g r o u n d t h e s t e p p e ; there is n o m e n t i o n of P a l m y r a . A s vve h a v e s e e n , h o v v e v e r , s o m e P e r s i a n f o r c e s m o v e d s o u t h v v a r d s u p : h c O r o n t e s V a l l e y a s f a r a s A p a m e a a n d R a p h a n e a e . A s e p a r a t e b r i e f list s h o v v s that they c o n t i n u c d f u r t h e r s o u t h , t a k i n g three small placcs betvveen A p a m e a a n d E m e s a : 'Sin/ara* (I.arissa), ' C h a m a t h ' ( E p i p h a n i a — ' v v h i c h ' , a s J o s e p h u s h a d s a i d , ' t h e epicbörioi

cali H a m a ' ) and 'Ariste' (Arethusa, vvhich had o n c e

b e e n u n d e r t h e phylarchoi

o f t h e E m e s ö n o i ) . 8 N o c l a i m is m a d e a s t o

any

c o n q u c s t o f E m c s a itself. B u t a c o m b i n a t i o n o f i t e m s o f c v i d c n c c a l l o v v s u s t o a c c c p t t h a t in f a c t t h c P e r s i a n f o r c c s d i d a d v a n c e o n E m e s a , a n d vvere d e feated.9 T h c sixth-century c h r o n i c l c r J o h n M a l a l a s records hovv a priest o f Aphrodite f r o m Emesa, called Sampsigeramus, gathercd a force of peasants t o resist S h a p u r , c n g i n c c r e d h i s d e a t h b y a trick a n d p u t his a r m y to flight. T h e s t o r y m u s t bc at lcast p a r t l y l e g e n d , because S h a p u r did n o t die. B u t a c l o s c l y c o m p a r a b l e p i c t u r e o f l o c a l r c s i s t a n c c t o t h c P e r s i a n s is g i v e n b y a 5. 4 . 1 a b o v c .

6. Scc Feisüel and Gascou, "Documents", 553. no. 2. 7 . Fcissct a n d G a s c o u , o p . c i l . , 5 4 2 - 5 4 3 . 8. S c c 2 . 1 a b o v c . F o r S h a p u r ' s a l l u s i o n s 10 p l ı c c s i n this r c g i o n s c c K e t t e n h o f e n , Kriege. 9. F o r a s u m m a r y o f t h i s c v i d c n c c , d e p e n d i n g c s s e n t i a i l y o n I I . R . B a l d u s , Uranius nus: Miaızpriigung Sibylline

Oracle,

and Gesdıicbtc

68ff. Anlo/ıi-

( 1 9 7 1 ) , s c c M i l l a r , " E m p i r e " , 1 5 8 - 1 5 9 . S e e n o v v a l s o Potter,

c o n t e m p o r a r y vvork, t h e XIIIth

Sibyİline

Oracle.

G i v e n its p s e u d o - p r o p h e t i c

c h a r a c t e r , t h e narrative is o f c o t ı r s e in the f u t u r e tense: "Then there vvill b e a r o u t o f t h e R o m a n s ; b u t i m m c d i a t e l y t h c r e a f t c r a pricst vvill c o m e , t h e last o f a l i , sent f r o m t h e s u n , a p p e a r i n g f r o m S y r i a , and he vvill d o e v c r y t h i n g b y c r a f t ; t h e city o f t h e s u n w i l l a r i s e , and a r o u n d h e r the Persians vvill e t ı d u r e the terrible threaıs of P h o e n i c i a n s ' . 1 0 T h e a n o n y m o u s a u t h o r had by this p o i n t m o v c d o n to t h e brief r c i g n as E m p e r o r of A e m i l i a n u s in 2 5 3 , a n d it is q u i t e p o s s i b l e t h a t t h e Persian a d v a n c e u p the O r o n t e s t o o k p l a c e then. T h e r e m u s t in a n y c a s e b e s o m e c o n t ı e c t i o n betvveen the resistancc Icd by S a m p s i g c r a m u s , the role of t h e p r i c s t ' s e n t f r o m the s u n ' in leading P h o e n i c i a n s a g a i n s t t h e Persians a n d t h e series o f c o i n s issued b y E m e s a , in b r o n z e , silver a n d g o l d , ali a p p a r e n t l y in 2 5 3 , vvhich n a m e a pretender t o t h e p o s i t i o n o f E m p e r o r : ' A u t o ( k r a t ö r ) S o u l p ( i k i o s ) A n t o n ö n i n o s S e ( b a s t o s ) ' in G r e e k , o r (in t h e f u l l e s t v e r s i o n ) ' L . lul(ius) Aur(eLius) S u l p ( i c i u s ) Ura(nius) A n t o n i n u s ' in L a t i n . B u t vvhether this m a n is to bc idenlified

vvith the pricst (and vvhether there is a n y

c o m ı e c t i o n h e r e vvith Iulia D o m n a ' s f a m i l y , o r e v e n vvith the earlier d y n a s t y o f E m e s a ) is the p u r e s t s p e c u l a t i o n . It d o e s r e m a i n significant t h a t l o c a l resistatıce, b y a city in Syria P h o e n i c e vvhich vvas a l s o a R o m a n colonia,

d i d — a s it

s e e m s i m p o s s i b l e to d e n y — I c a d to a c l a i m to Imperial r a n k b y a local n o t a b l e . E q u a l l y m y s t e r i o u s is the r e p r e s e n t a t i o n in the Oracle

of a Syrian v v h o

a c t e d (or, in t h e p s e u d o - p r o p h e c y , vvill act) like a b r i g a n d in Syria a n d C a p p a d o c i a — a p p a r e n t l y under D c c i u s ( 2 4 9 - 2 5 1 ) — b e f o r e f l e e i n g back a c r o s s t h e E u p h r a t e s t o join the P a r t h İ 3 n s . C o r n i n g f r o m a c o n t e m p o r a r y s o u r c e , t h i s a c c o u n t m u s t reflect s o m e r e a l i t y ; b u t vvhether t h e u n n a m c d figüre c a n b c e q u a t e d vvith t h e pro-Pcrsian c i t i z c n of A n t i o c h callcd M a r i a d e s o r C y r i a d e s vvho a p p e a r s in v a r i o u s later a c c o u n t s as a s s o c i a t e d vvith t h e c a p t u r e o f t h e city (but vvhich c a p t u r e ? ) is a g a i n a m a t t e r o f s p e c u l a t i o n . T h e s t o r y d e s e r v e s a m e n t i o n o n l y to rccall t h e p o s s i b i l i t y t h a t t h e Persian c h a l l e n g e to R o m e may h a v e f o u n d s o m e p o p u l a r s u p p o r t in the N e a r E a s t . S o m e lines later, vvhen r e c o u n t i n g the r e i g n o f G a l l u s ( 2 5 1 - 2 5 3 ) , the Oracle

says that 'Syrians

j o i n c d vvith Persians vvill d e s t r o y t h e R o m a n s ' . W h e t h e r t h e a u t h o r m e a n s t o i d e n t i f y these tvvo e p i s o d e s is u n c l e a r . 1 1 M o r e s e r i o u s is t h e q u c s t i o n of vvhether it vvas novv o r a vvhole d c c a d c later t h a t t h e i n d e p e n d e n t m i l i t a r y role o f P a l m y r a u n d e r O d e n a t h u s b e g a n . T h e s o l e e v i d e n c e t h a t it d i d b e g i n novv is p r o v i d e d b y M a l a l a s , c o n t i n u i n g h i s s t o r y of the Persian d e f e a t a t E t n e s a : ' T h e r e c o n f r o n t e d them (as t h e y p a s s e d ) t h r o u g h the limes,

fighting

o n behalf o f the R o m a n s , " E n a t h o s " , king o f t h e

b a r b a r i a n S a r a c e n s , t h e ruler o f t h e A r a b i a n land, v v h o h a d a vvife, Z e n o b i a

10. Or. Sib. XIII, 11. 1 5 0 - 1 5 4 , t r a n s . Potter. « i . Or. Sib.

XIII, 8 9 - 1 0 1 a n d n o - 1 1 2 , w i t h P o t t e ^ o p . c i t . , z68((.

a n d 297—298,

a r g u e s for the ideııtification o f M a r i a d e s , a n d discusses ali the e v i d e n c e in d e t a i l .

who

b y n a m e , t h e S a r a e e n q u e e n . A n d E n a t h o s , k i n g o f the S a r a c e n s , d e s t r o y e d ali the P e r s i a n s in t h e f o r c e s of S h a p u r ' . 1 2 M a l a l a s t a k c s this s t o r y f r o m a h i s t o rian c a l l e d D o m n i n u s , a d d i n g a n o t h e r a c c o u n t f r o m a d i f f e r e n t h i s t o r i a n , Phil o s t r a t u s , vvhich taliies v e r y c l o s e l y vvith S h a p u r ' s a c c o u n t o f his third c a m p a i g n (in z 6 o ) — e x c e p t t h a t ' E n a t h o s ' kills Shapur. T h e o d d s a r e v e r y s t r o n g t h a t b o t h s t o r i c s b e l o n g to 2 6 0 a n d after, T h e r e is in a n y C3se n o d o c u m e n t a r y e v i d e n c e t h a t O d e n a t h u s t o o k the title of ' k i n g ' a t a n y time u p to his d e a t h in 2 6 7 ; a s vve vvill see, it vvas o n l y p o s t h u m o u s l y t h a t t h e P a l m y r c n e s b e g a n :o cali h i m ' k i n g o f k i n g s ' . B y 2 5 7 / 2 5 8 , a s c o n t e m p o r a r y d o c u m e n t s shovv, he h a d a d v a n c e d o n l y to t h e p u r e l y R o m a n title of bypatikos,

literally

consularis,

vvhich may m c a n s i m p l y t h a t he vvas t h e then g o v e r n o r o f Syria P h o e n i c e . l î T h e knovvn i n d e p e n d e n t m i i i t a r y r o l e of P a l m y r a vvas o n a n y i n t e r p r e t a t i o n vvholly e x c e p t i o n a l a n d s t r i k î n g . B u t it m a y b e s u g g e s t e d t h a t it c a m e o n l y in the 260S, a f t e r e v e n m o r e d r a s t i c e v e n t s than those just m e n t i o n e d . W h a t the c o n s e q u c n c c s o f this first m a j o r Persian raid vvere, a n d hovv s o o n R o m a n c o n t r o l vvas restored a n d vvhere, are q u e s t i o n s vvhich c a n h a r d l y be ansvvered. E v e n D u r a , vvhere there is a m a s s o f e v i d c n c c , presents v e r y c o n p l c x p r o b l e m s . T h e Persians m u s t a t least h a v e m a r e h e d p a s t it in 2 5 2 ; b i t the ' D o u r a ' vvhich S h a p u r c l a i m s t o h a v e r a v a g e d m a y or m a y n o t be this o n e . W h a t is c e r t a i n is t h a t R o m a n a u x i l i a r y f o r c c s vvere stili in o c c u p a t i o n in late s u m m e r 2 5 1 , vvhen t h e C o h o r s II P a p h l a g o n u m G a l l i a n a V o l u s i a n a ( n a m e d a f t e r G a l l u s a n d his s o n V o l u s i a n u s ) vvas t h e r e . ' 4 It vvas a l s o in R o m a n h a n d s in 2 5 4 , for the latest d a t e d d o c u m e n t f r o m t h e city is a G r e e k d i v o r c e - d c c d f o r a soldicr o f the l e g i o n I V S c y t h i c a V a l e r i a n a G a l l i e n a , dravvn u p 'In the c o n s u l s h i p of o u r l o r d s , the E m p e r o r s V a l e r i a n ( f o r the s e c o n d time) a n d G a l lienus, o n the d a y b e f o r e t h e K a l e n d s o f .May [ . . . ] , y e a r 5 6 5 , in t h e

Kolöneia

o f the E u r ö p a i o i of [ S c l c u k o s ] N e i k a t ö r , t h e s a c r e d , i n v i o l a t e a n d a u t o n o m o u s ' . 1 1 N o t h i n g c o u l d m o r e e m p h a t i c a l l y u n d e r l i n e b o t h the Hellenistic p a s t a n d the present R o m a n s t a t u s of t h e city. B u t it seems f r o m g r a f f i t i in Pehlevi t h a t it h a d in fact b e e n in P e r s i a n h a n d s in t h e e a r l y 250S, p e r h a p s 2 5 2 / 2 5 3 . 1 6 Its final c a p t u r e a n d d e s t r u c t i o n s e e m s t o h a v e c o m e in 2 5 6 or 2 5 7 , hence o u t s i d e t h e c o n t e x t of either o f t h e tvvo m a j o r i ı ı v a s i o n s r e c o r d e d b y S h a p u r . 1 7 A similar picture of R o m a n o c c u p a d o n , vvhich m u s t h a v e been i n t e r r u p t e d 1 2 . M a l a l a s 1 9 7 , II. 4 - 1 0 . C f . a l s o the t r a n s l a t i o n b y E. Jeffreys, M . Jeffreys a n d R . S c o t t , The Chtorııcle

of Malalas

(1986), pp. 1 6 1 - 1 6 3 .

1 3 . T e x t l o n . 2 8 belovv.

14. Dura Report IX.3, rıoff., nos. 971-971; Balty, CRAl (1987), 137. 1 5 . P. Dura. n o . 3 2 , scc ch. 6 a n d 1 2 . 4 belovv. 1 6 . S o B a l i y , o p . cit., 2 3 7 - 2 3 8 . 1 7 . F o r a v i g o r o u s crittque o f t h e e v i d e n c e , a r g u i n g against the idea o f a n initial c a p t u r e in 2 5 3 , a n d for a (final) c a p t u r e in 2 5 7 , see D . M a c D o n a l d , " D a t i n g the Fail o f D u r a - E u r o p o s " , Hisloria

35 ( 1 9 8 6 ) , 4$.

a t least briefly by S h a p u r ' s i n v a s i o n o f 2 5 2 / 2 5 3 , is p r e s e n t e d b y the nevv a r chive f r o m the m i d d l e E u p h r a t e s a b o v e D u r a . O n e d o c u m c n t r e c o r d s t h e p u r c h a s e o f a f e m a l e slavc a t B c t h P h o u r a i a o n the E u p h r a t e s in J u n e 2 5 2 , in t h e c o n s u l s h i p o f G a l l u s a n d V o l u s i a n u s , T h e Persian a r m y c i t h c r h a d n o t y e t arrived o r h a d a l r e a d y passed by, leaving life t o g o on a s b e f o r e . A t s o m e t i m e a f t e r this, b u t p r e s u m a b l y b e f o r e 2 5 6 / 2 5 7 (the d e s t r u c t i o n o f D u r a ) , o r perhaps b e f o r e 2 6 0 (Shapur's t h i r d i n v a s i o n ) , t h e s a m e purehaser, A b i ( d ) s a m tas s o n o f A b i d i e r d o s , r e a p p e a r s vvith t h e title bouleutes

(tovvn-councillor) o f

N e a p o l i s — i n the interval, it s e e m s , A p p a d a n a h a s b e e n f o r m a l l y r e c o g n i s e d as a polis,

perhaps as a revvard f o r loyalty. A b i ( d ) s a m t a s is a d d r e s s i n g a c o m -

p l a i n t t o Iulius P r o c u l u s , praefectus,

praepositus

praetenturac,

a local m i l i t a r y

official. B u t i f the deduetion t h a t this p e t i t i o n is later t h a n 2 5 2 is c o r r e c t , t h e n this is t h e latest d o c u m c n t f r o m t h e nevv a r c h i v e . 1 8 A n d vvith t h a t o u r evidenee stops, a n d vve h a r d l y h e a r m o r e o f the middle E u p h r a t e s until A m m i a n u s ' a c c o u n t o f J u l i a ı ı ' s m a r c h in 3 6 3 . T h e r e is n o evidenee a t ali a s t o the after-effccts o f the Persian i n v a s i o n (indeed n o evidenee as t o hovv long their o c c u p a t i o n lasted in the v a r i o u s areas it r e a c h e d ) , n o r a s t o the dispositions o f the R o m a n army, o r a n y r e a r r a n g e m e n t vvhich m a y have follovved. W h a t vvc do knovv is t h a t the m i n t i n g o f I m p e r i a l c o i n s b e g a n again a t A n t i o c h in 2 5 3 / 2 5 4 . M o r e o v e r , it is c e r t a i n t h a t t h e nevv E m p e r o r , V a l c r i a n , vvill have arrived in Syria in t h e c o u r s e o f 2 5 4 ; f o r o n J a n u a r y 18, 2 5 5 , h e vvrote a letter f r o m A n t i o c h t o t h e city o f Philadelphia in I^ydia.™ A n t i o c h vvas thus o n c e again serving as an I m p e r i a l ' c a p i t a l ' . Syria tlıerefore a l s o h a d t o dravv r e s o u r c e s f r o m o t h e r p a r t s o f t h e E m p i r e : t h u s in 2 5 3 — 2 5 6 vve find villagcs in Egypt t a k i n g a n o a t h t o the E m p e r o r s Valerian a n d G a l l i e n u s

(his s o n ) t h a t they vvill deliver

thirty-six

p l o u g l ı i n g - o x e n t o S y r i a , 'vvhere ver it m a y b e c o m m a n d e d ' . ' 0 T h e b r o a d relev a n c c t o a r m y supplies is clear, as is the i m p l i c a t i o n t h a t a n e e d f o r supplies f o r m o r e t h a n o n e y e a r is a n t i c i p a t e d . A c c o r d i n g t o Z o s i m u s , V a l e r i a n a n d a nevvly a p p o i n t e d p r a c t o r i a n p r e f e c t a l s o savv t o t h e r e b u i l d i n g o f A n t i o c h , evidently in t h e m i d - 2 5 0 s . 2 1 Hovv l o n g Valerian s t a y e d in the N e a r E a s t is n o t knovvn. Z o s i m u s ' very e p i s o d i c a n d a b b r e v i a t e d ı ı a r r a t i v e vvould suggest t h a t he left o n l y f o r a n a b o r t i v e c a m p a i g n i n t o C a p p a d o c i a , in the f a c c o f S c y t h i a n i n v a s i o n s o f A s i a 1 8 . Feissel a n d G a s c o u , " D o c u m e n t s " , 5 6 8 , n o s . 3 - 4 ( t w o c o p i c s ) , c o m p a r e d w i t h 5 5 9 , n o . 9 (252).

19. Scc Raldus, op. cir. (n.9), 259—261; tlıc letter of Valerian is fîECî XIII, no. 528. For a good survey of the problem, rcvcaling chat the only ccrtain gap in Imperial coin-production at Antioch is in the reign of Aemilianus {253}, coinciding perhaps vvith Shapur's occupation, scc K . W . H a r l , Civic 2 0 . P. Oxy.

Coins

and Civic

no. 3 1 0 9 .

2 1 . Z o s i m u s I, 32, 2.

Politics

in the Roman

East,

AD

180-175

( ' 9 8 7 ) , A p p . 2.

M i n ö r , b e f o r e r e t u r n i n g t o A n t i o c h t o c o n f r o n t S h a p u r ' s i n v a s i o n o f 2-60. T h e r e is indeed n o c c r t a i n p r o o f t h a t V a l e r i a n ever left t h e F.ast in t h e period f r o m 2 5 5 t o 2 6 0 . " H e n c e w e m a y a c c e p t t h a t the reply given by V a l e r i a n t o a l a d y c a l l e d T h e o d o r a , vvhose b i g a m o u s ' h u s b a n d ' vvas trying t o r e c o v e r g i ı t s m a d e t o her, vvas indeed i s s u e d a t A n t i o c h in M a y 2 5 8 . " It vvas surely also vvhile V a l e r i a n vvas in Syria t h a t h c issued, in the n a m e o f h i m s e l f , his son G a l l i e n u s a s j o i n t A u g u s t u s a n d his g r a n d s o n , t h e ' C a e s a r ' S a l o ı ı i n u s , a seriptio

sub-

a b o u t thc privileges o f t h e g r e a t temple o f Z e u s o f B a e t o c a c c c , in the

mountain-rangc behind A r a d o s . 2 4 T h c date must bc 2 5 8 - 2 6 0 , and the nominal i n v o l v e m e n t o f the tvvo o t h e r E m p e r o r s is highly significant. F o r in these y e a r s G a l l i e n u s a n d S a l o n i n u s vvill b o t h h a v e been o n c a m p a i g n in E u r o p e . T h e ' T e t r a r c h i c ' s y s t e m , o f a c o l l e g e o f E m p e r o r s , e a c h o p e r a t i n g in different g e o g r a p h i c a l regioııs, h a d a l r e a d y a r r i v e d . N o n e o f t h e m vvas in R o m e . Valerian's r e s i d c n c c in t h c E a s t vvill a l s o serve t o e x p l a i n vvhy his instruetions t o the S e n a t e in R o m e a b o u t thc p c r s c c u t i o n o f 2 5 8 c a m c in thc f o r m o f a letter. 2 5 T h o u g h , as vve h a v e s e e n , t h e a r c h a e o l o g i c a l evidence suggests t h a t the life o f R o m a n D u r a e n d e d a b r u p t l y in 2 5 6 o r 2 5 7 , this m u s t h a v e b e e n the rcsult o f a m i n ö r conflict. S h a p u r c l a i m s n o c a m p a i g n betvveen his s c c o n d , in 2 5 2 7 2 5 3 , a n d h i s t h i r d , in 2 6 0 . S o f a r as o u r e v i d e n c e g o e s , t h e r e f o r e , the s e c o n d h a l f o f the 250S vvas a period o f g e n e r a l p e a c e in t h e N e a r E a s t , and o f c s t a b l i s h c d rule, by the s e n i o r A u g u s t u s , f r o m A n t i o c h . T h c m e r e t h r e e m a r t y r d o m s vvhich E u s e b i u s c a n r e c o r d as h a v i n g t a k e n p l a c e a t C a e s a r e a in Palestine u n d e r V a l e r i a n vvill h a v e s e e m e d t o the p a g a n m a j o r i t y t o r e p r e s e n t duc o r d e r r a t h e r t h a n its o p p o s i t c . 2 6 A l m o s t n o e v i d e n c e s u r v i v e s t o i l l u m i n a t e the r e l a t i o n o f t h e cities and c o m m u n i t i c s o f t h e N e a r E a s t t o t h e R o m a n g o v e r n m e n t in this p e r i o d ; the i n s e r i p t i o n s o f this a r c a , n e v e r a s c x t c n s i v c o r detailed as t h o s e o f t h c G r e e k c i t i e s o f Asia M i n ö r , b e c o m e very fevv a t this time. O n e e x c e p t i o n is p r o v i d e d b y the city o f A d r a a in A r a b i a , vvhere a series o f G r e e k i n s e r i p t i o n s , b e g i n n i n g in thc 250S, shovvs c o n s t r u c t i o n o f vvalls a n d tovvers by t h e 'gift' o f the E m peror, a n d superviscd b y m i l i t a r y p c r s o n n c l . 2 7 A m o r e i m p o r t a n t c x c c p t i o n is p r o v i d e d by P a l m y r a ; a n d it is o n l y a s e e m i n g p a r a d o x t h a t the i n t e g r a t i o n o f

2 2 . Z o s i m u s 1 , 3 6 . N o t e , hovvever, J. R e y n o l d s o n C . R o u c d ı f c , Aphrodisias

in late

Antiquity

( 1 9 8 9 ) , n o . t , a f r a g m e n t a r y letter o f V a l e r i a n a n d G a l l i e n u s a p p a r e n t l y vvritten f r o m C o l o g n e . 1 3 . Cod. Just.

V, 3, 5, a n d I X , 9, 18 { e x t r a c t s f r o m t h e s a m e text): ' A c c e p t a X V id. M a i .

A n t i o e h i a e T u s c o et Ba&so c o n s s ' . 2 4 . IGLS

V I I , n o . 4 0 0 1 . Scc 8 . j belovv.

1 5 . C y p r i a n , Ep. 80. See G . W . C l a r k e , Thc Letters ad

of St. Cyprian

of Carthage

IV ( 1 9 8 } ) ,

loc. 2 6 . E u s e b i u s , HE V I I , 1 2 . 2 7 , H . - G . P f l a u m , " l a fortificat ion d e la ville d ' A d r a h a d ' A r a b i e (259—260 â 2 7 4 - 2 7 5 J d'a-

pres les inseriptions r e c e m m e n t d c c o u v e r t e s ' * , Syria 2 9 { 1 9 5 2 ) , 3 0 7 .

the P a l m y r e n e ruling elass i n t o t h e Imperial system is m o s t ciearly d i s p l a y e d — as a h v a y s , in t h e f o r m o f h o n o r i f i c i n s e r i p t i o n s — p r e c i s e l y in t h e d e c a d e b e f o r e O d e n a t h u s led its a s c c n t t o i n d e p e n d e n t povvcr. S e p t i m i u s O d e n a t h u s h i m s e l f , already a t t e s t e d as a R o m a n senatör, a p p e a r s in 2 5 7 / 2 5 8 vvith t h e f u r t h e r title hypatikos.

If vve c o u l d a t t a c h a precise m e a n i n g t o this t e r m , it

vvould b c o f c r u c i a l significance. B u t t h e vvord, the Standard G r c c k e q u i v a l e n t o f consularis

(a m a n o f e x - c o n s u l r a n k ) , seems t o have c o m c (like

consularis

itself) a l s o t o m e a n ' g o v e r n o r ' , a n d b y the n o r m a l inflation o f titles c o u l d b e used o f t h e g o v e r n o r o f a o n e - l e g i o n p r o v i n c e like Syria P h o e n i c c ,

even

t h o u g h he vvould not b c a n c x - c o n s u l . 2 $ It is thus possible, b u t n o t c e r t a i n , t h a t vvhen inseriptions f r o m P a l m y r a in 2 5 7 / 2 5 8 cali O d e n a t h u s ( H P T Y K ' ) , he vvas then the legatus

o f Syria

Phoenice.29

hypatikos

If s o , it s h o u l d b e

n o t e d t h a t the rule m a d e a f t e r the p r o c l a m a t i o n o f Avidius C a s s i u s in 1 7 5 h a d been f o r g o t t e n , a n d that h e vvas g o v e r n i n g t h e p r o v i n c e f r o m vvhich h e h i m s e l f c a m e . 1 0 A t any r a t e vvhat is c e r t a i n is t h a t the title is a R o m a n o n e , a n d t h a t n o m o r e is h c a r d o f h i s being exarchos(?)

o r 'head o f Tadmor' ( R S

T 1 ) M W R ) , vvhatever these unusııal titles h a d m e a n t a fevv y e a r s b e f o r e . O n e o f t h e f o u r t r a d c - a s s o c i a t i o n s vvhich put u p h o n o r i f i c i n s e r i p t i o n s t o him in 257/258

does

indeed

cali

him

'master'

( d e s p o t e s in

Grcck,

P a l m y r e n e ) ; b u t t h e o t h e r t h r e e , in G r e e k only, use patron, Iâtin term patronus.

MRN

in

borrovving t h e

T h e i n s e r i p t i o n s are t h u s e v i d e n c e o f a r e l a t i o n s h i p b e -

tvveen O d e n a t h u s a n d t r a d e - a s s o c i a t i o n s in t h e city, b u t n o t o f s o m e ovcraLI d o m i n a t i o n o f the city b y h i m . O d e n a t h u s vvas n o t t h e o n l y P a l m y r e n e t o be h o n o u r e d in R o m a n t e r m s in this p e r i o d . Iıı 2 5 8 / 2 5 9 A u r e l i u s V o r o d e s ( W R W D ) , o f vvhom m o r e belovv, vvas deseribed as hippikos

(that is, eques)

a n d tovvn-councillor, bouleutes

Palmyrene transeription H P K ' W B Y L W T ' T D M R Y ' ) . For a R o m a n

(in

colonia

this m e l a n g e o f l a n g u a g e s vvas o f c o u r s e very distinetive, t h o u g h n o m o r e s o than in t h e coloniae

o f M e s o p o t a m i a . B u t if vve t a k e the d a t e d evidence i n

order, t h e r e is stili n o c o n c r e t e e v i d e n c e o f any distinetive r o l e o n the part o f the city, o r a n y s t a t u s vvithin it on t h e p a r t o f Septimius O d e n a t h u s b e y o n d vvhat vve vvould c x p e c t o f ( a p p a r e n t l y ) t h e o n l y p e r s o n f r o m t h e r e t o rise t o high r a n k in t h e R o m a n Senate. W e c o u l d thus see t h e later 250S also as a period o f e s t a b l i s h e d , o r r c 28. C f . , hovvever, B. R e m y , " T n a « K o ( et consulares nes a u II' et III* s i â c l e s " , Latomus

d a n s les p r o v i n c e s i m p e r i a l e s p r e t o r i e n -

4 5 ( 1 9 8 6 ) , 3 1 1 , a r g u i n g that the title vvas u s e d o n l y vvhen t h e

person h a d g a i n e d a coıısulate in a b s c n c e o r heen adleeted înter

consıdares.

1 9 . See M . G a v v l i k o v v s k i , " L e s p r i n c e s d e P a i m y r c " , Syria 6 2 ( 1 9 8 3 ) , 2 5 1 , a n d Potter, line Oraele,

Sibyl-

A p p . 4, " T h e C a r e e r o f O d e n a t h u s " , a n i m p o r t a n t d i s c u s s i o n vvhich t a k e s a d i f f e r e n t

vicvv f r o m that o f f e r c d here: that O d e n a t h u s vvas not a g o v e r n o r , but d i d o c c u p y a f o r m a l p o s i tion o f d o m i n a n c c at I ' a l m y r a . 30. 3.4 a b o v e .

s t o r e d , R o m a n r u l e in t h e N e a r E a s t , m a r k e d a b o v e ail by the a l m o s t c o n t i n u o u s p r e s e n c e o f the s e n i o r A u g u s t u s . A l i this, hovvever^ vvas t o b c v i o l e n t l y d i s t u r b e d by the l a s t o f S h a p u r ' s three i n v a s i o n s , vvhich l c d t o the c a p t u r e o f V a l e r i a n h i m s e l f in M e s o p o t a m i a in 2 6 0 , W e m u s t begin vvith S h a p u r ' s ovvn v e r s i o n : D u r i n g the third invasion, vvhen vve s e t o u t against C a r r h a e and E d e s s a and vvere besieging C a r r h a e and Edessa, Valerianus C a e s a r c a m e a g a i n s t us . . . And beyond C a r r h a e and Edessa there vvas a great b a t ü e betvveen us and Valerianus C a e s a r a n d w c g a i n c d possession o f Valerianus C a e s a r . . . And vve burned and d e v a s t a t e d and t o o k captives from and c o n q u e r e d the province o f Syria a n d the province o f Cilicia and the province o f Cappadocia.3' T h e first o b j e e t i v e h a d t h e r e f o r e b e e n vvestern M e s o p o t a m i a , a n d a f t e r this t h e r e follovvs a l o n g list o f t h e p l a c c s r a v a g e d , c o n f i r m i n g t h a t the i n v a s i o n did r e a c h f a r i n t o C i l i c i a a n d C a p p a d o c i a . O f p l a c e s in S y r i a vvhich a r e , o r m a y bc, m e n t i o n e d , o n l y S a m o s a t a is c e r t a i n . F o r t h e ' A ı ı t i o c h i a ' vvhich S h a p u r n a r r e s is listed a l o n g vvith o t h e r s m a l l p l a c c s in C i l i c i a . If vve t o o k t h i s l i s t a s o u r m a i n g u i d e { a s in p r i n c i p l e w c s h o u l d ) , vve c o u l d n o t b e sure if e v e n C a r r h a e a n d E d e s s a ( o r N i s i b i s , vvhich is n o t m e n t i o n e d ) vvere a c t u a l l y t a k e n ; a n d vve m i g h t reas o n a b l y c o n c l u d e t h a t the P e r s i a n a r m y m o v c d d i r c c t l y vvestvvards f r o m S a m o s a t a t o C i l i c i a , a n d did n o t e n t e r t h e c c n t r a l a r e a o f n o r t h e r n S y r i a a t ali. T h e r e is n o m e n r i o n o f Z e u g m a , C y r r h u s , B e r o e a o r S e l e u c i a . F o r t h e e s t a b l i s h e d n o t i o n o f a s e c o n d c a p t u r e o f A n t i o c h , u n d e r V a l e r i a n , vve a r e e n t i r e l y d e p e n d e n t o n G r e e k a n d L a t i n s o u r c c s o f t h e f o u r t h c e n t ı ı r y a n d later. 3 2 F!ven if vve a c c e p t , a s o n b a l a n c e vve p r o b a b l y s h o u l d , t h a t A n t i o c h vvas c a p t u r e d for a s e c o n d t i m e i n 2 6 0 , t h e r e is n o q u e s t i o n b u t t h a t the w e i g h t o f t h e Persian i n v a s i o n vvas d î r e c t e d

against M e s o p o t a m i a , and then

Com-

m a g e n e , C i l i c i a a n d C a p p a d o c i a . Hovv t h e P e r s i a n a r m y r e a c h e d t h e a r e a o f C a r r h a e a n d N i s i b i s is n o t knovvn (vvhether by the E u p h r a t e s a n d C h a b u r , o r m o r e p r o b a b l y b y t h e T i g r i s ) ; n o r is t h e r e a n y c l e a r i n d i c a t i o n o f vvhat e f f e c t s the i n v a s i o n h a d in e a s t e r n M e s o p o t a m i a . If vve follovv the q u i t c v a r i e d d e l a i l s p r o v i d e d in a series o f m u c h l a t e r n a r r a t i v e s ( a n d vve h a v e ı ı o t h i n g b e t t e r ) , i t is f a r f r o m c e r t a i n e v e n t h a t E d e s s a vvas t a k e n . Tvvo B y z a n t i n c e h r o n i d e r s , Gcorgius Syncellus and Z o n a r a s , record that R o m a n forces under Callistus 3 1 . F o r t h e Res Gestae,

s c c 4 . 2 , n . 3 9 . F o r d i s c u s s i o n s c c a g a i n K c t t c n h o f c n , Kriege,

97H.,

and m a p 3. 32. S o Jeromc,

Chron.,

c d . I lelnı,

p. 2 2 0 ; Z o s i m u s

üi,

32,

j

(a

later s u m m a r y

R o m a n - P a r t h i a n / I ' e r s i a n r e l a t i o n s , i n a d v e r t e n t l y m a k i n g V a l e r i a n ' s c a m p a i j ; n a reaction c a p t u r e o f A n t i o c h ) ; S y n c e l l u s , Chron.

I, p. 7 x 5 ; Z o n a r a s X I I , 23 (the f u l l e s t a c c o u n t , a n d the

o n e vvhich c o r r c s p o n d s best vvith S h a p u r ' s Res GestaeJ. in Potter, Sibylline

Oracle,

337^.

of

t o dıc

T h e q ı ı e s t i o n o f A n t i o c h is w c l l d i s c u s s c d

finally

m o u n t e d a n effective c o u n t e r - a t t a c k in Asia M i n ö r , a n d ı h a ı S h a p u r

t h e n retreated; a n d a n o t h e r says t h a t o n his r e t r e a t S h a p u r bribed t h e R o m a n t r o o p s o c c u p y i n g E d e s s a n o t t o a t t a c k his a r m y . " T h e story, like ali t h e s e a c c o u n t s , m a y b e f a n c i f u l . B u t ît is notevvorthy t h a t even S h a p u r m a k e s n o claim actually to have captured Carrhae or Edessa. I n s o f a r a s vve c a n gain a n y i m p r e s s i o n o f t h e e f f e c t s o f this last P e r s i a n i n v a s i o n , vvhich left m o s t o f t h e R o m a n N e a r E a s t vvholly u n t o u c h c d , it is f r o m the e q u a l l y u n r e l i a b l e a c c o u n t s o f t h e r e s t o r a t i o n o f R o m a n povver, i n e x t r i c a b l y c o n f u s e d vvith n a r r a t i v e s o f the r i s e o f O d e ı ı a t h u s o f P a l m y r a , a n d his c o n f r o n t a t i o n vvith tvvo o t h e r R o m a n p r e t e n d e r s , the short-Iived R o m a n E m p e r o r s M a c r i a n u s a n d Q u i e r u s . T h e c o n t e m p o r a r y evidenee, a p a r t f r o m a vaguc a n d allusive fevv lines, a p p a r c n t l y a d d e d o n s u b s c q u e n t l y , a t t h e e n d o f the XIIIth

Sibylline

Oracle,

vvhich refer t o V a l e r i a n , G a l l i e n u s a n d O d e n a -

thus, 3 4 c o n s i s t s a l m o s t entirely o f h o n o r i f i c i n s e r i p t i o n s f r o m P a l m y r a . T h e i n e v i t a b l e l i m i t a t i o n s o f such e v i d e n e e shovv u p ali the m o r e c l e a r l y vvhen t h e c r u c i a l items e x p r c s s i n g O d e n a t h u s ' role a n d s t a t u s turn o u t , t h o u g h b r o a d l y c o n t e m p o r a r y , t o be p o s t h u m o u s , put up under t h e m u c h m o r e a m b i t i o u s rule o f his vvidovv Z e n o b i a a n d h i s s o n V a b a l l a t l ı u s a f t e r 2 6 7 . N o n e t h c l c s s it is p o s s i b l e t o set o u t a t least the b r o a d oudirıcs o f the hist o r y o f the N e a r E a s t in the c x c e p t i o n a l period o f tvvelve y e a r s ,

260-272,

during vvhich n o r c c o g n i s c d E m p e r o r c a m e t h e r e ; t h e first vvas t o b e A u r e l i a n , leading the c a m p a i g n vvhich b r o u g h t a b o u t the defeat a n d r e c o n q u e s t o f P a l m y r a in 2 7 2 . T h e a f t e r m a t h o f t h e c a p t u r e o f Valerian in 2 6 0 did lead t o a b r i e f u s u r p a t i o n , vvhen M a c r i a n u s , a h i g h e q u e s t r i a n official on

Valerian's

e a m p a i g n s , p r o e l a i m e d a s E m p e r o r s his tvvo s o n s , M a c r i a n u s a n d Q u i c t u s , vvho reigned in i6o/z6t;

t h e y w e r e recognised in Egypt b e f o r e M a c r i a n u s

vvas killed in t h e B a l k a n s , a n d Q u i e t u s vvas killed vvhile being besieged b y O d e n a t h u s in E m e s a . N o e v i d e n e e survives t o illustrate their rule in the N e a r E a s t , vvhere they vvill surely h a v e been r e c o g n i s e d in a t least s o m e p r o v i n c e s . A m o n g these p r o v i n c e s S y r i a P h o e n i c e m a y o r m a y n o t have been iııcluded. F o r it is a t this p o i n t t h a t the i n d e p e n d e n t m i l i t a r y role o f P a l m y r a b e g i n s . W e vvould o f c o u r s e see it in a q u i t e different light if vve c o u l d b e certain t h a t O d e n a t h u s , vvhen deseribed as hypatikos 2 5 8 , h a d in fact been t h e legatus

in a n inseription o f 2 5 7 /

o f the p r o v i n c e , a n d even m o r e so if i n

2 6 0 he stili vvere. İn t h e l o n g list o f p r o v i n c c s from vvhich S h a p u r c l a i m s t h a t V a l e r i a n ' s f o r c e s in 2 6 0 had b e e n dravvn, ali t h o s e o f t h e N e a r E a s t a r e i n c l u d e d : Syria ( C o e l e ) , P h o e n i c e , J u d a e a (as he stili c a l l s it), A r a b i a a n d M e s o p o t a m i a . But vvhatever l c g i o n a r y d e t a c h n ı c n t s o r a u x i l i a r y units h a d served under V a l e r i a n , it is relevant t h a t Syria P h o e n i c e vvas t h e nearest p r o v i n c e

3 3 . SynceJlus, Chron.

I, p. 7 1 6 ; Z o n a r a s X I I , zy, P c t r u s P a t r i c i u s , F t ı ı

3 4 . Sib. Or. X I I I , 1 5 5 - 1 7 3 . S e c P o t c c r , Sibylline

Oracle.

151; 3i8ff.

(FIIG

I V , p. 1 8 7 ) .

vvhich h a d in n o vvay been t o u c h e d by the i n v a s i o n , a n d from vvhich direct routcs Icd a c r o s s thc s t e p p e t o t h c E u p h r a t e s , a n d f r o m t h e r e either n o r t h t o R o m a n M e s o p o t a m i a o r s o u t h t o B a b y l o n i a . Active P a l m y r e n e c o n t a c t s vvith B a b y l o n i a c o n t i n u e d until t h i s p e r i o d . T h e latest dated ' c a r a v a n - i n s c r i p t i c n ' (that is, a n h o n o r i f i c i n s e r i p t i o n f o r s o m e o n e involved in t h c p r o t e e t i o n o f c a r a v a n s ) vvhich a c n ı a l l y n a m e s a d e s t i n a t i o n in Persian territory, V o l o g a e sias, c o m e s f r o m 2 4 7 ; b u t t h e r e is o n e o f 2 5 7 / 2 5 8 , a n d a n o t h e r vvhich seeuıs c e r t a i n l y t o belong t o the 2 6 0 S . 3 5 T h c d a t i n g d e p e n d s o n identifying the h o n o r a n d , S e p t i m [ i u s V o r o d c s | — t h i s p a r t o f t h e n a m e is missing—vvith an imp o r t a n t figüre o f t h e 260S, S e p t i m i u s V o r o d e s , o f vvhom m o r e later, vvho m a y h a v e a d o p t c d t h e n a m e ' S e p t i m i u s ' a n d be in fact t h e s a ı n c a s t h c ' A u r e l i u s V o r o d e s ' vvhom vve savv h o n o u r c d as a hippikos

a n d bouleutes

in 2 5 8 / 2 5 9 . 3 6

In t h e i n s e r i p t i o n ( p r o b a b l y ) o f t h e 260S he is h o n o u r e d as a procurator cenarius

du-

o f the E m p e r o r , as ehe h o l d e r o f a l o n g series o f city offices a n d a s

h a v i n g ' b r o u g h t b a c k t h c c a r a v a n s (sytıodiai)

a t his ovvn c x p c n s e ' . H e m u s t

e i t h e r h a v e p r o v i d e d a n e s c o r t or, p e r h a p s e q u a l l y likely, h a v e paid off p o t e n tial n o m a d raiders. \Ve vvould n o t knovv f r o m this inseription t h a t a n y t h i n g a t ali h a d e h a n g e d as r e g a r d s thc i n t e g r a t i o n o f t h c colonia

o f P a l m y r a into

the R o m a n E m p i r e . W h a t is significant in the i m m e d i a t e c o n t e x t , hovveveç is t h a t t h e Persian m i l i t a r y a d v a n c e up t h c m i d d l e E u p h r a t e s d o e s n o t s c e m t o h a v e s t o p p e d the c a r a v a n traffic a c r o s s the s t e p p e (vvhich vvould alvvays e n t e r P e r s i a n , a n d earlier P a r t h i a n , territory at s o m e p o i n t ) ; a n d t h a t vvhatever f o r c e s r e m a i n e d in t h e vvestern p a r t o f Syria P h o c n i c c h a d n o t been c o n f r o n t e d by a Persian i n v a s i o n s i n c e 2 5 2 / 2 5 3 . But vvhat is m u c h less c l e a r is hovv easily a n y r e g u l a r R o m a n units c o u l d be, o r n o w vvere, m o v e d a l o n g the r o u t e s ö v e r the s t e p p e t o the E u p h r a t e s . O u r g r e a t e s t p r o b l e m , vvhich s e c m s a t the m o m e n t i n s o l u b l e , is t h u s t o knovv vvhether vve s h o u l d s e e O d e n a t h u s ' a e t i o n s in r e s p o n s e t o V a l e r i a n ' s c a p t u r c a s t h o s e o f a R o m a n g o v e r n o r vvith regular f o r c c s o n the o n e h a n d , o r o f a l o c a l n o t a b l e vvith l o c a l f o r c c s on t h c o t h e r . B u t e v e n in t h c lattcr c a s e it s h o u l d be recalled t h a t P a l m y r a vvas novv, a n d r e m a i n e d , a colonia

under

duumviri/strategoi. T h e initial p h a s e o f t h c r i s e o f O d e n a t h u s t o a m a j ö r role in the N e a r E a s t t o o k t h c f o r m o f a m i l i t a r y r e a c t i o n against t h e r e t r e a t i n g Persian f o r c c s and a g a i n s t t h c u s u r p a t i o n o f M a c r i a n u s a n d Q u i e t u s , a n d vvas follovvcd in 260 o r s o o n a f t e r by r e c o g n i t i o n o f G a l l i e n u s , vvho vvas o c c u p i e d in E u r o p c t h r o u g h o u t his reign, a n d h a d n o c o - E m p c r o r . 3 7 N o c l e a r s e q u e n c e o f events

3 5 . C a n t i n c a u , Inv. III, n o . z ı ( 2 4 7 ) ; *3 ( » S 7 ^ S 8 ) ; 7 U 6 o s ) . 3 6 . Scc a b o v c , p. 1 6 5 . 3 7 . F o r treatmenes o f this c o n t r o v c r s i a l a n d u n c c r t a i n s c q u c n c c o f e v e n t s scc, e.g., F. M i Ilır, " P a u l o f S a m o s a t a , Z c n o b i a a n d A u r c l i a n : T h c C h u r c h , L o c a l C u l t u r c a n d Political A l l e g i a c c e

c a n b e e s t a b l i s h e d , b u t vve f i n d i n o u r v a r i e d n a r r a t i v e s t h a t O d e n a t h u s b e sieged Q u i e t u s a r E m e s a , vvhose people then killed h i m ; 3 s that he r c c o v e r c d M e s o p o t a m i a , including the citîes o f Nisibis a n d C a r r h a e (if they had really b e e n t a k e n b y t h e P e r s i a n s , vve d o n o t k n o v v vvhen); a n d t h a t a t s o m e p o i n t h i s f o r c e s a d v a n c e d a s f a r a s C t e s i p h o n , It vvould h e l p if vve h a d a n y c o n c e p t i o n o f t h e d i s p o s i t i o n o f R o m a n f o r c e s a t t h i s t i m e . B u t vve d o n o t , a n d o u r h i g h l y c o l o u r c d n a r r a t i v e s t c n d t o s p e a k o f O d e n a t h u s ' ovvn f o r c e s a s b e i n g S y r i a n p e a s a n t s . 1 9 W h a t t h e n vvas t h e r e l a t i o n o f O d e n a t h u s , a n d o f P a l m y r a , t o the R o m a n E m p i r e betvveen 2 6 0 a n d his m u r d e r in 2 6 7 / 2 6 8 ? F i r s t , t h e l i t t l c e v i d e n c e t h a t vve h a v e s h o v v s a n o r m a l r e g i m c in o p e r a t i o n in t h e o t h e r p r o v i n c e s o f t h e N e a r E a s t , A t A d r a a in A r a b i a , f o r i n s t a n c c , t o v v c r s a n d vvalls vvere b u i l t u n d e r s u c c e s s i v e g o v e r n o r s in 2 6 2 / 2 6 3

an

1 9 : ' E q u i t c s P r o m o t i I n d i g c n a c , M c f a ' . Scc, hov,-ever,

Y . Elitzur, " T h e I d e n t i f i c a t i o n o f M e f a ' a t i n V i e w o f t h e D i s c o v c r i c s f r o m K h . U m m e r - R e s ı s " , IEJ 3 9 ( 1 9 S 9 ) , 2 6 7 , q u e s t i o n i n g t h e i d c n t i f i c a t i o n . T h i s is n o n c t h e l e s s s c c u r c ; scc M . P i c c i r r i l l o , " L ' i d c n t i f i c a z i o n c s t o r i c a delle r o v i n e di U m m e r - R a s a s — K a s t r o n Mefaa

7» (t99o), 517.

in G i o r d a n i a " ,

Biklica

Pius Fclix Invictus Augustus, a n d Flavius Valerius Constantius and Galerius Valerius M a x i m i a n u s the m o s t noble Gaesars, the castra of the praetoritım

Mobenum

(\vhich) from

the foundations Aurelius

Aselepiades,

praeses of the province of A r a b i a , carricd through to complction. 4 '' W h a t e v e r the precise i n t e n d e d futıction o f a s m a l l fort like this, it is a m e r e o u t p o s t c o m p a r e d w i t h t h e large r e c t a n g u l a r c a m p , o f Z42. m by 1 9 0 m , s i t u a t e d a few k i l o m e t r e s t o the south-vvest, n e a r the h e a d o f the Wadi M u j i b , a n d stili c a l l e d L e j j u n (legio).

N o i n s e r i p t i o n survives t o give a d a t e ,

t h e a r c h a e o l o g i c a l e v i d e n c e shovvs t h a t it t o o is T e t r a r c h i c . 5 0 T h e

but

camp

vvould n o t h a v e h e l d a legion o f the earlier size, s o m e 6 0 0 0 m e n ; b u t it i s t h o u g h t that it c o u l d h a v e t a k e n

1 0 0 0 - 1 5 0 0 , quite appropriate for

the

smallcr, o r s u b - d i v i d e d , legions o f t h e l a t e E m p i r e . T h e o d d s are t h a t t h i s is the p l a c e c a l l e d B e t h o r u m , vvhere t h e Notitia

Dignitatum

placcs a legion,

the IV M a r t i a . T h i s nevvly f o r m e d legion vvill h a v e been s t a t i o n e d h e r e İLI the T e t r a r c h i c period. T h e s e a n d o t h e r s m a l l f o r t s lie in the c u l t i v a b l e r e g i o n o f t h e M o a b plateau, d r a i n e d by the ' G r a n d C a n y o n ' o f J o r d a n , the W a d i M u j i b , the a n c i e n t A r n o n , vvhich runs into the D e a d S e a . T h e a r e a , vvith ali these forts, lies vvell vvithin the 2 0 0 - m m - r a i n f a l l limic f o r d r y - f a r m i n g . H e r e again E u s e b i u s shovvs h i m s e l f avvare o f t h e p r e s e n c e o f R o m a n p o s t s . F o r he s p e a k s o f t h e g o r g e c a l l e d A r t ı o n a s , north o f ' A r c o p o l i s o f A r a b i a ' , 4in vvhich m i i i t a r y g a r r i s o n s a r e o n g u a r d o n ali sides, b e c a u s e o f t h e d a n g c r o u s n c s s o f t h e a r c a ' . 5 1 H c c a n h a r d l y b c s p e a k i n g o f the t e r r o r vvhich stili grips t h e m o d e r n t r a v e l l e r vvhose vehicle begins ı h e p r e c i p i t o u s d e s c e n t dovvn t h e King's Highvvay i n t o t h e g o r g e . T h e r e f c r e n c e c a n o n l y b c c i t h c r t o r o b b e r s using h i d c o u t s a l o n g t h e vvadi or, m u c h m o r e p r o b a b l y , t o the possibility o f r a i d s f r o m t h e steppe, o n l y a fevv k i l o m e t r e s a\vay. E v e n further s o u t h , a l o n g T r a j a n ' s r o a d dovvn t o A i l a o n the R e d S e a , t h e r e vvere m i i i t a r y i n s t a l l a t i o n s , f o r i n s t a n c e a t Udruh t o t h e e a s t o f P e t r a (vvhich m a y possibly h a v e been a n o t h e r l e g i o n a r y c a m p ) a n d a t H u n ı e i m a , half-vvay betvveen Petra a n d A i l a . 5 2 N c i t h e r t h e Üne o f the r o a d n o r the f o r t s a s s o c i a t e d vvith it s h o u l d b e t h o u g h t o f as a true frontier. R a t h e r , the r o a d vvas

4 9 . F o r a d e t a i l e d d e s e r i p t i o n see V . A . C l a r k , " T h e R o m a n C a s t e l l u m of Q a s r B s h i r " , i ı ı S . T. Parkem o p . cit. ( n . 4 7 } II, 4 5 7 . T h e b u i l d i n g - i n s c r i p t i o n is CIL

III, n o . 1 4 1 4 9 .

50. S c c J . C . G r o o t , " T h e B a r r a c k s o f c l - L e j j u n " , in P a r k e r , Roman

Frontier

B. d c V r i e s , " T h e F o r t i f i c a t i o n o f c l - l . c j j ı ı n " , i b ı d . , 3 1 1 ; K c n n c d y a n d R ı l c y , RDF, Dign.,

I, 2 6 0 ; a n d 1 3 1 , Scc Woî.

Or. X X X V I I , 2 2 : T r a c f c c t u s l e g i o n i s q u a r t a c M a r t i a c , B c t t h o r o ' .

5 1 . E u s e b i u s , Onomasticon,

e d . Kİ o s t e r m a n n , 1 0 : EV cp K a i «tpoûpıa J i a v t a x o 0 e v ı>uXdnet

o x p o x i ( m i K â 8ıcı w Ç o f k p ö v TOÛ t o n o u 5 2 . F o r U d r u h see A . K i l l i c k , " U d r u h a n d t h e S o u t h e r n F r o n t i e r " , in F r c c n ı a n a n d K c n n c d y , DR BE, 4 3 1 . F o r H u m e i m a , K e n n e d y a n d R i l e y , RDF,

146-148.

a m e a n s o f c o m m u n i c a t i o n , a n d the f o r t s r e p r e s e n t e d esscntially the limits o f p o l i c i n g , f o r vvhich n o I m p e r i a l c m p l o y c c s vvere a v a i i a b i c e x c e p t the a r m y . N o c l e a r distinetion c a n t h u s b c dravvn betvveen f r o n t i e r f u n e t i o n s a n d p o l i ç e o n e s ; a n d a l t h o u g h , as vve h a v e seen, the e v i d e n c e is p e r f c c t l y c l e a r in r e p r e senting R o m a n t r o o p - p l a c e m e n t s on the fringe o f t h c s t e p p e a s b c i n g intended f o r p r o t e e t i o n against ' S a r a c e n s ' , n o n - s e d e n t a r y p o p u l a t i o n s o f a s i m i l a r c h a r a c t e r existed a l s o vvithin the ' f r o n t i e r ' , a b o v e ali in t h e N e g c v a n d Sînai. It is t h u s significant f r o m b o t h p o i n t s o f vievv that o u r e v i d e n c e f o r the R o m a n m i l i t a r y p r c s c n c c in this p e r i o d s e c m s t o shovv an inereased level o f ' i n t c r n a l ' policing also. T h e r a n d o m seleetion of allusions to R o m a n military posts (usually c a l l e d phrouria)

p r o v i d e d by E u s e b i u s ' Onomasticon

is p a r t i c u l a r l y

valuable: apart from the 'frontier' installations already mentioned, hc speaks o f p o s t s a t T h a m a r a on t h c r o a d betvveen H c b r o n a n d A i l a ; o n t h e r o a d dovvn f r o m Aelia ( J e r u s a l e m ) t o J e r i c h o ; n e a r Z o a r a , j u s t belovv t h e s o u t h e n d o f the D e a d S e a ; t e n R o m a n miles ( 1 5 k m ) n o r t h o f H c b r o n ; a villagc c a l l e d T h a i m a , a b o u t fifteen R o m a n miles ( 2 2 k m ) f r o m P c t r a (direetion n o t s t a t e d ) ; a n o t h e r in G e b a l e n e (the a r e a n o r t h o f P e t r a ) ; a n d C h e r m e l , ' a very big vilIage' t o t h e s o u t h o f H e b r o n . 5 5 E u s e b i u s vvas o f c o u r s c n o t c o n d u c d n g a survey o f R o m a n m i l i t a r y po>ts, b u t m a k i n g i n c i d e n t a l m e n t i o n o f t h e m in listing B i b l i c a l p l a c e - n a m e s , and r e l a t i n g t h e m t o c o n t e m p o r a r y s e t t l e m e n t s . F o r t h a t very r c a s o n , the s e a t t e r o f R o m a n f o r t s (phrouria)

vvhich hc m e n t i o n s m u s t b e i m p r e s s i v c . O n e a t

Z o a r a s o u t h o f the D e a d S e a (vvhere vve earlier savv s o m e p e r s o n s m a k i n g their c e n s u s - r c t u r n s under H a d r i a n ) 5 4 m a y perhaps b c c s p c c i a l l y significant. F o r it is p o s s i b l e t h a t a R o m a n r o a d vvith f o r t s r a n dovvn the \Vadi A r a b a h , t h e great d e p r e s s i o n vvhich c o ı ı t i n u e s the J o r d a n a n d D e a d S e a v a l l e y s , a s f a r a s A q a b a . E u s e b i u s ' phrourion

at Z o a r a m i g h t be the e n e l o s u r e , 8 4 m s q u a r c

a n d f e d b y an a q u e d u c t , vvhich is visible f r o m t h e a i r a n d is knovvn as Q a s r el F e i f e h . " T h e n 2 5 k m s o u t h o f t h e D e a d S e a is t h e small fort a : el T e l a h , vvith a r e s e r v o i r f e d by an a q u e d u c t a n d (surprisingly) f r o n t i n g a r e g u l a r nctvvork o f ditehes,, i n d i c a t i n g c u l t i v a t i o n ; it m u s t b c t h c c a l l e d T o l o h a , vvhere t h e Notitia

Dignitatum

placc

locates the Ala Constantiana;

similarly, G h a r a n d a l , s o m e 8 0 k m further s o u t h , vvhere there is a n o t h e r small

f o r t , s h o u l d b c ' A r i e l d a ' , vvhere the Notitia

lists t h c C o h o r s

Se-

cunda Galatarum.5* T h e s e o f c o u r s e are in e f f c c t poliçe p o s t s , n o t f r o n t i e r defences. B u t these 5 3 . E u s e b i u s , OHOMĞSUMH,

e d . K l o s t e r m a n n , 8 , 1 4 , 4 1 , j o , 9 6 , 1 4 1 , 1 7 1 . 1 . R o l ) , o p . cit.

{ n . 5 7 , b c l o w ) identifîes T h a m a r a , a d a y ' s j o u r n e y s o u t h o f M a m p s i s , vvith H a z e v a (see his e * c e l lent m a p o n p . 2 5 4 ) . 54. 3.2 above. 5 5 . K e n n e d y a n d R i l e y , RPF,

144-145.

5 6 . K e n n e d y a n d R i l e y , RDF,

205-208.

littlc o u t p o s t s , s i t u a t e d in a d r a m a t i c a n d d e s o l a t e l a n d s c a p c , a r e c v i d c n c c o f the steadily g r o w i n g R o m a n m i l i t a r y i n v e s t m e n t in this s o u t h e r n a r e a l e a d i n g t o Aila a n d the R e d S e a . M o r e o v e r , nevv e v i d e n c e c o n t i n u e s t o a c c u m u l a t c f o r this i n v e s t m e n t , a n d precisely f r o m the T e t r a r c h i c period. T h u s further s o u t h a l o n g the vvadi, a t Y o t v a t a o r G h a d y a n , 4 0 k m n o r t h o f A i l a , a R o m a n f o r t o f s o m e 4 0 k m s q u a r e h a s b e e n e x c a v a t e d . W h a t m a k e s it significant is t h e L a t i n b u i l d i n g - i n s c r i p t i o n found. on t h e site. 5 7 N o t vvholly intclligiblc, it n o n c theless s p e a k s t h e f a m i l i a r l a n g u a g e o f T e t r a r c h i c i m p e r i a l i s m : T o r p e r p e t u a l peace Diocletianus Augus(tus) a n d M a x i m i a n u s Augus(tus) and C o n s t a n t i u s a n d M a x i m i a n u s (i.e., G a l e r i u s ) the m o s t n o b l e C a e s a r s ereeted t h e vving vvith the g a t e (?) b y t h e providentia

o f Priscus, praeses

[of ?]'. W h i c h p r o v i n c e vvill

h a v e been n a m e d vvhere t h e t e x t b r e a k s o f f vvill be discussed l a t e r . " It is n o t q u i t e c l e a r vvhat vvas being b u i l t , o r vvhether the i n s e r i p t i o n d o e s n o t r e f e r r a t h e r t o t h e e s t a b l i s h m c n t o f anı ala (vving) in the sense o f a m o u n t c d u n i t , a t this p o i n t . But t h e m e s s a g e a n d f u n e t i o n o f the inseription a r e c l e a r ; a n d t h e A r a b i c n a m e o f t h e place, ' G h a d y a n ' , vvill reflect t h a t o f t h e knovvn R o m a n site o f Ad D i a n a m . 5 9 Finally, from Aila itself vve novv have f r a g m e n t s o f an official L a t i n inseription, vvhich m a y date t o the s e c o n d o r third decade o f t h e f o u r t h c c n t u r y . 6 0 N o precise c o n c l u s i o n s c a n b c dravvn from it; b u t it is c n o u g h — a l o n g vvith a r e m a r k a b l e d e n s i t y o f o t h e r e v i d e n c e o n t h e g r o u n d — t o m a k e it r e a s o n a b l e t h a t l a t e r n a r r a t i v e s o u r c e s vvere n o t vvrong, a n d t h a t ' f r o m Aila t o t h e P e r s i a n f r o n t i e r ' t h e r e vvas a n u n p r e c e d e n t e d level o f m i l i t a r y c o n s t r u c t i o n in the p e riod o f D i o c i c t i a n . In the c e n t r a l a r e a this direct R o m a n m i l i t a r y p r e s e n c e m a y vvell reflect t h e d i s a p p e a r a n c e o f P a l m y r a as a m i l i t a r y povver, e x e r c i s i n g a vvidespread poliçe f u n e t i o n . B u t t h e evidence, o f various k i n d s , o v e r t h e vvhole length o f the ' f r o n t i e r ' is t o o c o n s i s t e n t for us t o d o u b t t h a t , in a vvay n o t a t t e s t e d b e f o r e , this a c t i v i t y refleeted c o n c e r n a b o u t the t h r e a t f r o m t h e ' S a r a c e n s ' . T h i s c o n c l u s i o n vvould be m i s l e a d i n g o n l y if it Icd us t o s u p p o s e that c o ı n p a r a b l c p r o b l e m s o f s e c u r i t y a n d the m i l i t a r y p o l i c i n g o f r o a d s , c a u s c d (in s o m e a r e a s ) b y the p r e s e n c e o f n o n - s e d e n t a r y ' A r a b ' o r ' S a r a c e n ' p o p u l a t i o n s , d i d n o t c x i s t a l s o f a r vvithin t h e ' f r o n t i e r s ' vvhich vve c a n novv dravv o n the m a p . T h e f o r c e o f a rapidly c h a n g i n g R o m a n I m p e r i a l s t a t e vvas felt in this period a l s o vvithin t h e existing p r o v i n c e s . 5 7 . See Z . M c a h e l , " A F o n a t Y o t v a t a f r o m t h e T i m e o f D i o c i c t i a n " , IF,J 3 9 ( 1 9 8 9 ) , 2 2 8 ; i. Roll, " A Latin Imperial İnseription f r o m the T i m e o f Diocictian Fouııd at Y o t v a t a " , i b i d . , 2 3 9 . R o l l ' s a r t ı c l c c o n s t i t u t c s a n i m p o r t a n r s u r v e y o f t h e entire T e t r a r c h i c r o a d - a ı ı d - f o r t î f i c a t i o n s y s t e m in t h i s r e g i o n . 58. 5 . 2 below. 5 9 . S o a l r e a d y B o w c r s o c k , Roman

Arabia,

179-181.

60. H . I. M a c A d a m , " F r a g m e n t s o f a L a t i n B u i l d i n g i n s e r i p t i o n f r o m A q a b a , J o r d a n " , 7 9 ( > 9 8 9 ) . 1 6 3 ; AE ( 1 9 8 9 ) , n o . 7 5 0 .

ZPF.

5.2. T H E NEAR EAST IN T H E T E T R A R C H I C AD

EMPİRE,

284-312

T h e line o f forts, m a n y c a r r y i n g g r a n d i o s e i n s e r i p t i o n s in L a t i n , vvhich n o w s t r e t e h e d a l o n g the b o r d e r s o f e u l t i v a b l e l a n d , a n d t h e m i l e s t o n e s o f t h e S t r a t a D i o c l e t i a n a r e m a i n the m o s t o b v i o u s e x p r e s s i o n s in t h e N e a r E a s t o f the ııevv T e t r a r c h i c order. M a n y o t h e r c h a n g e s seem t o h a v e taken p l a c e a l s o : b u t in s o m e c a s c s their d a t i n g a n d r e a l n a t u r c r e m a i n u n c c r t a i n , a n d in o t h e r s t h e r e is n o r e l e v a n t evidenee t o i l l u s t r a t e their a p p l i c a t i o n in this r e g i o n . P r e s u m ably, f o r i n s t a n c e , D i o c l e t i a n ' s e x t r a o r d i n a r i l y a m b i t i o u s edietum

o f 3 0 1 , lay-

ing dovvn t h e m a x i m u ı n p r i c e s w h i c h c o u l d b c c h a r g e d for a v a s t r a n g c o f g o o d s a n d scrviccs, w a s a p p l i e d in these p r o v i n c e s . It c e r t a i n l y lists m a n y p r o d u e t s vvhose n a m e s i m p l y t h a t they o r i g i n a t e d f r o m t o w n s in this region. 1 B u t as t o hovv { o r e v e n , s t r i c t l y s p e a k i n g , vvhether) it a f f e c t e d t h e life o f the N e a r E a s t vve h a v e n o e v i d e n e e a t ali. B y c o n t r a s t , t h e c o u r s e a n d effccts o f t h e last great p e r s e c u t i o n o f the C h r i s t i a n s , betvveen 3 0 3 a n d 3 1 2 , a r e m o r e fully knovvn f o r this region t h a n for a n y o t h e r . M o r c o v e r , o u r e v i d e n e e , a l m o s t ali p r o v i d e d by E u s e b i u s o f C a e s a r e a , m a k e s it p o s s i b l e t o discern a p a r a l l e l d e v e l o p m e n t in the i m p a c t o f the s t a t e on its s u b j e c t s , in t h e f o r m o f the census a n d nevv t y p c s o f d i r c c t t a x a t i o n . T h i s in its turn c a n b c r e l a t e d t o t h e r e m a r k a b l e series o f b o u n d a r y d e c i s i o n s , o f t e n a t t r i b u t e d t o o f f i c i a l s c a l l e d censitores a s ketısilores),

{ t r a n s l i t e r a t e d in G r e e k

vvhich c a n b e f o u n d in various a r e a s o f the N e a r E a s t — a n d

a r e t h e m s e l v e s s o m e o f o u r b e s t evidenee f o r the n a m e s o f c o m m u n i t i e s and the nature o f social formatioııs there.2 T h e s e a n d o t h e r d e v e l o p m e n t s in the n a t u r e o f t h e s t a t e a n d its r e l a t i o n s vvith its s u b j e c t s seem t o h a v e t a k e n place vvithin the framevvork o f tvvo o t h e r p r o f o u n d c h a n g e s in the s t r u e t u r e o f the s t a t e , b o t h o f vvhich c u l m i n a t e d in t h e T e t r a r c h i c period, a f t e r a slovv e v o l u t i o n t h r o u g h the third c e n t u r y : the sub-division a n d r e a r r a n g e m e n t o f p r o v i n c e s , a n d t h e progressive ( a n d not easily t r a c e d ) s e p a r a t i o n o f civilian a n d m i l i t a r y f u n e t i o n s . Vievved f r e m R o m e , the l a t t e r vvas o f i m m e n s e significance. F o r the e v o l u t i o n n o t m e r e l y o f s e p a r a t e p o s t s b u t o f vvhole c a r e e r - p a t t c r n s in Imperial service i n t o civil a n d m i l i t a r y m c a n t implicitly t h e a b a n d o n m e n t o f t h e p r c c o n c e p t i o n o n vvhich the vvhole h i s t o r y o f R o m e a n d i t s E m p i r e h a d been b a s c d : the unity o f m i l i t a r y a n d g o v e r n n ı c n t a l r e s p o n s i b i l i t i c s a n d c a p a c i t i e s o n the part o f m e m b e r s o f the o f f ı c e - h o l d i n g elass. It a c c o m p a n i c d a n o t h e r c h a n g e vvhich r e p r e s e n t e d a

1 . O n t h e p r i c e s e d i c i a n d t h e p r o d u e t s n a m e d in i t , s e e S . L a u f f e r , Diokletians

Preisedikl

( r 9 7 1 ) . F o r t h e d i s t r i b u t i o ı ı o f c p i g r a p h i c c o p i c s , M . H . C r a w f o r d a n d J. R e y n o l d s in JRS ( 1 9 7 5 ) , 1 6 0 , a n d J. R e y n o l d s iıı C . M . R o u e c h e , Apbrodisias 2. T c x t t o n n . ı ı f f . belovv a n d A p p . A .

in iMe

Antiquity

65

(1989), ch. I Î .

p r o f o u n d rupture vvith the R o m a n p a s t , thc loss b o t h o f m i l i t a r y f u n c t i o n s a n d o f m a n y g o v e r n o r s h i p s by r n e m b e r s o f rhe S e n a t e in R o m e . Vievved f r o m belovv, f r o m t h e s t a n d p o i n t o f t h c i n h a b i t a n t o f t h c N e a r Eastern p r o v i n c e s , these c h a n g e s vvere b o t h g r a d u a l a n d p r o b a b l y o f n o very p r o f o u n d significance. T h e y vvere n o t invisible, hovvever: vve have sceıı a l ready hovv inseriptions r e c o r d i n g building a n d o t h e r activitics by g o v e r n o r s o f A r a b i a refleet a e h a n g e o f t i t l e , f r o m the s e n a t o r i a l legatus praeses

Augusti

pro

t o thc n o n - s e n a t o r i a l t e r m , g r a d u a l l y e s t a b l i s h e d f o r ali g o v e r n o r s ,

praetore

(hegemön

in G r e e k ) ; ' a l o n g vvith t h a t c a m e a e h a n g e f r o m thc Stan-

d a r d s e n a t o r i a l s t a t u s - t e r m vir elarissitnus feetissimus

(diasemotatos).

in G r e e k ) t o vir

(lamprotatos

per-

As a l i the p r o v i n c e s o f the N e a r E a s t h a d alvvays

been ' I m p e r i a l ' (that is, their g o v e r n o r s h a d been n o m i n a t e d b y t h e E m p e r o r ) , n o g o v e r n o r s vvith the title ' p r o c o n s u l ' h a d ever served t h e r e . Novv the t i t l e legatus

d i s a p p c a r c d also, b c i n g last a t t e s t e d (in t h e e v i d e n c e vvhich vve h a p -

pen t o h a v e ) on the i n s e r i p t i o n f r o m H e l i o p o l i s in vvhich L . A r t o r i u s P i u s M a x i m u s , v(ir) c(larissimus),

h o n o u r c d D i o c l e t i a n s o m e t i m e betvveen 2 8 5

a n d 2«)7. 4 It is b y n o m e a n s e q u a l l y c e r t a i n t h a t a g e n e r a l division i n t o military a n d civilian f u n c t i o n s h a d already b e e n c a r r i e d o u t by this p e r i o d . I n d c c d , in t h c c a s e o f thc c o n s t r u c t i o n o f t h c castra o f t h c praetoriunı Asclepiadcs, praeses

Mobenum

by Aurelius

o f A r a b i a betvveen 293 a n d 3 0 5 , it clearly h a d n o t ; f o r

the building is distinctly m i l i t a r y , but t h c t e r m praeses

v v a s — o r vvas b c c o m -

i n g — t h e regular title for a c i v i l i a n g o v e r n o r . 5 N o n e t h e l e s s , the e m e r g e n c e o f thc L a t i n t e r m dux a s a r e g u l a r e x p r e s s i o n f o r a m i l i t a r y c o m m a n d e r did n o t g o u n n o t i c e d . ( B e f o r e the third c e n t u r y it had n o t been an official t e r m at a l i , b u t is f o u n d a t D u r a - E u r o p o s , a n d h a d t h e r e f o r e c o m e i n t o use by t h e 250S.) 6 F o r , as vve h a v e s c c n , E u s e b i u s talks o f a 'stratopedarehes (literally " c a n i p c o m m a n d e r " ) , vvhom the R o m a n s cali dux\

c o n d u c t i n g c x a m i n a t i o n s at D a -

m a s c u s duriııg t h e p e r s e c u t i o n o f 3 1 1 / 3 1 2 . 7 E u s e b i u s m u s t bc r e f e r r i n g t o t h e s a m e funetion vvhen he s p e a k s o f a n o t h e r stratopedarehes

e x e c u t i ı ı g C h r i s t i a n m a r t y r s vvho vvere a l r e a d y serving

s e n t e n c e s in the c o p p e r mines a t P h a c n o in 3 0 9 / 3 1 0 . In this c a s e , m o r e o v e r , E u s e b i u s d o e s p o r t r a y a d i v i s i o n o f c i v i l i a n a n d m i l i t a r y f u n c t i o n s . F o r it is t h c g o v e r n o r (here c a l l e d archön)

o f tlıe p r o v i n c e vvho c o n s u l t s t h c E m p e r o r

( M a x i m i n u s ) a b o u t the C h r i s t i a n s , a n d t h c stratopedarehes,

o r dux,

explicitly

deseribed as ' p l a c e d in e h a r g e o f thc f o r c c s t h e r e ' , vvho carries o u t the e x e c u -

3. 5 . 1 , tex( t o n.4. 4 . IGLS

VI, no. 2 7 2 1 ; 5 . 1 , tcxt to n . 1 3 .

5. C I I . VI, n o . 1 4 1 4 9 ; 5.x a b o v c . 6. 4 . 1 a b o v c . 7 . E u s e b i u s , HE I X , 5, 2: â r e p o ç oıp«TtonF.8öpx'V;> ö v SOÜKO TO^ıcfıoı t ı p o o o y o p e û o u o ı v .

tions.8 T h e l a t e - R o m a n strueture o f the state w a s visibly e o m i n g into being. T h i s s a m e r e p o r t by E u s e b i u s a l s o implies t h e o n l y m a j ö r r e a r r a n g e m e n t o f provinccs in the N e a r E a s t w h i c h certainly t o o k place u n d e r the Tetrarehy. F o r h e d e s e r i b e s t h e m i n e s a t J ' h a e n o , v v h i c h lie t o t h e e a s t o f t h e W a d i A r a f c a h a n d t o t h e n o r t h o f P e t r a , a s b e i n g i n ' P a l e s t i n c ' . E q u a l l y , E u s e b i u s i n his Onomasticon

s o m e t i m e s cali s Petra a city ' o f A r a b i a ' (its traditional designa-

t i o n ) , a n d s o m e t i m e s a c i t y ' o f P a l e s t i n e ' . ' T h i s a n d l a t e r e v i d e n c e m a k e s it certain that under the Tetrarehy, p r o b a b l y in the 290S, the s o u t h e r n p a r t o f t h e R o m a n p r o v i n c e o f A r a b i a , ineluding the s o u t h e r n Negev, Sinai a n d the area east of the Wadi

Arabah,

from

Aila

north to roughly a

Üne

from

t h e s o u t h e r n tip o f the D e a d S e a eastvvard i n t o the s t e p p e , b e c a m e p a r t o f the province of Syria Palaestina. T h e c f f e c t — a n d quite possibly the i n t e n t i o n — vvas t o l e a v e in ' A r a b i a ' p a r t o f t h e R o m a n f o r c e s a l o n g t h e e d g e o f t h e s t e p p e z o t ı e , in p a r t i c u l a r t h e l e g i o n İ Ü C y r e n a i c a , s t i l i a t B o s t r a , attd t h e I V M a r t i a a t B e t h o r u m , a l m o s t c e r t a i n l y L c j j u n . B u t U d r u h , i f it vvas a l c g i o n a r y b a s c , vvas novv in ' P a l a e s t i n a ' , a s v v a s t h e l e g i o n X F r e t e n s i s , novv m o v e d f o r v v a r d f r o m A e l i a ( J e r u s a l e m ) t o A i l a o n t h e G u l f o f A q a b a . T h e t r a n s f e r o f this l e g i o n t h u s t o o k p l a c c vvithin t h e novv m u c h - c n l a r g c d p r o v i n c c ( u s u a l l y c a l . c d j u s t P a l a e s t i n a in t h e f o u r t h c e n t u r y ) ; a n d t h e f o r c e s s t a t i o n e d a l o n g

the

s t e p p e z o n e vvill h a v e b e e n d i v i d e d r o u g h l y i n h a l f ( o r i n e q u a l t h i r d s , i f vve t h i n k a l s o o f t h o s e a l o n g t h e S t r a t a D i o c l c t i a ı ı a in S y r i a P h o e n i c e ) ; o r f o u r r o u g h l y e q u a l s e g m e n t s , if vve i n e l u d e t h e tvvo l e g i o n s vvhich t h e

into Notılia

records at S u r a and O r e s a , in the p r o v i n c e o f Syria C o e l e . T h i s transfer o f a large territory represents the only certain r e a r r a n g e m e n t o f p r o v i n c c s m a d e a t t h i s t i m e . T h e r e i s n o d o c u m e n t a r y e v i d e n c e f r o m this p e r i o d for a p r o v i n c e c a l l e d A u g u s t a L i b a n c n s i s (later t o be d e t a c h e d

from

P h o e n i c e ) o r for a ' E u p h r a t e ı ı s i s ' a l o n g the river a n d c m b r a c i n g C o m m a g e n e , o r p a r t o f i t . 1 0 A s f o r t h e t e r r i t o r y a c r o s s t h e E u p h r a t e s , vve d o n o t eveıı k n o v v v v h e t h e r t h e r e vvas novv o n l y o n e p r o v i n c e , M e s o p o t a m i a , o r a l s o a n o t h e r , O s r h o e n e . W h c n there are c o n t e m p o r a r y d o c u m e n t s , they s o m e t i m e s rrnke c o n f u s i o n vvorse. T h u s a p a p y r u s r e v e a l s a m a n c a l l i n g h i m s e l f ' A u r e l i u s M a l c h u s f r o m t h e c o n f i n e s o f E l e u t h e r o p o l i s o f t h e N e v v A r a b i a ' , vvho p r e s e m e d a p e t i t i o n t o a g o v e r n o r in E g y p t i n a b o u t 3 1 4 - 3 1 8 . T h e p l a c e m u s t b e ıhe c i t y o f E l e u t h e r o p o l i s in I d u m a c a , s o u t h - v v e s t o f J e r u s a l e m , a n d ( u n t i l novv a t l e a s t ) p a r t o f S y r i a P a l a c s d n a . T h e i d e a t h a t vvhile m u c h o f ' A r a b i a ' b e c a m e part of 'Palaestina', part of 'Palaestina' forıned a short-lived province called 8. Rusebius, MP 1 3 , 1 - 3 . On ehe mines see belovv. 9 . E u s e b i u s , Onom.,

ed. K l o s t e r m a n n , 3 6 , 1 3 ; 1 1 2 , 8; 1 4 4 , 7 (stili listed as o f ' A r a b i a ' ) . F o r

Aila a n d X Fretensis sec a b o v e . See Y. T s a f r i ç " T h e T r a n s f e r o f t h e N e g e v , Sinai a n d S o u c l e r r ı T r a n s j o r d a n f r o m Arabia

t o Palaestifia",

IEJ 3 6 ( 1 9 8 6 ) , 7 .

1 0 . F o r t h e s e issues see T . D . Barnes, The (1982), 223-224.

New

Empire

of

Diocletian

and

Constantine

'Nevv A r a b i a ' s e e m s o d d e v e n f o r a n inventive period like t h e T e t r a r c h y . B u t n o better s o l u t i o n h a s b e e n p r o p o s e d , a n d t h e q u c s t i o n m u s t b c left ö p e n . 1 1 W I ı a t is c a l l e d h e r e t h e N e a r E a s t vvill c e r t a i n l y h a v e been in the 290S p a r t o f o n e o f tvvclve vvholly nevv g r o u p i n g s o f p r o v i n c e s knovvn a s diocescs. T h e o n c in q u e s t i o n vvas c a l l e d O r i c n s , b u t e m b o d i e d a m u c h vvider a r c a t h a n ' t h e N e a r E a s t ' in this s e n s e , n a m e l y t h e vvhole region f r o m soutlı-eastern A n a t o l i a r o u n d t h r o u g h Egypt t o L i b y a . A s these ' d i o c e s e s ' e m e r g e i n t o t h e light in t h e c o u r s e o f the f o u r t h century, t h e y a p p e a r a s r e g i o n s e a c h vvith their ovvn c i v i l ian g o v e r n o r , vvith largely j u d i c i a l funetions, n o r m a l l y called the

Vicarins

( m e a n i n g a d e p u t y o f the P r a e t o r i a n Prefects), a n d vvith their ovvn

financial

officials. But t h e r e is 110 e v i d e n c e t o shovv hovv this s u p e r s t r u e t u r e a f f e c t e d the p r o v i n c c s o f the N e a r E a s t in t h e T e t r a r c h i c p e r i o d . I n a n y c a s e t h e a l m o s t continuous

presence there

of

an Augustus

or a

Caesar

vvas far

more

significant. T h a t is n o t t o s a y t h a t t h e vvcight a n d a u t h o r i t y o f t h e Imperial s t a t e vvas n o t felt a s s u c h , o r t h a t being p a r t o f it vvas simply an u n e h a n g i n g a n d a c c e p t e d framevvork f o r o r d i n a r y life. O n t h e c o n t r a r y , t h e m o s t detailed a n d localised o f p o s s i b l e e v i d e n c e shovvs t h a t the d e m a n d s a n d d e c i s i o n s o f t h e s t a t e in this p r c c i s c period p e n e t r a t e d i n t o the m o s t r e m o t e o f c o u n t r y d i s tricts. T h e e v i d e n c e that vve h a v e s e e m s t o b e a refleetion o f the f u n d a ı n c n t a l r e f o r m o f t a x a t i o t ı vvhich D i o c l e t i a n a n d M a x i m i a n p r o c l a i m e d in 2 9 7 . W e knovv it best f r o m the edict vvhich the P r e f e c t o f Egypt issued in t h a t y e a r : O u r most provident E m p e r o r s , the eternal(?) Diocletian and M a x i m i a n , Augusti, a n d Coııstantius a n d M a x i m i a n , m o s t noble Cacsars, having lcarncd that it has c o m c a h o u t rhat the levies o f the public taxes are being made haphazardly, so that s o m e persons are let off lightly and others overburdened, have decided t o r o o t o u t this m o s t cvil a n d baneful practice for the benent o f their provincials and t o issue a deliverance-bringing rule t o vvhich the taxes shall c o n f o r m . Accordingly, the levy on each aroura according t o classificadon o f the land, and the levy on each hcad o f the peasantry, and from vvhich age t o vvhich, may be accurately(?) knovvn t o ali from the lrecently| issued divine (i.e., Imperial) edict and the sehedule a n nexed thereto, copies of vvhich I have prefaccd for promulgation vvith this edict o f mine. Accordingly, secing that in this, t o o , they have received the greatest bencfacrion, the provincials should make it their business in conformity vvith the divinely issued regulations t o pay their t a x c s vvith ali speed and by n o means vvait f o r the compulsion o f the collector; for it is proper t o fulfil most zcalously and scrupulously ali the royal obligations, and if anyone should be revcaled t o have done othenvise after such 1 1 . See Pl>. M a y c r s o ı ı , "P. O x y . 3 5 7 4 : " E l c u t h c r o p o l i s o f ı h e N c w A r a b i a ' " , ZPE

53

b o u n t y , h c wi.ll r i s k p u n i s h m c n t . T h e m a g i s t r a t e s a n d c o u n c i l p r e s i d e n t s o f every city have been o r d e r e d t o send o u t t o every village and

every

locality a c o p y o f the divine edici t o g e t h e r w i t h t h e schedule, a n d a l s o o f t h i s ( e d i c t ) as vvell, in t h e i n t e r e s t o f h a v i n g t h e m u n i f î c e n c e o f o u r E m p e r ors and C a e s a r s c o m e speediiy t o the knovvledge of ali.12 W h e t h e r t h e p o p u l a t i o n o f t h e E m p i r e r e a l l y s h a r e d t h e vievv t h a t t h e p r o posal to t a x them and their property more cfficicntly represented an a c t of m u n i f î c e n c e (megalodöria)

o n the part o f the E m p e r o r s m a y be d o u b t e d . N o r

d o e s t h e c o m p l e x e v i d e n e e o n l a t e - R o m a n t a x a t i o n r e a l l y allovv u s t o g o m u c h b e y o n d vvhat i s i m p l i c d h e r e : t h a t t h e nevv s y s t e m v v o u l d r e l a t e b o t h t o e a c h h e a d o f p o p u l a t i o n a n d t o e a c h item o f agricultural p r o p e r t y 'in a c c o r d a n : e vvith t h e c h a r a c t e r o f t h e l a n d ' . W h a t t h i s m e a n t vvas t h a t d i f f e r e n t t y p c s o f lârtd, f r û m v i n e y a r d s t ö p â S t u r c - I â ı l d , v v ö u l d b e â s s i g n e d d i f f e r e n t t a x a t i o n v a l u e s . A s it h a p p e n s , t h e o n l y r e l a t i v e l y c l e a r e x p l a n a t i o n o f hovv t h i s c a l c u l a t i o n vvas m a d e c o m e s f r o m a t e x t p r e s e r v e d i n S y r i a c ; v v h e t h e r t h a t i m p l i e s t h a t t h e s y s t e m v v h i c h it d e s e r i b e s vvas b a s e d o n p r a c t i c c i n t h e S y r i a n r e g i o n ( o r , m o r e p r e c i s c l y , M e s o p o t a m i a ) is n o t c l e a r . A t a n y r a t e t h i s t e x t , p a r t o f the so-called S y r o - R o m a n

L a v v B o o k , c o m p o s e d in G r e e k i n t h e l a t e r

fifth

c e n t u r y a n d a p p a r c n t l y t r a n s l a t e d very s o o n into Syriac, ineludes t h e only a v a i l a b l e d e s e r i p t i o n o f hovv d i f f e r e n t c a t c g o r i c s o f l a n d vvere t o b e a s s e s s e d and then calculated in t e r m s o f a c o m m o n (hcncc the Latin term for this process, T h e iugum

l i s h c d a s i iugum;

vvhich m a k e J.Q plethra,

zo iugera

o f 1 iugum

ot v i n e y a r d vvere e s t a b -

o f s e e d l a n d , vvhich m a k c 4 0 plethra,

provide

. . . S o , t o o , l a n d vvhich is o f p o o r e r q u a l i t y a n d i s

r e c k o n e d a s s e c o n d q u a l i t y : 4 0 iugera, gum;

iugum

vvas m e a s u r e d i n t h e d a y s o f t h e E m p e r o r D i o c l e t i a n a n d b e -

c a t n e fixed. F i v e iugera, antıonas

land-taxation unit, the

iugatio):

vvhich m a k e 8 0 plethra,

p a y 1 iu-

i f , hovvevcr, it is r e c k o n e d o r a s s e s s e d a s t h i r d q u a l i t y , 6 0

m a k i n g 1 2 0 plethra,

provide 1

iugera,

iugum.11

A n y s y s t e m o f l a n d - t a x a t i o n o u g h t in p r i n c i p l c t o h a v e b e e n b a s e d

on

u n a m b i g u o u s i n f o r m a t i o n a s t o t h e o v v n e r s h i p o f t h e l a n d i n q u e s t i o n a n d the b o u n d a r i e s b e t v v e e n d i f f e r e n t p r o p e r t i e s o r d i f f e r e n t c o m m u n i t i e s . T h e r e is a b u n d a n t e v i d e n e e t h r o u g h t h e N e a r E a s t t o shovv t h a t a p a r t i c u l a r e f f o r t w a s 1 2 . A . E . R . B o a k a n d H . C . Y o u t i c , The Archive

of Aurelius

no. 1 , ıraas. N. Leıvis and M . Reinhold, Roman Civilisation'

Optatus

İP. Cair. Isidor.)

(lyfo),

II (1990), 4 1 9 .

13. For the 'Syro-Roman La\v B o o k ' see, e.g., A. Baumstark, Gescbichte der syrisehe» Literatür (1922), 83. T h e translation is raken from N. l.cvvis and M . Reinhold, Roman Citrilisation* II (1990), 4 2 0 , wiıh cxtensive revisions very kindly providcd by Scbastian Brock, using revbed texcs published by E. Sachau, Syrisehe Rechtsbücher I ( 1 9 0 7 ) , and by A. Vööbus, "The SyroRoman Law B o o k " , Papers Est. Theol. Soc. in Exile 36 (1982), 39.

m a d e b y the s t a t e in t h e T e t r a r c h i c period t o clarify these q u e s t i o ı ı s a n d r e c o r d t h e results o n i n s e r i p t i o n s e r e e t e d in situ. T h i s o p e r a t i o n m a y vvell h a v e been c o n d u c t e d t h r o u g h o u t t h e vvhole r e g i o n . B u t t h e surviving r e c o r d s vvhich vve h a p p e n t o have c o m e m a i n l y f r o m tvvo a r e a s : f r o m the villages o f t h e l i m e s t o n e m a s s i f betvveen A n t i o c h a n d B e r o e a , a n d f r o m a vvide z o n e f r o m G a l i l e e a c r o s s t h e G o l a n heights ( G a u l a n i t i s ) t o t h e H a u r a n a n d the nevv city o f M a x i m i a n o p o l i s , a n d a s far s o u t h a s S o u e d i a s . It thus involved a t least f o u r p r o v inces: Syria ( C o e l e ) , P a l a e s t i n a , P h o e n i c e a n d A r a b i a . M a n y o f the i n s e r i p t i o n s a r e f r a g m e n t a r y , a n d m o s t i n v o l v e c o m p l e x p r o b l e m s o f t o p o g r a p h y a n d l o c a l n o m e n c l a t u r c . It vvill b e sufficicnt here t o g i v e a fevv e x a m p l e s (a c o m p l e t e c a t a l o g u c is provided l a t e r ) . H M o s t a r e d a t e d m e r e l y b y t h e T e t r a r c h s o f 2 9 3 t o 3 0 5 . B u t t h o s e vvith m o r e precise d a t e s shovv t h a t t h e o p e r a t i o n vvas i n d e e d c o n d u c t e d a t t h e s a m e m o m e n t , 2 9 6 / 2 9 7 , vvhen D i o c i c t i a n a n d M a x i m i a n vvere a n n o u n c i n g their nevv t a x a t i o n - s y s t e m . O n e s u c h t e x t c o m e s f r o m n e a r t h e f a m o u s C h r i s t i a n shrine o f Q a l a a t S e m a n in t h e l i m e s t o n e massif: F o r the safety a n d victory o f o u r Lords Diocletianus and M a x i m i a n u s , the and Constantius a n d M a x i m i a n u s , the most n o b l c

Augusti,

Caesares,

there vvere established the boundaries [of the village) o f the Kaprokeroi, under the supervisiotı of Iulius Sabiııus the most distinguished

(lampro-

(year 3 4 5 , P a n c m o s 8). 1 J

tatos) kensitör

T h e e r a is t h a t o f the city o f A n t i o c h , a n d the y e a r is 2 9 6 / 2 9 7 . I n s c r i p t i o n s refleeting t h e s a m e o p e r a t i o n further s o u t h tend t o a d o p t a different f o r m u l a . T h u s , for e x a m p l e , o n e f o u n d n o r t h o f t h e S e a o f G a l i l e e r e a d s as follovvs: Diocletianus and M a x i m i a n u s , the Augusti, imianus [the Caesares],

(and) Constantius and M a x -

o r d e r c d (this) s t o n e t o be set up, marking the

boundary o f the fields o f the village o f Dera and (those of) Ö s e a , uııder the supervision o f Aelius Statilius the

perfeetissimus.'6

T h e s a m e f o r m u l a is used in a nevvly p u b l i s h e d i n s e r i p t i o n f r o m the s o u t h e r n G o l a n , giving the b o u n d a r i e s o f the köme

o f K a p a r H a r i b o s . 1 7 It a p p e a r s a l s o

1 4 . F o r s u r v c y s o f t h e e v i d e n c e t h e n a v a i l a b l e s c c A . D c l c a g e , l a capitation (1945), I

5

z - I

57î

a

novv k n o v v n s c c A p p

' s o W. Scston,

Diocletien

et la tetrarchic

1

(1946),

374.

t f o r J u d a e a b u t f o r t h e s t ı r r o ı ı n d i n g a r e a a n d even f o r places like A n t i o c h — o r even a b r i c f glimpse o f P a l m y r a — t h e r e is n o c o m p a r a b l e vicvv f r o m any c o n t e m p o r a r y living in the s e c o n d , third o r f o u r t h century. T h e n c a r e s t p a r a l Icl is p r o v i d e d by the vvorks o f E u s e b i u s o f C a e s a r e a . N o r d o vve h a v e any c o n t i n u o u s history o f a n y o n e city until vve c o m e t o t h e Cbronicle

of John

M a l a l a s , vvritten in t h e s i x t h c e n t u r y ; in i n t e n t i o n a Christian vvorld c h r o n içle, it n o n e t h e l e s s c o m e s e l o s e t o b e i n g a history o f his native A n t i o c h . Y e t its a c c o ı ı n t o f this p e r i o d , vvhich c e r t a i n l y c o n t a i n s a m a s s o f v a l u a b l e i n f o r m a t i o n , is a l s o riddlcd vvith m i s c o n c c p t i o n s , a b o v e ali a b o u t t h e r e l a t i o n o f the city t o the R o m a n state a n d t h e E m p e r o r . A n y a t t e m p t t o grasp t h e n a tu re o f c u l t u r e a n d social f o r m a t i o n s in the r e g i o n has t o d e p e n d largely on r e p r e s e n t a t i o n s by c o n t e m p o r a r i e s , vvhctlıer in l i t e r a t ü r e (and if s o vvhether by o u t s i d e o b s e r v e r s o r b y insiders), in f o r m a l p u b l i c d o c u m c n t s s u c h a s i n s e r i p t i o n s a n d c o i n s (the m o s t d e l i b e r a t e o f ali s y m b o l s o f p u b l i c identity), i n perishable d o c u m e n t s (of vvhich the n u m b e r d i s c o v e r e d is novv r a p i d l y i n e r e a s i n g ) o r a s e m b o d i e d in buildings a n d a r t e f a c t s . It is useless t o coıııplain o f t h e o b v i o u s i n a d c q u a c y o f t h e e v i d e n c e availa b l c . F o r it lies in the n a t u r e o f o u r a c c e s s t o the p a s t (as indeed t o t h e p r e s e n t ) t h a t it is vvholly d e p e n d e n t o n the m e a n s o f i n f o r m a t i o n vvhich h a p p e n to be a v a i l a b l e . Pessimism is in a n y c a s e u n j u s t i f i e d . For, first, t h e e v i d e n c c , t h o u g h grossly i n a d c q u a t e , is n o n e t h e l e s s v e r y c x t e n s i v e in t o t a l v o l u m e . S e c o n d , a vast r a n g e o f e v i d e n c e s e c u r c l y l o c a t e d in s p a c e a n d t i m e is a v a i l a b l e t o us. It c a n chus b e set, vvith ali due c a u t i o n , a g a i n s t the varied a n d impressivc l a n d s c a p c s o f the r e g i o n . I lovvcvcr d e p e n d e n t vve a r e on the a c c i d e n t s o f t h e ' e p i g r a p h i c h a b i t ' , on the interests o f o u r literary s o u r c e s a n d o n t h e f u r t h e r h a z a r d s c f m o d e r n discovery a n d e x c a v a t i o n , it is stili p o s s i b l e b o t h t o c o m p a r e the vario u s s u b - r e g i o n s vvith e a c h o t h e r a n d t o see hovv t h e visible a n d surviving m a n i f e s t a t i o n s o f the c u l t u r e o f e a c h c h a n g e ö v e r time. O f c o u r s e vve c a n n o t alW3ys distinguish betvveen a c h a n g e o f interest in o u r s o u r c e s a n d a real c h a n g e in s o c i e t y a n d c u l t u r e . F o r i n s t a n c e , b i o g r a p h i c a l p o r t r a i t s o f f o u r t h - c e n t u r y C h r i s t i a n h e r m i t s i m m e d i a t e l y t a k e us dovvn t o s o c i a l levels, a n d t o g e o g r a p h ical c o n t e x t s in t h e c o u n t r y s i d e a n d the s t e p p e , vvhich earlı'er literatüre hardly t o u c h e s . W e vvill n o t alvvays b e a b l e t o teli vvhether the s o c i a l p a t t e r n s revealed vvere nevv o r are o n l y novv revealed t o us. H a d there, f o r i n s t a n c e , alvvays been ' S a r a c c n s ' in the Negev, a n d thus vvell vvithin the ' f r o n t i e r ' o f t h e E m p i r e

as it a p p e a r s o n tlıc m a p ? O r h a d the process of 'beduinisation', vvhich Werrıer C a s k e l suggested t o o k place d u r i n g the Imperial period in A r a b i a proper, bey o n d the frontier, 1 6 been m a t c h e d b y a grovvth o f n o m a d i s m vvithin? W e c a n say only that they are visibly present, in a vvay not paralleled before, in the pages o f Jerome's Life o f the h e r m i t H i l a r i o n . 1 7 A t ali events vvc c a n n o t d e n y the significatıce o f the ascetic m o v e m e n t itself, vvhich b e g a n in the first fevv decades of the fourth ccntury a n d represented a revolution in C h r i s t i a n values. "I*he hermits, by the nature o f the symbolic postures vvhich they a d o p t e d , vvere to be f o u n d by the faithful out o n the fringcs o f settled and c u l t i v a t e d land, o n m o u n t a i n s o r o n the e d g e o f tlıc steppe. 1 8 T h u s T i ı e o d o r e t , in deseribing the career o f a hermit of the early fourth ccntury n a m e d Julianus, begins by deseribing the g e o g r a p h y of O s r h o e n e : 'in this p r o v i n c e there are m a n y large and lıeavily p o p u l a t e d cities, and a countryside vvhich is largely iııhabited, but also largely uninhabited and desert'; Julianus c h o s e the edge o f the desert. 1 9 It is o f t e n just such a narrative of the establishment of a lıermit vvhich itself reveals the existcncc o f the large villages vvhich vvere charactcristic o f the vvhole region, and in s o m e cases the significance of the rural cult-centres located near them. For instance, further o n in his a c c o u n t of the hermits o f Syria, T i ı e o d o r e t deseribes ho\v Asterius, a yourıg man of g o o d

family,

f o u n d e d vvhat vvas t o b e c o m c a monastery 'in the countryside round G i n d a r u s — t h i s is a very large v i l l a g e (köme)

placed under the control o f A n t i -

och'. 2 0 T h e place, m o d e r n G e n d e r e s s e , sitııated near the river A f r i n , vvas p r o b ably in origin an early I Icllcnistic scttlcment; but its o n l y carlicr significant mention in our sources c o m e s f r o m Strabo, reflccting the unsettled c o n d i t i o n of the first century BC: to h i m G i n d a r u s vvas a polis, the aeropolis o f the district callcd Cyrrhestice and a n a t u r a l stronghold for robbers. 2 1 T h e large scttlcment (polis o r köme?)

o f G i n d a r u s had thus alvvays been there. T h e c o m -

plete silence a b o u t it is b r o k e n o n l y thanks to the litcrary record of the tvvo great historic changes vvhich m a r k the liıııits of the period studicd here: the

1 6 . Scc W. C a s k e l , " T h e B c d u i n i z a t i o n of A r a b i a " , in W. E. v o n G r ü n c b a u m (cd.), in Islarnic

Csıllural

History

Studies

( 1 9 5 4 ) , 3 f>.

1 7 . J c r o m c , Vita Hilarionis

16 (Vite

dei Santi,

c d . C . M o h r m a n n , IV, 1 9 7 5 ) . Scc 1 0 . 4 a n d

11.4 below. 1 8 . O n t h i s s e c P. B r o w n , " T h e R i s c a n d F u n e t i o n o f t h e I l o l y M a n in L a t e A n t i q u i t y H , 6 1 ( 1 9 7 1 ) , 80, a n d Assimilation in Society

u

et resistance

a ta culture greco-romaine

and the Holy in luite

1 9 . T T ı e o d o r e t , Philotheos

Antiquity Historia

Ttâv Ttıç E p f j ı u u KataXap«ûv. 2 0 . T h c o d o r c t II, 9. 2 » . S t r a b o , Gcog.

JRS

T o w n , V i l l a g e a n d I l o l y M a n : T h e c a s c o f S y r i a " , i n D . M . P i p p i d i (cd-J,

X V I , 2, 8 ( 7 5 1 ) .

dans le mondeancien

(1976),

both reprinted

(1982), r 0 3 - 1 6 5 . II, 1—z. T h e l a n g u a g c u s e d is q u i t e p r c c i s c : u r i r n ı ç

ixr/u-

R o m a n impositioıı o f o r d e r o v e r a large p a r t o f t h e w o r l d as k n o w n t o S t r a b o , a n d the beginnings o f t h e m o n a s t i c m o v e m e n t . It is o n l y the l a t t e r vvhich t a k e s u s e l o s e t o t h e rural vvorld o f the N e a r E a s t . T h c o d o r e t again p r o v i d e s vvhat is p e r h a p s o u r o n l y p i c t u r c o f a rural s a n e t u a r y in the t e r r i t o r y o f t h e littlc tovvn o f G a b a l a , vvhich lay o n t h e c o a s t s o m e 3 0 k m south o f L a o d i c e a . S o m e 7 k m f r o m the tovvn vvas a s h r i n e f o r t h e vvorship o f 4 d e m o n s \ vvhom the c o u n t r y - p e o p l c h a d t o a p p e a s e vvith c o n s t a n t sacrifices t o a v o i d h a r m : o t h e m s e l v e s , their asses, m u l e s , c a t t l e , sheep a n d c a m e l s . A h e r m i t n a m e d T h a lelaios then t o o k up his s t a t i o n e x a c t l y t h e r e , nullified the povvcr o f d e m o n s a n d vvas later a s s i s t e d in destroying the temenos

the

a n d s u b s t i t u t i n g for

it a s h r i n e t o s o m e C h r i s t i a n m a r t y r s . 2 2 Hovvever m a n y isolated i n s i g h t s into the life o f t h e r e g i o n vve m a y b e a b l e t o a c c u m u l a t e , vve vvill n o t n e c e s s a r i l y be able t o c o n s t r u c t o u t o f them any m e a n i n g f u l history. M o r c o v e r , it h a s a l r e a d y been c o n c c d e d t h a t a true s o c i a l a n d e c o n o m i c h i s t o r y o f the r e g i o n is stili vvholly o u t o f r e a c h . But a t a differe n t level t h r e e lines o f a p p r o a c h a r e f c a s i b l e . O n e h a s a l r e a d y been e x p l o i t c d : t o survey t h e p r o g r e s s i v c s t a g e s b y vvhich l a r g e p a r t s o f t h e N e a r E a s t c a m c u n d e r R o m a n direct rule, a n d t o r a i s c s o m e initial q u c s t i o n s a b o u t the n a t u r c o f the R o m a n i m p a c t on t h e m . S e c o n d , t h e r e is t h e q u e s t i o n vvhich ı h e s t o r y o f the i m p o s i t i o n o f R o m a n r u l e itself serves t o raise: the n a t u r e o f t h e differe n t political f o r m a t i o n s a n d s o c i a l g r o u p i n g s vvhich t h e R o m a n s e n c o u n t e r e d . F o r i n s t a n c e , the political m a p o f t h e N e a r E a s t under A u g u s t u s vvas d o m i n a t e d by k i n g d o m s . But b y t h e e a r l y s e c o n d c e n t u r y ali t h o s e vvest o f the E u p h r a t e s h a d d i s a p p c a r c d . W h a t vvas t h e significance o f t h a t dis a p p e a ra nce, a n d did the k i n g d o m s leavc n o legacy b e h i n d t h e m , in t e r m s o f m o n u m e n t s , o f t r a d i t i o n s o r o f g r o u p i d e n t i t i c s o r loyalties vvhich m i g h t b e c a p a b l e o f r e a c t i v a t i o n ? I f , a s seems c l e a r , they left very littlc t r a c e , vvhy vvas t h a t s o , ar.d vvhat o t h e r f o r m s o f c o m m u n a l o r p c r s o n a l i d e n t i t y vvere m o r e s i g n i f i c a n t ? T h i r d , even o u r f r a g m e n t a r y a n d e r r a t i c e v i d e n c e c a n yield s o m e m e a n i n g , o r p o t e n t i a l m e a n i n g , vvhen d i f f e r e n t s u b - r e g i o n s a r e c o m p a r e d . T a k e f o r ins t a n c e t h e linguisric history, o r r a t h e r h i s t o r i e s , o f the r e g i o n , i n v o l v i n g the c o m p l c x i n t e r p l a y o f G r e e k , L a t i n a n d a series o f S e m i t i c languages. As elssvvhere, G r e e k vvords vvere r e a d i l y t r a n s l i t e r a t e d a n d a b s o r b c d i n t o L a t i n , a n d L a t i n into G r c c k . But in tlıc N e a r E a s t vve c a n see hovv L a t i n vvords c o u l d pass t h r o u g h G r e e k t o b c a b s o r b e d by t r a n s l i t e r a t i o n i n t o S e m i t i c l a n g u a g e s . S o centurio

c o u l d b e c o m e kenturiötı

in G r c c k , a s in the Nevv T e s t a m e n t

(for i n s t a n c e in M k 1 5 , 3 9 ) , a n d then Q T R Y N ' o r Q T R Y W N ' in Palmyrer.e a n d Q N T R Y N ' in N a b a t a e a n ; " colonia

c o u l d b e c o m e kolöneia

in Greelc,

22. T h e o d o r e t X X V I I I , 1 - 5 . 2 3 . P a l m y r e n e : M . G . Bcrriuelli A n g c l i , Nomenclalıııa semitiche

pubblica

e saca

di Roma nelle

( 1 9 7 0 ) , 1 0 6 ; N a b a t a e a n : CAS I I . 1 , n o . 2 1 7 , c f . B o w e r s o c k , Roman

Aıabia,

57.

epigrafi

and

QLNY*

or

QLWNY'

in

Hebrevv, Jevvish A r a m a i c ,

Palmyrene

and

Syriac.24 T h e i n t e r p l a y o f l a n g u a g e s c a n a l s o b c vicvvcd f r o m q u i t e d i f f e r e n t p e r s p e c t i v e s . O n e m a j o r q u e s t i o n i s vvhether t h e o r a l use o f a t l e a s t o n e S e m i t i c l a n g u a g e vvas in f a c t c h a r a c t e r i s r i c o f ali t h e s ı ı b - r e g i o n s o f t h e N e a r E a s t vvithout e x c e p t i o n . In m o s t a r e a s it is b e y o n d d o u b t . B u t s o m e q u e s t i o n m u s t p e r s i s t a s r e g a r d s C o m m a g e n e , f r o m G c r m a n i c i a in the vvest t o the E u p h r a t e s in t h e e a s t , a n d o v e r the n o r t h - S y r i a n t e t r a p o l i s , vvith t h e m a j o r e a r l y H e l l e nistic f o u n d a t i o n s o f A n t i o c h , S e l e u c i a , L a o d i c e a a n d A p a m e a . W h a t is c e r t a i n at l e a s t is t h a t t h e s e tvvo a r e a s h a v e n o t s o f a r p r o d u c e d any c x a m p l e s o f formal public inseriptions (for instance, conımunal decrees, s t a t u e - b a s e s , d e d i c a t i o n s o r e p i t a p h s ) in a S e m i t i c l a n g u a g e . T h i s f a c t m i g h t b e r e g a r d e d as i n s i g n i f i c a n t (a m e r e p r o d u e t o f a c o n v e n t i o n a l a s s o c i a t i o n o f G r e e k vvith t h e c p i g r a p h i c h a b i t ) , if it vvere n o t f o r the p r e s e n c e o f such i n s e r i p t i o n s in ali the o t h e r a r e a s ; n o t a b l y in t h e t e r r i t o r y o f P a l m y r a , vvhich d i r e c t l y b o r d e r e d o n t h a t o f A p a m e a . If vve c a n n o t dravv a m a p o f the d i s t r i b u t i o n o f s p o k e n l a n g u a g e s , vve c e r t a i n l y c a n dravv p r o v i s i o n a l m a p s o f the d i s r r i b u t i o n o f l a n g u a g e s as i n s e r i b e d . A n y s u c h m a p vvould b e a c o m p l e x o n e , f o r it vvould h a v e t o allovv f o r t h e c o - e x i s t e n c e o f i n s e r i p t i o n s in d i f f e r e n t l a n g u a g e s — f o r e x a m p ! e , G r e e k a n d L a t i n , e s p e c i a l l y in B e r y t u s a n d H e l i o p o l i s , o r G r e e k a n d o n e o r m o r e S e m i t i c l a n g u a g e s (as f o r i n s t a n c e in t h e o s s u a r y - i n s e r i p t i o n s f r o m J u d a e a ) . B u t i t vvould a l s o h a v e t o r e f l e c t a d i f f e r e n t p h e n o m e n o n , s y s t e m a t i c i n s c r i p t i o n a l b i l i n g u a l i s m , e s p e c i a l l y in P a l m y r a , vvhere a l a r g c p r o p o r t i o n o f t h e i n s e r i p t i o n s a r e in b o t h G r e e k a n d P a l m y r e n e . A fevv P a l m y r e n e i n s e r i p t i o n s a r e e v e n t r i l i n g u a l , in G r e e k , P a l m y r e n e a n d L a t i n . T h e s m a l l but grovving n u m b e r o f a r c l ı i v e s p r e s e r v e d o n p e r i s h a b l e m a t e r ı als ( p a p y r u s o r p a r e h m e n t ) c a n n o t o f c o u r s c y e t yicld r c s u l t s vvhich c a n b e p l o t t e d o n a l i n g u i s t i c m a p . B u t t h e y d o shovv t h a t G r e e k a n d S y r i a c c o u l d b o t h b e u s e d vvithin t h e s a m e a r e h i v e ; t h a t a s i n g l e a r e h i v e ( t h a t o f B a b a t h a , c o v c r i n g the y e a r s f r o m the 90S t o t h e 1 3 0 S ) c o u l d c o n t a i n d o c u m c n t s in N a b a t a e a n , A r a m a i c a n d G r e e k ; a n d t h a t vvitnesses t o d o c u m e n t s in G r e e k c o u l d a d d their n a m e s in N a b a t a e a n o r A r a m a i c o r S y r i a c . In t h e c a s e o f B a b a t h a vve a r e a t a n i m p o r t a n t m o m e n t o f t r a n s i t i o n , f o r t h e a r e h i v e c o v e r s the last d e c a d e s o f the k i n g d o m o f N a b a t a e a a n d the

first

t h r e e d e c a d e s o f the R o m a n p r o v i n c e o f A r a b i a . T h e r e is a c l e a r p r o g r e s s i o n , f r o m N a b a t a e a n u n d e r the k i n g d o m t o A r a m a i c a n d t h e n ( f o r t h e m a i n t e x t o f e a c h d o c u m e n t ) G r e e k in t h e p r o v i n c i a l p e r i o d . P r e c i s e l y o n e o f the m o r e i m p o r t a n t q u e s t i o n s c o n c e r n s p r o g r e s s i o n in t i m e : did R o m a n r u l e t e n d t o d e p r e s s ( o r in c e r t a i n a r e a s f o r b i d ? ) t h e p u b l i c o r official use o f S e m i t i c l a n 2 4 . M i l l a r , " R o m a n Coloniae",

passim.

g u a g e s ? O f d o e s t h a t q u e s t i o t ı itself e m b o d y a n a c h f ö H i s t i c a s s u m p t i o n s a b û u t the n a t u r e a n d a m b i t i o n s o f the state? B u t h e r e a g a i n c o m p a r i s o n s betvveen r e g i o n s a n d a c r o s s t i m e vvill b c suggestivc. Any results o f s u c h a c o m p a r i s o n m u s t , hovvever, be t e n t a t i v c . F o r , first, vve m u s t allovv f o r t h e p r e s c n c e o f o r a l b i l i n g u a l i s m ; that is, t h e use o f d i f f e r e n t l a n g u a g e s in different c o n t e x t s a n d t o different i n t c r l o c u t o r s . S u c h a pattern is p e r f e c t l y c x c m p l i f i e d i n A c t s , vvhen P a u l , a f t e r s p e a k i n g t o t h e R o m a n t r i b ü n e in G r e e k , is r e p r e s e n t e d as t u r n i n g t o address the crovvd 'in t h e Hebrais dialektos\25

It is o ı ı l y u n f o r t u n a t e t h a t vve c a n n o t b c c e r t a i n vvhether

L u k c m c a n s t o r e p r e s e n t h i m as s p e a k i n g in H c b r e v v o r in A r a m a i c { o r even vvhether he vvas fully avvare o f the difference). S e c o n d , a n d m o r e i m p o r t a n t , it r e m a i n s t o a s k vvhether the S e m i t i c lang u a g e s e m p l o y e d in t h c E a s t vvere either a n e c e s s a r y o r a sufficient c o n d i t i o n f o r t h e t r a n s m i s s i o n o f l o c a l c u l t u r e s o r o f distinetive, c o n s c i o u s c t h n i c identities. L a n g u a g e is o n l y o n e a s p e c t o f c u l t u r e . T h e r e a r e m a n y o t h e r q u e s t i o n s t o bc a s k e d a b o u t social a n d p o l i d c a l s t r u e t u r e s , a b o u t citics a n d villages a ı d a b o u t g o d s a n d t e m p l e s in t h e different r e g i o n s o f the N e a r E a s t . B u t h e r e a g a i n , if o u r s c a t t e r e d e v i d e n c e c a n be m a d e significant at a l i , it is o n l y by c o m p a r i s o n betvveen a r c a s . Such a survey a n d c o m p a r i s o n c a n h a r d l y fail t o e m p h a s i s e d i f f e r e n c e s . At t h e s a m e t i m e these d i f f e r e n c e s h a v e t o b e seeıı vvithin the c o n t e x t o f tvvo u n i f y i n g f a c t o r s . O n c is thc p r o g r e s s i v c i m p o s i r i o n o f R o m a n direct rule, milit a r y o c c u p a t i o n a n d t a x a t i o n . H e n c e the survey vvill t a k e t h e d i f f e r e n t subr e g i o n s in r o u g h l y the o r d e r in vvhich t h e y seem t o h a v e been a b s o r b e d into t h e p r o v i n e i a l s y s t e m . S e c o n d , hovvever s t r o n g t h e imprint o f a n y local c u l t u r e m a y h a v e b e e n , the d o m i n a n t f a c t o r is the a b s o r p t i o n o f the region vvithin the vvider G r e e k vvorld. P e r s o n s e d u c a t e d in t h e c o m m o n s t o c k o f G r e e k l i t e r a t ü r e a n d t r a d i t i o n , a n d vvriring in G r e e k , might c o m e from Pctra a n d B o s t r a , f r o m Emmaus/Nicopolis or Flavia Neapolis, f r o m Damascus, Emesa, Tyre, Apam e a , A n t i o c h , S a m o s a t a , C a r r h a e o r N i s i b i s . A n aetual m a p o f t h e o r i g i n s o f knovvn vvriters in G r e e k , vvhether p a g a n o r C h r i s t i a n , vvould o f c o u r s e b e an absurdity. B u t a t t h c level o f a vvider p o p u l a r c u l t u r e a m a p rcally c a n b c dravvn o f t h o s e places vvhich vvere the l o c a t i o n o f the n a m e d agotıes—musical,

recurrent

t h e a t r i c a l a n d a t h l c t i c c o n t e s t s — v v h i c h vvere s o i m p o r t a n t

a feature o f t h e c o m m u n a l l i f e o f G r e e k cities. O n c e again c o m p a r i s o n is significant: t h e y a r e a t t e s t e d a s f a r s o u t h a s G a z a a n d B o s t r a , b u t n o f u r t h e r ; a t D a m a s c u s b u t n o t a t P a l m y r a ; a n d up t o , b u t n o t a c r o s s , the E u p h r a t e s . In t h a t very r e s p e c t , t h e s t a t u s o f t h e p u b l i c c o n t e s t s p u t o n b y its cities, ali o f t h e N e a r E a s t c l e a r l y e n j o y e d n o m o r e t h a n a s e c o n d a r y r a n k vvithin t h c vvider G r e e k vvorld. By c o n t r a s t , hovvever, a s a p c r p e n ı a l m i l i t a r y o r f r o n t i e r z o n e

15. Acts 2 1 , 37-40.

vvithin t h e R o m a n E m p i r e , it vvas o p e n t o a n e x c e p t i o n a l d c g r c e o f R o m a n i s ing influence, f r o m the vvidespread c o n f e r m e n t o f the r a n k o f colonia

to the

p o p u l a r i t y o f g l a d i a t o r i a l a n d vvild-beast shovvs. T h e s o c i a l a n d c u l t u r a l h i s t o r y o f t h e N e a r E a s t in this period is n o s i m p l e m a t t e r o f a c o n f l i c t betvveen ' C l a s s i c a l ' a n d ' O r i e n t a l ' . The v a r i o u s local c u l tures c o u l d find e x p r e s s i o n in vvays vvhich vvere strikingly different o n e f r o m a n o t h e r . T h e m o s t v i g o r o u s ittıpulse t o u r b a n i s a t i o n a n d the c r e a t i o n a n d a d o r n m c n t o f G r e e k c i t i e s vvas t h a t d u c t o a king o f J u d a e a , a Jcvv by r c l i g i o n , the son o f a n I d u m a e a n f a t h e r a n d a N a b a t a e a n m o t h e r , vvho vvas a l s o a R o m a n citizen. W i t h i n a c e n t u r y , o r a t t h e m o s t tvvo c e n t u r i e s , o f H e r o d ' s d e a t h b o t h p a g a n G r e e k p h i l o s o p h i c a l ideas a n d C h r i s t i a n t h e o l o g y vvere t o ftnd c x p r c s s i o n in S y r i a c . B u t vvhatever m e t a p h o r vve use for t h e i n t e r p l a y o f c u l tures in this r e g i o n , every a s p e c t o f s o c i e t y a n d c u l t u r e vvas i n l l u e n c e d b o t h by G r e e k civilisation a n d by the progressive e x t e n s i o n o f R o m a n rule. W h e t ı vve h a v e c x a m i n e d the different s u b - r e g i o n s o f the N e a r E a s t in c o m p a r i s o n vvith e a c h other, it vvill be n e c e s s a r y t o ask vvhether t h e r e g i o n as a vvhole s h o u l d b e seetı as p a r t o f t h e ' O r i e n t ' o r as p a r t o f the vvider G r a e c o - R o m a n vvorld.

CHAPTER

7 THE THTRAPOUS AND N O R T H E R N SYRIA

7.1. T H E G E O G R A P H İ C A L T h e R o m a n provittcia

CONTEXT

o f S y r i a , as it \vas under Augustus, c o n s i s ı e d o f t h r e e

different r e g i o n s , o f vvhich o n e vvas a n e n c l a v e p h y s i c a l l y s e p a r a t e f r o m the o t h e r s . T h e first vvas n o r t h e r n S y r i a , s t r c t c h i n g a c r o s s f r o m the M e d i t e r r a n c a n c o a s t , a n d the tvvo p o r t s o f I . a o d i c e a a n d Seleucia, t h r o u g h A n t i o c h t o the E u p h r a t e s . T h e s e c o n d vvas t h e P h o e n i c i a n c o a s t , vvhich in its n o r t h e r n p a r t b a c k c d i n t o t h e m o u n t a i n - c h a i ı ı novv called t h e J c b c l A n s a r i y c h a n d in the s o u t h o n t o M o u n t I . e b a n o n a n d then t h e hills o f G a l i l e e . Provincial t e r r i t o r y s e e m s indeed t o h a v e e x t e n d e d s o u t h n o t o n l y t o P t o l e m a i s - A k k o but b e y o n d M o u n t C a r m e l t o t h e small tovvn o f D o r a . T h e n , i s o l a t e d b e y o n d A n t i - L e b a n o n vvas the a n c i e n t c i t y o f D a m a s c u s , a n d f u r t h e r s o u t h at least s o m e o f the c i t i e s o f t h e D e c a p o l i s . Ali these regior.s c o u l d b c c h a r a c t c r i s e d in g e n e r a l t e r m s a s a r e a s d o m i n a t c d b y G r e e k cities. B e i n g novv under R o m a n d i r e c t r u l e , they s t r o n g l y c o n t r a s t c d vvith t h e k i n g d o m s o f C o m m a g e n e t o the n o r t h a n d E m e s a on t h e upper O r o n t e s , v a r i o u s d y n a s t i e s vvhosc t e r r i t o r i e s vvere l o c a t e d on a n d a r o u n d M o u n t L e b a n o n and A n t i - L e b a n o n , t h e k i n g d o m o f H e r o d a n d the N a b a t a e a n k i n g d o m vvith its capital a t P e t r a . W h e t h e r t h e r e vvere m o r e p r o f o u n d c o n t r a s t s betvveen these different z o n e s , in l a n g u a g e , c u l t u r e o r e t h n i c identity, r e m a i n s t o be s e c n . As t h e m i l i t a r y e v o l u t i o n o f t h e provincia

shovvs, t h e single R o m a n g o v e r -

n o r o f this e a r l y p e r i o d vvas firmly based in A n t i o c h , a n d his legions vvere ali a l s o g r o u p e d in n o r t h e r n S y r i a . T h e R o m a n p r e s e n c e vvas t h u s s h a p e d b y the m a j ö r city-foundations of Sclcucus Nicator at the end o f the fourth ccntury BC: S c l c u c i a , vvhere S c l c u c u s vvas b u r i c d , L a o d i c c a , A n t i o c h a n d A p a m c a . A n y 12.36 I

a p p r e c i a t i o n o f t h e i m p a c t o f S e l e u c u s o n t h e m a p o f this a r e a , vvhere u n d e r t h e P e r s i a n F.mpirc t h e r e s c e m t<wt: Recııeil

R. Saidah ( 1 9 8 2 ) , 2 8 7 .

6. F o r t h e remains o f t h e city, n e v e r c . * c a v a t c d , scc P. M o n c c a u v a n d 1.. Hosse, " C h a l c i s ad Bcluın: N o t c s sur l'histoirc e t les r u i n e s dc la v i l l e " , Syria 6 ( 1 9 2 5 ) , 3 3 9 . 7 . J e r o m c , F.p. 5, 1 ; 7 , 1 - 2 ; ı s , 2. Scc J. N . D . Kelly, Jerome

( 1 9 7 5 ) . *»6ff.

s t r u e t u r e s , o u t p o s t s o n the m a r g i n s o f t h e s t e p p e is a n i m p o r t a n t f a c t a b o u t t h e m . B u t , as m o d e r n s u r v e y s h a v e s h o w n , t h e s t e p p e t o o , a s it \vas ( o r b e c a m e ) in t h e R o m a n p e r i o d , vvas a m i x e d z o n e ; b y n o m e a n s a t r u e , e m p t y desert, but erossed by tracks a n d dotted by small settlements.8 T h e date a n d c h a r a c t e r o f m u c h o f vvhat h a s b e e n r e p o r t e d stili r e m a i n s u n c e r t a i n . F o r i n s t a n c e , in t h e m a r g i n a l z o n e n o r t h - e a s t o f H a m a / H p i p h a n i a s u r v e y e d by J e a n L a s s u s , the r e m a i n s s u g g e s t a m u c h d e n s e r p o p u l a t i o n in t h e C h r i s t i a n

fifth

a n d s i x t h c e n t u r i c s t h a n in the f i r s t t h r e e t o four. 9 It is r c a s o n a b l e t o s u p p o s e t h a t s e d e n t a r y o c c u p a t i o n did i n e r e a s e in t h e R o m a n p e r i o d , vvithout e v e r c o m i n g n e a r t o e x c l u d i n g the ' S a r a c e n s ' . T h a t t h e r e f o r e l e a v c s e n t i r e l y o p e n the q u e s t i o n o f the real c h a r a c t c r o f s u c h c i t i e s . Did t h e y r e m a i n b a s t i o n s o f G r e e k l a n g u a g e , c u l t u r e a n d c u s t o m s ? O r vvere t h e y p l a c e s vvithin vvhich, o r vvithin vvhose i m m e d i a t e t e r r i t o r i e s , q u i t c d i f f e r e n t c u l t u r e s c o - e x i s t c d ? B e f o r e a n ansvver c a r ı b e a t t e m p t e d , vve h a v e t o l o o k tovvards a n o t h e r f a r m o r e m y s t e r i o u s g e o g r a p h i c a l z o n e , a l s o v i s i b l e f r o m A p a m e a , the J e b e l A n s a r i y e h . İt is i m p o r t a n t t o r e c a l l t h a t n o t o n l y the cities a n d s e t t l e m e n t s o f t h e O r o n t e s Valley b u t t h o s e o f the c o a s t vvere d o m i n a t e d by t h i s m o u n t a i n - e h a i n . S o t o o vvas A n t i o c h , vvhere M o u n t S i l p i u s , t h e n o r t h c r n m o s t p o i n t in t h e c h a i n , rises d r a m a t i c a l l y j u s t b e h i n d the c i t y t o t h e s o u t h . A t its s o u t h e r n e n d , in the t e r r i t o r y o f A r a d o s

and

a r o u n d the g r e a t s a ı ı c t u a r y o f Z e u s a t B a e t o c a e c e , a r c a s vvhich vvere t o f o r m p a r t o f ' S y r i a P h o e n i c e ' a n d vvill bc t r e a t e d a l o n g vvith o t h e r

Phoenician

p l a c c s , it is p o s s i b l e t o g a i n s o m e f r a g m e n t a r y e v i d e n e e a b o u t c u l t u r e a n d s o c i a l s t r u e t u r e s . 1 0 F o r the a r e a in betvveen, hovvcvcr, t h e e v i d e n e e o f l i t e r a r y s o u r c e s , i n s e r i p t i o n s a n d a r c h a c o l o g y c o m b i n c s t o l e a v e an a l m o s t c o m p l e t e blank. Yet this n o r ı h c r n s e c t i o n o f t h e c h a i n vvas settled a n d c u l t i v a t c d , j u s t a s vvas t h e a r e a r o u n d B a e t o c a e c e , s o m e ı o o o m a b o v e s e a - l e v c l . S t r a b o ' s d e s e r i p t i o n m a k e s t h i s q u i t c clear, a s it d o e s a l s o the r e l a t i o n t o the m o u n t a i ı ı c h a i n o f b o t h I ^ ı o d i c e a o n t h e c o a s t and A p a m e a in the O r o n t e s V a l l e y : Then o n c c o m c s t o L a o d i c e i a , situated o n the s e a . It is a city most beautifully built, has a g o o d h a r b o u r , a n d has territory vvhich, besides its other g o o d e r o p s , abouııds in vvinc. Novv this city furnishes the m o s t o f the vvine t o the A l c x a n d r c i a n s , s i n c e t h e vvhole m o u n t a i n t h a t lies a b o v e the city and is possessed by it is c o v e r e d vvith vines a l m o s t as far as tlıe summits. And vvhile the s u m m i t s a r e a t a c o n s i d e r a b l e distancc from L a o d i c c i a ,

8. S c c R . M o u t c r d c a ı ı d A . P o i d t b a r d , Le limes l latife Syrie tomaitıe

9. J . L a s s u s , IttL'entaire archeologiqtte 1 0 . 8.3 b e l o w .

de Chalcis:

Orgaııisation

de la steppe

I—11 ( 1 9 4 5 ) . de la ttgioıı

au ttord est de Hama

I-II (1936).

en

s l o p i n g u p g c n t l y a n d g r a d u a l l y f r o m it, t h e y t o w c r a b o v e A p a m e i a , tending up to a pcrpcndicular

ex-

height."

S t r a b o thus gives a ver)' c l e a r ( a n d c o r r e c t ) i m p r e s s i o n o f hovv t h e m o u n t a i n c h a i n rises g r a d u a l l y f r o m t h e c o a s t , in fact o v e r a d i s t a n c c o f s o m e 3 0 k r a , t o a line o f s u m m i t s o v e r l o o k i n g t h e O r o n t e s Valley, into vvhich it then d r o p s m u c h m o r e sharply. W ı t h o u t a n y a r c h a c o l o g i c a l survey, it is i m p o s s i b l e t o c o n f i r m his vicvv t h a t v i n e s c o u l d b c a n d vvere c u l t i v a t e d up t o o r n e a r the crest itself, vvhich r e a c h e s a m a x i m u m o f s o m e 1 4 0 0 m , s l o p i n g dovvn a t the s o u t h e r n e n d t o vvhere t h e r i v e r E l e u t h c r o s ( N a h r c l - K e b i r ) c u t s a c r o s s betvveen i t a n d the n o r t h e r n f r i n g e s o f M o u n t L e b a n o n . S t r a b o might b e t h o u g h t t o suggest, b u t d o e s n o t c x p i i c i t l y say, t h a t the vvine-producing a r e a s t r e t c h i ı ı g u p b e h i n d L a o d i c e a ali b e l o n g e d t o t h e t e r r i t o r y o f t h a t city. İn default o f a n y prccise e v i d e n c e ıt vvould indeed b e n a t u r a l t o a s s u m e t h a t t h e division o f c i t y - t e r r i t o r i e s follovved t h e natural line o f the vvaterslıed. I f s o , vve s h o u l d imagine a n e x t e n s i v e a r c a o f vvine-grovving villages in t h e g r a d u a l l y rising t e r r i t o r y b e h i n d L a o d i c e a ; a c l c a r parallcl is p r o vided b y the t e m p l e o f B a e t o c a e c e a n d its a s s o c i a t e d villages, lying j u s t b e l o w the c r e s t f u r t h e r s o u t h , vvhich c e r t a i n l y b e l o n g e d t o t h e t e r r i t o r y o f A r a d o s , vvhich o c c u p i c d a n island o f f the c o a s t . 1 2 B u t if L a o d i c c a , a s a m a j ö r H e l l e n i s t i c f o u n d a t i o n , possessed a n c x t e n s i v e t e r r i t o r y vvith a rural p o p u l a t i o n living in villages (vvhich itself c a n n o t be cert a i n ) , it is m u c h less c l e a r vvhether the s a m e vvas true o f t h e t h r e e very m i n e r p l a c e s vvhich lay a l o n g the c o a s t betvveen L a o d i c e a a n d A r a d o s , n a m e l y Ç a b a l a , I ' a l t o s a n d B a l a t ı e a e . Ali t h r e e seem t o h a v e f u n e t i o n e d as poleis,

and

m i n t e d c o i n s a t least o c c a s i o n a l l y in the i m p e r i a l p e r i o d ; a n d , as vve vvill see, by a n ali t o o typica! p a r a d o x , a n inseription f r o m B a l a n e a e gives vvhat is perhaps the fullest list o f c i t y - m a g i s t r a c i e s vvhich vve h a p p e n t o h a v e f r o m this vvhole r e g i o n . 1 3 T h a t leaves o p e n t h e q u c s t i o n o f vvhether the entire t e r r i t o r y o f t h e m o u r t a i n - e h a i n vvas, even in p r i n c i p l c , divided betvveen c i t y - t e r r i t o r i e s ; a n d e v e n :f it vvere, vvhether a d e g r e e o f r e a l i n d e p e n d c n c e vvas n o t in p r a c t i c e e n j o y e d by t h e p o p u l a t i o n t h e r e . T h e s a m e m a y vvell h a v e applied o n the e a s t side o f the c h a i n , vvhere it m a y b e t h a t t h e narrovver a n d s t e e p e r m o u n r a i n - s i d e s

be-

l o n g e d t o the territories o f c i t i e s in the O r o n t e s Valley. It is p e r h a p s h e r e t h a t vve should l o o k f o r t h e r u r a l t e m p l e , s i t u a t e d on a hill-slopc (klima)

in the

i t . Strabo, Gt'og. X V I , î , 9 ( 7 5 1 - 7 5 1 ) . r ı . S c c f u r t h e r 8.3 b c l o w . F o r o n c c I w o u l d n o t be t e m p t e d t o s u b s c r i b e t o an i d e a put f o r v v n r d b y Jeaıı Balry, n n m e l y t h e R i ı g g e s ı i o n in " I . ' A p a m g n e a n t i q u e et les l i m i t e s d e la S y r i a Secunda",

Gıiog. admin., 41

o n p p . . S e e IGISI, 7 . BMC X V I I , 14.

Syria,

no. 2 3 1 . I 3 t f f . : 0 E A E E r P l A S lEPOFIOAITON.

For the seated g o d d e s s , e.g., Pl.

T h a t b o t h t h e p l a c e a n d i t s (novv) c h i e f d e i t y w e r e r e p r e s e n t e d in t h i s w a y vvas t h e r c s u l t o f a n e v o l u t i o n vvhich ( f o r o n c e ) c a n b e t r a c e d o v e r c e n t u r i e s . İn e s s c n c e t h e c u l t t h e r e t o o k o n m a n y G r e e k a s p e c t s , vvhile r e m a i n i n g , i n tlıc e y e s o f ali o b s e r v e r s , d i s t i n e t i v e l y e x o t i c a n d n o n - G r e e k ; a n d a f e m a l e d e i t y , A t a r g a t i s , o r ' t h e S y r i a n G o d d e s s ' in G r a e c o - R o m a n t e r m s , c a m e t o b e e m plıasised m o r e and m o r e at the e x p e n s e o f her nıale c o n s o r t , H a d a d . " H e r e , a s e l s e v v h e r e , it is f u t i l c t o t r y t o d e f i n e e x a c t l y vvhat t h e d e i t y , o r h e r c u l t , r e a l l y 'vvas'. İ n a t t c m p t i n g t o d o s o m o d e r n o b s c r v c r s h a v e a p a i n f u l t e n d e n e y t o shovv n o m o r e l o g i c a l s e l f - a v v a r e n e s s t h a n a n c i e n t o n e s , a n d t o f o r g e t t h a t ancicnt

deities 'vvere' vvhatever d i f f e r e n t ü ı i n g s o b s c r v e r s o r

vvorshippers

c h o s e t o r e g a r d r h e m as. T a k e for i n s t a n c e P l u t a r c h , r e c o r d i n g t h e u n f a v o u r a b l e o m e n s vvhich h a d a t t e n d e d C r a s s u s ' i n v a s i o n o f P a r t h i a n t e r r i t o r y i n 5 3 BC. O n e o f C r a s s u s ' e r r o r s h a d b e e n t o r o b t h i s t e m p l e o f i t s t r e a s u r e s : ' A ı ı d t h e first v v a r n i n g s i g n c a m e t o h i m f r o m t h i s v e r y g o d d e s s , v v h o m s o m e c a l i A p h r o d i t e a n d o t h e r s H e r a , vvhile o t h e r s stili r e g a r d h e r a s t h e n a t u r a l c a u s c vvhich s u p p l i e s f r o m m o i s t u r e t h e begiıınings a n d seeds o f c v e r y t h i n g ,

and

points o u t t o m a n k i n d the s o u r c e o f ali blessiııgs.'9 İr i s m o r e t o t h e p o i n t t h a t t h e p l a c e h a d i n d e e d c x i s t e d a s a c u l t - c e n t r e b e f o r e t h e M a c e d o n i a n c o n q u e s t , a n d h a d a c q u i r e d its G r e e k n a m e

('Holy

City') in the Hellenistic p e r i o d . C o i n s f r o m there o f Alexaııder's time n a m e A l c x a n d c r in A r a m a i c ( ' L K S N D R ) a n d shovv a p r i e s t in a c o n i c a l h a t a n d l o n g t u n i c s t a n d i n g a t a n a k a r : h e is n a m e d a s A b d h a d a d f s e r v a n t o f

Hadad'),

' p r i e s t ( a t ) M a n b o g ' ( ' B D H D D K M R M N B G ) , '(vvho) r e s e m b l e s H a d a r a n his lord' ( Z Y Y D M N B H D R N N B ' L I I ) . Strictly speaking, these coins represent t h e l a t e s t e v i d e n c e f r o m t h i s p l a c e vvhich is c x p r c s s e d in a S e m i t i c l a n g u a g e , t h o u g h a p a p y r ı ı s o f 1 5 6 BC f r o m K g y p t h a p p e n s t o r c c o r d a s l a v e vvho vvas ' b y r a c c a S y r i a n f r o m B a m b y k e ' , a n d vvho vvas ' t a t t o o e d o n t l ı c vvrist \vith tvvo b a r b a r i a n l e t t e r s ' , c v i d c n t l y A r a m a i c . 1 0 B y t h e s e c o n d c e n n ı r y BC i n s e r i p t i o n s f r o m D e l o s shovv t h a t t h e p l a c e h a d a c q u i r e d i t s G r e e k n a m e , H i e r a p o l i s ( o r H i c r o p o l i s , v v h i c h is a l s o u s e d ) , a n d t h a t t h e c u l t vvas ııovv t h o u g l ı t o f a s t h a t o f a d i v i ı ı e c o u p l e , H a d a d a n d A t a r g a t i s . 1 1 İ t vvas i n t h i s H c l l e n i s e d f o r m t h a t t h e c u l t g a i n e d a v v i d c s p r c a d c ı r r e n e y , a n d A t a r g a t i s vvas o f t e n l a b e l l c d , f o r G r a e c o - R o m a n v v o r s h i p p e r s , a s ' t h e S y r i a n G o d d e s s ' , e v e n 011 c o i n s o f t h e c i t y itself. A s vve h a v e s e e n i n the casc o f Plutarch, varying interpretations of her natııre could be offercd. O u r 8. For this process, rapidly summarised here, see Goossens, op. cit. (n.2 above); H. J . W. Drijvers, Culu aııd Heliefs at Fdessa (1980), 8 j f f . ; Millar, "Hcllcni&tic Syria", 1 1 6 - 1 2 7 . 9. Plutarch, Crassus 17 (I.ocb trarıs., kccping Grcck names). r o . P. V.enon, Aegyptus

n o . 1 2 1 ; s c c G . V n g g i , " S i r i a e Siri n r i d o c u m e n t i d c l l T g i t t o g r e c o - r o m a n o " ,

17 ^ 9 3 7 ) , 2 9 . F o r these c a r l y c o i n s s c c H . S e y r i g , " L c m o n n a y a g c d c I l i e r a p o l h dc

Syric â r c p o q u c d , A l e * a n d r c " , RN 1 1 . Ph. B r u n e a u , Rccbcrcbes

13 (1971), 11.

sur les cuUes de Ditos

(1970), 466ff.

c n t i r c c v i d c n c c f o r t h c i n t e r p r e t a t i o n o f the c u l t c o n s i s t s o f r e t r o s p e c t i v e a n a l yses o f s o m e t h i n g c o n c c i v c d o f a s e x o t i c a n d distinctivcly l o c a l . 1 2 If vve vvere t o g r a s p m o r e fully t h c n a t u r e o f the c u l t as it vvas in situ, vve vvould n e e d f a r m o r e a r c h a e o l o g i c a l a n d o t h e r e v i d e n c c f r o m H i e r a p o l i s itself t h a n vve a c t u ally h a v e . But the o n e i m p o r t a n t iteni o f such e v i d e n c e d o e s n o t relate e x p l i c itly t o the vvorslıip o f ' t h e S y r i a n G o d d e s s ' o r o f her c o n s o r t . T h i s is a n e x t r c m c l y s t r i k i n g b a s - r e l i e f s c u l p t u r c in basalt, o f vvhich o n e of thc tvvo surviving p a r t s vvas f o u n d a t M a n b i j , a n d vvhich r e p r e s e n t s a typically ' S y r i a n ' priest, dressed in a long tunic f a l l i n g t o thc a n k l e s , a n d b o u n d b y a girdle; h e is vvcaring a c o n i c a l hat t o p p e d by a c r e s c e n t a n d vvith a t i a r a tied r o u n d i t . T h c figüre is r c p r c s c n t c d in thc a c t o f m a k i n g a l i b a t i o n o n a small altar, a n d a G r e e k i n s e r i p t i o n in verse identifics h i m a s a H i g h Priest

(archiereus):

A c h a i o s has p l a c e d here (a p o r t r a i t of) the i n c o m p a r a b l e H i g h Priest A l e x andros, n o b l e in friendship, making a libation vvhile hc prays t o thc blessed gods that they m a y preserve his native city in g o o d

order

(eunomia)." T h e relicf s e e m s t o d a t e t o t h e m i d d l e o f t h e first c e n t u r y u c , a n d t h u s t o b e r o u g h l y c o n t e m p o r a r y b o t h vvith the r o y a l s c u l p t u r e s o f C o m m a g e n e t o t h e n o r t h a n d vvith t h e first i n t r u s i o n on this a r c a b y t h c R o m a n s . T h c ' b l e s s e d g o d s ' vvorshipped by a High P r i e s t a t H i e r a p o l i s vvill surely have been H a d a d a n d A t a r g a t i s . If s o , the relief is sufficicnt t o shovv a t least s o m e e l e m e n t s o f c o ı ı t i n u i t y betvveen t h c cult a s it vvas in thc f o u r t h c c n t u r y a n d vvhat is p o r t r a y e d in t h c f a m o u s a c c o u n t b y L u c i a n o f S a m o s a t a in On the Syrian dess,

God-

vvritten in the m i d d l e o f the s e c o n d c e n t u r y AD. I f n o t h i n g else, t h e

pricstly c o s t u m e o f a long t u n i c a n d c o n i c a l hat h a d survived thc c c n t u r i c s u n e h a n g e d : ' T h e y (the priests) ali vvear vvhite elothing a n d have a p o i n t e d c a p on their h e a d s . A different archiereus

is a p p o i n t e d e a c h year, a n d he a l o n e

vvears purple, a n d (his head) is b o u n d vvith a gold t i a r a . ' 1 4 T h i s is o n l y o n e o f m a n y c o n c r e t c details o f t h e t e m p l e , t h e c u l t a n d t h e priests vvhich I . u c i a n reveals; m o s t c a n n o t be e x p l o r e d h e r e . A t the s a m e t i m e vve s h o u l d n o t f o r g e t the a m b i g u i t i e s i n h e r e n t in this t e x t . O n thc o n c h a n d L u c i a n is p r o d u c i n g a deliberate linguistic p a r o d y o f H e r o d o t u s as a v e h i c l c for this p o r t r a y a l o f a n e x o t i c c u l t for a vvider G r e e k r e a d e r s h i p . O n the o t h e r h a n d he explicitly i d e n tifies himself as a n ' A s s y r i o s ' . T h e r e a d e r vvould n o t , hovvever, knovv f r o m t h a t vvhich L u c i a n ' s h o m c - c i t y vvas, o r even f r o m vvhat rcgion h c c a m e ; it is i z . F o r t h e besc a c c o u n t s e e M . H ö r i g , " D c a S y r i a - A t a r g a t i s " , A \ ' R W n . i 7 . } ( 1 9 8 4 ) , 1 5 3 6 . S e e a l s o H . J. W . D r i j v e r s s.vı " D c a S y r i a " , LIMC

l ü . ı (1986), 355.

T3. S e e R . A . S ı u c k y , " P r £ t r c s s y r i e n s II: H i e r a p o l i s " , Syria 53 ( 1 9 7 6 ) , 1 2 7 . T h e i n s e r i p t i o n is SEC, X X V I , n o . 1 6 3 4 . 1 4 . L u c i a n , de dea Syria 4 2 . S c c e s p . R . A . O d c n , Studies C . P. J o n c s , Culture

and Society

in Lucian

(198(1), 4 ı f f .

in Lucian's

De Syria Dea

977};

indeed o n l y in his How

to Wrile

History

t h a t he c o n c r e t e l y identifies S a m o -

s a t a a s his n a t i v c city. T h e q u c s t i o n o f vvhat L u c i a n ' s o r i g i n m c a n t b c l o n g s c l s c w h c r c ; I Î b u t for the r e a d e r o f On

the Syrian

Goddess

vvhat mattezs is

t h a t the a u t h o r is s i m u l t a n e o u s l y representitıg h i m s e l f a s an O r i e n t a l ' i n s i d e r ' ; a d o p t i n g t h e vvell-knovvn p o s e o f the a m a z c d , n a i v c traveller; a n d p u t t i r g a d i s t a n c c bctvveen the c u l t d e s e r i b e d a n d b o t h himself a n d t h e reader. O n l y a fevv p o i n t s f r o m t h i s p o r t r a i t c a n be emplıasised h e r e . L u c i a n duly u n d e r l i n e s the a n t i q u i t y o f t h e c u l t . B u t vvhat he c a n o f f e r b y vvay o f its l c g c n d a r y o r i g i n s is a s e l e e t i o n o f a l t e r n a t i v c G r c c k m y t h s : D c u c a l i o n a n d t h e flood; S c m i r a m i s o f B a b y l o n ( a figüre in Greek

s e m i - h i s t o r i c a l vvritiııg a b o u t the

N e a r E a s t ) ; C y b c l e a n d A t t i s ; o r D i o n y s u s . A s f o r the a e t u a l c o n s t r u c t i o n o f the t e m p l e , h e a t t r i b u t e s it t o S t r a t o n i c e , ' t h e vvife o f t h e k i n g o f t h e A s s y r i a n s ' (in fact S e l e u c u s N i c a t o r ) , o f vvhom h c relates a s h o r t historical n o v e l l a . B u t t h e t e m p l e vvhich he a c t u a l l y d e s e r i b e s m u s t h a v e been built ( o r r e c o n s t r u c t c d ) in the R o m a n p e r i o d , for it is a R o m a n - s t y l e t e m p l e o n a p o d i u m , r c a c h c d b y s t e p s from t h e f r o n t . 1 * In setting the t e m p l e in c o n t e x t as s o m e t h i n g distinetively ' S y r i a n ' , it is strikiııg t h a t t h e p a r a l l e l c a s e s o f a n c i e n t a n d e x o t i c cults vvhich L u c i a n g : v c s a r e ali in P h o e n i c i a : H e r a k l e s ( M e l q a r t ) a t T y r c ; A s t a r t e ( o r p e r h a p s r a t h e r E u r o p a ) a t S i d o n ; a n unidentificd P h o e n i c i a n ( o r E g y p t i a n ) c u l t a t H e l i o p o l i s ; A p h r o d i t e a n d A d o n i s ( o r p e r h a p s O s i r i s ) a t B y b l o s ; a n d the t e m p l e

of

A p h r o d i t e a t t h e s o u r c e o f t h e river A d o n i s n e a r B y b l o s — i n f a c t t h e s a n e t u a r y a t A p h a c a vvhosc c l o s u r c vvas t o be o r d e r e d by C o n s t a n t i n e . " It is o n l y a s e e m i n g p a r a d o x t h a t it is in g e n e r a l t h o s e sites vvhich h a d a l o n g - e s t a b l i s h e d p l a c e , o r image, in G r e e k c u l t u r e vvhich vvere t o b c m o s t c l c a r l y a s s o c i a t c d in t h e R o m a n E m p i r e vvith a n c i c n t cults vvhich had a s t r o n g l y local c o l o u r i n g . 'Ilıe

truly

distinctive

arehiteeture

and

iconography

of

Palmyra,

Dura-

E u r o p o s , the H a u r a n o r N a b a t a e a h a d n o p l a c e in this m e n t a l m a p . L u c i a n d o c s tvvicc stress f r o m hovv m a n y different r e g i o n s o r p e o p l e s , s o m e o u t s i d c the E m p i r e , o f f c r i n g s c a m e t o the t e m p l e : f r o m ' A r a b i a ' , the P h o c n i c i a n s , tlıc B a b y l o n i a n s , C a p p a d o c i a , the C i l i c i a n s a n d the ' A s s y r i o i ' ; a n d l a t e r E g y p t i a n s , M c d c s , A r ı n c n i a n s a n d B a b y l o n i a n s . , s A s vve have s e c n , t h e cults o f ' M a b o g ' a r c in f a c t refleeted in a vvork preserved in S y r i a c and p r o b a b l y vvritten a t E d e s s a ; ' 9 a n d o n e o f t h e m o s t specific c o n f i r m a t i o n s o f t h e i c o n o g r a p h y o f H i e r a p o l i s a s r e p o r t e d by L u c i a n c o m e s f r o m

Dura-

Europos.20 F o r a limestone relief found there represents an enthroned male 1 5 . 12.3 bclow. 16. ile dea Syria

14.

1 7 . de dea Syria 3 - 9 ; 5.3 a h o v c . 18. de dea Syria

10; 32.

1 9 . T e x t to n.3 a b o v e , and see f u r t h e r below. 2 0 . S c c İ L S c y r i g , " L c s d i c u x d ' M î c r a p o I i s " , Syria 3 7 ( 1 9 6 0 ) , 2 3 3 .

a n d an e n t h r o n e d f c m a l e deity s e e n f r o m the f r o n t , w i t h o n c i t h e r side o f t h e f o r m e r t w o small kulis, a n d o f t h e l a t t e r t w o s o m e w h a t d i s p i r i t e d - l o o k i n g l i o n s . In h e t w e e n t h e m is r e p r e s e n t e d a pole topped by a c r e s c e n t , vvith t h r e e disks fixed t o its u p p e r p a r t , a n d a b o v e t h e m a c r o s s - b a r , f r o m e a c h e n d o f vvhich tvvo strips o f c l o t h a r e h a n g i n g . T h e c o r r e s p o n d e n c e is t o o close f o r these n o t t o be the c u l t itııages f r o m the i n n e r c h a m b e r (thalamos)

of the

t e m p l e a t I l i e r a p o l i s , as L u c i a n d c s c r i b e s t h e m : ' Z c u s * s c a t e d o n bulls a n d ' H e r a ' on lions, a n d in betvveen t h e m a c u l t - o b j c c t (xoatıon) o f o t h e r deities. 2 1 T h e Assyrioi, but cali it semeion.

bearing i m a g c s

L u c i a n s a y s , themselves h a v e n o vvord for i t ,

Well they m i g h t , f o r vvhat t h e o b j e c t represented a t D u r a

m o s t c l o s e l y r e s c m b l c s is in fact a R o m a n m i i i t a r y s t a n d a r d , f o r vvhich G r e e k s used the vvord

semeion.

W h a t L u c i a t ı says m u s t i m p l y t h a t the Assyrioi

o f Hierapolis might have

h a d a n a t i v c vvord f o r this o b j e c t , b u t in fact did n o t . A l t h o u g h t h e r e are n o S e m i t i c - l a n g u a g e i n s e r i p t i o n s o r l i t e r a t ü r e f r o m H i e r a p o l i s in this p e r i o d , vve c o u l d r e a s o n a b l y t a k e vvhat L u c i a n says as a hint t h a t S y r i a c o r A r a m a i c vvas in use. T h e d i v i n c n a m e s 'I l a d a d ' a n d 'Atargatis* m u s t a l s o have p e r s i s t e d , a l t h o u g h L u c i a n s p e a k s o n l y o f ' Z e u s ' a n d ' H e r a ' . But the i c o n o g r a p h y o f t h e m a i n c u l t - o b j e c t s o f the c i t y novv ineluded a third e l e m e n t , t h e

semeion,

represented a l s o o n s o m e c o i n s o f t h e city, 2 2 o f a f o r m vvhich c o u l d o n l y h a v e been borrovved in t h e c o n t e x t o f R o m a n m i i i t a r y d o m i n a t i o n . M o r e o v e r , t h e G r e e k t e r m used t o deseribe it e v i d e n t l y passed as a loan-vvord into Syriac/ A r a m a i c . W h a t is m o r e , it gave r i s e t o a nevv myth t h e r e . F o r L u c i a n ' s

semeion

m u s t be the origin o f the f e m a l e deity f r o m M a b o g , ' S i m i the d a u g h t e r o f H a d a d ' ( S Y M Y B R T H D H D D ) , m e n t i o n e d in t h e S y r i a c Oration the Philosopher,

of

Meliton

p r o b a b l y vvritten in the early third c e n t u r y . 2 ' As vvas n o t e d

earlicr, the f a c t o f h a v i n g been w r i t t c n in S y r i a c did n o t n e c c s s a r i l y p r e v e n t C h r i s t i a n a n a l y s e s o f p a g a n c u l t s in Syria f r o m r e p r e s e n t i n g the s a m e c o n c a t e nation o f confused and iııcompatible elements as Lucian himself reveals. N o n e t h e l e s s , t h e G r e e k n a m e vvhich t h e c i t y h a d a c q u i r e d in the H e l l e n i s tic p e r i o d , like the i c o n o g r a p h y o f i t s c o i n s , e x p r e s s e d t h e f a c t t h a t the i d e n t i t y o f t h e p l a c e depended on that o f t h e g o d d e s s vvho steadily b e c a m e its b e s t knovvn deity. It is p e r h a p s S t r a b o , in deseribing the r o u t c f r o m Syria t o B a b y l o n i a , vvho (in spite o f s o m e g e o g r a p h i c a l c o n f u s i o n s ) best c x p r e s s e s t h e i d e n tity o f the p l a c e : ' B a m b y k e , vvhich they a l s o c a l i . . . H i e r a p o l i s , in vvhich t h e y vvorship t h e S y r i a n G o d d e s s , A t a r g a t i s ' . 2 4 2 1 . de dea Syria

31-33.

ı z . Scc H . S e y r i g , " B a s - r e l i e f d e s d i c u x d ' H i f c r a p o l i s " , Syria 4 9 ( 1 9 7 a ) , 1 0 4 . 2 3 . Scc tcxt t o n.3 a b o v e and (briefly) 12,5 and A p p . C bclow. 2 4 . S t r a b o , Ceog.

X V I , 1 , 2 7 ( 7 4 8 ) . In fact Strabo sccms t o b c under the inıprcssion t h a t

H i e r a p o l i s \vas e a s t o f t h e E u p h r a t e s a n d vvas t o bc i d e n t i f i c d vvith E d e s s a . T h i s h o p e l e s s c o n f u sion has been oraitted f r o m the q u o t a t i u n .

N o n e o f the o t h e r c i t i e s o f n o r t h e r n Syria a p p e a r c d in this light t o c o n t e m p o r a r i c s , i f only, a s w e h a v e s c e n , b e c a u s e t h e y w c r e k n o w n t o h a v e b e e n Hcllcnistic foundations. But the point that continuity with a pre-Hellenistic p a s t m i g h t m o s t p r o b a b l y b e r e p r e s e n t e d b y c u l t - p l a c e s , a n d c u l t - p r a c t i c e s , is r e l e v a n t f o r t h e m t o o . T h u s f o r i n s t a n c e o n e o f the very f c w r e f l e e t i o n s o f the l o c a l c u l t u r e o f t h e a r e a r o u n d C y r r h u s is a rclief f r o m K i l i s r e p r e s e n t i n g a p r i e s t in this s a m e c o s t u m e — a c o n i c a l hat a n d l o n g t u n i c — m a k i n g a sacrifice o n an altar. 2 5 H o w w e are t o ı ı n d e r s t a n d the partially surviving r e p r e s e n t a t i o n o f a n e n o r m o u s bull s t a n d i n g b e f o r e h i m is unclear. B u t a t least t h e p e r s o n a n d his deity a r c idcntificd h y a G r e e k i n s e r i p t i o n . As C u m o n t n o t e d , the m i x t u r e o f L a t i n , G r e e k a n d S e m i t i c n a m e s here perfectly m i r r o r s the s o c i a l c v o l u t i o n c h a r a c t c r i s t i c o f t h e R o m a n p e r i o d : t h e deity c o n c c r n e d is t h e god Bel, t h e p r i e s t (hiereus)

is ' G a i u s ' , a n d he lists a l s o his w i f e E m e o u s a n d his

childrcn Antiochos, Epigenes, Diokles, M a r k o s , Petröııios, Gaios, Thedion a n d M a r t h a s . T h e relief a n d its i n s e r i p t i o n a r e a small sign o f a w o r l d t o vvhich vve m i g h t in p r i n c i p l c g a i n m o r e a c c c s s if this large r e g i o n (vvhich lies a l o n g t h e T u r k i s h - S y r i a n b o r d e r ) vvere t o b e ı h o r o u g h l y surveyed. In the a r e a t o the n o r t h o f t h a t , in t h e region vvhich in t h e e a r l i c r first c e n t u r y BC p r o b a b l y f o r m c d p a r t o f the k i n g d o m o f C o m m a g e n e , t h e r e is jost o n e cult-site vvhere t h e i c o n o g r a p h y o f t h e local deity shovvs a n u n m i s t a k a b l e d e r i v a t i o n f r o m t h e r e m o t e p r e - H e l l e n i s t i c p a s t . T h i s is D o l i c h e , m o d e r n D ü l ü k , a village a fevv k i l o m e t r e s n o r t h o f G a z i a n t e p . It lies a l m o s t d u e vvest o f Z e u g m a , vvhich, a s vve h a v e s e e n , vvas a l m o s t c e r t a i n l y t a k e n o v e r b y t h e R o m a n s a s part o f t h e p r o v i n c e i m m e d i a t e l y in 3 1 BC.*" T h e region vvhere D o l i c h e lies m a y t h u s a l s o h a v e b e c o m e p r o v i n c i a l a t t h e s a m e t i m e ; its p o l i t i c a l a n d s o c i a l h i s t o r y s h a r e s the c o m p l c t c u n c c r t a i n t y vvhich c h a r a c t c r i s c s a l i o f t h e vvesterly p a r t o f C o m m a g e n e , s t r e t e h i n g u p t o t h e A m a n u s a n d T a u r u s m o u n t a i n s . But it is a t a n y r a t e c e r t a i n t h a t D o l i c h e vvas p r o v i n c i a l by the later 50S AD, w h c n a G r c c k d c d i c a t i o n t h e r e t o ' T h c o s D o l i c h c n o s ' vvas d a t e d by the fourth year of the rule o f N e r o . T h e roughly carved basalt altar o n vvhich t h e i n s e r i p t i o n is c a r v e d a g a i n shovvs a priest in a c o n i c a l h a t a n d l o n g t u n i c ; h c is n a m e d as ' E n n a i o s s o n o f B a r n a n a i o s ' . T h i s i n s e r i b e d relief is e n o u g h a l s o t o shovv t h a t D o l i c h e vvas indeed t h e rural c u l t - c e n t r e f r o m vvhich ( f o r r e a s o n s vvhich s c e m vvholly o b s c u r e ) t h e vvorship o f ' T h e o s D o l i c h e n o s ' , o r in L a t i n f r e q u e n t l y ' I u p p i t e r O p t i m u s M a x i m u s D o l i c h e n u s ' , vvas t o bc s p r e a d , largely as it s e e m s b y soldiers, ali o v e r the E m p i r e . 2 7 A s is alvvays t h e c a s e in s u c h i n s t a n c e s , t h e very f a c t t h a t the deity vvas

2 5 . E. Cumont, Ftudes Syriennes ( 1 9 1 6 ) , 2 5 7 ^ .

26. 2.1 above. 27. Scc J. W3gncr, "Ncuc Dcnkmâlcr aus Doliche", Bonn. Jahrb. 182 (1982), 133; M. Hörig a n d E . S c h w c r t h c i m , Corpus

Cultus

Iovis

Dolicbeni

(CCID)

{ 1 9 8 7 ) , n o . 2 a n d T a f . 1.

t r a n s p o s e d i n t o so m a n y different e ı ı v i r o n m e n t s m a k e s t h e a l r e a d y difficuLt q u e s t i o n o f his ' r c a l ' n a t u r e infinitcly m o r e c o m p l e x . For, a s in the o t h e r c a s e s , his w o r s h i p p e r s c o u l d literally m a k e o f h i m vvhat t h e y vvould. T h u s o n e vvors h i p p c r a t A q u i l c i a a c t u a l l y c o n s t r u c t c d a c o m p o s i t c deity 'Iuppiter 0 ( p t s m u s ) M ( a x i m u s ) D ( o l i c h e n u s ) H c l i o p o l i t ( a n u s ) ' . 2 8 In spite o f ali the c a u t i o n vvhich is c s s e n t i a l , o n e feature o f his i c o n o g r a p h y is u n d e n i a b l e : the c h a r a c t e r istic r e p r c s e n t a t i o n o f t h e ' Z e u s ' o r ' I u p p i t e r ' o f D o l i c h e a s a b e a r d e d m a l e Figüre, vveariııg a hat a n d g i r d l e d tunic, staııding 011 t h e b a c k o f a bull a n d vviclding an a x c in his right h a n d , is f o u n d n o t o n l y on o b j e c t s o f t h e I m p e r i a l period f r o m t h e r e g i o n o f D ü l ü k ( t h o u g h n o n e is e x p l i c i t l y l a b e l l c d ) , but a l s o , vvith m a n y v a r i a t i o n s , o n r e p r e s e n t a t i o n s o f t h e deity (a nuttıbcr o f vvhich are c x p i i c i t l y l a b e l l c d ) t h r o u g h o u t t h e E m p i r e . 2 9 A p a r t i c u l a r l y fine c x a m p l e is t h e r e l i e f - c a r v i n g d c d i c a t e d in AD 1 8 3 t o 'Iuppiter O p t i m u s M a x i m u s D o l i e h e n u s ' a t t h e ' D o l i c h e n u m ' o n the Aventine in R o m e by A q u i l a s o n

of

Barlıadad.'0 W h a t is significant a b o u t this i c o n o g r a p h y is, hovvever, t h e f a c t t h a t it is an u n m i s t a k a b l e borrovving f r o m relief-carviııgs o f a deity f o u n d in the r e g i o n o f G a z i a n t e p a n d d a t i n g t o tlıc n c o - H i t t i t e period ( 1 2 0 0 - 7 0 0 BC). C o m p a r a b l e r e p r e s e n t a t i o n s o f a deity s t a ı ı d i n g on a bull are knovvn from b o t h C a p p a d o c i a a n d M e s o p o t a m i a , f r o m an even earlier p e r i o d , a r o u n d t h e b e g i n n i n g o f the s e c o n d m i l l c n n i u m . 3 ' It c a n n o t be p r o v e d that t h e r e vvas a n a e t u a l c o n tinuity o f c u l t on the site o f D o l i c h e , o r o f bclicfs a b o u t t h e n a t u r e o f t h e d e i t y ( t h o u g h c q u a l l y ncither can be disproved). T h e e v i d e n e e , ali f r o m the

first

t h r e e c c n t u r i c s AD, vvould i n d e e d b c c o m p a t i b l e vvith t h e idca t h a t this form o f divine r e p r e s e n t a t i o n vvas literally borrovvcd u n d e r the E m p i r e f r o m s u r v i v i n g I littite reliefs vvhich vvere stili v i s i b l e in t h e a r e a . B e y o n d t h a t , vve c a n n o t g o , j u s t a s vve knovv n o t h i n g o f t h e ş i i r i n e itself, o r o f D o l i c h e , vvlıtch in the s e c o n d c e n t u r y briefly m i n t e d c o i n s vvith the legend ' o f t h e Dolicbaioi\ m u s t h a v e c o u n t e d as a polis?1

and hence

T h e c u l t u r a l a n d religious h i s t o r y o f this r e -

g i o n r e m a i n s t o be e x p l o r e d . 28. H ö ı i g a n d Schvvertheim, o p . c i t . , 290, n o . 4 4 7 . 29. F o r local e x a m p t e s , see H ü r i g a n d Schvvertheim, o p . cit., n o s . 5 - 6 — b u t vvith tvvo

figures

s t a n d i n g o n bulls a n d a t h i r d vviclding t h e a x c ; 8, 9, 1 0 , 1 1 , 18, 1 9 , 2 1 , 2 2 , 28. F o r c.vplicitly labellcd e x a m p ! e s f r o m elscvvhcrc scc, c . g . , n o . 6 2 (Trocsmis), y o ( M o e s i a S u p e r i o r ) , 2 0 1 ( K o m imi, I l u n g a r y ) , 2 0 7 , 2 1 7 , 2 2 2 , 2 4 2 , ete. 3 c . Hörig and Schwcrtheim, no. 3 6 3 , Taf. L X X V . 3 r . F o r the n e o - H i t t i t e reliefs f r o m t h e region o f G a z i a n t e p see I. Tcmi/.soy, Gaziantep

Mııse-

ums ( 1 9 8 9 ) , fıgs. 5 4 - 5 5 (vvhere the d c i t i e s h a v e ali t h e o t h e r c h a r a c t c r i s t i c s m e n t i o n e d , but a r e n o t s t a n d i n g o n bulls). F o r t h e e a r l y p a r a l l c l s f r o m a nıuclı w i d c r a r e a sec Httrig a ı ı d Schvvert h c i m , o p . cit. ( n . 2 7 ) , on n o . 5 (a v o t i v e t r i a n g l e f r o m D ü l ü k ) . W h e t h c r vvc s h o u l d think o f a u n i t a r y c o n c e p t o f a ' w c a t l t e r - g o d ' is a n o t h e r q u c s t i o n . See I I . W . l l a u s s i g , Götler im Vorderen 3 2 . BMC

Orient Syria,

(1965), x35ff. ıt4.

und

Mytbe/1

7. T H E TETRAPOLıS AND N O R T H E R N SYRIA 7.3. VILLAGES A N D RURAL TEMPLES As h a s b c c n strcsscd m a n y t i m e s , w c c a n in fact a s s u m e , in g e n e r a l t e r m s , that ali the m a j ö r c i t i e s vvhich d o m i n a t e a n y m o d e r n m a p o f the R o m a n N e a r E a s t vvere e a c h individually n o m o r e t h a n t h e f o c a l p o i n t , a n d p r o b a b l y the largest s i n g l e c o n c e n t r a t i o n o f p o p u l a t i o n , in a n a r c a filled vvith villages, vvhich m a y o f t e n h a v e been the main s o c i a l units b y vvhich p e o p l e identified t h e m s e l v e s . S o , f o r i n s t a n c c , far avvay in A q u i n c u m ( B u d a p e s t ) , a ' S y r i a n f r o m t h e r e g i o n o f D o l i c l ı e ' r e c o r d s iıı t h e y e a r 2 2 8 the n a m e o f his native village. 1 B u t t h e r e a r c , vvithin n o r t h e r n Syria, o n l y tvvo o v c r l a p p i n g r e g i o n s vvhere vve m a y g a i n a n y i m p r e s s i o n o f this vvorld o f villages: the territory o f A p a m e a , a n d the l i m e s t o n e m a s s i f vvhich lay a t t h e h e a r t o f the region a n d ineluded p a r t s o f t h c t e r r i t o r i e s o f A n t i o c h , A p a m e a , C h a l c i s a n d B c r o c a . T h e b o u n d a r i c s betvveen city territories a r e n o t alvvays clcar, a n d m a y n o t h a v e been very İTIp o r t a n t , given the size a n d relative i n d e p c n d e n c e o f m a n y villages. B u t w c knovv f o r i n s t a n c c f r o m thc E m p e r o r J u l i a n ' s last letter t h a t L i t a r b a e ( T c r i b ) , on t h e r o a d betvveen A n t i o c h a n d B e r o e a , vvas 'a village o f C h a l c i s ' , s o m e 2 0 k m avvay,' vvhile I m m a e ( Y e n i ş e h i r ) a n d G i n d a r u s (Geııderesse on t h e river A f r i n ) vvere in t h c t e r r i t o r y o f A n t i o c h . 3 If vve l o o k first at the t e r r i t o r y o f A p a m e a , t h r e e i m p o r t a n t i t e m s o f evid e n c e staııd o u t . 4 First, the R o m a n c e n s u s o f the civitas d u e t e d a r o u n d AD 6, a l r e a d y r e c o r d e d 1 1 7 , 0 0 0

Apamenorum,

people.5

ccn-

E v e n if (as is n o t

likely) this ineluded every i n h a b i t a n t , free o r slave, o f e i t h e r s e x a n d o f any a g e , a n d h a d s u c c e e d e d in r e a c h i n g every c c n t r e o f h a b i t a t i o n in the territory, it stili implics a very large p o p u l a t i o n liviııg in villages as vvell a s tlıosc living vvithin the vvalls o f t h e city itself. In reality it m u s t i m p l y a t o t a l p o p u l a t i o n o f t h e t e r r i t o r y o f sevcral l ı u n d r e d t h o u s a n d . S e c o n d , it seems a l m o s t c e r t a i n t h a t thc b o u n d a r i c s o f P a l m y r e n e t e r r i t o r y vvhich s u c c e s s i v e R o m a n g o v e r n o r s m a r k e d o u t a t K h i r b e t e l - B i l a a s vvere t h o s e b o r d e r i n g o n A p a m c a n territ o r y ; 6 i f s o , t h a t t e r r i t o r y s t r e t e h e d s o m e 1 0 0 k m i n t o thc s t e p p e in a s o u t h c a s t c r l y d i r e e t i o n . T h i r d , a c o l l e c t i o n o f the e v i d e n c e f r o m i n s e r i p t i o n s and literary s o u r c c s h a s yielded t h e n a m e s o f ö v e r f o r t y villages o f thc R o m a n I m p e r i a l period. A l m o s t ali o f t h e s e n a m e s a r e S e m i t i c ; t h e c o n s i d e r a b l e G r a e c o - R o m a n influence o n t h e t o p o n y m y o f the N e a r E a s t m a d e o n l y a very 1 . C / L III, n o . 3 4 9 0 . 2. J u l i a n , Ep. 58 ( L o c b ) = 9 8 ( B i d c z / C u m o n t ) . 3. 4 . 1 a n d c h . 6 abovt*. 4 . For thc discussion o f t h e territory o f A p a u ı e a a n d the villages (but i n c v p l i c a b l y v v i r h n o m a p ) , see J. B a l t y a n d J . - C . Balty, " L ' A p a m e n e a n t i q u e e t les l i m i t e s de la S y r i a S c c u n d a " , tldmin.,

41.

5. 2.2 above. 6. 2 . 2 a b o v e .

Geog.

Iimited i m p a c t a t village level. B u t vvhether vve s h o u l d c o n c l u d e t h a t the i n h a b i t a n t s o f t h e s e villages c o n t i n u c d t o speak

a S e m i t i c l a n g u a g e is q u i t e a n -

o t h e r matter. T h e q u e s t i o n m u s t be left o p e n . It m a y be significant t h a t t h e r e a r e a s yet n o S e m i t i c - l a n g u a g c i n s e r i p t i o n s f r o m t h e r e g i o n , vvhile t h e r e a r e several hundred G r e e k ( a n d s o m e L a t i n ) o n c s . 7 A s it h a p p e n s , t h e knovvn n a m e s o f villages hardly d e p e n d on these l o c a l i n s e r i p t i o n s but depeııd a l m o s t entirely either on i n s e r i p t i o n s left b y p e o p l e f r o m A p a m c a n t e r r i t o r y in o t h e r p a r t s o f t h e R o m a n E m p i r e o r (as so o f t e n ) on later C h r i s t i a n ı ı a r r a t i v e s . T h e s e inseriptions put up in o t h e r provinces a r e , hovvever, e x t r e m e l y significant, precisely because o f their t e n d e n e y t o identify the p e r s o n b y his village. T h e best-knovvn e x a m p l e is a G r e e k inseription f r o m T r i e r vvhich reads: ' H e r e lics Az-izos s o n o f A g r i p ( p ) a , a S y r i a n o f the v i l l a g e (körne) o f t h e K a p r o z a b a d a i o i , iıı the t e r r i t o r y o f A p a m e a ' . 8 ' K a p r o z a b a d a i o i ' clearly i n c o r p o r a t e s b o t h t h e r o o t K P R ( ' v i l l a g e ' ) a n d a n a m e c o g n a t e vvith ' Z e b e d e e ' ; t h e local n a m e t h u s i n e l u d e s tvvo different t e r m s m c a n i n g ' v i l l a g e ' . In m o s t cases ali t h a t vve c a n teli is t h a t the person savv his village as h i s p r i m a r y m e a n s o f i d e n t i f i c a t i o n , even vvhen in far dislatıt parts. B u t o c c a s i o ı ı ally vve c a n c o m e e l o s e r t o a l o c a l i s a t i o n : for i n s t a n c e T h c o d o r e t r c c o r d s t h a t in t h e late f o u r t h c e n t u r y o n e M a r k i a n o s f o u n d e d tvvo m o n a s r c r i c s in ' a v e r y large a n d vvell-populated v i l l a g e ' c a l l e d N i k e r t a s , vvhich vvas s i t u a t e d o n l y 4 - 5 k m f r o m A p a m e a . O n l y l i t e r a r y narratives, ali o f a later period, allovv u s even g l i m p s e s o f the vvay o f life o r the s o c i a l struetures o f these villages: o n e vvas t h a t o f the ' M a r a t o c u p r e n i ' n e a r A p a m e a , vvhom A m m i a n u s deseribes a s n o t e d b r i g a n d s in the 360S.* B u t n o t h i n g e n a b l e s us t o envisage the degree o f s e l f - g o v e r n m e n t o r t h e f u n e t i o n i n g o f local c u l t - c c n t r c s a m o n g the very l a r g e village p o p u l a t i o n s vvhich s u r r o u n d c d A p a m e a . It c a n o n l y be rciterated t h a t a n y c o n c e p t i o n o f vvhat such a c i t y o r c o m ı n u n i t y (the 'civitas o f the A p a m e n i ' , in R o m a n t e r m s ) 'vvas' m u s t t a k e i n t o a c c o u n t t h e p o p u l a t i o n o f t h e varied g e o g r a p h i c a l z o n e s , s t r e t e h i n g far o u t i n t o the s t e p p e , h y vvhich it vvas s u r r o u ı ı d e d .

T h e s i t u a t i o n is very different vvith the villages o f t h e l i m e s t o n e m a s s i f , s u r veyed in the great vvork o f G e o r g c s T c h a I e n k o . l u T l ı c m a s s i f e m b r a c c s a series o f m o d e s t l i m e s t o n e r a n g e s , vvith fertile itıterior valleys, s t r e t e h i n g n o r t h 7 . F o r t h e k n o v v n iııscriptiorıs s e e c s p . KUS 8.

IC

XIV, n o . 2 5 5 8 — N . Cauthıer,

I V (15*5 5), n o s .

ıjlı-ıyy?.

Recueıl des inseriptions cbrelıennes de la Gaııle

I (1975!,

n o . 1 0 : " E v O d f i e «futu "AÇıÇoç A y p ı n u £ v p o ç «ca(|irı;) KunpoÇuJkiomoıv, üpo»v 'Anu|ito>v. T h e i n s e r i p t i o n is p r o b a b l y o f t h e f ı f t h c e n t u r y . 9. T l ı e o d o r c t , Hisi.

Relig.

TO. G . T c h a l e n k o , Villages romaine

l-III

(1953-1958).

IV, 5 ; Ep. aniique$

r 19. A m m i a n u s X X V I I I , 1 , 1 1 - 1 4 . de la Syrie dıı Nord:

\.e massif

du He.lus a

l'epocjuc

w a r d s f r o m n e a r A p a m e a a n d rising up t o the east o f t h e O r o n t e s a n d :he plain o f A n t i o c h , t o s h a d e o f f i m p e r c e p t i b l y eastvvards i n t o t h e s t e p p e itself a n d the plains a r o u n d B e r o e a . U n f o r t u n a t c l y f o r present p u r p o s e s , t h e imm e n s e s i g n i f i c a n c e o f this r e g i o n h e l o n g s chiefly t o a later p e r i o d : it lies a b o v e ali in t h e still-standing r e m a i n s o f i t m u m e r a b l e villages o f the late R o m a n p e r i o d , up t o the I s l a m i c c o n q u e s t , a n d in its cetıtral i m p o r t a n c e in the history o f m o n a s t i c i s m , s y m b o l i s c d a b o v e ali by t h e c h u r c h o f Q a l a a t S e m a n , built in the fifth c e n t u r y a r o u n d t h e b a s e o f the pillar o f the f a m o u s h e r m i t Sym e o n Stylites. T h e i n c o m p a r a b l c vvork o f T c h a l c n k o , c a r r i c d o u t a l m o s t s i n g l c - h a n d c d l y , c o n s i s t e d o f a survey, r e c o r d i n g a n d a n a l y s i s o f t h e s t a n d i n g r e m a i n s . It inevit a b l y left essentially u n t o u c h e d t h e q u e s t i o n o f t h e e v o l u t i o n o f s e t t l e m e n t here, a n d its n a t u r e in the first t h r e e c e n t u r i e s AD. AS f o r this a r c a in t h e p e r i o d b e f o r e t h e d e a t h o f C o n s t a n t i n e , vve h a v e t h r e e m e a n s o f a c c e s s . T h e first is f r o m t h e o n l y e x c a v a t i o n so f a r c a r r i e d o u t a t a n y o f the villages, a t D e h e s o n t h e J e b e l B a r i s h a , a r a n g e vvhich lies a t t h e h c a r t o f t h e m a s s i f , a n d j u s t t o the s o u t h o f the A n t i o c h - B c r o c a r o a d . 1 1 T h e s e e x c a v a t i o n s suggested t h a t t h e r e vvas s o m e h a b i t a t i o n a l r e a d y in the Hcllenistic p e r i o d , a n d m o d e s t c o n s t r u c t i o n in tlıc first t h r e e c e n t u r i e s . B u t m a j ö r e x p a n s i o n b e l o n g e d t o t h e third a n d f o u r t h c e n t u r i e s a n d a f t e r . T h e y a l s o c o n f i r m e d T c h a l e n k o ' s vievv o f the i m p o r t a n c e o f olive-grovving in this r e g i o n (tvvcnty-one presses vvere f o ı . n d a r o u n d t h e village), vvhile m o d i f y i n g it in shovving that a n i ı n a l h u s b a n d r y vvas a l s o praetised. O n this e v i d e n c e t h e villages visible t o d a y a r e likely t o re present a m o r e developed p h a s c t h a n t h o s e o f the earlier p e r i o d . S u c h villages c e r t a i n l y c x î s t e d , hovvever. F o r o u r s e c o n d m e a n s o f a c c e s s is tlıc G r e e k i n s e r i p t i o n s o f t h e p e r i o d , a n d a b o v e ali t h o s e put up u n d e r the t e t r a r e h y t o m a r k the b o u n d a r i e s betvveen villages. 1 2 ITıose vvhich a r e knovvn c o m e from the J e b e l S e m a n , i n the n o r t h - c a s t o f the r e g i o n . 1 ' T h e y r e c o r d , f o r i n s t a n c e , tlıc village (kömâ)

o f the K a p r o k Ğ r o i ; tlıat o f the K a p r o l i a b o i (the

p r e s e n t - d a y K a f r L a b ) ; the epfoikia?)—estate—of

Z a c r o (probably the mod-

ern B a z i h e r ) ; a n o t h e r vvhere t h e full n a m e is lost; a n d t h e ep(oikîaf)

o f Kaper-

oul.|amis(?). T h e m i s s i n g n a m e m i g h t be t h a t o f K a p e r N a b o u ( m o d e m K a f r N a b o ) , m e n t i o n e d o n a b u i l d i n g - i n s c r i p t i o n o f 1 0 7 / 2 0 8 . i l e r e t o o vve s o m e t i m e s find r.hat tlıc S e m i t i c r o o t K P R h a s b e c o m e a b s o r b e d in a g r o u p - n a m e , a n d t h a t t h e G r c c k vvord kömS

h a s then been a d d e d .

T h e r e is n o n c e d t o a c c u m u l a t e m o r e o f t h e e v i d e n c e f r o m these a n d o t h e r 1 1 . S e e t h e l o n g r e p o r t b y J.-P. S o d i n i , C . T a t e , B. B a v a n t , S . B a v a n t , j . - L . B i s c o p a n d D . O r s s a u d , " D e h e s ( S y r i e d u N o r d } , C a m p a g n c s I—01 ( 1 9 7 6 - 1 9 7 8 ) " , Syria t h i s r e g i o n s e e a l s o I. P e n a , P. C a s t e L l a n o a n d R. F e r n â n d e z , Inventaire ız.

57 ( 1 9 8 0 ) , i - For

du Jebel Harici)a

(19H7).

Scc 5 . x a b o v e , a n d f o r f u l l t c x t s A p p . A .

1 3 . S e e H . S e y r i g , " B o r ı ı e s c a d a s t r a l e s d u G e b e l S i m ' â n B , in T c h a l e c ı k o , o p . cit. III, 6 f f . F o r K a p e r N a b o u , IGLS

II, n o . 3 5 9 .

i n s e r i p t i o n s , a l m o s t ali in G r e e k , witlı o e c a s i o n a l e p i t a p h s in L a t i n . T h e y a r c e n o u g h t o shovv t h a t a rural p o p u l a t i o n vvas t h e r e , in this part o f thc m a s s i f a t lcast, by t h c cııd o f thc t h i r d c c n t u r y , living in p l a c c s typically knovvn a s 'village o f t h c (group n a m e ) ' . T h e a l t e r n a t i v e e x p r e s s i o n , ' e s t a t e o f ' , c l e a r l y s e e m s t o suggest a e t u a l p o s s e s s i o n o f an a r e a b y a landovvner; a n d e x a c t l y this is a t t e s t e d later b y T h e o d o r e t , in r e c o u n t i n g hovv a c i t y - c o u n c i l l o r leutes)

(bou-

o f A n t i o c h c a m c t o a village o f vvhich h c vvas t h c ovvncr (despotes)

to

c o l l e c t t h c r c v c n u c s duc him. 1 " 4 As for t h e c u l t u r e o f this r u r a l a r e a , t h e p e r s o n a l natııcs used shovv t h e s a m e m i x t u r e o f S e m i t i c , G r e e k a n d L a t i n e l e m e n t s a s elsevvhere. A g a i n t h e r e a r e n o S c m i t i c i n s e r i p t i o n s o f t h i s p e r i o d . H e r e , as elsevvhere in n o r t h e r n S y r i a , t h c knovvn S y r i a c i n s e r i p t i o n s a r e ali C h r i s t i a n , a n d b e l o n g in t h c fifth c e n t u r y a n d after. 1 5 B u t the earliest knovvn C h r i s t i a n inseription in G r e e k d a t e s t o 3 4 1 / 3 4 2 a n d cornes f r o m S e r m a d a , a village a t thc s o u t h e n d o f t h c plain o f D a n a : ' O n c is G o d a n d his C h r i s t o s , y e a r 3 9 0 ( o f A n t i o c h ) ' . ' 6 T h e i m p o r t a n c e o f this p r o c l a m a t i o n n e e d hardly b e stressed. But it g a i n s a n e x t r a s i g n i f i c a n c e p r c c i s c l y i n this local c o n t c x t from thc fact t h a t in t h i s small a r c a inseriptions, archaeological remains and Christian narratives c o m bine t o shovv us t h c c o n f l i c t o f p a g a n i s m a n d C h r i s t i a n i t y as vividly as a n y vvlıere in t h e E m p i r e . T h c k e y e l e m e n t s are p r o v i d e d b y a g r o u p o f f o u r Hill t o p t e m p l e s o f thc s c c o n d c c n t u r y vvhich s p a n an a r e a a t t h e h e a r t o f t h e limestoııe m a s s i f , a n d need t o b e c o n s i d c r e d together. 1 7 First, s o m e 6 k m t o the vvest o f S e r m a d a , on a spur o f the J e b e l Barisha o v c r l o o k i n g b o t h t h c p l a i n o f A n t i o c h a n d thc i n t e r i o r p l a i n o f D a n a , t h e r e is rhe vvell-preserved p a g a n t e m p l e a t B u r j B a q i r h a . A G r e e k inseription on thc liııtel o f the g a t e identifıcs thc deity vvorshipped t h e r e , a n d gives t h e d a t e o f c o n s t r u c t i o n : 1 8 T o Z e u s B ö m o s , great, attentivc, Apollonios and Apollophanes and C h a l bion, the s o n s o f M a r i o n , c r c c t c d thc gate, from (the funds o f rhe ?) epoikion o f M c r t h o s , year 2 0 9 , ( m o n t h ) Gorpiaios (AD I 6 J ) . Belovv the temple, o n the n o r t h s l o p e o f the hill, l o o k i n g dovvn t o thc plain o f A n t i o c h , t h e r e lics t h c l a t c - R o m a n village o f B a q i r h a , vvith tvvo c h u r c h e s , o f t h c fifth a n d sixrh c e n t u r i e s . B u t f o r the religious c o n c e p t i o n s d o m i n a n t i n o u r p e r i o d , as vve savv m u c h earlier, t h e c o n c e p t o f a ' Z e u s (the) A l t a r ' m a y 1 4 . T h e o d o r e t , Hisl.

Relig.

X I V , 4.

15. Scc 7 . 1 , n . 1 9 .

16. ICI.SU, no. 5'8. 1 7 . S c c O . Câllot a n d J . M a r c i l l c r - J a u b c r r , " H a u t s - l i c u x d e S y r i c d u N o r d " , in G . ( e d . ) , Temples

et sanctııaires

Roux

(T984), 1 8 5 .

1 8 . / G L S ı ı , n o . 5 6 9 . O n a c o l u m r a o f t h c t e m p l e itself t h e r e is a n o t l ı c r i n s e r i p t i o n , o f AD 2 3 8 ; s c c H . S e y r i g i n T c h a l c n k o , o p . c i c . III, 2 1 , n o . 2 0 . F o r t h c l a t c - K o m a n v i l l a g e s c c Pcrta e t a l . , o p . cit. ( n . ı ı ) , 7 2 .

be o f great significance. 1 9 In i t s local c o n t e x t it c a n be c o m p a r e d t o t h e s e c o n d o f t h e series, the r u i n e d t e m p l e dedicated t o ' Z e u s T o u r b a r a c h o s ' a t S r i r on a n o t h e r spur o f t h e J c b c l B a r i s h a , t o t h e east o f S c r m a d a ; u n p u b l i s h e d inseript i o n s shovv t h a t this b e l o n g s t o t h e first half o f t h e s e c o n d century. T h e n a m e o f t h e deity clearly derives f r o m t h e S e m i t i c r o o t s Ş\VR f r o c k ' ) a n d B R K ( ' b l e s s ' ) . 7 0 T h e n , 23 k m t o t h e n o r t h - e a s t , a t K a l o t a o n t h e J e b e l S e m a n , is a t e m p l e d c d i c a t c d t o tvvo o r m o r e ' a n c e s t r a l g o d s ' . T h e f r a g m e n t a r y inseript i o n shovvs t h a t o n e o f their n a m e s ended in ' - a i t u l o s ' , a n d t h a t t h e c o n s t r u c t i o n c o m m e m o r a t e d i n v o l v e d a temple a n d a g o l d e n c u l t - o b j e c t

(xoatıon).

W h a t the deities vvere is p r o b a b l y m a d e c l e a r b y an inseription o f A D 224 f r o m n e a r b y K a f r N a b o , r e c o r d i n g t h e d c d i c a t i o n o f an olive-press t o ' S e i m i o s a n d S y ı ı ı b e t y l o s a n d L e ö n , t h e ancestral g o d s ' . T h e s e c o n d divine n a m e m u s t r c c a l l , if in n o very c l e a r vvay9 tlıc ' Z e u s B c t y l o s , t h e a n c e s t r a l g o d o f t h o s e by t h e O r o n t e s ' , t o vvhom a s o l d i c r m a d e a d c d i c a t i o n a t D u r a - E u r o p o s . 2 1 T h i s temple vvas later r e c o n s t r u c t e d a n d c o n v e r t e d i n t o a c h u r c h . B u t it is in t h e history o f t h e f o u r t h t e m p l e that vve sec m o s t c l e a r l y b o t h the n a t u r e o f local p a g a n cults a n d the C h r i s t i a n c h a l l c n g e t o t h e m . i l e r e vvc a r c c o n c e r n e d vvith t h e o n l y real m o u n t a i n in t h e l i m e s t o n e m a s s i f , J e b e l S h e i k h B a r a kat, s o n ı c 8 7 0 m lıigh a n d d o m i t ı a t i n g the vvhole surrounditıg a r e a . " A l o n g series o f G r c c k i n s e r i p t i o n s , o f vvhich n o t ali h a v e yet been p u b l i s h c d , r c c o r d t h e p r a c t i c e o f a c u l t atıd t h e c o n s t r u c t i o n o f a s a n e t u a r y t h e r e , on t h e very s u m mit o f the m o u n t a i n , in the I ı n p e r i a l p e r i o d . W h a t vve a r e c o n c e r n e d vvith here is b y n o m c a n s just a small r u r a l sanetuary, o f a sort typical o f t h e N e a r E a s t , b u t a m a j ö r c o n s t r u c t i o n . T h e vvall o f t h e s a n e t u a r y f o r m e d a s q u a r e o f a b o u t 6 8 m , on a partially artificial esplaııade, a n d lined vvith an i n n e r p o r t i c o . A t e m p l e o f perhaps 1 1 m b y 2 0 m o c c u p i c d the c c n t r c o f t h e tenıenos.

In seale

a n d design the vvhole s a n e t u a r y is thus c o ı ı ı p a r a b l e t o t h e g r e a t t e m p l e o f B a e t o c a e c e in t h e hills b e l ı i n d A r a d o s , at a similar height a b o v e s e a - l c v e l . ' 1 T h e f o r t y - s e v e n r e p o r t e d inseriptions, p u b l i s h c d a n d u n p u b l i s h e d , a n d ali in G r e e k , m a k e it c l e a r t h a t t h e t e m p l e vvas c o n s t r u c t e d relatively early, b e g i n n i n g a b o u t AD 8 0 a n d being c o m p l e t e d in the 140S. T h e deities vvorshippcd vvere ' Z e u s M a d b a c h o s a n d S c l a m a n e s , t h e a n c c s t r a l g o d s ' . A s h a s alvvays been r e c o g n i s e d , t h e c x p r c s s i o n ' Z e u s M a d b a c h o s ' m u s t m e a n t h e s a m e a s 19. Ch. 1 above. 1 0 . S e e C a l l o t atıd M a r c i l l e t - J a u b e r t , o p . c i t . , 1 9 1 - 1 9 5 . 11.

C a l l o t a ı ı d M a r c i l l e t - J a u b e c t , o p . cit., > 9 8 - 2 0 0 . T h e i n s e r i p t i o n s m e n t i o n e d a r e IGJ-S

II, n o s . 3 8 3 a ı ı d 3 7 6 . Hor * Z c u s B c t y l o s ' sec c h . t a b o v e . 2 2 . F o r t h e m o s t r e c e n t a c c o u n r s c c C a l l o t a n d M a r c i l l e t - J a u b e r t , o p . cit., 1 8 7 - 1 9 2 n ı c n r i o n i n g (p. 1 8 8 , n. 12) t h i r t y - f o u r u n p u b l i s h e d i n s e r i p t i o n s . T h e i n s e r i p t i o n s s o f a r p u b l i s h c d a r c IGLS

II, n o s . 4 6 5 — 7 4 0 , a n d J. J a r r y , " i n s e r i p t i o n s a r a b e s , s y r i a q u c s ct g r e c q u e s d u mass-if d u

B c l u s e n S y r i e d u N o r d " , Annales 2 3 . See 8.3 b c l o w .

Islaııtologitjtıes

7 (1968), 139, nos. 4 1 - 4 3 .

' Z e u s Bönıos' at Burj B a q i r h a , 17 km away, namely ' Z e u s (ıhe) Altar'. F o r b e h i n d ' M a d b a c h o s ' t h e r e m u s t lie a S e m i t i c r o o t m e a n i n g ' s a c r i f i c e ' ( Z B K in Ilebrevv, D B K in A r a m a i c ) . F r o m t h a t derives M D B K ' ( ' a l t a r ' ) in A r a m a i c (used f o r i n s t a n c e in E z r a 7 , 1 7 ) . ' S e l a m a n e s ' w a s indeed a truly ' a n c e s t r a l ' divine n a m e , f o r it is a t t e s t e d in the s e c o n d m i l l e n n i u m BC, a n d a l s o a p p e a r s (as S L M N ) in a S i d o n i a n i n s e r i p t i o n o f the H c l l e n i s t i c p e r i o d . 2 4 T h e site is o f e x c c p t i o n a l interest, w h e t h e r w c a t t e m p t t o l o o k b a c k t o its e a r l i c r history o r f o n v a r d t o the c o n f r o n t a t i o n vvith C h r i s t i a n h e r m e t i s m vvhich t o o k

place

t h e r e in t h e f o u r t h century. L o o k i n g b a c k , vvhat is c e m i n is o n l y t h a t t h e vvorshippers t h e r e r e g a r d e d t h e m s e l v e s as s u b s c r i b i n g t o ' a n c e s t r a l ' cults; t h a t o n e o f the divine n a m e s did h a v e a long h i s t o r y ; a n d t h a t the o t h e r derived f r o m a S e m i t i c r o o t vvhosc m e a n i n g vvas evidently knovvn (since ' Z e u s [ t h e ] A l t a r ' is a t t e s t e d in G r e e k n o t f a r avvay), a n d t h e r e b y p r e s e n t s itself as o n e o f tvvo related local c x a m p l c s o f t l ı c identification o f deity a n d altar. B u t vvhat the a e t u a l p r e h i s t o r y o f the c u l t in this p r i m e e x a m p l e o f a ' H i g h P l a c e ' vvas vve d o n o t knovv. C o n t i n u i t y o f c u l t över c e n t u r i e s is q u i t e p o s s i b l e . E v e n i f t h a t m u s t r e m a i n a m e r e h y p o t h e s i s , o u r e v i d e n c e f r o m this rural a r e a m a k e s it c e r t a i n t h a t t h e H c l l e n i s t i c c i t i e s did n o t vvholly d e t e r m i n c the n a t u r e o f religious p r a c t i c e s even a t the h e a r t o f t h e m o s t H e l l e n i s e d part o f the N e a r E a s t . Yet the expression

given t o this cult iıı a r c h i t e c t u r a l f o r m b e l o n g s , a s

alvvays, t o t h e R o m a n E m p i r e . A s h a s never been d o u b t e d , vve c a n a l s o see this c u l t t h r o u g h C h r i s t i a n e y e s . F o r J e b e l S h e i k h B a r a k a t m u s t b c t h e m o u n t a i n o f vvhich T h e o d o r c t gives s o vivid a d e s e r i p t i o n : 2 5 Lying east o f Antioch and vvest o f B e r o e a , there is a high mountain that rises above tlıe neighbouring m o u n t a i n s and imitates a t its topmost summit the shape o f a c o n c . . . O n its very pcak there is a precinct o f demons m u c h revered by those in the neiglıbourhood . . . At the very skirts o f the mountain there is a large and vvell-populated village vvhich in local spccch (enchörios

they cali T c l e d a . A b o v e the mountain-foot there is

pböne)

a dale, n o t very steep b u t sloping gently tovvards that plain and facing the south vvind. Here o n e

A m m i a n u s built a philosophical

rctrcat

(phrontistirion). It vvill h a v e been in t h e m i d d l e o f t h e f o u r t h c e n t u r y t h a t A m m i a n u s e s t a b lished h i m s e l f in his hermit's c e l i on the side o f the m o u n t a i n . B y the t i m e w h c n T h c o d o r c t w r o r e , a c c n t u r y later, t h e r e vvere ı ı ı o n a s t i c c s t a b l i s h m e n t s 1 4 . S e e tlıc c o m m c n t a r y t o IGLS Tcxt-Buok

of North

Semitic

1 5 . T h c o d o r c t , Hisl. Syria by Theodoret

inseriptions

Relig.

of Cyrrhus

II, n o . 4 6 5 . T h e S i d o n i a n i n s e r i p t i o n is G . A . C o o k c , A (1903), no. 7 .

I V , 1 ( a n d 1 3 ) , t r a n s . R . M . P r i c c , A History (1985).

of the Monks

nf

circliııg t h e m o u n t a i n , w h o s e i n h a b i t a ı ı t s , as he s a i d , h y m n e d their M a k e r ' s o m e in G r e e k , o t h e r s in t h e n a t i v e l a n g u a g e * . O n e e a g a i n , the g e o g r a p h y o f rural C h r i s t i a n i t y h a d h e e n d i e t a t c d by the n e c d t o o f f e r a d c l i b e r a t e c h a l l e n g e t o t h e p a g a n c u l t - c c n t r e s ; a n d it is again C h r i s t i a n e v i d e n c e vvhich gives u s o u r best i m p r e s s i o n o f t h e r e v e r e n c e vvhich these c e n t r e s e v o k e d . It is this e v i d e n c e t o o vvhich p e r h a p s s u g g c s t s t h a t t h o u g h G r c c k vvas t h e o n l y lang u a g e t o bc inseribed in this a r e a , S y r i a c o r A r a m a i c h a d f u n e t i o n e d in the e a r l i e r R o m a n K m p i r e as a s p o k e n l a n g u a g e . T h e l a n g u a g e a n d cursive s c ı i p t o f t h o s e later C h r i s t i a n i n s e r i p t i o n s f r o m here vvhich a r e iıı a S e m i t i c l a n g u a g e c a n be defined a s S y r i a c . B u t vvithout d o c u m c n t s vve c a n n o t knovv hovv the ( h y p o t h c t i c a l ) s p o k e n S c m i t i c l a n g u a g e o f the first fevv c e n t u r i e s ( a n d H e l l e nistic p e r i o d ? ) o u g h t t o be c l a s s i f i c d . F r a g m e ı ı t a r y a s o u r e v i d e n c e is, it is sufficient t o m a k e c l e a r hovv c o m p l e x vvas t h e c u l t u r a l a n d r c l i g i o u s c o n t c x t vvithin vvhich the G r e e k cities o f n o r t h e r n Syria lived. E v e n o f the c i t i e s , o n e , H i e r a p o l i s , h a d a dual identity, b o t h a s the c e n t r e o f the c u l t o f A t a r g a t i s , ' t h e S y r i a n G o d d e s s ' , a n d as a G r c c k city like o t h e r s ; a n d a n o t h e r , D o l i c h c , s e e m s t o have grovvn o u t o f a local cultc e n t r e vvith s o m e very a n c i e n t f c a t u r e s .

7.4. T H E M A J Ö R CİTİES:

APAMEA

A s f o r vvhat it in fact m e a n t t o be a G r e e k city like o t h e r s , o u r f r a g m e n t a r y e v i d e n c e h a r d l y allovvs us, in the c a s e o f m o s t o f t h o s e o f n o r t h e r n S y r i a . t o c a t c h m o r e t h a n g l i m p s e s ; a n d n o t h i n g vvill b e gained by l a b o r i o u s l y c o m p i i ing ali t h o s e items o f e v i d e n c e vvhich w e h a p p e ı ı t o h a v e , E v e n the b r o a d criteria f o r vvhat c o n s t i t u t e d a ' G r e e k c i t y ' are n o t entirely u n a m b i g u o u s : o n e o f t h e c e n t r a l t h e m e s o f this b o o k is t h a t the vvhole a r e a vvas m a r k e d by large a g g l o m e r a t i o n s o f p o p u l a t i o n vvhich vve d o n o t alvvays knovv vvhether t o cali ' c i t i e s ' o r n o t . But r e l e v a n t c r i t e r i a f o r defining a ' G r e e k c i t y ' vvould be, f o r i n s t a n c c , t h e c x c l u s i v e use o f G r e e k in p u b i i c a n d c o m m u n a l life; t h e p o s s e s s i o n o f a c o n s t i t u t i o n a l s t r u e t u r e o f local s e l f - g o v e r n m e n t , vvith a n assembly, a council a n d annual magistrates; the c a p a c i t y to m i n t coins bearing the n a m e o f t h e c o m m u n i t y ; the p o s s e s s i o n o f a t e r r i t o r y in vvhich t h e r e vvere villages (kömai)

vvhich vvere in s o m e sense d e p e n d e n t on t h e c i t y ; a n d n o s i m i l a r dc-

p e n d e n c e on a n y o t h e r city. T h a t vvas t h e p o i n t o f the s h o r t - l i v e d m e a s u r e by vvhich Septimius S e v e r u s is s a i d t o h a v e p u n i s h e d A n t i o c h f o r i t s s u p p o r t o f P e s c c n n i u s N i g e r in rhe civil vvar o f T 9 3 / 1 9 4 : he is r e c o r d e d by H e r o d i a r . a s h a v i n g d e c l a r e d t h a t A n t i o c h vvould b e c o m e a könıe

in the t e r r i t o r y o f

I-aodicea.1 1 . H e r o d i a n III, 6, 9. C f . 3 . 4 a b o v e . T h i s d e g t a d a t i o n , if h i s t o r i c a l a t a l i , c a n h a v e l a s t e d only a few ycars.

T h c m o s t c x p l i c i t s y m b o l s o f a city's i d e n t i t y a n d s t a t u s w e r e its c o i n s . B u t b e h i n d t h a t s t a t e m e n t lies a m u l t i t u d e o f p r o b l e m s . W h a t is c e r t a i n is t h a t until t h c s c c o n d h a i f o f t h c t h i r d century the vast m a j o r i t y o f the b a s e - m e t a l c o i n a g c in c i r c u l a t i o n in t h c G r c c k E a s t w a s p r o d u c c d in t h c n a m e o f c i t i c s . ' T h e c o i n s usually, t h o u g h n o t a l w a y s , s h o w e d t h e p o r t r a i t a n d title o f t h c reigning E m p e r o r ; a n d they w o u l d typically list o n the reverse the n a m e o f the c o m m u n i t y a n d d i s p l a y s o m e s y m b o l o r s y m b o l s ( o f t e n t e m p l e s o r deities) a s s o c i a t c d vvith it. W h a t a ' m i n t ' a c t u a l i y vvas, hovvever, a n d vvhether vve s h o u l d s p e a k o f p e r m a n e n t entities c a l l e d ' t h c m i n t o f A n t i o c h ' o r

'the

m i n t o f L a o d i c e a ' , is q u i t e u n c e r t a i n . In S y r i a , as in Asia M i n ö r , it is c l e a r b o t h t h a t m i n t i n g ' b y ' a n y o n e city c o u l d bc episodie, a n d t h a t t h c s a m e vvorkshops vvere p r o d u c i n g c o i n s f o r different cities. 1 T h e city o f C h a l c i s , f o r i n s t a n c e , p r o d u c e d c o i n s o n l y betvveen t h e r e i g n s o f T r a j a n a n d A n t o n i n u s Pius, vvith t h e b a r c legend ' O f t h c Flavian C h a l c i d i a n s ' o n t h c r e v e r s e . * T h a t m a y serve t o r e m i n d us t h a t a l t h o u g h vve speak o f places

in vvhose

n a m e s c o i n s vvere p r o d u c e d , t h e c o i n s t h e m s e l v e s a l m o s t i n v a r i a b l y n a m e d collectivities o f persons:

' t h c C h a l c i d i a n s ' . W i t h t h a t proviso, thc list o f

c o m m u n i t i e s n a m e d ( s o m e t i m e s o n l y f o r very brief p c r i o d s ) o n c o i n s c a n serve as a m a p o f ' t h e G r e e k

c i t i e s ' o f n o r t h e r n Syria: Z e u g m a on

the

E u p h r a t e s , D o l i c h e a n d G e r m a n i c i a (ali t h r e e a t s o m e point part o f C o m magene); Hierapolis, B e r o c a , Cyrrhus, Chalcis, Antioch, Apamea, Seleucia a n d L a o d i c e a (vvhich o c c a s i o n a l l y a l s o p r o d u c e d silver c o i n s ) ; a n d the t h r e e s m a l l places o n thc c o a s t , G a b a l a , P a l t o s a n d B a l a n e a e . F o r r e a s o n s vvhich a r e n o t c n t i r e l y clear, ali m i n t i n g by G r c c k citics cvcryvvhcrc, t h c N e a r E a s t ineluded, c a m e t o an e n d s o o n a f t e r the m i d d l e o f the third century, a n d vvith

it

both

a

distinetive

art-form

and

a

significant

means

of

self-

representation. In g e n e r a l , t h c s e l f - r c p r c s c n t a t i o n s e m b o d i e d in t h e c o i n s might have b e e n t h o s e o f G r e e k c i t i e s anyvvhere. H i e r a p o l i s o f c o u r s e h a d a different i m a g e , a n d its c o i n s m i g h t represent Z e u s / H a d a d a n d Hera/Atargatis, vvith thc d a r d (simeion)

Stan-

p l a c c d betvveen t h e m . 5 M o r e strikingly, given t h c o r i g i n o f

S c l c u c i a a s an c a r l y - H e l l e n i s t i c f o u n d a t i o n , s o m e o f its c o i n s p o r t r a y e d , a s vvell as the t h u n d e r b o l t vvhich vvas s u p p o s e d t o h a v e indicated t h e site t o S e l e u c u s I, a large s t o n e placed vvithin a four-pillared shrine a n d l a b c l l e d ' Z e u s ı . For thc barc outlinc vvhich follovvs I a m dependent especially on C . J. Hovvgcgo, Imperial

Countermarks:

K . W . H a r l , Civic

Studies

Coins

and

in thc

Cıvıc

Polıtics

Provincial

Coinage

in the Roman

A . B u r n c t t , M . A r a a n d r y a n d P. P. R i p p o l l e s , Roman

Fast,

of the AD

Provincial

Roman

Empire

180-275

( ' 9 8 7 ) . But scc n o w

Coinage

I ( 1 9 9 2 ) , w h i c h vvill

enable the entire s u b j e c t t o be renevved. 3 . S c c K . K r a f t , Das system 4 . BMC

Syria,

5. 7 . 2 a b o v c .

147—14^.

der kaiserzeitlicben

Münzprîigung

Grcck

(1985), and

in Kleinasien

(1972).

K a s i o s ' . It seems c l e a r that t h e r e w a s a shrine o f ' Z e u s K a s i o s ' — t h a t i s , the Z e u s o f M o u n t K a s i o s , \vhich rises t o the s o u t h o f t h e m o u t h o f the O r o n t e s ; the p c a k is c l e a r l y visible f r o m t h e city, vvhich rises up t h e hillside o n the n o r t h e r ı ı side o f t h e p l a i n . B u t vvhether this t o o should be seen as a p r e - G r e e k ' H i g h P l a c e ' ; vvhether t h e s t o n c r e p r e s e n t s t h e m o u n t a i n itself o r is a culto b j e c t like t h a t a t E m e s a ; a n d if s o vvhether vve should c o n c l u d e t h a t i n the s a n e t u a r y t h e r e vvas n o r e p r e s e n t a t i o n a l c u l t - s t a t u e o f this Z e u s — a l i this is u n c c r t a i n / T h e evidenee m u s t suggest a t least the possibility t h a t t h e c u l t s o f e v e n a m a j ö r I l e l l e n i s t i c f o u n d a t i o n s u c h a s this e m b o d i e d e l e m e n t s derived from local customs. T h e d e s e r i p t i o n o f t h e c i t i e s o f the N e a r E a s t s i m p l y as ' G r e e k ' h a s t o b c q u a l i f i c d in a n o t h e r vvay a l s o . F o r o n e distinctive f c a t u r c o f t h e N e a r E a s t a s a vvhole vvas t h e t r a n s f o r m a t î o n o f m a n y o f these cities i n t o R o m a n

coloniae,

especially f r o m the reign o f S e v e r u s onvvards. B u t , given hovv e x t e n s i v e this p r o c c s s vvas, it is s t r i k i n g t o vvhat degree it vvas p r i m a r i l y a f e a t u r c o f the e v e n t u a l 'Syria P h o e n i c e ' , r a t h e r t h a n o f the tetrapolis a n d n o r t h e r n Syria. W a s it a sigıı o f their relatively

vvell-grounded identity as G r e e k citics t h a t in

fact o n l y tvvo o f them b c c a m c coloniae, o c h vvas m a d e a colonia

namely Antioch and l ^ o d i c c a ? Anti-

by C a r a c a l l a in 2 1 1 - 2 1 7 , vvith n o r e m i s s i o n o f t r i b -

ute. But the i m p a c t o f the c h a n g e s e e m s t o h a v e been m i n i m a l . A l m o s t

tfıe

o n l y visible signs o f its nevv s t a t u s a r e c o i n s o f t h e p e r i o d 2 1 8 - 2 5 3 , vvith Icge n d s , ali in G r e e k , vvhich r e a d ' o f the metropolis

( a n d ) kolönia

o f the A n t i -

o c l ı e i s ' . T h e r e is n o t h i n g t o shovv t h a t L a t i n - s p e a k i n g , even in p u b l i c life, t o o k r o o t there; a n d it is n o t e v v o r t h y t h a t L i b a n i u s , b o r n in 3 1 4 , b e g i n s his ography

Autobi-

b y fccling it n c c c s s a r y t o c x p l a i n t h a t t h e f a c t t h a t his g r a n d f a t h c r

h a d o n c e m a d e a s p e e c h in L a t i n d i d n o t m e a n

t h a t he h a d

been

an

immigrant.7 R a t h e r c l c a r c r evidenee f o r t h e t r a n s f o r m a t i o n o f i d e n t i t y i n v o l v e d c o m e s f r o m L a o d i c e a , vvhich t o o k S e v e r u s ' side in the civil vvar, a n d g a i n e d t h e title o f metropolis

in 1 9 4 a n d o f colonia

in 1 9 8 . F r o m h e r e t h e r e a r e several series

o f c o i n s vvith legends in L a t i n , ending in the m i d - t h i r d c e n t u r y vvith o n e r e a d ing ' o f C o l o n i a L a o d ( i c c a ) m e t r o p o l i s ' . O t h e r c o i n s o f this p e r i o d , e q u a l l y vvith legends in L a t i n , shovv t h a t the cit)' novv c e l e b r a t e d ' C a p i t o l i n e ' g a m e s i m i t a t e d f r o m t h o s e e s t a b l i s h c d a t R o m e b y D o m i t i a n . B u t tlıc ııcvv status a l s o a p p c a r s on an e x a m p l e o f o n e o f the m o s t c l ı a r a c t e r i s t i c types o f d o c u m e n t f r o m the G r e e k E a s t u n d e r R o m a n rule, the r e c o r d o f his victories by a b o x c r ( a n d p a n e r a t i a s t a n d a t h l e t c ) vvho c a m e f r o m l . a o d i c c a , vvhich vvas i n s e r i b e d

6. S c c H . S c y r i g , " A p r o p o s d u c u l t c d c Z e u s â S c l c u c i c " , Syria 2 0 ( 1 9 3 9 ) , 2 9 6 , c x p r c s s i n g m o r e c o n f i d e n c c t h a n I c o u l d s h a r c . S c c n o w Rl'C 7 . S c c M i l l a r , " R o m a n Coloniae",

I, 6 3 0 - 6 3 1 .

4 1 - 4 2 . S c c 3İso 4 . 2 a b o v e f o r t h e p e t i t i o n p o s t e d i n 245

in ' A n t i o c h ( e i a ) k o l ( ö n i a ) m e t r o p o l i s ' , a t t h e H a d r i a n i c b a t h s .

r h c r c in

A D

ZZI.8

' L a o d i c e a n kolon

T h e m a n is d e s c r i b e d by t h e p s e u d o - G r e e k term ( a n d ) metropoleites\

kolon—

T h e full ü s t o f his victories w o u ! d t a k e

us a l m o s t ali r o u n d the G r e e k vvorld; but as r e g a r d s t h e cities o f n o r t h e r n S y r i a , hc r e c o r d s t h a t in l a o d i c e a , his native city, \vhcn the P y t h i a n festival vvas first i n t r o d u c e d (under C a r a c a l l a ) , he w o n ' t h e o e c u m e n i c a l A n t o ı ı i n i a n tnen's b o x i n g c o n t e s t ' ; he vvas a l s o v i c t o r i o u s in b o x i n g a n d runtıing at L e u c a s ( B a l a n e a e ) , a n d in o t h e r c o n t e s t s a t I l i c r a p o l i s , B c r o e a , Z e u g m a , A p a m c a a n d C h a l c i s . O t h e r c o m p a r a b l e lists o f victories vvould a d d , f o r i n s t a n c e , t h e ' P y t h i a n ' , ' O l y m p i a n ' , ' H a d r i a n i c ' and ' C o m m o d e a t ı ' g a m e s a t A n t i o c h ( t h e latter tvvo n a m e d a f t e r t h e E m p c r o r s ) . 9 T h e f a t e o f v a r i o u s r e c u r r e n t eyeles o f g a m e s t h e r e plays a large part in t h e s i x t h - c c n t u r y Chronicle

of John Malalas

as it r e l a t e s t o this p e r i o d . I n t h a t , a s in the i m p o r t a n c e vvhich it a t t a c h e s t o b u i l d i n g , it f a i t h f u l l y refleets t h e v a l u c s o f e a r l y - I m p c r i a l city life. B u t its e v i dence, often c o n f u s c d in detail, vvill n o t b c used f u r t h e r here. It is, hovvever, i m p o s s i b l e t o e x a g g e r a t e the s i g n i f i c a n c e o f t h e a t h l e t i c a n d o t h e r c o n t e s t s vvhich vvere so i m p o r t a n t a p a r t o f the c o l l e c t i v c life o f G r e e k c i t i e s in t h i s p e r i o d ; 1 0 ali else a p a r t , by o f f e r i n g the possibility o f prizcs t o the p r o f c s s i o n a l a t h l c t c s a n d a c t o r s vvho t o u r c d these c o n t e s t s , they literally served t o m a k e the cities o f Syria part o f a vvider G r e e k vvorld, vvhich e m b r a c e d Asia M i n ö r , G r e e c e proper a n d the g a m e s o f N a p l c s a n d o f R o m e itself. Y e t in this r c s p e c t , as vve have seen earlier, t h e s t e p p e a n d t h e E u p h r a t e s s e e n ı t o h a v e c o n s t i t u t c d a real frontier. G a m e s vvere h e l d in C h a l c i s , on the b o r d e r vvith t h e s t e p p e , a n d in Z e u g m a l o o k i n g over t h e E u p h r a t e s ; but n o t , s o far as vve knovv, i n P a l m y r a o r a c r o s s the E u p h r a t e s in M e s o p o t a m i a . As for t h e f u n e t i o n i n g o f these c o m m u n i t i e s as G r e e k cities, the lack o f narrative e v i d e n c e a n d t h e relatively small n u m b e r o f p u b i i c i n s e r i p t i o n s ( i n n o vvay c o m p a r a b l e t o t h o s e o f t h e m a j ö r citics o f vvestern Asia M i n ö r ) m e a n t h a t vvhat vve h a p p e n t o knovv is e p i s o d i c a n d c a n lıardly be m a d e t o m a k e sense e x c e p t by u n d e r s t a n d i n g it a s refleeting the Standard institutions o f t h e G r e e k city. A l m o s t n o t h i n g s i g n i f i c a n t , f o r i n s t a n c e , is knovvn o f the p u b i i c life o f L a o d i c e a in the i m p e r i a l p e r i o d . M o r e s e r i o u s stili, the s i l t i n g - u p o f t h e site o f A n t i o c h during the i n t e r v e n i n g c e n t u r i e s m e a t ı s that vve h a v e h a r d l y any e p i g r a p h i c r e c o r d o f the f u n e t i o n i n g o f this m a j ö r city a s it vvas in t h e first fevv c e n t u r i e s AD. AS r e g a r d s c o n t c m p o r a r y evidence, vve a r e left vvith a fevv p a s s i n g a l l u s i o n s in n a r r a t i v e s o u r c e s : M u c i a ı ı u s , t h e legatus 8. 3 . 4 a b o v e ; M i l l a r , o p . c i t . , 3 1 — 3 1 . T h e i n s e r i p t i o n is IGR 126$ - Morctti, uııd kaiserliche 9 . IAG,

IAG,

Politik

o f Syria in

III, n o . 1 0 1 2 = IGlS

n o . 8 5 . F o r tlıc ' C a p i t o l i n c ' g a m e s t h e r e s c c R . ' / i e g l e r ,

IV, n o .

Stâdtisches Prestige

(1985), I47ff.

n o s . 6 5 ; 68; 6 9 ; 8 1 ; 8 6 .

1 0 . S e e e s p . L . R o b e r t , " D e u x c o n c o u r s g r e e s â R o m e " , CRA/ und Pes t im kaiserzeitlicbcn

Kleinasien

( 1 9 7 0 J , 6; M . W ö r r l c ,

Stadt

( 1 9 8 8 ) ; S. M i t c h e l l , "Festivals, G a m e s a n d C i v i c Life iıı

R o m a n A s i a M i n ö r " , JRS 8 0 ( 1 9 9 0 ) , 1 8 3 .

6 9 , g o i n g t o t h e t h e a t r c , 'vvhere it is their e u s t o m t o d e l i b e r a t e ' , t o p e r s u a d e t h e citizcns t o s u p p o r t V e s p a s i a n ; or, from the s a m e years, the e p i s o d c vvhen a r e n e g a d e Jcvv a l s o a d d r c s s e d the p e o p l e in the t h e a t r c , urging them t o c o m pel the o t h e r Jevvs t o follovv p a g a n c u s t o m s . A fire vvhich then b r o k e o u t des t r o y e d a vvhole g r o u p o f t h e p u b l i c buildings c h a r a c t e r i s t i c o f a G r e e k c i t y : a four-sîded a g o r a , an official building f o r m a g i s t r a t e s , a r e c o r d - o f f i c e a n d s o m e b a s i l i c a s . S u b s e q u e n t ! y T i t u s t o o , a t the r e q u c s t o f t h e boule

and

detnos,

s p o k e in the t h e a t r c . It vvould b c p o s s i b l e t o c o l l e c t f u r t h e r glimpses o f A n t i o c h a s a c i t y ; but it is n o t uııtil t h e m i d d l c o f t h e f o u r t h century t h a t vve czıı e n t e r i n t o its l i f e . " It is ali the m o r e p a r a d o x i c a l t h a t a l m o s t t h e fuliest r e c o r d o f the pııblic offices o f a n y o n e o f rhese c i t i e s s h o u l d c o m e f r o m the little p l a c e c a l l e d B a l a n e a e , s i t u a t e d on the c o a s t , a p p a r e n t l y r e c o g n i s c d as a city i n d e p e n d e n t o f A r a d u s by M a r c u s A n t o n i u s in 3 7 BC, a n d a c q u i r i n g the n a m e ' C l a u d i a I.euc a s ' u n d e r C l a u d i u s — h o v v o r vvhy is n o t knovvn. 1 2 Itı a n y c a s e its c o i n s o f t h e s e c o n d c e n t u r y shovv its i n h a b i t a n t s again as ' B a l a n e ö t a i ' . W c c a n hardly p r e t e n d t o gain m u c h i n s i g h t i n t o vvhat b c i n g a ' B a l a n c ö t c s ' m e a n t . B u t the h a n d f u l o f i n s e r i p t i o n s f r o m t h e site shovv t h a t the city did h a v e a c o u n c i l a r d a n a s s e m b l y , vvhich vve find e r c c t i ı ı g s t a t u e s o f b e n e f a c t o r s . E v e n m o r e s t r i k i n g is a very f r a g m e n t a r y i n s e r i p t i o n vvhich shovvs s o m e o n e b c i n g h o n o u r e d for a l m o s t the fuU rangc o f f u n e t i o n s vvhich vvould h a v e been e x p e c t e d o f an o f f i c e - h o l d e r in a m a j o r c i t y : h a v i n g been strategos, a n d archön,

agoratıomos,

dekaprötos

havitıg been o n a n e m b a s s y t o t h e E m p e r o r , a n d h a v i n g pur-

c h a s e d c o r n a t his ovvn e.vpcnsc a n d distribııted it; a s a result he h a d been 'testificd t o ' b e f o r e tlıc E m p e r o r by his city. \Vc should n o t u n d e r e s t i m a t e the s i g n i f i c a n c e o f this s t r u e t u r e o f s e l f - g o v c r n m c n t , even ( o r perhaps e s p e c i a l l y ) a s e x p r e s s c d by very small c o m m u n a l units; n o r s h o u l d vve o v c r l o o k t h e fact t h a t o n e o f its f u n e t i o n s vvas t o e x p r e s s t h e vvill o f the c o m m u n i t y b e f o r e g o v e r n o r s a n d E m p e r o r s — t h e e m b a s s y f r o m a city vvas o n e o f the f u n d a m e a tal i n s t i t u t i o n s o f t h e R o m a n E m p i r e . İf vve c a n find these i n s t i t u t i o n s a t vvork in B a l a n e a e , it vvill hardly b c a s u r p r i s c t o find that u n d e r H a d r i a n the 'Seleuciaııs a t Z e u g ı ı ı a ' c o u l d d e s p a t e h a n a m b a s s a d o r t o set up a n h o n o r i f i c s t a t u e o f a R o m a n s e n a t ö r a t P e r g a t n o n ; o r t o c o m c a e r o s s a c c r t a i n Publius, a m a n o f tovvn-councillor r a n k

at

1 1 . S c c 2 . 4 a b o v e ( M u c i a n u s ) ; J o s e p h u s , D] V I I , 3 , 3 - 4 ( 4 3 - 6 2 ) ; 5 , 2 ( I I O - I I I ) . E o r v / h a t c a n bc k n o v v n o f A n t i o c h s c c G . D o w n e y , A lliitory Arab

Q>Hqnest

scc, e . g . , J. H . W . G . L i e b e s c h u e t z , Antioch: man Empire

in Syria from

Seleucus

/ o toe

City and Imperial

Administration

in the Later

R>-

(1972).

1 2 . S e e H . S e y r i g , Syria 2 7 ( 1 9 5 0 ) , 2 2 - 2 4 ; IGLS g r u p p e v o n B a l a n e a - L e u k a s iıı S y r i e n " , ArJ>. IGLS

of Antioch

( 1 9 6 1 ) , chs. J t - u (relying too m u c h on Malalas). For fourrh-eentury A n t i o c h

I V , 4 9 ; see a l s o R . Fleischer, " D i e T y c h c -

Attz. ( 1 9 8 6 ) , 7 0 7 . T l ı c i n s e r i p t i o n s m e n t i o n e d a r e

IV, n o s . 1 3 0 2 - 1 3 0 3 . F o r t h e c o i n s o f tlıc first c c n t ı ı r y s c c RFC

I, 6 3 9 - 6 4 1 .

Z e u g m a , vvho set up as a h e r m i t in t h e s e c o n d h a l f o f t h e f o u r t h c e n t u r y . " But t o g a i n a n y real i m p r c s s i o n o f t h c novv lost c i t y life o f this r c g i o n , vve c a n best turn t o a r c m a r k a b l e set o f i n s e r i p t i o n s f r o m A p a m e a , the o n l y o n e o f ali these citics vvhere large-scale c x c a v a t i o n h a s b c c n c a r r i e d o u t . 1 4 O n t h c o n e hand t h e city r e m a i n e d vvithin t h c c i r c u i t o f its I lellcnistic vvalls, r e i n f o r c e d in the third ccntury, a n d r e t a i n e d its o r i g i n a l c h e q u e r - b o a r d s t r e e t - p a t t e r n . But vvhat is a c t u a l l y visible o f t h e u r b a n s t r u c n ı r e o f t h e c i t y b e l o n g s t o t h e s e c o n d c e n t u r y AD a n d after, a n d m o r e specifically t o e x t e n s i v e a n d elaborat-e r e - b u i l d i n g a f t e r the g r e a t c a r t h q u a k c o f AD 1 1 5 , vvhich so p r o f o u n d l y a f fectcd Antioch. 1 - 5 It is f r o m this p h a s e t h a t vve h a p p e n t o have s o m c i n s e r i p tions, f r o m t h e b a t h s c o n s t r u c t e d n e a r the G r e a t C o l o n n a d e , vvhich p e r f e c t l y e n c a p s u l a t c the e v o l u t i o n o f a H e l l e n i s t i c - R o m a n city in S y r i a , a n d t h c v a l u e s vvhich i n f o r m e d city life. 1 6 I*hcy refer t o t h c b c n e f a c t i o n s o f a c i t i z c n o f A p a m e a vvho vvas a l s o a R o m a n c i t i z e n , a n d h a d a fully R o m a n n a m e , L . Iulius A g r i p p a . L o o k i n g b a c k över a century, o n e o f the inseriptions r e c o r d s t h a t Agrippa's grcat-grandfathcr, D c x a n d r o s , had bccn rccordcd o n bronzc tablets o n t h e C a p i t o l a t R o m e , a t the i n s t a n c e o f Augustus, a s a friend o f the R o m a n P e o p l e . W h c t h c r o r n o t I ) c x a n d r o s h a d a c t u a l l y been a l o c a l dynast o p e r a t i n g o u t s i d e thc b o u n d s o f a city f r a m e v v o r k , as h a s been suggested, is n o t c c r t a i n . B u t he h a d c l c a r l y fulfillcd s o m c i m p o r t a n t individual role in t h c t r o u b l c d period b e f o r e t h e p r o v i n c e s e t t l e d dovvn under Imperial rule. T h e inseription a l s o , c o n c o r d a n t l y vvith t h a t , r e c o r d s that D e x a ı ı d r o s h a d been t h e first H i g h Priest (archiereus),

c v i d c n t l y o f the p r o v i n c c o f Syria. T h i s is in fact t h c

i n d i c a t i o n t h a t a league (koifion)

first

o f t h e c i t i e s o f Syria h a d c o m e i n t o e x ı s t e n c e

a l r e a d y under A u g u s t u s , a n d h a d p e r f o r m e d the q u i c k l y e s t a b l i s h e d r o l e o f c o ı ı d u c t i n g thc vvorship o f t h c E m p e r o r . N o t h i n g is knovvn o f t h c temple, o r t e m p l e s , o f t h c cult; b u t the g a m e s o f t h c koinon

o f Syria a r e a t t e s t e d in t h c

first ccntury, a n d t o o k place a t A n t i o c h . 1 7 T h e i n s e r i p t i o n says n o t h i n g spccific o f A g r i p p a ' s g r a n d f a t h c r a n d father. B u t hc h i m s e l f is r c v c a l c d as a p c r f e c t e x a m p l e o f rhe city b c n e f a c t o r getes),

(euer-

o f a type vvhich is f a m i l i a r f r o m t h e i n s e r i p t i o n s f r o m elsevvhere, b u t

othervvisc n o t vvell a t t e s t e d in S y r i a . H e h a d u n d e r t a k e n a l o n g list o f c i t y

1 3 . S e e G ı r . H a b i c h t , Alterlûmer [1969),

von

Pergamon

n o . 2 1 . r u b l i u s : T h e o d o r e t , His t. Relig.

V I I I . 3 , die

Inschriflcn

des

Ashlepieions

V, i .

14. For a portrayal of Apamea scc J . Balty and J.-C. Balty, " Apamec de Syric archeologie et hiütoirc I: Des origines â la Tetrarchic", ANRW 11.8 (1977I, 103; J.-C. Balty, Guide d'Apanıec ( 1 9 8 1 ) ; idem, "Apamea in Syria in the Second and theThird Centuries A D " , J R S 7 8 ( 1 9 8 8 ) , 9 1 . 1 5 . 3.3 a b o v e . 1 6 . F o r t h e s e i n s e r i p t i o n s scc J.-P. K c y - G o q u a i s , " İ n s e r i p t i o n s g r c c q u c s d ' A p a m â e " , i j ( ' 9 7 i ) » 3 9 = AE

1 7 . M o r c t t i , IAG, J. D e i n i n g e r , Die

AAAS

( 1 9 7 6 ) , n o s . 6 7 7 - 6 8 5 ( L . I u l i u s A g r i p p a ) ; 6 8 6 ( I u l i u s l'aris). n o s . 6 2 3 n d 6 7 . F o r t h c v e r y l i t t l c t h a t is k n o v v n o f this

PravinzialUındtage

der

römisehen

Kaiserzeit

(1965), 87-88.

koinon

offices a n d b e n e f a c t i o n s , i n c l u d l n g distriburing g r a i n a n d oil, a n d g o i n g on e m b a s s i e s t o the E m p e r o r a n d the g o v e r n o r s . M o r e o v e r , he h a d c o n s t r u c t e d a c o n s i d c r a b l e n u m b e r o f m i l c s o f a n a q u c d u c t , a n itern vvhich g a i n s in sign i f i c a n c e vvhen it is rcaliscd t h a t the t r a c c s o f t h e city's a q u c d u c t shovv t h a t it s t a r t e d 7 5 k m t o t h e s o u t h - e a s t , in t h e s t e p p e t o the east o f the O r o n t e s . 1 " Al) this he h a d u ı ı d e r t a k c n ân spite o f a g r a n t o f e x e m p t i o n f r o m liturgies (aleitourgesia);

b u t m o s t ı ı o t a b l y h c h a d p u r c h a s e d the site a n d built the

b a t h s , a l o n g vvith a basilica

a n d stoa

in f r o n t o f t h e m , a n d a d o r n e d them

lavishly. It is o f p a r t i c u l a r i n r c r c s t t h a t o n e o f the i n s e r i p t i o n s specifies vvhich figures f r o m G r c c k ı ı ı y t h o l o g y vvere r e p r e s e n t e d by t h e b r o n z c s t a t u e s s e t up in t h e b a t h s : T h e s c u s a n d t h e M i n o t a u r ; A p o l i o ; O l y m p o s (in legend o n e o i t h e earliest

flute-players);

a l s o a s s o c i a t e d vvith

S k y t h e s (a s o n o f H e r a k l e s ) ; a n d M a r s y a s (a satyr,

flute-playing).

W h y prccisely these figures vvere seleeted

f o r a s c u l p t u r a l p r o g r a m m e is n o t o b v i o u s , t h o u g h s o m e c o n n c c t i o n vvith the l e g e n d a r y origins o f G r c c k m u s i c is clcar. It r e m a i n s significant t h a t s c u l p t u r e s o f this s o r t , a l o n g , f o r i n s t a n c e , vvith m o s a i c s vvith m y t h o l o g i c a l s c e n e s , r e p r e sent vchicles by vvhich s o m e o f t h e c o t ı t e n t o f Classical G r c c k c u l t u r e c o u l d b c t r a n s m i t t e d t o a n e n v i r o n m e n t betvveen t h e J e b e l A n s a r i y c h a n d

the

O r o n t e s on t h e o n e side a n d t h e s t e p p e on t h e other. \Vhat p e o p l e c o m i n g in f r o m the villages a r o u ı ı d A p a m e a vvill h a v e m a d e o f s u c h s t a t u e s is n o t rec o r d c d ; n o r do vve knovv if t h e r e vvas a n y a l t c r n a t i v c , n o n - G r e e k , m y t h i c a l h i s t o r y vvhich c o u l d be t r a n s m i t t e d t o t h e m b y s o m e o t h e r m e a n s . I f s u c h villagers d i d n o t n e c e s s a r i l y e n t e r the b a t h s , it is m o r e likely that they vvill s o m e t i m e s have j o i n c d t h e a u d i e n c c in t h e vast t h e a t r e o f A p a m e a ( 1 3 9 m in diameter, p e r h a p s t h e largcst f r o m t h e vvhole a n c i e n t vvorld), vvhere again the c o n t c n t o f t h e vvider G r a e c o - R o m a n c u l t u r c vvill h a v e been transm i t t e d in p o p u l a r f o r m . An h o ı ı o r i f i c i n s e r i p t i o n put up a t A p a m e a u n d e r H a d r i a n by t h e sacred synodos

('association') o f the actors devoted t o Diony-

sus c e l e b r a t e d Iulius Paris, a citizcn o f ' C l a t ı d i a A p a m e a ' (clearly a title novv e n j o y e d b y his tıaıive city), o f A n t i o c h a n d o f o t h e r cities, a n d ' h o n o u r e d vvith t h e sexviratus colonia

in the kolöneia

B e r y t u s ' (the L a t i n title o f this o f f i c c in the

is given in t r a n s l i t e r a t i o n ) . Iulius P a r i s vvas (literally) ' a n a c t o r of

tragic m o v e m e n t (kinesis)';

in o t h e r vvords he p e r f o r m e d m ı m e s o r ballets,

a e t i n g o u t scenes f r o m G r e e k m y t h o l o g y . 1 9 W e c o u l d leave A p a m e a , a n d t h e c i t i e s o f u o r t h e r n S y r i a , a f t e r sceing these refleetions o f hovv G r e e k c u l t u r c vvas t r a n s m i t t e d here a t a p o p u l a r level, i f it vvere n o t f o r a n o t h e r G r e e k inseription f r o m n e a r the G r e a t C o l o n n a d e , o f vvhich o n l y t h e last fevv vvords survive:

18. See J . - C . Ralty, " P r o b l e m e s d e I ' c a u a A p a m c c d c S y r i e " , i n R l . o u i s , F. M e c r a )

J. Metral (eds.), L'bomme

et l'eau en Meditertanee

19. Rey-Coquais, op. cit., 6}f(.,

et au Proche

no. 10; AF. (1976i,

no.

Orient

686.

IV (1987), 9.

and

(..

on the orders of (the) Greatest G o d , Sacred Belos, Aur(elios) Belios

Philippos, pricst and

succcssor (diadochos)

in Apamca

o f the

Epi-

koureioi. 2 0 T h e i m p o r t a n t N e o - P l a t o n i c p h i l o s o p h e r o f t h e later s e c o n d c e n t u r y , N u m e n ius, c a m e f r o m A p a m e a , a n d t h e m a j ö r N e o - P l a t o n i s t o f t h e early f o u r t h c e n tury, I a m b l i c h u s , f r o m C h a l c i s , a l s o t a u g h t t h e r e . B u t t h e r e h a d been 110 previous c v i d e n c e t o suggcst t h a t a n e s t a b l i s h e d E p i c u r c a n s c h o o l c x i s t c d t h e r e . 2 1 H e r e , hovvever, an a t t a c h n ı e n t t o a c h a r a c t e r i s t i c e l e m e n t o f H e l l e n i s t i c c u l ture is visibly c o m b i n e d vvith a n a p p a r e n t l y q u i t e different o n e , the vvorship of Bel. O n e e l e m e n t in t h e m a n ' s c o n ı p o s i t e R o m a n n a m e , vvith L a t i n , G r c c k a n d S e m i t i c e l e m e n t s , is o b v i o u s l y derived from t h e n a m e o f the g o d , B e l . B e s t attested as t h e n a m e o f a s u p r e m e god ( o r c h i e f g o d o f an individual city) i n B a b y l o n i a , Bel vvas a l s o the god o f the m a j ö r t e m p l e o f P a l m y r a , vvhose t e r r i tory b o r d e r e d t h a t o f A p a m e a . 2 2 Hovv a n d vvhen this deity b c c a m c e s t a b l i s h e d in A p a m e a is q u i t e u n c c r t a i n . T y p i c a l l y o f o u r evidence, his role is a t t e s t e d t h e r e — a s a deity vvho g a v c o r a c u l a r r e s p o n s e s ( n o t a b l y t o S e p t i m i u s S e v e r u s ) — o n l y in the later s e c o n d a n d c a r l y third c c n t u r i c s . 2 J C a s s i u s D i o , i n r e p o r t i n g t h e o r a c l c given t o S e v e r u s , e x p l i c i t l y e q u a t e s ' B e l o s ' vvith Z e u s , long since r c p r c s c ı ı t c d on t h e c o i n s o f the city. T h e p r e s u m e d site o f the t e m p l e o f Z e u s , n e v e r c x c a v a t c d , o c c u p i e s a large a r e a o f t h e city t o the vvest o f t h e G r e a t C o l o n n a d c . T h e s t o r y o f its eventual d e s t r u c t i o n by B i s h o p M a r c e l l u s in the 3 S o s shovvs t h a t it vvas a m a s s i v e pillared c o n s t r u c t i o n o f the Standard type, s u r r o u n d e d on ali f o u r sides b y a p o r t i c o f o n n i n g a temenos,24

B u t hovv

the deity vvorshipped there c a m c , a t least for a t i m e , t o b e idcntificd vvith B e l represents s i m p l y a n o t h e r q u e s t s o n a b o ı ı t n o n - G r e e k e l e m e n t s in the cults o f the c i t i e s o f n o r t h e r n S y r i a . T h e s e q u e s t i o n s r e m a i n . But it is m o r e sigııifıcant t h a t , I l i c r a p o l i s a p a r t , they r e t a i n e d m o r e ciearly t h a n t h o s e o f a n y o t h e r region o f t h e N e a r Hast t h e i m p r i n t o f e a r l y - H e l I e n i s t i c c o l o ı ı i a l i s m . 2 0 . R c > ' - C o q u a i s , o p . cit., 66li.:

[ . . ] o ı v [ . . ] e i û [Keteûloecoç; 8 e o û p e y u n o t ) ö y i o v Bi)Xou A u p .

H r f t ı o ç « D t t u m o ç l e p e v ; K a l 6 1 0 6 0 x 0 ; c v ' A n u j ı e ı ç ıcıv "EsiKOUpeîttv. 2 t . F o r t h e d i f f i c u l t «juestion o f t h e s i g n i f i c a n c e o f t h e l o c a l o r i g i n s o f p h i l o s o p h c r s c o m i n g f r o n ı N e a r E a s t e r n c i t i e s , s c c 1 3 . 1 belovv. 2 2 . 9 . 4 belovv. F o r Bel s c c LIMC

I H . ı ( 1 9 8 6 ) , 9 0 s.v.

"Bel".

2 3 . 3 . 4 a b o v e . S e c J . - C . B a l t y , " l . ' o r a c l c d ' A p a m c e " , Ant. 2 4 . T h c o d o r e t , HE Empire, A D 3 2 0 - 4 3 5 " ,

Class.

5 0 ( 1 9 8 1 ) , 5.

V, 2 1 . See G . Fovvden, " B i s h o p s and T e m p l e s in t h e Eastern R o m a n

JThSt

2 9 ( 1 9 7 8 ) , 53-

CHAPTKR

8 THE PHOENİCİAN COAST AND ITS H I N T E R L A N D

8.1. H I S T O R Y A N D

GEOGRAPHY

In t w o different vvays, vvhich m a y n o n e t h e l e s s b e c o n n e c t e d , the c i t i e s o f P h o e n i c i a played a q u i t e d i f f e r e n t r o l e within t h e E m p i r e — a n d

vvithin

G r a e c o - R o m a n c u l t u r e — f r o m t h a t o f the cities in o t h e r r e g i o n s o f t h e N e a r E a s t . Eirst, b o t h in ' r e a l ' h i s t o r y a n d in legend the P h o e n i c i a n s h a d h a d an integral p a r t in G r e e k c u l t u r e f r o m t h e b e g i n n i n g . T h e r e vvas t h e l e g e n d o f t h e f o u t ı d a t i o n o f B o e o t i a n T h c b c s b y K a d m o s , t h e s o n o f King Agenor, f r o m T y r e o r S i d o n (vvhich in t h e m o d e r n vvorld h a s even been claiıııed as a lıistorical reality, o b s c u r c d by racial a n d c u l t u r a l prejudice); 1 t h e a s s o c i a t e d s t o r y o f his sister E u r o p a , a n d h e r r a p e by Z e u s ; the r e p c a t c d a p p c a r a n c c o f P h o e n i c i a n s in t h e Odyssey;

t h e a c c e p t a n c c , f r o m H e r o d o t u s onvvards, o f t h e (valid)

t r a d i t i o n o f the derivation o f t h e G r e e k a l p h a b e t f r o m the P h o e n i c i a n otıe; 2 H e r o d o t u s ' identification o f the c h i e f god o f T y r e as I I e r a k l c s ; 3 a n d a b o v e ali tlıc l o n g - e s t a b l i s h e d G r e e k h i s t o r i c a i t r a d i t i o n r e c o r d i n g the P h o e n i c i a n c o l o n i s a t i o n o f the vvestern M e d i t e r r a n e a n . 4

i . Scc M . Bcrnal,

Black Athena: The Afroasiatic Roats of Greek Civihsation

I (1987).

z. H e r o d o t u s V , 58. T h e d a i e a n d c o ı ı c e x t o f t h e b o r r o w i n g h a v e beerı m u c h d i s p u t e d , and in this c o n t e x t d o n o t m a t t e r . S c c

L.

H . Jcffrey,

The Local Scripts of Archaic Grcccc.

rcv. « I . b y

A . W. J o h n s t o n ( ^ 9 0 ) , e s p . 4 2 5 f f . F o r a r a d i c a l r c a p p r a i s a l o f tlıc e h r o n o l o g y , see n o w P. J a m e s et a l . ,

Centuries nfDarkness

(1991).

Me!qart: Cultes et mythes ile l'Höracles lyrien en Mediterranee (Studia Phoenicia V I I I , 1 9 8 8 ) . 4 . S c c F. B u n n c n s , L'expaıısion phenicienne en Mediterranee, Essai d'interpretation for.de sur une analyse des traditions litteraires ( 1 9 7 9 ) . S e e a l s o M . G r a s , P. R o u i l l a r d a n d J . Tcixi. R i c k c r m a n , " S u r u n c i n s e r i p t i o n g r c c q u e de Melanges

Dussaud

I ( 1 9 3 9 ) , 9 1 ; i n s e r i p t i o n t r a n s . i n M . M . A u s t i n , The

Hellenistic

Sidon", World

< i 9 8 r ) , n o . 1 2 1 . F o r t h i s a n d w h a t f o l l o w s s e e F. M i l l a r , " T h e Photrtıician C i t i e s : A C a s c - s t u d y o f H e l l e n i s a t i o ı r , Proc. Pbucnicia

Camb.

Philol.

Soc.

209 ( 1 9 8 3 ) , j y . Scc novv also J. D. Grainger,

Hellenistic

(i99r).

6. M . G . G u z z o A m a d a s i , Le iserizioni

fenicie

r j , n o . 1 ; H . D o n n c r a n d W . R ö l l ı g , Kanaanaiscbe (hcnccforvvard D o n n c r and Röllig, 7. Polybius X X X I ,

e puniebe

delle

colonie

und aramîiische

in Occidente

Inschriften

(1967),

(1962), no. 4 7

KAI).

12,11-12.

8. F o r D i d o see W . H . R o s c h c r , Griechisd>e

und römiscbe

Mytbologie

9 . F o r E l i s s a / D i d o as t h c f o u n d e r o f C a r t h a g c , T i m a c u s , l'GrlI J u s t i n X V I I I , 4 - 6 . S e e O . S k u t s c h , The

Annals

of Ennius

( 1 9 8 5 ) , 8.

I ( 1 8 8 4 } , s.v.

"Dido".

5 6 6 , F.82, a n d m o r e f u l l y

outside ıhe Pillars, hymn r a t h e r tlıe praises o f Tyre. A t any rate, both citics have been f a m o u s and illustrious, both in early times a n d at the present time; as to vvhich o f the tvvo o n c might cali the metropolis o f the Phoenicians, there is a dispute in both cities. 1 0 H e g o e s 011 t o speak o f t h e still-flourishing d y e - i n d u s t r y o f Tyre, the traditiotı o f the S i d o n i a n c o n t r i b u t i o n t o a s t r o n o m y a n d a r i t h m e t i c , a n d t h e c u r r c n t p r o m i n e n c e in p h i l o s o p h y o f m e n f r o m b o t h cities. Pliny the Elder, vvriting s o m e d e c a d e s later, e v o k e s the s a m e h i s t o r i c a l nss o c i a t i o n s o f Tyre, if in m o r e p c s s i m i s t i c t e r m s : N e x t Tyre, once an island separated from the mainland by a very d e e p sea-ehannel 7 0 0 yards vvidc, but novv joined t o it by vvorks constructed b y Alexander vvhen besieging the place, and formcrly famous as the

rnorher-

city from vvhich sprang the cities o f Leptis, Utica and the great rival o f R o m c ' s empire in covcting vvorld-sovcrcignty, C a r t h a g c , and also Cadiz, vvhich she founded outside the confincs of the vvorld; but the entire renovvn o f Tyre novv consists in a shell-fish and a purple d y e ! " As vvc h a v e already seen, vvhen the R o m a n E m p e r o r vvas a m a n f r o m L e p t i s , m a r r i e d t o a lady f r o m E m e s a , vvhich c o n t e m p o r a r i e s a l s o t h o u g h t o f a s a P h o e n i c i a n city, these t r a d i r i o n s vvould c o n t r i b u t e t o a p r o f o u n d c h a n g e in t h e m a p o f the R o m a n N e a r E a s t . F o r it vvas he vvho m a d e ' P h o e n i c e ' the name of a R o m a n provincc.12 T h e c c ı ı t r a l a r e a o f P h o e t ı i c i a c o u l d b e defined as the line o f a n c i e n t cities on the c o a s t , b a c k i n g o n t o M o u n t L e b a n o n : f r o m s o u t h t o n o r t h T y r e , S i d o n , Berytus, Byblos a n d Tripolis. Phoenician influcncc and scttlcment had, h o w ever, a t times e x t e n d e d m u c h f u r t h e r n o r t h , even b e y o n d M o u n t A m a n u s , a n d f u r t h e r s o u t h , t o the I d u m a e a ı ı c o a s t . G i v e n this lack o f d e f i n i t i o n , it vvill be s i m p l e s t t o use, in t h e n o r t h » t h e b o u n d a r y o f 'Syria P h o e n i c e ' , a s S c p t i m i j s S e v e r u s e s t a b i i s h e d it, vvhich r a n j u s t s o u t h o f B a l a n c a e . 1 3 T h e r e a r c in aııy case g o o d r e a s o n s f o r t r e a t i n g A r a d u s , on its island o f f the c o a s t , a s p a r t o f P h o c n i c i a , a n d vvith it the g r e a t t e m p l e o f B a e t o c a e c e , high u p belovv the crest o f t h e s o u t h e r n e n d o f t h e J e b e l A n s a r i y e h . ' P h o c n i c i a ' a s used here vvill also e m b r a c e M o u n t L e b a n o n , vvith its s e q u c n c c o f i m p o r t a n t shrines in r e m o t e a n d c l c v a t e d sites, a s vvell a s the B c k a a Valley, vvith I l c l i o p o l i s / B a a l b c k . In spite o f t h e i m p o r t a n t c f f e c t s o f R o m a n c o l o n i a l scttleuıent t h e r e , L u c i a n 10. Slrabo, Geog. XVI, 2, i z (756), Locb trans., vvith onc corrcction. 11. l'liny, NH V, 12/76,1.ocb trans. 12. 3.4 above. 13. itin. Burdig. 582, 7-10: 'Civıtas Balaneas, mil. XIII; finiş Syriac Coelis ct Foenicis; ır.utacio Maraccas, mil. X; mansio Antaradus, mil. XVI'. There arc complieations about this bour.dary, but this is the best evidenee.

(vvriting b e f o r e Severus m a d e ' P h o e n i c e ' an official term) treated H e l i o p o l i s , a l o n g vvith Tyre, Sidoıı a n d B y b l o s , a s a p l a c e vvhere t h e r e vvas a n c x o t i c c u l t o b s e r v e d by ' P h o e n i c i a n s ' . 1 4 F u r t h e r s o u t h a l o n g the c o a s t , in t e r m s b o t h o f hovv

contcmporarics

spoke

and

of

provincial

boundaries,

'Phoenicia'

s t r e t e h e d as far a s t h e little tovvn o f D o r , o r D o r a , o n t h e c o a s t betvveen M o u n t Carmel and Caesarea. O u r survey o f P h o e n i c i a vvill begin in this s o u t h e r n a r e a , up t o P t o l e m a i s (for vvhich r a b b i n i c vvorks stili u s e d its S e m i t i c n a m e , A c o — ' K W ) , a n d vvill then l o o k at the n o r t h e r n r e g i o n , from Aradus t o Berytus a n d H e l i o p o l i s , b e f o r e reachiııg t h e tvvo places vvhich d i s p u t e d the right t o the title ' m e t r o p o l i s of Phoenicia', Tyre and Sidon.

8.2. PHOENİCİA: THE SOUTHERN REGİON A s vve have sccn carlicr, J o s e p h u s 1 s t o r y o f vvhat h a p p e n c d in t h e e a r l y 40S, vvhen s o m e y o u n g p a g a n s in D o r a placed a statue o f C l a u d i u s in the s y n a g o g u e t h e r e , shovvs t h a t the p l a c e , t r a d i t i o n a l l y on the b o r d e r s o f Jevvish t e r r i tory, vvas vvithin the then p r o v i n c e o f S y r i a . Agrippa 1 c o m p l a i n e d t o t h e legatus

o f Syria, P u b l i u s P e t r o n i u s ; a n d he sent a c e n t u r i o n , t o vvhom

the

m a g i s t r a t e s o f the city vvere o r d e r e d t o h a n d over the p e r p e t r a t o r s . 1 it is i n deed a c l a s s i c i n s t a n c e o f hovv R o m a n f o r c c c o u l d bc applicd, if very e p i s o d i cally, in a d i s t a n t s o u t h e r n c o r n c r o f the p r o v i n c c . A fevv y e a r s later its f r o n t i e r situarion g a v e it an e q u a l l y c o n t e n t i o u s r o l e : f o r J o s e p h u s , as c o m m a n d e r o f the Jevvish f o r c e s in G a l i l e e , f o u n d t h a t Cestius G a l l u s h a d t a k e n h o s t a g e s f r o m S c p p l ı o r i s a n d p l a c c d t h e m in D o r a , ' a city o f P h o c n i c c ' ; 2 a g a i n , this t e r m i n o l o g y vvas in c u r r e n t use l o n g b e f o r e S e v e r u s e m p l o y e d it a s the official name of a province. N o t h i n g in t h e m i n i m a l e v i d e n c e a b o u t D o r a goes t o p r o v c t h a t it stili r e t a i n c d a n y distinetively P h o e n i c i a n c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s . I n s t e a d , in its official self-image it e x u d e d ali t h e s c l f - i m p o r t a n c c o f a G r e e k city: it ıninted c o i n s betvveen t h e r e i g n s o f N e r o a n d A n t o ı ı i n u s Pius a n d again under E l a g a b a l ; a t their m o s t c x p a n s i v c the legends cali the city ' s a c r c d ' , ' i n v i o l a t c ' , ' a u t o n o m o u s ' a n d 'mistress o f a fleet

(n. " C h a b u l o n " .

V , 1 7 / 7 5 : ' p r o m u ı ı t u r i u m C a r m e l u s , et in m o n t e o p p i d u m e o d e m n o m i n e " ;

Hist. II, 7 8 .

the f u n c t i o n i n g o f a pagaıı " S e m i t i c ! ligh P l a c e ' , p e r h a p s s h o w i n g a direct c o n t i n u i t y w i t h t h e O l d T e s r a m c n t p e r i o d , a n d the c u l t c o n f r o n t c d b y E l i j a h . E u s e b i u s (a m u c h better p l a c e d o b s e r v e r } o f f c r s a p a r a l l e l case, r e p o r t i n g that M o u n t H e r ı n o n , 'vvhich t h e Phoinikes

cali Saniör',

vvas said t o be r c v c r c d as

s a c r e d by t h e p a g a n s . " B u t in fact e x a c t l y vvhat m o s t c l e a r l y c h a r a c t e r i s e s vvorship a t l o c a t i o n s high u p o n m o u n t a i n s , a s it vvas p r a c t i s c d in t h e N e a r E a s t in t h e R o m a n p e r i o d , vvas the c r e c t i o n o f t e m p l e s in C l a s s i c a l style. M o r e o v e r , a r c h a e o l o g i c a l e v i d e n e e shovvs t h a t on M o u n t C a r m e l itself culcs t a t u c s vvere n o t unknovvn, o r at least h a d c o m e i n t o use by the end o f the s e c o n d century. F o r t h e f o o t — a l i t h a t r e m a i n s — o f a c o l o s s a l statue (tvvice life-size) f o u n d o n t h e m o u n t a i n b e a r s t h e G r e e k i n s e r i p t i o n : ' t o I l e l i o p o l i t a n Z e u s , ( g o d o f ? ) C a r m e l , G . I o u l ( i o s ) E u t y c h a s , kol(ön) c a t o r vvas a citizen o f t h e colonia

Kaisareus\

T h e ded>

o f C a e s a r e a , o f vvhich m o r e belovv. B u t vvhst

is significant is t h a t t h e god ( Z e u s ) o f C a r m e l c a n b e represented in s c u l p t u r c , a n d that he is h e r e ( u n i q u e l y ) identified vvith the f a m o u s Z e u s o f H e l i o p o l i s . 3 4 O n c c again it is futilc t o asle vvhat a n a n c i c n t deity 'really vvas': f o r he vvas vvhatever his vvorshipper s a i d he vvas. But the c h o i c e m a d e by this vvorshipper vvas t o identify h i m vvith the ( b y novv) best-knovvn deity o f t h e c c n t r a l P h o c n i c i a n z o n e . O n c c a g a i n , t h e r e f o r e , this is an i n d i c a t i o n t h a t vve s h o u l d see this c o a s t a l region a s a b o r d e r - z o n e o f ' P h o e n i c i a ' — a s vvell, o f c o u r s e , a s a n a r e a o f citics vvith G r c c k c o n s t i t u t i o n s , a b o r d e r - z o n e (as T y r e a n d S i d o n vvere a l s e ) vvith t h e properly Jevvish a r e a , a n d t h e site o f the s e c o n d R o m a n colonia

of

the N e a r F.ast. Novvlıere in this s o u t h e r n e x t e n s i o n o f ' P h o e n i c i a ' , hovvever, do vvc h a v e a n y p o s i t i v c evidenee f r o m t h e Imperial period o f the c o n t i n u c d use o f the P h o e n i c i a n l a n g u a g e . In t h a t respect t h e r e is a c o n t r a s t , t h o u g h a very slight o n c , if vvc m o v c t o t h e n o r t l ı e r n c o a s t l i n e o f vvhat vvas t o b e ' S y r i a P h o e n i c e ' .

8.3. T H E N O R T H E R N A N D İTS

COASTLİNE

HINTERI.AND

W h a t h a d o ı ı c e been t h e m o s t i m p o r t a n t p l a c e in the n o r t h e r n part o f P h o c n i c i a vvas t h e island city o f A r a d u s , lying off t h e c o a s t n o r t h o f t h e E l e u t h e r u s R i v e r a n d o f t h e passage i n l a n d t h r o u g h t o E m e s a a n d P a l m y r a . O n c c u n d e r its ovvn kings, a n d a city vvhich h a d m i n t e d its ovvn silver a n d b r o n z e c o i m t h r o u g h t h e H c l l c n i s t i c p e r i o d , using an era b e g i n n i n g in Z 5 9 BC, it seems f r o m t h e very littlc t h a t vve knovv o f it in the Imperial period t o h a v e b e e n of

13. Fuscbius, Onom. 20, 9 - 1 1 . 1 4 . S c c M . A v i - Y o n a h , " M o u n t C a r m e l a n d rhc G o d of B a a l b c k " , IE/ 2 ( 1 9 5 2 ) , 1 1 8 = ( 1 9 5 2 ) , n o . 2 0 6 = Y . I Iajjar^

La İrinde d'lleliopolis-Baalbek

AF.

I ( 1 9 7 7 ) , n o . 2 2 7 a n d Pl. l x x x v i .

m i n ö r i m p o r t a n c e . 1 T h e k n o w n i n s e r i p t i o n s are e n o u g h t o sho\v t h a t it h a d t h e n o r m a l s t r u e t u r e o f a G r e e k city, vvith a c o u n c i l (boule)

and an assembly;

a n d like o t h e r cities it m i n t e d b r o n z e c o i n s , ali vvith G r e e k l e g e n d s , i n t e r m i t tently until t h e reign o f G o r d i a ı ı . It is n o t a b l e , hovvever, t h a t s o m e are a l s o m a r k e d vvith individual P h o e n i c i a n letters. T h e significance o f A r a d u s l i e s in tvvo a s p e e t s . First, it provides the o n l y securely d a t e d P h o c n i c i a n - G r e c k bilingual inseription o f the I m p e r i a l p e r i o d . It d a t e s t o

Z5/Z4

BC,

h e n c e u n d e r A u g u s t u s , a n d is in fact t h e c a r l i c s t knovvn

inseription f r o m the c i t y . ' F r a g m e n t a r y a s the t c x t is, it is e n o u g h t o give t h e y e a r ( 2 3 5 ) , i n d i c a t c d in G r e e k l e t t e r s in b o t h halves o f the t e x t ; t o shovv t h a t s o m e t h i n g vvas being d e d i c a t e d by s o m e o n e a e t i n g a s g y m n a s i a r c h ; a n d t o g i v e the n a m e s o f t h e deities t o vvhom t h e d c d i c a t i o n vvas m a d e : in G r e e k H c r m c s a n d I l e r a k l c s , a n d in P h o c n i c i a n H e r m e s ( t r a n s l i t e r a t e d as T I M ( . . . ] ) a n d M e l q a r t ( M L Q R T ) . It vvould be difficult t o find a d o c u m c n t vvhich in a fevv f r a g m e n t a r y litıes e x h i b i t s m o r e precisely t h e f u s i o n o f G r e e k a n d P h o e n i cian e l e m e n t s . It d o e s , hovvever, servc t o raise a q u c s t i o n c o m m o n t o the vvhole N e a r E a s t , but particularly p r o b l c m a t i c in P h o e n i c i a . D o e s the s u b s e q u e n t a b s e n c e , f r o m t h e knovvn evidence, o f inseribed

t e x ı s in P h o e n i c i a n m e a n t h a t the l a n -

g u a g e vvas n o l o n g e r vvritten, o r even n o l o n g e r s p o k e n ? Ciearly, it c a n

prove

n o such thing. But even if it vvere c e r t a i n that P h o e n i c i a n did indeed die o u t in t h e early E m p i r e , t h e issuc vvould r e m a i n o f hovv e s s e n t i a ! a local l a n g u a g e vvas t o t h e t r a n s m i s s i o n o f a l o c a l c u l t u r c o r o f i n d i g c n o u s cults. T h i s q u c s t i o n arises a l s o in t h e c a s c o f t h e s e c o n d significant feature o f t h e city, t h e c x i s t e n c e in tlıc m a i ı ı l a n d t e r r i t o r y c o n t r o l l e d by it o f the g r e a t t e m p l e o f B a e t o c a e c c , 3 s i t u a t e d s o m e 3 0 k m i n l a n d , a n d j u s t belovv t h e c r e s t o f t h e J e b e l A n s a r i y e h . As in a l m o s t ali c a s e s , the physical s t r u e t u r e vvhich s u r v i v e s is a p r o d u e t o f the R o m a n E m p i r e . A G r e e k inseription r e c o r d s that a n a r e a beside the t c m p l c vvas pavcd, s t e p s built a n d a b r o n z e a l t a r d e d i c a t e d in AD 1 8 5 / 1 8 6 by a R o m a n c e n t u r i o n , T. Aurelius D e c i m u s , a native o f O e s c u s in M o c s i a I n f e r i o r ; a n o t h e r d e d i c a t i o n vvas m a d e by a s o l d i e r vvho deseribes h i m s e l f as ' h i g h e s t { s u m t n u s — t r a n s l i t e r a t e d in G r c c k as soutnnıos)

ı.

S c c J.-P. R c y - C o q u a i s , Arados

( 1 9 7 4 ) ; i d e m , IGLS 2 . IGLS

V I I , Arados

et sa Peree

et regions

voisines

aux

epoques

grecı/ııe,

romaine

( 1 9 7 0 ) . F o r t h e c o i n s s c c RPCI,

o f t h e ecf-

et

byzantine 641-643.

V I I , n o . 4 0 0 1 . F o r s o m e r e a s o n it is n o t i n e l u d e d in D o n n e r a n d R ö l l i g , KAL

For a

p h o t o g r a p h o f the text a n d a discussiorı o f the Phoeniciatı text, given in Hebrevv c h a r a c t c r s , s e e R. Savignac,

uUne

visite â l ' î l e d e R o u a d " , RB

13 ( 1 9 1 6 ) , 5 ^ 5 o n p p . 5 7 ^ - 5 7 9 .

3 . F o r t h e p h y s i c a l s t r u e t u r e s e e D . K r e n c k e r a n d W . Z s c h i e c f s c h m a n n , Römische Syrien Syria

Tempel

in

I ( 1 9 3 8 ) , 6 J - I O I . F o r its h i s t o r y a n d i n s e r i p t i o n s , H . S e y r i g , " A r a d o s e t B a c t o c a c c i " , 28 < 1 9 5 1 ) , 1 9 i ;

IGLS

III, n o s . 4 0 2 8 - 4 0 4 1 .

C f . A. Baroni,

" I terreni e i p r i v i l e g i

del r e m p i o di Z e u s a B a i t o k a i k c ( I G L S V I I , 4 0 2 8 ) " , i n B . V i r g i l i o ( e d . ) , Studi (»984), 135.

FJlenistici

I

uites singulares'.

O n c c a g a i n t h e d c v o t i o r ı o f R o m a n soldiers t o these N e a r

E a s t e r n s h r i n e s is vvorth n o t i n g . 4 T h e a l t a r s t a n d s beside a s m a l l l o n i c t e m p l e vvithin a v a s t vvalled p r e c i n c t , o f s o m e 1 3 5 m by 8 5 m ; a n i n s e r i p t i o n r e e o r d s t h a t part o f it vvas c o n s t r u c t e d by d e v o t e e s (katochoi)

o f the g o d in AD 22.3/2.24.* T h a t shovvs o n l y o f c o u r s e

the f a m i l i a r p a t t e r n b y vvhich it vvas in t h e R o m a n E m p i r e t h a t a r c l ı i t e c t u r a l e x p r c s s i o n vvas given t o N e a r E a s t e r n cults. B u t in this c a s e vve kııovv, f r o m the m a j o r i n s e r i p t i o n c a r v e d o n t h e vvall beside t h e main g a t e , t h a t t h e sanctııa r y o f Z e u s o f B a e t o c a c c c h a d been in c x i s t c n c c a t least s i n c e the third c e n t u r y BC. 6 F o r it r e e o r d s that K i n g A n t i o c h u s ( p r o b a b l y either I , 2 9 3 - 2 6 1 BC, o r II, 2 6 1 - 2 4 6 ) h a d a l l o c a t e d the r e v e n u e s o f t h e village o f B a e t o c a c c c f o r t h e s u p p o r t o f the cult; h a d i n s t i t u t e d a tvvice-monthly t a x - f r e e m a r k e t t h e r e ; and h a d declared t h a t the village vvould be e x e m p t f r o m the e x a c t i o n s o f official travellers. T h e inseription a l s o r e e o r d s t h a t under A u g u s t u s , in c i r c u m s t a n c e s vvhich a r e n o t m a d e clear, ' t h e c i t y ' (vvhich m u s t be A r a d u s ) h a d sent t o the E m p e r o r a d e c r e e t h a t m a r k e t o f f i c i a l s s h o u l d permit vvithout t a x a t i o r ı t h e t r a n s i t o f g o o d s a n d a n i m a l s d u e f o r s a l e a t t h e tvvice-monthly fair a t B a e t o c a c c c . W h a t ever the n a t u r e o f t h e e x c h a n g e s vvhich lcd t o this d e c r e e a n d its d e s p a t e h , it is o n e o f the very fevv r e f l e e t i o n s o f Imperial d e c i s i o n - m a k i n g in this r e g i o n in t h e first c c n t u r y o f the E m p i r e . T h e d o s s i e r ovved its e x i s c e n c e a s a n i n s e r i p t i o n , hovvever, t o t h e fact that a petition vvas p r e s e n t e d t o V a l e r i a n (and n o m i n a l l y a l s o t o G a l l i e n u s a n d S a l o n i n u s ) in 2 5 8 / 2 5 9 , a n d a b r i e f r e p l y in L a t i n o b t a i n e d , laying dovvn that t h e g o v e r n o r o f the p r o v i n c e vvould s e e t o it t h a t the ' a n c i e n t beneficia

o f the

k i n g s ' vvere t o be preserved a g a i n s t t h e violeııce o f a n adversary. T h e d o s s i e r c o n c l u d c s vvith the r e c o r d in G r e e k o f t h e i n s e r i b i n g o f t h e reply b y t h e b e n e ficia ries: ' T h e katochoi

o f S a c r e d H e a v e n l y (bagios ouranios)

Z e u s put u p the

divine r e s e r i p t , vvorshipped b y ali, (as the r e c o r d ) o f the p i e t y o f the E m p e r o r s tovvards t h e god a n d o f their ( g r a n t o f ) f r e e d o m t o the p l a c e ' . It is impossible t o say e x a c t l y vvhat is n ı e a n r here b y katochoi

('devotees'), cxcept that they

a r e c l e a r l y free p e o p l e vvith c o n t r o l o f their ovvn f u n d s , a n d n o t

'temple

slaves'. N o r c a n vve s a y vvhether t h e c u l t h a d been in e x i s t e n c e b e f o r e the H c l l e n i s t i c p e r i o d . T h e n a m e o f t h e p l a c e (variously t r a n s l i t e r a t e d as ' B a i t o k a i k e ' , ' B e t o c h e i c h e i ' a n d s o f o r t h ) s e e m s c e r t a i n l y t o i n c o r p o r a t e the S e m i t i c r o o t B Y T ( ' h o u s e ' ) . B e y o t ı d t h a t ali i n t e r p r e t a t i o ı ı s , i n c l u d i n g , somevvhat imp r o b a b l y , ' h o u s e o f t h e c a s t o r v i n e ' , are m c r c l y s p e c u l a t i v e . 7

4 . IGLS

VII, nos. 4034 a n d 4 0 3 7 .

5 . / G L S V I I , no. 4 0 3 1 . 6. IGLS

VII, no. 4028.

7 . F o r this interpretarion s c c E P i c j k o , " A B r o n z c P l a q u c f o r the G o d o f B a e t o c a c c c " , 30 ( 1 9 8 2 ) , 9 7 , on ıGLS

V I I , n o . 4 0 4 1 ; scc SEG

XXXII, no. ^ 4 6 .

Hetyl^s

T h i s p l a c e - n a m e , \vhatever i l s m e a n i n g o r o r i g i n , r e p r e s e n t s the o n l y s p e cifically ' S e m i t i c ' e l e m e n t in t h e e v i d e n c c for t h e c u l t . It is o f c o u r s e o n l y t o bc e x p e c t e d t h a t c x c h a n g e s w i l h rulers will h a v e beeıı c o n d u c t e d in G r e e k o r I.atin. B u t ali t h c d c d i c a t i o n s f r o m t h c site arc a l s o in G r c c k . N o t h i n g vvhatever is k n o w n o f the p r i e s t h o o d o r o f thc form o f t h e c u l t - o b j c c t vvorshipped t h e r e . If m u c h thus r e m a i n s u n c l e a r , w l ı a t is certain is the c o n t i n u i t y o f the c u l t ö v e r ( p r o b a b l y ) s o m c five c c n t u r i e s , its l o c a t i o n in a village c o n t c x t , a n d t h c i m p o r t a n c e o f the t w i c e - m o n t h l y fair held t h e r e . T h e sheer scale o f t h e c o n s t r u c t i o n , t o vvhich vve m u s t a d d a s u b s i d i a r y s a n e t u a r y built s o m e 5 0 m f r o m thc north-vvest c o r n c r o f thc temenos,

m u s t give s o m c hint o f thc r e s o u r c e s

a v a i l a b l e in these cultivated l a n d s vvhich rise up g r a d u a l l y from the c o a s t t o the crest o f the J e b e l A n s a r i y e h ( t c r r a c i n g is visible up t o the very t o p o f t h e m o u n t a i ı ı - c h a i n ) . As s u c h , it is m u c h t h c largest o f t h c rural s a n c t u a r i c s vvhose r e m a i n s c a n b c f o u n d high in t h c hills o f vvhat t h c a n c i c n r vvorld regardcd a s P h o e n i c i a . A fevv o t h e r p r o m i n e n t e x a m p l e s , o u t o f many, vvill be m e n t i o n e d belovv. B u t vvhether vve s h o u l d c h a r a c t e r i s e t h e g o d o f B a e t o c a e c e a n d h i s c u l t as ' P h o c n i c i a n ' is a q u c s t i o n vvhich a t t h c m o m e n t vve h a v e n o m c a n s o f ansvvering. N o t h i n g significant is knovvn o f o t h e r s m a l l places lying a l o n g this c o a s t , C a r n e , A n t a r a d u s , M a r a t h u s , S i m y r a , O r t h o s i a , o r even thc city a t t h e n o r t h e r n tip o f M o u n t L e b a n o n , A r c a o r C a e s a r e a I . i b a n i , n o t a b l e o n l y f o r h a v i n g been t h e native city o f a m a n vvith a L a t i n n a m e , Gessius M a r c i a n u s , vvho m a r r i e d a n i c c c o f Iulia D o m n a f r o m E m c s a , a n d vvas thus t o be thc f a t h e r o f the E m p e r o r Severus A l e x a n d c r . A s vve h a v e s c c n , this p l a c e b e c a m e a

colonia

in the reign o f A l e x a n d e r ' s c o u s i n , ' E l a g a b a l ' . 8 E v e n vvhat h a d been a n i m p o r t a n t P h o e n i c i a n city, T r i p o l i s , h a s hardly left a n y distinetive t r a c e in t h c I m p e r i a l p e r i o d . B u t , for i n s t a n c c , a n inseription f r o m A t h c n s , o f t h e reign o f H a d r i a n , shovvs T r i p o l i s vvith b o t h the n o r m a l insıitutions o f a G r e e k city a n d thc a r r a y o f g r a n d i o s e G r e e k cities c h a r a c t e r i s ı i c o f the P h o e n i c i a n c i t i c s o f this period: 'tlıe m a g i s t r a t e s a n d c o u n c i l a n d p e o p l e o f ( t h c city o f thc) T r i p o litai o f P h o i n e i k c , t h c s a c r c d a n d invioiate a n d a u t o n o m o u s a n d mistress o f a fleet'. 9 T h e h i s t o r y o f the h i n t e r l a n d iıı this a r c a , that is t o say, thc n o r t h e r n e n d o f M o u n t L e b a n o n , betvveen thc c o a s t a n d the upper O r o n t e s Valley, is a l m o s t vvholly o b s c u r e . E r o m S t r a b o ' s a c c o u n t it seeıııs t o have been d o m i n a t e d b y I t u r a e a n m o u n t a i n - p e o p l e s in t h e later R e p u b l i c ; a n d a R o m a n officcr, A e m i l ius S c c u n d u s , vvas stili o p e r a r i n g a g a i n s t thc I t u r a e a n s o f M o u n t

Lebanon

tovvards the end o f A u g u s t u s ' r e i g n . ' 0 T l ı e a r e a m a y h a v e b c c n t h c t e r r i t o r y

8. S e e 3.4 a n d 4 . 2 a b o v e . 9 . O G / S , no. 587. 1 0 . 2 . 1 a b o v c . Hor tlıe s i t u a t i o n b e f o r e P o ı ı ı p e y ' s a r r i v a l , S t r a b o , G e o g . X V I , 2, 1 8 ( 7 5 5 ) .

o f the T t u r a e a ı ı A r a b s ' , a s D i o d e s e r i b e s t h e m , g i v e n t o o n e S o a e m u s b y G a i u s in 3 8 , a n d then r e i n c o r p o r a t e d i n t o t h e E m p i r e o n his d e a t h in 4 9 ; but s o m e o f it a t least s e e m s t o h a v e b e l o n g c d t o A g r i p p a I I . " T h e d e t a i l s a r e n o t \vorth p u r s u i n g , I t is m o r e i m p o r t a n t t o n o t e t h a t h e r e t o o vve c a n find r u r a l t e m p l e s a n d s h r i n e s c o n s t r u c t e d in t h e I m p e r i a l p e r i o d ; i f i n s e r i p t i o n s a r e f o u n d in a s s o c i a t i o n vvith t h e s e t e m p l e s , t h e y a r e again alvvays in G r e e k . 1 2 O n c e m o r e the c x i s t c n c c o f t h e s e r u r a l t e m p l e s i m p l i c s t h a t h e r e t o o t h e r e vvas a v i l l a g e p o p u l a t i o n . B u t the e c o n o m y , s o c i a l s t r u e t u r e a n d c u l t u r e o f this h i n t e r l a ı ı d ali r e m a i n very little knovvn. \Ve m a y n o t e t h a t b o t h S t r a b o a n d C a s s i u s D i o d e s e r i b e a t l e a s t s o m e o f its i n h a b i t a n t s as ' A r a b ' ; b u t vvhat t h e y m c a n t by this r e m a i n s o b s c u r e . N o r c a n vve e v e r b c c c r t a i n vvhether r u r a l t e m p l e s built in C l a s s i c a l f o r m s , vvhose k n o v v n vvorshippers used G r c c k vvhen t h e y p u t up i n s e r i p t i o n s , did o r did n o t e m b o d y o l d e r local t r a d i t i o n s a n d f o r m s o f b e l i e f . İt m u s t n o n e t h e l e s s b c s i g n i f i c a n t t h a t s u c h h y p o t h c t i c a l o l d e r t r a d i t i o n s c o u l d novv b c e x p r c s s e d in G r e e k f o r m s .

8.4.

T H E

M A J Ö R

C İ T İ E S :

B Y B L O S

A N D

B E R Y T U S

T h e a r c a vvhich a b o v e ali d i d r e t a i n , in the e y e s b o t h o f o u t s i d e r s a n d o f its ovvn p e o p l e , a n i d e n t i t y vvhich vvas d i s t i n e t i v e l y ' P h o e n i c i a n ' vvas the l i n e o f c o a s t a l cities f r o ı n B y b l o s s o u t h t h r o u g h B e r y t u s t o S i d o n a n d T y r e , vvith t h e i r h i n t c r l a n d e x t c n d i ı ı g far i n l a n d (in t h e c a s e o f B e r y t u s , c o v e r i n g the n o r t h e r n p a r t o f t h e B e k a a V a l l e y ) . B u t e v e n h e r e vvc d o n o t find a n y c c r t a i n e x a m p ! e s in the R o m a n p e r i o d o f i n s e r i p t i o n s p u t up in t h e P h o e n i c i a n l a n g u a g c . T h e o n c p o s s i b l e c x c e p t i o n is an. i n s e r i p t i o n in P h o e n i c i a n f r o m B y b l o s , vvhich may

date

to

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first

century

AD. In

it

someone

callcd

Abdeshmoutı

( ' B D ' S M N ) m a k e s a d e d i c a t î o n ' t o o u r l o r d a n d t o t h e i m a g c (or s t a t u c ) o f Baal ( L ' D N N W L S M L B ' L ) \ It has even been suggestcd that 'our lord' here is a r e f e r e n c e t o t h e E m p e r o r . B c t t e r e v i d e n e e vvould be n e e d e d , a n d it is surp r i s i n g t h a t h e is n o t n a m e d ; b u t t h e p o s s i b i l i t y r e m a i n s ö p e n . 1 T h i s is in a n y c a s e a n i n s t a n c e o f a p r i v a t e d e d i c a t i o n o n a s m a l l altar. O n 1 1 . Schürer, HJP I, 5 6 9 - 5 7 0 . i z . Sec, c . g . , K r e n c k e r a ı ı d Z s c h i e t z . s c h ı ı ı a n n , Römiscbe

Tempel

I, 1 0 2 - 1 0 4 (Ret D j a l l u k ,

a l s o k n o w n as M a q a m c r - R a b ; f o r G r e e k i n s e r i p t i o n s f r o m there s c c I I . S c y r i g , " N e m e s i s el l c t e m p l e d e M a q 3 m e r - R a b b " , MUSf

3 7 . I 1 9 6 0 - 6 1 ) , 2 6 1 ) ; 2 0 - 3 4 (a g r o u p of t h r e e t e m p l e s a t

H o s n Sfiri); 8 - 1 9 (Kasr N a ı ı s ) a n d 4 - 7 ( B z i z a ) — b o t h in t h e f o o c h i l l s s o u t h o f T r i p o l i s a n d vvest o f R o t r y s . For t h e i r l o c a t i o n s s e e K r e n c k c r a n d Z s c h i e t z s c h m 3 n n 11, T a f e l I. F o r t h e i n s e r i p t i o n s o f this a r e a s e c c s p . J.-P. R c y - C o q u a i s , " U n c i n s e r i p t i o n d u L i b a n N o r d " , MUSJ

4 7 ( 1 9 7 2 . ) , 87

(on t h e c o n s r r u c r i o n in AD r 8 4 of a r u r a l s a n e t u a r y o n t h e N a h r A b o u M o u s s a , i n l a n d f r o m Tripolis). r . D o n n e r a n d R ö l l i g , KAI,

n o . 1 2 ; f o r t h e s u g g e s t i o n see R . D u s s a u d , " i n s e r i p t i o n p h c n i c -

ienne d e B y b l o s d ' c p o q u e r o m a i n c " , Syria 6 ( 1 9 2 . 5 ) , 2 6 9 .

a n y v i e w thc P h o e n i c i a n citics did n o t p r o d u c c vvhole series o f S e m i t i c l a n g u a g e p u b l i c i n s e r i p t i o n s , t o c o m p a r c vvith t h o s e a t P a l m y r a , o r e v e n vvith t h c e a r l y Imperial i n s e r i p t i o n s (in L a t i n a n d N e o - P u n i c ) f r o m T r i p o l i t a n i a , espccially Lepcis M a g n a . 2 T h e r e are, hovvever, s o m e i n d i c a t i o n s t h a t P h o e n i cian vvas stili used a n d u n d e r s t o o d ; a n d t h e r e a r e a c o u p l e o f e x a m p l e s o f i n s e r i p t i o n s f r o m this a r e a in S e m i t i c l a n g u a g e s o t h e r t h a n P h o e n i c i a n . F r o m S i d o n there is a bilingual d e d i c a t i o n t o D u s a r e s , in G r e e k a n d N a b a t a e a n , d a t i n g t o the fifth y e a r o f A r e t a s IV, so 4 BC. 3 Similarly, f r o m H a r b a t a in t h e n o r t h e r n B e k a a Valley, vvhich m u s t have b c c n in thc t e r r i t o r y o f Berytus a n d then o f H e l i o p o l i s , t h e r e is a s t r a y i n s e r i p t i o n in P a l m y r e n e , o n o n e o f a c a c h e o f P a l m y r e n e s c u l p t u r e s . 4 I n g e n e r a l , hovvever, even central P h o e n i c i a , vvith thc B e k a a Valley, b e l o n g s in t h e z o n e c h a r a c t e r i s e d , in b o t h tovvn a n d c o u n t r y , b y i n s e r i p t i o n s in G r e e k . It t h u s o f f e r s a clear c o n t r a s t b o t h vvith thc P a l m y r e n e zone a n d vvith its ovvn s o u t h e r n h i n t e r l a n d , G a l i l c c , vvhere G r c c k , Hebrevv a n d A r a m a i c c o - e x i s t e d as inseribed l a n g u a g e s . T h c tvvo P h o c n i c i a n citics vvhere t h c ' a m n e s i a ' a b o u t t h e p r e - H e l I e ı ı i s t i c past, vvhich c h a r a c t e r i s e s t h c R o m a n N e a r E a s t a s a vvhole, m o s t c l c a r l y d i d not prevail vvere Sidon a n d T y r e . It vvill b e simplest t o a p p r o a c h t h e m t h r o u g h thc c o n t r a s t i n g identities o f B y b i o s a n d Berytus a s they present t h e m s e l v e s in thc Imperial period. F r o m B y b l o s , as vve savv, t h e r e is a single P h o e n i c i a n inseription vvhich m a y date f r o m the first c e n t u r y AD.* F o r vvhat it is vvorth, this is m a t c l ı e d b y a c o u p l e o f c o i n - t y p c s , p r o b a b l y o f thc late R e p u b l i c r a t h e r than o f A u g u s t u s ' reign, vvhich repeat the P h o c n i c i a n legend s o m e t i m e s used in thc H e l l e n i s t i c period: ' t o ( o r o f ) G B L t h e h o l y ' ( L G B L Q D S T ) . 6 T h e r e is n o d o u b t t h a t t h e m o d e r n n a n ı e o f the p l a c c , J b a i l , is inherited f r o m the P h o e n i c i a n n a m e G B L , used f o r i n s t a n c c in a series o f P h o c n i c i a n royal i n s e r i p t i o n s in vvhich t h c c h i c f g o d d e s s is identified as the ' m i s t r e s s ( B ' L T ) o f G B L ' . B u t t h e fluidity o f d i v i n e identities in this a r e a is c l e a r l y i l l u s t r a t c d b y t h c f a c t t h a t the i m p o r t a n t i n seription o f K i n g Ychavvmilk o f B y b l o s , o f thc fifth o r f o u r t h c c n t u r y BC, a l -

2. S c c

C,.

(1927-1967)

l x v i delta V i d a a n d M . G . G u z z o A m a d a s i ,

Iscrizioni puniebe della Tripolitania

(1987).

3 . C / S II. 1 , n o . 1 6 0 . 4 . S . R o n z e v a l l e , " N o t c s ct e t u d e s d ' a r c h c o l o g i e o r i e n t a l e " ,

MliSJ 11

(»937-38), 1, 73ff.,

n o . 8 ; J . S t a r c k y , " i n s e r i p t i o n s p a l m y r c n i c n n c s c o n s c r v c c s a u M u s c c d c B c y r o u t h " , BMB ( 1 9 5 5 ) , 29, 011 p. 4 r , n o . 1 0 . S c c M . A . K . C o l l c d g c ,

The Art of Palmyra

T2

(1970), 130.

5. Text to n . t a b o v e . 6.

BMC Phoettîcia, 9 8 - 9 9 ,

n o s . 1 8 - 1 9 ( d a t i n g these c o i n s t o A u g u s t u s ' r e i g n ) . T h e p r e v a i l i n g

v t c w is, hovvever, t h a t t h e y a r c d a t e d b y a I ' o m p c i a n c r a , a n d h e n c e b e l o n g iıı t h c late R c p u b l i c .

Syria 3 r ( i 9 J 4 > . 73~7; H . R . B a l d u s , " S y r i a " , in A . M . Bıırnctt a ı ı d The Coinage of the Koman Worlditt the l.ale Repııblic ( 1 9 8 7 ) , 1 2 1 , o n

Scc H . Seyrig,

M . M. C r a w -

f o r d (cds.),

p. 1 3 4 ;

I, 6 4 7 - 6 4 8 -

Rl'C.

r e a d y represents the ' m i s t r e s s o f G B L ' in E g y p t i a n dress a n d stylc. 7 S o m e c o n tinuity o f c u l t in B y h l o s m u s t b c r c g a r d c d a s c c r t a i n , f o r t h e t e m p l e - a r e a on the a c r o p o l i s o f B y b l o s , w h e r e this stele vvas f o u n d , seems t o h a v e f u n c ı i o n e d as a s a n c t u a r y , o r series o f s a n c t u a r i c s , c o n t i n u o u s l y f r o m the third m i l l c n nium BC t o the R o m a n p e r i o d ; a m a j o r nevv s a n c t u a r y , s u r r o u n d e d b y a p o r t i c o , vvas c o n s t r u c t e d t h e r e in t h e s e c o n d c e n t u r y AD. S B u t prccise identification o f the divinities vvorshippcd in these t e m p l e s is n o t possible f o r any p e r i o d , a n d c o n t i n u i t y o f cult vvas plainly c o m p a t i b l e vvith the e m e r g e n c e o f nevv c o ı ı c e p t i o n s o f the divinities c o n c e r n e d . In : h e H c l l e n i s t i c p e r i o d , a n d a p p a r e n t l y n o t b e f o r e , t h e cults vvhich vvere h e l d t o c h a r a c t e r i s e B y b l o s vvere t h o s e o f A p h r o d i t e a n d Adotıis, s t r o n g l y c o l o u r e d by a s s o c i a t i o ı ı vvith t h o s e o f Tsis a n d O s i r i s . S t r a b o identifies B y b l o s a s ' s a c r e d t o A d o n i s ' ; 5 a n d it is c e r e m o n i a l s c o n n c c t c d vvith the vvorship o f A p h r o d i t e a n d A d o n i s here o f vvhich I . u c i a n o f f e r s a bighly c o l o u r e d a c c o u n t , as o n c o f a series o f P h o e n i c i a n p a r a l l c l s t o the e x o t i c c u l t a t H i e r a p o l i s . 1 0 A c c o r d i n g t o h i m , c e r e m o n i a l s t o m o u r n t h e killiııg o f A d o n i s by a b o a r t o o k p l a c c in t h e t e m p l e o f A p h r o d i t e in B y b l o s , follovvcd by a p r o c e s s i o n t o m a r k h i s resu r r e e t i o n . \Vomcn vvere o b l i g e d , a s a sign o f m o u r n i n g , either t o s h a v c their h e a d s o r t o prostitute t h e m s e l v e s , vvith their p a y m e n t g o i n g t o A p h r o d i t e . S o m e B y b l i a n s , hovvever^ c x p l i c i t l y argued t h a t t h e deity c o n c c r n e d vvas aetually O s i r i s . T h e n a m e ' A d o n i s ' vvas a l s o a t t a c h e d , L u c i a n says, t o a r i v e r in t h e territ o r y o f B y b l o s , vvhich r a n vvith b l o o d e a c h year t o m a r k his m u r d e r ; a n d he reeords t h a t on M o u n t L e b a n o n 3 b o v e B y b l o s t h e r e vvas a n a n c i e n t s a n c t u a r y o f A p h r o d i t e . L u c i a n ' s a c c o u n t is v a g u e ; but he m u s t b e s p c a k i n g o f t h e river novv c a l l e d N a h r i b r a h i m a t vvhose s o u r c c lay the m o u n t a i n - s a n c t u a r y o f A p h a c a ; as vve savv, t h e n o t o r i e t y o f t h e ritual prostitution c o n d u c t e d here vvas s u c h that t h e s a n c t u a r y vvas d e s t r o y e d on the orders o f C o n s t a n t i n e . " L u c i a n m a k e s n o c l e a r c o n n e c t i o n betvveen t h e m y t h o f A d o n i s a n d this site. B u t t h e S y r i a c Oration

of Melitort

the Philosofther

d o c s , t h o u g h substitutiııg

' B a l t h i , q u c e n o f C y p r u s ' , f o r A p h r o d i t e a n d Tamu/, f o r A d o n i s : a t the e n d , the a u t h o r s a y s , ' B a l t h i r e m a i n e d in G e b a l , a n d s h e died in the city o f A p h a c a , vvhere T a m u z is b u r i c d ' . " T h e s e v a r y i n g a c c o u n t s d e m o n s t r a t e painfully t h a t

7 . D o n ı ı c r a ı ı d R ö l l i g , K A I , n o s . 4 - 7 a n d c s p . 1 0 ( t h e i n s e r i p t i o n o f Y c h a w ı n i l k ) . F o r tlıc stele

scc, e . g . , CIS I, Pl. I; J. B. P r i t c h a r d , Ih* Ancient 8. Scc t h e s u r v e y b y B . Soyc/., Byblos

Near

Kast I ( 1 9 5 8 ) , l i g . >30.

et la fete. des Adonies

( 1 9 7 7 ) , 4~5 a n d 1 6 - 2 8 ; this

b o o k is a l s o essenrial f o r v v h a t f o l l o v v s . 9 . Ceog.

X V I , 2, 1 8 ( 7 5 5 ) .

1 0 . L u c i a n , de dea Syria,

6-9.

n . 5.3 a b o v e . 12. S c c W . C u r c t o n , Spicilegium

Syriacum

{ 1 8 5 5 ) , c s p . 4 4 (English t r a n s . ) , a n d 7 . 2 a b o v e ,

otı H i e r a p o l i s . T h e r e is 110 s u b s e q u e n t t c x t o r c o m n ı c n t a r y .

w e c a n n o t r e a c h a 4 t r u c ' a c c o u n t o f vvhat such c c r c m o n i a l s , o r t h e d e i t i c s vvorshipped in t h e m , really 'vvere*. T h e t e m p l e o f t h e 'mistress o f G B L ' .surely vvas o n the a e r o p o l i s o f B y b l o s , a n d the s a m e t e m p l e m a y b e t h a t vvhich L ı ı ciatı a s e r i b e s t o A p h r o d i t e ; b o t h might b e idcntified vvith the f e m a l e deity, n o r m a l l y labelled ' A s t a r t e ' , vvho a p p e a r s on s o m e c o i n s vvith t h e legend ' o f s a c r e d B y b l o s ' , a n d is s o m e t i m e s represented vvithin the c o l u m n s o f a t e m p l e . B u t ali s u c h idcntifications a r e speculative, as is a n y i n t e r p r e t a t i o n o f t h e f a m o ı ı s c o i n o f B y b l o s from the rcign o f M a c r i n u s ( 2 1 7 / 2 1 8 ) , shovving a t a l i c o n i c a l o b j e c t vvithin a r e e t a n g u l a r p r e c i n c t , itself a p p r o a c h e d b y s e p a r a t e flight o f steps, leading t o a s m a l l t e m p l e a p p a r e n t l y a t t a c h c d t o the outer s i d e o f o n c p o r t i c o . 1 3 Is t h e tali c o n e an a n i c o n i c c u l t - o b j e c t , o r even vvhat P l ı i l o o f B y b l o s deseribed a s a ' b e t y P , a ' s t o n e i m b u e d vvith psyehe

(empsycbosyi

O r d o e s the p y r a m i d - s h a p e n o t suggest r a t h e r a t o m b , o f a type vvell a t t e s t e d in the N e a r E a s t — a n d perhaps t h e t o m b o f T a m u z , o r A d o n i s , at A p h a c a ? : f l Such a very distinetive a r c h â t c c t u r a l r e p r e s e n t a t i o n m u s t be intended t o display s o m e ı h i n g specific t o t h e city. B u t if it is a n a l l u s i o n t o a ' t o m b o f A d o n i s ' , it is n o t e x p l i c i t , a n d vvould b e the o n l y s u c h a l l u s i o n on t h e c o i n s o f the city. A s s o o f t e n , vve c a n n o t press t h e c v i d e n c c t o o far in trying t o m a k e it yield c o h e r e n t c o n c e p t i o n s . We are in s o m e sense on firmer g r o u n d in c o n c e n t r a t i n g on d e d i c a t i o n s o f f e r e d in the t e r r i t o r y o f B y b l o s t o l o c a l m a n i f e s t a t i o n s o f Z e u s : t o ' Z e u s in R c s a ' f r o m t h e city itself; o r t o ' Z e u s ( t h e ) hcavenly, highest, Saarnaios, Saamaios

a t t e n t i v e ' a t A b d a t , n o r t h - e a s t o f the city, vvhere

c i e a r l y indicates t h e n a m e o f t h e locality. But it is again s p e c u l a t i o n

t o see these G r c c k d e d i c a t i o n s a s reflectioııs o f a n atıcicnt S e m i t i c B a ' a l , a g o d of storms and mountains.'5 T h e s e f r a g m e n t a r y iterns o f evidence, hovvever e n i g m a t i c , a r e o f c r u c i a l i m p o r t a n c e precisely because t h e y a r e l o c a l i s a b l c e x p r c s s i o n s o f p e r s o n a l o r g r o u p o b s e r v a n c e . But t h e y o f f e r o n l y m o d e s t a s s i s t a n c e vvhen vve t r y t o i n t e r pret t h e o n l y knovvn e x p l i c i t a t t e m p t m a d e in the i m p e r i a l period t o i n t e r p r e t P h o e n i c i a n cults a n d bcliefs f o r a G r e e k a u d i e n c e , t h e Phoenicica

of Philo o f

B y b l o s , a p p a r e n t l y vvritten a t t h e b e g i n n i n g o f t h e s c c o n d c e n t u r y AD. 16 O n l y a b a r e s t a t e m e n t o f vvhat this c t ı i g m a t i c vvork s e e m s t o a m o u n t t o is p o s s i b l e

1 3 . BMC Cilies:

Phoenicia,

Architecture

1 0 2 , n o . 3 6 ; PL. x i i , 1 3 . S e c M . J. l ' r i c c a n d B . I.. T r e l l , Coins

on the Ancient

Coins

of Greece,

Rome

and Palcstine

and

Their

(1977), 1 5 1 - 1 5 2 and

z71'

fig-

1 4 . S o S o y e z , o p . cit., 4 1 - 4 3 . 1 5 . Kor tlıc c v ı d c n c e a n d t h e i n t e r p r e t a t i o n , S o y c z , o p . cit. ( n . 8 ) , 8 7 . r f>. T h e f r a g m e n t s , a l m o s t ali f r o m E u s e b i u s ' Praeparalio FCrli

R . A . O d e n , Philo cian History gie

Evangelica,

a r e c o l l e c t c d in J a c o b y ,

2 9 0 , w h o s e t e * t is u s e d i n t h e t r a n s l a t i o n s a n d c o m m e n t a r i c s b y I I . W . A t t r i d g e a n d

(1986).

of Byhlos:

of Philo

The Phoenician

of Byblos

Ilistory

( 1 9 8 1 ) , a n d A , I. B a u m g a r t e n , The

( 1 9 8 1 ) . S e e novv a l s o I. S c h i f f m a n , Pböniziscb-Puniscbe

Phoeni-

Mytbola

-

h e r e . Wrirten in G r e e k , it c l a i m s t o b e a t r a n s l a t i o ı ı o f a vvork on t h e P h o e n i cian g o d s by o n c S a n c h u n i a t h o n o f B e r y t u s , d a t i n g f r o m b e f o r e the T r o j a n War. A s such, this c l a i m m u s t b c vvhoJly m i s l e a d i n g , T h e i n t e r p r e t a t i o n , in a vvay f a m i l i a r from both I . u c i a n a n d the S y r i a c Oration

of Mel iton,

is a n e -

l a n g e o f G r e e k a n d ı ı o n - G r e e k e l e m e n t s , i n c l u d i n g in this c a s e E g y p t i a n o n e s ( o r r a t h e r G r e e k versions o f E g y p t i a n o n e s ) . i t s m a i n p r i n c i p l c o f i n t e r p r e t a t i o n , vvhich is s h a r c d b o t h b y t h e Oration

of Meliton

a n d , significantly, b y

J o s e p h u s vvhen s p e a k i n g o f c h e c h i e f g o d o f D a m a s c u s , ' 7 is t o s e e d e i t i e s a s h a v i n g been in o r i g i n carthly rulcrs o r o t h e r o u t s t a n d i n g individuals. T h e fact t h a t this c o n c e p t i o n is a s s o c i a t c d vvith t h e c a r l y - H c l l e n i s t i c p h i l o s o p h e r Euh e m e r u s vvould n o t o f itself p r o v e a n y t h i n g a b o u t t h e r e a l d a t e o f o r i g i n o f the c o n c e p t i o n s a p p e a r i n g iıı P h i l o . B u t it is in fact i n c o n c e i v a b l e t h a t vvhat P h i l o vvrote ( o r c o p i e d , o r i n t e r p r e t e d ) c o u l d b e c a r l i c r than t h e H c l l e n i s t i c p e r i o d ; a n d it m a y vvell b e o r i g i n a l t o h i m s e l f . T h a t vvould give it, i f a n y t h i n g , a n a d d e d s i g n i f i c a n c c . For, hovvever c o n fused the melange o f t r a d i t i o n s vvhich he b r i n g s t o the i n t e r p r e t a t i o n o f P h o e n i c i a n deities, his vvork d o c s c o n t a i n a series o f spccific, a n d largely r e l i a b l e , i n t e r p r e t a t i o n s o f P h o e n i c i a n n a m e s a n d c o n c e p t s . T h u s f o r i n s t a n c e he says that 'Bcelsamcn' a m o n g the Plıoenicians means 'lord of Heaven' (B'L S M N ) , a n d is ' Z e u s ' in G r e e k . Lcss c l e a r l y , he s p c a k s o f tvvo deities c a l l e d M i s ö r and S y d y k , t e r m s vvhich he says rnean 'easily s o l v e d ' a n d ' j u s t ' . A l t h o u g h M Y S R a n d Ş D Q in fact b o t h m e a n ' j u s t ' , e v i d e n e e o f t h e s e c o n d m i l l e n n i u m BC f r o m R a s S h a m r a d o c s reveal a g o d vvith t h e d o u b l e n a m e Ş D Q M S R . ' 8 S i g n i f i c a n t in a different vvay is his s t a t e m e n r t h a t a single s o n is 'stili even novv' c a l l e d by the P h o c n i c i a n s ' l e o u d ' ( Y H Y D ) . T h e vvork c a n n o t bc t a k e n as a f a c t u a l r e p o r t o n e s t a b l i s h c d c o m m u n a l belicfs; instead it is a n e r r a t i c , p s c u d o - s c h o l a r l y a t t e m p t t o c o m b i n e m y t h , advcnturous etymologies (often relatlng t o Greek names) a n d aspects o f local history. T h u s f o r i n s t a n c e ' K r o ı ı o s ' is said t o have f o u ı ı d e d the first city, B y b l o s , a n d ( l a t e r ) t o h a v e g i v e n it t o the g o d d c s s ' B a a l t i s ' (a n a m e vvhich m u s t derive f r o m B ' L T G B L ^ , vvhile he gave Berytus t o P o s e i d o n (vvho is i n deed p r o m i n e n t o n the city's c o i n s ) . W h a t P h i l o vvrote is first o f ali a reflecrion o f t h e l o n g - s t a n d i n g p r o m i n e n c c o f P h o e n i c i a n deities in G r c c k c u l t u r c . 3 u t it d o c s reveal g e n u i n e c o n n c c t i o n s betvveen P h o e n i c i a n cults o f a m u c h earlier p e r i o d a n d t h o s e o f t h e R o m a n E m p i r e ; a n d it d o e s suggest t h a t a t l e a s t t h e m e a n i n g s o f iııdividual vvords in P h o e n i c i a n vvere stili u n d e r s t o o d . It leaves o p e n the q u e s t i o n o f vvhether P h o e n i c i a n vvas stili s p o k e n , o r vvritten; o r vvhether c o h e r e n t vvorks in P h o e n i c i a n vvere preserved, a n d c o u l d b e u n d e r s t o o d . A s vvith L u c i a n , a n d i n d e e d t h e Oration

T7. See 9 . 3 b e l o w . 1 8 . See B a u m g a r t c ı ı , o p . c i t . , 1 7 5 .

of Meliton,

it is precisely vvhen

a vvork vvritten in this p e r i o d a p p e a r s t o o f f c r a vvindovv into the m e a n i n g a n d n a t u r e o f ' O r i c n t a l ' cults t h a t it is a t its m o s t d c c c p t i v c . B e r y t u s a p p e a r s in t h e s u r v i v i n g f r a g m e n t s o f I'hilo's Phoenicica

as o n e

P h o e n i c i a n city a m o n g o t h e r s ( t h o s e m e n t i o n e d by n a m e a r e B y b l o s , B e r y t u s , S i d o n a n d T y r e ) ; it lies in the n a t u r e o f t h e vvork t h a t t h e reader vvould find n o a l l u s i o n in it t o t h e f a c t t h a t B e r y t u s h a d for ö v e r a c e n t u r y been a R o m a n colonia.

' I h e f a c t deserves e m p h a s i s , p a r t l y because this s t a t u s vvas t o b c

gained a l s o , in t h e S e v e r a n p e r i o d , b y T y r e a n d S i d o n . But in their c a s e it vvas t o be a m e r c q u c s t i o n o f s t a t u s , a n d a reflection o f the c o m p l c x set o f t r a d i t i o n s vvhich u n i t e d P h o e n i c i a t o t h e P u n i c cities o f N o r t h A f r i c a a n d t o R o m e , a n d c o n t r i b u t e d t o the i n v e n t i o n o f a R o m a n p r o v i n c e c a l l e d Syria P h o e n i c e . In the c a s e o f B e r y t u s , hovvever, t h e status rcflcctcd, a s vve have s e e n , t h e s e t t l e m e n t in r $ BC o f I . a t i n - s p e a k i n g legionaries, s p r e a d över a t e r r i t o r y vvhich ineluded the n o r t h e r n B e k a a Valley on the o t h e r side o f M o u n t L c b a n o n . It is n e c e s s a r y t h e r e f o r e , first, t o sum up t h e p r o f o u n d a n d l o n g - l a s t i n g c o n s c q u e n c c s o f t h e f o u n d a t i o n o f this uniqııc island o f R o m a n c u l t u r e iti t h e N e a r Kast; s e c o n d , t o a s k vvhat i f a n y t h i n g r e m a i n e d o f t h e G r e e k o r P h o e n i c i a n c u l t u r e o f t h e c i t y a n d its t e r r i t o r y ; a n d t h i r d , in t h e light o f these tvvo issues, t o l o o k a t H e l i o p o l i s a n d the c u l t , vvhich vvas t o b e knovvn t h r o u g h o u t the Kmpire, o f T u p p i t e r O p ı i m u s M a x i m u s H e l i o p o l i t a t ı u s V S o far as its official, p u b l i c i m a g e vvas c o n c e r n e d , t h e ' C o l o n i a Iulia A u g u s t a F e l i x B e r y t u s ' m i n t e d c o i n s vvhich a r e vvithout e x c e p t i o n in Latin untîl the cessation o f c o i n i n g in the 2 5 0 S . T h e ordo

(tovvn-council) o f the city c a n

a l s o b e f o u n d d e d i c a t i n g a s t a t u e vvith a L a t i n inseription a s l a t e as AD 3 4 4 . T h e city h a d t h e n o r m a l c o l o n i a I c o n s t i t u t i o n , vvith a tovvn-council a n d m a g istrates, o f vvhom the m o s t i m p o r t a n t vvere the tvvo a n n u a l duunıviri. vievv t a k e n h e r e , t h a t H e l i o p o l i s did n o t b e c o m e a s e p a r a t e colonia

O n the until t h e

reign o f S e p t i m i u s S e v e r u s , 2 0 t h e vvorkings o f this u n a m b i g u o u s l y c o l o n i a l city c o n s t i t u t i o n vvill b c illustrated ( f o r c x a m p l e ) by t h e s t a t u e - b a s c ereeted a t H e l i o p o l i s u n d e r H a d r i a n in h o n o u r o f o n e M . L i c i n n i u s P o m p e n n a P o t i t u s U r b a n u s : he h a d been a t o v v n - c o u n c i l l o r (decurio)y local o f f i c c s — p o n t i f e x , agonotbetes, been p r i c s t (sacerdos)

a n d flatnen

a n d h a d held a series o f tnunerarius;

he h a d a l s o

o f luppiter Optimus M a x i m u s Heliopolitanus, and had

been g r a n t e d the h o n o u r o f the " p u b l i c h o r s e ' by H a d r i a n . 2 1 In c o ı ı ı b i n i n g local vvith I m p e r i a l r a n k , this m a n vvas a l s o very typical o f 1 9 . A l i t h e s e q u c s t i o n s are discus&ed in detail in M i l l a r , " R o m a n Coloniae",

10-23

ant*

32—34; the treatment there w ı l l merely b c s u m m a t ı s c d here, a n d o n l y o c c a s ı o n a l salıcnt ıtcms o f e v i d e n c e vvill b e c i t e d . See also R . M o u t e r d e , " R e g a r d s sur B c y r o u l h p h c n i c i c n n c , h c l l e n i s t i q u c et r o m a i n c " , MUSJ n o w RPC

40 ( 1 9 6 4 ) , 1 4 5 . F o r the initial settlement see 2.1 a b o v e . For the c o i n s s c c

I, 6 4 8 - 6 5 1 .

20. 3.4 a b o v e . 21. I G I S VI, no. 2791.

t h e I . a t i n - s p c a k i n g ' c o l o n i a l ' p o p u l a t i o n o f t h e a r c a . A long series o f L a t i n i n s e r i p t i o n s refleets the role in I m p e r i a l s c r v i c c o f s o l d i e r s a n d c c n t u r i o n s f r o m B e r y t u s . S o m e t i m e s t o o , m e n a r e f o u n d in the h i g h e r o r d e r s , a s e q u c s t r i a n o f f i c c r s , o r even as s e n a t o r s . O n e e x a m p l e is M . S e n t i u s P r o c u l u s , a t o v v n - c o u n c i l l o r a n d duumvir

o f thc colonia

in thc s e c o n d century, vvho also

h a d a n e q u e s t r i a n m i l i t a r y c a r e e r b e f o r e e n t e r i n g the R o m a n S c n a t c . T h c ins e r i p t i o n set up t o h i m in B e r y t u s is a reflection o f the c o n s c i o u s l o y a l i s n ı o f this c o l o n i a l c o m m u n i t y a n d o f t h e c o n t i n u e d use o f L a t i n t h e r e . " It vvas surely this c o n s c i o u s l y ' R o m a n ' c h a r a c t c r o f t h c p l a c c vvhich m e a n t t h a t , a t lcast f r o m t h e earîıer t h i r d c e n t u r y onvvards, it vvas t o t h e r e t h a t y o u n g m e n f r o m v a r i o u s p a r t s o f t h c G r c c k E a s t t e n d e d t o gravitate in o r d e r t o s t u d y R o m a n lavv. W e can find e x a m p ! c s , f o r i n s t a n c c , f r o m N e o c a e s a r c a in P o n t u s , f r o m Cilicia a n d from the p r o v i n c e o f A r a b i a . W e knovv n o t h i n g o f t h c f o r m a l s t r u c t u r c o f t c a c h i n g there, a ı ı d are hardly entitled t o speak o f a 'Lavv S c h o o l ' . R a t h e r it vvas t h e vvider, ' R o m a n ' c u l t u r a l setting a n d t h e possibility o f instructioıı in R o m a n lavv i n different ' s c h o o l s ' (auditoria)

finding

vvhich a t t r a c t e d

t h e m . T h c c s t a b l i s h m c n t o f a t r a d i t i o n o f R o m a n lavv t e a c h i n g here vvas t o be o f g r e a t i m p o r t a n c e in the l a t e E m p i r e ; b u t its significance f o r o u r p u r p o s e s lies r a t h e r in thc p a r a d o x t h a t B e r y t u s , as a ' R o m a n ' o r ' L a t i n ' p l a c c , c a m e t o p l a y a r o l e in t h e vvider c u l t u r e o f t h e E m p i r e vvhich c o u l d n o t b e m a t e h e d by a n y o f t h e G r e e k c i t i c s o f t h c N e a r E a s t e r n r c g i o n . T l ı o u g h o f c o u r s e G r e e k s o p h i s t s a n d vvriters c a m e from

m a n y different citics in t h c r c g i o n , until dıe

m i d - f o u r t h c c n t u r y noııe o f these cities b e c a m e a p l a c e to vvhich s t u d c n t s c a m e f r o m o t h e r p r o v i n c c s . Iıı t h e m a p o f the p a g a n G r e e k c u l t u r e o f dıe I m p e r i a l p e r i o d , the N e a r E a s t r e m a i n c d firmly in t h c s c c o n d r a n k . At lcast o n e o f these G r e e k vvriters, H e r m i p p o s , vvho vvrote o n ' S l a v c s w h o distinguishcd themselves in paideia\

c a m e f r o m B e r y t u s itself, o r r a t h e r f r o m

an i n l a n d village in its t e r r i t o r y . T h e i n s c r i p t i o n a l r e c o r d , s c a n t y t h o u g h î t is, d o e s indeed shovv t h a t G r e e k as vvell as L a t i n r e m a i n e d in use. S i n c e t h e r e is n o r c a s o n t o suppose t h a t t h e o r i g i n a l i n h a b i t a n t s o f the city a n d its t e r r i t o r y h a d been driven o u t , t h a t is n o t surprising. W h a t is s t r i k i n g is m e r e l y t h a t thc ' R o m a n ' , o r c o l o n i a l , c h a r a c t c r o f thc p l a c c a l s o m a i n t a i n e d itself, vvithout t h e r e b e i n g , as in o t h e r coloniae

in the G r e e k E a s t , a s t e a d y reversion t o g e n -

eral use o f G r c c k . i n s e r i p t i o n s f r o m t h e c i t y a l s o reflect t h e vvorship t h e r e o f a r c m a r k a b l e r a n g e o f R o m a n dcities: L i b e r Pater, V e n ü s , M c r c u r i u s , A p o l l o , D i a n a , M a r s , P r o s e r p i n a , a n d p e r h a p s C e r e s , a s vvell a s the F o r t u n a a n d G e n i u s o f t h e colonia,

a n d the Fa t a . T h e m o s t surprising i m p o r t a t î o n m u s t b e M a t e r M a t u t a ,

an a n c i e n t deity vvhose t e m p l e vvas t o b e f o u n d in t h e F o r u m B o a r i u m a t 2 2 . R . C a g ı ı a t , " M . S e n t i u s P r o c u i u s de B c y r o u t h " , Syria 7 ( 1 9 2 6 ) , 6 7 ; AF. ( 1 9 2 9 ) , n o . 1 5 0 ; H . D e v i j v e r , P M E II ( 1 9 7 7 ) , S . 2 5 .

R o m e . B u t it is p r c c i s c l y t h e i d e n t i t y o f the o n e knovvn dedicator, a n d t h e p l a c e vvhere the d e d i c a t i o n vvas m a d e , vvhich begins t o raise t h e q u c s t i o n o f vvhat o t h e r e l e m e n t s might h a v e been present in the s o c i a l a n d religious c u l ture o f Berytus a n d its t e r r i t o r y . F o r t h e L a t i n d c d i c a t i o n t o M a t c r M a t u f a vvas m a d e , follovving a n o r a c u l a r r e s p o n s e f r o m I u n o , by a lady c a l l e d F l a v i a N i c o l a i s (also c a l l e d ) S a d d a n e , vvho h a s a G r c e k - S c m i t i c n a m e , a n d m u s t c o m e f r o m a local family vvhich gained t h e R o m a n citizenship in the F l a v i a n p e r i o d . S h c h a s thus a d o p t e d a n i m p o r t e d , a n d distinetively ' R o m a n ' , c u l t . 1 3 W e vvill see s h o r t l y an even c l e a r e r e x a m p l e o f s u c h an i m p o r t a t i o n , in t h e a b s o r p t i o n o f ' M e r c u r i u s D o m i n u s ' a s a deity in a r e m o t e m o u n t a i n v i l l a g e . 2 4 T h e site vvhere F l a v i a N i c o l a i s m a d e h e r d e d i c a t i o n vvas n o t r e m o t e , b u t it vvas a hillside sanetuary, o n t h e slopes o f M o u n t L e b a n o n o v e r l o o k i n g B e r y tus. T h i s is a p l a c e c a l l e d D e r e l - K 3 İ a , vvhere t h e r e is a vvhole series o f d e d i c a tions, in b o t h G r e e k a n d L a t i n , t o a deity c a l l e d ' T h e o s B a l m a r k ö d ' , o r ' Z e u s B a l m a r k ö d ' ; a G r c c k i n s e r i p t i o n addressing h i m as ' l o r d o f d a n c e s ' { ' k o i r a n e kömön')

makes

it c e r t a i n t h a t

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M R Q D , h a d the s a m e m e a n i n g ; f o r the r o o t R Q D m e a n s ' d a n c e ' . A s so o f t e n , t h e r e f o r e , vvc c a n see t h a t t h e m e a n i n g o f a divine n a m e in a S e m i t i c l a n g u a g c vvas knovvn, a n d the n a m e c o u l d be r e p r o d u c e d in t r a n s l i t e r a t i o n in G r e e k . But it is n o t a c c o m p a n i e d by a n y inseribed t e x t s in a S e m i t i c l a n g u a g e ; s o vvhether t h e l a n g u a g e in q u e s t i o n r e m a i ı ı e d in use t h e r e is u n c e r t a i n . T h o u g h ali o u r inseribed e v i d e n e e f r o m D e r e l - K a l a , in G r e e k a n d I . a t i n , c o m e s f r o m t h e Imperial p e r i o d , a s do the r e m a i n s o f t h e t e m p l e t h e r e (vvhich m a y be o f t h e first c e n t u r y A D ) , " it is very likely t h a t the c u l t r e p r e s e n t s t h e o b s e r v a n c c b y the Latin- a n d G r e e k - s p e a k i n g p o p u l a t i o n o f the colonia

of a

l o n g - c s t a b l i s h c d local c u l t . I f s o , it is o f s o m e i m p o r t a n c e t h a t i n s e r i p t i o n s q u i t e frequently refer t o the g o d as 'l(uppiter) O ( p t i m u s ) M ( a x i m u s ) B ( a l m a r c o d ) ' , t h u s treating this local deity as in s o m e vvay a n e q u i v a l e n t o f t h e m o s t i m p o r t a n t R o m a n deity, l u p p i t e r O p t i m u s M a x i m u s , vvhosc t e m p l e h a d s t o o d o n the C a p i t o l in R o m e since t h e l a t e s i x t h c e n t u r y BC. A s is vvell knovvn, the s a m e a p p e l l a t i o n c a m e i n t o vvidespread use for t h e c h i e f m a l e deity o f H e l i o p o l i s : ' l u p p i t e r O p t i m u s M a x i m u s H e l i o p o l i t a n u s * . It is a n a t u r a ! a s s u m p t i o n t h a t h e r e t o o vvc have a local B a ' a l , vvho h a s b e c o m e e i t h e r ' l u p p i t e r ' o r ' Z e u s H e l i o p o l i t e s ' . H c is o f t e n , though b y n o m e a n s a l vvays, a s s o c i a t e d in i n s e r i p t i o n s vvith tvvo o t h e r R o m a n deities, V e n ü s a n d M e r c u r i u s . l i c n c e t h e r e h a s b e e n a t e m p t a t i o n , vvhich h a s even been i n c o r p o rated i n t o t h e title o f t h e m o s t i m p o r t a n t m o d e r n vvork on the g o d s o f H e liopolis, t o see this g r o u p o f R o m a n deities as r e p r e s e n t i n g a ' S e m i t i c triad",

2 3 . CIL

III, n o .

6680.

2 4 . T c x t t o n . 3 2 belovv. 2 5 . K t e n c k c r a n d Z s c h i c t s c h m a n n , Römische

Teıttpel

I, 1—3.

282 1

8. T H E P H O E N I C I A N C O A S T A N D ı T S

HıNTERLAND

a n d t o a s s c r t t h a t t h e r e is n o d o u b t these n a m e s relate t o ' S e m i t i c ' divine b c i n g s , H a d a d , A t a r g a t i s a n d a m i n ö r m a l e c o n s o r t vvhose native n a m e is unknovvn." But is t h e r e really n o d o u b t ? F i r s t , n o w h e r e in t h e c o n t e m p o r a r y e v i d c n c c is t h e r e any c x p l i c i t i d e n t i f i c a t i o n o f t h e I u p p i t c r o f H e l i o p o l i s vvith H a d a d , o r o f V e n ü s vvith A t a r g a t i s . T h e r e might h a v e b e e n : for, a s P h i l o o f B y b l o s n o t e d , 'tlıe P h o e n i c i a n s s a y t h a t A s t a r t e is A p h r o d i t e ' . 2 7 T h e d i v i n e n a m e s ' H a d a r a ı ı ' (if n o t precisely ' H a d a d ' ) a n d ' A t a r g a t i s ' , o r ' t h e S y r i a n G o d d e s s ' , d o i n d e e d a p p e a r in this r e g i o n : n o t , hovvever, a t H e l i o p o l i s , b u t at a n o t h e r very interesting local s e t t l e m e n t a n d c u l t - c e n t r e , N i h a , 011 the eastern side o f M o u n t L e b a n o n , a n d s o m e 2.5 k m south-vvest o f H e l i o p o l i s . 2 8 H e r e vve h a v e vvhat s e e m s very c l e a r e v i d e n c e o f L a t i n - s p c a k i n g settlers s u b s c r i b i n g t o : h e c u l t o f a deity vvhom t h e y s a w a s b o t h local a n d ' S y r i a n ' : f o r a L a t i n inseript i o n shovvs a ' p a g u s A u g u s t u s ' (a village, o r a s s o c i a t i o n o f settlers) m a k i n ç a d c d i c a t i o n on b e h a i f o f t h e E m p e r o r t o the ' D c a Suria N i h a t h c ( n a ) ' ; o t h e r i n s e r i p t i o n s revcal H o c h m a c a , a virgin (priestess) o f borh t h e *Deus H a d r a ı ı i s ' a n d t h e ' D e a S y r ( i a ) N i h a t ( e n a ) ' , vvho is deseribed in G r e e k as the ' t h e a A t a r g a t i s ' . T h e i m p r e s s i o n t h a t vve a r e c o n f r o n t e d vvith a c u l t vvhich the p o p u l a t i o n living t h e r e in t h e i m p e r i a l p e r i o d c o n s c i o u s l y savv as ' S y r i a n ' is reinf o r c e d b y a relief shovving a priest in a l o n g t u n i c b o u n d b y a girdle, and vvearing a tali c o n i c a l h a t — v e r y s i m i l a r in b r o a d t e r m s t o t h e c o s t u m e of a p r i c s t represented o n a r e l i e f a t I l i e r a p o l i s . 2 9 T h i s m a t e r i a l , a l o n g vvith : h c r e m a i n s o f tvvo s u b s t a n t i a l t c m p l e s a t a n o t h e r s a n e t u a r y ( H o s n N i h a ) f u r t h e r u p t h e valley, is c e r t a i n l y e v i d e n c e o f t h e o b s e r v a n c e o f local c u l t s , o f the e x t r a o r d i n a r y a r c h i t e c t u r a l c a p a c i t i e s o f N e a r E a s t e r n village c o m m u n i t i e s in t h e i m p e r i a l p e r i o d , a n d o f a c o n c e p t i o n o n t h e part o f t h e vvorshippers t h a t t h e c u l t vvas s o m e t h i n g distinetively r e g i o n a l . T h e r e is, hovvever, n o t h i n g distinctivcly ' P h o e n i c i a n ' here; a n d n o c o m p a r a b l e a l l u s i o n s t o H a d a d ( o r H a d a r a n ) o r t o A t a r g a t i s ( o r ' t h e S y r i a n G o d d e s s ' ) a r c knovvn in r e l a t i o n t o Hel i o p o l i s o r its g o d s . O n the c o n t r a r y , a b i l i n g u a l inseription in G r e e k a n d L a t i n f r o m B e r y : u s

2 6 . Y. H a j j a r , La Iriade d'Heliopolis/Baalbek

I—III ( 1 9 7 7 - 1 9 8 5 ) . Scc v o l . II, p . 5 1 1 : *I! n e

f a i t a u c u n d o u t e que c e s d e n o m i n a t i o n s r e c o u v r e n ı d e s entites semitiques a v e c H a d a d , A t a r g ı t i s et un p a r S d r e ınincur doııt o u i g ı ı o r e le n o m iııdigene'. Since I t a k e a q u i t e d i f f e r e n t a p p r o a < h , it is o n l y right t o a c k ı ı o v v l c d g c the c x c e p t i o n a l l e a r n i ı ı g iıı this m a j ö r w o r k . 2 7 . FGrH

7 9 0 F . i o (31).

1 8 . F o r t h e t c m p l e s see K r e ı ı c k e r a n d Z s c h i c t s c h m a n n , Römiscbe

Tempel

1 , 1 0 5 - 1 3 7 . For

N i h a sec a b o v e ali J.-P. R c y - C o q u a i s , " l > c s m o n t a g n e s a u desert: B a c t o c c c c , Ic p a g u s A u g u s t u s d c N i h a , la G h o u t . ı â l'est d c D a m a s " , in F.. Frczouls (cd.), Societes dans

i'Asie

Mineure

et la Syrie helienîstiques

inseriptions o f N i h a a n d H o s n N i h a a r e IGLS 29. 7 . 2 above.

et romaines

tırbaines,

socîetes

rurales

( 1 9 8 7 ) , 1 9 1 , o n pp. 1 9 8 - 2 0 7 .

VI, nos. 2 9 2 8 - 2 9 4 8 .

The

shovvs ' t h e a A t a r g a t i s ' i n G r e e k

e q u a t e d vvith * D c a S y r i a ' in L a t i n , vvhile

'Venııs I l e l i o p o l i t a n a ' is m e n t i o n e d scparatcly.*0 T h e explicit evidence t h u s c o u n t s c l e a r l y a g a i n s t a n i d c n t i f i c a t i o n o f t h i s V e n ı ı s vvith A t a r g a t i s . m u c l ı - c a n v a s s e d n o t i o n o f a t r i a d is a l s o d u h i o u s . W h e n H e l i o p o l i s b e c a m c a s e p a r a t e colonia

The finally

u n d e r S e p t i m i u s S c v c r u s , i t s c o i n s , vvith l e g e n d s

a l m o s t ali in L a t i n , d u l y n a m e ' I . O . M . H ' a n d r e p r e s e n t h i s t e m p l e , vvith a flight o f steps leading to it;31 b u t they give n o hint o f a n y ' t r i a d ' . T h e t e m p l e slıovvn m u s t b e t l ı c f a m o u s m a j o r t e m p l e o f B a a l b e k , vvith s t e p s l e a d i n g t o a h e x a g o n a l f o r c c o u r t , a n d b c h i ı ı d it a n o t h e r v a s t r e e t a n g u l a r f o r e c o u r t vvith a n a l t a r , b e f o r e t h e t e m p l e itself. l u p p i t e r a l s o h a d h i s ovvn sacerdos,

a s vve savv a b o v e . T h e t e m p l e o f V e n ı ı s m a y vvell h a v e b e e n t h e o t h e r

t e m p l e vvhich lies p a r a l l e l t o t h e ttıaiıı o n e , o n i t s s o u t h e r n s i d e . B u t t h a t o f M e r c u r i u s is k n o v v n t o h a v e b e e n o n a d i f f e r e n t s i t e , a s m a l l hill ö v e r a k i l o m e tre to the south. In t h e c a s e o f M e r c u r i u s it is o f s o m e i n t e r e s t t h a t vve s e e t h e o p p o s i t e p r o c e s s t o t h e a d o p t i o n o f ' n a t i v c ' c u l t s b y R o m a n s e t t l c r s , t h a t is, t h e a b s o r p t i o n o f a n i m p o r t e d c o l o n i a l c u l t i n t o a r e m o t e v i l l a g e c o n t e x t . Iı» t h e L a t i n i n s e r i p t i o n s o f t h e a r c a , j u s t a s V e n ı ı s is s o m e t i m e s c a l l e d ' V e n ü s d o m i t ı a ' ( ' m i s t r e s s ' ) , M e r c u r i u s c a n a p p e a r a s ' M e r c u r i u s d o m i n u s ' . T h i s is hovv h e i s d e s c r i b c d , in G r e e k t r a n s l i t e r a t i o n , in a n i n s e r i p t i o n f r o m t h e f r i e z e o f a s m a l l t e m p l e a t N e b i H a m , vvhich l i e s in a r e m o t e v a l l e y betvveen t h e f o o t h i l l s o f A n t i - L e b a n o ı ı and the main r a n g c , a n d s o m e 15 k m south o f Baalbek.-'2 T h e i n s e r i p t i o n r e v e a l s b o t h t h a t N e b i H a m , l i k e s o m a n y o t h e r v i l l a g e s in t h e r e g i o n , h a s k e p t its a n c i e n t n a m e a n d that its I m p e r i a l f o r e r u t ı n e r p o s s e s s e d a c o m p l e x political strueture: T o M c r k o u r i o s D ö m i n o s , ( t h e g o d ) o f the village (könte)

C h a m ö n , year

4 8 4 (AD 1 7 2 / 1 7 3 ) , priest T i t o s s o n o f I a u d a , s a c r e d t r e a s u r e r s B a s a s son o f S a a r i t a a n d O u b e s o s , t h e v i l l a g e built ( t h e t e m p l e ) , a n d B c l i a b o s son o f S a p l ı a r a r c c o r d c d ( m e t ? ) t h e c o s t s o f t h e village. l ' h l a k o s (I-'laccus?) (vvas) t h e teehnites

(builder?).

T h e g o d for vvhom t h e y built this t e m p l e under M a r c u s Aurelius can o n l y h a v e derived his n a m e f r o m t h e ' M e r c u r i u s ( d o m i n u s ) ' o f t h e m a j o r cııltc e n t r e o f H e l i o p o l i s , vvhich vvas s t i l i a n o u t l y i ı ı g p a r t o f tlıc c o l o n i a l t e r r i t o r y o f B e r y t u s ; it t o o m a y h a v e b e e n in f o r m a l t e r m s a l>agus.

T h e vast temples

o f H e l i o p o l i s vvere c o n s t r u c t e d — o n vvhose i n i t i a t i v e a n d a t vvhose e x p e n s e vve d o n o t k n o v v — i t i t h e c o ı ı r s e o f tlıc first tvvo c e n t u r i e s , a n d c e r t a i n l y b e f o r e

30. H a j j a r , o p . cit., n o . i l i . 31. BMC

Syria,

290-195.

3 2 . Scc K r c n c k c r a n d Z s c h i c t s c h ı n a n n , Kömische r68.

Ttmpel

1, 1 6 8 - 1 7 1 ; Hajjar, o p . cir., n o .

t h e p l a c e b e c a n ı e a s e p a r a t e colonia.

O v c r t h c s a m e period t h c c u l t o f I u p p i t e r

o f H e l i o p o l i s ( a n d s o m e t i m e s o f V e n ü s a n d M e r c u r i u s ) a l s o s p r e a d t o large p a r t s o f thc N e a r E a s t , a n d t o m a n y o t h e r r e g i o n s o f the E m p i r e . If the n o t i o n o f a ' t r i a d ' is in reality \vithout f o u n d a t i o n , t h a t is n o t t o p r o v e t h a t t h e c o n c e p t i o ı ı o f this ' I u p p i t e r ' , o r ' Z e u s ' , did n o t o w c m u c h t o a n earlier ' B a ' a l ' vvorshippcd o n t h c s a m e site. T h e r e certainly h a d been a cult o f Z e u s t h e r e in t h e H e l l e n i s t i c p e r i o d . B u t vvhat vve knovv o f hovv t h e Iuppiter o f H e l i o p o l i s vvas c o n c e i v c d o f is in effcct based o n l y on his c h a r a c t c r istic i c o n o g r a p h y : a god s t a n d i n g e r e c t , vvcaring a high E g y p t i a n - s t y l e h a r !at bos),

(ka-

a n d dressed in a right t u n i c vvhich c o m e s d o w n t o h i s feet a n d is

divided into figured p a n e l s ; his right a r m is r a i s e d a n d b r a n d i s h e s a vvhip, vvhile his left h o l d s a b u n c h o f e a r s o f c o r n ; a n d h c is flanked on e i t h e r side b y a bull. B u t here again t h e r e is a p r o b l e m . O f ali the

figurines,

reliefs o r c o i n s

r e p r e s e n t i n g a d c i t y o f this ( o r a p p r o x i m a t e l y this) type, o n l y tvvo a r c a c t u a l l y l a b c l l e d a s ' I u p p i t e r O p t i m u s M a x i m u s H c l i o p o l i t a n u s ' — a n d o n e o f these is f r o m S u k n c h , e a s t o f P a l m y r a , for vvhich a P a l m y r e n e s c u l p t o r h a d been e m p l o y e d . T h c essential f e a t ı ı r e s o f the i c o n o g r a p h y a r c r e t a i n e d , but t h e s : y l c is P a l m y r e n e . 3 ' T h a t

apart,

t h e r e is p r c c i s c l y o n c a l t a r from

( N î m c s ) , d c d i c a t c d , b y a pritnus

pilus

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(senior c e n t u r i o n ) f r o m B e r y t u s . t o

' I . O . M . H e l i o p o l i t a n ( o ) ' , a n d vvith a b a s - r e l i e f i n c o r p o r a t i n g ali thc f e a t u r e s m e n t i o n e d . ' 4 T h a t m o s t i c o n o g r a p l ı i c r c p r e s e n t a t i o n s o f this t y p c , vvhich includc s o m c coins of citics o t h e r than Heliopolis, for instance Ptolemais {but not H e l i o p o l i s itself), c o m e f r o m s o u t h e r n Syria o r P h o e n i c i a is clear. H c n c e t h e r e is n o r e a s o n t o d o u b t t h a t this vvas a distinetively r e g i o n a l f o r m o f c u l t i m a g e . B u t it vvould a l s o b c c o m p a t i b l c vvith t h e e v i d e n c e t o s a y t h a t rhis r e g i o n a l f o r m o f c u l t - i m a g e w a s also used t o r e p r e s e n t t h e I u p p i t e r o r Z e u s of Heliopolis. T h e pitfalls in a t t e m p r i n g t o c h a r a c t c r i s c t h e cults o f this r c g i o n a r c thus ali t o o o b v i o u s . It is n o t even c l e a r vvhether a n y t h i n g m o r e t h a n its a t t a c h m e ı ı t t o B e r y t u s as t h e territory o f A u g u s t u s ' colonia,

o r its l o c a t i o ı ı vvithin the later

p r o v i n c c o f ' S y r i a P h o e n i c c ' , vvould j u s t i f y o u r t h i n k i n g o f I I c l i o p o l i s a n d t h c B e k a a V a l l e y a s ' P h o c n i c i a n ' a t ali. Y e t vve h a v e already n o t e d t h a t E u s e b i u s s a w t h e c u l t o f ' A p h r o d i t e ' ( V e n ü s ) a t H e l i o p o l i s as o n e o b s e r v e d by ' P h o e n i c i a n s ' , a n d t h a t C o n s t a n t i n e ' s m e a s u r e s vvere direeted a g a i n s t ritual p r o s î i t u t i o n t h e r e . " I n this C h r i s t i a n vievv, the colonia,

I u p p i t e r a n d M e r c u r i u s have

ali v a n i s h e d . Y e t E u s e b i u s vvas a t l e a s t a c o n t e m p o r a r y , living in a n e i g h b o u r -

3 3 . H a j j a r , o p . c i t . , n o . 1 8 6 a n d Pl. I . X X . For this d e d i c a t i o n b y a R o m a n a u x i l i a r y o f f i c c r scc 4 . 1 , tcxt to n.z. 34. Hajjar, o p . cit., no. 283. 3 5 . 5.3 a b o v c .

ing c i t y . B u t t h e o ı ı e - s i d e d n e s s o f e v e n h i s t e s t i m o n y s h o u l d m a k e u s b e w a r e o f b a s i n g i n t c r p r e t a t i o n s o f a n y o f t h e s e c u l t s o n r e t r o s p e c t i v e a n a l y s e s vvritt e n in t h e l a t e E m p i r e . T h e m o s t d u b i o u s o f a l i i s p e r h a p s t h a t o f M a c r o b i u s , vvriting in t h e fifth c e n t u r y , vvho m a n a g e s t o i d e n t i f y t h e g o d o f H e l i o p o l i s a s both luppiter and Apollo/Sol, a t ı d t o g o o n t o state that the 'Assyrii' identify the s u p r c m c g o d as S o l , cali h i m A d a d ( m e a n i n g 'ıınus, u n ı ı s * — h y p o t h e t i c a l l y ' H D , ' H D ) a n d give h i m a c o n s o r t called Adargatis.36 W h a t e v e r t h e startingp o i n t o f o u r a p p r o a c h t o t h e s e c u l t s , it s h o u l d n o t b e t h i s . A s vvas s a i d at t h e b e g i n n i n g , t h e m o r e c x p l i c i t o u r e v i d e n e e , t h e m o r e it r e p r e s e n t s a c o n s t r u c t i o n b y t h e o b s e r v c r . İ f vve b e g i n f r o m t h e d o c u m e n t a r y e v i d e n e e , t h e i m p o r t a n t a s p e c t o f t h e c o l o n i a 1 t e r r i t o r y , d i v i d c d i n t o t h a t o f tvvo

most coloniae

b y S e p t i m i u s S e v e r u s , i s p r e c i s e l y t h a t vvhich m a k e s a c o n t r a s t vvith a l i o t l ı e r r e g i o n s o f t h e N e a r E a s t : t h e c r c a t i o n o f a c o l o n i a l vvorld vvhere L a t i n c o n t i n ued to b e used a n d the m a i n g o d s h a d n a m e s borrovved f r o m the

Roman

pantheon. It t h u s r e m a i n s h i g h l y u n c e r t a i n vvhat, i f a n y t h i n g , r e m a i n e d o f t h e P h o c n i c i a ı ı c u l t u r e o f B e r y t u s a n d i t s h i n t e r l a n d . N o s i m i l a r p r o b l e m a r i s e s vvitlı t h e tvvo c h i e f ( a n d r i v a l ) P h o e n i c i a n c i t i e s , T y r e a n d S i d o n , e v e n t h o u g h t h e r e are n o P h o e n i c i a n inseriptions f r o m either in the Imperial period, and b o t h b c c a m e R o m a n coloniae

under t h e Scvcran dynasty.

8.5

S İ D O N

A N D

TYRF.

S i d o n a n d T y r e f o r m a c l e a r l y diefincd p a i r , b u t a l s o n e e d t o b e t r e a t e d s e p a r a t e l y , if o n l y b c c a u s c s o m u c h l e s s e v i d e n e e i s a v a i l a b l e f o r S i d o n in t h e I m p e rial p e r i o d . ' T h e r e is a m a r k e d c o n t r a s t vvith t h e H c l l c n i s t i c a g e , vvhen P h o e n i c i a n i n s e r i p t i o n s left b y S i d o n i a n s a b r o a d in t h e G r e e k vvorld a r e vvell a t t e s t e d ; a n d t h e p r o m i n e t ı c e o f t h e c i t y i s r e f l e e t e d in i t e m s o f e v i d e n e e f r o m S h e c h e m in S a m a r i a , l a m n i a o n t h e c o a s t o f P a l e s t i n e a n d I d u m a e a t ı M a r i s a , ali

of

vvhich r e v e a l c o m m u n i t i e s vvho i d e n t i f i e d t h e m s e l v e s a s ' S i d o n i a n s ' . 2 I ı ı t h e R o m a n period the m o s t distinetive surviving tracc o f the public c h a r a c t e r o f S i d o n is p r o v i d c d b y i t s c o i n s . 3 F o r ,

first,

u n t i l t h e 4 0 S ALI, t h e c i t y m i n t e d

c o i n s u n d e r its ovvn n a m e ( s o m e t i m e s in t h e f o r m ' o f S i d o n t h e s a c r c d a n d 36. M a c r o b i u s , Sat. I, 2 3 , 1 0 - 2 1 ; I l a j j a r , o p . cit., n o . 3 3 1 . t . F o r a gcr.cral s u r v e y s c c N\ J i d c j i a n , Sidon n o w RPCI,

through

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Ages

( 1 9 7 1 } . F o r the c o i n s sec

The Roman Near East: 31 BC-AD 337 (Carl Newell Jackson Lectures)

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