The Nineties in America

The Nineties in America

The Nineties in America Volume I Abortion—Genetics Research

Editor

Milton Berman, Ph.D. University of Rochester

Managing Editor

Tracy Irons-Georges

Salem Press, Inc. Pasadena, California Hackensack, New Jersey

Editorial Director: Christina J. Moose Managing Editor: Tracy Irons-Georges Acquisitions Editor: Mark Rehn Copy Editors: Timothy M. Tiernan, Rebecca Kuzins Research Supervisor: Jeffry Jensen Editorial Assistant: Dana Garey Research Assistant: Keli Trousdale Photo Editor: Cynthia Breslin Beres Graphics and Design: James Hutson Production Editor: Joyce I. Buchea Layout: Frank Montano Title page photo: Bill Clinton delivers his acceptance speech at the 1992 Democratic National Convention. (AP/Wide World Photos) Cover images (pictured clockwise, from top left): President Bill Clinton and Vice President Al Gore, 1993. (AP/Wide World Photos); General H. Norman Schwarzkopf, 1991. (AP/Wide World Photos); Brandi Chastain, Women’s World Cup Final, 1999. (AP/Wide World Photos); Keyboard. (©Kts/Dreamstime.com)

Copyright © 2009, by Salem Press, Inc. All rights in this book are reserved. No part of this work may be used or reproduced in any manner whatsoever or transmitted in any form or by any means, electronic or mechanical, including photocopy, recording, or any information storage and retrieval system, without written permission from the copyright owner except in the case of brief quotations embodied in critical articles and reviews or in the copying of images deemed to be freely licensed or in the public domain. For information address the publisher, Salem Press, Inc., P.O. Box 50062, Pasadena, California 91115. ∞ The paper used in these volumes conforms to the American National Standard for Permanence of Paper for Printed Library Materials, Z39.48-1992 (R1997).

Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data The nineties in America / editor, Milton Berman. p. cm. Includes bibliographical references and indexes. ISBN 978-1-58765-500-5 (set : alk. paper) — ISBN 978-1-58765-501-2 (v. 1: alk. paper) — ISBN 978-1-58765-502-9 (v. 2 : alk. paper) — ISBN 978-1-58765-503-6 (v. 3 : alk. paper) 1. United States—History—1969—Encyclopedias. 2. United States—Social conditions—1980— Encyclopedias. 3. United States—Politics and government—1989-1993—Encyclopedias. 4. United States—Politics and government—1993-2001—Encyclopedias. 5. United States—Intellectual life—20th century—Encyclopedias. 6. Popular culture—United States— History—20th century—Encyclopedias. 7. Nineteen nineties—Encyclopedias. I. Berman, Milton. E839.N56 2009 973.92—dc22 2008049939

First Printing

printed in the united states of america

■ Table of Contents Publisher’s Note . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ix Contributors . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . xi Complete List of Contents . . . . . . . . . . . xvii

Bailey, Donovan . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 73 Baker, James. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 74 Baker v. Vermont . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 75 Balanced Budget Act of 1997 . . . . . . . . . . 76 Ballet . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 77 Barkley, Charles . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 79 Barry, Dave . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 80 Barry, Marion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 81 Baseball . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 82 Baseball realignment . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 86 Baseball strike of 1994 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 87 Basic Instinct . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 89 Basketball . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 90 Baywatch . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 93 Beanie Babies . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 94 Beauty and the Beast . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 95 Beauty Myth, The . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 96 Beavis and Butt-Head . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 97 Bernardin, Joseph Cardinal . . . . . . . . . . . 98 Beverly Hills, 90210 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 99 Bezos, Jeff . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 100 Biosphere 2 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 102 Blair Witch Project, The . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 103 Blended families. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 104 Bloc Québécois . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 106 Blogs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 107 Bobbitt mutilation case . . . . . . . . . . . . . 108 Bondar, Roberta . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 109 Bono, Sonny . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 110 Book clubs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 111 Bosnia conflict . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 113 Bowl Championship Series (BCS) . . . . . . . 114 Boxing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 115 Boy bands . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 117 Broadway musicals. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 119 Brooks, Garth . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 120 Brown, Ron . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 122 Browning, Kurt . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 123 Buchanan, Pat . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 124 Buffett, Warren . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 125 Burning Man festivals . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 127 Bush, George H. W. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 129 Business and the economy in Canada . . . . . 132 Business and the economy in the United States . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 134 Byrd murder case . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 138

Abortion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1 Academy Awards . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2 Advertising . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4 Africa and the United States. . . . . . . . . . . . 7 African Americans . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9 Agassi, Andre . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12 Agriculture in Canada . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13 Agriculture in the United States . . . . . . . . . 15 AIDS epidemic . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 18 Air pollution . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 20 Airline industry . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 21 Albee, Edward. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 23 Albert, Marv. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 24 Albright, Madeleine . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 25 Allen, Woody . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 26 Ally McBeal. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 27 Alternative rock . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 29 Alvarez, Julia . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 30 Alzheimer’s disease . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 32 Amazon.com . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 33 America Online . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 34 Americans with Disabilities Act of 1990 . . . . . 35 AmeriCorps . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 37 Angelou, Maya . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 39 Angels in America. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 40 Antidepressants . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 41 Apple Computer . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 43 Archaeology . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 45 Archer Daniels Midland scandal . . . . . . . . . 46 Architecture. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 47 Armey, Dick . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 51 Armstrong, Lance. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 52 Arnett, Peter . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 53 Art movements . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 54 Asian Americans . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 58 Astronomy. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 61 Attention-deficit disorder . . . . . . . . . . . . 63 Audiobooks . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 65 Autism . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 66 Auto racing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 67 Automobile industry . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 69

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Cable television . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Cammermeyer, Margarethe. . . . . . . . Campaign finance scandal . . . . . . . . Campbell, Kim. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Canada and the British Commonwealth . Canada and the United States . . . . . . Cancer research . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Carey, Mariah . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Carjacking . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Carpal tunnel syndrome . . . . . . . . . Carrey, Jim . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Casual Fridays . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Cell phones . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Censorship . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . CGI . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Charlottetown Accord. . . . . . . . . . . Cheney, Dick. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Chicago heat wave of 1995 . . . . . . . . Chick lit . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Child pornography . . . . . . . . . . . . Children’s literature. . . . . . . . . . . . Children’s television. . . . . . . . . . . . Children’s Television Act . . . . . . . . . China and the United States . . . . . . . Chopra, Deepak . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Chrétien, Jean . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Christian Coalition . . . . . . . . . . . . Christo . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Christopher, Warren . . . . . . . . . . . Cirque du Soleil . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Civil Rights Act of 1991 . . . . . . . . . . Classical music . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Clean Air Act of 1990 . . . . . . . . . . . Clinton, Bill . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Clinton, Hillary Rodham . . . . . . . . . Clinton’s impeachment . . . . . . . . . . Clinton’s scandals . . . . . . . . . . . . . Cloning . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Clooney, George . . . . . . . . . . . . . . CNN coverage of the Gulf War . . . . . . Cochran, Johnnie . . . . . . . . . . . . . Coen brothers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Coffeehouses . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Cohen, William S. . . . . . . . . . . . . . Cold War, end of. . . . . . . . . . . . . . Columbine massacre . . . . . . . . . . . Comedians . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Comic strips . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Computers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Conservatism in U.S. politics . . . . . . .

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140 141 142 144 145 147 148 150 151 152 153 154 154 155 157 159 160 161 163 165 167 171 174 175 177 178 179 181 182 183 184 186 187 188 191 193 196 199 201 202 204 205 206 207 208 210 212 214 216 219

Contract with America Copyright legislation . Country music . . . . . Crime . . . . . . . . . Crown Heights riot . . Cruise, Tom . . . . . . Culture wars . . . . . .

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220 224 225 227 231 233 234

Dahmer, Jeffrey . . . . . . . . . . . Damon, Matt. . . . . . . . . . . . . Dances with Wolves . . . . . . . . . . Dayton Accords . . . . . . . . . . . Dead Sea scrolls publication . . . . Death Row Records . . . . . . . . . Defense budget cuts . . . . . . . . . Defense of Marriage Act of 1996 . . DeGeneres, Ellen . . . . . . . . . . Demographics of Canada . . . . . . Demographics of the United States Depo-Provera . . . . . . . . . . . . Devers, Gail . . . . . . . . . . . . . Diallo shooting . . . . . . . . . . . Digital audio . . . . . . . . . . . . . Digital cameras . . . . . . . . . . . Digital divide. . . . . . . . . . . . . Dinkins, David . . . . . . . . . . . . Dole, Bob . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Domestic partnerships . . . . . . . Don’t ask, don’t tell . . . . . . . . . Dot-coms . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Downsizing and restructuring . . . Dream Team . . . . . . . . . . . . . Drive-by shootings . . . . . . . . . . Drudge, Matt . . . . . . . . . . . . Drug advertising. . . . . . . . . . . Drug use . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Dubroff, Jessica . . . . . . . . . . . Duke, David . . . . . . . . . . . . . DVDs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

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238 239 240 241 242 243 244 246 247 248 250 253 254 255 256 257 258 259 260 263 264 267 270 271 272 272 274 275 276 277 278

Earth Day 1990 . . . . . . . . . Earth in the Balance. . . . . . . . Ecstasy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Educate America Act of 1994 . . Education in Canada . . . . . . Education in the United States . Egan v. Canada . . . . . . . . . . EgyptAir Flight 990 crash . . . . Elder abuse . . . . . . . . . . . Elders, Joycelyn . . . . . . . . .

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281 282 283 284 285 287 290 290 293 294

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Table of Contents

Elections in Canada . . . . . . . . . . . . Elections in the United States, midterm . Elections in the United States, 1992 . . . Elections in the United States, 1996 . . . Electric car . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Electronic music . . . . . . . . . . . . . . E-mail . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Employment in Canada . . . . . . . . . . Employment in the United States . . . . ER . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Etheridge, Melissa . . . . . . . . . . . . . Europe and North America. . . . . . . .

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295 297 299 302 306 308 310 311 312 314 315 316

Fabio . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Fads . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Faludi, Susan. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Falwell, Jerry . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Family and Medical Leave Act of 1993 . Farrakhan, Louis . . . . . . . . . . . . Fashions and clothing . . . . . . . . . . Feng shui. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Fen-phen . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Ferguson, Colin . . . . . . . . . . . . .

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318 319 320 321 323 323 325 327 328 328

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Fermat’s last theorem solution . . . Film in Canada . . . . . . . . . . . Film in the United States . . . . . . Fleiss, Heidi . . . . . . . . . . . . . Flinn, Kelly. . . . . . . . . . . . . . Food trends . . . . . . . . . . . . . Football . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Forbes, Steve . . . . . . . . . . . . . Foreign policy of Canada . . . . . . Foreign policy of the United States. Forrest Gump . . . . . . . . . . . . . Frasier. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Friends . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

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330 331 333 337 338 339 341 343 344 346 349 350 351

Gardner Museum art theft . . Gates, Bill . . . . . . . . . . . Gehry, Frank . . . . . . . . . . General Motors strike of 1998 Generation Y. . . . . . . . . . Genetic engineering . . . . . Genetically modified foods . . Genetics research . . . . . . .

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354 354 356 357 358 360 361 364

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■ Publisher’s Note The Gulf War, dot-coms, impeachment, grunge, Y2K—the 1990’s were a time of both optimism and conflict, hope and worry. The decade began with a seemingly victorious war, fell into recession, bounced back with a strong bull market, and ended in political bitterness and scandal. The Nineties in America examines the iconic personalities and moments of this important decade. With articles about films, books, political leaders, events, fads, and technology, the encyclopedia serves as a valuable source of reliable information and keen insights for today’s students.

• • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • •

This illustrated threevolume encyclopedia is a companion set to The Sixties in America (1999), The Fifties in America (2005), The Seventies in America (2006), and The Eighties in America (2008). It covers events, movements, people, and trends in popular culture, literature, art, sports, science, technology, economics, and politics in both the United States and Canada. The Nineties in America features long overviews and short entries discussing people, books, films, television series, musical groups, and other important topics representative of that era. Every entry focuses on the topic or person during the 1990’s—for this work, defined as January, 1, 1990, through December 31, 1999—in order to explore what made the decade unique. Topics that span several decades often provide some background and information on subsequent events to help place the 1990’s in perspective. The Nineties in America contains 630 essays, in alphabetical order, ranging from one to six pages in length. Written with the needs of students and general readers in mind, the essays present clear discussions of their topics, explaining terms and references that may be unfamiliar. Entries fall into the following general categories:

Contents of the Encyclopedia

• • • • • • • •

economics education environmental issues film health and medicine international relations journalism Latinos legislation literature military and war music Native Americans people politics and government popular culture religion and spirituality science and technology sexuality social issues sports television terrorism theater and dance transportation women’s issues

The encyclopedic format allows readers to take either a broad view or a narrow one. For example, in addition to the essay on Bill Clinton, The Nineties in America offers related entries on Clinton’s impeachment, the Lewinsky scandal, the Starr Report, and the Whitewater investigation. Likewise, in addition to a profile on conservatism in U.S. politics during the decade are entries on the Republican Revolution, the Contract with America, and such pivotal figures as Newt Gingrich. The Nineties in America contains more than three hundred evocative photographs of people and events. In addition, fifty sidebars—lists, tables, graphs, excerpts from speeches—highlight interesting facts and trends from the decade.

African Americans art and architecture Asian Americans business Canada court cases and the law crime and punishment disasters

Essay Organization Every essay begins with a clear, concise title followed by a brief description called Identification (for people, organizations, and works, such as books or films); Definition (for objects, con-

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The Nineties in America

cepts, and overviews); or The Event. Next, a heading for Author, Publisher, Director, or Producer is used when appropriate and includes vital dates. A Date line appears for events, legislation, films, books, television series, plays, and any topic linked to a discrete time. Biographical entries feature the headings Born and Died, listing the date and place of birth and death for the subject. A Place line appears if appropriate. Every essay includes a heading called Significance, which offers a brief assessment of what made the topic important during the 1990’s. Within the text, boldfaced subheads show readers the overall organization of the essay at a glance and make finding information quick and easy. Every essay features an Impact section, which examines the subject’s broader importance during the 1990’s. Longer overviews sometimes include a section called Subsequent Events that sums up later developments. Cross-references at the end of each essay direct readers to additional entries in the encyclopedia on related subjects. Every entry, regardless of length, offers bibliographical notes under the heading Further Reading in order to guide readers to additional information about the topic; annotations are provided in essays of 1,000 words or more. Every essay includes an author byline.

watched U.S. television shows, and Emmy Award winners. The two literature appendixes list the bestselling U.S. books and the winners of major literary awards, and two music appendixes provide notable facts about some of the decade’s most popular musicians and list Grammy Award winners. A sports appendix provides a quick glance at the winners of major sporting events of the 1990’s. The two legislative appendixes look at major decisions of the U.S. Supreme Court and important legislation passed by Congress during the decade. The other appendixes are a glossary of new words and slang from the 1990’s, a detailed time line of the decade, an annotated general bibliography, and an annotated list of Web sources on 1990’s subjects. The encyclopedia also contains a number of useful tools to help readers find entries of interest. A complete list of all essays in The Nineties in America appears at the beginning of each volume. Volume 3 contains a list of entries sorted by category, personage and photo indexes, and a comprehensive subject index. The editors of Salem Press would like to thank the scholars who contributed essays and appendixes to The Nineties in America; their names and affiliations are listed in the front matter to volume 1. The editors would also like to thank Professor Milton Berman of the University of Rochester for serving as the project’s Editor and for bringing to the project his expertise on North American history.

Acknowledgments

Appendixes Volume 3 of The Nineties in America contains sixteen appendixes that provide additional information about selected aspects of the decade in easily accessible formats. The five entertainment appendixes list major films, Academy Award winners, major Broadway plays and theatrical awards, most-

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■ Contributors Grisel Y. Acosta

Melissa A. Barton

Thomas W. Buchanan

University of Texas at San Antonio

University of Colorado-Boulder

Ancilla Domini College

Michael Adams

Frederic J. Baumgartner

Kevin Buckler

CUNY Graduate Center

Virginia Polytechnic Institute and State University

University of Texas at Brownsville Texas Southmost College

Keith J. Bell

Michael A. Buratovich

Western Carolina University

Spring Arbor University

Alexander S. Bennett

Michael H. Burchett

Carnegie Mellon University

Limestone College

Alvin K. Benson

William E. Burns

Utah Valley University

George Washington University

R. Matthew Beverlin

Joseph P. Byrne

University of Kansas

Belmont University

Kris Bigalk

Richard K. Caputo

Normandale Community College

Yeshiva University

Margaret Boe Birns

Russell N. Carney

New York University

Missouri State University

Nicholas Birns

Jack Carter

The New School

University of New Orleans

Ami R. Blue

Paul J. Chara, Jr.

Eastern Kentucky University

Northwestern College

David Boersema

Frederick B. Chary

Pacific University

Indiana University Northwest

Bernadette Lynn Bosky

Allan Chavkin

Yonkers, New York

Texas State University, San Marcos

Southern Illinois University, Edwardsville

Gordon L. Bowen

Dennis W. Cheek

Mary Baldwin College

Ewing Marion Kauffman Foundation

Jane L. Ball

William Boyle

Michael W. Cheek

Yellow Springs, Ohio

University of Mississippi

Kennett Square, Pennsylvania

Rikard Bandebo

Kevin L. Brennan

Douglas Clouatre

Corporate Executive Board

Ouachita Baptist University

MidPlains Community College

Rachel Bandy

William S. Brockington, Jr.

Kathryn A. Cochran

Simpson College

University of South Carolina-Aiken

University of Kansas

David Barratt

Howard Bromberg

Elizabeth Cramer

Montreat College

University of Michigan Law School

Appalachian State University

Richard Adler University of Michigan-Dearborn

James Darrel Alexander, Jr. University of Central Oklahoma

Emily Alward Henderson, Nevada, District Libraries

Nicole Anae Charles Sturt University

Desiré J. M. Anastasia San Diego State University

Carolyn Anderson University of Massachusetts, Amherst

Christina C. Angel University of Denver

Andy Argyrakis Tribune Media Services

Jeffrey S. Ashley Eastern Illinois University

Charles Lewis Avinger, Jr. Washtenaw Community College

Amanda Bahr-Evola

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John P. Cryderman

John W. Engel

Jan Hall

Temple University

University of Hawaii at Manoa

Columbus, Ohio

Dolores A. D’Angelo

Victoria Erhart

Randall Hannum

Bethesda, Maryland

Strayer University

New York City College of Technology, CUNY

Eddith A. Dashiell

Thomas L. Erskine

Ohio University

Salisbury University

Anita Price Davis

Elisabeth Faase

Converse College

Athens Regional Medical Center

Danielle A. DeFoe

Thomas R. Feller

Sacramento State University

Nashville, Tennessee

David L. DeHart

Gerald P. Fisher

Appalachian State University

Georgia College and State University

Paul Dellinger

Michael P. Fitzgerald

Wytheville, Virginia

Vestal, New York

AnnMarie Depas-Orange

Robert Flatley

Alabama State University

Kutztown University

James I. Deutsch

George J. Flynn

Smithsonian Institution

SUNY-Plattsburgh

Joseph Dewey

Janet E. Gardner

University of Pittsburgh-Johnstown

University of Massachusetts at Dartmouth

Katherine M. Helm

Gilbert Geis

Mark C. Herman

University of California, Irvine

Edison College

Richard A. Glenn

Steve Hewitt

Millersville University

University of Birmingham

Nancy M. Gordon

Paul Hodge

Amherst, Massachusetts

University of Washington

Robert F. Gorman

Samuel B. Hoff

Texas State University, San Marcos

Delaware State University

Needham Yancey Gulley

William H. Hoffman

Athens Technical College

Fort Myers, Florida

Larry Haapanen

Meredith Holladay

Lewis-Clark State College

Baylor University

Michael Haas

Kimberley M. Holloway

College of the Canyons

King College

Irwin Halfond

Ski Hunter

McKendree University

University of Texas at Arlington

June Harris Texas A&M University, Commerce

Alan Haslam California State University, Sacramento

AWR Hawkins III Texas Tech University

Bernadette Zbicki Heiney Lock Haven University of Pennsylvania

James J. Heiney Lock Haven University of Pennsylvania

John A. Heitmann University of Dayton

Peter B. Heller Manhattan College

Lewis University

M. Casey Diana Arizona State University

Marcia B. Dinneen Bridgewater State College

L. Mara Dodge Westfield State College

Pedro dos Santos University of Kansas

Thomas Drucker University of Wisconsin-Whitewater

Thomas Du Bose Louisiana State University at Shreveport

John R. Elliott Pepperdine University

Julie Elliott Indiana University South Bend

Howard C. Ellis Millersville University of Pennsylvania

xii

Contributors

Mary Hurd

Grove Koger

Sherri Ward Massey

East Tennessee State University

Boise State University

University of Central Oklahoma

Raymond Pierre Hylton

Margaret A. Koger

Laurence W. Mazzeno

Virginia Union University

Boise, Idaho

Alvernia College

Margot Irvine

David B. Kopel

Scott A. Merriman

University of Guelph

Independence Institute

Troy University

Jeffry Jensen

Yasue Kuwahara

Beth A. Messner

Glendale Community College

Northern Kentucky University

Ball State University

Bruce E. Johansen

Rebecca Kuzins

Eric W. Metchik

University of Nebraska at Omaha

Pasadena, California

Salem State College

Barbara E. Johnson

Timothy Lane

Julia M. Meyers

University of South Carolina-Aiken

Louisville, Kentucky

Duquesne University

Edward Johnson

Jacob F. Lee

Michael R. Meyers

University of New Orleans

The Filson Historical Society

Pfeiffer University

Sheila Golburgh Johnson

Michael E. Lee

Dodie Marie Miller

Santa Barbara, California

University of Oklahoma

Ivy Tech Community College

David M. Jones

Ann M. Legreid

Mark Edwin Miller

University of Wisconsin-Oshkosh

University of Central Missouri

Southern Utah University

Mark S. Joy

Denyse Lemaire

Randall L. Milstein

Jamestown College

Rowan University

Oregon State University

Laurence R. Jurdem

Thomas Tandy Lewis

Damon Mitchell

Jurdem Associates Public Relations

St. Cloud State University

Central Connecticut State University

Mathew J. Kanjirathinkal

Victor Lindsey

Christian H. Moe

Park University

East Central University

Southern Illinois University at Carbondale

David Kasserman

Alar Lipping

Rowan University

Northern Kentucky University

Jarod P. Kearney

R. C. Lutz

Rye Historical Society

Madison Advisors

Steven G. Kellman

Joanne McCarthy

University of Texas at San Antonio

Tacoma, Washington

Leigh Husband Kimmel

Roxanne McDonald

Indianapolis, Indiana

New London, New Hampshire

Paul M. Klenowski

Kimberly Manning

Thiel College

Chaffey Community College

John P. Koch

Martin J. Manning

Blake, Cassels, and Graydon

U.S. Department of State

Gayla Koerting

Henry W. Mannle

Nebraska State Historical Society

Tennessee Technological University

William V. Moore College of Charleston

Denis Mueller Northern Kentucky University

David Murphy Kentucky State University

Alice Myers Bard College at Simon’s Rock

John Myers Bard College at Simon’s Rock

Daniel-Raymond Nadon Kent State University-Trumbull Campus

xiii

The Nineties in America

Leslie Neilan

Michael Polley

Thomas E. Rotnem

Virginia Polytechnic Institute and State University

Columbia College

Southern Polytechnic State University

David L. Porter

Joseph R. Rudolph, Jr.

William Penn University

Towson University

Jessie Bishop Powell

Irene Struthers Rush

Montgomery, Alabama

Boise, Idaho

Tessa Li Powell

Concepcion Saenz-Cambra

U.S. Senate

University of London, Birkbeck College

Victoria Price

Virginia L. Salmon

Lamar University

Northeast State Community College

Maureen Puffer-Rothenberg

Vicki A. Sanders

Valdosta State University

Gainesville, Georgia

Edna B. Quinn

Joseph C. Santora

Salisbury University

Thomas Edison State College

Christopher Rager

Sean J. Savage

Pasadena, California

Saint Mary’s College

Steven J. Ramold

Richard Sax

Eastern Michigan University

Lake Erie College

Paul L. Redditt

Elizabeth D. Schafer

Georgetown College

Loachapoka, Alabama

Rosemary M. Canfield Reisman

Lindsay Schmitz

Charleston Southern University

University of Missouri, St. Louis

H. William Rice

Lawrence Schwegler

Kennesaw State University

University of Texas at San Antonio

Mark Rich

Brion Sever

Cashton, Wisconsin

Monmouth University

Robert B. Ridinger

Taylor Shaw

Northern Illinois University

ADVANCE Education & Development Center

Caryn E. Neumann Miami University of Ohio at Middletown

Norma C. Noonan Augsburg College

Amy J. Orr Linfield College

Brooke Speer Orr Westfield State College

Arsenio Orteza St. Thomas More High School

William A. Paquette Tidewater Community College

Robert J. Paradowski Rochester Institute of Technology

Jim Pauff Tarleton State University

David Peck Laguna Beach, California

Jan Pendergrass University of Georgia

Noelle K. Penna Bronx High School of Science

Douglas A. Phillips Sierra Vista, Arizona

John R. Phillips Purdue University Calumet

Edward A. Riedinger Christine Photinos

Ohio State University

National University

Emily Carroll Shearer Eastern Kentucky University

Charles W. Rogers Allene Phy-Olsen

Southwestern Oklahoma State University

Austin Peay State University

Martha Sherwood Kent Anderson Law Associates

Carl Rollyson Erika E. Pilver

Baruch College, CUNY

Westfield State College

Wayne Shirey University of Alabama, Huntsville

Barbara Roos Troy Place

Grand Valley State University

R. Baird Shuman

Sandra Rothenberg

University of Illinois at UrbanaChampaign

Western Michigan University Framingham State College

xiv

Contributors

Paul P. Sipiera

John M. Theilmann

William T. Walker

William Rainey Harper College

Converse College

Chestnut Hill College

Amy Sisson

Susan E. Thomas

Kathryn A. Walterscheid

Houston Community College

Indiana University South Bend

University of Missouri, St. Louis

Tom Smith

Jennifer L. Titanski

Mary C. Ware

New Mexico State University

Lock Haven University of Pennsylvania

SUNY, College at Cortland

Sonia Sorrell

Marilyn Tobias

Donald A. Watt

Pepperdine University

Public historian/independent scholar

Dakota Wesleyan University

Leigh Southward

Rebecca Tolley-Stokes

Shawncey Webb

Tennessee Technological University

East Tennessee State University

Taylor University

Joseph L. Spradley

Paul B. Trescott

Marcia J. Weiss

Wheaton College

Southern Illinois University

Point Park University

Brian Stableford

Richard Tuerk

Twyla R. Wells

Reading, United Kingdom

Texas A&M University-Commerce

University of Northwestern Ohio

August W. Staub

Sheryl L. Van Horne

George M. Whitson III

University of Georgia

Pennsylvania State University

University of Texas at Tyler

Christopher Strobel

Suzanne Araas Vesely

Thomas A. Wikle

Northern Kentucky University

Maharishi University of Management

Oklahoma State University

Paul Stuewe

Dwight Vick

Richard L. Wilson

Green Mountain College

West Texas A&M University

University of Tennessee at Chattanooga

Taylor Stults

Sara Vidar

Scott Wright

Muskingum College

Los Feliz, California

University of St. Thomas

Cynthia J. W. Svoboda

Charles L. Vigue

Susan J. Wurtzburg

Bridgewater State College

University of New Haven

University of Utah

Melinda Swafford

Kathryn Vincent

Tennessee Technological University

University of Maryland

xv

■ Complete List of Contents Volume I Publisher’s Note . . . . . . . . . . ix Contributors . . . . . . . . . . . . xi Complete List of Contents . . . xvii Abortion. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1 Academy Awards . . . . . . . . . . 2 Acquired immunodeficiency syndrome. See AIDS epidemic Advertising . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4 Africa and the United States . . . . 7 African Americans . . . . . . . . . 9 Agassi, Andre . . . . . . . . . . . 12 Agriculture in Canada. . . . . . . 13 Agriculture in the United States . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15 AIDS epidemic. . . . . . . . . . . 18 Air pollution . . . . . . . . . . . . 20 Airline industry . . . . . . . . . . 21 Albee, Edward . . . . . . . . . . . 23 Albert, Marv . . . . . . . . . . . . 24 Albright, Madeleine . . . . . . . . 25 Allen, Woody. . . . . . . . . . . . 26 Ally McBeal . . . . . . . . . . . . . 27 Alternative rock . . . . . . . . . . 29 Alvarez, Julia . . . . . . . . . . . . 30 Alzheimer’s disease . . . . . . . . 32 Amazon.com . . . . . . . . . . . . 33 America Online . . . . . . . . . . 34 Americans with Disabilities Act of 1990 . . . . . . . . . . . 35 AmeriCorps . . . . . . . . . . . . 37 Angelou, Maya . . . . . . . . . . . 39 Angels in America . . . . . . . . . . 40 Antidepressants . . . . . . . . . . 41 Apple Computer. . . . . . . . . . 43 Archaeology . . . . . . . . . . . . 45 Archer Daniels Midland scandal . . . . . . . . . . . . . 46 Architecture . . . . . . . . . . . . 47 Armey, Dick . . . . . . . . . . . . 51 Armstrong, Lance . . . . . . . . . 52 Arnett, Peter . . . . . . . . . . . . 53 Art movements . . . . . . . . . . 54 Asian Americans . . . . . . . . . . 58 Astronomy . . . . . . . . . . . . . 61 Attention-deficit disorder . . . . . 63 Audiobooks . . . . . . . . . . . . 65 Autism . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 66

Auto racing . . . . . . . . . . . . 67 Automobile industry . . . . . . . 69 Bailey, Donovan . . . . . . . . . . 73 Baker, James . . . . . . . . . . . . 74 Baker v. Vermont . . . . . . . . . . 75 Balanced Budget Act of 1997 . . . 76 Ballet . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 77 Barkley, Charles . . . . . . . . . . 79 Barry, Dave. . . . . . . . . . . . . 80 Barry, Marion . . . . . . . . . . . 81 Baseball . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 82 Baseball realignment . . . . . . . 86 Baseball strike of 1994. . . . . . . 87 Basketball team, Olympic. See Dream Team Basic Instinct . . . . . . . . . . . . 89 Basketball . . . . . . . . . . . . . 90 Baywatch . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 93 BCS. See Bowl Championship Series (BCS) Beanie Babies . . . . . . . . . . . 94 Beauty and the Beast . . . . . . . . 95 Beauty Myth, The . . . . . . . . . . 96 Beavis and Butt-Head . . . . . . . . 97 Bernardin, Joseph Cardinal. . . . 98 Beverly Hills, 90210 . . . . . . . . . 99 Bezos, Jeff. . . . . . . . . . . . . 100 Biosphere 2 . . . . . . . . . . . . 102 Blacks. See African Americans Blair Witch Project, The . . . . . . 103 Blended families . . . . . . . . . 104 Bloc Québécois. . . . . . . . . . 106 Blogs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 107 Bobbitt mutilation case . . . . . 108 Body piercings. See Tattoos and body piercings Bondar, Roberta . . . . . . . . . 109 Bono, Sonny . . . . . . . . . . . 110 Book clubs . . . . . . . . . . . . 111 Bosnia conflict . . . . . . . . . . 113 Bowl Championship Series (BCS) . . . . . . . . . . . . . 114 Boxing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 115 Boy bands. . . . . . . . . . . . . 117 Broadway musicals . . . . . . . . 119 Brooks, Garth . . . . . . . . . . 120 Brown, Ron . . . . . . . . . . . . 122

xvii

Browning, Kurt . . . . . . . . Buchanan, Pat . . . . . . . . Buffett, Warren. . . . . . . . Burning Man festivals . . . . Bush, George H. W. . . . . . Business and the economy in Canada . . . . . . . . . . Business and the economy in the United States . . . . . Byrd murder case . . . . . .

. . . . .

. . . . .

123 124 125 127 129

. . 132 . . 134 . . 138

Cable News Network. See CNN coverage of the Gulf War Cable television. . . . . . . . . Cammermeyer, Margarethe . . Campaign finance scandal. . . Campbell, Kim . . . . . . . . . Canada and the British Commonwealth . . . . . . . Canada and the United States . . . . . . . . . . . . Cancer research . . . . . . . . Capitol shooting. See U.S. Capitol shooting Car industry. See Automobile industry Carey, Mariah. . . . . . . . . . Carjacking . . . . . . . . . . . Carpal tunnel syndrome . . . . Carrey, Jim . . . . . . . . . . . Casual Fridays . . . . . . . . . Cell phones . . . . . . . . . . . Censorship . . . . . . . . . . . CGI . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Charlottetown Accord . . . . . Cheney, Dick . . . . . . . . . . Chicago heat wave of 1995. . . Chick lit. . . . . . . . . . . . . Child pornography. . . . . . . Children’s literature . . . . . . Children’s television . . . . . . Children’s Television Act . . . China and the United States . . . . . . . . . . . . Chopra, Deepak . . . . . . . . Chrétien, Jean . . . . . . . . . Christian Coalition . . . . . . . Christo . . . . . . . . . . . . .

. . . .

140 141 142 144

. 145 . 147 . 148

. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

150 151 152 153 154 154 155 157 159 160 161 163 165 167 171 174

. . . . .

175 177 178 179 181

The Nineties in America Christopher, Warren . . . . . . Cirque du Soleil . . . . . . . . Civil Rights Act of 1991 . . . . Classical music . . . . . . . . . Clean Air Act of 1990 . . . . . Clinton, Bill . . . . . . . . . . Clinton, Hillary Rodham . . . Clinton’s impeachment . . . . Clinton’s scandals . . . . . . . Cloning . . . . . . . . . . . . . Clooney, George . . . . . . . . Clothing. See Fashions and clothing CNN coverage of the Gulf War . . . . . . . . . . . . . Cochran, Johnnie . . . . . . . Coen brothers . . . . . . . . . Coffeehouses . . . . . . . . . . Cohen, William S. . . . . . . . Cold War, end of . . . . . . . . Columbine massacre . . . . . . Comedians . . . . . . . . . . . Comic strips . . . . . . . . . . Computer-generated imagery. See CGI Computers . . . . . . . . . . . Conservatism in U.S. politics. . . . . . . . . . . . Contract with America . . . . . Copyright legislation . . . . . . Country music . . . . . . . . . Crime . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Crown Heights riot. . . . . . . Cruise, Tom . . . . . . . . . . Culture wars . . . . . . . . . .

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219 220 224 225 227 231 233 234

Dahmer, Jeffrey. . . . . . . . Damon, Matt . . . . . . . . . Dances with Wolves. . . . . . . Dayton Accords. . . . . . . . Dead Sea scrolls publication. Death Row Records . . . . . Defense budget cuts . . . . . Defense of Marriage Act of 1996 . . . . . . . . . . . . DeGeneres, Ellen. . . . . . . Demographics of Canada . . Demographics of the United States . . . . . . . . . . . Depo-Provera . . . . . . . . . Devers, Gail. . . . . . . . . . Diallo shooting . . . . . . . . Digital audio . . . . . . . . . Digital cameras . . . . . . . .

. . . . . . .

238 239 240 241 242 243 244

. . . . . . .

. . . . . . . . .

182 183 184 186 187 188 191 193 196 199 201

202 204 205 206 207 208 210 212 214

. 216

. . 246 . . 247 . . 248 . . . . . .

. . . . . .

250 253 254 255 256 257

Digital divide . . . . . . . . . . . Digital video discs. See DVDs Dinkins, David . . . . . . . . . . Divorce. See Marriage and divorce Dole, Bob . . . . . . . . . . . . . Domestic partnerships . . . . . . Don’t ask, don’t tell . . . . . . . Dot-coms . . . . . . . . . . . . . Downsizing and restructuring . . . . . . . . . Dream Team . . . . . . . . . . . Drive-by shootings . . . . . . . . Drudge, Matt . . . . . . . . . . . Drug advertising . . . . . . . . . Drug companies. See Pharmaceutical industry Drug use . . . . . . . . . . . . . Dubroff, Jessica. . . . . . . . . . Duke, David . . . . . . . . . . . DVDs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Earth Day 1990 . . . . . . . . . . Earth in the Balance . . . . . . . . Economy. See Business and the economy in Canada; Business and the economy in the United States Ecstasy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Educate America Act of 1994 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Education in Canada. . . . . . . Education in the United States . . . . . . . . . . . . . Egan v. Canada . . . . . . . . . . EgyptAir Flight 990 crash . . . . Elder abuse . . . . . . . . . . . . Elders, Joycelyn. . . . . . . . . . Elections in Canada . . . . . . . Elections in the United States, midterm . . . . . . . . . . . . Elections in the United States, 1992 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Elections in the United States, 1996 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Electric car . . . . . . . . . . . . Electronic mail. See E-mail Electronic music . . . . . . . . . E-mail . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Embassy bombings in Africa. See U.S. embassy bombings in Africa Employment in Canada . . . . . Employment in the United States . . . . . . . . . . . . .

xviii

258 259 260 263 264 267 270 271 272 272 274

275 276 277 278 281 282

283 284 285 287 290 290 293 294 295 297 299 302 306 308 310

311 312

ER . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 314 Etheridge, Melissa . . . . . . . . 315 Europe and North America . . . 316 Euthanasia. See Physician-assisted suicide Fabio . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Fads . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Faludi, Susan . . . . . . . . . . Falwell, Jerry . . . . . . . . . . Family and Medical Leave Act of 1993 . . . . . . . . . . . Farrakhan, Louis . . . . . . . . Fashions and clothing . . . . . Feng shui . . . . . . . . . . . . Fen-phen . . . . . . . . . . . . Ferguson, Colin . . . . . . . . Fermat’s last theorem solution . . . . . . . . . . . Film in Canada . . . . . . . . . Film in the United States . . . Fisher, Amy. See Long Island Lolita case Fleiss, Heidi. . . . . . . . . . . Flight 592 crash. See ValuJet Flight 592 crash Flight 800 crash. See TWA Flight 800 crash Flight 990 crash. See EgyptAir Flight 990 crash Flinn, Kelly . . . . . . . . . . . Food trends. . . . . . . . . . . Football . . . . . . . . . . . . . Forbes, Steve . . . . . . . . . . Foreign policy of Canada . . . Foreign policy of the United States . . . . . . . . . . . . Forrest Gump. . . . . . . . . . . Frasier . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Friends . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Games. See Toys and games Gardner Museum art theft. . . Gates, Bill . . . . . . . . . . . . Gay rights. See Homosexuality and gay rights Gehry, Frank . . . . . . . . . . General Motors strike of 1998 . . . . . . . . . . . . . Generation Y . . . . . . . . . . Genetic engineering . . . . . . Genetically modified foods . . Genetics research . . . . . . .

. . . .

318 319 320 321

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323 323 325 327 328 328

. 330 . 331 . 333

. 337

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338 339 341 343 344

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346 349 350 351

. 354 . 354

. 356 . . . . .

357 358 360 361 364

Complete List of Contents

Volume II Complete List of Contents. . . xxxiii Gephardt, Dick . . . . . Gifford, Kathie Lee . . Gingrich, Newt . . . . . Ginsburg, Ruth Bader . Giuliani, Rudolph . . . Glenn, John . . . . . . Global warming debate GoodFellas . . . . . . . . Gordon, Jeff . . . . . . Gore, Al. . . . . . . . . Grafton, Sue . . . . . . Graves, Michael . . . . Greenspan, Alan . . . . Griffey, Ken, Jr. . . . . . Grisham, John . . . . . Grunge fashion. . . . . Grunge music . . . . . Gulf War . . . . . . . . Gulf War syndrome . . Gun control . . . . . .

. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

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367 368 369 370 371 373 374 376 376 377 379 380 381 382 384 385 385 388 392 393

Hackers . . . . . . . . . . . Hairstyles . . . . . . . . . . Haiti intervention . . . . . Hale-Bopp comet. . . . . . Hamm, Mia . . . . . . . . . Hanks, Tom . . . . . . . . Happy Land fire . . . . . . Harry Potter books. . . . . Hate crimes. . . . . . . . . Health care . . . . . . . . . Health care reform . . . . Heaven’s Gate mass suicide Heroin chic. . . . . . . . . Hill, Anita. . . . . . . . . . Hip-hop and rap music . . Hispanics. See Latinos Hobbies and recreation . . Hockey . . . . . . . . . . . Hogue, James. . . . . . . . Holocaust Memorial Museum . . . . . . . . . Holy Virgin Mary, The . . . . Holyfield, Evander . . . . . Home Alone . . . . . . . . . Home run race . . . . . . . Homeschooling . . . . . . Homosexuality and gay rights . . . . . . . . . .

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396 398 399 401 402 403 404 405 406 408 411 413 415 416 418

. . . 419 . . . 421 . . . 422 . . . . . .

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423 424 425 426 427 428

. . . 431

Homosexuals in the military. See Don’t ask, don’t tell Hubble Space Telescope. . . . . 433 Human Genome Project. . . . . 435 Hurricane Andrew . . . . . . . . 438 Ice hockey. See Hockey Illegal immigration. . . . . . . IM. See Instant messaging Immigration Act of 1990. . . . Immigration to Canada . . . . Immigration to the United States . . . . . . . . . . . . In Living Color . . . . . . . . . Income and wages in Canada . . . . . . . . . . . Income and wages in the United States . . . . . . . . Independent films . . . . . . . Indians, American. See Native Americans Instant messaging . . . . . . . Intelligent design movement . . . . . . . . . . Internet . . . . . . . . . . . . . Internet startups. See Dot-coms Inventions . . . . . . . . . . . Iron John. . . . . . . . . . . . . Israel and the United States . . Jenny Jones Show murder Jewish Americans. . . . Jobs, Steve . . . . . . . Joe Camel campaign . . Johnson, Magic . . . . . Jordan, Michael . . . . Journalism . . . . . . . Jurassic Park . . . . . . .

. . . . . . . .

Kaczynski, Theodore. See Unabomber capture Kelley, Kitty . . . . . . . . Kemp, Jack . . . . . . . . Kennedy, John F., Jr. . . . Kennedy rape case . . . . Kerrigan, Nancy . . . . . Kevorkian, Jack . . . . . . Khobar Towers bombing Killer bees . . . . . . . . King, Rodney . . . . . . . King, Stephen . . . . . .

xix

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. 440 . 441 . 442 . 444 . 445 . 446 . 447 . 449

. 451 . 452 . 453 . 456 . 462 . 463 . . . . . . . .

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466 467 468 469 470 471 473 475

476 477 478 479 480 481 482 484 485 486

Kingsolver, Barbara . . . . . . Klaas kidnapping and murder case . . . . . . . . . . . . . Knox pornography case . . . . Komunyakaa, Yusef. . . . . . . Koons, Jeff . . . . . . . . . . . Kosovo conflict . . . . . . . . . Kwanzaa . . . . . . . . . . . . Kyoto Protocol . . . . . . . . .

. 487 . . . . . . .

488 489 490 491 492 493 495

Lagasse, Emeril. . . . . . . . . . Lang, K. D. . . . . . . . . . . . . Laparoscopic surgery . . . . . . Larry Sanders Show, The . . . . . . Las Vegas megaresorts . . . . . . LASIK surgery . . . . . . . . . . Late night television . . . . . . . Latin America . . . . . . . . . . Latinos . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Lee, Spike . . . . . . . . . . . . Left Behind books . . . . . . . . Lewinsky scandal . . . . . . . . . Liberalism in U.S. politics . . . . Life coaching . . . . . . . . . . . Limbaugh, Rush . . . . . . . . . Line Item Veto Act of 1996 . . . Literature in Canada . . . . . . . Literature in the United States . . . . . . . . . . . . . Lollapalooza . . . . . . . . . . . Long Island Lolita case . . . . . Long Island Rail Road murders. See Ferguson, Colin Los Angeles riots . . . . . . . . . Louima torture case . . . . . . . Love, Courtney . . . . . . . . . . Lucid, Shannon . . . . . . . . .

497 498 499 500 501 503 504 505 507 509 510 511 513 515 516 517 518

McCaughey septuplets . McCourt, Frank . . . . McEntire, Reba. . . . . McGwire, Mark . . . . . McMansions . . . . . . McMillan, Terry . . . . McNally, Terrence . . . McVeigh, Timothy . . . Madonna . . . . . . . . Mafia . . . . . . . . . . Magic Eye pictures . . . Mall of America . . . . Malone, Karl . . . . . .

535 536 537 538 539 540 541 542 543 545 546 547 549

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520 525 527

528 531 532 533

The Nineties in America Mapplethorpe obscenity trial. . . 550 Marilyn Manson . . . . . . . . . 552 Marriage and divorce . . . . . . 553 Mars exploration . . . . . . . . . 554 Matrix, The . . . . . . . . . . . . 556 Medicine . . . . . . . . . . . . . 557 Men Are from Mars, Women Are from Venus . . . . . . . . . 560 Menendez brothers murder case . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 561 Metallica . . . . . . . . . . . . . 562 MetLife scandal . . . . . . . . . 563 Mexico and the United States . . . . . . . . . . . . . 564 Michelangelo computer virus . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 566 Microsoft . . . . . . . . . . . . . 566 Middle East and North America . . . . . . . . . . . . 568 Midnight basketball . . . . . . . 571 Military, homosexuals in. See Don’t ask, don’t tell Military, women in the. See Women in the military Militia movement . . . . . . . . 572 Millennium bug. See Y2K problem Milli Vanilli . . . . . . . . . . . . 573 Million Man March . . . . . . . 574 Minimum wage increases . . . . 576 Minorities in Canada. . . . . . . 578 Mississippi River flood of 1993 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 579 Mistry, Rohinton . . . . . . . . . 580 Montana Freemen standoff . . . 581 Moore, Judge Roy . . . . . . . . 582 Morissette, Alanis . . . . . . . . 583 Morris, Dick . . . . . . . . . . . 584 Morrison, Toni . . . . . . . . . . 585 Mount Pleasant riot . . . . . . . 586 Movies. See Film in Canada; Film in the United States Mozart effect . . . . . . . . . . . 588 MP3 format. . . . . . . . . . . . 589 MTV Unplugged . . . . . . . . . . 590 Mulroney, Brian . . . . . . . . . 591 Murphy Brown . . . . . . . . . . . 593 Music . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 595 Musicals. See Broadway musicals Myers, Mike. . . . . . . . . . . . 599 NAFTA. See North American Free Trade Agreement (NAFTA) Nanotechnology . . . . . . . . . 601 National debt . . . . . . . . . . . 602

National Endowment for the Arts (NEA) . . . . . . . . . Native Americans. . . . . . . . Natural disasters . . . . . . . . NC-17 rating . . . . . . . . . . NEA. See National Endowment for the Arts (NEA) Nicotine patch . . . . . . . . . Nine Inch Nails. . . . . . . . . Nirvana . . . . . . . . . . . . . Nobel Prizes . . . . . . . . . . Noriega capture and trial . . . North American Free Trade Agreement (NAFTA) . . . . North Hollywood shoot-out . . Northern Exposure . . . . . . . . Northridge earthquake . . . . Novello, Antonia Coello . . . . Nunavut Territory . . . . . . . Nye, Bill. . . . . . . . . . . . . NYPD Blue. . . . . . . . . . . . Oakland Hills fire . . . . . . O’Connor, Sinéad . . . . . . Oklahoma City bombing. . . Oklahoma tornado outbreak. Olympic basketball team. See Dream Team Olympic Games of 1992 . . . Olympic Games of 1994 . . . Olympic Games of 1996 . . . Olympic Games of 1998 . . . Olympic Park bombing . . . Olympics bid scandal. See Salt Lake City Olympics bid scandal Ondaatje, Michael . . . . . . O’Neal, Shaquille . . . . . . O’Reilly, Bill . . . . . . . . . Organic food movement. . . Organized crime. See Mafia Oscars. See Academy Awards Outsourcing . . . . . . . . . Palahniuk, Chuck . . . . . . Paltrow, Gwyneth . . . . . . . Patriot missile . . . . . . . . PDAs . . . . . . . . . . . . . Perfect Storm, the . . . . . . Perlman, Itzhak . . . . . . . Perot, H. Ross . . . . . . . . Personal digital assistants. See PDAs Pharmaceutical industry . . .

xx

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603 605 607 609

. . . . .

610 611 612 614 616

. . . . . . . .

618 619 621 622 624 625 625 627

. . . .

. . . .

629 631 632 635

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636 641 642 646 647

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. . . .

649 650 651 652

. . 654 . . . . . . .

. . . . . . .

657 658 659 659 661 662 664

. . 665

Philadelphia . . . . . . . . . . . . 667 Phoenix, River . . . . . . . . . . 668 Photography . . . . . . . . . . . 669 Physician-assisted suicide . . . . 670 Pitt, Brad . . . . . . . . . . . . . 672 Pixar . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 673 Planned Parenthood v. Casey . . . . 675 Plasma screens . . . . . . . . . . 676 Poetry . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 677 Pogs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 678 Pokémon franchise . . . . . . . 679 Police brutality . . . . . . . . . . 680 Pollution. See Air pollution; Water pollution Popcorn, Faith . . . . . . . . . . 682 Poverty . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 683 Powell, Colin . . . . . . . . . . . 685 Presidential elections. See Elections in the United States, 1992; Elections in the United States, 1996 Project Gutenberg . . . . . . . . 686 Promise Keepers . . . . . . . . . 687 Proulx, Annie. . . . . . . . . . . 688 Psychology . . . . . . . . . . . . 689 Publishing . . . . . . . . . . . . 691 Pulp Fiction . . . . . . . . . . . . 692 Quayle, Dan . . . . . . . . . . . 694 Quebec referendum of 1995 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 695 Queer Nation. . . . . . . . . . . 696 Race relations . . . . . . . . . Railway Killer. See Reséndiz, Ángel Maturino Ramsey murder case . . . . . . Rap music. See Hip-hop and rap music Real World, The . . . . . . . . . Recession of 1990-1991 . . . . Recreation. See Hobbies and recreation Reeve, Christopher. . . . . . . Reeves, Keanu . . . . . . . . . Reform Party . . . . . . . . . . Religion and spirituality in Canada . . . . . . . . . . . Religion and spirituality in the United States . . . . . . . . Reno, Janet . . . . . . . . . . . Rent . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Republican Revolution . . . . Reséndiz, Ángel Maturino . . .

. 698

. 701

. 703 . 703

. 705 . 706 . 707 . 708 . . . . .

710 713 714 716 718

Complete List of Contents Restructuring. See Downsizing and restructuring Rice, Anne . . . . . . . . . . . . 719 Right-wing conspiracy . . . . . . 720 Ripken, Cal, Jr. . . . . . . . . . . 721

Roberts, Julia . . . . . . . . . Rock, Chris . . . . . . . . . . Rock and Roll Hall of Fame Museum . . . . . . . . . . Rock Bottom Remainders . .

. . 722 . . 723 . . 724 . . 726

Rock the Vote. . . . . Romer v. Evans . . . . Roth, Philip. . . . . . Ruby Ridge shoot-out Rules, The . . . . . . .

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726 728 729 730 732

Volume III Complete List of Contents . . . xlvii RuPaul . . . . . . . . . . . Russia and North America. Rust v. Sullivan . . . . . . . Ryan, Meg . . . . . . . . . Ryder, Winona . . . . . . .

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Salmon war . . . . . . . . . . . Salt Lake City Olympics bid scandal . . . . . . . . . . . Sampras, Pete . . . . . . . . . Saturn Corporation . . . . . . Saving Private Ryan . . . . . . . Scandals . . . . . . . . . . . . Schindler’s List . . . . . . . . . . Schlessinger, Dr. Laura. . . . . School violence. . . . . . . . . Schwarzkopf, Norman . . . . . Science and technology . . . . Scream . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Search engines . . . . . . . . . Seinfeld . . . . . . . . . . . . . Selena. . . . . . . . . . . . . . Seles, Monica . . . . . . . . . . Sex and the City . . . . . . . . . Shakur, Tupac . . . . . . . . . Sharpton, Al . . . . . . . . . . Shaw v. Reno. . . . . . . . . . . Sheehy, Gail . . . . . . . . . . Shepard, Matthew . . . . . . . Shoemaker-Levy 9 comet . . . Showgirls. . . . . . . . . . . . . Silence of the Lambs, The . . . . . Silicon Valley . . . . . . . . . . Silicone implant ban . . . . . . Simpson murder case . . . . . Simpsons, The . . . . . . . . . . Slang and slogans . . . . . . . Slogans. See Slang and slogans Smith, Susan . . . . . . . . . . Smith, Will . . . . . . . . . . . Soccer. . . . . . . . . . . . . . Soccer moms . . . . . . . . . . Social Security reform . . . . .

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733 734 737 737 738

. 740 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

741 741 742 743 744 747 749 750 752 754 758 759 760 762 763 764 765 766 767 768 769 770 771 772 772 774 775 778 779

. . . . .

781 782 783 784 786

Somalia conflict . . . . . . . . . Sontag, Susan. . . . . . . . . . . Sosa, Sammy . . . . . . . . . . . South Park . . . . . . . . . . . . . Space exploration . . . . . . . . Space shuttle program . . . . . . Spam . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Speicher, Scott . . . . . . . . . . Spirituality. See Religion and spirituality in Canada; Religion and spirituality in the United States Spoken word movement . . . . . Sport utility vehicles (SUVs). . . Sports . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Star Wars: Episode I—The Phantom Menace . . . . . . . . . . . . . Starr Report . . . . . . . . . . . Stem cell research . . . . . . . . Stephanopoulos, George . . . . Stern, Howard . . . . . . . . . . Stewart, Martha . . . . . . . . . Stock market . . . . . . . . . . . Stockdale, James . . . . . . . . . Stojko, Elvis. . . . . . . . . . . . Storm of the Century . . . . . . Strand, Mark . . . . . . . . . . . String theory . . . . . . . . . . . Strug, Kerri . . . . . . . . . . . . Sundance Film Festival. . . . . . Supreme Court decisions . . . . Sustainable design movement . . . . . . . . . . . SUVs. See Sport utility vehicles (SUVs) Tae Bo . . . . . . . . . . . . Tailhook incident . . . . . . Take Our Daughters to Work Day . . . . . . . . . . . . Talk radio. . . . . . . . . . . Tarantino, Quentin . . . . . Tattoos and body piercings . Technology. See Science and technology

xxi

788 789 790 791 793 795 796 797

798 800 801 803 804 806 808 809 810 811 813 814 815 817 818 818 820 822

. . . .

835 836 837

841 843 845 846 849 850 852 854 855 857 858 858 860 862 865 867 869 870 871 872 873 874 875 876

826

. . 829 . . 829 . . . .

Telecommunications Act of 1996 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Telemarketing . . . . . . . . . . Television . . . . . . . . . . . . . Television ratings system. See TV Parental Guidelines system Tennis. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Term limits . . . . . . . . . . . . Terminator 2: Judgment Day . . . . Terrorism . . . . . . . . . . . . . Texas A&M bonfire collapse . . . . . . . . . . . . Theater in Canada . . . . . . . . Theater in the United States . . . Thelma and Louise. . . . . . . . . Thomas, Clarence . . . . . . . . Three strikes laws . . . . . . . . Tibetan Freedom Concerts . . . Titanic. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Tobacco industry settlement . . . Toys and games. . . . . . . . . . Transgender community. . . . . Travolta, John . . . . . . . . . . Troopergate . . . . . . . . . . . Trump, Donald. . . . . . . . . . TV Martí . . . . . . . . . . . . . TV Parental Guidelines system . . . . . . . . . . . . . TWA Flight 800 crash . . . . . . Twenty-seventh Amendment . . . Twin Peaks. . . . . . . . . . . . . Tyson, Mike. . . . . . . . . . . .

831 832 834 835

Unabomber capture . . . . Unforgiven . . . . . . . . . . United Nations . . . . . . . Updike, John . . . . . . . . UPN television network . . U.S. Capitol shooting . . . U.S. embassy bombings in Africa . . . . . . . . . .

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879 881 882 883 884 885

. . . 886

Vagina Monologues, The . . . . . . 890 ValuJet Flight 592 crash . . . . . 891 Ventura, Jesse. . . . . . . . . . . 892

The Nineties in America Versace murder. Viagra . . . . . . Victoria’s Secret Video games . .

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894 895 896 897

Waco siege . . . . . . . . . . . . 900 Wages. See Income and wages in Canada; Income and wages in the United States Wallace, David Foster . . . . . . 903 Wal-Mart . . . . . . . . . . . . . 904 Washington, Denzel . . . . . . . 905 Water pollution. . . . . . . . . . 906 WB television network . . . . . . 908 Web. See Internet; World Wide Web Web logs. See Blogs Wegman, William . . . . . . . . 908 Weil, Andrew . . . . . . . . . . . 909 Welfare reform . . . . . . . . . . 910 West Nile virus outbreak . . . . . 912 “What would Jesus do?” bracelets. See WWJD bracelets Where’s Waldo? franchise . . . . . 914 White House attacks . . . . . . . 915 Whitewater investigation. . . . . 915 Whitman, Christine Todd . . . . 917 Wigand, Jeffrey . . . . . . . . . . 918 Wilder, L. Douglas . . . . . . . . 919 Will and Grace . . . . . . . . . . . 920 Winfrey, Oprah. . . . . . . . . . 921 WNBA. See Women’s National Basketball Association (WNBA)

Wolfowitz, Paul . . . . . . . . . Women in the military . . . . . Women in the workforce . . . Women’s National Basketball Association (WNBA) . . . . Women’s rights . . . . . . . . . Woods, Tiger . . . . . . . . . . Woodstock concerts . . . . . . Workforce, women in the. See Women in the workforce World Cup of 1994 . . . . . . . World Trade Center bombing. . . . . . . . . . . World Trade Organization protests . . . . . . . . . . . World Wide Web . . . . . . . . WTO protests. See World Trade Organization protests Wuornos, Aileen Carol. . . . . WWJD bracelets . . . . . . . .

. 922 . 923 . 925 . . . .

928 928 931 933

. 935 . 937 . 939 . 941

. 944 . 945

X-Files, The . . . . . . . . . . . . 947 Xena: Warrior Princess . . . . . . . 948 Y 2K problem . . . . . . . . Yahoo! . . . . . . . . . . . Yamaguchi, Kristi. . . . . . Year of the Woman . . . . . Year-round schools . . . . . Year 2000 problem. See Y 2K problem

. . . . .

. . . . .

. . . . .

950 952 953 954 956

Zone diet . . . . . . . . . . . . . 958

xxii

Entertainment: Major Films of the 1990’s . . . . . . . . . 959 Entertainment: Academy Awards. . . . . . . . . . . . . 967 Entertainment: Major Broadway Plays and Awards . . . . . . . 969 Entertainment: Most-Watched U.S. Television Shows. . . . . 977 Entertainment: Emmy Awards. . . . . . . . . . . . . 979 Legislation: Major U.S. Legislation . . . . . . . . . . 983 Legislation: U.S. Supreme Court Decisions . . . . . . . . 990 Literature: Best-Selling U.S. Books . . . . . . . . . . . . . 997 Literature: Major Literary Awards . . . . . . . . . . . . 1000 Music: Popular Musicians . . . 1003 Music: Grammy Awards. . . . . 1012 Sports: Winners of Major Events . . . . . . . . . . . . 1021 Time Line . . . . . . . . . . . . 1027 Bibliography . . . . . . . . . . 1042 Web Sites . . . . . . . . . . . . 1047 Glossary . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1050 List of Entries by Category . . . 1055 Photo Index . . . . . . . . . . . . III Personages Index . . . . . . . . . VII Subject Index . . . . . . . . . . . XV

The Nineties in America

A ■ Abortion Definition

Medical termination of pregnancy

terminations, resulting in record numbers of deaths and injuries. The 1990’s was characterized by worldwide liberalization of abortion laws, compared with the previous decade. Generally, liberalization in attitudes also prevailed in Canada, with some legal amendments, resulting in new abortion clinics and increased access for women in historically underserved regions of the country. The situation was slightly different in the United States, with a number of important legal challenges to abortion rights upheld by the courts. Several cases, including Ohio v. Akron Center for Reproductive Health (1990) and Hodgson v. Minnesota (1990), resulted in parental notification requirements for minors. In Rust v. Sullivan (1991), the U.S. Supreme Court upheld the “gag rule,” which prevented federally funded (specifically Title X) family-planning services from providing abortion information. The gag rule continued until 1993, when President Bill Clinton passed legislation reversing the ruling, which was later reinstated by President George W. Bush in 2001. Another important case was that of Planned Parenthood v. Casey (1992), in which the Court upheld four of five provisions restricting access to abortion but maintained a woman’s right to the procedure.

Legal Changes

Abortion has been practiced by women of most cultural groups throughout history, typically assisted by midwives and traditional medical practitioners. In 1990’s North America, women’s health needs were assisted by formally trained medical specialists, informed by national and state (or provincial) laws, which regulated pregnancy terminations. This time period was a turbulent one for women’s health rights, abortion law, and medical practice. The abortion debate in North America is typically briefly summarized as conflict between two competing groups: the proabortion, atheist faction, supporting the rights of the mother over the rights of the child, and the antiabortion, fundamentalist bloc, believing in the primacy of the child’s life over that of the mother’s well-being. In actuality, the situation is much more complex, with nuances in moral values, scientific understanding, and personal beliefs affecting the stances of individuals affiliated with both camps. Generally, members of the proabortion groups are keen to diminish the number of pregnancy terminations, often through the provision of education and birth control, while maintaining a stance that is highly supportive of a woman’s right to decide on an abortion. Abortion has been legal for Canadians since a Supreme Court of Canada decision in 1988, and for Americans since the well-known case of Roe v. Wade in 1973. However, in both nations, a woman’s ability to obtain an abortion has often depended on factors such as geographic proximity to a clinic, access to information, and income. During the 1990’s, there were a number of prominent American court cases and government acts addressing abortion, while the political situation was more static in Canada, with fewer significant legal challenges or legislative amendments. The decade was also characterized by high levels of violence in both nations toward medical providers of pregnancy

Violence The 1980’s had been characterized by dozens of bombing and arson attacks on abortion clinics. The levels of violence escalated during the 1990’s. Legal abortion provision became personally risky for medical providers. Four doctors, two receptionists, a volunteer, and a police officer were murdered in the United States, and a nurse was permanently disabled by antiabortion militants. The bloodshed spilled over into Canada, with several doctors shot, although they were more fortunate than their U.S. counterparts and survived the attacks. In an attempt to curb this violence against clinic workers, the Freedom of Access to Clinic Entrances Act (FACE) was passed by the U.S. Congress in 1994. This law provided arrest provisions and penalties for

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Academy Awards

various forms of violence, including bombs, arson, physically violent acts, threatening violence, and impeding access to clinics. Impact During the 1990’s, the North American abortion arena became increasingly politicized, with many legal cases making their way to the U.S. Supreme Court. This resulted in increasing awareness of the importance of the Supreme Court justices and the justice nomination process. This decade was also characterized by greater levels of violence from antiabortion protesters, resulting in a number of U.S. murders and several attempts to kill Canadian doctors. People’s views on abortion also played a role in debates over birth control methods, abstinenceonly health education, and research using fetal tissue or stem cells. Further Reading

Cook, Rebecca J., Bernard M. Dickens, and Laura E. Bliss. “International Developments in Abortion Law from 1988 to 1998.” American Journal of Public Health 89, no. 4 (1999): 579-586. A summary statement on the laws covering abortion around the world, including Canada, with supporting references. Feldt, Gloria. The War on Choice: The Right-Wing Attack on Women’s Rights and How to Fight Back. New York: Random House, 2004. A well-referenced publication covering the history of women’s reproductive health in the United States, including a comprehensive time line focusing on legal and political developments. Hadley, Janet. Abortion: Between Freedom and Necessity. Philadelphia: Temple University Press, 1996. A well-referenced examination of abortion politics around the world. Hyde, Elisabeth. The Abortionist’s Daughter. New York: Alfred A. Knopf, 2006. An insightful novel about the death of an abortion provider in small-town America. Knapp, Lynette, ed. The Abortion Controversy. San Diego, Calif.: Greenhaven Press, 2001. Twentyfive previously published chapters are included in this collection, structured to contrast proabortion positions with antiabortion ones. McLaren, Angus, and Arlene Tigar McLaren. The Bedroom and the State: The Changing Practices and Politics of Contraception and Abortion in Canada, 1880-1997. 2d ed. New York: Oxford University Press, 1997. A summary of Canadian abortion

politics by a well-respected medical historian and a sociologist. Piehl, Norah, ed. Abortion. Farmington Hill, Mich.: Greenhaven Press, 2007. A short collection of eleven previously published pieces presenting both sides of the abortion debate. Sanger, Alexander. Beyond Choice: Reproductive Freedom in the Twenty-first Century. New York: PublicAffairs, 2004. A comprehensive view of abortion incorporated within a consideration of individual responsibility and family well-being, with extensive scholarly references. Susan J. Wurtzburg Depo-Provera; Medicine; Planned Parenthood v. Casey; Rust v. Sullivan; Stem cell research; Supreme Court decisions; Vagina Monologues, The ; Women’s rights. See also

■ Academy Awards The annual presentation of awards by the Academy of Motion Picture Arts and Sciences

The Event

The Academy Awards reflected the state of commercial filmmaking in the United States during the 1990’s. Because the annual televised ceremony has become a popular international spectacle, the event itself sheds light on attitudes and fashions. Since the ceremony’s inception in 1929, the Academy Awards (or Oscars) show has not only celebrated and encouraged artistic excellence but also promoted the products of the major American movie studios. By the 1990’s, those studios had been absorbed by conglomerates for which filmmaking was a minor profit center. However, the Oscars continued to provide publicity and prestige for their releases. In 1987, nominations for each category were announced on live television for the first time, intensifying excitement during the weeks leading up to the award show. From February through March each year, the media buzzed with reports on the finalists and speculation about the odds of their winning, while producers campaigned for votes. The lavish Oscar show—hosted six times during the 1990’s by Billy Crystal, three times by Whoopi Goldberg, and once by David Letterman—typically drew more viewers than any broadcast other than the Super Bowl. In 1998, multiple nominations for

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Academy Awards

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3

The Winners Nominations for the Oscars during the 1990’s reflected a general trend toward globalization. The category of Best Foreign Language Film has always provided recognition for imported work, but in 1996 four of the five nominees for Best Picture—Babe (1995), Braveheart (1995), Il Postino (1994), and Sense and Sensibility (1995)—were made outside the United States, as were all five—Elizabeth, Life Is Beautiful, Saving Private Ryan, Shakespeare in Love, and The Thin Red Line (all released in 1998)—in 1999. Hollywood has always been a magnet for ambitious outsiders, but foreigners who won Oscars in general categories during the decade include Roberto Benigni, Juliette Binoche, Judi Dench, Anthony Hopkins, Jeremy Irons, Sam Mendes, Anthony Oscar host Billy Crystal, left, dons a Hannibal Lecter mask at the 64th Academy Minghella, Anna Paquin, Geoffrey Awards on March 30, 1992. Anthony Hopkins, right, won an Oscar for Best Actor for his portrayal of Hannibal in The Silence of the Lambs, which won a total of Rush, and Emma Thompson. five awards. (AP/Wide World Photos) Steven Spielberg had attained commercial success with blockbusters including Jaws (1975), Close Enthe hit Titanic (1997) heightened interest, and when counters of the Third Kind (1977), Raiders of the Lost Ark the Oscar gala was finally telecast, 87 million Ameri(1981), and E.T. (1982). However, an Oscar in 1994 cans viewed it, earning the show a 34.9 rating and a for directing Schindler’s List (1993), which also won 55 share of the audience. for Best Picture, promoted him to the ranks of distinThe Oscars are designed to be inspiring, not least guished filmmakers, and an Oscar in 1999 for directto filmmakers who aspire to create work that will iming Saving Private Ryan confirmed his elevated statpress voting members of the Academy of Motion Picure. Similarly, although Clint Eastwood had been ture Arts and Sciences. However, during the 1990’s, directing films since Play Misty for Me in 1971, an Osthe awards also shaped the movie calendar. Because car in 1993 for directing Unforgiven (1992), which voters are less likely to remember contenders seen also won for Best Picture, garnered him respect as earlier in the year, studios released their best prosmore than just a popular actor in Westerns and popects during the crowded final months. The result lice procedurals. Winning the award for Best Actor was that better films were competing for attention in two consecutive years, 1994 (Philadelphia, 1993) from September through December and absent and 1995 (Forrest Gump, 1994), confirmed the prefrom theaters during other months. However, the eminence of Tom Hanks. In 1998, Jack Nicholson’s advent of digital video discs (DVDs), inexpensive Oscar for As Good as It Gets (1997) was his third— video cameras, and, later, technologies for downafter One Flew Over the Cuckoo’s Nest in 1976 and Terms loading suggested that the 1990’s might have repreof Endearment in 1984. Kevin Spacey won for Best sented the peak of the Oscars’ power. The democraSupporting Actor in 1996 for The Usual Suspects tization of film production and distribution would (1995) and Best Actor four years later for American undercut the authority of the official industry Beauty (1998). Emma Thompson won an Oscar for awards, weakening the Oscars’ influence over which Best Actress in 1993 for Howards End (1992) and, films are seen and when. three years later, for Best Screenplay for Sense and

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Advertising

Sensibility. Jack Palance received the award for Best Supporting Actor in 1992 for City Slickers (1991), thirty-nine years after his previous nomination for Sudden Fear (1952), and it occasioned a memorable scene; seventy-one-year-old Palance demonstrated one-armed push-ups before his worldwide audience. The Western gained new life when Dances with Wolves (1990) and Unforgiven became only the second and third Westerns after Cimarron (1931) to win Best Picture. Preoccupation with “family values” in American politics was reflected, albeit obliquely, in nominees such as The Prince of Tides (1991), Forrest Gump, Secrets and Lies (1996), Shine (1996), As Good as It Gets, and Life Is Beautiful. The success of independent films (in 1997, four Best Picture nominees, The English Patient, Fargo, Secrets and Lies, and Shine, were made outside traditional Hollywood structures), even when independence consisted simply of being produced by autonomous units of conglomerates, pointed to new methods of production and distribution. Impact As the Cold War concluded, movies held a mirror to the soul of the only remaining superpower. During the 1990’s, the Academy Awards, the most publicized prize ceremony in the world, exerted a powerful influence on the production, marketing, and distribution of American films, even as they reflected trends that might lead to the Oscars’ diminished importance. Further Reading

Bona, Damien. Inside Oscar 2. New York: Ballantine, 2002. An opinionated report on what went on behind the scenes at the Academy Awards. Kinn, Gail, and Jim Piazza. The Academy Awards: The Complete Unofficial History. New York: Black Dog & Leventhal, 2006. A detailed review of each year’s Academy Awards. Illustrated with photos. Levy, Emanuel. All About Oscar: The History and Politics of the Academy Awards. New York: Continuum, 2003. A thorough survey of the history, sociology, and politics of the Oscars. O’Neill, Thomas. Movie Awards: The Ultimate Unofficial Guide to the Oscars, Golden Globes, Critics, Guild, and Indie Honors. New York: Perigee, 2003. A compilation of information about most of the major movie awards, including the Oscars. Osborne, Robert. Seventy-five Years of the Oscar: The Official History of the Academy Awards. New York: Abbeville Press, 2003. Written in association with

the Academy of Motion Picture Arts and Sciences and includes year-by-year accounts of the balloting results. Steven G. Kellman See also Allen, Woody; Coen brothers; Dances with Wolves; Film in the United States; Forrest Gump; GoodFellas; Hanks, Tom; Independent films; Paltrow, Gwyneth; Philadelphia; Saving Private Ryan; Schindler’s List; Silence of the Lambs, The; Sundance Film Festival; Titanic; Unforgiven.

■ Advertising Written or verbal information directed at individuals or a group with the intent of influencing their behavior as consumers

Definition

Advertising during the 1990’s affected greater numbers of individuals and began to have a much stronger impact as a result of increasingly intrusive advertising methods. In general, advertisements are intended to promote the use of particular services or products through certain, specific images (brands) and to take advantage of the human tendency to form product-related habits of taste (brand loyalty). By the 1990’s, advertising agencies had successfully penetrated nearly every form of communication in order to promote their clients’ services or products. From magazines to newspapers, radios to cinema, television to the Internet, and billboards to video games, increased consumption was the message intended to permeate every facet of life in the 1990’s. In William Dean Howell’s novel The Rise of Silas Lapham (1885), the titular hero becomes wealthy after announcing the benefits of using his mineral paint by having advertisements painted on the sides of barns. This ancient form of advertising—wall painting—has continued to exist even in a modern, technological society. Although fondly remembered in the form of advertisements painted on the sides of brick buildings, such wall paintings changed over time into the more temporary billboard. The 1990’s introduced a new twist on the traditional billboard—the so-called mobile billboard. When largeformat digital inkjet printers made large-scale banner printing possible, advertisers saw a way to reach consumers who were increasingly able to avoid television and radio advertising. By printing graphics

The Nineties in America

and text onto banners that were then plastered onto both sides of ten-by-twenty-foot panels installed on flatbed trucks, advertisers created billboards that could be moved from one location to another for maximum public exposure. By 1995, mobile billboards were a regular fixture on the streets of major cities. That year, Delroy Cowan took advantage of the trend by inventing mobile advertising trucks that had triangle-shaped panels (“trivision”) that could be rotated every six or seven seconds and introduced two of his special trucks in Miami. Like billboards, printed texts such as magazines and newspapers have a long history as advertising media. Printed flyers distributed on the streets in seventeenth century England often carried advertisements, and the first paid ads appeared in the French newspaper La Presse in 1836 in order to allow the publisher to lower its price and increase its circulation. The 1990’s, introducing the Internet as a medium for printed texts, witnessed the birth of a new flexibility for advertising and gave additional momentum to the “dot-com” boom. Some corporations, such as Worldshare, provided Internet access to users willing to donate time to view promotional advertisements. The Web sites FreeRide and Greenfield Online offered coupons for free products and even cash to anyone willing to read sponsors’ ads. During the 1990’s, many of these companies were able to exist solely by generating advertising revenue.

Magazine and Newspaper Advertising

Radio and television advertising existed since the first radio and television stations used commercial messages to encourage the consumer purchase of radios and television sets. Both pieces of technology were initially costly, and, not coincidentally, both introduced their form of advertising through commercial sponsorship of popular dramas and news programs. By the 1990’s, the advent of cable television and satellite radio allowed increasingly specific markets of viewers to whom the advertisers could direct increasingly specific marketing. Ironically, cable and satellite providers in the 1990’s also gained popularity by promoting “ad-free” television and radio programs, a development that reflected a rise in consumer disgust for intrusive advertising and necessitated the development of more covert forms of advertising such as product placement in films and television se-

Radio and Television Advertising

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ries and product endorsements spoken in the context of talk radio hosts’ monologues. Talk radio had long allowed the announcement of sponsors’ names and products on air, but the 1990’s particularly emphasized the use of personal endorsements by talk-show jockeys such as Howard Stern and Rush Limbaugh. These endorsements were intended to sell products without explicitly acknowledging that the celebrity was making an advertisement. Scenery and costuming in films included literal product placement to silently and visually advertise the use of prominent products. The television series Sex and the City explicitly advertised products through the female characters’ worship of such brand-specific shoes as Christian Dior, Manolo Blahnik, and Jimmy Choos. One developing trend started during the 1990’s was the use of computer-generated images to advertise products. Computer graphics could be placed strategically on blank billboards and television screens included for that purpose in the background scenery of a film or television show. Theoretically, these product placements could be changed depending on the needs of the advertising sponsor. Loosening Restrictions Another trend born in the 1990’s was the loosening strictures on advertising for a number of previously controlled products on television and in print media, such as alcohol and certain prescription drugs. Hard liquor and prescription medication had been previously controlled in how they were allowed to be portrayed; alcohol manufacturers voluntarily restricted advertising to media where 70 percent of viewers were over twentyone years old and content was directed specifically at adults, while prescription drug manufacturers kept their advertisements vague in content. Relaxed social mores caused for looser selfregulation. In the late 1990’s, Captain Morgan was suggested as the chosen beverage of the “cool” dentist, and Senator Bob Dole hawked erectile dysfunction drug Viagra for Pfizer. These changes—along with, ironically, tighter regulations on the use of tobacco advertising—reflected changes in social mores. Drinking, in a tasteful context, was allowed for even the harder liquors such as Seagrams whisky, and the frank discussion of prescription medications on television became the norm. On the other hand, Camel was punished for using a cartoon character to sell cigarettes. Socially, smoking was consid-

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Advertising

ered more and more a social evil to be kept from children and adolescents, while social drinking lost some of its stigma. Alternative Advertising Other trends in advertising begun in this decade were simply new uses for existing technology. In 1998, cell phones began to have downloaded advertising as a new part of existing update software. The computer became host to

a variety of ad-laden, product-sponsored software, from public-service antidrug announcements (observed initially in the opening and closing screens of video-game machines such as Pac-Man) to the selfpromotion of computer game expansion packs. The old tradition of sandwich boards was updated by lighting up sandwich boards with neon tubing. Tshirts printed with advertising images and slogans continued in popularity, but the 1990’s updated the

Memorable 1990’s Advertising Slogans and Jingles Product

Slogan or Jingle

Product

Slogan or Jingle

ABC Television

Don’t just sit there. Okay, just sit there.

Hershey bar

The great American chocolate bar.

Apple Computer

Think different.

Honey Nut Cheerios

Nobody can say no.

AT&T

Your true voice.

Klondike bar

California Milk Processor Board

Got milk?

What would you do for a Klondike bar?

McDonald’s

Chevrolet

The heartbeat of America.

Coffeemate

Rich. Creamy. And smart.

What you want is what you get. Did somebody say McDonald’s?

Microsoft

Coors Beer

Tap the Rockies.

Where do you want to go today?

Dell Computers

Dude, you’re getting a Dell.

Mountain Dew

Do the Dew.

NBC Television

Must see TV.

Diet Coke

Just for the taste of it! Diet Coke!

The New York Times

Expect the world.

Nintendo

Get N or get out.

Dr. Pepper

This is the taste.

Oldsmobile

Diet Dr. Pepper

Like nothin’ else.

The new generation of Oldsmobile.

Doritos chips

Doritos knows Jack about cheese.

Pepsi

The joy of cola. Generation next.

Doublemint gum

No single gum like it.

Duracell batteries

No battery is stronger longer. You can’t stop the copper top.

Pringle’s potato chips twin pack

Once you pop, you can’t stop.

Reese’s Pieces

You’ll love ’em to pieces.

7-Up

Make 7-Up yours.

Energizer batteries

Keeps going and going and going.

Sprite

Obey your thirst.

Tic Tac

Gatorade

Be like Mike [Jordan]. Drink Gatorade.

The half-calorie breath mint.

Geo Prizm

Get to know Geo Prizm.

HBO

It’s not TV—it’s HBO.

Breathe friendly. Winterfresh gum

Winterfresh mouth taste. The cool breath that lasts.

The Nineties in America

media by changing the preferred creator and subject from street vendors and soft drinks to prominent clothing designers. The 1990’s also witnessed the beginning of an unusual trend toward the creation of advertisements intended to be viewed as a form of art or entertainment. Taster’s Choice introduced a kind of miniature teledrama in the 1990’s that starred British actors Sharon Maughan and Anthony Head as new neighbors whose romantic encounters encouraged viewers to watch succeeding commercials more so than to drink the coffee. Commercials created specifically for broadcast during the half-time show of the Super Bowl vied for position in a televised vote by viewers for “Favorite Commercial.” Many advertisers regarded their work as art. Television commercial creators had their own awards for the best and most popular advertisements in a variety of categories. The long-standing Clio Award was joined in the 1990’s by the Golden Drum Award and an Emmy created in 1997 for “Outstanding Commercial,” won by Batten, Barton, Durstine & Osborn for “Chimps (HBO).”

Advertising for Its Own Sake

Impact The impact of 1990’s intrusive advertising cannot be overrated. The developing trend in advertising to inundate the population with requests to purchase brand-name products seemed to have desensitized individuals to the presence of commercials. Television and film viewers made use of technology to allow them to remove commercials from a recording of a favorite film or television show. Advertisers, in response, instituted embedded advertising to make consumer removal impossible. By the 1990’s, advertising had become so ubiquitous through daily life that—even should one eschew television, cinema, and broadcast radio—one could not escape the implicit messaging of mobile billboards, sandwich signs, T-shirt slogans, and “word-of-mouth” advertising that associates a brand name with a specific product (such as Kleenex instead of “facial tissue,” Xerox in place of “photocopy,” and Coke in place of “soda”). This quality of omnipresence was fully intentional on the part of advertisers. Ironically, many ads became either mere background noise or the subject of debate more for their plots and characters than for their commercial content.

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Further Reading

Lobrano, Alexander. “In the Serious, Anxious ’90’s, Statement Becomes Message: Wear It, but Please Don’t Call It Fashion.” The International HeraldTribune, October, 1992. Lobrano provides an interesting commentary on the changing uses of the T-shirt slogan to reflect the changing tastes of 1990’s fashion enthusiasts. He comments wryly on the T-shirt’s shift from the pop culture icon of the 1960’s to the fashionable trademark of the 1990’s designer. O’Guinn, Allen. Advertising and Integrated Brand Promotion. New York: Thomson South-Western, 2005. This work, technically a textbook for commercial classes by South-Western, is an entertaining and well-designed analysis of the history and methodology behind advertising. Rutherford, David. Excellence in Brand Communication. Toronto: Institute of Communications & Advertising, 2002. A prominent work analyzing the history of advertising. Scholarly in tone and has impeccable research that clearly outlines how advertising has evolved over the decades. The list of additional sources seems particularly thorough. Tharp, Marye, and Dilara Moran. “A Snapshot of Global Trends in Advertising: The 1990’s.” AAA Annual Conference Review, January, 1997. Tharp and Moran focus on trends in advertising specifically in the 1990’s, such as the expansion of Internet advertising and the social implications for the rise in computer-altered advertising. Julia M. Meyers Amazon.com; America Online; Business and the economy in the United States; Children’s television; Dot-coms; Drug advertising; E-mail; Internet; Joe Camel campaign; Pharmaceutical industry; Sex and the City; Slang and slogans; Talk radio; Television; Viagra.

See also

■ Africa and the United States The interactions of the U.S. government with African nations

Definition

With the end of the Cold War, the United States attempted to adjust to the opportunities and challenges presented by countries on the world’s poorest continent and to define appropriate U.S. responses.

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As the Soviet Union retreated from its expansionist policies of earlier decades and eventually collapsed entirely, African governments increasingly and decisively turned to the West for both political solutions to long-standing conflicts and economic assistance to cope with the problems of grinding poverty and humanitarian emergencies typically associated with the civil conflicts. Even as certain areas of Africa showed dramatic improvement, others descended into the throes of political chaos, civil war, and even genocide. American policy makers were tested as these crises moved either toward resolution or descended into major emergencies. On the positive side, several African regions saw resolution of long-standing conflicts and the emergence of new democratic regimes. This was especially true of Southern Africa, which sported several major changes of government that boded well for future stability. At the heart of the region’s general improvement was the demise of the white racist regime of South Africa and the emergence of a peaceful and democratic transition to black majority rule as Nelson Mandela collaborated with white South African president F. W. de Klerk to dismantle the country’s apartheid system in the early 1990’s. As South Africa moved toward peaceful reforms, progress was made in neighboring countries as well, including in Namibia, where independence was achieved in 1989 and further consolidated under peaceful democratic rule during the 1990’s. A long and bloody civil war in Mozambique finally came to an end as the rebels and the government agreed to demobilize forces and hold democratic elections. In both Namibia and Mozambique, American engagement in the settlements and U.N. peacekeeping forces contributed to the restoration of stability. During the 1990’s, the countries of Zambia and Malawi also benefited from democratic reform movements in the general climate of improvement in the region.

Bright Spots

In the Horn of Africa, a mixed picture emerged as the communist regime in Ethiopia was toppled in 1991 and new governments were established in both Addis Ababa and the newly independent Eritrea (1993). However, by the late 1990’s, war clouds appeared as the two countries sparred over control of their disputed border. Moreover, civil wars in neighboring countries, including Sudan and Somalia, greatly complicated the stability of the re-

Trouble Spots

The Nineties in America

gion. Somalia descended into civil war and eventually into interclan fighting that caused severe famine. President George H. W. Bush decided in the closing months of his tenure to deploy Operation Restore Hope in a bid to end the starvation in December, 1992. The operation succeeded in its humanitarian objectives, but as the United Nations assumed control of efforts to disarm competing clans, the situation deteriorated. Several Americans were killed in the famous Black Hawk Down incident, and the new Clinton administration, eager to avoid further entanglement and loss of American lives, withdrew forces, leaving Somalia to a fate of ongoing turmoil in subsequent years. The Somali experience led to hesitance by Clinton to intervene in other African civil wars, including Rwanda, where about 800,000 people died in 1994 in one of the most brutal and intense acts of genocide of modern times. Civil wars in the West African countries of Liberia and Sierra Leone also failed to elicit strong American responses in the 1990’s. Moreover, after the Rwandan genocide developed in 1994, refugees fled into the neighboring Zaire (now the Democratic Republic of the Congo), provoking a civil war there, which later developed into Africa’s first continental war. During a visit to Africa in 1998, Clinton apologized for American inaction in Rwanda, even as civil war raged in Sudan and neighboring Congo. Although the United States supplied considerable humanitarian aid to refugees, displaced persons, and famine victims throughout the continent, it was unable to negotiate settlements in many of these intransigent conflicts. Moreover, in a new and ominous development, terrorist groups such as al-Qaeda were able to operate in Somalia and later in Sudan. After the 1998 bombings of U.S. embassies in Kenya and Tanzania by al-Qaeda terrorists, the United States attacked a Sudanese pharmaceutical factory suspected falsely of producing chemical agents. Terrorist activities in failed states such as Somalia became a new and foreboding problem for future U.S. policy makers. Throughout Africa, another emerging scourge was the AIDS epidemic. Central and Southern Africa have been hit especially hard, with the worst hit country of Botswana having an adult HIV/AIDS prevalence rate of more than 35 percent. African governments found stiff competition for increasingly sparse foreign aid to address the AIDS crisis and other needs, as American attention shifted to

The Nineties in America

the needs of newly established democratic regimes in the former Soviet bloc. Thus, the 1990’s proved to be a period of great turmoil and change, with the United States largely staying on the sidelines, preferring to let Africans find regional solutions to their problems. Impact U.S. influence on developments in Africa during the 1990’s was minimal, as demands in other parts of the world preoccupied U.S. administrations. Africa took a backseat to developments in Eastern Europe, the former Soviet Union, the Balkans, Asia, and the Middle East. This lack of U.S. engagement in Africa came at a time when African governments began a process of democratization and efforts at regional resolution of conflicts. The lack of sustained U.S. and European attention to Africa, coupled with stubborn local problems, contributed to the continent’s marginalization as much of the rest of the world began marching toward greater prosperity owing to the rapidly globalizing economy. Although parts of Africa benefited, many other parts continued to suffer. Further Reading

Gordon, David, David Miller, and Howard Wolpe. The United States and Africa: A Post-Cold War Perspective. New York: W. W. Norton, 1998. A policy assessment of Africa in light of U.S. interests in the region during a decade of transition. Taylor, Ian, and Paul Williams. Africa in International Politics: External Involvement on the Continent. London: Routledge, 2004. Examines great power involvement in Africa during the post-Cold War era and includes an assessment of U.S. policy. Wright, Stephen, ed. African Foreign Policies. Boulder, Colo.: Westview Press, 1998. A collection of ten essays exploring various aspects of African country foreign policies, including toward the United States and Western powers and institutions. Robert F. Gorman See also AIDS epidemic; Bush, George H. W.; Clinton, Bill; Cold War, end of; Foreign policy of the United States; Somalia conflict; Terrorism; United Nations; U.S. embassy bombings in Africa.

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■ African Americans Definition

U.S. citizens or residents of African

descent Despite some progress in economic conditions and significant cultural achievements, African Americans continued to experience discriminatory treatment and to have disproportionately high rates of poverty, criminal prosecutions, and female-headed families. In 1990, the Bureau of the Census reported that persons of African ancestry in the United States totaled slightly less than thirty million (or 13.2 percent of the total U.S. population). By 2000, their numbers had grown to 36.4 million persons (or 12.9 percent of the population). In 1990, 4.9 percent of African Americans were foreign-born, compared with 6.3 percent in 2000. Although African Americans continued to constitute the nation’s largest minority, the Hispanic population was growing more rapidly and would constitute the largest minority early in the twenty-first century. The census of 2000 indicated that approximately 54 percent of African Americans were living in the South, compared with 19 percent in the Midwest, 18 percent in the Northeast, and only 10 percent in the West. They tended to be concentrated in particular places. In 64 percent of U.S. counties, they represented less than 6 percent of the population, in contrast to ninety-six counties, where they comprised more than 50 percent of the population. Among cities, New York City, with 2.3 million blacks, had the largest concentration, and Chicago, with 1.1 million blacks, was second in size. Three cities—Detroit, Philadelphia, and Houston—had between 500,000 and one million African Americans. African American writers during the decade produced an impressive number of literary works of high quality. In 1993, Toni Morrison became the first African American woman to win the Nobel Prize for Literature. Rita Dove served as U.S. poet laureate from 1993 to 1995. Additional black writers of significance included Maya Angelou, Alice Walker, Charles Johnson, Cyrus Cassells, and John Edgar Wideman. Harvard professor Henry Louis Gates, Jr., an outstanding literary critic, wrote numerous works and helped edit the popular Norton Anthology of African American Literature (1996), which introduced many students to the field.

African American Culture

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African Americans

The golden age of hip-hop culture and rap music is commonly dated from about 1988 to the late 1990’s. The subgenre of “gangsta rap,” as in the works of Ice-T and Tupac Shakur, was particularly controversial because of its preoccupation with police violence and graphic sex. Hip-hop inspired gritty films that glamorized tough black men in the inner city, such as John Singleton’s Boyz ’N the Hood (1991) and Allen and Albert Hughes’s Menace II Society (1993). However, much of hip-hop culture was mainstream and respectable. Russell Simmons, founder of Def Jam Recordings, became well known for his television and Broadway shows. In 1999, Lauryn Hill appeared on the cover of Time magazine after winning five Grammy Awards. The body of ideas labeled Afrocentrism became increasingly popular among many African American intellectuals. Molefi Kete Asante, author of The Afrocentric Idea (1987), argued that the African way of thinking is oriented toward spirituality and community, in contrast to the Eurocentric approach, which attempts to predict and control. He also insisted that the ancient Egyptians belonged to the same race as sub-Saharan Africans, and that they provided the foundation for the development of Greek and Roman philosophy. Other prominent Afrocentric theorists included Maulana Karenga, the founder of Kwanzaa, and Leonard Jeffries, who proposed a controversial theory of race based on melanin. African American politicians made a number of gains during the decade. In the elections of 1992, a record of thirty-nine blacks won seats in the House of Representatives. Carol Moseley-Braun became the second African American of the century to win a Senate seat—the first black woman in U.S. history to do so. L. Douglas Wilder served as governor of Virginia from 1990 to 1994. The controversial Marion Barry, mayor of Washington, D.C., was arrested on drug charges in 1990; after serving six months in jail, he served a second term from 1995 to 1999. In the early 1990’s, the National Association for the Advancement of Colored People (NAACP) faced major financial problems. The Reverend Benjamin Chavis was chosen over Jesse Jackson as the executive director, but within eighteenth months Chavis was ousted for using NAACP funds in a sexual harassment lawsuit. Contributions and membership plummeted. The new leaders, Myrlie Evers-Williams

Leadership

and Kweisi Mfume, were forced to reduce the staff from 250 to 50. Before the end of the decade, the organization had successfully regained financial stability, allowing it to launch a large-scale “get out the vote” campaign in the 2000 elections. Louis Farrakhan, the dynamic leader of the Nation of Islam, sponsored the so-called Million Man March, a huge African American demonstration in the nation’s capital on October 16, 1995. In addition to denouncing white supremacy, Farrakhan and other speakers called on African American men to be responsible fathers and to take an active role in community affairs. In the months following the march, it was reported that one and a half million black men registered to vote. In addition, the National Association of Black Social Workers reported a flood of applications to adopt black children. African Americans had among the nation’s highest rates of many diseases. They were twice as likely as whites to suffer from diabetes, and their life expectancy was about five years less. In 1998, the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC) estimated that they represented 43 percent of the reported cases of acquired immunodeficiency syndrome (AIDS). The National Black Gay and Lesbian Conference as well as two outstanding black athletes, Earvin “Magic” Johnson and Arthur Ashe, helped promote AIDS education and raised financial support to help fight the dreadful disease. Most authorities agreed that the criminal justice system was biased against persons of color, and the “war on drugs” caused a dramatic rise in incarceration rates. The criminal penalties for crack cocaine, which was primarily used by blacks, were significantly harsher than those for powder cocaine, more commonly consumed by whites. In 2000, blacks comprised approximately 50 percent of the persons in U.S. prisons and jails. About 12 percent of black men in their twenties and thirties were incarcerated—more were in prison than in college. According to the Department of Justice, African Americans’ offender rate for homicide decreased about 50 percent during the 1990’s, from fifty to twenty-five per 1,000,000. Still, homicide victimization rates for blacks were more than five times higher than for whites, and offending rates were more than six times higher. In 1993, the poverty rate for African Americans stood at 33 percent. By 2000, the rate had declined

Social Problems

The Nineties in America

to the all-time low of 23 percent. The poverty rate for black children dropped from 46.1 percent in 1993 to 33 percent in 2000. Throughout the decade, nevertheless, the black poverty rate continued to be almost three times as high as the rate for whites. The disparity in wealth was even more striking. In 1995, the median net worth for black families was only $7,073, compared with $49,030 for white families. Harvard sociologist William Julius Wilson’s When Work Disappears (1996) focused attention on the lack of opportunities for the “underclass” in the central cities. Racial Violence The 1990’s saw a large number of violent incidents involving African Americans. By far, the most high-profile event was the Los Angeles riots of April, 1992, which was precipitated by the acquittal of four officers accused of beating Rodney King the preceding year. The rioting and looting resulted in fifty-three deaths, ten thousand arrests, and 3,700 burned-out buildings. That same year, a smaller riot occurred in the Crown Heights neighborhood of Brooklyn, New York, after a grand jury refused to indict a white Jewish driver who had accidentally struck and killed a seven-year-old boy of African ancestry. New York police officers were responsible for two incidents that infuriated the African American community. On August 9, 1997, Haitian immigrant Abner Louima was brutally beaten and sodomized with a stick by officers in a police station. Two officers finally pled guilty to the crime, but many observers suspected that other officers were protected by a “code of silence.” Two years later, four New York police officers fired forty-one rounds into Amadou Diallo, an unarmed black immigrant, because they mistakenly thought he was reaching for a weapon. The acquittal of the officers resulted in angry demonstrations and the arrests of more than 1,700 protesters. Many states in the 1990’s enacted hate crime laws (or bias crime laws), which usually increased penalties for offenders who intentionally choose a victim on the basis of race, ethnicity, or gender. In the case of Wisconsin v. Mitchell (1993), which involved a black offender, the Supreme Court upheld the constitutionality of such laws. In 1998, a particularly shocking hate crime occurred in Jasper, Texas, when three white supremacists chained a black hitchhiker, James Byrd, Jr., to their pickup truck and dragged

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him until his body broke into pieces. Some people criticized Texas for not having a hate crime law, even though two of the offenders were sentenced to death and the third man was sentenced to life imprisonment. Civil Rights The passage of the Civil Rights Act of 1991 resulted from congressional dissatisfaction with several Supreme Court interpretations that had limited aggressive enforcement of existing civil rights statutes. The act focused on employment qualifications having a disparate impact on blacks and other protected groups. Employers were required to demonstrate a close connection between such qualifications and the ability to perform the job in question. The law also clarified that plaintiffs might sue even if discrimination was only one of several motivations involved in an employment practice. After liberal justice Thurgood Marshall retired from the Supreme Court in 1991, Clarence Thomas, a black conservative, was named as his replacement. In spite of the strong opposition from civil rights leaders, combined with Anita Hill’s allegations of sexual harassment, the Senate approved the nomination by a narrow margin. This, combined with other changes in the Court’s membership, resulted in a majority that was more conservative than the preceding decade. In a series of school desegregation cases, for instance, the Court allowed school boards to end court-ordered busing plans, even though segregation continued to exist as a result of residential housing patterns. Affirmative action programs, which usually included race-based preferences in employment or admission to competitive schools, became increasingly controversial. In Adarand Constructors, Inc. v. Peña (1995), the Supreme Court overturned a federal set-aside program for minority contractors, and the decision gave notice that any programs involving racial preferences might be vulnerable to a constitutional challenge. The next year in California, Ward Connerly, an African American businessman, led a successful campaign in favor of Proposition 209, which prohibited race-based preferences in all statesponsored activities. When Washington State voters approved a similar measure in 1998, the future of affirmative action appeared questionable. Impact Although the social and economic conditions of African Americans improved marginally during the 1990’s, the problems of unemployment

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Agassi, Andre

and alienation in the central cites actually got worse. Several high-profile events, particularly the Rodney King riots and the trial of O. J. Simpson, highlighted the extent to which black and white Americans viewed reality from radically different perspectives, and the nation continued to become more racially segregated. In 1997, President Bill Clinton hoped to improve race relations with an initiative called “One America.” When the advisory board of the initiative, chaired by historian John Hope Franklin, held public conversations, they frequently appeared to harden the preexisting opinions of participants. The board’s final report of 1998 endorsed the noble ideas of promoting “racial reconciliation” and “building bridges across races,” but the board was unable to reach any consensus about specific proposals that might help realize these objectives.

West, Cornell. Race Matters. New York: Vintage Books, 1994. A lively written book expressing the ideology and frustrations of a left-of-center African American intellectual. Thomas Tandy Lewis See also AIDS epidemic; Angelou, Maya; Barry, Marion; Byrd murder case; Civil Rights Act of 1991; Crown Heights riot; Diallo shooting; Drug use; Elders, Joycelyn; Farrakhan, Louis; Hate crimes; Hill, Anita; Hip-hop and rap music; Johnson, Magic; Jordan, Michael; Kwanzaa; Los Angeles riots; Louima torture case; Minorities in Canada; Race relations; Shakur, Tupac; Sharpton, Al; Shaw v. Reno; Simpson murder case; Supreme Court decisions; Thomas, Clarence; Washington, Denzel; Wilder, L. Douglas; Winfrey, Oprah; Woods, Tiger.

Further Reading

Carson, Clayborne, Emma J. Lapsansky-Werner, and Gary B. Nash. The Struggle for Freedom: A History of African Americans. New York: Pearson/Longman, 2007. An excellent general history, including much material about the late twentieth century. Dickson-Carr, Darryl. Columbia Guide to Contemporary African American Fiction. New York: Columbia University Press, 2005. Excellent essays about the lives and writings of more than 150 famous and lessknown authors. Painter, Nell Irvin. Creating Black Americans: AfricanAmerican History and Its Meanings, 1619 to the Present. New York: Oxford University Press, 2007. A well-written survey, richly illustrated with beautiful works of art by African Americans. Pinkney, Alphonso. Black Americans. 5th ed. Upper Saddle River, N.J.: Prentice Hall, 1999. Information and analysis about the late twentieth century, including socioeconomic status, family structures, religion, social problems, and cultural assimilation. Roberts, Kevin. African American Issues. Westport, Conn.: Greenwood Press, 2006. Sociological analysis of topics like discriminatory treatment, affirmative action, stereotypes, and education. Thernstrom, Stephan, and Abigail Thernstrom. America in Black and White: One Nation, Indivisible. New York: Simon & Schuster, 1997. A scholarly work that opposes affirmative action and argues that the country has made much progress in race relations.

■ Agassi, Andre Identification American tennis player Born April 29, 1970; Las Vegas, Nevada

Agassi shared with Pete Sampras the distinction of being the world’s best male professional tennis player during the 1990’s. He began the decade as a favorite of the media and fans because of his rebellious image and ended the decade as a kind of “elder statesman” of tennis. In the 1990’s, he won five grand-slam events, was number one on five different occasions, and was the Association of Tennis Professionals Player of the Year in 1999. During the 1990’s, Andre Agassi was on a rollercoaster ride, with rankings from number one to 141. Although he won some Association of Tennis Professionals (ATP) tournaments in 1990 and 1991, by May of 1992 he was out of the top ten but recovered to defeat Goran Ivanisevic in the finals at Wimbledon, his first grand-slam victory since he turned professional six years earlier. In 1993, his ranking dropped as low as thirty-one, before he finished the year at twenty-four. That year, Agassi started dating actor Brooke Shields, whom he married in 1997. The couple divorced in 1999. In 1994, Agassi was unseeded in the U.S. Open but went on to defeat Michael Stich for the championship, rising to number two in the rankings. His first win at the Australian Open occurred in 1995 (he won the tournament three more times), when he beat archrival Pete Sampras. Agassi ranked num-

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match for Agassi, however, with tennis fans. At five feet, eleven inches, Agassi was short for a tennis player, and he was the underdog, relying on return of service and speed to overcome taller players with faster serves. Agassi was also a rebel with his long hair, his earring, and his penchant for wild colors rather than tennis whites. His attire and demeanor made him a hit with advertisers (Canon’s “Image is everything” campaign) as well as with fans. When he shaved his head in 1995, it made headlines, and he also altered his behavior, bowing and throwing kisses to crowds, becoming a gracious elder statesman of tennis. Further Reading

Agassi, Mike, with Dominic Cobello and Kate Shoup Walsh. The Agassi Story. Toronto: ECW Press, 2004. Chambure, Alexandre de. Andre Agassi: Through the Eyes of a Fan. Ottawa: ICCS, 2007. Philip, Robert. Agassi: The Fall and Rise of the Enfant Terrible of Tennis. London: Bloomsbury, 1993. Thomas L. Erskine See also

Sampras, Pete; Seles, Monica; Sports;

Tennis.

Andre Agassi serves to John McEnroe during their semifinal game at Wimbledon on July 4, 1992. (AP/Wide World Photos )

ber one for the first time in 1995, partly as a result of hiring Brad Gilbert as his coach and devoting himself to a rigorous training schedule. Unfortunately, after winning the gold medal at the 1996 Olympics in Atlanta, he went into another slump, dropping to number 141 in 1997. He rebounded yet again, returning to number four at the end of 1998, when he won five tournaments and was named the ATP Most Improved Player. In 1999, he won the U.S. and French Opens. He closed the decade as the top money-winner, earning over $4 million. He had won five grand-slam events, been runner-up in five more, and won ten ATP Masters Series titles. Impact As impressive as Agassi’s statistics were during the 1990’s, tennis fans and the general public were even more fascinated with his rivalry with Sampras, which had begun in their youth at Nick Bollettieri’s tennis camp in Florida. Sampras was no

■ Agriculture in Canada The raising and preparation of crops and livestock for Canadian and foreign markets

Definition

Despite Canada’s relatively modest population, about onetenth that of the United States, Canadian agriculture played a central role in its economy, producing net income for the country throughout the 1990’s. Most agricultural activity involves extensive use of the land, which Canada has in abundance, even if substantial portions of the country are not suitable for agriculture. There are essentially three major areas of Canadian agriculture: Ontario, Quebec, and the Atlantic Provinces, where the majority of the populace lives; the wide-open spaces on the great plains stretching across Manitoba, Alberta, and Saskatchewan provinces; and the Pacific coastal area comprised in the province of British Columbia. The large portion of Canada located north of the sixtieth latitude is unsuited for agriculture. Most of Canada’s agricultural land is used extensively—that is, most crops are grown with minimal la-

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Agriculture in Canada

bor input. Even the raising of livestock—and Canadian agriculture is roughly divided between crops and livestock raising—involves relatively little labor. By 1991, Canadians living on farms accounted for just 3.2 percent of the population, though the concentration was greater on the plains—16 percent in Saskatchewan, where most of Canada’s grain is produced. The cereal crops produced on the plains are well suited to mechanization; the farms on the plains are large, and production is totally mechanized. About 40 percent of Canada’s agricultural produce is exported, and about half of this comes from cereals, chiefly wheat and oil seeds. Almost all of this is grown on the plains, especially in Saskatchewan, but also in Alberta and Manitoba. However, during the 1990’s, the development of new hybrid varieties of corn led to the production of significant corn crops in Quebec and Ontario. Those parts of the country with substantial urban centers also saw the growth of vegetable and fruit crops, as this produce could be easily sold in the urban markets. In the most southerly part of Canada, in the province of Ontario alongside Lakes Erie and Ontario, even a modest wine-producing capacity was developed, matching that in the portions of the United States adjoining the lakes. Although, as in the United States, organic foods made up a very small portion of agricultural output, the industry grew rapidly over the years in the vicinity of urban markets. Livestock, the other major agricultural output, is raised throughout Canada, particularly on the plains, where beef cattle are extensively grazed, and in Quebec and Ontario, where smaller creatures, both pigs and poultry, are produced. The beef cattle industry saw considerable consolidation during the 1990’s, with many smaller packing plants near urban centers closing and production becoming concentrated in big facilities on the plains. The production of industrial pork generated, in Canada as in the United States, significant environmental issues mainly dealing with the disposal of manure. During the decade, a large pig processing operation in Quebec helped create a facility to reprocess vast volumes of pig manure.

Output

Government Intervention Because of the vagaries of weather and other factors (such as transportation costs of large volumes of low-value output to the market), there was major government intervention in agriculture during the 1990’s. Throughout Canada,

there are cooperative marketing units to which farmers can voluntarily turn over their produce. The exception is Quebec, where all farmers are required to be members of the agricultural cooperative. In Canada, wheat, the major crop, is marketed by the Canada Wheat Board, which sells into the international market. Subsidies are also provided by the Canadian Grain Commission, the Livestock Feed Board, the Western Grain Transportation Board, the Agricultural Stabilization Board, and other entities devoted to particular agricultural products. Supply management, controlled by the provinces, ensures that output of milk, eggs, chickens, and turkeys do not outrun demand. In addition, the federal government imposes strict limits on the importation of livestock feed. These policies resulted in prices frequently exceeding those in the United States during the 1990’s, although pressure was building during the decade to reduce the controls in these areas. Canada suffered in international agricultural markets during the 1990’s because the major subsidies provided by the United States and the European Union for their agricultural producers had marked effects on international pricing. Despite its membership in the G7 (Group of Seven), Canada had modest clout in international arrangements because of its relatively small population, so it had to tailor its government policy to limited opportunities. However, it privatized some major operations in agriculture. Archer Daniels Midland, a major American corporation, took over some formerly cooperative activities in Canada, notably a grain elevator in 1993, and a flour miller. The Saskatchewan Wheat Pool, an agricultural cooperative, converted itself into a private corporation during the 1990’s, and the Potash Corporation of Saskatchewan, formerly owned by the government, went private during the decade. Impact During the 1990’s, Canada was a major contributor to the world’s supply of agricultural produce. The capacity of its great plains to produce the wheat and oilseeds that a growing world population required ensured its continued important role in future world trade negotiations. Further Reading

Britton, John N. H., ed. Canada and the Global Economy: The Geography of Structural and Technological Change. Montreal: McGill-Queen’s University Press,

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1996. Discusses different aspects of the Canadian economy, including agriculture. Statistics Canada. Agriculture Division. Canadian Agriculture at a Glance. Ottawa: Minister of Industry, 1999. A comprehensive look at Canadian agriculture, with descriptions of the various crops, their location, and other information. Wallace, Iain. A Geography of the Canadian Economy. New York: Oxford University Press, 2002. A compact yet comprehensive look at Canada’s economy, including its agriculture. Nancy M. Gordon See also Agriculture in the United States; Archer Daniels Midland scandal; Employment in Canada; Foreign policy of Canada; Income and wages in Canada; North American Free Trade Agreement (NAFTA); Organic food movement.

■ Agriculture in the United States The raising and preparation of crops and livestock for U.S. and foreign markets

Definition

During the 1990’s, U.S. agriculture continued its transition from family farms into an industry dominated by commercial owners and processes. Agriculture’s purpose, roles, and methods were redefined in that decade, with environmental concerns influencing research and legislation regulating farming. Severe economic conditions had altered U.S. agriculture during the 1980’s, as corporate agriculture gained control of farmland owners lost as a result of foreclosures during the farm crisis. Many American farmers cultivating small acreages continued to suffer financial problems when the 1990’s began. Approximately 2.15 million farms existed in the United States in 1990, a decline from 2.44 million farms ten years prior. The average farm in 1990 was 461 acres in size, expanding by thirty-five acres from 1980. The U.S. Department of Agriculture (USDA) endeavored to improve prospects for all agriculturists by promoting educational, research, and marketing programs in the 1990’s. Four men served in the cabinet position of secretary of agriculture during the decade: Clayton K. Yeutter, Edward R. Madigan, Alphonso Michael Espy (the first African American to hold that position), and Daniel R. Glickman—the

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first two appointed by President George H. W. Bush and the last two appointed by President Bill Clinton. Federal policies, global agricultural issues, environmentalists’ and consumers’ demands, and extreme weather impacted farmers throughout the decade. Many farmers lost federal support during the 1990’s when federal legislators drafted policies that restricted agricultural subsidies, cut the farm budget, and altered traditional farming practices. Federal agricultural funds had decreased annually after 1986, and such legislators as Representative Dick Armey wanted to limit farm subsidies. The Food, Agriculture, Conservation, and Trade Act of 1990, referred to as the 1990 Farm Bill, depleted aid resources. Designed to end certain financial provisions of the Food Security Act of 1985, the 1990 Farm Bill represented many legislators’ negative reaction to farm commodity programs, which they blamed for harming environmental resources. Emphasizing the environment, the 1990 legislation encouraged farmers to rotate crops, minimize chemical application, and plant alternative crops in an attempt to reduce erosion and pollution. Legislators believed that new stipulations would enable U.S. agriculture to be competitive in international markets. Ample global crop production influenced U.S. agricultural exports in the early 1990’s. According to Secretary of Agriculture Madigan, U.S. agriculture produced approximately half of the world’s soybeans, one-third of corn crops, and one-tenth of wheat yields. In 1992, because of surpluses worldwide, U.S. grain exports, especially corn and wheat, decreased by as much as 6 percent, which economists estimated at $1 billion. At that time, U.S. farmers increased production of poultry and other meats in an attempt to maintain income. After Republicans gained control of both houses of Congress in 1994, they sought further agricultural subsidy cuts. The Federal Agriculture Improvement and Reform Act of 1996, often called the Freedom to Farm Act, promoted diversification by permitting farmers to plant any crops they chose. Legislators significantly decreased price supports, which farmers relied on in case they experienced crop losses or weak markets, intending eventually to cease all financial support. Because commodity prices were stable when that legislation passed, agricultural groups expressed minimal criticism, realizing that

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the government historically had helped farmers if prices dropped significantly. President Clinton approved that act, stating that he planned to encourage additional legislation to give farmers some financial security. Price fixing by agricultural processor Archer Daniels Midland in the 1990’s worsened economic conditions for many U.S. agriculturists. By the late 1990’s, agricultural surpluses worldwide caused prices to decrease severely. The federal government gave farmers temporary aid during that time, resulting in agriculturists asking that the 1996 Freedom to Farm Act be revised to include monetary support measures. The Agricultural Research, Extension, and Education Reform Act of 1998 reinforced crop insurance payments. The USDA provided $17.7 billion in emergency relief. By 1999, President Clinton and Congress expanded bankruptcy protection begun in the 1980’s to assist farmers in retaining their property. U.S. officials pursued diplomatic agreements regarding international agricultural trade and assistance. In the early 1990’s, the North American Free Trade Agreement (NAFTA) determined policies for duties on agricultural goods shipped between the United States, Canada, and Mexico. U.S. and European Commission (EC) negotiators compromised regarding farm subsidies to secure the General Agreement on Tariffs and Trade (GATT). In 1997, Secretary of Agriculture Glickman and Russian agriculture minister Viktor Khlystun initiated U.S. agricultural aid to Russia. In 1990, Secretary of Agriculture Yeutter stated that twenty million people contributed to U.S. agricultural activities. Many U.S. farmers also obtained other jobs in local businesses or schools to supplement their agricultural income. Although 2 percent of Americans resided on farms in the 1990’s, many of those people did not participate in farming. About 38 percent of farm residents did not earn money from agriculture, a fact that resulted in the government’s revising its definition of farm residence by 1993 to indicate the 4.9 million households that profited from farming endeavors. In 1998, the USDA began collecting data for the agriculture census instead of the Bureau of the Census. Throughout the 1990’s, severe weather affected crops and livestock. The 1993 Mississippi River flood

Demographics and Education

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washed away soil resources and saturated fields in the Midwest, resulting in crop production decreasing by 13 percent. Three years later, extreme cold froze citrus in the Deep South, impacting production of oranges and grapefruits. Also in 1996, droughts hindered agriculture in the Great Plains. Atlantic states endured droughts the next year, while floods and extreme winter weather affected western states, requiring hay relief deliveries for livestock. Southwestern and southern states experienced drought conditions later that decade. Hurricanes destroyed southern and Atlantic agriculture. Such severe climatic situations caused many farmers to cease agricultural activities. Other farmers became frustrated by the consolidation of agricultural production. When producers such as Smithfield Foods purchased other hog-producing companies, they threatened pork farmers who relied on selling their stock to packers at competitive prices. At the 1999 National Pork Forum, swine farmers complained about industrial mergers that lowered prices. In the 1990’s, many young adults chose nonagricultural professions despite their families’ farming traditions. Attempting to encourage young agriculturists, some states offered financial assistance such as loans granted by the Illinois Farm Development Authority’s Young Farmer Guarantee Program. Conferences such as Farmers for the Next Century, held several times in the 1990’s, aided people starting to pursue agriculture. As part of a reorganization, the USDA developed civil rights policies during the 1990’s to recognize the diversity of people associated with agricultural work. In 1990, the USDA celebrated the centennial of the African American land-grant institutions established by the Morrill Act of 1890. The department funded scholarships for students at both African American and Native American land-grant institutions. African American farmers filed lawsuits, claiming they had experienced discrimination from the USDA, which had denied their federal loan and subsidy requests. By April, 1999, approximately 18,000 farmers presented evidence to receive compensation from the $2 billion settlement. After more than a century of publication, the USDA ceased issuing annual agricultural yearbooks after 1992. Secretary of Agriculture Espy stated that the yearbooks could not compete with other sources of agricultural news and educational media to dis-

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tribute knowledge quickly. USDA publications educated diverse nonfarming readers, including consumers and students. Agriculturists appropriated science and technology for various purposes. Farmers used computers to maintain records and consulted the Internet for market information. Satellites provided images to evaluate fields for various factors affecting successful cultivation of crops. Envisioning future lengthy manned missions, the National Aeronautics and Space Administration (NASA) funded space agricultural research to grow crops including sweet potatoes, and Tuskegee University researchers successfully used the nutrient film technique (NFT) on roots to devise agriculture compatible with space travel. The 1990 Farm Bill established research precedents for increased agricultural ecology and conservation practices. Secretary of Agriculture Madigan recognized that large demand for agricultural products necessitated efficient mechanization and irrigation. The USDA focused on providing grants to investigators emphasizing environmental awareness. Agricultural engineers improved low-input sustainable agriculture (LISA) and precision farming methods that many farmers adopted to minimize agricultural impact on natural resources. Legislation approved the Alternative Agricultural Research and Commercialization Center, which investigated processing agricultural resources into innovative products designed for uses other than consumption. Madigan encouraged farmers to produce more crops for domestic manufacturing such as kenaf fiber for newsprint and guayule for rubber instead of importing similar materials. In 1992, the Energy Policy Act boosted biofuels research. The USDA supported research to create pharmaceuticals from plants and animals. The development of nutraceuticals, medically beneficial foods, generated $17 billion in the United States during the decade. Veterinary researchers achieved successful vaccines that controlled such dangerous livestock diseases as rinderpest and brucellosis. Throughout the 1990’s, scientists applied biotechnology to crops and livestock. Bioengineering resulted in the production of sunflower oleic acid to make biodegradable plastics. Although many in Congress were reluctant to approve research money for agricultural genetic engineering, the USDA

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eased regulations. Agricultural researchers pursued various approaches to nonchemical pest control. Some scientists genetically engineered plants, while others sought integrated pest management (IPM) methods, including infecting insects with viruses. The USDA’s Meat Animal Research Center at Clay Center, Nebraska, devised genetic maps for swine and cattle. USDA researchers sought scientists worldwide to cooperate to achieve additional livestock genome mapping. Public Opinion Consumers voiced concerns associated with agriculture throughout the 1990’s. Food safety represented a major worry for many Americans who became aware of such dangers as salmonella, aflatoxin, and Alar, a pesticide used in apple orchards, which caused cancer in mice. The Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) banned Alar from agricultural usage by 1991. The Food Quality Protection Act of 1996 further controlled pesticide use. In the early 1990’s, many consumers protested the controversial use of the natural bovine somatotropin hormone (BST), manufactured commercially with genetic engineering methods to boost milk yields by as much as 15 percent. The National Farmers Union and some agricultural organizations insisted that BST-produced milk be identified or removed from sale, causing public worries that the milk might be hazardous. In 1993, the Food and Drug Administration (FDA) stated the BST milk was safe. Many dairy farmers feared they would lose profits because of the BST controversy. Demand for organic foods expanded by 20 percent annually in the 1990’s. The USDA established regulations for organic food by 1998, stating that no chemicals and hormones could be used in foods displaying organic food seals. Many people bought produce from farmers’ markets, which increased by more than 50 percent to almost three thousand markets nationwide during the decade. Impact Agriculture represented a significant component of the U.S. economy during the 1990’s. Influenced by legislation, farmers experimented with new plants and processes, creating unexpected opportunities and transforming domestic markets. As U.S. agricultural land became consolidated into corporate-owned farms, most Americans became more removed from the agricultural processes that impacted their lives. Often unaware of the agricultural sources of their food and clothes, many Ameri-

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cans were also uninformed regarding governmental policies and agendas that altered agriculture, both strengthening and weakening farming. Some changes, particularly bioengineering, offered consumers more choices but also provoked intense controversies. Despite governmental restrictions and uncontrollable factors, especially weather and foreign markets, agricultural researchers and producers persevered and adapted during the 1990’s. Energy legislation that decade reinvigorated many farmers by encouraging alternative fuel manufacture but caused critics to complain about subsidies for ethanol corn crops. Erratic agricultural situations during the decade prepared agriculturists for challenges confronting them in the twenty-first century. Further Reading

Adams, Jane, ed. Fighting for the Farm: Rural America Transformed. Philadelphia: University of Pennsylvania Press, 2003. Incorporates information about such 1990’s agricultural issues as biotechnology and community-supported agriculture. Cochrane, Willard W. The Curse of American Agricultural Abundance: A Sustainable Solution. Foreword by Richard A. Levins. Lincoln: University of Nebraska Press, 2003. Agricultural economist comments on agricultural conditions during the 1990’s, particularly surpluses and declines in prices. Charts provide statistics. Hallberg, Milton C. Economic Trends in U.S. Agriculture and Food Systems Since World War II. Ames: Iowa State University Press, 2001. Assesses such 1990’s agricultural economic issues as prices, yields, and exports. Chronology, tables. Norberg-Hodge, Helena, Peter Goering, and John Page. From the Ground Up: Rethinking Industrial Agriculture. 2d rev. ed. New York: Zed Books, with the International Society for Ecology and Culture, 2001. Discusses detrimental aspects associated with agricultural technologies and benefits of ecologically based methods. Smith, Deborah Takiff, ed. Agriculture and the Environment. Washington, D.C.: USDA, 1991. Emphasizes balancing agricultural economic expansion with environmental protection. Photographs, charts. _______. Americans in Agriculture: Portraits of Diversity. Washington, D.C.: USDA, 1990. USDA yearbook profiles professionals whose work was represen-

tative of 1990’s agriculture. Section features the 1890 African American land-grant schools. _______. New Crops, New Uses, New Markets. Washington, D.C.: USDA Office of Publishing and Visual Communication, 1992. Notes how crops were appropriated for industrial and medical applications in the early 1990’s. Examines biotechnology, renewable fuels, and environmental topics. Elizabeth D. Schafer See also Agriculture in Canada; Air pollution; Archer Daniels Midland scandal; Armey, Dick; Bush, George H. W.; Business and the economy in the United States; Clinton, Bill; Genetically modified foods; Mississippi River flood of 1993; Natural disasters; North American Free Trade Agreement (NAFTA); Organic food movement; Science and technology; Water pollution.

■ AIDS epidemic Spread of the acquired immunodeficiency syndrome

Definition

During the 1990’s, education and health care practices in Western countries, including the development of new approaches for treatment, contributed to a reduction in the rate of new cases of HIV infection. At the same time, the AIDS epidemic continued unabated in much of the Third World. As the decade of the 1990’s began, approximately 40,000 persons in the United States annually died from acquired immunodeficiency syndrome (AIDS) or AIDS-related diseases, accounting for approximately 2 percent of total deaths. The year 1995 represented a turning point, however, as both new human immunodeficiency virus (HIV) infections in the United States began to level off, and deaths from AIDS actually dropped by 25 percent. Antiretroviral Therapy (ART) Several events conflated to produce these results. First, educational programs emphasizing both non-promiscuity and “safer sex,” particularly those addressed to a gay community that was relatively well educated, had an impact. The fight against AIDS in the 1990’s also was marked by the introduction of new forms of highly active antiretroviral therapy (HAART). Previous forms of drug therapy utilized a variety of nucleoside analogs, drugs that inhibited activity of the viral en-

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zyme reverse transcriptase, necessary for HIV to replicate following infection. The new generation of drugs did include new forms of reverse transcriptase inhibitors, but a variety of additional drugs known as protease inhibitors, antiretrovirals that blocked assembly and release of the virus, were also developed. Combinations of these antivirals, produced as cocktails, were found to be highly effective in many patients at inhibiting viral production, allowing the immune system of the patient to regain a semblance of “normalcy.” The drugs did not cure AIDS. However, because the drugs allowed the immune system to function, the patients were less likely to develop lifethreatening opportunistic infections. The eventual selection of drug-resistant virus placed a limit on the long-term effectiveness of such drug therapy. The timing of drug treatment, using chemicals capable of producing harmful side effects, was among the issues that had to be clarified: Was treatment equally effective regardless of the state of the immune system and the concentration of CD4+, the target cell of the virus, or would concentrations of the drugs have to be adjusted depending on the state of the patient? Since some forms of drug treatment required a 24/7 approach, what would be the effects of “missing” a proportion of doses? No definitive answers were available at the end of the decade. While limiting replication of the virus demonstrated usefulness in treating AIDS patients, studies in chimpanzees of the drug tenofovir, a nucleoside inhibitor, might be effective in blocking initial HIV infection of exposed patients. While initial studies on humans provided evidence (albeit limited) of its effectiveness, longer-term studies, including one later funded through the Bill and Melinda Gates Foundation, showed the drug was no more effective than other nucleoside inhibitors. Tenofovir was subsequently included among drug cocktails used during ART. As has also been observed with other forms of ART, significant side effects such as acidosis, heart problems, and possible organ failure do take place in some patients.

Preexposure Prophylaxis

Impact While nothing resembling a cure for AIDS was considered as realistic, the introduction of a second generation of individual drugs and drug cocktails was able to produce an impact on the life span of HIV-positive patients. Though the number of deaths from AIDS in the United States increased by a factor

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of 1000 percent in the five years after 1985, the number of deaths during the 1990’s was approximately 300 percent. The numbers themselves may be misleading, as the average span from diagnosis to death in a significant proportion of these individuals had more than tripled from the previous decade. From a decade high in 1995 of 51,000 reported AIDS-related deaths, the numbers had fallen to below 18,000 in 1999 and continued to drop in subsequent years. Clearly in many patients, aggressive antiviral therapy has been effective in reducing the viral load, resulting in a lessening of AIDS-related complications. Subsequent research into ART has resulted not only in new forms of protease inhibitors but also in development of a third generation of drugs that interfere with the infectious process itself. Drugs in this category include other forms of protease inhibitors, as well as drugs that act to prevent actual infection of target cells within the body. Some two dozen drugs had been approved by the Food and Drug Administration by the end of the 1990’s, with others undergoing further testing. While no cure is expected, such forms of treatment may downgrade AIDS from a death sentence in many individuals to a more chronic disease that may be managed for long periods of time.

Subsequent Events

Further Reading

Barnett, Tony, and Alan Whiteside. AIDS in the Twenty-first Century: Disease and Globalization. New York: Palgrave Macmillan, 2002. Description of the impact of the AIDS epidemic on developing countries in general and Africa in particular. The authors speculate on the effects of business and political practices on the origin and spread of the disease in these countries. Engel, Jonathan. The Epidemic: A Global History of AIDS. New York: HarperCollins, 2006. The author, a medical historian, provides a history of the outbreak, beginning with its first recognition in the early 1980’s, to the situation by 2006. An extensive bibliography is included. Garrett, Laurie. Betrayal of Trust: The Collapse of Global Public Health. New York: Hyperion, 2000. The Pulitzer Prize-winning writer addresses the impact of political events in developing countries, and subsequent breakdown of health care systems, on the growing epidemic of AIDS in much of the non-Western world.

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Shilts, Randy, and William Greider. And the Band Played On: Politics, People, and the AIDS Epidemic. New York: St. Martin’s Press/Stonewall Inn Editions, 2000. Updated description of the outbreak of the AIDS epidemics and how the lack of recognition by agencies contributed to its spread. Shilts was a newspaper reporter who later succumbed to the illness. Stine, Gerald. AIDS Update 2007. San Francisco: Benjamin Cummings, 2007. Yearly update on research into the AIDS virus, as well as information about biological events that follow infection. Discussion about the progress of treatment is also included. Preventives currently undergoing testing such as preexposure prophylaxis are also described. Richard Adler See also Cancer research; Drug use; Health care; Homosexuality and gay rights; Johnson, Magic; Medicine; Science and technology.

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automobile-generated pollutant—also continued to be a major problem. In spite of an improving situation, about half of the people in the United States continued to breathe air that did not always meet the standards of the CAA. In addition to atmospheric pollution, indoor air pollution was a developing concern during the 1990’s. In some cases, air pollutants are two to five times more concentrated indoors than outside. Modern sealed buildings often make it difficult to bring in fresh air, and ventilating systems often circulate pollutants in office buildings. Various chemical agents such as air fresheners can contribute to indoor pollution. In addition, some types of fungi and viruses could be found in large buildings, coming at times from faulty cooling towers. The most dangerous form of indoor air pollution throughout the decade came from cigarette smoke. During the 1990’s, many local governments either regulated smoking indoors or banned it completely in an effort to deal with the impact of secondhand smoke. The usual culprits noted above continued to be responsible for air pollution during the decade. As was the case for earlier decades, industrial production and automobiles were responsible for most of the air pollution during the 1990’s. Sulfur dioxide continued to be the major form of air pollution during the 1990’s, causing, among other problems, acid deposition, which affected water quality and killed fish as well as plants. Coalburning electric power plants were the major source of SO2 during the decade, producing between 80 and 85 percent of all SO2. The problem of acid deposition remained most acute in the eastern United States in spite of significant cuts in emissions. The CAA required that 445 power plants cut their sulfur emissions by 50 percent in 1995, with another 700 required to cut emissions in 2000. Nitrogen oxides in the atmosphere come from a variety of sources, such as coal-fired power plants, but approximately one-third come from motor vehicle emissions. By 2000, nitrogen emissions were onethird greater than sulfur emissions and had grown by 4 percent from 1981 to 2000. Many nitrogen compounds are part of surface-level smog and dissipate readily, so are not a source of acid deposition. Catalytic converters in U.S. automobiles provided a major source of nitrogen emissions until the mid Sources of Pollution and Its Impact

■ Air pollution Degradation of air quality by various chemical and particulate agents.

Definition

Air pollution continued to be a major environmental concern during the decade in spite of significant air-quality improvements that had occurred and continued to occur. In addition to the standing concerns of sulfur dioxide, nitrogen oxides, ozone, carbon monoxide, and particulates such as lead in the atmosphere, the impact of greenhouse gases in causing global warming was of concern. The Clean Air Act of 1970 (CAA) continued to be the major means of regulating air quality in the 1990’s. It would be amended in 1990 and 1997 to further strengthen it and to deal with emerging problems. By the end of the 1990’s, the CAA had helped to produce a significant improvement in air quality in the United States. By 2000, there was a 29 percent decrease in total pollutants in the air since 1970, with a substantial amount of this decrease occurring during the 1990’s. Lead in the atmosphere showed the largest decrease, spurred on by the phaseout of lead in gasoline. Sulfur dioxide (SO2) levels improved markedly. Nitrogen oxides in the atmosphere continued to climb, a result of increased automobile use. Smog—surface ozone, another

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1990’s, when the catalyst was changed. While the new catalytic converters are quite effective, the engine must be warm for them to work, and this does not occur with many short trips. Surface-level ozone produced primarily by motor vehicles was a troubling issue for many cities during the decade, most notably the Los Angles basin and Houston. By 2000, about one-half of all Americans lived in areas that had severe smog problems during the summer months. Smog is a secondary pollutant formed from hydrocarbon fumes and nitrogen dioxide emitted from motor vehicles. People with respiratory problems are particularly sensitive to smog, as are pregnant women who may have a child with birth defects if they are extensively exposed to smog during pregnancy. Other pollutants such as carbon monoxide and particulate matter such as lead are often the product of vehicle emissions, although they are also the product of burning hydrocarbons in general. A debate developed in the 1990’s concerning the impact of various sizes of particles. In 1997, the Environmental Protection Agency changed its regulations to emphasize particles smaller than 2.5 micrometers in diameter. Research had shown that smaller particles penetrated deeper into people’s lungs, causing more severe health problems. Industry often opposed further efforts at regulating air quality during the decade, citing cost factors. Reducing SO2 emissions from coal-fired plants, for example, did have the potential for increasing energy costs. Impact Air pollution continued to be a source of environmental damage during the 1990’s. Various pollutants had a negative impact on the health of Americans, causing significantly more deaths per year than traffic accidents. In addition, air pollution has an adverse economic impact through harm to crop production, damage to buildings and monuments, and water-quality degradation, and helps to cause global warming. Regulating motor vehicle emissions, particularly from sport utility vehicles, was a major problem, unresolved at the end of the decade. In spite of improvements during the decade, air pollution would continue to be a problem for the United States. Further Reading

Blatt, Harvey. America’s Environmental Report Card. Cambridge, Mass.: MIT Press, 2005. Evaluates the

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progress in dealing with air pollution and other environmental issues during the decade. Environmental Protection Agency. Latest Findings on National Air Quality, 2000. http://www.epa.gov/ oar/aqtrnd00/Index.html. Useful source of data concerning air pollution. Rosenbaum, Walter A. Environmental Politics and Policy. 7th ed. Washington, D.C.: CQ Press, 2008. Good coverage of the politics of air pollution and other environmental issues. John M. Theilmann Clean Air Act of 1990; Earth in the Balance; Global warming debate; Science and technology; Water pollution.

See also

■ Airline industry Definition

Organizations providing air transport

services Four major accidents, airline bankruptcies, international airline alliances, and Southwest Airlines’ success define the airline industry in Canada and the United States in the 1990’s. Along with creating the initial model for airline globalization, the 1990’s brought back some recursive problems for airlines: high fuel prices and operating costs, cumbersome taxes, and tragic accidents. Three of the most reported accidents in the United States were 1996’s ValuJet Flight 592 crash that resulted in the loss of 110 people, 1996’s TWA Flight 800 disaster that claimed 230 lives, and 1999’s EgyptAir Flight 990 crash that killed 217 people. Though there were no fatalities that could be attributed to any crashes of Canadian commercial aircraft in the 1990’s, one tragedy in 1998 occurred involving Swissair Flight 111, which crashed off the coast of Nova Scotia, killing 229 people, including 136 Americans. Though the problems and tragedies above are of great interest, this decade in the airline industry is marked uniquely by a rash of bankruptcies, an increase in international code-sharing agreements, 1995’s “open skies” agreement between the United States and Canada, international airline alliances, and Southwest Airlines’ success. Bankruptcy and Code Sharing The 1990’s began with five U.S. airlines filing for bankruptcy. The di-

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rect effect of this was an economic recession in the United States from 1990 to 1991 combined with increased operating costs due to security concerns during the Gulf War. Further, residual effects from the Airline Deregulation Act (ADA) might have aggravated these problems. Consequently, five airlines filed for Chapter 11 bankruptcy during this time: Continental Airlines, Pan American World Airways (Pan Am), Eastern Air Lines, America West Airlines, and Trans World Airlines (TWA). Unfortunately, Pan Am and Eastern ended their operations as a result. With the exception of Air Canada, Canada’s airline industry struggled as well. The ADA, signed into law in 1978, gradually diminished the federal Civil Aeronautics Board’s control over airfare, encouraged the creation of new airlines, and allowed international airline companies to provide service anywhere in the United States. The intent was to increase competition, thereby increasing quality and decreasing airfare. The result in the 1980’s was a chaotic series of birth, demise, and takeover of new and smaller airlines. This also happened in the 1990’s to some extent, but the increase in competition led to a significant increase in code sharing and global alliances among the world’s major airlines. American Airlines and Qantas of Australia began the code-sharing strategy in 1990. This allowed different airlines to use the same flight number to the advantage of passengers on their way to international destinations. More important, the strategy globally streamlined airline scheduling and the baggage-handling process. This also increased all airlines’ marketing power because they could, with the help of another company, advertise new routes to places they could not previously reach. By 1991, code-sharing agreements were necessities for all major airlines with international connections. American Airlines, Air Canada, Canadian Airlines, Delta Air Lines, United Airlines, Northwest Airlines, TWA, Continental Airlines, and US Air (US Airways by 1997) had code-sharing agreements with airlines all over the world. In addition, the bilateral “open skies” agreement of 1995 between Ottawa and Washington opened thirty-two new routes into the United States for Air Canada and Canadian Airlines. This was good news for both airlines, especially Canadian Airlines, which struggled to stay in business due to a shortage of domestic Canadian routes throughout the 1990’s. Unfortunately, Canadian Airlines did go under by 2000.

The Nineties in America International Alliances Two major global alliances formed in the late 1990’s: the Star Alliance and the Oneworld Alliance. Since these are a result of code sharing, it could be said that American Airlines and Qantas began the international airline alliance movement. American Airlines, British Airways, Canadian Airlines, Cathay Pacific Airways (of Hong Kong), and Qantas founded Oneworld in 1998. It is currently headquartered in Vancouver. In 1997, Air Canada, United Airlines, Lufthansa, Scandinavian Airlines System, and Thai Airways International founded the Star Alliance. Besides the benefits of code sharing, these alliances have been able to combine their frequentflyer programs and share terminals and concourses in the world’s major airports. Furthermore, these alliances are not limited to those listed above; their memberships totaled up to twenty major airlines. For American Airlines, the alliance seems to have been an alternate solution to its merger plans with Canadian Airlines and British Airways. Though a merger never came to fruition, it was attempted from 1995 through 1999 and infuriated airline executives in North America and the United Kingdom. Although governments have investigated these alliances, they were not sued for breaking antitrust laws. Southwest’s Success Southwest Airlines’ rise began shortly after the passage of the ADA. By 1999, Southwest was one of the most profitable airlines in the world. While the major airlines focused on alliances, code sharing, and the “hub-and-spoke” flightroute strategy, Southwest began to acquire several lucrative regional routes in the Pacific West, the Midwest, and Florida focusing on direct flights between cities. Although the major airlines in America owned several regional airlines that also focused on the direct-route strategy, they did not apply as much marketing force to those routes as Southwest did in the 1990’s. The result was that Southwest trumped the major airlines in terms of advertising these regional routes. The profit margins in the 1990’s show the effectiveness of its marketing and logistics strategies: In 1991, Southwest’s net profit for the year was $26.91 million; at the end of 1999, the year’s net profit was $474.37 million, placing it sixth in the world in operating profit, despite the fact that it did not participate in the alliances. Southwest’s rise may have given

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courage to other independent airlines such as Canada’s Westjet and the United States’ JetBlue in the late 1990’s. Impact In 2000, a third international alliance, SkyTeam, was formed by AeroMexico, Air France, Delta, and Korean Air. This solidifies the alliance system as the method with which airlines will deal with the global economy of the twenty-first century. One positive effect is that it streamlines travel for the world’s passengers and provides solidarity among airlines. One negative is the possibility that the airlines within the alliances will begin to merge, forming three or more giant airline companies. However, this would seem to go against antitrust laws and what passengers appreciate about independent airlines that specialize in direct flights. Further Reading

Oum, Tae Hoon, Jong-Hun Park, and Anming Zhang. Globalization and Strategic Alliances: The Case of the Airline Industry. New York: Pergamon, 2000. Extremely well-researched and presented discussion of the early alliances and their impact on the world. Smith, Myron J. The Airline Encyclopedia, 1909-2000. Vols. 1-3. Lanham, Md.: Scarecrow Press, 2002. A quintessential publication for anyone interested in the airline industry. Williams, George. Airline Competition: Deregulation’s Mixed Legacy. Burlington, Vt.: Ashgate, 2002. Unique and informative look at the effects of Europe’s deregulation, which closely followed the United States’ Deregulation Act. Troy Place See also Business and the economy in Canada; Business and the economy in the United States; Canada and the United States; EgyptAir Flight 990 crash; Europe and North America; Recession of 1990-1991; TWA Flight 800 crash; ValuJet Flight 592 crash.

■ Albee, Edward Major American absurdist playwright Born March 12, 1928; Washington, D.C. Identification

By the 1990’s, Edward Albee had established himself as America’s most prominent theatrical voice.

Edward Albee. (AP/Wide World Photos)

Albee began his climb to prominence with the OffBroadway production of The Sand Box (pr. 1960), a surrealistic one-act drama in which one man convinces another to commit suicide. His first Broadway hit was Who’s Afraid of Virginia Woolf? (pr. 1962), in which a couple spend a drunken evening deliberately destroying their marriage. The play won the Tony Award, and absurdism was established in mainstream American theater. By the 1990’s, Albee had already written two Pulitzer Prize-winning plays: A Delicate Balance (pr. 1966) and Seascape (pr. 1975). In 1991, Albee was ready to offer a new surrealistic play to contend for the Pulitzer Prize: Three Tall Women. He first found a producer in Vienna, where Three Tall Women opened at the English Theatre, Ltd. In 1992, the play moved to the Rivers Arts Repertory Theatre in Woodstock, New York. In 1994, it opened at OffBroadway’s Vineyard Theatre and won for Edward Albee his third Pulitzer Prize, a record previously held only by Eugene O’Neill.

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Three Tall Women commences as if it were a realistic play. There are three female characters: an elderly woman, her middle-aged attendant, and a young lawyer who is writing the elderly lady’s will. The first act is taken up with the elderly woman’s rambling reminiscences. As the act ends, she has a seizure, and the second act opens in a hospital room with her dying in bed. However, it is a dummy dying, for suddenly the old woman appears, followed by the other two women, and it is soon apparent that all three are aspects of the same woman at different ages in her life. The remainder of the play is taken up with their highly divergent remembrances of, and arguments about, the same incidents. Just before the play ends, the woman’s son comes in to sit silently by her bedside. This is perhaps an autobiographical moment, for Albee had become distanced from his own mother years earlier. After two less than successful plays, The Lorca Play (pr. 1992) and Fragments (pr. 1993), Albee’s surrealistic work, The Play About the Baby (pr. 1998), successfully completed the decade. Impact Throughout the 1990’s, in addition to the Pulitzer Prize, Edward Albee would receive four additional honors: the Kennedy Center Honors, the National Medal of Arts, the Obie Award for Sustained Achievement, and the Inge Award for Lifetime Achievement. He would also hold a distinguished professorship at the University of Houston. Albee could certainly claim the title of America’s outstanding living dramatist of the 1990’s.

■ Albert, Marv Identification Radio and television sportscaster Born June 12, 1940; Brooklyn, New York

After reaching the peak of his popularity during the mid1990’s, Albert spent the waning years of the decade attempting to salvage a career marred by scandal. For the bulk of the 1990’s, Marv Albert was one of the most successful sportscasters in the United States, enjoying immense popularity among sports audiences and widespread demand for his services from a variety of media outlets. A radio and television announcer for the New York Knicks basketball team and radio announcer for the New York Rangers hockey team since the 1960’s, Albert also worked for NBC Sports in a variety of capacities, most notably as a play-by-play announcer for National Football League (NFL) games. His frequent guest appearances on NBC’s The David Letterman Show during the 1990’s solidified his popularity, especially with younger audiences. By mid-decade, his name was widely recognized among sports audi-

Further Reading

Gussow, Mel. Edward Albee: A Singular Journey. New York: Simon & Schuster, 1999. Staub, August. “Public and Private Thought: The Enthymeme of Death in Three Tall Women.” Journal of Dramatic Theory and Criticism 12, no. 1 (Fall, 1997): 149-158. Wilmeth, Don B., and Christopher Bigsby, eds. PostWorld War II to the 1990’s. Vol. 3 in The Cambridge History of American Theatre. New York: Cambridge University Press, 2000. August W. Staub Angels in America; Art movements; Broadway musicals; Homosexuality and gay rights; Rent ; McNally, Terrence; Theater in the United States.

See also

Marv Albert after being booked on assault and forcible sodomy charges on May 27, 1997. (AP/Wide World Photos)

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ences, and several of his more popular catch phrases had become part of the American sports lexicon. Albert’s career was derailed in 1997 when he was charged with assault and forcible sodomy as the result of an alleged incident involving a woman with whom he had allegedly had a long-standing relationship. The woman accused Albert of repeatedly biting her and forcing her to perform a variety of sexual acts. Testimony given during the resultant trial revealed lurid details of their relationship, including stories of sexual encounters involving multiple partners and allegations that Albert sometimes wore women’s underwear. After DNA tests confirmed that Albert had bitten the woman, he pleaded guilty to misdemeanor assault and battery charges and was given a twelve-month suspended jail sentence. The allegations and trial severely damaged Albert’s career; he was subsequently fired from NBC and resigned from his job as announcer for the Knicks. Impact Marv Albert began the 1990’s as one of the most popular sportscasters in the United States, but by the end of the decade he was a disgraced public figure whose future as a sportscaster appeared questionable. The sensational account of his arrest and conviction was but one of many such stories to appear in the American news media during the 1990’s. The scandal, which had displaced the media frenzy over the death of Princess Diana of Great Britain in a suspicious automobile accident, was subsequently overshadowed by other scandals involving popular figures, including revelations of an illicit relationship between President Bill Clinton and White House intern Monica Lewinsky. As the story rapidly faded into obscurity, Albert began to rehabilitate his image, returning to the Knicks as a part-time radio announcer in 1998 and to NBC as a play-by-play announcer for National Basketball Association (NBA) basketball games in 2000. Further Reading

Albert, Marv. I’d Love to But I Have a Game. New York: Doubleday, 1993. O’Brien, Sinead. “Without Skipping a Beat: The Media Frenzy over Princess Diana Was Quickly Succeeded by the Media Frenzy over Marv Albert.” American Journalism Review 19, no. 9 (November 1, 1997): 26-27. Michael H. Burchett

Albright, Madeleine See also

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Baskeball; Football; Scandals; Sports;

Television.

■ Albright, Madeleine U.S. ambassador to the United Nations, 1993-1997, and U.S. secretary of state, 1997-2001 Born May 15, 1937; Prague, Czechoslovakia (now in Czech Republic) Identification

As the third female U.S. ambassador to the United Nations and, more important, the first U.S. female secretary of state, Albright was one of the most influential women in the world. Born Marie Jana Korbel, Madeleine Albright was the daughter of a Czech diplomat. In 1939, her family fled Czechoslovakia to England in order to escape Nazi tyranny. Her experiences offered a unique perspective as she helped formulate and guide U.S. foreign policy in the 1990’s. In December, 1992, then president-elect Bill Clinton announced her nomination as U.S. ambassador to the United Nations. At that time, she said that she was thrilled over the “generous spirit” and goodwill of the American people and would be proud to represent them at the United Nations. Albright was unanimously confirmed by the U.S. Senate in February, 1993. Once at the United Nations, she immediately tackled the toughest foreign policy dilemmas of the 1990’s. Albright was successful in persuading North Korea to abide by the Nuclear Non-Proliferation Treaty and to allow inspectors back in to ensure compliance. In 1995, Iraq had placed armed forces close to the border of Kuwait, making some fear a rerun of the 1991 Gulf War. Albright supported President Clinton’s military buildup in the Gulf, and Iraq was forced to withdraw its troops from Kuwait. She was the first of the foreign policy establishment to warn of potential conflicts in Africa and during her tenure at the United Nations brought Somalia, Rwanda, and South Africa to the forefront in the ever-changing priorities of U.S. foreign policy. Albright made history when the Senate confirmed her nomination on January 23, 1997, by a 99-0 vote, to become the first female secretary of state in U.S. history. A few weeks later, The Washington Post reported that Albright, who was raised a Catholic, was of Jewish heritage and that three of her grand-

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twentieth century. Very few women were fortunate enough to rise to the levels that Albright did, and she inspired women the world over to speak out and have a say in their lives and their future. Further Reading

Albright, Madeleine. Madam Secretary: A Memoir. New York: Miramax Books, 2003. Albright’s personal account of her life from childhood to her tenure as secretary of state. Blood, Thomas. Madam Secretary: A Biography of Madeleine Albright. New York: St. Martin’s Press, 1997. Blood, Albright’s official biographer, describes her life from her birth to her tenure as U.N. ambassador. David Murphy Africa and the United States; Cold War, end of; Europe and North America; Foreign policy of the United States; Israel and the United States; Kosovo conflict; Middle East and North America; Somalia conflict; United Nations.

See also

Madeleine Albright at a U.N. news conference in 1996. (AP/ Wide World Photos)

■ Allen, Woody American film director, author, comedian, and actor Born December 1, 1935; Brooklyn, New York Identification

parents died in concentration camps—information that she claimed had been hidden from her. Albright continued to advocate for the same type of foreign policy and priorities that she had while at the United Nations. She supported the Clinton administration during the Kosovo conflict and sought to keep peace between Bosnia and Herzegovina afterward. She represented the United States when the United Kingdom transferred sovereignty of Hong Kong over to China on July 1, 1997. Albright was known during her tenure for her outspoken support for human rights and strengthening U.S. ties to the United Nations and the North Atlantic Treaty Organization (NATO), believing that the world and the United States were much better off when the United States cooperated with other nations to confront the foreign policy issues of the day. Impact Madeleine Albright ended the 1990’s as one of the most influential women in the world and arguably one of the most influential figures of the

In the 1990’s, Allen consolidated his status as an independent and critically acclaimed filmmaker by writing, directing, and frequently performing in motion pictures. Born Allen Stewart Konigsberg, Woody Allen made his initial reputation as a stand-up comedian and gag writer, whose early films were slapstick comedies. The persona he presented, that of the Jewish schlemiel, would remain, even as his work matured. By the 1990’s, he was well recognized in Europe as a distinctive American intellectual, whose work expressed post-World War II existentialism and owed much to the pensive writings of the French philosopher Albert Camus and the Russian literary masters Fyodor Dostoevski and Anton Chekhov. In America, Allen’s films were more often critical than commercial successes. As a New York-based artist who largely snubbed Hollywood, he had nevertheless received three Academy Awards for Annie Hall (1977) and would continue to receive Academy nominations and other prestigious awards for his

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However, when Farrow discovered in early 1992 that Allen had seduced her teenage adopted daughter, Soon-Yi Previn, her outrage landed him in the courts. Their legal battles, with mutual accusations of wrongdoing and poor parenting, were followed for months by an avid public. European admirers accepted events more calmly, and audiences did not desert him. In 1997, he finally married Soon-Yi, who never performed in his films but remained the dominant influence on his private life. Impact Allen is still expanding his substantial body of work, expressing a highly personal vision that celebrates his native New York City and, at the same time, reflects contemporary mores, perplexities, and aspirations of thoughtful people everywhere. Further Reading Woody Allen at a news conference in September, 1993. (AP/ Wide World Photos)

writing and directing throughout the 1990’s. His work of the decade elicited comparisons with the classic films of his acknowledged European hero, Ingmar Bergman, and was often experimental. Alice (1990) was a provocative fantasy, while Shadows and Fog (1992) paid homage to German expressionism and the music of Kurt Weill. Husbands and Wives (1992) continued the examination of a favorite Allen theme, the difficulty of maintaining intimate relationships. Manhattan Murder Mystery (1993) was an entertainment that celebrated the sophisticated Hollywood mystery-comedies Allen had enjoyed in his youth. In Bullets over Broadway (1994), he explored the mysteries of creativity, while Mighty Aphrodite (1995) contained satire of Greek tragedy. In Everyone Says I Love You (1996), Allen tried his hand at musical comedy. Deconstructing Harry (1997) and Celebrity (1998) were further journeys into the psychology of creativity and celebrity. The 1990’s was also the decade in which a sex scandal erupted that seriously threatened Allen’s career and status as a cinematic moralist. The women in his life, particularly actresses Louise Lasser, his second wife, and Diane Keaton, had always figured prominently in his work. In 1982, Allen had begun a twelve-year personal and professional relationship with Mia Farrow, who would perform in his films during the period and give birth to his son, Satchel.

Hirsch, Foster. Love, Sex, Death, and the Meaning of Life: The Films of Woody Allen. 3d ed. Cambridge, Mass.: Da Capo Press, 2001. Schickel, Richard. Woody Allen: A Life in Film. Chicago: Ivan R. Dee, 2003. Allene Phy-Olsen Academy Awards; Comedians; Film in the United States; Jewish Americans.

See also

■ Ally McBeal Identification Dramatic comedy television series Creator David E. Kelley (1956) Date Aired from September 8, 1997, to May 20,

2002 This ensemble comedy-drama caught the attention of a professional, age thirty-plus audience. With its eccentric characters, mix of fantasy and reality, romance, courtroom drama, and office silliness, the show became part of viewers’ Monday night schedules. Ally McBeal was the creation of David E. Kelley, writer of hit shows Chicago Hope, Picket Fences, and The Practice. Like these other shows, this hour-long mix of drama and comedy (dubbed a “dramedy”) had an ensemble cast. Set in the Boston law office of Cage and Fish, the story lines focus on the lawyers and their relationships as well as issues common to the contemporary workplace. Courtroom scenes show the principals in action. The title character, a Generation X attorney, played by Calista Flockhart, be-

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Calista Flockhart, center, and fellow cast members of Ally McBeal accept the award for Outstanding Performance by an Ensemble in a Comedy Series at the 1999 Screen Actors Guild Awards show in Los Angeles. (AP/Wide World Photos)

came the poster child for postfeminist angst. The series features a woman who bested her longtime boyfriend at Harvard Law by making the Review (while he did not), who is the victim of sexual harassment in the workplace and makes sure the offender is punished, and who makes good money and wears nice clothes. However, Ally finds that she cannot not have it all—a contradiction of feminist doctrine, which told women they could. She appears in control and confident on the outside but sees herself as a little girl in a big chair rather than an equal among her peers. The show drew viewers into her fantasy world, enabling them to see her innermost thoughts and desires. In June, 1998, Ally made the cover of Time magazine with the headline “Is Feminism Dead?” The answer was no; it had changed. Characters in the show representing feminist success, such as Ling, played by Lucy Liu (cold and power-hungry), are “scary” but comic. The one woman who appears to have it

all—a great job and a handsome, smart husband— discovers that her husband is in love with another woman. Former concerns of the feminist movement, such as equality in the workplace, are in the past; the women in Ally McBeal are successful but often torn between their professional and personal lives. Ally supports women’s rights, but not at the expense of her emotional life. Critics of the show were not impressed by the “dancing babies,” representing Ally’s biological clock, nor did they like her sexy demeanor, with her pouting lips and extremely short skirts. Some were disturbed that the very thin Flockhart might be anorexic and, therefore, a terrible role model for young women watching the show. However, the show was fun. The cast included Elaine, a secretary, played by Jane Krakowski, inventor of the face bra, and John Cage, a partner in the firm, played by Peter MacNicol, whose courtroom antics and fondness for his pet frog balanced the mostly serious courtroom scenes.

The Nineties in America Impact From the first episode, Ally McBeal caught the attention of young, professional people, women in particular. With her quick wit, vulnerability, and yearning for romance, Ally was someone to admire. Audiences did not want to be like her emotionally, but they did aspire to her wardrobe and her income. Further Reading

Jefferson, Margo. “You Want to Slap Ally McBeal, But Do You Like Her?” The New York Times, March 18, 1998, p. E2. Start, Steven D. “Lady’s Night.” The New Republic, December 29, 1997, 13-14. Marcia B. Dinneen Chick lit; Friends; Television; Sex and the City; Women in the workforce.

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sword and, unfortunately, led to tragic endings that could not have been imagined. The rebellious spirit that pushed most of the alternative acts can be traced back to the punk era of the 1970’s. Alternative bands took inspiration from such authentic and forceful musicians as the Ramones, the Sex Pistols, the Clash, Elvis Costello, Graham Parker, Joe Jackson, and others. The musicians who took their lead from the inyour-face approach of the punk movement focused on remaining as honest as possible in their music. Shallow and simplistic approaches to music did not interest the true alternative band. The roots of rock music were certainly antiestablishment, and these new bands believed wholeheartedly in not compromising their principles merely to please the industry.

Laying the Groundwork

Grunge Rises to the Surface In the early 1990’s, one of the most important subgenres of alternative

■ Alternative rock A musical genre that professed dissatisfaction with the commercialism that pervaded the music industry

Definition

During the 1990’s, bands that were dismayed by the shallowness of the mainstream music industry took it upon themselves to produce a more gritty and purposeful form of music that gained prominence among teenagers and college students. While the popularity of alternative rock lasted for merely a few years, its impact was felt into the twenty-first century. While “alternative” rock had its beginnings in the 1980’s with such bands as R.E.M., Sonic Youth, the Smiths, the Cure, Jane’s Addiction, Red Hot Chili Peppers, the Replacements, and others, it did not become hugely popular until the 1990’s. While the various loosely grouped bands came from several musical roots, they all had a rebellious fervor that bonded them together. Whether their roots were in country, punk, heavy metal, or rock music, they presented themselves as more independent and adventurous instruments of change. The one unifying factor that linked them all was their disdain for and mistrust of the commercialism that permeated the music industry. While each of these musical acts attempted to remain true to their ideals, it became difficult for several of them as one alternative band after another became immensely popular. Success for bands such as Nirvana became a double-edged

Billy Corgan, lead singer of the Smashing Pumpkins. (Hulton Archive/Getty Images)

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rock emerged in Seattle, Washington. Such bands as Nirvana, Pearl Jam, and Soundgarden burst onto the musical landscape with gritty hard-edged music. Through the success of these and other “angstdriven” bands, a whole “Seattle sound” became a national musical force. Kurt Cobain of Nirvana became the poster boy of the troubled musician who was never comfortable with success. With the release of Nevermind in 1991, Nirvana was catapulted into the limelight. The single “Smells Like Teen Spirit” took on an anthemlike status for what has come to be known as Generation X. For Cobain, this rise to almost godlike status became extremely difficult to cope with. He was addicted to heroin and susceptible to periods of deep depression. Tragically, he committed suicide on April 5, 1994. While this tragedy cut short the life of a very talented musical voice and the band he helped to form, Nirvana’s influence did not diminish. Several other quality bands found a large audience during the 1990’s, including the Smashing Pumpkins, the Dave Matthews Band, Counting Crows, and Alice in Chains. After initially receiving exposure on smaller radio stations or college radio stations, many of these groups eventually were given exposure on more traditional rock radio stations. A Lollapalooza tour was initiated in 1991 in order to introduce the listening public to several previously unknown alternative acts. Alternative rock was on the verge of becoming the next big thing in music, and for the next few years that seemed to be the case. Soundgarden released the critically acclaimed album Badmotorfinger in 1991. Along with Nirvana’s Nevermind, Soundgarden’s album is considered one of the great grunge statements of the decade. In 1993, the Smashing Pumpkins released the hugely popular album Siamese Dream. By 1994, the album had sold three million copies. Although the band’s 1995 release Mellon Collie and the Infinite Sadness was a double album, it also sold very well. By the end of the decade, many of the bands that had made alternative rock a musical force had either disbanded or lost their creative intensity. While an alternative band’s commercial success was looked upon in some quarters as selling out, the impact of the best that alternative rock had to offer cannot be denied. Bands such as Nirvana, Pearl Jam, Soundgarden, and the Smashing Pumpkins produced extraordinary music during their Impact

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prime. The music from these seminal alternative bands spoke to the generation that had come of age during the decade. In addition, several quality female performers found their voice during the 1990’s, including Tori Amos, Alanis Morissette, Courtney Love, P. J. Harvey, and Liz Phair. Further Reading

Anderson, Kyle. Accidental Revolution: The Story of Grunge. New York: St. Martin’s Griffin, 2007. An incisive look at the rise and fall of a vital music genre. Cross, Alan. Alternative Rock. Burlington, Canada: Collector’s Guide, 2000. An engrossing look at the best that alternative rock had to offer during the 1990’s. Hermes, Will, with Sia Michel, eds. Spin: Twenty Years of Alternative Music. New York: Three Rivers Press, 2005. A incisive collection of critical essays on the alternative music scene. Reisfeld, Randi. This Is the Sound! The Best of Alternative Rock. New York: Aladdin Paperbacks, 1996. A pointed discussion on the important alternative bands. Skancke, Jennifer. The History of Indie Rock. Detroit, Mich.: Lucent Books, 2007. As part of the Music Library series, this volume details the rise of the independent music industry. Thompson, Dave. Alternative Rock. San Francisco: Miller Freeman, 2000. Focuses on the important bands that impacted the alternative music scene. True, Everett. Nirvana: The Biography. Cambridge, Mass.: Da Capo Press, 2007. A thorough evaluation of a seminal band. Jeffry Jensen See also Grunge fashion; Grunge music; Lollapalooza; Love, Courtney; Morissette, Alanis; MTV Unplugged; Music; Nirvana; Woodstock concerts.

■ Alvarez, Julia Identification Dominican American author Born March 27, 1950; New York, New York

Alvarez is one of the first Dominican American writers to achieve international acclaim. In the 1990’s, her first novels were published and awarded, which ensured a permanent place for her in the literary and academic canon.

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events was made into a film of the same name, which stars Salma Hayek as Minerva. Hayek won an Alma Award for her portrayal, and the novel became an American Library Association Notable Book the same year it was published. The second half of the decade continued to be a prolific one for Alvarez. She returned to her first love—poetry—and published three volumes of work. Homecoming: New and Collected Poems (1996) was a new version of an earlier work published in 1984, and The Other Side/El otro lado (1995) and Seven Trees (1998) were new. She also found time to publish a collection of essays, titled Something to Declare (1998), and a new novel titled ¡Yo! (1997) revisits the extended García family through stories that are told about sister Yolanda from different perspectives. During this decade, Alvarez was a writer-inresidence and professor at Middlebury College in Vermont. She was given tenure in 1991 and made full professor in 1996.

Julia Alvarez. (Algonquin Books)

Julia Alvarez writes about family relationships, especially between sisters, and the impact of multiple cultures on education, ideas, and identity. Her work introduced the voice of the Dominican population that migrated to the East Coast of the United States in the mid-twentieth century, primarily through the culture of Dominican elites. How the García Girls Lost Their Accents was published in 1991 and won the PEN Oakland/Josephine Miles Book Award in the same year. The novel explores how the García sisters try to assimilate to American life after their family was forced to move from the Dominican Republic because of its disapproval of Rafael Trujillo’s regime. Three years later, in 1994, Alvarez produced a strong follow-up to her first novel with In the Time of Butterflies. This novel again examines sister relationships through the lives of the Mirabal sisters, who were known in the Dominican Republic as “Las Mariposas,” or “The Butterflies.” The Mirabal sisters were involved with a subversive faction that opposed Trujillo and were jailed and murdered for their guerrilla activities. The murders and Trujillo’s dictatorship have influenced this and other writing by Alvarez. The fictionalized account of the real-life

Impact Julia Alvarez has influenced teachers, scholars, the film industry, and the populations of the United States and the Dominican Republic. Dominican Americans on the East Coast of the United States were seen, but their history was unknown by the majority of the U.S. population until Alvarez’s work was published. Her examination of women’s roles in Latin America and the United States continues to be widely studied among literary scholars. Further Reading

Johnson, Kelli Lyon. Julia Alvarez: Writing a New Place on the Map. Albuquerque: University of New Mexico Press, 2005. Sirias, Silvio. Julia Alvarez: A Critical Companion. Westport, Conn.: Greenwood Press, 2001. Stanley, Deborah A., and Ira Mark Milne, eds. Novels for Students: Presenting Analysis, Context, and Criticism on Commonly Studied Novels. Vol. 9. Farmington Hills, Mich.: Gale Group, 2000. Grisel Y. Acosta Chick lit; Demographics of the United States; Film in the United States; Immigration to the United States; Independent films; Latin America; Latinos; Literature in the United States; National Endowment for the Arts (NEA); Poetry; Publishing; Women’s rights.

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Alzheimer’s disease

■ Alzheimer’s disease A progressive deterioration of the brain, usually in elderly people, resulting in dementia and death

Identification

Public attention in the 1990’s focused on a rapid increase in the number of Americans either suffering from Alzheimer’s disease or caring for an affected family member. Potentially useful genetic findings raised thorny moral dilemmas. A decade of intensive research produced no cure or effective treatment of symptoms. Alzheimer’s disease is a spongiform encephalopathy—that is, a disease causing brain tissue to degenerate, becoming riddled with holes. Over a period of years, mental functioning declines, culminating in a vegetative state and death. Alois Alzheimer, who formally described it in 1907, considered it to be a rare disorder affecting middle-aged people. Around 1960, the medical community started recognizing that a common form of senile dementia affecting people in their seventies and eighties was the same thing. Senile dementia has been recognized since antiquity but was regarded as a normal consequence of aging. The number of Alzheimer’s patients in America

Alzheimer’s brain

Normal brain

Alzheimer’s disease causes the volume of the brain to shrink substantially. (Hans & Cassidy, Inc.)

rose steeply between 1950 and 2000. By the mid1990’s, they represented one-third of all patients requiring long-term nursing care, and it was estimated that one in five Americans would eventually succumb. Despite these alarming statistics, this is not an epidemic in the usual sense. The age-specific incidence of new cases remains fairly constant. More people are hospitalized with Alzheimer’s now because of an increase in overall life span and because antibiotics and other therapies keep elderly senile patients alive longer. Improvements in cardiac therapy contribute disproportionately. A gene predisposing a person to late-onset Alzheimer’s also predisposes him or her to arteriosclerosis (hardening of the arteries). The person who avoids an early grave with triple bypass surgery is at high risk for Alzheimer’s disease. Genetics The years 1989-1995 witnessed great strides in understanding the biochemistry of and genetic basis of Alzheimer’s. Geneticists identified four genes, all involved in fat metabolism, as predisposing factors. Three of these are rare and are strongly associated with inherited early-onset Alzheimer’s. The fourth, a variant of the gene for apolipoprotein E, is present in 30 percent of Americans and is also associated with cardiovascular disease. Another variant of this gene appears to confer immunity. This discovery sparked considerable controversy, because in the absence of any effective treatment for Alzheimer’s, a person carrying the risk factor would be subjected to worry and possible discrimination without receiving any benefit. Should carriers of the gene being treated for the cardiovascular risks also be told of the potential for Alzheimer’s? The consensus among medical professionals is that this gene should be used as a diagnostic tool only to help confirm a suspected case of active disease. More definitive diagnostic tests have since become available. Human Costs The 1990’s saw a focus on caregivers and the burdens imposed on them. A surviving spouse or adult child endures years of caring for a person who consumes increasing amounts of time and money while becoming progressively less responsive, while dealing with a medical system and a bureaucracy insensitive to the psychological wellbeing of family members. Changing the rules for Medicare reimbursement of nursing home expenses addressed monetary issues. Despite the pro-

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liferation of support groups and respite programs, the caregiver problem remained acute. In 1991, Dr. Jack Kevorkian, the controversial guru of physician-assisted suicide and euthanasia, attracted national attention by assisting in the suicide of a woman in the early stages of Alzheimer’s disease. Most commentators felt this act fell far outside what society ought to condone: The woman was still in good physical health and probably had several years before complete mental debility set in. On the other hand, the physical deterioration and mental incompetence this woman sought to avoid would have precluded assisted suicide at a later date. Those who condemn such acts out of hand, or automatically label them as insane, discount a desire to spare loved ones the emotional and financial burdens of caregiving as a valid motivation. A related debate concerns the extent to which modern medicine should be used to prolong the lives of people with dementia. Much of the explosion in Alzheimer’s incidence can be traced to medical innovations unavailable before World War II. Should a person be denied a procedure, such as open-heart surgery, which has become routine, based on his or her dementia? The answer in the 1990’s was no, with efforts focusing on ensuring equal access. At the beginning of the decade, medical researchers had high hopes that early diagnosis combined with new therapies would provide a cure or at least slow the progress of this devastating disease. In the search for a cause, they looked for predisposing environmental factors. They found little aside from the genetic pattern. One study, involving a cohort of nuns, suggested that subtle mental impairment was present decades before the onset of clinical disease. This explains why people who pursue continuing education in their sixties almost never develop Alzheimer’s, a finding used in the 1990’s to sell education to retirees. Rather than being protective, an active intellectual life in late middle age indicates a healthy brain. Aluminum toxicity is implicated in some cases of dementia, but no link to Alzheimer’s has been found. If there is an actual pathogen involved, it remains elusive. Prions—abnormal infectious proteins— cause other spongiform encephelopathies, but in humans at least these are rare diseases with a clear chain of transmission. The common pathogenic

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bacterium Chlamydia trachomatis sometimes occurs in brain tissue and arteriosclerotic plaques; this may be a secondary infection. In 1990, the Food and Drug Administration approved tacrine and donepezil for treating Alzheimer’s patients. Neither slows organic brain degeneration, and severe side effects offset temporary improved functioning. Behavioral approaches can improve the quality of life for a time, but acquired routines are forgotten as the brain deteriorates. Impact In general, the 1990’s saw increasing incidence and increasing public awareness of Alzheimer’s disease but very little progress in treatment at the individual level or in grappling with the disease as a societal problem. Further Reading

Cutler, Neil R., and John J. Sramek. Understanding Alzheimer’s Disease. Jackson: University Press of Mississippi, 1996. Explains research in layman’s terms. Post, Stephen G., and Peter J. Whitehouse. Genetic Testing for Alzheimer Disease. Baltimore: The Johns Hopkins University Press, 1998. Explains the genetics and the ethical issues involved. Whitehouse, Peter J., Konrad Maurer, and Jesse F. Bellenger, eds. Concepts of Alzheimer Disease: Biological, Clinical and Cultural Perspectives. Baltimore: The Johns Hopkins University Press, 2000. A good overview of the history and developments in the 1990’s. Martha Sherwood Elder abuse; Genetics research; Health care; Medicine; Physician-assisted suicide.

See also

■ Amazon.com Identification American-based online business Date Founded in 1994

The first online bookstore, Amazon.com grew to have one of the world’s largest selection of books. After launching, the company soon emerged as a leading Internet commerce site for the purchase of books and eventually other products. Amazon.com was the brainchild of Jeff Bezos, who in 1994 was the youngest senior executive at investment firm D. E. Shaw. He had been avidly watching developments in the Internet, the giant network of

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America Online

networks originally created by the U.S. Department of Defense (DOD) to ensure communications after a nuclear war. In the early 1990’s, the DOD handed control of the Internet over to private concerns, opening the way for ordinary people to access it. The World Wide Web and graphical browsers such as Mosaic and Netscape Navigator made using the Internet far less intimidating. Bezos realized that a business selling through a Web site would not be limited by the overhead of a physical storefront. It would need only warehouse space and offices for customer-service personnel. In effect, it would be a perpetually updating mail-order catalog. After carefully studying successful mailorder companies and making contacts in the bookselling world, Bezos left D. E. Shaw and moved to Seattle, where he could find large numbers of people with technical backgrounds. Bezos started Amazon.com on a shoestring budget, with three workstations in the garage of his rented two-bedroom home. His computer desks were old doors. He put all his money into creating a user-friendly Web site that would make the purchase process easy for customers and with top-notch customer service. He knew an Internet business could succeed only if people were confident that they could give their credit card information safely and that their purchase would arrive promptly. Amazon.com grew quickly to move to larger quarters, but desks continued to be old doors. During the Christmas rush, technical employees in Seattle were often taken to fulfillment centers in remote parts of the country to pack customer orders. However, most desk workers were not in physical condition for this demanding work, resulting in spectacular knee and back injuries. After Amazon.com’s initial growth spurt, it went through several years in which investment in rapid expansion left it constantly teetering on the edge of financial disaster. However, by the close of 1999 Amazon.com had established itself as a leader, one of the few businesses with the fundamentals to survive the dot-com bust of 2000. Impact Although Amazon.com was not the first business to sell merchandise online, its success proved the concept was no longer science fiction but a practical reality. The careful use of security software, combined with excellent customer service, won the confidence of buyers; by the end of the 1990’s, Amazon.com had survived its adolescent

transition to become a major player on the Internet landscape. Further Reading

Daisey, Mike. Twenty-one Dog Years: Doing Time @ Amazon.com. New York: Free Press, 2002. Humorous reminiscences by a former employee. Ramo, Joshua Cooper. “Why the Founder of Amazon.com Is Our Choice for 1999.” Time, December 27, 1999, 50-51. Article announcing the choice of Bezos as Time’s person of the year is accompanied by articles about e-retailing and prominent Internet entrepreneurs. Leigh Husband Kimmel See also Bezos, Jeff; Business and the economy in the United States; Computers; Dot-coms; Silicon Valley; World Wide Web; Yahoo!.

■ America Online The first generally accessible Internet service provider (ISP)

Identification

The ISP, which helped to make the Internet available to millions of people and build an online community, thrived during the 1990’s. Earlier online services included Compu-Serv (later CompuServe), which debuted in 1969; General Electric’s GEnie, founded in 1985; and Prodigy, an IBM-Sears joint venture founded in 1984. However, these services would be surpassed in popularity by America Online (AOL) in the 1990’s. AOL succeeded in its goal of bringing the Internet to average Americans with the help of clever marketing and the purchase of various companies to provide technology, staff, and infrastructure. InformationWeek.com called AOL “an ISP for those who knew little or nothing about the Internet.” The inspiration to found AOL came from Bill von Meister, who in 1983 started an online game company called Control Video Corporation; Steve Case, later chairman and chief executive officer (CEO) of AOL, joined as a marketing consultant. Struggling financially, Control Video was renamed Quantum Computer Services in 1985. With Jim Kimsey as CEO, Quantum developed online communication services for Commodore, Apple, and finally IBMcompatible computers. In 1991, Quantum changed

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its name to America Online, Inc. AOL for DOS was launched in February, 1991, and a Windows version premiered in 1993. At first, AOL primarily offered its own services: games, information services, and chat rooms. Chat rooms in particular helped to build a sense of community among users that both took advantage of and contributed to the home-computer revolution. Internet access through AOL was limited, which pleased parents but displeased many other users. Later, it became possible to use other Internet software when logged into AOL. AOL gained attention from the press, including an influential article in The Wall Street Journal in 1992, and began an aggressive marketing campaign in 1993, sending its software in the mail. Membership grew to 10 million in 1996. In 1997, AOL bought CompuServe, then its biggest competitor. In the late 1990’s, AOL also began to provide both instant messaging (AIM) and Web-search services. Criticism of AOL included frustration at the difficulty of canceling the service. In 1996-1997, when facilities did not match demand, customers faced frequent busy signals when trying to connect through the dial-up service. Impact Cultural forces were poised for mass access to the information superhighway, and America Online helped to fill the demand, presenting online participation as family-friendly. In 2000, AOL merged with Time Warner. Further Reading

Ashby, Ruth. Steve Case: America Online Pioneer. Brookfield, Conn.: Twenty-first Century Books, 2002. Thornally, George. AOL by George! The Inside Story of America Online. Livingstone, N.J.: Urly Media, 1999. Wilkinson, Julia L. My Life at AOL. Bloomington, Ind.: AuthorHouse, 2001. Bernadette Lynn Bosky Apple Computer; Business and the economy in the United States; Computers; Dot-coms; Email; Instant messaging; Internet; Search engines; World Wide Web.

See also

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■ Americans with Disabilities Act of 1990 The world’s first comprehensive civil rights law for people with disabilities Date Signed into law on July 26, 1990 Definition

This bill prohibited discrimination against the disabled and created a lasting impact on the millions of disabled people living in America. Considered by some to be the greatest legislative contribution made by Republican senator Bob Dole of Kansas, the Americans with Disabilities Act of 1990 (ADA) prohibits discrimination in employment, in places of public accommodation (including all restaurants, retail stores, hotels, theaters, health care facilities, parks, convention centers, and places of recreation), in transportation services, and in all activities of state and local governments to a person who has a disability. According to this bill, disabilities are defined as a physical or mental impairment that substantially limits one or more of the major life activities of such individual; a record of such an impairment; or being regarded as having such an impairment. The subject of disability rights was a very close issue to Senator Dole. During his tour of duty in World War II, Dole received a severely disabling injury at Castel D’Aiano, Italy. The wounds he received crippled his right arm for the rest of his life; even after multiple surgeries and months of rehabilitation, Dole had only about ten percent of the use of his arm. As a representative for the state of Kansas and then as a senator, he fought for the rights of the disabled. In his maiden speech in the Senate, given on April 14, 1969, Dole spoke of his own disability and how other people with disabilities were being denied the opportunities necessary to live life to its fullest. For years, he would give a speech on or around April 14 (the anniversary of his war wounds) that related to disabilities, reminding Congress that there was still work to be done. Dole challenged the government to do more to help this sector advance in life. Furthermore, he encouraged the formation of a presidential task force to determine how to get thousands of disabled persons back into the workplace and leading successful lives. In November, 1978, the National Council on the

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Handicapped was created. For over a decade, this organization sought a comprehensive law that would provide equal opportunities for those with handicaps. By 1987, the first draft of the Americans with Disabilities Act was written, and it quickly gained sponsorship by Republican senator Lowell Weicker and Democratic representative Tony Coelho, both of Connecticut, who introduced it in April, 1988. In November, Democrats Tom Harkin of Iowa and Ted Kennedy of Massachusetts became the Senate sponsors, as Lowell had been defeated for reelection. Legislation was reintroduced in 1989 and again in 1990. The version of the bill that was introduced in 1990 was the result of a compromise, as it had been modified to accommodate business interests as well as the disabled community.

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Support for such legislation was gaining momentum around the nation, culminating in March of 1990 when participants in the “Wheels of Justice” campaign demonstrated in Washington, D.C., occupying the Capitol Rotunda and demanding passage of the bill. In July, the Americans with Disabilities Act was passed with majority support in both houses and then signed into law by President George H. W. Bush in a traditional White House Rose Garden ceremony. One reason for the bill’s strong support was that many members of Congress had personal or family reasons for being concerned about disability issues. Beyond Senators Harkin and Kennedy and Congressmen Coelho, other key figures in the passage of the act were Attorney General Dick Thornburgh and Senator Dole. The major public in-

President George H. W. Bush signs the Americans with Disabilities Act on July 26, 1990. (AP/Wide World Photos)

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terest advocates for the ADA were the Disability Rights Defense and Education Fund and the American Civil Liberties Union. Many people who attended the signing ceremony played crucial roles in bringing the ADA to fruition, including Justin Dart (chair of the President’s Committee on Employment of People with Disabilities) and Sandra Swift Parrino (chair of the National Council on Disability). However, as these people were celebrating the first major piece of civil rights legislation for the disabled, others were continuing to voice their criticisms. Critics have argued that the ADA has brought about a number of claims by people who do not have serious disabilities, creating frivolous legal disputes and possibly hurting the very people the law was intending to help. Others feel that the legislation is inherently flawed because the burden of recognizing discrimination and the enforcement of the principles of ADA rests almost solely on the disabled individual. The federal government cannot investigate all the cases that are filed, so, for prompt action, a disabled individual frequently has to hire an attorney. Further criticisms are based upon the fact that this particular law extends to a very broad spectrum, including transportation, employment, public accommodation, and telecommunications, perhaps too broad for just one bill.

Controversy Amid Criticisms

Impact Although many with disabilities were justifiably upset with the slow pace of barrier removal, the Americans with Disabilities Act has done more to help the disabled than any other single piece of legislation. Further Reading

Goren, William D. Understanding the Americans with Disabilities Act. 2d ed. Chicago: American Bar Association, 2007. This book has a predominantly legal focus and discusses the ADA from the perspective of a disabled lawyer. Hamilton Krieger, Linda, ed. Backlash Against the ADA: Reinterpreting Disability Rights. Ann Arbor: University of Michigan Press, 2003. An exploration of the difficulties faced in enforcing the ADA and the societal backlash once the ADA was created. Jones, Nancy Lee. The Americans with Disabilities Act (ADA): Overview, Regulations, and Interpretations. New York: Novinka Books, 2003. A comprehen-

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sive look at the ADA and how it has been interpreted in various contexts by legal institutions. Kathryn A. Cochran Bush, George H. W.; Civil Rights Act of 1991; Dole, Bob.

See also

■ AmeriCorps U.S. government-funded community-service network Date Created in 1993 Identification

A federally funded network of nonprofits, AmeriCorps connects tens of thousands of Americans each year with service projects in education, public safety, health, and the environment. AmeriCorps, which operates by connecting nonprofits, public agencies, and faith-based organizations with volunteers, came out of a climate of concern about education and community service. The organization was officially launched when President Bill Clinton signed the National and Community Service Trust Act of 1993, building on the first National Service Act, signed by President George H. W. Bush in 1990. AmeriCorps consists of three branches, AmeriCorps State and National, AmeriCorps National Civilian Community Corps (NCCC), and AmeriCorps Volunteers in Service to America (VISTA). The State and National branch provides grants directly to national service programs and consortia based across two or more states, including public agencies, higher education institutions, and community- and faith-based organizations. These grants are used to recruit, train, and place AmeriCorps volunteers in programs designed to fill community needs in education, conservation, public safety, and health. The program works with governor-appointed state service commissions to provide grants to single-state and local organizations. AmeriCorps NCCC is a full-time, team-based residential program for men and women based on regional campuses. The number of campuses has varied during AmeriCorps’ history. NCCC members participate in similar projects to other AmeriCorps members, as well as disaster relief, home building for low-income families, wildland firefighting, and environmental conservation.

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AmeriCorps

VISTA, founded in 1964 as a domestic program similar to the Peace Corps, was incorporated into AmeriCorps. It provides full-time volunteers to nonprofit, faith-based, and other community organizations, as well as public agencies, to support programs intended to bring low-income individuals and communities out of poverty. All three branches of AmeriCorps overlap in goals and types of projects, although methods of implementation are different. Volunteers usually receive a small stipend to cover cost of living, and after 1997, an Education Award upon completion of service that can be applied toward college or graduate education or paying back qualified student loans. AmeriCorps’ financial support of volunteers has drawn criticism from some quarters, although Peace Corps volunteers are also provided with a stipend and educational support. The First Five Years The National and Community Service Trust Act of 1993 created AmeriCorps and the Corporation for National and Community Service (CNCS). VISTA and NCCC were then incorporated into AmeriCorps. Governor-appointed state service commissions were created to administer AmeriCorps funding at the state level, but CNCS did not officially begin operation until 1994. The first class of AmeriCorps members, who began in September of 1994, consisted of twenty thousand people who served in more than one thousand communities. The same year, four NCCC campuses opened in Aberdeen, Maryland; Charleston, South Carolina; Denver, Colorado; and San Diego, California. In 1995, the Aberdeen campus moved to Perry Point, Maryland. In 1997, AmeriCorps introduced the Education Awards Program. Beginning in this year, it became possible for nonprofits, faith-based organizations, colleges and universities, and welfare-to-work programs to join the AmeriCorps network. A fifth AmeriCorps campus also opened in Washington, D.C. By 1999, AmeriCorps had 150,000 alumni and had served more than 33 million people in more than four thousand communities.

From the beginning, there was skepticism about whether AmeriCorps was really successful in its goals to accomplish positive change in American communities and to encourage its members to continue with education and service. Evaluations and assessments commis-

Controversy over Effectiveness

sioned by both AmeriCorps and outside organizations began as early as 1995. These evaluations focused on funding, use of money, effect in the community of AmeriCorps programs, and effect on AmeriCorps volunteers. Overall, studies found that AmeriCorps programs did have a positive effect on the communities served. However, effect on the volunteers varied. While some volunteers believed they gained important skills, the program did not widely improve education or cultural sensitivity as much as hoped. Many AmeriCorps members did not use their Education Awards or continue with higher education. Citizens Against Government Waste (CAGW), a private, nonpartisan nonprofit, argued in 1998 that AmeriCorps was expensive and ineffectual. Citing the program’s high dropout rate and the actual cost of funding an AmeriCorps volunteer, CAGW asserted that smaller-scale, nongovernmental volunteer programs were more effective in the community and less wasteful of resources. During its first five years, AmeriCorps’ funding more than doubled. However, debate continues over the effectiveness of AmeriCorps programs in encouraging higher education and appreciation of cultural diversity in its participants and in positively affecting the communities served. Impact AmeriCorps is a highly visible communityservice program that offers valuable opportunities and educational incentives to its members. During the 1990’s, AmeriCorps provided funds and personnel to support the start-up of programs such as Teach For America, City Year, and Public Allies, and to bring resources to organizations such as the Red Cross and Boys and Girls Clubs of America. In addition, debate over AmeriCorps’ use of funds, choice of organizations and projects to fund, and overall effectiveness for members and communities brought questions of government accountability and responsible use of taxpayer money to public light. Further Reading

AmeriCorps. www.americorps.gov. The official Web site provides a history of the organization, information about volunteering for AmeriCorps, and how organizations can join the network. Marshall, Will, and Marc Porter Magee, eds. The AmeriCorps Experiment and the Future of National Service. Washington, D.C.: Progressive Policy Insti-

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tute, 2005. Provides an appraisal of the program and opinions from a variety of political thinkers on the future of the program. Somewhat limited in the views presented. Metz, Allan, comp. National Service and AmeriCorps: An Annotated Bibliography. Westport, Conn.: Greenwood Press, 1997. A reference work providing a wide variety of sources on national service and AmeriCorps. The work lists books, dissertations, government documents, and serial literature and includes a brief appendix for Internet resources. Melissa A. Barton

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Identification African American poet Born April 4, 1928; St. Louis, Missouri

prepared the introductions to H. Beecher Hicks’s My Soul’s Been Anchored (1998) and the 1994 edition of Langston Hughes’s Not Without Laughter (1930). During the decade, Angelou continued to fulfill her lifetime appointment (1981) as Reynolds Professor of American Studies at Wake Forest University. In 1996, she served as ambassador to the United Nations Children’s Fund (UNICEF) and as a member of Doctors Without Borders. During the Million Man March, held on October 16, 1995, in Washington, D.C., she read her own “Million Man March Poem,” urging African American activism, volunteerism, and voter registration. Angelou appeared in the film How to Make an American Quilt (1995). In 1998, she became the first African American woman to direct a film: Down in the Delta. For her spoken word albums Phenomenal Woman (1995) and On the Pulse of Morning (1993), she earned the National Academy of Recording Arts and Sciences Award. Her author-read audiobooks of the decade include The Heart of a Woman (1997) and the abridged version of 1970’s I Know Why the Caged Bird Sings (1996).

Her writings, her diplomatic service to the United Nations Children’s Fund and the Million Man March, her work with stage and film, and her teaching have been a model to others.

Impact Angelou earned a number of honors and awards during the 1990’s, including the Langston Hughes Award (1991), “Woman of the Year” (1991) from Essence, the Distinguished Woman of North

See also Clinton, Bill; Educate America Act of 1994; Education in Canada; Education in the United States; Natural disasters; Poverty; Year-round schools.

■ Angelou, Maya

Maya Angelou was the second poet in history, the first woman poet, and the first African American to write and deliver a poem at a U.S. presidential inauguration. She read her poem “On the Pulse of Morning” at President Bill Clinton’s inauguration in 1993. By the end of the 1990’s, Angelou had published five books in her “franchise of autobiographies.” In May, 1997, Oprah Winfrey selected Angelou’s The Heart of a Woman (1981) as the first nonfiction book for Oprah’s Book Club. Angelou’s books published in the 1990’s include I Shall Not Be Moved (1990), Wouldn’t Take Nothing for My Journey Now (1993), the children’s book Life Doesn’t Frighten Me (1993), The Complete Collected Poems of Maya Angelou (1994), and Even the Stars Look Lonesome (1997). She also

Maya Angelou in 1996. (AP/Wide World Photos)

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Carolina Award (1992), the Women in Film Award (1992), the National Association for the Advancement of Colored People’s Spingarn Award (1994), a tribute from Congress (1996), and awards from the National Conference of Christians and Jews, the Southern Christian Leadership Conference (Los Angeles), and the Martin Luther King, Jr., Legacy Association (1996). Performers, writers, women, directors, activists, teachers, and African Americans use her work and her life as models. Further Reading

Angelou, Maya. Collected Autobiographies of Maya Angelou. New York: Modern Library, 2004. Wilkinson, Brenda. Black Stars: African American Women Writers. New York: John Wiley & Sons, 2000. Anita Price Davis See also African Americans; Alvarez, Julia; Clinton, Bill; Komunyakaa, Yusef; Literature in the United States; Million Man March; Poetry; Strand, Mark; Winfrey, Oprah. Tony Kushner. (Columbia University/Courtesy Jay Thompson)

■ Angels in America Identification Award-winning play Author Tony Kushner (1956) Date Millennium Approaches first performed in

1991, Perestroika first performed in 1992 This award-winning epic drama by Tony Kushner changed the face of American theater in the 1990’s. A powerful reaction to the devastating effects of the AIDS epidemic, it forced the American public to confront and challenge their beliefs about sexuality and politics. Angels in America: A Gay Fantasia on National Themes was written and first performed in two parts. Part one, Millennium Approaches, received its world premiere in San Francisco in 1991 and debuted in London in 1992, receiving national attention. Tony Kushner continued his work on part two, Perestroika, as Millennium Approaches was still enjoying its theatrical run. Perestroika was first performed in 1992, and a year later it too debuted in London to receive critical acclaim. The two parts finally arrived on Broadway in 1993. The play, performed in its entirety, spans a length of approximately seven hours.

The play is set in New York City in the mid-1980’s, in the midst of the AIDS epidemic. At the drama’s center are two relationships: one between Louis Ironson and Prior Walter, a gay couple confronting the reality of AIDS; the other between Joe Pitt and his wife Harper, a Mormon couple whose marriage is falling apart. Audiences learn that Prior has contracted the AIDS virus; although Louis attempts to care for Prior, he is ultimately unable to deal with the intensity of the illness and flees the relationship. Meanwhile, Joe, a Republican lawyer working for the notorious Roy Cohn, grapples to deal with his own closeted homosexuality. As these individuals struggle to endure in a world that offers little solace, their lives become intertwined in ways none of them could have predicted. Angels in America is an epic drama, the action of the play spanning distances of time and space. Characters, many of whom perform multiple roles, wander in and out of dreamscapes and are transported to absurd locations. At all times, the audience is made aware of the theatricality of the performance and made to consider the play as a political forum.

The Nineties in America Impact Angels in America had a tremendous impact on American theater in the 1990’s, a force still felt today. Set in the 1980’s, during a time when AIDS evoked widespread fear and panic, the play speaks against intolerance and ignorance. The years in which the play was first performed signaled a time of change in America. Bill Clinton won the presidential election in 1992, indicating an end to the Republican administrations of Ronald Reagan and George H. W. Bush. For the gay community, this victory symbolized a remedy to the oppressive nature of the conservative regime. Both Millennium Approaches and Perestroika won Tony Awards for Best Play and in 1993 a Pulitzer Prize. The play challenges audiences’ views on religion, sexuality, race, and politics, and above all promotes an understanding of human nature. In 2003, the play was adapted for a Home Box Office (HBO) miniseries.

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became a popularly accepted concept. Ayd’s book received a promotional boost from the pharmaceutical company Merck, which, looking to establish a market for its new drug Elavil, purchased fifty thousand copies of Ayd’s book and sent them to potential distributors of the drug. Merck’s marketing campaign resulted in the reification of depression as a psychological syndrome and firmly established antidepressant drugs as a means of treatment. A common feature of almost all antidepressants is that they change levels of one or more of the monoamine neurotransmitters: dopamine, epinephrine, histamine, norepinephrine, and serotonin. Classes of antidepressants differ, however, in both means of action and specificity of neurotransmitter targeted. The first antidepressants approved by the Food and Drug Administration (FDA) in the 1950’s and 1960’s were either of two categories: monoamine oxidase inhibitors (MAOIs, such as

Further Reading

Fisher, James. The Theater of Tony Kushner: Living Past Hope. New York: Routledge, 2001. Vorlicky, Robert, ed. Tony Kushner in Conversation. Ann Arbor: University of Michigan Press, 1998. Danielle A. DeFoe See also AIDS epidemic; Conservatism in U.S. politics; Homosexuality and gay rights; Jewish Americans; Liberalism in U.S. politics; Literature in the United States; Philadelphia; Queer Nation; Rent; Theater in the United States.

■ Antidepressants Drugs designed to alleviate the symptoms of depression

Definition

A dramatic increase in the use of antidepressants in the 1990’s was stimulated by an increased public awareness of depression, a cultural shift in viewing depression as a biologically rooted disorder, and the development of new antidepressants with less severe side effects than previously available drugs. The experience of depression, characterized by saddened affect and/or loss of pleasure, has been described by writers for thousands of years. However, it was not until 1961 with the publication of Frank Ayd’s Recognizing the Depressed Patient that depression

A bottle of Prozac, one of the most popular antidepressants of the 1990’s. (AP/Wide World Photos)

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Parnate) or tricyclic antidepressants (TCAs, such as Elavil). MAOIs and TCAs increase levels of norepinephrine and serotonin; low levels of these neurotransmitters are thought to play a crucial role in causing depression. However, the severity and frequency of MAOI and TCA side effects, particularly the MAOIs, prompted researchers to search for effective compounds with a less deleterious side effect profile. The culmination of this research helped to launch an antidepressant revolution in the 1990’s. Trends in the 1990’s In 1987, Prozac (fluoxetine hydrochloride) was the first of a new category of antidepressants, selective serotonin reuptake inhibitors (SSRIs), to be approved by the FDA. Prozac proved to be just as effective as the older antidepressants, but with less severe side effects. The success of Prozac in the early 1990’s prompted other pharmaceutical companies to produce different SSRIs (such as Celexa, Lexapro, Luvox, Paxil, and Zoloft) and reuptake inhibitors that targeted serotonin and norepinephrine (SNRIs, such as Effexor) or norepinephrine and dopamine (NDRIs, such as Wellbutrin SR). In addition to a better side effect profile, the newer antidepressants were sufficiently different in molecular structure—the TCAs are chemically similar—and offered physicians numerous treatment options: Patients who did not respond positively to one reuptake inhibitor often had success with another, unlike with the TCAs. More and better drug options, intense marketing by pharmaceutical companies, and books such as Peter Kramer’s Listening to Prozac (1993), extolling the virtues of antidepressants, combined to lead to a dramatic upsurge in the use of antidepressants in the 1990’s. In Psychopharmacology for Helping Professionals: An Integral Exploration (2006), R. Elliott Ingersoll and Carl Rak identify three trends in the use of antidepressants in the 1990’s: steep increases in prescriptions, greatly expanded usage in elderly and pediatric populations, and burgeoning off-label use (the drug is used for a purpose other than what it was approved for), such as for personality disorders or chronic pain syndromes. The authors also note that as the number of people receiving antidepressants increased in the 1990’s, the number of individuals undergoing counseling for depression decreased. Issues in the Use of Antidepressants Psychiatrist David Healy asserted in The Antidepressant Era (1997)

that the financial interests of pharmaceutical companies obfuscated an objective evaluation of the efficacy and safety of antidepressants. A growing body of research has brought into question the effectiveness and safety of antidepressants, giving credence to Healy’s concerns. Since the late 1990’s, a number of well-designed studies examining the effectiveness of antidepressants in treating depression have found little difference between the drugs and placebos. Moreover, a significant percentage of adults taking SSRIs will experience sexual dysfunction, multiple adverse side effects, and/or develop dependence on the drugs. Thus, the emerging picture since the 1990’s is that the effectiveness of antidepressants has been exaggerated and their side effects have been significantly downplayed. These findings have particular relevance for younger populations because most antidepressants have not been approved by the FDA for use by children, and the side effects are more severe and have longer-lasting consequences. For example, mouse pups given Prozac develop excessive fear and restlessness in adulthood. Furthermore, some studies begun in the 1990’s reported a positive correlation between increased suicidality risk and antidepressant use. Subsequent research prompted the FDA in 2004 to issue a “black box” warning label on all antidepressants, apprising consumers that antidepressants may increase the risk of suicidal thoughts and behavior in children and adolescents. In 2007, the FDA expanded the warning to include people up to the age of twenty-five. Impact By 2007, SSRIs had become the best-selling drug of any kind in the United States; nearly one in eight Americans had tried an SSRI. The trend begun in the 1990’s of more people using antidepressants than employing counseling in treating depression continued well into the subsequent decade. It appears that the 1990’s ushered in a cultural perception that psychological problems are best solved by pills, not people. Further Reading

Glenmullen, Joseph. Prozac Backlash: Overcoming the Dangers of Prozac, Zoloft, Paxil, and Other Antidepressants with Safe, Effective Alternatives. New York: Simon & Schuster, 2000. A Harvard psychiatric professor examines the risks associated with antidepressants (especially SSRIs), reviews the antidepressant research, and discusses alternative

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approaches (psychotherapy, exercise, herbs) in coping with depression. Healy, David. The Antidepressant Era. Cambridge, Mass.: Harvard University Press, 1997. A detailed history of the development, marketing, and effectiveness of antidepressants is presented by a noted expert in the field of psychopharmacology. Ingersoll, R. Elliott, and Carl Rak. Psychopharmacology for Helping Professionals: An Integral Exploration. Belmont, Calif.: Thomson Brooks/Cole, 2006. An introduction to psychopharmacology that is accessible to the lay reader. Chapters 4, 5, and 9 present a good overview of antidepressants. Kramer, Peter. Listening to Prozac: The Landmark Book About Antidepressants and the Remaking of the Self. Rev. ed. New York: Penguin Books, 1997. Bestselling book that played a significant role in promoting a culturally accepting attitude toward antidepressants explores the use of Prozac in treating depression and eliciting positive personality changes. Paul J. Chara, Jr. See also Culture wars; Drug advertising; Drug use; Health care; Medicine; Pharmaceutical industry; Psychology; Science and technology.

■ Apple Computer Identification

American hardware and software

company As the manufacturer of the Macintosh, the first computer based on a graphical user interface, Apple was a leader in innovation in the early 1990’s. By the end of the decade, the company had reinvented itself and come back from near financial collapse. In 1990, Apple Computer (later Apple, Inc.) introduced its fastest Macintosh to date, the IIfx. However, it was a troubled machine, its price point placing it out of the reach of all but the most high-end users. Furthermore, it used special hardware that was in short supply, and several of its interfaces were prone to intermittent trouble. By the end of the year, Apple announced that it would produce a number of new Macintosh models that would bring the price point down to levels comparable to Intel-based machines. In theory, these models would make Apple’s slogan of “The computer for the rest of us” less of a

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bad joke, but in fact the LC and IIsi remained pricey, and Apple’s market share did not grow. In 1989, Apple released its first laptop, the Mac Portable. A heavy, underpowered monstrosity, the computer was a failure. Apple took two years to rethink laptop computing and finally ended up partnering with Japanese electronics giant Sony to produce laptops. In October of 1991, Apple rolled out the PowerBook, which introduced several key features that would soon be widely copied, including a keyboard with handrests on either side of the trackball. That year also saw the introduction of the System 7 operating system (OS), which had been delayed several times. Also in 1991, Apple joined forces with International Business Machines (IBM) and Motorola to create the AIM alliance, which was supposed to create a new generation of computers based on RISC (reduced instruction set computing) processor technology. The alliance created the PowerPC microprocessor, which became the basis for all of Apple’s computers for more than a decade. In 1993, Apple finally took the drastic step of eliminating the Apple II, the computer that had originally made its fortune. By that point, the Apple IIgs, the only model remaining in production, had incorporated so many features from the Macintosh that it was deemed redundant. That year also marked major upheavals in Apple’s corporate structure as chief executive officer (CEO) John Sculley left under a firestorm of criticism, to be replaced by Michael Spindler, a German-born engineer nicknamed “the Diesel.” After the introduction of several lower-cost consumer models in 1992 and 1993, Apple rolled out the Power Macintosh series, its first computers to be based upon the PowerPC chip, in 1994. At first these machines were aimed primarily at high-end users, but as economies of scale began to take hold, the use of PowerPC chips spread throughout the Macintosh line to consumer models and laptops, and use of the 68000 series of chips was phased out. The mid-1990’s proved a low point for Apple. The innovative PowerBook 5300 proved a lemon, with horror stories of fragile power ports and flammable batteries driving customers away. Worse, the various projects that were supposed to create a new and innovative operating system to take full advantage of the PowerPC chip’s designs were foundering, and the Mac OS

Near Collapse and Comeback

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new universal serial bus (USB). Its market success led to the introduction of a companion consumer laptop, the iBook, which also featured curvilinear design and brilliant colored plastics. By the close of the 1990’s, the iMac and iBook had resecured Apple’s fortunes, positioning the company for the introduction of such innovative products as the UNIXbased OS X operating system and the iPod digital music player.

Steve Jobs, chief executive officer of Apple Computer, holds an iMac computer. Jobs and his new line of computers helped revitalize the company in the late 1990’s. (AP/Wide World Photos)

had received no major upgrades since the introduction of System 7. This failure of innovation, combined with an increasingly complex and confusing product line, drove customers away from the Macintosh toward Windows-based computers, particularly as Microsoft made Windows increasingly Mac-like. Even the replacement of Spindler as CEO with Gil Amelio could not stay Apple’s slide into oblivion. In 1997, the board of directors took drastic measures. In a complex deal, they purchased NeXT to gain access to the NEXTSTEP OS and brought back Apple cofounder Steve Jobs to become interim CEO. Jobs immediately simplified Apple’s confusing product line to desktop and laptop machines for professional and consumer use. In 1998, Jobs introduced the iMac, a return to the all-in-one form factor of the original Macintosh, but with curved lines and transparent plastic that some critics derided as girlish. However, it contained numerous technological innovations, including the

Impact Although Apple entered the 1990’s as an innovator, with several sophisticated desktop and laptop machines, by the middle of the decade the company seemed to have lost its way. Its product line had become confusing, with so many different niche market items that many prospective buyers had no idea which model was best for them. By 1997, Apple was in serious danger of failing altogether. However, Jobs’s return enabled Apple to recover its competitive position by simplifying its product line and by taking risks with such products as the iMac and iBook. As a result, Apple closed the decade positioned for the introduction of the iPod and the consequent expansion into consumer electronics. Further Reading

Carlton, Jim. Apple: The Inside Story of Intrigue, Egomania, and Business Blunders. New York: Random House, 1997. Corporate history of Apple, from its foundation by Jobs and Stephen Wozniak to Jobs’s return. Levy, Steven. Insanely Great: The Life and Times of Macintosh, the Computer That Changed Everything. New York: Viking Press, 1994. Published on the tenth anniversary of the Macintosh, the book came out just as the AIM alliance was bearing fruit, and thus shows the enthusiasm of those heady days. Malone, Michael S. Infinite Loop: How Apple, the World’s Most Insanely Great Computer Company, Went Insane. New York: Doubleday, 1999. A company history, including a great deal of information on the corporate politics that surrounded Jobs during the time shortly before he was pushed out of the company, as well as his return. Leigh Husband Kimmel Business and the economy in the United States; Computers; Jobs, Steve; Microsoft; Science and technology.

See also

The Nineties in America

■ Archaeology Systematic recovery and analysis of ancient and historic human cultural artifacts

Definition

During the 1990’s, archaeology entered a new era of professionalism, technological advances, and cultural and ethical awareness. The 1990’s brought new technologies that enabled archaeologists to test old theories and to propose new ones, opening the way for a more complete understanding of the past. New scientific developments permitted archaeologists greater access to information while at the same time providing greater protection for the objects and sites under study. Major Discoveries Archaeologists used DNA analysis to track early human migrations into the Americas, moving back the arrival date of the first humans to well before the previously established date of 12500 b.p. (before present). This discovery led to discussions about possible multiple migratory waves of genetically different groups of humans, a theory now supported by DNA analysis of modern Native American populations. In 1996, archaeologists identified one of the oldest skeletons ever found in North America. Named for the location in Washington State where he was found, the “Kennewick Man” was dated to 8400 b.p. Local Native American tribes filed for possession of the skeleton under the 1990 Native American Graves Protection and Repatriation Act (NAGPRA), but scientists objected, stating that genetic analysis was necessary to determine if the remains were actually Native American. Custody of the remains was still contested as of late 1999. At the Watson Brake in Louisiana, archaeologists discovered a 916-foot-long oval ridge connecting eleven earthen mounds that were originally up to 26 feet high. Archaeologists dated the site to 5400 b.p., the hunter-gatherer period prior to the development of agriculture in the area. This discovery contradicted the theory that only settled agricultural societies constructed large-scale building projects. In anticipation of the quadricentennial anniversary of the founding of Jamestown, the Jamestown Archaeological Assessment located fifty-eight sites that represented 10,500 years of human habitation. Using ground-penetrating radar, archaeologists were able to locate objects and remains beneath the

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earth’s surface. Among the discoveries was the first James Fort, constructed in 1607. Within the fort, archaeologists found more than ninety thousand artifacts and the skeleton of a woman identified as Mistress Forrest who came to Jamestown in 1608. Excavations at Monticello, Thomas Jefferson’s Virginia estate, focused on the home of Elizabeth Hemings, matriarch of the slave family who worked for Jefferson. Using a digital elevation model, archaeologists located the foundations of the Hemings’s house and a nearby artifact midden (rubbish dump) that revealed details about Hemings’ household goods and daily life. In 1999, DNA tests confirmed that Sally Hemings, Elizabeth’s youngest daughter, gave birth to at least one child (Eston Hemings) who was fathered by Jefferson, thereby opening the way for Hemings’s descendants to be buried in the Jefferson historic plot. The 1990’s saw a burgeoning of archaeology-related Internet sites. Among the most useful and dependable of these sites were Links to the Past from the National Park Service, Southeast Archaeological Center, Jamestown Recovery Project, Institute of Nautical Archaeology, the Center for American Archaeology, and ArchNet: the World Wide Web Virtual Library for Archaeology. In addition to archaeological associations and organizations hosting Web sites, many university archaeology departments created their own Internet sites, identified by “.edu” following their Web address. Archaeological discoveries, practices, and controversies thereby became accessible to the general public.

Archaeology and the Internet

The 1990’s saw active federal, state, and local regulations put in place to protect the nation’s archaeological heritage. The Curation of Federally-Owned and Administered Archaeological Collections established regulations and guidelines for federal agencies to manage and preserve archaeological remains. NAGPRA established protection for Native American, Hawaiian, and Alaskan sites and artifacts. The National Park Service’s Abandoned Shipwreck Act extended the government’s control beyond land sites. The Passport in Time project invited volunteers to assist professionals in the excavation and study of sites and artifacts. The National Park Service’s Vanishing Treasures movement was organized to protect endangered sites, and the Mandatory Center of Exper-

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Archer Daniels Midland scandal

tise for the Curation and Management of Archaeological Collections enlisted federal, state, and local agencies in archaeological management and exhibition. Illicit Trade and Forgeries Along with the exciting archaeological discoveries came a host of individuals who tried to cash in on the profit that was to be made from looting, illicit trade, improper collecting practices, and forgeries. In 1994, Sotheby’s, the prestigious New York auction house, offered items for sale that were later shown to have been plundered from Sipan in Peru. In 1996, Michael Ward, a member of the U.S. Cultural Property Advisory Committee, was forced to return fifty illegally obtained Mycenaean jewelry pieces to the Greek government. In 1998, U.S. Customs returned sixty-nine smuggled preColumbian artifacts to Costa Rica. In 1999, the J. Paul Getty Museum returned three antiquities to Italy after it was discovered that they had been stolen. According to the Archaeological Institute of America, looting reached “crisis” proportions during the 1990’s. Forgery was so commonplace that it was the subject of an exhibition at the Nelson-Atkins Museum of Art in Kansas City, Missouri, in 1996. Impact The decade of the 1990’s brought developments in archaeological approaches and technology that changed the way archaeologists work, think about the past, and plan for the future. An everincreasing number of professionally trained archaeologists employed scientific developments that provided more precise results. Archaeologists began to work alongside anthropologists, historians, geologists, botanists, and zoologists, creating a fuller, richer, more accurate picture of the past than ever thought possible. In addition, the intense public scrutiny of archaeological procedures, collecting practices, forgery, and illicit trade activities set the stage for a more ethical and more responsible future. Further Reading

Fagan, Brian M. Ancient North America. 2d ed. New York: Thames and Hudson, 1995. This book, written by one of America’s foremost historians, chronicles the archaeology of North America starting with its earliest inhabitants. Lyman, R. Lee, and Michael J. O’Brien. Measuring Time with Artifacts: A History of Methods in American Archaeology. Lincoln: University of Nebraska Press, 2006. Scholarly yet accessible explanation of the

techniques, procedures, and methodologies that archaeologists employ to study artifacts and understand cultures across time. Murtagh, William J. Keeping Time: The History and Theory of Preservation in America. Hoboken, N.J.: John Wiley & Sons, 2005. Written by the first Keeper of the National Register of Historic Places, this book traces the history of preservation from early efforts to save major historical sites to current civic activist movements. Zimmerman, Larry J, Karen D. Vitelli, and Julie Hollowell-Zimmer, eds. Ethical Issues in Archaeology. Walnut Creek, Calif.: Altamira Press, 2003. An edited volume of articles on ethics-related topics in association with the Society for American Archaeology. Sonia Sorrell African Americans; Architecture; Internet; Inventions; Native Americans; Science and technology; Search engines; World Wide Web.

See also

■ Archer Daniels Midland scandal The corporation conspires with foreign competitors to illegally fix prices on food additives used for both animal and human consumption Date 1992-1998 The Event

The criminal actions of Archer Daniels Midland and their foreign counterparts allowed the creation of an unprecedented monopoly in the agriculture industry, netting millions of dollars in illegal profits. It was because of this particular case that federal investigators have now become privy to the pervasive nature and scope of illegal price fixing both domestically and globally. Archer Daniels Midland (ADM) is a conglomeration of various agriculturally based businesses headquartered in Decatur, Illinois, but boasts more than 270 branch plants worldwide. Specializing in the processing of grains and oilseeds for creation of various products used in beverages (such as alcohol and soft drinks), foods, industrial fuel, cleaning products, vitamins, and animal feed, ADM became known in the agriculture business as the “supermarket to the world.” However, during the mid-1990’s ADM conspired

The Nineties in America

with two Japanese and one U.S.-based Korean subsidiary to fix prices on an amino acid-based product known as lysine, which is used in livestock feed as an additive to enhance the growth of beef cattle for meat production. Conspiring to create an international corporate cartel to fix the prices of lysine globally, high-ranking ADM executives orchestrated the exchange of technological secrets and price-fixing procedures that ultimately led to the artificial inflation of lysine prices by 70 percent during the first year of the illicit joint partnership. The Federal Bureau of Investigation (FBI) was tipped off about the illicit price fixing by a corporate executive who was actually assisting the FBI with a corporate espionage case of an unrelated matter. In attempt to avoid prosecution, this executive, Mark Whitacre, blew the whistle on his fellow colleagues and agreed to wear a wire for the FBI so that the international cartel could be dismantled and ultimately revealed. From 1992 through 1996, Whitacre went undercover for the FBI, assisting in the collection of hundreds of hours of video and audio tapes that were systematically used for the dismantling of what later became known as the largest price-fixing case in U.S. history of its time. Impact As a result, in 1996 ADM was fined an unprecedented $70 million for the lysine scandal and was additionally fined another $30 million for its involvement in a separate criminal plot to fix the global citric acid market. In 1998, three ADM executives were convicted and given federal prison sentences for their involvement in the price-fixing conspiracy. Ironically, Mark Whitacre was one of these three executives who went to prison; in fact, he received the longest sentence—eleven years. Whitacre was not granted immunity from prosecution, because it was later revealed that he embezzled $9 million from ADM and concealed his earlier involvement with the price-fixing scheme prior to his whistle-blowing efforts. Further Reading

Eichenwald, Kurt. “Former Archer Daniels Executives Are Found Guilty of Price Fixing.” The New York Times, September 18, 1998, p. A1. _______. The Informant. New York: Broadway Books, 2000. Wells, Joseph T. Frankensteins of Fraud. Austin, Tex.: Obsidian, 2000. Paul M. Klenowski

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See also Advertising; Agriculture in the United States; Business and the economy in the United States; Crime; Employment in the United States; Genetically modified foods; Inventions; Organic food movement; Reno, Janet; Scandals; Science and technology; Stock market; Tobacco industry settlement; Wigand, Jeffrey.

■ Architecture The design and building of structures, especially habitable ones

Definition

Widespread usage of electronics at home and a growing diversity of family types drove changes in residential architecture during the decade. In commercial architecture, museums in particular became prized commissions for architects. Architecture encompasses the entire built environment, not just houses and apartments. It has been estimated that there are nearly three hundred different kinds of buildings in the United States, from parking garages, service stations, and day-care centers to hospitals, churches, museums, and courthouses. Each of these structures requires architectural plans of some sort, simple or sophisticated. As a result, architecture both reflects and affects the identity of a society and the individuals within it. Families continued to move into evermore-outlying suburbs, often resulting in lengthy commutes for the breadwinners of the family. Most suburban tract homes fell into two broad categories: large but basic homes, situated close together, with little to distinguish one from the other, and even larger, elegant homes on large lots, with a wealth of distinguishing features. The latter often were in exclusive gated communities, of which there were about 20,000 in 1997. Inexpensive suburban tracts provided few jobs for aspiring architects. The growth of these two types of suburbs also increased the separation between more affluent owners and the working class. Most tract developments featured much larger homes than were common a few decades earlier, despite the fact that families typically had fewer children. The “great room,” a large, undifferentiated space often open to the kitchen, was a popular feature. Also sought after was a spacious master suite with large walk-in closets and an attached private bathroom.

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Architect Richard Meier stands in front of the Getty Center, whose buildings he designed. The Los Angeles complex, including the J. Paul Getty Museum, opened in December, 1997. (AP/Wide World Photos)

At the same time, downtown living began to increase in popularity, especially among singles and childless couples, both those who had no children and those whose children had grown and left home. From modest apartments to luxury condominiums, housing for downtown dwellers offered residents quicker commutes in many cases, access to richer cultural and entertainment experiences, and often a more economically and racially diverse environment. While the size of most new houses increased, interest in smaller homes was beginning to flourish. Residential architect Sarah Susanka was a leader in this movement. Susanka wrote several lavishly illustrated books that showed how privacy, comfort, and amenities could be provided in compact, well-planned homes. Her designs also promoted energy efficiency and the use of safe

Smaller and Greener

and healthy building materials. In part this reflected another growing movement, that toward more ecologically sound buildings in general. Smaller homes were less expensive to build, maintain, heat, and cool. Sustainable or “green” architecture was a new field in which ambitious architects could create exciting designs. This architectural philosophy encompasses not only using energy, water, and materials more efficiently but also reducing the impacts of buildings on humans and the environment. Green architects consider such factors as siting buildings to take advantage of natural heating and cooling and to disturb as little as possible the natural surroundings; lowering ongoing operation and maintenance costs; and reducing waste and pollution, in both construction and operation. Green buildings use more natural construction materials to improve indoor air quality, and their architects often attempt to incorporate recycled wood and other salvaged products

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into construction. Green building practices also became more common in remodeling and renovation projects. In 1998, the Leadership in Energy and Environmental Design (LEED) Green Building Rating System, developed by the U.S. Green Building Council (USGBC), was established to provide a set of standards for environmentally sustainable construction. The effort to establish a comprehensive rating system for green design and construction was begun in 1994 by Robert K. Watson of the Natural Resources Defense Council. LEED has since evolved from a single construction standard to six connected standards covering the entire building process, from development to construction. Receiving a high LEED rating has become a desirable goal for architects and builders. For centuries, cathedrals were the most impressive buildings in a city. During the industrial age, towering office structures dominated urban landscapes and made many architects’ reputations. By the 1990’s, museums and other cultural buildings were the most prestigious architectural commissions. In many cases, the spectacular buildings themselves began to be seen as more of an attraction than the art or other objects and activities that they housed. One of the best-known examples of the unique destination museum is the Guggenheim Museum Bilbao, opened in 1997 and designed by Frank Gehry. Located alongside the Nervión River in the port city of Bilbao, in the Basque country of Spain, the museum expanded the city’s economy from an industrial base to a major tourist destination. The Guggenheim Museum Bilbao was Gehry’s most distinctive design in the 1990’s. Its unusual shapes and intricate, curvilinear forms were made possible in part by computer-aided three-dimensional interactive application, or CATIA, a French software program for computer modeling. At the end of the twentieth century, no architect was better known or more distinctive in his designs than Gehry. His earlier buildings had featured sharp, angular, rectilinear forms, but beginning in the late 1980’s, Gehry increasingly worked with curved and twisting shapes. From the outside, his later buildings are whimsical and sometimes confusing, usually overshadowing the buildings around them. Gehry first envisions the exterior of the build-

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ing to be as free-flowing as possible, later dividing up the interior space to encompass specific activities— not always successfully, his critics argue. Among his early 1990’s buildings in this style are the Team Disneyland Administration Building (1988-1995) in Anaheim, California, and the American Center (1988-1994) in Paris. Not all clients wanted such exotic facades or classical re-creations. The Getty Center (1984-1997) in Los Angeles is elegant and restrained, set on a hilltop away from the bustling metropolis below. It was designed by Richard Meier, an architect with a varied career spanning several decades and continents. In commercial and retail buildings, the modernist movement had lost popularity to more ornamented buildings. Postmodernist buildings continued to be built, but no overarching style characterized the 1990’s. One trend, popularized by the work of I. M. Pei, was the increased use of glass for the exteriors of buildings. New technology and processes made glass extremely durable and easy to work with, and many architects followed Pei’s lead in exploiting it as a building material. Exposing the interior and exterior mechanical workings of the buildings, such as pipes and ductwork, was a utilitarian but decorative trend. Other architects reached back into classical principles to design traditional structures. A prominent proponent of this approach was Robert A. M. Stern. His design for the Spangler Campus Center at the Harvard Business School looks as though it could have been built more than a century earlier. Computer use in architecture continued to expand. Increasingly sophisticated new software enabled architects to determine structural integrity, visualize traffic flows, and so on, while designing developments. Among the most advanced software was CATIA, a French software program originally developed to design fighter jets but soon adopted by many other industries. This versatile program not only modeled complex forms for unique designs but also analyzed the structural details and calculated costs. Perhaps its most dramatic use in architecture was by Gehry, for modeling his Guggenheim Museum Bilbao and the later Walt Disney Concert Hall in Los Angeles. Not only did new technology advance the practice of architecture, it also influenced the buildings designed as well. The predominance of new technology in people’s workplaces and homes required ar-

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chitects to consider innovative configurations for offices and to provide wiring and space for computers and other electronic devices in home design. As technology supplanted the manual creation of plan designs, many established architects moved from designing structures to project management, while architecture graduates found jobs scarce, less creative, and more institutionalized. Some young architects turned to a new field to display their creative talents: computer games and films. Because their training had prepared them to manipulate complex software packages and also envision intricate, innovative forms, they were valued for their ability to create inventive buildings and streetscapes for games. In the world of games, an architect’s imagination was not limited by cost, usefulness, or structural integrity. As an added bonus for the architecture graduate, the pay in the gaming industry was higher than at an architectural firm: At the end of the 1990’s, the average pay for a new architectural intern was about $40,000, whereas in the gaming world $50,000 was more typical, with pay in the film and television industries even higher. Other architects moved in the opposite direction, specializing in historic preservation. They were encouraged by the National Historic Preservation Act, first passed in 1966 and amended in 1992; federal and state tax credits for historic preservation; and the desire of many communities to maintain a distinctive central core area instead of pushing commercial businesses to outlying cookie-cutter strip malls and shopping centers. Many cities established historic districts to preserve the unique characters of older neighborhoods. Architects who can create updated, contemporary interiors without sacrificing the historic character of a building’s exterior became popular with clients and found greater respect within the profession. Impact The 1990’s saw many shifts in architecture. Growing numbers of people lived in suburban tracts, but custom-built homes and downtown condominiums and apartments also saw an upturn in interest. As technology altered the basics of architecture, professional architects moved into related areas. There was waning enthusiasm for the severe modernist look that had previously dominated the design of large buildings, and a few architects of unique structures became celebrities.

Further Reading

Friedman, Avi, and David Krawitz. Peeking Through the Keyhole: The Evolution of North American Homes. Montreal: McGill-Queen’s University Press, 2002. Specific to residential design in Canada and the United States. Interesting discussions of the changes in home design between the 1950’s and the 1990’s, including chapters on adapting homes to accommodate older persons; the degree to which widespread adoption of electronics has influenced home architecture; and what may evolve in the twenty-first century. Handlin, David. “Looking Backward and Forward.” In American Architecture. 2d ed. New York: Thames and Hudson, 2004. The final chapter of Handlin’s comprehensive book examines the state of U.S. architecture in the last quarter of the twentieth century, with discussions and illustrations of many significant buildings from the 1990’s. LaBlanc, Sydney. The Architecture Traveler: A Guide to 250 Key Twentieth-Century American Buildings. Rev. ed. New York: W. W. Norton, 2000. Includes discussion and illustrations of more than fifty U.S. buildings from the 1990’s. Provides indexes of architects and of locations as well as maps of buildings by regions. Roth, Leland M. “Responses to Modernism, 19732000.” In American Architecture: A History. Boulder, Colo.: Westview Press, 2001. A detailed discussion of various styles and subsets of styles and the architects and buildings associated with them. Also offers extensive notes, a comprehensive glossary, illustrations, and an index. Susanka, Sarah. The Not So Big House: A Blueprint for the Way We Really Live. Newton, Conn.: Tauton Press, 1998. The first of several books by Susanka, a well-known residential architect. She argues that most new homes are larger than needed and that quality is more important than size, offering examples of compact homes that meet a variety of needs and provide distinctive amenities. Venturi, Robert, and Denise Scott Brown. Architecture as Signs and Systems for a Mannerist Time. Cambridge, Mass.: Harvard University Press, 2004. An extensive analysis of architecture, with many examples from the 1990’s, from two of the most influential architects of the late twentieth century. Irene Struthers Rush

The Nineties in America See also Gehry, Frank; Las Vegas megaresorts; McMansions; Rock and Roll Hall of Fame Museum; Sustainable design movement.

■ Armey, Dick Identification American politician Born July 7, 1940; Cando, North Dakota

Armey served as a Republican congressman from the Twenty-sixth Congressional District of Texas from 1985 to 2003 and the majority leader of the House of Representatives from 1995 to 2003. He was one of the key architects of the Republican congressional leadership’s Contract with America. Richard Keith Armey graduated from Jamestown College in Jamestown, North Dakota, and received the Ph.D. in economics from the University of Oklahoma in 1968. He taught economics at colleges and universities in Montana and Texas until 1985. While teaching and serving as an administrator at the University of North Texas in Denton, Texas, Armey ran for Congress in 1984 in the Twenty-sixth Congressional District of Texas, which includes the northern part of the Dallas-Fort Worth metropolitan area. He was elected and served in Congress from 1985 to 2003. Armey firmly supported many of President Ronald Reagan’s conservative social and economic policies. He served on the bipartisan Base Closure and Realignment Commission, which investigated military bases in the United States and proposed the closing of several that were determined to be unneeded. Armey also worked with conservative Republicans and liberal Democrats to press for cuts in federal farm subsidies. These efforts eventually led to the agricultural program known as the Freedom to Farm Act, formally the Federal Agriculture Improvement and Reform Act, adopted in 1996. In 1990, after President George H. W. Bush broke his “no new taxes” pledge, the Republican Congressional Conference passed a resolution introduced by Armey opposing any new taxes. In 1991, Armey became the ranking Republican on the Joint Economic Committee. The following year, he was elected chair of the Republican Congressional Conference. Working with Newt Gingrich and other conservative leaders, Armey helped fashion the Contract with America, a series of reforms that con-

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gressional Republicans promised to pass if they gained control of the House of Representatives. In the “Republican Revolution” in the 1994 elections, the Republicans took control of the House for the first time since 1954. Armey then became the majority leader in the 104th Congress. During Armey’s tenure as majority leader, much of the Contract with America was enacted. During President Bill Clinton’s administration, Armey worked to support the North America Free Trade Agreement (NAFTA), which took effect in 1998. While many conservatives opposed NAFTA, Armey agreed with the free trade principles that he believed the agreement reflected. He decided not to stand for reelection in 2002 and retired from Congress in January, 2003. Impact Armey played a major role in the Republican Revolution of 1994 that led to Republican control of the House of Representatives for the first time in forty years. Further Reading

Armey, Dick. Armey’s Axioms: Forty Hard-Earned Truths from Politics, Faith, and Life. Hoboken, N.J.: John Wiley & Sons, 2003.

Dick Armey. (U.S. Government Printing Office)

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_______. The Freedom Revolution: The New Republican Majority Leader Tells Why Big Government Failed, Why Freedom Works, and How We Will Rebuild America. Washington, D.C.: Regnery, 1995. Bader, John B. Taking the Initiative: Leadership Agendas in Congress and the “Contract with America.” Washington, D.C.: Georgetown University Press, 1996. Mark S. Joy Bush, George H. W.; Contract with America; Gingrich, Newt; North American Free Trade Agreement (NAFTA); Republican Revolution.

See also

■ Armstrong, Lance Professional cyclist, cancer survivor, and patient rights advocate Born September 18, 1971; Plano, Texas Identification

In 1999, Lance Armstrong completed his comeback from cancer to win his first of what would become a record seven consecutive Tours de France. Armstrong used his succession of victories in the bicycle race to establish a foundation to fund cancer research and patient advocacy programs. In the 1990’s, Lance Armstrong laid the foundation for a career and personal story that would make him

Lance Armstrong rides past the Arc de Triomphe during the final stage of the Tour de France on July 25, 1999. (AP/Wide World Photos)

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one of the most recognizable athletes in the world in the early twenty-first century. His fame derives not only from having won seven consecutive Tour de France bicycle races but also from the fact that his success in the race came after he had extensive surgery and chemotherapy to treat advanced testicular cancer that had spread to his lungs, brain, and abdomen. Up to the time of his cancer diagnosis, Armstrong had an impressive cycling career, specializing in races over relatively flat or gently undulating terrain. In 1993, he won the World Road Cycling Championship in Norway. Prior to his comeback from cancer, however, Armstrong was not considered a serious contender in major multiday races like the Tour de France. Armstrong has leveraged the success of his Tour victories to advocate for rights to information and treatment options for cancer patients. In 1997, he established the Lance Armstrong Foundation to provide practical information to people with cancer and to expand access to clinical trials of experimental therapies. He has chronicled his experience as a cancer survivor and champion of patient rights in two best-selling autobiographies. In 2006, French newspaper L’Equipe published a report that alleged that urine samples linked to Armstrong that had been collected during the 1999 Tour de France had revealed indications of use of the banned performance enhancing drug erythropoietin (EPO). Other vague allegations of drug use have dogged Armstrong throughout his career and retirement. Armstrong has consistently denied using performance-enhancing drugs and has never failed a drug test. He has been consistently successful in a series of lawsuits against those who have made doping allegations against him. Impact Armstrong’s seven consecutive overall victories in the Tour is one of the most spectacular achievements in endurance athletics. Four other riders had managed five wins, but before Armstrong, none had succeeded in their attempts for a sixth consecutive win. His athletic success and personal story, as recounted in his and others’ best-selling books, has brought worldwide attention and funding to the cause of cancer patient rights.

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Further Reading

Armstrong, Lance, with Sally Jenkins. It’s Not About the Bike. New York: G. P. Putnam’s Sons, 2000. Coyle, Daniel. Lance Armstrong’s War. New York: HarperCollins, 2005. Thompson, Christopher S. The Tour de France: A Cultural History. Berkeley: University of California Press, 2006. Margot Irvine and John P. Koch See also

Cancer research; Sports.

■ Arnett, Peter Foreign correspondent specializing in war coverage Born November 13, 1934; Riverton, New Zealand Identification

Arnett and two colleagues from the Cable News Network broadcast over air raid sirens and explosions in the first sixteen hours of the 1991 Gulf War and remained in the capital after nearly all other foreign reporters had been withdrawn. In Arnett’s assessment, the Gulf War was the first to be covered “live from both sides.” In 1966, New Zealand-American journalist Peter Arnett won a Pulitzer Prize for his reports on the Vietnam War. During the first ten days of the Gulf War of 1991, he was able to obtain an interview with Iraqi president Saddam Hussein. In the interview, the dictator defended his incursion into Kuwait, blustered about his fearlessness, and proclaimed that God was on Iraq’s side. The White House accused Arnett of being a tool for Iraqi disinformation, and thirty-four members of Congress signed a letter to the Cable News Network (CNN) complaining of “unpatriotic journalism.” Arnett won an Emmy Award for the interview. The most controversial CNN report concerned U.S. bombing of a factory that produced infant formula. A U.S. Air Force spokesman, General Colin Powell, and the White House insisted that the factory was a disguised bioweapons facility, but no evidence was ever found that it had produced anything except powdered milk. Arnett stood by his story, further infuriating U.S. officials. In March, 1997, Arnett was the first Western journalist to interview al-Qaeda leader Osama Bin Laden. In the interview, the Saudi expressed his be-

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lief that American civilians were “not exonerated” from jihad, because they chose the government that so offended him. Some of Bin Laden’s comments suggested, in retrospect, that plans to attack America were already conceived. In another controversial story, Arnett reported that U.S. forces had used sarin gas against a Laotian village in 1970 in order to kill American defectors. The story was instantly denied by the Pentagon; the producers claimed documentation, and CNN defended them. Within weeks, however, following intense Pentagon pressure, CNN retracted the story and fired the producers. Arnett was reprimanded and, as the “face” of the story, blamed by many, especially conservative Americans. Arnett has won nearly every prize Former CNN correspondent Peter Arnett in 1999. (AP/Wide World Photos) offered in the field of journalism, including the Overseas Press Club Lifetime Achievement Award. The journalism school at the Southern Institute of Technology is named after him. ■ Art movements Impact Arnett’s reporting during the Gulf War was significant for its independent assessment of the damage from U.S. bombardment and the reactions of ordinary people. In defiance of the U.S. military’s restrictive media guidelines, Arnett did not tour with soldiers as an “embedded” journalist. His reports often contradicted the U.S. military’s characterization of the warfare. Further Reading

Arnett, Peter. Live from the Battlefield: From Vietnam to Baghdad, Thirty-five Years in the World’s War Zones. New York: Simon & Schuster, 1994. Francona, Rick. Ally to Adversary: An Eyewitness Account of Iraq’s Fall from Grace. Annapolis, Md.: Naval Institute Press, 1999. Schwarzkopf, H. Norman. It Doesn’t Take a Hero. New York: Bantam Books, 1992. Jan Hall Bush, George H. W.; Cable television; CNN coverage of the Gulf War; Gulf War; Journalism; Powell, Colin; Schwarzkopf, Norman.

See also

Organized or implicit stylistic and ideological trends characterizing art forms of a given time and place

Definition

Art in the 1990’s cannot be defined by specific movements or genres. Not since the 1970’s was such pluralism in art seen. Many different styles were explored during this period, including abstraction, figuration, and conceptual art. Painting, sculpture, installation art, and photography were created in this decade, and video art especially flourished. The 1990’s saw a backlash against the perceived excesses of the 1980’s, a period when a vulgar, hypedup art market turned art into a commodity and artists into celebrities. Many artists were skeptical of art being too elitist and too easily co-opted by the art market. In addition, in 1989 the art market plummeted. In this postcrash economic and social environment, a reconsideration of why art should be made set the tone of the decade. Pluralism defined this environment where many different mediums were utilized. Also, artists imple-

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mented identity politics, and those on the peripheries of the art world, including women, gays, blacks, Hispanics, and Asians, explored issues concerning their groups and focused on their issues as the center of their artworks. Artists engaged in social critique. Exemplifying this attitude was the 1993 Whitney Biennial, which was criticized as showcasing weak art. While the themes in the exhibition reflected concerns with social issues, it depicted the problem of how to translate strong moral convictions into compelling art. Painting Painting in the 1990’s was diverse in scope and did not follow one movement or style. Both abstract and figurative painting flourished. Abstract painting turned art away from commodification and subverted the idea of spectacle through very individual and personal aesthetics. Working in a pluralistic mode, many styles of abstraction coexisted and drew from existing styles of the history of abstraction. There was also a concern with the materials of painting and its processes as well as gesture. Louise Fishman created paintings in the tradition of the gestural, stroked canvases of the abstract expressionists of the 1950’s. Elliott Puckette was also interested in the calligraphic aspect of painting, with figures scratched from the color ground. Mary Heilmann utilized the modernist grid and inserted splashy color filled in with paint layered upon itself. Jonathan Lasker created cartoon versions of neoexpressionist styles from Jackson Pollock and Willem de Kooning. Pat Steir painted canvases that were simultaneously abstract and figurative in her “waterfall” and “expressionist drips.” Philip Taaffe’s works were more ornamentally abstract, incorporating Eastern mandalas, Islamic abstract foliage, and other designs that were not easily readable as symbols. One of the most well-known abstract artists of the 1990’s was Terry Winters. His art drew from figurative imagery, but he translated it into the abstract, often deriving his images from architectural drawings, medical photographs, and computer graphics. Karin Davie brought issues of gender into her abstract paintings by addressing or suggesting the human body. Figurative painting in the 1990’s followed a number of themes. It communicated social or political content through iconography. Other figurative works followed a dialogue with a specific aesthetic style. Lastly, figurative painters in the 1990’s adopted

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imagery from technology and the media (fashion, film, video, photography, and computers). Elizabeth Peyton produced portraits of celebrities, rock stars, and her own personal friends. She created androgynous, dandyish images of people through a painterly effect of intense glazelike color with cherry-red lips and luxuriant hair. Karen Kilimnik appropriated the old masters through contemporary and historical references in a sort of kitschy tribute exemplified in paintings of Princess Diana and actor Hugh Grant. Painter Richard Phillips also mined the world of the media in his subject matter, as he created enormous portraits taken from 1970’s fashion photography in order to question the idea of idealized beauty. Carroll Dunham borrowed the cartoonish imagery utilized by Philip Guston and added humor by creating ambiguous bulbous forms that at the same time seemed violent in nature. Nicole Eisenman also utilized the figuration of cartoonish forms, through which she critiqued social and political issues. John Currin dealt with issues of sexuality and the body as commodity in his distorted, doll-like images of women. Lisa Yuskavage gave a feminist slant to the obsession with the female body with the depiction of female figures with exaggerated sexual characteristics. Lari Pittman also incorporated sexual imagery into his work, although it was hidden under an abstract veneer of decorative pattern. Manual Ocampo, a Filipino living and working in Los Angeles, created paintings that included swastikas and Ku Klux Klan hoods in order to protest prejudice and oppression. Alexis Rockman’s bizarre depictions of hybrid plant and animal life explored the destructive interaction between the human species and the natural world. Shahzia Sikander incorporated both Hindu and Muslim iconography into her paintings, which were stylistically indebted to Indian miniatures. A number of artists worked in “revival” styles that drew on the Western painting tradition. Gary Hume, for example, appropriated the color-field painters’ interest in bright, flat areas of glossy color. Joan Nelson’s work relied on old master glazes, and Richard Ryan’s still lifes recalled the work of Giorgio Morandi. Sculpture and Installation Art Installation art flourished in the 1990’s, with much sculpture overlapping into this category. A wide variety of materials outside the traditional realm of sculpture was employed—such as mixed media, including found

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objects, wax, and plastics—and diverse themes were explored. The grand dame of sculpture in the 1990’s was Louise Bourgeois. On September 29, 1997, Bourgeois received the National Medal of the Arts and was selected to represent the United States at the Venice Biennale in 1993. She also had a number of solo exhibitions during the 1990’s in Brooklyn, Milan, and Paris. Bourgeois drew on memories of her mother and childhood in some of her sculptures. Her gigantic steel spiders that filled entire rooms were in homage to her mother, a weaver whom she viewed as a positive and nurturing force in her life. Another influence in Bourgeois’s art was the pain of her father’s infidelities. This in turn led to the artist’s interest in psychoanalysis and her exploration of the themes of sexuality in her sculptures. While artist Richard Serra had been working as a sculptor since the 1960’s, his art came to fruition in the 1990’s in his use of thick plates of rolled steel that formed pathways or spaces that the viewer must navigate around. Artist Judy Pfaff also confronted the issues of architectural space, except instead of organizing and ordering the space as did Serra, Pfaff explored its disorganization. Materials such as steel tubes, wires, glass, and plastic were suspended in space, hanging from the ceiling and off walls. Jessica Stockholder dealt with found objects that juxtaposed color, form, and texture. Using materials such as milk crates, carpeting, household lamps, and other everyday items, she created whimsical and surrealist compositions. Other installation artists working in the 1990’s returned to the conceptualism that was prominent in the art of the 1970’s. Félix González-Torres explored issues such as gay identity and AIDS through his work. By using piles of brightly colored, discarded candy wrappers from candy that viewers could take and eat, he explored issues of the transience of things. On photographed billboards around New York City, he created a memorial to his companion who had died of AIDS. Roni Horn scattered aluminum blocks of letters on the floor, which although impossible to read, spelled out the word “ephemeral” twenty-four times in a play with semantics. Heim Steinbach also played with the idea of the constructed nature of language. He questioned the social and psychological meaning of found objects through their juxtaposition. Fred Wilson questioned how museums interpret historical truth and

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artistic value as well as the biases these cultural institutions express. For example, Wilson rearranged and recontextualized the Baltimore Historical Society’s collection in order to shed light on the history of slavery in America. Combining materials such as wax, embroidery, bronze, and paper, Kiki Smith evoked themes such as birth and death, crucifixion, and resurrection through fragile bodies hanging from walls and lying on the floor. For her, the body is the focus of mythologizing and storytelling. Ann Hamilton also used diverse materials in her installations. In “Tropos,” her 1993 installation at the Dia Center for the Arts in New York, a stitched carpet of horsehair covered the floor while at the end of the room a person sat at a table burning away the lines of a book, with coils of smoke lingering in the air. This experience brings the viewer into contact with natural processes and organic matter that is often lost in day-to-day living in contemporary society. Puerto Rican-born installation artist Pepón Osorio examined the theme of the self. His media installations dealt with cultural identity and politics of Latin cultures living in urban America. His mixed-media installations included film and video. David Hammons’s sculptures presented symbolism of racism and black pride in ironic sculptures that combined found objects from the streets of the Harlem community where he lived and worked. Kara Walker also explored issues in African American identity through her reuse of racial stereotypes in her black silhouette wall installations that in turn requestioned these stereotypes. Adrian Piper delved into the racial issues of having a black father and a white mother by using video installations that questioned the illogical nature of stereotypes. Mike Kelley incorporated ideas about commercialism and the abject into his sculptures of discarded stuffed animals and other objects. In his video installations and sculptures, Matthew Barney created surrealist fictions exploring ideas about beauty, gender, mythic narrative, and the potential for bodily transformation. Video Art and Photography Bill Viola relied on scale and slow motion in his video installations to create a physical and emphatic relationship between the viewer and his work. Gary Hill also invoked intense physical experiences through his videos through the utilization of imagery and language. Both Viola and Hill utilized large screens and multi-

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ple monitors in dark spaces in order to intensify the viewer’s experience. Tony Oursler’s videos projected faces on soft sculpture dummies with which audio and random noise were incorporated. His themes questioned the toxic effects of technology and substance abuse. In photography, Philip-Lorca diCorcia examined street life in big cities such as Los Angeles, New York, and Berlin. His photographs sometimes left much to chance, when his subjects did not realize they were being photographed, although he would start with an abstract idea of what he was looking for. Tina Barney’s photography had an anthropological and sociological slant. She took portrait photography of her subjects, trying not to stage or plan her photographs too much, and liked to capture the tensions of the relationships between people as well as the details of their surroundings. Canadian artist Jeff Wall placed photographic images in backlit boxes while exploring social and political themes. He constructed photos that seemed to reflect everyday life but manipulated them digitally in order to confuse viewers and to make them look twice. Having studied art history, Wall also referenced well-known works of art in his work. Influenced by Wall, Gregory Crewdson’s photography was also much influenced by film. He worked with a production crew of about sixty people and staged photographs that captured narrative tableaux of the psychological tensions and bizarre happenings of American suburbia. In the 1990’s, Catherine Opie often portrayed herself and her transgendered friends in Los Angeles. In her self-portraits, she portrayed herself in a variety of guises that were meant to shock by addressing gender and sexual issues, including that of herself dressed up as a butch man or in sadomasochistic dress. William Wegman became widely known in the 1990’s for photographs of his Weimaraner dogs. The dogs Fay Ray and her puppies became subjects, and he created children’s books with the dogs as the characters in stories such as “Cinderella” and “Little Red Riding Hood.” Impact Art in the 1990’s in America cannot be organized into art movements, as it was diverse, individualistic, and pluralistic. Voices of previously marginalized “others” were frequently voiced through art created by women, Latinos, African Americans, and homosexuals. Identity exhibitions at museums reflected this trend in the art world. The

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1993 Whitney Biennial explored the issues of race, sex, otherness, and difference mostly through installation art, video art, and photography. The exhibitions of Bad Girls at the New Museum of Contemporary Art in New York and Black Male at the Whitney Museum garnered attention. At the same time, painting, installation, and video art continued to address formalist themes involving material, shape, and color. This artistic environment would set precedents for artists to continue into the twenty-first century. Further Reading

Bright, Susan. Art Photography Now. New York: Aperture, 2005. An excellent overview of photography of the 1990’s. Cohalan, Mary Lou, and William V. Ganis. “Abstract Painting in the 1990’s.” Art Criticism 14, no. 2 (1999): 4-20. Excellent survey of abstract painting. Cullum, Jerry. “Stereotype this!” Art papers 22, no. 6 (1998): 16-21. Discusses the controversial issue of race in art. Godoeke, Jason, Nathan Japel, and Sandra Skurvidaite. “Figurative Painting in the 1990’s.” Art Criticism 14.2 (1999): 21-33. Excellent overview. Hopkins, David. After Modern Art, 1945-2000. New York: Oxford University Press, 2000. Includes a chapter on the 1990’s that is general and short but a good overview. Hunter, Sam, John Jacobus, and Daniel Wheeler. Modern Art. Rev. ed. New York: Harry N. Abrams, 2000. Includes a chapter with an excellent comprehensive survey of the art of the 1990’s. Keeblatt, Norman. “The Other Edge: Representing Ethnicity, Gender, and Sexuality.” Issues in Architecture, Art, and Design 5, no. 1 (1997-1998): 22-36. Discusses issues of race and gender in art. Mayer, Marc. Being and Time: The Emergence of Video Projection. Buffalo, N.Y.: Buffalo Fine Arts Academy, 1996. Good exhibition catalog on the topic of video art. Somers, Lynn, Bluewater Avery, and Jason Paradis. “From Corporeal Bodies to Mechanical Machines: Navigating the Spectacle of American Installation in the 1990’s.” Art Criticism 14, no. 2 (1999): 53-73. Very good overview. Taylor, Sue. “Lessons of Hysteria: Louise Bourgeois in the Nineties.” New Art Examiner 25 (1997-1998): 24-29. Many of the artists mentioned have excellent Web sites that are wonderful resources for in-

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formation on their work. Also, major museums of contemporary art such as the Museum of Modern Art in New York and the Dia Art Foundation are excellent sources of information. Sandra Rothenberg See also Koons, Jeff; Mapplethorpe obscenity trial; National Endowment for the Arts (NEA); Photography; Wegman, William.

■ Asian Americans Identification

U.S. citizens or residents of Asian

descent The number of Asian Americans continued to grow both through birth and immigration, increasing the Asian American share of America’s population from 3 to 4 percent during the decade. As Asian Americans were generally successful in American society, there nevertheless remained some social and cultural conflicts with other racial groups and mainstream America. Throughout the 1990’s, Asian Americans continued their dynamic growth. This was due to lower immigration barriers and the desire to move to America, the effects of a generally young Asian American population starting new families, and a continuous exodus from communist Asian countries. By 1990, 66 percent of Asian Americans were foreign-born. More than one-third had become citizens in the last decade, and almost two-thirds spoke an Asian language at home. An exception was Japanese Americans, who experienced less immigration and a lower birthrate. Diversity Among Asian Americans The 1990 U.S. Census Bureau lists 7,274,000 Asian Americans, contributing to 2.92 percent of the American population of 249,000,000. Since 1980, Asian Americans increased by 108 percent, the fastest-growing American group. By 2000, there would be 11,900,000 Asian Americans constituting 4.2 percent of the American population. This growth meant that Asian Americans contributed to American society to an everincreasing degree. Broken down according to specific Asian heritage, Asian Americans made up a remarkably diverse, heterogeneous group. The largest subgroups were still those Asian Americans whose ancestors

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had come to America the earliest. By 1990, Chinese Americans were the largest number of Asian Americans, with 1,650,000 people. They were followed by 1,401,000 people of Filipino ancestry, surpassing the 848,000 Japanese Americans. For the first time, Indian Americans constituted a significant number, 815,000 people, exceeding 799,000 Korean Americans. Generally English-speaking and well-educated, Indian Americans were attracted to America’s professional opportunities, particularly the booming computer and software industry. Reflecting the political upheavals of Southeast Asia, Vietnamese Americans increased to 615,000, followed by 147,000 Cambodian, 149,000 Laotian, and 90,000 Hmong Americans. Prior to communist victories in Southeast Asia in 1975, Southeast Asians rarely immigrated to America. The Southeast Asian refugee boom of the 1980’s was accounted for in the 1990 census. Even as the worst communist excesses ended in the region in the 1990’s, Southeast Asians continued to immigrate to America. The 2000 census showed that during the 1990’s, the number of Southeast Asian Americans had doubled from 990,000 to 2,100,000. The last subgroup of Asian Americans specifically identified on the census was 91,000 Thai Americans; 302,000 more Asian Americans did not indicate any subgroup. 366,000 Americans identified themselves as Pacific Islanders. Generally throughout the 1990’s, 94 percent of Asian Americans lived in a metropolitan area (but only 6 percent of Pacific Islanders did) and concentrated in the key states of California, New York, Texas, and Hawaii. There were significant enclaves such as Hmong Americans in Minnesota and vibrant Asian American communities in major eastern U.S. cities. In issues such as income per capita, college education, professional occupation, family size and structure, or poverty, Asian American subgroups differed widely from each other. Individual subgroups tended to exceed, correspond to, or fall below national averages in each category. This trend continued in the 1990’s and meant that Asian American subgroups tended to vary widely from each other. In general, higher levels of education corresponded to higher material success. However, for some subgroups with many recent immigrants such as Vietnamese and Thai Americans, this equation did not yet emerge.

The Nineties in America Relief for Japanese Americans For Japanese Americans, the decade opened well when on October 9, 1990, the first redress payments were made to Japanese Americans who had been interned by the U.S. government in 1942 during World War II. When 107-year-old Reverend Mamoru Eto was the first to receive his check for $20,000 at a ceremony in Washington, D.C., many Japanese Americans felt that this, together with the official American apology for the internment in 1988, provided some closure to a dark chapter in the treatment of Japanese Americans. Each surviving internee, some of whom were small children at the time of the occurrence, received this symbolic compensation. In April, 1992, the Japanese American National Museum opened in Los Angeles, documenting history, suffering, and achievements of Japanese Americans. Prominent Role Models Giving Asian Americans one of their first international sports superstars, on February 21, 1992, Kristi Yamaguchi won the first gold medal in figure skating for an Asian American at the Winter Olympics in France. Yamaguchi turned professional after the Olympics, joining Stars on Ice. Asian American Olympic success in that competition was followed at the 1998 Winter Olympics in Japan, when Chinese American Michelle Kwan won the silver medal. The success of some outstanding Asian Americans inspired many others to strive for achievement and recognition despite lingering cultural obstacles. Nationwide, Connie Chung became a familiar television face as the coanchor of CBS Evening News from 1993 to 1995. Actress Lucy Liu broke into mainstream American television with her part on the Ally McBeal show from 1998 to 2002. The decade also saw two Asian Americans cowinning the Nobel Prize in Physics, Steven Chu in 1997 and Daniel Tsui in 1998. At the cutting edge of the Internet, Jerry Yang cofounded Yahoo! in 1995. These examples indicated that Asian Americans became more visible to mainstream America in the 1990’s. Prominent Asian Americans appeared in other fields. During the 1995 murder trial of O. J. Simpson, Judge Lance Ito became a popular culture icon. When General Eric Shinseki became chief of staff of the U.S. Army in 1999, it signaled that Asian Americans could advance to top military positions. While somewhat underrepresented in the field of politics, Asian Americans held important public offices as

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well. At the top were the two Asian American senators of the decade, Daniel K. Inouye and Daniel Akaka, Democrats from Hawaii. Racial Conflicts Relations of Asian Americans with other American racial groups were not always harmonious in the 1990’s. There was a feeling that some European Americans still stereotyped Asian Americans as a “model minority.” Asian Americans were concerned that there were glass ceilings barring their access to top echelons of American business, politics, and society, and that mainstream America still looked at them as exotic others, not “real” Americans. There were also hate crimes against Asian Americans. A major racial conflict between Korean American store owners and African Americans living in deprived neighborhoods of South Central Los Angeles erupted during the Los Angeles riots of 1992. On April 29, or Sa-i-gu in Korean, when the riots broke out in the city, mobs of predominantly African Americans looted and burned some 2,300 Korean American and other Asian American stores. Feeling abandoned by the city’s fire and police departments, on April 30 Korean Americans armed themselves to protect their surviving businesses. In the ensuing gun battles with looters, one young Korean American, Edward Lee, was killed. Koreatown was essentially destroyed, total damage to Asian businesses ranging in estimate from $380 to $500 million. Reconstruction proved slow, and racial distrust lingered. The issue of whether affirmative action policies, especially in higher education, were causing reverse discrimination against Asian Americans arose in the mid-1980’s and came to a head in the 1990’s. Asian American applicants often felt discriminated against as they had to apply to college on merit alone, while members of underrepresented groups were often given a variety of non-merit-based benefits. On July 20, 1995, the Regents of the University of California voted to abolish affirmative action in admissions and employment. Instead, socioeconomic factors should be used to adjust the admissions process toward gaining a diverse student body. In 1996, voters in California passed Proposition 209, which eliminated state affirmative action programs. This time, Asian Americans voted six to four against the proposition. Campaign Finance Scandal As their economic success grew, Asian Americans were asked for political contributions. Asian Americans gave about $10 mil-

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lion during the 1992 presidential campaign, almost the same to Republicans and Democrats. They learned that sometimes giving money to a successful candidate entailed access to that politician and perhaps a political appointment or favorable policies. In comparison with other ethnic groups, Asian Americans yielded a relatively small political return for their campaign generosity. By 1995, the People’s Republic of China (PRC) deeply resented their enemy Taiwan’s influence on American politics. The PRC decided to buy itself influence through campaign contributions, primarily to Democrats. However, American law forbids political contributions by noncitizens or non-permanent aliens, so the PRC had to contribute illegally. During the 1996 presidential campaign, the PRC funneled illegal money to the Democratic National Committee and the Bill Clinton-Al Gore campaign. Ironically, the four key Chinese Americans helping the communists were born on Taiwan and thus betrayed both their land of birth and violated the campaign laws of their new country. After Congress investigated the issue, the accused were put on trial, and the Democrats returned the illegal money. From 1998 to 2001, twenty-two people were convicted, including Chinese American illegal contributors John Huang, Charlie Trie, Johnny Chung, and Maria Hsia. The four each received jail sentences with probation and had to pay fines and perform community service. Law-abiding Chinese Americans feared a general backlash. Their worries were not unfounded, as proved by the arrest of Wen Ho Lee, a Taiwan-born American nuclear physicist, in December, 1999. Dismissed from his sensitive job at the Los Alamos National Laboratory in spring, 1999, Lee was charged with fifty-nine counts of federal crimes, alleged to have spied for the PRC, and held in solitary confinement from December, 1999, until his trial in September, 2000. At this time, the prosecution dropped all but one charge, illegally transferring classified data on his personal computer, which was done by many other scientists at the lab. Lee pleaded guilty and was released for time served. Judge James Parker personally apologized to Lee for the way the government had mishandled his case. Youth Culture and Intermarriage As many Asian American communities matured, there also developed Asian American youth cultures fusing tradi-

tional heritage with mainstream American ideas in an original fashion. In Southern California, for example, since July, 1990, young Asian Americans gathered at the annual Battle of the Imports car races that soon became televised on sports channels. Other youth events with a decidedly Asian American flavor emerged as well. Another challenge for young Asian Americans in the 1990’s was the issue of intermarriage. While many Asian Americans still were married within their ethnic group, the 1990’s saw an upsurge in interethnic Asian and interracial marriages. The effects of these interracial marriages on the next generation remained an open question by 1999. Impact Throughout the 1990’s, the diverse group of Asian Americans continued to grow rapidly, supported by immigration. There were considerable differences in education, social position, income, and family structure among different Asian American ethnic groups. The longer an Asian American community had its roots in American society, the more its members tended to be successful in America. A quickly rising group was Indian Americans, whose English skills and high education spared them from the slower social and economic ascent associated with recent immigrants. As many Asian Americans succeeded in American society, Asian Americans gained cultural selfconfidence. More Asian Americans became known nationally in sports, business, culture, and science. However, some lingering anti-Asian resentment, unsolved racial issues, and international conflicts created sometimes violent tensions. By the end of the decade, Asian Americans constituted a small but solidly grounded part of American society. Further Reading

Ancheta, Angelo N. Race, Rights, and the Asian American Experience. 2d ed. New Brunswick, N.J.: Rutgers University Press, 2006. Academic study of Asian American struggle with racial discrimination in the United States; focuses also on cases, issues, and examples from the 1990’s. Notes, bibliography, tables, and index. Lee, Jennifer, and Min Zhou, eds. Asian American Youth: Culture, Identity, and Ethnicity. New York: Routledge, 2004. Collection of twenty-one essays on issues of young Asian Americans, most from a 1990’s perspective. Analyzes how young Asian Americans interacted with mainstream American

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culture and shaped their own specific subcultures in the 1990’s. Introduction, conclusion, bibliography, and index. Leonard, George J., ed. The Asian Pacific American Heritage. New York: Garland, 1999. While the book concentrates on Asian American literature and the arts, overview sections of the sixty-one chapters provide valuable insight into Asian American issues of the 1990’s. Chronology, lexicon of Asian American terms, illustrations, references, and index. Min, Pyong Gap, ed. The Second Generation: Ethnic Identity Among Asian Americans. Walnut Creek, Calif.: AltaMira Press, 2002. Eight chapters on postimmigration generation experience of Asian Americans from a 1990’s perspective. Spotlight on recent immigrants from the Philippines, Vietnam, India, and Korea. Some chapters provide overviews. Bibliography, tables, index. Takaki, Ronald. Strangers from a Different Shore: A History of Asian Americans. Rev. ed. Boston: Little, Brown, 1998. Considered the standard work in English on Asian American experience. Chapter 13 deals with critical issues of the 1990’s such as the Los Angeles riots, affirmative action, and Asian American heterogeneity. Photos, notes, index. R. C. Lutz Ally McBeal; Auto racing; Campaign finance scandal; China and the United States; Demographics of the United States; Elections in the United States, 1992; Elections in the United States, 1996; Employment in the United States; Immigration to the United States; Income and wages in the United States; Los Angeles riots; Race relations; Television; Yamaguchi, Kristi.

See also

■ Astronomy Study of celestial objects and phenomena

Definition

A series of new telescopes, orbiting observatories, and space probes revealed many new aspects of the solar system during the 1990’s. They also provided the first evidence of extrasolar planets and new windows into the nature and formation of stars, galaxies, and the expanding universe. Throughout the 1990’s, a new generation of giant telescopes, orbiting observatories, and complex

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space probes were placed in service by the National Aeronautics and Space Administration (NASA). Of particular note was the Hubble Space Telescope (HST), launched into Earth orbit on April 24, 1990. Although its primary mirror turned out to be defective, other onboard instruments began important observations. Corrective optics were installed on December 7, 1993, leading to dramatic results from the HST. On August 10, 1990, the Magellan orbiter reached Venus, and the two giant 10-meter Keck telescopes began operation in Hawaii in 1990 and 1996. On April 7, 1991, NASA launched the Compton Gamma Ray Observatory into Earth orbit. Two spacecraft launched in 1989 began to make important discoveries in the 1990’s: the Cosmic Background Explorer (COBE) and the Galileo orbiter around Jupiter. Other NASA spacecraft that contributed to planetary astronomy in the 1990’s included the Clementine lunar observatory, the Mars Global Surveyor orbiter, the Mars Pathfinder lander, and the Lunar Prospector. Study of the solar system in the 1990’s began with the detailed mapping of the surface of Venus by the Magellan spacecraft. Using radar to penetrate the thick cloud cover, the orbiter had mapped 98 percent of the surface to near-photographic quality by 1992. During two more years of service, Magellan observed surface changes and measured gravity on Venus. Widespread volcanic activity was observed, but few impact craters, indicating processes that appear to resurface Venus over a few hundred million years. On October 29, 1991, the Galileo spacecraft came within 1,600 kilometers of the asteroid Gaspra and obtained the first close asteroid photo. On August 28, 1993, Galileo passed the asteroid Ida and discovered the first asteroid moon, Dactyl, orbiting Ida. Galileo reached Jupiter on December 7, 1995, and deployed a probe into Jupiter’s cloud layers, revealing the structure of Jupiter’s atmosphere. Galileo continued to orbit Jupiter for the rest of the decade, providing evidence for an iron core and intense volcanic activity on Io, a magnetic field on Ganymede, and a deep ocean under the ice of Europa. Repair of the Hubble Space Telescope came just in time for several important events. On March 24, 1993, Carolyn and Eugene Merle Shoemaker and David H. Levy discovered Comet Shoemaker-Levy 9 (SL-9), apparently fragmented by a close pass by Ju-

Solar System Discoveries

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piter. When its next orbit caused at least twenty-one fragments to collide with Jupiter in July of 1994, the HST provided the sharpest images. The HST was also used to study objects in the outer solar system, including early evidence for volcanoes on Io and some of the first Kuiper Belt objects beyond Pluto and similar to it. On January 25, 1994, NASA launched the Clementine spacecraft to orbit the Moon. During 348 lunar orbits, the surface was mapped and analyzed for three months. Clementine maps revealed the South Pole-Aitken Basin, the largest known crater in the solar system, and provided evidence for ice deposits that were later confirmed by the Lunar Prospector. In 1997, the American Astronomical Society (AAS) announced their grazing-collision theory for the origin of the Moon. During the last two months of 1996, NASA launched the Mars Global Surveyor, which began orbiting on September 12, 1997, and the Mars Pathfinder to demonstrate low-cost air-bag landing techniques for its Sojourner rover, which landed on July 4, 1997. The combined missions analyzed the atmosphere, magnetism, and geology of Mars. On August 6, 1996, NASA announced the results of their

analysis of an Antarctic meteorite, identified as coming from Mars, and claimed that it contained fossil microorganisms. Beyond the Solar System The COBE satellite provided the most important information about the universe at large in 1992 when it detected ripples in the cosmic background radiation that were identified with the formation of galaxies. By 1995, the HST began to obtain photos of infant galaxies in the early universe. In 1996, HST photos showed evidence for a supermassive black hole at the center of a galaxy, and by the end of the decade the HST had detected ten such galactic black holes. The Compton Gamma Ray Observatory surveyed gamma-ray bursts (GRBs) throughout the decade and finally detected the first one with an optical afterglow in 1999. Analysis of HST measurements then showed that its source is beyond our galaxy, confirming that GRBs were the most energetic events since the big bang, probably caused by the collapse of massive stars into black holes. During 1995, the first three brown dwarfs (substellar objects) were discovered, most notably at the Palomar Observatory, where a brown dwarf was observed in orbit around a red-dwarf star (Gliese 229). During the last half of the decade, about twenty giant extrasolar planets were discovered from the wobble of their host stars, most by Geoffrey Marcy and associates in California. In 1998, the HST and the Keck II telescope obtained images of gaseous disks around two stars, showing evidence of possible planet formation. Perhaps the most important discovery of the decade, announced at the 1998 AAS meeting, was new evidence from supernova studies that the expansion of the universe was speeding up. This evidence of an accelerating universe suggests a new form of “dark energy” dominating the mass-energy content of the universe.

The spacecraft Galileo obtained the first close photograph of an asteroid, Gaspra, on October 29, 1991. (NASA)

Impact New information about asteroids and the collision of comet SL-9 with Jupiter gave a better un-

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derstanding of the danger such objects pose for Earth. Observations of surface conditions on Venus and Mars helped to assess the unique conditions on Earth for life compared to global warming on Venus or global cooling on Mars. The uniqueness of Earth was also evident from observations of the unusual nature of giant extrasolar planets. The energy of the universe was seen in a new light with the discoveries of galactic black holes, gamma-ray bursts, and the accelerating expansion of the universe. Further Reading

Rees, Martin. Our Cosmic Habitat. Princeton, N.J.: Princeton University Press, 2001. A popular account of the nature and expansion of the universe by the Astronomer Royal of Great Britain. Seeds, Michael. Astronomy: The Solar System and Beyond. Belmont, Calif.: Wadsworth, 2006. A wellillustrated textbook with a comprehensive coverage of astronomy. Sobel, Dava. The Planets. New York: Viking Press, 2005. An engaging discussion of the planets and recent planetary research. Joseph L. Spradley Hale-Bopp comet; Hubble Space Telescope; Mars exploration; Science and technology; Shoemaker-Levy 9 comet; Space exploration; Space shuttle program.

See also

■ Attention-deficit disorder Definition

Neurobehavioral developmental

disorder The 1990’s saw a dramatic increase in the medicating of children with attention-deficit disorder and a corresponding nationwide controversy. Often referred to as the disorder of the 1990’s, attention-deficit disorder (ADD) came to be the most commonly diagnosed mental health condition in American children during the decade. A neurobehavioral developmental disorder characterized by inattentiveness and hyperactivity, the condition was widely studied, debated, and diagnosed. One of the earliest descriptions of the disorder comes from a series of lectures published in 1902 by George F. Still in which Still described a group of children with impulsive characteristics that today would be associated

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with ADD. The disorder was once called “morbid defect of moral control,” “post-encephalitic behavior disorder,” “minimal brain dysfunction,” and “hyperkinetic reaction of childhood.” It is more popularly known as attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder (ADHD). In 1994, diagnosticians distinguished between two separate sets of symptoms: inattention and hyperactivity-impulsivity. While symptoms usually occur together, a diagnosis can nevertheless be made when symptoms occur separately. The diagnosis usually transpires after a child enters school, when increased focus on details concerning reading, writing, and socializing becomes necessary. Children diagnosed with ADD have difficulty finishing schoolwork or any task that requires protracted periods of concentration. Fidgeting, squirming, uncontrolled walking, running, and talking are also considered symptomatic. ADD is said to affect 3 to 5 percent of all children and remains more prevalent among boys. Health professionals cannot determine any root cause for the elusive condition. During the 1990’s, which the President George H. W. Bush and Congress declared the “Decade of the Brain,” the use of psychostimulant medications, including Ritalin (the most popular treatment), Adderall, Concerta, and Metadate increased dramatically. Indeed, by 1996, ADD accounted for at least 40 percent of all children’s references made to psychiatrists. That same year, an article in Forbes magazine demonstrated that the rise of Ritalin consumption had increased fourfold between 1989 and 1994. These statistics prompted the U.S. Drug Enforcement Administration (DEA) to report the rise of psychostimulant medication use among children to the United Nations International Narcotics Control Board. Subsequently, the United Nations reported that 10 to 12 percent of all male schoolchildren in the United States were taking Ritalin. Across the United States, children lined up in school hallways for school nurses to hand out daily doses. Although the American Medical Association (AMA) called ADD one of the bestresearched disorders in medicine, it became an increasingly visible source of controversy during the 1990’s, coming under the scrutiny of the media, social groups, and churches. Throughout the decade, magazine articles suggested that American children were being overmedicated. The increasing number

Ritalin Controversy

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of ADD diagnoses and the consequential skyrocketing rise in the use of prescription drugs led to the hotly debated disagreement that centered on methylphenidate hydrochloride, an amphetamine more popularly known as Ritalin. On one side of the controversy were the parents who passionately defended Ritalin for helping their out-of-control children and the physicians who cited incident after incident of positive results for their patients. On the other side were parents and physicians who argued that stimulant medications harm the brain, curtail growth, and were being marketed by pharmaceutical companies for enormous profits. Impact In the early twenty-first century, the controversy over psychostimulant medication continued unabated. Because stimulants increase the pulse rate, which could consequently lead to serious health is-

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sues, a great deal of apprehension remained concerning the use of these psychostimulant medications. New arguments emerged claiming that Ritalin has the potential for causing long-lasting changes in brain cell structure and function. Ritalin abuse, including the snorting of Ritalin and consequent addiction, became a problem among adolescents. Although it was believed that children would outgrow ADD, adults were regularly diagnosed with the disorder, while social and medical movements sprang up denying the existence of ADD entirely. In 2000, the American Academy of Pediatrics (AAP) revised their guidelines for diagnosing ADD. Chief among the disagreements were the disorder’s causes, the research methodology, and the description of the condition as a mental disease. Also in 2000, the Church of Scientology lobbied Congress for an investigation of the harmful effects

A pharmacist holds a bottle of the prescription drug Ritalin and a pamphlet warning about its potential abuse. Prescribed for hyperactivity in children, the drug has been abused by some adolescents to get high. (AP/Wide World Photos)

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of Ritalin. In 2005, the Pediatric Advisory Committee of the Food and Drug Administration (FDA) released an announcement stating its concerns over the use of stimulants. Additionally, in 2006, Ritalin and other stimulant drugs were ordered by the government to carry a strong “black box” warning on their labels. Further Reading

Brown, Thomas E. Attention Deficit Disorder: The Unfocused Mind in Children and Adults. New Haven, Conn.: Yale University Press, 2005. Argues that attention-deficit disorder is a result of a serious chemical imbalance in the brain and demonstrates the ways this imbalance affects behavior. Hallahan, Daniel P., and James M. Kauffman. Exceptional Learners: Introduction to Special Education. Boston: Allyn & Bacon, 2008. The authors argue that the lack of empirical data suggests that attention-deficit disorder may not be valid as a medical condition. Hallowell, Edward, and John Ratey. Driven to Distraction: Recognizing and Coping with Attention Deficit Disorder from Childhood Through Adulthood. Both authors, who have attention-deficit disorder themselves, argue that the condition should not be labeled simply as a “disorder,” because of the negative connotation, and that the uncritical acceptance of the notion of ADD simply hides the need for major reforms in public schools. Hartmann, Thom. Attention Deficit Disorder: A Different Perception. Nevada City, Calif.: Underwood Books, 1993. Popular book that links attentiondeficit disorder to the genetic makeup of men and women who in prehistoric times utilized their more active brains to successfully hunt for food. Sheds a positive light on ADD and strongly suggests that the condition can be associated with creativity, high achievement, and success. M. Casey Diana See also Antidepressants; Drug advertising; Drug use; Medicine; Pharmaceutical industry.

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■ Audiobooks Abridged and unabridged audio versions of fiction and nonfiction books aimed at both consumers and library patrons

Definition

The audiobook industry enjoyed significant growth during the 1990’s as the medium adapted to new formats. CD books and downloadable books joined audio cassettes to reach more listeners. Before the 1980’s, books in audio formats were primarily long-playing recordings aimed at the blind, or recordings of poems, short stories, or fragments of longer works for other consumers. The evolution of audio cassettes allowed longer portions of books and eventually unabridged books to become available. Tape players in automobiles and portable players such as the Walkman were developed initially to meet the needs of music listeners. What began as a small market began to increase when publishers discovered that consumers enjoyed listening to books on tape while driving, walking, or exercising. Many in the industry were surprised that people wanted to listen to books for periods longer than a half hour. Audiobooks could be purchased, borrowed from libraries, or rented from such companies as Books on Tape and Recorded Books, which also supplied libraries. The audiobook industry continued to adapt to change throughout the 1990’s. Brilliance Corporation began using data-compression techniques to alter the voices of readers electronically to simulate telephone calls or memories of past events. In 1992, Brilliance developed CD-ROM books, containing both audio and text, for Sony’s portable Discman. Another advance arrived when Audiobooks.com became the first Web site devoted to selling audiobooks in 1994. By 1995, video stores and supermarkets had begun renting audiobooks, with audio listening posts set up at such businesses as Tower Records. The Audio Publishers Association (APA), formed in 1986 with twelve members, had over two hundred members by 1999. The organization, which presents annual Audie Awards, adopted “audiobook” in 1997 as the preferred term describing its industry. A 1999 APA study indicated that audiobook users listened to thirteen books annually. The number of titles available on compact disc increased dramatically as newer versions of portable

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players switched from tape to CD and as automotive manufacturers began including CD players in their vehicles. An even more dramatic change occurred with the introduction of MP3 players, which could download books over the Internet. Such massproduced digital audio players were introduced in 1997, and Audible.com led the way in making books available on the World Wide Web in 1998. By the end of the twentieth century, audiobooks had grown into a $2 billion industry. An APA study found that the audiobook market grew 360 percent from 1990 to 1998, five times the growth of its print counterpart, with 21 percent of American households listening to audiobooks. A medium most familiar to public library patrons in the 1980’s had become a central part of American life. Impact

Further Reading

Hoffman, Preston, and Carol H. Osteyee. Audio Book Breakthrough: A Guide to Selection and Use in Public Libraries and Education. Westport, Conn.: Greenwood Press, 1994. Oder, Norman. “The Future of Unabridged?” Library Journal 126, no. 19 (November 15, 2001): 38-39. Rosenblum, Trudi M. “From LPs to Downloads.” Publishers Weekly 246, no. 49 (December 6, 1999): 32-33. Michael Adams See also Book clubs; Children’s literature; Computers; Digital audio; Dot-coms; Internet; MP3 format; Publishing; Spoken word movement.

■ Autism A developmental disorder of the brain that affects social interaction and communication skills in individuals

Definition

In the 1990’s, autism diagnosis began to increase dramatically; one out of every five hundred children was affected by autism. This increase was due in part to the standardized methods of identification that were developed in the mid1990’s. Individuals with autism are found in all racial, ethnic, and socioeconomic levels. The main symptom of the disorder is the inability to relate to people. Autism affects individuals of a wide range of cognitive abilities, ranging from those with a high IQ to those

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who have mental retardation. Autism is difficult to diagnose; early signs are often behavioral rather than physical. Therefore, most individuals are not diagnosed until after the age two. However, as with any disorder, the earlier the diagnosis, the better. The incidence of autism is higher in males than in females. Causes and Symptoms Signs of autism include delay in spoken language and repetitive patterns of behavior and activities, such as eating the same food each day or walking the same route to a room. Autistic symptoms also include nontypical responses from the senses, such as oversensitivity to noise, light, and touch. Other symptoms include the lack of pretend play prior to age three and delayed or nontypical social interaction with others. Individuals with autism may also exhibit challenging behavior. In 1990, the cause of autism was unknown. Some researchers indicated that autism was caused by a combination of genetic and environmental factors, such as a virus and/or vaccinations. However, the incidence of autism was higher for individuals who have a family member with autism. Historically, and prior to the 1990’s, autism was thought to be caused by cold, uncaring parents who caused the child to develop poor social skills and to withdraw from society. This type of thinking led to families of children with autism being ostracized by society and blamed for the child’s condition. During the 1990’s, however, these perceptions were changing. Parents were viewed more as collaborators with professionals. Children with autism benefited from the family involvement by being able to generalize skills in a variety of settings. This family-professional partnership empowered families to advocate for change. Major Changes in Diagnosis In 1991, the Autism Diagnostic Interview was published and used to diagnose individuals with autism. In 1992, the American Psychiatric Association redefined criteria for diagnosing individuals with autism. It became classified as a specific spectrum disorder, which meant that the intensity of autism may vary among individuals affected by the disorder. Autism was also included in the fourth edition of Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders (DSM-IV, 1994). Before this time, autism was listed as an emotional disturbance with no knowledge of the cause.

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Prior to the 1990’s, autistic children did not receive educational services by public schools for the specific disorder of autism. Many of these children were institutionalized or received intensive home-based therapy. Services provided were behavioral in nature, often involving many hours of one-on-one intervention. However, in 1990, P.L. 101-476, the Education of the Handicapped Act Amendments, was amended by Congress. Autism was included in the categories of disabilities. Children with autism were able to receive a free, appropriate education with related services with age-appropriate peers. According to the U.S. Department of Education, in 1994 only 4 percent of children with autism were receiving services in the regular class in 1991-1992, suggesting that most of the children with autism were educated in segregated classrooms.

Major Changes in Educational Services

Many parents and physicians were concerned that thiomersal, a mercurybased preservative used in many immunizations given to infants and young children, was the cause of the increase in the incidence of autism. Through legislative efforts by parents, physicians, and other concerned individuals, this preservative was removed in 1999 from most immunizations. This action resulted in a slight decrease in the incidence of autism. However, the issue has remained controversial. Some researchers argue that the change is highly significant, while others state that there is not enough evidence to support either stance.

Thiomersal Controversy

Impact The change in legislation and the redefining of criteria for diagnosis allowed professionals such as researchers, educators, and physicians to track the incidents of autism. Children with autism were provided free, appropriate educational services, which allowed them to be a part of society. Individuals and families began to advocate for increased funding to research causes and treatment for autism. Further Reading

Akerley, M. S. “False Gods and Angry Prophets: The Loneliness of the Long-distance Swimmer.” In Parents Speak Out: Then and Now, edited by A. P. Turnbull and R. H. Turnbull. Columbus, Ohio: Charles E. Merrill, 1985. Compelling story with an update of a family who has a child with autism.

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Heward, William L. Exceptional Children: An Introduction to Special Education. 6th ed. Upper Saddle River, N.J.: Charles E. Merrill, 2000. Provides an overview of various disabilities and laws on special education. Turnbull, Ann, Rud Turnbull, Elizabeth Erwin, and Leslie Soodak. “Historical and Current Roles of Families and Parents.” In Families, Professionals, and Exceptionality: Positive Outcomes Through Partnership and Trust. 5th ed. Upper Saddle River, N.J.: Charles E. Merrill/Prentice Hall, 2006. This chapter details the history of the family in special education. Warren, F. “A Society That Is Going to Kill Your Children: Call Them Liars Who Would Say ‘All Is Well.’” In Parents Speak Out: Then and Now, edited by A. P. Turnbull and R. H. Turnbull. Columbus, Ohio: Charles E. Merrill, 1985. Story that depicts the struggles of a family who has a child with autism. Melinda Swafford See also Americans with Disabilities Act of 1990; Educate America Act of 1994; Health care reform; Medicine; Pharmaceutical industry.

■ Auto racing Definition

The sport of racing automobiles

As a consequence of new sponsors, personalities, race tracks, and television exposure, automobile racing—and in particular NASCAR—reached unprecedented heights of popularity during the 1990’s. Indeed, NASCAR, with its cafés and memorabilia, became a “way of life” for many Americans. While automobile racing has its origins at the end of the nineteenth century with the beginnings of the industry, at certain levels the sport was radically transformed during the 1990’s. First, and particularly as a result of the spectacular success of the National Association for Stock Car Auto Racing (NASCAR), automobile racing brought in enormous amounts of money. Second, it was no longer the automobile manufacturers that made the key decisions related to auto racing but rather those controlling business aspects and the organization of the sport. The influx of money was not true across the

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board, however. At the second level, beneath NASCAR and Formula 1 (primarily a Europeanbased activity), stood races organized by the Championship Auto Racing Teams (CART) and the Indy Racing League (IRL). Conflict between these two organizations diluted fan interest and profits. At a third level were those engaged in sports car road racing, governed by the Sports Car Club of America (SCCA) and International Motor Sports Association (IMSA). Finally, grassroots-level racing, either at the club level or at oval dirt and asphalt tracks located in rural America, thrived, but more as a labor of love than as a way to make money for those involved. The NASCAR Boom During the 1990’s, NASCAR exploded on the American scene. Once confined to the southeastern United States, NASCAR became a national sport, with high-paid drivers, a large and increasingly diverse fan base, extravagant sponsors, and broad media coverage. Money was everywhere. For example, sponsorship contributions rose 7 percent annually during the decade. By 1998, more than fifty companies invested more than $10 million each year. Top sponsors included Philip Morris, Anheuser-Busch, Coca-Cola, General Motors, PepsiCo, AT&T, RJR Nabisco, and McDonald’s. New sponsors in sectors with little direct connection to the automobile business—fast food, home supplies, detergents—became commonplace. Consequently, top drivers like Dale Earnhardt and Jeff Gordon earned more than $10 million per year, and successful crew chiefs $300,000 to $500,000. Ultimately the money was due to the fact that NASCAR was highly adaptable to television, and thus it was media executives rather than the auto industry who was now calling the shots in this business. The 1990’s also witnessed the rise of a new generation of NASCAR drivers. Heroes from the 1960’s and 1970’s, including Richard Petty, Bobby Allison, Cale Yarborough, David Pearson, and Buddy Baker, gave way to Jeff Gordon, Dale Jarrett, Ernie Ervin, Mark Martin, Bobby Labonte, Jeff and Ward Burton, Ricky Craven, Johnny Benson, and Jeremy Mayfield. Symbolically, Richard Petty’s 1992 “Fan Appreciation Tour” ended winless. Petty’s last race in Atlanta found him running his final laps at half speed, the consequence of an earlier crash. New owners were also a part of the NASCAR scene during the 1990’s. Included were stars from other sports, including National Football League

Jeff Gordon celebrates after winning the first Brickyard 400 NASCAR event on August 6, 1994. (AP/Wide World Photos)

coach Joe Gibbs and the National Basketball Association’s Julius Erving and Brad Daugherty. With new tracks located near Fort Worth, Texas, and Fontana, California, NASCAR was seemingly being transformed in virtually every possible way. Perhaps the most dramatic event of the 1990’s was NASCAR’s coming to the legendary Indianapolis Motor Speedway for the inaugural Brickyard 400 in 1994. With NASCAR founder Bill France and longtime Indy track owner Tony Hulman now dead, their successors could bury long-term differences and realize the potential of such an event in terms of media coverage and fan enthusiasm. Thus, on August 6, 1994, Jeff Gordon won the inaugural 160-lap event in front of 300,000 fans. Despite the great success of the Brickyard 400, during the 1990’s controversy swirled

CART Versus IRL

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around the Indianapolis Motor Speedway and its owner, Tony George. During the 1980’s, CART and the United States Automobile Club (USAC) had been the two sanctioning bodies that governed racing at Indianapolis, and these two groups had an uneasy relationship. In 1994, George announced that the Indianapolis 500 would leave the CART series and become the centerpiece for George’s own IRL series. Whether the decision was motivated by ego, a concern over the increased presence of foreign drivers, or a perception that Indy was dropping in status as a race is unclear. The upshot of all of this, however, was that in 1996 a group of unknown drivers raced at Indianapolis, while CART organized its own race, the U.S. 500, held in Michigan on the same day. The split greatly affected this level of racing, as it led to decreased television revenues and waning fan interest. In the end, the Indianapolis 500 prevailed, and after shifting the race date of the U.S. 500 to July, in 1999 CART canceled the race altogether. Since the early 1970’s, tobacco companies had played a critical role in automobile racing through sponsorship of teams and events. No longer able to advertise in print or on television, the tobacco industry could advertise on the side of cars, however, and it did so freely. This investment came to an end in 1998, however, when after litigation involving the companies and the states’ attorneys general an agreement was reached that eliminated cigarette companies from automobile racing. After twenty-eight years, NASCAR’s Winston Cup ended, but racing continued, now known as the NEXTEL series. End of Tobacco Company Sponsorship

Impact Despite America’s wavering love affair with the automobile, auto racing remains one of the nation’s most popular sports, on the level with football, baseball, and basketball. A huge and vibrant business, its fan base draws from virtually every class segment in society. Further Reading

Assael, Shaun. Wide Open: Days and Nights on the NASCAR Tour. New York: Ballantine, 1998. An account of the 1996 NASCAR racing season. Fleischman, Bill, and Al Pearce. Inside Sports NASCAR Racing. Detroit: Visible Ink, 1998. A most useful compendium on NASCAR that contains many important facts about racing events and personalities during the 1990’s.

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Hagstrom, Robert G. The NASCAR Way: The Business That Drives the Sport. New York: John Wiley & Sons, 1998. A business perspective on a $2 billion sport. Levine, Leo. “The Business of Racing.” Road & Track 51, no.4 (April, 1999):146-149. A very perceptive analysis of automobile racing as a business. Sponsors, advertising, and the role of the media, especially TV, are discussed. Poole, David, and Jim McLaurin. NASCAR Essential. Chicago: Triumph Books, 2007. A fun read that contains many statistics as well as interesting stories. John A. Heitmann Automobile industr y; Gordon, Jeff; Sports; Television.

See also

■ Automobile industry Industry involved in the manufacture and sale of motor vehicles

Definition

During the 1990’s, the American automobile industry was transformed in terms of products, leadership strategies, organization, and technology. Increasingly, the American industry has evolved into part of a global web of manufacturers, parts suppliers, and consumers. In 1999, annual sales of cars and light trucks in the United States reached a high of 16.9 million units, eclipsing by nearly one million the previous high reached in 1986. Despite ending on this high point, the 1990’s proved to be extremely competitive and turbulent time for automakers. As the decade unfolded, and following a trend that began in 1980, more and more light trucks as opposed to passenger cars were manufactured. In addition to trucks and sport utility vehicles (SUVs), new “market segment busting” vehicles appeared, called “crossovers.” The crossover mixed together features such as style, sturdiness, reliability, and luxury. These new vehicles were in part the consequence of a new generation of leaders in the industry, typically “motor heads” rather than the “bean counters” that had preceded them. As a result of making innovative vehicles that were of better quality, sales quantities and profits moved commensurately higher. For example, after staggering losses at the beginning of the 1990’s, between 1994 and 1998 General Motors (GM) and Ford had a global net income of $52 billion on reve-

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nues of $1.3 trillion. Given the flush times, the end of the twentieth century witnessed a flurry of merger activity involving U.S. auto companies and overseas manufacturers. The American auto industry was no longer centered as a cluster of enterprises based for the most part in Detroit, but rather it was now profoundly global in scale and scope. Automobile and Light Truck Industry The rapid rise of light trucks in the American marketplace post-1980 marked a new era. In 1981, light trucks represented just 19 percent of the American market, but some twenty-two years later they totaled more than 54 percent of what was once thought of as “car makes.” Indeed, the market share of trucks increased each and every year after 1981 to the twentyfirst century, and this trend resulted in tremendous windfalls for American manufacturers. Trucks were often sold at profits of $10,000 or more per unit, while small cars typically garnered miniscule profit numbers—at times only $1,000 was made on the sales of such vehicles. It was recognized, however, that the expanding truck market had its limits. In what was then perceived to be a slow-growth market increasing by no more than 1 percent per year, new products were called for. To find new market niches, a fresh type of vehicle, the crossover, appeared during 1997 and 1998. The Honda CR-V, the Mercedes-Benz M-class, the Subaru Forester, and Toyota’s RAV4 were built on car platforms and cloaked to appeal as civilized and luxury SUVs. Another unique offering that was introduced at the end of the century was the DaimlerChrysler PT Cruiser. All manufacturers at the end of the decade were working on breaking through market segments by offering vehicles that uniquely mixed the practical with affordability, performance, and style. Just as product lines were revolutionized to include SUVs and crossover vehicles, so too was the high end of the market. Commensurate with the overall prosperity of the decade, luxury product sales increased markedly, with such products as the Lexus, Infinity, and Acura, along with BMW 5 and 7 series vehicles. These high-end cars were accountable for the decrease in the lucrative luxury sales on the part of American manufactures from 65 percent in 1996 to 52 percent in 1999. No longer was the Cadillac the iconic symbol of status and wealth in America; rather, it was the Lexus, built by Toyota to un-

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precedented standards of quality and comfort, or the BMW, with its advanced technology and panache. At the beginning of the 1990’s, the American automobile industry was in a decided decline. The industry lost $8 billion in 1991, and the Honda Accord was the best-selling car for the third year in a row. Despite the bleak outlook, the industry experienced a remarkable comeback, the result of new leadership. At General Motors, Chairman Robert Stempel, who had taken over from Roger Smith and had employed the same strategies of plant closings and diversification, gave way to John F. “Jack” Smith. Smith focused his energies on reapplying the managerial and organizational strategies of former GM chairman Alfred P. Sloan that led to rationalization of divisional efforts, a reduction in competition among the units, the use of common platforms across the firm, and the introduction of new technologies. At Ford, Alex Trotman followed strategies similar to that of founder Henry Ford. Trotman pushed for the introduction of the Contour-Mondeo world car, centrally manufactured in discrete locations but marketed worldwide. Even at Chrysler, executive transitions took place, as Lee Iacocca was forced out, eventually replaced by Robert Eaton and Robert Lutz. Eaton and Lutz totally revitalized the company, the result of new organizational and manufacturing practices that included the formation of platform teams and fresh products. While basking in the glow of success between 1996 and 1998, Eaton did not want to play it safe. He had been concerned for some time with Chrysler’s future, and in particular the lack of Chrysler’s presence in foreign markets, especially Asia and South America. Thus, beginning in February of 1998, with an ever-increasing involvement by lawyers, bankers, and second-level executives, negotiations proceeded to a point that ultimately led to the signing of a merger agreement with Daimler-Benz AG in early May. Numerous obstacles had to be overcome, from the most formidable, like different organizational structures, to patterns of acceptable cultural behavior, language, and the more trivial, like headquarter time zone differences. Would the company be called ChryslerDaimler or DaimlerChrysler? In the end, the Germans got their way in terms of the new firm’s name, and indeed that decision foreshadowed the

New Leaders and Organizational Strategies

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ascendancy of the Germans within the organization in the years that followed. In May of 1980, the Japanese government signed the Askew/Yasukawa Agreement to encourage Japanese automakers to invest in the United States and to purchase American-made parts. Until that time, Japanese cars sold in America were imported and made entirely of Japanese parts. In the twenty-five years that followed, Japanese automakers invested $28 billion in the United States, and in the process some twelve assembly plants and thirteen parts plants were established. These facilities included Honda plants in Ohio, Georgia, and Alabama; Subaru operations in Indiana; Mazda in Michigan; Mitsubishi manufacturing in Illinois; Nissan in Tennessee and Mississippi; and Toyota in Kentucky, Indiana, West Virginia, Alabama, and Texas. The Germans were also active in establishing new plants in the United States. In Greer, South Carolina, near Spartanburg, BMW established a plant in the early 1990’s that made Z4 roadsters and X5 SUVs. Former textile workers now worked the assembly line at BMW, and the presence of the company in the local community was felt in terms of connections with Clemson University to establish an automobile research center and in the employment of numerous North and South Carolina college graduates in management positions. The Germans were also active in Alabama, where in 1997 Mercedes established a plant to manufacture M-class and R-class vehicles. Employing just-intime techniques so that just two hours’ worth of inventory is stocked, Mercedes’ presence in Alabama resulted in a capital investment of nearly $680 million and the creation of ten thousand jobs. In sum, the automobile industry evolved during the 1990’s in such a manner that it was no longer possible to make a simple identification as to whether a car was American or foreign. The establishment of foreign-owned manufacturing plants in the United States was not only a recognition of the enormous market and buying power of the American people but also a clever strategy aimed at reducing nativist criticisms aimed at foreign firms who were accused of undermining American long-term prosperity and manufacturing-sector employment.

The Transplants

As a result of a new emphasis on quality, forced upon American manufacturers by the

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Japanese, warrantees became longer. In terms of configuration, front-wheel drive displaced the rearwheel drive as the most used arrangement in the typical car. First employed before World War II by Ernest Loban Cord in luxury vehicles and then after the war in mass-produced cars due to the design efforts of Alec Issigonis, front-wheel drive architecture proved to be more efficient in terms of fuel consumption, and also in terms of bad-weather handling. Safety issues, driven by federal government standards and consumer demand, also emerged as an important theme by the late 1970’s. The development of the air bag, introduced first in models during the mid-1970’s but employed almost universally by the 1990’s, was both an effective deterrent to fatal crashes and yet also highly controversial. The design is conceptually simple—accelerometers trigger the ignition of a gas generator propellant to very rapidly inflate a nylon fabric bag, which reduces the deceleration experienced by the passenger as he or she comes to stop in the crash situation. After two decades of controversy over the dangers of air bag deployment, in 1989 American manufacturers began installing air bags on many product lines. However, during the 1990’s questions over deployment and unintended injuries and death remained. In 1990, the first report of a driver being killed by an air bag took place, as a sixty-four-year-old woman suffered fatal chest injuries. Then, in 1993, the first of twentythree deaths over three years was reported in terms of a passenger-side air bag deployment. Despite the deaths, it can be concluded that fifteen thousand lives have been saved by air bags in the last twenty years. Better braking systems, including the use of disc brakes on all four wheels and ABS systems to equalize the braking system and prevent lockup, enhancing both stability and shortening braking distances, became prevalent in the industry again by the late 1990’s. Antilock braking was a European development that came to America first through imported German vehicles, namely the 1978 S-class Mercedes and the 7 series BMW. Bosch had patented elements of the system as early as 1936, and a number of innovations followed during the 1980’s and 1990’s. Above all, the car became computerized. A central computer monitored ignition and combustion functions, thereby decreasing emissions to unprecedented low levels. The computer, coupled in a closed loop with electronic fuel injection and an oxygen sensor, enabled engines to burn fuel extremely

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efficiently, and with various sensors feeding information back to the computer, optimal efficiency became the rule for even the least-expensive vehicles by the early 1990’s. Impact For nearly a century, the American automobile industry has been the economic engine that has driven the nation’s economy. The automobile industry is connected to the steel, petroleum, petrochemical, textile, computer, glass, and rubber industries. At the end of the 1990’s, this sector was directly responsible for more than 3 percent of the American workforce, with a payroll of approximately $10 billion. Furthermore, more than eight million workers indirectly owe their jobs to this industry.

Ingrassia, Paul, and Joseph B. White. Comeback: The Fall and Rise of the American Automobile Industry. New York: Simon & Schuster, 1995. Perhaps the most useful account of the American auto industry during the first half of the 1990’s. Mantle, Jonathan. Car Wars: Fifty Years of Greed, Treachery, and Skulduggery in the Global Marketplace. New York: Arcade, 1995. A broad but scattered narrative describing the emergence of the competitive global automobile industry. Walton, Mary. Car: A Drama of the American Workplace. New York: W. W. Norton, 1997. A remarkable account of Ford’s 1996 redesign of its best-selling Taurus. John A. Heitmann

Further Reading

Bradsher, Keith. High and Mighty: SUVs—The World’s Most Dangerous Vehicles and How They Got That Way. New York: PublicAffairs, 2002. An exposé of safety issues connected with the SUV.

Auto racing; Business and the economy in the United States; Electric car; General Motors strike of 1998; Sport utility vehicles (SUVs).

See also

B ■ Bailey, Donovan Canadian Olympic champion sprinter Born December 16, 1967; Manchester, Jamaica Identification

Bailey set multiple world records and won multiple Olympic gold medals in short distance events, most notably the 100meter dash, and became an international celebrity, emerging at a difficult time when track and field had been rocked by doping scandals. When Jamaica-born Donovan Bailey came to Ontario, Canada, at the age of thirteen to live with his father, he had never run in any organized event. Indeed, although he competed as a sprinter on his high school track team in Ontario (he ran the 100meter dash in a remarkable 10.65 seconds), his interest was in basketball: He played power forward for Sheridan College (Ontario) while he completed his degree in business administration. Intent on beginning a marketing and investment counseling career, Bailey ran recreationally in city events until 1994. That year, while watching Canadian Track Championships on television, he was certain he could do better. Bailey was twenty-six years old—relatively late to begin a running career—but after two months of intensive training, he began winning international sprinting competitions, culminating in his world championship in the 100-meter in Göteborg, Sweden, in 1995. The Atlanta Centennial Olympics in 1996 defined Bailey: He claimed the gold medal and set both a world and Olympic record in the 100-meter (9.84 seconds), traditionally the measure of the “world’s fastest man”; he also won gold as part of the Canadian 4-by-100-meter relay. Within months of his Olympic championship, Bailey was challenged by American Michael Johnson, who had set a world record in the 200-meter run, to a sprint to determine the “world’s fastest man.” The unsanctioned race, set at a compromise 150 meters, was scheduled for June, 1997, at Toronto’s SkyDome and, with its

$2 million purse, became a much-hyped international sports event. Amid the race’s carnival atmosphere, however, Bailey won easily as Johnson withdrew halfway through with a pulled quadriceps muscle. In a sport in which dominance is measured in increments of seconds and in which athletes’ bodies are subjected to enormous physical pressures, Bailey’s prominence was short-lived. He finished second in the 100-meter at the 1997 world championships in Athens, and after struggling with a ruptured Achilles tendon and then pneumonia (he par-

Donovan Bailey drapes himself in the Canadian flag as he takes his victory lap after winning the men’s 100-meter dash in the 1996 Summer Olympics in Atlanta. (AP/Wide World Photos)

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ticipated in the 2000 Sydney Olympics), he retired in 2001, a five-time world and Olympic champion. He has since pursued a successful career as a motivational speaker and chief executive officer (CEO) of a sports marketing firm. Impact At a time when Canadian track and field was reeling from the international scandal involving the doping allegations leveled against its 1988 Olympic gold sprinter Ben Johnson, Bailey, with his brash charisma and unwavering confidence in his own abilities, became an instant national hero. In addition, he inspired a generation through his meteoric rise to prominence, his gritty determination to pursue his athletic dreams despite the conventional wisdom of starting much earlier, and his resilience in the face of numerous injuries. Further Reading

Hannigan, Glenn, and Robert Mashburn. One Glorious Summer: A Photographic History of the 1996 Atlanta Olympics. Atlanta: Longstreet Press, 1996. Howell, Colin D. Blood, Sweat, and Cheers: Sports and the Making of Modern Canada. Toronto: University of Toronto Press, 2001. Joseph Dewey See also Canada and the United States; Minorities in Canada; Olympic Games of 1996; Sports; Television.

■ Baker, James Identification U.S. secretary of state, 1989-1992 Born April 28, 1930; Houston, Texas

James Baker served in senior government positions under three U.S. presidents and managed George H. W. Bush’s presidential campaigns in 1988 and 1992. As secretary of state for most of the Bush presidency, he directed American foreign policy in an that included the collapse of the Soviet Union, the end of the Cold War, and the Gulf War. James Addison Baker III attended Princeton University and the University of Texas School of Law and served two years as an officer in the United States Marine Corps (1952-1954). In 1975, he became undersecretary of commerce under President Gerald R. Ford and managed Ford’s unsuccessful electoral campaign in 1976. In 1979 and 1980, he led George H. W. Bush’s unsuccessful campaign for the

Republican presidential nomination. Under President Ronald Reagan, Baker served as White House chief of staff and later as secretary of the Treasury. In the 1988 election, Baker managed Bush’s successful campaign for the presidency, and he served from 1989 to 1992 as Bush’s secretary of state. Because of his close personal relationship with Bush, he was a trusted adviser with easy access to the president’s ear. Baker, Secretary of Defense Dick Cheney, and National Security Adviser Brent Scowcroft were colleagues who had served together in the Ford administration, and this threesome provided Bush with experienced, pragmatic advisers in dealing with foreign policy and national security issues. As secretary of state, Baker traveled to more than ninety nations. His rapport with Soviet leader Mikhail Gorbachev and Soviet foreign minister Eduard Shevardnadze helped maintain a positive relationship between the United States and the Soviet Union as that nation began to break into separate entities. When Iraq invaded Kuwait in 1990, Baker led the effort to put together a multinational alliance to drive the Iraqis out of Kuwait in the Gulf War. After the Iraqis were expelled from Kuwait, Baker was among those who counseled Bush to forgo invading Iraq to drive Saddam Hussein from power. In August, 1992, Baker left the State Department to become White House chief of staff and to take over direction of Bush’s reelection campaign. Impact Baker’s management of the 1988 Bush campaign helped to put George H. W. Bush in the White House; his leadership at the State Department from 1989 to 1992 was instrumental in the creation of the “new world order” that emerged with the decline of the Soviet Union and the emergence of the United States as the world’s lone superpower. Further Reading

Baker, James A., and Thomas DeFrank. The Politics of Diplomacy: Revolution, War, and Peace, 1989-1992. New York: G. P. Putnam’s Sons, 1995. Baker, James A., with Steve Fiffer. “Work Hard, Study . . . and Stay Out of Politics!”: Adventures and Lessons from an Unexpected Public Life. New York: G. P. Putnam’s Sons, 2006. Moore, Raymond A. “Foreign Policy.” In The Bush Presidency: Triumphs and Adversities, edited by Dilys M. Hill and Phil Williams. New York: St. Martin’s Press, 1994. Mark S. Joy

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James Baker, left, stands with President George H. W. Bush and U.S. ambassador to the Soviet Union Robert Strauss during a White House press conference in August, 1991, to discuss the coup by Soviet hard-liners to remove Mikhail Gorbachev from power. (AP/Wide World Photos)

See also Bush, George H. W.; Cheney, Dick; Cold War, end of; Elections in the United States, 1992; Foreign policy of the United States; Gulf War; Middle East and North America; Powell, Colin; Russia and North America.

■ Baker v. Vermont Identification Vermont Supreme Court decision Date Decided on December 20, 1999

The Vermont Supreme Court’s unanimous ruling extended to same-sex couples the right to treatment equivalent to that of traditionally married couples. Three same-sex couples applied for and were denied marriage licenses in Vermont under the rationale that the dictionary definition of “marriage” as well as the legislative intent indicated a union between

a man and a woman. The couples submitted that the denial of marriage licenses abridged one of their basic constitutional rights. Each sued their respective towns, and the state of Vermont moved to dismiss the lawsuits on the grounds that no relief could be granted for the plaintiffs’ grievances. The trial court granted defendants’ motion, ruling that the marriage statutes could not be interpreted as allowing same-sex marriages and that the statutes were constitutional because they furthered the public interest by promoting a link between procreation and child rearing. After an initial dismissal by the Vermont Superior Court in 1997, plaintiffs appealed and presented their arguments before the Vermont Supreme Court. That court held unanimously that the state could not deprive same-sex couples of the statutory benefits and protections conferred on persons of the opposite sex who choose to marry.

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Having determined that Vermont marriage statutes excluded same-sex couples from marrying, the court rejected the state’s argument that same-sex marriages would harm citizens by weakening the link between marriage and child rearing. Responding to an argument that potential lack of interstate conformity might result from a legal recognition of same-sex marriages in Vermont, the court pointed out that Vermont allowed for certain marriage contracts not recognized by other states, such as first-cousin marriages, and noted that such concerns had not prevented the passage of similarly unique laws allowing same-sex couples to adopt. Further, the court held that the state is required to extend to same-sex couples the benefits and protections that flow from marriage, whether the goal is procreation or some equivalent domestic partnership. Dismissing other arguments, such as those concerning the “stability” of same-sex couples, the court held that that reasoning was too nebulous or speculative to be considered. That contention would not justify the inequalities placed on those couples in permanent relationships. The same situation could exist as well in male-female partnerships. Impact The decision led to the state’s and the nation’s first civil union law, intended to provide committed same-sex Vermont couples with the benefits and obligations parallel to those afforded to married heterosexual couples. In the years following this decision, most states in the United States have confronted the issue of same-sex marriage with varying results. Further Reading

Eskridge, William N. Equality Practice: Civil Unions and the Future of Gay Rights. New York: Routledge, 2002. Mello, Michael. Legalizing Gay Marriage. Philadelphia: Temple University Press, 2004. Wolfson, Evan. Why Marriage Matters: America, Equality, and Gay People’s Right to Marry. New York: Simon & Schuster, 2004. Marcia J. Weiss Defense of Marriage Act of 1996; Domestic partnerships; Egan v. Canada; Homosexuality and gay rights; Marriage and divorce.

See also

■ Balanced Budget Act of 1997 Legislation aimed at reducing the federal deficit and increasing the solvency of many social programs Date Signed into law on August 5, 1997 Identification

This act made several changes, particularly to the Medicare program. During the 1990’s, the Clinton administration and the U.S. Congress made great strides toward eliminating the record budget deficits that they inherited. This was accomplished through a number of shifts in policy and the enactment of new laws aimed at reducing the deficit and moving the nation toward a budget surplus. Among these pieces of legislation was the Balanced Budget Act of 1997 (P.L. 105-33). This was an omnibus bill, meaning that it contained several (sometimes diverse) subjects or provisions in a single bill. The act included provisions dealing with food stamps, housing, children’s health, Medicaid, and even the auctioning of recaptured space in the television broadcast spectrum. However, the primary focus of the act was the Medicare program. In fact, the Balanced Budget Act made roughly 240 changes to the Medicare program alone, and these changes were expected to result in cost savings of approximately $115 billion. The bulk of the savings were to come from two primary areas: a change in the growth rate of reimbursements for fees for service providers and an increase in the out-of-pocket expenses paid by program beneficiaries in the form of higher premiums and copayments for services. In addition, the act added something called Medicare + Choice (now Medicare Part C) as an alternative to the traditional Medicare Parts A and B, which recipients had enjoyed since the inception of the Medicare program. The “choice” was that the act increased the number of private insurance carriers that could contract with the government to give options for senior citizens receiving Medicare. While the option to add a supplemental, private plan allowed for the possibility of getting wider coverage with lower out-ofpocket expenses, it also made the system more complex for beneficiaries. Impact If the sole goal of the Balanced Budget Act of 1997 was fiscally related, it would appear that the

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act has been a success, as federal expenditures to Medicare were reduced. However, the act had an impact on people as well as dollars. Many physicians were adversely affected by the change in payments to providers, and there is a feeling that many people, especially those with longer-term acute conditions, might be left without the same access to care that they may have once enjoyed, because the lower payments led to fewer physicians accepting Medicare patients. Moreover, the addition of Medicare + Choice made the system more complex, and many advocates for the elderly feel that the system has become too cumbersome for a great number of senior citizens (beneficiaries of the program) to understand—especially when coupled with Medicare Part D, added in 2003. Further Reading

Rivers, Patrick A., et al. “The Impact of the Balanced Budget Act of 1997 Act on Medicare in the U.S.A: The Fallout Continues.” International Journal of Health Care Quality Assurance 15, no. 6 (2002): 249254. Tannenwald, Robert.“Implications of the Balanced Budget Act of 1997 for the ‘Devolution Revolution.’” Publius 28, no. 1 (Winter, 1998): 23-48. U.S. Congressional Budget Office. Budgetary Implications of the Balanced Budget Act of 1997. Washington, D.C.: U.S. Government Printing Office, 1997. Jeffrey S. Ashley Clinton, Bill; Conservatism in U.S. politics; Demographics of the United States; Gingrich, Newt; Health care; Health care reform; Liberalism in U.S. politics; Medicine; Social Security reform; Welfare reform.

See also

■ Ballet Definition

A classical, theatrical, narrative form of

dance Ballet in the 1990’s was a blend of classical technique, traditional repertory, and expanded concepts of dance, creativity, and innovation. The 1990’s witnessed many historical milestones in the world of ballet. Several of the major American ballet companies celebrated anniversaries of years of

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successful performance, participating in international celebrations. The New York City Ballet Founded by George Balanchine and Lincoln Kirstein, the New York City Ballet is the largest ballet company in the United States. The company is committed to sustaining Balanchine’s beliefs about ballet and its presentation. In 1990, Peter Martins assumed full responsibility for the company’s activities. In 1992, he established the Diamond Project, which enabled choreographers to create new ballets while still adhering to the dictates of classical ballet. In 1993, in commemoration of the tenth anniversary of Balanchine’s death, the company performed an entire season of Balanchine’s works in chronological order. The company celebrated its fiftieth anniversary in 1998. The entire 1998 winter and spring seasons were devoted to the celebration, with the performance of more than one hundred ballets. The San Francisco Ballet Formed in 1933 as a regional company, the San Francisco Ballet achieved national status at the beginning of the 1990’s. In 1991, the company performed in New York after a twenty-six-year absence. This performance received extraordinary praise for its purity and vitality. The classical style of the dancers and the choreography exhibited the influence of Balanchine on the company’s artistic director Helgi Tomasson, a former lead dancer for Balanchine. The company returned to dance in New York three more times during the decade; performances were given in 1993, 1995, and 1998. In May of 1995, the San Francisco Ballet was the host for UNited We Dance, an event commemorating the fiftieth anniversary of the signing of the United Nations Charter. The company staged three major classical ballets during the 1990’s, The Sleeping Beauty in 1990, Romeo and Juliet in 1994, and Giselle in 1999. American Ballet Theatre The 1990’s was a period of reaffirmation of the American Ballet Theatre’s dedication to maintaining its large and eclectic repertory of ballets, including classical, early nineteenth century, and contemporary. In 1990, upon the resignation of Mikhail Baryshnikov, Jane Hermann and Oliver Smith became artistic directors and established a program aimed at maintaining the company’s tradition, which had evolved under Lucia Chase and Oliver Smith and had continued under Baryshnikov,

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while enriching the company with innovation. In 1992, Kevin McKenzie, the company’s principal dancer, became artistic director and not only reiterated the company’s dedication to its tradition but also emphasized its role in disseminating dance throughout the world. The Joffrey Ballet was founded by Robert Joffrey and Gerald Arpino as a company presenting a distinctively American visualization of dance. Arpino, originally lead dancer and then choreographer for the company, became artistic director in 1988 after the death of Joffrey. During the 1990’s, he continued the legacy of the company with a repertory including traditional ballets and new works that added new dimensions to the dance form. In 1993, he choreographed and produced Billboards, a rock ballet danced to the music of Prince. In 1995, he moved the company to a permanent home in Chicago and renamed it the Joffrey Ballet of Chicago. In 1996, in keeping with the company’s tradition of performing socially significant ballets, Arpino employed an all-female group of choreographers to create Legends, a ballet about women.

The Joffrey Ballet

During the 1990’s, the Cincinnati Ballet was under the direction of four different artistic directors. In 1992, the company celebrated its thirtieth-anniversary season with new complete productions of Romeo and Juliet and Swan Lake. In 1993, the company celebrated its twentiethseason anniversary of performing The Nutcracker. The year 1996 was a very eclectic year for the company as it staged both classical and contemporary ballets, including Balanchine’s Jewels and Agnes de Mille’s Rodeo. From 1996 through 1999, the company staged premiere performances of eighteen ballets, including a new Nutcracker, The Princess and the Pea, and Beyond Innocence. The Cincinnati Ballet

Alvin Ailey American Dance Theater The Alvin Ailey American Dance Theater has played an important role in expanding the definition of ballet. Since the 1970’s, when Ailey choreographed The River for American Ballet Theatre, Ailey and his company have contributed innovative work to the world of ballet. During the 1990’s, Masazumi Chaya, associate artistic director, staged The River for the Colorado Ballet, the Pennsylvania Ballet, and the Florida Ballet. He staged Flowers for the State Ballet of Missouri.

In 1994, two former principal Ailey dancers, Dwight Roden and Desmond Richardson, founded Complexions Contemporary Ballet, composed of both classical and contemporary dancers. The company, which prides itself on being America’s first multicultural dance company, draws its choreography and performance from the full range of dance techniques. In 1995, the company, with its blending of ballet, modern dance, and other dance forms, received The New York Times Critics’ Choice Award. In 1997, co-artistic director Richardson danced the lead role in American Ballet Theater’s premiere performance of Othello. In 1998, he danced in the Broadway musical Fosse.

Complexions Contemporary Ballet

Impact In the 1990’s, ballet became a more fully eclectic dance form. While the companies continued to perform the classical ballets inherited from the Russian tradition, they also added new ballets to their repertoires. These new creative works included elements from modern dance and jazz dance and were performed to various types of contemporary music. During this period, the influence of George Balanchine continued to dominate both ballet technique and choreography. Further Reading

Greskovic, Robert. Ballet 101: A Complete Guide to Learning and Loving the Ballet. New York: Limelight Editions, 2005. Discusses how a ballet is choreographed, rehearsed, and performed. Recounts story lines of fourteen standard repertoire ballets. Kaye, Elizabeth. American Ballet Theatre: A TwentyFive-Year Retrospective. Kansas City, Mo.: Andrews McMeel, 1999. Defines what constitutes a ballet company. Offers an in-depth look at the McKenzie era. Ramsey, Christopher, ed. Tribute: Celebrating Fifty Years of New York City Ballet. New York: William Morrow, 1998. Excellent for Balanchine’s influence on ballet. Includes a preface by Peter Martins. Shawncey Webb Broadway musicals; Cirque du Soleil; Classical music; Music.

See also

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■ Barkley, Charles Identification Professional basketball player Born February 20, 1963; Leeds, Alabama

Other than Michael Jordan, Barkley may have been the best NBA player of the 1990’s. Furthermore, his candid, often brash public image was the antithesis of Jordan’s carefully contrived superstar persona.

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single-season statistical averages in points, rebounds, and field-goal percentage while in Philadelphia, his best all-around season was in 1992-1993. He averaged 25.6 points, 12.2 rebounds, and 5.1 assists—a career high—per game. He was named the league’s most valuable player (MVP) and led the Suns to an NBA Finals showdown with Michael Jordan’s Chicago Bulls. The Suns were defeated in six games in Barkley’s only appearance in the NBA Finals. In the same year, a Nike advertisement in which Barkley insisted that he was “not a role model” added to his image as an outspoken renegade. However, his statement was lauded by Vice President Dan Quayle as a summons to family values. As were most of his comments, Barkley’s statement was misconstrued as an athlete’s denunciation of responsibility. On the contrary, Barkley noted that it was people like his mother and grandmother, who labored painstakingly to cultivate a positive and safe environ-

The self-proclaimed “ninth wonder of the world,” Charles Barkley is known as much for his verbosity as for his stellar National Basketball Association (NBA) career. Barkley joined Wilt Chamberlain, Kareem Abdul-Jabbar, and Karl Malone as one of only four players to amass 20,000 points, 10,000 rebounds, and 4,000 assists in a career. However, his on-court exploits only partially defined a persona that, like Muhammad Ali, Jackie Robinson, and Arthur Ashe, transcended the province of sport. By the end of the 1990’s, Barkley was defined by his ambivalent identity. He was both the brawling, hard-drinking iconoclast and the politically conservative elder NBA statesman. The 1990’s began inauspiciously for Barkley: He was lambasted in the national press for what became known as the “spitting incident,” following a game against the New Jersey Nets in March of 1991. Subject to incessant and fervent racial epithets from a courtside spectator, Barkley attempted to spit on the heckler. However, his saliva missed its target and landed on a girl seated nearby. Barkley credits this incident with transforming his subsequent behavior toward and interaction with fans; however, the incident contributed to the perception that Barkley was a sullen, cantankerous superstar. In 1993, Barkley emerged as a dominant player whose all-around basketball skills endeared him to a public often divided over his candor. After eight seasons with the Philadelphia Seventy-Sixers, he was traded to the Phoenix Suns in 1992. Charles Barkley of the Houston Rockets dribbles past Sam Perkins of the Seattle SuperAlthough he experienced his best Sonics in a semifinal game in 1997. (AP/Wide World Photos)

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Barry, Dave

ment for him, who should be looked to as role models. Barkley reminded a culture that increasingly deified its public figures of its own culpability. Barkley ended his NBA career with the Houston Rockets, briefly joining other NBA superstars past their prime: Hakeem Olajuwon, Clyde Drexler, and, later, Scottie Pippen. After suffering a quadricep muscle injury early in the 1999-2000 season, Barkley returned for a final game and to a Houston crowd that honored his sixteen-year career with a standing ovation. Barkley told the fans, “Basketball doesn’t owe me anything. I owe everything in my life to basketball.” Charles Barkley was an eleven-time all-star and a five-time all-NBA First Team selection. He was also a member of the “Dream Team,” the U.S. Olympic squad that won a gold medal in 1992; additionally, he was part of the team that repeated as gold medalist in 1996. Though Barkley was often labeled as selfish, it was his individualism and honesty that, ironically, made him one of sport’s great role models. In 1992, when other players’ fears caused them to ostracize Magic Johnson because of his admission that he had acquired HIV, Barkley wore Magic’s uniform, number 32, as a sign of support for a colleague. “I’m disappointed in myself that I haven’t felt the same compassion for other people stricken with [HIV] that I now feel for Magic,” Barkley explained. Michael Jordan redefined basketball in the 1990’s with an otherworldly ability and profited from his manicured and amiable public persona; he was akin to a superhero. However, Charles Barkley—powerful and efficient on the court and brash and brutally honest off it—was a figure with whom American society could identify on an everyday level. He was a spokesman for the American subconscious, at times both affable and confrontational, who used his position as a public figure to entertain and thoughtfully provoke. Impact

Basketball; Dream Team; Johnson, Magic; Jordan, Michael; Malone, Karl; Olympic Games of 1992; Olympic Games of 1996; O’Neal, Shaquille; Sports.

See also

■ Barry, Dave American humorist, newspaper columnist, and author Born July 3, 1947; Armonk, New York Identification

Barry’s newspaper columns and books have offered readers a combination of the writer’s sometimes biting commentary tempered with his trademark zany wit. Called the “funniest man in America” by The New York Times, Barry was one of the most popular writers of humor and satire during the 1990’s.

Further Reading

Barkley, Charles, and Michael Wilbon. Who’s Afraid of a Large Black Man? New York: Penguin Press, 2005. Tulumello, Mike. Breaking the Rules: A Volatile Season with Sport’s Most Colorful Team, Charles Barkley’s Phoenix Suns. Altanta: Longstreet Press, 1996. Christopher Rager

Dave Barry in 1992. (AP/Wide World Photos)

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By the beginning of the 1990’s, Dave Barry had already won a large number of fans ranging in age from teenagers to baby boomers and senior citizens. By the end of the decade, Barry’s humor columns were run in over five hundred newspapers, reaching millions of American households. As a humor columnist for The Miami Herald and as a syndicated columnist, Barry had already won national prominence as a commentator on the ironies of middle-class life in America with his 1988 Pulitzer Prize for Commentary. Much of his popularity can be attributed to his on-target, though often tending toward silly, observations on a wide range of topics from marriage to fatherhood to U.S. history and government. The range of his topics is evident even in the titles of his works. Titles such as Dave Barry Slept Here: A Sort of History of the United States (1989), Dave Barry’s Only Travel Guide You’ll Ever Need (1991), and Dave Barry’s Book of Bad Songs (1997) demonstrate the diversity of his commentary. During this decade, Barry published fifteen bestselling books in addition to his weekly columns. In 1993, he became the first humor writer to have a television series based on this life and writing air on prime-time television. The series, starring Harry Anderson as Barry, was broadcast until 1997. The prolific writer then turned his attentions toward fiction writing near the end of the decade. The 1999 publication of Big Trouble, a satiric crime novel set in South Florida, marked Barry’s entry into the world of fiction. The novel sold well and was later made into a movie starring Tim Allen. Impact Dave Barry’s success is due in large part to his ability to find humor in almost any situation. By decade’s end, Barry had become one of the most popular American humorists because of this cultural commentary and because of his unique insights into human foibles. Considered by many to be one of the most significant voices of the babyboomer generation, Barry had earned a place among the country’s most celebrated humorists. By the end of the 1990’s, Barry was still reaching new audiences with his own brand of zany humor, insightful commentary, and biting satire. Further Reading

Barry, Dave. Dave Barry Slept Here: A Sort of History of the United States. New York: Ballantine, 1989. _______. Dave Barry Turns Fifty. New York: Crown, 1998.

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_______. Dave Barry’s Greatest Hits. New York: Ballantine, 1988. Kimberley M. Holloway See also Comedians; Literature in the United States; Rock Bottom Remainders, The.

■ Barry, Marion Civil rights activist and mayor of Washington, D.C., 1979-1991 and 1995-1999 Born March 6, 1936; Itta Bena, Mississippi Identification

The arrest and conviction of Barry, a black mayor of a predominantly black city, for possession and use of cocaine turned into a racially heated debate about alleged white persecution of prominent African Americans. When Congress granted the District of Columbia limited home rule in 1973, Marion Barry, a longtime civil rights activist, won a seat on the city council in 1974 as the highest vote-getter. In 1978, he won election as mayor of Washington, D.C. Despite his repeated reelections, rumors of drug use dogged Barry. On January 18, 1990, when former girlfriend Rasheeda Moore cooperated in a Federal Bureau of Investigation (FBI) sting operation, Barry was filmed smoking crack cocaine and arrested. Shortly afterward, Barry entered the Hanley-Hazelden Center in West Palm Beach, Florida, for treatment for health concerns that included alcohol abuse. Barry and his press secretary were silent about any cocaine abuse. A planned absence of a month stretched to seven weeks when Barry transferred from HanleyHazelden to Fenwick Hall, a drug-treatment facility in South Carolina. On February 15, Barry was indicted on three felony counts of lying to a grand jury about his drug use and on five misdemeanor counts of cocaine possession. African American newspapers and radio shows portrayed the mayor as the victim of a white federal conspiracy to dethrone him. The FBI came under severe attack for using heavy-handed tactics to entrap Barry. Meanwhile, the white-controlled media, notably The Washington Post, bashed Barry in editorials and daily exposés of the criminal investigation. Barry abandoned his reelection plans after conviction on a misdemeanor. He served six months in prison.

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Baseball Further Reading

Agronsky, Jonathan I. Z. Marion Barry: The Politics of Race. Latham, N.Y.: British American, 1991. Barras, Jonetta Rose. The Last of the Black Emperors: The Hollow Comeback of Marion Barry in a New Age of Black Leaders. Baltimore: Bancroft Press, 1998. Caryn E. Neumann African Americans; Crime; Dinkins, David; Race relations; Simpson murder case.

See also

■ Baseball Definition

Professional team sport

Baseball in the 1990’s experienced considerable economic growth as new markets were created. Despite a players’ strike that led to the cancellation of the 1994 World Series, star players such as Mark Mcgwire and Sammy Sosa helped to reinvigorate the sport in the latter half of the decade.

Mayor Marion Barry speaks to reporters in May, 1996, after returning from a retreat in rural Maryland to recover from physical and spiritual exhaustion. (AP/Wide World Photos)

Always a popular politician in Washington, D.C., Barry won a seat on the city council in 1992. He won a landslide victory to a fourth mayoral term in 1994. In May, 1996, Barry abruptly took a leave from his mayoral duties to seek help at a retreat in rural Maryland and then at a more distant church facility near St. Louis, raising suspicions that he had relapsed. Barry’s hiatus occurred not long after he underwent surgery for prostate cancer, and he described himself as suffering from physical and spiritual exhaustion. He retired from politics in 1998 and aborted a run for city council in 2002 after another drug incident. He returned to the city council in 2004. Impact The Barry case made it quite apparent that many African Americans harbor a deep distrust of white public officials and that whites have difficulty understanding the depth of this distrust.

In the 1990’s, four new teams joined Major League Baseball: the Colorado Rockies, the Florida Marlins, the Tampa Bay Devil Rays, and the Arizona Diamondbacks. New stadiums in Cleveland, Baltimore, Atlanta, Chicago (White Sox), and Arlington, Texas, attracted fan attendance. In 1993, Major League Baseball attendance reached 70.3 million, a record high. The new markets proved lucrative. On April 9, 1993, the Rockies played their first home game at Mile High Stadium to a crowd of 80,227, a record attendance for baseball previously held in 1958 during a game between the San Francisco Giants and the Los Angeles Dodgers. The Rockies total attendance reached 4.48 million, and Florida had 3.06 million. Toronto had 4.1 million in the Skydome, and Camden Yards, the home of the Baltimore Orioles, attracted 3.6 million. The future of baseball, however, was challenged with a 234-day strike that spanned the 1994-1995 seasons. The strike resulted in the cancellation of the 1994 World Series. To generate greater interest for postseason play, baseball inaugurated realignment for the 1994 season, the first in twenty-five years. The American League and the National League would have three divisions: Eastern, Western, and the newly created Central. A wild-card team (the second-place finisher with the best record) would join three division leaders in an extra round of playoffs. The 1998 season in-

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cluded a transfer of the Milwaukee Brewers from the American League to the National League. The Detroit Tigers moved from the American League East to replace the Brewers in the American League Central, the new Devil Rays became part of the American League East, and the new Diamondbacks filled a position in the National League West. Further maneuvering to gain fan appeal occurred in 1997 with the inauguration of interleague play. The first round of interleague games in 1997 indicated a success, as attendance was up by 35 percent. Baseball in the 1990’s included a number of foreign-born players, making up 19 percent of all players and hailing from 197 countries. In 1992, the Toronto Blue Jays, managed by Cito Gaston, became the first Canadian team to win the World Series. On August 16, 1996, the New York Mets and San Diego Padres played a regular-season game in Monterey, Mexico, the first regular-season game played outside the United States and Canada. In 1993, Bob Watson was named general manager of

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the Houston Astros, becoming the first African American ever to hold that post in the major leagues. In 1996, as general manager of the New York Yankees, Watson became the first African American general manager to guide a team to a World Series championship. On April 15, 1997, a crowd of 54,047 attended the fiftieth anniversary of Jackie Robinson’s major-league debut with the Brooklyn Dodgers. Commissioner Bud Selig announced that Robinson’s number, 42, would be permanently retired on all major-league teams. Notable records were achieved in the decade. On May 1, 1991, Rickey Henderson of the Oakland Athletics broke the all-time base-stealing record with his 939th career stolen base. On September 6, 1995, Cal Ripken, Jr., of the Baltimore Orioles broke the record of 2,130 consecutive games played, a record that was held by Lou Gehrig. It took the thirty-fiveyear-old Ripken thirteen years to set the new record, beginning on May 30, 1982. Gehrig’s streak began on June 1, 1925, and ended on April 30, 1939.

Texas Rangers pitcher Nolan Ryan, age forty-four, waves to the crowd after his seventh no-hitter on May 1, 1991. (AP/Wide World Photos)

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Player Salaries In 1990, the average player salary was $597,537; in 1992, the average rose to $1,028,667, and by 1997 the average was at $1,380,000. Team payrolls skyrocketed in the 1990’s. In 1995, the Yankees had the highest payroll, $54,889,849, and the Cincinnati Reds were second with $46,763,886. The World Series champion Atlanta Braves had $46,423,444, the fourth highest. The lowest salary belonged to the Montreal Expos, with $12,956,557. The Yankees’ average salary was $2,000,271, compared to the average major-league salary of $1,110,766. The average salary of the Expos was $750,840. In 1998, the Orioles had the highest payroll, $70,408,134; the Yankees were second, with $63,159,901. The Expos were the only team to have a team payroll below $10 million, with $9,202,000. Individual player salaries burgeoned during the 1990’s. In 1993, Cecil Fielder of the Tigers received a five-year deal worth $36 million. Barry Bonds signed as a free agent with the Giants to a six-year contract worth $43,750,000. In January, 1996, the Seattle Mariners made Ken Griffey, Jr., the highest-paid player ever with a four-year, $34 million contract. However, in November, 1996, Albert Belle became the highestpaid player by signing a five-year, $55 million contract with the White Sox. In 1997, Sammy Sosa signed a four-year deal for $42.5 million with the Chicago Cubs, and on August 10, 1997, Greg Maddux inked a five-year deal guaranteeing him $11.5 million per year with the Braves. On December 10, 1997, National League Cy Young Award-winner Pedro Martinez of the Expos became baseball’s highest-paid player when he signed a $75 million, six-year contract with the Boston Red Sox. Even draft selection players received lucrative signing bonuses. On August 11, 1996, pitcher Kris Benson of Clemson University became the highest-paid draft choice ever when he signed a $2 million bonus with the Pittsburgh Pirates, but in November of 1996 Tampa Bay signed a high school pitcher for a record $10.2 million bonus. Labor and Management Relations Baseball in the 1990’s included a number of owner and player disputes. Owners were determined to roll back salaries through some form of salary-cap arrangement, to curtail salary arbitration, and to cut down some of the other gains that players had made. The players had one weapon, to strike. On February 15, 1990, baseball owners announced that spring training

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camps would not open as scheduled. Previous lockouts had taken place in 1973 and 1976. The lockout was a result of an unresolved dispute over salary arbitration. As a result, the thirty-two-day lockout resulted in a season opening that was one week late. Baseball’s four-year collective-bargaining agreement expired on December 31, 1993. Baseball owners introduced a salary cap as a means to curtail the rising contracts offered to players as a result of free agency. Negotiations continued into the 1994 season without any agreement. On July 28, 1994, the Major League Baseball Players Association executive board unanimously approved August 12 as the date for a strike. It was the third work stoppage in the past twenty-three years. The dispute focused on a salary cap, free agency, salary arbitration, and minimum salaries. Shortly after the strike began, the owners offered an alternative to salary caps by proposing a luxury tax, which would be levied on team payrolls exceeding $51 million. On September 14, 1994, the baseball season was canceled by the owners after thirty-four days of the players’ strike. For the first time since 1903, there would be no World Series. As the strike continued into 1995, President Bill Clinton urged both owners and players to resolve their differences by February 6. Meanwhile, on January 1, 1995, baseball owners locked out the sixty-four American and National League umpires. On April 2, after 234 days of strike, the players and owners came to an agreement. The season would begin on April 26, and teams would play 144 games instead of 162. League play opened with replacement umpires to fill in for the sixty-four umpires who were locked out. On May 1, the owners ended the lockout after reaching a five-year agreement. As a result of the players’ strike, owners lost revenue estimated at between $800 and $900 million; players lost $350 million in salary, and a total of 921 regular-season games were canceled, as well as playoffs and the World Series. Statistics for the 1995 season showed that attendance was down 21 percent from 1994. Pitching Performances In 1990, there were seven no-hitters (excluding performances of fewer than nine innings) pitched; 1991 also saw seven no-hitters. In only two seasons, pitchers had surpassed the number of no-hitters thrown in the 1980’s (thirteen). Four pitchers threw perfect games: Dennis Martinez, Kenny Rogers, David Wells, and David Cone.

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On May 1, 1991, Nolan Ryan pitched his seventh career no-hitter; at age forty-four, he became the oldest pitcher to throw a no-hitter. On September 22, 1993, Ryan pitched his final game. His career spanned twenty-seven years, and he left baseball as the all-time strikeout leader, with 5,714. There were four seasons in which pitchers compiled 300 or more strikeouts. Curt Schilling had 319 strikeouts in 1997 and 300 in 1998. Pedro Martinez came in second with 305 strikeouts in 1997. In 1999, Randy Johnson compiled 364, while Martinez had 313 strikeouts. Maddux won an unprecedented four straight National League Cy Young Awards in the 1990’s; Roger Clemens received three Cy Young Awards in the 1990’s. The 1990’s for the most part was a hitting decade. In 1992-1993, the batting average jumped from .256 to .266, home runs from 1.44 to 1.77 per game. In 1996, a major-league record seventeen players each hit forty or more home runs, topping the previous mark by eight players established in 1961. A total of eleven players hit fifty or more home runs in the 1990’s. In 1998, Sammy Sosa and Mark McGwire embarked on a home run race that would break the season home run record set by Roger Maris in 1961. On May 23, McGwire slammed his twenty-second and twenty-third home runs. By July 11, McGwire had thirty-eight, and he was joined by Sosa, who had thirty-five, and Ken Griffey, Jr., who had thirty-seven. On July 12, McGwire reached the forty home run mark faster than any other player in history. By July 25, there were several contenders for the record held by Maris: Sosa with thirty-seven, McGwire with forty-three, Griffey with forty, Greg Vaughn with thirty-seven, and Andres Galarraga with thirty-three. On August 20, McGwire reached fifty home runs, becoming the first player to hit fifty for three consecutive years. By August 31, Sosa and McGwire had fiftyfive home runs. On September 1, McGwire tagged number fifty-six, breaking the National League record set by Hack Wilson sixty-eight years before. On September 8, he broke Maris’s record with his sixtysecond home run. On September 12, Sosa hit his sixtieth; the following day, he hit two home runs and passed Maris. On September 7, McGwire reached seventy home runs. Sosa ended the season with sixtysix. The home run race was indeed responsible for restoring interest and excitement in baseball.

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Dominant Teams The Yankees had three World Series appearances during the decade, winning in 1996, 1998, and 1999. The Braves made it to the championships five times, winning only in 1995. The Blue Jays appeared twice and won on both occasions, in 1992 and 1993. In 1991, the World Series included two teams, the Braves and Minnesota Twins, who had finished last the previous year. In 1995, the Cleveland Indians, considered by some as one of the best teams in the major leagues, compiled a record of 100-44. The Indians had six .300 hitters as well as Albert Belle, who had a batting average of .317, fifty home runs, and 126 runs batted in (RBI). In 1993, the Braves had a pitching staff that included Greg Maddux (20-10), Tom Glavine (22-6) and Steve Avery (18-6). Impact The 1990’s demonstrated the economic effect of a prolonged work stoppage on baseball, but it also demonstrated how baseball was capable of recovering from a devastating strike and regaining fan appeal with exciting performances on the playing field. The 1998 home run race demonstrated the important connection between baseball performance and fan appeal. Further Reading

Koppett, Larry. Koppett’s Concise History of Major League Baseball. Rev. ed. Carroll & Graf, 2004. Chronicles the long history of baseball, from its beginnings in the nineteenth century to the present day. Miller, Marvin. A Whole Different Ball Game: The Inside Story of the Baseball Revolution. Chicago: Ivan R. Dee, 2004. As executive director of the Major League Baseball Players Association from 1966 to 1983, Miller provides insight on the relationship between players and owners in regard to collective bargaining. Solomon, Burt. The Baseball Timeline. New York: Dorling Kindersley, 2001. Provides narratives for 1990’s events in baseball. Staudohar, Paul D. “The Baseball Strike of 1994-95.” Monthly Labor Review 120, no. 3 (March, 1997): 2429. Reviews the economic impact of the baseball strike of 1994. Thorn, John, et al. Total Baseball: The Official Encyclopedia of Major League Baseball. 7th ed. Kingston, N.Y.: Total Sports, 2001. Precise statistical information of players and teams during the 1990’s. Tygiel, Jules. Past Time: Baseball as History. New York:

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Oxford University Press, 2000. Provides an interpretative narrative on American history as reflected in the development of baseball. Voigt, David Q. American Baseball. 3 vols. University Park: Pennsylvania State University Press, 1983. Perhaps the most in-depth history of baseball available. Ward, Geoffrey C., and Ken Burns. Baseball: An Illustrated History. New York: Alfred A. Knopf, 1994. Accompanying text to the popular Ken Burns series on baseball. The final chapter concludes with a discussion of baseball’s future. Alar Lipping Baseball realignment; Baseball strike of 1994; Griffey, Ken, Jr.; Home run race; McGwire, Mark; Ripken, Cal, Jr.; Sosa, Sammy; Sports.

See also

■ Baseball realignment Major League Baseball’s reorganization of leagues and expansion of the playoff system Date 1994 The Event

In undergoing realignment, Major League Baseball broke with tradition and laid the groundwork for future expansion and interleague play. By realigning the American League (AL) and National League (NL), baseball officials ended the twodivision arrangement that had existed since 1969. Under the new plan, each league divided its fourteen teams into three divisions: Western, Eastern, and the newly created Central Division. The three division champions and the team with the next best record (the wild-card team) advanced to a best-offive playoff series. The respective winners from each league continued on to the AL and NL League Championship Series, with the winners moving on to the World Series. The plan also opened the door for regular season interleague games, as officials sought to exploit geographic rivalries (such as MetsYankees, Cubs-White Sox). In addition, the plan corrected some long-standing geographical oddities by moving Atlanta from the Western Division to the Eastern and St. Louis and the Chicago Cubs from the Eastern to the Central Division. The old alignment was as follows: AL Western— California, Chicago White Sox, Kansas City, Minne-

sota, Oakland, Seattle, Texas; AL Eastern—Baltimore, Boston, Cleveland, Detroit, Milwaukee, New York Yankees, Toronto; NL Western—Atlanta, Cincinnati, Colorado, Houston, Los Angeles Dodgers, San Diego, San Francisco; NL Eastern—Chicago Cubs, Florida, Montreal, New York Mets, Philadelphia, Pittsburgh, St. Louis. The new alignment became the following: AL West—California, Oakland, Seattle, Texas; AL Central—Chicago White Sox, Cleveland, Kansas City, Milwaukee, Minnesota; AL East—Baltimore, Boston, Detroit, New York Yankees, Toronto; NL West— Colorado, Los Angeles, San Diego, San Francisco; NL Central—Chicago Cubs, Cincinnati, Houston, Pittsburgh, St. Louis; NL East—Atlanta, Florida, Montreal, New York Mets, Philadelphia. In giving the game a facelift, baseball officials hoped to counter the growing competition from other major sports leagues, particularly professional football and basketball. They also looked to avoid the prospect of declining network television revenues, which threatened to exacerbate the sport’s serious financial problems. In doing so, officials shunned the arguments of baseball traditionalists who claimed that the owners were diminishing the importance of the regular season in favor of more playoffs simply for the purpose of creating additional sources of revenue. As it turned out, the plan was not fully implemented in the 1994 season, since the players’ strike on August 12 led to the cancellation of the remainder of the season, including the entire postseason. Impact Major League Baseball’s decision to realign leagues underscored the game’s growing dependency on television broadcast revenues. The plan followed in the footsteps of other major professional sports to restructure leagues and expand playoff systems to meet the expense of burgeoning payrolls. Further Reading

Chass, Murray. “Our Irrational Pastime: Division Setup Still Not Set Up.” The New York Times, January 11, 1994, p. B10. Costas, Bob. Fair Ball: A Fan’s Case for Baseball. New York: Broadway Books. 2000. William H. Hoffman See also

Baseball; Baseball strike of 1994; Sports.

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■ Baseball strike of 1994 A 234-day work stoppage by Major League Baseball players during the regular season Date August 12, 1994, to April 2, 1995 The Event

Labor-management disagreements prematurely ended the 1994 baseball season and delayed the beginning of the 1995 season. The strike resulted in the cancellation of the 1994 World Series and disillusioned many of the sport’s fans. The baseball strike of 1994 came as a result of failed negotiations between Major League Baseball (MLB) and the Major League Baseball Players Association (MLBPA) to establish a new collective-bargaining agreement (CBA). On seven previous occasions in the 1970’s and 1980’s, attempts to renegotiate the CBA had resulted in a strike. Although the CBA expired in December, 1993, the owners and players’ union agreed to begin the 1994 season while a deal was negotiated. On June 14, the owners presented their proposals for changes to the CBA. In the new agreement, owners wanted to implement a team salary cap and revenue sharing, which would transfer money from the most financially successful teams to the least profitable. Other proposals would decrease the profit share of the players from 56 percent to 50 percent, remove salary arbitration for players not eligible for free agency, and allow teams to retain free agents by matching contract offers from other teams. Donald Fehr, executive director of the MLBPA, estimated that the agreement proposed by the owners would cost the players $1.5 billion over the course of a seven-year deal. Fehr made a counteroffer, which for all practical purposes would have maintained the status quo, keeping salary arbitration and free agency as they had been and raising the minimum salary. Although negotiations continued for two months, neither side made substantial concessions. The Players Walk Out Under federal law, if the two sides did not reach an agreement by the end of the baseball season, the owners could declare an impasse in negotiations and unilaterally implement a salary cap. Rather than allow that to happen, on August 12 the MLBPA went on strike. The timing of the strike resulted in maximum financial loss for the owners. Although the players had received most of

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their yearly salary by August, the cancellation of the baseball playoffs would cost the owners 75 percent of their television revenues. Still, the players’ union and the owners were unable to reach an agreement, and a month after the strike began, Acting Commissioner Bud Selig announced that the remainder of the baseball season, including the playoffs, would be canceled. The 1994 season was the first time since 1904 that the World Series had not been played. At the end of 1994, owners declared negotiations at an impasse and established a salary cap. In response, the MLBPA filed a grievance with the National Labor Relations Board (NLRB), stating that the owners had not negotiated in good faith. The NLRB ruled in the favor of the union, and on March 31, 1995, a federal court ordered MLB to operate under the provisions of the previous CBA until a new agreement could be reached. While the NLRB considered the union’s grievance, the owners worked to begin the 1995 season using replacement players. However, problems soon arose with the plan, as Baltimore Orioles owner Peter Angelos refused to employ replacements and as MLB ran into roadblocks with labor law in both the United States and Canada. As the owners confronted these issues, the NLRB ruling nullified any need for replacement players. On April 26, the 1995 season began, eight months after the players went on strike. Although the 1995 and 1996 seasons were played without any additional work stoppage, the union and the owners did not agree on a new CBA until October, 1996. Both sides obtained a partial victory, as the plan contained provisions for revenue sharing, as well as a luxury tax collected from the teams with the top-five payrolls, but also kept free agency and salary arbitration much as they had been. Although intended to take the place of a salary cap, the luxury tax had no obvious effect on players’ salaries, which continued to rise. Additionally, the agreement allowed for two expansion teams for the 1998 season, a partial repeal of MLB’s antitrust exemption, and the creation of the Industry Growth Fund to promote baseball around the globe. Impact The baseball strike had a negative impact on both attendance and revenues. The players and the owners each lost hundreds of millions of dollars during the strike, and the dissatisfaction fans felt toward baseball reduced attendance after play resumed in April, 1995. Several years lapsed before at-

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Baseball strike of 1994

Baseball fans offer their two cents on the Major League Baseball labor dispute during a New York Yankees game on August 11, 1994. The strike began the next day. (AP/Wide World Photos)

tendance recovered from the strike. In 1993, more than 70 million fans attended games. In 1998, after four years of attendance between 50 and 65 million, fan turnout once again surpassed 70 million. Two events helped baseball recover from the strike of 1994-1995. First, on September 6, 1995, Cal Ripken, Jr., broke Lou Gehrig’s streak for the most consecutive games played. Ripken had long been one of the sport’s most popular players, and his surpassing Gehrig’s streak generated much excitement among fans, even those who had turned away from the game because of the strike. More important to baseball’s recovery was the home run race of 1998. That year, fans flocked to stadiums as Mark McGwire and Sammy Sosa pursued the single season home run record. Since 1998, MLB has maintained high attendance, and in 2007 turnout approached 80 million, shattering the previous record. The owners and the players’ union alike have appreciated the impact the strike had on the

sport and have since renegotiated the CBA twice without work stoppage. Further Reading

Burk, Robert F. Much More than a Game: Players, Owners, and American Baseball Since 1921. Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 2001. An analysis of the business of baseball, spotlighting the relationship between players and owners. Helyar, John. Lords of the Realm: The Real History of Baseball. New York: Villard Books, 1994. Classic study of baseball’s owners, providing a detailed account of the issues that led to the 1994 strike as well as background information about the business side of the game. Staudohar, Paul D. “The Baseball Strike of 1994-95.” Monthly Labor Review 120, no. 3 (March, 1997): 2127. A concise account of the baseball strike, concentrating on collective bargaining and the financial impact of the work stoppage.

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Basic Instinct

Zimbalist, Andrew. In the Best Interests of Baseball? The Revolutionary Reign of Bud Selig. Hoboken, N.J.: John Wiley & Sons, 2006. An account of the commissioner’s role in baseball, focusing on Selig’s tenure as acting commissioner and subsequent term as commissioner. Jacob F. Lee See also Baseball; Baseball realignment; Griffey, Ken, Jr.; Home run race; McGwire, Mark; Ripken, Cal, Jr.; Sosa, Sammy; Sports.

■ Basic Instinct Identification Erotic thriller film Director Paul Verhoeven (1938Date Released on March 20, 1992

)

This film tapped into an audience accustomed to violence and sex and made a star out of Sharon Stone.

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piction of Stone and Roxy also provoked much controversy because gay activists criticized Hollywood’s tendency to portray lesbians as twisted and evil. The other controversy in the film involves the manipulation of its audience, since the clues are ambiguous, and Tramell’s guilt or innocence is not revealed until the shocking end. The plot is so designed that either of the two possible endings would be consistent with the information the audience has. The actor most affected by Basic Instinct was Stone, an intelligent woman whose looks had relegated her to playing blond sexpots. In Basic Instinct, she is sexy, but she is also a manipulative, ambitious, dangerous bisexual woman who seems in control throughout the film. Her role allowed her to vault into the next level of performance and led to better roles in such films as Casino (1995) and Diabolique (1996). In fact, after Basic Instinct, Stone made fifteen more films during the 1990’s. Such was the ap-

In Basic Instinct, Michael Douglas plays detective Nick Curran, whose accidental shooting of two tourists has led to his going cold turkey on his favorite vices—alcohol, drugs, and sex. When he investigates a rock star’s kinky death and finds that it has been described in a novel written by the rock star’s girlfriend, Catherine Tramell, played by Sharon Stone, Curran regards Tramell as his prime suspect. When he interviews her, however, she and he start to use sexual innuendo, and he becomes infatuated with her. The film manipulates its audience as it plays with the probability of her guilt or innocence. Clouding the issue is the presence of Dr. Beth Garner (Jeanne Tripplehorn), the police department’s psychologist, who is Curran’s lover and Tramell’s former university lover, and Roxy (Leilani Sarelle), Tramell’s jealous lesbian girlfriend. Impact Basic Instinct capitalized on Douglas’s earlier performance in Fatal Attraction (1987), another film in which his desire for an attractive blond woman led to his possible demise. In Basic Instinct, however, it is Stone who has the greatest impact. In the interrogation scene at police headquarters, Stone’s character, who is not wearing underwear, flashes the two detectives, creating the most discussed sex event in film during the 1990’s. Actually, some of the sex in the original film had to be cut in order to get a rating of R, rather than NC-17. The de-

Basic Instinct’s Catherine Tramell, played by Sharon Stone. (©Bureau L.A. Collection/Corbis)

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peal of the film that in 2006 the sequel Basic Instinct II appeared, with Stone again playing crime novelist Catherine Tramell, and with Michael Glass starring in the Douglas role of a detective obsessed with a possible murderess. Further Reading

Dugan, Andy. Michael Douglas: Out of the Shadows— The Unauthorized Biography. London: Robson, 2003. Keesey, Douglas. Paul Verhoeven. Los Angeles: Taschen, 2005. Munn, Michael. The Sharon Stone Story. London: Robson, 1997. Thomas L. Erskine Film in the United States; Homosexuality and gay rights; NC-17 rating; Showgirls.

See also

■ Basketball Definition

Team sport

The sport was notable throughout the decade at various levels. Professionally, the popularity of Michael Jordan, widely considered one of the best basketball players ever, and the dominance of his Chicago Bulls were special. At the collegiate level, the National Collegiate Athletic Association’s championship tournament increased in popularity. Furthermore, for the first time, the United States fielded professional players for Olympic Games in 1992. In 1989, the International Basketball Federation (FIBA) allowed professionals to participate in the Olympics, opening the door for the United States to form a formidable team for the 1992 Games. During the 1990’s, the National Basketball Association (NBA) was dominated by the Chicago Bulls, who won six championships. At the amateur level, the National Collegiate Athletic Association (NCAA) tournament produced many great games throughout the decade and the first team to win back-to-back championships since 1973. In women’s basketball, the development of the Connecticut-Tennessee collegiate rivalry facilitated a rise in interest in the sport, leading to the creation of two professional leagues. Some analysts have expressed the view that the popularity of professional sports heavily depends on the presence of great

The Chicago Bulls Dynasty

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teams and great individual players. During the 1990’s, the NBA possessed both. These factors helped the NBA maintain a high level of popularity that had been regained during the 1980’s with the dominance of and rivalry between the Los Angeles Lakers and the Boston Celtics, led respectively by Magic Johnson and Larry Bird. By 1990, it appeared that the Celtics and the Lakers were declining, and Johnson and Bird retired within the following two seasons. For the first time since 1979, neither team made the finals. In 1990, the Detroit Pistons won their second consecutive NBA championship, defeating the Portland Trail Blazers four games to one. Known as the “bad boys” for their rough style, the Pistons featured Isiah Thomas, Bill Laimbeer, Joe Dumars, John Salley, and Dennis Rodman. Multiple events on and off the basketball court occurred in 1991, however, that signified the beginning of a new era in the NBA. On the court, the Bulls defeated the Pistons four games to none in the Eastern Conference Finals, thus ending the latter’s reign as champions. In the NBA Finals, the Bulls beat the Lakers four games to one, giving the franchise its first championship. This was the first of three consecutive and six total titles for the Bulls during the 1990’s. Unfortunately, an event off the court became a major story for the NBA. Magic Johnson announced in November, 1991, that he had contracted human immunodeficiency virus (HIV), which forced him to retire (although he returned to the NBA later). Nevertheless, he was able to compete in the 1992 Olympics and became a powerful advocate for HIV/AIDS awareness. In 1992, the Bulls won their second championship in a row with a victory over the Trail Blazers four games to two. They won their third straight title the following season by beating the Phoenix Suns four games to two. After the 1993 NBA Playoffs, however, an off-the-court event would once again affect the game. Michael Jordan’s father died tragically. Not long after the incident, Jordan decided to retire. Without Jordan, the Bulls’ attempt at four consecutive championships failed. In 1994, the New York Knicks knocked off the Bulls four games to three in the Eastern Conference Finals. The Houston Rockets, led by Hakeem Olajuwon, defeated the Knicks four games to three to win the championship. Approximately halfway through the next sea-

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son, Jordan returned to the Bulls. Despite his presence in 1995, the Orlando Magic defeated the Bulls in the Eastern Conference Semifinals. For the second straight year, however, the Rockets won the NBA title, beating the Magic four games to none. In the 1995-1996 season, Jordan’s first full season since he came out of retirement, the Bulls achieved the best regular-season record in NBA history at 7210 and continued their fantastic performance by winning their fourth championship, defeating the Seattle SuperSonics four games to two in the finals. The Bulls won their fifth and sixth championship titles during the next two seasons, ending each with a victory over the Utah Jazz four games to two. In game six of the 1998 finals, Jordan made the gamewinning shot to seize the championship. He retired after that season. At that time, Jordan was already being proclaimed by several analysts as the greatest basketball player in NBA history. During the 1990’s, he won the scoring championship seven times and the NBA regular-season Most Valuable Player Award four times. During the last season of the decade, a dispute between players and owners led to a lockout, which lasted until February, 1999. Thus, this season was approximately half the length of a normal one. At its end, the San Antonio Spurs, led by David Robinson and Tim Duncan, won their first NBA championship by defeating the Knicks four games to one. It was historically significant, as the Spurs became the first team from the former American Basketball Association (ABA) to both play for and win an NBA championship. Following the U.S. men’s basketball team’s loss to the Soviet Union in the 1988 Summer Olympics (only their second loss in the history of the Olympics), the United States fielded professionals to play in the 1992 Olympics. Dubbed the “Dream Team,” the U.S. team was composed almost entirely of NBA players, including Jordan, Bird, and Johnson. The United States easily won the gold medal by defeating Croatia 117-85, having won eight games by an average margin of forty-four points. In doing so, the United States reestablished its dominance in Olympic basketball and contributed to the growth in international interest in the sport. The United States put together another Olympic basketball team with professional players in 1996. Including Shaquille O’Neal, Charles Barkley, and

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Scottie Pippen, the United States won its second consecutive Olympic gold medal in basketball with a 95-69 victory over Yugoslavia. Men’s college basketball produced a substantial amount of excitement in the 1990’s. After losing badly to the University of Nevada, Las Vegas (UNLV), in the championship game in 1990, Duke University became the first team to win back-to-back national titles in 1991 and 1992 since the University of California, Los Angeles (UCLA), accomplished this feat in 1973. Coached by Mike Krzyzewski, Duke’s path to each championship included games that analysts consider to be a couple of the greatest in the history of college basketball. In the semifinals in the 1991 NCAA tournament, Duke played UNLV in a rematch of the previous season’s championship game. After winning the championship in 1990, UNLV had many players return the following season and produced an undefeated record entering the 1991 semifinals. Though thought to be overmatched, Duke upset UNLV 79-77 and advanced to the championship game. In the finals, Duke defeated the University of Kansas. Entering the next season, Duke had its top players returning, such as Christian Laettner, Grant Hill, and Bobby Hurley. Throughout the year, Duke was considered one of the best teams in the country, and earned one of the top four seeds in the NCAA tournament in 1992. In the regional finals, Duke met the University of Kentucky, a traditional college basketball power. In what many analysts consider one of the greatest college basketball games, Duke defeated Kentucky 104-103 in double-overtime. With Duke trailing by one point and with 2.1 seconds remaining, Hill threw an in-bounds pass threequarters the length of the court to Laettner, who made a quick shot eighteen feet from the basket as time expired, providing Duke with the victory. In the semifinals, Duke defeated Indiana University. In the championship game, Duke won easily against the University of Michigan, producing consecutive championships for a single college basketball team for the first time in nineteen years. In 1993, the University of North Carolina Tar Heels, coached by the legendary Dean Smith, won their first national championship in eleven years, as they defeated Michigan 77-71. The University of Arkansas won the national championship in 1994 with

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a 76-72 victory over Duke. In 1995, UCLA won its first national title in twenty years, as they beat Arkansas in the finals. For the first time in eighteen years, Kentucky won the national championship at the end of the 1996 season. This was the first of three straight seasons in which they made it to the championship game. In 1997, however, they lost to the University of Arizona in overtime by a score of 84-79. Arizona’s path to the national title was unique, as they became the first team to defeat three number-one seeded teams in the NCAA tournament. Though being the runner-up in 1997, Kentucky won the championship in 1998 with a victory over the University of Utah, thus giving Kentucky its second championship in three years. In 1999, the University of Connecticut Huskies won the national championship by defeating Duke. Women’s basketball received increased attention in the 1990’s. A great rivalry emerged at the collegiate level. By the end of the decade, the Universities of Connecticut and Tennessee had established their programs as the top two in the country. Coached by Geno Auriemma, Connecticut completed a perfect season at 35-0 in winning its first national championship in 1995. Legendary coach Pat Summitt of Tennessee led her teams to three consecutive national championships from 1996 to 1998, capping the last of the titles with a 39-0 record. In addition to collegiate play, the Olympics created more interest in women’s basketball. After winning the bronze medal in 1992, the United States triumphantly reemerged in 1996, winning the gold medal by defeating Brazil 111-87. The U.S. women’s basketball team was led by Sheryl Swoopes, Lisa Leslie, and Teresa Edwards. Edwards became the first three-time Olympic gold medal winner in women’s basketball. A sign of the rise in interest in women’s basketball was the creation of two professional leagues in the latter part of the decade. In 1997, the American Basketball League (ABL) and the Women’s National Basketball Association (WNBA) began their inaugural seasons. The ABL started with eight teams and eventually expanded to nine. Its existence, however, was short. In the middle of the 1998-1999 season, it suspended play and filed for bankruptcy. The WNBA has had more success. It started by making agreements with three television networks

The Rise of Women’s Basketball

to broadcast their games. Furthermore, it decided to hold its season during the summer, as there was less competition with other sports at this time of year. It also succeeded in signing Swoopes and Rebecca Lobo, two great college players. The league started with eight teams, but had twelve by the end of the 1990’s. The Houston Comets won the first three WNBA championships of the decade. Impact The Chicago Bulls’ dynasty and the fantastic performance by Michael Jordan helped the NBA maintain the high level of interest that was created in the 1980’s. Furthermore, the U.S. men’s basketball team regained its position as the preeminent power in basketball and generated greater interest in the sport on a global level. Great games in the NCAA tournament in the 1990’s helped make it one of the most popular sporting events in the country. Women’s basketball has also become more popular. At the college level, the women’s NCAA tournament received greater coverage by the media as the decade progressed. The increase in popularity of the college game, along with the success of the Olympic team in 1996, facilitated the formation of new professional leagues for women’s basketball. Further Reading

Chansky, Art. Blue Blood: Duke-Carolina: Inside the Most Storied Rivalry in College Hoops. New York: Thomas Dunne Books, 2006. A history of the evolution of the men’s basketball rivalry between these two universities. Provides a good account of some of the most exciting games between the two teams. Jordan, Michael. Driven From Within. New York: Atria Books, 2005. Details the development of Jordan’s talent and his career from his perspective as well as those closest to him. Includes comments from his mother and Dean Smith, his college coach at the University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill. Smith, Dean. A Coach’s Life: My Forty Years in College Basketball. New York: Random House, 2002. An autobiography by one of the most successful and respected coaches in the history of college basketball. Sports Illustrated. The Basketball Book. New York: Sports Illustrated Books, 2007. A written and pictorial account of the most important events in the history of the game. Includes chapters on basketball’s highlights by decade. Weiss, Dick, ed. True Blue: A Tribute to Mike Krzyzew-

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ski’s Career at Duke. Champaign, Ill.: Sports Publishing, 2005. Twenty-five friends, players, and colleagues provide their views of Duke University’s men’s basketball coach. Kevin L. Brennan Albert, Marv; Barkley, Charles; Dream Team; Johnson, Magic; Jordan, Michael; Malone, Karl; Olympic Games of 1992; Olympic Games of 1996; O’Neal, Shaquille; Sports; Women’s National Basketball Association (WNBA). See also

■ Baywatch Identification Television adventure-drama series Date Aired 1989 and 1991-2001

Often dismissed as a kitschy series pandering to a young demographic with simplistic story lines serving as an excuse to show beautiful bodies on beautiful stretches of California

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beaches, Baywatch evolved into a character-centered adventure series that treated environmental and social issues, a formula that made it the most-watched television show worldwide during the 1990’s. The original concept for a drama series based on the heroics of Los Angeles County lifeguards was pitched nearly ten years before production of Baywatch started. Baywatch debuted in September, 1989, on the National Broadcasting Company (NBC) after an encouraging late spring pilot. The show struggled, however, its creators unable to settle on a genre: Should it be a murder mystery, a rescueadventure drama, or a sexy soap opera? The show never found its audience (in addition, production costs were exacerbated by the demands of on-site shooting) and was canceled after a single season. Its star, David Hasselhoff (who played senior lifeguard Mitch Buchannon) was convinced that the show had potential and took over as executive producer. Within a year, he had marketed the series as a first-

The cast of Baywatch, with David Hasselhoff in the middle and Pamela Anderson to his left. (©Neal Preston/Corbis)

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run cable show. When the revamped Baywatch premiered, it offered savvy character-driven story lines centered on the emotional entanglements of an ensemble cast of lifeguards dramatically counterpointed with gripping beach rescue scenes that exploited virtually every danger, from shark attacks to earthquakes to terrorist explosions. The series also exploited the clichés of a Southern California beach lifestyle. Each episode featured MTV-styled montages set to hip music while cameras panned, most often in slow motion, the muscled, tanned lifeguards, male and female—a cast that came to include hot young actors including Pamela Anderson, Yasmine Bleeth, Alexandra Paul, and David Charvet. With the forty-something Hasselhoff as the éminence grise whose character grappled with the demands of single parenting, the series took off. For more than a decade, the show enjoyed unprecedented international success—measured, most notably, by The Guinness Book of World Records, which estimated the show’s worldwide audience at more than one billion at the height of its popularity. As the show’s popularity increased, however, producers (smarting under criticism of the series as lightweight) introduced stories about ocean conservation, endangered marine animals, water pollution, as well as social issues, including date rape, domestic violence, drug addiction, bulimia, and AIDS. After a decade, the show faltered into formula (despite relocating to Hawaii in its tenth year), and the constantly rotating cast became notorious for contentious backstage ego collisions. The show was canceled in May, 2001. Impact Although widely excoriated for its soft-porn ambience and its simplistic plots, Baywatch defined itself not so much by its content or by the tabloid fodder it generated but rather as a case study in the unrecognized market potential of first-run cable syndication. Like The Simpsons, The Sopranos, and South Park, Baywatch helped demonstrate how savvy marketing and adept programming could redefine the conception—and reach—of cable television.

Further Reading

Bonann, Gregory J. Baywatch: Rescued from Prime Time. Melrose, Mass.: New Millennium Entertainment, 2001. Hammond, Michael. The Contemporary Television Series. Edinburgh, Scotland: Edinburgh University Press, 2005. McCabe, Janet. Quality TV: Contemporary American Television and Beyond. London: I. B. Tauris, 2007. Joseph Dewey Cable television; Simpsons, The; South Park; Television.

See also

■ Beanie Babies Definition

Stuffed animals made by Ty, Inc.

In part because of Ty’s smart marketing, including retiring certain toy animals and collaborating with McDonald’s to promote a new line, Beanie Babies became highly collectible stuffed animals, sparking a craze in the 1990’s. In 1993, H. Ty Warner, a former Dakin stuffed animal company employee, introduced a line of small, moderately priced stuffed animals called Beanie Babies at the World Toy Fair in New York City. The original nine Beanie Babies were Legs the Frog,

R. J. Milano, McDonald’s assistant vice president for marketing, displays Teenie Beanies, miniature Beanie Babies that the fast-food chain sold in various promotions in the late 1990’s. McDonald’s ran out of the popular stuffed animals in 1997. (AP/ Wide World Photos)

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Squealer the Pig, Brownie (Cubbie) the Bear, Spot the Dog, Chocolate the Moose, Flash the Dolphin, Splash the Whale, Patti the Platypus, and Punchers (Pinchers) the Lobster. Since then, hundreds of new animals have joined the Beanie Baby family. The animals were made differently than other stuffed toys because they were filled with a combination of “beans” (PVC pellets) and stuffing. This allowed the animals to be posed and gave them a unique, soft feel. Some of the responses at their unveiling were negative, saying that the animals looked dead. Although originally not popular, by 1995 Beanie Babies had become highly collectible because of Ty Warner’s marketing strategy of retiring animals, creating new characters, and marketing them in small batches to specialty shops rather than large toy stores. The Beanies grew increasingly popular and, in 1997, the Ty company collaborated with McDonald’s for the first time and manufactured Teenie Beanies, miniature versions of famous Beanie Babies, which were included in Happy Meals. Ty Warner ended Beanie Baby production in 1999 but reintroduced the Beanie Baby line in 2000. Impact The Beanie Baby craze really took off in 1996 with the retirement of eleven Beanies. The toys became increasingly difficult to find in stores and were being sold on the secondary markets for prices from two to twenty times their original cost. They became so collectible because of their limited availability and their “hang tags” and “tush tags.” Both tags have gone through many variations; the hang tags contain the animal’s name and a poem about the animal. The older the hang tag, the more valuable the Beanie Baby. Throughout the 1990’s, Ty Warner continued to develop new Beanies, including special editions, such as the 1998 Princess Bear in honor of Princess Diana, the proceeds of which went to charity. Other special Beanies have included a series of NASCAR bears, national bears, and other charity Beanies. Because of their tremendous popularity, there are books, Web sites, conventions, and collectors clubs devoted to Beanie Babies that survived through the 1990’s and into the next decade. Further Reading

Fox, Les, Sue Fox, and Jeanette Long. The Beanie Baby Handbook. Midland Park, N.J.: West Highland, 1998.

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Holmes, Karen, ed. Ty Beanies Tracker. 3d ed. Braintree, Mass.: Bangzoom, 2007. Stowe, Holly, and Carol Turkington. The Complete Idiot’s Guide to Beanie Babies. New York: Alpha Books, 1998. Leslie Neilan See also

Fads; Pokémon franchise; Toys and

games.

■ Beauty and the Beast Identification Animated film Directors Gary Trousdale (1960-

) and Kirk Wise (1958) Date Released on November 13, 1991 The eighteenth century romantic French fairy tale “Beauty and the Beast” is a familiar story that has been shared in many different languages throughout the world. In 1991, Walt Disney Pictures released a magnificently created and carefully marketed animated film based on the tale, the first full-length animated feature ever to be nominated for a Best Picture Oscar. Disney’s thirtieth animated movie, and the fifth one based on a classic fairy tale, Beauty and the Beast was one of the company’s first animated features to be produced with Computer Animation Production System (CAPS) software, which allowed artistic drawings to be scanned into computers and then electronically painted and enhanced with background scenery. This technique helped create colorful characters and lush background that appealed to the visual senses. In this film, Disney brought these fantastic illustrations to life with wonderful songs and excellent casting that have amazed audiences. As the movie opens, the Beauty, Belle (voice of Paige O’Hara), runs through the streets while reading a book. Her heart is anywhere but in the French town where she resides with her father, Maurice (Rex Everhart), an inventor. The smart, strongminded, yet childlike girl has a modern spirit that rejects the advances of Gaston (Richard White), a selfcentered, vain man who cannot believe that Belle does not swoon over him. After Maurice loses his way in the forest and finds shelter in a castle, he is taken captive by the Beast (Robby Benson), a prince under the spell of an angered enchantress because of his

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stubborn pride. Belle bargains for her father’s release from imprisonment in the enchanted castle in exchange for her own captivity. Disney’s portrayal of the castle’s inhabitants, including Lumiere (Jerry Orbach), a talking candelabra; Cogsworth (David Ogden Stiers), a chatting British clock; Mrs. Potts (Angela Lansbury), a warm and friendly teapot; and her son, Chip (Bradley Michael Pierce), a cracked teacup, are charming inspirations that show Disney at its finest. Beauty and the Beast appealed to people of all ages, drawn to the lively characters, rich imagery, and captivating music that made the film an instant classic. Impact Beauty and the Beast drew large audiences, earned numerous awards, created demand for keepsake merchandise and games, and was the first fulllength animated feature ever to be nominated for an Academy Award for Best Picture (losing to The Silence of the Lambs). The film won two Academy Awards, for Best Music, Original Score (Alan Menken), and Best Music, Original Song (Menken and Howard Ashman). Lansbury sang the Oscar-winning song for the ballroom dance scene. On April 18, 1994, the Palace Theatre in New York City opened the Broadway production of Disney’s Beauty and the Beast. It played there until September 5, 1999, and then moved to Lunt-Fontanne Theatre. From 1995 to 1999, the American Broadcasting Company (ABC) ran a children’s series titled Sing Me a Story with Belle. In 19971998, Disney released two short children’s videos with the Beauty and the Beast premise. The romantic Disney series continues to enchant audiences around the world. Further Reading

Beck, Jerry. The Animated Movie Guide. Chicago: Chicago Review Press, 2005. Finch, Christopher. The Art of Walt Disney: From Mickey Mouse to the Magic Kingdom. Rev. ed. New York: Harry N. Abrams, 2004. Frantz, Donald, and Sue Heinemann. Disney’s Beauty and the Beast. New York: Hyperion, 1995. Cynthia J. W. Svoboda Academy Awards; CGI; Film in the United States; Theater in the United States.

See also

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■ Beauty Myth, The Identification

International best-selling feminist

book Author Naomi Wolf (1962Date Published in 1991

)

Wolf’s attack on advertising and the media in her first, controversial book was used by feminists to motivate women to unite and was castigated by critics as inaccurate, historically incorrect, and paranoid. Naomi Wolf graduated from Yale University in 1984 and received a Rhodes Scholarship to Oxford University. She wrote for such publications as The New Republic, Glamour, Ms., Esquire, The New York Times, The Wall Street Journal, and The Washington Post but is perhaps best known for her first book, The Beauty Myth: How Images of Beauty Are Used Against Women, published in 1991. In The Beauty Myth, Wolf castigated beauty advertising, which emphasizes the need for every woman to use products to ensure that she is a “beauty.” More important, she pointed out that the quest for beauty pits women against each other and that this culture of divisiveness prevents them from uniting to fight for their real needs: child-care programs, effective antidiscrimination laws, parental leave, reproductive choice, fair compensation, and genuine penalties against sexual violence. According to Wolf, these changes can come not from men or the media but from women recognizing and working for their common needs. In a review of the 1990’s, Wolf defined feminism as “women’s ability to think about their subjugated role in history, and then to do something about it.” She said that the twenty-first century would see the End of Inequality (her caps) only if women decide to change it. As a group, women can lose their future, she warned, because women have been trained to see themselves as having no claim upon their history. Writing in The New York Times Magazine on May 16, 1999, Wolf noted many new landmarks for women but warned that women were at a turning point as the decade ended. The 1990’s made feminism mainstream, she said, but she warned that at the beginning of a new century it could either crest further or recede as women once again fail to do what they must. Impact During the 1990’s, Wolf followed The Beauty Myth with Fire with Fire: The New Female Power

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and How to Use It (1993) and Promiscuities: The Secret Struggle for Womanhood (1997). No subsequent work, however, had the impact of The Beauty Myth, which The New York Times called one of the seventy most significant books of the twentieth century; HarperCollins published a tenth anniversary commemorative edition in 2002. The original was an international best seller, and its impact may be best judged by the backlash (defined in a book of that name by Susan Faludi, published the same year) it produced. Its title and theme have become synonymous with continued work by feminists against the political system and the culture that they claim uses women’s insecurities to prevent them as individuals and as a group from realizing their full potential. Further Reading

Faludi, Susan. Backlash: The Undeclared War Against Women. New York: Crown, 1991. Wolf, Naomi. The Beauty Myth: How Images of Beauty Are Used Against Women. New York: HarperPerennial, 2002. _______. Fire with Fire: The New Female Power and How to Use It. New York: Fawcett Columbine, 1993. Erika E. Pilver

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Brown; Planned Parenthood v. Casey; Reno, Janet; Roberts, Julia; Schlessinger, Dr. Laura; Sex and the City; Sheehy, Gail; Sontag, Susan; Take Our Daughters to Work Day; Thomas, Clarence; Vagina Monologues, The; Victoria’s Secret; Women in the military; Women in the workforce; Women’s rights; Xena: Warrior Princess; Year of the Woman.

■ Beavis and Butt-Head Creator Mike Judge (1962) Identification Animated television comedy series Date Aired from March 8, 1993, to November 28,

1997 A blunt look at American youth culture, this series attempted social commentary on the bleakness of American life while poking fun at the cultural icons of the time period.

Beavis and Butt-Head debuted on MTV as a film short on the network’s program Liquid Television. MTV contracted Mike Judge, the creator of the two characters, to develop the concept into a regular program. The show centers on its title characters, two adolescent residents of fictional Highland, Texas, who spend their time watching television (while See also Culture wars; Faludi, Susan; Family and commenting on and mocking the programs they Medical Leave Act of 1993; Health care; Hill, Anita; watch), filling idle time while not in school, and enLewinsky scandal; Marriage and divorce; Murphy gaging in senseless and destructive behavior. The characters interact with a variety of town residents, all of whom demonstrate some sort of personality flaw that reinforces the empty existence that Beavis and Butt-Head live. Beavis and Butt-Head spend their time without any adult supervision. Although not related, the two live in the same house without any reference to who or where their parents are. When not watching television and offering their own unique critique of music videos (heavy metal is their favorite; soft rock “sucks”), Beavis and Butt-Head attend school surrounded by socially detached fellow students and ineffective teachers. Their primary educators include an overly sensitive liberal and an overly aggressive Beavis, right, and Butt-Head from the movie Beavis and Butt-Head Do America conservative, overseen by an incom(1996). (Hulton Archive/Getty Images)

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Bernardin, Joseph Cardinal

petent administrator. Both characters are employed at a fast-food restaurant, where they continue to work despite their utter lack of intelligence or responsibility. Other town residents include a variety of people who either live shallow existences like Beavis and Butt-Head or are too busy pursuing materialism to care about the future of the title characters. Critics of Beavis and Butt-Head differed on the symbolism and impact of the show. To some observers, Beavis and Butt-Head represented the typical American teenager—uneducated, self-centered, and shallow. Other critics saw Beavis and Butt-Head as the product of an America that had lost is moral compass. Two boys were violent, cynical, and stupid because that was the culture around them. Despite not receiving any great critical acclaim, Beavis and Butt-Head was a commercial success, generating a compilation album of their favorite songs titled The Beavis and Butt-Head Experience (1993) and a feature film, Beavis and Butt-Head Do America (1996). The animated characters also appeared on The David Letterman Show, at the Oscars, and on the cover of Rolling Stone magazine. Impact While the show’s run was not particularly long, the program had considerable cultural impact. The grainy animation, slang, and intentionally offensive content was a model for later programs aimed at younger audiences. While the social commentary of the show was often lost on critics, its popular appeal elevated the show to a minor cult status. Further Reading

Cooper, Cynthia A. Violence on Television: Congressional Inquiry, Public Criticism, and Industry Response—A Policy Analysis. Lanham, Md.: University Press of America, 1996. Sun, Douglas. “ ‘Change It! This Sucks!’ Beavis and Butt-Head, Idiot Savants of Cultural Criticism.” In New Directions of American Humor, edited by David E. Sloane. Tuscaloosa: University of Alabama Press, 1998. Steven J. Ramold See also Cable television; MTV Unplugged; Music; Real World, The ; Simpsons, The; South Park; Television.

■ Bernardin, Joseph Cardinal Roman Catholic archbishop of Chicago Born April 2, 1928; Columbia, South Carolina Died November 14, 1996; Chicago, Illinois Identification

Bernardin’s position as leader of the largest Catholic diocese in the United States enhanced his abilities to shape Catholics’ thinking on a number of social issues, but his handling of sexual abuse accusations (including one against himself ) made him a figure of great controversy as he protected the Church’s right to carry out its own program of disciplining offenders. Joseph Bernardin’s ascendancy within the Catholic Church was rapid and highly public. The son of Italian immigrants, he grew up in Columbia, South Carolina, where he became a priest in 1952. Only fourteen years later, he was made a bishop, serving first as an auxiliary in Atlanta and later as archbishop of Cincinnati. He achieved national attention for his work as general secretary and later president of the National Council of Catholic Bishops, where he promoted policies calling for respect for life and abolition of all nuclear weapons. In July, 1982, Bernardin was named archbishop of Chicago, a diocese then racked with financial scandal. Elevated to the Catholic Church’s College of Cardinals a year later, over the next decade he strived to restore confidence among Catholics in his diocese while working across the nation to promote programs of social justice and respect for life. In 1991, however, the diocese became the focal point of national interest in the growing number of scandals involving sexual abuse by priests. Bernardin acted quickly to investigate charges against several priests, setting up a commission to look into these and other allegations; eventually he removed dozens of priests from their pastoral duties. In the fall of 1993, however, he became the target of allegations made by Steven Cook, who claimed Bernardin had abused him when Cook was a seminarian in the Cincinnati diocese. Bernardin moved swiftly and openly to deal with these charges, proclaiming his innocence on the Cable News Network (CNN) and in numerous other interviews. Eventually, Cook withdrew the charges, and the two were reconciled. In 1995, Bernardin learned that he had pancreatic cancer. An operation in July was initially deemed successful, and he returned to work, publicly com-

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mitting himself to a new role as chaplain to the sick. While personally ministering to people suffering from cancer and other diseases, he became an activist lobbying for strong public policies against assisted suicide. Bernardin insisted that life was a gift from God, who alone should decide when it should be taken away. Unfortunately, while he was working on this new initiative, the cancer returned, and Bernardin died less than two years after the disease had been discovered. Impact Bernardin’s leadership on social justice issues and his efforts to highlight the plight of the sick and to emphasize the sanctity of human life helped bring about a revision in Catholic thinking on those matters. His aggressive pursuit of sexual offenders among the priesthood temporarily quelled concerns about this issue. Later revelations of abuse, however, indicated that problems were more widespread and proved that the Church’s initial response had been inadequate. Further Reading

Berry, Jason, and Gerald Renner. Vows of Silence: The Abuse of Power in the Papacy of John Paul II. New York: Free Press, 2004. Kennedy, Eugene. This Man Bernardin. Chicago: Loyola Press, 1996. Laurence W. Mazzeno Religion and spirituality in Canada; Religion and spirituality in the United States; Scandals.

See also

■ Beverly Hills, 90210 Identification Television drama series Producer Aaron Spelling (1923-2006) Date Aired from October 4, 1990, to May 17,

2000 Originally intended to focus on twin teenagers who moved to Beverly Hills from Minnesota and are desperate to fit in, the show evolved into an ensemble series, following the twins and their friends from adolescence into adulthood. The series Beverly Hills, 90210 dealt with such social issues as race relations, AIDS, eating disorders, and rape. Although the show was set in Beverly Hills, an icon of extreme wealth and glamour, its mostly young viewers found that even the “beautiful people” have problems. Viewers could identify with the

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characters, while vicariously sharing in their privileged lifestyles. The show also began the trend of dramatic series centered on the lives of young adults, inspiring such new shows as Dawson’s Creek, The O.C., and One Tree Hill. Beverly Hills, 90210 helped the fledgling Fox network survive by offering first-run summer episodes, captivating viewers who sought alternatives to repeat programming and winning fans to such attractive stars as Jason Priestley (who played Brandon Walsh), Shannen Doherty (Brenda Walsh), Luke Perry (Dylan McKay) and Jennie Garth (Kelly Taylor). By focusing on the children of millionaires rather than on the millionaires themselves, the series was a departure for producer Aaron Spelling, who had previously targeted older viewers in such series as Dynasty and Fantasy Island. Centered on a popular high school clique, the show struck a chord with young adults who did not necessarily fit such a profile themselves. To realize that these privileged teenagers did not lead charmed lives but rather had to cope with common troubles engendered a sense of unity among viewers who became invested in the characters’ lives. Young people—and their parents—tuned in to learn how their fictitious counterparts handled problems that they themselves were facing. The show neither shied away from such formerly taboo subjects as teenage sexuality and alcoholism nor offered pat solutions. Typical 1980’s sitcoms had featured peripheral characters plagued by problems they resolved in single episodes, never to be discussed again. Beverly Hills, 90210, however, created story arcs in which main characters dealt with such issues in a realistic manner and time frame. Furthermore, these issues— from drug addiction to cult membership—molded characters’ lives and actions long after the issues were resolved. As viewers may have identified with the characters’ problems, so may they have shared in their struggles to move beyond them. Spanning the entire decade, the show exhibited the fashions, technology, and music of its period. The rich are often the earliest adopters of the latest trends, and so it was in Beverly Hills, 90210. As soon as Steve Madden shoes and baby-doll dresses appeared in magazines, the show’s characters were wearing them. No sooner did cellular phones appear than did the characters own them. Long before the Internet was mainstream, characters were using it to do email, meet people, and do research. Hit musical acts

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The stars of Beverly Hills, 90210 (from left): Tori Spelling, Jason Priestley, Shannen Doherty, Brian Austin Green, Luke Perry, Gabrielle Carteris, Ian Ziering, and Jennie Garth. (©Roberts Mikel/Corbis Sygma)

such as Duncan Sheik and Monica headlined at the show’s nightclub, The Peach Pit After Dark. Impact The show’s willingness to tackle controversial subjects rendered it more than just a superficial teenage series. It not only popularized trends of the decade but also spawned similar programs such as its spin-off, Melrose Place, and Dawson’s Creek, but they never matched the show’s popularity and longevity. Another spin-off, 90210 , premiered in 2008 and included Garth and Doherty. Further Reading

Holmes, Venice. The Beverly Hills 90210 Guide. East Lansing, Mich.: New King, 1993. McKinley, E. Graham. Beverly Hills, 90210: Television, Gender, and Identity. Philadelphia: University of Pennsylvania Press, 1997. Spelling, Aaron. Aaron Spelling: A Prime-Time Life. New York: St. Martin’s Press, 1996. Noelle K. Penna

AIDS epidemic; Cell phones; Drug use; Education in the United States; E-mail; Fashions and clothing; Friends; Internet; Music; Sex and the City; Television.

See also

■ Bezos, Jeff Identification Founder of Amazon.com Born January 12, 1964; Albuquerque, New

Mexico In making Amazon.com a successful retailer based on the Internet, Bezos proved the viability of electronic commerce. Jeff Bezos was one of the pioneers of the digital commercial revolution and one of the great success stories of the late 1990’s. By the middle of the decade, the Internet was no longer a bastion of scientists and university students. After America Online allowed its users direct connections to the Internet, followed by

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the rise of the independent commercial Internet service providers, large numbers of ordinary people had Internet access. The development of the World Wide Web and graphical browsers made using the Internet far less intimidating. Bezos was the youngest senior executive at the financial firm D. E. Shaw when he saw the commercial potential of these changes. Before the Internet age, starting a retail sales business inevitably meant major investments in hardware and facilities. However, if one’s “store” were a site on the World Wide Web, one would need space only for warehousing and for fulfilling orders. Furthermore, one would no longer be limited to a set number of physical locations: The store could be accessed from any place that boasted an Internet connection and at any time. In order to develop his business plan, Bezos studied mail-order companies. A visit to the American Booksellers Association annual conference earned

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him valuable connections and information. He left D. E. Shaw and moved to Seattle, where he could find a large number of people with technical experence. Working from the garage of a rented home, he set up the first Amazon.com Web site and went online as a bookseller in 1995. Within a year, established booksellers were taking notice of this start-up, and in 1997 Amazon.com went public. However, Bezos remained a warm, personable man even as the success of his company made him wealthy. This approachability has distinguished him from other technology leaders such as Bill Gates and Steve Jobs, whose prickly personalities and refusal to accomodate laypeople have earned them reputations as difficult people with whom to do business. Impact When Jeff Bezos founded Amazon.com, e-commerce was still a theoretical concept. However, his determination not only made it a reality but also proved that a business selling over the Internet could have strong advantages over traditional “bricks-and-mortar” stores. His far-reaching cultural and commercial influence was recognized in 1999 when the thirty-four-year-old entrepreneur was named Time magazine’s person of the year. Further Reading

Brackett, Virginia. Jeff Bezos. Philadelphia: Chelsea House, 2001. Leibovich, Mark. The New Imperialists: How Five Restless Kids Grew Up to Virtually Rule Your World. Upper Saddle River, N.J.: Prentice Hall, 2002. Ramo, Joshua Cooper. “Why the Founder of Amazon.com Is Our Choice for 1999.” Time, December 27, 1999, 50-51. Leigh Husband Kimmel See also Amazon.com; Business and the economy in the United States; Computers; Dot-coms; Gates, Bill; Internet; Jobs, Steve; Silicon Valley; World Wide Web.

Jeff Bezos. (AP/Wide World Photos)

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Biosphere 2

■ Biosphere 2 An artificially enclosed ecosystem experiment Date September 26, 1991-September 26, 1993; March 6-September 6, 1994 Identification

Although this experiment proved to be overly ambitious and beset with difficulties from the beginning, it captured the public’s imagination and contributed useful data to a variety of fields, including ecology, space science, medicine, and agriculture. In name, Biosphere 2 took second place only to Biosphere 1, the Earth’s ecosystem. Located in the Arizona desert and reminiscent of the classic sciencefiction film Silent Running (1972), the three-acre complex made up the largest closed system ever built. It was designed for an ambitious one-hundredyear study and contained a quarter-acre ocean complete with a coral reef, a mangrove wetland, a savannah grassland, and a fog desert in addition to a three-quarter-acre agricultural system. The buildings were designed and built by Margaret Augustine and her Biospheric Design Corporation. After extensive testing, the hermetic sealing of the complex set a world record with less than 10 percent leakage, making it thirty times more airtight than the space shuttle. Heating and cooling were managed by circulating water through an independent piping system, and electrical power came from a natural gas energy center through airtight connections. Mission 1 began on September 26, 1991, when, as millions watched on television, an eight-person crew entered the complex for a twoyear stay. One of the crew members was a medical researcher and doctor, Roy Walford. The other crew members were Jane Poynter, Taber MacCallum, Mark Nelson, Sally Silverstone, Abigail Alling, Mark Van Thillo, and Linda Leigh. To inaugurate the experiment, an international environmental symposium, “Biospheric Challenges: Impacts on the Global Environment,” was convened by the project’s science consultants. The symposium attracted more than a hundred international scientific leaders representing, among others, World Wildlife Fund, Earth Island Institute, Royal Botanical Gardens, and the National Aeronautics and Space Administration’s Goddard Space Flight Cen-

The First Mission

ter. Members of the media declared the experiment the most exciting scientific venture since the Apollo program. Darker days were ahead, however. During the fall and winter of 1992-1993, the oxygen level in the complex began an unexpected decline, and carbon dioxide levels fluctuated dramatically. These phenomena were explained in part by lack of sunlight. During those months, the area experienced one of the cloudiest periods on record, due in part to an exceptionally strong El Niño current. The diminished sunlight adversely affected photosynthesis and the associated gas exchange. As an ergonomic experiment, the oxygen levels were allowed to drop to about 14 percent, comparable to an altitude of 14,000 feet. Oxygen was then injected into the system on January 13, 1993. Although Dr. Walford attributed the purportedly excellent health of the crew to their low-calorie, lowfat, nutrient-dense diet, crew members later remembered continual hunger during their two-year stay. While they were able to produce 80 percent of their food, they later said they had eaten so many sweet potatoes their skin took on an orange tint. The remaining 20 percent of their food supply was grown in the complex before the mission. After the apparently successful completion of the two-year mission, it was discovered that a carbon dioxide scrubber had been surreptitiously added to the facility and that there had been some unreported supplies brought in. In addition to these breaches in scientific etiquette, many observers were irked that the project’s management suppressed everything about the crew’s personal and social interactions. Consequently, the project that had once been so highly touted by the press quickly became the victim of overstatement and an object of a media feeding frenzy. One report, for instance, said the Mission 1 crew left the complex gasping for air, and another called the project the laughingstock of the scientific community. It was against this backdrop that the ill-fated Mission 2 began on March 6, 1994. The crew’s captain was Margaret Augustine’s husband, Norberto Romo. Its other members were John Druitt, Matt Finn, Pascal Maslin, Charlotte Godfrey, Rodrigo Romo (not related to Norberto), and Tilak Mahato. The mission was intended to last ten months.

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A few weeks later, on April 1, the managers of the project, Space Biospheres Ventures, were served a restraining order by armed federal marshals, and control of the project was handed over to their financier, Edward P. Bass. In order to deal with the storm of criticism surrounding the venture and with hopes of restoring its scientific credibility, Bass had replaced the management team with a group of highly respected scientists. On April 3, outside air was unexpectedly introduced into the complex. Abigail Alling and Mark Van Thillo, both crew members from Mission 1, were accused of breaking into the complex and damaging seals that allowed outside air to contaminate the experiment. Both Alling and Van Thillo had been barred from the premises. Alling later said that she and Van Thillo broke the seals and entered the complex in order to inform the crew members inside of the dismissal of the management team and to give them an opportunity to leave the experiment. She said all the crew members chose to stay and within an hour the biosphere was resealed. On June 1, Space Biospheres Ventures was dissolved, and on September 6, Mission 2 was ended four months early. On that date, the system was opened to the outside world and the sealed biosphere experiment was ended. It has not been resumed. Bass kept control of the project through the scientific committee he had installed until January, 1996, when a five-year lease of the facility was granted to Columbia University for use as an educational facility. Impact The knowledge gained by this experiment has proven valuable to researchers seeking to improve agriculture and nutrition, to build space or underwater habitats, or simply to understand human stresses in close environments. Even though the unrealistic expectations, the hyperbole, and the circuslike atmosphere at the beginning of the experiment destined the project to end in disappointment, taken in its entirety its long-term scientific impact has been positive. Further Reading

Alling, Abigail, et al. “Lessons Learned from Biosphere 2 and Laboratory Biosphere Closed Systems Experiments for the Mars On Earth Project.” Biological Sciences in Space 19, no. 4 (2005): 250-260. Discusses the “Mars on Earth” project in view of the Biosphere 2 experiment.

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McKinney, Michael L., Robert M. Schoch, and Logan Yonavjak. Environmental Science: Systems and Solutions. 4th ed. Sudbury, Mass.: Jones & Bartlett, 1998. Offers a comprehensive overview of environmental science that is designed to be accessible to nonmajor undergraduates. A companion Web site includes study aids and exercises. Illustrations, index, glossary. Poynter, Jayne. The Human Experiment: Two Years and Twenty Minutes Inside Biosphere 2. New York: Thunder’s Mouth Press, 2006. Insider’s account by a crew member details what life was like in Biosphere 2. Photographs, bibliography, and index. Wayne Shirey See also Agriculture in the United States; Air pollution; Architecture; Earth Day 1990; Earth in the Balance; Global warming debate; Inventions; Mars exploration; Organic food movement; Science and technology; Space exploration; Sustainable design movement; Water pollution.

■ Blair Witch Project, The Identification Horror film Directors Daniel Myrick (1964-

) and

Eduardo Sánchez (1968) Date Released on July 30, 1999 Shot on a very low budget and marketed aggressively, this motion picture was a critical success and set a record as the most successful independent film ever produced. The Blair Witch Project was the creation of Daniel Myrick and Eduardo Sánchez, two film students at the University of Central Florida. Inspired by the sensational, heavily fictionalized “documentaries” then being broadcast on television, they constructed an elaborate background story involving a witch, Elly Kedward, living in the eighteenth century Maryland town of Blair. Kedward, so the story went, was responsible for the deaths of many of the town’s children, and her malign influence has continued to the present day, apparently inspiring later atrocities. Myrick and Sánchez then hired Heather Donahue, Joshua Leonard, and Michael C. Williams to play three young, grungy filmmakers investigating the supposed witch. Given only the most general instructions, they ad-libbed their dialogue and spent a grueling week in the woods. The resulting twenty

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imaginations. Nothing supernatural is shown and no explanations are offered, but the film’s constantly shifting images, its characters’ banal, repetitious obscenities, and its general sense of dread are highly unsettling. Shot on a budget of $35,000, the film debuted at the Sundance Film Festival and was signed for distribution by Artisan Entertainment. Thanks in large part to a canny publicity campaign on the Internet, it grossed $248,300,000 worldwide by the end of 1999—a record for an independent film. Impact The Blair Witch Project was the subject of cover stories in Time and Newsweek and quickly became a cult favorite among Generation X and Generation Y audiences. It was praised by prominent critics, and although it failed to win any Academy Award nominations, it is generally acknowledged as the most inventive horror film since The Shining (1980). Further Reading Eduardo Sánchez, left, and Daniel Myrick, directors of the hugely successful film The Blair Witch Project. The film grossed more than $1.5 million in its limited-release opening weekend and became one of the highest-grossing independent films of all time. (AP/Wide World Photos)

hours of footage were then edited down to less than an hour and a half. The three characters, named for the actors themselves, are shown interviewing several residents of the town (renamed Burkittsville) who have fragmentary knowledge of the Blair Witch legends. Subsequently the filmmakers hike deep into the woods to find the witch’s house, shooting random footage as they go, but they quickly become lost, disoriented, and frightened. They encounter sinister arrangements of stones and constructions of sticks, and after Joshua disappears one night, Heather and Michael hear what sound like his anguished cries. Eventually the two come across a crumbling, deserted house, but as they search it frantically the film comes to a jolting, ambiguous conclusion. Ostensibly, The Blair Witch Project—a jerky, grainy assemblage shot with handheld cameras—is the students’ footage discovered a year after their disappearance. Devoid of special effects, the film succeeds by leaving virtually everything to its viewers’

Corliss, Richard. “Blair Witch Craft.” Time, August 16, 1999, 58-64. Leland, John. “The Blair Witch Cult.” Newsweek, August 16, 1999, 44-49. Smith, Sean. “Curse of the Blair Witch.” Newsweek, January 26, 2004, 56-58. Grove Koger See also Film in the United States; Generation Y; Grunge fashion; Independent films; Sundance Film Festival.

■ Blended families Family structures with two married or cohabitating adults in which at least one adult has a child from a previous relationship

Definition

During the 1990’s, the term “blended family” appeared in reference to remarriages after divorce involving children. Because of dramatic increases in cohabitation among parents with children, the term began also to include families resulting from cohabitation. Other terms for blended families include restructured families, reconstituted families, remarried families, or stepfamilies. Most stepfamilies occur when a remarried parent has a child with his or her new spouse, creating half siblings, but also form with

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children from previous unions, creating stepparents or stepchildren. The presence of a stepparent, stepsibling, or half sibling identifies a blended family. Half siblings share one biological parent, while stepsiblings do not have any biological parents in common. Family structures in the United States changed considerably from the 1960’s to the 1990’s. Declining marriage rates, increased childbearing outside of marriage, and growing divorce rates led to the prevalence of blended family forms. During the 1990’s, the proportion of children living in blended families grew. In 1991, 9 percent of children living with two parents in the United States lived in a blended family. By 2001, the percentage had increased to 14.6 percent. Many scholars feel that these percentages are low because the U.S. Census Bureau estimates only reflect the household a child lives in, not the entire network of family ties. In 1991, more children living in blended families lived with a half sibling (50.6 percent of children living in blended families; 11 percent of all children), compared to a stepsibling and/or stepparent (23.5 percent of blended families; 8 percent of all children) arrangement. Data from 1991 suggest that a higher percentage of black children (20 percent) lived in blended families than did white or Hispanic children (14 percent). In 2001, the percent of blended families did not vary by race except for Asian households. White (14.7 percent), black (16.5 percent), Hispanic (14.2 percent), and Native American (17.3 percent) households reported similar percentages of children living in blended families. Only 5.1 percent of Asian children lived in blended families, because of lower rates of out-of-wedlock childbearing and divorce in the Asian population. In 2001 as in 1991, the most common type of blending was the presence of half siblings. About 45 percent of children in blended families (10 percent of all children) reported half siblings only. Nearly 23 percent of children in blended families (7 percent of all children) live with stepparent-only family arrangements.

Demographic Trends of the 1990’s

Blended Family Adaptations In spite of structural similarities to intact biological families (two parents and children), blended families differed considerably. Blending families increased the complexity of

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family relationships, and stepfamilies faced additional unique structural challenges. Most members of the blended family have lost at least one important primary relationship, and usually one biological parent lived outside the household. At least one parental-child bond came before the relationship between the new partners. Many children in blended families were also members of a noncustodial parent’s household. Research in the 1990’s focused on the blended family as an incomplete institution within which family rules and roles, particularly the stepparental ones, were not clearly defined. In blended families, taken-for-granted rules and well-established roles of the traditional family no longer applied. Stepfamily research suggested that stepfamilies have different challenges and opportunities than intact biological ones, but described higher levels of adaptability within the family unit and reported similar levels of parental happiness, degree of conflict, and number of positive family relationships. Studies showed that adjusting to stepfamily life was a process that took two to three years to complete. The most difficult challenges facing stepfamilies often dealt with realizing stepfamilies were different from intact nuclear families and that different did not imply inferior. A substantial proportion of stable, long-term stepfamilies functioned similarly to intact first marriages, although blended families reported lower levels of cohesion than intact biological ones. Impact The shift in family structure during the 1990’s including more blended families called for redefinition of the family. The traditional family, two biological parents with children, was not the most common familial form. In the 1990’s, the greater number of blended families raised social awareness of the diversity of family forms in the United States. Considerable media and academic attention was devoted to how blended families and intact biological families differed and were the same. The blended family in the 1990’s was one of the fastest-growing family types in the United States. The Census Bureau estimated that blended families would be the most common family form in the United States by 2010. Further Reading

Coleman, Marilyn, et al. “Reinvestigating Remarriage: Another Decade of Progress.” Journal of

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Marriage and the Family 62, no. 4 (2000): 12881307. Reviews research on stepfamilies during the 1990’s, including demographic trends, remarriage relationships, the effects of blended families on children, societal attitudes toward stepfamilies, and legal issues. Demo, David A., et al. “Families with Young Children: A Review of Research in the 1990’s.” Journal of Marriage and the Family 62, no. 4 (2000): 876-895. Summarizes studies on the impact of family and household structure and parenting arrangements on the well-being of children. Fields, Jason. Children’s Living Arrangements and Characteristics: March 2002. Washington, D.C.: U.S. Government Printing Office, 2003. An overview of demographic characteristics of children living in the United States drawn from 2000 census data. Furukawa, Stacy. The Diverse Living Arrangements of Children: Summer 1991. Washington, D.C.: U.S. Government Printing Office, 1994. Provides national-level overview regarding living arrangements of children eighteen years and under in the United States. Includes detailed analysis of how each person in a household is related to all other household members for nuclear families, extended families, blended families, and adoptive families. Hetherington, E. Mavis, et al. “Diversity Among Stepfamilies.” In Handbook of Family Diversity, edited by David Demo, et al. New York: Oxford University Press, 2000. Describes stepfamilies in the United States, with an emphasis on diverse stepfamily experiences and adjustment of family members. Visher, Emily B., and John S. Visher. How to Win as a Stepfamily. New York: Brunner/Mazel, 1991. Includes both scholarly research and applied information about living in stepfamilies. Barbara E. Johnson See also Defense of Marriage Act of 1996; Demographics of the United States; Domestic partnerships; Homosexuality and gay rights; Marriage and divorce.

■ Bloc Québécois Identification

Canadian political party

The Bloc Québécois, a mainstay of French Canadian nationalism, achieved notoriety as the official opposition party in Canada’s House of Commons in 1993 and campaigned vigorously in favor of Quebec sovereignty during the Quebec referendum of 1995. The Bloc Québécois (“the Bloc,” or BQ) began as an impromptu alliance of parliamentarians from Quebec province in July of 1990. Following the breakdown of the Meech Lake Accord, which would have granted substantial concessions to the predominantly francophone province, Federal Minister of the Environment Lucien Bouchard resigned from his charge in Prime Minister Brian Mulroney’s cabinet and joined forces with Benoît Tremblay, Louis Plamondon, François Gérin, Nic Leblanc, and Gilbert Chartrand to form a political alliance. The Bloc became an official party on June 15, 1991, and promoted, with Bouchard at its helm, the aspirations of Quebec’s sovereignist movement. In a first display of strength, Bouchard’s Bloc helped turn public opinion against the Charlottetown Accord of 1992. Then, in the October 25, 1993, federal elections, the party surprised political observers when it secured fifty-four of Quebec’s seventy-five electoral districts. Surpassed only by the Liberal Party, its members held the second largest number of electoral seats in the House of Commons and, hence, became the Canadian government’s official opposition party. Among other things, this authorized the party’s leader to form a shadow cabinet and speak immediately after the prime minister or his representative in parliamentary debate. The Bloc also played a central role in the campaign for the “yes” vote during the Quebec referendum of 1995, which, had it won, would have prompted negotiations on the secession of Quebec from the rest of Canada. Ultimately, the path to sovereignty was rejected by a margin of less than one percent of the popular vote. Michel Gauthier succeeded Bouchard as leader of the party in 1996 but achieved disappointing results in public opinion polls and was replaced one year later by Gilles Duceppe. The Bloc performed moderately well in the 1997 federal election, receiving forty-four out of Quebec’s seventy-five electoral seats, but not well enough to retain its status as the

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official opposition. During the 1997-2000 term, Duceppe and his followers opposed without success passage of the federal government’s Clarity Act, which, when it became law in the year 2000, made secession from Canada more difficult. Impact In the early 1990’s, the Bloc Québécois emerged as one of Canada’s top four political parties. Its surprising success in the 1993 federal elections sent a clear message to all Canadians that the unique concerns of Quebec society, including its persistent calls for greater autonomy, could not simply be ignored. While some observers raised questions concerning the relevancy of a regional separatist party in Canadian federal politics, others cast doubt on the sincerity of the Bloc’s commitment to the sovereignty movement. By serving in Parliament and engaging in the discussion and passage of federal laws, were not the Bloc’s representatives tacitly acknowledging Quebec’s place in the Canadian federation? Further Reading

Bernard, André. “The Bloc Québécois.” In The Canadian General Election of 1997, edited by Alan Frizzell and Jon H. Pammett. Toronto: Dundurn Press, 1997. Cornellier, Manon. The Bloc. Toronto: Lorimer, 1995. Duceppe, Gilles. Question d’identité. Outremont, Quebec: Lanctôt, 2000. Jan Pendergrass Charlottetown Accord; Chrétien, Jean; Minorities in Canada; Mulroney, Brian; Quebec referendum of 1995.

See also

■ Blogs Definition

Web-based journals

Blogs evolved from simple online diaries used by few into a tool used by countless people and companies by the end of the 1990’s. They are used for diverse purposes such as news and corporate information, as well as personal use. The word “blog” is a portmanteau of the words “Web” and “log” that was coined in 1999 and adopted as both a noun and a verb. Blogs evolved from online diaries that started on Usenet in the years before the World Wide Web. With the advance of the World Wide Web, blogs evolved into continu-

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ously updated sections of a Web site that related personal aspects of a person’s life. Typically they are displayed in reverse chronological order so that the most recent events are presented first. Blogs at the time were mostly text and could have images and hyperlinks inserted. Justin Hall, who offered a guided tour of the Internet as well as personal reflections, and Jerry Pournelle, a science-fiction author, are seen as two of the earliest bloggers, starting in 1994. Two blogs, from the sites Quakeholio and Blue’s News, evolved from the computer gaming scene in the mid-1990’s. Ritual Entertainment hired a full-time blogger in 1997, making it possibly the first company to have a professional blogger. News coverage also became a key area of development for blogs when Matt Drudge established a news blog, Drudge Report, in the mid-1990’s. Their use in the areas of news and entertainment demonstrated to businesses the vast potential of blogs. The number of well-established blogs exploded in 1998, beginning with a handful to numbering in the tens of thousands by the end of 1999. The rapid growth coincided with the launch of various hosted blogging services such as Open Diary, Blogger, and LiveJournal. Open Diary was innovative in that it was the first service to allow commenting on other people’s blogs. The ability to interact with others’ blogs became a vital part of the blogging community. Another important development was the Web site pitas.com, which allowed people to maintain an easily updateable page for news about their Web site. Companies turned to the site to maintain blogs of recent corporate events for investors and consumers. Blogs quickly became part of the corporate culture, contributing to their acceptance. Impact Blogs saw explosive growth in the late 1990’s, and they were adopted for many different purposes. Corporations, entertainment industries, and news venues quickly adopted the technology, and blogs have played a significant role in the way they disseminate information. The popularity and utility of blogs has increased over time with the addition of multimedia capabilities. They have become an integral part of the Internet to the point where they number in the tens of millions. Further Reading

Hewitt, Hugh. Blog: Understanding the Information Reformation That’s Changing Your World. Nashville: T. Nelson, 2005.

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Kline, David, and Dan Burstein. Blog! How the Newest Media Revolution Is Changing Politics, Business, and Culture. New York: CDS Books, 2005. James J. Heiney Amazon.com; America Online; Apple Computer; Computers; Dot-coms; E-mail; Instant messaging; Internet; Microsoft; MP3 format; Project Gutenberg; Search engines; Silicon Valley; World Wide Web; Yahoo!.

See also

■ Bobbitt mutilation case Lorena Bobbitt mutilates her husband’s penis Date June 23, 1993 Place The Bobbitts’ apartment in Manassas, Virginia The Event

This case dominated the media and the attention of the American public for months. It also brought attention to the issue of domestic violence. Lorena Gallo came from a lower-middle-class family from Ecuador. In 1986, she immigrated to the United States on a student visa. In June of 1989, she married John Wayne Bobbitt. They bought a house

in 1990. At that time, Lorena Bobbitt was working ten hours a day, six days a week as a manicurist, making only $17,000 a year, and John was in the Marines. After his discharge from the Marine Corps on January 1, 1991, John jumped from one menial job to another. Lorena would later claim that John was very financially irresponsible and that his spending habits caused them to lose their house. According to Lorena, John was both verbally and sexually abusive during their marriage. On June 23, 1993, John came home drunk after a night of partying. Lorena stated that he demanded sex and ended up raping her. John then fell asleep, and Lorena said that she went into the kitchen to get a drink of water. Instead, she came back with a knife and lifted the sheet that was covering John and sliced off almost half of his penis. Lorena said that she left the apartment in a mental fog and decided to drive around. While driving, she realized that she had John’s severed penis in her hand and threw it out the car window into a field. Lorena later called 911 and reported John’s condition. Emergency medical personnel took him to the hospital. Other personnel looked for the severed body part in the field where Lorena said it was located. Eventually, emergency personnel found the severed penis. It was taken to the hospital and reattached during a nine-and-a-half hour surgery. Doctors felt confident that John would eventually regain full function of his penis.

Supporters of Lorena Bobbitt hold signs outside her trial on January 19, 1994. Charged with maliciously wounding her husband, who she claimed had sexually abused her, Bobbitt was acquitted two days later when the jury found her not guilty by reason of insanity. (©Jeffrey Markowitz/Sygma/Corbis)

Impact Lorena Bobbitt became an icon for women who suffered domestic violence. Her defense included insanity, depression, posttraumatic stress disorder, and battered women’s syndrome. On January 21, 1994, the jury found her not guilty by reason of insanity. The judge ordered Lorena to spend forty-five days in the custody of the commissioner of mental health for observation and diagnosis. John and Lorena Bobbitt divorced in 1995, and John continued to move from job to job. He starred in pornographic films, including John Wayne Bobbitt Uncut (1994) and Frankenpenis (1996). In 1997, he

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moved to Nevada, where he worked in a brothel and as a bartender. Lorena later made the news when she assaulted her mother. Further Reading

Davoli, Joanmarie. “Reconsidering the Consequences of an Insanity Acquittal.” New England Journal on Criminal and Civil Confinement 31, no. 1. (Winter, 2005): 3-14. Junod, Tom. “Forrest Stump.” Gentleman’s Quarterly 65, no. 3 (1995): 230-237. Pershing, Linda. “His Wife Seized His Prize and Cut It to Size: Folk and Popular Commentary on Lorena Bobbitt.” National Women’s Studies Association Journal 8, no. 3 (Fall, 1996): 1-35. Gerald P. Fisher Long Island Lolita case; Marriage and divorce; Tailhook incident; Women’s rights.

See also

Roberta Bondar. (Lyndon B. Johnson Space Center/NASA)

■ Bondar, Roberta Canadian neurologist and astronaut Born December 4, 1945; Sault Ste. Marie, Ontario, Canada Identification

Dr. Bondar’s research into space medicine and the neurological effects of spaceflight for NASA led to her serving on the space shuttle Discovery mission STS-42 in 1992, becoming the first Canadian woman and the first neurologist in space. Roberta Bondar holds a bachelor’s degree in zoology and agriculture from the University of Guelph (1968), a master’s in experimental pathology from the University of Western Ontario (1971), a Ph.D. in neurobiology from the University of Toronto (1974), and a medical degree from McMaster University (1977). After a brief stint as a teacher and several appointments in prestigious research facilities in both Canada and the United States, she began an extensive investigation under the auspices of the National Aeronautics and Space Administration (NASA) into how long-term spaceflights might help researchers to understand the causes and treatment of catastrophic neurological disorders ranging from stroke to Parkinson’s disease. She was one of the six original Canadian astronauts (and the only woman) accepted into the Canadian Space

Agency in 1984 to begin the rigorous preparation to fly in the shuttle program. Eight years later, she flew as the international astronaut on the space shuttle Discovery in January, 1992, conducting life science experiments centered on vision and nerve stress testing. After her retirement from the space agency in September, 1992, Bondar devoted enormous energy to her interest in the preservation of North America’s most extreme and most threatened ecosystems (for instance, the Canadian Arctic and the American Southwest), a passion that she expressed in a series of stunning photography books that became best sellers in both Canada and the United States. (As a child, Bondar had learned photography from her father and was long fascinated by the process of vision: Her original research was in neuro-ophthalmology.) In addition, Bondar developed a revolutionary approach to business thinking based on her long study of neurological adjustments to the particular stresses of zero-gravity travel. Her visionary approach examined business as a dynamic and corporate success as a kind of biological adaptation system that depends as much on inspiration and charisma as it does on responding to changing conditions, using the model of an often hostile space environment to shape her conception of the high-pressure corpo-

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Bono, Sonny

rate environment. Her wide success as a motivational speaker and business consultant helped shape Canadian business entrepreneurship in the late 1990’s. Impact Bondar’s medical research pioneered innovative ways to protect astronauts from the neurological impact of long-term exposure to zero gravity (critical in the era of extended space missions); in addition, her application of space research into the understanding of neurological failure altered methods of rehabilitation treatment. However, her status as a Canadian cultural figure stems more from the range of her interests and her evident passionthat touches on a variety of disciplines, defining her as a classic Renaissance woman.

Congressman Sonny Bono in 1997. (AP/Wide World Photos)

Further Reading

Bondar, Roberta. Touching the Earth. Toronto: Key Porter Books, 1994. Jenkins, Dennis R. Space Shuttle: The History of Developing the National Space Transportation System— The Beginning Through STS-75. Osceola, Wisc.: Motorbooks, 1996. Kevles, Bettyann Holtzmann. Almost Heaven: The Story of Women in Space. New York: Basic Books, 2003. Joseph Dewey Canada and the United States; Glenn, John; Lucid, Shannon; Medicine; Space exploration; Space shuttle program.

See also

■ Bono, Sonny American entertainer and politician Born February 16, 1935; Detroit, Michigan Died January 5, 1998; Heavenly Valley Ski Resort, South Lake Tahoe, California Identification

During the 1990’s, Bono developed significant legislation on copyright and wild habitat protection. He is also beloved for catchy songs that defined an earlier age.

Born to Sicilian American parents in Detroit, Salvatore “Sonny” Bono developed talents that ranged from singing and songwriting to political service. As a promotion assistant in the 1960’s for record producer Phil Spector, Bono met many artists and was inspired to continue songwriting. He married his second wife, Cherilyn Sarkisian LaPierre, better known as Cher, in 1964, and the two began collaborating. In 1965, they produced the hit single “I Got You Babe” and went on to host a television variety show, The Sonny and Cher Comedy Hour, for the Columbia Broadcasting System (CBS) from 1971 to 1974. In 1969, they had a daughter, Chastity. Five years later, the couple divorced. By this point, Bono’s songs were well known, including “The Beat Goes On” and “Baby Don’t Go.” Frustrated by the red tape he faced over placing a sign on his Italian restaurant in Palm Springs, California, Bono ran for mayor and won, serving from 1988 to 1992. People had scoffed at his mayoral bid, to which he replied that no one had thought him capable of succeeding at music, either, and he had still managed to earn many gold records. Keen on government change, he ran for a Senate seat in 1992 but lost in the Republican primary. In 1994, he was elected to the House of Representatives as a Republican representing the Forty-fourth Congressional District. During his time in office from 1995 to 1998, Bono

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worked to bring attention to the environmental problems of the Salton Sea in Southern California. In honor of his work, H.R. 3267 was named the Sonny Bono Memorial Salton Sea Reclamation Act. Another act named for him is the Sonny Bono Copyright Term Extension Act of 1998. Bono had worked on an earlier version of this act, which added twenty years to all term provisions set forth in the Copyright Act of 1976. When he died at the age of sixty-two in a skiing accident, his wife, Mary, carried on his job in Congress. His headstone quotes a line about the cycle of life: “And the Beat Goes On.” Impact Bono’s copyright legislation provided more protection for creative works, and his efforts to restore the Salton Sea raised public awareness of environmental issues. Further Reading

Bono, Chastity. Family Outing. Boston: Little, Brown, 1998. Bono, Sonny. And the Beat Goes On. New York: Pocket Books, 1992. Cher. The First Time. New York: Isis, 1998. Jan Hall Conservatism in U.S. politics; Copyright legislation; Music; Water pollution.

See also

Book clubs

Commercial organizations that sell books to members, or a group of people who read books and meet to discuss those works

Definition

Book clubs represented big business throughout the 1990’s. The New York Times reported on December 14, 1999, that for the year through October, net sales for book clubs had reached $950 million, an increase of 4.5 percent over the comparable period a year earlier. Book discussion clubs became increasingly popular, in part because of Oprah’s Book Club. Three major corporations represented the key players in the book club business during the 1990’s: Bertelsmann’s Doubleday Direct, Time Inc.’s Bookof-the-Month Club, and Rodale Press’s six holdings. Bertelsmann claimed in 1999 that together, the

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clubs boasted a combined membership of 4.5 million people. Bertelsmann International Media Company German-

based Bertelsmann is the largest book club operation in the world. In 1998, Bertelsmann’s Doubleday Direct (formerly the Doubleday One Dollar Book Club) acquired Newbridge Communications, renaming it Doubleday Select, Inc. In July of that year, Bertelsmann acquired Random House from Advance Publications, merging it with Bantam Doubleday Dell. Bertelsmann then represented the biggest trade publisher in the English-speaking world, with the United States becoming Bertelsmann’s most important market at the time. The U.S. operations of Bertelsmann included the Literary Guild and Doubleday’s book and record clubs. By December, 1999, the media conglomerate planned to consolidate a partnership with Bertelsmann’s Literary Guild and the Book-of-the-Month Club unit of Time Inc. Bertelsmann maintained a substantial stake in the online book business. In 1995, the company, together with America Online (AOL), launched the online service AOL Europe. By 1999, Bertelsmann held a 40 percent interest in Barnesandnoble.com. In the same year, Bertelsmann launched Bertelsmann Online (bol.com), the Internet book retailer. School book clubs expanded dramatically in the 1990’s, perhaps driven to some degree by pedagogic movements such as “whole language” or “literature-based” approaches to teaching and learning. These approaches focused on literature-rich learning environments, which conceivably offered major book clubs such as Scholastic, Trumpet, and Golden Book Club opportunities to grow and diversify. School book clubs continued to supply children with books and other materials throughout the 1990’s but also began supplying classrooms with literacy materials in the form of trade books for elementary literacy programs. These book clubs also began supplying miscellaneous merchandise to children. Some of the most popular serialized school book club titles in the 1990’s, such as those of the Baby-sitters Club, Sweet Valley High, and Boxcar Children mystery series, included miscellaneous merchandise such as stickers, posters, puzzles, stamps, pencils, activity sheets, computer software, and games. Book clubs also supplied children with

School Book Clubs

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so-called activity books, such as Martin Handford’s Where’s Waldo? series, which challenged young readers to find characters rather than to read about them, while at the same time inviting readers to play games, solve puzzles, and crack brainteasers. Oprah Winfrey’s Book Club In September, 1996, media personality Oprah Winfrey launched Oprah’s Book Club on her daytime program, The Oprah Winfrey Show. She would do more to popularize book discussion clubs than any other person of her time. Initially, many underestimated the potential appeal of Oprah’s Book Club, including Winfrey herself. From a relatively short ten- to fifteen-minute segment close to the conclusion of the show, the segment had grown significantly by the late 1990’s. Shows featured Oprah discussing her choice of books with a group of well-dressed women seated around a tastefully arranged dinner table or coffee table. Winfrey’s first choice, Jacquelyn Mitchard’s The Deep End of the Ocean, though selling steadily in 1996, topped The New York Times weekly best seller list within three months of the show and remained there for twenty-three weeks. Sales figures for the book were estimated at about 100,000 copies before the show aired and ballooned to 850,000 after. Winfrey’s second choice, Toni Morrison’s Song of Solomon, first published in 1977, topped The New York Times best seller list for the first time after Winfrey discussed the book on her show. Sales figures for Song of Solomon soared from 50,000 copies in circulation before the show aired to 500,000 after. Winfrey also featured the hardcover version of Morrison’s Paradise immediately after its publication in 1998. Paradise remained on the best seller list for eighteen weeks, including four weeks at number one. The “Oprah effect” raised questions about the extent to which Winfrey’s endorsement influenced sales of the books featured on her program. Evidence supported the view of Daisy Maryles, editor for Publishers Weekly, who once quipped that being one of Oprah’s Book Club picks transformed a novel from “well published and moderately successful” to “mega blockbuster.” Impact Where once mail-order companies brought the bookstore to one’s mailbox, with the development of the World Wide Web (1991) and the intro-

duction of Web browser software such as Mosaic (1993), book clubs brought the virtual bookstore to the home. The growth and development of the World Wide Web throughout the 1990’s also impacted how book club members convened to discuss books. While advancing computer technologies made it possible for more people to access book clubs, the World Wide Web also removed the need for club members to meet physically, or even in real time. Rather than meet in club rooms, homes, or community centers, more and more Americans joined virtual reading groups, communicating through e-mail, online forums, blogs, and chat rooms. Moreover, the growth in book clubs throughout the 1990’s significantly affected women. One feature common to most book clubs was the fact that most members were women. While book clubs generally encouraged many women, some of whom never read, to read regularly, such clubs also satisfied a social function, enabling women to organize collective reading. In this way, book clubs grew alongside the broader cultural movement toward selfdevelopment and self-discovery characterizing the 1990’s. Further Reading

Farr, Cecilia Konchar. Reading Oprah: How Oprah’s Book Club Changed the Way America Reads. Albany: State University of New York Press, 2005. An indepth discussion of Winfrey’s widely popular book club. Long, Elizabeth. Book Clubs: Women and the Uses of Reading in Everyday Life. Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 2003. Researched discussion of book clubs within specific social and cultural contexts, complete with ethnographic material. Strickland, Dorothy S., et al. School Book Clubs and Literacy Development: A Descriptive Study. Report Series 2.22. Albany, N.Y.: National Research Center on Literature Teaching and Learning, 1994. Report documenting a three-part study of the effect of book clubs on children’s literacy development. Sponsored by the Office of Educational Research and Improvement, Washington, D.C. Nicole Anae Amazon.com; America Online; Blogs; E-mail; Internet; Morrison, Toni; Publishing; Where’s Waldo? franchise; Winfrey, Oprah; World Wide Web.

See also

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■ Bosnia conflict Ethnosectarian civil war in Bosnia and Herzegovina Date March 1, 1992-December 14, 1995 Place Bosnia and Herzegovina, a province of the Socialist Federal Republic of Yugoslavia until 1992 The Event

The conflict marked the first appearance of genocidal aggression in Europe since the days of Nazi Germany (19331945) in which the United States made a decisive response, albeit after most of the violence had occurred.

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February 29 and March 1, Bosnia’s legislature sponsored a referendum on independence from Yugoslavia. In part because Serbs boycotted the referendum, 98 percent of the voters approved an independent Republic of Bosnia and Herzegovina, which was declared on March 5. Meanwhile, Bosnian Serb members of the Yugoslav army and paramilitary allies organized an army with backing from the Serb-dominated Yugoslav government. Croatia also agreed to support the Bosnian Croat state. The Bosnian Serb Republic then proclaimed independence on April 7, shortening its name to Republika Srpska (or Serb Republic) on August 12. Only the Republic of Bosnia and Herzegovina was accorded international recognition, however.

At the start of the conflict in Bosnia, the country was divided among Muslims (43.7 percent), Croats (17.3 percent), and Serbs (32.4 percent). Born of Croatian and Slovenian parents, Yugoslavia’s Prime Minister Josip Broz Tito (1892-1980) had a multiethThe Conflict Erupts into War Serbs claim that the nic vision for his country. After his death, ethnic rifirst war victim was a groom in a wedding procession valries increased, prompting delegates in the nawho was shot on March 1, 1992. Bosniaks claim that tional parliament from Serbia and allied provinces a Serb sniper killed a peace marcher on April 5. in 1989 to weaken the autonomy of the provinces. In Militarily superior to the other forces, the army of 1991, Croatia and Slovenia declared independence the Republika Srpska proceeded to remove nonfrom Yugoslavia, whereupon talk of Bosnia’s secesSerbs from territories that had been declared under sion increased. Fearing war, in September of 1991 its authority. Similarly, the Croatian republic sought a European Community peace conference asked to Croatize certain areas within Bosnia. The result Lord Peter Carrington and Portugal’s Ambassador was a campaign of "ethnic cleansing," whereby miJosé Cutileiro to draw up a power-sharing peace norities were either rounded up and placed in detenplan, which was ultimately rejected by the Bosnian state. The U.N. Security Council, meanwhile, authorized an arms embargo of all parties in Yugoslavia. On October 4, 1991, Serb delegates withdrew from the Bosnian parliament to form a separate legislature on October 24. In November, some Croats declared the existence of the Croatian Community of Herzeg-Bosnia (later the Croatian Republic Herzeg-Bosnia), but Bosnian Serbs in a referendum insisted on remaining within Yugoslavia. On January 9, 1992, the Serb assembly proclaimed the independence of Bosnia, specifying certain areas of Bosnia to have seceded; the constitution for the new state, the Serb ReRefugee women from the Bosnian village of Srnice hold photos of their dead or missing public of Bosnia and Herzegovina, husbands after the Srebrenica massacre in July, 1995. (Hulton Archive/Getty was proclaimed on February 28. On Images)

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tion camps or killed. Srpskan forces also mounted a forty-four-month siege of Bosnia’s capital, Sarajevo, to force the Bosnian state to recognize the Republika Srpska.

Herzegovina was signed on November 21 after intense negotiations led by U.S. secretary of state Warren Christopher. The agreement was formally adopted at Paris on December 14.

Role of the United States In June, 1992, the United States backed a Security Council resolution to redeploy a U.N. Protection Force from Croatia in order to secure the Sarajevo airport and to facilitate civilian relief by the Red Cross and other agencies. In April, 1993, the mandate was extended to protect various “safe havens”—that is, cities where all parties were to refrain from military attacks and to establish no-fly zones over Bosnia. The United States then secured North Atlantic Treaty Organization (NATO) approval to shoot down four Serbian aircraft on February 28, 1994, violating the no-fly zone, yet Srpskan forces continued to engage in ethnic cleansing. Accordingly, the Security Council approved the International Criminal Tribunal for the Former Yugoslavia (ICTY), a war crimes court. Nevertheless, Srpskan forces defied both the United Nations and the ICTY by slaughtering eight thousand Bosniak males in Srebrenica during July, 1995.

Impact Although several persons have been tried and convicted of war crimes in Bosnia by the ICTY, the court failed to deter similar crimes in Kosovo, a Yugoslav province, and in Rwanda. The Dayton Agreement, which has worked well, later provided a model for handling Kosovo.

Peace Plans Several peace plans emerged during the conflict. In January, 1993, U.N. special envoy and former U.S. secretary of state Cyrus Vance and European Community representative Lord David Owen offered a peace agreement, but the Republika Srpska rejected the plan on May 5. A plan by U.N. mediators Owen and Thorvald Stoltenberg of August, 1993, was rejected by the Bosniak government. Croats and Bosniaks even fought several skirmishes over their respective division of the spoils under the Vance-Owen plan from June, 1993, to February, 1994, when Washington succeeded in having them agree to form an alliance against the Republika Srpska. In 1994, the Republika Srpska turned down a peace plan advanced by a Contact Group (France, Great Britain, Germany, Russia, and the United States). In August, 1995, airplanes under NATO command started bombing Srpskan military positions in concert with a Croatian military advance on the ground. Contact Group pressure, including military threats from the United States, then brought Serbian president Slobodan Miloševi6 and others to a peace conference at Dayton, Ohio, where the General Framework Agreement for Peace in Bosnia and

Further Reading

Burg, Steven L., and Paul S. Shoup. The War in Bosnia-Herzegovina: Ethnic Conflict and International Intervention. Armonk, N.Y.: M. E. Sharpe, 2000. An award-winning scholarly work that examines the conflict and international efforts to establish peace. Hayden, Robert M. “Bosnia: The Contradictions of ‘Democracy’ Without Consent,” East European Constitutional Review 7 (Spring, 1998): 47-51. The author argues that the peace agreement ratifies ethnic cleansing and, in effect, provides for a weak central government that is actually two separate states. Mousavizadeh, Nader, ed. The Black Book of Bosnia: The Consequences of Appeasement. New York: Basic Books, 1996. A detailed study of the causes of the war, how the war was fought, and the aftermath; identifies where the international community failed to act in time to head off the tragedy. Michael Haas Christopher, Warren; Clinton, Bill; Dayton Accords; Europe and North America; Kosovo conflict; United Nations.

See also

■ Bowl Championship Series (BCS) An agreement between the four top college football bowls pertaining mostly to the rotation of hosting a national championship game

Definition

The agreement served as a notable attempt to determine a national champion in college football’s top division in the fairest manner without holding a playoff.

The Nineties in America

Football may be the most popular college sport in the United States. One of the least popular aspects of the game, however, is the absence of a playoff system to determine a national champion. Until the 1992 season, the sportswriters and coaches conducted separate polls at the end of the year to determine a national champion. Sometimes they were split, or controversy existed in the choice of a champion. In the 1990’s, multiple efforts were undertaken to reform the traditional system of postseason bowl games to more fairly determine a national champion without a tournament. The first effort was the Bowl Coalition, which lasted from 1992 through 1994. The second effort was the Bowl Alliance, which lasted for the next three seasons. The third and most significant effort has been the Bowl Championship Series (BCS), created at the beginning of the 1998 season. The BCS was created by the commissioners of the major athletic conferences, along with Notre Dame, a traditional college football powerhouse. It is important to note that it is not managed by the National Collegiate Athletic Association (NCAA), the primary organization responsible for intercollegiate sports in the United States. They formed an agreement with the four top bowl games (the Rose Bowl, Orange Bowl, Sugar Bowl, and Fiesta Bowl) to rotate a national championship game among them. It would likely be considered a national championship game under this system because it would involve the top two teams in the BCS poll at the end of the regular season. Prior to this system, it was possible that the top two teams would not play against each other in a bowl because of conference ties to certain bowls. After the first year in existence, the BCS formula used to determine the rankings of teams was adjusted to include five more computer polls. The new formula deciding the rankings utilized the writers’ and coaches’ polls, a strength-of-schedule rating, and eight computer polls. The goal was to minimize the role of human bias in putting together the rankings. Impact Though not without problems, the BCS has facilitated the process of holding a true national championship game between the top-two-ranked college football teams at the end of the season. Though closer to its goal of holding a game between the two best teams at the end of the season, the BCS

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has had problems. Its formula for ranking teams has been changed three times since 1998. As a result of controversial choices of teams for the national championship game following the 2000, 2001, and 2003 seasons, the role of the computers has been reduced. The writers’ poll requested not to be used in the process after the 2004 season. Further Reading

Curtis, Brian. Every Week a Season: A Journey Inside BigTime College Football. New York: Ballantine, 2004. Mandel, Stewart. Bowls, Polls, and Tattered Souls: Tackling the Chaos and Controversy That Reign over College Football. Hoboken, N.J.: John Wiley & Sons, 2007. Kevin L. Brennan See also

Football; Sports.

■ Boxing Definition

Professional prizefighting

The 1990’s saw a significant number of great fighters and great fights in all of boxing’s weight classes. It also had its share of high-profile ring tragedies and saw the growing popularity and acceptance of women in the sport. The heavyweight division began the decade with one of the great upsets in the history of the sport. In February, 1990, Mike Tyson, who had emerged as the dominant figure in the division in the late 1980’s, was knocked out in the tenth round by James “Buster” Douglas in a bout in Tokyo that was to have been a routine title defense. Tyson never regained his former status and was replaced by Evander Holyfield and Lennox Lewis as the decade’s dominant heavyweights. Another memorable moment in the history of the division occurred on November 5, 1994, when former champion George Foreman, at age forty-five, knocked out World Boxing Association (WBA) and International Boxing Federation (IBF) champion Michael Moorer to become the oldest man ever to win a heavyweight title. The lower weight divisions, as in previous decades, produced their share of great fighters during the 1990’s. In the light heavyweight division the dominant figure was clearly Roy Jones, Jr. Jones won the World Boxing Council (WBC) light heavyweight title in 1996 after having held both the IBF middle-

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weight and super middleweight titles. He remained the generally recognized light heavyweight champion for the rest of the decade and was named Fighter of the Decade by the Boxing Writers Association of America. Julio César Chávez of Mexico, Pernell “Sweet Pea” Whitaker, and Oscar De La Hoya also held superstar status during the decade. Chávez, who held versions of the super featherweight and lightweight championships during the 1980’s, dominated the light welterweight division during the early 1990’s. His bout with Meldrick Taylor on March 17, 1990, in which he stopped Taylor with two seconds left in the final round, was one of the decade’s most exciting and controversial battles. Whitaker began the decade as the generally recognized lightweight champion and won the IBF light welterweight title in 1992 and the WBC welterweight title in 1993, holding the latter until losing it to a younger and stronger Oscar De La Hoya in 1997. De La Hoya, the youngest of the three, began his professional career in 1992 and won his first title at super featherweight and lightweight in 1994. In 1996, he won the WBC light welterweight title from Chávez and the following year the welterweight title from Whitaker. He remained a dominant figure in the welterweight division until September, 1999, when he lost by decision to Felix Trinidad of Puerto Rico. De La Hoya, nicknamed the “Golden Boy,” was named The Ring magazine’s Fighter of the Year in 1995 and its best pound-for-pound fighter in 1997 and would continue his career in the super welterweight/light middleweight division in the decade that followed. In the second half of the 1990’s, a new generation of boxers—including De La Hoya and Trinidad, Lennox Lewis at heavyweight, Bernard Hopkins at middleweight, and Shane Mosley at lightweight—gradually replaced the top fighters of the earlier part of the decade. Boxing’s lightest weight divisions also produced fighters who became well known in the United States during the decade. Among the best known was Phoenix-born Michael Carbajal, who won the IBF junior flyweight title in July, 1990, and went on to fight a celebrated three-fight series with WBC titleholder Humberto González of Mexico. The first CarbajalGonzález fight—held in March, 1993, and won by Carbajal by a seventh-round knockout—was the first fight in that weight class to headline a U.S. pay-perview boxing card.

Other Aspects of the Sport Boxing saw its share of ring tragedies during the 1990’s. British middleweight Michael Watson was seriously injured in a bout with fellow British fighter Chris Eubank in 1991. While Watson made at least a partial recovery from his injuries, the same was not true of American middleweight Gerald McClellan. McClellan, who had captured the World Boxing Organization (WBO) middleweight championship in 1991 and the WBC middleweight title in 1993, suffered a severe brain injury in a fight against British boxer Nigel Benn in 1995. Although he survived, McClellan remained permanently mentally and physically impaired. The 1990’s also saw the growing acceptance of women in the sport. Christy Martin, who began her boxing career in 1989, became the best-known female boxer in the United States during the decade. After winning the WBC women’s junior welterweight title in 1993, she defended the title numerous times before finally losing it to Sumya Anani in 1998. Martin was promoted during her career by well-known boxing promoter Don King and was featured on the cover of Sports Illustrated in 1996. Martin set the stage for female boxing superstar Laila Ali, daughter of former heavyweight champion Muhammad Ali, who fought her first professional bout in October, 1999. Impact Although by the 1990’s professional boxing no longer enjoyed the lofty status it once had as a sport in American culture, it continued to produce popular fighters and big-money fights. While the heavyweight division continued as the sport’s premier division, there were popular fighters and fights in all of its weight classes during the decade. During this time period, boxing also opened its doors for the first time to women who sought to compete in what had previously been an all-male sport. Further Reading

Finger, David E. Rocky Lives! Heavyweight Boxing Upsets of the 1990’s. Washington, D.C.: Potomac Books, 2005. Covers several of the top heavyweight bouts of the decade, as well as numerous bouts involving lower-level performers. Kawakami, Tim. Golden Boy: The Fame, Money, and Mystery of Oscar De La Hoya. Kansas City, Mo.: Andrews McMeel, 1999. Biography of one of the decade’s elite fighters, who also engaged in bouts with several of the era’s other top fighters, includ-

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ing Chávez, Whitaker, and (after this book’s publication) Trinidad. McIlvanney, Hugh. The Hardest Game: McIlvanney on Boxing. Updated ed. New York: Contemporary Books, 2001. The last part of this work deals with fights and fighters of the 1990’s. While the focus is clearly on the heavyweight division, there are pieces on other top boxers of the period, including Jones, Chávez, Whitaker, and De La Hoya, as well as the Watson and McClellan ring tragedies. Scott Wright See also

Holyfield, Evander; Sports; Tyson, Mike.

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around, New Edition had splintered off into several solo directions. New Kids on the Block maintained tremendous success, fueled by the number one album Step by Step (1990). However, the group’s music was far from the only attraction marketed; everything from a Saturday morning cartoon series to lunch boxes, bedding sets, buttons, and even dolls were available to fans. Around the same time in England, Take That was being given similar treatment thanks to the group’s soulful pop sounds and handsome looks. The band crossed to American shores in 1995 thanks to the smash single “Back for Good.” After these acts helped build up steam for boy bands, the scene surged in the latter half of the decade, thanks in part to entrepreneur/record label owner Lou Pearlman. His first find was the Backstreet Boys, who broke through in 1997, followed by the like-minded *NSYNC, often considered the most visible boy bands of the period. Though the Backstreet Boys racked up over 100 million album sales and *NSYNC netted over 56 million, the pair was shadowed by 98 Degrees, who boasted 10 million album sales and members’ promise that they were not contrived by music industry moguls.

The Peak of Popularity

■ Boy bands Definition

Pop music groups featuring male

singers Though the music industry had been creating pop groups made up of male singers for several decades, the 1990’s exploded with boy bands that were marketed toward preteen and teenage demographics. Members of these acts were known for their attractive looks, vocal harmonies, slick choreography, and glistening production.

Though the term “boy band” was not officially coined until the 1990’s, male vocal groups composed of similar formulas dated back to the 1960’s, when pop act the Monkees simultaneously lit up the television screen and stage. Other early incarnations included several acts on the soul record label Motown (whose roster included the Temptations, the Four Tops, and the Jackson 5), followed by the Latin group Menudo in 1977, which featured future pop sensation Ricky Martin and continues to operate today (members are changed once they turn twenty to reflect a teenage audience). In the 1980’s, the craze heated up once again thanks to record producer Maurice Starr, who introduced New Edition to the R&B community in 1983 and New Kids on the Block to pop circles in 1986. The members of *NSYNC stand with their award for Favorite Pop/Rock New Artist at By the time the 1990’s rolled the 1999 American Music Awards in Los Angeles. (AP/Wide World Photos)

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Nevertheless, producers and executives continued searching for singers whom they could shape into similar molds, including Pearlman’s sculpting of less-enduring groups like LFO and O-Town, the

Year 1990

latter of whom formed during the ABC/MTV reality program Making the Band. Given the prefabricated nature of that selection process, the focus on fashion, and the fact that members did not write most of their songs, critics were quick to lash out against the concept as a whole. Even so, audiences (particularly teenage girls) fell Selected Boy Band Albums head over heels with the appealing packaging, fueling the fire for record labels to Title Band clone the concept (spawning the likes of Los Ultimos Heroes Menudo BBMak, Boyzone, Westlife, and Plus One, to name a few). Step by Step New Kids on the Block

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Cooleyhighharmony

Boys II Men

1992

Detras de tu Mirada

Menudo

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1994

1995 1996 1997

1998

1999

Cosmopolitan Girl

Menudo

Everything Changes

Take That

Take That and Party

Take That

Face the Music

New Kids on the Block

Imaginate

Menudo

II

Boys II Men

Nothing Else

Take That

II: Yo Te Voy a Amar

Boys II Men

Backstreet Boys

Backstreet Boys

Tiempo de Amar

Menudo

Backstreet’s Back

Backstreet Boys

Evolution

Boys II Men

Middle of Nowhere

Hanson

98 Degrees

98 Degrees

Shoved In

Hanson

5ive: The Album

5ive

15 Anos de Historia

Menudo

Home for Christmas

*NSYNC

Live from Albertane

Hanson

Menudo

Menudo

98 Degrees and Rising

98 Degrees

*NSYNC

*NSYNC

Heat It Up

98 Degrees

Invincible

5ive

LFO

LFO

Lyte Funkie Ones

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Millennium

Backstreet Boys

By the end of the 1990’s, the market had become so saturated with groups who sounded quite similar to one another that a public backlash ensued, sparked by the aforementioned criticisms, plus the music industry’s embrace of rock trends and instrument-playing acts that did not get their start as a marketing idea in a record label boardroom. Though many of the top-tier groups (like Backstreet Boys and *NSYNC) would continue to tour throughout the early 2000’s, they experimented with a more mature approach to making music and were scorned by those only interested in their earlier works. Many of the other acts associated with the time frame were hampered by personnel problems and eventually lost their record contracts, leading many to break up in the process.

A Sharp Decline in Sales

Impact Though some critics dismissed boy bands as nothing more than prefabricated groups of pretty faces, the cavalcade of groups who defined the sound and look went on to sell millions of CDs, concert tickets, and offshoot products geared toward youthful audiences. Outside of making waves with their music, the most successful boy bands were able to market to every imaginable facet of popular culture, simultaneously riding the record charts while igniting frenzied fads in the process. Despite many members of boy bands falling out of public favor, some stars birthed out of this movement have transcended those roots to evolve in solo contexts.

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Two of the most notable examples of solo stars include Robbie Williams, who broke away from Take That and has since sold over fifty-three million albums on his own, along with Justin Timberlake, the former member of *NSYNC, with over eighteen million solo album sales to date. As of 2008, a revised lineup of the Backstreet Boys remained on the road, while the New Kids on the Block also announced a potential reunion.

Subsequent Events

Further Reading

Catalano, Grace. New Kids on the Block. New York: Bantam Books, 1989. An in-depth look at New Kids on the Block’s music, the subsequent rage surrounding the group, and personal trivia about each member. Delavan, John. Boy Bands: The Hunks and Heartthrobs Conquering the Pop Music World. Syracuse, N.Y.: Benchmark Press, 2001. A close look at several boy bands that drove the 1990’s craze, including the variables that helped them find mass appeal. McGibbon, Rob. Backstreet Boys: On the Road. Philadelphia: BainBridgeBooks, 1998. Traces the Backstreet Boys’ wild ride to fame and the extreme fanfare members received all over the world. *NSYNC and K. M. Squires. *NSYNC: The Official Book. New York: Bantam Doubleday Dell Books for Young Readers, 1998. An authorized tale of *NSYNC’s time in the spotlight told from members’ perspectives. Andy Argyrakis See also

Fads; Music.

■ Broadway musicals Musical theater productions opening on Broadway

Definition

The 1990’s saw a shift on the Broadway landscape from the dominance of the British mega-musical to Disney-driven productions and revivals as well as adaptations. In the early 1990’s, Broadway was riding high off the success of British mega-musicals such as Les Misérables (pr. 1987) and The Phantom of the Opera (pr. 1988). However, a sharp decline in audiences drove producers to nostalgia-driven pieces and revivals. Beginning of the Decade: Nostalgia Successful musicals in the early part of the 1990’s embraced famil-

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iarity and nostalgia and included The Will Rogers Follies (pr. 1991), The Secret Garden (pr. 1991), and Crazy for You (pr. 1992), as well as revivals of Guys and Dolls (pr. 1950) in 1992 and Carousel (pr. 1945) and Show Boat (pr. 1927) in 1994. The Will Rogers Follies featured inventive dance numbers by Tommy Tune and a charming performance by Keith Carradine as Will Rogers. With its Busby Berkeley feel, homespun humor, and Americana designs, the production seemed to recall the movie and stage musicals of the 1930’s. It proved a solid change of pace from the British mega-musical. The 1930’s inspiration was also found in Crazy for You, a reworking of George and Ira Gershwin’s Girl Crazy (pr. 1930). With its zany staging and dynamic tap dancing choreography by Susan Stroman, the show ran for more than sixteen hundred performances. The Secret Garden, based on the beloved 1909 children’s novel, found a small but loyal audience who grew up with Frances Hodgson Burnett’s tale of a young English girl who discovers a dying garden and revitalizes it. In addition, major revivals of Broadway classics pulled audiences in with their charming nod to the past. Decline of the Mega-musicals With the emergence of the spectacle-driven mega-musical in the 1980’s, it had seemed as if the book-driven musical was a thing of the past. However, the early 1990’s saw British imports find mixed success, with many losing millions of dollars over the course of their runs. Aspects of Love (pr. 1990) lost over $8,000,000 despite its 377 performances on Broadway. The Andrew Lloyd Webber chamber opera seemed to fail under the weight of its negative press and poor word of mouth. Blood Brothers (pr. 1991), which ran for more than twenty years in Britain, lasted only 840 performances. Although it made use of popular stunt casting, it ultimately lost money on its original investment. Perhaps the most notorious money-loser was Lloyd Webber’s adaptation of Sunset Boulevard, which premiered on Broadway in 1994. Featuring stage and screen stars during its run, the production ran for 977 performances. However, both Patti LuPone, who played lead Norma Desmond in London and was promised the role should it transfer to Broadway, and Faye Dunaway, who was hired then fired when her voice did not prove strong enough, sued Lloyd Webber. New York critic Frank Rich estimated that although tickets sold moderately well, the total loss for the production, including lawsuits,

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was over $20 million, earning it the record for most money lost on a theatrical endeavor in the history of the United States. The financial shortcomings of other British productions such as Martin Guerre (pr. 1996) and Whistle Down the Wind (pr. 1996), neither of which made it to Broadway, and a handful of mega-musical copycats indicated that audiences were looking for more than spectacle. Only 1991’s Miss Saigon, which ran for ten years, was able to reverse the trend. The year 1994 brought a new producer of musicals to Broadway: Walt Disney Productions. Using a high-profile marketing campaign and riding the success of its film version, Beauty and the Beast became one of the longest-running musicals in Broadway history, with a staggering 5,464 performances over a thirteen-year run. Three years later, The Lion King, also based on a Disney film and featuring puppetry and masks by Julie Taymor, opened to rave reviews. Both Beast and Lion King brought nontheater composers to Broadway, changing the traditional “Broadway sound.”

Disney

End of the Decade Teenagers and young adults rediscovered musical theater when Jonathan Larson’s Rent opened in 1996. Based on Giacomo Puccini’s 1896 opera La Bohème, Rent, with its rock score and youthful protagonists, struck a powerful chord. A string of successful but short-lived musicals followed, including Jekyll and Hyde (pr. 1997), Titanic (pr. 1997), Ragtime (pr. 1998), and Footloose (pr. 1998). Major revivals of Chicago (pr. 1975) in 1996 and Cabaret (pr. 1966) in 1998 revitalized interest in both John Kander and Fred Ebb’s work, as well as the choreography of Bob Fosse, whose work was remounted in the dance revue Fosse (pr. 1999). Two other revivals, 1999’s Annie Get Your Gun (pr. 1946) and Kiss Me, Kate (pr. 1948), were also critically acclaimed. Impact The beginning of the decade found musicals in sharp decline. To counteract low attendance and increasing production costs, producers pushed ticket prices up from $60 to more than $80 by the end of the decade. By the end of the 1990’s, the Broadway musical seemed lost. Revivals and adaptations indicated that there was little room for original story lines. Financially, producers were more cautious and audiences more particular about paying so much for an unknown production. It was a decade of financial and artistic conservatism.

Further Reading

Block, Geoffrey. Enchanted Evenings: The Broadway Musical from “Show Boat” to Sondheim. New York: Oxford University Press, 1997. An exploration of music as a dramatic tool in twentieth century musicals. Useful for discerning stylistic differences among composers in the 1990’s. Flinn, Denny Martin. Musical! A Grand Tour. New York: Schirmer Books, 1997. A look at the history of the American musical on both stage and screen. Jones, John Bush. Our Musicals, Ourselves: A Social History of the American Musical Theatre. Lebanon, N.H.: Brandeis University Press, 2003. A literate examination of how musicals promote social change. Includes insights into the 1990’s political landscape and Broadway’s response to it. Larkin, Colin. The Virgin Encyclopedia of Stage and Film Musicals. London: Virgin Books, 1999. An excellent resource covering both American and British musicals. Singer, Barry. Ever After: The Last Years of Musical Theatre and Beyond. New York: Applause Theatre & Cinema Books, 2004. Covers musicals from 1975 to the early 2000’s. Singer’s analysis concerning the 1990’s is particularly compelling. Suskin, Steven. Show Tunes 1905-1991: The Songs, Shows and Careers of Broadway’s Major Composers. New York: Limelight Editions, 1992. A phenomenal resource for exploring Broadway composers throughout the twentieth century. Wilmeth, Don B., and Christopher Bigsby, eds. The Cambridge History of American Theatre. New York: Cambridge University Press, 2000. Covers theater from post-World War II to the 1990’s. Tom Smith See also Beauty and the Beast ; Rent ; Theater in the United States.

■ Brooks, Garth American pop country music singer and songwriter Born February 7, 1962; Tulsa, Oklahoma Identification

During the 1990’s, Brooks dominated the pop country music market, recording chart-topping hit singles and six studio albums. Throughout the decade, he broke records for sales and concert attendance.

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Garth Brooks holds six awards he won at the 1991 Academy of Country Music Awards. His awards included Top Male Vocalist and Album of the Year, for No Fences. (AP/Wide World Photos)

Garth Brooks was known as a country singer, but his style was heavily influenced by songwriters of the 1970’s, particularly James Taylor, Bruce Springsteen, and Dan Fogelberg. Brooks’s first, self-titled album was released in 1989. A traditional country music album, it received critical and popular acclaim, peaking at number two on the U.S. country album chart. It was an early indication of the success he had yet to enjoy, for Brooks’s second album, No Fences (1990), spent twenty-three weeks in first place on the Billboard country music charts. Early Albums No Fences turned Garth Brooks into a musical superstar and contained what would become Brooks’s signature song, “Friends in Low Places.” A working-class solidarity song, the single reached number one on the country music charts. Later, Country Music Television (CMT) named it one of the top ten country songs of all time. A sec-

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ond single from No Fences, “Unanswered Prayers,” reached number one for two weeks, and CMT named it one of the top ten love songs of all time. It is a sweet, ironic ballad about how things work out even when they do not appear that way. No Fences was almost an instant hit and sold more than five million copies in the first year of its release. It went on to score as the best-selling country album by a male artist, with sixteen million copies sold in the United States by the end of 2006. In No Fences, Brooks was polishing his style of pop country music, a style that would propel him to superstardom. In 1991, Brooks’s third album, Ropin’ the Wind, was released to advance orders of four million copies. A mixture of pop country and honky-tonk, songs included “The River,” “What She’s Doing Now,” and a cover of Billy Joel’s “Shameless.” Trumped in sales only by No Fences, this third album prompted the sales of his previous albums as well, a phenomenon that made Brooks the first country music singer to have three albums in the Pop Top 20 in one week. Ropin’ the Wind won Brooks his first Grammy Award for Best Male Country Vocal Performance (1992). He was also awarded the Academy of Country Music Award for Entertainer of the Year for 1990, 1991, 1992. The Chase (1992), Brooks’s next album, included the single “We Shall Be Free,” a stylistic combination of gospel, country, and rock. The song was influenced by the 1992 Los Angeles riots. With its message of cultural tolerance, it was received with resistance by country music disc jockeys and their culturally conservative audiences. Still, when he sang “We Shall Be Free” at concerts, he often received standing ovations. In 1993, Brooks recorded In Pieces, an instant number one success that eventually sold more than ten million copies internationally. Brooks set out on a British tour to publicize In Pieces in 1994. His public appearances sold out, and he appeared in many television talk shows and radio interviews. Although he was often belittled by British pundits and celebrities who did not understand American country music traditions, he returned to Britain in 1996 to star in more sold-out concerts. This time he restricted his media appearances to country radio and magazine interviews. He toured many countries, including Spain, International Stardom

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Ireland, France, Germany, Brazil, New Zealand, and Australia during this period, where his records were hits and his concerts usually sold out. One of the highlights of Brooks’s career in the 1990’s was his concert Garth: Live from Central Park, which aired on August 7, 1997. The free concert drew hundreds of thousands of people, estimated from 250,000 to 750,000. An additional 14.6 million viewers watched the performance live on Home Box Office (HBO), making it the most-watched special on cable television in 1997. Red Strokes Entertainment, Brooks’s production company, together with Paramount Pictures, worked on developing a movie starring the singer in 1999. The movie’s main character was to be a fictional rock singer named Chris Gaines. To publicize the project, Brooks played the character in a 1999 album, titled Garth Brooks in . . . The Life of Chris Gaines. Brooks’s active promotion of the album and film on television did not generate much buzz, and the film left the majority of the audience bewildered or totally unreceptive. As his career exerted ever more demands for time and energy, Brooks had difficulty handling the conflicts between work and family life. He had been talking about retirement since 1992, but in 1999 Brooks appeared on the Nashville Network and again mentioned retirement. Record sales had begun to decline, and Brooks officially announced plans to divorce from his wife in 2000. Impact Along with record-breaking sales, Garth Brooks was one of the most rewarded musicians of the 1990’s. He won one Grammy, eleven American Music Awards, ten Country Music Association Awards, fourteen Academy of Country Music Awards, five World Music Awards, and eight People’s Choice Awards. He was named Artist of the ’90s at the 1997 Blockbuster Entertainment Awards. He raised the international visibility and prestige of country music to an unprecedented level, and he went on to become the biggest best-selling solo artist in U.S. music history in the late 1990’s. Further Reading

Feiler, Bruce. Dreaming Out Loud: Garth Brooks, Wynonna Judd, Wade Hayes, and the Changing Face of Nashville. New York: Avon Books, 1998. The author travels to Nashville to investigate the changing country music scene in the 1980’s and 1990’s.

Features three country music stars, with an emphasis on Brooks. Sgammato, Jo. American Thunder: The Garth Brooks Story. New York: Ballantine, 1999. Biography includes stories about the artist’s life and his songs by a New York Times best-selling author. Stauffer, Stacey. Garth Brooks. New York: Facts On File, 1999. A basic biography of the country singer who changed the face of country music. Sheila Golburgh Johnson See also Country music; Digital audio; Lang, K. D.; McEntire, Reba; Music; Rock and Roll Hall of Fame Museum.

■ Brown, Ron Identification Secretary of commerce, 1993-1996 Born August 1, 1941; Washington, D.C. Died April 3, 1996; near Dubrovnik, Croatia

The first African American secretary of commerce, Brown served in that position during the first Clinton administration. He died in a plane crash while on an official trade mission to Croatia. Ronald Harmon Brown chaired the Democratic National Committee during the 1992 election campaign and was widely credited with uniting the party around Bill Clinton after the primaries and effectively redefining the Democrats’ image. His successor as commerce secretary, Mickey Kantor, who was Clinton’s campaign manager, called Brown “the best chairman we’ve ever had.” Brown’s nomination was seen as reward for his skillful management of the political primaries, yet the Commerce Department in 1992 was regarded as an ineffective bureaucracy; his appointment was not a prestigious one. Business interests feared that Brown would be too tough on them; advocates of business regulation worried that he would be too sympathetic, as a former lobbyist. With his legendary negotiating skill and energy, Brown boosted U.S. exports and doubled the budget for promoting high-technology investment. He won multibilliondollar contracts for American telecommunications and aircraft companies. In 1995, The New Republic labeled Brown “the most formidable Commerce secretary since Herbert Hoover.”

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Yet scandal also surfaced. A Vietnamese businessman alleged in 1993 that Brown had accepted $700,000 from the government of Vietnam to end the trade embargo. The Justice Department concluded after a year-long investigation that there had been no bribe. In 1995, a Republican congressman accused Brown of violating disclosure requirements and evading taxes. Brown was further accused of awarding seats on trade missions as rewards for contributions or services to Democrats; these allegations were under investigation at the time of Brown’s death. The Croatia trip was to match American contractors with rebuilding needs in the war-torn country. The plane was originally reported to have crashed into the sea in rainy weather; subsequently, wreckage was found in mountains a few kilometers from the Dubrovnik airport. Because of the investigation involving Brown and the Commerce Department, the anti-Clinton conspiracy community aired suspicions that the crash had been engineered to eliminate an embarrassment, and even that Brown had been shot. Ron Brown is buried in Arlington National Cemetery. Impact Ron Brown was a talented negotiator with a record of public service as well as business acumen. He was a trustee of his alma mater, Middlebury College, a member of the Council on Foreign Relations, an affiliate of the Kennedy School of Government, and member of many government committees on business, health care, and public affairs. President Clinton established the Ron Brown Award for Corporate Leadership; the Commerce Department initiated the American Innovator Award in Brown’s name. A Brown Scholarship fund benefits promising African American students, and the National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration named a research vessel for Brown.

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Phillips, Kevin. Bad Money: Reckless Finance, Failed Politics, and the Global Crisis of American Capitalism. New York: Viking Press, 2008. Jan Hall See also African Americans; Business and the economy in the United States; Clinton, Bill; Elections in the United States, 1992; North American Free Trade Agreement (NAFTA).

■ Browning, Kurt Identification Canadian figure skater Born June 18, 1966; Rocky Mountain House,

Alberta, Canada As a well-known internationally acclaimed figure skater, Browning has achieved monumental records on the ice. In his career, he was a four-time world champion, a three-time world professional champion, a four-time Canadian champion, a three-time Olympic team member, and the first man to land a quadruple jump in competition (at the 1988 World Figure Skating Championships in Budapest).

Further Reading

Brown, Tracey L. The Life and Times of Ron Brown: A Memoir. New York: William Morrow, 1998. Holmes, Steven A. Ron Brown: An Uncommon Life. New York: John Wiley & Sons, 2000.

Kurt Browning leaps during his routine at the World Figure Skating Championships in Prague in March, 1993. That year, he won both the Canadian and world championships. (Bernd Settnik/DPA/Landov)

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After winning the Canadian and World Figure Skating Championships in 1990 and 1991, Kurt Browning was expected to do well in the 1992 Olympics in Albertville, France. However, the gold medal was awarded to Viktor Petrenko of the Soviet Unified Team. Browning won sixth place, and fellow Canadian Elvis Stojko followed, coming in seventh that year. Browning made a comeback in 1993 to win once again both the Canadian and world championships. In 1994, Browning tried once more to win an Olympic medal in Lillehammer, Norway. After having the honor of carrying in the Canadian flag at the opening ceremony, Browning fell short of achieving a medal and received fifth place. Alexei Urmanov of Russia won the gold medal, and Browning’s colleague and teammate Stojko received the silver medal. It was Browning’s last chance of winning an Olympic medal because he then turned professional in the 1994-1995 season. Shortly thereafter, on June 30, 1996, Browning married Sonia Rodriguez, a principal dancer in the National Ballet of Canada. Throughout the decade, Browning won numerous skating awards, including the Lou Marsh Award (Canada’s Outstanding Athlete) in 1990, Sports Federation of Canada—Top Male Athlete in 1991 and 1993, an induction into Canada’s Sports Hall of Fame in 1994, and the American Skating World Professional Skater of the Year Award in 1999. In 1998, Browning received the highest possible honor bestowed by the International Skating Union, the Jacques Favart Trophy. Browning has also been the subject of two television documentaries: Tall in the Saddle (1990) and Life on the Edge (1992). Other noncompetitive appearances on television include Aladdin on Ice (1995, as Aladdin), Scott Hamilton: Upside Down (1996), Snowden on Ice (1997), Sesame Park (1997), and The Snowden, Raggedy Ann and Andy Holiday Show (1998, as Raggedy Andy). Impact Browning has received various accolades not only for his ability to perform but also for the way he entertains an audience while skating. He is both well known and well loved for his ability to execute intricate footwork, complete elaborate technical jumps, and show off his artistic talent, all while having fun.

Further Reading

Browning, Kurt, with Neil Stevens. Kurt: Forcing the Edge. Toronto: HarperCollins, 1992. Shulman, Carole. The Complete Book of Figure Skating. Champaign, Ill.: Human Kinetics, 2002. Kathryn A. Cochran Olympic Games of 1992; Olympic Games of 1994; Sports; Stojko, Elvis.

See also

■ Buchanan, Pat American politician, commentator, and U.S. presidential candidate in 1992 and 1996 Born November 2, 1938; Washington, D.C. Identification

Buchanan’s fiery speech at the Republican National Convention of 1992 helped define the profound differences within American culture known as the culture wars that emerged during the decade. In the early 1960’s, Pat Buchanan became the St. Louis Globe-Democrat‘s youngest editorial writer in the newspaper’s history. He quickly rose through the ranks at the paper and was an early supporter of Richard M. Nixon. Buchanan became an oppositional researcher for the Nixon campaign in 1968 and subsequently worked in the White House as an adviser to the president. During the Watergate scandal, Buchanan urged Nixon to burn the tapes, but he was never accused of any wrongdoing. He emerged in the early 1980’s as a television commentator and later became an adviser in the Ronald Reagan administration. In 1992, Buchanan parlayed his success on television and political service with a surprisingly strong campaign for the presidency. He challenged the Republican incumbent George H. W. Bush in the primaries and won 38 percent of the vote in New Hampshire on a platform of nationalism, immigration reduction, and opposition to multiculturalism, gay rights, and abortion. Buchanan was part of a resurgence of conservative values among people dissatisfied with the direction that popular culture had taken. Though Buchanan later supported the first President Bush in his election bid, in return for his support Buchanan requested a prime-time speaking spot at the Republican National Convention. In

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what became known as the culture war speech, the former presidential aide described “a religious war going on in our country for the soul of America,” with the Democrats (led by Bill Clinton) and their liberal values on one side and the Republicans on the other. Buchanan’s speech drew sharp criticism, but the sharpest quip was made by political commentator Molly Ivins, who said the speech “probably sounded better in the original German.” In the 1996 Republican primary, Buchanan ran again for the nomination and won an upset victory in New Hampshire. His rhetoric had taken on a populist note as he promised to “use the bully pulpit of the Presidency of the United States, to the full extent of my power and ability, to defend American traditions Presidential candidate Pat Buchanan gives a thumbs up to supporters on the evening and the values of faith, family, and of February 12, 1996, after finishing second in the Iowa caucus to Kansas senator Bob Dole. (AP/Wide World Photos) country, from any and all directions.” Buchanan openly advocated prayer in schools, saying, “Eternal tions in the United States, 1992; Elections in the truths that do not change from the Old and New TesUnited States, 1996; Journalism; Limbaugh, Rush; tament have been expelled from our public schools, Reform Party; Religion and spirituality in the United and our children are being indoctrinated in moral States; Television. relativism, and the propaganda of an anti-Western ideology.” After his defeat in the Republican primary, Buchanan returned to his work as a commentator.

■ Buffett, Warren

Pat Buchanan’s sharp rhetoric helped define the era as a time in American culture when reactions to modernity became a point of contention between conservatives and liberals. Buchanan was instrumental in helping to define the existing cultural differences and their significance in American culture. Impact

Further Reading

Alter, Jonathan. “Beltway Populist.” Newsweek, March 4, 1996, 24-27. Novak, Robert D. “Pat Buchanan, Populist Republican.” National Review, August 14, 1995, 33. Denis Mueller Cable television; Clinton, Bill; Conservatism in U.S. politics; Culture wars; Dole, Bob; Elec-

See also

American investor and businessman Born August 30, 1930; Omaha, Nebraska Identification

Commonly considered one of the greatest living investors, Buffett grew his fortune in the 1990’s to become one of the ten richest men in the world, and the only one to have made his money entirely from investing. Warren Buffett began the 1990’s as a very wealthy man, but a particularly shrewd investment of $1 billion in a poorly performing Coca-Cola Company at the end of the 1980’s became worth more than all of his other investments combined. However, despite this positive start, the 1990’s were a turbulent decade for Buffett, bringing a scandal and growing skepticism of his investment methodology.

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Warren Buffett. (AP/Wide World Photos)

When Salomon Brothers was embroiled in a bond-rigging scandal in 1991, Buffett, its largest investor, took the helm as chairman and chief executive officer of the embattled company. The government intended to withdraw the bank’s trading privileges, a move that would bankrupt the company. However, Buffett was able to intervene by meeting with Alan Greenspan, chairman of the Board of Governors of the Federal Reserve system, and eventually the Federal Reserve lifted the ban, thus saving the company. Buffett continued investing in prominent companies, including weapons manufacturer General Dynamics and financial services firms Wells Fargo and Federal Home Loan Mortgage Corporation (Freddie Mac). He started purchasing companies outright, including several insurance firms, such as

Geico and General Reinsurance. The acquisitions essentially transformed Berkshire Hathaway (Buffett’s main investment vehicle, which he took over in 1965) primarily into an insurance company. By the end of the decade, insurance accounted for more than 70 percent of Berkshire’s revenues. Buffett’s attraction to the insurance industry was fairly logical. Since policyholders pay their premiums up front, their cash can be used for investment purposes before the claims are paid. Toward the end of the decade, Buffett was one of the few voices in the financial community who spoke out against the dot-com explosion. Initially, Buffett’s methods of investing and strategizing came under increasing criticism, and 1999 saw Buffett’s first negative year in a decade, with Berkshire’s per-share book value underperforming the S&P 500 index for

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the first time in twenty years. At the time, many declared that his insistence on investing in firmly established, proven businesses was out of date in the new Internet economy. However, in 2000 Buffett appeared to have the last laugh, as the high-technology stock bubble burst. Berkshire Hathaway, meanwhile, bounced back as investors ran back to established companies, and once again the financial community was praising his farsighted wisdom. Buffett’s contribution to the 1990’s spread much broader than his impact on the many high-profile companies in which he invested. He also became one of the earliest and strongest advocates of improved corporate governance, making public his stances on issues such as executive compensation. Impact Buffett has influenced the entire investment universe, from the chairman of the Federal Reserve to individual investors across North America. No other individual investor in living memory has been so closely followed. Further Reading

Buffett, Mary, and David Clarke. The New Buffettology. New York: Rawson Associates, 2002. Lowe, Janet. Warren Buffett Speaks: Wit and Wisdom from the World’s Greatest Investor. Rev. ed. Hoboken, N.J.: John Wiley & Sons, 2007. Lowenstein, Roger. Buffett: The Making of an American Capitalist. New York: Random House, 1995. Rikard Bandebo See also Business and the economy in Canada; Business and the economy in the United States; Dotcoms; Gates, Bill; Greenspan, Alan; Trump, Donald.

■ Burning Man festivals The Event Annual temporary art community Place Black Rock Desert, Nevada

In 1986, a small, spirited, and artful party began the act of burning an effigy of “the Man.” This singular, semiprivate event evolved into an annual artistic tradition, a prolific, communal, anticommercial movement. The character of Burning Man festivals is unique to the entire world: On the Monday of the week prior to Labor Day weekend, thousands of radically selfexpressive and self-reliant individuals arrive at Black

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Rock Desert, Nevada, to endure eight days of tripledigit heat to create, commune, and share in the experience of the Saturday night burning of “the Man,” a massive wooden effigy. Because Burning Man festivals are commerce-free, participants bring their own supplies, tools, and survival gear, as well as art materials and equipment. A predetermined theme inspires the attendees to contribute artistically through theme camps (which began in 1993, when Peter Doty walked the playa, the ancient lakebed where the event takes place, dressed as Santa Claus), interactive endeavors, temporary living structures, moving art pieces, or art installations. Themes included Fertility (1997), the Nebulous Entity (1998), and the Wheel of Time (1999). At the end of the festival, all participants break down their constructions and clean up to meet the only mandate of the week: Leave no trace. The only residual is the “afterburn,” the indelible memory of the collective, spiritual experience. Core Values When the first Burning Man festival took place in 1986, it was merely an intimate gettogether, a ceremony in honor of the summer solstice. At Baker Beach in San Francisco, California, Renaissance man Larry Harvey conceived of the idea to burn “the Man.” Harvey and Jerry James built the eight-foot-tall construct, and the party of friends as well as a few beach bystanders watched as it was torched. An individual spectator held the wooden figure’s hand as it burned, making for the first impromptu performance art, while the event itself made for an annual ritual of expression, inspiration, and nonmaterial communing that has perpetuated and increased in popularity as exponentially as the construct of the Man has grown. That first year, the effigy was a basic wooden structure. The number of persons attending the event was twenty. In 2006, nearly forty thousand attendees gathered to witness the burning of a forty-foot rising and falling Man built atop a thirty-two-foot-high interactive maze in the Art Deco Pavilion. The improvised event had given rise to a planned annual social experience wherein participants involve themselves in the community, immerse themselves in interactive art, and carry the event’s apolitical and anticommercial tenets to the greater community of humankind throughout the rest of the year. The Burning Man participants of the 1990’s established and perpetuated the core values of a sus-

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tained community experience. “Burners” appreciate their culture, champion communication, and respect relationships. While self-reliance, self-expression, and taking responsibility for oneself are axiomatic principles, making oneself a part of the culture that defines itself as “radically inclusive” is imperative. Also, the mission of Burning Man festivals has always included a devout sense of and respect for “immediacy”: Priority is given to experience over theory, morality over politics, effort over consideration of gain, and participant support over commercial support.

first century, the annual event received criticism for its environmental impact. Vehicle travel to and from Black Rock Desert, power usage and generation on the playa, art cars on the playa, and fire art all contribute to greenhouse gas emissions. Nevertheless, Burners denounce commodification and deny materialistic motives, adhering to the leave-no-trace philosophy. While the temporary community lives out the artistic and humane ideals for one week every year, the members continue to encourage “green” living throughout the event and every day of the year.

Impact The Burning Man festivals and subculture have been referenced in various facets of popular culture, from music to television shows, and have spawned other regional events. In the early twenty-

Further Reading

Bruder, Jessica. Burning Book: A Visual History of Burning Man. New York: Simon Spotlight Entertainment, 2007. With the collaboration of thirty-

A bagpipe player and belly dancer on stilts participate in Burning Man 1998, held in Black Rock Desert, Nevada. (Hulton Archive/ Getty Images)

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(Walker) Bush. Prescott served as a Republican senator from Connecticut from 1953 to 1963. George Bush enjoyed the benefits of an excellent education at Phillips Academy and Yale University. His education was interrupted by his service in the Navy as an aviator; he served with distinction in the Pacific and was awarded the Distinguished Flying Cross. Bush married Barbara Pierce in 1944 and entered Yale in 1945; he graduated with a B.S. in economics in 1948. From 1948 to 1964, Bush focused his energies on the Texas oil business. In 1964, he ran unsuccessfully for the Senate from Texas; in 1966, he was elected to the House of Representatives and served two terms. In 1970, he once again ran for the Senate and was again defeated. After this defeat, President Richard M. Nixon appointed Bush as ambassador to the United Nations (1971-1973). In 1974, President Gerald R. Ford appointed Bush as liaison to China, and in 1976 Bush became director of the Central Intelligence Agency (CIA). With Democrat Jimmy Carter becoming president in 1977, Bush returned to Texas to serve as the president of a bank and to teach at Rice University. In 1980, he ran for the Republican presidential nomination but lost to Ronald Reagan, who selected Bush as his vice presidential running mate. Bush served eight years (1981-1989) as vice president; he was loyal to Reagan and developed support among the Republican stalwarts in order to succeed Reagan. Bush defeated the Democratic candidate Michael Dukakis in the November, 1988, election and was inaugurated on January 20, 1989.

Identification U.S. president, 1989-1993 Born June 12, 1924; Milton, Massachusetts

Domestic Agenda and Accomplishments

eight photographers, Bruder unpretentiously offers an intimate visit through the underground movement, covering its inception on Baker Beach in 1986 and following its growth into the 2000’s. Doherty, Brian. This Is Burning Man: The Rise of a New American Underground. New York: Little, Brown, 2004. In scholarly yet candid manner, Doherty delivers a thorough and insightful exploration of the subculture that is as difficult to characterize as it is spiritually charged. Considered the work to come closest to capturing the movement, the mission, and the man and woman behind its increasing growth and popularity. Nash, A. Leo, and Daniel Pinchbeck. Burning Man: Art in the Desert. New York: Harry N. Abrams, 2007. An exemplary collection of black-and-white photography that captures the spirit and art of the Burning Man experience. Roxanne McDonald Alternative rock; Art movements; Earth in the Balance; Electronic music; Fads; Grunge music; Hip-hop and rap music; Hobbies and recreation; Lollapalooza; Music; Organic food movement; Poetry; Religion and spirituality in the United States; Woodstock concerts.

See also

Bush led the coalition forces in the Gulf War of 1991 against Iraq, removed Manuel Noriega as dictator of Panama, and was in office when the Soviet Union collapsed in December, 1991 George H. W. Bush led the United States during the early years of the 1990’s, a period of turbulent change in world affairs that challenged American leadership and tested its values and judgments. Bush succeeded in meeting these international challenges but pursued inconsistent, ill-defined, and lackluster domestic policies that proved to be his undoing and led to his defeat for reelection for another term as president. Before the Presidency George H. W. Bush was born on June 12, 1924, to Prescott and Dorothy

During his campaign for president, Bush identified himself as a compassionate conservative and stated that his vision for America was based on a “thousand points of light,” through which Americans would care for one another with respect and open hearts. Nonetheless, Bush’s domestic agenda was rather limited; not wanting to raise taxes, Bush and his aides bargained with the Democratic leadership of the Congress, and the business of the government went on as it had in the past. While the economy continued to grow as a result of the Reagan initiatives of the mid-1980’s, public perception of cracks within the system emerged when the number of homeless on the streets of American cities became more evident. Bush relied on local governments and community services to address this problem, but homelessness grew faster than these sources could handle. Bush’s

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domestic agenda was dominated by striving for a balanced budget, developing free trade agreements, and addressing the legacy of problems that he inherited from Reagan’s secret Iran-Contra policies. During the four years that Bush was president, the national debt was not eliminated; this was due as much to increased spending as to a slowing economy, with the resultant decline in federal income. Bush’s second domestic priority was to establish a free trade zone among the United States, Canada, and Mexico—the North American Free Trade Agreement (NAFTA). Despite increasing opposition from labor unions and other groups, NAFTA gained momentum and widespread bipartisan political support. NAFTA supporters envisioned a free trade zone comparable to the European Union; its opponents feared the loss of jobs and the displacement of businesses to Mexico. While the Bush administration did succeed in signing a preliminary document, it was left to Bill Clinton’s administration to conclude the process in 1993. Finally, Bush found himself with the legacy of the Iran-Contra scandal and the likelihood that six former Reagan administration officials would be indicted—including former secretary of defense Caspar Weinberger. Some in Bush’s inner circle anticipated that Bush himself could possible be indicted and, at the very least, would be called to testify on the Weinberger case. On December 24, 1992, less than a month before leaving office, Bush pardoned Weinberger and the others, and the case was dropped. These pardons were condemned by the national press and the general public. Foreign Policy and Accomplishments When Bush became president in 1989, the United States was at peace, but historic forces were unfolding throughout the world. The first year of his presidency witnessed the collapse of Soviet domination of the Eastern European states and the fall of the Berlin Wall; new prodemocratic regimes emerged and new political lines were drawn on ethnic-nationalist lines. At the same time, American attention was diverted to Central America, where the Panamanian dictator Manuel Noriega was assisting in the transfer of illegal drugs to the United States. In the fall of 1989, the United States supported an anti-Noriega campaign within Panama and, in December, an American military force of twenty-five thousand invaded Panama and toppled the Noriega regime, replacing it with a

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pro-American government. Noriega was imprisoned in the United States, and the Bush administration provided support for the new government through January, 1993. In 1990, Iraq, under the leadership of Saddam Hussein, invaded and occupied the neighboring state of Kuwait. Hussein announced that Kuwait was annexed into Iraq. Bush immediately denounced this aggressive action and worked for months through the United Nations and direct talks with other states to form a coalition to pressure or force Iraq to withdraw to its original borders. A U.N. declaration gave Iraq until January 15, 1991, to withdraw; Iraq did not comply. On January 17, 1991, the American-led coalition initiated air attacks against Iraq; on February 24, the ground assault began. Within forty-eight hours, Iraqi troops were fleeing Kuwait, and advanced units of the coalition strike force were within 150 miles of Baghdad. Bush ordered a cease-fire on February 27, stating that Kuwait had been liberated. The final major foreign policy development during the Bush presidency related to U.S.-Soviet relations. Bush and Soviet leader Mikhail Gorbachev held a summit conference in December, 1989, in Malta; they announced that the previous hostile relationship was over and that they would be partners in moving the world toward peace. However, startling events in the Soviet Union were unfolding rapidly. In August, 1991, a group of reactionary political and military leaders attempted to overthrow Gorbachev; he was arrested while on vacation in the Crimea, and it appeared that his fate was sealed. However, Russia leader Boris Yeltsin championed opposition to the coup d’etat, and the hard-liners were defeated. Gorbachev was weakened, and in December the Soviet Union was being dismantled by separatist groups. On December 31, 1991, the Soviet Union ceased to exist. The Bush administration allowed these events to unfold without any interference. Presidential Election of 1992 With victory against Iraq in 1991, the reelection of George Bush to a second term appeared to be assured, but the American electorate was unsettled. The economic rebound was not as strong as anticipated, and Bush appeared not to recognize the seriousness of the homeless issue in major cities. In addition, he had raised taxes in 1990 when he had promised in 1988 that he would

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George H. W. Bush. (Library of Congress)

not. Bush found himself confronted not only by the charismatic Democratic candidate, Bill Clinton, but also by a strong third-party candidate, Ross Perot. Perot won 19 percent of the popular vote. The Bush campaign lacked a focus to the final month, and it failed to close the gap with Clinton. Impact George Bush’s presidency was disappointing on the domestic level but quite positive in its foreign policies. The domestic agenda was limited in large part because most of the Reagan-era aides to the president believed in reducing the size and responsibilities of the federal government. At the same time, they were very much committed to sustaining the image and position of the United States as the defender of freedom. Bush has been applauded for his handling of the Iraq-Kuwait problem; he worked with the United Nations and the international community in forming a coalition that

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forced Hussein to withdraw from Kuwait, and he did not utilize the coalition beyond its stated purpose. While Bush would be later criticized for not effecting regime change by removing Hussein from power, his clear and honest leadership of the effort has sustained the respect of allies and many Americans. His invasion of Panama and the removal of Noriega has been accorded mixed receptions. On one hand, Bush has been condemned for his cavalier approach to Latin America—continuing in the tradition of Reagan’s invasion of Grenada (1983)— in utilizing military force to resolve an American, not Panamanian, problem. On the other hand, many have interpreted this action favorably by noting that the Panamanian people welcomed Noriega’s removal and that the American forces were withdrawn quickly. Perhaps the most positive achievement of the Bush presidency and the most lasting impact of his administration was his caution in monitoring the collapse of the Soviet Union and the subsequent political turmoil in the region. While charged with the defense of the United States and the American people, Bush followed a tempered middle course in his relations with Gorbachev and Yeltsin and did not overreact to the day-to-day shifts in Soviet and then Russian affairs. Within Central and Eastern Europe, Bush moved American foreign policy to support the new governments that were being established, the unification of Germany, and the breakup of Yugoslavia into several ethnic-based nations. He recognized a new tide of history in Europe that supported American ideals and principles and linked the United States to it. Since Bush left office, he has pursued a mostly private life with his family. The George Bush Presidential Library and Museum was established in 1997 at Texas A&M University along with the Bush School of Government and Public Service. After the devastation of the tsunami that resulted in the loss of more than 200,000 lives in Southeast and South Asia and East Africa in 2004 and the catastrophe of Hurricane Katrina in New Orleans in 2005, Bush worked with former president Clinton to acquire needed funds for recovery.

Subsequent Events

Further Reading

Barilleaux, Ryan J., and Mark J. Rozell. Power and Prudence: The Presidency of George H. W. Bush. College Station: Texas A&M Press, 2004. A scholarly evaluation of the Bush administration that ad-

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vances a generally positive interpretation of its domestic and foreign affairs accomplishments. Bose, Meena, and Rosanna Perotti, eds. From Cold War to New World Order: The Foreign Policy of George H. W. Bush. Westport, Conn.: Greenwood Press, 2002. This volume of scholarly essays examines the formulation of a new post-Cold War foreign policy by the Bush administration. The essays examine the turbulence of world politics during the Bush presidency and provide analyses of how it responded to the new realities and attempted to provide leadership for a “New World Order.” Bush, George H. W. Looking Forward. Garden City, N.Y.: Doubleday, 1987. In this pre-1988 election reflection, Bush provides some valuable personal insights into his values and goals. Himelfarb, Richard, and Rosanna Perotti, eds. Principle over Politics? The Domestic Policy of the George H. W. Bush Presidency. Westport, Conn.: Praeger, 2004. Consists of a series of essays on the domestic problems and issues that confronted Bush during his presidency—balanced budget, increased taxation, the homeless, environmental concerns, and domestic security. Levantrosser, William, and Rosanna Perotti, eds. A Noble Calling: Character and the George H. W. Bush Presidency. Westport, Conn.: Praeger, 2004. A collection of essays on Bush’s leadership and character; generally sympathetic to Bush and his vision for America and humanity. Medhurst, Martin J., ed. The Rhetorical Presidency of George H. W. Bush. College Station: Texas A&M Press, 2006. Speeches, remarks, and evaluation commentaries focused on Bush’s argumentation and general style. Naftali, Timothy. George H. W. Bush. New York: Times Books, 2007. The best and most readable singlevolume biography on Bush. Sympathetic but not uncritical. William T. Walker See also Arnett, Peter; Baker, James; Cheney, Dick; Clinton, Bill; CNN coverage of the Gulf War; Cold War, end of; Elections in the United States, midterm; Elections in the United States, 1992; Gulf War; Immigration Act of 1990; Israel and the United States; Noriega capture and trial; North American Free Trade Agreement (NAFTA); Perot, H. Ross; Powell, Colin; Quayle, Dan; Recession of 1990-1991; Russia and North America.

■ Business and the economy in Canada Structure and functioning of the Canadian economy, including the production and distribution of goods, services, and incomes and related public policies

Definition

Canada has only one-tenth the population of the United States, and its economy tends to reflect this fact, at about 10 to 11 percent of the U.S. economy. The Canadian economy is closely tied to that of the United States (with many branches of U.S. firms) and the investment in Canadian business often originates with U.S. companies. These facts held true during the 1990’s. Overall, Canada’s gross domestic product (GDP), the common measurement of the size of the economy, increased by 43 percent during the 1990’s. By contrast, the United States’ GDP grew by 67 percent during the same period, but this largely reflected a much greater rate of inflation than occurred in Canada. Although Canada’s GDP increased every year during the 1990’s, the growth was slowest during the early years when Canada experienced conditions that, in some sectors, amounted to a recession. During the 1990’s, Canada’s economy continued the process begun several decades earlier as it evolved into a mature, servicebased economy. The primary sector of the economy—agriculture, forestry, and fishing—exhibited little growth. Fishing declined such that it engaged a smaller portion of the populace and provided less to economic growth than it had in previous decades. Because Canada stretches along the northern border of the United States, its economy tends to be more regionally concentrated. The most prosperous provinces, Ontario and Quebec, are in the center of the country, where most of manufacturing is located. Ever since the signing of the Auto Pact in 1965, which permitted the tariff-free shipment of cars and car parts between Canada and the United States, that portion of the North American auto industry located in Canada has been a major part of Canada’s manufacturing industry. This continued to be the case in the 1990’s, although production tended to shift from the assembly of complete vehicles to the manufacture of components. Manufacturing also diversified in this central section of Canada. Electronics and telecommunica-

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tions, led by Nortel Networks Corporation, played an important part in this diversification. The manufacturer of the BlackBerry (first released in 1999), widely used in business in the United States, is Research In Motion, a Canadian firm. The business software sector also thrived in central Canada, which is within easy reach of many businesses in the United States, as exemplified by JDS Uniphase and Cognos, both based in Ottawa. A relatively new college, Sheridan College, specializing in software and located in Ontario, supported this diversification. Overall, however, manufacturing as a proportion of the economy declined during the decade. During the early 1990’s, a period of very restrained economic development, the metropolitan region of Toronto, at the heart of Canadian business, suffered serious business losses, leading to a sharp decline in employment, especially in insurance and finance, which had been heavily concentrated in Toronto and Montreal. Globalization negatively affected Quebec, where manufacturing had been concentrated in textiles and clothing.

trees. Even though paper pulp is now a commodity product, and though paper mills have faced difficult economic times, Canada’s newsprint and paper pulp industry remains an important source of export earnings. Further, Canada continues to be a source of vital minerals. In addition to the traditional minerals produced by International Nickel’s plant in Sudbury, Ontario, a very large, new source of nickel was discovered in Labrador during the 1990’s. Diamonds have been found in several places in the Northwest Territories. Exploration continues, and new finds assure that Canada will continue to be a source of critical minerals. Finally, the tar sands in Alberta have gained new importance, as access to other petroleum assets are impacted by geopolitical developments. Though the low petroleum prices of the 1990’s restrained development of the tar sands as a source for oil that could be converted into gasoline, the natural gas associated with the tar sands provided important export earnings for Canada. Under pressure from Canadian business, the government entity Petro-Canada was privatized in 1991.

Foreign Trade Despite Canada’s shift away from a staples economy, the country remains a major producer of natural resources, of both forest products and mining and mineral resources. Canada produces about one-fifth of the world’s softwood lumber (mostly from the hugely productive forests of British Columbia on the Pacific coast), as well as 25 percent of the world’s newsprint, and 16 percent of market pulp (the raw material for paper). The forest products sector is a major producer of net foreign income for Canada. Unfortunately, the conflict with the U.S. forest products community that arose in the 1980’s over softwood lumber continued in later decades. Essentially, U.S. lumber producers claimed that Canadian lumber was effectively subsidized, because the price Canadian loggers were paying landowning provincial governments was less than the price U.S. loggers had to pay to the private landowners from whom they bought most of the trees they logged. Though the conflict was initially settled by compromise during the 1990’s, it has continued to negatively affect U.S.-Canadian trade relations despite the provisions of the North American Free Trade Agreement (NAFTA), established in 1994. Canada produces a substantial proportion of the world’s newsprint, which is made from small forest

Impact Although Canada’s economy remains a small fraction of the size of that of the United States, its important resources contributed significantly to the American economy in the 1990’s. Further Reading

Britton, John N. H., ed. Canada and the Global Economy: The Geography of Structural and Technological Change. Montreal: McGill-Queen’s University Press, 1996. Contains articles by assorted experts on the various sectors of Canada’s economy. Statistics Canada. The Canadian Economic Observer: Historical Statistical Supplement 2000/01. Ottawa: Ministry of Industry, 2001. Contains numerous tables on Canada’s economy. Wallace, Iain. A Geography of the Canadian Economy. New York: Oxford University Press, 2002. A compact but comprehensive and useful account of the Canadian economy. Nancy M. Gordon Agriculture in Canada; Automobile industry; Business and the economy in the United States; Canada and the United States; Downsizing and restructuring; Income and wages in Canada; North American Free Trade Agreement (NAFTA); Recession of 1990-1991.

See also

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■ Business and the economy in the United States Structure and functioning of the U.S. economy, including the production and distribution of goods, services, and incomes and related public policies

Definition

After a brief, mild recession in 1990-1991, the decade was characterized by steady economic growth, relatively full employment, and relatively stable prices. Between 1990 and 1999, the nation’s output (measured by gross domestic product, or GDP, adjusted to remove inflation) increased from slightly over $28,000 per person to nearly $34,000 per person, an increase of 21 percent. However, real consumption per capita rose only 12 percent over the decade. The recession in 1990-1991 and subsequent slow recovery increased unemployment rates, which averaged around 7 percent in 1991-1993. This factor figured prominently in the presidential election of 1992 and contributed to the defeat of incumbent George H. W. Bush by Bill Clinton. For the rest of the decade, unemployment trended steadily downward, reaching 4.2 percent in 1999, the lowest rate since 1969. The decline was particularly large for black workers, falling from 10 percent in 1990 to 7 percent in 1999. The inflation rate was consistently relatively low, averaging 2.7 percent between 1990 and 1999. Much of the increase in prices was matched by upgrades in product quality and by introduction of new products not fully reflected in the price indexes. Thus, the purchasing power of the dollar declined relatively little. Price stability was aided by the relative stability of fuel and energy costs. Health and Happiness One payoff from higher income and the upgrading of technology was longer life. Life expectancy at birth rose from 75.4 years in 1990 to 76.7 years in 1999. The increase was much larger for men—from 71.8 to 73.9, thus narrowing the traditional female advantage. Much of the increase came from reduced incidence of heart disease and stroke, reflecting a combination of improved medical treatment and improved lifestyles (reduced smoking and fat consumption). These gains came at a high cost. National health expenditures were about 12 percent of GDP in 1990 and increased to about 14 percent by 1999. Most of

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the increase was concentrated in 1990-1993, followed by a period of relatively successful cost control for government insurance programs. Between 1990 and 1999, the price index for medical goods and services increased by 43 percent, far outracing the general consumer price index, which rose only 24 percent. The disproportionate rise in medical costs was a predictable result of government programs, which greatly raised demand but did little to augment supply of medical goods and services. While people were healthier and wealthier, they were not happier. A vast number of surveys asking people about their level of happiness consistently found the average had no tendency to increase over time, despite rising annual incomes. The result is not difficult to explain. A high-income society has a high job turnover rate, meaning that many people are losing a job or worry that they might or are anxious about a new job they are starting. People complained much about longer distances and time spent commuting. Heads of households worried about the rising cost of health insurance and about children’s college expenses. For the working population, a possible higher income did not come with any more time to enjoy it. Labor Force and Productivity The decade witnessed a vigorous growth in jobs: The number of workers employed increased from 119 million in 1990 to 134 million in 1999, helping to reduce the unemployment rate. Manufacturing employment registered a slight decline, falling from 17.7 million in 1990 to 17.3 million in 1999. This decline occurred in spite of a large increase in manufacturing output—from $64 billion (dollars of year 2000) to $94 billion in 1999—a rise of 47 percent. The rise in output without increased employment reflected the high rate of technological progress in manufacturing. About three-fourths of all workers were employed in the service sectors (including government). Service output grew about 26 percent from 1990 to 1999, largely from a 22 percent rise in service employment. These numbers suggest a relatively low rate of technological improvement in service activities. However, measuring the quantity of service output is very difficult. Both output and productivity may have grown more than these figures suggest. Labor productivity, measured by output per person-hour, rose about 18 percent between 1990 and 1999. Major contributors to higher labor pro-

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ductivity included an increase in human capital, an increase in the amount of physical capital, and improvements in technology. The increase in human capital arose from higher educational attainment. The proportion of the population aged twenty-five and older who had graduated from high school rose from 78 percent in 1990 to 84 percent in 2000, and the proportion of college graduates increased from 21 to 26 percent. The increase in the amount of physical capital (primarily buildings and equipment) per worker probably raised labor productivity about one-half of one percent per year. Improvements in technology included many highly visible examples, such as computers and telecommunications. Robots came to play a major role in fabricating automobile components. Wages and Other Incomes Economists expect that labor’s reward will reflect labor’s productivity. However, estimates of real wages, hourly and weekly, by the Bureau of Labor Statistics suggest an increase of only 4 or 5 percent from 1990 to 1999 for private nonagricultural jobs. However, the estimates of total compensation of employees, after adjustment for inflation, give values of approximately $21,500 per worker for 1990 and $24,000 for 1999, expressed in prices of 1982-1984. This represents an increase of about 11 percent. Much of the difference arose from the rising cost of fringe benefits such as health insurance. Different data estimate median real incomes adjusted for inflation. (The median is the value in the middle, when all items are arranged in order of size.) The median income for families in 1993 (the first year for which estimates are available) was $50,782 in 2006 dollars. By 1999, it was $59,088. The increase of 16 percent closely matches the rise in labor productivity. Labor union membership declined slightly. There were 16.7 million union members in 1990 and 16.3 million in 2000. Private-sector membership declined by more than one million. This brought the proportion of members among private-sector wage and salary workers down below 10 percent, continuing a long-term trend dating from the 1950’s. Much of the decline could be attributed to falling employment in manufacturing, the domain of many traditionally strong militant unions. Another factor, visible in the automobile industry, was the relocation of the industry into areas traditionally not strongly fa-

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vorable to unionization. With this trend came a decrease in interruptions of work by strikes. The decline in union membership was vigorously resisted by the Service Employees International Union (SEIU), headed by Andy Stern. This union aggressively undertook to organize a number of low-income occupations such as janitors, security guards, and hotel maids. Consumption spending per capita, after adjustment for inflation, increased more than disposable incomes. The result was that personal saving fell from its longtime average around 8 percent of disposable personal income to only 2.4 percent in 1999. Household debt burdens increased. Consumer credit and home mortgage debt totaled about $3.4 trillion in 1990 and rose to $6.2 trillion in 1999. This raised the ratio of debt to disposable income from 81 percent in 1990 to 93 percent in 1999. The decrease in the personal saving rate continued into the next decade. It contributed to the country’s large import surplus and helped explain the large inflow of foreign capital. Government poverty estimates are built up from estimates of the cost of an adequate diet. In 1990, the poverty threshold for a family of four was $13,359. Adjustments for rising prices brought the figure to $17,604 for year 2000. About 34 million persons were in poverty in 1990, representing 13.5 percent of the population. The number increased to 39 million during the subsequent recession, then declined to 33 million in 1999, which was 11.9 percent of the population. The incidence of poverty was particularly heavy for female-headed households. Children in such households face particularly difficult life situations. The number of children in poverty rose from 12.7 million in 1990 to nearly 15 million in 1993, then declined to 11.7 million in 1999. The last figure included about one-sixth of all children.

Poverty

The decade was very profitable for corporations and investors. Corporate profits after tax rose from $264 billion in 1990 to $517 billion in 1999, just about doubling. High profits helped fuel a strong boom in prices of corporate stocks. The Standard & Poor’s index of stock prices rose from 335 in 1990 to 1,327 in 1999, setting new records frequently along the way. Stock prices rose much more than profits, in part because of declining interest rates. Interest-bearing assets became less

Profits and Stock Prices

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attractive than stocks, and it became cheaper to borrow in order to buy stocks on credit. In the late 1990’s, the stock market boom took on many aspects of a “bubble.” This term describes a situation in which particular stocks are driven up in price by speculative demand based on the expectation that their prices will rise still further. Stocks associated with computers, Internet businesses, and telecommunications were particularly favored—thus the episode was called the “dot-com boom.” Some firms were recent start-ups with no experience of profitability. The bubble was to burst in 2000, to be followed by several years of lackluster stock price performance. Business and Technology The number of business firms grew rapidly during the 1990’s. In 1990, federal tax records listed about 20 million firms, of which 3.7 million were corporations. By 1999, the total reached 24.4 million, 4.9 million being corporations. Each year, more than 500,000 new firms were established, but each year almost as many went out of business. By year 2000, an estimated 51 million households were using computers and 42 million had Internet connections. Novel types of businesses came to prominence: Yahoo! demonstrated the potential for an Internet search engine. EBay showed the enormous appeal of online auction activities for both buyers and sellers. Cell phone usage expanded explosively in the 1990’s. An estimated 5 million subscribers used them in 1990. By 2000, the estimate was 109 million—a twenty-fold expansion. Compact disc sales also mushroomed, reaching a peak of 943 million units in 2000 before slackening off slightly. Cable television already had 50 million subscribers by 1990. This grew to 67 million by 1999. Satellite service, which was inconsequential in 1990, grew rapidly during the decade; by 2000, there were about 50 million installations in place. The number of passenger cars on the road was relatively constant, around 134 million, but the number of vans, pickup trucks, and sport utility vehicles (SUVs) increased from 48 million in 1990 to 79 million in 2000—an increase of about 60 percent.

The international involvement of the U.S. economy continued to increase during the 1990’s. Exports rose from 9.5 percent of GDP to 10.3 percent, while imports increased from 10.9 percent to 13 percent. As a result, the country’s trade

Globalization

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gap widened. This was associated with an increase in capital inflow into the United States, helping to close the financing gap resulting from the decline in the rate of personal saving. The United States continued to exercise leadership in the effort to reduce trade and finance barriers around the world. A milestone was the creation in 1995 of the World Trade Organization (WTO). This provided a forum in which countries exchanged trade concessions for mutual advantage. The rapid economic emergence of China owed much to the reduction of import restrictions against Chinese products by the United States and the European Union. Another landmark was the creation in 1994 of the North American Free Trade Agreement (NAFTA), involving the United States, Canada, and Mexico. Internationalization of the markets for goods helped to protect the United States against inflation. Internationalization of financial markets provided abundant international capital to finance American investment projects. American interest rates became increasingly influenced by conditions in worldwide capital markets. Another dimension of globalization was immigration. Over the period 1991-2000, nine million foreign-born persons obtained legal permanent resident status, about one million of them refugees. In addition, by 2000 there were an estimated 8.5 million unauthorized immigrants, of whom 4.7 million were from Mexico. Despite much criticism that immigrants were “taking jobs away from Americans,” research studies determined that most immigrants found jobs that Americans did not want or could not fill. These jobs were at both ends of the income scale, as many scientists and engineers came from China and India to meet the needs of high-tech industries. On balance, the availability of immigrant labor helped strengthen the demand for American workers doing complementary jobs. Globalization was not popular. Violent demonstrations disrupted the WTO meetings in Seattle in December, 1999. Much criticism was directed at “shipping jobs overseas,” or outsourcing, despite the very strong performance of the U.S. labor market. Critics were apparently unaware that some major foreign firms such as Toyota established factories in the United States. Federal Government Policies One of the most prominent federal officials dealing with the econ-

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omy was Alan Greenspan, who served as chair of the Board of Governors of the Federal Reserve system during the entire decade. Federal Reserve staff developed skill in using the federal fund interest rate as a target for open-market operations (buying and selling U.S. government securities in transactions with investors). Interest rates were reduced during the recession of 1990-1991, then increased repeatedly in 1994 as boom conditions threatened to aggravate inflation. Convinced that technological improvement was raising potential output rapidly, Greenspan refused to exercise much restraint against the boom of the late 1990’s. Federal fiscal policy took a surprising turn. Booming economic conditions and tax rate increases brought a great upsurge in federal tax revenues. By the end of the 1990’s, federal revenues were taking more than 20 percent of the GDP, a ratio far above the historical average. In combination with restraint in the growth of expenditures, this revenue surge produced government surpluses totaling nearly $200 billion in 1998-1999. This permitted some reduction in the national debt. Fantasies about continuing this trend were soon shattered by economic recession and war in the new millennium. A major change in policy toward poverty occurred with the passage of the Personal Responsibility and Work Opportunity Reconciliation Act of 1996, which brought so-called welfare reform. The previous program of Aid to Families with Dependent Children (AFDC) was heavily criticized for subsidizing dysfunctional behavior, such as idleness and outof-wedlock childbearing. In its place came Temporary Assistance for Needy Families (TANF), administered by states with federal guidelines and financial support. The new program put more emphasis on the obligation of beneficiaries to find jobs or undergo training. The new program led to substantial decline in the number of welfare recipients. A less well-known poverty-relief program was the Earned Income Tax Credit (EITC), created in 1975. Only $4 billion was spent in 1990, but then payments surged, reaching $26 billion in 2000. In 1997, Congress created the State Children’s Health Insurance Program (SCHIP) to cover children from low-income families who did not qualify for Medicaid. These programs were state-administered but with federal guidelines and financial support. By 2000, 3.4 million children were covered; this

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number continued to grow rapidly in the new millennium. Impact The 1990’s produced an enviable record of full employment and price stability. Economic growth was substantial. However, income inequality was widening, with income gains concentrated above the median. Well-educated managers, scientists, engineers, and professionals did very well. Factory workers did less well. The 1990’s bequeathed to the new millennium a public school system that was failing many of the nation’s children, particularly ethnic minorities. The dot-com boom was about to burst, yielding a stock market that had trouble advancing in the decade to come. Further Reading

Cairncross, Frances. The Death of Distance: How the Communications Revolution Is Changing Our Lives. London: Orion Books, 1997. Good overview of the impact of cell phones, e-mail, and the Internet. Friedman, Thomas L. The World Is Flat. New York: Farrar, Straus and Giroux, 2005. A best-selling journalistic overview of globalization. Includes many references to 1990’s events such as the rise of the Internet and the economic emergence of China and India. Heckman, James J., and Alan B. Krueger. Inequality in America. Cambridge, Mass.: MIT Press, 2003. This symposium provides abundant data on income distribution, education, and related topics for the 1990’s. “The Importance of Health and Health Care.” In The Economic Report of the President. Washington, D.C.: U.S. Government Printing Office, 2008. Includes 1990’s data on health conditions, the medical marketplace, and government programs. Kahneman, Daniel, and Alan B. Krueger. “Developments in the Measurement of Subjective WellBeing.” Journal of Economic Perspectives 20, no. 1 (Winter, 2006): 3-24. A Nobel Prize winner introduces readers to the fascinating effort to identify the economic dimensions of happiness. Levy, Frank, and Richard J. Murnane. The New Division of Labor: How Computers Are Creating the Next Job Market. Princeton, N.J.: Princeton University Press, 2004. Both business and household uses of computers are highlighted. Markham, Jerry W. A Financial History of the United States: From the Age of Derivatives into the New Millen-

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nium, 1970-2001. Vol. 3. Armonk, N.Y.: M. E. Sharpe, 2002. Encyclopedic survey of the period, including internationalization of finance, Federal Reserve policy, innovations in financial practices, and the stock market bubble. Sharp, Ansel M., Charles A. Register, and Paul W. Grimes. The Economics of Social Issues. 15th ed. New York: McGraw-Hill/Irwin, 2002. Written for beginning-level undergraduates, this book focuses on a wide range of economic topics, including poverty and unemployment, economic growth, and education and crime. Paul B. Trescott

market; Welfare reform; World Trade Organization protests; Yahoo!; Y2K problem.

See also Agriculture in the United States; Amazon.com; Automobile industry; Demographics of the United States; Dot-coms; Education in the United States; Greenspan, Alan; Health care; Immigration to the United States; Income and wages in the United States; Internet; National debt; North American Free Trade Agreement (NAFTA); Outsourcing; Poverty; Recession of 1990-1991; Stock

At approximately 1:00 a.m. on Sunday, June 7, 1998, forty-nine-year-old James Byrd, Jr., was walking home after attending several parties. Byrd, a figure familiar to most people who lived in the small town of Jasper, often walked about town because he did not own a car. As the inebriated Byrd meandered down Martin Luther King Boulevard, he was offered a ride by three white men: Shawn Allen Berry (age

■ Byrd murder case The dragging death of James Byrd, Jr., an African American man, by three white men Date June 7, 1998 Place Jasper, Texas The Event

The brutality of Byrd’s murder triggered outrage across the country, prompted calls for tolerance, and energized efforts to advance hate crime legislation.

A Jasper County assistant district attorney holds up the logging chain allegedly used to drag James Byrd, Jr., to his death. (AP/Wide World Photos)

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twenty-three), John William King (age twenty-four), and Lawrence Russell Brewer (age thirty-one). The three ex-convicts had been driving around in Berry’s pickup truck, drinking and socializing. Unfortunately for Byrd, King and Brewer were white supremacists. King was incensed that Berry offered a ride to an African American. Berry later claimed that, as they drove, King and Brewer schemed to harm Byrd. After stopping at a secluded location, Byrd was beaten, stripped, chained by his ankles to the back of the truck, and dragged approximately three miles down Huff Creek Road. He sustained horrific injuries, the most shocking of which occurred when his head, shoulder, and arm were shorn off by the edge of a concrete culvert. The remainder of Byrd’s body was dumped in the African American section of the segregated Huff Creek Cemetery. Byrd’s body was found later that morning by local residents. As police investigated the death, they soon realized that the incident was not a standard “hit and run,” as first thought. Police were soon led to Berry by evidence at the crime scene and an eyewitness who saw Byrd riding in the bed of a gray truck. Under questioning, Berry identified his companions and claimed that they were responsible for Byrd’s murder. All three were charged with kidnapping and murder. In 1999, King and Brewer were found guilty and sentenced to death. Berry received a life sentence. Impact The enormous media coverage generated by James Byrd’s dragging death reminded Americans that racism was alive and well at the end of the

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twentieth century. Though a grisly hate crime had occurred in the small town, the guilty verdicts helped promote racial healing in Jasper, as did a park created in Byrd’s memory. Additionally, the fence that segregated Huff Creek Cemetery was dismantled. Byrd’s dragging death also triggered national outrage and condemnation. African American leaders denounced the heinous crime. Lawmakers called for additional legislation to deal with hate crimes. Additionally, Byrd’s murder focused attention on the pervasiveness of racial prison gangs. While in prison, both King and Brewer joined white supremacist gangs, allegedly to protect themselves from other prisoners. They emerged from prison as fervent racists. Subsequent Events Byrd’s murder compelled the 2001 passage of Texas’s James Byrd Hate Crimes Act. His family also established the James Byrd Foundation for Racial Healing. Two films were produced about the event: Two Towns of Jasper (2002) and Jasper, Texas (2003). Further Reading

King, Joyce. Hate Crime: The Story of a Dragging in Jasper, Texas. New York: Pantheon Books, 2002. Temple-Raston, Dina. A Death in Texas: A Story of Race, Murder, and a Small Town’s Struggle for Redemption. New York: Henry Holt, 2002. Beth A. Messner See also African Americans; Crime; Hate crimes; Race relations.

C ■ Cable television Television distribution system in which programming is delivered to subscribers from a centralized provider through fixed optical fibers or coaxial cables

Definition

Cable television began as a means to bring television programming to people who lived in rural areas where broadcast signals could not be received easily, but during the 1990’s cable television joined broadcasting and telephone service as a telecommunications giant. By the 1990’s, cable television had become a permanent fixture in popular culture. The average cable subscriber could choose from a wide selection of cable programming that included basic networks such as Music Television (MTV), Cable News Network (CNN), and the Turner Broadcasting System (TBS) and premium networks such as Disney, Home Box Office (HBO), and Showtime. New and innovative cable networks emerged that included children’s programming on Nickelodeon, around-the-clock sports on the Entertainment and Sports Network (ESPN), original documentaries on the Discovery Channel, gavel-to-gavel coverage of U.S. congressional activity on the Cable Satellite Public Affairs Network (C-SPAN), and focused content such as Black Entertainment Television (BET). Founded in 1991, the Courtroom Television Network (Court TV) provided live coverage of high-profile trials such as the 1992 prosecution of murderer-cannibal Jeffrey Dahmer, O. J. Simpson’s 1994 trial for the murders of his former wife and her friend, and the 1996 trial of Lyle and Erik Menendez for the murders of their parents. CNN established itself as a major news competitor with its live coverage of the 1991 Gulf War. Cable television was so well established by the 1990’s that it was home to the 1992 U.S. presidential campaign’s key moments. Texas businessman H. Ross Perot announced his intention to run for U.S. president as a third-party candidate on CNN’s

Larry King Live and Democratic Party nominee Bill Clinton appeared on MTV. During the 1990’s, the cable industry fluctuated between periods of government regulation and deregulation. From 1984 to 1992, cable operators enjoyed a brief period of deregulation in which they were allowed to set their own rates. Because the cable industry did not have any real local competition, local providers quickly became virtual monopolies in the communities that they served. As a result, cable rates increased dramatically between November, 1986, and April, 1991. Responding to cable subscribers’ complaints about steadily increasing cable rates, Congress passed the Cable Television Consumer Protection and Competition Act of 1992 (overriding President George H. W. Bush’s veto). This act reregulated cable by controlling the rates for cable companies’ basic-tier services, composed of the broadcast stations in their area and their public access channels. Cable operators were also required to offer an expanded basic service composed primarily of broadcast stations with broad appeal, such as the Family Channel and USA Network. For an extra fee, cable subscribers could also receive premium cable programming such as HBO and Showtime. The period of the reregulation of the cable industry under the 1992 cable act, however, was short-lived. The Telecommunications Act of 1996 returned the cable industry to the government’s pre-1992 deregulation philosophy by phasing out regulation on all but the lowest level of cable service after March, 1999.

Cable Regulation

Competition and Mergers Deregulation and technological changes in the late 1990’s helped to increase competition in the cable industry. The 1992 cable act had eliminated many of the barriers to competition by opening what had once been exclusive cable programming to other distribution technologies such as wireless cable, telephone companies, and the emerging direct satellite broadcast

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business. In 1996, media baron Rupert Murdoch launched the Fox News Channel to compete against CNN. By the close of the decade, cable companies were delivering their programming via satellite, giving viewers twenty-four-hour access to music, sports, movies, news, and weather as well as children’s programming, religious networks, and foreign-language channels. More and more cable companies began merging with other media outlets to form huge multimedia conglomerates. In 1996, Walt Disney Company, owner of cable networks A&E and Lifetime, merged with Capital Cities/ABC. In October, 1996, Time Warner, Inc., acquired Ted Turner’s TBS, making an already vast empire even larger. Tele-Communications, Inc. (TCI) had acquired so many cable companies by the mid-1990’s that it provided cable to almost one in three U.S. households and owned significant interests in cable networks that included BET, the Discovery Channel, and the Family Channel. In 1999, Viacom Inc., owner of MTV, VH1, and Nickelodeon, announced that it was buying the Columbia Broadcasting System (CBS), home to the television news magazine program 60 Minutes and famous news journalists Dan Rather, Walter Cronkite, and Edward R. Murrow. The Viacom-CBS merger (completed in May, 2000) would become the largest in U.S. history, with Viacom becoming the second-biggest media conglomerate behind Time Warner. By the end of the decade, approximately seven in ten television households, more than 65 million, had opted to subscribe to cable, generating annual revenues of $48.2 million. In its short history, cable television quickly became a cultural force that significantly redefined news, sports, and music programming and changed the way in which people watched television. Impact

Further Reading

Barron, Stanley J. “Cable and Other Multichannel Services.” In Introduction to Mass Communication: Media Literary and Culture. 3d ed. New York: McGraw Hill, 2004. This university-level textbook covers a variety of media-related topics to help students become better consumers of media content. Includes a chapter on the history of cable and how cable television has shaped and reflected culture.

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Mullen, Megan. Television in the Multichannel Age: A Brief History of Cable Television. Malden, Mass.: Blackwell, 2008. Using oral history transcripts, personal interviews, and government documents, Mullen traces the evolution of cable television from its origins in the late 1940’s to the communications satellites and direct broadcast distribution systems of the modern digital age, both in the United States and internationally. Discusses factors that have influenced the television landscape, including government policy making, emerging technologies, and the public’s programming tastes. Parsons, Patrick R. Blue Skies: A History of Cable Television. Philadelphia: Temple University Press, 2008. A complete history of cable television that traces the social, economic, geographical, political, and technological changes and advancements that created the cable industry. Eddith A. Dashiell Children’s television; Children’s Television Act of 1990; CNN coverage of the Gulf War; Digital divide; MTV Unplugged; Telecommunications Act of 1996; Television; UPN television network; WB television network.

See also

■ Cammermeyer, Margarethe Identification American military officer Born March 24, 1942; Oslo, Norway

As one of the first open homosexuals to reveal themselves within the U.S. military, Cammermeyer was a symbol for the greater visibility of gays and lesbians in the 1990’s. Margarethe Cammermeyer was born in Norway during the wartime Nazi occupation and immigrated to the United States as a child. She joined the U.S. Army as a nurse, served in the Army Reserve in Vietnam, was eventually promoted to full colonel in the Washington National Guard, and became a respected authority in neuroscience in nursing. She married, gave birth to four sons, then divorced. In her forties, she came out as lesbian and started a relationship with another woman. Cammermeyer revealed that she was lesbian in response to a 1989 questionnaire. The Army had long banned homosexuals, ostensibly not for moral or religious reasons but because

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sexual tension between members of the same sex was judged to have a deleterious effect on unit cohesion and morale. Cammermeyer was honorably discharged in 1992, but she filed a civil suit. After newly elected President Bill Clinton changed the stipulations regarding homosexuals in the military in 1993, and after a federal district judge in Seattle overturned the National Guard’s discharge of her the following year, Cammermeyer was permitted to remain on active duty until she retired in 1996. That year, she ran for Congress in Washington State, winning the Democratic Party nomination but losing by a substantial margin to the Republican candidate in the general election. The Cammermeyer controversy was one of many in the 1990’s featuring the growing visibility of gay and lesbian Americans in a sphere of life where many had assumed they had not existed. Along with the emergence of lesbian cultural figures such as Melissa Etheridge and Ellen DeGeneres, Cammermeyer helped put a human face to the struggle of lesbians and gays for social acceptance. There was a close tie in the 1990’s between gay and lesbian selfassertion and the Clinton administration, which appointed gays and lesbians to high office in unprecedented numbers and generally fostered a tolerant attitude toward homosexuals that often excited sharp opposition among conservative Republicans. A television dramatization, Serving in Silence (1995), starring Glenn Close, helped popularize Cammermeyer’s story even further. The Cammermeyer controversy was also one of several scandals in the 1990’s involving sex and the Army, such as the Tailhook scandal, that revealed a military uncertain in its adaptation to a post-Cold War role. Impact Throughout U.S. history, the military has been a microcosm of society; as various groups have received full civil rights, their participation in the military has been expanded or recognized. The Cammermeyer controversy was a crucial test of whether this progressive narrative extended to gays and lesbians. Further Reading

Cammermeyer, Margarethe. Serving in Silence. New York: Viking Press, 1994. Francke, Linda Bird. Ground Zero: The Gender Wars in the Military. New York: Simon & Schuster, 1997. Miller, Diane Helene. Freedom to Differ: The Shaping of

the Gay and Lesbian Struggle for Civil Rights. New York: New York University Press, 1998. Nicholas Birns See also Clinton, Bill; DeGeneres, Ellen; Don’t ask, don’t tell; Etheridge, Melissa; Homosexuality and gay rights; Scandals; Tailhook incident; Women in the military.

■ Campaign finance scandal Interlocking series of scandals involving campaign finance in the 1996 Clinton reelection campaign

The Event

The scandal served as a dark cloud over the final stages of President Bill Clinton’s reelection campaign and a potential legal hazard. Bill Clinton was determined to raise as much money as possible for the 1996 presidential campaign, in part because of the 1994 “Republican Revolution,” in which Republicans gained a majority in both houses of Congress. The victory was of such a magnitude as to foreshadow a likely defeat for Clinton in 1996. Clinton decided to launch an ad campaign to refurbish his image and brought on longtime friend and consultant Dick Morris to run it. Morris estimated the price as at least $1 million per week, which inevitably would increase later, and did not include any other campaign expenses; he later estimated the total campaign cost at $300 million and also estimated that one-third of Clinton’s public schedule, at least while in the United States, involved raising funds. Misuse of the White House Technically, public property such as the White House is not supposed to be used for purely political purposes. In reality, it can be hard to separate policy from politics, and this is made even more difficult because the White House is also the president’s official residence. As Clinton desperately sought money, the White House also became a cash cow for his campaign. White House coffees were used as fund-raisers, and the Lincoln Bedroom, the White House’s guest room, was used similarly. Morris later identified seventeen individuals and four couples who contributed $100,000 or more and attended coffees, as well as thirty-eight individuals and five couples who contributed $100,000

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or more and overnighted in the Lincoln Bedroom (ten individuals and one couple were on both lists). This was the first time the White House had been used that way. Clinton himself claimed that most of the guests at the coffees and in the Lincoln Bedroom were friends, many of whom happened to be major contributors. He continued to say this even after the discovery of a personal memo (after the Center for Public Interest in 1996 charged him with misusing the White House) he wrote after meeting Democratic National Committee (DNC) fund-raiser Terry McAuliffe linking overnight stays at the White House to money donated (the DNC in fact had projected income from overnight stays). The Chinese Connection It is illegal to launder political donations through someone else. In the case of the recipients, the illegality only occurs if they are aware of the laundering. Thus, the most serious scandal involved Vice President Al Gore’s fundraiser at Hsi Lai Buddhist Temple in Los Angeles (organized by Maria Hsia, later identified as a Chinese agent). Though Gore initially made light of the charges, in the end the DNC returned the tainted money. There were other Chinese money-laundering operations as well. Johnny Chung received $300,000 from Ji Shengde, the head of Chinese military intelligence, to pass on to Clinton and the DNC. A Macao hotelier suspected of organized crime ties, Np Lap Seng, gave $1.4 million to Charlie Trie, a longtime friend of Clinton. James Riady, scion of the Indonesian Lippo Group (tied to Clinton friend Webb Hubbell), gave Clinton and the DNC $700,000 in 1992. Papers released in 1998 indicated that this and other contributions were for ending the trade embargo with Vietnam. In 1996, Riady worked with John Huang to supply another $1.6 million in laundered contributions. Not all the laundered money came from China: The $690,000 in laundered funds arranged by Pauline Kanchanalak came from many sources, including three Thai businessmen. The final scandal involved influence peddling rather than money laundering. Inevitably, there was a great deal of this, as is generally true in politics. There are legal consequences only if one can prove that there was an explicit promise of action in exchange for money. In 1998, news came out that in 1996 Loral Space and Communications (whose

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chief executive officer, Bernard Schwartz, was the top Democratic contributor in 1997) and Hughes Electronics provided secret rocket-guidance technology to China that could be used for space launches as well as ballistic missiles. While a grand jury was considering the matter, Clinton overruled the Justice, Defense, and State Departments, approving such high-technology transfers to a potential enemy. Even many Democrats opposed this, including future House Speaker Nancy Pelosi. Legal Consequences The key figures in the moneylaundering scandal either stonewalled or fled to foreign countries. Federal Bureau of Investigation chief Louis Freeh compared these actions to the Mafia rule of omertà. Attorney General Janet Reno made the controversial decision not to appoint an independent prosecutor. As a result, there was no serious pursuit of either Clinton or Gore. In regard to the campaign finance scandal, they faced no charges or impeachment, despite the efforts of a small band of Republicans in early 1997. The others involved fared less well. The DNC in 1996 returned a total of $2.8 million in illegal funds. Many of the illegal contributors were convicted, including Charlie Trie, James Riady, Pauline Kanchanalak, Maria Hsia, Johnny Chung, and John Huang, though some (most notably Huang) basically received slaps on the wrists. The technology transfers led to significant punishments for Hughes and Loral. Impact The scandal probably reduced Clinton’s vote in 1996, thereby depriving him of a majority of popular votes, and the follow-up scandal involving Norman Hsu in Hillary Rodham Clinton’s 2008 presidential campaign was undoubtedly made worse by its similarity to the previous scandal. Without evidence that Bill Clinton’s campaign was aware of illegal contributions, there was no legal case against Clinton, Gore, or their top campaign staff. Further Reading

Clinton, Bill. My Life. New York: Alfred A. Knopf, 2004. Includes the former president’s perspective on the scandal. Harris, John F. The Survivor: Bill Clinton in the White House. New York: Random House, 2005. Extensive study of the Clinton presidency, including a brief discussion of the campaign finance scandal. Limbaugh, David. Absolute Power: The Legacy of Cor-

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ruption in the Clinton-Reno Justice Department. Washington, D.C.: Regnery, 2001. A critical look at the Justice Department under Reno, including three chapters focusing on the campaign finance scandal and providing considerable details on all its aspects. Lowry, Rich. Legacy: Paying the Price for the Clinton Years. Washington, D.C.: Regnery, 2003. A critical look at the Clinton administration, including the various scandals. Morris, Dick, and Eileen McGann. Because He Could. New York: ReganBooks, 2004. Biography of Clinton as politician by a longtime aide and friend involved in the 1996 campaign. Includes a brief discussion of each scandal. Smith, Sally Bedell. For Love of Politics: Bill and Hillary Clinton—The White House Years. New York: Random House, 2007. A study of the Clinton administration, with a special focus on the dynamics between the Clintons. Timothy Lane Brown, Ron; China and the United States; Clinton, Bill; Clinton’s impeachment; Clinton’s scandals; Elections in the United States, midterm; Elections in the United States, 1996; Foreign policy of the United States; Gore, Al; Morris, Dick; Reno, Janet; Republican Revolution.

See also

■ Campbell, Kim Prime minister of Canada, JuneNovember, 1993 Born March 10, 1947; Port Alberni, British Columbia, Canada Identification

Campbell was Canada’s nineteenth prime minister and the first woman to serve in that position. Kim Campbell first emerged on the Canadian political scene at the municipal level when she became a school trustee in the city of Vancouver in 1980. A lawyer by training, her next move was to the provincial legislature as a member of the governing Social Credit Party. Her meteoric political rise continued when in 1988 she was elected as a Progressive Conservative member of Parliament to the government of Prime Minister Brian Mulroney. Mulroney quickly appointed her as a cabinet minister. It was in the 1990’s that her ascent reached its

Kim Campbell is sworn into office as Canadian prime minister on June 25, 1993. (AP/Wide World Photos)

highest point, and Campbell, as a woman, established a number of political firsts. In 1990, she became the first woman appointed as minister of justice in the Canadian government. In that capacity she succeeded in passing legislation to strengthen gun control and to protect the rights of victims of sexual assault. In 1993, she became the first ever female minister of defense. In contrast to her growing profile, the government and Prime Minister Mulroney in particular became increasingly unpopular. In February, 1993, Mulroney announced his retirement as prime minister, and Campbell, despite her short time in the Progressive Conservative Party, quickly became the favorite to succeed him. At a leadership convention in June, 1993, she became leader of the party and, because the party controlled the government, prime minister. In her short term in office, she reorganized the government before seeking an electoral mandate in a general election

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on October 25, 1993. The result was a disaster for Campbell and her government. Not only did the Conservatives lose the election to the Liberals under the leadership of Jean Chrétien but also Campbell lost her own seat in Parliament, and her party managed to win only two seats, its worst defeat in history. Campbell, now one of the shortest-serving Canadian prime ministers ever, quickly resigned as party leader and disappeared from political life. Impact Campbell’s political success ultimately did not have a lasting impact beyond the symbolism of having achieved high political status as a woman, including becoming Canada’s first female prime minister. Although representing a first for women by becoming prime minister, even this legacy lacked strength, as the only election she actually fought while prime minister led to her party’s worst electoral defeat in history. This was largely nothing to do with Campbell but instead reflected continuing anger toward former prime minister Brian Mulroney as well as the rise of strong regional political parties in Quebec and western Canada that took votes away from the Conservatives. Further Reading

Dobbin, Murray. The Politics of Kim Campbell: From School Trustee to Prime Minister. Toronto: Lorimer, 1993. Fife, Robert. Kim Campbell: The Making of a Politician. Toronto: HarperCollins, 1993. Steve Hewitt See also Bloc Québécois; Chrétien, Jean; Elections in Canada; Mulroney, Brian; Women’s rights.

■ Canada and the British Commonwealth Diplomatic, cultural, educational, and economic relations among Canada, the United Kingdom, and the other Commonwealth countries

Definition

Canada continued to be a senior partner in the Commonwealth as the latter moved from being a political force and trading bloc to taking on a more cultural and educational role, upholding and encouraging principles of democracy and good governance in its member states.

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Over the half century after World War II, the British Empire devolved all its power back to the individual states that it comprised. For a while, trade preferences and monetary systems held the Commonwealth together, but this role ceased with Britain’s membership in the European Union, and later, Canada’s joining a free trade agreement with the United States and then the North American Free Trade Agreement (NAFTA). What remained has been described as a “gentlemen’s club,” with regular meetings of heads of states, a recognition of the British queen as head of the Commonwealth, and the common language of English. Strong educational and cultural ties and traditions have also remained. Canada has traditionally seen the Commonwealth as a cultural and political counterbalance to the influence of the United States, though with NAFTA, this has inevitably weakened. Nevertheless, Canada remains one of sixteen Commonwealth countries to be a constitutional monarchy, with Queen Elizabeth II as its sovereign, represented by a governorgeneral residing in the capital, Ottawa. Although the Commonwealth Heads of Government Meetings (CHOGMs) have no force in law, the agreements of these biennial meetings have considerable weight. In the 1980’s, Canada played a considerable part in these meetings with Prime Minister Pierre Trudeau’s seniority as a Commonwealth statesman. His successor, Brian Mulroney, was an equally keen supporter of the Commonwealth. During the 1980’s, CHOGMs had been deadlocked over sanctions against South Africa, a former Commonwealth member. Mulroney led strongly against the apartheid system, which indeed collapsed at the turn of the decade, leading to the rejoining of the Republic of South Africa in 1994. Probably the most significant CHOGM of the decade was the 1991 meeting held in Harare, Zimbabwe, where “rules” for the democratic credentials of its members were laid down, thus fixing the foci for future political development and cooperation. Significantly, Nigeria’s membership was suspended at the 1995 meeting, as its military dictatorship executed several civil rights activists during the conference itself. It was Nelson Mandela, the new South African president, who led the call for this. Besides meetings for heads of government, there were regular meetings for education and finance ministers of Commonwealth countries, in all of

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which Canada took part. As one of the wealthier nations, Canada contributed significantly to the budget for such meetings. The Commonwealth Games The Commonwealth Games are probably the most visible demonstration of the Commonwealth. Held every four years, the games attract representatives from most of the Commonwealth countries, with seventy countries in 1994. The first event was held in 1930 in Hamilton, Ontario. Canada’s most successful games had been on home soil, at Edmonton in 1978, where the Canadians led the medals table, beating traditional rivals Australia and England. In the 1990’s, there were three games, the most significant for Canada being the 1994 games, held at Victoria, British Columbia, using its Centennial Stadium. The host country traditionally does well, and this occasion was no exception, with Canada winning a record 133 medals, though still unable to overtake Australia, which dominated all three games of the decade. The Victoria Games were also memorable for the readmittance of South African athletes and, for the first time, the inclusion of handicapped athletes—in athletic, swimming, and bowl events. Sadly, 1994 was the last time that Hong Kong athletes would participate in the games, prior to the territory’s annexation into China. Canada remained traditionally strong in gymnastics, swimming and diving, shooting, and wrestling. In both 1990 and 1994, for example, Canada won the team gold medal for men’s gymnastics and women’s rhythmic gymnastics. In 1990 in Auckland, New Zealand, gymnast Curtis Hibbert collected five individual golds and one silver. Gymnast Lori Strong took three golds and a bronze in those games, while her fellow gymnast Erika-Leigh Stirton collected five golds at the 1998 games in Kuala Lumpur, Malaysia, the first time the games had been held in an Asian country. In other sports, Canada performed very well in 1994 in athletics, winning four golds and seven silvers. Outstanding were the performances of Angela Chalmers in the 3,000 meters, where she added a gold to the two golds she won at Auckland, and Mike Smith, winning a gold for the decathlon to add to his Auckland gold. In boxing, Mike Strange won a gold in the lightweight division, a victory he was to repeat in 1998. Tanya Dubnicoff won the gold medal in the women’s sprint cycle race. In diving, the women captured seven of the nine medals available.

The Commonwealth of Learning Of a number of institutions the Commonwealth had set up, the Commonwealth of Learning was probably the most significant for Canada. It had been proposed by Canada in the 1980’s, and land had been donated in Vancouver, British Columbia. Its aim was to provide educational resources to the developing countries of the Commonwealth, especially through electronic means and prepared packages for use on-site. It was not a university, nor did it have students or scholarships. Nevertheless, it has been able to develop learning resources in many fields, especially in banking, government, and administration. Parallel to this is the Commonwealth Foundation, based in London, which provides travel grants, cultural exchanges, and cooperation between nongovernmental, professional, and cultural bodies. Impact Much of the impact of the Commonwealth has been low-key. For example, out of the 1994 Commonwealth Games, the Canadian committee of the games and the government offered to produce a number of teaching packages for coaching individual athletes in developing countries, where sports facilities were limited. Canadian universities continued to welcome Commonwealth students and host Commonwealth conferences of various sorts. For example, the inaugural conference of the Commonwealth Association for Public Administration and Management was held in Charlottetown, Prince Edward Island, in 1995. Further Reading

Buckner, Phillip, ed. Canada and the End of Empire. Vancouver: University of British Columbia Press, 2005. Chapters on postcolonialism and Canada’s relationship with the United Kingdom. Commonwealth Secretariat. Current Good Practices and New Developments in Public Service Management: Profile of the Public Service of Canada. London: Author, 1994. Part of the public-service profile of best practices in various Commonwealth countries. Dheensaw, Cleve. The Commonwealth Games: The First Sixty Years, 1930-1990. Auckland, New Zealand: Hodder & Stoughton, 1994. Traces the development of the games. Pictures and statistics. David Barratt Foreign policy of Canada; Mulroney, Brian; North American Free Trade Agreement (NAFTA).

See also

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■ Canada and the United States The domestic and foreign policy issues that define relations between Canada and the United States

Definition

Canada and the United States share the longest undefended border in the world. Relations between the two nations reflect a common British heritage, language, and goals. The two countries worked closely during the 1990’s: On the domestic front, the establishment of the North American Free Trade Agreement removed trade barriers between them; on issues of foreign policy, Canada cooperated with U.S.-led interventions around the world. The 1990’s brought two American presidents, George H. W. Bush (1989-1993) and Bill Clinton (1993-2001), into discussions with Canadian prime ministers Brian Mulroney (1984-1993), Kim Campbell (1993), and Jean Chrétien (1993-2003). The leaders of both nations addressed the domestic issues of trade (namely NAFTA, the North American Free Trade Agreement), international terrorism, narcotrafficking, poverty, G7 and G8 summits, the environment, and foreign policy actions in the Gulf War, Bosnia, Cuba, and Kosovo. By the 1990’s, Canadian national identity was strengthened by the redefined relationship with Great Britain, with whom Canada shares a common sovereign, and the resolution of the Quebec separatist movement. In 1982, Canada assumed control over its own constitution, severing Canada’s legislative ties to London’s Parliament and ending a final vestige of Canada’s colonial past. The Meech Lake and Charlottetown Accords (1987 and 1992), which would have given Quebec special status within the Canadian confederation, failed to achieve ratification by the required number of provincial legislatures. Quebec’s threats to secede from Canada were dealt a lethal blow in 1995, when a second Quebec referendum failed to achieve a majority vote to create an independent state. A renewed sense of national identity strengthened Canada’s bargaining position with the United States and led to more divergent positions between the two nations.

Canadian Identity

NAFTA and the Kyoto Protocol The North American Free Trade Agreement took effect January 1, 1994, and was fully implemented in 2008. Most trade and investment barriers have been removed among

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Canada, the United States, and Mexico. Almost all tariffs on agricultural trade between Canada and the United States were removed by 1998. Canada is the United States’ largest export market, with an 81 percent increase since 1990 and trade worth over $450 million. Canadian approval of NAFTA was facilitated by the previously negotiated Canada-United States Free Trade Agreement in 1989; Mulroney’s reelection victory (1988), which included a national debate on NAFTA; and the close professional relationship shared by Prime Minister Mulroney with Presidents Ronald Reagan and George H. W. Bush. However, Canada and the United States diverged when Canada became the first major industrialized country to sign the international accord on biodiversity and climate change proposed by the United Nations Conference on the Environment, the Kyoto Protocol, in 1998 (ratified in 2002). The United States has yet to ratify this agreement. The Gulf War, Bosnia, and Kosovo Canada was the first nation to condemn the Iraqi-led invasion of Kuwait in 1990 and contributed four thousand troops in the U.N.-backed and U.S.-led coalition force of thirty-four nations. Prime Minister Mulroney assigned two destroyers to enforce a trade blockade of Iraq, a supply ship to aid coalition forces, a CF-18 air squadron, and a field hospital. No Canadian casualties were suffered while under U.S. command. Canadian forces undertook peacekeeping operations in Bosnia in 1993 under U.N. command, and in Kosovo in 1999 as part of their military commitment to the U.S.-led North Atlantic Treaty Organization (NATO). The Chrétien-Clinton Era During the tenure of Prime Minister Jean Chrétien, a close relationship developed between the prime minister and President Bill Clinton. A state visit to Canada in 1995, a prelude to the G7 conference in Halifax, Nova Scotia, emphasized the shared agenda of Canada and the United States. The two nations agreed to continue to work to stabilize Haiti and to resolve trade disputes over wheat, timber, and salmon fishing. Agreements between Canada and the United States achieved improvements in combating terrorism and organized crime but fell short on the issue of drug trafficking with Canada’s consideration of decriminalizing marijuana. At a 1997 state dinner in Washington, D.C., both Clinton and Chrétien agreed to work together on the International Space Station

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and signed a bilateral agreement to protect cultural heritage property of an archaeological and ethnological nature from being illegally exported between their countries. They diverged when Chrétien made an official visit to communist Cuba in 1998 and advocated an end to the U.S. embargo of the island nation. An attempt by one man to bring bomb-making materials into the United States through Washington state in 1998 and the discovery of terrorist cells in both Canada and the United States has forced both nations since the incident to reevaluate travel across and the policing of their common border. Impact A stronger Canadian national identity led Canada to consider adoption of laws more in common with European Union members than with the United States on marijuana, health care, same-sex marriage, pollution, and immigration. Trade and tourism continued to strengthen ties between both nations. Cheaper Canadian labor, advanced technology, and a highly trained workforce increased the number of U.S. firms establishing operations in Canada. Canadian surpluses in natural gas and oil reflect a cooperative U.S.-Canadian investment that is duplicated in agriculture, communications, and biotechnology industries. Cheaper Canadian labor has led to more U.S. television shows and films being produced in Vancouver, Toronto, Montreal, and other Canadian locations. The emergence of a strong Canadian identity stressing multicultural sensitivities witnessed acceptance by the United States that the two nations would have more divergent approaches to common problems. Further Reading

Adams, Michael. Fire and Ice: The U.S., Canada, and the Myth of Converging Values. Toronto: Penguin Canada, 2004. A comparative study of Canada and the United States that challenges traditional beliefs. Bothwell, Robert. Canada and the United States: The Politics of Partnership. New York: Twayne, 1992. A review of U.S.-Canadian relations over several centuries. Chrétien, Jean. My Years as Prime Minister. Toronto: Alfred A. Knopf, 2007. Details the contacts with U.S. presidents. Clinton, Bill. My Life. New York: Alfred A. Knopf, 2004. Clinton’s biography discusses the state of U.S.-Canadian ties. Kennedy, Kevin C., ed. The First Decade of NAFTA: The

Future of Free Trade in North America. Ardsley, N.Y.: Transnational, 2004. Evaluates the pros and cons of NAFTA for Canada, the United States, and Mexico. Mulroney, Brian. Memoirs 1939-1993. Toronto: McClelland & Stewart, 2007. Offers an understanding of the ties with three U.S. presidents. Thompson, John Herd, and Stephen J. Randall. Canada and the United States: Ambivalent Allies. Athens: University of Georgia Press, 1994. Raises the question of whether the United States and Canada are truly close, cooperative allies. Weaver, R. Kent. The Collapse of Canada? Washington, D.C.: Brookings Institution, 1992. Presents the debate about whether Canada can survive French Quebec nationalism and the strong influence of American culture. Webber, Jeremy. Reimagining Canada. Montreal: McGill-Queen’s University Press, 1994. Offers consideration of Canada’s future identity with its strong separatist tendencies and the dominating influences of American culture. William A. Paquette See also Bloc Québécois; Bosnia conflict; Bush, George H. W.; Campbell, Kim; Chrétien, Jean; Clinton, Bill; Elections in Canada; Foreign policy of Canada; Foreign policy of the United States; Gulf War; Kosovo conflict; Kyoto Protocol; Mulroney, Brian; North American Free Trade Agreement (NAFTA); Quebec referendum of 1995.

■ Cancer research Scientific investigation of the class of malignant tumors threatening human health

Definition

During the 1990’s, cancer research centered on the genetic basis of the disease. Several specific genes associated with increased cancer risk were identified. Research also addressed alternative mechanisms by which chemotherapy could be applied for control of the disease. In the 1980’s, researchers began to view most cancers as genetic diseases rather than having an infectious origin. The discovery of proto-oncogenes and the role they play in cell regulation became the key to such an understanding, with the underlying implication that one might screen for certain cancers.

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Acting with the knowledge that approximately 10 percent of breast cancers run in families, researchers identified mutations in two genes, BRCA1 and 2, as being associated with such cancers. In 1990, the locus for the BRCA1 gene was found on chromosome 17; BRCA2 was linked to chromosome 13 four years later, making it possible to screen for this form of cancer. In 1994, a marker was likewise identified for a rare form of thyroid cancer. The RET (rearranged during transfection) proto-oncogene, a membrane receptor for the enzyme tyrosine kinase that functions to regulate cell division, was found to undergo either amplification or rearrangement in children with this disease. In addition, increased risk for colon cancer was linked to several genetic markers. While the enzyme telomerase was not encoded by a protooncogene, Dr. Robert Weinberg demonstrated that its presence and activity may be necessary for cancer cells to survive. Certain risk factors or behaviors had been linked to some cancers for years. In particular, evidence that changes in the diet from one of high saturated fat to what has been called the “Mediterranean diet”—one rich in tomatoes and olive oil—was linked to reduced risk for colon and prostate cancer. An American Cancer Society (ACS) guideline released in 1996 suggested that one-third of cancers could be prevented with healthier diets. The strongest recommendation involved the link between smoking and respiratory cancers; the ACS strongly recommended that use of all forms of tobacco, including smokeless (such as snuff), be reduced. The danger of even secondhand smoke was recognized during the decade. Studies demonstrated that a significant risk of lung and other forms of respiratory cancers was found among spouses of smokers. In 1993, the Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) called environmental tobacco smoke—secondhand smoke—a human carcinogen, estimating that three thousand persons who are not themselves smokers die annually from lung cancer produced by secondhand smoke. This estimate did not even address the increased risk of cardiovascular disease. An estimated 150,000-300,000 cases of respiratory disease such as pneumonia or bronchitis in children result from secondhand smoke.

Genetic Markers and Risk Factors

Chemotherapy Several forms of chemotherapy were approved during the decade. In 1994, Taxol

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(paclitaxel) was approved as a treatment for advanced breast cancer. Additional drugs, tamoxifen and raloxifene, were also approved for control of breast cancers. It was reported in 1998 that tamoxifen had reduced the incidence of breast cancer in “high-risk” women by approximately 45 percent, while raloxifene reduced the incidence of breast cancer in postmenopausal women by 75 percent. Meanwhile, camptostar was approved as a treatment for advanced colon cancer. Other treatments utilized new forms of monoclonal antibodies, molecules directed at markers specific to cancer cell surfaces. Herceptin was the first form of such molecules specific for certain types of breast cancer. Other types of monoclonal antibodies were approved for use in treating certain lymphomas. Impact With the exception of smoking-related cancers—lung and respiratory, in particular—the incidence of most forms of cancer either leveled off or even continued to be reduced during the decade. These changes could be attributed to several factors. First was the importance of early screening. The discovery that certain forms of cancer have a congenital basis—breast cancers, thyroid cancer, albeit a rare form, and even certain types of colon cancer— meant that doctors could screen persons at risk. In addition, improved methods of treatment were developed and applied during the decade, the object of which was either to improve the possibility of cure or at least to prolong life. In 1990, the surgeon general released a report emphasizing the benefits of quitting smoking. Approximately 47 million adults constituted the smoking population—27 percent of men, 23 percent of women. Given the approximate twenty-year lag between initiation of smoking and development of cancer, changes in cancer incidence would not be observed for decades. Nevertheless, a reduction in the smoking population that originated decades earlier began to demonstrate effects by 1999. While 172,000 cases of respiratory cancer were diagnosed that year, the incidence in men had declined from 86.5 per 100,000 in 1984 to below 42 per 100,000. The incidence of colon and rectal cancer continued to decline, the result of improved screening and polyp removal. Some 129,400 cases were diagnosed in 1999, a number that averaged a decline of 1.4 percent for

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each year during the 1990’s. Overall, cancer deaths fell by nearly 1 percent during the decade.

■ Carey, Mariah

Further Reading

Identification

Allison, Lizabeth A. Fundamental Molecular Biology. Malden, Mass.: Blackwell, 2007. Extensive coverage of molecular biology. Several sections address the molecular biology of cancer and disruptions in gene regulation that may lead to a malignancy. Coffin, John M., Stephen H. Hughes, and Harold E. Varmus, eds. Retroviruses. Plainview, N.Y.: Cold Spring Harbor Laboratory Press, 1997. Story of retroviruses and the role they played in the discovery of oncogenes. McKinnell, Robert G., et al. The Biological Basis of Cancer. New York: Cambridge University Press, 2006. Updated text that addresses the genetics and pathology of the disease. A simplified version of much of the material can be found in the Weinberg book. Narod, Steven, and William Foulkes. “BRCA1 and BRCA2: 1994 and Beyond.” Nature Reviews: Cancer 4 (2004): 665-676. Description of the two genes associated with congenital forms of breast cancer, accounting for twenty thousand cases annually. Roles played by the protein products. Pelengaris, Stella, and Michael Khan, eds. The Molecular Biology of Cancer. Malden, Mass.: Blackwell, 2006. Extensive discussion of the discovery of oncogenes and their role in development of cancer. Weinberg, Robert A. The Biology of Cancer. New York: Garland Science, 2006. Extensive coverage of the subject within a college textbook. The author is a major figure involved in understanding the molecular biology of the disease, and in particular, the roles played by cellular oncogenes. Richard Adler

American singer, songwriter, and producer Born March 27, 1970; Huntington, Long Island, New York In 1990, Carey amazed listeners with her self-titled debut album. Her versatile vocal range and ability to blend gospel, pop, and rhythm and blues brought her immediate success. Mariah Carey met her future husband, Tommy Mottola, president and chief operating officer of Sony Music Entertainment, at a music industry party in 1988. The chance meeting provided Carey with the impetus she needed to launch her career. Mottola realized Carey’s potential and quickly created a contract for her with Columbia Records. Her first album, released in 1990 when she was just twenty years old, included four number one singles—“Vision of Love,” “Love Takes Time,” “I Don’t Wanna Cry,” and “Someday”—and sold over seven million copies. Carey cowrote each of these songs and was also directly involved with their production. “Vision of Love” earned her two Grammy Awards that year. Carey’s success continued with her second album, Emotions (1991), whose title track became her fifth top single.

AIDS epidemic; Genetics research; Health care; Medicine; Pharmaceutical industry; Science and technology; Stem cell research.

See also

Mariah Carey, left, and Whitney Houston perform their Oscar-nominated song, “When You Believe,” during the 1999 Academy Awards in Los Angeles. (AP/Wide World Photos)

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While Carey quickly reached the top of many music charts, she received criticism for not presenting herself at many public appearances. As a result, in 1992 she performed live on MTV Unplugged and released an album of the performance. Her whirlwind career included a glamorous marriage to Mottola in 1993 and the release of her fourth album, Music Box. The recording of Merry Christmas (1994) and Daydream (1995) soon followed. Carey announced her pending divorce in 1997, the year she joined hiphop and rap singers to record Butterfly. Next she joined pop star Whitney Houston to record the song “When You Believe” for Disney’s The Prince of Egypt (1998). In 1999, it earned the Academy Award for Best Original Song, and Columbia Records released Carey’s thirteen hit singles in an album titled #1’s. Carey’s work of the 1990’s culminated with the release of her ninth album, Rainbow (1999). This recording included the song “Heartbreaker,” which brought her music to the top of the charts for the tenth consecutive year. In that year, she made her film debut as an opera singer in The Bachelor and released a video of her world performances, Around the World. Impact Mariah Carey was a top female singer and composer of the 1990’s. She sang beautifully, wrote or coauthored most of her own music, and helped produce other artists’ work. She had several tours and appeared in various television shows. Commercial success allowed Carey to become a philanthropist for her favorite charities, including the MakeA-Wish Foundation and the National Adoption Center. She also helped found Camp Mariah, a Fresh Air Camp for inner-city children in New York. Further Reading

Conti, Kathe A. “Mariah Carey.” In Dictionary of Hispanic Biography, edited by Joseph C. Tardiff and L. Mpho Mabunda. New York: Gale Research, 1996. Taylor, B. Kimberly, and Shannon McCarthy. “Mariah Carey.” In Contemporary Musicians, edited by Angela M. Pilchak. Detroit: Thomson/Gale, 2006. Cynthia J. W. Svoboda See also

Selena.

Academy Awards; MTV Unplugged; Music;

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■ Carjacking Definition

Forcible theft of an occupied motor

vehicle The number of carjackings grew from approximately 35,000 attempts per year between 1987 and 1992 to approximately 49,000 carjackings per year between 1992 and 1996. Carjacking differs from motor vehicle theft in that the vehicle is taken in the presence of the victim and the offender uses force or the threat of force. In the early 1990’s, carjackings, which appear to be crimes of opportunity, targeted older people, women, and tourists. According to newspaper accounts, tourists in Florida appeared to be the most frequent targets, since they often carried large amounts of cash. As a result, the state outlawed logos or other markings that identified vehicles as rental cars. In the spring of 1992, Representative Charles Schumer of New York introduced new legislation aimed at auto theft in general rather than carjacking in particular. This bill became the Anti-Car Theft Act of 1992. Although in approximately 84 percent of carjackings the victim is not injured, the sensational case of Pamela Basu and her twenty-two-month-old daughter made national news. In the fall of 1992, Basu’s car, with her daughter inside, was carjacked by two men. Basu became tangled in her seat belt while trying to rescue her daughter. As a result, she was dragged almost two miles, suffering fatal injuries. Her daughter was thrown uninjured from the car shortly afterward. This incident became the rallying point for the passage of a provision in the Anti-Car Theft Act of 1992, which was signed into law on October 25, 1992, by President George H. W. Bush. In a twelve-month period from 1997 to 1998, eight infants aged two months to fourteen months were kidnapped in carjackings. It appeared that most of the offenders did not know the child was in the vehicle and abandoned the vehicle and/or the baby a short time after the child was discovered. Impact The passage of the Anti-Car Theft Act resulted in a challenge under the double jeopardy clause of the U.S. Constitution. According to federal statutes, a person who used a firearm in the commission of a carjacking could also be punished for carrying a firearm in the commission of a violent crime. In United States v. Singleton (1994), the Fifth Circuit

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Court judge decided that since both laws applied to the same act, it was double jeopardy. A provision of the Violent Crime Control and Law Enforcement Act of 1994 amended the Anti-Car Theft Act by adding the possibility of a death penalty if the carjacking victim was killed; the clause concerning the possession of a firearm was replaced by a clause referring to the offender’s intent to cause severe bodily injury or death. Further Reading

Klaus, Patsy. Carjackings in the United States, 1992-96. Washington, D.C.: U.S. Department of Justice, Office of Justice Programs, Bureau of Justice Statistics, 1999. Rand, Michael. Carjacking: National Crime Victimization Survey. Washington, D.C.: U.S. Department of Justice, Office of Justice Programs, Bureau of Justice Statistics, 1994. Gerald P. Fisher Automobile industry; Byrd murder case; Crime; Drive-by shootings.

See also

■ Carpal tunnel syndrome Definition

A repetitive strain injury affecting the

wrists Although known for years as a syndrome with meatpackers and other manual laborers, carpal tunnel syndrome in white-collar workers became more prominent during the 1990’s. Repetitive strain injury was first described in 1713 by Bernardino Ramazzini. During the 1990’s, repetitive strain injuries, which include carpal tunnel syndrome, increased substantially among the industries that were computer-intensive, becoming one the fastest-growing health problems in American businesses and costing billions of dollars. Between 1990 and 1997, the U.S. Bureau of Labor Statistics reported an 80 percent increase in incidents of repetitive strain injury, with 8.4 million workers affected in 1999 alone. Carpal tunnel syndrome involves a swelling in the carpal tunnel, a small area in the wrist between the bones and the transverse carpal ligament. Blood vessels and the median nerve pass through this tunnel and, when the tunnel is swollen and irritated, pres-

sure is put on the median nerve by an increase in fluid buildup. The most common symptoms of carpal tunnel are a dull ache in the hand, forearm, or upper arm, as well as fatigue, tingling, numbness, burning sensation, or weakness in the hand. There is no clear reason why some people develop carpal tunnel syndrome and others do not. Risk factors include wrist injuries, inflammatory diseases, pregnancy, thyroid disease, diabetes, and repetitive motions, although some people develop the condition for no specific reason. Movements that involve prolonged or repetitive motion of the wrist put people at risk for the syndrome. Many people assumed that computer and mouse usage were responsible for an increase in hand numbness and tingling symptoms. With the increase in Internet access as well as the explosion of video games and e-mail opportunities, physicians began seeing younger people complaining of carpal tunnel symptoms. The symptoms were often ignored until there was significant damage to the nerve. The damage takes place over time and is slow to heal. Treatment and prevention include proper posture so that the back and shoulder muscles do not have to work so hard and so that the nerves and blood supply are not pinched. Positioning the arms and wrists correctly also prevents overworking the muscles in the forearm. Taking short breaks, stretching, and conditioning exercises can help prevent the symptoms of carpal tunnel syndrome. For people already affected, physical therapy and refraining from the repetitive work may be necessary, although permanent damage to the median nerve can result in lifelong disability. Impact During the 1990’s, the common assumption was that computer usage put people at a higher risk for carpal tunnel syndrome. A few studies have either proved inconclusive or shown that there is no increase in incidence of carpal tunnel syndrome in computer users as compared to the general population. Computer users, however, more often have temporary symptoms of numbness or tingling and still seem to comprise a large portion of the many documented cases of carpal tunnel syndrome. Further Reading

Damany, Suparna, and Jack Bellis. It’s Not Carpal Tunnel Syndrome: RSI Theory and Therapy for Computer Professionals. Philadelphia: Simax, 2000.

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Johansson, Philip. Carpal Tunnel Syndrome and Other Repetitive Strain Injuries. Berkeley Heights, N.J.: Enslow, 1999. Virginia L. Salmon See also

Computers; Internet; Medicine.

■ Carrey, Jim Canadian American actor and comedian Born January 17, 1962; Newmarket, Ontario, Canada Identification

During the 1990’s, comedian Jim Carrey showcased his goofy talents in many films, having opened up the decade by appearing in television’s edgy sketch comedy series In Living Color. Not since Jerry Lewis, Lucille Ball, and Charlie Chaplin had audiences been so entertained by someone so adept at physical comedy. Drawn at a young age to performing clownishly for his peers, James Eugene Carrey dropped out of high school, moving to Los Angeles in 1979. The 1980’s were a time of struggle for the young artist. He appeared in supporting roles in several films and eventually found regular work as a stand-up comedian. In 1990, he joined the cast in the sketch comedy series In Living Color. Immediately his particular brand of exaggerated lunacy became a favorite of many fans. Outrageously funny, Carrey specialized in overthe-top, extreme body and facial movements in his manic antics. Carrey’s film career took off during the 1990’s. He tirelessly threw himself into a rigorous schedule, developing eccentric characters for various films, including Ace Ventura: Pet Detective, The Mask, and Dumb and Dumber in 1994; Batman Forever (playing the Riddler) and Ace Ventura: When Nature Calls in 1995; The Cable Guy in 1996; Liar, Liar in 1997; The Truman Show in 1998; and Man on the Moon in 1999. In these last two films, Carrey extended his reach into dramatic roles that earned him two Golden Globe Awards. In The Truman Show, he played a man exploited by the entertainment industry. His uncanny portrayal of the late comedian Andy Kaufman in Man on the Moon was critically acclaimed. In 1997, People magazine named Carrey one of the fifty most beautiful people in the world. Carrey

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divorced twice during the 1990’s. He has one child, Jane, with his first wife, Melissa. Impact One of the great comedic actors of the 1990’s, Jim Carrey amazed audiences with his flair for physical fun and, late in the decade, with his dramatic performances. He continued to star in a variety of films in the early twenty-first century, including the highly acclaimed romantic dramedy Eternal Sunshine of the Spotless Mind (2004). Further Reading

Knelman, Martin. Jim Carrey: The Joker Is Wild. Buffalo, N.Y.: Firefly Books, 2000. Trakin, Roy. Jim Carrey: Unmasked! New York: St. Martin’s Press, 1995. Jan Hall Comedians; Film in Canada; Film in the United States; In Living Color; Television.

See also

Jim Carrey does a comic routine before presenting an award at the 1996 Academy Awards. (AP/Wide World Photos)

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■ Casual Fridays Work days identified by businesses when employees are allowed to dress casually

Definition

Prior to the 1990’s, most companies had dress codes for employees that did not include casual clothing items. Employers saw that allowing their employees to dress casually and more comfortably was a way to give workers a “perk” without using any resources. The idea behind casual Fridays was that dressing casually would be more comfortable for employees and would thereby improve productivity, morale, and communication. The computer industry is often credited with starting this trend in the 1990’s by giving their programmers this perquisite to encourage creativity. Clothing for casual Fridays often included khaki pants or skirts, polo shirts, and cardigan sweaters. Men’s crisp suits and starched white shirts were replaced with chino pants and a sport coat worn without a necktie. Women wore trouser socks and loafers instead of high heels and pantyhose. While these casual dress codes were less formal than traditional business dress codes, some garments remained inappropriate in a professional environment, as employers reminded their workers that clients and customers are often influenced by dress and appearance. Tattered jeans and most denim garments, athletic shoes, sweatshirts, tank tops or halter tops, and beach wear were not acceptable clothing items for the workplace and were seen as detracting from credibility and professionalism. Also, any clothing that was too tight, too short, or too revealing was inappropriate, as were T-shirts with alcohol, tobacco, or drug slogans. Sandals and open-toed shoes also remained too casual for some businesses. Impact As business and industry adopted a more casual dress code in the 1990’s, manufacturers met the customers’ demand for twill cotton pants and skirts and knit polo shirts, while sales for men’s ties and women’s hosiery plunged. Some major retailers provided “casual career” shops within their department stores. However, casual Fridays may have peaked and started a decline. Web sites, textbooks, and fashion consultants advise that people perform better when they look more professional.

Some businesses started to rethink their dress codes, and a return to a more tradi-

Subsequent Events

tional business dress evolved. Companies discovered that casual dress often resulted in casual work and that casual Friday led to “casual everyday.” Some businesses replaced casual Friday with “dress-up Thursday,” with positive reports from employees, managers, and customers. Further Reading

Johnson Gross, Kim, and Jeff Stone. Work Clothes: Casual Dress for Serious Work. New York: Alfred A. Knopf, 1996. Kaplan-Leiserson, Eva. “Back-to-Business Attire: Society of Human Resource Management Report Says Casual Dress Codes Declining.” Training & Development 54, no. 11 (November, 2000): 39. Leigh Southward See also Dot-coms; Employment in Canada; Employment in the United States; Fashions and clothing; Women in the workforce.

■ Cell phones Wireless telephones that use radio signals to transmit and receive messages

Definition

Cell phones have revolutionized the way that people communicate with each other and have greatly affected an individual’s accessibility, security, and coordination of activities. After fifteen years of research and development under the direction of Martin Cooper, the first truly portable cell phone was manufactured by Motorola in 1983. As a result of innovations in cellular networks that enabled phone calls to be switched from a network in one geographical area to a network in another, the use of cell phones became increasingly popular during the late 1980’s. In the early 1990’s, in addition to mobile car phones, tote bag models that could be hooked to a car battery through the cigarette lighter and briefcase models that had their own large battery to provide power were developed. By 1991, North American cellular phone companies were using digital cellular service in place of analog service. The chosen technologies for these second-generation cell phones were Global System for Mobile (GSM) Communications, Time Division Multiple Access (TDMA), and Code Division Multiple Access (CDMA). This protocol allowed up to

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bols that provided a convenient way of communicating. They were particularly useful in the case of an emergency. Martin Cooper and Arlene Harris founded a company called SOS Wireless in the early 1990’s to accommodate the senior population with cellular telephone service for emergencies. By 1999, cell phone sales exceeded sixty-nine million in the United States. Impact Cell phones have become invaluable tools not only for personal communications but also for business communications. Through the use of cellular technology, remote areas have been provided with telephone service without the installation of telephone lines. The development of digital cell phones in the 1990’s led to third-generation cell phones that provide not only wireless vocal communication but also text messaging, Internet access, and video communication. These phones contain cameras, calendars, and alarm clocks, as well as provide data storage and increasingly better signal coverage. One major concern with the frequent use of cell phones is the possible link of radio wave radiation with the development of brain cancer. Further Reading

As cell phone technology developed, the phones became smaller, lighter, and cheaper.

eight users to occupy each of the channels that were spaced 200 kilohertz apart in the 1900 megahertz bandwidth used by North American GSM. All cell phones communicate through radio signals with a cell site base station whose antennae are usually mounted on a tower, pole, or building. As digital technology grew, cell phone sales in the United States approached five million by the end of 1991. For three fundamental reasons, cell phone sales soared during the 1990’s. First, digital circuit switch transmission provided quicker network signaling that increased call quality and reduced the number of dropped calls. Second, with advancements in battery technology and computer chip technology, digital cell phones became smaller. Handheld cell phones weighed less than half a pound. Third, by the mid-1990’s, the average cost of a cell phone had dropped below $50. Cell phones became status sym-

Agar, Jon. Constant Touch: A Global History of the Mobile Phone. Blue Ridge Summit, Pa.: Totem Books, 2005. Goggin, Gerard. Cell Phone Culture: Mobile Technology in Everyday Life. New York: Routledge, 2006. Alvin K. Benson See also Computers; Digital audio; Instant messaging; Internet; Inventions; Science and technology.

■ Censorship The suppression of speech or material considered objectionable

Definition

While pressure groups sought to censor sexual, violent, and other objectionable media content, often successfully, during the 1990’s, the U.S. Supreme Court continued to call upon the First Amendment in defense of freedom of expression. The chilling effect of a decade of controversy over objectionable content in the media led to increasing selfcensorship on the part of artists and commercial entities. By mid-decade, these censorship battles were extended into cyberspace.

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Censorship battles that had been engaged in the 1980’s, ranging from the content of popular music albums to art museum exhibits, reached degrees of resolution during the 1990’s. Supreme Court decisions strengthened the First Amendment by defending “hate speech” and flag burning and—in what is arguably the Court’s most significant decision of the decade—determined that the Internet has the strongest possible First Amendment protections. In 1990, the Parents’ Music Resource Center (PMRC), cofounded by Tipper Gore, and other groups convinced the Recording Industry Association of America (RIAA) to standardize its “parental advisory” stickers, which were first developed in the 1980’s to warn parents about profane, violent, or sexual lyrics. Music publishers agreed to this form of self-censorship in order to avoid imposition of government regulations. Some retailers refused to sell albums that had parental advisory labels.

Music Lyrics

Hip-hop artist Ice-T’s song “Cop Killer” typified controversies about song lyrics in the 1990’s. Published as part of the album Body Count (1992), the song resonated with the deepening social tensions that had been triggered by the videotaped beating by white L.A. police officers of black motorist Rodney King: “Cop killer, it’s better you than me/ Cop killer, f—k police brutality!/ Cop killer, I know your family’s grievin’ (f—k ’em)/ Cop killer, but tonight we get even.” Ice-T pointed out that the song was written “in the first person as a character” rather than as a literal threat. Others defended the lyrics as an example of a timely political protest. However, with the actions of pressure groups, including police organizations, the album was reissued minus the “Cop Killer” song. Ice-T defended his part in the decision as a way to keep from being pigeonholed. Another similar controversy was 2 Live Crew’s rap album As Nasty as They Wanna Be (1989), which was labeled “obscene” by six state legislatures. The rock group Jane’s Addiction replaced an album cover for Ritual de lo Habitual (1990) in response to complaints from the public; the new cover featured the text of the First Amendment. In Texas, then governor George W. Bush signed an appropriations bill forbidding the state pension fund to invest in record companies publishing “obscene” albums. A St. Louis high school band was forbidden to play Jefferson Airplane’s “White Rabbit” because of its supposed references to drug use, even though the high school band’s arrangement of the song was an instrumentalonly version. In 1990, in the first criminal trial of an art gallery based on the contents of an exhibition, the Cincinnati Contemporary Arts Center and its director were charged with “pandering obscenity.” The case centered on the exhibition of Robert Mapplethorpe’s erotic photography. The jury considered Mapplethorpe’s controversial photographs a form of protected speech, and the exhibit reopened. Sensitized by many such well-publicized controversies, Congress restricted the grant-making programs of the National Endowment for the Arts (NEA) after 1990. NEA grant recipients were now required to sign antiobscenity pledges, and they were directed to “take into consideration general standards of decency and respect for the diverse beliefs and values of the American public.” The NEA de-

The Fine Arts

Rap artist Ice-T explains to the media why he removed his controversial song “Cop Killer” from his 1992 album Body Count. (AP/Wide World Photos)

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nied thousands of grant applications during the decade on the basis of the 1990 legislation. Hate Speech “Hate speech” can be defined in general terms as publicly uttered hostile remarks directed at a social or ethnic group. By the beginning of the 1990’s, such speech was prohibited at many U.S. colleges, as well as by legislation on the part of some state and municipal governments. In 1992, however, the Supreme Court overturned St. Paul, Minnesota’s hate speech ordinance, noting that expression cannot be repressed merely because it is offensive or in other ways emotionally painful to those it targets. In other free speech victories, the Court defended the right to distribute unsigned but nevertheless truthful political literature and insisted that Congress’s 1989 Flag Protection Act was unconstitutional because flag burning is a symbolic expression of a political opinion. The Internet A theme that linked many of these censorship efforts was the protection of minors. This was an important part of the Telecommunications Act of 1996, which proposed to criminalize obscene, indecent, and “patently offensive” speech on the Internet. However, the Supreme Court held this portion of the legislation unconstitutional, deciding that the Internet deserves the highest level of protection for freedom of speech, on the same level as that given books and newspapers. In the words of the Court, the Internet is a new locus of free expression where “any person with a phone line can become a town crier with a voice that resonates farther than it could from any soapbox.” Two more Internet-related efforts on the part of Congress rounded out the decade. The Digital Millennium Copyright Act of 1998 criminalized efforts to work around copyright protections by heightening penalties for copyright infringement and by limiting the liability of online providers so long as they remove protected material when notified. Also in 1998, the theme of protecting children returned in the form of the Children’s Online Privacy Protection Act, requiring sites to get parental permission before granting e-mail accounts to children under the age of thirteen. Impact Relatively few of the efforts during the decade that sought to censor violent, sexual, or otherwise objectionable content argued from a base of

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substantive evidence regarding the actual behavioral effects of such forms of expression on recipients. Instead, anecdotal evidence and even evidence based on respectable research projects were filtered through previously held opinions on the issue. These censorship efforts encouraged self-imposed restraints on the creation and/or distribution of potentially objectionable content by marketing associations, broadcasters, and artists. Further Reading

Foerstel, Herbert F. Banned in the U.S.A.: A Reference Guide to Book Censorship in Schools and Public Libraries. 2d ed. Westport, Conn.: Greenwood Press, 2002. First published in the mid-1990’s, the updated version is an authoritative resource for teachers, librarians, and researchers. Nuzum, Eric. Parental Advisory: Music Censorship in America. New York: HarperCollins, 2001. A lively work covering music censorship from the 1950’s to the end of the twentieth century. Overbeck, Wayne. Major Principles of Media Law. Boston: Thomson/Wadsworth, 2008. An annually updated volume written for laypersons and attorneys alike. An associated Web site offers frequent updates to keep readers up-to-date between editions of the book. Rojas, Hernando, Dhavan V. Shah, and Ronald J. Faber. “For the Good of Others: Censorship and the Third-Person Effect.” International Journal of Public Opinion Research 8, no. 2 (Summer, 1996): 163-186. The “third-person effect” hypothesis described in the article suggests that people exposed to mass-media messages expect the messages to have a greater effect on others than on themselves. Barbara Roos Child pornography; Hip-hop and rap music; Internet; King, Rodney; Los Angeles riots; Mapplethorpe obscenity trial; Music; National Endowment for the Arts (NEA); Supreme Court decisions; Telecommunications Act of 1996.

See also

■ CGI Definition

Computer-generated imagery

CGI forever changed the ability of television and film to portray images and stories, while bringing attention to the special-effects industry.

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Computer animation was first used in the 1950’s when Bell Laboratories and other research centers used it for graphics in military, manufacturing, or applied sciences applications. Computer animation was not developed for artistic work, as it was believed to be too technical for such use. Hightech computer-graphics laboratories and computergraphics experts began experimenting with CGI in the1960’s. In the late 1960’s and early 1970’s, CGI was used by independent animators and television for commercials and station logos, but the graphics technology was very limited. Early threedimensional (3-D) computer animation and imaging systems only functioned on slow, costly mainframe computers, and the cost and limitation of the hardware restricted the use of computer graphics. During the 1970’s and 1980’s, computer technology became more practical and useful. The 1970’s saw a transformation of the technology and a lowering of the cost, so 3-D computer animation and imaging technology greatly progressed. In the 1980’s, CGI became an area of artistic and commercial appeal because of enhanced technology, more people trained on computer animation and imaging, and a larger market. Pixar began pushing the limits of CGI technology with character animations in the mid- and late 1980’s. The efforts, however, did not draw major public attention until the release of Disney’s Tron in 1982, which relied on CGI scenes of the internal computer world. The first entirely computergenerated animation and longest-running sequence in a feature film was the Genesis effect in Star Trek II: The Wrath of Khan (1982). The first completely computer-generated character was the stained-glass knight in Young Sherlock Holmes (1985). Director Robert Zemeckis used CGI in the Back to the Future films (1985, 1989, 1990), and in Who Framed Roger Rabbit (1988) he integrated live action and animation. Throughout the 1980’s, however, CGI was used to support the story, not carry it. A decrease in prices on computer technology and the increase in the hardware capabilities and power of computers in the 1990’s allowed more integration of CGI by visual professionals. In addition, as 3-D animation became more complex and varied, it greatly impacted television. In the1980’s and for part of the 1990’s, CGI was too expensive and time-consuming for television,

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but it was used in commercials, credit sequences, music videos, feature films, and video games. Television began turning to CGI in the mid-1990’s mainly for commercials, but the animation was not always a smooth fit and the audience knew that the images were playing with reality. The first mainstream 3-D computer animation for television appeared in commercials for the Coca-Cola polar bears and Babylon 5 television series, both in 1993. Steven Spielberg’s television series, The Young Indiana Jones Chronicles (1992-1993), used CGI to clone extras and put the characters into exotic locations. In the early 1990’s, directors Spielberg, Zemeckis, and James Cameron promoted the use of the new imaging technologies. Filmmakers believed that film is driven to create photorealistic imagery and that audiences want to believe in magic and just enjoy the story, not wonder at the effects. The creation or simulation of reality became the main emphasis, and improvements in the power of the CGI systems, graphic clarity, and resolution allowed directors unprecedented control over what the audience would see. Directors could also realize their dreams, no matter how fantastic or complex in terms of special effects. Science-fiction cinema was producing the most spectacular CGI films, and, by 1993, the ten highest-grossing films of all time had special effects. Working with Industrial Light and Magic (ILM), the special-effects company for The Abyss (1989), Cameron used CGI in a way that was considered groundbreaking, demonstrating its dramatic and artistic potential. Cameron also created the first CGI main character in film, the T-1000, in Terminator 2: Judgment Day (1991). Cameron’s 1997 Titanic seamlessly integrated a digital world into live action and went on to become one of the highest-grossing films of all time. Spielberg used CGI dinosaurs in combination with models and manipulated images for the extremely successful Jurassic Park (1993) and The Lost World: Jurassic Park (1997). Zemeckis inserted a live character into historical films and manipulated historical figures in Forrest Gump (1994). His 1997 Contact used CGI throughout the film in both obvious and subtle ways and is considered a milestone in the use of animation and CGI for telling a story. Toy Story (1995) was the first fully 3-D computer-animated feature-length film and was followed by the sequel, Toy Story 2, in 1999. By 1999, CGI effects were heavily used in films such as The Matrix, which sparked a

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mainstream interest in virtual reality, and in Star Wars: Episode I—The Phantom Menace, in which director George Lucas included fully created CGI characters, including the controversial Jar Jar Binks.

Pixar; Science and technology; Star Wars: Episode I— The Phantom Menace ; Television; Terminator 2: Judgment Day; Titanic.

Impact CGI challenged how thoughts and ideas are communicated in visual forms. By the end of the 1990’s, filmmakers were using the technology to create interpretations of reality. There was an explosion of productions with high-quality, creatively diverse 3-D computer animation. Science fiction involved the public again in imagining other worlds and creatures and in looking for a future that may be more fantastical than had been imagined in a long time. Even though CGI techniques have become cheaper and more accessible, directors and actors still prefer the live set energy combined with technology. Audiences now expect CGI usage and cannot always tell when it is used because the integration has become so seamless.

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Further Reading

Britton, Peter. “The WOW Factor.” Popular Science 243, no. 5 (November, 1993): 86. Discusses the use of digital effects in several films as well as the potential future of filmmaking. Butler, Jeremy G. Television: Critical Methods and Applications. Mahwah, N.J.: Lawrence Erlbaum, 2002. An extensive discussion of CGI and its impact on television. Craig, J. Robert. “Establishing New Boundaries for Special Effects: Robert Zemeckis’s Contact and Computer-Generated Imagery.” Journal of Popular Film and Television 28, no. 4 (Winter, 2000): 158. Good background on the history of CGI in film and television. Kerlow, Isaac V. The Art of 3D Computer Animation and Effects. 3d ed. Hoboken, N.J.: John Wiley & Sons, 2004. First chapter offers a good history and interesting time line. Numerous illustrations. Pierson, Michele. Special Effects: Still in Search of Wonder. New York: Columbia University Press, 2002. Several sections discuss computer-generated imagery and its use in films, as well as the impact of the technology on culture. Virginia L. Salmon Computers; Film in Canada; Film in the United States; Forrest Gump; Jurassic Park; Matrix, The ;

See also

Failed effort to amend the Canadian constitution Date Submitted to a public referendum on October 26, 1992 Identification

The Charlottetown Accord was an ultimately unsuccessful effort to reform the Canadian constitution. The roots of the Charlottetown Accord lay in 1982, when the government of Canada amended the Canadian constitution. It did so without the support of the government of the province of Quebec. Although the new constitution still applied to Quebec, many Québécois, including the provincial government, remained alienated. As a result, in the late 1980’s, Prime Minister Brian Mulroney made an attempt at constitutional reform that became known as the Meech Lake Accord. The effort died in 1990 when it failed to be ratified by all of the provinces by a required deadline. The Charlottetown Accord would be Mulroney’s next endeavor at constitutional reform. A series of commissions led into discussions among the provincial and territorial governments and organizations representing Canada’s aboriginal peoples, who had been ignored when the Meech Lake Accord was negotiated. An agreement was eventually reached and signed in the city of Charlottetown. This proposal would have amended the Canadian constitution and, in the process, provided more powers to the provinces, including over cultural matters and certain types of natural resources. It also offered major reform to the Canadian senate. The key part, however, was a clause that would have recognized Quebec as constituting a “distinct society” within Canada. Since one of the criticisms of the Meech Lake Accord had been that the Canadian populace was not consulted about it, the decision was made to seek ratification of the Charlottetown Accord through a nationwide referendum on October 26, 1992. A referendum ensued. While most politicians and parties favored ratification, two new regional parties, the Reform Party in western Canada and the Bloc Québécois in Quebec, strongly opposed the accord.

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The end result was the defeat of the accord with 54 percent of voters, constituting majorities in several western Canadian provinces and Quebec, voting against it. Impact The Charlottetown Accord demonstrated the strength of divisions within Canada. Voters in Quebec voted against it because they believed it did not provide Quebec with enough powers, while in the other provinces the vote against was based on the perception that it offered too much power to Quebec. The failure of the accord was also another indication of the unpopularity of Mulroney’s Progressive Conservative government, which had initiated the process and pushed for its ratification. Finally, those who opposed the agreement, namely Preston Manning and the Reform Party and Lucien Bouchard and the Bloc Québécois, would benefit from their opposition in the 1993 federal election. Further Reading

McRoberts, Kenneth, and Patrick Monahan. The Charlottetown Accord, the Referendum, and the Future of Canada. Toronto: University of Toronto Press, 1993. Newman, Peter C. The Canadian Revolution, 19851995: From Deference to Defiance. Toronto: Viking Press, 1995. Steve Hewitt See also Bloc Québécois; Chrétien, Jean; Elections in Canada; Minorities in Canada; Mulroney, Brian; Quebec referendum of 1995.

■ Cheney, Dick U.S. secretary of defense, 19891993 Born January 30, 1941; Lincoln, Nebraska Identification

Cheney’s insights regarding foreign policy and defense issues were instrumental in shaping the direction of the U.S. military and homeland security. After starting out as a congressional intern and being involved in politics for twenty years—including serving as a congressman from Wyoming—Dick Cheney served as secretary of defense under President George H. W. Bush from March, 1989, to January, 1993. He was confirmed with a vote of 92 to 0. Cheney’s first major defense issue in office was

Dick Cheney in 1992. (AP/Wide World Photos)

Panamanian dictator Manuel Noriega. With the aid of Cheney’s top advisers, Chairman of the Joint Chiefs of Staff Colin Powell and Under Secretary of Defense for Policy Paul Wolfowitz, Panama was invaded and, on January 3, 1990, Noriega was in American custody as a prisoner of war and later convicted under several federal charges. In August, 1990, Iraq invaded Kuwait. Soon after, Cheney flew to Saudi Arabia to meet with King Fahd to discuss deploying U.S. forces to Saudi Arabia, thus beginning Operation Desert Shield. Then, on January 15, 1991, the United Nations ordered that Iraq remove its troops from Kuwait. When Iraq refused, Congress authorized Cheney to sign an order to execute Operation Desert Storm. The war lasted six weeks and was extremely successful, resulting in Iraq’s withdrawal from Kuwait. In conjunction with President Bush and Colin Powell, Cheney decided to leave Saddam Hussein in power because of strong rumblings that the Iraqis would bring down their own leader. Cheney was presented with the Presidential Medal of Freedom on July 3, 1991, for his successful management of the Gulf War. During his tenure as secretary of defense, Cheney was also influential in decisions regarding U.S. involvement in matters with the Soviet Union, Somalia, and Bosnia.

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In 1994, Cheney established the Alliance for American Leadership, a political action committee. Through this vehicle he was able to raise funds to support Republican campaigns and tour the country giving speeches. Meanwhile, he debated whether to run for president in 1996. On January 3, 1995, he released a statement saying he had decided not to run. From 1995 to 2000, Cheney served as chairman of the board and chief executive officer of Halliburton, an oil and gas company. In the late 1990’s, he brought the industry together to fight Congress regarding sanctions on doing business with Iran but was unable to overturn them. In 2000, Cheney was elected vice president of the United States under George W. Bush after consulting for Bush’s election campaign for much of 1999. Impact Cheney led several triumphant military campaigns throughout his term as secretary of defense, including the highly successful Operation Desert Storm. He was admired during the 1990’s for his wealth of knowledge regarding defense policy and his ability to demonstrate grace under pressure. Further Reading

Andrews, Elaine. Dick Cheney: A Life in Public Service. Brookfield, Conn.: Millbrook Press, 2002. Hayes, Stephen F. Cheney: The Untold Story of America’s Most Powerful and Controversial Vice President. New York: HarperCollins, 2007. Kathryn Vincent Bosnia conflict; Bush, George H. W.; Foreign policy of the United States; Gulf War; Middle East and North America; Noriega capture and trial; Powell, Colin; Schwarzkopf, Norman; Somalia conflict; Wolfowitz, Paul.

See also

■ Chicago heat wave of 1995 High temperatures in the Chicago area contribute to the deaths of as many as seven hundred people over five days Date July 12-16, 1995 The Event

This disaster affected mostly the poor and the elderly, and for this reason would be studied long after the event occurred. The Chicago heat wave of 1995 was one of the worst weather-related events ever to hit the city and the

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state of Illinois. Although an official death toll for the Chicago heat wave is subject to controversy, estimates range from 525 persons dead to over 700 fatalities related to those few days in mid-July. Many dispute the death count, attributing some of the numbers to natural causes, illnesses, and disease, not to physical stress from high temperatures. Standards for determining heat-related deaths did not exist in 1995, so Cook County’s chief medical examiner Edmund Donoghue used state-of-the-art criteria that were later verified as being sound by medical examiners around the country. However, even after the statistics are adjusted, the number of human lives lost during the heat wave remains high. The question of why so many lives were lost in what appears to be a preventable disaster is still under scrutiny. Most of the dead were poor or elderly, with many of those dying alone. It took several days for some of the dead to be located, as many had simply disappeared during their lifetime into the inner city, having no contact with friends, family members, or neighbors; no one reported them as being in danger or missing, and the bodies were not located until after the heat wave was over. According to the Illinois State Climatologist Office, more human life is lost to heat waves than all other weather events combined, including lightening, floods, tornadoes, winter storms, and hurricanes. On July 10, 1995, the high in Chicago was 90 degrees Fahrenheit and rose dramatically over the next few days, peaking at 106 degrees Fahrenheit on July 13. Temperatures started declining, and by July 17 the mercury dropped to 89 degrees Fahrenheit. Also significant during the heat wave were the nighttime lows, which were recorded in the upper seventies and lower eighties combined with recordhigh humidity levels. However, several experts who studied this event acknowledge that the heat and humidity were not the only contributing factors to the mortality rate and that a collective failure probably occurred. Urban Heat Islands and Other Factors The inner city of Chicago is particularly susceptible to what is known as an “urban heat island,” created when buildings, roads, and parking lots concentrated in a small area absorb, then radiate, more heat at night compared to a rural site. Also worth noting is that the temperatures were measured at Midway Airport, located on the outskirts of the city in a more subur-

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ban setting, and the temperatures recorded do not necessarily reflect the more severe heat that the inner city experienced. The Chicago heat wave of 1995 was a complex event, and the high death toll can be attributed to several other factors. Many look at the social reasons for the high death rate. Those hardest hit were the elderly of lower socioeconomic standing. There can be various explanations for this. One is that they lacked the means of escaping the lethal heat and were essentially trapped, depending on city officials for help. Another reason is that a fear of crime made people reluctant to open doors and windows, contrasted to the heat waves of the 1930’s when many residents slept outside near Lake Michigan or in city parks. Although some of the low-income elderly citizens had air conditioners, many could not afford to use them. Furthermore, a study led by sociologist Christopher Browning published in the August, 2006, issue

of American Sociological Review examined the high death rate of the elderly living in low-income neighborhoods during severe heat waves. This study found that more deaths occurred in areas that were considered run-down. While other research focused on inadequate services or the isolation of many seniors as causes for the high loss of life, this study looked at the commercial decline of certain areas. The conclusion was that businesses did not attract elderly customers or promote a feeling of security to lure them from their overheated dwellings. Many buildings were abandoned, boarded up, or marred with graffiti, and the elderly felt safer inside their own apartments than outside on the street. Nevertheless, others cite an unprepared city government as contributing to the disaster. Also fueling the situation was a breakdown in the city’s response and inadequate emergency relief services. A severe heat warning was

The City’s Role

Emergency personnel wheel a body outside Chicago’s Cook County morgue on July 18, 1995. Most of those who died because of the heat wave were poor or elderly. (AP/Wide World Photos)

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not issued until July 15, the last day of the extreme temperatures. Because the warning was delayed, the city’s five cooling centers were underutilized. Inadequate emergency services, ambulances, and hospitals were severely strained and unable to respond appropriately to the need. Fire engines were used as ambulances, and many of the elderly died alone as a result of the slow response. In what was believed to be the largest mass grave in Cook County’s history, on August 25, 1995, the last victims were laid to rest. The grave, 160 feet long, 10 feet wide, and 6 feet deep, held the coffins, plain wooden boxes with numbered brass tags and yellow pieces of paper indicating the names. The dates of death were never determined. No one at the graveside knew or was related to the deceased, but three ministers presided at the service, a representative from a local historical society was present, and some onlookers happened by, commenting on the tragedy of so many dying alone. The Future of Heat Waves Although several skeptics believe that the numbers of dead were exaggerated by the medical examiner, the numbers may have been underreported. The American Journal of Public Health established that as many as 250 deaths were not attributed to the heat because the bodies were buried before an autopsy was performed. Whatever the actual numbers may have been, this type of disaster happening again remains probable. Chicago continues to be vulnerable to extreme heat conditions because of the urban heat island syndrome and the number of low-income elderly who live inside the city. However, numbers of deaths in comparable situations in the future may be reduced by having a more comprehensive approach to forecasting, one that considers heat-island conditions. Also, an improved early-warning system, increased research on heat waves, and, finally, establishing a standard to classify heat-related deaths can avoid the misery experienced by the city during the heat wave of 1995.

The necessity for developing a standard of determining heat-related deaths became apparent after this heat wave. In addition, observers would look to this event in later disasters, such as Hurricane Katrina (2005), when studying the relationship of social class and age to a disaster. Impact

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Further Reading

Browning, Christopher R., et al. “Neighborhood Social Processes, Physical Conditions, and DisasterRelated Mortality: The Case of the 1995 Chicago Heat Wave.” American Sociological Review 71 (August, 2006): 661-678. Study led by an Ohio State University sociologist concludes that severe heat waves have killed more people in run-down neighborhoods where there are few businesses to draw older people out of their dwellings. Changnon, S. A., K. E. Kunkel, and B. C. Reinke. “Impacts and Responses to the 1995 Heat Wave: A Call to Action.” Bulletin of the American Meteorological Society 77, no. 7 (1996): 1497-1506. A meteorological perspective on the weather conditions in Chicago in 1995 that calls for a comprehensive approach to forecasting. Klinenberg, Eric. Heat Wave: A Social Autopsy of Disaster in Chicago. Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 2002. Explores the social context of the disaster, looking at several factors that led to the high death toll. Kimberly Manning Business and the economy in the United States; Natural disasters; Perfect Storm, the; Poverty; Recession of 1990-1991.

See also

■ Chick lit A genre of fiction featuring twentyand thirtysomething single women coping with love and career issues in an urban environment

Definition

Chick lit’s representation of women can be said to lie in the gap between traditional female roles and feminism. The genre itself raised controversy among feminists because of its glamorization of consumerism, among other issues. Nevertheless, the lucrative genre gained a strong following during the 1990’s. As the generation of twenty- and thirtysomething women of the 1990’s experienced longer periods of dating, so-called starter marriages, and more focus on careers (delaying or foregoing marriage) than previous generations, such lifestyle choices began to be reflected in humorous novels by authors such as Helen Fielding, Candace Bushnell, Melissa Bank, and Laura Zigman. In the mid-1990’s, Bushnell and Fielding both transformed their popular newspaper

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novels of the 1990’s focused on white, upper-class, well-educated women. Many of these heroines Year Title Author come from single-parent homes 1992 Waiting to Exhale Terry McMillan or do not wish to re-create their parents’ marriage. They find that 1995 Watermelon Marian Keyes their career prospects are not 1996 Bridget Jones’s Diary Helen Fielding much better than their love lives: How Stella Got Her Groove Back Terry McMillan Protagonists breaking up and/or getting fired (maybe even more Lucy Sullivan Is Getting Married Marian Keyes than once in the course of the 1997 Sex and the City Candace Bushnell story) are common plot elements. Perfect Timing Jill Mansell As sociologist Barbara Dafoe Well Groomed Fiona Walker Whitehead noted in 1999, “Bosses and boyfriends behave a lot alike 1998 Animal Husbandry Laura Zigman in the novels. They make nice to Rachel’s Holiday Marian Keyes you (ever so briefly). Then they 1999 Bridget Jones: The Edge of Reason Helen Fielding dump you.” The Girls’ Guide to Hunting and Fishing Melissa Bank Consumerism is another other key feature in the novels. As SteJemima J: A Novel About Ugly Ducklings Jane Green phanie Harzewski writes, “Chick and Swans lit virtually jettisons the figure Last Chance Saloon Marian Keyes of the heterosexual hero, with Love: A User’s Guide Clare Naylor Manolo Blahniks upstaging men.” Mr. Maybe Jane Green Body image is also an important topic in the chick lit narrative. For example, each entry in Bridget Jones’s Diary lists her weight on columns about life as a single woman in the city that particular day and her feelings about it. Finally, (Bushnell in New York, Fielding in London) into exone of the most important elements in chick lit is hutremely successful novels. Fielding’s Bridget Jones’s Dimor, which authors use to guide the reader through ary (1996)—an homage to Jane Austen’s novel Pride the various obstacles (sometimes humiliations) the and Prejudice (1813), right down to the hero’s name, characters face. Darcy—spawned a 1999 sequel, Bridget Jones: The Impact Chick lit novels offered a new way of lookEdge of Reason, mimicking Austen’s Persuasion (1818), ing at life as a single woman. With Bridget Jones’s Diary as well as two films. Bushnell’s novel Sex and the City and Sex and the City, and the novels that followed, (1997) was turned into the popular Home Box Ofreaders empathized with heroines who were strugfice (HBO) series. Around this same time, a television gling with bad boyfriends and bosses. With the sucshow about a single lawyer looking for love, Ally cess of these novels came debates over whether the McBeal, premiered. Soon, novels featuring similar protagonists were truly empowered or deluding characters and settings were hitting the best-seller themselves, as well as concerns over the genre’s emlists, and the phrase “chick lit” (derived from the slang phasis on consumerism and body image. word for a young woman and “literature”) was coined. Subsequent Events Chick lit novels continued to Chick Lit Characteristics and Themes While it has sell strongly into the early twenty-first century. In been argued that perhaps the first chick lit novel 2001, Harlequin began its own chick lit division, Red was African American author Terry McMillan’s Dress Ink, and in 2005 Warner Books started the Waiting to Exhale (1992), featuring four career5 Spot imprint for such books. Furthermore, chick oriented black women struggling with relationships lit grew more diverse, with novels written by African and strengthening their friendship, most chick lit American, Asian American, and Latina women, as

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well as from the perspective of older women (also known as “hen lit”). Further Reading

Bushnell, Candace. Sex and the City. New York: Warner Books, 1997. Based on Bushnell’s columns for The New York Observer, the novel follows the travails of columnist Carrie Bradshaw and her friends. Ferriss, Suzanne, and Mallory Young, eds. Chick Lit: The New Woman’s Fiction. New York: Routledge, 2006. Collection of essays on the rise of chick lit, its history, and new forms of chick lit, such as nanny lit and mommy lit. Includes an essay by Harzewski on the genre’s relation to novels of the eighteenth and nineteenth centuries. Fielding, Helen. Bridget Jones’s Diary. New York: Penguin Books, 1998. Follows Bridget Jones through her disappointing romance with a coworker, her parents’ marital troubles, and her job disappointments as she puts off the annoying lawyer Mark Darcy. Mlynowski, Sarah, and Farrin Jacobs. See Jane Write: A Girl’s Guide to Writing Chick Lit. Philadelphia: Quirk Books, 2006. Chick lit author Mlynowski provides a brief history of the genre as well as tips for writing such books. Features interviews with genre pioneer Marian Keyes, Sophie Kinsella (Shopaholic series, 2000-2007), Meg Cabot (The Princess Diaries, 2000), and others. Whitehead, Barbara Dafoe. “The Plight of the HighStatus Woman.” The Atlantic Monthly (December, 1999): 120-124. Looks at how chick lit novels differ from romantic fiction of the past, especially focusing on darker elements of these novels. Julie Elliott Ally McBeal; Literature in the United States; McMillan, Terry; Sex and the City; Women in the workforce.

See also

■ Child pornography Definition

Depictions of children in sexual

postures The subject of child pornography dominated discussion in the 1990’s about what kinds of sexual materials ought to be protected by the U.S. Constitution’s First Amendment guarantee of free speech.

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Child pornography raises issues that differ from those concerning adult pornography, which generally is permissible in the United States. Further complicating the issues related to child pornography is the technological ability of pornographers to create computer-generated images of a sexual nature depicting children without necessarily involving actual children. In 1986, the U.S. Congress enacted the Child Protection and Obscenity Enforcement Act in an attempt to control the surging availability of child pornography, particularly on the Internet. Among other justifications they offered for the measure, the lawmakers argued that child pornography could be harmful and that such material is not of sufficient social value to qualify for free speech protection. In 1990, in Osborne v. Ohio, the U.S. Supreme Court reviewed the Ohio statute outlawing child pornography and ruled by a vote of six to three that the law met constitutional standards. The Court declared that the law was not a paternalistic attempt to regulate the minds of individuals; rather, it sought to serve a compelling state interest by protecting children from becoming victims of pornographers. Dissenting justices objected that the phrase in the law specifying “lewd exhibition of nudity” was unacceptable and should have read “lewd exhibition of genitals.” They also asserted that the statute’s phrase “graphic focus” was too vague to satisfy constitutional standards, noting that the vagueness of the phrase allowed for unacceptable uncertainty as to what precisely the law prohibited. Computer-Generated Images Subsequently, the computer graphic process known as morphing raised additional questions regarding the constitutionality of child pornography. Morphing, a process in which a computer program fills in the blanks between two dissimilar objects to produce a combined image, allows the production of what has been labeled “virtual pornography.” The creation of virtual pornography is a relatively inexpensive and undemanding process: Innocent photographs of actual children can be scanned electronically and then altered and combined with other images, using morphing software, to produce pornographic scenarios. The process can also be used to create depictions of imaginary children. Morphing is sometimes used to create images of sexual activities that go beyond the boundaries of behavior in which any

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actual children might be induced to engage. The U.S. Congress outlawed virtual child pornography in the Child Pornography Prevention Act of 1996 (CPPA). This act prohibits involving a minor in any visual depiction of explicit sexual conduct, including photographs, films, video pictures, and computer-generated images. In passing the law, the legislators maintained that the CPPA would discourage the circulation of child pornography. Some proponents of the act claimed that pedophiles employ such materials in their attempts to seduce children, although opponents of the act insisted that the evidence to support such a claim was inconclusive. The sponsors of the CPPA also argued that child pornography represents an unacceptable invasion of privacy and that children could be harmed by seeing images of themselves seemingly engaged, even if not actually so, in sexual acts. In addition, the legislators asserted that, virtual or otherwise, child pornography contributes to the moral degeneracy of the society. They further pointed out that access to the Internet is widespread among underage persons, who should be shielded from child pornography. Opponents of the CPPA stressed that no child need be personally involved in the obscene behavior generated by virtual pornography morphing. They took the view that the freedom to purvey sexual information in the form of Internet imagery is a fundamental right possessed by all U.S. citizens; some asserted that this right is valuable in that it contributes to a healthier understanding of the wide variety of human sexual expression and encourages the elimination of unreasonable taboos. Constitutional Issues In December of 1997, David Hilton was indicted in a federal court in Maine for possession of computer disks containing depictions of child pornography. The defendant challenged the constitutionality of the CPPA statute on the grounds that it was vague and overly broad. Specifically, he argued that the phrase in the law that criminalized possession of materials in which the persons engaging in sexually explicit acts are or “appear to be” minors involved what inevitably could be an imprecise attempt to ascertain the actual ages of the depicted individuals. In United States v. Hilton, however, the majority of the judges of the appellate court thought otherwise. They noted that there are extremes of pornography, with examples involving adults, which are permissible, on one end and child

pornography, which is illegal, on the other. They found virtual child pornography to be much closer to the illegal end of the continuum than to the allowable end, and they also ruled that the statute satisfied constitutional requirements. The appellate court’s opinion was allowed to stand when the U.S. Supreme Court declined to hear the case. The U.S. Court of Appeals for the Eleventh Circuit echoed the views expressed in the Hilton case in United States v. Acheson in 1999, but also in 1999, the U.S. Court of Appeals for the Ninth Circuit ruled, in Free Speech Coalition v. Reno, that the CPPA was unconstitutionally vague because of its use of phrases such as “appears to be” and “conveys the impression.” It would be left to the U.S. Supreme Court in the next decade to resolve the differences between the Hilton and Acheson opinions and the opinion in the Free Speech Coalition case. Impact The development of computer techniques for creating child pornography generated intense debates among the public and lawmakers in the United States regarding fundamental moral issues of harm, privacy, sexuality, and freedom of speech. With ongoing advancements in computer graphic capabilities, these debates continued into the twenty-first century. Further Reading

Arnaldo, Carlos A., ed. Child Abuse on the Internet: Ending the Silence. New York: UNESCO Publishing/ Berghahn, 2001. Collection of essays pays particular attention to experiences with child pornography in different countries. Ferraro, Monique Mattei, and Eoghan Casey. Investigating Child Exploitation and Pornography: The Internet, the Law and Forensic Science. Boston: Elsevier/ Academic Press, 2005. Provides information on the tactics that law-enforcement authorities use in detecting and prosecuting cases of child pornography. Jenkins, Philip. Beyond Tolerance: Child Pornography on the Internet. New York: New York University Press, 2001. Presents a readable discussion of the realm of child pornography as well as recommendations on how best to deal with it. O’Brien, Shirley. Child Pornography. 2d ed. Dubuque, Iowa: Kendall/Hunt, 1993. Argues that there is a direct relationship between pornography and the sexual molestation of children. Gilbert Geis

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Censorship; Computers; Crime; Internet; Knox pornography case; Mapplethorpe obscenity trial; Photography.

See also

■ Children’s literature Definition

Books written and published for

children A growing awareness in the United States and Canada of increased diversity, global interdependence, changes in family structure, and changing attitudes toward disability and disease resulted in a number of new emphases in literature for the young. Throughout the 1990’s in the United States, a major trend in children’s literature was the use of multicultural subjects and stories on environmental topics. In 1992, many books commemorating the five hundredth anniversary of Christopher Columbus first landing in the Americas appeared. For older children, books on friendship, social problems, getting along with others, and growing up were the norm. Other trends included recognition of changes in the traditional family unit to include single-parent families, homosexual couples, and grandparents rearing grandchildren. Illustrations assumed a more important role. Also, there was an increase in both mass and variety of books published and networking between public and school libraries. Canadian children’s literature included similar subjects. However, differing attitudes about propriety were reflected in a greater likelihood that Canadian stories would focus on weaknesses in their characters. The Canadian landscape played a great role as well. Writers more consciously focused on capturing the essence of being Canadian and encouraging regional and then national identity. Picture Books In the United States, picture books in the 1990’s created a tension between the information conveyed by the words and the pictures themselves, resulting in collaboration between word and picture rather than a redundancy. Magpie Magic (1999), by April Wilson, depicts through pictures alone a young artist who draws a picture of a magpie that comes to life and interacts with a series of additional drawings. Allen Say’s Grandfather’s Journey (1993) resembles a family scrapbook. Still life water colors contribute to the meaning of the story of a

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young man who travels back and forth between Japan and America. The Paper Dragon (1997), written by Marguerite W. Davol and illustrated by Robert Sabuda, is an example of the illustrated book, in which the text can stand alone without the pictures, although the illustrations enhance this story of a wise Chinese man who is able to still a dragon who has appeared in the land. In Canada, picture books for babies and toddlers included Pierre Pratt’s Hippo Beach (1997), which was translated from French. It contains only two sentences, in between which a hippo yawns; the yawn becomes a shoe; the shoe becomes a car; and the car drives away into the blue sky. Concept books included alphabet books such as Jo BannatyneCugnet’s A Prairie Alphabet (1992) and counting books such as One Grey Mouse (1995), by Katherine Burton. The rich multicultural makeup of Canada encouraged publication of collections of retold traditional stories, lavishly illustrated. Some critics maintained that contemporary Americans tended to respond negatively to fantasy literature, possibly because of fear of the consequences of freeing children to exercise their imagination, but as the prejudice against such literature diminished, more American children’s authors began to produce fantasy works with characters ranging from ghosts, as in Pam Conrad’s Stonewords: A Ghost Story (1990), about Zoe, whose best friend is a ghost, to dragons such as those in Flight of the Dragon Kyn (1993), by Susan Fletcher. Other characters from the animal kingdom were also popular. Miniature wild spiders come from a plant in Sally Derby’s Jacob and the Stranger (1994), and poisonous spiders from the Ice Age who come to Vermont provide humor in Gregory Maguire’s Seven Spiders Spinning (1994). Among books published in the United States, by any measure the most successful fantasy book of the decade was J. K. Rowling’s Harry Potter and the Sorcerer’s Stone (1998; American title), which was incorporated into the U.S. public school curriculum and which was first on the 1999 best seller lists of The New York Times, The Wall Street Journal, and USA Today concurrently. In Great Britain, the book was titled Harry Potter and the Philosopher’s Stone (1997). Fantasy books in Canada during the 1990’s ranged from stories with imaginative humor to novels that contained moral lessons beneath the humor Children’s Fantasy

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Children’s literature

Selected American and Canadian Children’s Literature, 1990-1999 Year 1990

1991

1992

1993

1994

Title

Author/Illustrator

Stonewords: A Ghost Story

Pam Conrad

Chain of Fire

Beverly Naidoo; illustrated by Eric Velasquez

Saturnalia

Paul Fleischman

Tug of War

Joan Lingard

Redwork

Michael Bedard

Maniac Magee

Jerry Spinelli

The True Confessions of Charlotte Doyle

Avi; illustrated by Ruth E. Murray

The China Year

Emily Cheney Neville

Year of Impossible Goodbyes

Sook Nyul Choi

Mama Let’s Dance

Patricia Hermes

Shiloh

Phyllis Reynolds Naylor

Eating Between the Lines

Kevin Major

Nothing But the Truth: A Documentary Novel

Avi

The Wright Brothers: How They Invented the Airplane

Russell Freedman

A Prairie Alphabet

Jo Bannatyne-Cugnet; art by Yvette Moore

Missing May

Cynthia Ryland

Ticket to Curlew

Celia Baker Lottridge; illustrated by Wendy Wolsak-Frith

What Hearts

Bruce Brooks

The Dark-Thirty: Southern Tales of the Supernatural

Patricia McKissack; illustrated by Brian Pinkney

Somewhere in the Darkness

Walter Dean Myers

Grandfather’s Journey

Allen Say

Flight of the Dragon Kyn

Susan Fletcher

For the Life of Laetitia

Merle Hodge

The Giver

Lois Lowry

Some of the Kinder Planets

Tim Wynne-Jones

Crazy Lady

Jane Leslie Conly

Dragon’s Gate

Laurence Yep

Eleanor Roosevelt: A Life of Discovery

Russell Freedman

Jacob and the Stranger

Sally Derby; illustrated by Leonid Gore

Seven Spiders Spinning

Gregory Maguire; illustrated by Dick Zimmer

Flour Babies

Anne Fine

Cezanne Pinto

Mary Stolz

Walk Two Moons

Sharon Creech

Summer of the Mad Monk

Cora Taylor

Catherine, Called Birdy

Karen Cushman

The Ear, the Eye, and the Arm

Nancy Farmer

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Children’s literature

Year

Title

Author/Illustrator

1995

One Grey Mouse

Katherine Burton

The Eagle Kite

Paula Fox

The Midwife’s Apprentice

Karen Cushman

The Tiny Kite of Eddie Wing

Maxine Trottier; paintings by Al Van Mil

What Jamie Saw

Carolyn Coman

The Watsons Go to Birmingham: 1963

Christopher Paul Curtis

Yolonda’s Genius

Carol Fenner

The Great Fire

Jim Murphy

Uncle Ronald

Brian Doyle

Parrot in the Oven: Mi Vida

Victor Martinez

The View from Saturday

E. L. Konigsberg

A Girl Named Disaster

Nancy Farmer

Moorchild

Eloise McGraw

The Thief

Megan Whalen Turner

Belle Prater’s Boy

Paul White

The Paper Dragon

Maguerite W. Davol; illustrated by Robert Sabuda

Hippo Beach

Pierre Pratt

Dancing on the Edge

Han Nolan

Out of the Dust

Karen Hesse

Silverwing

Kenneth Oppel

Ella Enchanted

Gail Carson Levine

Lily’s Crossing

Patricia Reilly Giff

Wringer

Jerry Spinelli

The Nose from Jupiter

Richard Scrimger

Holes

Louis Sachar

Stephen Fair

Tim Wynne-Jones

A Long Way from Chicago

Richard Peck

Harry Potter and the Sorcerer’s Stone

J. K. Rowling

Magpie Magic

April Wilson

Bluish

Virginia Hamilton

When Zachary Beaver Came to Town

Kimberly Willis Holt

Bud, Not Buddy

Christopher Paul Curtis

Sunwing

Kenneth Oppel

Getting Near to Baby

Audrey Couloumbis

Our Only May Amelia

Jennifer L. Holm

26 Fairmount Avenue

Tomie dePaola

1996

1997

1998

1999

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for older children. The 1998 novel The Nose from Jupiter, by Richard Scrimger, finds thirteen-year-old Alan in the hospital; gradually he recalls that Norbert, an alien, has taken up residence in his nose, and Norbert enables Alan to score a winning goal, make friends with Miranda, and shame the school’s bullies. Beneath the fun is the moral lesson that even the weak can learn how to be brave and upright. Throughout the 1990’s, multiculturalism, relationships with family and others, growing up, and social issues dominated children’s fiction. Adjusting to life in a new culture is the subject of The China Year (1991), by Emily Cheney Neville. Racial relationships are the focus of Beverly Naidoo’s Chain of Fire (1990), in which Naledi tries to block moving a black village to a site chosen by whites, and Paul Fleischman’s Saturnalia (1990), in which an Indian apprentice in seventeenth century Boston finds both friends and enemies among whites. Adjusting to change is addressed in Newfound (1990), by Jim Wayne Miller; Robert must cope with his parents’ divorce. Laetitia must leave her closeknit Caribbean village to attend secondary school in For the Life of Laetitia (1993), by Merle Hodge. In Joan Lingard’s Tug of War (1990), Yuki treats the survival and the hardships of war and persecution. A Latvian family flees their country in World War II, fearing the possibility of separation or death. A Korean family flees Soviet occupation in Year of Impossible Goodbyes (1991), by Sook Nyul Choi. Books for older children focused on growing up and learning the importance of family, as in Mama Let’s Dance (1991), by Patricia Hermes, in which three children deserted by their mother learn to stick together. In a lighter vein, a class of schoolboys must care for flour bags to learn about parenting in Anne Fine’s Flour Babies (1994). Books on social issues included The Eagle Kite (1995), by Paula Fox, in which Liam must deal with his feelings about AIDS when his father contracts it. In Cezanne Pinto (1994), by Mary Stolz, an old man tells of his boyhood escape from slavery. Virginia Hamilton’s Bluish (1999) focuses on friendship: Dreenie befriends Bluish, a fifth-grade classmate who is battling leukemia. The major themes in American children’s fiction are repeated in many of the best-known Canadian works. Paul Yee’s Tales from Gold Mountain: Stories of the Chinese in the New World (1990) addresses the challenges of adapting to a new environment. Being sent Children’s Fiction

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to Toronto during the German bombing of London in World War II is the subject of Kit Pearson’s The Sky Is Falling (1990). Relationships are important in Michael Bedard’s Redwork (1990), in which an old man who lost a leg in the war meets the lonely Cass, who helps restore the old man to psychic wholeness. Mickey finds security and learns to feel and accept love when his mother flees to Uncle Ronald O’Rourke’s house in Uncle Ronald (1996), by Brian Doyle. Children’s Nonfiction The natural world, people, places, and historical events provided subjects for much of the children’s nonfiction of the 1990’s both in the United States and in Canada. Doug Wechsler describes birds that have unusual appearances and habits in Bizarre Birds (1999), while Esther Quesada Tyrrell’s Hummingbirds: Jewels in the Sky (1992) shares special features of more than three hundred kinds of hummingbirds. Illustrations by Robert A. Tyrrell add to the beauty and interest level of the book. Stories of the lives of people from various walks of life were also abundant in the 1990’s. Russell Freedman published The Wright Brothers: How They Invented the Airplane in 1991 and Eleanor Roosevelt: A Life of Discovery in 1993. The work of Anna Etheridge is described in Mary Francis Shura’s Gentle Annie: The True Story of a Civil War Nurse (1991). The lives of U.S. presidents are sketched in 1998’s Lives of the Presidents: Fame, Shame (and What the Neighbors Thought), written by Kathleen Krull and illustrated by Kathryn Hewitt. Environmental concerns for penguins and seals are subjects for Helen Cowcher’s Antarctica (1990), while pollution by paper mills and other industries is the topic of Lynne Cherry’s A River Ran Wild (1992). In Leon Walter Tillage’s Leon’s Story (1997), Tillage tells of the cruelty and fear that he experienced growing up in a small southern town in the 1930’s and 1940’s. In Canadian nonfiction, the subject of slavery is addressed in The Last Safe House: A Story of the Underground Railroad (1998), by Barbara Greenwood. Greenwood also recalls earlier days in A Pioneer Story: The Daily Life of a Canadian Family in 1840 (1994). Typical of a Canadian propensity for educating children about their own regions as well as about Canada is Vivien Bowers’s Wow Canada! Exploring This Land from Coast to Coast (1999), in which twelve-yearold Guy describes his family’s trip across the Canadian provinces and territories. Linda Maybarduk’s

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The Dancer Who Flew: A Memoir of Rudolf Nureyev (1999) details the childhood, rise to stardom, defection, and death, in 1993, of the ballet superstar who died of AIDS. Poetry Following a decade of renewed interest in poetry for children, as reflected partly in awards garnered for children’s books in this genre, the 1990’s saw a blurring of the distinction between prose and poetry with the introduction of novels in verse. Pioneers of this form are Virginia Euwer Wolff and Mel Glenn. Wolff’s Make Lemonade (1993) depicts a teenager who is a babysitter for a seventeen-year-old mother of two. As their friendship develops, the babysitter goes to college and has her own ups and downs, but they learn things from each other, and the young mother returns to school. In Glenn’s Who Killed Mr. Chippendale? A Mystery in Poems (1996), the murder of a respected English teacher results in a series of free-verse commemorations and comments from students as well as from colleagues, police officers, and community figures. Karen Hesse’s Out of the Dust (1997) uses free-verse poems to paint a realistic verse picture of the hardships of the Depression era set in Oklahoma during the Dust Bowl. For the very young, Eric Metaxas wrote The Birthday ABC (1995); the illustrator, Tim Raglin, provides elegantly costumed animals to highlight the alphabet birthday rhymes. Another trend of the decade was the increasingly sophisticated artistic technique and graphic capability. The belief among Canadian writers, shared by U.S. poets, that while a single poem may take only seconds to read, its sound and rhythm as well as the effect of illustrations may remain in a child’s mind forever fueled the output of children’s poetry books. One such collection of poems is David Booth’s edition of Doctor Knickerbocker and Other Rhymes: A Canadian Collection (1993), illustrated by Maryann Kovalski. Rudeness, fantasy, wisdom, and advice derived from the lore of Canada’s British, Scottish, Irish, and Welsh heritage fill this volume. Lois Burdett teaches second-graders Shakespeare by using her volumes from her series Shakespeare Can Be Fun!, begun in 1995, in which seven of Shakespeare’s plays are adapted and simplified. Impact In a time when change seems to be accelerated with each passing decade, it is noteworthy that children’s literature of all types has met the challenge of keeping up with the pace of modern life.

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Subject matter not addressed widely in earlier decades became the norm in the 1990’s: multicultural topics, issues regarding AIDS and other diseases, environmental concerns, and social problems brought on by changing views of what the family unit is or should be, for example. In an age when children have become dependent on visual stimulation, sometimes to the detriment of other senses, the expertise of the illustrator has become a high priority in children’s literature. Further Reading

Baker, Deirdre, and Ken Setterington. A Guide to Canadian Children’s Books. Plattsburgh, N.Y.: McClelland & Stewart, 2003. Compendium of recommended Canadian titles for children. Jones, Raymond E., and Jon C. Stott. Canadian Children’s Books: A Critical Guide to Authors and Illustrators. Don Mills, Ont.: Oxford University Press, 2000. Compendium of a variety of Canadian authors and illustrators, including ethnic and regional writers. Nikolajeva, Maria, and Carole Scott. How Picturebooks Work. New York: Garland, 2001. Examines the function of the picture book format in a number of international books. Norton, Donna E., et al. Through the Eyes of a Child: An Introduction to Children’s Literature. 6th ed. Upper Saddle River, N.J.: Prentice Hall, 2003. Useful guide for children’s literature teachers that offers information on multiple genres. Victoria Price Canada and the United States; Children’s television; Education in Canada; Education in the United States; Harry Potter books; Literature in Canada; Literature in the United States; Poetry.

See also

■ Children’s television Television programming designed primarily for children or for a mixed child and adult audience

Definition

Efforts to protect young television viewers from violent, sexual, and other such content continued in the 1990’s. Both the Canadian and U.S. federal governments responded with legislation requiring the V-chip filtering system in all new television sets. Despite a lack of agreement about the effects of television violence on young viewers, new limits were

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placed on children’s television programming. Policy developments in Canada were further complicated by the presence of the strong U.S. media market. The constitutions of Canada and the United States both guarantee freedom of expression. The Canadian television system is more centralized and government-influenced than its U.S. counterpart. The Canadian situation is also shaped by two factors not present in the United States: the need to accommodate two official languages (French and English) and the need to cope with the spillover of U.S. programs via air, cable, and satellite channels. Despite these and other differences, very similar federal restrictions on the content of children’s programming were imposed in both nations during the 1990’s. Also, pro-censorship pressure groups proved effective in both countries. Citizen-activist pressure groups included the influential Fraser Institute in Canada and the Action for Children’s Television (ACT) in the United States. ACT helped to build wide public support for the Children’s Television Act of 1990.

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program to also appear in commercial messages within the program. Finally, the hosts of children’s television shows were henceforth prohibited from appearing in such commercials. Early in the decade, the Canadian Radio-Television and Telecommunications Commission (CRTC) began examining the issue of television violence. This led to the 1993 publication of the Canadian Association of Broadcasters’ (CAB) Code of Ethics, which prohibited “gratuitous violence” on television and also forbade showing violence to be a good solution in children’s shows. The nongovernmental CAB established a Canadian Broadcast Standards Council (CBSC) as a form of industry self-regulation, an action similar to efforts on the part of the U.S. music industry, which self-policed by putting parental advisory stickers on albums containing potentially offensive content in order to avoid government restrictions. V-Chip Technology In June, 1994, the V-chip was introduced to the Canadian public as a solution to censorship pressures. A Canadian invention, the V-chip allows parents to block objectionable pro-

Regulations Over the years, films, comic books, and even the lyrics of popular songs have been targets of concern for the public, pressure groups, and governments in both Canada and the United States. During the 1990’s, television held center stage. In 1990, the U.S. Congress passed the Children’s Television Act. Its goal was to encourage more informational and educational programming for children than the commercial market had been able to produce on its own. Henceforth, television stations in the United States would be required by the federal government to schedule educational/informational children’s programming for a minimum number of hours per week in order for a station’s license to be renewed by the Federal Communications Commission (FCC). The FCC also began to limit the extent of commercial time allowed in children’s programPresident Bill Clinton holds a V-chip at the Library of Congress on February 8, 1996. ming. It also prohibited having toys The chip allows parents to block objectionable television content. (AP/Wide World that appear as characters within a Photos)

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grams from their TV sets using an on-screen classification system—although this system was delayed for years after the V-chip’s introduction. Part of the push for classification and the V-chip came from the concerns of Canadian broadcasters and the Canadian public about U.S. stations available in Canada. In the United States, V-chip requirements were written into the Telecommunications Act of 1996. As in Canada, it was the U.S. content developers themselves who were charged with designing and regulating a nationwide V-chip ratings system. The Telecommunications Act required stations to inform television program guides about the suitable viewing age range for all program listings. In 1998, the FCC informed television manufacturers that the V-chip would be required in all new television sets thirteen inches or larger by January, 2000, the same year that Canadian broadcasters actualized their on-screen classification system for use with V-chip technology. One of the few agreed-upon conclusions drawn from research during the 1990’s about media effects on children is that a child’s comprehension of television programming is not a simple process. Comprehension requires a complex set of tasks that include selective attention, the ability to impose coherence on a series of events, and the ability to make inferences beyond the literal meaning of pictured content. Not surprisingly, other research indicates that interacting with adults about the content of a television program can increase a child’s understanding of his or her viewing experience. Viewer age is another widely recognized variable in predicting the effects of television violence on children, for attention to the screen first increases then decreases with the passage of time. Attention to the television screen is termed “fragmentary” before the age of two. Attention gradually increases during the preschool and early elementary school years. Then, around age eight, it starts to decrease to the attention rates that characterize adult viewers. Research on media effects on children produced a variety of results. One study concluded that frequent television viewing—regardless of content— was proven to be the harmful factor. Another study suggested that rather than media violence causing behavioral change in young viewers, children who already exhibited aggressive behaviors tended to select a larger amount of violent content than other children.

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Neither activist groups nor lawmakers made consistent attempts to draw their conclusions from a fair range of evidence. Moreover, there was a general failure among groups to precisely define “violence.” Yet another problem was a lack of clarity about the relationships between aggressive behaviors in laboratory experiments and aggressive behaviors prompted by real-world settings. Marjorie Heins, author of Not in Front of the Children (2001) and herself a First Amendment attorney, sums up the era’s perceptions of the issue: The effects vary widely, and are difficult to quantify. . . . Thus, for some people, in some circumstances, some movies, TV shows, or video games may cause a “copy cat” effect. For others, the same entertainment may produce revulsion, fear, indignation, boredom, curiosity, or some combination of these reactions. For still others, the same works provide escapist enjoyment. . . . At bottom, public concern about violent entertainment probably has more to do with widely shared feelings about the kinds of messages and ideas children should be receiving than with any direct cause-and-effect relationship that has been, or likely can be, established.

According to Heins, there was agreement about one research finding. While under some circumstances television viewing may contribute to aggressive behavior, its impact is always modified “by age, sex, family practices and the way violence is presented. . . . Television has large effects on a small number of individuals, and modest effects on a large number of people.” A prime example of the widespread controversy over media violence was the children’s television series Mighty Morphin Power Rangers, which aired from 1993 to 1996. Geared toward nine- to twelve-yearolds, the series drew major criticism from U.S. and Canadian viewers who objected to the show’s violence (an average of 211 acts of violence per episode). Many Canadian stations took the series off the air, but Canadians with cable television could choose to continue viewing it on the American Fox network. Violence was not the only trigger for controversy during the decade. Studies documented that stereotyping, particularly with regard to gender and race/ ethnicity, was prevalent in children’s programming. African American characters were often negatively stereotyped, while other minority groups received little representation.

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Impact By the end of the 1990’s, battles over television content and media effects on children were being extended to the Internet and to video games, although with different immediate results. In 1999, Canada’s regulatory commission for radio and television, the CRTC, announced that it would not regulate new media activities on the Internet (including Web sites, video games, and online radio and television programming) under Canada’s Broadcasting Act. In 2000, the U.S. Congress passed the Children’s Internet Protection Act. The V-chip “solution” did not have the hoped-for successes in either country. Older children had little trouble teaching themselves how to override V-chip technology. Surveys in both Canada and the United States revealed that many parents either did not know that their television sets had V-chips in them or did not know what the devices were for. Other parents did not know how to use the technology. Another survey showed that fewer than 10 percent of Canadian households with children in the home used their V-chip technology, despite the fact that it had been in place for more than a decade. Further Reading

Gentile, Douglas A., ed. Media Violence and Children: A Complete Guide for Parents and Professionals. Westport, Conn.: Praeger, 2003. Experts address the broad range of negative effects that media violence has on children. Greenfield, Patricia Marks. Mind and Media: The Effects of Television, Video Games, and Computers. Cambridge, Mass.: Harvard University Press, 1984. A well-balanced discussion about the range of effects that electronic media have on children. Though published in 1984, it is far from out of date. Heins, Marjorie. Not in Front of the Children: “Indecency,” Censorship, and the Innocence of Youth. New York: Farrar, Straus and Giroux, 2001. Scholarly discussion, with a strong legal perspective, of issues related to censorship and youth. Barbara Roos Censorship; Children’s Television Act of 1990; Telecommunications Act of 1996; Television; TV Parental Guidelines system; UPN television network; WB television network.

See also

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Children’s Television Act

■ Children’s Television Act Federal legislation designed to improve television programming for children Date Enacted October 18, 1990 Identification

The Children’s Television Act was an attempt by the U.S. Congress and the Federal Communications Commission to increase the educational value of television programming provided children. In 1990, Congress reviewed a study revealing that children between the ages of two and six watched an average of three hours of television per day, and the by age eighteen, the average American child has viewed 15,000 to 20,000 hours of television. An additional study of 750 ten- to sixteen-year-olds found that two-thirds of the respondents felt that their peers were influenced by television, and 60 percent felt that it was negative. Based on these findings, Congress determined that television potentially could be beneficial to society by meeting the educational and emotional needs of the nation’s youth. To ensure these needs were met, Congress enacted the Children’s Television Act on October 18, 1990, with the goal of increasing educational and informational core programming broadcast to children. To aid the act’s implementation, in 1991 the Federal Communication Commission (FCC) defined core programming as “programming that furthers the positive development of children 16 years of age and under in any respect, including the child’s intellectual/cognitive or social/emotional needs,” and created criteria for programs to qualify. To retain their licenses, broadcasters had to air a minimum of three hours of core programming weekly between 7 a.m. and 10 p.m.; the programming had to be at least thirty minutes and regularly scheduled. In addition, stations had to log all aired core programming, complete a publicly available quarterly report listing their compliance, and submit in writing programs that met the criteria prior to airing so that television guides and listings could identify them. Advertising was also monitored under the act. Commercials were limited to 12 minutes per hour on weekdays, and 9.5 minutes (increased to 10.5 in 1993) on weekends. Broadcasters were expected to cease “host selling” (advertising with program characters) and “product tie-ins” (advertising products from the program) within core programming.

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In 1996, the FCC created additional guidelines to be followed. Broadcasters had to indicate the age group the core programming was targeting, reveal what the core programming’s significant purpose was (education no longer being the sole purpose), and place an E/I (educational/informational) icon and/or a verbal announcement prior to its airing. Impact Although the overall effectiveness of the Children’s Television Act remains debatable, the act did achieve its main goal of providing programming that was beneficial educationally, emotionally, and/ or socially to children sixteen years and younger. The act also provided parents with the necessary tools to help monitor their children’s television viewing through written descriptions in television guides and through iconic and verbal announcements. Further Reading

Minow, Newton N., and Craig L. LaMay. Abandoned in the Wasteland: Children, Television, and the First Amendment. New York: Hill & Wang, 1995. Steyer, James P. The Other Parent: The Inside Story of the Media’s Effect on Our Children. New York: Atria Books, 2002. Winn, Marie. The Plug-in Drug: Television, Computers, and Family Life. New York: Penguin Books, 2002. Sara Vidar Advertising; Cable television; Children’s television; Educate America Act of 1994; Education in Canada; Education in the United States; Telecommunications Act of 1996; Television; TV Parental Guidelines system; Video games.

See also

■ China and the United States Diplomatic and economic relations between China and the United States

Definition

Early in the decade, there was considerable debate over how the United States should react to the bloody suppression of student demonstrators in Beijing’s Tiananmen Square in 1989. President George H. W. Bush’s conciliatory approach was severely criticized but ultimately adopted by President Bill Clinton as well for economic considerations. U.S. relations with the People’s Republic of China (PRC) reached a low point during the Third Taiwan Strait

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Crisis in 1995-1996 but sufficiently recovered by 1999 when the United States and the PRC signed a key trade agreement. In 1990, U.S. president George H. W. Bush favored a diplomatic approach to the People’s Republic of China (PRC) despite the Tiananmen Square massacre in 1989. Bush annually renewed the PRC’s mostfavored-nation (MFN) trading status. When Iraqi president Saddam Hussein invaded Kuwait on August 2, 1990, the PRC supported the United Nation’s Security Council Resolution 660 condemning the invasion and Resolution 661 imposing sanctions on Iraq. On November 29, 1990, the PRC did not veto but abstained on Resolution 678 authorizing military force in ejecting Iraq from Kuwait, a major diplomatic victory for the United States. Bush even met the PRC’s hard-line premier, Li Peng, in New York City on January 31, 1991. In turn, the PRC cooperated with the United States on world issues such as peace progress in Cambodia and pressure on North Korea. However, after the PRC bought twenty-four Sukhoi-27 jet fighters from Russia in March, 1992, President Bush authorized the sale of 150 F-16 fighters to the Republic of China (ROC, Taiwan) on September 2. Clinton’s Initial Approach to China In January, 1993, U.S. president Bill Clinton faced three challenges regarding U.S. relations with communist China: Chinese arms sales to countries hostile to the United States, human rights issues, and trade problems. The PRC’s trade surplus with the United States reached $15 billion. On May 28, Clinton renewed the PRC’s MFN status but linked this renewal to progress on human rights. U.S.-PRC relations soured. On August 23, 1993, the United States imposed sanctions on the PRC for the sale of M-11 missiles to Pakistan. Later that summer, U.S. warships intercepted the Chinese freighter Yin He on charges it carried forbidden chemicals to Iran. When no chemicals were found, the PRC angrily denounced the United States on September 4. Clinton met the new PRC president Jiang Zemin in Seattle in November in a frosty atmosphere. Indicative of America’s economic interests in communist China, the Clinton administration waived the August 23 sanctions in December. A visit by U.S. secretary of state Warren Christopher in March, 1994, failed to persuade the Chinese leadership to

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agree on more human rights. However, bowing to economic interests, on May 26 Clinton decoupled renewal of the PRC’s MFN status from China’s human rights record. Third Taiwan Strait Crisis By 1994, the ROC was the sixth-largest trading partner of the United States, with American exports to Taiwan worth $16 billion, double the amount of U.S. exports to mainland China. In 1995, Cornell University invited its alumnus, ROC president Lee Teng-hui, to speak at its reunion. Against Clinton’s opposition, the House of Representatives voted 396-0 and the Senate 97-1 to grant Lee a visa, which the administration issued. Lee’s June 7-11 visit infuriated the PRC. On July 21, the PRC triggered the Third Taiwan Strait Crisis by conducting missile tests in the Taiwan Strait separating mainland China from the island of Taiwan. Initial American responses were conciliatory, yet on December 19, the aircraft carrier USS Nimitz crossed the Taiwan Strait, supposedly because of bad weather elsewhere. The PRC racked up the pressure in January, 1996, by gathering troops on its side of the strait and conducting live missile firings close to Taiwan beginning on March 7. On March 8, U.S. secretary of defense William Perry ordered the aircraft carrier USS Independence to sail to Taiwan, to be joined by the Nimitz. Taiwan reelected President Lee Teng-hui with a strong 54 percent majority on March 23, and the crisis subsided.

After the crisis, both the United States and the PRC sought to mend fences. In August, 1996, Wal-Mart opened its first store in southern China. During the 1996 U.S. presidential campaign, the PRC supported Clinton. U.S. exports to the PRC were $12 million against imports of $51.5 million, creating a trade deficit of $39.5 million. Every year both trade and the trade deficit grew further. The communist leadership decided to seek Permanent Normal Trade Relations (PNTR) with the United States. PRC premier Zhu Rongji visited Clinton in Washington in April, 1999, ready to sign an agreement, but Clinton refused. The accidental May 8 U.S. bombing of the PRC embassy in Belgrade, Yugoslavia, further soured relations. Nevertheless, after much haggling, on November 15, U.S. trade representative Charlene Barshefsky signed the Agreement on Market Access in Beijing.

U.S.-PRC Trade Accord

It would eventually be passed by Congress and signed by Clinton into law on October 10, 2000. Impact In the 1990’s, Sino-American relations entered a more troubled time. There was huge American outrage at the massacre of Chinese student demonstrators in Tiananmen Square in June, 1989. After his initial attempt failed to link the U.S.-PRC economic relationship to human rights, President Clinton reversed course. America was put to the test when the PRC tried to intimidate the Republic of China in 1995 and 1996. With both the PRC and the United States deciding not to let Taiwan cloud their ever-growing economic relationship, progress was made. The trade agreement of November 15, 1999, not only gave both sides some much-sought advantages but also facilitated the PRC’s entry into the World Trade Organization (WTO) by December 11, 2001. Further Reading

Foot, Rosemary. The Practice of Power: U.S. Relations with China Since 1949. Reprint. Oxford, England: Oxford University Press, 2004. Chapter 9 covers the 1990’s to the mid-decade. Uses many Chinese sources. Hufbauer, Gary Clyde, Yee Wong, and Ketki Sheth. U.S.-China Trade Disputes: Rising Tide, Rising Stakes. Washington, D.C.: Institute for International Economics, 2006. Detailed, scholarly look at U.S.PRC trade relations during the decade. Tables, references, index. Lampton, David. Same Bed, Different Dreams: Managing U.S.-China Relations, 1989-2000. Berkeley: University of California Press, 2001. Scholarly work focusing on global, societal and personal level of Sino-American relationship. Mann, James. About Face: A History of America’s Curious Relationship with China, from Nixon to Clinton. New York: Alfred A. Knopf, 1999. Chapters 12 to 18 cover the 1990’s up to 1998. Detailed and critical of Clinton; evaluates Taiwan issue. Photos, notes, index. Suettinger, Robert. Beyond Tiananmen: The Politics of U.S.-China Relations. Washington, D.C.: Brookings Institute Press, 2003. Excellent, detailed, and comprehensive analysis of U.S.-PRC relations during the 1990’s. Zhu, Zhiqun. U.S.-China Relations in the Twenty-first Century: Power, Transition, and Peace. New York: Routledge, 2006. Chapter 5 deals with U.S.-

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Chinese relations from 1990 to 2005 from a political science point of view. Tables, notes, and bibliography. R. C. Lutz See also Bush, George H. W.; Business and the economy in the United States; Christopher, Warren; Clinton, Bill; Cold War, end of; Conservatism in U.S. politics; Elections in the United States, 1992; Elections in the United States, 1996; Foreign policy of the United States; Liberalism in U.S. politics; United Nations; Wal-Mart.

■ Chopra, Deepak Holistic health doctor and New Age teacher Born October 22, 1946; New Delhi, India Identification

One of the foremost mind-body theorists, Chopra has intrigued many people with his observations on the relationship between physical health and the mind. His books have offered advice on living well in a world of increasing pressures. Carrying on the family tradition of medical practice, Deepak Chopra graduated from the All India Institute of Medical Sciences in 1969. The next year, he began his career in the United States, eventually working in private practice in endocrinology and internal medicine, as well as teaching at Tufts and Boston University and serving as chief of staff at Boston Regional Medical Center. After promoting transcendental meditation in the 1980’s, he began to take an interest in how to treat the mind as well as the body. In 1996, Chopra and David Simon founded the Chopra Center for Wellbeing in San Diego, California, which offers various healing therapies for the mind and body. In 1991, Chopra wrote Unconditional Life, about how to achieve one’s ideal life. His influential and prolific writings reached many readers seeking answers to their suffering. Offering wisdom about selfawareness, Chopra pointed to the power of the mind to heal oneself. Altruism and compassion are pathways to reduce the world’s suffering. With the publication of Perfect Health (1991), Chopra introduced readers to Ayurveda, an ancient Indian system of medicine. His next book, Ageless Body, Timeless Mind (1993), tackled the problems of aging, and Creating

Deepak Chopra. (AP/Wide World Photos)

Affluence (1993) addressed “wealth consciousness.” He then published The Seven Spiritual Laws of Success (1994) and The Way of the Wizard (1995). Later in the decade, he wrote books on love and spirituality, including Everyday Immortality (1999), a work focusing on sutra study. He published two novels, The Return of Merlin (1995) and Lords of Light (1999), and produced a CD of love poems and two videos on spirituality. He was also drawn to such diverse creative projects as scriptwriting, a Web site, novels, editing poetry volumes, and comic books with spiritual and cultural themes. Impact Deepak Chopra’s works have helped to convey ancient teachings in a contemporary style to a worldwide audience. His books and lectures have offered traditional Indian medical wisdom merged with advice on practical topics ranging from aging to financial success to happiness. His books have been translated into more than thirty-five languages. Further Reading

Chopra, Deepak. Perfect Health: The Complete Mind/ Body Guide. New York: Harmony Books, 1991.

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Chopra, Deepak, David Simon, and Leanne Backer. The Chopra Center Cookbook: A Nutritional Guide to Renewal. Hoboken, N.J.: John Wiley & Sons, 2002. Jan Hall Life coaching; Religion and spirituality in the United States; Weil, Andrew.

See also

■ Chrétien, Jean Canadian prime minister, 19932003 Born January 11, 1934; Shawinigan, Quebec, Canada Identification

Chrétien’s government solved, for at least the short-term, the fractious question of Quebec’s secession from Canada. A member of the Liberal Party from Quebec, Jean Chrétien became the prime minister of Canada on November 4, 1993, after a long career in politics. He had always supported Canadian unity, and his election temporarily quieted the independence movement in his home province. The Canadian confederation, as created in the British parliament by the British North America Act of 1867, remained for its first century of existence a fractured nation. The act combined the portions of Canada settled by the French in the seventeenth century with the portions of Canada settled by immigrants from Great Britain in the eighteenth and nineteenth centuries. By 1867, the need for a form of self-government was blindingly clear, yet in that supremely nationalistic century, combining two groups with quite different cultural identities was very difficult. The British North America Act, which served for the century after its passage as Canada’s constitution, was a compromise, providing for self-government in a single federal entity of the two groups of peoples who made up the vast majority of Canada’s inhabitants at that time. In the late twentieth century, the compromise came under heightened attack, chiefly from the inhabitants of Quebec who “wanted out” from the predominantly anglophone Canadian confederation. The Québécois had retained their French culture and felt themselves being submerged in the mainly British culture of the rest of Canada. Their leaders

The Quebec Question

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pressed for a constitutional revision that, in various forms, would have created an independent, or “sovereignist,” government outside the federal government of Canada. The movement was a popular one that rested heavily on the principle of selfdetermination, a major concept in the democratic philosophy that dominated Western civilization in the twentieth century. The Québécois movement pressed for referenda that would create the independent Quebec they sought. Referenda occurred in 1980 and in 1995, and in each case those who opposed an independent Quebec won by a very slim majority: In 1995, the no votes (opposing separatism) were 50.6 percent, the yes votes 49.4 percent. Chrétien, though of solidly francophone background, was a member of the Liberal Party and was working entirely on the national political scene. He became prime minister at a time when the Quebec question was a central issue. He crafted a remarkable solution that acknowledged the validity of self-determination but also ensured that Canada would not be torn apart on the slimmest of margins. The Chrétien Solution Chrétien began by referring the issue of Quebec sovereignty, and the rights of its voters to determine the status of the province, to the Canadian Supreme Court. The court provided a masterly decision: It recognized the right of selfdetermination but determined that Quebec could secede from the Canadian confederation only when a substantial majority of the voters required it, deftly refusing to quantify “substantial” though clearly ruling out a mere 1 percent. Chrétien then took the issue to the Canadian parliament when his Liberal government proposed the Clarity Act, introduced in 1999 and passed in 2000. The act defined the conditions under which secession could occur: Majority vote in favor of sovereignty for Quebec would have to be substantial, and only after negotiation with the government of Canada. That Chrétien was able to carry the act through the Canadian parliament was certainly due to his Quebec origins; only such a Québécois could have made it acceptable in Quebec and the rest of Canada. The Chrétien government followed up on this masterly legislative solution with numerous other moves to deflect provincial discontent. In particular, it turned over to the provincial governments a number of governmental responsibilities that had hith-

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erto been carried out on the federal level. It increased the transfer of revenues from the federal government to the provinces so that henceforth half of all federal taxes were passed back to the provincial governments. This infusion of funds enabled the provincial governments to spend more on health care and education. It substantially downsized the federal government, which had the beneficial effect of eliminating the federal deficit. It increased the Canada Child Tax Benefit so that many middle-class families were included. Finally, it directed many special development projects to Quebec, helping to solidify its electoral support in the province. The Chrétien government enjoyed good relations with the United States. After some initial ambivalence, Canada endorsed the North American Free Trade Agreement (NAFTA), which had already been approved by Chrétien’s predecessor, Brian Mulroney. Ideologically, Chrétien was closer to President Bill Clinton than to Mulroney, but he was careful to maintain Canada’s independence. Economically, NAFTA resulted in an increase in Canadian-U.S. trade, making Canada even more integrated with the latter. However, despite Canada’s victories in international tribunals in the softwood lumber dispute, the Chrétien administration agreed to an arrangement with the United States in which it would levy a special duty on some of its softwood lumber exports to the United States. Impact Although the Chrétien administration presided over a political revival of the federal Liberal Party, it was chiefly important for crafting the solution to the Quebec independence movement embodied in the Clarity Act. Only someone with Chrétien’s credentials could have accomplished this masterly constitutional compromise. Moreover, by following this measure up with a restructuring of federal-provincial relationships that delegated substantially greater revenues to the provinces, Chrétien spread the compromise to all parts of the country. Further Reading

Chrétien, Jean. Straight from the Heart. Toronto: Key Porter Books, 1994. Memoir provides Chrétien’s personal point of view. Lawrence Martin, Chrétien’s biographer, has criticized this work as being less than truthful. Frizzell, Alan, Jon H. Pammett, and Anthony Wes-

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tell. The Canadian General Election of 1993. Ottawa: Carleton University Press, 1994. A detailed account of the election tactics that brought Chrétien to the premiership. Harder, Lois, and Steve Patten, eds. The Chrétien Legacy: Politics and Public Policy in Canada. Montreal: McGill-Queen’s University Press, 2006. A good survey of the Chrétien government by a variety of authors. Martin, Lawrence. Chrétien: The Will to Win. 2 vols. Toronto: Lester, 1995-1999. A detailed account of Chrétien’s life, especially its base in the politics of Quebec. Nancy M. Gordon See also Bloc Québécois; Canada and the United States; Charlottetown Accord; Demographics of Canada; Education in Canada; Elections in Canada; Health care; Mulroney, Brian; North American Free Trade Agreement (NAFTA); Quebec referendum of 1995.

■ Christian Coalition U.S. conservative Christian political action group Date Founded in 1989 Identification

In the 1990’s, the Christian Coalition was perhaps the most visible face of the New Christian Right in American politics. Many analysts suggest that the Coalition had a significant impact on the 1994 midterm elections, when the Republicans took control of the both houses of Congress for the first time in forty years. The Reverend Pat Robertson, a charismatic Christian preacher and creator of both the 700 Club television program and the Christian Broadcasting Network (CBN), made an unsuccessful bid for the Republican presidential nomination in 1988. Robertson’s founding of the Christian Coalition in 1989 has been seen as an attempt to perpetuate his influence within the conservative religious and political community in the United States. The Christian Coalition was also intended to fill the void created by the closing of the Moral Majority organization that same year. The Reverend Jerry Falwell had founded the Moral Majority in 1978. The Coalition used many of the same techniques that the Moral Majority had pioneered in organiz-

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ing, fund-raising, and spreading its message, and pursued a similar agenda. Influence in the 1990’s Ralph Reed became executive director of the Christian Coalition in 1989 and proved highly effective in getting media exposure for the organization and in getting conservative politicians to pay attention to the group’s agenda. The Coalition was established as a tax-exempt organization and as such was barred from direct involvement in partisan politics. A common tactic the Coalition used to influence elections was to distribute voting profiles, recording the voting pattern of candidates on the issues of concern to the Coalition and its constituents. These voting profiles and related literature were often distributed in evangelical and fundamentalist churches shortly before an election. During some of the election cycles of the mid-1990’s, the organization distributed up to thirty million pieces of literature, including these voting profiles. The literature did not specifically endorse any party or candidate, but those who agreed with the Coalition’s agenda could easily discern which candidates voted in line with that agenda and which did not. The Christian Coalition promoted voter registration and get-out-the-vote campaigns among conservative Christians, as well as sponsored conferences to teach political strategies for conservative Christian politicians and activists. While the organization has made some effort to reach out to Roman Catholics, black evangelicals, and Jewish Americans, the overwhelming majority of the Coalition’s supporters are white evangelical Protestants. In the mid-1990’s, the Coalition claimed a membership of 1.7 million (although critics have disputed these numbers) and had an annual budget of over $25 million. The Coalition’s support is often cited as a significant factor in the success of the “Republican Revolution” of 1994, in which the Republicans gained control of both houses of Congress. In 1996, the organization announced its Contract with the American Family. The name was intended to connect with the Contract with America, which Republican leaders had proposed. The Contract with the American Family clearly illustrated many of the key concerns of the Coalition. It promoted pro-life, antiabortion policies, opposed the Equal Rights Amendment, supported school voucher programs to help parents pay tuition for private religious schools, and called for passage of a Religious Equal-

Ralph Reed, executive director of the Christian Coalition, speaks at a Republican convention in Atlanta in 1995. (AP/Wide World Photos)

ity Amendment to the Constitution. While nearly every conservative member of Congress attended the press conference announcing the Contract with the American Family, little progress was made in getting this agenda enacted into law. Ralph Reed left the Christian Coalition in 1997 to start his own political consulting firm. Without his leadership, the status and influence of the Coalition declined. In recent years, the Coalition’s budget, number of staff, and apparent political clout has never equaled the levels of the mid1990’s. In later years, the Coalition encountered troubles with both the Federal Election Commission and the Internal Revenue Service (IRS) concerning allegations that its campaign literature was partisan. At one point, the IRS revoked the organization’s tax-

Current Status

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exempt status, but in a 2006 settlement the status was reinstated, provided that the organization allows candidates to publish a brief statement explaining their voting record in the voter guides the group distributes. Impact Supporters and critics have probably overestimated the impact that the Christian Coalition and similar New Christian Right organizations had in the 1990’s. While the Coalition and other such groups may have significantly affected the 1994 congressional elections, they failed to defeat President Bill Clinton in either 1992 or 1996. In the late 1990’s, there was evidence that some Republicans feared that the New Christian Right had taken their party too far to the right of the mainstream in American politics. Further Reading

Birnbaum, Jeffrey H. “The Gospel According to Ralph.” Time, May 15, 1995, 29-35. A helpful, accessible portrait of Ralph Reed at the helm of the Christian Coalition. Davis, Nancy J., and Robert V. Robertson. “Are the Rumors of War Exaggerated? Religious Orthodoxy and Moral Progressivism in America.” American Journal of Sociology 102, no. 3 (November, 1996): 756-787. Authors argue that conservative religious voters do not differ much from other voters on issues other than those that are considered to have distinctly religious overtones. Reed, Ralph. Politically Incorrect: The Emerging Faith Factor in American Politics. Dallas: Word, 1994. Reed’s own contribution to the debates about the place of religion in American politics. Rozell, Mark J., and Clyde Wilcox. “Second Coming: The Strategies of the New Christian Right.” Political Science Quarterly 111, no. 2 (Summer, 1996): 271-294. An interesting look at the grassroots organizational efforts of the Christian Coalition and like-minded groups in the state of Virginia. Thomas, Cal, and Ed Dobson. Blinded by Might: Can the Religious Right Save America? Grand Rapids, Mich.: Zondervan, 1999. Contains some interesting critiques from two evangelical Christians who often find themselves at odds with the Coalition. Mark S. Joy Clinton, Bill; Conservatism in U.S. politics; Culture wars; Elections in the United States, midterm; Elections in the United States, 1992; Elec-

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tions in the United States, 1996; Falwell, Jerry; Religion and spirituality in the United States; Republican Revolution.

■ Christo Identification Artist Born June 13, 1935; Gabrovo, Bulgaria

Christo is an environmental artist who has installed largescale “wrapped” artworks across the world for decades. Growing up in Bulgaria, Christo was interested in Shakespeare and theater, enrolling in the Academy of Fine Arts in 1953. After one semester, he left because of the university’s strict socialist rules. He studied at the Sofia Academy until 1956, then worked in Prague. In 1957, he escaped the confines of communist life, defecting to Austria. Christo took quickly to his new lifestyle, enrolling in the Viennese Academy

Christo stands in front of his wrapped Reichstag building in Berlin in June, 1995. The veiling took about a week to complete. (AP/Wide World Photos)

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of Fine Arts, but left for Paris after one semester. In Paris, Christo found himself with no money or citizenship and supported himself by painting portraits. During this period, he developed a love of surrealism and abstract minimalism. In 1962, Christo married fellow artist JeanneClaude, forming a lifelong artistic partnership. Christo executed the projects, and Jeanne-Claude handled public relations. The couple focused on what would become Christo’s signature works, the “wrapping” pieces. Although Christo began wrapping objects and buildings with various materials in 1958, the large-scale pieces he undertook in the 1990’s made him a household name. In 1990, Christo erected 1,340 blue umbrellas in Ibaraki, Japan, and 1,760 yellow umbrellas in the Tejon Pass in Southern California, each measuring 6 meters in height and 8.66 meters in diameter. The project required more than two thousand workers, cost more than $26 million to create, and was viewed by more than three million people. It became associated with tragedy, however. On October 26, 1991, an umbrella at the Southern California installation was uprooted by a gust of wind and struck a woman, killing her. As a result, Christo ordered all the umbrellas to be taken down, and a worker in Japan was electrocuted during this process. After the umbrellas, the couple worked on wrapping the Reichstag in Berlin. The project was approved by the German parliament on February 25, 1995, with veiling beginning on June 17, and completed seven days later. The government building was covered with 100,000 square meters of fireproof polypropylene fabric, then a layer of aluminum, and finished with fifteen kilometers of rope. Christo’s final project of the 1990’s, Wrapped Trees, took place in Berower Park, Reihen, Switzerland, in November, 1998. Christo wrapped 178 trees in the park with 55,000 square meters of polyester and twenty-three kilometers of rope. Unique patterns were designed for each tree, creating distinctive shapes in the sky. Impact The environmental installations Christo has created over the decades and throughout the 1990’s encourage discussions of what constitutes art. While the projects are always impressive in size, materials, labor, and expense, they evoke a simplistic calmness and serenity. Christo and Jeanne-Claude deny any meaning to the wrappings other than their inherent

aesthetic value. They remain dedicated to making the world “a more beautiful place” and to developing new appreciations for familiar objects and landmarks. The couple funds all of their projects through the sales of preliminary sketches for each work. Further Reading

Chernow, Burt. Christo and Jeanne-Claude: An Authorized Biography. New York: St. Martin’s Press, 2000. Chiappini, Rudy. Christo and Jeanne-Claude. Milan, Italy: Skira, 2006. Ronte, Dieter. Christo and Jeanne-Claude: International Projects. London: Philip Wilson, 2005. Sara Vidar Architecture; Art movements; Burning Man festivals; Earth Day 1990; Koons, Jeff; Mapplethorpe obscenity trial; National Endowment for the Arts (NEA); Photography.

See also

■ Christopher, Warren Identification U.S. secretary of state, 1993-1997 Born October 27, 1925; Scranton, North Dakota

During his tenure as secretary of state under President Bill Clinton, Christopher helped to restore Jean-Bertrand Aristide to power in Haiti and led the Dayton Accords to end the conflict in Bosnia and Herzegovina. Having enjoyed a distinguished career in public service under Democratic administrations, including serving as deputy attorney general and deputy secretary of state, Warren Christopher chaired the Independent Commission on the Los Angeles Police Department (LAPD), known as the Christopher Commission, following the 1991 beating of black motorist Rodney King by Los Angeles police officers. After reviewing five years’ use-of-force reports, civil cases, and internal LAPD communications, the commission concluded that management had failed to address policy violations. The commission proposed reforms for the LAPD, which were overwhelmingly approved by popular referendum. In 1992, Christopher headed the vice presidential search team for Arkansas governor Bill Clinton and served as head of Clinton’s transition team after the election. President Clinton tapped Christopher to be his secretary of state. The first major international challenge of his term occurred after Haitian

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president Jean-Bertrand Aristide was ousted in a military coup within eight months of being elected. Christopher helped negotiate Aristide’s return to office, and the United States participated in a U.N. peacekeeping effort, Operation Uphold Democracy. U.S. troops remained in Haiti until 2000; Aristide proved to be an ineffectual leader, and his elected successor also made little progress in the poverty-stricken nation. Christopher stepped forward to negotiate a truce to the vicious war involving Bosnians, Croats, and Serbs in the newly independent Bosnia and Herzegovina. After bloody massacres, deliberate shelling of civilians, and allegations of genocide, the United States and its allies in the North Atlantic Treaty Organization (NATO) stepped in with Operation Deliberate Force to halt the violence. Christopher’s State Department hosted a peace conference at secluded Wright-Patterson Air Force Base near Dayton, Ohio, in November, 1995. The site was carefully chosen to prevent any one party at the talks from grandstanding or taking its case to the press. Skillful negotiations set boundaries among the entities and provided for continued monitoring to prevent further outbreaks of violence over yet unsettled issues. The Dayton Accords were the signature achievement of Christopher’s tenure as secretary of state. At the end of President Clinton’s first term, Christopher decided to return to private life. He was succeeded by Madeleine Albright. Christopher remained active on the board of advisers of the Washington Institute for Near East Policy, a think tank for analyzing American interests in the Middle East, and the advisory board of the Partnership for a Secure America, a nonprofit that promotes bipartisanship on national security and foreign policy issues. Christopher represented Al Gore in the Florida recount controversy following the 2000 presidential election. Impact Christopher proved his mettle as a negotiator in the turbulent 1990’s. He holds many honorary degrees and awards, including the Presidential Medal of Freedom, and is highly ranked among U.S. secretaries of state. Further Reading

Albright, Madeleine. Madame Secretary. New York: Hyperion, 2003. Christopher, Warren. Chances of a Lifetime. New York: Simon & Schuster, 2001.

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_______. In the Stream of History: Shaping Foreign Policy for a New Era. Stanford, Calif.: Stanford University Press, 1998. Jan Hall See also Albright, Madeleine; Bosnia conflict; China and the United States; Clinton, Bill; Dayton Accords; Elections in the United States, 1992; Foreign policy of the United States; Gore, Al; Haiti intervention; King, Rodney; Kosovo conflict; Los Angeles riots.

■ Cirque du Soleil Identification

Modern circus troupe

Cirque du Soleil created a new eclectic entertainment medium that drew the audience into a fantasy world where anything was possible. Cirque du Soleil was founded in 1984 by street performers Guy Laliberté and Daniel Gauthier in BaieSaint-Paul, Quebec, Canada. The 1980’s were a tumultuous period for the group, alternating between both financial and performance success and failure. The circus troupe also frequently changed management and artistic direction. However, the company stuck to the guiding principles of the modern circus, replacing animal acts with human acrobatics as well as drawing on circus styles from all over the world. In 1989, Franco Dragone became artistic director and created the show Nouvelle Expérience, which turned the performance group into a profitable venture and a worldwide success. With Nouvelle Expérience, Dragone brought the audience into the performance by eliminating the traditional curtain and having the performers move the props. These innovations required the performers to continuously remain in character. The show enjoyed a three-year tour, 1990-1993, that included one year at the Mirage Resort and Hotel in Las Vegas. In 1992, Cirque du Soleil staged its first show with a story line, Saltimbanco. With its message of peace and multiculturalism, Saltimbanco was one of the group’s most successful shows. It continued to be performed throughout the 1990’s and into the next century. As Cirque du Soleil celebrated its tenth anniversary, the ambiance created in its shows darkened, became dreamlike, and incorporated elements of surrealism. Alegría (pr. 1994), the first of these shows,

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dealt with abuse of power and the quest for freedom. Quidam (pr. 1996) portrayed the imagination of a world-weary young girl. In 1993, the company created its first resident show, Mystère, for the Treasure Island Hotel and Casino in Las Vegas. The show was a mystical depiction of life, drawing on multicultural mythologies and sung in an imaginary language. Dralion (pr. 1999) returned to a lighter theme filled with energy and fun but was sung in an imaginary language as well as in French and Italian. Impact Cirque du Soleil transformed the concept of the circus. Banishing the circus ring and animal acts, the company blended acrobatic acts, dance, music, exotic costumes, technical effects, and philosophical commentary into performances that surpassed any one form of entertainment. Through innovative techniques, the creators drew the audience into the performance and provided a total entertainment experience. Further Reading

Babinski, Tony, and Kristian Manchester. Cirque du Soleil: Twenty Years Under the Sun—An Authorized History. New York: Harry N. Abrams, 2004. Bacon, John U., and Lyn Heward. The Spark: Igniting Creative Fire That Lives Within Us All. New York: Currency, 2006. Vial, Veronique. Wings: Backstage with Cirque du Soleil. San Francisco, Calif.: Tondo Books, 1999. Shawncey Webb See also Ballet; Canada and the United States; Las Vegas megaresorts; Music; Theater in Canada; Theater in the United States.

■ Civil Rights Act of 1991 Federal legislation that outlawed employment discrimination practices based on disparate impact Date Signed on November 21, 1991 Definition

The Civil Rights Act of 1991 returned the burden of proof to employers to defend job practices challenged as discriminatory. The law left it to courts to determine what constituted “business necessity” when justifying portended discriminatory practices. The law also opened the way for challenges to affirmative action.

President George H. W. Bush signed the Civil Rights Act of 1991 on November 21, despite having vetoed similar legislation in 1990 for fear of creating too many inducements for hiring quotas. Invoking the undesirability of quotas, the U.S. Supreme Court had effectively undone disparate impact in Wards Cove Packing Company v. Atonio (1989). Title I of the 1991 Civil Rights Act prohibited unlawful employment practices based on disparate impact, in which a policy or practice seems neutral but has an adverse effect on a particular group. A complaining party could (1) show that use of a particular employment practice causes a disparate impact on the basis of race, color, religion, sex, or national origin and the employer failed to demonstrate that the challenged practice is job-related for the position in question and consistent with business necessity, or (2) identify an alternative employment practice that an employer refused to adopt. For example, recruitment through employee referrals would not be permitted if the majority of employees were white males and this practice resulted in the disproportionate hiring of white males. Race norming—the use of test scores, whether adjusted, with different cutoffs, or otherwise altered—was prohibited in connection with selection or referral of applicants or candidates for employment or promotion. Workers challenging a seniority system as discriminatory were permitted to wait until the adverse impact was felt to bring a lawsuit. Title I also prohibited all racial discrimination in the making and enforcement of contracts. It provided the right of recovery of compensatory and punitive damages for unlawful intentional discrimination, including disability as specified in the Rehabilitation Act of 1973 and the Americans with Disabilities Act of 1990. Title I capped compensatory and punitive damages, varying by company size, and permitted jury trials. Title II of the Civil Rights Act, known as the Glass Ceiling Act of 1991, addressed the underrepresentation of women and of minorities in management and decision-making positions in business. It established the Glass Ceiling Commission to study how businesses fill management and decision-making positions, the practices used to foster the necessary qualifications for advancement into those positions, and the compensation programs and reward structures used in workplaces.

Major Provisions

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Title III, known as the Government Employee Rights Act of 1991, provided procedures to protect the right of Senate and related government employees, regarding their public employment, to be free of discrimination on the basis of race, color, religion, sex, national origin, age, or disability. The act also extended procedures for judicial review and related protections to previously exempt state employees. Impact Workplace and harassment discrimination cases brought to the Equal Employment Opportunity Commission (EEOC) mushroomed throughout the 1990’s. Sexual harassment claims exceeded ten thousand every year from 1992 onward. Sex discrimination cases exceeded twenty-one thousand cases every year, accounting for 30 percent of all charge filings in the decade, second only to approximately twenty-nine thousand race discrimination annual filings (38 percent). Further, class-action suits, which had declined in number from eighty-one in 1985 to twenty-five in 1992, increased to seventy-five in 1996. Women as a percentage of officials and managers in the private sector rose by about onehalf a percentage point each year throughout the 1990’s, from a low of 29.3 percent in 1990 to a decade high of 34.5 percent by 1999. In 1995, the Regents of the University of California adopted a resolution to end the university’s preferential treatment of disadvantaged ethnic groups in hiring and in school admissions. In the November, 1996 elections, 55 percent of voters in California approved Proposition 209, which eliminated preferential treatment of any job candidate on the basis of race, sex, color, ethnicity, or national origin in state government hiring, public school admissions, and public contracting. The ban took effect in 1997 after the U.S. Court of Appeals for the Ninth Circuit denied attempts to prevent implementation. The U.S. Supreme Court declined to hear challenges to Proposition 209. Most Supreme Court employment discrimination cases throughout the decade involved women and older persons. In Harris v. Forklift Systems, Inc. (1993), the Court held that to be actionable as “abusive work environment,” conduct need not seriously affect an employee’s psychological well-being or lead the plaintiff to suffer injury. In Landgraf v. USI Film Products et al. (1994), the Court ruled against retroactively applying the Civil Rights Act of 1991. In Romer v. Evans (1996), the Supreme Court struck

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down Amendment 2 of Colorado’s state constitution, which forbade the extension of official protections to those who experience discrimination on the basis of their sexual orientation. In O’Connor v. Consolidated Coin Caterers Corp. (1996), the Court held that a discharged worker need not show that he or she was replaced by another person under age forty to establish a prima facie case of discrimination under the Age Discrimination in Employment Act of 1967. In Oncale v. Sundowner Offshore Services (1998), the Court ruled that sex discrimination consisting of same-sex harassment is actionable under Title VII of the Civil Rights Act of 1964. In both Sutton v. United Airlines, Inc. (1999) and Murphy v. United Parcel Service, Inc. (1999), the Supreme Court held that a determination of disability under the Americans with Disabilities Act must consider whether a person was substantially limited in a major life activity when using a mitigating measure, such as eyeglasses where the alleged disability is sight. Subsequent Events In Grutter v. Bollinger et al. (2003), the Supreme Court affirmed consideration of race in admissions by the University of Michigan’s Law School. Justice Sandra Day O’Connor also expressed her hope that the use of racial preferences would no longer be necessary within twenty-five years. Further Reading

Fowler, W. Gary, Donald W. Jackson, and James W. Riddlesperger. “Symbolic Politics Revisited: The Bush Administration and the Civil Rights Act of 1991.” Contributions in Political Science 396 (2004): 183-202. Reviews the political and social pressures on George H. W. Bush’s administration to support the act in 1991 despite the veto in 1990. Shull, Steven A. A Kinder, Gentler Racism? The ReaganBush Civil Rights Legacy. Armonk, N.Y.: M. E. Sharpe, 1993. Contends that George H. W. Bush continued and heightened President Ronald Reagan’s efforts to cut back on federal protection of civil rights. Skrentny, John David. The Ironies of Affirmative Action: Politics, Culture, and Justice in America. Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1996. Provides a historical account of the development of affirmative action. Weiss, Donald H. Fair, Square, and Legal: Safe Hiring, Managing, and Firing Practices to Keep You and Your Company Out of Court. 4th ed. New York:

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AMACOM, 2004. Provides information aimed at helping employers comply with civil rights laws by avoiding sex discrimination in hiring, sex discrimination and sexual harassment of employees, and mismanagement of older employees and employees with disabilities. Richard K. Caputo See also Americans with Disabilities Act of 1990; Bush, George H. W.; Family and Medical Leave Act of 1993; Hill, Anita; Homosexuality and gay rights; Race relations; Romer v. Evans; Supreme Court decisions; Take Our Daughters to Work Day; Thomas, Clarence; Women in the workforce; Women’s rights.

■ Classical music Compositional styles, composers, and works of art music

Definition

The 1990’s generally saw its core audience in America continue to age. Live performance continued to enjoy sustainable levels of support, with the rash of orchestra bankruptcies that plagued the 1980’s abating during the economic boom of the middle and late 1990’s. While the classical artist was not hit as hard economically by Internet downloading as the popular music field, this situation reflects an aging demographic for classical music less likely to use the Internet and the fact that classical music sales were already small in scope as the decade began. Some professional organizations for classical music performance considered interesting new approaches to attract a younger audience. The Los Angeles Philharmonic, for example, employed maverick stage director Peter Sellars to coordinate performances of orchestral music early in the decade with the intent of inviting a more diverse and youthful audience to a reinvented concert. This effort and others like it met with relative success. The vast majority in the field of classical music performance, however, chose to follow a more traditional path and continue to concertize along traditional lines. Asia, long a growing player in both classical music production and consumption, provided hope for sustained interest and economic vigor for the field. Asian students increased per capita in American schools of music, including and perhaps especially at the most elite conservatories. Asian cities

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and populations of Asian immigrants in the United States became a key new market for Western classical music. New Developments in Composition The 1990’s saw the tendency of postmodernity influencing musical composition increase enormously. Postmodernity in music often takes the form of privileging processes over final products and play over purpose, using history through appropriations of past musical works and styles, blurring boundaries between popular and classical, and often moving irony to the foreground of works. John Adams’s postmodernism was thoroughly revealed during the 1980’s in his critically and artistically successful opera Nixon in China (1986). It was difficult for audiences to see a Richard Nixon lookalike singing an opera aria without enjoying the irony. Adams continued to work in this area with The Death of Klinghoffer (1991), an opera about the 1984 hijacking of an Italian cruise ship by Palestinian terrorists. While Nixon in China had been ironic, the serious tone of The Death of Klinghoffer brought controversy along with its difficult subject matter. The American premiere took place in San Francisco and was met with protests. The Los Angeles Civic Center Opera, a co-commissioning company, canceled its premiere. The work falls well into the ideals of postmodern music for blending past approaches, such as Johann Sebastian Bach cantatas, with later procedures in harmony. Adams met more success with works on less controversial subjects, such as his vast and haunting Naïve and Sentimental Music (1998). By placing a premium on melody, Adams continued to distance himself from the serious academic music that dominated the new music scene from the 1950’s through the early 1980’s. Stylistically, Adams rifled the past, juxtaposing materials from such disparate styles as American minimalism and late nineteenth century chromatic harmony. These elements seemed to have nothing in common, but in Adams’s hands both lost their original purpose and playfully united to provide a clever and winning synthesis. While Adams approached classical music as an insider thoroughly and rigorously trained at Harvard University and for many years a professor of music at the San Francisco Conservatory, his postmodern colleague John Zorn, a proud college dropout, came to music from a radically different background. As a

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youth, Zorn stole record albums almost indiscriminately and in all styles. Later, he taught himself alto saxophone mainly by trying to learn Ornette Coleman’s unorthodox free jazz solos. While Adams’s classical scores were essentially finished products, which the performer then interprets as faithfully as possible, Zorn’s classical scores resembled instructions to games of improvisation or loosely conceived verbal instructions written on file cards in a code understood by the composer and his coterie of fellow virtuosic improvisers. Zorn’s classical work as a composer began in the 1980’s in works for string quartet, such as Forbidden Fruit, in which elements of thrash metal join with quotes from diverse sources such as Ludwig van Beethoven or Japanese pop movie sound tracks. The quartet in that work is joined by a Japanese singer and a deejay who manipulates records as would happen in a rap or hip-hop performance. His work in the 1990’s grew in influence, as he wrote several classical pieces such as Elegy (1993) and Kristallnacht (1994), while continuing to record his game pieces in ever-new incarnations. While Adams and Zorn may reflect extremes of the postmodern tendency in 1990’s classical music, their diverse approaches typified the decade. More central might be clearly classical composer John Corigliano, who enjoyed many successful premieres during the decade and established himself as a preeminent American classical composer capable of manipulating diverse styles with excellent results.

television music, video-game music, commercial jingles, and commercially viable music. The result was a more relaxed and less schematic approach than in past decades among young and aspiring composers.

The University as Patron Since the 1950’s, the American university has taken on the charge of patronizing new music by hiring faculties of composers at virtually every state-supported and private university. This trend continued unabated during the 1990’s. While the university of the 1950’s clearly preferred a style that placed a premium on connections between mathematics and music, by the 1990’s the university had lost an easily identifiable aesthetic preference. The result was a wide range of composers supported and encouraged by universities. The general trend during the decade was toward a stylistic retrenchment around tonal approaches to harmony and corollary approaches such as pantonality. This new conservatism could be seen in the work of students during the 1990’s who often sought careers not in the academy but in making film scores,

See also

Impact Classical music saw much growth in the 1990’s but continued to suffer from a perception of its elitism, as evidenced by advertisers remaining far more willing to attract customers for expensive sport sedans and other prestigious items with classical music and leaving youth-oriented products to popular music. With young people tending to remain wary of elitist culture, this perception remained a problem throughout the decade, with only minimal efforts to reform how young people perceived classical music. Further Reading

Burkholder, J. Peter, Donald Jay Grout, and Claude V. Palisca. A History of Western Music. 7th ed. New York: W. W. Norton, 2006. A music history text used by academic institutions. Gann, Kyle. American Music in the Twentieth Century. New York: Schirmer Books, 1997. A survey of movements and their leaders through the late 1990’s. Hall, Charles J. A Chronicle of American Music, 17001995. New York: Schirmer Books, 1996. Provides a list of highlights in American music by year. Simms, Bryan R. Music of the Twentieth Century: Style and Structure. 2d ed. New York: Schirmer Books, 1996. A survey of important twentieth century music styles, structure, composers, and pieces. Michael E. Lee Art movements; Film in the United States; Music.

■ Clean Air Act of 1990 Identification U.S. environmental law Date Signed on November 15, 1990

This legislation strengthened earlier versions of the law and solved many salient air-quality problems of the 1990’s, including acid rain, ozone depletion, lead, and older power plants. The Clean Air Act of 1990 (CAA) was a major revision of earlier pioneering legislation, the Clean Air Act of 1970 and its 1977 amendments. The earlier versions recognized the need for air-quality stan-

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dards but were largely ineffective because of a lack of a planning and enforcement. The 1990 CAA strengthened the law and added a number of important new provisions. It helped to reduce acid rain and ozone depletion by using an innovative marketbased approach, outlawed the use of leaded gasoline, and established an attainable permit system for large sources of air pollution. Acid rain is primarily caused by the emission of sulfur and nitrogen, mostly from power plants and cars, into the atmosphere. By 1990, acid rain was a major environmental concern, having adverse effects on forests, aquatic life, and plants as well as humans. The 1990 CAA required power plants to greatly reduce their emissions of sulfur dioxide and nitrogen oxide in two phases, with the dirtiest plants having to meet an emissions cap by 1995. The program used an innovative cap-and-trade system whereby plants were allowed allowances that could be bought, sold, or banked for future use. This system has proved highly effective in greatly reducing the emissions of these harmful gases. Leaded gasoline had been a major environmental and health problem since it was introduced in the 1920’s. The 1990 CAA mandated the removal of lead from all gasoline by 1996, leading to a 98 percent reduction in airborne lead and greatly reduced blood lead levels in children. The ozone layer absorbs over 97 percent of the Sun’s harmful ultraviolet rays. Chlorofluorocarbons (CFCs), which break down ozone molecules, were routinely used in many applications, including refrigeration, cleaners, and aerosol spray cans. After the discovery of the Antarctic ozone hole in 1985, the U.S. government realized that something had to be done. The 1990 CAA phased out the production of chemicals such as CFCs that impacted the ozone layer. By 1996, U.S. production of CFCs, carbon tetrachloride, and methyl chloroform ended. Despite efforts to clean up older power plants, they continued to be a major contributor to air pollution in 1990. In an effort to grapple with this problem, the 1990 CAA introduced a permit program for large sources of air pollution. The permit included information on which pollutants were released, how much could be released, and steps that were being taken to reduce the pollution. This permitting system has simplified and clarified large source polluters’ obligations and resulted in great progress in cleaning up older power plants.

Impact The 1990 CAA has been one of the most successful pieces of environmental legislation in the history of the United States, greatly improving air quality. It reduced acid rain, ozone depletion, lead levels, and cleaned up older power plants. A 2003 study by the government’s Office of Management and Budget estimated that improvements in air quality attributable to the 1990 CAA resulted in over $120 billion in benefits due to reductions in hospitalizations, doctors’ visits, premature deaths, and lost workdays. By comparison, the costs to government and industry to implement the 1990 CAA standards were estimated at approximately $23 billion. Hence, the benefits have greatly outweighed the costs. Further Reading

Bryner, Gary C. Blue Skies, Green Politics: The Clean Air Act of 1990 and Its Implementation. 2d ed. Washington, D.C.: CQ Press, 1995. Environmental Protection Agency. Clean Air Act. http://www.epa.gov/air/caa/ Robert Flatley Air pollution; Global warming debate; Kyoto Protocol; Water pollution.

See also

■ Clinton, Bill President of the United States, 1993-2001 Born August 19, 1946; Hope, Arkansas Identification

As the first Democratic president to be elected to two consecutive terms in more than sixty years, Clinton had a tremendous influence in American politics and was a major player on the world stage in the 1990’s. On March 1, 1990, Governor Bill Clinton of Arkansas announced that he would seek a fourth term. Clinton was reelected by a healthy margin in November and spent the next two years raising his profile on the national scene. He had been one of the founding members of the Democratic Leadership Council (DLC), a group of centrist Democratic officeholders that sought to change the populist image of the Democratic Party. As he traveled the country speaking at DLC events and policy conferences, Clinton was urged to run for president in 1992. In

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fact, he had considered running for the White House in 1988 and felt that in 1992 he was ready to be president. He officially announced his run for president at the Governor’s Mansion in Little Rock, Arkansas, on October 3, 1991. A New Democrat From the beginning of his campaign for the presidency, Clinton promised to be a “new” kind of Democrat. Throughout the 1980’s, the Democratic Party was characterized as a tax-andspend party that was looking out for special interests. The goal of the DLC was to change the image of the Democratic Party as a liberal, out-of-touch party into one that was responsive to the needs of the mainstream middle-class Americans, in step with their values and priorities. The campaign hit a major bump in January, 1992, when Gennifer Flowers accused Clinton of having an affair with her. With the New Hampshire primary

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fast approaching, Clinton sought to quickly quell the controversy caused by Flowers’s allegations. He appeared on the television newsmagazine 60 Minutes with his wife, Hillary, by his side. Clinton admitted to causing “pain” in his marriage, and Mrs. Clinton said that she loved and respected her husband. The effort paid off when Clinton placed second in the crucial New Hampshire primary, which gave him momentum campaigning for the Democratic nomination as the “Comeback Kid.” His break came on March 3 when he won the Georgia primary with 57 percent of the vote. He handily won the South Carolina primary a few days later. Clinton officially won the Democratic nomination on June 2, and he formally accepted the nomination at the Democratic convention on July 16. Also, at the convention, Clinton selected Senator Al Gore of Tennessee to be his vice presidential candidate. Both were of the baby-boom generation and campaigned

Bill Clinton takes the oath of office on January 20, 1993. (Library of Congress)

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on a platform of “hope for the future.” Indeed, the campaign theme song was Fleetwood Mac’s “Don’t Stop Thinking About Tomorrow.” The Clinton-Gore ticket entered the fall campaign against President George H. W. Bush with the promise of a “New Covenant” for the American people that would restore hope and confidence in government, bettering the life of the middle class. Bush criticized Clinton for avoiding the draft during the Vietnam War. Clinton told the American Legion that he still thought the war was a mistake, but he hoped that veterans would vote based on the future, not the past. However, he had no qualms with anyone who chose to vote against him because of his draft record. The 1992 election was made more colorful by the entry of Texas businessman H. Ross Perot into the race as an independent. He was able to join Clinton and Bush at all three of the debates that fall. After a campaign urging Americans to think of the future and attacking Bush for not focusing on the economy, Clinton won the 1992 election with 43 percent of the popular vote and 370 electoral votes. Many attributed Clinton’s victory to Perot’s siphoning of votes from Bush. Clinton took office on January 20, 1993, with a proclamation that America would continue to lead the world, and he urged all Americans to sacrifice for the greater good of their nation. First Term Clinton began his first term by lifting the Ronald Reagan-era bans on fetal tissue research and on allowing federal funding of international family-planning programs. He made good on his campaign promise to focus on health care by appointing his wife chair of a task force to develop a universal health care plan. Clinton also sought the lifting of the military ban on homosexuals. He finally settled on the “don’t ask, don’t tell” policy. He made good on his pledge to cut the White House staff by 25 percent while at the same time increasing the ability of the staff to assist citizens in dealing with the federal government. Having promised in his campaign to focus “like a laser beam” on the economy, Clinton foremost sought to reduce the deficit in order to provide more jobs and to increase the income of middleclass Americans. The plan increased taxes on wealthy Americans and corporations; Clinton called on them to contribute to the success of the country. The plan was passed by Congress in August, 1993,

without a single Republican vote. The act lowered taxes on 15 million middle-class Americans and provided tax relief to 90 percent of small businesses. However, his goal to provide universal health care was not achieved. Many feared a “government takeover” of health care, and Clinton had to settle for health care for children and legislation allowing workers to keep their health insurance even if they switched jobs. In 1993, Clinton signed into the law the Brady bill, which required background checks on gun purchasers, and the Family and Medical Leave Act. That law required twelve weeks of unpaid leave for any employee who had to take time off to care for a newborn child or seriously ill family member. Also, Clinton was able to appoint two Supreme Court justices in his first term, Ruth Bader Ginsburg and Stephen G. Breyer. On the foreign policy front, Clinton was a strong ally to Russian president Boris Yelstin and supported Yelstin as he brought democracy to the former Soviet Union. Clinton also worked tirelessly for peace in the Middle East. He was successful in getting Israeli prime minister Yitzhak Rabin and Palestinian leader Yasir Arafat to sign a major peace agreement at the White House on September 13, 1994—the Oslo Accords. The Clinton administration suffered a major setback in the 1994 midterm elections when the Democrats lost majority control of Congress. Clinton was asked at a press conference following the election if he was even relevant, given that the Republicans controlled Congress. He was quick to remind people that he had veto power. Indeed, in 1995 Clinton won a budget showdown with Republican congressional leaders. Clinton achieved a balanced budget that did not contain deep cuts in social programs vital to the poor. In August, 1996, he signed a welfare reform bill that would help people move from government assistance to the workforce. Clinton’s success gave him confidence as he planned for his 1996 reelection campaign. Clinton faced Kansas Republican senator Bob Dole in the 1996 presidential campaign. Clinton was able to run on his strong economic record and on a promise to “build a bridge to the future,” since the winner would be the first president of the twenty-first century. Clinton won reelection on November 5, 1996, receiving 49 percent of

Second Term

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the popular vote to Dole’s 41 percent and winning 379 electoral votes. Clinton began his second term in 1997 by appointing Madeleine Albright as the first female secretary of state. He set out to make education and balancing the budget his priorities for his second term. Clinton also signed legislation in 1996 raising the minimum wage. Clinton’s second term hit a major stumbling block when, in January, 1998, independent counsel Kenneth Starr, who had investigated the Clintons’ Whitewater land deal from the 1980’s, made a major discovery while investigating Clinton’s deposition in the Paula Jones sexual harassment lawsuit. In that testimony, Clinton denied having a sexual relationship with a former White House intern, Monica Lewinsky. Clinton strongly denied any sexual relationship, and the scandal hung over the administration throughout 1998. In August, 1998, Clinton confessed to an “inappropriate relationship” with Lewinsky. Therefore, many thought Clinton committed perjury in his testimony in the Jones case, which led the House of Representatives to impeach the president. He became the second president in U.S. history to be impeached. The Senate, however, voted not to remove him from office. The Lewinsky investigation backfired on the Republicans, as their party lost seats in the 1998 midterm elections. Despite the impeachment, Clinton’s approval ratings remained high, and he spent the rest of his term promoting peace in the Middle East and Northern Ireland. He left office with a 65 percent approval rating—the highest end-of-term approval since President Dwight D. Eisenhower. The United Kingdom joined the United States in air attacks on Iraq in late 1998, after Iraq turned away U.N. weapons inspectors. Many thought this was a major setback to Iraq’s weapons of mass destruction program. The U.S. economy also stayed strong during Clinton’s second term; he left office with a budget surplus of $230 billion. Clinton supported his wife when she announced in 1999 that she would run for the Senate from New York in 2000. She was able to run on her husband’s legacy of a healthy economy and concern for children and the middle class. Impact Bill Clinton, as the first Democratic president reelected since the 1930’s, was a major power player throughout the 1990’s. He was responsible for bringing the Democratic Party to the center, where it largely remains to this day. Thanks to his

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leadership, when he left office the economy was strong, the crime rate was down, and America was widely respected throughout the world. One cannot study the 1990’s without considering the influence that Clinton had throughout the decade. Further Reading

Clinton, Bill. Giving: How Each of Us Can Change the World. New York: Alfred A. Knopf, 2007. Clinton’s newest book, describing how everyone can change the world by supporting charities and being involved in their own communities. _______. My Life. New York: Alfred A. Knopf, 2004. Clinton’s memoir provides a behind-the-scenes account of his political career. Clinton, Hillary Rodham. Living History. New York: Simon & Schuster, 2003. Describes the First Lady’s White House years and her political life. Hamilton, Nigel. Bill Clinton: Mastering the Presidency. New York: PublicAffairs, 2007. A study of Clinton’s character and policies by an accomplished biographer. David Murphy See also Albright, Madeleine; Bosnia conflict; Bush, George H. W.; Business and the economy in the United States; Clinton, Hillary Rodham; Clinton’s impeachment; Clinton’s scandals; Cohen, William S.; Dole, Bob; Don’t ask, don’t tell; Elections in the United States, midterm; Elections in the United States, 1992; Elections in the United States, 1996; Family and Medical Leave Act of 1993; Foreign policy of the United States; Gore, Al; Haiti intervention; Health care; Health care reform; Israel and the United States; Kosovo conflict; Lewinsky scandal; Liberalism in U.S. politics; North American Free Trade Agreement (NAFTA); Social Security reform; Somalia conflict; Starr Report; Troopergate; Welfare reform; Whitewater investigation.

■ Clinton, Hillary Rodham First Lady of the United States, 1993-2001 Born October 26, 1947; Chicago, Illinois Identification

Clinton served as First Lady in the 1990’s and brought important issues to the forefront of policy debates, all the while fulfilling the traditional role of First Lady and being a supportive wife and mother.

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In the presidential campaign of 1992, the Democratic candidate for president, Governor Bill Clinton of Arkansas, promised that together with his wife, Hillary Rodham Clinton, voters would get “two for the price of one.” Even though that statement led to attacks from opponents that the future First Lady would have too much influence on her husband, she was widely admired by most Americans and most people around the world by the end of the 1990’s. Health Care Plan The fears of many critics were reinforced when, on January 25, 1993, President Clinton named his wife chair of the President’s Task Force on National Health Care Reform. Ira Magaziner’s corporate consulting firm had conducted an exhaustive study of America’s health care system, and he served on the task force along with the cabinet secretaries of commerce, defense, health and human services, labor, and veterans affairs. Senior staff at the White House and Office of Management and Budget rounded out the membership of the task force. Health care reform seemed from the outset to be an almost impossible venture, but both Clintons thought it a worthy cause; as of 1992, health care was costing the United States more than any other industrialized nation in the world at 14 percent of the gross domestic product. Hillary Clinton felt it unacceptable that the United States spends so much on health care yet does not offer universal coverage. President Clinton told Magaziner that the task force had to complete its work within the first year of his presidency, as Clinton had promised during the election campaign to make health care a priority. The First Lady and Magaziner went to the Congress and met with all the influential members; they soon realized that passing health care legislation by the spring of 1993 was an impossible task. The administration was working hard to get the president’s economic package through the Congress, and many felt that a battle for health care reform would seriously hinder that effort. Finally, the long-awaited moment for the task force came on September 22, 1993, when President Clinton introduced his administration’s plan for universal health care during a speech before a joint session of Congress, with the First Lady sitting in the gallery. She listened as her many months of planning policy, traveling around the country, and study-

Hillary Rodham Clinton. (Library of Congress)

ing the current health care system culminated in actual legislation. She then set out lobbying members of Congress for passage of the plan, becoming the first presidential wife to testify in front of the House Ways and Means Committee on such a major piece of legislation. However, the legislation stalled in both houses of Congress because of the highly charged political atmosphere. That the bill was 1,342 pages long only complicated matters. Many in Congress feared that the government was simply taking over the health care system rather than drastically reforming the current system to reduce costs and provide coverage for all Americans. Many Republicans feared that a major victory such as passage of a universal health care plan would ensure continued Democratic control of Congress in the 1994 midterm elections and help the president cruise to a reelection victory in 1996. Long before the 1990’s, Hillary Clinton had supported women’s rights and fought for policies to better the lives of women and children the world over. She finally had a global stage on which to serve as an advo-

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cate for women and children at the U.N. Conference on Women in Beijing on September 5, 1995. Clinton proudly proclaimed that “human rights are women’s rights and women’s rights are human rights.” She exhibited great bravery by making such a proclamation in a country well known for its human rights violations. Also in 1995, she was the main supporter of legislation passed to assist those suffering from Gulf War syndrome. Clinton campaigned across the country in 1996, helping her husband win a second term in office. On August 17, 1998, President Clinton confessed to an “inappropriate relationship” with former White House intern Monica Lewinsky. In the months leading up to the president’s confession, Hillary Clinton publicly supported her husband and said she believed him when he stated in early 1998 that the Lewinsky allegations were false. Clinton was terribly upset with her husband and held on to her religious faith to get her through that difficult time, as well as to help her forgive her husband. The couple’s daughter, Chelsea, served as a source of strength to both of her parents and helped to bridge the marital rift that the scandal had caused. Impact Hillary Rodham Clinton ended the 1990’s as one of the most influential women in the world. Thanks to her advocacy for universal health care, as well as women’s and children’s issues, these issues are now part of the public policy debate. At the start of the decade, it was uncertain whether those important issues would be addressed. After much thought, Clinton decided to remain in the policy arena: She announced her candidacy for the Senate from New York on July 7, 1999. Clinton spent the rest of the year campaigning throughout the state. Further Reading

Clinton, Bill. My Life. New York: Alfred A. Knopf, 2004. Clinton’s memoir covers his childhood and provides a behind-the-scenes account of his political career. Clinton, Hillary Rodham. It Takes a Village. New York: Simon & Schuster, 2006. Tenth anniversary edition of Clinton’s 1996 best-seller describing how to make the world better for children. _______. Living History. New York: Simon & Schuster, 2003. Memoir describes the First Lady’s White House years and her political life. David Murphy

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Clinton, Bill; Clinton’s impeachment; Clinton’s scandals; Elections in the United States, midterm; Elections in the United States, 1992; Elections in the United States, 1996; Health care; Health care reform; Lewinsky scandal; Right-wing conspiracy; Whitewater investigation; Women’s rights; Year of the Woman.

See also

■ Clinton’s impeachment U.S. House of Representatives adopts two articles of impeachment against President Bill Clinton; U.S. Senate acquits the president Date Impeached on December 19, 1998; acquitted on February 12, 1999 The Event

Bill Clinton became only the second president, and the first elected one, to be impeached, and the first to be impeached for reasons unrelated to his official duties as president. In the presidential election of 1992, Arkansas governor and Democratic candidate Bill Clinton defeated Republican George H. W. Bush, the incumbent president. Despite receiving only 43 percent of the popular vote, Clinton won 370 electoral votes to Bush’s 168. On January 20, 1993, Clinton was inaugurated as the forty-second president of the United States and the first Democrat since Jimmy Carter was inaugurated in January, 1977. Whitewater Investigation The Whitewater Development Corporation, commonly called Whitewater, was a failed real estate deal in which Clinton had been an investor during his tenure as governor of Arkansas. Allegations of impropriety in the Whitewater matter had surfaced during the presidential campaign. Following the election, the media continued to press the issue, and Clinton’s political opponents called for an investigation. In January, 1994, at Clinton’s request, Attorney General Janet Reno appointed Robert Fiske as a special prosecutor to investigate Clinton’s involvement in the failure of the Whitewater Development Corporation. Conservative commentators, whom First Lady Hillary Rodham Clinton would later call a “vast right-wing conspiracy,” further alleged that Vince Foster—the former deputy White House counsel and longtime friend of the Clintons who had been found dead in his car, the apparent victim of a suicide—had been murdered by the Clintons because he knew about

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their complicity in crimes relating to Whitewater. On June 30, 1994, however, Congress abolished the position of special prosecutor by passing the Independent Counsel Reauthorization Act of 1994. The position of independent counsel was created by the Ethics in Government Act of 1978. (The Ethics in Government Act had expired in December, 1992, but was reauthorized in June, 1994.) The purpose of the act and its reauthorization was to avoid conflicts of interest that would arise if the executive branch were investigating its own officials. The act provided for an independent counsel to investigate members of the executive branch if warranted after a preliminary review by the attorney general. Under the act, the attorney general must request the appointment of counsel from a special division of the U.S. Court of Appeals for the District of Columbia Circuit. Once appointed, counsel may be removed by the attorney general only for reasons specified in the act. On August 9, 1994, eight months into Fiske’s investigation, the three-judge special division, chaired by Republican judge David Sentelle, replaced Fiske with Kenneth Starr, a former federal judge and Republican solicitor general. The special division removed Fiske on the grounds that he had been appointed by Clinton’s attorney general, thus creating the appearance that he was not completely independent. No reasons were offered by the panel to suppose Fiske a confidante or lackey of either the attorney general or Clinton. Equally important, no evidence points to the conclusion that Clinton’s political opponents persuaded the panel to remove Fiske or replace him with Starr. Unrelated to Whitewater, on May 6, 1994, Paula Jones, a former Arkansas state employee, sued President Clinton in federal court for sexual harassment. Jones claimed that on May 8, 1991, then governor Clinton made an improper sexual advance toward her in a Little Rock hotel room. Jones was represented by the Rutherford Institute, an organization with strong ties to the Republican Party, and sought $700,000 in damages. Clinton responded by filing a motion to dismiss on grounds of presidential immunity—that is, because Clinton was a sitting president, he was immune from a civil lawsuit. The district judge denied Clinton’s motion and ruled that discovery could go forward, but ordered any trial stayed until the end of Clinton’s presidency. A divided panel of the court of

Jones Lawsuit and Lewinsky Scandal

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appeals affirmed the denial of the motion to dismiss but reversed the order postponing the trial. In Clinton v. Jones (1997), a unanimous Supreme Court ruled against the president, holding that the doctrine of separation of powers did not require a federal court to stay all private actions against the president until he left office. As such, the lawsuit proceeded. Prior to the president’s deposition in the sexual harassment case, however, Linda Tripp, a former White House employee, informed Jones’s lawyers that the president was involved in an affair with a White House intern, Monica Lewinsky. In early January, 1998, Lewinsky offered a sworn affidavit in the Jones lawsuit, averring that she never had a sexual relationship with the president. Shortly thereafter, on January 12, Starr received secretly recorded audio tapes of Tripp’s telephone conversations with Lewinsky. These tapes revealed that Lewinsky was willing to deny a sexual relationship with the president in exchange for the president’s assistance in securing her employment. Believing that the president’s actions, if true, constituted obstruction of justice, Starr requested and received approval from the attorney general to investigate the Lewinsky matter. On January 17, Clinton, in a sworn deposition in the Jones case, denied ever having “sexual relations” with Lewinsky. A federal grand jury, initially impaneled to investigate Whitewater, turned its attention to the Jones and Lewinsky matters. Specifically, the grand jury considered three accusations: whether Clinton had committed perjury during his deposition in the Jones case; whether Clinton had attempted to obstruct justice by encouraging Lewinsky and others to lie about his sexual relationship with Lewinsky; and whether Clinton had attempted to hide evidence of his relationship with Lewinsky. On August 17, 1998, the president testified before the grand jury via closed-circuit television. That evening, Clinton addressed the nation, admitting that his relationship with Lewinsky was inappropriate. He apologized for misleading the public about that relationship but insisted that he had never perjured himself. In addition, Clinton criticized both Jones and Starr for their politically inspired motives. By law, the independent counsel was required to inform the House of Representatives of any credible information that might constitute grounds for impeachment. The Starr Report, submitted to the lower chamber on September 9, 1998, cited eleven

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possible impeachable offenses, including lying under oath, obstructing justice, tampering with a witness, and abusing constitutional authority. Interestingly, not one of the offenses pertained to Whitewater. House Impeachment and Senate Trial In the 105th Congress, the House of Representatives was divided—228 Republicans and 206 Democrats, with one independent. The Senate had fifty-five Republicans and forty-five Democrats. Fearing impeachment proceedings, the president’s supporters asserted three positions. First, the framers of the Constitution had not intended for impeachment inquiries to be employed so wantonly. Impeachment was designed for crimes of substantive magnitude, like treason and bribery. Second, impeachment was an appropriate remedy only for public, but not private, wrongs. Third, impeachment required a very high standard because the United States had a presidential and not a parliamentary system, and because it nullified the popular will. The president’s opponents invoked the rule of law: Lying under oath is an impeachable offense. An extramarital affair may not be an impeachable offense, but perjury, obstruction, and abuse of power are. On October 8, 1998, the House voted 258 to 176 to conduct an impeachment inquiry. Every Republican voted for the inquiry, and 86 percent of the Democrats opposed it. Leading up to the 1998 midterm elections, Republicans attempted to focus public debate on the Lewinsky scandal. That effort was largely unsuccessful: The Democrats picked up five seats in the House and maintained their seats in the Senate. Even so, the Republicans pressed forward. After weeks of partisan debate, the House Judiciary Committee approved four articles of impeachment against the president. On each, the committee vote was strictly along party lines. Article I accused the president of committing perjury before the grand jury. Article II charged Clinton with perjuring himself in the Jones deposition. Article III charged the president with obstructing justice. Article IV accused Clinton with perjuring himself in his responses to the House Judiciary Committee’s questions. On December 19, 1998, the full House adopted Articles I and III. (Only a majority vote is required to impeach officers of the United States.) Article I passed 228-206 on virtually a straight party-line

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vote, with five Democrats in favor and five Republicans opposed. Article III passed narrowly 221-212, again largely along party lines. Article II failed 229205, with twenty-eight Republicans voting against it. Article IV was defeated decisively 285-148. Clinton became the second president, and the first elected one, to be impeached. On January 7, 1999, the Senate trial began. Each side was allotted twenty-four hours to make its case, followed by questions from the senators. The House, acting as the prosecution, presented first. On February 12, the Senate voted on the two articles of impeachment; both failed. (A two-thirds vote is required to convict and remove officers of the United States.) On the perjury article, ten Republicans joined forty-five Democrats voting not guilty. On the obstruction article, the Senate was equally divided: five Republicans joined forty-five Democrats voting not guilty. Impact From a Democratic perspective, both the conservative independent counsel and the Republican-controlled Congress took a cavalier approach to the impeachment process by attempting to criminalize political differences. Had the Republican Party been successful in removing President Clinton from office for sexual misadventures, so the argument went, there would have been a massive separation-ofpowers shift toward congressional aggrandizement and terrible damage to the institution of the presidency. The Republican effort subordinated the constitutional objective of addressing impeachable wrongs to political partisanship. It signaled the Republican Party’s desire to destroy Clinton personally and politically at any price. From a Republican perspective, impeachment, conviction, and removal was the only remedy for a reckless and lawless president. Providing false and misleading testimony in a sworn deposition and before a duly impaneled grand jury, endeavoring to obstruct justice by encouraging false affidavits and taking affirmative steps to conceal a felony, and tampering with witnesses were all serious offenses. The president’s conduct brought more than disgrace to himself and to the institution of the presidency; the president’s conduct constituted a crisis of public order—a crisis that could be remedied only through constitutionally and historically justified impeachment, conviction, and removal from office. The impeachment proceedings against President

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Clinton exacerbated the rancorous partisanship that dominated national politics in the late 1990’s. Virtually the entire process was dictated by party-line thinking. The Republicans allowed their tremendous personal disdain for the president to consume them to the point that it prevented any compromise with Democrats, even those who were disappointed in their own leader. The Democrats orchestrated a plan to win by fostering partisanship and using it as a shield for the president. In 1999, the Ethics in Government Act expired. It was not renewed, both parties recognizing the inherent dangers in granting virtually unchecked power to a politically unaccountable independent counsel to conduct a debilitating criminal investigation of the president. Further Reading

Baker, Peter. The Breach: Inside the Impeachment and Trial of William Jefferson Clinton. New York: Scribner, 2000. The definitive account of the impeachment and trial of President Clinton. Written without spin, an extensively researched, incredibly detailed, unbiased account of the events between August 17, 1998, and February 12, 1999. Focus is not on Paula Jones, Monica Lewinsky, Kenneth Starr, or sex but rather on Clinton and the Democratic and Republican leadership in the Congress. Isikoff, Michael. Uncovering Clinton: A Reporter’s Story. New York: Crown, 1999. A look at the events leading up to President Clinton’s grand jury confession on August 17, 1998—sex and all. Written by the Newsweek reporter who exposed the president’s affair with Monica Lewinsky. Maraniss, David. The Clinton Enigma: A Four-and-aHalf-Minute Speech Reveals This President’s Entire Life. New York: Simon & Schuster, 1998. A fascinating dissection of President Clinton’s nationally televised curious apology confessing that he had misled the American people about his relationship with Monica Lewinsky. A character sketch of the president, showing how he was alternatively “reckless and cautious, righteous and repentant, evasive and forgetful . . . transforming his personal trauma into a political cause.” Posner, Richard A. An Affair of State: The Investigation, Impeachment, and Trial of President Clinton. Cambridge, Mass.: Harvard University Press, 1999. Written by a longtime and well-respected federal

judge and academic. Discusses the constitutional history, law, jurisprudence, morality, and politics of the impeachment of President Clinton. Schippers, David P., and Alan P. Henry. Sellout: The Inside Story of President Clinton’s Impeachment. New York: Regnery, 2000. A criticism of President Clinton’s actions and a lament on the Senate’s failure to convict the president. U.S. Congress. House. Referral from Independent Counsel Kenneth W. Starr. 105th Congress, 2d session, 1998. House Document 310. The so-called Starr Report, sexual details included, which cited eleven possible impeachable offenses against the president. Van Tassel, Emily Field, and Paul Finkelman. Impeachable Offenses: A Documentary History from 1787 to the Present. Washington, D.C.: CQ Press, 1999. A well-researched documentary history of the seventeen impeachment proceedings against officers of the United States. Richard A. Glenn Clinton, Bill; Clinton, Hillary Rodham; Clinton’s scandals; Lewinsky scandal; Reno, Janet; Right-wing conspiracy; Scandals; Starr Report; Supreme Court decisions; Troopergate; Whitewater investigation.

See also

■ Clinton’s scandals Personal, political, and legal scandals and allegations of illegal and unethical behavior by President Bill Clinton during his presidency, 1993-2001

Definition

Clinton’s scandals included self-admitted, alleged, and proven adulterous affairs and sexual harassment, investment improprieties in Arkansas, controversial fund-raising sources from the 1996 presidential election, and independent counsel Kenneth Starr’s extensive investigation and explicitly written report to Congress regarding allegations that Clinton committed perjury and obstruction of justice. The Starr Report was the basis for the decision of the U.S. House of Representatives to impeach Clinton in 1998. Although Clinton was narrowly acquitted by the Senate in 1999, he was only the second president in U.S. history to be impeached. After Bill Clinton’s landslide reelection as governor of Arkansas in 1990, Clinton announced his presi-

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dential candidacy on October 3, 1991. Competing in a crowded race for the 1992 Democratic presidential election, Clinton was forced to answer allegations that he had a lengthy sexual affair with Gennifer Flowers in Arkansas during the 1980’s. Shortly before the New Hampshire primary and on the evening of the 1992 Super Bowl game, Bill and Hillary Rodham Clinton appeared on the televised news program 60 Minutes and denied the affair, despite Flowers’s widely publicized press conference that included taped phone conversations between her and Clinton. Nonetheless, Clinton won a strong second-place finish in New Hampshire and became the presumptive Democratic presidential nominee by the spring of 1992. Throughout Clinton’s presidential campaign, he was plagued by several issues regarding his credibility, integrity, and patriotism. Clinton’s political opponents and critics nicknamed him “Slick Willie” and referred to his misleading and evasive statements about marijuana use and avoiding military service during the Vietnam War. Before his presidency, Clinton relied on his wife as the primary income earner in their marriage. Hillary Rodham Clinton was an attorney at the Rose Law Firm in Little Rock, Arkansas. She was also primarily responsible for the Clintons’ investment decisions. In this capacity, she invested in the Whitewater real estate development in Arkansas with James and Susan McDougal. After this real estate venture failed, financial improprieties and controversy surrounding it led to investigations by the U.S. Securities and Exchange Commission and the eventual conviction and imprisonment of the McDougals. James McDougal repeatedly and publicly claimed that the Clintons were seriously and illegally involved in the Whitewater scandal. In July, 1993, Vince Foster, Clinton’s deputy White House counsel, committed suicide in a federal park in Virginia. Foster had known Bill Clinton since childhood and had worked with Hillary Clinton as an attorney at the Rose Law Firm. Some critics and opponents of the Clintons suspected that they ordered Foster to be murdered in order to cover up an affair between Foster and Hillary and to eliminate him as an incriminating witness in the Whitewater case and remove Whitewater-related documents from Foster’s office. This extreme, controversial theory about Foster’s death was one of

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the first anti-Clinton conspiracy theories that made it increasingly difficult for the American public to discern reasonable, credible accusations of illegal behavior by Clinton. On April 22, 1994, Hillary Clinton held a press conference and denied any wrongdoing in the Whitewater investment. Bill Clinton directed Attorney General Janet Reno to appoint a special prosecutor to investigate the Whitewater issue. Robert Fiske then subpoenaed the Clintons for documents in May, 1994. The Resolution Trust Corporation, a federal agency, eventually cleared the Clintons of any wrongdoing. Kenneth Starr Although it was not the most prominent of Clinton’s scandals, the Whitewater scandal led to the appointment of Kenneth Starr by a judicial panel in August, 1994, as an independent counsel to continue the Whitewater investigation. Starr was a conservative Republican, a native of Arkansas, and solicitor general during George H. W. Bush’s presidency. This responsibility then led to Starr’s investigation of Paula Jones’s civil suit against Bill Clinton for sexual harassment. Perceiving contradictions between Clinton’s January, 1998, deposition and that of Monica Lewinsky, a former White House intern, in the Jones case, Starr concluded that Clinton had committed perjury and obstruction of justice in order to deny and cover up a sexual affair with Lewinsky. The Supreme Court ruled in May, 1997, in Clinton v. Jones that the U.S. Constitution does not make the president immune from civil suits involving actions that occurred before he became president. On November 13, 1998, Clinton paid Jones $850,000 as an out-of-court settlement after Jones agreed to end her appeal. Clinton continued to deny that he had sexually harassed or propositioned Jones and refused her demand for a public apology. Information from the Jones case also intensified the Troopergate scandal. Some Arkansas state troopers stated that when Clinton was governor, he used them to contact Jones and other women for sexual liaisons. One trooper claimed that Clinton offered him a federal job if he denied knowing anything about Clinton’s adulterous behavior in Arkansas. In addition to Troopergate, the Filegate and Travelgate scandals, in which the Clintons were respectively accused of improperly using Federal Bureau of Investigation (FBI) files and firing employees

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of the White House travel office, contributed to a growing suspicion that the Clintons had a tendency to abuse their power over government employees. Most Democrats and other supporters of the Clintons believed that these investigations and controversies and the eventual impeachment of Bill Clinton were motivated and even fabricated by Republicans in Congress and conservative media commentators, think tanks, and interest groups ruthlessly determined to discredit and destroy the Clinton presidency. Hillary Clinton collectively referred to these forces as a “vast right-wing conspiracy.” For the Clintons and their supporters, it was not coincidental that Starr’s investigation was expanded after the Republicans won control of Congress in 1994 and further intensified after Clinton was reelected in 1996. Furthermore, the House Judiciary Committee began its impeachment hearings a few months before the 1998 midterm elections. For Bill Clinton, the fact that polls showed that most Americans opposed his impeachment and approved of his job performance and that Newt Gingrich resigned as Speaker of the House shortly after the Democrats gained House seats in the 1998 midterm elections substantiated his belief that the Starr Report and the House impeachment hearings were politically motivated. Although Clinton admitted to the American public that he had lied to them in his earlier public denial of a sexual affair with Monica Lewinsky, he believed that most Americans would distinguish between his personal life and presidential performance and, thus, oppose impeachment. Clinton’s victorious, well-financed reelection campaign in 1996 led to investigations and controversies regarding Clinton’s fund-raising practices. Some critics accused Clinton of unethically “renting” White House bedrooms to wealthy guests in exchange for campaign contributions. A more controversial fund-raising scandal involved Indonesian businessmen with ties to the Chinese government. The Democratic National Committee (DNC) was later required to return nearly $3 million in illegal contributions, many of them from Indonesian and Chinese sources. Clinton’s critics suspected that Clinton may have jeopardized national security by allowing Chinese access to advanced, militarily sensitive technology in exchange for these funds.

Partisan Politics, 1994-1998

After the Senate acquitted Clinton of his impeachment charges in Febru-

Final Scandals, 1999-2001

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ary, 1999, a federal judge in Arkansas ruled in April, 1999, that Clinton had committed civil contempt because of his misleading testimony in the Jones case and must pay Jones $91,000 in legal expenses. During the remainder of his presidency, Clinton often received high public approval ratings for his job performance, especially on the economy, and low public approval ratings for his ethical character and credibility because of these scandals. In running for president in 2000, Vice President Al Gore wanted to politically benefit from Clinton’s economic record while avoiding any association with Clinton’s scandals, especially Gore’s role in the fund-raising scandal. Gore’s ambivalence about Clinton motivated him to limit Clinton’s campaign appearances on his behalf. Nonetheless, George W. Bush won the 2000 presidential election. Some voters told pollsters that they voted for Bush in order to restore moral values to the presidency. The last scandal of the Clinton presidency became known as Pardongate. Before leaving the presidency in 2001, President Clinton issued several controversial and ethically questionable pardons. He pardoned clients represented by Hillary Clinton’s brothers; Puerto Rican terrorists; a drug dealer whose father made large Democratic campaign contributions; and Marc Rich, a commodities trader who was convicted of tax and oil embargo violations and was living in Switzerland as a fugitive. Denise Rich, his ex-wife, had given large contributions to Clinton’s library foundation and legal defense fund, the Democratic Party, and Hillary Clinton’s Senate campaign. Impact With Republicans controlling Congress during the last six of Clinton’s eight years as president, his scandals sensationalized and intensified partisan conflicts between Clinton and Congress. Media coverage and discussion of Clinton’s scandals contributed to the rise of Internet-based investigative journalists, such as Matt Drudge, and conservative talk radio show hosts, such as Rush Limbaugh. Furthermore, Clinton’s scandals affected the American public’s complex, ambivalent perception of the forty-second president of the United States. Many Americans who valued Clinton’s economic record and political skills did not trust or respect him. Subsequent Events After public and media attention to the Pardongate scandal subsided, Bill Clinton raised funds for humanitarian causes, such as re-

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lief for the victims of Hurricane Katrina (2005) and the Asian tsunami (2004), AIDS research and treatment, and environmental protection. He occasionally cooperated and appeared with former president George H. W. Bush in these efforts. Clinton’s public reputation subsequently improved, but he later became controversial and divisive because of some of his remarks on behalf of his wife’s 2008 presidential campaign and his critics’ investigation of the sources of his greatly increased personal wealth. Further Reading

Berman, William C. From the Center to the Edge: The Politics and Policies of the Clinton Presidency. Lanham, Md.: Rowman & Littlefield, 2001. Includes references to how Clinton’s scandals affected his job performance and relationship with Congress. Clinton, Bill. My Life. New York: Alfred A. Knopf, 2004. Clinton’s memoirs of his presidency include an explanation, defense, and refutation of several events and controversies known as Clinton’s scandals. Drew, Elizabeth. The Corruption of American Politics: What Went Wrong and Why. Woodstock, N.Y.: Overlook Press, 1999. A journalist’s study of the corrupting influences of campaign finance and the political environment during the 1990’s. Includes an explanation and analysis of the Indonesian-Chinese fund-raising scandal. Hamilton, Nigel. Bill Clinton: An American Journey. New York: Random House, 2003. A detailed biography of the president, from his family background to his election as president in 1992. Includes controversies about Clinton’s sexual affairs in Arkansas, especially the Flowers scandal, and draft avoidance. Isikoff, Michael. Uncovering Clinton: A Reporter’s Story. New York: Crown, 1999. A journalist’s account of his investigation of Clinton’s scandals, especially Whitewater, the Jones case, Troopergate, the Lewinsky affair, and Starr’s investigation and report to Congress. Isikoff’s sources include Starr’s staff. Morris, Dick, and Eileen McGann. Because He Could. New York: ReganBooks, 2004. Morris, a former campaign and media consultant for Clinton, reviews and critiques My Life. In particular, Morris contends that Clinton’s dishonesty and other character flaws contributed to his scandals and the misleading, duplicitous content of his memoirs.

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Tyrrell, R. Emmett, Jr. The Clinton Crack-Up: The Boy President’s Life After the White House. Nashville: Thomas Nelson, 2007. Tyrrell, a conservative editor and critic of Clinton, claims that since Clinton left the White House his scandalous behavior has continued. Includes a detailed analysis of Pardongate. Sean J. Savage See also Campaign finance scandal; Clinton, Bill; Clinton, Hillary Rodham; Clinton’s impeachment; Drudge, Matt; Elections in the United States, midterm; Elections in the United States, 1992; Elections in the United States, 1996; Gingrich, Newt; Gore, Al; Lewinsky scandal; Limbaugh, Rush; Reno, Janet; Right-wing conspiracy; Scandals; Starr Report; Troopergate; White House attacks.

■ Cloning The asexual reproduction of organisms or fragments of DNA, producing identical genetic duplicates of the original specimen

Definition

The 1990’s saw dramatic advances in the development of animal cloning by “nuclear transfer” technology, which involves taking nuclear DNA from a mature individual, placing it in a denucleated egg cell, and then implanting the egg in the womb of a host. Research of this sort was closely associated with technologies of genetic engineering, which had begun to produce genetically modified animals; cloning offered a potential means of assisting their reproduction. In the meantime, the cloning of DNA fragments made a vital contribution to the emergent science of genomics. The idea of cloning ingrained in the popular imagination had been formed long before the 1990’s by melodramatic fiction, such as the successfully filmed novel The Boys from Brazil (1976), featuring multiple clones of Adolf Hitler. An equally melodramatic hypothetical use of the technology was featured in Michael Crichton’s Jurassic Park (1990), made into a film (1993) by Steven Spielberg, in which dinosaurs are cloned from fossil deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA). Such images, featuring mature animals cloned from cells abstracted from adult bodies, seemed plausible because plants were easy to clone in a similar fashion, by taking cuttings. At the beginning of the

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Cloning

1990’s, however, the only actual means of producing animal clones was by splitting early embryos— mimicking the natural process that creates identical twins—and that was difficult to achieve in mammals. It was not until 1993 that scientists at George Washington University succeeded in splitting a human embryo. In the following year, Neal First of the University of Wisconsin accidentally discovered a new means of inducing embryos to split, cloning a set of bovine embryos. First’s discovery was rapidly adopted by scientists attempting to clone mammals by means of nuclear transfer as a way of multiplying the chances of bringing an embryo to term. It assisted scientists at the Roslin Institute in Scotland to produce a sheep cloned in this fashion, nicknamed Dolly, whose birth was announced in February, 1997. Scientists at the University of Hawaii Medical School announced the birth of Cumulina, a mouse cloned by their own variation of the nuclear transfer method, in July, 1998. Nuclear transfer remained a

Milestones in Cloning

somewhat haphazard process, however; Dolly was the only success in 277 experimental runs. Dolly was followed a year later by Polly, the first clone of a genetically modified ewe. The difficulties of reproduction by nuclear transfer, however, coupled with the difficulties of initial genetic modification, meant that progress in developing breeding populations of genetically modified animals was slow. The possibility of developing any large-scale industrial enterprise by this means still seemed remote at the end of the 1990’s. The first recognized live birth of a cloned primate produced by embryo splitting was a rhesus monkey born at the Oregon Regional Primate Research Center in 1999. It subsequently transpired, however, that techniques used by U.S. fertility clinics in the late 1990’s had often resulted in accidental embryo splitting, increasing the probability of identical twin births by a factor of four. Planned research in human cloning was, however, focused throughout the 1990’s not on reproductive cloning but on therapeutic cloning, involving the produc-

Dolly the sheep, the first animal to be cloned from adult cells. (AP/Wide World Photos)

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tion of specialized tissues to repair organs damaged by disease or injury. The basic idea of therapeutic cloning was that the problems involved in transplanting organs and tissues from one human to another could be entirely set aside if the new tissue were genetically identical to the host tissue, so that no immune reaction could result. New developments in cloning techniques renewed the hope that it might be possible to produce specialized kinds of cells, or even to grow entire organs, from an individual’s own cells. This kind of research became increasingly focused on the reproduction and manipulation of “stem cells,” and by the end of the decade therapeutic cloning had effectively become a branch of stem cell research. The difficulty of distinguishing between reproductive and therapeutic cloning made the legal regulation of cloning research awkward. The modest aims and accomplishments of actual research in human cloning did not prevent a massive media reaction to the birth of Dolly that was focused on the increased possibility of using nuclear transfer technology to produce a human clone. Within days, U.S. president Bill Clinton imposed a moratorium on the use of government funds for cloning research and set up a National Bioethics Advisory Commission, which reported ninety days later, recommending legislation to prohibit anyone from attempting to produce a child by means of nuclear transfer.

Cloning Research and Political Reaction

The surge of publicity and speculation generated by the first successful experiments in cloning by nuclear transfer far outweighed the actual significance of the achievements. The most important scientific impact of the advancement of cloning technology in the 1990’s involved new techniques for cloning fragments of DNA, which revolutionized forensic science and genomics and facilitated a rapid acceleration of the Human Genome Project. Impact

Further Reading

Brown, T. A. Gene Cloning and DNA Analysis: An Introduction. 5th ed. Malden, Mass.: Blackwell, 2006. A textbook on the techniques and applications of cloning individual lengths of DNA in genomic analysis. Features a commentary on the broader applications of the technology. Levine, Aaron D. Cloning: A Beginner’s Guide. Oxford,

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England: Oneworld, 2007. A useful synoptic overview aimed at a general audience. Pence, Gregory E. Cloning After Dolly: Who’s Still Afraid? New York: Rowman & Littlefield, 2004. A follow-up volume to the item below, taking on more recent developments and counterarguments produced in response to its predecessor. _______. Who’s Afraid of Human Cloning? Lanham, Md.: Rowman & Littlefield, 1998. An agendasetting account of the ethical issues relevant to the possibility of human cloning by an academic philosopher. Scientific American. Understanding Cloning. New York: Warner Books, 2002. A wide-ranging anthology of informative and speculative essays from the popular science magazine, in the Science Made Accessible series. Wilmut, Ian, and Roger Highfield. After Dolly: The Uses and Misuses of Human Cloning. New York: W. W. Norton, 2006. A carefully balanced account of the issues raised by the cloning of the epoch-making sheep, coauthored by one of the scientists responsible. Brian Stableford Genetic engineering; Genetics research; Human Genome Project; Medicine; Science and technology; Stem cell research.

See also

■ Clooney, George Identification American actor, producer, and writer Born May 6, 1961; Lexington, Kentucky

By the early 1990’s, Clooney had been seen on both television and movie screens. Although gainfully employed as a Hollywood actor, he sought more recognition. He found his golden opportunity when he played Dr. Doug Ross, an emergency room doctor, for the series ER. George Clooney began the 1990’s as a generally unknown actor in his role as an unlikable drug-dealing surfer, Mark Remar, in the low-budget movie Red Surf (1990). In that same year, he was also cast in a short-lived police drama, Sunset Beat, in which he played Chic Chesbro, an undercover biker policeman by day and a rock guitar player by night. The following year, he was cast in the television series Baby Talk as a construction worker, but disagreement with the producer, Ed Weinberger, led Clooney to quit. In

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CNN coverage of the Gulf War

aged to host Saturday Night Live, appear on Friends, and work starring movies into his schedule. In his first significant Hollywood movie, From Dusk Till Dawn (1996), Clooney played Seth Gecko, one of two despicable criminal brothers who, after a failed bank heist, resort to shooting and killing. Clooney followed this appearance with a string of successful films. He starred in One Fine Day (1996), The Peacemaker (1997), Batman and Robin (1997), Out of Sight (1998), and Three Kings (1999). He lent his voice as Sparky the Dog for a 1997 episode of Comedy Central’s South Park and as Dr. Gouache in South Park: Bigger, Longer, and Uncut (1999). Impact In the 1990’s, George Clooney went from a virtually unknown actor to a household name. His acting and popularity won him awards, movie roles, and cover pictures on magazines. In 1998, television viewers were sorely disappointed when they learned that Clooney did not renew his contract with ER. Clooney had become a famous actor, a sex symbol, and a voice for his favorite causes. Further Reading

George Clooney in 1996. (AP/Wide World Photos)

1992, Clooney was in another brief television series, Bodies of Evidence, as Detective Ryan Walker. He also appeared as a dancing transvestite in the 1993 movie The Harvest. In 1993-1994, Clooney played yet another sexy detective role as James Falconer in the television series Sisters, but this character had more depth than his previous roles. In 1994, Clooney’s career rocketed to stardom. He became a nearly overnight heartthrob to millions of viewers who tuned in to the new one-hour medical drama series ER on the National Broadcasting Company (NBC). As Dr. Doug Ross, Clooney played the part of a handsome and beguiling emergency room pediatrician who drank, played tricks on his coworkers, and monopolized the attention of many women. Clooney portrayed the many foibles of Dr. Ross, whose charm seemed to hide his shortcomings. Clooney’s role soon earned him Emmy and Golden Globe Awards. Although his ER role required him to set a demanding pace, Clooney man-

Dougan, Andy. The Biography of George Clooney. Philadelphia: Trans-Atlantic Publications, 1997. Keenleyside, Sam. Bedside Manners: George Clooney and “ER.” Toronto: ECW Press, 1998. Noden, Merrell. George Clooney: A Biography. New York: Time Inc., 2000. Cynthia J. W. Svoboda See also

ER; Film in the United States; South Park;

Television.

■ CNN coverage of the Gulf War The Cable News Network defies U.S. military guidelines restricting independent news coverage of the Gulf War Date January 17-February 27, 1991 The Event

When the Cable News Network first began broadcasting news twenty-four hours a day in 1980, critics referred to it as the “Chicken Noodle Network.” However, the network was able to establish itself as a major competitor with the three major U.S. news networks with its extensive live coverage of the 1991 Gulf War. As journalists arrived in Saudi Arabia to cover the impending attack on Iraq by the United States and

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its U.N. allies in an effort to liberate Kuwait, they discovered that the U.S. military was not allowing the same level of independent reporting they had when they covered the Vietnam War. Journalists now were required to follow strict media pool guidelines limiting what information they would be permitted to report. Military public affairs officers would shepherd journalists on guided tours of coalition troops, deciding where the reporters could go and whom they could interview. However, the Cable News Network (CNN) refused to be confined by the military’s restrictive media pool guidelines. Instead, the network sent reporters to Baghdad to do what had never been done before—cover the war live from the enemy’s capital city. When the first allied bombing raid on Baghdad began on January 17, 1991, CNN was the only news outlet able to broadcast live telephone voice reports of the attacks. Hiding under beds and desks in a Baghdad hotel, CNN reporters Peter Arnett, Bernard Shaw, and John Holliman were the first to tell the world that war had begun, thus scooping the U.S. military’s official announcement by twentyseven minutes. During the initial hours of the invasion, with no video available for another twenty-four hours, even the competing U.S. networks were broadcasting CNN reports, complete with the CNN logo on the screen. U.S. general Colin Powell, chair of the Joint Chiefs of Staff, acknowledged in his first two media briefings that the Pentagon, too, was watching CNN. The Iraqi military temporarily stopped CNN’s nonstop war coverage by banning all live broadcasting from the country, forcing CNN’s Baghdad team off the air after sixteen intermittent hours. Iraq later expelled all the foreign media except for CNN’s veteran war correspondent Peter Arnett and his team, producer Robert Wiener and engineer Nic Robertson. CNN was beyond the reach of the U.S. military censors, but now the network had to abide by Iraqi media-censorship rules. The Iraqi government selected CNN’s reporting locations and monitored Arnett’s interviews. As a result, many of Arnett’s stories focused on bombing damage to civilian areas and the suffering of the Iraqi people. Two weeks after the war began, Iraqi president Saddam Hussein granted CNN’s Arnett his first television interview, which was beamed to millions of viewers in 106 countries.

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CNN’s war coverage would contradict information provided by military officials during their daily televised media briefings. In one story, Arnett reported that military cruise missiles had destroyed a baby powdered milk factory in Baghdad and not a chemical weapons plant as the military had stated. Despite pressure from the U.S. government to leave Iraq, CNN stayed in Baghdad throughout the Gulf War and dominated the war coverage by providing a continuous flow of information from Baghdad, Riyadh, Amman, Tel Aviv, and U.S. military and White House news conferences. Reaction to CNN’s War Coverage Many Americans, including members of Congress and even fellow journalists, severely criticized CNN for airing reports about the war that had been provided or censored by the Iraqi government. Arnett was called a traitor and an Iraqi sympathizer, and his reporting was labeled as a propaganda tool by Hussein. CNN’s competitors called its round-the-clock war coverage biased, amateurish, inaccurate, and simplistic. However, at the same time, hundreds of U.S. reporters sent to Saudi Arabia felt censored because they did not have easy access to the troops on the ground and were not allowed to go with the fighter jets that bombed Baghdad. The Pentagon explained that the media pool guidelines were necessary to protect U.S. troops, military operations, and even the journalists because U.S. enemies were watching CNN. Because the U.S. military knew that Iraqi government leaders were watching CNN’s live war coverage as a source of intelligence, it used CNN and other television news organizations as part of its strategy to confuse the enemy. The military allowed worldwide television coverage of its warships practicing a landing off the coast of Saudi Arabia, giving the impression that the military planned to attack by sea, but never let on that the practice landing was staged to deceive Iraq. When allied forces attacked on February 24, 1991, the attack came by land instead. One hundred hours after the ground war began, President George H. W. Bush ordered a cease-fire, and it was CNN that broke the news of Hussein’s offer to withdraw from Kuwait. Impact CNN’s continuous presence in Baghdad, along with the technology that allowed its reporters to get its war coverage to viewers around the world, catapulted the network past the three major U.S. networks for the first time in its history. CNN’s last-

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ing impact on the Gulf War even led Pentagon officials to coin the term the “CNN effect” to describe the impact of the new global media with twenty-four-hour, real-time news coverage on U.S. foreign policy decision making. Further Reading

Allen, Thomas B., F. Clifton Berry, and Norman Polmar. CNN: War in the Gulf: From the Invasion of Kuwait to the Day of Victory and Beyond. Atlanta: Turner, 1991. A documentary of CNN’s coverage of the Iraqi-Kuwait crisis, including the 1991 Gulf War. Arnett, Peter. Live from the Battlefield: From Vietnam to Bagdad—Thirtyfive Years in the World’s War Zones. New York: Simon & Schuster, Johnnie Cochran puts on the crime scene gloves to reiterate to the jury in the O. J. Simp1994. Arnett’s memoir detailing son murder trial that they did not fit the suspect. (AP/Wide World Photos) his experiences covering the Gulf War for CNN as well as his is best known for his work as defense attorney in the trial of thirteen years as a Pulitzer Prize-winning Associformer football great O. J. Simpson. ated Press reporter covering the Vietnam War in which he compares the controversy surrounding Johnnie Cochran, dubbed the Civil Trial Lawyer of his Gulf reporting with the criticism he received the Year in 1990, faced challenging courtroom batfor his reporting during Vietnam. tles during his career. The early years of this decade Wiener, Robert. Live from Baghdad: Making Journalfound Cochran representing a white truck driver, ism History Behind the Lines. New York: St. Martin’s Reginald Denny, who was pulled from his truck and Griffin, 2002. Wiener’s account of the six months nearly beaten to death by an angry mob during the he spent as the CNN executive producer with Pe1992 Los Angeles riots, which were sparked when ter Arnett in Baghdad reporting on the Gulf War. four Los Angeles Police Department (LAPD) offiEddith A. Dashiell cers were acquitted in the 1991 beating of an African American man, Rodney King. Cochran argued disSee also Arnett, Peter; Cable television; Foreign crimination because the LAPD failed to protect the policy of the United States; Gulf War; Gulf War synneighborhood, South Central Los Angeles, where drome; Journalism; Schwarzkopf, Norman. Denny’s beating occurred. Although he did not win a settlement for his client, he continued his fight against the LAPD for misapplication of power. ■ Cochran, Johnnie Cochran helped win a record $9.4 million jury verdict for a Latina girl who was molested by an LAPD Identification African American attorney officer. Conversely, in 1993, Cochran settled a child Born October 2, 1937; Shreveport, Louisiana molestation case for pop icon Michael Jackson. Died March 29, 2005; Los Angeles, California In 1995, Cochran found himself leading the defense team in the trial of O. J. Simpson, who was acCochran, an advocate for justice, focused his life’s work on cused of murder in the 1994 slayings of his ex-wife, dismantling the Los Angeles Police Department’s discrimiNicole Brown Simpson, a white woman, and her natory practices, along with its many misuses of power. He

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friend Ronald Goldman. When Simpson asked Cochran to join a team of lawyers (dubbed the “Dream Team” by reporters), Cochran did not immediately accept. Instead, he spent time analyzing television broadcasts and studying print media about the case. Cochran was enraged by circumstances surrounding the case: a misuse of power, overt discrimination, dishonesty, and corruption. Cochran and the defense team argued that the LAPD had planted evidence against Simpson. A bloody glove, which was found at the scene of the murders, had been allegedly worn by Simpson, according to information provided by LAPD detectives to the prosecution, but the glove did not fit. During his closing argument, the charismatic Cochran repeated the now famous refrain, “If it doesn’t fit, you must acquit,” and Simpson was cleared of charges. Two years later, Cochran stood beside his friend and client, former Black Panther leader Geronimo Pratt, when his murder conviction was finally overturned. Impact For Cochran, the O. J. Simpson trial clearly signaled the absence of justice; he was reminded of atrocious acts that, to him, defined the LAPD. Best known for his successful defense in this case, Cochran fought for victims of police abuse and was called the “people’s lawyer” by the Reverend Jesse Jackson.

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■ Coen brothers American film writer/producer/ director team Born Joel Coen, November 29, 1954; Minneapolis, Minnesota; Ethan Coen, September 21, 1957; Minneapolis, Minnesota Identification

During the 1990’s, the Coen brothers brought a quirky, literate, ironic, and often shocking sensibility to their unique versions of American genre films, especially the screwball comedy and the film noir. The sons of an academic couple, Joel and Ethan Coen were raised in a Jewish suburb of Minneapolis. At an early age, the brothers developed an interest in popular culture and in making their own versions of Hollywood movies. After graduating from the alternative high school/college at Simon’s Rock, the pair attended New York University, where Joel studied film and Ethan philosophy. Several years of apprentice film work preceded their startling, self-financed debut feature, Blood Simple (1984), which won the Grand Jury Prize at the Sundance Film Festival.

Further Reading

Cochran, Johnnie L., with David Fisher. A Lawyer’s Life. New York: Thomas Dunne Books, 2002. Cochran, Johnnie L., with Tim Rutten. Journey to Justice. New York: Ballantine, 1996. Maddox, Alton H., Jr. “What You Need to Know About Johnnie Cochran.” New York Amsterdam News 96, no. 15 (April 7, 2005): 12-40. AnnMarie Depas-Orange See also African Americans; Crime; King, Rodney; Los Angeles riots; Police brutality; Race relations; Simpson murder case.

The filmmaking duo Ethan (left) and Joel Coen, who directed the thriller Fargo, laugh as they pose at the 1996 Cannes Film Festival. (AP/Wide World Photos)

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Coffeehouses

In the 1990’s, a decade characterized by its bigbudget sequels, the Coens released five features, typically produced on small budgets, always based on their highly original screenplays (and their explicit storyboards): Miller’s Crossing (1990), Barton Fink (1991), The Hudsucker Proxy (1994), Fargo (1996), and The Big Lebowski (1998). The Coens set their films in various regions of the United States, often in past eras: Miller’s Crossing follows the gang wars and corrupt politics of the 1920’s; Barton Fink explores a mind-numbing 1941 Hollywood studio system; and The Hudsucker Proxy satirizes the corporate world of 1958 New York City. Two of the Coens’ many unforgettable characters, the perpetually stoned “Dude” (Jeff Bridges) and his bowling buddy, Vietnam veteran Walter (John Goodman), move through 1990’s Los Angeles locked into 1960’s attitudes in The Big Lebowski. Although set in the 1990’s, Fargo evokes an earlier time of innocence in the character of Marge (Frances McDormand), the pregnant, practical, and optimistic policewoman faced with a series of hideous murders. The most expensive production, featuring the biggest Hollywood name (Paul Newman), The Hudsucker Proxy was their least successful film, critically and financially, while the modestly made Fargo was their greatest commercial and critical success, winning Academy Awards for Best Original Screenplay and Best Actress (for McDormand, who is married to Joel Coen). The brothers share writing credits and, although Ethan is credited as producer and Joel as director, they share these responsibilities and also coedit, under the pseudonym Roderick Jaynes. Added to the family atmosphere are regular crew and cast members (John Turturo, John Goodman, Steve Buscemi). In many respects, the Coen brothers continue the practice they began as boys: working together, having fun, and making their own versions of Hollywood genre films. Perhaps the best example of their ability to combine pulp fiction and philosophy, macabre violence and clever dialogue, in ways both derivative and unique is Miller’s Crossing, one of the best films of the 1990’s. Impact The Coen brothers have demonstrated the viability of creating low-budget Hollywood films that possess the originality and autonomy of the best independent cinema, while capitalizing on the distribution potential of major studios.

Further Reading

Allen, William Rodney, ed. The Coen Brothers: Interviews. Jackson: University Press of Mississippi, 2006. Palmer, R. Barton. Joel and Ethan Coen. Urbana: University of Illinois Press, 2004. Robson, Eddie. Coen Brothers. London: Virgin Books, 2003. Carolyn Anderson Academy Awards; Film in the United States; Independent films; Jewish Americans; Sundance Film Festival.

See also

■ Coffeehouses Establishments that sell a variety of beverages and snacks and that commonly serve as social and entertainment venues

Definition

The increased popularity of coffeehouses in the 1990’s gave rise to a new American subculture and helped to reinforce the on-the-go lifestyle of modern America. The fast pace of Americans’ lives as well as a demand for trendy gourmet coffees and teas created a market niche for coffeehouses in the 1990’s. Many Americans adopted an on-the-go lifestyle and sought a convenient way to obtain their morning coffee without the hassle of self-preparation. Companies such as Starbucks and Seattle’s Best Coffee saw this demand and developed a streamlined atmosphere in which patrons could get a cup of coffee or tea in a matter of minutes. Coffeehouses were transformed from high-class establishments with upperclass patrons in mind into hip, fast-paced cafés targeted toward American youth and the middle class. Another demand that arose during the decade was for a more diversified selection of beverages. Americans wanted more than just the standard black coffee. Coffeehouses began to carry a variety of beverages, including espressos, cappuccinos, and chai tea. In addition, sandwiches and pastries were introduced to great success as well as desserts and finger foods. Coffeehouses have historically been known as social spaces for the exchange of information. With the rise of the Internet in the mid-1990’s, Internet cafés sprang up, and some coffeeshops even offered free wireless Internet service to patrons. This feature

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helped to attract a new customer type, the casual diner, to coffeehouses. Patrons could enjoy their beverages and snacks while communicating via the Internet. This next step in the evolution of the coffeehouse brought changes to the interior design, which remained streamlined for fast service but included comfortable furniture, art, and casual music—features that began to play an important role in the coffeehouse atmosphere. Impact Coffeehouses both supported Americans’ on-the-go lifestyle and provided patrons with comfortable social spaces. They also served as convenient locations for Internet access. Further Reading

Michelli, Joseph A. The Starbucks Experience: Five Principles for Turning Ordinary into Extraordinary. New York: McGraw-Hill, 2007. Schultz, Howard, and Dori Jones Yang. Pour Your Heart into It: How Starbucks Built a Company One Cup at a Time. New York: Hyperion, 1997. James Darrel Alexander, Jr. See also

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in the subject matter of each of these areas, Senator Cohen became an authority in the area of defense policy and national security affairs. Cohen’s identity as a Republican did not prevent him from criticizing the occupant of the White House, even when the president was a member of the senator’s own party. In 1986, Cohen was one of only three Republicans to align with Democrats in signing a majority report that held President Ronald Reagan accountable for the events known as the Iran-Contra affair. In 1990, when many in his party asked for swift military action by the George H. W. Bush administration following Iraqi president Saddam Hussein’s invasion of Kuwait, Cohen was vocal in calling for the administration to adhere to the 1973 War Powers Act. Cohen believed it was critical for President Bush to receive a vote from Congress before the nation proceeded to war. During President Bill Clinton’s first term, Cohen criticized a number of the administration’s foreign and defense policy positions. Cohen opposed continuing a program that funded the B-2 “stealth” bomber and criticized the White House’s strategy on

Food trends; Organic food movement.

■ Cohen, William S. U.S. secretary of defense, 19972001 Born August 28, 1940; Bangor, Maine Identification

In January, 1997, President Bill Clinton appointed Cohen, a moderate Republican from Maine, as secretary of defense. The appointment came following Cohen’s decision to retire after a twenty-four-year legislative career in the U.S. Congress. A thoughtful, articulate attorney and author, William S. Cohen was a highly regarded figure in congressional circles when the people of Maine reelected him to his second term to the U.S. Senate in 1990. Known as an independent thinker and at times an outspoken critic of his party’s leadership, Senator Cohen became popular with many of his colleagues for the ability to work with members of both parties to develop a consensus on a variety of issues. During his eighteen-year career in the Senate (1979-1997), Cohen served as a member of the Armed Services Committee and the Senate Select Committee on Intelligence. By submersing himself

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the role of U.S. peacekeeping forces when Clinton sent them to solve the crises in the fragmented nation of Bosnia and Herzegovina. Following Clinton’s 1996 reelection, he nominated Cohen as secretary of defense. It was the first time a Republican had been nominated by a Democratic president to serve in that position. Under his tenure at the Pentagon, Secretary Cohen assisted with the admission of Poland, Hungary, and the Czech Republic into the North Atlantic Treaty Organization (NATO), assisted Clinton and Russian president Boris Yeltsin in reducing Russia’s supply of nuclear weapons, and improved military relations with China. He was also instrumental in expanding the nation’s defense budget as well as raising salaries and improving living conditions for all members of the military. Impact William Cohen was a respected politician who served in legislative politics at a time when it was possible for a nonpartisan politician to accomplish his or her objectives by displaying a willingness to listen to and consider opposing views. He believed that disagreements could be solved if both parties worked together with the knowledge that they could create solutions that would stand the test of time. Cohen’s decision to retire from the Senate because of an increased level of polarization in Washington speaks of how different the capital had become since the time he first arrived there nearly a quarter of a century before. Further Reading

McGeary, Johanna. “Mix and Match.” Time, December 16, 1996, 28. Priest, Dana, and Helen Dewar. “Republican Cohen Equally at Home with Policy and Poesy.” The Washington Post, December 6, 1996, p. A26. Laurence R. Jurdem Bush, George H. W.; China and the United States; Clinton, Bill; Elections in the United States, 1996; Foreign policy of the United States; Kosovo conflict; Russia and North America.

See also

■ Cold War, end of Conclusion of the Cold War between the Western democracies led by the United States and the communist nations led by the Soviet Union

Definition

The collapse of the Soviet Union in December, 1991, was the final event in the end of the Cold War between the East and the West. This struggle emerged out of the victory of these allies in World War II. For more than four decades, the United States and its allies—primarily the members of the North Atlantic Treaty Organization (NATO)—were locked in a noncombative struggle with the Soviet Union and its allies, most of them members in the Warsaw Pact. While the policies of U.S. president Ronald Reagan, Pope John Paul II, and British prime minister Margaret Thatcher had significant impact on the end of the Cold War, the primary factors were internal to the Soviet Union. Symptoms of decline in the Soviet leadership and its system of governing were evident during the late 1970’s. Mikhail Gorbachev was named general secretary of the Communist Party in 1985, and he immediately moved to diffuse tensions between the East and the West. Gorbachev found the Soviet Union to be in a hopeless condition of stress that resulted from two major causes: a dismal economic and fiscal situation stemming from excessive military spending and exorbitant foreign aid commitments, and mounting public criticism of the war in Afghanistan and, then, in 1986, the government’s handling of the Chernobyl nuclear reactor meltdown. The Soviet Unraveling Attempting to turn the situation around, Gorbachev introduced two new concepts, glasnost and perestroika. Glasnost referred to a new openness in Soviet society that was sympathetic to democratic concepts; perestroika was focused on the economic reorganization of the Soviet system. He hoped that these policies would improve public support and provide more consumer products. In fact, these forces resulted in aggravating the domestic Soviet system because people expected unrealistically quick results; the reforms contributed significantly to the unraveling of the Soviet system and raised fundamental questions on identity and values among the populace. Combined with the aggressive nature of the Reagan policies (namely the Strategic Defense Initiative), the pro-Solidarity

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Bush’s Statement on Gorbachev’s Resignation On December 25, 1991, Mikhail Gorbachev resigned as president of the Soviet Union, which officially dissolved six days later. After Gorbachev stepped down, President George H. W. Bush issued the following statement praising Gorbachev’s leadership: Mikhail Gorbachev’s resignation as President of the Soviet Union culminates a remarkable era in the history of his country and in its long and often difficult relationship with the United States. As he leaves office, I would like to express publicly and on behalf of the American people my gratitude to him for years of sustained commitment to world peace, and my personal respect for his intellect, vision, and courage. President Gorbachev is responsible for one of the most important developments of this century, the revolutionary transformation of a totalitarian dictatorship and the liberation of his people from its smothering embrace. His personal commitment to democratic and economic reform through perestroika and glasnost, a commitment which demanded the highest degree of political and personal ingenuity and courage, permitted the peoples of Russia and other Republics to cast aside decades of dark oppression and put in place the foundations of freedom. Working with President Reagan, myself, and other allied leaders, President Gorbachev acted boldly and decisively to end the bitter divisions of the Cold War and contributed to the remaking of a Europe whole and free. His and Foreign Minister Eduard Shevardnadze’s “New Thinking” in foreign affairs permitted the United States and the Soviet Union to move from confrontation to partnership in the search for peace across the globe. Together we negotiated historic reductions in chemical, nuclear, and conventional forces and reduced the risk of a nuclear conflict. Working together, we helped the people of Eastern Europe win their liberty and the German people their goal of unity in peace and freedom. Our partnership led to unprecedented cooperation in repelling Iraqi aggression in Kuwait, in bringing peace to Nicaragua and Cambodia, and independence to Namibia. And our work continues as we seek a lasting and just peace between Israelis and Arabs in the Middle East and an end to the conflict in Afghanistan. President Gorbachev’s participation in these historic events is his legacy to his country and to the world. This record assures him an honored place in history and, most importantly for the future, establishes a solid basis from which the United States and the West can work in equally constructive ways with his successors.

position of Pope John Paul II, and the toughness of Margaret Thatcher, the tenability of the Soviet Union became more questionable. In 1989, the Eastern European states broke with the Soviets without opposition, the Berlin Wall fell, and Yugoslavia imploded. At the Malta Summit (December, 1989) between U.S. president George H. W. Bush and Gorbachev, the Cold War was declared to be in the past; in December, 1991, the Soviet Union ceased to exist when it was fragmented into numerous nationstates. Impact The excitement, aspirations, and hopes that were voiced for a world at peace were sustained

through most of the 1990’s. Relations between the West and the East improved, a new Russia emerged from political and economic chaos, and the United States was viewed as the last remaining superpower. The political maps of Central and Eastern Europe and north-central Asia were redrawn to recognize national-ethnic realities. However, the fragility of the new freedoms in Russia was evident when many citizens voted for candidates that were representative of the Soviet regime. The close and rather informal relations that Russia under President Boris Yeltsin enjoyed with the West gave way to the stern, nationalist policies of President Vladimir Putin. The “partnership” of Putin and U.S. president George W.

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Bush gave way to a strained U.S.-Russian relationship that reflected the continuity of opposing international policies. Further Reading

Arquilla, John. The Reagan Imprint: Ideas in American Foreign Policy from the Collapse of Communism to the War on Terror. Chicago: Ivan R. Dee, 2006. Arquilla’s interpretation on the end of the Cold War credits the policies and initiatives of President Ronald Reagan for much of the success in accelerating the end of the Cold War. Bogle, Lori Lyn, ed. The Cold War. New York: Routledge, 2001. A collection of essays that collectively presents the end of the Cold War as a very complex development during which the leaders of both the West and the East recognized that the Cold War was not necessary or tenable in the 1990’s. Bose, Meena, and Rosanna Perotti, eds. From Cold War to New World Order: The Foreign Policy of George H. W. Bush. Westport, Conn.: Greenwood Press, 2002. This is an important work consisting of essays on the impact of the end of the Cold War on the foreign policy of the United States; Bush’s concept of a “New World Order” was focused on American hegemony in a worldwide community of democratic states. Cowley, Robert, ed. The Cold War: A Military History. New York: Random House, 2005. Cowley’s study of the military strategies and weapons war between the United States and the Soviet Union is the best single volume available on the subject. Dockrill, Michael L., and Michael F. Hopkins. The Cold War, 1945-1991. 2d ed. New York: Palgrave Macmillan, 2006. A comprehensive history of the Cold War that relies on primary sources; an excellent, general history. Gaddis, John Lewis. The Cold War: A New History. New York: Penguin Books, 2005. One of the most widely read and available histories of the Cold War. Gaddis’s interpretation of the end of the Cold War is sympathetic to Gorbachev and credits Reagan, John Paul II, and Thatcher for their parts in bringing about its end and the collapse of the Soviet Union. Gregory, Ross. Cold War America, 1946-1990. New York: Facts On File, 2003. An excellent reference book focused on the Cold War in the United States from its post-World War II origins to the Gorbachev era.

O’Sullivan, John. The President, the Pope, and the Prime Minister: Three Who Changed the World. Washington, D.C.: Regnery, 2006. O’Sullivan contends that Reagan, John Paul II, and Thatcher were the primary agents for change and that their combined policies and actions resulted in the end of the Cold War and the collapse of the Soviet Union. An intriguing and highly readable book. Pons, Silvio. Reinterpreting the End of the Cold War: Issues, Interpretations, Periodizations. London: Frank Cass, 2004. This book is perhaps the most thorough and scholarly revisionist explanation on the end of the Cold War; Pons advances many challenges to the simplicity of the earlier discussions on the topic. Skinner, Kiron K., ed. Turning Points in Ending the Cold War. Stanford, Calif.: Hoover Institution Press, 2007. The book’s articles focus on the early 1980’s, when a new phase of the Cold War began. Reagan’s initiatives to alter Soviet behavior, the roles of Gorbachev and Yeltsin, the emergence of democratic values in Poland and Hungary, and hopes for a reunified Germany contributed to the end of the Cold War. William T. Walker Baker, James; Bush, George H. W.; Cheney, Dick; Foreign policy of the United States; Russia and North America.

See also

■ Columbine massacre The murder of twelve high school students and one teacher perpetrated by two students Date April 20, 1999 Place Columbine High School in Jefferson County, Colorado, near the town of Littleton The Event

For many Americans, Columbine was the most traumatic crime of the decade. The deadliest high school shooting in U.S. history, the event spurred a wide variety of changes in public policy. At 11:19 a.m., Eric Harris and Dylan Klebold, seniors at Columbine High School, launched their attack on the steps outside the school, where they shot two students who were eating lunch by the upper west entrance. Rachel Scott was killed, and Richard Castaldo was seriously injured but survived. Next,

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Harris shot three students on the west staircase. One of these students, Daniel Rohrbough, was later fatally shot by Klebold. Sheriff’s Deputy Neil Gardner, the school resource officer, arrived on the scene at 11:24 a.m., returning from lunch. He fired at Harris and Klebold from a distance. When the gunmen retreated into the school building, Gardner did not pursue. Many more officers, including a special weapons and tactics (SWAT) team, arrived quickly. However, no lawenforcement officers entered the building, even while an open 911 line revealed that students (ten total) were being methodically killed inside the library. At 11:35 a.m., Harris and Klebold left the library and entered the cafeteria, which had been evacuated. They then attempted to break into a locked room where many students had taken refuge. This event too was known to the police in real time via a 911 line. The gunmen returned to the library, where, after shooting out the windows at policemen and paramedics, they shot themselves dead around 12:08 p.m. A SWAT team finally entered the opposite end of the building at about 12:06 p.m. The police began to search carefully one room at a time. Over the next few hours, wounded teacher Dave Sanders bled to death, even though cell phone calls from students who were locked in a room with him had begged for urgent medical care. The murder victims were Sanders (age fortyseven), Scott (seventeen), Cassie Bernall (seventeen), Steven Curnow (fourteen), Corey DePooter (seventeen), Kelly Fleming (sixteen), Matthew Kechter (sixteen), Daniel Mauser (fifteen), Rohrbough (fifteen), Isaiah Shoels (eighteen), John Tomlin (sixteen), Lauren Townsend (eighteen), and Kyle Velasquez (sixteen). Before the Massacre Diaries and other writings discovered in the perpetrators’ homes revealed that they had planned the killings for over a year and that they were consumed by a wide-ranging hatred of most other people and a belief in their own superiority and self-awareness. Before the killings began, Harris and Klebold had, without being caught, violated twenty state and federal weapons control laws. In 1998, the two teenagers had broken into a van to steal some items. They were caught and pleaded guilty to first-degree criminal trespass, theft, and criminal mischief. On February 3, 1999, they suc-

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People gather for a memorial service for the victims of the Columbine High School shooting rampage in Littleton, Colorado, on April 25, 1999. (AP/Wide World Photos)

cessfully completed a year-long juvenile diversion program in which they had been required to perform community service and to take classes in anger management. On April 14, 1999, the U.S. Marines rejected Harris’s attempt to enlist because he was taking Luvox, an antidepressant for which he had a prescription. One of the killers’ guns, an Intratec TEC-DC9 semiautomatic pistol, was supplied by their friend Mark Manes, who also bought Harris ammunition the night before the massacre. Manes was sentenced to six years in Colorado state prison for selling a weapon to a minor. Harris’s friend Robyn Anderson supplied the other three guns: two shotguns (Savage 67H and Stevens 311D) and one carbine (Hi-Point 9 millimeter). Anderson bought the guns legally in December, 1998, at the Tanner Gun Show. She told conflicting stories about the purchase but said that she would not have purchased the guns if she knew that her name would be registered. Prosecutors did not file charges against her because they believed that she was unaware of Harris and Klebold’s plans.

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Impact As a result of the Columbine massacre, many police departments changed their tactical doctrines so that police would act immediately against an active shooter. A number of schools eliminated Reserve Officers Training Corps (ROTC) or sports shooting programs and severely enforced zero-tolerance policies regarding weapons, even punishing elementary students for drawing pictures of guns. Concerns about violent media and video games (such as Doom and Wolfenstein 3D, which Harris and Klebold often played) intensified. Movie theaters more strictly enforced the age limits for R-rated films. A number of programs for surveillance and control of teenagers, especially in schools, were expanded. The goth teenage culture was a prime target, based on initial (and incorrect) reports that the killers belonged to Columbine’s “Trenchcoat Mafia,” a dozen friends who liked to wear black trench coats. (The gunmen had worn such coats on the day of the massacre.) Many schools and community organizations implemented or augmented antibullying programs, based on allegations that Klebold and Harris had been bullied by a “jock” elite at Columbine. Subsequent Events Columbine inspired Democratic political operative Donna Dees-Thomas to organize the “Million Mom March,” which held large antigun rallies in Washington, D.C., and other cities on Mother’s Day, May 14, 2000. Efforts to expand federal gun control laws failed, in part because Democratic strategists hoped to use the issue in the presidential election. In November, 2000, Colorado voters passed an initiative imposing special restrictions on gun shows, after the legislature had defeated all five items in a gun control package proposed by the governor and attorney general. In an October 11, 2000, presidential debate, Democratic candidate Al Gore blamed Columbine on insufficient gun control, while Republican candidate George W. Bush pointed to culture. Michael Moore’s film Bowling for Columbine (2002) won the Academy Award for Best Documentary Feature in 2003 but was also criticized for factual errors and fabrications. Further Reading

Brown, Brooks, and Rob Merritt. No Easy Answers: The Truth Behind Death at Columbine. Brooklyn,

N.Y.: Lantern Books, 2002. A conversational account by Brown, a student who knew the killers and who blames bullying as the ultimate cause. Governor’s Columbine Review Commission Report. May, 2001. http://www.state.co.us/columbine/. The state of Colorado’s official investigation and report. Larkin, Ralph W. Comprehending Columbine. Philadelphia: Temple University Press, 2007. Blames the “jockocracy,” evangelical Christians, and paramilitary mythology for the massacre. Lindholm, Marjorie, and Peggy Lindholm. A Columbine Survivor’s Story. Littleton, Colo.: Regenold, 2005. Self-published autobiography of a student who was in the school during the attack. Nimmo, Beth, Darrell Scott, and Steve Rabey. Rachel’s Tears: The Spiritual Journey of Columbine Martyr Rachel Scott. Nashville: Thomas Nelson, 2000. Biography of one of the victims by her parents that focuses on Rachel’s kindness toward others and her spiritual strength. Salazar, Ken. Report of the Investigation into the 1997 Directed Report and Related Matters Concerning the Columbine High School Shootings in April, 1999. Darby, Penn.: Diane Publishing, 2004. Colorado attorney general’s report on the Jefferson County Sheriff’s Department’s numerous contacts with Harris before the murders. Zoba, Wendy Murray. Day of Reckoning: Columbine and the Search for America’s Soul. Grand Rapids, Mich.: Brazos Press, 2000. A Christian journalist’s exploration of the problems in American culture that she believes led to the massacre at Columbine. David B. Kopel See also Antidepressants; Censorship; Clinton, Bill; Crime; Gore, Al; Gun control; Internet; Marilyn Manson; Reno, Janet; School violence; Video games.

■ Comedians Performers of humorous material on stage and in film, television, and recordings

Definition

During the 1990’s, an ever-increasing demand for television and film entertainment allowed many stand-up comedians to cross over to comedic acting. A number of successful television and film comedians were able to reach huge audiences in the 1990’s.

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Some comedians created and sustained comic personas in weekly sitcoms, and some took their television personas to the big screen. Others, more standup comedian than actor, retained their live-performance proficiency, performing at comedy clubs and other small venues. When their careers as television or movie stars faded, they still had their skills as stand-up comedians. New York City, Los Angeles, and Chicago have some of the best-known comedy clubs in the United States—Dangerfield’s, Gotham Comedy Club, Stand-Up NY, The Comedy Store, Groundlings Theater, Laugh Factory, The Second City, and The Improv—as do other cities like Atlanta, St. Louis, Columbus, Indianapolis, and Dayton. The clubs have open mike events at which amateur comedians can perform before audiences and quickly learn what does and does not work. Comedians try out new material and new takes on old material, putting together a routine of stories, one-liners, and satiric or ridiculous observations about life, culture, or people. Word-of-mouth publicity brings exceptional comedians’ names to the attention of eager agents or producers with connections to late-night television shows. After such an introduction to the broader public, a comedian’s chances of breaking into series television or film are increased. Many comedians on television started out doing stand-up, receiving little compensation for their work and occasional abuse from audience hecklers. By the 1990’s, some had already established themselves as giants in their field. Carol Burnett and Bill Cosby, for example, had reached their pinnacle in the 1980’s or before and were beginning to fade as the new decade dawned. Burnett’s outstanding variety shows of the 1960’s and 1970’s, An Evening with Carol Burnett and The Carol Burnett Show, were followed by two short-lived shows in the 1990’s. Cosby’s groundbreaking The Cosby Show went off the air in 1992 after eight seasons. His other sitcom series, Cosby, played to lesser acclaim in the latter part of the decade. Among the comedians who made successful transitions from comedy clubs to television in the 1990’s were Jerry Seinfeld, Martin Lawrence, Tim Allen, Roseanne Barr, Ray Romano, Brett Butler, Damon Wayans, Jamie Foxx, Phil Hartman, and Drew Carey. Each starred in a television sitcom, all with considerable commercial success. Foxx joined the cast of In

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Living Color in 1991 and later starred in critically acclaimed films, including Ray (2004), for which he won an Academy Award for Best Actor. Chris Rock, credited by many with reviving interest in stand-up comedy, starred in acclaimed comedy specials— including the career-launching Chris Rock: Bring the Pain (1996)—on the pay-television network Home Box Office (HBO). Television was not a successful venture for some comedians, however. Paula Poundstone and Sinbad both had shows that lasted only one season. The Paula Poundstone Show, in fact, lasted only two episodes. Its unusual format mixing political observation, comedy sketches, and interactions with the audience did not find an audience, and ratings were low. The Sinbad Show, a sitcom, lasted a full season, but being about an extended African American family, the show may have suffered from comparison with The Cosby Show. Ellen DeGeneres’s show Ellen aired from 1994 to 1998 but was most notable for being the vehicle through which she revealed her homosexuality. Some stand-up comedians’ performances on television variety shows like Saturday Night Live or the late-night talk shows hosted by David Letterman and Jay Leno opened the way to movie careers. Jim Carrey, a slapstick comedian, performed for a couple of seasons in sketches on In Living Color and in a short-lived sitcom The Duck Factory before he starred in Ace Ventura: Pet Detective (1994), a goofy, crude, but commercially successful movie. He followed that with 1994’s The Mask and Dumb and Dumber, commercial successes that established him as an A-list comedic actor. Tim Allen, a character comedian, had a longrunning television series, Home Improvement, that ran through most of the 1990’s. He also acted in successful movies like The Santa Clause (1994), Jungle 2 Jungle (1997), and Galaxy Quest (1999). Roseanne Barr’s TV movie Backfield in Motion (1991) and two theatrical films, Even Cowgirls Get the Blues (1993) and Blue in the Face (1995), never brought the success of her television series, nor did her television talk show. Film Comedians

Impact Comedians like Seinfeld, Allen, Carrey, Cosby, Romano, Hartman, and Barr dominated television sitcoms, sketch comedies, and film comedies in the 1990’s. Their popularity influenced American culture, affecting attitudes about race, religion,

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socioeconomics, and sexual orientation, among other issues. Further Reading

Mohr, Jay. Gasping for Airtime: Two Years in the Trenches of “Saturday Night Live.” New York: Hyperion, 2004. An inside look at the comedians on Saturday Night Live during 1993-1995, when the author worked for the show. Shydner, Ritch, and Mark Schiff, comps. I Killed: True Stories on the Road from America’s Top Comics. New York: Crown, 2006. Contains anecdotes by comedians like Chris Rock and Jerry Seinfeld. Sometimes vulgar, the book offers insight into the on- and backstage lives of comedians. Tracy, Kathleen. Jerry Seinfeld: The Entire Domain. Secaucus, N.J.: Carol, 1998. A biography of the comedian including his career as stand-up comedian and the history of the sitcom Seinfeld. Jane L. Ball

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for decades, while attracting little attention outside their fan base. There were some changes during the decade. One of the most beloved American comic strips, Bill Watterson’s Calvin and Hobbes, ended in 1995 as Watterson disappeared from the comics scene entirely. Gary Larson’s widely admired single-panel The Far Side ended the same year, giving the impression that a golden age was ending. The failing health of Charles M. Schulz, creator of Peanuts, forced him to move from a four-panel to a three- or one-panel format, and he announced his retirement on December 14, 1999. Some events in strips were minor cultural phenomena, such as the 1995 death of Farley the dog in Lynn Johnston’s Canadian domestic drama, For Better or For Worse. The comic strip to achieve the most meteoric success in the 1990’s was Scott Adams’s Dilbert, first published on April 16, 1989. Beginning as a fantasy strip centering on software engineer Dilbert and his megalomaniacal talking dog Dogbert, Dilbert

Allen, Woody; Cable television; Carrey, Jim; DeGeneres, Ellen; Film in the United States; In Living Color; Late night television; Rock, Chris; Seinfeld; Television.

See also

■ Comic strips Sequential narrative cartoon drawings, often published in newspapers, in periodicals, and on the World Wide Web

Definition

Newspaper comic strips in the 1990’s dwindled in cultural importance as shrinking newspaper space led to smaller and fewer strips being published. Comic-strip audiences expanded with a move to publication on the World Wide Web beginning mid-decade. The daily newspaper comic-strip section remained one of the most conservative areas of American popular culture in the 1990’s. The retrenchment caused by newspapers going out of business and the survivors cutting back on the space devoted to strips made the comics page very difficult to break into. The conservatism of the comics’s aging audience played a role as well, as attempts to remove old strips to make way for new met with protests from fans. Continuity-heavy “soap opera” strips such as Gil Thorp and Mary Worth and humor stalwarts such as Hi and Lois and Momma continued to run as they had

Dilbert creator Scott Adams holds an ink drawing of his popular character. (AP/Wide World Photos)

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quickly found a niche as a satire of office life. (So focused was the strip on the corporate workplace that many papers ran it in the business section rather than the comics page.) Characters included the dictatorial but very stupid Pointy-haired Boss, the competent but frustrated Alice, and Wally, whose life is dedicated to avoiding work. Dilbert’s simple, stylized art with virtually no detail was a good fit to the shrunken space allotted to newspaper strips. Dilbert developed into a massive commercial empire, with numerous collections in print, spin-off books, stationery, dolls, and an animated TV series that ran on the United Paramount Network (UPN) in 1999 and 2000. Adams used the Internet to foster a community among his readers, appealing for workplace anecdotes he could use for strip ideas. Adams and Dilbert have won numerous awards, including the National Cartoonist Society’s Reuben Award for 1997. Successful newcomers in the 1990’s included Jerry Scott and Jim Borgman’s Zits (1997), starring fifteen-year-old Jeremy Duncan, his family, and friends; and Darby Conley’s Get Fuzzy (1999), starring a Boston adman named Rob Wilco and his talking pets, Bucky Katt and Satchel Pooch. Garry Trudeau’s liberal Doonesbury remained the premier political comic strip during the decade. Doonesbury’s sometimes controversial political content led some newspapers to put the comic strip on the editorial page or elsewhere away from the main comics page. One newcomer, Aaron McGruder’s The Boondocks (1997), also featured political commentary and controversy. The strip’s main characters are two young African American brothers, the intensely political Huey and the wouldbe gangster Riley. The strip derived much of its power from its distinctively left-wing African American perspective, one not seen before on the comics page. Although several daily newspaper strips featured African American creators and casts in the 1990’s, there were no strips from Latino, Asian American, Native American, or openly gay or lesbian perspectives. Trudeau’s liberal dominance of the daily newspaper comics page was challenged by Johnny Hart’s occasional dabbling in evangelical Christian politics in B.C., and Bruce Tinsley’s conservative Mallard Fillmore (1991), starring the eponymous talking duck. Mallard Fillmore was widely syndicated, but it did not

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remotely approach the artistic and commercial success or cultural impact of Doonesbury. Weekly periodicals such as New York’s Village Voice were an outlet for comic strips whose subject matter was too controversial or formats too experimental for daily newspapers and the dominant syndicates, providing greater creative control but less money. Comics appearing in the “alternative media” included Ben Katchor’s surreal Julius Knipl, Real Estate Photographer and many strips featuring left-wing political and cultural satire, such as Tom Tomorrow’s This Modern World and Ruben Bolling’s Tom the Dancing Bug. The gay and lesbian press provided homes for Alison Bechdel’s long-running lesbian epic Dykes to Watch Out For and Eric Orner’s gay male soap opera The Mostly Unfabulous Social Life of Ethan Green, among other strips for and about gays and lesbians. The technology of the World Wide Web opened up the potential for vast audiences for comic strips outside the shrinking newspaper world. In addition to the Web presences established for existing and new newspaper comics, the 1990’s also saw the invention of the webcomic, a comic strip existing solely or primarily on the Web. Early examples of successful webcomics included Bill Holbrook’s Kevin and Kell (1995) and Peter Zale’s Helen, Sweetheart of the Internet (1996). Because of the individualist nature of the Web, these comics addressed a smaller, niche audience rather than the broad-based one that newspaper comics formerly addressed.

Alternatives to Daily Newspapers

Impact Comic strips addressed a shrinking audience in newspapers during the 1990’s, but by the end of the decade they had found a new and effective platform on the Web. Although the comics page was slow to change, it reflected developments such as the rise of the computer and software industry and the political conflicts of liberals and conservatives in the Bill Clinton era. Further Reading

McCloud, Scott. Reinventing Comics: How Imagination and Technology Are Revolutionizing an Art Form. New York: HarperCollins, 2000. This work by one of the most influential thinkers about comics includes extensive discussion of the impact of the Internet on comics. Nordling, Lee. Your Career in the Comics. Kansas City, Mo.: Andrews McMeel, 1995. An exhaustive study

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of the newspaper comics business, geared for the aspiring cartoonist. Somewhat dated because of the rise of the Internet in the late 1990’s. Walker, Brian. The Comics: Since 1945. New York: Harry N. Abrams, 2002. A standard history of the medium since World War II that includes many reproductions. The author is both a comics scholar and a comic-strip creator himself, part of the team that produces Beetle Bailey and Hi and Lois. William E. Burns See also

Comedians; Journalism; Where’s Waldo?

franchise.

■ Computers Electronic devices that process, store, and output data based on programmed instructions

Definition

During the 1990’s, powerful computing became ubiquitous. At work, client-server networked systems replaced mainframes, and at home powerful microcomputers ran a variety of applications, including accessing the World Wide Web. The connected world became a reality, with computers, handheld devices, and appliances all communicating. The 1990’s marked a period of remarkable improvements in microcomputer technology and growth of microcomputer companies. While Apple Computer (later Apple, Inc.), Tandy, and International Business Machines (IBM) were producing most microcomputers in the 1980’s, a number of companies, including Hewlett-Packard (HP), Compaq, Dell, and Gateway, were shipping Intel microcomputers, generally referred to as IBM clones, by 1990. The growth of the microcomputer industry in the 1990’s was chaotic and unpredictable, with many changes in the leaders and frequent acquisitions. Dell is one of the best-known and most successful microcomputer companies of the 1990’s. Founded in 1984, Dell shipped its first computer in 1985, had annual sales of $2 billion in 1992, became the largest manufacturer of microcomputers in 1999, had annual sales of $30 billion in 2000, and has dueled with HP for leadership in microcomputer manufacturing since 2000. IBM and Tandy were typical of the microcomputer manufacturing companies with weak sales in

the 1990’s. Tandy was an early leader in the manufacture of microcomputers, producing the popular Radio Shack line of computers. In 1993, however, Tandy sold its computer business to AST Research, and in 1995 it eliminated most of its retail microcomputer sales. IBM introduced the IBM PC microcomputer in 1981 and started the modern era of small computers. It developed the PS/2 series in 1987, featuring a proprietary MCA bus, 3.5-inch floppy disk, and PS/2 keyboard. The PS/2 experienced initial success, selling well over two million machines in less than two years, but its proprietary architecture doomed it to failure, with the last PS/2 being manufactured about 1994. Mainframe computing of earlier times all but ceased in the 1990’s. Instead, corporate computing switched to a new client-server (C/S) model, and supercomputing activity decreased. IBM became the largest supplier of servers rather than being the leading mainframe computer vendor. The UNIX, Microsoft, and Compaq/DEC servers controlled a majority share of the server market as the 1990’s closed. In fact, after Compaq purchased Digital Equipment Corporation (DEC) in 1998, it was the second-largest computer company in the world. Cray and Intel dropped out of the supercomputer field in the 1990’s, with single-instruction multipledata (SIMD) machines becoming the main type of scientific supercomputer. Improvements in microcomputer central processing units (CPUs) were dramatic in the 1990’s. IBM developed the RS/6000, a reduced instruction set computer (RISC), in 1990. It was a technical success and had reasonably good sales. Apple, IBM, and Motorola formed an alliance to develop RISC architectures, and in 1993 they announced the PowerPC architecture, which resulted in several successful computers, including Apple’s Power Macintosh. DEC released its first Alpha chip in 1992, and it also led to a successful line of RISC microcomputers and workstations. Advanced Micro Devices produced a number of important CPU chips in the 1990’s, but the real leader in CPU development during the decade was Intel. In 1989, Intel introduced its complex instruction set computer (CISC) chip, the I486, which had 1.2 million transistors and an embedded floating-point unit. In the same year, the company introduced its moderately successful I860 RISC chip. In 1993, Intel combined

Microcomputers

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the best features of the I486 and I860, introducing the Pentium 1, which contained 3.1 million transistors and was a major technical and commercial success. The Pentium II, released in 1997, had 7.5 million transistors; the Pentium III, released in 1999, had 20 million transistors; and the Pentium IV, released in 2000, had 42 million transistors. Even allowing for differences in the transistor count created by Intel’s move from single chips to slot-based CPUs, the improvements in Intel CPUs over the 1990’s were phenomenal. In addition to CPU improvement in the 1990’s, there were many improvements in peripheral devices. Of the numerous products introduced or improved, some of the most important were the Microsoft IntelliMouse (1996), the Iomega Zip drive (1999), and numerous improvements in hard drives (1990-2000) and DVD storage (1997). Several new standards were released in the 1990’s, including the plug and play (1993), which made it much easier to add software drives to an operating system, and the USB standard (1995), which allowed many new devices to be attached to a microcomputer. Operating Systems While there were many advances in software in the 1990’s, no type of software developed faster than operating systems. The UNIX operating system was introduced in 1969, adapted to microcomputers as XENIX in 1970, and experienced steady growth during the 1980’s. By 1991, a number of companies had robust versions of UNIX running on their computers, including IBM’s AIX, Sun Microsystems’ SunOS, and DEC’s OpenVMS. In 1994, Linus Torvalds introduced a free version of UNIX called Linux, which runs on both microcomputers and large servers. After its introduction, Linux experienced very rapid adoption, and by 2000 it was not only being distributed as freeware but also sold by many computer companies. About 1992, Sun released Solaris as its latest version of UNIX and has used Solaris since then. Many other companies developed their own flavor of UNIX during the 1990’s, including HP, Silicon Graphics (Cray), Apple Computer, and Santa Cruz Operations (SCO). All versions of UNIX, as well as Windows NT, used a number of concepts of the Mach kernel UNIX project at Carnegie Mellon. In 1990, Microsoft and IBM stopped collaborating on the OS/2 operating system. IBM continued to market OS/2 and had some success with its OS/2

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Wrap, released in 1994. However, the failure of the PS/2 led to the demise of OS/2. IBM developed several versions of UNIX over the 1990’s, which were fairly successful. The major operating systems story at IBM during the 1990’s was the transition of its mainframe MVS operating system to its VM line of super-server operating systems. The VM server operating system is the largest single-server operating system today. The advances in operating systems made at Microsoft during the 1990’s are unsurpassed by any other company. In 1992, Microsoft released Windows 3.1, and while this operating system had technical limitations, its reception by businesses and home users made it the most commercially successful operating system in history. The ease of adding applications to Windows 3.1 and the relatively user-friendly interface made it an immediate success. Windows NT was released by Microsoft in 1993. It embodied the best features of the Mach kernel UNIX, OpenVMS, and the Motif graphical user interface (GUI). Windows NT was both a technical and commercial success. With Windows 95, Microsoft finally got a solid technical foundation to support its outstanding GUI and application extensibility. Windows 95 was almost as big a success story as Windows 3.1. Windows 98 and Windows Millennium Edition (2000) were also technical and commercial successes, but Microsoft brought this line of operating systems to a halt in 2001 with its introduction of Windows XP. Not all of Microsoft’s operating systems efforts in the 1990’s were successful. The most notable examples of Microsoft failures were Bob (1995), with its gamelike interface, and Windows CE (1996), designed to support small computers. Bob failed to gain any acceptance from nontechnical users, and Windows CE was not as well received as the Palm OS. A number of handheld devices, like the U.S. Robotics Palm Pilot (1996) and the BlackBerry (1999), combined aspects of communications, entertainment, and information. This, combined with the maturation of the Internet as a communications network, enabled many people to actively use their handheld devices to communicate, listen to music, or browse the World Wide Web. In the 1990’s, many businesses realized that telecommuting and communicating

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with the office using a computer was a desirable option for their employees. As local Internet service providers (ISPs) proliferated, and as the speed of the Internet connections increased, telecommuting became a popular work option for many employees, with more than 10 million people working this way by 1997. The development of Java by Bill Joy of Sun Microsystems in 1995 was an important step in the movement toward a connected world. Java actually includes a virtual computer and rudimentary operating system that was designed specifically to support programming small systems such as cell phones, personal digital assistants (PDAs), and intelligent home appliances. Largely in response to the success of Java, Microsoft released its .Net architecture in 2000. Java- and .Net-enabled Web sites have improved Web applications, with one of the most famous examples being Bill Gate’s connected house, which was completed in the late 1990’s. Other developments in the 1990’s that led to a more connected world included the explosive growth of the World Wide Web and e-commerce. Amazon .com officially opened in July, 1995, as an online bookseller and by 1996 was a successful e-business. In 1995, eBay began as an online auction and over the remainder of the 1990’s established the new and highly successful online auction business model. In 1996, Google was started by Sergey Brin and Larry Page and over the 1990’s became the premier search engine on the Web. In fact, by 2000 Google was challenging the Microsoft Network (MSN) for preeminence as a portal. Software One of the most important software developments during the 1990’s was the emergence of Microsoft Office as the dominant productivity software. The incorporation of the Access database management system on Office 2000 for the PC and Office 2001 for the Macintosh gave Microsoft almost the entire market for productivity software at that time. Graphics software also improved during the decade, with Adobe, Macromedia, Pixar, and Silicon Graphics each adding or improving its graphical software. Computer security software became an important product, with Symantec becoming a leader when it purchased Norton in 1990. When IBM acquired Lotus in 1995, it moved to make Lotus Notes the premier corporate e-mail program, while Microsoft’s Outlook Express became the most popu-

lar e-mail program for home users with its inclusion in Windows 98. Development of Web design software exploded during the 1990’s. Many Web development tools appeared, including Macromedia’s Dreamweaver (1997) and Microsoft’s FrontPage (1996). The Web servers Apache and Microsoft’s Internet Information Server (IIS) were introduced in the 1990’s and dominated the Web server market in the 2000’s. While Java was initially designed for embedded systems programming, the Java Web applet became very popular as a way to make Web pages more interactive, and it popularized the Java programming language. Many programmers began using Java to develop Windows and UNIX applications toward the end of the 1990’s, and a number of companies, including Adobe and IBM, made a commitment to Java applications programming. In 2000, Microsoft introduced the .Net architecture as its answer to Java, with several important programming languages, including its popular Visual Basic. As the Web became increasingly important in the late 1990’s, a new programming model, based on Web services, was introduced. Impact In the 1990’s, chip and hard disk technology greatly improved, resulting in microcomputers becoming more powerful than the best workstations of the 1980’s. The popular mainframes of the 1980’s all but disappeared, being replaced by a client-server model of computing, based on powerful applications and database servers supporting individuals, using microcomputers. The Internet matured in the 1990’s, as the World Wide Web created a dynamic method of disseminating information and doing business. Further Reading

Campbell-Kelly, Martin, and William Aspray. Computer: A History of the Information Machine. New York: Basic Books, 1996. A short but engrossing history of computers. Hiltzik, Michael. Dealers of Lightning: Xerox PARC and the Dawn of the Computer Age. New York: HarperCollins, 1999. A thorough coverage of the developments at the Xerox PARC labs. Ralston, Anthony, Edwin D. Reilly, and David Hemmendinger, eds. Encyclopedia of Computer Science. 4th ed. New York: John Wiley & Sons, 2003. One of the standard reference works in its field.

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This edition has accurate articles covering all areas related to computers, including many articles on computers of the 1970’s. Rojas, Raul. Encyclopedia of Computers and Computer History. Chicago: Fitzroy Dearborn, 2001. Contains over six hundred articles about computers, including those made during the 1970’s, from scholars in computer science and the history of science. Wurster, Christian. Computers: An Illustrated History. New York: Taschen, 2002. A history of computers, interfaces, and computer design that includes pictures of nearly every computer ever made. George M. Whitson III Amazon.com; America Online; Apple Computer; CGI; Digital divide; Dot-coms; DVDs; E-mail; Hackers; Instant messaging; Internet; Inventions; Michelangelo computer virus; Microsoft; MP3 format; PDAs; Search engines; Silicon Valley; Spam; Telecommunications Act of 1996; World Wide Web; Y2K problem.

See also

■ Conservatism in U.S. politics A political ideology that tends to support tradition, authority, established institutions, states’ rights, liberal individualism, and limiting the political and fiscal power of the federal government

Definition

During the 1990’s, conservatism was the nucleus for much of the political opposition to Democratic president Bill Clinton. In 1992, Governor Bill Clinton of Arkansas defeated Republican incumbent George H. W. Bush in the presidential election. Despite this victory, a united Republican Party won control of both houses of Congress in the 1994 midterm elections. Public support for conservatism as personified by Speaker of the House Newt Gingrich began to decline by late 1995, and Clinton was easily reelected in 1996. Nonetheless, the Republicans continued to control Congress during the remainder of the 1990’s, and Clinton promoted and accepted moderate, bipartisan compromises on such policies as taxes, deficit reduction, antiterrorist legislation, and welfare reform.

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Although Bill Clinton was the first Democrat to be elected president since 1976, he received only 43 percent of the popular vote, while the Democrats lost ten seats in the U.S. House of Representatives in the 1992 elections. In the 1994 midterm elections, the Republicans gained majority control of the House and Senate and chose Representative Newt Gingrich of Georgia as Speaker of the House and Senator Bob Dole of Kansas as Senate majority leader. These Republican electoral victories were partially caused by the belief of many voters that Clinton was too liberal because of his initial policies on tax increases, national health insurance, gun control, and gays in the military. They were also influenced by the efforts of conservative media commentators such as Rush Limbaugh and Pat Buchanan, the voter mobilization efforts of the National Rifle Association (NRA) and Religious Right, especially the Christian Coalition, and the Contract with America. Developed and promoted by Gingrich, the Contract with America was a conservative policy platform that most congressional Republican candidates supported. It included such conservative ideas and objectives as tax cuts, welfare reform, a balanced budget, and a smaller federal bureaucracy. By late 1995, public opinion was more favorable toward Clinton and less supportive of Gingrich and other leading Republicans in Congress. This change was partly caused by the budget impasse between Clinton and Gingrich and the April, 1995, bombing of a federal building in Oklahoma City, which was linked to right-wing extremists. Conservative activist and journalist Pat Buchanan won an upset victory in the Republican presidential primary of New Hampshire in 1996. Although Senate majority leader Dole became the Republican presidential nominee of 1996, Buchanan and other conservatives perceived Dole as too compromising, uninspiring, and insufficiently conservative. Jack Kemp, Dole’s running mate, however, was a prominent free market, fiscal conservative who believed that tax cuts and deregulation would stimulate enough economic growth to reduce and eventually eliminate budget deficits.

Conservatism and Clinton’s First Term

With many voters perceiving Clinton as an effective, moderate economic manager, Clinton was easily reelected in 1996. However, independent counsel Kenneth Starr’s investigation of Clinton, authorized

Conservatism and Clinton’s Second Term

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by the Republican-controlled Congress, led him to discover that Clinton may have committed crimes relating to the sexual harassment lawsuit of Paula Jones and an adulterous affair with Monica Lewinsky, a former White House intern. After Clinton publicly admitted to having an affair with Lewinsky but denied committing perjury and other related crimes, efforts to further investigate Clinton and either pressure him to resign or impeach him became a major conservative objective from late 1997 until early 1999. However, public opinion polls and Democratic gains in the 1998 midterm elections suggested that most Americans opposed impeachment. In 1998, First Lady Hillary Rodham Clinton stated in a media interview that she and her husband were victims of a "vast right-wing conspiracy that has been conspiring against my husband since the day he announced for president." In particular, she referred to conservative-motivated investigations of the Clintons’ investments in the Whitewater development in Arkansas and Bill Clinton’s sexual behavior. Although Clinton was impeached, Gingrich resigned from Congress, and the Senate acquitted Clinton in 1999. Many conservative activists, especially in the Religious Right and among media commentators, remained convinced that Clinton had proven that he was morally unfit to be president and that his behavior personified liberal permissiveness regarding sex and marriage. Impact After the division among conservatives between voting for either President George H. W. Bush or H. Ross Perot contributed to Bill Clinton’s election as president in 1992, conservatives in Congress, the media, and interest groups initially focused on defeating or diluting Clinton’s more liberal policies, especially on health care, taxes, gun control, and abortion rights. They also forced Clinton, especially after the 1994 midterm elections, to accept modified versions of conservative policy proposals on welfare reform, deficit reduction, and bureaucratic downsizing. However, Republican efforts to investigate, impeach, and force Clinton to leave the presidency provoked a public perception of conservatism as extreme, harsh, and uncompromising. Influenced by this new public mood, Texas governor George W. Bush prepared for the 2000 presidential election by articulating and advocating “compassionate conservatism” as a more moderate,

reasonable, and unifying alternative to the divisive, combative conservatism of the 1990’s. Further Reading

Conason, Joe, and Gene Lyons. The Hunting of the President: The Ten-Year Campaign to Destroy Bill and Hillary Clinton. New York: St. Martin’s Press, 2000. A pro-Clinton study of conservative efforts to oppose, discredit, investigate, and impeach Bill Clinton. Wilcox, Clyde. The Latest American Revolution? The 1994 Elections and Their Implications for Governance. New York: St. Martin’s Press, 1995. An explanation and analysis of the influence of conservatism on the Contract with America and Republican success in the 1994 midterm elections. Woodward, Bob. The Agenda: Inside the Clinton White House. New York: Simon & Schuster, 1994. An analysis of Clinton’s early policy agenda that includes references to the growing conservative opposition to Clinton. Sean J. Savage Abortion; Buchanan, Pat; Bush, George H. W.; Christian Coalition; Clinton, Bill; Clinton, Hillary Rodham; Clinton’s impeachment; Clinton’s scandals; Contract with America; Culture wars; Defense of Marriage Act of 1996; Dole, Bob; Elections in the United States, midterm; Elections in the United States, 1992; Elections in the United States, 1996; Gingrich, Newt; Kemp, Jack; Lewinsky scandal; Liberalism in U.S. politics; Limbaugh, Rush; Perot, H. Ross; Right-wing conspiracy; Starr Report; Welfare reform; Whitewater investigation.

See also

■ Contract with America Seminal legislative plan that Republicans promised to bring before Congress if they gained a majority of seats in the new Congress Date Announced in 1994 during the congressional election campaign Identification

This Republican platform trumpeted the mainstream arrival of ascending conservative ideas. To all but the most seasoned political observers, particular sessions of Congress typically do not make a lasting impression on one’s memory. Unlike the

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The Republicans’ Contract with America In their Contract with America, the Republicans promised to take immediate action on ten bills: Within the first 100 days of the 104th Congress, we shall bring to the House Floor the following bills, each to be given full and open debate, each to be given a clear and fair vote and each to be immediately available this day for public inspection and scrutiny. 1. The Fiscal Responsibility Act: A balanced budget/tax limitation amendment and a legislative line-item veto to restore fiscal responsibility to an out-of-control Congress, requiring them to live under the same budget constraints as families and businesses. 2. The Taking Back Our Streets Act: An anti-crime package including stronger truth-insentencing, “good faith” exclusionary rule exemptions, effective death penalty provisions, and cuts in social spending from this summer’s “crime” bill to fund prison construction and additional law enforcement to keep people secure in their neighborhoods and kids safe in their schools. 3. The Personal Responsibility Act: Discourage illegitimacy and teen pregnancy by prohibiting welfare to minor mothers and denying increased AFDC for additional children while on welfare, cut spending for welfare programs, and enact a tough two-years-and-out provision with work requirements to promote individual responsibility. 4. The Family Reinforcement Act: Child support enforcement, tax incentives for adoption, strengthening rights of parents in their children’s education, stronger child pornography laws, and an elderly dependent care tax credit to reinforce the central role of families in American society. 5. The American Dream Restoration Act: A $500 per child tax credit, begin repeal of the marriage tax penalty, and creation of American Dream Savings Accounts to provide middleclass tax relief. 6. The National Security Restoration Act: No U.S. troops under U.N. command and restoration of the essential parts of our national security funding to strengthen our national defense and maintain our credibility around the world. 7. The Senior Citizens Fairness Act: Raise the Social Security earnings limit which currently forces seniors out of the work force, repeal the 1993 tax hikes on Social Security benefits and provide tax incentives for private long-term care insurance to let Older Americans keep more of what they have earned over the years. 8. The Job Creation and Wage Enhancement Act: Small business incentives, capital gains cut and indexation, neutral cost recovery, risk assessment/cost-benefit analysis, strengthening the Regulatory Flexibility Act and unfunded mandate reform to create jobs and raise worker wages. 9. The Common Sense Legal Reform Act: “Loser pays” laws, reasonable limits on punitive damages and reform of product liability laws to stem the endless tide of litigation. 10. The Citizen Legislature Act: A first-ever vote on term limits to replace career politicians with citizen legislators.

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highly visible executive branch, the legislative branch operates in relative obscurity, usually only making waves with a few key votes and the occasional scandal. However, the 104th Congress was a congressional session filled with exceptions, and its lasting impact on the collective memory of the nation is but one more of its noted peculiarities. The New Republican Majority The Contract with America, the now notorious legislative platform of the 104th Congress, was the most recognizable and broadly sweeping partisan congressional agenda of the modern political era. Its preelection announcement by Republican House candidates heralded the arrival, or some would say continuance, of many Ronald Reagan-era right-wing ideas in the political mainstream of the mid-1990’s. The contract’s constituent elements, unlike its lasting endurance as a symbol of conservative policy action, are much less

well known. Indeed, public opinion polling conducted in 1994 and 1995 saw that even in the contract’s heyday, well under half of Americans knew exactly what it was. The ten-point plan proposed far-reaching reforms. These proposals ranged from the usual (an anticrime package, including increased prison funding, the Taking Back Our Streets Act) to the potent (congressional twelve-year term limits, the Citizen Legislature Act) to the procedural (a call for the line-item veto, under the Fiscal Responsibility Act). The Republicans pledged that once they took control of the House, the bills would be proposed on the House floor within the first one hundred days of the new Congress. The contract’s origins can be traced to the mid-century conservative ideology of Barry Goldwater Republicanism but are more

The Origins of the Contract

Weeks before Republicans took control of both houses of Congress, House Minority Whip Newt Gingrich addressed Republican congressional candidates on Capitol Hill during a rally where they pledged the Contract with America. Gingrich assumed the role of Speaker of the House in 1995. (AP/Wide World Photos)

The Nineties in America

directly linked to the “Reagan Revolution” of 1980. Reagan’s election in 1980 was a seminal event in politics, one that saw the national triumph of a candidate who emphasized states’ rights, low taxes, and a small federal government. Despite Reagan’s sweeping successful bids for the White House in 1980 and 1984, the House of Representatives remained in Democratic Party hands, and the Republicans were nicknamed by political pundits as the “permanent minority” (referring to their status of not having control of the legislative branch of government). Refusing to stand idly by, Republican politicians tried for years to transplant Reagan’s national electoral success into a legislative platform that would regain the reins of congressional power for their party. At first, the Contract with America was developed in a nearly scientific manner by professional pollsters and Republicans. Notably, pollster Frank Luntz is credited with being the sage behind the scenes who midwifed the broad legislative agenda for the Republicans. The agenda not only included specific policy proposals that were popular in themselves but also linked them together into a coherent national plan, giving Republican candidates crowd-pleasing talking points while conveying the image of revolutionary political reform. The platform appealed to voters who were tiring of the Bill Clinton White House. By 1994, Clinton had been drawn into a seemingly endless war in the Balkans, had failed to institute a national health care plan, and had backed the befuddling “don’t ask, don’t tell” military policy regarding homosexuals, which irked conservatives and civil rights advocates alike. There is little doubt that without the guile and rhetorical courage of House Speaker Newt Gingrich, there would have been no vaunted Contract with America. With Clinton faltering and with the nation’s conservative movement gaining steam on the backs of the vigorous right-to-life and evangelical movements, the longtime politician from Georgia masterminded a Republican call to arms. Republican powerbrokers such as Dick Armey, John Boehner, and Tom DeLay also played a role in the development of the contract. However, this was Gingrich’s brainchild delivered with Luntz’s scientific expertise. When the Republicans gained control of both houses of Congress in 1994, they ended four decades of Democratic Party rule. Despite this momen-

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tum, the electoral triumph did not translate into legislative success. Some measures of the contract passed, but most did not. The usual culprits in Washington gridlock reared their heads. Failed bills either were tied up in conference committees, where disagreements between the lower and upper chambers were hashed out, or were voted down by either the Senate or the president himself. In the case of the Citizen Legislature Act, which proposed an amendment to the Constitution, the bill failed to receive the required two-thirds majority in the House. Much like the contract itself, Gingrich briefly burned brightly as a vanguard politician but then ran out of oxygen. In 1996, Gingrich admitted to using tax-exempt donations to fund his “Renewing American Civilization’’ college course, which he taught at two colleges; he was fined $300,000 by the House Ethics Committee in 1997. Thus, there was a crisis of confidence in his leadership after the contract fizzled. Impact The core significance of the contract is not its legislative nosedive so much as its contribution to the rise of the Republican Party (though some believe it made little actual difference in the midterm elections). Though many of the contract’s provisions did not become law, it still remains in the memory of political aficionados long after its heyday. Its lasting impression is reflective of its utter grandiosity, but its modest success is a warning to ambitious politicians not to overreach their power. Further Reading

Bader, John B. Taking the Initiative: Leadership Agendas in Congress and the “Contract with America.” Washington, D.C.: Georgetown University Press, 1996. Bader’s book lacks historical perspective because it was written contemporary to the contract, but it is chock full of details of how the contract was designed and implemented. Garrett, Major. The Enduring Revolution: How the Contract with America Continues to Shape the Nation. New York: Crown, 2005. This work breathes new life into the platform’s principal ideas. Garrett, an author and pundit on television news programs, reminds readers about the mystique surrounding the contract. Gingrich, Newt. To Renew America. New York: HarperCollins, 1995. Gingrich outlines his political philosophy as well as his policy goals.

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_______. Window of Opportunity: A Blueprint for the Future. New York: Tom Doherty Associates, 1984. In a fascinating preview of the political upheaval that was to come, Gingrich discusses his goals for the nation. Mayhew, David R. America’s Congress: Actions in the Public Sphere, James Madison Through Newt Gingrich. New Haven, Conn.: Yale University Press, 2000. A leading legislative authority places the Contract with America in its historical context while noting the stability of American institutions. R. Matthew Beverlin Armey, Dick; Christian Coalition; Clinton, Bill; Conservatism in U.S. politics; Elections in the United States, midterm; Gingrich, Newt; Line Item Veto Act of 1996; Republican Revolution; Term limits.

See also

■ Copyright legislation Laws passed by Congress updating U.S. copyright law to address challenges in protecting intellectual property in the digital age

Definition

The 1990’s marked the beginning of efforts by Congress to pass laws aimed at helping filmmakers, artists, authors, and software developers protect the copyrights to their digital works. With the emergence of new technologies such as computers and the Internet, anything from music to software could be duplicated and distributed with the click of a computer mouse. Digital copies, unlike copies on paper, tape, and film, could be reproduced infinitely with no loss of clarity. As a result, pirates worldwide were copying music, video, and text instantly, constantly, and illegally. By the 1990’s, copyright laws based on national boundaries had been made irrelevant by the borderless and fast world of the Internet. In December, 1996, under the auspices of the World Intellectual Property Organization (WIPO), a U.N. organization that promotes the protection of intellectual property throughout the world, copyright experts from 160 countries met in Geneva, Switzerland, to draft the first major revision of international copyright laws in twenty-five years. During

Copyright and the Internet

The Nineties in America

this conference, WIPO adopted two treaties to ensure that the electronic transmission of any copyrighted work was subject to the same rules as traditional print works. As part of its implementation of the WIPO treaties, the U.S. Congress passed legislation updating the 1976 U.S. copyright law to make it illegal to copy or download digital music, video, or other works without permission from the copyright holders. The Digital Millennium Copyright Act of 1998 (DMCA) was backed by the entertainment, software, and publishing industries, as well as high-technology groups. The DMCA also made it unlawful for people to circumvent high-tech tools such as passwords or other security measures that copyright holders used to protect their works from unauthorized copying. Under the DMCA, Internet service providers (ISPs), however, could not be held liable for copyright infringements when users uploaded material to their sites. The Internet providers would be protected against copyright lawsuits if they acted only as a “mere conduit” for transmitting copyrighted articles, music, or artwork. The Internet providers were required to prove that they had no actual knowledge of the infringement and that they took quick action to take the copyrighted material off their sites. The law also allowed nonprofit libraries, archives, schools, and public broadcasting stations to copy data and contained provisions regarding the licensing of music on the Internet and other digital media. Still, while the DMCA helped copyright holders fight piracy, the explosion of sophisticated, Internet-based music and motion pictures continued to attract bootleggers who posed a mounting threat to the U.S. entertainment industry. During the 1990’s, Congress also extended the length of time authors, artists, and other creators could own the copyrights to their works with the passage of the Copyright Term Extension Act of 1998 (CTEA). Before the CTEA, copyright lasted for the life of the author plus 50 years (75 years for a work of corporate authorship). The CTEA extended copyright by an additional 20 years, to life of the author plus 70 years. For works of corporate authorship, copyright was extended to 120 years after creation or 95 years after publication, whichever endpoint was earlier. Congress also allowed works that had been published prior to January 1, 1978, to have their term of protec-

Extension of U.S. Copyright

The Nineties in America

tion retroactively increased by 20 years. This essentially froze the date for when works covered by the old copyright rules would enter the public domain where individuals could use these works free of charge and without having to get permission. For example, under the CTEA, works published in 1923 or afterward that were still copyrighted in 1998 would not enter the public domain until 2019 or afterward unless the owner of the copyright released them into the public domain prior to that date or if the copyright was extended again. The CTEA was also known as the Sonny Bono Copyright Term Extension Act, named in memory of the late congressman Sonny Bono, the male half of the 1960’s and 1970’s performing duo Sonny and Cher who died in a 1998 skiing accident nine months before the act became law. The CTEA was also pejoratively known as the “Mickey Mouse Protection Act” because of Disney’s successful lobbying efforts to get Congress to extend the copyrights of its profitable Disney characters whose copyrights were due to expire. Supporters of the CTEA believed that extending copyright protection would help the United States by providing more protection to U.S. artists and authors for their works in foreign countries. Opponents of the CTEA, however, argued that extending copyright for an additional twenty years was the beginning of a slippery slope toward a perpetual copyright term that violated the spirit of the “for limited times” language of the U.S. Constitution that created copyright. Impact With everything from illegal music downloading sites to the online pirating of commercial motion pictures, the Internet provided numerous challenges in regard to copyright law. Many factors, including its widespread use and relative ease of access, made the Internet more difficult to police. However, in spite of these difficulties, lawmakers and copyright holders during the 1990’s strove to make sure that copyright was protected in cyberspace through the passage of two 1998 laws, the Copyright Term Extension Act and the Digital Millennium Copyright Act. Further Reading

Litman, Jessica. Digital Copyright: Protecting Intellectual Property on the Internet. Amherst, N.Y.: Prometheus Books, 2001. Litman details the history of the lob-

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bying that led to the Digital Millennium Copyright Act and addresses imminent problems to be expected from efforts to limit free access to information on the Internet in favor of the companies that hold the copyright. Merges, Robert P., Peter S. Mennell, and Mark A. Lemley. Intellectual Property in the New Technological Age. 3d ed. New York: Aspen, 2003. This textbook focuses on the multiple aspects of U.S. intellectual property law in the digital age. Tao, Hong. Facing the Internet: Balancing the Interests Between Copyright Owners and the Public. Saarbrücken, Germany: VDM Verlag Dr. Mueller, 2007. Tao examines the implementation of the 1996 WIPO copyright treaties in different countries, including the United States. Eddith A. Dashiell Bono, Sonny; Computers; Internet; Publishing; World Wide Web.

See also

■ Country music Southern- and Western-inspired music genre that incorporates pop influences

Definition

Though traditional country music was known for its southern drawls, twangy guitars, and performances in honkytonk clubs, the 1990’s ushered in an entirely new era for the genre. Aside from adapting commercial pop tendencies, the style crossed over well beyond its core audience and expanded past its Nashville recording base to become an international phenomenon. The trend of country music’s crossover appeal in the 1990’s actually dates back to the 1970’s, when pop influences infiltrated the recordings of Glen Campbell, Kenny Rogers, Anne Murray, and John Denver. Those trends continued to surge in the 1980’s thanks to the commercial appeal of Dolly Parton and Willie Nelson, and later, Reba McEntire and Garth Brooks. In all of these instances, country music covered a broader musical base relatable to widespread audiences, not just its core fan base throughout the southern and western regions of the United States. By the turn of the decade into the 1990’s, the style’s earliest roots were barely recognizable as Brooks in particular broke the mold on all levels, interjecting rock and pop into his country pedigree, while staging sold-out stadium shows.

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Shania Twain performs at the 1996 Country Music Association Awards show in Nashville. (AP/Wide World Photos)

Brooks was clearly a forerunner in the movement when his No Fences album not only topped the country charts upon its release in 1990 but also landed at number three on the Billboard pop charts (a feat that was repeated in the number one position four more times this decade), helping to transform the singer into an international icon. McEntire also forged forward with the attention she garnered throughout the prior decade, becoming the first female artist to have a double platinum album with 1991’s For My Broken Heart (inspired by several band members who died in a plane crash). The following year, the duo Brooks and Dunn released “Boot Scootin’ Boogie” as a single, which also helped fuel the country line-dancing movement and a subsequent increase of clubs catering to that audience.

The Groundswell Grows

Billy Ray Cyrus also blended country, pop, and rock with a danceable element on 1992’s country and pop chart-topper Some Gave All, which spawned the single “Achy Breaky Heart.” Aside from his success at radio, Cyrus was also regarded for his handsome looks, which garnered additional mainstream attention but also stirred up some controversy among country purists and critics opposed to the idea of selling the style with sex appeal. For the female faction, Canadian superstar Shania Twain was also regarded for her model-worthy attraction, helping 1995’s The Woman in Me to reach number five on the mainstream charts and 1997’s Come on Over to become the best-selling country album of all time and the best-selling album by a female artist of any association (moving over 20 million copies). However, even with Twain’s tremendous appeal, Brooks still

The Nineties in America

ruled the decade on the concert- and CD-selling circuit and has since racked up over 128 million albums in the United States. While many of the above sought to break beyond traditional audiences, other artists insisted on reclaiming the genre’s heritage. This group of musicians was also dubbed “new traditionalists” and was led by the tall Texan George Strait (who first found fame in the 1980’s), along with artists like Ricky Skaggs, Alan Jackson, Vince Gill, and Dwight Yoakam. By the end of the 1990’s, however, players like Strait were also reaping the benefits of the general public’s embrace of country, finding crossover potential in 1997 with the stadium-centered George Strait Country Music Festival—which also became a springboard to fame for Tim McGraw, Faith Hill, the Dixie Chicks, and Kenny Chesney.

Counterculture Still Finds Footing

Approaching the New Millennium As the decade came to a close, there were no signs of slowing down for the crossover movement, with McGraw, Hill, Chesney, and the Dixie Chicks all selling out stadiums on their own. In 1999, the constantly evolving Lonestar helped progress commercial country even further when the single “Amazed” topped the country charts, followed by the Billboard Hot 100. Those trends continued into the next decade, with many of the same acts finding additional success with album and single sales, not to mention concert attendance that rivaled some of the biggest rock bands of the time period. Impact While some have often scoffed at country’s more profitable pursuits throughout the 1990’s, the many artists involved in that dynamic shift helped raise the genre to prominent heights and expanded its audience. This movement also helped set the compass for the future of country music, which continues to integrate pop, rock, and other outside influences. Many artists from the 1990’s continued to thrive into the early twenty-first century, updating their sounds and stage shows to reflect commercial trends. Further Reading

Feiler, Bruce. Dreaming Out Loud: Garth Brooks, Wynonna Judd, Wade Hayes, and the Changing Face of Nashville. New York: Avon Books, 1998. A detailed account of country music’s evolution, particularly chronicling the 1990’s surge of the aforementioned artists.

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Kingsbury, Paul, ed. The Encyclopedia of Country Music. New York: Oxford University Press, 1998. An exhaustive look at the genre’s most prominent artists. Compiled by the staff of the Country Music Hall of Fame and Museum in Nashville. Kosser, Michael. How Nashville Became Music City, U.S.A.: Fifty Years of Music Row. New York: Hal Leonard, 2006. Traces the history of “Music City” since the 1940’s. McEntire, Reba, with Tom Carter. Reba: My Story. New York: Bantam Books, 1994. One of the leading musicians in the commercial country craze tells her personal story. Sgammato, Jo. American Thunder: The Garth Brooks Story. New York: Ballantine, 1999. A biography and backstage look at one of the scene’s most successful innovators, including information about how Brooks helped direct the entire genre throughout the 1990’s. Andy Argyrakis Brooks, Garth; Lang, K. D.; McEntire, Reba; Music.

See also

■ Crime Transgressions of local, state, or federal law

Definition

After a period of steady increase, peaking in 1991, the rates of both property and violent crimes declined throughout the rest of the 1990’s in the United States and Canada. Beginning in the 1960’s, the crime rates in the United States and Canada increased, reaching a peak in 1991. Canada had higher property crime rates than the United States for breaking and entering, motor vehicle theft, and arson. Rates of violent crimes, such as homicide, aggravated assault, and robbery, were much higher in the United States. In the United States, the crime rates in all categories decreased during the 1990’s, while Canada experienced its greatest decline in violent crimes. During this period, the United States and Canada both experienced the largest, longest declines in crime rates since crime statistics first began to be tracked in the two nations. The countries showed similar trends in overall decline, and the rates of property crimes in both countries actually converged by 1999. In addition to showing similar over-

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all trends, the two countries showed the same regional trends in regard to their eastern and western areas, with the highest crime rates in the west and the lowest in the east. One dissimilarity between the two nations was that Canada’s cities had lower rates of homicide than did U.S. cities. Criminologists have studied the decline in crime rates that began in 1991, trying to determine what caused or contributed to it. Because the decline occurred in the two contiguous countries at the same time, some researchers have looked for similarities in social factors in the two locations. Criminologists studying Canada have concluded that some of the crime committed in that country is related to such factors as family breakdown, poor parenting, poverty, moral and religious decline, the ease of obtaining guns, lack of discipline, and leniency in the law. Some of those same factors have been blamed for increasing crime in the United States. Particularly in the United States, the abuse of illicit drugs constitutes one of the biggest factors influencing crime rates. The U.S. government attempted to respond to that problem in the 1980’s by creating the “war on drugs.” Experts have studied the social changes that occurred in the 1990’s in Canada and the United States to try to isolate the factors that may have caused or at Search for Causes

least contributed to the drops in crime rates that were seen in the two countries. These factors included an improving economy, innovations in policing, changes in gun control laws, increased incarceration of offenders, changes in drug use, and shifting demographics. The Economy Economic trends are often associated with crime levels. Varied theories of the causes of crime posit that a healthy economy, with its availability of jobs, is related to decreases in crime. During the 1990’s, the economy was very strong and growing in the United States, unlike in Canada. Inflation rates were stable in Canada during the decade, however, and the nation experienced some economic growth, which resulted in a decrease in unemployment. The differences in economic growth in the two countries during the period have served to confuse analyses concerning crime rates. Theoretically, if a strong economy is a major factor in the decline of crime, the robust economy in the United States during the 1990’s should have meant a larger drop in that country’s crime rate and a smaller drop in Canada’s, given that the latter’s economic growth during the period was somewhat lackluster.

During the 1990’s, community-oriented policing, in which law-enforcement agencies work to engage community members in addressing the

Policing

United States Crime Rates Per 100,000 Inhabitants, 1990-1999 Year

Population

All Crimes

Forcible Aggravated Violent Property Murder Rape Robbery Assault Burglary Larceny

Vehicle Theft

1990

248,709,873

5,820.3

731.8

5,088.5

9.4

41.2

257.0

424.1

1,235.9

3,194.8

657.8

1991

252,177,000

5,897.8

758.1

5,139.7

9.8

42.3

272.7

433.3

1,252.0

3,228.8

659.0

1992

255,082,000

5,660.2

757.5

4,902.7

9.3

42.8

263.6

441.8

1,168.2

3,103.0

631.5

1993

257,908,000

5,484.4

746.8

4,737.6

9.5

41.1

255.9

440.3

1,099.2

3,032.4

606.1

1994

260,341,000

5,373.5

713.6

4,660.0

9.0

39.3

237.7

427.6

1,042.0

3,026.7

591.3

1995

262,755,000

5,275.9

684.6

4,591.3

8.2

37.1

220.9

418.3

987.1

3,043.8

560.4

1996

265,284,000

5,086.6

636.5

4,450.1

7.4

36.3

201.9

390.9

944.8

2,979.7

525.6

1997

267,637,000

4,930.0

611.3

4,318.7

6.8

35.9

186.3

382.3

919.4

2,893.4

506.0

1998

270,296,000

4,619.3

567.5

4,051.8

6.3

34.5

165.4

361.3

863.0

2,729.0

459.8

1999

272,691,000

4,266.8

524.7

3,742.1

5.7

32.7

150.2

336.1

770.0

2,551.4

420.7

Source: Federal Bureau of Investigation Uniform Crime Reports and the Disaster Center.

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crime problems that affect them, became increasingly popular. One of the ingredients of communityoriented policing is the close involvement of police officers with the communities to which they are assigned. As many police departments attempted to increase officer contacts with citizens, the number of police officers on the streets increased by approximately 11 percent in the United States over the decade; in Canada, however, the number of officers decreased by 11 percent. If the ratio of police officers to citizens affects the crime rates in communities, then the United States should have experienced a larger drop in crime than did Canada, but this was not the case. Technology had significant effects on policing during the 1990’s as computers became more efficient, affordable, and user-friendly. The use of computers permitted law-enforcement agencies to create shared databases and improve dispatching efficiency; computerization also facilitated police officers’ report writing and inquiries regarding criminal records. These technological improvements increased the effectiveness and efficiency of lawenforcement agencies. They also allowed individual law-enforcement agencies to become involved in multiagency investigations and task forces. Such interagency cooperation and sharing of information further increased the effectiveness of law enforcement. In the 1990’s, New York Police Department (NYPD) officials credited a new department accountability process called Compstat (from “computer statistics” or “comparative statistics”) with contributing to reductions in crime throughout the city. Compstat uses a management technique that departs from the community-oriented policing model that focuses on the street-level officer. With Compstat, police department personnel at the middlemanagement level are held responsible for what is happening in their precincts. These managers compare real-time crime statistics to identify crime hot spots in their precincts and meet with agency administrators and other commanders to discuss openly what they are doing that has been successful in reducing crime as well as what they are doing or plan to do in response to growing crime problems. Weekly brainstorming meetings provide opportunities for managers and officers to share information about what has worked for them in particular situations. This style of crime fighting emphasizes efforts such

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as removing graffiti, maintaining the appearance of neighborhoods, and enforcing laws concerning minor offenses, such as panhandling, to promote good quality of life in communities and to show potential criminals that citizens care about their neighborhoods. Police Commissioner William Bratton claimed that the downward trend in crime in New York City was the result of his management style and the use of Compstat. He further asserted that the decrease in crime in New York City had led to the national downturn in crime. Skeptics believed that part of the city’s success could be explained by the 15 percent increase in the number of police officers in New York during the 1990’s. Whatever the cause of the decline, Compstat began in the NYPD after Bratton became commissioner in 1993. The use of Compstat alone does not explain the downturn in crimes that began in 1991, nor does it explain why other cities— such as San Diego and San Jose, California, and Austin, Texas—experienced similar reductions in crime without Compstat. Could the increase in the number of police officers or the practice of community-oriented policing explain the downward trend in crime rates seen in the 1990’s? The actual decline began before Bill Clinton’s presidential administration began in 1993. One of President Clinton’s campaign promises included placing 100,000 more police officers on the streets of U.S. cities to develop the communitypolicing ideal. By the end of Clinton’s presidency, the numbers of officers had increased by approximately 40,000 to 60,000. Given that the decline in crime rates had started long before these additional officers were out enforcing the law, the increase in the number of officers cannot explain the initial drop in crime rates. However, this program may have influenced the sustained decline in crime during the 1990’s. As noted previously, crime rates in Canada dropped as well during this period, although that country actually experienced a decreased police presence. Although increased police presence was not a factor in diminishing crime in Canada, it appears to have been an influence in the United States. This claim may be somewhat supported by the fact that after President George W. Bush did away with Clinton’s program, the dramatic declines in crime rates seen in the 1990’s ceased.

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Gun Control Gun control laws restrict the legal purchase of firearms. Although such laws may help to decrease numbers of homicides, criminals are still able to obtain firearms through illicit means. During the 1990’s in Canada, guns remained the weapon of choice in homicides. Nevertheless, only one-third of the homicides in Canada involve the use of firearms. Canadian gun-ownership advocates argue that gun control merely keeps guns out of the hands of responsible citizens while failing to prevent the wrong people from getting firearms. Proponents of gun control credit such laws with the reduction in homicide rates. In the United States, two-thirds of homicides involve the use of firearms. The Brady Handgun Violence Prevention Act, known as the Brady bill, was signed into law in 1993; this law increased the waiting period for gun purchases. The increased control of firearms in the United States may have played a role in the reduction of violent crimes in the 1990’s. Arguments both for and against gun control in the United States parallel the arguments made in Canada.

In the United States, the nationwide incarceration rate began to increase in the 1980’s, growing by 42 percent over the next decade. As the incarceration rate increased in the United States, the crime rate started to drop. The argument that increased incarceration has a causal connection to the reduction in the crime rate implies that any gains made will be reversed when these offenders are released back to the streets. Canada’s incarceration rate fell by 3 percent from 1991 to 1999. Theorists have speculated that the decrease in the incarceration rate may be related to the higher rate of property crime in Canada, in comparison with the United States, during that period.

Incarceration

In the 1980’s, the rates of drug use in the United States and in Canada were close to equal. During this period, crack cocaine emerged as a popular drug, and what has been referred to as the “crack epidemic” is considered to have been a factor that contributed to high urban crime rates. Since the 1980’s, the United States has seen rates of arrests for drug use that are three times higher than the rates in Canada. It has been argued that the use of crack cocaine decreased in both countries during the 1990’s and that this decrease contributed to declines in crime.

Drugs

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Crime

Research on the causes of crime has consistently found a strong relationship between age and crime. Young people ages fifteen through twenty-four are more likely to be offenders than are persons in other age groups. During the 1990’s, the populations of both Canada and the United States experienced decreases in this age group. Some researchers credit the reduction of crime in Canada to an 18 percent reduction in the proportion of youths in the population. The reduction in the population of fifteen- to twenty-four-year-olds was the strongest common factor related to crime that occurred in both countries during the 1990’s.

Demographics

Impact During the 1990’s, reductions in crime rates contributed to a general feeling of social wellbeing in Canada and the United States. Subsequent studies have aimed to clarify the causes of these declines in crime. Because criminal justice policies differ between the two countries, the drops in crime cannot be tied to any particular criminal justice policies. The key to an understanding of the exact reasons for the decreases in crime rates in either of these nations during the 1990’s may depend on researchers’ ability to understand the causes of the similar declines in the other. The trend of declining crime rates continued in both Canada and the United States into the early years of the twenty-first century, but around 2005, the rates began to increase in several crime categories. Whereas legislators in the United States have focused on the issue of crime since the 1960’s, crime did not become a major political issue in Canada until much later. The increased political focus on crime and rising crime rates in Canada in the early twentyfirst century prompted public officials there to push for the passage of laws aimed at reducing crime, such as stricter gun control laws, antigang laws, and laws targeting young offenders. Further Reading

Chaiken, Jan M. “Crunching Numbers: Crime and Incarceration at the End of the Millennium.” National Institute of Justice Journal (January, 2000): 1017. Explores trends in crimes of violence and property offenses, analyzing possible relationships between diminished crime rates and increases in incarceration rates. Conklin, John. Why Crime Rates Fell. Boston: Pearson Education, 2003. Argues against some of the generally accepted explanations for the decline in

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crime rates during the 1990’s and offers instead reasons such as less reporting of offenses to police, a natural cycle of crime, and increased religious and family influences, among other factors. Gainsborough, Jenni, and Marc Mauer. Diminishing Returns: Crime and Incarceration in the 1990’s. Washington, D.C.: Sentencing Project, 2000. Presents a critical argument regarding the concept that increased incarceration during the 1990’s was responsible for the reduction in crime rates in the United States. Levitt, Steven. “Understanding Why Crime Fell in the 1990’s: Four Factors That Explain the Decline and Six That Do Not.” Journal of Economic Perspectives 18, no. 1 (Winter, 2004): 163-190. Looks at the decline in crime in the United States during the 1990’s, identifying the areas and degrees of decline. Takes a critical look at the reasons given for the drop in the crime rate. Messner, Steven, et al. “Policing, Drugs, and the Homicide Decline in New York City in the 1990’s.” Criminology 45, no. 2 (May, 2007): 385-414. Assesses changes in policing and the drug trade and the possible effect of these changes on the homicide rates in New York City during the 1990’s. Ouimet, Marc. “Crime in Canada and in the United States: A Comparative Analysis.” Canadian Review of Sociology and Anthropology 36, no. 3 (August, 1999): 389-408. Notes that for three decades leading up to the 1990’s, the crime rates in the United States and in Canada were very similar, and argues that the apparent difference between the two countries is explained by high crime rates in several large cities in the United States that skew the statistics used in analyses. _______. “Explaining the American and Canadian Crime ‘Drop’ in the 1990’s.” Canadian Journal of Criminology 44, no. 1 (January, 2002): 38-51. Argues that the decline of crime rates in both Canada and the United States was influenced by increased employment, changes in demographics, and changes in societal values. Sprott, Jane B., and Carla Cesaroni. “Similarities in Homicide Trends in the States and Canada: Guns, Crack, or Demographics.” Homicide Studies 6, no. 4 (2002): 348-359. Ties the decrease in homicide rates in both Canada and the United States to the changes in demographics in both countries. Zimring, Franklin E. “Seven Lessons from the

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1990’s.” In The Great American Crime Decline. New York: Oxford University Press, 2007. Addresses similarities and differences of potential causes of the decline in crime rates in the United States and in Canada. Argues that the reduction in crime rates was not the result of any single factor. Notes that the sole factor shared by both countries was the decline in the size of the youth population and asserts that this factor may play a larger role than many criminologists are willing to admit. Gerald P. Fisher See also Carjacking; Clinton, Bill; Drive-by shootings; Gun control; Hate crimes; Immigration Act of 1990; Louima torture case; North Hollywood shootout; Oklahoma City bombing; Olympic Park bombing; Police brutality; Ruby Ridge shoot-out; School violence; Shepard, Matthew; Terrorism; Three strikes laws.

■ Crown Heights riot The Event An anti-Semitic riot Date August 19-22, 1991 Place Brooklyn, New York

This was the first large-scale anti-Semitic riot in the United States. On a hot August night in 1991, seven-year-old Gavin Cato was riding his bicycle on the sidewalks of Crown Heights, a neighborhood in Brooklyn. A few miles away, graduate student Yankel Rosenbaum was conducting research for a doctorate. The events of the next few hours would link the two, bringing to the surface racial animosity in a quiet area of the city. The event would also reveal police ineffectiveness during a critical period. Finally, the event crippled the political career of New York’s first black mayor, David Dinkins. In 1991, Crown Heights was dominated by three cultural groups: Most residents were from the West Indies, slightly fewer were African Americans, and about 10 percent were Jews of the Hasidic Lubavitch sect, headquartered in Brooklyn, which emphasizes community self-help and commitment to religious principles and whose members have a distinctive personal appearance. Relations between the three groups were tense: All were competing for limited housing and services during a time of economic

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Police walk past a police car that was overturned by rioters on August 21, 1991, in the Crown Heights neighborhood of Brooklyn, New York. (AP/Wide World Photos)

scarcity. In 1990, in response to a $1.8 billion budget deficit, Mayor Dinkins slashed social services, laid off over 25,000 city workers, and raised taxes enormously. In tough times, any perceived preferential treatment of an ethnic group will be resented, and many African Americans thought that the Lubavitch were getting preferential treatment. One particularly difficult point was the police protection that accompanied the Lubavitch leader, Menachem Schneerson, when he traveled in the city. To the Lubavitch, protection was justified because Schneerson had been the subject of death threats. As Schneerson’s entourage sped through Crown Heights on the night of August 19, it was followed by a station wagon driven by Yosef Lifsh. He was not part of the motorcade but was following to help provide security. Trying to cross a major intersection, Lifsh struck another car, lost control, and hit Gavin Cato and his cousin Angela. The mood of the crowd that gathered was angry, and Lifsh was beaten. Po-

lice officers on the scene asked the first ambulance to arrive, a Jewish volunteer ambulance, to take Lifsh away quickly. The intent was to protect Lifsh, but the decision delayed care for Gavin and Angela Cato. Retaliation Without this shortsighted action, there probably would have been no riot. The perception seized upon by the crowd was that black children lay critically injured while Jewish adults received police protection and medical help. Although city ambulances arrived soon afterward, Gavin Cato died before he reached the hospital. When this news hit the street, hotheads in the crowd began inciting violence against any Jew that could be found. Several were terrorized, attacked, and beaten. A few blocks away and a couple hours later, Yankel Rosenbaum, a Jewish graduate student from Australia, was attacked by a crowd of young black men, one of whom stabbed him several times. The police soon found sixteen-year-old Lemrick Nelson hiding behind a bush; he had Rosenbaum’s blood on his pants

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and a bloody knife in his pocket. Despite multiple wounds, Rosenbaum was in stable condition when he arrived at a local hospital and would have survived had he been given adequate medical care, but Rosenbaum bled to death early the next morning. For three days, various groups of African Americans—many of whom were not residents of Crown Heights—rioted in the neighborhood, looting businesses, overturning cars, and throwing rocks through windows. On the first night of the riot, Dinkins and other civic leaders went to Crown Heights and were pelted with rocks. The mayor had to hide in the Cato household to avoid being severely injured. Control seemed to be handed over to various anti-Semitic agitators by day and rioters by night. For some, the physical damage was not as disturbing as marching crowds that chanted anti-Semitic slogans. Several accounts claim that an elderly Jewish woman named Bracha Estrin, a survivor of the Nazi holocaust, was so frightened and distraught that she committed suicide. Impact The Crown Heights riot was politically crippling to the city’s administration and law enforcement. Dinkins considered himself a harmonizer and envisioned the city as a beautiful mosaic of various groups living together peacefully. During the riot, this vision was ruined, and his administration lost credibility. The riot lasted as long as it did in part because police tactics were ineffective and were designed to prevent police brutality, not crime. The strategy was to establish a cordon and prevent the riot from spreading, hoping that the unrest would burn itself out. This measure protected neither property nor people in the area and proved unworkable. By the second day of the riot, police were ordered to break up groups of rioters. Police ineptitude also slowed efforts to find justice for Rosenbaum. Although Rosenbaum allegedly identified Nelson as his attacker, police officers kept no notes of the identification. In fact, no officer interviewed Rosenbaum until three hours after the event, when he was dying. Similarly, officers neglected to record Nelson’s confession; no one had him sign a document waiving his Miranda rights. When Nelson’s case came to trial in 1992, he was acquitted despite the mass of incriminating physical evidence. Not until 1997 was Nelson found guilty of violating Rosenbaum’s civil rights and sentenced to substantial time in prison.

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Further Reading

Evanier, David. “Invisible Man.” The New Republic 205, no. 16 (October 14, 1991): 21-26. This article profiles Yankel Rosenbaum. Gourevitch, Philip. “The Jeffries Affair.” Commentary 93 (March, 1992): 34-38. Argues that widespread anti-Semitism simmered within the African American intellectual community long before the riot. Lardner, James, and Thomas Reppetto. NYPD: A City and Its Police. New York: Henry Holt, 2000. Briefly overviews the significance of the riot to the police who had to quell it. Shapiro, Edward. Crown Heights: Blacks, Jews, and the 1991 Brooklyn Riot. Waltham, Mass.: Brandeis University Press, 2006. Overviews various interpretations of the riot. Michael R. Meyers See also African Americans; Dinkins, David; Hate crimes; Jewish Americans; Los Angeles riots.

■ Cruise, Tom Identification American actor Born July 3, 1962; Syracuse, New York

Already a major film star at the beginning of the decade, Cruise became a superstar alternating between commercial and more demanding film roles. After ending the 1980’s on a high note by earning his first Academy Award nomination for Born on the Fourth of July (1989), Cruise began the decade with two critical and commercial flops: the car-racing drama Days of Thunder (1990) and the Irish-immigrant saga Far and Away (1992). Days of Thunder was nonetheless notable for introducing the star to Australian actress Nicole Kidman, who became Cruise’s second wife, following his divorce from Mimi Rogers in 1990. The couple also costarred in Far and Away. Cruise then began an impressive string of hits. A Few Good Men (1992) was one of several Cruise films questioning those in authority. As a Navy attorney with a reputation for laziness, Cruise’s character discovers his true character while defending two Marines accused of murder. In The Firm (1993), Cruise played an even more naïve lawyer expected to sell his soul to succeed with a powerful yet sinister law firm. The moral choices made by Cruise’s char-

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acters in the comparatively anything-goes 1980’s became harder in the 1990’s. Interview with the Vampire (1994) offered Cruise one of the most controversial roles of his career because Anne Rice strongly opposed his casting in this adaptation of her popular 1976 novel but came to praise his work. The vampire Lestat was his first true villain, who seduces a Louisiana plantation owner (Brad Pitt) into a perpetual life of sin. Cruise’s star power helped turn Mission: Impossible (1996) into more than just another callous version of a popular television series. While not making great demands on Cruise as an actor, the role allowed the star to showcase his physical skills as he performed most of his own stunts. Jerry Maguire (1996) was Cruise’s most popular film with reviewers and audiences. The title character is a sports agent fired because of a crisis of conscience over the long-term needs of his clients. Left with a single client (Oscar winner Cuba Gooding,

Jr.) and a one-person staff (Renée Zellweger), Maguire sets about changing his life. Writer-director Cameron Crowe’s romantic comedy brought Cruise his second Academy Award nomination. Cruise ended the 1990’s by tackling two more serious roles. In Eyes Wide Shut (1999), the final film by legendary director Stanley Kubrick, Cruise played a Manhattan physician obsessed by sexual fantasies. Cruise then earned his third Oscar nomination, as Best Supporting Actor, for Paul Thomas Anderson’s Magnolia (1999). As a cynical self-help expert teaching male sexual prowess, Cruise’s Frank Mackey is estranged from his dying father (Jason Robards, Jr.) before finding some reconciliation. Impact A Few Good Men, The Firm, Interview with the Vampire, Mission: Impossible, and Jerry Maguire were worldwide hits, as Cruise solidified his position as a superstar. In addition, many of Cruise’s characters reflected the decade’s concern with shedding the materialistic values of the 1980’s. Further Reading

Crowe, Cameron. “Conversations with Cruise.” Vanity Fair, June, 2000, 218-233. Morton, Andrew. Tom Cruise: An Unauthorized Biography. New York: St. Martin’s Press, 2008. Studlar, Gaylyn. “Cruise-ing into the Millennium: Performative Masculinity, Stardom, and the AllAmerican Boy’s Body.” In Ladies and Gentlemen, Boys and Girls: Gender in Film at the End of the Twentieth Century, edited by Murray Pomerance. Albany: State University of New York Press, 2001. Michael Adams Academy Awards; Film in the United States; Pitt, Brad; Rice, Anne.

See also

■ Culture wars Sociopolitical conflicts, generally with liberals against conservatives

Definition

Usually nonviolent, the American culture wars of the 1990’s showed a chasm in worldviews between intense believers on different sides of issues centering on religion and race.

Tom Cruise attends a press conference in Germany to promote his movie Mission: Impossible. (AP/Wide World Photos)

Even if many Americans did not have strong opinions about all the particular issues in the culture wars, partisans on the two sides of each of those issues certainly did, and the sides tended to be liberal,

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Buchanan’s Republican National Convention Speech [The president] is our first diplomat, the architect of American foreign policy. And which of these two men is more qualified for that role? George Bush has been U.N. ambassador, CIA director, envoy to China. As vice president, he coauthored the policies that won the Cold War. As president, George Bush presided over the liberation of Eastern Europe and the termination of the Warsaw Pact. And Mr. Clinton? Well, Bill Clinton couldn’t find 150 words to discuss foreign policy in an acceptance speech that lasted an hour. As was said of an earlier Democratic candidate, Bill Clinton’s foreign policy experience is pretty much confined to having had breakfast once at the Intl. House of Pancakes. The presidency is also America’s bully pulpit, what Mr. Truman called, “preeminently a place of moral leadership.” George Bush is a defender of right-to-life, and lifelong champion of the JudeoChristian values and beliefs upon which this nation was built. Mr. Clinton, however, has a different agenda. At its top is unrestricted abortion on demand. When the Irish-Catholic governor of Pennsylvania, Robert Casey, asked to say a few words on behalf of the 25 million unborn children destroyed since Roe v. Wade, he was told there was no place for him at the podium of Bill Clinton’s convention, no room at the inn. Yet a militant leader of the homosexual rights movement could rise at that convention and exult: “Bill Clinton and Al Gore represent the most pro-lesbian and pro-gay ticket in history.” And so they do.

on the one hand, and conservative, on the other— or, according to sociologist James Davison Hunter, progressive and orthodox. It was in Culture Wars: The Struggle to Define America (1991) that Hunter made the term “culture wars” well known. By using the term in the singular during a speech at the 1992 Republican National Convention (RNC), Pat Buchanan further popularized it. In that RNC speech, Buchanan also referred to a “religious war” within America. That war

Religion

Bill Clinton supports school choice—but only for state-run schools. Parents who send their children to Christian schools, or Catholic schools, need not apply. Elect me, and you get two for the price of one, Mr. Clinton says of his lawyer-spouse. And what does Hillary believe? Well, Hillary believes that twelve-year-olds should have a right to sue their parents, and she has compared marriage as an institution to slavery—and life on an Indian reservation. . . . Friends, this is radical feminism. The agenda Clinton & Clinton would impose on America— abortion on demand, a litmus test for the Supreme Court, homosexual rights, discrimination against religious schools, women in combat— that’s change, all right. But it is not the kind of change America wants. It is not the kind of change America needs. And it is not the kind of change we can tolerate in a nation that we still call God’s country. . . . My friends, this election is about much more than who gets what. It is about who we are. It is about what we believe. It is about what we stand for as Americans. There is a religious war going on in our country for the soul of America. It is a cultural war, as critical to the kind of nation we will one day be as was the Cold War itself. And in that struggle for the soul of America, Clinton & Clinton are on the other side, and George Bush is on our side. And so, we have to come home, and stand beside him.

was mainly over whether divine, immutable law governs morality, and the war sometimes found liberals of various Christian denominations allied not only with one another but also with Reform Jews. On the other side were conservative Christians allied with Orthodox Jews and with conservative Christians from different denominations. Not even the matter of religious displays on public property provoked more intense, religiously charged argument than abortion. Although some participants in the dispute used a biological ap-

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proach, religious positions were hard to avoid. In fact, among the organizations championing the legalization of abortion was the Religious Coalition for Abortion Rights, which in 1993 became the Religious Coalition for Reproductive Choice. On the other side, the National Right to Life Committee, while nonsectarian, reflected conservative Catholic ideas on what its members considered the moral significance of an unborn child. Similarly, religion influenced disagreements about human sexuality, with liberals arguing against most restrictions on sexual activity involving consenting adults, and conservatives at least disapproving of sexual intercourse outside marriage, which they considered to be exclusively between just one woman and just one man. Thus, on one side of this cultural war, liberals usually avoided explicit disapproval of premarital heterosexual intercourse among adults and of adult homosexual activity, while conservatives, even if not advocating legislation against such practices, were often outspoken in their disapproval. This disagreement spread to sex education, with conservatives condemning programs that failed to stress chastity. Religion was also involved in other school conflicts, including the place of prayer in public schools and at school-sponsored events, like football games. Additionally significant was the way in which a religion, especially Christianity, could be talked about directly or indirectly in tax-supported schools, with even the term “Christmas vacation” being replaced in some schools because of the fear that it showed insensitivity to non-Christians. In the sense that race involves ethnicity, not merely skin color, the topic was also a major area from which conflict arose in the culture wars. Although ideas of inferiority based on pigmentation lingered, most Americans, when called upon publicly, objected to them. The question of preferential treatment, as through affirmative action, proved more vexing, with liberals in the culture wars tending to advocate it as a just measure to correct historical injustice, and conservatives arguing that it worked unjustly against innocent individuals and for the unqualified. Immigration to the United States also provoked controversy, especially when the immigrants had illegally crossed the border with Mexico. In general, the liberals in the culture wars sympathized with the

Race

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immigrants, who supposedly took low-paying jobs refused by natives of the United States and who, according to their sympathizers, lived as law-abiding persons who would have had to surmount high barriers to enter legally. Seeing, however, a threat to the nation, many conservatives contended that entering the United States illegally was itself a crime and that, unlike immigrants in the nineteenth and early twentieth centuries, those coming from Latin America in huge numbers in the 1990’s were entering a nation in which governmentally funded welfare payments were high and the pressure to assimilate or merely to learn English was low. Impact Providing subjects for commentators and reporters throughout the 1990’s, the various battles in the culture wars pointed to bitter differences between some Americans and occasionally captured the attention of almost every adult, as in the divergent reactions to Robert Mapplethorpe’s most controversial photographs, to the verdict of not guilty in the murder trial of O. J. Simpson, and to President Bill Clinton’s sexual relationship with Monica Lewinsky. Sometimes actual violence moved the phrase “culture wars” from metaphor toward reality, as when rioting broke out in Los Angeles in 1992 after the acquittal of four police officers charged with beating Rodney King and when a bomb exploded in Atlanta during the 1996 Summer Olympics. Usually, however, the culture wars were only a figuratively violent, though angry, struggle for a nation. Further Reading

Adams, Maurianne, et al., eds. Readings for Diversity and Social Justice. New York: Routledge, 2000. This textbook campaigns against what its editors consider injustice based on race, Jewishness, sex, sexual orientation, physical or mental disability, and socioeconomic status. Bork, Robert H. Slouching Towards Gomorrah: Modern Liberalism and American Decline. New York: ReganBooks, 1996. A jurist traces American social decay to excesses in egalitarianism and individualism. Buchanan, Patrick J. State of Emergency: The Third World Invasion and Conquest of America. New York: Thomas Dunne Books, 2006. A former presidential candidate argues that massive immigration, mostly illegal, threatens the United States with residents who choose not to assimilate.

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Fiorina, Morris P., with Samuel J. Abrams and Jeremy C. Pope. Culture War? The Myth of a Polarized America. New York: Pearson Longman, 2005. Relying on statistics, a political scientist states that the American populace is not greatly polarized, although political leadership is. Hunter, James Davison. Culture Wars: The Struggle to Define America. New York: Basic Books, 1991. A sociologist sees culture wars in late twentieth century America as struggles between the orthodox, who believe authority transcends themselves and never changes, and the progressive, who believe authority is subjective and rational. Strauss, William, and Neil Howe. The Fourth Turning: An American Prophecy. New York: Broadway Books, 1997. Dividing American history into cycles, each of about the length of a long life, these generational historians see every cycle as comprising four dominant moods, or “turnings,” with the

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1990’s being one of “unraveling” marked by culture wars. Zimmerman, Jonathan. Whose America? Culture Wars in the Public Schools. Cambridge, Mass.: Harvard University Press, 2002. An educational historian claims that twentieth century culture wars in public schools have been about American history and, more divisively, about religion. Victor Lindsey Abortion; Buchanan, Pat; Conservatism in U.S. politics; Education in the United States; Egan v. Canada; Homosexuality and gay rights; Immigration to the United States; Lewinsky scandal; Liberalism in U.S. politics; Los Angeles riots; Mapplethorpe obscenity trial; Olympic Park bombing; Race relations; Religion and spirituality in Canada; Religion and spirituality in the United States; Simpson murder case.

See also

D ■ Dahmer, Jeffrey Identification American serial killer Born May 21, 1960; Milwaukee, Wisconsin Died November 28, 1994; Portage, Wisconsin

Dahmer’s murders and the subsequent acts of necrophilia, dismemberment, preservation of body parts, and cannibalism shocked America and heightened fascination with serial killers.

ked and dazed while Dahmer left the apartment to buy beer. People who had contacted the police begged them to verify Sinthasomphone’s age and not to return him to Dahmer; the officers accepted Dahmer’s story that Sinthasomphone was twenty years old and Dahmer’s homosexual lover. The police accompanied Sinthasomphone and Dahmer back to Dahmer’s apartment and noticed an odd odor in the apartment. Had they investigated, they would have discovered dismembered body parts from previous victims. According to Dahmer’s confession, he murdered Sinthasomphone within minutes after the officers left. Four more victims would follow. The escape of intended victim Tracy Edwards on the evening of July 22, 1991, led to Dahmer’s arrest. Edwards fled Dahmer’s apartment with one hand handcuffed and returned accompanied by police to the apartment, where officers found a knife under Dahmer’s bed

Elements from Jeffrey Dahmer’s first murder in June, 1978, which involved dismemberment and the disposal of the body parts, were repeated in sixteen subsequent murders to which Dahmer confessed after his arrest in July, 1991. As a child and teenager, Dahmer had dissected dead animals, and he used these skills to dismember the body of Steven Hicks before disposing of it. In 1982, Dahmer moved in with his grandmother in West Allis, Wisconsin, and murdered three more victims in September and October, 1987, and March, 1988. He would usually target men he picked up in gay bars or on the street by promising them money for posing for pictures and/or sex. Some have speculated that he primarily selected gay men because he had a difficult time dealing with his own homosexuality. After he moved into an apartment in Milwaukee, his killings continued from February, 1989, through July, 1991, with thirteen more victims—the last six from May 24 to July 19, 1991. The circumstances surrounding victim number thirteen, a fourteenyear-old Laotian boy, Konerak Sinthasomphone, were especially troubling. Dahmer drugged his victims with a mixture of sleeping pills put into a beverage, but Sinthasomphone awoke and wandered outside completely naJeffrey Dahmer at his preliminary hearing. (AP/Wide World Photos)

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Damon, Matt

and photographs of dismembered bodies. A more thorough search revealed a dismembered head in a box in the refrigerator and a fifty-seven-gallon barrel of acid that held decomposing body parts. Impact Evidence gathered from Dahmer’s apartment and his 160-page confession led to comparisons to the character Hannibal Lecter from the 1988 novel and recently released film The Silence of the Lambs (1991). Dahmer’s trial in January and February, 1992, on fifteen counts of murder was heavily covered by the media. Dahmer had pleaded not guilty by reason of insanity but was convicted and sentenced to fifteen consecutive life sentences or 957 years because Wisconsin did not have the death penalty. The trial highlighted debates about the nature of insanity. According to his own statements in an interview, Dahmer underwent a religious conversion and was baptized in 1994 while imprisoned at Columbia Correctional Institution. Inmate Christopher Scarver beat Dahmer and another inmate to death on November 28, 1994. Because most of Dahmer’s victims were black men, there has been speculation whether Scarver, an African American, killed Dahmer out of revenge.

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■ Damon, Matt Actor, screenwriter, and film producer Born October 8, 1970; Boston, Massachusetts Identification

During the 1990’s, Damon showed himself to be among the most disciplined American actors as well as a remarkably gifted screenwriter. When the 1990’s began, Damon was a Harvard University undergraduate with a straight-A average and anticipated graduating in 1992. Damon, however, wanting an acting career, took leaves of absence to meet his acting obligations and finally decided to withdraw from Harvard. He went to Los Angeles, where his childhood friend, Ben Affleck, settled after high school. The two lived a marginal existence, making a meager living from whatever jobs they could find. Damon brought with him a draft of a one-act play he wrote at Harvard that his instructor urged him to expand. His progress was slow until he collaborated on the manuscript with Affleck. Finally, working on it through the spring and summer of 1994, the two completed the screenplay that became Good Will

Further Reading

Dahmer, Lionel. A Father’s Story. New York: William Morrow, 1994. Ratcliff, Roy, with Lindy Adams. Dark Journey Deep Grace: Jeffrey Dahmer’s Story of Faith. Abilene, Tex.: Leafwood, 2006. Schwartz, Anne E. The Man Who Could Not Kill Enough: The Secret Murders of Milwaukee’s Jeffrey Dahmer. New York: Birch Lane Press, 1992. Mark C. Herman Crime; Ferguson, Colin; Homosexuality and gay rights; Silence of the Lambs, The.

See also

Actors Matt Damon, right, and Ben Affleck in New York in November, 1997. The two friends wrote and starred in Good Will Hunting, released that year to critical acclaim. (AP/Wide World Photos)

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Hunting. By that time, Damon had acted in five films, none of them memorable. Neither expected to sell their film to a major production company. They toyed with the idea of raising enough money to produce it themselves. They insisted that the film provide an acting vehicle for both of them. Two Hollywood agents had enough faith in the screenplay to arrange an auction for it. Damon and Affleck had one stipulation: They would sell it only if the purchaser agreed to cast them in major roles in the ensuing film. Castle Rock bought the manuscript for $600,000, later selling it to Miramax for just under $1 million. Good Will Hunting was released as a film in 1997, with both of its authors playing prominent roles, including Damon as the title character. The film was enormously successful and won several prestigious awards, including two Academy Awards—one for Best Original Screenplay. Damon’s acting career was blossoming. He gave an admirable performance as an emaciated soldier with a drug problem in Courage Under Fire in 1996, a role for which he lost forty pounds. In the same year, he played in Glory Daze. He next acted in Chasing Amy (1997) and The Rainmaker (1997). In 1998, he played the title role in Saving Private Ryan, followed in 1999 by Dogma and The Talented Mr. Ripley. By this time, Damon was in great demand as an actor, commanding $5 million for every role he accepted. Impact Matt Damon’s rise to success demonstrates how perseverance can help people to accomplish their dreams. Faced with leaving Harvard to pursue his acting career, Damon encountered incredible difficulties but eventually prevailed. Further Reading

Busch, Kristen. Golden Boy: The Matt Damon Story. New York: Ballantine, 1998. Girod, Christina M. Matt Damon. San Diego, Calif.: Lucent Books, 2001. Greene, Meg. Matt Damon. Philadelphia: Chelsea House, 2001. R. Baird Shuman Academy Awards; Film in the United States; Saving Private Ryan.

See also

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■ Dances with Wolves Identification Revisionist Western Director Kevin Costner (1955) Date Released on November 9, 1990

A sympathetic treatment of Lakota (Sioux) culture, this film was one of the most successful Westerns of all time and sparked a revival of the genre during the 1990’s. Debuting in 1990, Dances with Wolves was a Hollywood blockbuster, earning $184 million domestically and $424 million worldwide. The movie won seven Oscars, including Best Picture and Best Director. Its sensitive portrayal of American Indians and environmental themes proved a winning combination with audiences and critics. The film centers on Costner as Lieutenant John J. Dunbar, a disillusioned Civil War hero who flees to the Dakota frontier. Stationed alone in the wilderness, the lieutenant begins a journey of self-discovery and metamorphosis as he gradually “goes native,” rejecting American society in favor of the Lakota culture he sees as more spiritual, life-affirming, and in tune with nature. As the story progresses, Dunbar sheds his Army blue, takes a white Sioux captive as his wife, and becomes a respected leader of the Sioux band. He is branded a traitor by his Army colleagues, portrayed as villainous savages in the movie. In expert detail, Costner allows audiences to experience Lakota culture, witness a dramatic buffalo hunt, and cheer as Dunbar’s Lakota brothers rescue him from captivity. The film ends with the lieutenant and his wife leaving their beloved tribe to its unhappy fate; an epilogue notes the Sioux’s ancient way of life is destined for destruction and disappearance. The epic’s beautifully rendered landscape scenes, sensitive American Indian characters, and antimilitary theme stuck a chord with 1990 moviegoers. Native Americans and critics hailed Dances with Wolves for overturning negative Hollywood stereotypes of American Indians, while animal rights activists and environmental groups applauded it as the first “eco-Western.” Costner attempted to portray American Indian culture accurately, utilizing Lakota language and indigenous actors, including Graham Greene, who secured an Oscar nomination for Best Supporting Actor. Although the film was a hit with critics, many academics and American Indian scholars were not so kind to the movie, claiming the film

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provided an unrealistic, romantic portrayal of Native American life that substituted the old ecologically minded “noble savage” stereotype for the “blood-thirsty savage” of classic Westerns. Far from revolutionary, the film stuck more closely to Hollywood formulas than first acknowledged, critics argued, having a white male as its central character, telling the story from a nonindigenous viewpoint, and setting the tale on the frontier among classic movie Indians, the Sioux. Impact Dances with Wolves spawned a number of American Indian-themed movies and documentaries that followed its lead in hiring indigenous actors and striving for cultural authenticity. Its box-office success also sparked a slew of successful gunslinger movies. The genre, however, failed to mount a lasting comeback. In particular, films with Native American leads set in modern times bombed at theaters, proving that American audiences still preferred some variant of the classic Hollywood Indian. Further Reading

Aleiss, Angela. Making the White Man’s Indian: Native Americans and Hollywood Movies. Westport, Conn.: Praeger, 2005. Kilpatrick, Jacquelyn. Celluloid Indians: Native Americans and Film. Lincoln: University of Nebraska Press, 1999. Mark Edwin Miller Academy Awards; Film in the United States; Native Americans; Religion and spirituality in Canada; Religion and spirituality in the United States; Unforgiven.

See also

■ Dayton Accords Peace agreement ending the war in Bosnia and Herzegovina Date Negotiated November 1-21, 1995; formally signed December 14, 1995 Identification

This agreement brought an end to the conflict among Bosnians, Croats, and Serbs within the area encompassing the independent country of Bosnia and Herzegovina, which received international recognition as a result of these accords. With the end of the Cold War, many changes occurred in Central and Eastern Europe. Throughout

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most of this region, the use of force was no longer generally acceptable to maintain governments that had come to power during the communist era. However, when four of the six constituent republics of Yugoslavia sought independence from the Serbiandominated federation, force was used to try to maintain the status quo. The ethnically mixed region that is now the country of Bosnia and Herzegovina was one of the four. After three and a half years of fighting, international pressure was brought to bear to bring about negotiations for a peaceful settlement. One key component of this successful international effort was cooperation between the United States and Russia. The Serbian faction looked to Russia as an ally, while the other Croats and Bosnians saw themselves as closer to the United States and Western Europe. With this coordinated pressure, the leaders of the factions agreed to join in the peace negotiations when invited by U.S. president Bill Clinton. The talks were held at a restricted area on the Wright-Patterson Air Force Base just outside Dayton, Ohio, and were led by Secretary of State Warren Christopher. President Clinton wanted the leaders to focus on the negotiations, not on the media. The conflict was a mixture of a civil war and an international conflict. Thus, the negotiators for the three ethnic groups/factions were Serbian president Slobodan Miloš evi6, Croatian president Franjo Tudjman, and Bosnian president Alija Izetbegovi6. Finally the agreement was reached, and it was initialed on November 21. Within the agreement, eleven major sections outlined the peaceful disengagement and withdrawal of the various military forces. It established the border for the new country. It also set up the framework for the constitution of Bosnia and Herzegovina, including the guarantee of human rights for all people within the country. The United Nations was given the task of establishing the necessary law-enforcement agencies to ensure the agreement’s nonpolitical nature. Impact The peace agreement formally ended the brutal conflict in Bosnia and Herzegovina and created a stable state. The fact that the United States could support and assist the Bosnians, who are primarily Muslims, illustrated that America was not automatically anti-Islam or only interested in helping Muslims when oil was at stake. This was also one ex-

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Serbian president Slobodan Miloševi6, left, Bosnian president Alija Izetbegovi6, Croatian president Franjo Tudjman, and U.S. secretary of state Warren Christopher applaud after initialing the Dayton Accords on November 21, 1995. (AP/Wide World Photos)

ample of how international cooperation could move the world toward peace. It was a high point in U.S.Russian relations. The two former Cold War rivals were able to overcome major policy differences to push the warring factions into fruitful negotiations. Within a broader context, it illustrated the leadership that America could give, and was willing to give, in solving regional conflicts.

See also Bosnia conflict; Christopher, Warren; Clinton, Bill; Cold War, end of; Foreign policy of the United States; Kosovo conflict; Russia and North America; United Nations.

Further Reading

The Event

Bose, Sumantra. Bosnia After Dayton: Nationalist Partition and International Intervention. New York: Oxford University Press, 2002. Chollet, Derek. The Road to the Dayton Accords: A Study of American Statecraft. New York: Palgrave Macmillan, 2005. Cousens, Elizabeth M. Toward Peace in Bosnia: Implementing the Dayton Accords. Boulder, Colo.: Lynne Rienner, 2001. Donald A. Watt

■ Dead Sea scrolls publication Dispute over the control and publication of many previously unpublished scrolls Date Available beginning in 1991 Manuscripts of the Dead Sea scrolls were made available to all people with the requisite language skills to read them. The Dead Sea scrolls are a group of approximately nine hundred Hebrew, Aramaic, and Greek texts discovered between 1947 and 1956 in ele ven caves in bluffs overlooking the western shore of the Dead Sea. Of these scrolls, very few were found

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complete and intact. Approximately a quarter of them were of books in the Hebrew Bible (only Esther is not represented) or other texts considered scriptural by some groups but not others. The rest are extra-biblical texts treating topics such as theology, worship, life in a religious community, war, and the future. The earliest publications, which appeared in the 1950’s, were of complete or nearly complete manuscripts. The remaining texts, usually more fragmentary, were assigned to a small group of distinguished scholars to piece together, edit, and translate. These scholars, once they had invested time in the painstaking work of editing the manuscripts, understandably also wanted to publish the earliest scholarly discussions of them. A dispute arose over the pace of the publication of the scrolls, and it came to a head in 1991. Most parties agreed that the pace had been too slow and that the scrolls needed to be distributed more broadly. In the late 1980’s, Hershel Shanks, editor of the Biblical Archaeology Review (BAR), began pushing for making photos of the scrolls generally available. In 1990, authorities in Israel, where the scrolls were being kept, dismissed the translation team and appointed Emanuel Tov as the new head of the translation project. He, in turn, appointed a new team of sixty translators. In 1991, the BAR began publishing the texts from Cave 4, the cave with the largest number of manuscripts. These texts were reconstructed by Ben Zion Wacholder and Martin G. Abegg, professors at the Hebrew Union College in Cincinnati, Ohio, from a concordance of manuscripts in Cave 4. The concordance—which listed all the words in the manuscripts along with the name of the book and the number of the page and line in which they appeared—was produced in the 1950’s but not published until 1988. Next, the publisher of the BAR issued a two-volume collection of photographs of the unpublished scrolls. About the same time, a donor secured two sets of photographic copies of the scrolls from the Jerusalem Department of Antiquities and gave one set to Claremont University and the other to the Huntington Library in San Marino, California. The library soon made available its photographs to all qualified scholars. Since then, several scholars have published their own studies. The official publication of the scrolls continues, however, in the Discoveries in the Judean Desert series published by Oxford University.

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Impact The speed with which the Dead Sea scrolls became available to all scholars was increased after 1991, and the scrolls have revealed information about groups outside of Rabbinic Judaism and early Christianity. Further Reading

Eisenman, Robert, and Michael Wise. The Dead Sea Scrolls Uncovered: The First Complete Translation and Interpretation of Fifty Key Documents Withheld for over Thirty-five Years. New York: Penguin Books, 1992. Martínez, Florentino García. The Dead Sea Scrolls Translated: The Qumran Texts in English. 2d ed. Leiden, Netherlands: E. J. Brill, 1994. Paul L. Redditt See also Archaeology; Jewish Americans; Literature in the United States; Publishing; Religion and spirituality in the United States.

■ Death Row Records Identification Rap music record label Date Founded in 1991 Place Los Angeles, California

Death Row Records was responsible for launching the careers of some of America’s most successful rap artists. Death Row Records was founded in 1991 by rappers Dr. Dre and Suge Knight. Dr. Dre had a successful career in the music industry throughout the 1980’s. While trying to break his contract with Ruthless Records, he met Knight, bodyguard to rapper The D.O.C. The two began talking with artists and started Death Row with the help of The D.O.C. and John Payne. Interscope Records provided the financial backing for the label in exchange for exclusive distribution of their artists. Death Row’s first release, Dr. Dre’s solo album, The Chronic (1992), featured new rap artists, including Daz Dillinger, Kurupt, The Lady of Rage, RBX, and Snoop Doggy Dogg (later Snoop Dogg). The album sold more than three million copies and legitimized Death Row. The following year, Death Row released Snoop Doggy Dogg’s debut album, Doggystyle. The album rocketed to number one, outselling The Chronic. Along with the record label’s early successes, Death

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Row produced multiplatinum sound tracks, including music for Above the Rim (1994) and Snoop Doggy Dogg’s Murder Was the Case (1994). With the label’s success and attention also came criticism and concern. The label was blasted for glorifying crime and violence. As the controversy increased, Interscope’s parent company, Time Warner, sought to disassociate itself with the label and sold all of its shares in Interscope to MCA Music Entertainment in 1995. In 1995, Suge Knight posted bail for rap artist Tupac Shakur in exchange for Shakur signing with Death Row. The two joined forces against the newly started New York-based Bad Boy Records and its chief executive officer Sean Combs, later known as Puff Daddy, and rapper Notorious B.I.G. The two labels began a bicoastal feud, in which artists on both labels would lyrically insult and antagonize one another. Shakur’s All Eyez on Me, released in 1996, sold

over ten million copies and became Death Row’s most successful album to date. In September, 1996, Shakur was shot and killed in Las Vegas, Nevada, while driving in Knight’s car. Knight was sentenced to nine years in prison after violating his parole by engaging in a fight prior to Shakur’s death. Dr. Dre had left the label in 1996, and with Knight’s incarceration, the label imploded. In 1997, Interscope sold its interest in the label. Death Row Records continued, but without its main artists was never the same. Impact Death Row Records is responsible for discovering and producing some of rap’s most successful acts. It provided encouragement, financial backing, and distribution for artists who had no other vehicle and elevated rap music by delivering it to the masses. Further Reading

Brown, Jake. Suge Knight: The Rise and Fall of Death Row Records. Phoenix: Colossus Books, 2002. An in-depth biography of Death Row cofounder Suge Knight. Ro, Ronin. Dr. Dre: The Biography. New York: Thunder’s Mouth Press, 2007. A complete examination of Death Row cofounder Dr. Dre. _______. Have Gun Will Travel. New York: Broadway Books, 2000. A thorough account of the rise and fall of Death Row Records. Sara Vidar Censorship; Electronic music; Grunge music; Hip-hop and rap music; In Living Color ; Music; Rock the Vote; Shakur, Tupac.

See also

■ Defense budget cuts Definition

Reductions in the budget of the U.S.

military American military spending dropped dramatically in the early and mid-1990’s because of reduced threats and obligations. The change in the political landscape required a reevaluation of American defense priorities, forcing the military to make serious decisions about its future force structure and equipment needs. Dr. Dre, seen here in 1995, founded Death Row Records with Suge Knight in 1991. Dr. Dre left the rap label in 1996. (AP/Wide World Photos)

Changing political considerations forced the United States to reconsider its defense needs for the 1990’s. The collapse of the Soviet Union led to the

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end of the Cold War, and America’s traditional enemy for the previous forty years no longer existed. America now had to reconsider what threats remained, decide what weapons systems were needed to counter those threats, and, most important, how much money to spend to defend against those threats. Coupled with this was a desire to reassess the budget priorities of the U.S. government. After spending massive sums of money to counter the Cold War threat posed by the Soviets, some politicians now hoped to divert those funds to domestic programs. This “peace dividend,” as domesticminded politicians called the decline in defense spending, could now fund education, health, and welfare programs. Declines in defense spending began during the presidency of George H. W. Bush (1989-1993). From a high of $376 billion (adjusted for inflation) in fiscal year 1989, defense spending declined to $317 billion by the end of Bush’s presidency. While part of the spending decline came from a reduction of Cold War military forces and the end of procurement for some weapons systems, the bulk of the cuts came from the Base Closure and Realignment Commission (BRAC). Formed to evaluate the value of America’s defense infrastructure, BRAC recommended the closing of redundant military facilities and altering the mission of other bases to make them relevant in the post-Cold War era. The closing of numerous bases and facilities (twenty-six during Bush’s presidency) allowed the Defense Department to trim its budget without reducing its military effectiveness. During the presidency of Bill Clinton (19932001), the decline in defense spending accelerated. From $312 billion in his first full fiscal year as president, Clinton continued to spend less on defense, reaching a low of $262 billion in 1999. The cuts came from a variety of sources. First, Clinton permitted BRAC to continue its work, and the commission recommended additional base closings throughout the 1990’s. Throughout Clinton’s time in office, BRAC closed fifty-five bases and realigned another fiftyseven, saving the Defense Department several billion dollars. Second, the Pentagon began to draw down the number of military personnel and amount of equipment that was forward-deployed for potential operations against the Soviet Union. Without a real Soviet threat, the Defense Department could re-

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deploy those soldiers and equipment back to the continental United States, reducing the costs of transporting and supporting those forces. Next, the military began to “outsource” many of its support obligations, such as logistics, administrative, and medical care, finding that outside suppliers could perform these tasks cheaper than the military could itself. Trimming budgets and finding more efficient ways of spending existing dollars was not enough; units and personnel would have to be cut as well. Over the course of Clinton’s presidency, all branches of the armed forces saw significant cuts in the number of available formations. The Army, for instance, saw a decrease of more than 600,000 troops, as the number of maneuver units dropped from eighteen divisions to ten. The Air Force shrank from thirtynine operational fighter wings to twenty, along with a nearly 40 percent cut in the number of personnel. The Navy shrank from 569 ships (including fifteen aircraft carriers) to 315 (including eleven aircraft carriers). One side effect of the reduction of standing military forces was the increased reliance on the National Guard and Reserves. When the Pentagon disbanded standing units, their equipment often wound up in the hands of the National Guard and Reserves, improving the latter’s ability to carry out its missions. On the other hand, because of the shortage of personnel in the standing military, the Pentagon planned to use National Guard and Reserves formations more frequently in the advent of future combat. Lastly, the Pentagon trimmed its budget through early retirement of some equipment and cancellation of some procurement programs. Forced to make budget decisions, the military services opted to keep new weapons systems and to suspend the use of older systems that still had some useful service left. The Navy, for instance, began to decommission its fossil-fueled aircraft carriers in favor of its nuclear-powered ones. The Navy also decommissioned a large number of nuclear-powered submarines several years before the end of their intended service lives rather than pay to update or refuel them. In a similar manner, the Air Force suspended use of the C-141 cargo plane and EF-111 electronic warfare aircraft. The Army scrapped its fleet of older M-60 battle tanks in favor of its newer M-1 tanks. New defense projects were canceled outright or had the programs stretched out to lower their costs. The Navy, for ex-

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ample, canceled the AX attack aircraft program in 1993, while the Pentagon stretched out the interservice V-22 aircraft program over several years to reduce its costs. Impact The impact of diminished defense spending in the 1990’s depends on which critic is offering an opinion. To liberals, lower defense spending meant more money for social programs and increased attention to important internal American issues. To conservatives, the decline of defense spending made America vulnerable, especially to the new threats that emerged in the twenty-first century. Further Reading

Ippolito, Dennis S. Blunting the Sword: Budget Policy and the Future of Defense. Washington, D.C.: National Defense University, 1994. Assessing the first budget-cutting efforts of the Clinton administration, Ippolito opines that defense cutting up to 1994 was sufficient, but warns against future cuts. Kaufmann, William W. Assessing the Base Force: How Much Is Too Much? Washington, D.C.: Brookings Institution, 1992. A conservative commentary on defense spending and the end of the Cold War. Kaufmann cautions against excessive cuts to the military, which could prove expensive to rebuild later, that might threaten U.S. security. Weidenbaum, Murray L. Small Wars, Big Defense: Paying for the Military After the Cold War. New York: Oxford University Press, 1992. A liberal commentary on defense spending and the end of the Cold War. Weidenbaum argues that America needs to reassess its concept of “defense” in an era where major enemies no longer exist. Steven J. Ramold Balanced Budget Act of 1997; Bosnia conflict; Bush, George H. W.; Clinton, Bill; Cold War, end of; Don’t ask, don’t tell; Foreign policy of the United States.

See also

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Defense of Marriage Act of 1996

■ Defense of Marriage Act of 1996 A federal law that quarantined samesex marriages to individual states that allowed them Date Enacted on September 21, 1996 Definition

The act was a major national victory for cultural conservatives attempting to prevent the spread of same-sex marriage. Few issues are as perpetually contentious in American society as the right for homosexuals to marry one another. The Defense of Marriage Act of 1996 (DOMA) could be viewed as the final chapter in a long debate surrounding same-sex marriage to that point in time. After all, according to the act, no state has to recognize a same-sex marriage performed in another state, and further, the federal government will not recognize same-sex marriages. However, like other issues in constitutional law, the DOMA did not so much close the book on the debate as start a new chapter on it. The DOMA was overwhelmingly passed by the Republican-controlled legislature of 1996. It was passed in a political climate of ascending Christian evangelism, a precipitous decline in moderate cultural voices in government, and a shift in the South from long-held Democratic Party control to firm Republican Party control. Indeed, the act cannot be viewed in the vacuum of the gay rights movement and its stalwart oppositional movement but must be understood as part of a broader movement of cultural conservatism. The act is very much cut from the same cloth as legislation concerning abortion, tough-on-crime laws, and church-and-state issues: so-called morality politics. There is little room for political compromise when each side comes to the table with a stubborn notion of either biblical truth or scientific absolutism. Clashes over such morality issues are fierce, and generally victory goes to those with the greatest raw numbers on a particular vote. In 1996, advocates of the act saw it as a codification of what had already been an established national tradition for centuries: that marriage is between one man and one woman. Conversely, proponents of same-sex marriage saw the act as an affront to the minority rights of a legitimate segment of American society. One thing is certain, however, given the policy climate leading up to the passage of the DOMA and the continued debate about same-

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sex marriage following its enactment—the act was not so much a vote for traditional marriage as it was, pragmatically, a vote against same-sex marriage and by extension the validity of homosexual lives in general. There would have been no DOMA, of course, if President Clinton had not signed the act into law. Cynics could point out Clinton’s beleaguered reputation when it came to traditional marriage and thus understand his backing of the law in terms of political expediency. Alternatively, Clinton can be viewed as a rare moderate voice in the 1996 political scene that saw shades of gray when most saw black and white. Clinton drew out a position that backed homosexual rights generally but also respected the sanctity of marriage, an institution woven into the very fabric of American society. Put another way, by signing the bill and backing gays simultaneously, he split the difference on the issue. Impact After the bill’s passage, there was not a tidal wave of states that enacted same-sex marriage laws. In 1996, this was the thinking among many politicians, particularly given the 1993 Hawaii Supreme Court case that laid out the legal foundations of same-sex marriage. What did happen was that Massachusetts legalized same-sex marriage in 2004, and thirty-nine other states codified their own defense of marriage acts in one form or another. Again, proponents of same-sex marriage paint this barrage of defense of marriage acts as a classic case of tyranny of the majority. The epilogue to this tale of controversial policy has not yet been written, but thus far the legislative successes of the camp opposed to same-sex marriage have been stronger and more frequent, while the pro-gay marriage group seems to have been on the defensive since the passage of the 1996 act. Following the DOMA, the anti-gay marriage lobby switched to a state-level strategy of blocking same-sex marriages. With its federal-level foundation in place, the lobby could pursue legislative tactics favoring its point of view in each individual state.

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Pinello, Daniel R. America’s Struggle for Same-Sex Marriage. New York: Cambridge University Press, 2006. R. Matthew Beverlin See also Christian Coalition; Clinton, Bill; Clinton’s scandals; Conservatism in U.S. politics; Domestic partnerships; Don’t ask, don’t tell; Gingrich, Newt; Homosexuality and gay rights; Liberalism in U.S. politics; Marriage and divorce.

■ DeGeneres, Ellen Identification American comedian and actor Born January 26, 1958; Metairie, Louisiana

In April, 1997, DeGeneres came out on the cover of Time magazine. Later that month, her character came out on her popular sitcom, Ellen, making it the first prime-time television show with a gay or lesbian main character. Comedian Ellen DeGeneres gained fame in the early 1980’s without reference to her sexual orienta-

Further Reading

Hull, Kathleen E. Same-Sex Marriage: The Cultural Politics of Love and Law. New York: Cambridge University Press, 2006. Mezey, Susan Gluck. Queers in Court: Gay Rights Law and Public Policy. Lanham, Md.: Rowman & Littlefield, 2007.

Ellen DeGeneres hosts the 1996 Grammy Awards in Los Angeles. (AP/Wide World Photos)

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tion. Indeed, she made a point to keep her private life and her relationship with actress Anne Heche separate from her career. Her stand-up act was popular. She appeared on The Tonight Show Starring Johnny Carson early in her career, and she felt she could achieve stardom with her skills. DeGeneres launched her own sitcom called These Friends of Mine in 1994. The show underwent a few casting and plot changes before emerging as Ellen later that year. Its ratings were always decent, but never huge, and producers suggested giving the title character a puppy to attract viewers. However, the star had other ideas. As the 1990’s neared an end, DeGeneres decided that allowing an element of her private life to go public would be more honest. When her character came out, she did it in a big way, in 1997, allowing the title character on Ellen to discover that she was a lesbian in an hour-long episode featuring numerous guest stars. The episode was dubbed “The Puppy Episode” in joking reference to the producers’ idea for spicing up the show. Besides attracting the program’s highest ratings ever, the episode won one of the five Emmy Awards for which it was nominated (Best Comedy Writing), as well as a Peabody Award. Many people praised Ellen and its creator for courage. However, not all feedback was positive. Many people, particularly those among the Religious Right, were unhappy when the following season was used to explore Ellen’s lesbian identity. Ratings slumped during the 1997-1998 season, and Ellen was canceled in April of 1998. DeGeneres believed that homophobia caused the show’s cancellation, though the American Broadcasting Company (ABC) argued it was due to the ratings slump. Impact The character’s coming out was viewed as a success by gay and lesbian rights activists. However, the Religious Right objected strenuously to a primetime television program with a lesbian lead character. Moreover, even before its cancellation, ABC placed parental warnings before episodes containing lesbian kisses or other gay/lesbian-themed material it deemed potentially offensive. However, the show’s cancellation did not end its title star’s career. She returned in 2003 with a popular talk show on daytime television. Further Reading

DeGeneres, Betty. Love, Ellen: A Mother-Daughter Journey. New York: Rob Weisbach Books, 1999.

Tracy, Kathleen. Ellen: The Real Story of Ellen DeGeneres. Secaucus, N.J.: Carol, 1999. Jessie Bishop Powell Censorship; Comedians; Domestic partnerships; Etheridge, Melissa; Homosexuality and gay rights; Lang, K. D.; Television; Will and Grace.

See also

■ Demographics of Canada The size, composition, and distribution of the population of Canada

Definition

The population of Canada represented about 26 million at the beginning of the 1990’s and about 31 million at the end of 1999. In the 1990’s, Canada’s population also shifted significantly from rural areas to urban ones. Canada surveys its population every five years. During the 1990’s, censuses were conducted in 1991 and 1996. Therefore, population in years other than 1991 and 1996 is estimated. During the 1990’s, the population of Canada increased by about 10 percent. Population may increase naturally, when births exceed deaths, or because of migration, when immigration exceeds emigration. In the ten provinces and two territories of Canada, population growth was widely varied in the 1990’s. Newfoundland saw its population decrease between the two censuses. Saskatchewan, Nova Scotia, Prince Edward Island, Quebec, and Manitoba were growing at rates below the national average of 5.7 percent, while Ontario, British Columbia, and the Yukon and Northwest Territories were growing at rates exceeding the national average. British Columbia and the two territories were growing at rates greater than twice Canada’s average. Newfoundland, the only province of Canada to have observed a decline in population, is located at the extreme east of the North American continent, far from the major metropolitan areas. The province suffered from the economic collapse of fisheries in the early 1990’s, which led to the emigration of fishermen and their families toward urban areas offering better prospects of employment. Ontario and Quebec in the eastern part of Canada make up more than 60 percent of Canada’s population. Their population is highly concentrated in the metropolitan areas of Toronto, Montreal, and Ottawa. About 40 percent of the population of On-

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tario lives in Toronto, and 47 percent percent of the population of Quebec inhabits Montreal. During the decade, these two provinces did not grow at the same rates. This was not a recent phenomenon: From 1951 to 1996, Quebec suffered a decrease in population of 4.2 percent, while Ontario’s population was increasing by 4.5 percent. Fertility is computed as the number of children per woman. In order to replace two parents, and taking into account the mortality rate, a replacement level of 2.1 is needed. Fertility has had by far the strongest impact on population growth in Canada since World War II, and the 1990’s was no exception. Fertility decreased in every province and territory and in almost all racial groups. Only women of aboriginal (2.86), Arab/West Asian (2.56), and South Asian descent (2.26) had replacement fertility rates higher than 2.1 children per woman. Effects of Immigration During the decade, the population of Canada grew substantially as a result of immigration from the Balkan countries. This region provided between 21 and 28 percent of the refugees entering Canada between 1994 and 2000, mostly from the former Yugoslavia. These immigrants mainly settled in Ontario, and a survey showed that they were more likely to have a university degree than were immigrants from Asia. Immigrants arriving from Asia were more likely to settle in British Columbia. From 1991 to 1996, this international migration accounted for 45 percent of the very rapid population growth observed in British Columbia. Migration between provinces and the rate of natural increase (birth rates minus death rates) represented 35 percent and 20 percent, respectively, of the population growth. Canada is a bilingual country, with both English and French having an equal legal status in Canada. In the 1996 Census, 67.6 percent of Canadians indicated that they spoke English at home, compared to 22.6 percent who spoke French and 9.8 percent who spoke a nonofficial language. In New Brunswick, 68.9 percent of the population spoke English and 30.5 percent spoke French; in Quebec, 10.8 percent spoke English and 82.8 percent spoke French. More than 30 percent of the population spoke an aboriginal language in the Northwest Territories. The ten most spoken languages (other than English, French, and aboriginal languages) indicated in the 1996 Census were Chinese, Italian, Punjabi,

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Spanish, Portuguese, Polish, German, Arabic, Tagalog (Filipino), and Vietnamese. These languages were spoken mostly by new immigrants, who had a tendency to settle in urban areas. For instance, the largest metropolitan areas where a nonofficial language was spoken by more than 10 percent of the population were Toronto (24.9 percent), Vancouver (22.5 percent), Montreal (12.1 percent), Kitchener and Windsor (11 percent), and Hamilton (10 percent). The 1996 Census also collected information on Canadians’ mother tongue, defined as the language that the person surveyed understood as a child and could still understand. The Census showed a language shift toward English. People who spoke a nonofficial language when they were growing up were likely to switch to English later in life. EnglishFrench bilingualism in Canada increased slightly in the 1990’s, from 16.3 percent in 1991 to 17 percent in 1996. The largest proportions of bilingual Canadians were observed in Quebec (37.8 percent) and in New Brunswick (32.6 percent) in 1996. In the provinces of Newfoundland, Prince Edward Island, Nova Scotia, Saskatchewan, Alberta, and the Yukon Territory, more than 90 percent of the population spoke English. Impact The decrease in birth rates led to an increase in the median age of Canadians. In 1959, when fertility rates were much higher (3.9 children per woman), the median age of Canadians was 25.4. This period is known as the baby-boom years. By 1996, the fertility rate had dropped to 1.7 and the median age was 35.3. This led to the aging of the Canadian population and to growing concerns about health care demands, fewer children, and increasing cost of pensions paid by fewer people in the workforce. The aboriginal community had a lower median age of 21.4 years and a lower proportion of people older than sixty-five because they had at the same time a higher fertility and a lower life expectancy. Further Reading

Beaujot, Roderic, and Don Kerr. The Changing Face of Canada: Essential Readings in Population. Toronto: Canadian Scholars’ Press, 2007. This book studies Canadian population over the previous few decades and the implications of population changes in sociology, economics, and geography. Colburn, Kerry, and Rob Sorensen. So, You Want to Be

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Canadian: All About the Most Fascinating People in the World and the Magical Place They Call Home. San Francisco: Chronicle Books, 2004. This book details the peculiarities of Canadians, from their social policies to their culture with a great sense of humor. Ferguson, Will, and Ian Ferguson. How to Be a Canadian. 2d ed. Vancouver: Douglas & McIntyre, 2008. This book introduces the Canadian population to Americans in a comic style. Denyse Lemaire Demographics of the United States; Immigration to Canada; Minorities in Canada.

See also

■ Demographics of the United States The size, composition, and distribution of the population of the United States

Definition

During the 1990’s, the major demographic trends of the preceding two decades continued, including the trend toward greater diversity, improvements in health, increased high school graduation rates, and a widening gap between the wealthy and the poor. Most of the trends were expected to persist into the foreseeable future. The U.S. Census Bureau reported in 1990 that the total population of the United States was 249.5 million people. Ten years later, the census reported that the number of people had grown to 282.1 million. This growth of 13.1 percent was significantly higher than the 9.8 percent increase during the 1980’s, although it was much less than the 18.5 percent increase during the baby boom of the 1950’s. For perspective, it might be noted that the national populations of the eighteenth and nineteenth centuries had typically grown by more than 30 percent per decade, with several decades witnessing a growth rate of more than 40 percent. The changes in arrangements during the 1990’s were generally similar to the patterns of the preceding two decades. In 1990, 56 percent of persons fifteen years of age and older were married; in 1999, the figure was 52.7 percent—which was a rather dramatic decline from the 71 percent recorded in 1970. A notable increase was in the percentage of femaleheaded households without a spouse, growing from

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11.7 percent in 1990 to 12.3 percent in 1999, in contrast to only 8.7 percent in 1970. Concomitantly, the percentage of children living with both parents was 67.2 percent in 1999, down from 72.5 percent in 1990 and 85.2 percent in 1970. Income The median household income in 1999 was $42,187, which was significantly higher than the median of $38,446 in 1990 (adjusted for inflation in 1999 dollars). An unprecedented number of Americans were enjoying high incomes. In 1999, about 13.4 percent of households reported incomes of $100,000 or more—an increase from 8.7 percent in 1990 (adjusted for inflation). While the decade was a time of rising affluence, household incomes became somewhat more unequal. In 1990, households in the top income quintile had 46.6 percent of the nation’s aggregate income, rising to 49.6 percent in 1999. Those in the other four quintiles saw their incomes decline. The bottom fifth saw a decrease from 3.9 percent in 1990 to 3.6 percent in 1999. During the 1990’s, women’s earnings increased slightly more rapidly than those of men. In 1990, the average earnings of full-time female workers was 71.6 percent of the average earnings of men, and it increased to 74.2 percent in 1999. The percentage of wives who earned more than their husbands increased from 18.9 percent in 1990 to 22.7 percent in 1999. During the decade, as more and more women entered the labor force, the majority of two-earner households did very well, having an average income growth of 10 percent (adjusted for inflation); in contrast, the income of one-earner couples declined by almost 5 percent. The poverty rate of the 1990’s decreased only slightly, going from 13.5 percent in 1990 to 11.8 percent in 1999. In contrast, the poverty rate of the 1960’s had declined substantially, coming down from about 22 percent in 1960 to slightly more than 11 percent in 1973. The less favorable poverty statistics of the years after 1980 are commonly explained by a combination of factors, including fewer government programs, the growth in immigration and single-parent families, and the decline in high-paying jobs in manufacturing. The poverty rate varied greatly among different social groups. In 1999, for example, only 10.4 percent of persons over sixty-five years old were officially poor, compared with 16.9 percent of children under eighteen. A total of 23.5 million whites (or

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10.5 percent) were classified as poor; the comparable figures for Hispanics were 8 million (25.6 percent), and 9 million (26.1 percent) for blacks. The large number of poor female-headed families was recognized as a major social problem. In 1999, the poverty rate for such families was 27.8 percent: 39.3 percent for blacks, 38.1 for Hispanics, and 18.6 percent for whites. Health There were some improvements in the health of Americans during the 1990’s. In 1990, 77 percent of the population reported that they considered their health to be good, and the percentage increased to 79.2 percent in 1999. This improvement, however, was only half as large as the improvement that had occurred during the 1980’s. Likewise, the percentage of people smoking tobacco products declined from 25.5 percent in 1990 to 23.5 percent in 1999, whereas the 1980’s had seen a decline of almost 10 percent. The percentage of people having health insurance during the 1990’s did not change in any discernable pattern, for it simply fluctuated between 85 and 86 percent. One of the more positive indicators of well-being was the continuing decline in the infant mortality rate, which went from 9.2 deaths per 1,000 live births in 1990 to 7.1 in 1999. This was a continuation of a long-term trend, having previously declined from 26 in 1960 to 12.6 in 1980. Experts attributed most of the decline to improvements in medical attention at birth. Despite this improvement, however, critics noted that by 1999 most western European countries had achieved a rate of five or fewer deaths. The Department of Health and Human Services reported a small increase in average life expectancy at birth, rising from 75.4 years in 1990 to 76.7 years in 1999. For men, life expectancy rose from 71.8 years in 1990 to 73.9 years in 1999. For women, in contrast, the increase was less, rising from 78.8 to 79.4. Some experts suggested that the relative lack of gain for women was due to their greater participation in the labor market with its accompanying stress. The racial disparity in average life expectancy was particularly striking. African Americans of both sexes died about ten years younger than did European Americans. The decade saw more than 360,000 new diagnosed cases of acquired immunodeficiency syndrome (AIDS), a number that represented about half of the total number diagnosed since the disease

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had been identified in 1981. African Americans accounted for 44 percent of reported AIDS cases. Women accounted for 17 percent. Although many experts became pessimistic about the possibility of finding a cure or a vaccination, improvements in treatments during the decade resulted in increased life expectancy for persons with AIDS. Crime and Prison The Federal Bureau of Investigation (FBI) reported that the rate of index crimes decreased by 22 percent from 1990 to 1999. The general public acknowledged this improvement. In 1999, 46 percent of persons eighteen years of age or older said that there was less crime in their neighborhood than a year ago, compared with only 18 percent in 1990 and 8 percent in 1980. The crime rate of the 1990’s, nevertheless, continued to be quite high when compared with the 1950’s, because the rate had more than tripled between 1960 and 1990. The FBI statistics indicated a significant decline occurred in all index crimes. In 1990, a total of 23,438 persons were murdered—a rate of 9.4 per 100,000 people. In 1999, the number of murders declined to 15,522—a rate of 5.8 per 100,000. The recorded rate of violent crimes in 1992 was more than 750 per 100,000, compared with less than 550 per 100,000 in 1999. A similar decline occurred in crimes against property. In 1990, slightly more than three million cases of burglary were reported, compared with 2.1 million cases in 1999. Most criminologists agreed that there were a number of reasons for the decline in the crime rates. One important demographic factor was the decrease in the number of young males age fifteen to twenty-four, which dropped by 5 percent during the decade. A second demographic factor was the great increase in the number of inmates held in U.S. prisons and jails, which soared from less than one million in 1990 to more than two million in 1999. Criminologists also pointed to the relative prosperity of the decade, the decline in the drug trade, and the application of community policing in New York and other cities. Education The 1990’s saw a modest increase in the percentage of persons age twenty-five or older who had completed high school. In 1990, 79.1 percent of whites had completed high school, compared with 66.2 percent of blacks and 50.8 percent of Hispanics. In 1999, the number of white high school graduates had grown to 84.3 percent, whereas the black rate

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was 77 percent and the Hispanic rate was 56.1 percent. These increases represented the continuation of a long-term trend, as seen by the fact that the 1959 graduation rate was 46.1 percent, and only 20.7 percent for blacks. There was also a modest gain in the number of college graduates. In 1990, 21.3 percent of white Americans age twenty-five or older had completed four or more years of college, in contrast to 11.3 percent of blacks and 9.2 percent of Hispanics. By 1999, the rate of white graduates had increased to 27.7 percent; the rate for blacks was 15.5 percent, and the rate for Hispanics was 10.9 percent. As in the case of high school graduation rates, the overall increase represented the continuation of a long-term trend. In 1957, just 8 percent of whites had graduated from college, whereas the rate for blacks was only 2.9 percent. The decade of the 1990’s was a period of growth for the nation’s elementary and secondary schools. The number of public school students enrolled in kindergarten through the twelfth grade increased from 41.2 million in 1990 to 47.4 in 1999. This increase of about 13 percent was large in comparison with the 1980’s, when there was almost no growth, although it was small in comparison with the 1960’s, when the number of students grew by over 20 percent. Race, Ethnicity, and Immigration During the 1990’s, the population of the United States continued the trend toward greater diversity. Non-Hispanic whites made up 75.7 percent of the population in 1990, but their percentage had declined to 69.1 percent by 2000. The number of African Americans grew at approximately the same rate as the general population, remaining at approximately 12.3 percent throughout the decade. The number of Hispanic Americans, however, grew by more than 40 percent. While Hispanics constituted some 9.6 percent of population in 1990, their percentage of the population had grown to 12.5 percent by 2000. Much of the Hispanic growth was due to immigration, even though Hispanic births as a percentage of total births grew from 14.3 percent in 1991 to 19.3 percent in 1999, while the percentage of white births declined from 63 percent to 58.2 percent. During the 1990’s, immigrants and their children were responsible for almost one-third of the nation’s population growth. The census of 2000 reported

that twenty-eight million first-generation immigrants were living in the United States, with more than ten million legal immigrants having entered the United States in the decade since 1990—a number that was larger than in any previous decade. The census of 1990 reported that approximately 7.9 percent of the population was foreign-born, compared to 11.1 percent in the census of 2000. Approximately 25.7 percent of the immigrants were from Latin America, whereas 26.4 percent came from Asia. The immigration of the 1990’s can be compared with the highest previous decade of 1901-1910, when almost nine million immigrants arrived. Impact Important demographic trends that had been evolving since the late 1960’s came to fruition in the 1990’s. The growth rate of the population declined moderately, while the increase in life expectancy of about two years produced much concern about the high costs of an aging population. At the same time, immigrants from many parts of the world were making the ethnic makeup of the population more diverse than any time in U.S. history. With the increase of out-of-wedlock births combined with the growing divorce rate, some social scientists warned about the consequences of so many single-parent families. Investors in the stock market did much better than middle-class workers, and minority families made almost no progress toward reducing the gap between their average incomes and those of white families. With few exceptions, the patterns of the decade were expected to continue into the early decades of the twenty-first century. Further Reading

Anderton, Douglas, Richard Barrett, and Donald Bogue. The Population of the United States. 3d ed. New York: Free Press, 1997. Contains a wealth of historical statistics until about 1993, with clear tables and cogent observations about the reasons for changing statistics. Farley, Reynolds, and John Haaga, eds. The American People: Census 2000. New York: Russell Sage Foundation, 2005. Detailed information and analysis of the population at the end of the 1990’s and beginning of the twenty-first century. Klein, Herbert. A Population History of the United States. New York: Cambridge University Press, 2004. Scholarly and readable survey of historical demography, with an interesting chapter on the period from 1980 until 2003.

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Longman, Phillip. The Empty Cradle: How Falling Birthrates Threaten World Prosperity and What to Do About It. New York: Basic Books, 2004. Rejects the conventional wisdom and emphasizes the negative aspects of a declining population. Russell, Cheryl. Demographics of the U.S.: Trends and Projections. 2d ed. Ithaca: New Strategist, 2003. A well-organized work that includes tables and graphs on American society from 1950 to the early twenty-first century. Highly recommended. _______. Racial and Ethnic Diversity: Asians, Hispanics, Native Americans, and Whites. Ithaca: New Strategist, 2002. Statistical information, analysis, and tables based on the census of 2000. Excellent for research papers. Thomas Tandy Lewis See also African Americans; AIDS epidemic; Asian Americans; Blended families; Demographics of Canada; Drug use; Employment in the United States; Health care; Illegal immigration; Immigration to the United States; Income and wages in the United States; Native Americans; Poverty; Women in the workforce.

■ Depo-Provera Definition Injectable contraceptive Manufacturer Pfizer Date Approved by the Food and Drug

Administration on October 29, 1992 Depo-Provera, the most effective form of artificial birth control for women since the advent of the birth control pill in the 1960’s, received approval from the U.S. Food and Drug Administration in 1992. It subsequently enjoyed brief popularity as a treatment for male sexual offenders since it also reduces testosterone levels. In the 1960’s, “the pill” revolutionized birth control. While a steady stream of contraceptive innovations were expected to reach the market in the next decades, few new contraceptive methods were introduced. In the 1990’s, only three new methods received approval from the Food and Drug Administration (FDA). Norplant, a hormonal implant, quickly became engulfed in product liability lawsuits, while the female condom proved too awkward to attract much of a market. The third new form

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of birth control, Depo-Provera, is an injection of a high dosage of progesterone that has a 99.7 percent effectiveness rate. Nevertheless, the injectable contraceptive took more than twenty years to obtain FDA approval. Depo-Provera, or medroxyprogesterone acetate, prevents pregnancy for three months. Thus, women using the contraceptive have to receive four doses per year. Administered as an injection into the muscle at the back of the arm or in the buttocks within the first five days of a woman’s period, Depo-Provera tricks the body into thinking it is pregnant, thereby halting ovulation. There is no egg present for sperm to fertilize. More than half of women on DepoProvera for a year stop having periods. In 1995, an injection of Depo-Provera cost $65, making it marginally more expensive than the pill. However, women using the pill have to remember to take it every day. One of the major advantages of Depo-Provera is that it is not dependent on user compliance. This advantage also proves a disadvantage. If a woman experiences adverse side effects, there is no option except to wait for the drug to wear off. Many women using Depo-Provera have reported gaining an average of ten to twelve pounds, while premenstrual syndrome (PMS) and bone loss could also be intensified. Because Depo-Provera lowers testosterone levels in men, it became a popular form of chemical castration for male sexual offenders in the 1990’s. However, many critics maintained that the motives for sexual assault involved more than sexual drive and that chemical castration often proved ineffective, particularly if the offender did not receive counseling along with the drug. Civil libertarians argued that the treatment violated the Constitution’s Eighth Amendment provision against cruel and unusual punishment. Nevertheless, a half-dozen states approved weekly Depo-Provera shots for sexual offenders in the 1990’s. Impact By the end of the 1990’s, Depo-Provera held about 2 percent of the contraceptive market in the United States. Fear of lawsuits as well as the long and expensive process of receiving FDA approval has hampered the development of new drugs for the U.S. market. New contraceptives in the United States are more apt to represent refinements on existing products, such as nonlatex condoms, than new approaches.

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Devers, Gail

Further Reading

ICON Health Publications. Depo-Provera: A Medical Dictionary, Bibliography, and Annotated Research Guide to Internet References. San Diego, Calif.: Author, 2004. Vecchio, Thomas J. Birth Control by Injection: The Story of Depo-Provera. New York: Vantage Press, 1993. Caryn E. Neumann See also Abortion; Drug advertising; Health care; Medicine; Pharmaceutical industry; Women’s rights.

■ Devers, Gail Identification Olympic sprinter and hurdler Born November 19, 1966; Seattle, Washington

When Devers won her second gold medal for the women’s 100-meter dash at the 1996 Summer Olympics, she became the first runner since Wyomia Tyus to defend her 100-meter title at the Olympic Games. Devers overcame a serious illness in the early 1990’s to become a competitive runner throughout the decade. After being diagnosed with Graves’ disease—a thyroid disorder—after the 1988 Olympics, Gail Devers began radiation treatment in 1990. In 1991, complications arose, including having her feet swell to the point that doctors considered amputating them. During this time, Devers was so weak that she could not walk, let alone run. Through physical therapy, she made it back on the Olympic team and in 1992 won the gold medal in the 100-meter dash. In 1993, the U.S. Olympic Committee named her Athlete of the Year. Injuries sidelined Devers in 1994, but she returned to the Olympics in 1996 and won two golds (100-meter dash and 4-by-100-meter relay). In 1999, she set the then-world record in 100-meter hurdles. While the 100-meter hurdles was considered to be her best event, she never won an Olympic medal for the race, tripping over a hurdle near the end of her 1992 race and placing fourth in 1996. That same year, a Showtime television movie about her life, Run for the Dream, premiered. Devers continued to race throughout the decade. Devers’s ability to fight back from injuries that could have been catastrophic to her career Impact

Gail Devers, in lane two, crosses the finish line for a gold medal during the women’s 100-meter finals on August 1, 1992, in the Summer Olympics. (AP/Wide World Photos)

made her an inspiration not only to athletes but also to the general public. Her story would have been remarkable in itself, but her spectacular showing in both the 1992 and 1996 Summer Olympics made the story even more inspiring. Further Reading

LaFontaine, Pat. Companions in Courage: Triumphant Tales of Heroic Athletes. New York: Warner Books, 2001. Lessa, Christina. Women Who Win: Stories of Triumph in Sport and in Life. New York: Universe, 1998. Plowden, Martha Ward. Olympic Black Women. Gretna, La.: Pelican, 1996. Julie Elliott See also African Americans; Olympic Games of 1992; Olympic Games of 1996; Sports.

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■ Diallo shooting Accidental killing of an unarmed African immigrant by police officers Date February 4, 1999 Place Soundview section of the Bronx, New York The Event

After four white police officers shot and killed an unarmed, innocent immigrant, most African Americans were convinced that the officers were guilty of excessive violence and racial profiling. Amadou Diallo, a twenty-three-old immigrant from Guinea, had come to New York City to study computer science. He had formerly attended a variety of schools in both Africa and Asia. In order to earn money for college, he worked as a street salesman, a common occupation among West African immigrants. His apartment building, at 1157 Wheeler Avenue, was located in a neighborhood that was

People gather outside New York’s City Hall to protest the police shooting of Amadou Diallo, an unarmed African immigrant who was killed by officers five days earlier. (AP/Wide World Photos)

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plagued by criminal activities and gang violence. English was not his first language, and he sometimes had trouble understanding what people were saying. Early in the morning of February 4, 1999, Diallo was standing next to his building when police officers Edward McMellon, Sean Carroll, Kenneth Boss, and Richard Murphy passed by in an unmarked car. As members of the Street Crime Unit, they were wearing civilian clothes. Thinking that Diallo matched the description of a serial rapist, they approached Diallo to ask questions. Although they loudly identified themselves as officers, Diallo ran up the outside steps toward his apartment. Ignoring their orders to show his hands, he reached into his coat pocket. One officer thought he saw a weapon and yelled “gun!” The officers fired a total of fortyone rounds, striking him nineteen times. To their horror, they discovered that he had simply pulled out his wallet. Thousands marched with the Reverends Jesse Jackson and Al Sharpton to protest the shooting of Diallo. In March, a Bronx grand jury indicted the officers on charges of second-degree murder. Because of the emotional pretrial publicity in New York City, a state appellate court ordered a change of venue to the city of Albany. On February 25, 2000, the jury unanimously voted to acquit the officers of all charges, having deliberated for only two days. In reaction, the demonstrations became larger and angrier. About seventeen hundred protesters were arrested for disorderly conduct during the course of the controversy. In 2001, the Department of Justice announced that there was insufficient evidence to charge the officers with a federal violation of Diallo’s civil rights. The victim’s mother and stepfather, however, brought a civil suit against New York City, asking $61 million for wrongful death and lack of reasonable restraint. In 2004, the two parties agreed to a settlement of $3 million. Impact Many observers believed that the shooting death of Amadou Diallo demonstrated a common tendency for police officers to devalue the lives of blacks and to harbor negative stereotypes of black criminality. The angry protests during and after the officers’ trial, moreover, showed the extent to which many persons of African ancestry resented and distrusted police conduct. In response to the controversy, New York City instituted a number of reforms,

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including the disbanding of the Street Crime Unit. Anger about Diallo’s death, nevertheless, would continue well into the twenty-first century. Further Reading

Diallo, Kadiatou, with Craig Wolff. My Heart Will Cross This Ocean: My Story, My Son, Amadou. New York: One World, 2003. Fireside, Bryna J. The Trial of the Police Officers in the Shooting Death of Amadou Diallo: A Headline Court Case. Berkeley Heights, N.J.: Enslow, 2004. Thomas Tandy Lewis See also African Americans; Los Angeles riots; Louima torture case; Police brutality; Race relations; Sharpton, Al.

■ Digital audio The representation of sound waves as binary data, which in this form can be stored, transmitted, edited, and ultimately converted back into physical sound waves for playback into speakers and similar devices

Definition

At the beginning of the 1990’s, the digital audio compact disc (audio CD), which had just replaced analog media such as vinyl records and cassette tapes as the primary consumer audio format, achieved unparalleled popularity. By the end of the decade, several trends, including the increased use of personal computers as both audio playback devices and audio editing platforms, the widespread distribution of compressed audio over the Internet, and the general availability of low-cost CD recorders, had revolutionized the music industry, pointing to even more rapid changes in the twenty-first century. Although not as popular as audio CDs, several other digital audio formats were in use in the early 1990’s. Digital audio tape (DAT), which had been introduced by Sony in 1987, was used primarily for recording and archiving. DAT recorders could equal or slightly exceed the resolution levels of audio CDs (16-bit stereo, 44.1 kilohertz). Made available in 1991, Alesis digital audio tape (ADAT), another format, allowed eight tracks to be recorded at the same time. Sony’s compact MiniDisc, introduced in 1992, offered compressed digital audio recording but did not become as popular with consumers as audio CDs.

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During this period, due to severe limitations on hard drive capacity and speed, digital audio playback on personal computers was typically formatted for much lower resolution levels than either audio CDs or DAT. Various file formats were developed for personal computers, the two most popular being waveform audio format (WAV) and audio interchange file format (AIFF). WAV, developed by Microsoft and International Business Machines (IBM), was used primarily with Microsoft’s operating systems, and the AIFF was used on Apple Macintosh computers. Unlike the Red Book audio format used for audio CDs, the AIFF and WAV formats could store information at different bit depths and sample rates, and as either mono or stereo. This made such formats ideal for lower-resolution playback, including audio for games. As a way around the inherent limitations of personal computers, external devices and supplemental sound expansion cards were developed. Sound Blaster expansion cards, produced by Creative Labs, were very popular additions to Microsoft-compatible computers. Along with providing digital file output, these sound cards could also provide musical instrument digital interface (MIDI) support. MIDI, an audio technology developed in the 1980’s, was a protocol that allowed computer programs to send playback instructions to musical synthesizers, which at first were external units connected through interfaces and cables. During the 1990’s, MIDI playback became more routinely associated with software synthesizers, without completely replacing external musical playback and input devices (usually music keyboards). In 1994, MIDI support was added to Apple’s QuickTime media player, allowing music to be added to digital movies without great increases in file sizes. Accelerated Change In the second half of the 1990’s, digital audio played an important role in the availability of multimedia on the Internet, the decentralization of the music industry, and increased options available to consumers. The digital video disc (DVD), or “digital versatile disc,” announced in 1995, is also capable of storing digital audio, which was part of the format specification for the disc. With room for up to 4.7 gigabytes of data, the new format was capable of much longer sound files and higher levels of resolution than previous formats. The digital audio workstation (DAW) became

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much more common in the 1990’s, accompanying the rise of the personal computer, which along with appropriate peripherals and software could form the nucleus of a professional sound studio. More independent musicians became involved in recording and editing their own music. A parallel trend contributed to radical changes in music distribution and consumption at the end of the decade. Scientists had known for years that audio information was processed selectively by listeners, and after digital audio became widespread, audio engineers became very interested in discovering ways to reduce or remove the less essential components of sound data. As the World Wide Web increased in popularity throughout the 1990’s, a great interest arose in achieving smaller file sizes (and faster downloads) for all kinds of data, including digital audio. Several compressed formats were developed, including Macromedia’s Shockwave audio, RealAudio, and others, but MPEG Audio Layer 3 (MP3) became the most popular. Designed by an international team of scientists in the early 1990’s and approved as an encoding standard by the Moving Picture Experts Group, the format spread rapidly in the later part of the decade, as users used the Internet to share MP3 files, which could also be quickly transferred to recordable audio CDs, which had conveniently become more affordable and easier to use. Since many of these shared files began as commercial recordings, concerns were soon raised by recording companies. Impact In subsequent years, distinction between the roles of the consumer and producer of digital audio continued to blur, and debates continued over intellectual property issues as a result of the effects of rapid technological innovations, which continued to accelerate. Further Reading

Brinkley, Joel. “On New DVD Formats, the Sound of Good Things to Come.” The New York Times, December 9, 1999, p. G14. Concise overview and summary of emerging audio DVD formats, including multiple channels. Chadabe, Joel. Electric Sound: The Past and Promise of Electronic Music. Upper Saddle River, N.J.: Prentice Hall, 1997. A musician’s perspective, including events and trends in the 1990’s as well as detailed historical background from earlier decades. Photos, index, extensive notes.

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Chandler, Alfred D., Takashi Hikino, and Andrew Von Nordenflycht. Inventing the Electronic Century: The Epic Story of the Consumer Electronics and Computer Industries. New York: Free Press, 2001. General overview showing important connections between the two industries, and long-range trends, including attention to developments in the 1990’s and the shift from analog to digital technologies. Tables, charts, index, notes. Ifeachor, Emmanuel C., and Barrie W. Jervis. Digital Signal Processing: A Practical Approach. Harlow, England: Pearson Education, 2002. Complete technical presentation of all aspects of digital signal processing, including many that are commonly applied in audio applications. Equations, charts, diagrams. Williams, David Brian, and Peter Richard Webster. Experiencing Music Technology. Belmont, Calif.: Thomson-Schirmer, 2006. Comprehensive handson overview covers digital audio editing as well as related topics such as MIDI. Includes DVD-ROM, diagrams, screen shots, photos, index, appendixes. John Myers See also Apple Computer; Audiobooks; Computers; Digital cameras; Digital divide; DVDs; Electronic music; Internet; Inventions; Microsoft; MP3 format; Music; World Wide Web.

■ Digital cameras Electronic devices that take pictures and store images as digital data

Definition

First introduced in the 1990’s, digital cameras became the preferred choice for photography among general consumers, dramatically affecting how photography is done. The first digital camera that stored images as computer files was produced by Fuji in 1988. The first digital cameras available to consumers were the Digital Camera Company (Dycam) Model 1, which appeared in 1990, followed by the Kodak Digital Camera System (DCS)-100 in 1991. The Dycam Model 1 stored thirty-two compressed images on one megabyte (MB) of internal random access memory (RAM). The camera included the digitizing hardware within it and could be attached to a personal computer (PC) to transfer images. The DCS-100

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Digital divide

A Hitachi employee displays an MP-EG1 camera, the world’s first MPEG-encoding digital video camera, in 1997. The camera went on sale in Japan for 132,000 yen ($1,100). (AP/Wide World Photos)

was a single-lens reflex (SLR) camera that used a 1.3-megapixel sensor. It could transfer images to a charge-coupled device (CCD) that converted the images directly into digital information. The first mass-marketed color digital camera, the Apple Quick Take 100, appeared in 1994. It had a 640 × 480 pixel CCD and a built-in flash. Later in 1994, the Olympus Deltis Video Camera (VC)-1100 became the first digital camera with built-in transmission capabilities. Its transmitter allowed pictures to be sent over phone lines or a cellular network to a PC or another camera. The first digital camera that had the ability to record both still and moving images, the Ricoh Digital Camera (RDC)-1, appeared in 1995. It also provided sound recording. In 1996, the Kodak DC-25 became the first digital camera that used a compact flash. The following year, Hitachi manufactured the first digital camera that output moving pictures to a PC in the Moving Picture Expert Group (MPEG) format. The first digital cameras that contained integral printers were unveiled in 1998. In 1999, Nikon released a 2.74megapixel SLR camera. Although digital camera photography may not completely replace traditional methods of photography, digital cameras have revolutionized the way that amateur photographers take pictures. In Impact

1998, one million digital cameras were sold in the United States. That number doubled in 1999. Digital cameras offer amateur photographers more freedom with their photos than regular cameras offer. Photographers can achieve a variety of effects and can monitor photos as soon as they are taken, allowing users to take photos until they have exactly what they want. Digital images can then be manipulated on a PC to add or eliminate photo features. Digital camera photographers can use Internet services to e-mail photos to family and friends. The Kodak EasyShare One can connect to computer networks wirelessly. In the early twenty-first century, camera cell phones became more popular than standalone digital cameras.

Further Reading

Haskell, Bert. Portable Electronics Product Design and Development: For Cellular Phones, PDAs, Digital Cameras, Personal Electronics, and More. New York: McGraw-Hill, 2004. May, Alex. Multimedia: Digital Photography. New York: Dorling Kindersley, 2000. Towse, Mark. The Complete Guide to Digital Photography. London: Sanctuary, 2003. Alvin K. Benson See also Cell phones; Computers; E-mail; Internet; Inventions; Medicine; Photography; Science and technology; Space exploration.

■ Digital divide A term used to describe the gap in access to and use of current communication and computer technology

Definition

The digital divide was considered a significant socioeconomic issue of the information age. The term was first coined in 1973 but was used during the 1990’s as a popular way to describe the social implications of a rapidly growing technological society.

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“Digital divide” is used to describe any type of gap or disparity between those who have access to new technologies and those who lack access. The gap may be caused by socioeconomic status, in that the technology is unaffordable; by geographic location, in that access is not possible because the communication infrastructure is not in place; or by knowledge, in that those with more education are more likely to have the skills needed to use the new technologies. The term is also used to describe the gap in access and usage of computer technology between industrial and developing countries. Disparities in ownership and access were commonly found between affluent populations who could afford to purchase and use the technology and the less affluent populations, including many minorities who lacked the resources and education to purchase and use computers. Geographic location was found to create another division in access and use of new communication technologies as small towns and rural areas, many in the southern and western United States, were found to contain “dead zones,” where access to the Internet was either limited or simply unavailable.

cation utilities have not seen a significant decrease in pricing. Bridging the digital divide in education has also remained elusive for many.

Impact The lack of access to computer technology, along with a lack of education on how to use it effectively, was predicted to create widespread economic and educational disadvantages. Numerous surveys and studies consistently demonstrated a disparity between minority and nonminority American populations, with whites most often having both the access and skills and with many minority groups lacking both. In poorer school districts that lacked the resources to afford computers, there was much concern that the children were not receiving the needed education and skill sets to function effectively and successfully in the age of technology. The growing divide indicated a potential gap in future populations’ abilities to seek higher education and better employment. In working to eliminate or “bridge the digital divide,” the federal government introduced funding and legislative efforts such as the High Performance Computing and Communication Act of 1991, the Educate America Act of 1994, and the Telecommunications Act of 1996. Some would argue that the divide continues to exist as the usage of technology continues to increase while the costs of such technologies as computers, wireless phones, and communi-

■ Dinkins, David

Further Reading

Servon, Lisa J. Bridging the Digital Divide: Technology, Community, and Public Policy. Malden, Mass.: Blackwell, 2002. U.S. Department of Commerce. National Telecommunications and Information Administration. Falling Through the Net: A Survey of the “Have Nots” in Rural and Urban America. Washington, D.C.: Author, 1995. _______. Falling Through the Net II: New Data on the Digital Divide. Washington, D.C.: Author, 1998. Susan E. Thomas African Americans; Bush, George H. W.; Clinton, Bill; Computers; Demographics of the United States; Educate America Act of 1994; Education in the United States; Internet; Poverty; Science and technology; Telecommunications Act of 1996; World Wide Web.

See also

Identification Mayor of New York City, 1990-1993 Born July 10, 1927; Trenton, New Jersey

Dinkins was the first African American to be elected mayor of New York City, capping a long career in city politics and activism. He was defeated by Rudy Giuliani in the 1993 mayoral election. When David Dinkins entered office on January 1, 1990, he inherited a huge city budget deficit at a time when the nation was entering a recession. Gas prices were soaring as a result of the crisis in the Persian Gulf region, and New York lost tens of thousands of jobs, eroding the tax base. The gaping hole in the city’s budget made it impossible to pay city employees without sacrificing services elsewhere. Dinkins was forced to make unpopular cuts in public services, jobs, education, and homeless shelters, and he also enacted large tax increases. Mayor Dinkins chose crime and race relations as his top priorities. He instituted the “Safe Streets, Safe City: Cops and Kids” program to cut crime, improve community relations, and cut police abuse. Despite budget cuts elsewhere, Dinkins managed to

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boost the size of the police department and, although he had inherited a thirty-year upward crime trend, to cut crime by 16 percent starting in the second year of his term. However, because public perception failed to catch up with this accomplishment, Dinkins’s successor, Rudy Giuliani, reaped credit for it. Further, the 1991 Crown Heights riot, a boycott of a Flatbush Korean grocery store by black residents, and other racially charged incidents kept a focus on crime and danger. Upon leaving office, Dinkins became a professor at Columbia University, which sponsors an annual David N. Dinkins Leadership and Public Policy Forum and a David N. Dinkins Professorship in the Practice of Urban and Public Affairs. The former mayor began hosting a public affairs radio show and founded the David N. Dinkins Archives and Oral History Project. Demonstrating his continuing com-

mitment to racial justice, Dinkins was one of thousands arrested in protests following the 1999 Amadou Diallo shooting. Impact Although capable and caring, David Dinkins assumed the high-profile office of New York City mayor at an ill-starred moment. He inherited a financial crunch but was blamed for program and budget cuts. New York City experienced several notorious racial incidents that damaged the city’s reputation and created volatile tensions within communities. He was criticized for being too close to the teachers’ union and other interest groups, and for controversial actions during his final days in office. Finally, the successful public trends that began on Dinkins’s watch tended to be credited to his successor. Dinkins was exposed for failing to pay taxes during a five-year period earlier in his life, which he dismissed as not a crime, just failure to “comply with the law.” Nevertheless, his controversial career, beginning with local politics, has been nobly capped by his public service and distinguished academic contributions since leaving politics. Further Reading

Rich, Wilbur C. David Dinkins and New York City Politics: Race, Images, and the Media. Albany: State University of New York Press, 2007. Thompson, J. Phillip. Double Trouble: Black Mayors, Black Communities, and the Call for a Deep Democracy. New York: Oxford University Press, 2006. Jan Hall See also African Americans; Crime; Crown Heights riot; Diallo shooting; Giuliani, Rudolph; Police brutality; Race relations; Recession of 1990-1991; Sharpton, Al.

■ Dole, Bob U.S. Republican senator from Kansas, Senate majority leader, and 1996 presidential candidate Born July 22, 1923; Russell, Kansas Identification

David Dinkins during his 1989 campaign for mayor. (AP/Wide World Photos)

Dole served for twenty-seven years in the Senate and eight years in the House of Representatives. The 1990’s saw an end to his career in the Senate but not his dedication to public service.

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As the 1990’s began, Bob Dole was “The Democratic Party Is Not Democratic” contemplating retiring from his extensive service in the U.S. SenIn his acceptance speech at the 1996 Republican National Convention, ate, where he had served since presidential candidate Bob Dole outlined the differences between his party 1969. However with the Gulf War and the opposition: resolution and other important political matters looming on the Our friends in the other party say the economy is great. It’s political horizon, Dole reconsidmoving forward. It’s moving, like a ship dragging an anchor, the ered his path and remained in the anchor of taxes, and excessive regulations and big government Senate. Dole aided in the passage and bureaucracy. of a Senate joint resolution to supThey say it’s the best we do and the best we can hope for. But port the Gulf War offensive in that’s because they have put their entire trust in government early 1991. rather than people. They want a government that runs our lives, In 1991, Dole learned that he runs our businesses, runs our schools. You see, they just don’t behad prostate cancer but that it was lieve in the unlimited possibilities that freedom can bring. still in its early stages and could Today, the Democratic Party is not democratic. They are elitist. likely be stopped. He underwent They don’t have faith in people. They have faith in government. prostate surgery at Walter Reed They trust government more than markets, and that’s why they Army Hospital that successfully raised taxes on middle-income families. That’s why they tried to removed his prostate gland along nationalize health care. That’s why that today they say they are with the slow-growing cancer. Dole “unalterably opposed” to cutting taxes on the American family. went public about his cancer and That’s the problem with elitists. They think they know better the side effects of prostate surthan the people. But the truth is, there’s a wisdom, there’s an ingery, which included erectile dystelligence in ordinary women and men far superior to the greatfunction, appearing at prostate est so-called experts that have ever lived. That’s what our party cancer awareness events and bemust be all about. fore Congress. The Democratic Party is the party of the status quo. And as of Dole introduced the Women’s tonight, with Bob Dole as our leader, we are the party of change. Equal Opportunity Act to Congress in 1991. The following year, he was reelected by the state of Kansas to serve another six-year form Act and the Sexual Assault Prevention Act. term in the Senate, defeating Democratic candidate Dole introduced a health care reform bill in 1994 Gloria O’Dell. A few days later, Dole’s colleagues that utilized a free market approach and offered reelected him to serve as Senate minority leader. subsidies to help lower-income Americans afford A World War II veteran who suffered a gunshot health insurance. In November, 1994, the Republiwound that left his right arm permanently paracans regained control of the House of Representalyzed, Dole helped to pass the Americans with Distives; the following January, Dole was elected Senate abilities Act of 1990, which came into effect in 1992 majority leader. However, Dole was not to remain in and prohibited discrimination based on disability the Senate chambers much longer. On April 10, in employment, in places of public accommoda1995, after only a few months as majority leader, tion (including all restaurants, retail stores, hotels, Dole announced his bid for the U.S. presidency. On theaters, health care facilities, parks, convention May 15, 1996, Dole stated that he would leave the centers, and places of recreation), in transportaSenate in order to devote all of his time to the camtion services, and in all activities of state and local paign. His final day in office was June 11, 1996. governments. In 1993, Dole voted in support of the North American Free Trade Agreement (NAFTA), Dole for President The 1996 Republican primary which eliminated many of the tariffs between Canwas full of contenders hoping to defeat the incumada, the United States, and Mexico. He also sponbent Democratic president, Bill Clinton. Bob Dole sored the Comprehensive Campaign Finance Reappeared to be the likely winner, but he was chal-

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lenged by Pat Buchanan, Steve Forbes, and many others. Dole was formally nominated by the Republican National Convention on August 15, 1996. Dole ran with Jack Kemp, a former representative from New York, who was seen as a means to attract the more conservative voters who originally supported Buchanan. The Dole-Kemp ticket stressed the importance of traditional American values and sought to reduce the size of the federal government and to give Americans more opportunities. However, Dole had spent a large portion of his finances and efforts in the primary race and found himself trailing Clinton in the general election. The final results put Bill Clinton and Al Gore back into office with just over 49 percent of the popular vote and 70 percent of the electoral vote; the Dole-Kemp ticket managed almost 41 percent and 30 percent, respectively. Postpolitical Career After suffering defeat, Dole remained in the public eye, serving on various committees and as a spokesman in a number of advertisements. Dole served as chair of the World War II Memorial, chair of the International Commission on Missing Persons, and cochair of the President’s Commission on Care for Returning Wounded Warriors. President Clinton awarded Dole the Presidential Medal of Freedom in 1997. That same year, Dole joined the law firm of Verner, Liipfert, Bernhard, McPherson & Hand. Dole became a prominent spokesman for Viagra and Pepsi. Impact Dole’s work on the Americans with Disabilities Act helped countless Americans find employment, utilize public transport, and participate in normal activities. Since leaving office, Dole has been closely associated with his role as a spokesman for Viagra; he has used this position to reach American men and to improve their lives and draw attention to important medical issues. Further Reading

Ceaser, James W., and Andrew E. Busch. Losing to Win: The 1996 Elections and American Politics. Lanham, Md.: Rowman & Littlefield, 1997. A look at the 1996 elections written from the standpoint of political scientists. Dole, Bob. One Soldier’s Story: A Memoir. New York: HarperCollins, 2005. Details Dole’s experiences during World War II. Although this book does not speak much of his political ventures, it helps

Bob Dole. (Library of Congress)

explain how much of his military experience affected his life. Dole, Bob, Elizabeth Dole, and Richard Norton Smith. Unlimited Partners: Our American Story. New York: Simon & Schuster, 1996. The Doles coauthored this book that explores their lives from childhood to the bid for the White House. U.S. Congress. Senate. Office of the Secretary. Tributes Delivered in Congress: Robert J. Dole, United States Congressman, 1961-1969, United States Senator, 1969-1996. Washington, D.C.: Government Printing Office, 1996. A collection of remarks made by members of Congress upon Senator Bob Dole’s retirement. Kathryn A. Cochran See also Americans with Disabilities Act of 1990; Clinton, Bill; Elections in the United States, midterm; Elections in the United States, 1996; Health care; Health care reform; Kemp, Jack; Republican Revolution; Viagra.

The Nineties in America

■ Domestic partnerships Legal arrangements that involve two unmarried persons, either of the same or opposite sexes, in a committed relationship and that accord some of the rights conferred on married couples

Identification

During the 1990’s, the concept of domestic partnership raised questions that challenged traditional notions of marriage. Some state legislatures challenged these notions by passing laws recognizing domestic partnerships, while others sought to ban same-sex marriage and its legal recognition. During the 1980’s, the concept of domestic partnership had been established in Sweden, initially with few benefits; Denmark followed with “registered partnerships,” offering many more rights and privileges. Also in the 1980’s, Berkeley, San Francisco, West Hollywood, and a few other American cities permitted registration of domestic partners, albeit with very limited benefits. A court in California (1983) and another in New York (1989) allowed a benefit to a successor when a partner died. Despite the high medical costs for treating victims of acquired immunodeficiency syndrome (AIDS), which disproportionately affects gay men, some private businesses began to offer medical benefits to partners of employees in the 1980’s. During the 1990’s, there was not only an increase in the number of authorities accepting domestic partnerships but also a gradual deepening in the benefits derived. Nevertheless, the benefits of domestic partnership were far from equivalent at the end of the 1990’s to the more than one thousand legal benefits derived from opposite-sex marriage. In 1990, the state of California took the lead by instituting a registration of domestic partners, but with no specific benefits. The law was a shell to which various rights could later be accorded. In 1992, the District of Columbia established domestic partnerships, but the law was in effect nullified when Congress prohibited spending to implement provisions. The most significant event affecting the concept of domestic partnership was the Hawaii Supreme Court’s 1993 ruling that there was no constitutional basis to deny a marriage license to two persons of the same gender (Baehr v. Lewin). The basis for the ruling was the state’s earlier

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adoption of an equal rights amendment that prohibited discrimination on the basis of gender. After the ruling, no marriage certificates were issued, because the Supreme Court required the defendant state of Hawaii to reargue its case before the trial court to demonstrate a compelling state interest in not allowing same-sex marriage. In 1996, the trial court in Hawaii ruled that the state presented no valid reason to deny same-sex marriage, but the ruling was again appealed to the state Supreme Court. In response, Congress that year passed the Defense of Marriage Act, which authorized states to refuse to recognize same-sex marriages legalized in other states and bans federal recognition. Subsequently, thirty-one states passed laws banning recognition of same-sex marriages, while Florida and Mississippi even denied recognition of domestic partnerships established in other states. In 1997, Hawaii’s state legislature passed the Reciprocal Beneficiaries Act (RBA), which allowed same-sex couples or blood relatives to establish a relationship that provided them with fifty of the benefits accorded to married spouses. A prominent argument in favor of the law was that elderly Asians, by tradition, were cared for at home by their last unmarried son or daughter, who by custom would not marry. An elderly Asian widow or widower and unmarried adult offspring qualified as a couple under the law, though one was sometimes a dependent of the other. In 1998, Hawaii voters adopted a constitutional amendment banning same-sex marriage. Accordingly, in 1999 the Hawaii Supreme Court ruled that the case appealed from the trial court in 1996 was moot. Five private employers then sued to limit the RBA. As a result of out-of-court negotiations, the RBA’s scope was limited to state government employees and only a few employers in the private sector. The most important benefits covered funeral leave, hospital visitation rights, health insurance coverage, and the ability to claim an elective share of a partner’s estate. Nevertheless, domestic partnerships were accorded recognition in New York City in 1997. In 1999, California provided hospital visitation and insurance beneficiary benefits to domestic partners aged sixty-two and older. By the end of the 1990’s, approximately three thousand private companies, colleges, universities,

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and governments offered domestic partnership benefits to their employees. In most cases, the arrangements were nonstatutory—that is, established by orders issued by corporate chief executive officers. Governors of Connecticut, Delaware, Massachusetts, New York, Oregon, and Washington also issued executive orders, as did heads of about seventy cities and counties. Impact The Hawaii case catapulted the concept of same-sex marriage to public attention. States with equal rights amendments in their constitutions were demonstrably vulnerable to lawsuits. The first case was in Vermont, where on December 20, 1999, the Supreme Court ruled that same-sex couples must be accorded benefits equal to those enjoyed by married persons. The court left implementation to Vermont’s legislature. Subsequent Events In 2000, Vermont’s legislature established civil unions with rights and privileges equivalent to marriage. Thereafter, several states adopted civil union or domestic partner legislation, and Congress allowed the District of Columbia to implement its earlier domestic partnership law. From 2000, same-sex couples have been emboldened to challenge marriage laws in various states, but other states have sought to outlaw same-sex marriages as well as recognition of domestic partnerships. Further Reading

Duncan, William C. “Domestic Partnership Laws in the United States: A Review and Critique.” Brigham Young University Law Review, 2001, 961991. Detailed delineation of the benefits accorded to domestic partners, particularly at the state and local levels, with a summary of court challenges to the benefits. The author opposes domestic partnerships as a way to weaken the institution of marriage. Raeburn, Nicole C. Changing Corporate America from Inside Out: Lesbian and Gay Workplace Rights. Minneapolis: University of Minnesota Press, 2004. Includes a section on domestic partnership benefits. Solomon, Todd A. Domestic Partner Benefits: An Employer’s Guide. 4th ed. Washington, D.C.: Thompson, 2007. Comprehensive compilation of benefits enjoyed by domestic partners.

U.S. Government Accountability Office. Defense of Marriage Act: Update to Prior Report. Washington, D.C.: Author, 2004. Identifies more than one thousand federal benefits derived from marriage. Michael Haas See also Baker v. Vermont; Defense of Marriage Act of 1996; Egan v. Canada; Homosexuality and gay rights; Marriage and divorce; Transgender community.

■ Don’t ask, don’t tell Popular culture reference to military policy toward homosexuals

Definition

The phrase “don’t ask, don’t tell” originated as a slang expression in American popular culture referring to the position taken by the U.S. Department of Defense regarding the retention of openly gay or lesbian members of the armed forces during the 1990’s. The new policy did little or nothing to stop harassment of gays and lesbians within the various branches of military service. The new policy stated that the military would not inquire as to the sexual orientation of potential recruits or currently serving personnel of all ranks and that it did not want them to volunteer the information. The policy occurred in response to a series of highly publicized cases in which long-serving and decorated men and women had come out in an effort to oppose the operating policy of the U.S. armed forces and the legal provisions of the Uniform Code of Military Justice (UCMJ). The UCMJ regarded homosexuals of either gender as unfit to be part of the Army, Navy, Air Force, or Marine Corps. If discovered, such persons were to be terminated with an undesirable discharge without regard to their record of service. The eradication of this discriminatory practice had long been one of the gay rights movement’s primary goals, and at the beginning of the 1990’s Democratic candidate Bill Clinton promised in his presidential campaign literature that, if elected, he would remove the ban on homosexuals in the military through the issuance of an executive order. This promise failed of fulfillment after his election because of strong political opposition from members of both parties and senior military personnel, and Clinton sent to Congress a compromise mea-

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Number of Homosexual Military Personnel Discharged, 1994-1999 Year

Year Total

1994

617

1995

772

1996

870

1997

1,007

1998

1,163

1999

1,046

sure, quickly tagged by the American media with the phrase “don’t ask, don’t tell, don’t pursue,” based on its main points. The bill was passed by Congress on November 20, 1993, becoming Public Law 103-160. The provisions of the law focused attention on the necessity of maintaining in the armed forces a high level of morale, discipline, and unit cohesion and stressed that the conditions of the military life were fundamentally different from the civilian world, stating that “the prohibition against homosexual conduct is a long-standing element of military law that continues to be necessary in the unique circumstances of military service.” The standards of military conduct were seen as regulating the lives of all enlisted personnel at all times, whether on or off post, with the prior prohibition of homosexual acts and any solicitation for them expanded to allow separation from the armed forces if “the member has stated that he or she is a homosexual or bisexual, or words to that effect” or if the individual had married or tried to wed a member of his or her gender. Specific changes from the earlier portions of the UCMJ governing military personnel were that officers could not ask service members about their sexual orientation, nor were members required to reveal this information, both provisions being seen as making the situation for homosexuals more tolerable while avoiding confrontation. Impact Between the implementation of the new policy in 1993 and the end of the decade, 5,475 individuals were separated from the four branches of the U.S. armed forces because of their gay, lesbian, or bisexual orientation. Questioning about sexual orientation at the time of induction stopped, while

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prosecutions for homosexuality declined, as did investigations aimed at uncovering the presence of enlisted gay, lesbian, or bisexual men and women at military posts. The brutal 1999 beating murder of Army private Barry Winchell at Fort Campbell, Kentucky, who was presumed to be gay and had been harassed by his fellow soldiers without interference from superior officers to stop the actions, led to the issuance of new guidelines on antigay harassment and an executive order from President Clinton providing for enhanced sentences under the UCMJ for hate crimes. In February, 2000, the Pentagon added the phrase “don’t harass” to the title of the policy. A unique nonprofit organization, the Service Members Legal Defense Network, was formed in 1993 to serve as a source of legal advice for individuals affected by “don’t ask, don’t tell” and to act as a watchdog group on military policies of exclusion. Among its stated goals were the elimination on the ban of openly gay men and lesbians from serving in the U.S. armed forces and support for active service members and veterans organizing a visible presence at gay pride events. A major casualty of the “don’t ask, don’t tell” policy was the military’s long-standing contention that homosexuals could not fulfill complex responsibilities adequately, a position that had been only rarely rebutted in public debate. For the first time in over two decades, women and men dismissed from service went public with accounts of their (in some cases highly distinguished and meritorious) careers cut short by official strictures. Colonel Margarethe Cammermeyer, the highest-ranking officer ever to be discharged from the U.S. military for being homosexual, challenged “don’t ask, don’t tell.” She filed suit in federal court in Seattle in 1992 on the day she was terminated from the service, and she successfully won reinstatement as chief nurse of the Washington National Guard, a story she subsequently told in her book, Serving in Silence (1994). Naval midshipman Joseph Steffan, dismissed from the Naval Academy at Annapolis a week before graduation in 1987, wrote the 1992 account Honor Bound, continuing the tradition begun by Ensign Vernon Berg in his 1978 groundbreaking account, Get Off My Ship. Even an Army lawyer, James Kennedy, came out as gay and began actively working to overturn policies he had lately been enforcing. Perhaps the most damaging blows to the government’s case logic were investigations into the history

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of policies of exclusion by Congressman Gerry Studds under the Freedom of Information Act, whose results (published in 1990 prior to the Clinton campaign) exposed the texts and accompanying memoranda relating to a suppressed study commissioned by the Department of Defense in 1988 that concluded that sexuality was unrelated to job performance, recommending serious revision or abandonment of then-current protocols. The sharp debate over the presence of gay, lesbian, and bisexual individuals ignited by the “don’t ask, don’t tell” policy continued and intensified throughout the 1990’s and into the opening years of the twentyfirst century without reaching a consensus for change within the United States population or legal system. Further Reading

Belkin, Aaron, and Geoffrey Bateman. Don’t Ask, Don’t Tell: Debating the Gay Ban in the Military. Boulder, Colo.: Lynne Rienner, 2003. Based on a 2000 conference reviewing the efficacy of military exclusion, with the topics of privacy, unit cohesion, and the comparable experience of foreign militaries receiving discussion. Cammermeyer, Margarethe. Serving in Silence. New York: Viking Press, 1994. A personal account by the highest-ranking officer ever to be discharged from the U.S. military for homosexuality, who fought for and successfully won retention in the military. Dyer, Kate. Gays in Uniform: The Pentagon’s Secret Reports. Boston: Alyson Publications, 1990. Full text of a 1988 report on sexual orientation and suitability for military service commissioned by the Department of Defense and later suppressed. Herek, Gregory M., Jared B. Jobe, and Ralph M. Carney. Out In Force: Sexual Orientation and the Military. Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1996. A collection of papers based on a workshop held in 1994 during the American Psychological Association conference. Among the topics addressed are the psychological dynamics of successfully integrating gays and lesbians into the armed forces. Humphrey, Mary Ann. My Country, My Right to Serve:

Experiences of Gay Men and Women in the Military, World War II to the Present. New York: HarperCollins, 1990. A general historical treatment of the roles and limits placed on lesbians and gays during the mid-twentieth century. A useful complement to Allan Bérubé’s work on World War II, Coming Out Under Fire (1990). Kennedy, James E. About Face: A Gay Officer’s Account of How He Stopped Prosecuting Gays in the Army and Started Fighting for Their Rights. New York: Carol, 1995. An inside look at the workings of the military justice system by a lawyer in the Judge Advocate General’s office who later advised the Clinton administration. Rimmerman, Craig A., ed. Gay Rights, Military Wrongs: Political Perspectives on Lesbians and Gays in the Military. New York: Garland, 1996. A collection of essays analyzing the effectiveness of the Clinton administration’s policies, including a review of the first year of the “don’t ask, don’t tell” policy. Shawver, Lois. And the Flag Was Still There: Straight People, Gay People, and Sexuality in the U.S. Military. New York: Haworth Press, 1995. Written by a clinical psychologist who served as a consultant to the Canadian government in its review (and subsequent lifting) of a ban on homosexuals in its military, this work clearly dissects the basic psychological views of homosexuality in serving personnel. Personal accounts are used to illustrate entrapment tactics and consequences, and Shawver explores the question of whether the military establishment can change. Shilts, Randy. Conduct Unbecoming: Lesbians and Gays in the U.S. Military—Vietnam to the Persian Gulf. New York: St. Martin’s Press, 1993. Readable and comprehensive account of the position of gays and lesbians in the military during the later decades of the twentieth century. Steffan, Joseph. Honor Bound: A Gay American Fights for the Right to Serve His Country. New York: Villard Books, 1992. Personal account of a midshipman who was removed from Annapolis on the basis of sexual orientation. Robert B. Ridinger Cammermeyer, Margarethe; Clinton, Bill; Homosexuality and gay rights.

See also

The Nineties in America

■ Dot-coms Companies that conduct business and deliver products or services primarily via the Internet and are designated by the domain address .com

Definition

Many e-commerce start-up companies took shape during the mid-1990’s. When the dot-com bubble burst at the beginning of the twenty-first century, investors lost confidence as these businesses did not return anticipated profits. When dot-com stocks began to plummet, the businesses began to fail in record numbers. The communications network known as the Internet was originally created for use by scientists and the military. That limited usage changed, however, with the launch of the Netscape Navigator browser in 1994 by Netscape Communications founder Marc Andreessen. The browser allowed consumers unprecedented access to information online via the World Wide Web. Exuberance abounded for business start-ups in the electronic commerce (e-commerce) revolution, much as great enthusiasm had accompanied the development of telegraphy, telephony, and transistors earlier in the twentieth century. The business world soon took notice of the commercial potential in this technological revolution, and by the mid-1990’s, the U.S. economy experienced significant productivity growth with the Internet. Young entrepreneurs who had graduated from some of the top business schools in the United States saw an advantage to e-commerce and rushed into the marketplace to make their fortunes. For example, Jeff Bezos quit his job on Wall Street, moved to Seattle, and founded Amazon.com (1994). By the fall of 1998, the National Association of Securities Dealers Automated Quotation System (NASDAQ) index and the Dow Jones Industrial Average had tripled. Investors were eager to jump at the chance to enter the dot-com boom in anticipation of a global economy and the increased technical mobility made possible by the Internet, resulting in a wave of enthusiasm among shareholders who wanted to enter the cybermarketplace. This new economy experienced an infusion of venture capital; incomes soared, and stock values increased. High confidence caused an explosion of dot-com companies that attracted even more entrepreneurs to unprecedented investment and dividend opportunities. Investment totals went from $3 billion in

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1990 to $60 billion in 1999. Media and business tycoons soon hailed the new economy as economic productivity growth occurred and many Americans attained a higher standard of living. The e-commerce explosion would not last, however. The problems of inept strategies and slow reactions to their customer bases plagued the dot-coms throughout the late 1990’s. The NASDAQ peaked on March 10, 2000, leading to a five-week collapse when the NASDAQ dropped 34 percent from March 10 to April 14. The immediate explanation for the decline was that the dot-coms had launched a U.S. media blitz for the 1999 Christmas season that had ended up backfiring on them. The companies conducted their sales campaigns all at the same time, and all of the advertising hype confused consumers. Another factor in the crash was the accelerated spending on computer hardware and software that companies had done in preparation for the transition to the year 2000 (the so-called Y2K crisis). The bubble burst, recession hit, and the dot-coms went out of business. The problem of the dot-com bubble was exacerbated by rhetoric in the mass media that promised unlimited prosperity and an end to the traditional business cycle. Indeed, the chief executive officers (CEOs) of many companies became rich on paper, but a number of companies did not develop good business plans or models. Often, the survival of these companies depended on their expanding their customer bases too rapidly. These dot-coms were launched in the hope that they would generate large sales and profitability, but public stocks were offered before the companies had produced solid business plans, and initial public offerings (IPOs) were made before the companies’ prospects for success were fully evaluated. The major reason for the downfall of the dotcoms was the companies’ failure to exercise caution. Business journalists, Wall Street analysts, and policy makers such as Federal Reserve Board chairman Alan Greenspan lauded the new economy in the dotcom era. When the IPOs began to double and triple, investment banks followed with allocations of shares to their best customers, who sold these stocks in an increasingly speculative market. In the end, the Internet fostered overly optimistic expectations among business founders who diversified too quickly. Dot-com managers lacked the skills to pro-

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duce steady earning power. Arrogant business transactions abounded as Internet companies failed to address sales ratios, inventory turns, and margin losses. Many companies took considerable liberties in how they reported revenue accounting, and some used fraudulent tactics to inflate the profits they reported. The increasing stock prices, individual stock speculation, and widely available venture capital led companies to deviate from standard business models or plans. Impact The rise of Internet commerce drastically transformed business management principles. The new economic age brought forth technological innovations that helped the marketplace by improving productivity and changing consumer behavior. The

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rapid flow of information prevented the buildup of excess inventories, so various stores had lower surpluses, but those that remained struggled to sustain themselves in the marketplace with new competition and reluctant investors. A division was created between the “pure plays,” which were Internet- or e-commerce-driven and had to deal with cost-management and pricing issues, and the “click and mortar” companies, which retained physical stores and locations but expanded into e-retail. The “click and mortars” were able to take advantage of well-established brand names, good customer bases, and established supply chains and inventory systems. For example, Wal-Mart, the technical leader in the retail industry, went through a series of redesigns and changes in sales strategies

Netscape Communications Corporation founders Marc Andreessen, right, and Jim Clark stand outside their offices in California. The company began trading in 1995 at $28 per share, with the price soaring during the year. (AP/Wide World Photos)

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in response to online competition, and Borders Group outsourced its e-commerce activities to Amazon.com. Barnes & Noble tried to imitate Amazon but failed to take advantage of its physical stores’ presence and its existing sales successes. Internet retailing had positive impacts on some business activities, such as the streamlining of customer service in the areas of ordering, billing, and supplying customers with products in an efficient manner. Some economists have speculated that the dotcom frenzy of the 1990’s contributed to the boom in the housing and real estate market in the United States in the early twenty-first century because that market became the last vestige for speculative trading opportunities. However, on the downside, the companies that expected to build brand names and charge profitable rates at a later time failed to deliver on this promise. The U.S. Securities and Exchange Commission fined top investment groups such as Citigroup and Merrill Lynch for misleading investors. In 2000, more than two hundred Internet companies folded, and the technical personnel who had worked for those companies, especially computer programmers, confronted a glutted job market. Universities and colleges even began to see a drop in the numbers of new students entering technology fields. Further Reading

Cassidy, John. Dot.Con: The Greatest Story Ever Sold. New York: HarperCollins, 2002. Economics writer for The New Yorker recounts the hype behind the 1990’s dot-com bubble and places blame on the news media, business policy makers, and politicians for creating hysteria about the new economy movement. Clark, Peter J., and Stephen Neill. Net Value: Valuing Dot-Com Companies: Uncovering the Reality Behind the Hype. New York: AMACOM, 2001. Delves into the dot-com phenomenon with a large dose of humor, analyzing the downfall itself and the subsequent repercussions for investors and the economy as well as the impact of Internet commerce on goods and services for consumers. Epstein, Mark J. Implementing E-Commerce Strategies: A Guide to Corporate Success After the Dot-Com Bust. Westport, Conn.: Praeger, 2004. Discusses strategies for implementing successful management systems and organizational designs in e-commerce after the failure of the dot-coms.

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Goldfarb, Brent, David Kirsch, and David A. Miller. “Was There Too Little Entry During the Dot Com Era?” Journal of Financial Economics 86, no. 1 (2007): 100-144. Contends that venture capitalists were too eager to enter the dot-com market in an effort to get rich quick, causing overly focused investments in just a few Internet start-ups that resulted in too little entry. Litan, Robert E., and Alice M. Rivlin. Beyond the Dot.Coms: The Economic Promise of the Internet. Washington, D.C.: Brookings Institution Press, 2001. Summarizes the findings of the Brookings Task Force on the economic impact of the Internet on productivity growth in business endeavors even after the dot-com bubble burst. Concludes that the benefits of the Internet should not always be associated with the failures of dot-com firms. Lowenstein, Roger. Origins of the Crash: The Great Bubble and Its Undoing. New York: Penguin Books, 2004. A financial journalist examines and interprets the new era boom-and-bust economy of the 1990’s. Nataraj, Sam, and Jim Lee. “Dot-Com Companies: Are They All Hype? S.A.M. Advanced Management Journal 67, no. 3 (Summer, 2002): 10-15. Evaluates the strategies of “pure play” (Internet only) companies versus those “brick and mortar” businesses that continue to have physical store locations but expanded into e-commerce during the 1990’s. Razi, Muhammad A., J. Michael Tarn, and Faisal A. Siddiqui. “Exploring the Failure and Success of DotComs.” Information Management and Computer Security 12, no. 3 (2004): 228-244. Presents a detailed study of the causes of dot-com failures and successes. Concludes that successful Internet companies were able to overcome operational, technical, and organizational weaknesses to revolutionize customer support while influencing Web design and security issues. Schneider, Gary P. New Perspectives on E-Commerce: Comprehensive. Boston: Course Technology, 2002. Explains strategies for designing and implementing a successful e-commerce company. Tokic, Damir. “What Went Wrong with the DotComs?” Journal of Investing 11, no. 2 (Summer, 2002): 52-57. Analyzes the investment approach to the evaluation of Internet shares and pricing structures during the dot-com era. Gayla Koerting

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Downsizing and restructuring

See also Amazon.com; Business and the economy in Canada; Business and the economy in the United States; Computers; Greenspan, Alan; Income and wages in the United States; Internet; World Wide Web; Y2K problem.

■ Downsizing and restructuring Dramatic reductions by companies of existing business models in order to increase efficiency and profitability

Definition

Downsizing describes a business decision in which a company undergoes reorganization either by permanently reducing the workforce or by dismissing employees in a short period of time because of a slump in demand. Restructuring refers to reorganization by a company in an attempt to achieve high levels of operating efficiency, which can result in nonessential business functions being consolidated, sold, or closed down. The last two decades of the twentieth century represented years of economic transformation for American industry. The rapid development of technology brought about new means for product development, design, and distribution techniques. These strategies reflected the growth of a decentralized workplace, characterized by a relaxation of a strict hierarchy that became flattened over a period of time. When the administration of President Ronald Reagan began the movement to deregulate various telecommunication industries, there was an increase in competition from foreign markets. In the 1980’s, employees were usually laid off as a way to cut initial costs, and the companies would rehire them once the economy improved. By the early 1990’s, however, workers who were laid off began to suffer earnings losses. Job security worsened, benefits were lowered, and skill levels decreased. Companies became increasingly competitive, but many of them lost the ability to compete in the new economy, resulting in losses in market shares and profits. In order to restore their competitive edge in the global marketplace, businesses resorted to lowering costs by reinventing their production processes with the introduction of technology to streamline efficiency and meet consumer needs. In order to provide better levels of service, core functions were changed to involve more automation, thus leading to the elimination of jobs or reduction

of the employee pool. Often, the changes included the elimination of obsolete jobs, replacing them with those more compatible with the new operations of the business. In addition, the workplace often shed excess bureaucracy by cutting managerial or professional staff. Impact Critics stated that there were several consequences when a company decided to downsize, or as some described, to get “lean and mean.” There was the problem of downward mobility for white-collar professionals after losing their managerial positions. Another impact was that employee morale, loyalty, and cooperation diminished, causing more conflict in the workplace. Also, employees perceived the company’s downsizing strategy as uncoordinated or done in piecemeal fashion. The wage squeeze ensued, and production workers began to suffer from declining hourly earnings. Falling wages meant that many households had to work longer hours. Politicians and unions pointed to the greed of corporate America and businesses’ insensitivity to workers. Employees often felt a sense of betrayal, that companies failed to provide for their needs. The psychological impact meant that productivity suffered. Other economic analyses contend that downsizing or restructuring is healthy in a work environment, helping the company to take more risks. The benefits include lower costs and increased global competitiveness. When companies made the initial announcement that they were downsizing, stock prices would soar for a short period of time, and it was not unusual for executive management to be compensated with stock options. Further Reading

Baumol, William J., Alan S. Binder, and Edward N. Wolff. Downsizing in America: Reality, Causes, and Consequences. New York: Russell Sage Foundation, 2003. Three economists study the implications of downsizing on the workplace in the United States. They address issues such as the extent of downsizing and factors triggering changes in firm size. Caropreso, Frank, ed. Restructuring and Managing Change. New York: Conference Board, 1990. Essays written by various chief executive officers explain the causes and consequences of restructuring. Carter, Tony. The Aftermath of Reengineering: Downsizing and Corporate Performance. New York: Ha-

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worth Press, 1999. Provides advice and techniques for companies that are undergoing the restructuring process. Chapters include topics such as organizing layoffs, dealing with low morale, internal changes, redefining the critical business plans, and identifying market strategies in a global business climate. Doeringer, Peter B. Turbulence in the American Workplace. New York: Oxford University Press, 1991. Provides an account of how turmoil in the U.S. economy in the 1970’s and 1980’s changed the marketplace. Smith, Vicki. Crossing the Great Divide: Worker Risk and Opportunity in the New Economy. Ithaca, N.Y.: Cornell University Press, 2001. Smith uses four case studies from the 1990’s to analyze the effects of downsizing on white- and blue-collar workers. Gayla Koerting Business and the economy in the United States; Employment in the United States; Income and wages in the United States.

See also

■ Dream Team U.S. men’s basketball team at the 1992 Summer Olympics Place Barcelona, Spain Identification

After losing to the Soviets in 1988 at the Olympic Games in Seoul, the Americans assembled a “Dream Team” composed, for the first time, of professional basketball players and routed the opposition in the 1992 Olympic Games, reestablishing the United States as the home of the best basketball players in the world. After the International Basketball Federation (FIBA) opened the Olympic competition in basketball to professionals such as players from the National Basketball Association (NBA) in 1989, the United States named Chuck Daly, coach of the Detroit Pistons (NBA champions that year), to coach the 1992 U.S. Olympic men’s basketball team. His coaching staff consisted of Lenny Wilkens, Mike Krzyzewski, and P. J. Carlesimo. Despite being the coach, Daly did not select the players for what came to be known as the Dream Team, which included NBA stars Larry Bird, Michael Jordan, Magic Johnson, Karl Malone, Charles Barkley, Patrick Ewing, Chris Mullin, Scottie Pippen, David Robinson, John

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Dream Team Results, 1992 United States 116, United States 103, United States 111, United States 127, United States 122, United States 115, United States 127, United States 117,

Angola 48 Croatia 70 Germany 68 Brazil 83 Spain 81 Puerto Rico 77 Lithuania 76 Croatia 85

Stockton, and Clyde Drexler, as well as college player Christian Laettner of Duke University. In preparation for the Olympics, the Dream Team scrimmaged a Developmental Team made up of outstanding college players and practiced using international, rather than NBA, rules. From June 27 to July 5, the team was in Portland, Oregon, where they played other countries in their bracket; they were undefeated against Cuba, Canada, Panama, Argentina, Puerto Rico, and Venezuela, averaging well over one hundred points per game and winning by at least forty points per game. The team then had a twoweek break, spending one of the weeks in Monte Carlo, where they defeated the French team by forty points in an exhibition game. In Barcelona, the Dream Team was assigned to Pool A of the round-robin competition, and they again dominated, winning all their games against some tough European teams such as Croatia, Germany, and Spain, and South American power Brazil. In the next round, the team defeated Puerto Rico 115-77 and, after defeating Lithuania in the semifinals 127-76, faced Croatia in the finals for the gold medal. The Dream Team only once trailed Croatia, at 25-23, but went on to win 117-85. Impact Winning the gold medal restored American pride and reinstated the United States as the dominant country in what many Americans considered to be their game. The games, televised worldwide to more than three billion people, also spurred new interest in basketball and raised the level of play worldwide. Some countries had an NBA player on their 1992 Olympic squads, but after 1992 the number of foreign players on NBA teams increased dramatically. Most important, despite the lopsided scores, players from other countries did not resent

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Drive-by shootings

American success, but attempted to emulate the feats and moves of the players on the Dream Team. Further Reading

Daly, Chuck, and Alex Sachare. America’s Dream Team: The Quest for Olympic Gold. Atlanta: Turner, 1992. Stauth, Cameron. Golden Boys: The Unauthorized Look at the U.S. Olympic Basketball Team. New York: Pocket Books, 1992. Thomas L. Erskine Basketball; Barkley, Charles; Johnson, Magic; Jordan, Michael; Malone, Karl; Olympic Games of 1992; Sports.

See also

■ Drive-by shootings Spontaneous hit-and-run attacks from a moving vehicle, often aimed at rival gang members

Definition

Although often associated with Southern California and youth gang behavior, the drive-by shooting became commonplace during the 1990’s across America. While usually associated with adolescent crime, in the broadest sense the drive-by has a long history that goes back to horses and muskets. It was from such a tactic that the Dutch prince William the Silent became the first national leader to be assassinated during the sixteenth century. With the advent of the automobile, the first documentation of a drive-by as defined today took place in 1919 during the Chicago race riots. Later in Chicago, during Prohibition, Thompson or “Tommy” machine guns were employed in drive-bys during mob turf wars. After World War II, gangs began to use the drive-by, although it was referred to during the late 1940’s as “japping,” named for the Japanese behind-the-line tactics practiced in the Pacific theater. Japping was basically a foray, a confrontation quite different than a rumble—where gangs met at an appointed time and place and fought it out. It was on the West Coast beginning in the 1980’s, however, that the drive-by became a commonplace tactic used by gangs. Unlike Eastern cities, where population density is high, adjacent territories close, and safe areas easily accessible, West Coast cities featured neighborhoods that were farther apart, nu-

merous connecting roadways, and easy freeway accessibility. The drive-by is usually characterized by the use of relatively massive firepower aimed at a stationary target with little concern for accuracy. From careful case studies of these incidents, it appears that there are several common factors. First, participants had previous criminal records and were members of gangs. Second, these acts were spontaneous rather than planned, and typically a response to an affront from a rival gang, although drugs were also often at the root of the conflict. Gang members, with a warrior mentality and eager for excitement, sought added prestige within their subculture. Hip-hop music became intimately connected with drive-by shootings when two of its most popular artists, Tupac Shakur and his rival Notorious B.I.G., were killed in drive-bys in 1996 and 1997, respectively. These two visible figures brought to the spotlight a crime that is a reflection of the deterioration of order and the problems of widespread gun violence. Impact Ironically perhaps, while the drive-by remained a problem in American cities into the twenty-first century, it became a preferred tactic used by the insurgency in the Iraq War. The drive-by is difficult to defend against, as it expands the number of potential targets, often innocent bystanders, in Baghdad and elsewhere. Further Reading

Davis, Roger H. “Cruising for Trouble: Gang-Related Drive-By Shootings.” FBI Law Enforcement Bulletin 64, no. 1 (January, 1995): 16-23. Sanders, William B. Gangbangs and Drive-bys: Grounded Culture and Juvenile Gang Violence. New York: Aldine de Gruyter, 1994. John A. Heitmann Carjacking; Crime; Gun control; Hip-hop and rap music; Shakur, Tupac.

See also

■ Drudge, Matt American Internet journalist and radio talk-show host Born October 27, 1966; Takoma Park, Maryland Identification

By using his Drudge Report Web site to break the news of President Bill Clinton’s affair with Monica Lewinsky at a

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time when established media outlets were hesitant to investigate or to reveal it, Matt Drudge simultaneously determined the trajectory of Clinton’s second presidential term and established himself as one of the main sources of a story’s newsworthiness in the Internet age. Matthew Nathan Drudge spent his formative years giving little evidence of the cultural force that he was to become. His parents separated when he was six years old and were eventually divorced. His adolescence was marked by occasional juvenile delinquency, unspectacular academic achievement, and quixotic mischief. By his late twenties, his résumé consisted mainly of low-level sales positions. In 1994, his father bought him a computer, and before long Drudge was surfing the Internet, collecting political and entertainment gossip, and e-mailing them to a growing list of friends. Drudge eventually came to

Matt Drudge, editor of the political Web site the Drudge Report, walks upstairs to his Hollywood apartment. Drudge became well known after breaking the story on the Monica Lewinsky scandal involving President Bill Clinton. (AP/Wide World Photos)

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the attention of the reporter Chris Ruddy, who introduced him to the Los Angeles radio talk-show host George Putnam. Before long, Drudge was augmenting his Drudge Report with articles for Wired magazine and America Online. Drudge’s first appearance as the subject of a highprofile headline resulted in a lawsuit filed against him by the journalist and Clinton aide Sidney Blumenthal, whom Drudge had libeled by publishing a false rumor accusing him of spousal abuse. Drudge’s next moment in the spotlight, however, had far more important—and, for him, far more auspicious—ramifications. In January, 1998, he learned that Newsweek magazine was suppressing a story detailing President Bill Clinton’s affair with a twenty-three-year-old White House intern. Unlike the Blumenthal story, the Clinton-Lewinsky scandal turned out to be true, and, as the first journalist to report it, Drudge became an information age celebrity. By 1998, Drudge was hosting a weekly television show, Drudge, on the Fox News Channel, thus making his Fedora-wearing image part of his public persona. In November, 1999, he resigned upon being denied permission to air a photo of a prenatal operation that, according to Fox News, would have misleadingly been used to dramatize his argument against late-term abortion. After his stint at Fox News, Drudge maintained and expanded his media presence by hosting a popular three-hour, Sunday-night talk radio show, on which he frequently inveighed against government surveillance and controversially liberal politicians. He resigned in September, 2007, citing a desire to have his Sunday evenings free but assuring listeners that his Internet efforts would continue unabated. Impact Drudge’s media-savvy intuition combined with his unique access to (usually) reliable “inside” sources often enabled him to be the first to publish “hot” news stories. As a result, the Drudge Report had by the end of the 1990’s, both through its original content and through its links to other stories, become enormously influential in determining the topics most reported and debated in newspapers and magazines and on cable television news networks and talk radio. The success of his own radio talk show further reinforced the prominence of his role in the growing interdependence of talk radio and the Internet.

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Further Reading

Drudge, Matt, and Julia Phillips. Drudge Manifesto. New York: New American Library, 2000. Walls, Jeannette. Dish: How Gossip Became the News and the News Became Just Another Show. New York: Avon Books, 2000. Arsenio Orteza Abortion; Blogs; Cable television; Censorship; Clinton, Bill; Clinton’s impeachment; Clinton’s scandals; Computers; E-mail; Internet; Journalism; Lewinsky scandal; Scandals; Search engines; Talk radio.

See also

■ Drug advertising Pharmaceutical advertising within the United States

Definition

There was a substantial increase in direct-to-consumer advertising for both over-the-counter and prescription drugs during the 1990’s. The decade also saw the first television drug advertisements following a 1997 decision by the U.S. Food and Drug Administration to soften regulations on marketing prescription drugs. These broadcasts have been far-reaching, leading to a debate as to whether their effect on the doctor-patient relationship has been beneficial. Pharmaceutical advertising is given strict regulatory oversight by the U.S. Food and Drug Administration (FDA). The FDA’s primary responsibility is to ensure that new medications are safe prior to being put on the market. In 1962, an amendment to the Food, Drug, and Cosmetic Act of 1938 clarified the FDA’s mission as ensuring that drugs were both safe and effective. This new legislation mandated that drugmakers list a summary of all of the drug’s effects and possible risks on the label. This is known as the brief summary. The strict requirement caused the pharmaceutical industry to advertise primarily to physicians prior to 1980. Because of time constraints, the requirement prohibited any type of broadcasts on network television. However, some direct-to-consumer (DTC) advertisements began appearing in magazines during the early 1980’s. In 1983, the FDA requested a voluntary moratorium on such marketing, unsure as to its potential effects. The pharmaceutical industry complied with this request, and it was eventually lifted in 1985.

The Nineties in America Drug Advertising in the 1990’s While the moratorium had not been in place for several years, drug advertisers did not resume print advertising until 1990. A survey conducted by Marvin Moe Bell in the Journal of Family Practice showed that the most common advertisements during the first eight years of the decade were for conditions that included HIV/ AIDS, obstetric and gynecological, and dermatological issues. Such print advertisements usually took the form of descriptions of a new drug’s effectiveness, symptom control, and the scientific innovation behind the product. During the mid-1990’s, a series of open hearings were held on possibly easing advertising requirements for prescription pharmaceuticals. These hearings led to the FDA releasing a new set of draft guidelines that, among other things, did away with the brief summary. Instead, commercials could make a major statement that discussed only the most common side effects of a medication. Consumers would then be directed to alternative sources for more detailed product information, such as a tollfree number, a Web site, or another advertisement in a specific magazine. With new guidelines in place, it was now both possible (and practical) to advertise new medications on television. Pharmaceutical companies began advertising almost immediately, and, by 1999 (when the draft standards became finalized), drug advertising was quite prevalent. Such on-air advertising was understandably expensive, and it was common for pharmaceutical companies to be spending anywhere from $40 to $70 million annually on such ads. Pfizer’s 1999 blockbuster rheumatoid arthritis medication Celebrex received significant screen time. By the year 2000, there were advertisements for antidepressants, antihistamines, cholesterol-lowering medications, and heartburn medications. Effects of DTC Advertising Broadcast advertising has been controversial since its inception. Many people were concerned over how to balance consumer needs and protection of the physician-patient relationship with the economics of the extremely competitive pharmaceutical industry. Proponents of DTC advertising argued that these broadcasts empowered individual consumers by alerting them to the existence of a medication, leading to more informed discussions with their doctors. Even consumer advocates agreed that when a medi-

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cation was appropriately prescribed or an underdiagnosed condition was given the television spotlight, patients benefited. However, surveyed physicians reported that patients often came to their offices with incomplete information about a medication and more easily recalled the benefits of a drug rather than the potential risks. Doctors also reported sometimes feeling pressured to write a prescription when a change in diet or exercise would have been more appropriate and beneficial for the patient. By the late 1990’s, most doctors that were surveyed did not believe that DTC advertising had enhanced the physician-patient relationship. Drugmakers pointed to the economic necessity of advertising new medications. Capital spent on research and development can climb to $1 billion in a year. Such an investment in research is not sustainable if new drugs do not sell in sufficient quantities. Added to this is the fact that rival drugs, which have the same biological effects, are often on the market within three months of a commercial drug release. Because of the increasingly overcrowded marketplace, the launch of a new medication is extremely important. Because of these factors, and data showing that advertising drugs leads to more prescriptions, DTC marketing will continue to be a major aspect of the pharmaceutical industry well into the twenty-first century. After the 1990’s, DTC advertising continued to be a priority for the pharmaceutical industry, eventually showing a 400 percent increase in spending from 1996 to 2003 ($791 million to $3.2 billion). The decade following the FDA’s new regulations would lead to questions about large advertising budgets, particularly after several high-profile prescription drugs were removed from the market, most notably Merck’s Vioxx.

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to-Consumer Advertising.” Clinical Therapeutics 20, suppl. C (1998): C86-C95. Discusses the FDA’s role in drug advertising. Bell, Robert A., Richard L. Kravitz, and Michael S. Wilkes. “Direct-to-Consumer Prescription Drug Advertising, 1989-1998.” The Journal of Family Practice 49, no. 4 (April, 2000): 329-335. A description of what 1990’s advertising looked like in various print sources. Gellad, Ziad F., and Kenneth W. Lyles. “Direct-toConsumer Advertising of Pharmaceuticals.” The American Journal of Medicine 120, no. 6 (June, 2007): 475-480. A great review of the topic. Kelly, Tim. “DTC Grows Up.” Guide to Branding, October 15, 2007, 4-16. An article describing the money spent on advertising, as well as returns on investment, over the previous ten years. Perri, Matthew, Shashank Shinde, and Reshma Banavali. “The Past, Present, and Future of Directto-Consumer Prescription Drug Advertising.” Clinical Therapeutics 21, no. 10 (October, 1999): 17981811. A comprehensive review of the topic. Michael P. Fitzgerald Antidepressants; Attention-deficit disorder; Depo-Provera; Fen-phen; Health care; Medicine; Nicotine patch; Pharmaceutical industry; Viagra.

See also

DTC Advertising a Decade Later

Impact The 1990’s saw an explosion of growth in direct-to-consumer advertising by pharmaceutical companies. Drug companies were now able to bypass physicians and have direct contact with consumers. It remains unclear if this has been beneficial, but such advertising will undoubtedly remain a mainstay of the pharmaceutical industry for the foreseeable future. Further Reading

Baylor-Henry, Minnie, and Norman A. Drezin. “Regulation of Prescription Drug Promotion: Direct-

■ Drug use Consumption of psychoactive substances

Definition

Despite huge sums of federal and state dollars allocated toward eradicating the supply of illegal drugs and treating drug users, the consumption of illegal substances continued unabated throughout the 1990’s. The Controlled Substances Act (CSA), Title II of the Comprehensive Drug Abuse Prevention and Control Act of 1970, is the legal foundation by which the federal government regulates controlled substances, including marijuana, stimulants, hallucinogens, depressants, and opiates and their derivatives. In response to the widespread use of crack cocaine through the 1980’s, the federal government passed the Anti-Drug Abuse Act in 1986, which imposed stiff, mandatory minimum penalties for persons possessing the drug.

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Dubroff, Jessica

By the early 1990’s, despite its criminalization, crack use continued to increase, and thousands of people were incarcerated. As the use of crack started to stabilize and decline by the mid-1990’s, marijuana became widely popular, particularly in inner cities. Similarly, many former crack users and a younger middle-class generation began to use heroin in increasing numbers. Many youth and young adults also began using “designer drugs” such as Ecstasy (methylenedioxymethamphetamine, or MDMA), GHB (gamma hydroxybutyrate), and ketamine. Through the 1990’s, the use of methamphetamine, commonly known as crystal meth, surged across the nation. By the close of the decade, the Drug Enforcement Administration (DEA) was engaged in one of many cyclical “war on drugs” targeting users and sellers of methamphetamine, marijuana, heroin, crack, and increasingly popular designer drugs. In 1999, state prisons held 251,200 drug offenders, about 21 percent of state prison inmates. Minorities were drastically overrepresented among the incarcerated population. In the last two years of the decade, the incidence of fatal drug overdose skyrocketed to rates not previously seen, due in part to the high purity of heroin. Impact

■ Dubroff, Jessica Seven-year-old pilot trainee killed in a plane crash while attempting to become the youngest person to pilot a cross-country flight Born May 5, 1988; Hercules, California Died April 11, 1996; Cheyenne, Wyoming Identification

With her “Women Fly” baseball cap, Dubroff charmed the nation as she set out on the second leg of her cross-country flight from Cheyenne Airport. Moments after takeoff, her plane lay crumpled in a driveway, with Dubroff, her father, and her instructor dead on impact. On the morning of April 11, 1996, in Cheyenne, Wyoming, Jessica Dubroff, her father, Lloyd, and her flight instructor, Joe Reid, attempted to outrun a worsening hail storm and to meet media obligations along the route. Witnesses said that the plane failed to achieve altitude, may have stalled, and plunged straight down in a residential neighborhood near the airport. The National Transportation Safety

Further Reading

Gahlinger, Paul M. Illegal Drugs: A Complete Guide to Their History, Chemistry, Use, and Abuse. Las Vegas: Sagebrush Press, 2001. Goode, Erich. Drugs in American Society. 7th ed. New York: McGraw-Hill, 2008. Johnson, Bruce, et al. “The Rise and Decline of Hard Drugs, Drug Markets, and Violence in Inner-City New York.” In The Crime Drop in America, edited by Alfred Blumstein and Joel Wallman. Cambridge, England: Cambridge University Press, 2000. Alexander S. Bennett See also AIDS epidemic; Burning Man festivals; Crime; Drive-by shootings; Ecstasy; Heroin chic; Medicine; Nirvana; Pharmaceutical industry; Phoenix, River; Pulp Fiction; Woodstock concerts.

The wreckage of the airplane in which Jessica Dubroff, her father, and her flight instructor were killed is loaded onto a trailer in Cheyenne on April 11, 1996. (AP/Wide World Photos)

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Board determined in a year-long investigation that Reid was ultimately responsible for “improper” decisions caused by fatigue and inexperience with high-altitude takeoff procedure. The Cessna 177B was probably one hundred pounds overweight, buffeted by shifting winds, and unable to accelerate enough to get more than four hundred feet off the ground. Debate soon raged on talk radio and Internet sites about whether Dubroff ’s parents, Lisa Blair Hathaway and Lloyd Dubroff, had pushed a dangerous publicity stunt upon their daughter or had been irresponsible in permitting her attempt. The Guinness Book of Records had ceased to recognize “youngest pilot” and similar categories years earlier to discourage dangerous exploits by children, but as San Francisco Chronicle columnist Joan Ryan observed, “We—the public and the media—adore tiny little champions.” Hathaway came under particularly scathing attack for her unconventional child rearing and insistence that Dubroff had lived her life well. Time magazine even published a cover story asking, “Who Killed Jessica Dubroff ?” Dubroff had been taking flight lessons for five months. She had 33.2 flight hours, with fifty takeoffs and landings, and required cushions to see over the control panel and extenders to reach the foot pedals. When her father suggested that she try to become the youngest person to pilot a plane coast to coast, Dubroff committed herself. The record required that she control the plane at all times, except in case of emergency. Since Dubroff’s eighth birthday was three weeks away, the record attempt may have influenced the adults’ better judgment. Impact Dubroff ’s death inspired vigorous debate about the responsibility of parents, media, and authorities for children’s safety, and children’s competence to choose adventures. Congress passed the Child Pilot Safety Act in October, 1996, mandating that a person must have pilot and medical certification to control a plane involved in competition or an attempt to accomplish a feat or record. Dubroff is remembered as a smart, brave, and special person. Further Reading

Farrey, Tom. Game On: The All-American Race to Make Champions of Our Children. New York: ESPN Books, 2008. Tofler, Ian, and Theresa Foy DiGeronimo. Keeping

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Your Kids Out Front Without Kicking Them from Behind: How to Nurture High-Achieving Athletes, Scholars, and Performing Artists. San Francisco: Jossey-Bass, 2000. Jan Hall See also

Hobbies and recreation.

■ Duke, David White supremacist and Republican member of the Louisiana House of Representatives, 1989-1992 Born July 1, 1950; Tulsa, Oklahoma Identification

Duke was the most high-profile white supremacist in the United States and a candidate for numerous public offices in the 1990’s. David Duke’s public career began in 1969, when he was a student at Louisiana State University and the leader of the National Socialist Liberation Front, an organization affiliated with the neo-Nazi National Socialist White People’s Party. From 1974 until 1980, Duke was Grand Wizard of the Louisiana-based Knights of the Ku Klux Klan. In 1980, he started another white supremacist group, the National Association for the Advancement of White People. Duke was narrowly elected to the Louisiana House of Representatives as a Republican in 1989. He described himself as a white rights advocate and used issues such as affirmative action and immigration to appeal to disgruntled white voters. In 1990, Duke ran for the U.S. Senate in Louisiana against incumbent J. Bennett Johnston. Though Duke lost, he received 60 percent of the white vote and 43.5 percent of the total vote. In 1991, he ran for governor of Louisiana. Though he was unsuccessful, he received approximately 700,000 votes, including a majority of the white vote. In 1992, Duke mounted a short but unsuccessful campaign for the Republican Party’s presidential nomination. Following this effort, Duke left politics. During this period, he co-owned a bar, attempted to sell insurance, started a new publication called the David Duke Report, and hosted a radio talk show in Covington, Louisiana. In 1996, Duke once again entered the Louisiana Senate primary. This time he received approximately 141,000 votes, finishing fourth in a field of fifteen. Finally, in 1998 Duke ran for his state’s First

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DVDs

can appeal to race and class resentment by modifying their message. Further Reading

Bridges, Tyler. The Rise of David Duke. Jackson: University Press of Mississippi, 1994. Kuzenski, John C., Charles S. Bullock III, and Ronald Keith Gaddie, eds. David Duke and the Politics of Race in the South. Nashville: Vanderbilt University Press, 1995. Powell, Lawrence N. Troubled Memory: Anne Levy, the Holocaust, and David Duke’s Louisiana. Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 2000. William V. Moore See also African Americans; Hate crimes; Holocaust Memorial Museum; Illegal immigration; Jewish Americans; Latinos; Race relations.

■ DVDs An optical disc storage format primarily used by consumers to watch films and television programs

Definition

DVDs arrived in the mid-1990’s and soon challenged the supremacy of videocassettes for home viewing. David Duke in 1991. (AP/Wide World Photos)

Congressional District seat, receiving 20 percent of the vote and finishing third. In that same year, he published My Awakening, an autobiographical work that reaffirmed his racist and anti-Semitic beliefs. At the end of the decade, Duke was being investigated by the Federal Bureau of Investigation (FBI) for mail fraud and tax evasion based on his political activities. He eventually pleaded guilty to these charges and was imprisoned for thirteen months in 2003 and 2004. Impact In his numerous political campaigns in the 1990’s, Duke portrayed himself as a changed person who no longer held the views that were part of his extremist past. This attempt to mainstream his message was successful to a degree; however, he was never able to win another political race following his election to the Louisiana House of Representatives. Nevertheless, his ability to attract a large percentage of white voters illustrated that extremists

In the 1970’s and 1980’s, the Video Home System (VHS) videocassette recorder (VCR) revolutionized home entertainment by allowing viewers to videotape television programs and watch them at their leisure and to rent or buy films on videotape. This viewing flexibility was undercut for some because the picture and sound quality of videocassettes was generally inferior to what could be seen and heard on television and especially in movie theaters. Then, digital video discs (DVDs) were developed to offer viewers considerably improved picture and sound. Format Development Two years after its introduction in 1976, VHS had a challenger in the laser disc, which offered much sharper images, offering 425 lines of horizontal resolution in contrast to VHS’s 240. With Criterion’s special edition release of Citizen Kane (1941) in 1985, which provided supplemental material about the film (generally referred to as bonus materials, or extras), another advantage was introduced. Laser discs never caught on with the public, however, because of their cumbersome size (comparable to long-playing records), their suscep-

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tibility to damage, their high cost, and their inability to record television programs. Three million laser disc players had been sold in the United States by 1997. Consumers waited patiently while a cheaper, more adaptable technology was developed. By 1993, Philips and Sony had developed the smaller MultiMedia Compact Disc, while Toshiba had created its Super Density Disc. Philips and Sony, wanting to avoid a format war, eventually decided to proceed with the specifications of the Toshiba disc, and the DVD was born. Though the industry initially insisted that “DVD” stood for “digital versatile disc,” most consumers assumed it meant “digital video disc,” and the nomenclature was changed. DVDs and DVD players entered the U.S. market in late 1997. At first, only recent popular films were offered, with older and more esoteric films becoming available late in the 1990’s. Some consumers were hesitant at first because the first DVDs were not recordable, but those who had been reluctant to buy laser discs quickly embraced the cheaper, smaller (the same size as audio compact discs), and easier-tostore discs. These buyers found that the picture, with the same resolution as laser discs, was vastly superior to that of videocassettes, and when connected to the proper equipment (receiver, speakers), multichannel audio was possible. As a result, Pioneer, the main champion of laser discs, abandoned this format in June, 1999. Though DVDs were initially slow to catch on with the general public, matters soon changed as more and more consumers heard about the improved audiovisual quality and saw it demonstrated in electronics stores. The entertainment industry had assumed that DVDs would slowly supplement or perhaps even replace VHS, but experts underestimated the public by assuming that consumers would continue to rent much more than they purchased. Though some had developed VHS collections of their favorite films,

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the bulky tapes took up considerable room. DVDs occupied much less space, were at first only slightly costlier than VHS cassettes, and were much more durable, inviting multiple viewings. Contributing to this early success was the inclusion of extras. Following the lead of laser discs, the makers of DVDs offered commentaries by filmmakers and film scholars. Viewers could watch films either with or without commentaries, which explained the production details of the films and, with older films, placed them in a historical context. Consumers wanted more and more extras and soon got on-set interviews, documentaries about the making of the films, deleted scenes, and more. DVDs also offered viewers the option, for many films made since the mid-1950’s, of watching them in a full-screen format that filled every inch of screen space but cut off the corners of the images or in the film’s original wide-screen format, meaning that the tops, bottoms, and sides of images were no longer excised. As television screens became larger, the wide-screen format option became more important. In 1998, two million DVD players were sold in the

Quick Success

Robert Minkhorst, president of Philips Consumer Electronics Company, displays a digital video disc during the 1996 Consumer Electronics Show in Las Vegas. (AP/Wide World Photos)

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United States, three thousand titles were available, and 9.3 million DVDs were sold. In 1999, four million players were sold, 6,300 titles were available, and twenty million DVDs were sold. DVDs and DVD players had an advantage that VHS and VCRs did not: the Internet. By the late 1990’s, consumers had discovered the ease of purchasing online, finding that players and DVDs could be found at lower prices than in stores. By the end of 1999, four titles had sold over a million copies each: Austin Powers: The Spy Who Shagged Me (1999), The Matrix (1999), Saving Private Ryan (1998), and Titanic (1997). Internet commerce and DVDs have been linked since the introduction of the format. While videocassettes had been rented from stores such as the Blockbuster chain, DVDs could be rented online from Netflix starting in April, 1998. When the company introduced a flat monthly fee for unlimited rentals of DVDs delivered quickly by mail in September, 1999, online renting of DVDs took off. Impact Because DVDs were introduced relatively late in the 1990’s, their full impact did not become clear until the early twenty-first century. Once the initial consumer excitement over improved picture, sound, and storage subsided, more and more titles were demanded, especially classic and obscure films, along with increased extras. Many enthusiastic DVD collectors built libraries of hundreds and thousands of titles. DVD producers were pleasantly shocked by the number of people wanting to own complete sea-

sons of their favorite television shows. What began as an alternative to VHS eventually changed America’s viewing habits as much as the earlier innovation had. As a result, VHS itself slowly faded, with the last massmarket VHS title issued in 2006. Further Reading

Barlow, Aaron. The DVD Revolution: Movies, Culture, and Technology. Westport, Conn.: Praeger, 2005. Examines the impact of DVDs on home entertainment and film study. Bennett, James, and Tom Brown, eds. Film and Television After DVD. New York: Routledge, 2008. Scholarly essays about DVD audiences, the impact of the DVD on film history, and creating bonus materials. Fitzpatrick, Eileen. “DVD POV: Perspective on a Deep-Pocketed Market.” Billboard 112 (May 27, 2000): 129. Looks at quick growth of DVD industry. Taylor, Jim. Everything You Ever Wanted to Know About DVD: The Official DVD FAQ. New York: McGrawHill, 2004. Includes statistics about early development of DVDs. Michael Adams Amazon.com; Computers; Digital audio; Dot-coms; Film in the United States; Internet; Matrix, The ; Plasma screens; Saving Private Ryan; Television; Titanic; World Wide Web.

See also

E ■ Earth Day 1990 A worldwide environmental demonstration commemorating the twentieth anniversary of the first Earth Day Date April 22, 1990 Definition

Earth Day 1990 successfully raised the consciousness of millions of people around the world, but for all its benefits, it did not inspire the public to make lifestyle changes toward sustainability on a mass scale.

The first Earth Day in 1970 was the brainchild of Wisconsin senator Gaylord Nelson, who lamented the lack of interest in environmental issues by America’s political representatives. In September, 1969, Nelson proposed the use of teach-ins as a vehicle for building environmental awareness in the American public. He asked Stanford University graduate Denis Hayes to head up the organization of an Earth Day, with the focus on teach-ins in public places such as college campuses and labor halls. From this grass-

A crowd gathers at a beach in Santa Monica, California, to celebrate Earth Day 1990 and to listen to speeches by political figures and celebrities. (AP/Wide World Photos)

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roots event, the environmental movement spread across the country; environmentalism became a household word and a powerful force in American public policy. Earth Day 1970 was catalytical for the founding of the Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) and the passage of the Clean Air, Clean Water, and Endangered Species Acts. It was also a turning point in the national consciousness and in the lives of many people who went on to careers in environmental monitoring and protection. Environmentalists and their organizations sought out Hayes to coordinate activities for the twentiethanniversary celebration of Earth Day 1990. Three million dollars was budgeted for the event in the United States. From its birth two decades earlier, environmentalism was now firmly planted in the American psyche, integrated and formalized as laws and policies. It had also served as the inspiration for environmental campaigns around the world. The 1990 commemoration triggered a spontaneous response of grassroots activism international in scope. More than 200 million people in 141 countries participated in the celebration. People around the world were motivated to establish community recycling programs and to focus efforts on controlling toxic materials. Impact Earth Day 1990 activities inspired a host of policy changes and developments through the decade. The EPA implemented its tree-planting and tree-registration programs and worked with the American Forestry Association to promote reforestation efforts in other countries. Environmental passions were high at the U.N. Conference on Environment and Development (UNCED) in 1992, held in Rio de Janeiro. The Rio conference brought governmental and nongovernmental workers together to lay the groundwork for programs of sustainable development. On the twenty-fifth anniversary of Earth Day in 1995, the world community assessed its environmental health, particularly with regard to air and water pollution. In 2000, environmental groups worked to link five thousand environmental groups globally through the Internet, an effort uniting countless millions in more than 180 countries. The United Nations formally celebrates Earth Day on the equinox each spring but collaborates with organizers of the global Earth Day, the Earth Day Network, to promote public activism and ecologically sound practices around the world.

The Nineties in America Further Reading

Hayes, Denis. The Official Earth Day Guide to Planet Repair. Washington, D.C.: Island Press, 2000. Nelson, Gaylord, Susan M. Campbell, and Paul A. Wozniak. Beyond Earth Day: Fulfilling the Promise. Madison: University of Wisconsin Press, 2002. Ann M. Legreid Air pollution; Clean Air Act of 1990; Earth in the Balance ; Global warming debate; Sustainable design movement; Water pollution.

See also

■ Earth in the Balance Identification Environmental book Author Al Gore (1948) Date Published in 1992

Initially derided as a politically far-left liberal fallacy, Gore’s book drew worldwide attention to the damage done by human beings to the environment and ecosystems of the planet. Public reaction to Earth in the Balance: Ecology and the Human Spirit ranged from ecstatic approval to ridicule and derision of the views presented by then Tennessee senator Al Gore. First published in 1992, the book became a New York Times best seller. Gore received a great deal of praise from environmentally conscious readers around the world. Others mocked Gore as “Ozone Al” and his book as an exaggeration of global environmental damage. Earth in the Balance was written after Gore lost a 1988 bid to become president and prior to being inaugurated vice president in January, 1993, with President Bill Clinton. Critics and admirers alike were stunned and impressed that a man as politically motivated as Gore would write a book as controversial as Earth in the Balance while still hoping for elected office. Though his record as a devout environmentalist was one reason Clinton chose Gore, the Clinton administration’s policies on environmental protection were largely rhetorical and token, rather than proactive and meaningful. In his book, Gore covered the devastation of the global environment, how it got that way, and what will happen if effective solutions are not enacted by world governments and citizens. Gore painted a very dire picture for the future of the planet if en-

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vironmental and ecological damage is not considered an urgent priority. A main theme of the book is the connection between human spirituality and the environment. Public reaction to this thesis also ranged from mockery to reasoned acceptance of the interconnectedness of humans and their habitat. Gore implored all nations to refrain from the destruction of rain forests and wetlands and from reliance on nonrenewable fossil fuels. He urged a global shift toward ecologically friendly practices. Acknowledging the financial burden such a radical change would engender, Gore countered that replacing outmoded technology and industries with environmentally friendly alternatives would create jobs for designers and engineers, builders, scientists, and laborers—virtually all job categories and capital markets—and would actually improve the world economy. The book incorporated history, science, technology, and spirituality. By the end of the 1990’s, the environmental issues discussed in the book were validated by mainstream science and accepted by many as a fact of modern life. Gore and the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC) shared the Nobel Peace Prize in 2007 “for their efforts to build up and disseminate greater knowledge about manmade climate change, and to lay the foundations for the measures that are needed to counteract such change.”

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Air pollution; Conservatism in U.S. politics; Global warming debate; Earth Day 1990; Kyoto Protocol; Mississippi River flood of 1993; Natural disasters; Organic food movement; Quayle, Dan; Sport utility vehicles (SUVs); Sustainable design movement; Water pollution; Whitman, Christine Todd.

See also

■ Ecstasy An illegal psychoactive substance that produces feelings of empathy, euphoria, and relaxation

Definition

Often associated with dance parties called raves, Ecstasy gained widespread popularity in the 1990’s among youth and young adults. Ecstasy (also known as XTC, E, methylenedioxymethamphetamine, or MDMA) was first synthesized by German pharmaceutical company Merck in 1912 and was essentially ignored for fifty years. It was resynthesized by biochemist Alexander Shulgin in 1965 and was subsequently used by psychiatrists as a therapeutic tool. Ecstasy gained widespread popularity as a recreational drug in the early 1980’s before being criminalized in 1985. Despite its status as an illegal drug, in the early 1990’s the use of Ecstasy increased, growing in popu-

Impact Earth in the Balance and its famous author turned a spotlight on environmental issues in ways that a lesser-known personality could not have done. “Going green” became a popular motto and concept, in large part because of Earth in the Balance, as well as An Inconvenient Truth (2006) and its Academy Award-winning documentary version. Further Reading

Gore, Al. Earth in the Balance: Ecology and the Human Spirit. 1992. Reprint. Emmaus, Pa.: Rodale Press, 2006. _______. An Inconvenient Truth: The Planetary Emergency of Global Warming and What We Can Do About It. Emmaus, Pa.: Rodale Press, 2006. Kolbert, Elizabeth. Field Notes from a Catastrophe: Man, Nature, and Climate Changes. New York: Bloomsbury, 2006. Twyla R. Wells Ecstasy pills. (U.S. Drug Enforcement Administration)

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larity among college students. In the early years of the decade, dance parties known as raves, which originated in the United Kingdom, spread across the United States; Ecstasy pills on a massive scale soon followed, sparking the resurgence of Ecstasy use in America. Raves and Ecstasy—as well as other mind-altering “club drugs” such as GHB (gamma hydroxybutyrate), LSD (lysergic acid diethylamide), and ketamine— essentially went hand in hand. By the mid-1990’s, Ecstasy had spread to high schools and was used frequently by young adults. In response, the Drug Enforcement Administration increased its efforts to eliminate Ecstasy from the American drug scene, but the use of Ecstasy among American youth continued to increase. Impact Due in part to law-enforcement efforts to eliminate Ecstasy from the American landscape, by the end of the decade Ecstasy pills were lower in purity and increasingly adulterated with chemicals that had negative physiological effects on the user. As a consequence, emergency room visits due to Ecstasy consumption increased nationally from 253 in 1994 to 4,511 in 2000. Further Reading

Gahlinger, Paul M. Illegal Drugs: A Complete Guide to Their History, Chemistry, Use, and Abuse. Las Vegas: Sagebrush Press, 2001. Goode, Erich. Drugs in American Society. 7th ed. New York: McGraw-Hill, 2008. Holland, Julie, ed. Ecstasy: The Complete Guide—a Comprehensive Look at the Risks and Benefits of MDMA. Rochester, Vt.: Park Street Press, 2001. Alexander S. Bennett Burning Man festivals; Crime; Drug use; Lollapalooza; Medicine; Music; Tattoos and body piercing; Weil, Andrew; Woodstock concerts.

See also

■ Educate America Act of 1994 Comprehensive federal education policy; also referred to as Goals 2000 Date Signed into law on March 31, 1994 Identification

This act represented a major shift in federal education policy to one that was focused on educational outcomes and reforms that were standards-driven.

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The Educate America Act (P.L. 103-227) was one of several educational policies that was implemented in 1994 (others included the School-to-Work Opportunities Act and the Improving America’s Schools Act). The policy was based on three principles: results-based education plans would increase student success, high educational expectations for all students would improve student outcomes, and children would perform best when provided with common expectations. The act established eight educational goals. The legislation specifically states that, by the year 2000, (1) all children in America will start school ready to learn; (2) the high school graduation rate will increase to at least 90 percent; (3) all students will leave grades four, eight, and twelve having demonstrated competency over challenging subject matter, including English, mathematics, science, foreign languages, civics and government, economics, arts, history, and geography, and every school in America will ensure that all students learn to use their minds well, so they may be prepared for responsible citizenship, further learning, and productive employment in the modern economy; (4) American students will be first in the world in mathematics and science achievement; (5) the nation’s teaching force will have access to programs for the continued improvement of their professional skills and the opportunity to acquire the knowledge and skills needed to instruct and prepare all American students for the next century; (6) every adult American will be literate and will possess the knowledge and skills necessary to compete in a global economy and exercise the rights and responsibilities of citizenship; (7) every school in the United States will be free of drugs, violence, and the unauthorized presence of firearms and alcohol and will offer a disciplined environment conducive to learning; and (8) every school will promote partnerships that will increase parental involvement and participation in promoting the social, emotional, and academic growth of children. In addition to the enactment of the goals, the Educate America Act established national education standards, provided grants to states to help in the implementation of reforms, and authorized the development of various boards and panels that would be responsible for monitoring progress and establishing and certifying standards. The act also provided provisions to authorize waivers of requirements.

The Nineties in America Impact A systematic assessment of progress toward the goals occurred every two years. In a report released in 1999 by the U.S. Department of Education, titled “Federal Education Legislation Enacted in 1994,” several indicators of success were examined. According to the report, states were making progress in implementing educational reforms and developing content standards. Educational outcomes were beginning to improve, though states were having difficulty developing performance standards and assessments. While funding for the Educate America Act was officially diminished at the beginning of the twentyfirst century, standards-driven reforms and a focus on educational outcomes had become a defining element in federal education policies. Thus, the Educate America Act helped to set the stage for later educational initiatives, such as the No Child Left Behind Act of 2001. Further Reading

Stedman, James B. Goals 2000: Overview and Analysis. Washington, D.C.: Congressional Research Service, Library of Congress, 1994. U.S. Department of Education. H.R. 1804 Goals 2000: Educate America Act. http://www.ed.gov/ legislation/GOALS2000/TheAct/index.html. U.S. Department of Education. Office of the Under Secretary. Planning and Evaluation Service. Federal Education Legislation Enacted in 1994: An Evaluation of Implementation and Impact. Washington, D.C.: Author, 1999. Amy J. Orr See also Clinton, Bill; Education in the United States; Homeschooling; School violence.

■ Education in Canada Policies, practices, and cultural trends affecting academic instruction in Canada, from elementary through graduate and professional schools

Definition

The 1990’s saw increased numbers of Canadians graduating from higher education institutions. Minorities made significant gains; by the end of the decade, women outnumbered men at colleges and universities.

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Canada has one of the highest literacy rates among industrialized nations; 99 percent of the population fifteen years of age or older have at least a ninth-grade education. Section 98 of the British North America Act (1867) gave exclusive jurisdiction for education to the provinces. The federal government is responsible for the three territories. Pre-primary education for students at age four became a hallmark of provincial educational initiatives. Elementary and secondary education is coeducational and free, with most students enrolled between the ages of six and sixteen. Homeschooling is now permitted with the approval of provincial educational authorities because of the vast distances and widely dispersed population within the Canadian nation. Secondary education has two tracks, university and general. In Canada, the term “college” refers to community, technical, agricultural, nursing, and arts colleges that offer two-year programs of study for earning diplomas or certificates. There are 150 two-year colleges. Canada has 92 universities offering four-year programs of study leading to bachelor’s degrees. 1996 Census Canada’s 1996 census indicated that more Canadians were achieving higher levels of education than in the previous decade. There were 9 million graduates from universities or other postsecondary institutions, representing 40 percent of the population age fifteen and over. This was a 29 percent increase from 1981. Also, 35 percent of the population over fifteen years of age had not completed high school, a decline from 48 percent in 1981. Of the postsecondary graduates, 3.5 million were university graduates age fifteen or older, 16 percent of the population. This was an increase from 10 percent in 1981. The remaining 5.5 million held certificates or degrees from community colleges, technical schools, or trade schools. The percentage of women attaining a university education increased from 11 percent in 1981 to 21 percent; the increase was lower for men, from 12 percent in 1981 to 16 percent. The percentage of men who had not completed high school was 21 percent in 1996, down from 31 percent in 1981. The percentage of women with less than a high school degree decreased from 28 percent in 1981 to 12 percent. In 1996, one-third of persons between twenty and twenty-nine years of age were enrolled in degree programs. Noticeable educational trends in Canadian education indicated increases in school attendance

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rates, secondary school graduation rates, and higher education attendance rates among people age twenty-five to twenty-nine. Between 1986 and 1996, there was a 43 percent increase in female university graduates, with the largest increase in engineering and applied sciences and social sciences and related fields. Among males, the largest increase in graduates was in the fields of education, recreational and counseling services, and humanities and related fields. The 1996 census confirmed that it was becoming more difficult for women without a high school diploma to join the Canadian labor force (only 56 percent) than men of the same educational level (86 percent). The census did not reveal a major shift to science and technology programs of study, in spite of the rapid pace of technological change. The 1996 census confirmed that aboriginal people fifteen years and older had significantly lower levels of schooling than non-aboriginal populations. Fifty-four percent of this aboriginal population did not have a high school diploma. Only 4.5 percent of the population were university graduates. Since 1981, the percentage of aboriginal people earning an advanced degree increased from 19 percent to 23 percent in 1996. The Education Reform Act of 1998 was approved as part of Canada’s Aboriginal Action Plan to improve the quality of education among the aboriginal, or First Nations, schools. Between 1998 and 2000, $36 million was allocated to support over 320 initiatives in the categories of special education, language and culture, information technology, parental and community involvement, professional development and training, student retention and achievement, career development and school-towork transition, and building institutional and governance capacity. Education Reform Act of 1998

Impact Major educational trends in Canada in the 1990’s indicated that 8 percent of the national budget was directed to higher education. Ontario and Quebec had the highest increase in university graduates; Prince Edward Island, Newfoundland, New Brunswick, and Manitoba experienced a decrease from the previous decade. There was a substantial increase in two-year college enrollments. Bilingual education programs produced a significant decrease in tensions between ethnic groups, and there was greater government support for the aboriginal population. By 1999, women made up the majority of en-

rolled students at both two- and four-year institutions of higher learning. At the graduate level, there was now an equal number of men and women enrolled. Among the G7 nations, Canada had the second-highest expenditure per student, surpassed only by the United States. Provincial governments emphasized accountability and the use of educational institutions to create alliances with the private-sector industry to offer specialized programs of study. In the 1990’s, Canada had the highest percentage of students using the Internet, again explained in part by the widely dispersed population. Canadian universities offer one of the most advanced educational learning environments, with wired residences, classrooms, and on-campus Web access. Further Reading

Battiste, Marie Ann, and Jean Barman, eds. First Nations Education in Canada: The Circle Unfolds. Vancouver: University of British Columbia Press, 1995. Overview of aboriginal education in Canada. Dunning, Paula. Education in Canada: An Overview. Toronto: Canadian Educational Association, 1997. Basic reference work addressing Canadian education from preschool to higher education. Guppy, Neil, and Scott Davies. Education in Canada: Recent Trends and Future Challenges. Ottawa: Statistics Canada, 1998. A straightforward analysis of educational trends from the 1960’s to the 1990’s. Lewington, Jennifer, and Graham Orpwood. Overdue Assignment: Taking Responsibility for Canada’s Schools. New York: John Wiley & Sons, 1993. A critique of the Canadian educational system at all academic levels. Manzer, Ronald A. Public Schools and Political Ideas: Canadian Educational Policy in Historical Perspective. Toronto: University of Toronto Press, 1994. A professor emeritus of political science at the University of Toronto examines the political factors that underpin Canadian educational policy. Pan-Canadian Education Indicators Program. Education Indicators in Canada: Report of the PanCanadian Education Indicators Program, 1999. Ottawa: Statistics Canada, 2000. Provides a wealth of educational statistics. William A. Paquette Bloc Québécois; Business and the economy in Canada; Demographics of Canada; Education in the United States; Employment in Canada;

See also

The Nineties in America

Homeschooling; Immigration to Canada; Income and wages in Canada; Literature in Canada; Minorities in Canada; Nunavut Territory; Quebec referendum of 1995; Television.

■ Education in the United States Policies, practices, and cultural trends affecting academic instruction in the United States, from preschool through graduate and professional schools

Definition

The 1990’s was a period of great controversy, interest, and scrutiny on the national, state, and local levels concerning the quality of education in the nation’s elementary and secondary schools and in colleges and universities. It was marked by arguments about educational improvement through national goals and curricular content, accountability through performance standards and testing, and revitalization through school reorganization, choice, and teacher preparation. The 1990’s opened with the inheritance of reports and pronouncements from national, state, and local leaders, political commentators, and some educators about a “crisis” in American education that had begun with headlines from the National Commission on Excellence in Education 1983 report, A Nation at Risk. The report proclaimed that education was in a failure mode, that it was mediocre, and that the country was in danger of losing ground internationally. This was followed by other reports and by a 1989 educational summit attended by President George H. W. Bush and the nation’s governors (led by Bill Clinton, then governor of Arkansas). Concentrating primarily on lower education (elementary and secondary levels), the report called for a set of goals to improve the quality and performance of public schools to be implemented on the state and local levels. Debates about the quality of higher education were touched off with the publication of Allan Bloom’s much-cited The Closing of the American Mind (1987), which lamented the state of the academy and the quality of education and looked with nostalgia to an earlier era. These types of pronouncements and developments set the stage for more books, studies, and commentaries during the 1990’s about the status of education in American society and the various reform efforts in the political and academic arenas to revitalize education.

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Curricular content, particularly in fields such as history, became a heated issue, especially as it related to conceptions of the American character or identity, with a multicultural approach versus a Eurocentric approach to varying degrees. New scholarship, especially the new social history, had embraced the story and inclusion of people of color, women, immigrants, labor, and other marginalized groups, as well as an increasingly global economy, developments of non-Western cultures, and world history. Studies by scholars in the higher education arena included work concerning issues of race, class, gender, and ethnicity and were being incorporated in some texts and in the curriculum. Those that opposed this approach (primarily political conservatives, but some with more liberal inclinations) stated that such an interpretive framework, which might be carried to an extreme, slighted the significance and importance of the West and European culture to the American story and had the potential to encourage divisiveness rather than assimilation. This controversy in the educational arena came into sharp focus with the attempt to develop voluntary national standards for the teaching of history in the schools in the 1992-1996 period. The proposed standards that were developed by a group of historians and educators became embroiled in heated debate. In 1994, even before official publication, they were denounced by conservative critics as unpatriotic and unlike the history that they were taught in schools. The standards, which incorporated some of the interpretative frameworks from the new social history, were denounced in 1995 by a vote of 99-1 in the Senate. The proposed standards were revised in 1996 with the input of various groups. Subsequently, some states utilized the guidelines or accompanying lessons. There was an additional issue of debate on the high school level, with critiques about the comprehensive high school and the differentiated curriculum, where some students took courses that were criticized as not being rigorous or were placed into nonacademic general tracks. The debate about curricular content accelerated on the higher education level as well. Publications and commentaries ranged from criticism of colleges and universities for a de-emphasis on the culture of the West and a growing array of non-Western courses, to a critique of areas such as women’s studies and black studies that were termed by critics as

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being political, to concerns that the academy was in the hands of radicals from the 1960’s and that a socalled golden age when students and professors studied the “great books” of the West had been destroyed. Supporters of more inclusive and more critical analyses as well as a more diverse academy of students and professors emphasized developments in scholarship that were including the story of peoples who were left out of previous accounts, revising interpretations through new approaches and questions, addressing issues concerning inequities in American society, as well as enriching the country’s understanding of the past. They noted that the earlier times to which contemporary critics pointed were much less “golden” than their proclamation suggested, included problems of access and discrimination of certain groups in colleges and universities, and that debates about curricular issues and revisions had a very long history. The varying issues and debates are illustrated in numerous works, such as Dinesh D’Souza’s Illiberal Education (1991), which condemns multiculturalism in the academy, and Lawrence Levine’s The Opening of the American Mind (1996), which defends developments in higher learning and critiques the arguments of the critics. Some attempts to revitalize education in the schools were incorporated in legislation, such as Goals 2000: Educate America Act of 1994, which codified the 1989 conference goals and added parental participation and the professional development of teachers to the original goals. Those goals included readying children to start school; achieving high rates of high school graduation and literacy so that citizens could do well in a global economy; developing high standards in numerous academic subjects, with performance competency in grades four, eight, and twelve; and ensuring that students will be first in science and math in the world and that the schools will be drug- and violence-free. Grants were to be given to help states to set high standards and to develop assessments for progress. Although this act was passed with largely bipartisan support under President Bill Clinton, intense differences would soon emerge in relation to education reform and criticism of such areas as bilingual education, and would be inserted into the 1996 presidential campaign of Republican candidate Bob Dole and English-only groups. The Improving America’s Schools Act of 1994 (reauthorization of

Accountability

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the 1965 Elementary and Secondary Education Act, begun under President Lyndon B. Johnson’s Great Society program) included provisions for accountability of schools and standards-based reform, with Title I of the program specifically providing help for students from high-poverty areas. Critics of developments relating to testing expressed concern that teaching would be focused on taking tests, that tests could not measure all aspects of learning, and that all of this could have a negative impact on students in impoverished schools and did not solve the problem of inequities in income and funding. On the higher education level, there was discussion about measures of ability such as the Scholastic Aptitude Test (SAT), used by many colleges and universities in the admission process, and their validity as an adequate measure of learning or potential and their bias in certain respects. At the same time, some states during the decade, such as California, moved away from affirmative action plans in admissions of students. Developments in the 1990’s also included school reorganization through site-based management, elements of choice such as charter schools, heated debate about the use of vouchers, and attempts to improve schools through coalitions or proposals to improve school practice, as well as efforts to advance the preparation and professional development of teachers. Interest in site-based management— bringing the management of schools closer to members of the academic community, such as principals, teachers, and parents—grew, particularly in some large urban centers, and departed from a more centralized approach to school organization. Charter schools, although supported by public funds, were given much leeway in hiring and other decisions, with the provision that they adhere to innovation and accountability to improve education. This effort, first approved in Minnesota in 1991, was followed by California in 1992 and numerous other states throughout the decade. Vouchers or certificates, which parents could use toward their child’s private school if they so chose, became an area of great contention. The issue became embroiled in the politics of the era. Some states utilized them, and critics felt that they could take valuable resources away from the public schools, particularly those in high-poverty, low-income areas.

Reorganization, Choice, Teacher Preparation

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Schools sometimes joined together with coalitions, groups, foundations, and universities and followed blueprints for ensuring effective school practice. For example, some elementary schools joined the Basic School Network, which followed the ideas set forth in a report by Ernest Boyer from the Carnegie Foundation for the Advancement of Teaching. In the area of teacher education, there was a movement both to improve the education of teachers in colleges and universities through more emphasis on disciplinary majors as well as education courses and to ensure continuous professional development. At the same time, there was a trend to open up the profession to others through alternate routes of entry, for college graduates not trained in teacher education and mid-career professionals. Impact All this attention to the nature of education, with varying views about its health and conceptions for reform, highlighted divisions in American society about notions of quality, equality, and educational values. While the intensity of the debate about the curriculum and the American character would abate somewhat by the late 1990’s, proponents and opponents on both sides continued with their respective positions. The incorporation of the new scholarship in elementary and secondary schools varied from state to state, and on the higher education level different institutions made varying choices, with most incorporating the new approaches of the new social history and theories in subjects such as the humanities. Toward the end of the decade, there were proposals for reform of undergraduate teaching in the large research universities, where research was a prime focus. Goals and performance standards had varying degrees of success. While schools concentrated on meeting the test content, supporters praised this approach and critics worried about teaching for the test. Innovative approaches in school reorganization and in types of schools illustrated the diversity of the educational experience. Attempts at improving the education of teachers highlighted the importance of education in American society, though financial resources were often lacking. Subsequent Events The emphasis on testing was carried forward in legislation such as the No Child Left Behind Act of 2001, which included testing in grades three through eight, although critics would soon express concern about inadequate funding. In

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higher education, more criticism ensued regarding the SAT, and there was some modification of it by the College Board. Further Reading

Angus, David L., and Jeffrey E. Mirel. The Failed Promise of the American High School, 1890-1995. New York: Teachers College Press, 1999. Critical of the differentiated high school curriculum and the comprehensive high school, the authors provide a historical overview including efforts in the 1990’s to revamp the differentiated curriculum and the comprehensive high school. Berliner, David, and Bruce J. Biddle. The Manufactured Crisis: Myths, Fraud, and the Attack on America’s Public Schools. Reading, Mass.: Addison-Wesley, 1995. The authors contend that the allegations about a decline in education were unwarranted and that the purpose of some critics was to weaken public schools. Boyer, Ernest L. The Basic School: A Community for Learning. Princeton, N.J.: Carnegie Foundation for the Advancement of Teaching, 1995. Blueprint for effective schools utilized by a group of elementary schools in the 1990’s. D’Souza, Dinesh. Illiberal Education: The Politics of Race and Sex on Campus. New York: Free Press, 1991. Very critical attack on multiculturalism and institutions of higher learning, particularly the first-tier, elite institutions, as being enmeshed in politics and not liberal education as was conceived in the past. Levine, Lawrence W. The Opening of the American Mind: Canons, Culture, and History. Boston: Beacon Books, 1996. A comprehensive critique of those who saw doom and gloom in higher education in the 1990’s. Highlights new developments in scholarship that enriched understanding of the American past and illustrates that the canon has gone through many revisions. Lucas, Christopher J. Teacher Education in America: Reform Agendas for the Twenty-first Century. New York: St. Martin’s Press, 1997. Historical overview that discusses the debates of the 1990’s about improving teacher preparation and various efforts, from coalitions to changes in programs in colleges and universities to alternative routes. Nash, Gary B., Charlotte Crabtree, and Ross E. Dunn, History on Trial: Culture Wars and the Teaching of the Past. New York: Alfred A. Knopf,

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1997. Detailed analysis by scholars involved in the development of voluntary history education standards to be incorporated in elementary and high schools. Discusses how these standards became enmeshed in the politics of the era. Marilyn Tobias See also Children’s Television Act of 1990; Bush, George H. W.; Clinton, Bill; Conservatism in U.S. politics; Culture wars; Educate America Act of 1994; Education in Canada; Homeschooling; Left Behind books; Liberalism in U.S. politics; Race relations; School violence; Supreme Court decisions; Telecommunications Act of 1996; Year-round schools.

■ Egan v. Canada Identification Canadian Supreme Court decision Date Decided on May 25, 1995

When Canada granted equal protection to same-sex couples, it signified a move in North America toward allowing sexual minorities to share in many of the rights that the heterosexual community already enjoys. Pressure increased for the United States to extend equal protection to gays and lesbians. Egan v. Canada involved sections of the Old Age Security Act, which provides an allowance to the spouse of a retiree, provided that the income of the couple falls below a fixed level. James Egan and John Norris Nesbit were a gay couple who had lived together since 1948. When Egan reached age sixty-five in 1986, he began to receive old age security and guaranteed income supplements under the act. On reaching age sixty, Nesbit applied for a spousal allowance. The application was rejected because the relationship between the men did not fall under the provisions of the act, which stated that a spouse is “a person of the opposite sex who is living with that person, having lived with that person for at least one year, if the two persons have publicly represented themselves as husband and wife.” After losing their case in the Trial Division and the Federal Court of Appeal, Egan and Nesbit brought an appeal to the Supreme Court. They argued that the act violated the Canadian Charter of Rights and Freedoms by discriminating on the basis of sexual orientation. The Supreme Court applied a three-part test to determine whether or not the act amounted to dis-

The Nineties in America

crimination. It looked at whether the law drew a distinction between the claimant and others, whether the distinction resulted in a disadvantage to the group of people to which the plaintiff belongs, and whether the distinction was based on an irrelevant personal characteristic. The justices found that the act made a distinction between the claimant that resulted in a disadvantage but that the distinction was relevant because it was grounded on the unique social relationship of marriage. The court based this finding on the fact that only heterosexual couples are capable of procreation. The court then dismissed the appeal. Impact Although Egan and Nesbit lost, the court made a landmark decision in support of equal rights for gays and lesbians. It ruled that discrimination on the basis of sexual orientation was prohibited by section 15 of the Canadian Charter of Rights and Freedoms. Canada’s expansion of human rights to ban discrimination on account of sexual orientation often is cited by proponents of gay and lesbian rights in the United States. Further Reading

Lahey, Kathleen A. Are We “Persons” Yet? Law and Sexuality in Canada. Toronto: University of Toronto Press, 1999. MacDougall, Bruce. Queer Judgments: Homosexuality, Expression, and the Courts in Canada. Toronto: University of Toronto Press, 2000. Caryn E. Neumann Baker v. Vermont; Canada and the United States; Defense of Marriage Act of 1996; Domestic partnerships; Homosexuality and gay rights.

See also

■ EgyptAir Flight 990 crash A New York-Cairo-bound flight crashes into the ocean, killing 217 Date October 31, 1999 Place About sixty miles south of Nantucket Island, Massachusetts, in the Atlantic Ocean The Event

The federal government’s determination of intentional pilot action as the cause of the crash led to cultural and political controversy with Egypt, a strategic U.S. ally, and criticism by the Egyptian media and the public.

The Nineties in America

Around 2:00 a.m. on October 31, 1999, a giant twinengine EgyptAir Boeing 767 aircraft with 217 people aboard, which had taken off from New York’s John F. Kennedy International Airport following an eventless flight from Los Angeles, plunged mysteriously from 33,000 feet into the Atlantic Ocean without warning to air traffic control and in calm weather. At daybreak, some debris and human remains were found floating on the waves while the rest, it turned out, had settled on the 250-foot-deep ocean floor. All aboard—one hundred Americans, eighty-nine Egyptians, twenty-two Canadians, and others of diverse citizenship—were killed. There followed an extensive investigation by the federal National Transportation Safety Board (NTSB), assisted by the Federal Bureau of Investigation (FBI),

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the Boeing Aircraft Company, which built the aircraft, and Pratt and Whitney, which produced its engines. EgyptAir, the state-owned carrier, and the Egyptian government launched their own probes, even though Cairo had initially deferred to Washington in spearheading the inquiry, an option Egypt had since Flight 990 had crashed in international waters and the Egyptians, some five thousand miles away, did not have the resources for the job. In its final report of March, 2002, the NTSB— stressing the evidence from the plane’s “black boxes” (the cockpit voice recorder and the instrument monitor), and after two years of intensive tests of the aircraft (many of them simulated)—found no physical malfunction whatsoever. Hence, the board concluded that pilot intervention was the cause of the crash. The report focused on the fact that while EgyptAir captain Ahmed el-Habashi was in

U.S. and Egyptian officials hold the flight data recorder from EgyptAir Flight 990, which crashed into the Atlantic Ocean on October 31, 1999. (AP/Wide World Photos)

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the bathroom, his older copilot Gamil el-Batouti— presumably alone in the cockpit—performed irrational maneuvers such as disconnecting the autopilot and thus putting the aircraft under manual control, cutting back on the throttle and then shutting down the engines altogether, and pushing the control yoke forward to put the plane into a dive. As he did so, he repeatedly intoned in Arabic the equivalent of “I rely on Allah.” Apparently, when Habashi returned to the cockpit as the plane was plummeting, he asked why Batouti had shut off the engines. Habashi sought his help to pull back the control yoke to level the plane, but Batouti did the opposite. At first, according to the instrument recorder, the plane leveled off at 24,000 feet. It seemed to stall, but then resumed its dive before hitting the water. Because of the tense political context, the final NTSB report avoided terms like “criminal act” or “suicide,” settling for a more muted “pilot intervention” as the cause of the crash. Still, Cairo insisted on mechanical malfunction or a bomb on board or a missile as a possible cause, stressing that devout Muslims like the first officer would not commit suicide for personal reasons any more than he had any ties to terrorism. Rather, the Egyptians hinted at antiArab and anti-Muslim bias. Some two dozen interviews with many who knew Batouti helped to form a composite but contradictory image of the copilot. It seems that Batouti, once a highly regarded flight-training instructor in the Egyptian air force who had attained the rank of major, had felt humiliated at having to accept a secondary role as copilot while younger men were already captains enjoying much higher pay. Others, however, reported that the copilot had been averse to applying for the promotion he felt coming to him, given his reluctance to accept greater responsibility and his uncertain command of English, the international language of air traffic. Then there were stories about how Batouti, while from an affluent family, nevertheless was experiencing financial difficulties that led him to borrow money from various sources. One reason proposed was the expenses consequent on the care his tenyear-old daughter was receiving at the Los Angeles Medical Center for her lupus condition. Additionally, according to the testimony of an EgyptAir pilot who had unsuccessfully sought political asylum

Anecdotes and Unanswered Questions

in Britain, Batouti had recently been reprimanded for alleged sexual misconduct at New York’s Pennsylvania Hotel, where a set of rooms was retained for EgyptAir personnel. Reportedly, his boss had threatened to delist the copilot from future flights to New York, which, because of the long distance, came with bonus pay for the crew. According to this information, the crash involved revenge, since that particular chief pilot was also on board the doomed flight. There were more questions about these allegations than answers. For instance, the fifty-nine-yearold Batouti was three months away from mandatory retirement, which he had planned. On the other hand, why did Batouti, scheduled as a member of the relief crew, which customarily takes over midflight while the primary crew performs the takeoff and landing, insist on doing his stint early in the flight rather than wait for his shift a few hours later? Impact The investigation and many tests at Egypt’s insistence cost several million dollars. Besides the political controversy, there was another dimension to the crash and its investigation. EgyptAir had purchased many American Boeing aircraft for its fleet, and it would not have been good business to antagonize an American ally and major client. Still, U.S.Egyptian relations did not heal for quite some time. Further Reading

Langewiesche, William. “The Crash of EgyptAir 990.” The Atlantic Monthly, November, 2001, 41-52. Thorough reportage by a former working pilot discounting Egypt’s objections to the NTSB’s final report. Malnic, Eric, et al. “EgyptAir Co-Pilot Caused ’99 Crash, NTSB to Say.” Los Angeles Times, March 15, 2002, p. A1. Factual and anecdotal coverage of the cause, leaning toward the NTSB’s account. Pipes, Daniel. “EgyptAir Probe Uncovers Anti-Americanism.” The Wall Street Journal, November 24, 1999, p. A18. Inclined to believe conspiracy theories, the Egyptian airline, government, media, and public are receptive to seeing the hand of Israel, Jews, and their American allies behind the “hit” of Flight 990. Peter B. Heller See also Airline industry; Terrorism; TWA Flight 800 crash; ValuJet Flight 592 crash.

The Nineties in America

■ Elder abuse Definition

Harmful behavior toward the aged

As the U.S. population became increasingly older and as more people survived longer than ever before, the significant increase in the physical and financial abuse of dependent elderly persons that began in the 1980’s continued in the 1990’s. The federal Administration on Aging breaks elderly abuse into four types: physical abuse, including sexual assault; emotional or psychological abuse; financial exploitation; and neglect or abandonment. It is estimated that the number of cases of elder abuse increased threefold between 1980 and 1990. In the 1990’s, there were fewer children in families to share the burden of care for elderly incapacitated parents than in earlier times, and families were increasingly becoming more geographically dispersed. Other demographic developments also contributed to the problem of elder abuse, most notably the striking increase in life expectancy and the growing proportion of older person in the U.S. population. In 1980, 3 percent of the population was sixty-five years or older; that figure had climbed to 11 percent by 1990. The National Elder Abuse Incidence Study, released in 1998, reported that there were 450,000 instances of elder abuse and neglect by family members or caregivers of persons aged sixty and older that took place in the victim’s residence or the caregiver’s home during 1996. Data were gathered from a sample of twenty representative counties. More than two-thirds of the perpetrators of abuse were family members. Elderly women had a higher rate of abuse than men after adjusting for the larger proportion of women in the study population. Those eighty years or older were abused and neglected at a rate three times higher than that for the remainder of the group studied. Most elder abuse occurs in a domestic setting and involves the husband as perpetrator and the wife as victim. In other settings, sons are the most frequent offenders when offspring abuse elderly parents. Injuries inflicted on elderly women are more serious than those suffered by elderly men. In nursing homes and long-term care facilities, where caregivers have a contractual obligation to provide satisfactory care, mistreatment of residents

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generally is tied to the overburdened and stressful work conditions of employees who often are poorly paid and not satisfactorily trained or supervised. A 1998 research probe found that in California, nearly one in three nursing homes had been cited by inspectors for serious or potentially life-threatening care problems. The inquiry followed allegations in 1993 that 3,113 California nursing home residents had suffered from malnutrition, dehydration, and similar conditions resulting from substandard care. In the 1990’s, states began to establish registries of persons convicted of elder abuse so that employers would be forewarned of their past wrongdoing. The primary approach to dealing with elder abuse rests on state laws requiring a variety of persons, such as physicians and nurses, social service workers, and law-enforcement personnel, to report episodes of elder abuse to designated authorities. The laws typically require such reporting if the specified person “reasonably believes” that abuse has occurred, and they usually provide exemption from civil liability if the report has been made in good faith. By the end of the 1990’s, forty-two states and the District of Columbia had reporting statutes. In a 1991 congressional hearing held by the House of Representatives Subcommittee on Human Services of the Select Committee on Aging, a government agency reported that the absence of reliable data meant that no meaningful comparisons could be drawn between the value of mandatory as compared to voluntary elder abuse reporting requirements. Other witnesses appearing before the subcommittee maintained that the laws were at least partly responsible for the 150 percent increase in reported cases of elder abuse in 1996 compared to ten years earlier. The failure to report elder abuse was estimated to be characteristic of 80 to 90 percent of the cases. Many persons fail to report episodes of elder abuse because they are convinced that there are not adequate services and resources available to deal effectively with the problem. The reauthorization by Congress in 1992 of the Vulnerable Elder Rights Protection Act created ombudsmen to field complaints of mistreatment and provided funds for states to launch prevention programs. Guidelines promulgated in 1997, for instance, noted that protective service workers should be suspicious if there has been an unreasonable de-

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Elders, Joycelyn

lay in reporting an injury or if they are told that the injured person was “accident-prone” or “clumsy.” Some states have enacted laws that mandate tougher penalties for offenses against the elderly. The 1990’s also saw the passage of laws that allow fines or imprisonment of anyone over eighteen years of age who has the financial resources but fails to support a needy older or disabled parent. The same approach was taken in British Columbia in 1996 in its Family Relations Act. Impact As the generation of baby boomers born shortly after the end of World War II moves into their sixties and seventies, the problem of elder abuse is likely to become further aggravated. Many of these men and women do not have medical insurance or long-term health care polices, making them particularly susceptible to abuse and neglect. Further Reading

Aitken, Lynda, and Gabriele Griffin. Gender Issues in Elder Abuse. Thousand Oaks, Calif.: Sage Publications, 1996. Emphasizing the “feminization of old age,” the British authors focus on the notably vulnerable position of older women in regard to abuse and neglect. Cebik, Leroy B., Glenn C. Graber, and Frank H. Marsh, eds. Advances in Bioethics: Violence, Neglect, and the Elderly. Greenwich, Conn.: JAI Press, 1996. The contributed articles are particularly concerned with the ethical issues raised by society’s responsibilities to the aged. Johnson, Tanya Fusco, ed. Elder Mistreatment: Ethical Issues, Dilemmas, and Decisions. Binghamton, N.Y.: Haworth Press, 1995. A chapter by Vicki Kryk stands out by offering three detailed case histories of elder abuse. MacLean, Michael J., ed. Abuse and Neglect of Older Canadians: Strategies for Change. Toronto: Thompson Educational, 1995. Contains separate sections on practices, policy considerations, educational programs, and research results and offers recommendations in regard to elder abuse in Canada. Tatara, Tosio, ed. Understanding Elder Abuse in Minority Populations. Philadelphia: Bruner/Mazel, 1999. Chapters discuss elder abuse among African Americans, Hispanics, Asian Americans, and Native Americans. Gilbert Geis

See also Crime; Demographics of Canada; Demographics of the United States.

■ Elders, Joycelyn Surgeon general of the United States, 1993-1994 Born August 13, 1933; Schaal, Arkansas Identification

Elders was the first African American and the second woman to be appointed U.S. surgeon general. Her controversial statements about sex education resulted in her being fired after fifteen months in the position. Joycelyn Elders served as surgeon general of the United States from September 8, 1993, until December 31, 1994. She was appointed surgeon general by President Bill Clinton, who as governor of Arkansas had appointed her director of the Department of Health in 1987. She doubled the immunization rate against early childhood diseases and increased tremendously the number of medical screenings performed on children in Arkansas. During her 1993 confirmation hearings, Elders recounted how she saw a doctor for the first time in her life when she entered college. One of her goals as surgeon general was to create wider access to health care. Elders attended the University of Arkansas Medical School during a time of legal segregation, when it was highly unusual for a woman, especially an African American woman, to be admitted to medical school. The courage and outspokenness that served her well as director of the Department of Health in Arkansas proved to be a liability when Elders was appointed surgeon general. An expert in pediatric endocrinology and childhood sexual development, Elders annoyed many members of Congress, particularly conservatives, by advocating comprehensive sex education programs in public schools. She was against abstinence-only sex education programs, favored keeping abortion legal, and advocated condom distribution in high schools as a means of lowering the transmission rate of sexual disease and decreasing the teenage pregnancy rate. She publicly stated that no one in Washington was qualified to make decisions about sexuality or reproduction for other people. Elders also publicly suggested that perhaps some categories of drugs might be legalized on health-related grounds or as a means to reduce

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Further Reading

Elders, Joycelyn. Here I Stand. Pine Bluff, Ark.: Dancing Bear, 1997. Elders, Joycelyn, and David Chanoff. Joycelyn Elders, M.D.: From Sharecropper’s Daughter to Surgeon General of the United States of America. New York: William Morrow, 1996. U.S. Department of Health and Human Services. “Office of the Surgeon General: M. Joycelyn Elders (1993-1994).” http://www.surgeongeneral.gov/ library/history/bioelders.htm. Victoria Erhart Abortion; African Americans; AIDS epidemic; Clinton, Bill; Health care; Medicine; Novello, Antonia Coello.

See also

■ Elections in Canada The Event Canadian politicians run for office Date October 25, 1993, and June 2, 1997 Joycelyn Elders. (NLM/National Institutes of Health)

some types of drug-related crimes. Members of Congress called for her resignation, but president Clinton defended her. In December, 1994, Elders spoke at a United Nations conference on AIDS. When asked whether masturbation should be included in comprehensive sex education programs, Elders replied in the affirmative, stating that masturbation was a natural part of human sexual activity. Her comments created a firestorm of controversy. Clinton fired Elders that month, and she returned to the University of Arkansas Medical School as a professor of pediatric medicine. She wrote two books: Joycelyn Elders, M.D.: From Sharecropper’s Daughter to Surgeon General of the United States of America (1996), her autobiography, and Here I Stand (1997), a response to her critics. Impact Elders repeatedly emphasized the correlation between the amount and quality of information available to Americans and the general level of health. Elders’s brief tenure as surgeon general highlighted the immense political complexities of all public health policies, regardless of medical validity.

The first federal election saw a historic defeat suffered by the Progressive Conservative government and the return of the Liberal Party to power, while the second saw the Liberal government continue its domination of the Canadian political scene. The outcome of two federal elections in the 1990’s had a significant impact on the Canadian landscape. The 1993 election marked the first time since 1984 that the Liberal Party had control, with Jean Chrétien, the party’s leader, becoming prime minister. It also saw the rise of strong regional parties, with western Canada dominated by the Reform Party and Quebec controlled by the separatist Bloc Québécois. The latter won the second-highest number of parliamentary seats and, as a result, formed the official opposition. The 1997 election featured the reelection of the Liberal Party. Regional divisions also continued as the Reform Party became the main opposition party while the Bloc Québécois once again won the most seats in the province of Quebec. The Election of 1993 By 1993, the Progressive Conservative government of Prime Minister Brian Mulroney had been in office since 1984 and, with an election legally required before 1993 ended, had become increasingly unpopular with the Canadian public. Mulroney announced his retirement in Feb-

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Elections in Canada

Results of Canadian Elections, 1993 and 1997 October 25, 1993 Incumbent prime minister and political party: Kim Campbell, Progressive Conservative New prime minister and political party: Jean Chrétien, Liberal New official opposition leader and party: Lucien Bouchard, Bloc Québécois Political Party

Seats Won

Liberal Party

177

41.3

Bloc Québécois

54

13.5

Reform Party of Canada

52

18.7

New Democratic Party

9

Progressive Conservative Party

2

Other

1

% Vote

6.9 16 3.6

Total seats: 295 Total votes: 13,667,671

June 2, 1997 Incumbent prime minister and political party: Jean Chrétien, Liberal New prime minister and political party: Jean Chrétien, Liberal New official opposition leader and party: Preston Manning, Reform Political Party

Seats Won

Liberal Party

% Vote

155

38.5

Reform Party of Canada

60

19.4

Bloc Québécois

44

10.7

New Democratic Party

21

11

Progressive Conservative Party

20

18.8

1

1.6

Other

Total seats: 301 Total votes: 12,985,964 Source: Political Database of the Americas.

ruary, 1993, and the party chose Kim Campbell to become its new leader and Canada’s first female prime minister. In the fall of 1993, Campbell called an election for October 25. A variety of issues dominated the campaign. One was the high level of unemployment in parts of Canada. Campbell’s main opponent, Jean Chrétien, promised that his Liberal Party would focus on creating employment, including through a public works program. Policies implemented by the Mulroney government, in particular the Goods and Services Tax of 7 percent on all transactions, also proved unpopular. The Liberals promised to repeal the tax. The final problem for the Campbell government was the rise of regional parties in the form of the Bloc Québécois in the province of Quebec and the Reform Party across western Canada. Both parties involved disaffected Conservatives. The leader of the Bloc Québécois, Lucien Bouchard, had been a cabinet minister in the Mulroney government who had resigned over the failure to implement constitutional reform designed to please Quebec. The Reform Party involved individuals who believed that the Canadian federation was too dominated by central Canada, including Quebec, at the expense of western Canada. Both parties would tap directly into Conservative electoral support. The government’s election campaign became increasingly desperate as it declined in the polls. Controversially, it ran an attack ad that appeared to make fun of Chrétien’s facial appearance. The end result was the worst defeat of a governing party in Canadian history. The Conservatives won only 2 parliamentary seats out of 295 while the Liberals with 41 percent of the vote won a majority of seats and took control of the government. The Bloc captured 54 of Quebec’s 75 seats and took over half the popular vote. In western Canada, the Reform Party won 51 of 86 seats and one seat in the province of Ontario. This result damaged the New Democratic Party and reduced its number of parliamentary seats to 9.

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The Election of 1997 Jean Chrétien opted to seek reelection on June 2, 1997, in less than the normal four years served by majority governments. His government’s record would be the main issue. It had instituted severe spending cuts to deal with a budgetary deficit. These cuts disproportionately affected the provinces of Atlantic Canada. Other issues included the place of Quebec in Canada. A referendum related to sovereignty had only narrowly been defeated in 1995. The government had also reneged on its promise to repeal the Goods and Services Tax. The results involved a close election that reinforced trends from 1993. The Liberals captured a majority government, winning all of the parliamentary seats in the province of Ontario, but with a vastly reduced majority of only four parliamentary seats above the required 50 percent of the overall total. This was a decline of twenty-two seats from the 1993 election. Many of these occurred in Atlantic Canada, where unhappiness with government policy led to the defeat of Liberal members of Parliament, including cabinet ministers. Elsewhere, both the Progressive Conservatives and New Democrats made gains enough to provide them with official party status. The Bloc Québécois and the Reform Party continued to dominate their respective regions, although the Reform Party, headed by Preston Manning, won more seats than its Quebec counterpart to become the official opposition party.

Party and Preston Manning. Toronto: Stoddart, 1995. A thoughtful look at the rise of the Reform Party and its leader, Preston Manning. Martin, Lawrence. Antagonist: A Biography of Lucien Bouchard. Toronto: Viking Canada, 1997. A biography of Bouchard, who would gain prominence in the 1990’s as the leader, of the Bloc Québécois. _______. Iron Man: The Defiant Reign of Jean Chrétien. Toronto: Viking Canada, 2003. The book covers Chrétien’s years as prime minister, including the 1993 and 1997 elections. Simpson, Jeffrey. Anxious Years: Politics in the Age of Mulroney and Chrétien. Toronto: Key Porter Books, 2002. A look by a Canadian journalist at Canadian politics in the 1980’s and 1990’s. Steve Hewitt

Impact The 1993 election represented the end of the Progressive Conservative era, the return of the Liberals to power, and a political fracturing of Canada along political lines. The 1997 election only reinforced these trends. The Liberals retained power, the Conservatives remained marginalized, and the regional parties remained dominant in their respective strongholds.

The midterm congressional election of 1990 was fairly predictable and registered little change, but that of 1994 was the fruit of Republican Newt Gingrich’s Contract with America, realigning both houses in the face of President Bill Clinton’s Democratic administration. The year 1998 saw unexpected Democratic gains, undermining Gingrich’s “Republican Revolution” and strengthening Clinton in the face of scandal and impeachment.

Further Reading

The 1990 congressional midterm elections took place at the end of the 101st Congress and in the middle of the only presidential term of George H. W. Bush. Political analysts detected a strong antiincumbent mood in the electorate, though nearly 20 percent of incumbents went unopposed. Democrats controlled both the House of Representatives and the Senate, but House Democrats had been shaken by the resignations of Speaker Jim Wright of Texas and Majority Whip Tony Coelho of California over ethics issues. A group of senators, known as the Keating Five, were also tainted by connection to a

Bliss, Michael. Right Honourable Men: The Descent of Canadian Politics from Macdonald to Chrétien. Toronto: HarperCollinsCanada, 2004. A well-known Canadian historian presents a collection of short biographies of Canadian prime ministers, including Campbell and Chrétien, who were involved in elections in the 1990’s. Fife, Robert. Kim Campbell: The Making of a Politician. Toronto: HarperCollins, 1993. A biography of Campbell, who lost the 1993 election. Flanagan, Thomas. Waiting for the Wave: The Reform

See also Bloc Québécois; Campbell, Kim; Charlottetown Accord; Chrétien, Jean; Mulroney, Brian; Quebec referendum of 1995.

■ Elections in the United States, midterm U.S. congressional elections during the Bush and Clinton administrations Date November 6, 1990; November 8, 1994; November 3, 1998 The Event

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savings and loan scandal. A rough budget battle in 1990 and incomplete election campaign finance reform also tarnished Congress’s image. Neither Republicans nor Democrats had generated clear, national messages, so candidates tended to rely on local interests and issues. There was a 36.5 percent voter turnout. In thirty-two Senate races, only one seat changed party, as Minnesota replaced Republican Rudy Boschwitz with liberal Democrat Paul Wellstone. This raised the Democratic majority to 56-44. In the House, only fifteen incumbents (nine Republicans and six Democrats) lost their seats, with 96.3 percent of them returning to their seats, though margins of victory were narrower for Democrats than typical for the dominant opposition in a midterm. The Democratdominated 103d Congress, which accompanied the first half of Bill Clinton’s first term as president, was marked by a lack of effective leadership by either congressional members or Clinton. His critics harped on his ethical problems, mistakes, and scandals, undermining his effectiveness, while Congress fumbled around seeking a program of real reform. Campaigns in 1994 featured Democrats who touted major increases in federal participation in health care (dubbed “Hillarycare” by opponents, after First Lady Hillary Rodham Clinton, who had led a task force on health care reform), deficit reduction that was purely partisan and that would have entailed large tax increases, and crime reduction via an omnibus bill that was encrusted with pork-barrel earmarks. The last was refashioned by Republicans under the direction of House minority whip Newt Gingrich of Georgia, who went on to craft a broadly based election strategy centered on what he named the Contract with America. With support from conservative talk radio hosts such as Rush Limbaugh, Republican incumbents and challengers alike adopted the contract’s ten planks, which embodied traditional conservative values such as low taxes and smaller government, governmental transparency and responsiveness, and “family values” and high ethical standards in Congress itself. Though 38.8 percent of the electorate voted, the roles of younger voters, blacks, and the less well-off declined. This reduction in the participation of traditional Democratic partisans and a continuation of the southern state realignment toward Republicans,

1994 Congressional Elections

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begun under Ronald Reagan, led to a thumping of the Democrats. Though they expected to lose seats, Democrats were stunned by the breadth of dissatisfaction. Not a single Republican incumbent lost his or her seat. In the Senate, Republicans won eight seats, including both from Tennessee. This provided them a narrow 53-47 majority, the first since 1986, with Bob Dole of Kansas taking the role as Senate majority leader and Tom Daschle of South Dakota becoming minority leader. Gingrich’s “Republican Revolution” changed the face of the House for the first time since 1954, as Republicans gained fifty-two seats and the Georgian assumed the role as Speaker. Even Democratic Speaker Tom Foley of Washington State lost his seat, an outcome not seen since before the Civil War. It was the largest Republican victory since 1920. Clinton would now have a hostile Congress with which to deal. Clinton’s victory over Bob Dole in 1996 had coattail effects that rolled back some of the effects of the Republican congressional victories, but Clinton’s troubled administration dampened the impact of disillusionment with Gingrich’s “revolutionary” Republicans. Buoyed by a thriving economy, for the first time since 1934 Democrats gained House seats—five—in the midst of a Democratic administration. The Republican Senate majority of 55-45 remained the same, with overall losses balanced by gains. Expected Republican gains did not materialize, a fact that seemed to vindicate Clinton and weaken the movement toward his impeachment.

1998 Congressional Elections

Impact While the 1990 elections were an early sign of Democratic victories in 1992, the 1994 Republican victories were historic. Though the electorate was probably engaged more in repudiating Clinton and his administration’s blunders than embracing conservatism, the shift of the south toward the conservative and increasingly evangelical Christian wing of the Republican Party would prove long-lasting. In addition, Republican victories forced Clinton to abandon unpopular liberal causes and government expansiveness, especially in health care, and adopt such issues as welfare reform as his own. In the longer run, they made possible his impeachment. The 1998 elections disappointed Republicans and sparked a debate over whether the party needed to become more centrist, as academic analysts

The Nineties in America

tended to indicate, or to adopt a harder conservativeevangelical Christian line, as party officials tended to believe. In addition, the relative weakening of the Republican position undermined national enthusiasm for impeachment, though it did not prevent its occurrence. Further Reading

Congressional Quarterly. Congressional Elections 1946-1996. Washington, D.C.: CQ Press, 1998. An affordable resource on fifty years of congressional elections. Green, John C., Mark J. Rozell, and Clyde Wilcox, eds. Prayers in the Precincts: The Christian Right in the 1998 Elections. Washington, D.C.: Georgetown University Press, 2000. A nonpartisan analysis of the grassroots movement during the 1998 congressional elections. Magleby, David, ed. Outside Money: Soft Money and Issue Advocacy in the 1998 Congressional Elections. Lanham, Md.: Rowman & Littlefield, 2000. Offers a systematic examination of campaigns and the effect of outside money. Useful for students and scholars. Weisberg, Herbert F., and Samuel C. Patterson, eds. Great Theatre: The American Congress in the 1990’s. New York: Cambridge University Press, 1998. Twelve essays examine congressional dynamics of the decade. Joseph P. Byrne Bush, George H. W.; Business and the economy in the United States; Campaign finance scandal; Christian Coalition; Clinton, Bill; Clinton, Hillary Rodham; Clinton’s impeachment; Clinton’s scandals; Conservatism in U.S. politics; Contract with America; Dole, Bob; Drudge, Matt; Elections in the United States, 1992; Elections in the United States, 1996; Gingrich, Newt; Health care reform; Internet; Journalism; Lewinsky scandal; Liberalism in U.S. politics; Limbaugh, Rush; Recession of 19901991; Republican Revolution; Right-wing conspiracy; Whitewater investigation; Year of the Woman.

See also

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■ Elections in the United States, 1992 The Event American politicians run for office Date November 3, 1992

Breaking loose from a crowded field of Democratic presidential candidates, Arkansas governor Bill Clinton capitalized on the health care issue and the faltering popularity of the George H. W. Bush administration to defeat an incumbent president for the first time since 1976 and to break the cycle of a three-term domination of the White House by the Republican Party. In congressional elections, Democrats lost some seats but still maintained a majority in both houses. In the wake of the victory of the U.S.-directed coalition in the Gulf War of 1991, the popularity of President George H. W. Bush reached levels that had been unprecedented since polling statistics had been kept. At that point, the Republicans seemed unchallengeable. Then it rapidly unraveled from fall, 1991, to summer, 1992, and the Bush approval ratings plunged dramatically. The economy fell into recession, alarming many, and the president ultimately acquiesced to a proposal to raise taxes on a variety of items. To many voters, this was a reversal of the president’s jaunty and well-publicized 1988 pledge that he would call for no further taxation (“Read my lips, no new taxes!”). The Bush administration now came across to many as being somewhat uncaring, more interested in business and foreign affairs than in the anxieties of ordinary citizens. The Democrats had already tapped into fears of rising health care costs by unexpectedly winning a Senate seat in Pennsylvania on the basis of that issue. The upset in the Keystone State of Republican Dick Thornburgh by the virtually unknown Harris Wofford had been rendered all the more startling by the fact that in the early stages of the campaign Wofford had trailed by over forty percentage points. The president was now perceived as being vulnerable on the domestic front. The question was: After three weak candidacies in a row (Jimmy Carter in 1980, Walter Mondale in 1984, and Michael Dukakis in 1988), could the Democrats at long last nominate a strong enough candidate who could capitalize on widespread voter discontent? The Democratic Scramble It did not appear that way at first: The field of candidates vying for the

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Elections in the United States, 1992

1992 U.S. Presidential Election Results Presidential Candidate

Vice Presidential Candidate

Political Party

Bill Clinton

Al Gore

Democratic

44,909,806

43.01%

370

68.8%

George H. W. Bush

Dan Quayle

Republican

39,104,550

37.45%

168

31.2%

H. Ross Perot

James Stockdale

Independent

19,743,821

18.91%

0

0%

Andre Marrou

Nancy Lord

Libertarian

290,087

0.28%

0

0%

375,659

0.36%

0

0%

Other

Popular Vote

Electoral Vote

Source: Dave Leip’s Atlas of U.S. Presidential Elections.

nomination was congested, and no one at first really stood apart from the pack. It seemed a replay of the “Seven Dwarfs” race for the Democratic nomination in 1988. Many of the potential “big names,” such as Senator Al Gore of Tennessee, former New York governor Mario Cuomo, Senator Bill Bradley of New Jersey, and Congressman Dick Gephardt of Missouri, had earlier declined to run because of Bush’s strength in the polls. The individuals who did contend included Governor Bill Clinton of Arkansas; Governor L. Douglas Wilder of Virginia; former senators Paul Tsongas of Massachusetts and Eugene McCarthy of Minnesota; incumbent senators Bob Kerrey of Nebraska and Tom Harkin of Iowa; California’s former governor Jerry Brown; Larry Agran, mayor of Irvine, California; Alabama tycoon Charles Woods; and Hollywood actor Tom Laughlin (of Billy Jack fame). Also mentioned as a favorite son candidate was Pennsylvania governor Robert Casey, Sr., who enjoyed the support of many conservative-moderate Democrats because of his pro-life stance. By January of 1992, many of the also-rans had dropped out. One of the more interesting contests was run by the mercurial L. Douglas Wilder of Virginia, the nation’s first African American governor. However, his slightly right-of-center focus and his sloganizing as the “grandson of slaves” did not attract sufficient funding, or a large enough following, and, facing mounting criticism for neglecting affairs in his home state, he withdrew. Governor Clinton’s campaign appeared to be derailed when a singerentertainer named Gennifer Flowers claimed that she had had a long-standing love affair with him and had even borne him a son. The damage was counteracted through an aggressive campaign of denial led

by the governor’s wife, Hillary Rodham Clinton, and campaign manager James Carville. The Iowa straw poll was not considered much of a test in this instance, since favorite son Tom Harkin was running and, as expected, easily prevailed. The New Hampshire primary saw a tough race between the respective number one and number two candidates, Tsongas and Clinton. Even after this secondplace finish, it was Clinton who captured the headlines in a rousing speech in which he characterized himself as the “Comeback Kid.” Thereafter, Clinton’s unique brand of folksy charisma, which was to make him the most effective political operative of the 1990’s, got into high gear, and he scored one primary win after another. One candidate, however, Jerry Brown, remained doggedly in the race and at one stage—thanks to primary wins in Connecticut and Colorado—appeared to offer the only hope for stopping the Clinton bandwagon. However, Clinton overpowered Brown in the remaining primaries and handily won the Democratic nomination at the Democratic National Convention in New York City with 3,373 delegate votes to 596 for Brown, 289 for Tsongas, and 10 for Casey. Clinton chose Al Gore as his vice presidential running mate. The Republican picture was far less cloudy. Though it was evident from the start that George H. W. Bush would receive his party’s nomination, a substantial conservative insurgency led by columnist Pat Buchanan generated a good deal of media attention. When Buchanan attained 38 percent of the votes in the New Hampshire primary, the president was stunned into assuming a far more right-wing stance than he was comfortable with. Though Bush won handily by 2,166 delegates to Bu-

Bush and Perot

The Nineties in America

chanan’s 18 at the Republican National Convention in Houston, Texas, the openly conservative tone of the party platform and the president’s acceptance speech turned much of Bush’s moderate support away. Dan Quayle was renominated for the vice presidential slot. For a long time, Texas businessman H. Ross Perot had been expressing concern over the rising federal budget deficit. After hinting for a long period of time that he would run for the presidency as an independent, he announced his candidacy and that, with his billions, he would finance his own campaign. After he entered the race, the polls had Perot as a 39 percent preference—higher than Clinton and Bush. Then, for reasons that have never quite been explained, he abruptly dropped out of the race on July 16, 1992, only to resurface on October 1. However, his momentum had been irreparably set back. Early into the campaign, it became evident that Bush was fighting an uphill battle. Unease and economic discontent eroded his support, and the Clinton camp was quick to capitalize on the prevailing sentiment. “It’s the economy, stupid” became the campaign’s catchphrase. Clinton’s pledges for national health insurance and revival of the jobs market helped boost him in the polls. The one chance the Republicans had to regain the initiative perhaps laid in scoring points on national television during a series of four televised debates in October. The debates were disastrous for the Republicans. Bush was perceived as nervous, his attacks on Clinton’s character and patriotism for his part in anti-Vietnam War demonstrations were not well received by the viewers, and Clinton was generally conceded to have done best of the three candidates. Perot was polled as having performed best in the first debate but thereafter went into decline. Election Results As expected, Clinton won the presidency: He did so with 370 electoral votes to 168 for Bush. The popular vote tallied at 44,909,806 for Clinton, 39,104,550 for Bush, and 19,743,821 for Perot. Perot’s total equaled 18.9 percent of the popular vote and made the Texan the most successful third-party candidate since Theodore Roosevelt’s Progressive (“Bullmoose”) Party campaign of 1912. In the congressional elections, Clinton’s coattails did not prove to be very effective; the Democratic Party lost nine seats in the House of Representatives

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but maintained a majority. The Senate saw no strengthening of the Democratic majority there. Notable casualties were Democrat Terry Sanford of North Carolina, Republican John Seymour of California, Republican Bob Kasten of Wisconsin, and Democrat Wyche Fowler, Jr., of Georgia. The elections brought an unprecedented twenty-four new women to the House and four new women to the Senate, marking 1992 as the “Year of the Woman.” Impact The 1992 election in effect marked the end of the vestiges of the twelve-year-old conservative Republican “Reagan Revolution” and the advent on the national scene of the new president, who was to become one of the most dominant and controversial political figures of the 1990’s. In another sense, it marked the passing of an era: George H. W. Bush was

Democratic presidential candidate Bill Clinton, top, and independent candidate H. Ross Perot, center, respond to Republican candidate George H. W. Bush during the second presidential debate at the University of Richmond, Virginia, on October 15, 1992. (AP/Wide World Photos)

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the last of the World War II generation to hold the presidency, and Bill Clinton the first of the baby boomers to assume that post. Further Reading

Clinton, Bill. My Life. New York: Alfred A. Knopf, 2004. Though written from an unavoidably slanted point of view, the rendition of events surrounding the 1992 elections in the former president’s autobiography reveals much about the ultimately victorious strategy of the “Comeback Kid.” Germond, Jack W., and Jules Witcover. Mad as Hell: Revolt at the Ballot Box, 1992. New York: Warner Books, 1993. Written in a lively style, this volume views the 1992 elections as something of a spontaneous electoral insurgency, in which anger and frustration over what was seen as “politics as usual” and a desire for a change of direction were at the crux of the popular mood of the period. Goldman, Peter, et al. Quest for the Presidency: 1992. College Station: Texas A&M Press, 1994. A most detailed account of the 1992 elections; at times heavy reading, but thorough. Greene, John Robert. The Presidency of George Bush. Lawrence: University Press of Kansas, 2000. A balanced work that examines whether the Bush administration was a failure and whether presidential miscommunication with the American public was a factor in its demise. Hohenberg, John. The Bill Clinton Story: Winning the Presidency. Syracuse, N.Y.: Syracuse University Press, 1994. A very pro-Clinton work that pinpoints the New Hampshire race as crucial to both major party campaigns. Easy to read and succinct, this is a good starting point regardless of its slant. Matalin, Mary, and James Carville, with Peter Knobler. All’s Fair: Love, War, and Running for President. New York: Simon & Schuster, 1994. The 1992 presidential election presented as a sort of running dialogue between significant operatives in the Republican and Democratic camps, respectively, in a rather intriguing juxtaposition. Perot, Ross. United We Stand: How We Can Take Back Our Country. New York: Hyperion, 1992. Perot’s political manifesto, which provides some clue as to why his movement gained such support. Podhoretz, John. Hell of a Ride: Backstage at the White House Follies, 1989-1993. New York: Simon & Schuster, 1993. A scathing and humorous insider account of the Bush administration. Takes the po-

sition that the Democratic success in 1992 was more a matter of Bush losing than of Clinton actually winning. Schell, Jonathan. Writing in Time: A Political Chronicle. Wakefield, R.I.: Moyer Bell, 1997. Columns from Newsday and The Atlantic Monthly picked by the author and written in a diary style, chronicling and commenting on election events. Raymond Pierre Hylton Buchanan, Pat; Bush, George H. W.; Clinton, Bill; Clinton, Hillary Rodham; Conservatism in U.S. politics; Elections in the United States, midterm; Elections in the United States, 1996; Gephardt, Dick; Gore, Al; Health care; Liberalism in U.S. politics; Perot, H. Ross; Quayle, Dan; Recession of 1990-1991; Reform Party; Stockdale, James; Wilder, L. Douglas; Year of the Woman.

See also

■ Elections in the United States, 1996 The Event American politicians run for office Date November 5, 1996

Bill Clinton was reelected to a second term as president in part because voters thought he was more in touch with 1990’s America than the Republican candidate, Senator Bob Dole of Kansas. Republicans retained control of Congress. The ideological differences between the Republicancontrolled Congress and the Democratic president led to stalemate and scandal among the leaders of both parties. During his campaign, Democratic incumbent Bill Clinton walked across a catwalk at Arizona State University declaring that his administration’s policies would lead across “a bridge to the twenty-first century.” His successful 1996 reelection bid allowed him to fulfill that role. He was the first Democratic president since Franklin D. Roosevelt and the fourth Democratic president to ever win reelection. Clinton’s opponents, Republican Bob Dole of Kansas and Texas billionaire H. Ross Perot of the Reform Party, appeared out of touch or paranoid to many Americans. While voters reelected Clinton, they also elected a conservative Republican Congress. The differing personalities and governmental styles of the two parties slowed political and policy responses throughout the remainder of the decade.

The Nineties in America The Presidential Election Politically moderate, Clinton and his vice president, Al Gore, won 379 of the 538 electoral votes. They won twenty-nine of the same states that supported Clinton in his 1992 election bid. Narrowly losing three states he won in 1992—Colorado, Georgia, and Montana—Clinton won two predominantly Republican states, Arizona and Florida. Clinton’s greatest support came from a diverse cross-section of Americans—the poor and working class, persons who held advanced degrees, urban dwellers, African Americans and Hispanics, as well as Catholics and Jews. Many members of these groups had leaned toward Democratic candidates throughout the twentieth century. As their communities prospered and the Democratic Party increasingly focused on racial and gender-specific issues, many Democrats defected and were more likely to support Republican candidates. The Clinton-Gore campaign won their support by claiming responsi-

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bility for programs that resonated with disenchanted Democrats while maintaining the traditional Democratic base. In trying to win these groups, the Clinton-Gore ticket appeared unfocused. Conservative Democrats and liberal Republicans were more likely to support the Clinton-Gore ticket because of their support for a balanced federal budget while targeting a tax reduction on specific items. Clinton took credit for creating over ten million new jobs and having the lowest unemployment rate in over thirty years. His administration also passed welfare reform. Clinton endorsed school prayer, mandatory school uniforms, the installation of V-chips in televisions, increased federal spending on law enforcement, and the federal death penalty. His administration also claimed victory over the passage of a partial health care reform package and stronger immigration controls. Meanwhile, Clinton supported active govern-

President and Mrs. Clinton, left, and Vice President and Mrs. Gore celebrate at the White House on November 6, 1996, after winning a second term. (AP/Wide World Photos)

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Elections in the United States, 1996

1996 U.S. Presidential Election Results Presidential Candidate

Vice Presidential Candidate

Political Party

Bill Clinton

Al Gore

Democratic

47,400,125

49.23%

379

70.4%

Bob Dole

Jack Kemp

Republican

39,198,755

40.72%

159

29.6%

H. Ross Perot

Pat Choate

Reform

8,085,402

8.40%

0

0%

Ralph Nader

Winona LaDuke

Green

685,297

0.71%

0

0%

Harry Browne

Jo Jorgensen

Libertarian

Other

Popular Vote

Electoral Vote

485,798

0.50%

0

0%

420,024

0.44%

0

0%

Source: Dave Leip’s Atlas of U.S. Presidential Elections.

ment programs that were supported by traditional Democrats, including Social Security, Medicare, and Medicaid, environmental protections, an increased minimum wage, and educational spending. Clinton used his presidential power to bring about a Middle East peace agreement. In the end, many Americans perceived the Clinton administration as double-talking on the issues. Nevertheless, Clinton supported programs that resonated with a broad Democratic base and liberal Republicans, leading to his reelection. However, support for Clinton-Gore was influenced in large part by the policies proposed by Dole and Perot and their personalities. In 1994, the Republicans gained control of both houses of Congress. Dole served as Senate majority leader and could have used this position to help him defeat Clinton. However, congressional Republicans appeared arrogant over budgetary demands, leading to a governmental shutdown in late 1995. Their actions bolstered support for Clinton. He appeared more concerned over the impact this action would have on average Americans than with the Republicans who supported the shutdown. Republicans never politically recovered from the governmental shutdown before election day in 1996. Prior to Dole’s nomination, Republicans were perceived as better budgetary managers and stronger on foreign policy issues. Dole was a weak supporter of supply-side economics, a program endorsed by many Republicans. He chose a former political and philosophical rival from his party, former congressman and secretary of Housing and Urban Development Jack Kemp, to run for vice

Dole and Perot

president. Kemp had run unsuccessfully for the Republican nomination in early 1996 against Dole. Their campaign focused on their party’s accomplishments over the past forty years. Later focusing on the rumored misconduct within the Clinton White House, the Dole-Kemp campaign portrayed its candidates as protectors of traditional American values like trustworthiness and moral behavior. Neither of these approaches worked effectively among many voters. Other factors worked against the Dole-Kemp ticket. Dole was the last World War II veteran to seek the presidency, and many Americans thought him too old to serve effectively as president. Many Americans perceived the Dole-Kemp ticket as conducting a negative campaign that preferred attacking Clinton and Perot to explaining Dole’s own policy proposals. To counteract these popular opinions, Dole spent the last ninety hours of the campaign crisscrossing the country in a last effort to display passion, youthfulness, and commitment to the campaign. Even with the weakened presence of Perot on the ballot, Dole was unable to retain the Republican base that existed in the 1992 election. In 1992, Ross Perot drew disenfranchised Democrats and Republicans to his ticket, earning about 19 percent of the popular vote. Perot and his Reform Party were successful in electing several candidates to state and local offices following the 1992 election. However, the party’s popularity quickly declined because of its founder’s egotistical and near-paranoid behaviors during televised debates. Like Dole, Perot seemed out of touch with the American people. When compared to both of his opponents, Perot did not demonstrate a clear knowledge of the public

The Nineties in America

policy process. He received approximately 8 percent of the vote in the 1996 election cycle. The Republicans had gained control over Congress with a successful 1994 campaign, when the party swept the Democrats out of their forty-year majority in both houses with the Contract with America campaign. House Speaker Newt Gingrich of Georgia, the movement’s leader, claimed that more Americans agreed with Republicans than with Democrats. Over three hundred congressional candidates signed onto the Contract with America campaign that supported, among other items, congressional term limits, deep tax cuts, individual property rights, and a balanced budget amendment. Many of them won their elections because a number of Democrats retired from districts where the Contract with America Republican candidates sought office. Once in office, these congressional freshmen divided the Republican Party into two groups: hardline conservatives and liberal Republicans. Republican senators were less likely to support the tenets of the party’s House members. Many of their objectives failed because of this political infighting. Furthermore, Republicans were hamstrung because they had been out of congressional power for so many years that they did not have a strong legislative talent base to shepherd many of their bills through the legislative process. Many freshmen accepted large campaign contributions from political action committees (PACs), contributions that Republicans accused their Democratic rivals of accepting in the 1994 elections. Yet the Republicans appeared unified, thereby solidifying a strong Democratic base in Congress. In the end, both groups appeared strong as they sought reelection in 1996. In late 1995, the Republicans, led by Gingrich, threatened to shut down the federal government if President Clinton did not meet their political demands. Clinton countered by stating that they wanted to cut federal funding for education and health care for the elderly. The president portrayed their shutdown as executive blackmail, claiming that government employees would not be able to feed their families and that tourists would not be able to visit national monuments or parks because the Republicans had shut down the government. Gingrich also claimed that he was ignored by President Clinton in November, 1995, on an Air Force One flight

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to Israel, where they attended Prime Minister Yitzhak Rabin’s funeral. The White House countered by releasing photos of Gingrich sitting near President Clinton and other national leaders on the plane. Gingrich’s popularity decreased when Americans learned that he asked his former wife for a divorce as she awoke from cancer surgery. In order to avoid being considered as part of the new conservative wing of the party, several moderate Republicans led a compromise initiative that reduced federal domestic spending by 9 percent. Their overall legislative accomplishments were lackluster, and these freshmen faced a more challenging reelection campaign cycle. Many Democrats had chosen to retire rather than face conservative Republicans in the 1994 election cycle. The South, once a Democratic stronghold, was largely Republican, and many of its Democratic members were not seeking reelection or represented racial minority districts that voted Democratic. Congressional members on all sides of the political spectrum realized that spending cuts could reduce available funds for government projects and constituent services at home. They needed large amounts of money to maintain their seats and party control. As a result of a U.S. Supreme Court ruling on campaign financing, federal campaigns had increased access to more political party contributions. Labor unions, Christian Right organizations, and corporations donated millions to political parties and campaigns to prevent their opponents from being elected to or back to office. Two weeks prior to election day in 1996, the Democrats were poised to win back both houses of Congress. The Republican Party released new campaign advertisements encouraging voters not to send President Clinton the “blank check” that a Democratic Congress would give him. The voters agreed and, by and large, sent conservative, more confrontational Republicans to Congress. The Democrats saw a net gain of eight seats in the House and a two-seat net loss in the Senate. Impact Bolstered by strong support from the Religious Right, the South was now as loyal to the Republican Party as they were to the Democrats just forty years earlier. More women were elected to Congress than had been previously. Elsewhere, Democrats made moderate gains. Further analysis showed that those who supported Democrats had a more positive

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Electric car

outlook on government’s role in American society. The congressional leadership of both parties promised to embrace more moderate proposals and to back away from the ideologies that dominated the previous Congress. Their political differences, however, set up an unrelenting confrontation that would lead to Clinton’s impeachment and the resignation of several key Republican congressional leaders as a result of scandals. Further Reading

Berke, Richard. “Perot a Far Third.” The New York Times, November 6, 1996, p. A1. Provides insight into the election campaign of 1996 and its outcome. Clymer, Adam. “In Early Results, Voters Give Meager Hints on the Outcome of the Battle for the House.” The New York Times, November 6, 1996, p. B3. Discusses the impact of the 1994 congressional elections around the country. McGillivary, Alice V., Richard M. Scammon, and Rhodes Cook. America at the Polls, 1960-1996: Kennedy to Clinton. Washington, D.C.: Congressional Quarterly, 1998. This book reports electoral behaviors since 1960. Pomper, Gerald M., et al. The Election of 1996: Reports and Interpretations. Chatham, N.J.: Chatham House, 1997. Provides two detailed chapters on the presidential and congressional races. Purdum, Todd S. “The Second Term: Promise and Peril.” The New York Times, November 6, 1996, p. A1. Focuses upon the opportunities and threats that a second Clinton administration could have. Rosenbaum, David. “Democrats Fail to Reverse Right’s Capitol Hill Gains.” The New York Times, November 6, 1996, p. A1. Article analyzes the impact of a Republican-controlled Senate. Dwight Vick See also Campaign finance scandal; Clinton, Bill; Clinton, Hillary Rodham; Conservatism in U.S. politics; Contract with America; Dole, Bob; Elections in the United States, midterm; Elections in the United States, 1992; Gingrich, Newt; Gore, Al; Health care; Kemp, Jack; Liberalism in U.S. politics; Perot, H. Ross; Reform Party; Republican Revolution; Welfare reform.

■ Electric car An automobile using battery-stored energy and electric motor

Definition

The 1990’s saw a resurgence of interest in electric car development, leading to the appearance of several important new electric cars from both minor and major manufacturers, and the debut of the first economically viable hybrid gaselectric car. Despite the last major electric car introduction having taken place over fifteen years before, major automobile manufacturers as well as small independent companies put unprecedented energy into introducing new electric vehicles starting in 1990. Legislation helped to spur the renewed interest, although one of the most important legislative acts was not national but restricted to a single state. California in 1990 established its zero-emission vehicle (ZEV) mandate. The mandate required that 2 percent of vehicles in the state be ZEVs by 1998, with the level to rise to 10 percent by 2003. Most vehicles considered ZEVs by the California Air Resources Board (CARB) were electric. While limited to the state, California’s role as a trendsetter encouraged larger automakers to consider production of electric vehicles as a serious option. General Motors (GM) soon unveiled a production version of an electric car named Impact, already in planning in the late 1980’s. Other legislative and regulatory actions gave the electric car idea new viability. The federal Clean Air Act of 1990, which made auto emissions a matter of official public concern, was followed by the Energy Policy Act of 1992. The Partnership for a New Generation of Vehicles was also forged between the “Big Three” automobile manufacturers—Ford, Chrysler, and GM—and the U.S. Department of Energy. In 1993, while planning production of the Impact (renamed EV1), GM estimated it would take a quarter of a year to collect names of five thousand people interested in the car. Instead, the process took one week. Production formally began three years later. Despite its early start, GM was not first to produce the new generation of electric passenger cars. Renaissance Cars began production of the Tropica in 1995, with a top speed of 60 miles per hour (mph) and a driving range of 50 miles, carrying two adults. After a first, small production, unfortunately, the company failed to find funding to continue.

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Plus sedan, and the Chrysler EPIC minivan—also used nickel-metal hydride packs. In contrast, GM’s twopassenger sports car, the EV1, used a lead-acid battery. Many of these electric vehicles showed impressive performance. The GM EV1 could accelerate from 0 to 50 mph in less than 7 seconds and had a top speed of 80 mph. The electric Ford Ranger could accelerate from 0 to 50 mph in 12 seconds, had a range of 65 miles, a top speed of 75 mph, and a payload of 700 pounds. While electric vehicles of the later decade would have met the needs of many drivers, prices rangGeneral Motors’ electric car, the EV1, was introduced in 1996 in California and Ariing from $30,000 to $40,000 (in zona as a lease-only vehicle. (AP/Wide World Photos) 1998 dollars) put them out of the reach of most consumers, although Performance Achievements Alongside the manutax credits and incentives somewhat mitigated the facturers of new, made-from-scratch models, several situation. One of the most important developments companies specialized in the electric conversion of occurred not in the United States but Japan, where standard gasoline-powered vehicles. These included in 1997 Toyota introduced the first mass-produced U.S. Electricar and Solectria Corporation. Major hybrid gas-electric vehicle. Named the Prius, it manufacturers also took this route, with Ford prowould become the standard-bearer in the hybrid ducing an electric version of its Ford Ranger small market. pickup truck, and GM, an electric version of its Chevrolet S-10 pickup. The electric cars produced Impact Although the electric car remained more during this period were essentially handmade vehidream than reality by the end of the decade, the incles, produced in relatively small numbers. creased attention being given to the concept, and As important as the actual production of models the technological advances achieved in batteries was the revitalization of research efforts. These inand body design, helped make possible widespread cluded the formation of the Calstart incubator for acceptance of the hybrid vehicles that would beelectric vehicle research, based in Alameda, Califorcome a significant part of the nation’s automobile nia, in 1996. Another important galvanizing influfleet beginning in the first years of the next decade. ence was the American Tour de Sol, a race sponsored by the Northeast Sustainable Energy Association Further Reading throughout the decade. In 1999, Solectria celeAnderson, Judy, and Curtis D. Anderson. Electric and brated its long run of first-place finishes with its Hybrid Cars: A History. Jefferson, N.C.: McFarland, Solectria Force electric sedan, with a driving range 2005. A history providing information on electric of 142 miles on a single charge. It competed in a field car manufacturers and models, with discussions of some fifty vehicles, including electric cars manuof technical challenges and relevant political and factured by Ford, DaimlerChrysler, and Toyota. environmental issues. Also discusses popular reThe Solectria winner was powered by a nickelactions and contains a useful glossary. metal hydride battery, which was in widespread use Kirsch, David A. The Electric Car and the Burden of Hisin electric vehicles by late in the decade. Three tory. New Brunswick, N.J.: Rutgers University of the electric vehicles available in 1998, for inPress, 2000. A comprehensive history, especially stance—the Toyota RAV4 sport utility, the Honda EV valuable for its tracing of public attitudes through

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time and linking contemporary trends with those during the first major period of electric car development in the 1890’s. Larminie, James, and John Lowry. Electric Vehicle Technology Explained. Hoboken, N.J.: John Wiley & Sons, 2003. Covering not only cars but also the full range of electric vehicles, this book describes and explains in an accessible manner the basic technology involved. With case studies of specific vehicles. Taylor, Barbara E. The Lost Cord: The Storyteller’s History of the Electric Car. Columbus, Ohio: Greydon Press, 1995. Written at the height of 1990’s electric car fervor, this book tells the story of Robert Beaumont, the dynamic individual behind the 1970’s CitiCar and 1990’s Tropica. Westbrook, Michael H. The Electric Car: Development and Future of Battery, Hybrid, and Fuel-Cell Cars. Piscataway, N.J.: Institution of Electrical Engineers, 2001. In addition to general history, this study particularly focuses on the period of intense research following California’s ZEV mandate. Mark Rich Air pollution; Automobile industry; Clean Air Act of 1990; Inventions; Science and technology.

See also

■ Electronic music Music produced and heard through electronic means

Definition

Electronic music evolved significantly in the 1990’s, creating dozens of new music genres and hundreds of new subgenres, as well as spurring a vibrant underground rave culture in many American cities. Moreover, electronic music influenced mainstream pop, hip-hop, and rock music and was incorporated into movie sound tracks. Technological advances in electronic music equipment generated a turn in the American music industry toward increasingly accessible and easy-to-use synthesizers and computers, which allowed individual musicians to create music in the domestic confines of their house or apartment. Consequently, a number of dance music artists, or deejays, emerged from major urban centers where they found an audience who embraced their music in all-night dance clubs. House music, coming out of Chicago, and

The Nineties in America

techno music, originating in Detroit, spread quickly into other American cities during the early 1990’s, combining with other genres like European trance and British trip-hop to form new subgenres such as acid techno, anthem house, and epic trance, all of which contributed to and became associated with the growing underground rave scene. Two major electronic music genres, however, remained detached from rave culture. Krautrock combined psychedelic rock with avant-garde electronics to create a dark, mechanical sound more appealing to listeners at home than audiences at concerts or nightclubs. The audience, then, was relatively small in America, but German Krautrock groups like Kraftwerk, who describe their own music as “robot pop,” had far-reaching influence on more popular musicians of the latter 1990’s such as New York deejay Moby. The other major genre not formally associated with rave culture, ambient music, is often characterized by what it lacks, frequently leaving out lyrics, beats, and the typical song structure of a general rhythm leading to a lyrical or melodic refrain. Begun by British musician and producer Brian Eno, ambient music, like Krautrock, had a limited audience but widespread influence on other genres, like trance, and other musicians, finding its most popular expression, again, in Moby. Although electronic dance music in the latter 1990’s became associated with rave culture and the drug use associated with raves, this did not deter some music artists from going mainstream. The English electronica group The Prodigy found mainstream success in America with The Fat of the Land (1997), which included best-selling singles “Breathe” and “Firestarter,” both of which were made into music videos that aired on MTV that year. Moby was the only American electronic artist to gain consistent mainstream success in the United States. His 1999 platinum album, Play, met with success on the radio and on MTV, and all eighteen songs on the album were licensed out for commercials, television shows, and movies, earning him criticism from techno purists and praise from mainstream critics. Nevertheless, during the late 1990’s, Moby’s name was synonymous with electronic music in the United States. As a genre in itself, electronic music gained a larger audience in the 1990’s, though, with a few exceptions, it gen-

Electronic Music and Mainstream Music

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erally went unacknowledged by mainstream critics and news media. However, the same sounds that had fueled clubgoers in urban American dance clubs were readily adopted by popular musicians and producers as musical background for singers’ lyrics and vocal melodies. Particularly influential in the spread of electronic music into the pop mainstream, C+C Music Factory, an American group formed by two former deejays, Robert Clivillés and David Cole, released their incredibly successful debut album in 1990, Gonna Make You Sweat (Everybody Dance Now), which combined the sounds of Chicago house music with R&B female vocals and deep-voiced male rapping. Though the contribution from dance genres to the genres of R&B, rap, and hip-hop varied in the 1990’s, C+C Music Factory set a standard of combining electronically produced rhythms with soulful vocals and rap lyrics in all three categories. Marking a general turn in popular music, the deejays and producers of dance music became crucial participants in the production of mainstream popular music. An early example, two British dance music producers, Neal Slateford and Nick Batt, remixed American alternative musician Suzanne Vega’s 1981 a cappella song, “Tom’s Diner,” which became a hit upon its release in 1990. Beyond the remixing and sampling that became common among dance music deejays in the 1990’s, controversial singer Madonna collaborated with dance and ambient musician William Orbit for her 1998 album, Ray of Light, which won three Grammy Awards in 1999. Deejays such as Orbit, who also worked with rock musicians Seal, Sting, Peter Gabriel, and Prince, were often behind the scenes as collaborators and producers of some of the most popular songs of the decade. Impact While deejays earned modest sums performing at clubs and raves, they left an indelible mark on popular music, as described above, and in American film. In addition to the widespread use of Moby’s music in television and film, ambient and techno music began to appear more prominently in film. The often eerie soundscapes ambient composers were able to produce fit the dark moods and serious tone of psychological crime movies, such as Michael Mann’s Heat (1995), which featured tracks

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composed by Brian Eno, William Orbit, and Moby. Dramas and action films such as Danny Boyle’s Trainspotting (1996) and Larry and Andy Wachowski’s The Matrix (1999) incorporated more upbeat tracks from techno groups like Underworld and The Prodigy. Fitting the overall trend toward Americans’ increased reliance on electronics, electronic music both reflected and influenced this trend. Further Reading

Gilbert, Jeremy, and Ewan Pearson. Discographies: Dance Music, Culture, and the Politics of Sound. New York: Routledge, 1999. This critical study on dance music and culture engages with the intersection of conservative ideologies and social perceptions of the body, a combination that explains, in part, the hostility to this subculture. Holmes, Thomas B. Electronic and Experimental Music: Pioneers in Technology and Composition. New York: Routledge, 2002. A well-documented study on the people and innovations that made electronic music possible, this book focuses on the aesthetic production of music rather than the troubling task of categorizing all electronically produced music. Manning, Peter. Electronic and Computer Music. New York: Oxford University Press, 2004. While the influence of cultural factors are touched upon in this historically insightful book, its strength rests on Manning’s insight into the technological evolution of instruments that led to modern electronic music. Shapiro, Peter, ed. Modulations: A History of Electronic Music—Throbbing Words on Sound. New York: Caipirinha Productions, 2000. With chapters written by musicians and interviews with some of electronic music’s innovators, this survey of the major electronic music genres serves as an excellent introduction to this diverse and growing field. Lawrence Schwegler See also Boy bands; Digital audio; Ecstasy; Hiphop and rap music; Madonna; Matrix, The ; Milli Vanilli; MP3 format; Music; Nine Inch Nails; Raves; Science and technology.

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E-mail

■ E-mail A method of electronically sending and receiving messages that can be stored for further review and forwarded to other people over a computer network

Definition

The number of e-mail users increased dramatically in the 1990’s. E-mail also became the primary means of communication for many businesses and spawned a multibilliondollar support industry. E-mail, short for “electronic mail,” was created in the mid-1960’s as a way for users who were sharing time on a mainframe computer to communicate even though they were on different schedules. Later in the 1960’s, the ability to send messages to users on different computers was added. Ray Tomlinson initiated the use of the “at” sign (@) to separate the name of the destination computer from the user name. By 1976, 75 percent of all the traffic on the Advanced Research Projects Agency Network (ARPANET), the precursor to the Internet, was e-mail. The 1990’s saw a move away from e-mail being used mainly by researchers and academics to home use, which led to an explosion in the total number of e-mail users. By the end of the decade, more than eighty million people were sending literally trillions of messages per year. Part of the reason for this increase in home e-mail use was that the Internet became more available to people because of the growth of personal computers and the greater availability of connections to the Internet. E-mail was a very cost-effective means of communication when compared to long-distance phone calls and even postage. The average computer user came to see e-mail as a convenient means to stay in touch with people. A very conservative estimate put the cost of e-mail at roughly fifty thousand e-mails per dollar spent. In the mid-1990’s, some companies gave out free e-mail mailboxes and addresses that were accessible through a Web browser. These Webbased e-mail offerings further increased the popularity of e-mail and expanded the number of home users. Businesses also saw the vast benefits of e-mail, one of which is that there is no need to have the communicating parties together at the same time, as in a phone call or teleconference. The savings in time alone was reason enough for Effect on Business

most businesses to adopt e-mail as their standard medium of communication. The ability to store and quickly access e-mail and any attached information transferred via e-mail increased cost savings. E-mail became such a vital resource that it was estimated that many business professionals spent up to fifty percent of their working time using e-mail. However, Internet-based businesses estimated that tens of thousands of dollars were lost per hour if an outage of their e-mail servers occurred. The drop in communications affected the ability of workers to complete their tasks, resulting in a loss of work-hours and affecting customer relations. Businesses also capitalized on the ability to massmarket to consumers via e-mail. Many customers could be reached at little or no cost compared to traditional methods of calling and traditional media advertising. The business of selling lists of e-mail addresses became a staple of the mass-mailing industry. Abuse of mass e-mailing created problems as well as business opportunities. Unsolicited commercial e-mail, commonly referred to as spam, comes from a business or individual misusing the system by sending e-mail to a number of users without their consent. Spam, along with the propagation of computer viruses sent through e-mail attachments, became costly nuisances to businesses and home users and led to the creation of a multibillion-dollar support industry to fight these problems. Overreliance on e-mail became a weak point in many business, to the point where some were crippled completely during an outage. E-mail fraud, in which a perpetrator attempts to acquire personal information from a user, also became a problem in the late 1990’s.

Modern Issues with E-mail

Impact E-mail was rapidly adopted by individuals and businesses during the 1990’s. Professionals started to spend a great deal of their time using e-mail to communicate. The economic effects were vast. The low cost and convenience of e-mail far outweighed the costs of supporting the technology and the pitfalls of spam, viruses, and outages. Further Reading

Cavanagh, Christina. Managing Your E-Mail: Thinking Outside the Inbox. Hoboken, N.J.: John Wiley & Sons, 2003. Offers tips on crafting and managing e-mail and discusses legal issues for employees. Cortada, James W. The Digital Hand: How Computers

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Changed the Work of American Manufacturing, Transportation, and Retail Industries. New York: Oxford University Press, 2004. A broad overview of the effect of computers and technology in industry and speculation about future uses. Hughes, Lawrence E. Internet E-Mail: Protocols, Standards, and Implementation. The Artech House Telecommunications Library. Boston: Artech House, 1998. A detailed technical tour of Internet e-mail. Includes corporate strategies used by top marketers. Nussey, Bill. The Quiet Revolution in E-Mail Marketing. New York: iUniverse, 2004. Discusses how companies can extend their brands through e-mail. Okin, J. R. The Internet Revolution: The Not-for-Dummies Guide to the History, Technology, and Use of the Internet. Winter Harbor, Maine: Ironbound Press, 2005. A modern history of the Internet and its origins, as well as its uses and effects on society and business. Steele, Jeffrey. Email: The Manual—Everything You Should Know About Email Etiquette, Policies, and Legal Liability Before You Hit Send. Oak Park, Ill.: Marion Street Press, 2006. Best practices for e-mail policies and pitfalls to avoid. James J. Heiney America Online; Computers; Hackers; Instant messaging; Internet; Michelangelo computer virus; Microsoft; Spam; Yahoo!; World Wide Web.

See also

■ Employment in Canada The proportion of the total population deriving its means of support from wages or salaries

Definition

Although still tied in many areas to the staple economy in the 1990’s, Canada continued its move away from that older concept and toward a more typical, highly service-oriented economy characteristic of the developed world. Even in the twentieth century, Canada retained many features of its long history as a colonial possession of Great Britain. During this period, its economy remained focused on the production of raw materials frequently used by firms in Britain to manufacture goods used by ordinary consumers. Many of those raw materials were minerals such as iron, nickel, copper, zinc, and asbestos. Many, how-

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ever, were natural products both animal and vegetable, such as fish or agricultural crops, or wood from trees. However, the country had begun a long process of conversion from a staples economy to a modern service economy in the early twentieth century, and that process was continuing in the 1990’s. Indeed, in this decade, at least three-quarters of the jobs in Canada were service jobs, in such fields as insurance, retail and wholesale, and professional services. Public service provided an ever larger share of the jobs, and the 1990’s were characterized by growth in both education and nursing. Despite the growth in public-service jobs, employment in Canada was tied to the business cycle. The total economy turned down during the early years of the decade, and employment followed that pattern. In 1990, there were more than 13 million people employed in Canada out of a total population of a little over 27 million. The economy turned up in 1994, and by 1999 the population had increased to almost 30.5 million, of which almost 15 million were employed. The character of the jobs held by Canadians changed during the 1990’s. The number of jobs in the old staples industries fell, and the number of jobs in the service sector rose. The number of fulltime jobs that were also full-year jobs had fallen behind the number of part-time, part-year, or contingent jobs (based on project or task). By 1995, only one-third of Canadians were in full-time, full-year jobs; the remainder (where women and minorities dominated) were part-time or part-year jobs. Impact During the 1990’s, Canada’s employment picture followed that of the United States, with one major exception: In Canada, in contrast to the United States, the number of unionized workers remained high, largely because of the unionization of public-sector jobs. Further Reading

Clement, Wallace, and Leah F. Vosko, eds. Changing Canada: Political Economy as Transformation. Montreal: McGill-Queens University Press, 2003. Howlett, Michael, Alex Netherton, and M. Ramesh. The Political Economy of Canada: An Introduction. Don Mills, Ont.: Oxford University Press, 1999. Statistics Canada. Canadian Economic Observer: Historical Statistical Supplement. Ottawa: Author, 2001. Nancy M. Gordon

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Employment in the United States

See also Business and the economy in Canada; Demographics of Canada; Income and wages in Canada; North American Free Trade Agreement (NAFTA); Recession of 1990-1991; Women in the workforce.

■ Employment in the United States The proportion of the total population deriving its means of support from wages or salaries

Definition

After a brief and mild recession in 1990-1991, employment increased steadily through the decade. This provided the basis for the steady increase in production and for the rise in per capita real incomes and consumption. In 1990, about 119 million Americans were employed. By the end of that year, the economy was slipping into recession. The average annual unemployment rate rose from 5.3 percent in 1989 to 6.8 percent in 1991 and 7.5 percent in 1992. Because population and labor force grew, and because labor productivity increased, to prevent an increase in unemployment would have required production to grow at a rate of at least 2 to 3 percent per year. With prices rising about 2 percent per year, aggregate demand would have needed to expand at least 5 percent per year to maintain the near full employment of 1989. However, aggregate demand (as measured by nominal gross domestic product) increased only about 3 percent from 1990 to 1991, so unemployment increased. Demand rebounded vigorously in 1992 and production increased, but unemployment was still high. From that point, a sustained rise in demand increased employment steadily, until by 1999 133 million people held jobs and the unemployment rate was only 4.2 percent, the lowest annual rate since 1969. About two-thirds of working-age adults were in the labor force. The participation rate among males declined slightly, from 76.4 percent in 1990 to 74.7 percent in 1999, but this was offset by an increase of women workers from 57.5 to 60 percent, the latter an all-time high to that point. The educational level of workers moved steadily upward. In 1992, 12.6 percent of workers were high school dropouts. By 2000, the proportion had dropped to 10.4 percent. Over the same period, the

proportion with some college education rose from 25.4 to 27.7 percent, and the proportion of college graduates rose from 26.4 to 30.5 percent. Sector Employment The sector changes in employment reflected a race between rising output and rising labor productivity. In agriculture, for instance, employment remained essentially unchanged, while output grew by 28 percent—all arising from higher productivity. Employment in manufacturing declined by about 2 percent between 1990 and 1999. Manufacturing output expanded by an impressive 46 percent. However, labor productivity increased just about as much, so the sector did not require more workers. The vast and diverse service sector was the area of vigorous job growth, with the exception of the decline in federal government civilian employment. Although government statisticians pretend to measure output and labor productivity in various services, when there is no physical product these estimates cannot be very precise: For example, how to measure the quantity of physicians’ services, when major technological changes in such matters as eye surgery and joint replacement are observed? Still, no one can dispute the large expansion in employment in the medical sector.

The decade witnessed a rising tide of complaints directed at supposed job loss resulting from import competition or from companies “shipping jobs overseas.” There can be no doubt that some U.S. industries, such as shoes and textiles, lost market share and employment to imports. Considering the low unemployment rates during most of the decade, displaced workers seem to have found jobs elsewhere. In his review of Thomas L. Friedman’s The World Is Flat (2005) in the Journal of Economic Literature, Edward E. Leamer concluded that “though there is a great deal of fuss in the media about the movement of U.S. service jobs to India, the number of U.S. workers affected by outsourcing surely remains low.” When American companies are able to reduce costs by outsourcing, they are likely to expand output and thus create more domestic jobs. Critics neglected the reverse flow of jobs, as for instance when foreign automakers set up factories in the United States. After 1996, foreign-born workers accounted for about half of the total growth of the U.S. labor force. Critics argued that low-skilled workers from Mexico, Globalization

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Employment in Major Sectors of the U.S. Economy, 1990-1999 Number Employed (millions) Sector Agriculture

1990

1999

3.2

3.3

% Change +1.8

Natural resources and mining

0.8

0.6

–22.8

Construction

5.3

6.5

+24.4

Manufacturing Durable goods Nondurable goods Services, total Trade, transport, utilities Information Finance

17.7

17.3

–2.1

10.7

10.8

+0.9

7.0

6.5

–6.7

85.8

104.5

+21.9

22.7

25.8

+13.7

2.7

3.4

+27.2

6.6

7.6

+15.6

Professional and business services

10.8

16.0

+47.1

Education and health

11.0

14.8

+34.7

Leisure and hospitality

9.3

11.5

+24.3

Other services

4.3

5.1

+19.4

Government

18.4

20.3

+10.3

Federal

3.2

2.8

–13.4

State

4.3

4.7

+9.4

Local

10.9

12.8

+17.5

Source: Economic Report of the President, 2008.

many of them unauthorized, were taking jobs away from Americans. Examination of the kinds of jobs taken by immigrants, however, indicated that many immigrants were performing tasks that Americans would not or could not do. These involved low-income, strenuous “stoop labor” jobs on farms and in domestic service. At the high end of the income scale, employers seeking scientists and engineers could not find enough suitably trained Americans. The number of U.S. medical schools declined from 124 in 1990 to 118 in 2000, and the number of medical degrees conferred in 2000 was only 1 percent larger than in 1990. Not surprisingly, by year 2000 about one-fourth of physicians were foreign-born. Impact The 1990’s were a good period for job growth. After the recession of 1990-1991, production and employment expanded rapidly, so unemployment ended the decade at a very low level. Employment in manufacturing failed to grow, but the

reason lay in rapid productivity increase rather than deindustrialization and globalization. The service sectors were the basis for the most vigorous expansion of employment. Further Reading

Ehrenberg, Ronald G., and Robert S. Smith. Modern Labor Economics: Theory and Public Policy. 8th ed. New York: Pearson/Addison Wesley, 2003. This college-level text deals comprehensively with relationships among production, employment, and wages. Leamer, Edward E. “A Flat World, a Level Playing Field, a Small World After All, or None of the Above? A Review of Thomas L. Friedman’s The World Is Flat.” Journal of Economic Literature 45, no. 1 (March, 2007): 83-126. A witty and insightful survey that deflates much of the hysteria about negative effects of globalization on the U.S. job market.

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Sharp, Ansel M., Charles A. Register, and Paul W. Grimes. Economics of Social Issues. 17th ed. Boston: McGraw-Hill/Irwin, 2006. Chapter 11 illustrates how unemployment responds to changes in aggregate demand and aggregate supply. Paul B. Trescott Airline industry; Automobile industry; Business and the economy in the United States; Demographics of the United States; Immigration to the United States; Income and wages in the United States; Recession of 1990-1991.

See also

■ ER Identification Television drama series Creator Michael Crichton (1942-2008) Date Premiered on September 19, 1994

In an era when half-hour comedy shows ruled prime-time television, this drama series was a smashing success, belying the network’s original fear that a new, hour-long weekly drama series might not attract viewers.

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wards). Characters also deal with the stress and anxiety of being: young and female in a predominantly male profession, Dr. Susan Lewis (Sherry Stringfield); young and African American, Dr. Peter Benton (Eriq La Salle); and young and wealthy in the workaday world, Dr. John Carter (Noah Wyle). The characters’ concerns and frustrations with one another create working relationships with intensity equal to the high drama of working in a big-city general medical center. The program leaps from one dramatic scene to another, always focusing on the interplay of the characters in a traumatic situation. While ER is like other medical programs in its background and setting, its plot is different because it does not focus on medical geniuses or kindly saviors performing miracles to ease patients’ ills; instead, it focuses on six or seven main characters, their interactions with each other and subordinate staff, and their personal and professional development in a chaotic environment. Throughout the 1990’s, the characters and their relationships with one another slowly evolved and changed: medical students became interns and later residents, staff fell in and out of love with one another, and personnel changed. Each episode left the audience sitting on the edge, wondering what would happen next and how the next episode could possibly be any more exciting.

Based on his personal work experience at Massachusetts General Hospital, novelist Michael Crichton craftily created a familiar series setting, a hospital, Impact Three days after the pilot aired, on Septemand then gave the theme a twist, centering the ber 22, 1994, the series took its position on the new program on the hectic lives of hospital emergency personnel instead of on their patients. Crichton worked with the producer John Wells and an extensive cast to create a phenomenal two-hour pilot program focused on twenty-four hours at a trauma center at County General Hospital in Chicago. ER centers on the lives of devoted doctors, caring nurses, and interesting support staff in a nighttime soap opera that quickly spins from one medical emergency to the next. The characters are strong individuals with a wide range of personal issues: attempted suicide, nurse Carol Hathaway (Julianna Margulies); alcoholism and womanizing, Dr. Doug Ross (George Anthony Edwards, flanked by fellow ER actors Noah Wyle and Julianna Margulies, Clooney); and marital constraints, accepts the award for Outstanding Performance by an Ensemble in a Drama Series during the 1999 Screen Actors Guild Awards show. (AP/Wide World Photos) Dr. Mark Greene (Anthony Ed-

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fall lineup for the National Broadcasting Company (NBC). The high-action, intense series opening quickly led ER to become the network’s Thursday night anchor program. ER quickly emerged as a topbilled program, luring advertisers who were willing to pay substantial fees to spotlight their products on this instantly popular new program. Both stars and supporting actors were soon nominated for Emmy and Golden Globe Awards. Further Reading

Dougan, Andy. The Biography of George Clooney. Philadelphia: Trans-Atlantic, 1997. Jones, Mark. ER: The Unofficial Guide. London: Contender Books, 2003. Keenleyside, Sam. Bedside Manners: George Clooney and “ER.” Toronto: ECW Press, 1998. Cynthia J. W. Svoboda See also

Clooney, George; Medicine; Television.

■ Etheridge, Melissa Identification American rock musician Born May 29, 1961, Leavenworth, Kansas

Etheridge’s fervent anthems gave voice to many people who saw themselves as marginalized by society. Her coming out in 1993 contributed to gay and lesbian visibility in the 1990’s. Having established her reputation with two successful albums in the late 1980’s, Melissa Etheridge released her third album, Never Enough, in 1992. The first single from the album, “Ain’t It Heavy,” rose to number ten on the Billboard charts. It won Etheridge a 1992 Grammy Award for Best Female Rock Vocal Performance. In January, 1993, while performing at the Triangle Ball, held in honor of the inauguration of Bill Clinton as president of the United States, Etheridge confirmed longtime rumors by coming out as a lesbian. This confirmed her popularity in the gay and lesbian community and brought her new fans. That acknowledging her homosexuality helped rather than hurt her popularity was an indication of the increasing openness of gay entertainers in the 1990’s. Etheridge fans were also numerous in online communities. Active fans helped to make the Internet a visible space for discussion of both alternative

Melissa Etheridge performs on The Tonight Show with Jay Leno in 1992. (AP/Wide World Photos)

music and gays and lesbians in popular culture. The title of Etheridge’s next album, Yes I Am (1993), played on her declaration of her sexual orientation. The first single from the album, “Come to My Window,” was often heard as a plaintive declaration of lesbian love. Etheridge insisted, however, that she kept her love songs deliberately genderless, not specifically mentioning a male or female object to them. This allowed both gay and straight women to identify with her work. Etheridge also appealed to straight male fans during this era, as her working-class background, her love of baseball (her favorite team was the Kansas City Royals), and her championing of the downtrodden made her in many ways the female equivalent of Bruce Springsteen, whose song “Thunder Road” Etheridge memorably covered on MTV Unplugged. “Nowhere to Go,” the second single from Etheridge’s 1995 album, Your Little Secret, was emblematic of the discontent of a working class faced with the challenges of globalization. Even as she played to in-

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creasingly large crowds in arenas, Etheridge performed at smaller venues composed of dedicated fans. Etheridge also became a general celebrity. Her personal life received frequent exposure in the press. In 1993, Etheridge was reported to be living with Julie Cypher, the ex-wife of actor Lou Diamond Phillips. During Etheridge and Cypher’s relationship, which ended in 2000, Cypher bore the couple two children, whose biological father was revealed to be the singer David Crosby. Etheridge’s 1999 album, Breakdown, did not do well, but by this time Etheridge had made a permanent contribution to American music. Impact If the 1990’s came into full swing politically with the inauguration of Bill Clinton, Etheridge’s coming out as lesbian represented the full emergence of the 1990’s cultural mentality. In this decade, alternative sexualities received greater visibility in the public sphere than ever before, a major cultural shift from the 1980’s. Further Reading

Etheridge, Melissa, with Laura Morton. The Truth Is . . . My Life in Love and Music. New York: Villard Books, 2001. Nickson, Chris. Melissa Etheridge. New York: St. Martin’s Griffin, 1997. Nicholas Birns Clinton, Bill; DeGeneres, Ellen; Homosexuality and gay rights; Internet; Lang, K. D.; MTV Unplugged; Music.

See also

■ Europe and North America Diplomatic and economic relations between European states and the United States and Canada

Definition

Relations between North America and Europe in the 1990’s witnessed the dissolution of the Soviet Union and the fall of communism in Eastern Europe as well as new political and economic strains with Western Europe. Subsequent wars in the Balkans brought about North American military involvement. The early years of the 1990’s marked the dissolution of communist governments in Eastern Europe and the demise of the Soviet Union—the end of the Cold

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War. Both Washington and Ottawa, of course, welcomed and encouraged these events. In February, 1990, when Václav Havel, the anticommunist president of Czechoslovakia (which split into the Czech Republic and Slovakia in 1993), addressed the U.S. Congress, he received rousing applause as he stated that the course to democracy in his country and the entire region was irreversible. Congress also cheered his statement that “the salvation of this human world lies nowhere else than in the human heart”—rather than in the material world, according to the Marxist view. The crisis in the Soviet Union caused by the failure of the 1991 coup to eliminate Soviet leader Mikhail Gorbachev brought about the dissolution of the Soviet Union into its constituent republics, starting with the Baltic states. U.S. president George H. W. Bush’s hesitation to recognize this despite the fact that Washington had never recognized the Baltic states’ incorporation into the Soviet Union in 1940 brought about significant embarrassment. The United States was engaged in the Gulf War at the time, and Bush did not want to embarrass Gorbachev. Thousands of Lithuanians sent umbrellas to the White House, symbolizing Neville Chamberlain’s fruitless appeasement of Adolf Hitler at Munich in 1938. The policies of the Bush and the Clinton administrations coincided in several goals for the Continent. Bush looked for a democratic, united, free, and peaceful Europe. In practice he intended to transform the North Atlantic Treaty Organization (NATO), strengthen the Continent, deal with Russia, and secure the Balkans. In September, 1990, Bush met with Gorbachev in Finland to discuss the Middle East. Bush welcomed Soviet involvement in Iraq and the Israeli-Arab conflict. The arms treaty between NATO and the Warsaw Pact led to parity in weapons, requiring the Soviet Union to destroy tens of thousands of tanks, armored vehicles, artillery pieces, and aircraft. President Bill Clinton also hoped to engage Russia as a partner, to reduce armaments, and to transform the country into a democracy, both politically and economically. In the Balkans, Russia helped deal with Belgrade, and Russian soldiers served with Americans in the Bosnia and Kosovo conflicts. Moving Toward a New Europe In 1990, British prime minister Margaret Thatcher visited the

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United States and outlined the “European Magna Carta” in the wake of the Cold War. In 1993, Clinton decided to enlarge NATO to include former Warsaw Pact nations. By the end of the decade, NATO extended membership to Poland, Hungary, and the Czech Republic. In the second half of the decade, NATO’s primary focus was on the Balkans. In addition to U.S. forces, Canada sent twelve hundred troops to Bosnia and thirteen hundred to Kosovo. In 1996, the United States, interested in the reelection of Boris Yeltsin as president of Russia, sent American political and media experts to help his campaign. Elsewhere, the American philanthropist George Soros donated hundreds of millions of dollars to foster institutions of democracy in Eastern Europe. Although Madeleine Albright, secretary of state under Clinton, called the United States an indispensable power for Europe, the decade witnessed a growing resentment of American power, including the Americanization of much of European culture. On some issues, such as social welfare and the death penalty, Europeans had different values than Americans. In the Kosovo War, the United States did not cooperate with its European allies on many decisions. Some Europeans objected to the patronizing attitude of Washington and wished for more of a partnership with the United States. The Clinton administration wanted to change its European policy from one that had traditionally been based on one bloc facing the other to a policy encouraging an integrated Europe in politics, economics, and society. In the economic areas, the United States and the European Commonwealth had serious disagreements over the importing of American agricultural produce to the Continent, engaging in tariff wars and restrictions throughout the decade, despite some economists’ fears of a threat to the dollar. Washington welcomed and supported the introduction of the Euro in 1999 as a universal European currency. U.S. laws issued sanctions on some areas of trade with countries like Cuba, Libya, and Iran, sanctions that affected European companies, although Clinton waived some of the restrictions. The Transatlantic Declaration of November 1990 provided for a series of biennial meetings to discuss a variety of problems, from trade to the Balkan crisis. Impact The post-Cold War changes in Eastern Europe redefined the basic relationship between

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North America and Europe. American and Canadian troops became involved in wars in the Balkans, the role of NATO fundamentally altered, and new political and economic strains occurred among the traditional allies. Subsequent Events The attacks on the World Trade Center on September 11, 2001, and the subsequent wars in Iraq and Afghanistan further changed the relationship between North America and Europe as the various countries on the Continent adopted different attitudes to American foreign policy. Further Reading

Anania, Giovanni, Colin A. Carter, and Alex F. McCalla, eds. Agricultural Trade Conflicts and GATT: New Dimensions in U.S.-European Agricultural Trade Relations. Boulder, Colo.: Westview Press, 1994. A collection of articles from a 1993 conference on North American-European agricultural trade relations. Brzezinski, Zbigniew. Second Chance: Three Presidents and the Crisis of American Superpower. New York: Basic Books, 2007. An assessment of the foreign policy of presidents George H. W. Bush, Bill Clinton, and George W. Bush by President Jimmy Carter’s national security adviser. Fabbrini, Sergio, ed. The United States Contested: American Unilateralism and European Discontent. New York: Routledge, 2006. Leading American and European experts discuss the reasons for conflict between the United States and Europe at the end of the twentieth century and the beginning of the twenty-first. The authors conclude that American conservatism and nationalism grew while European nationalism waned. Leslie, Peter. The Maastricht Model: A Canadian Perspective on the European Union. Kingston, Ont.: Institute of Intergovernmental Relations, Queens University, 1996. An examination of Canada’s relationship to unified Europe. Frederick B. Chary See also Albright, Madeleine; Bosnia conflict; Bush, George H. W.; Canada and the British Commonwealth; Clinton, Bill; Cold War, end of; Dayton Accords; Foreign policy of Canada; Foreign policy of the United States; Global warming debate; Gulf War; Kosovo conflict; Russia and North America.

F ■ Fabio Identification Italian male model and actor Born March 15, 1959; Milan, Italy

Fabio’s handsome, muscular image helped to sell millions of romance novels during the 1990’s. Fabio Lanzoni, known in the United States simply as Fabio, got his start in modeling in Italy at age fourteen. He is the son of Flora and Sauro Lanzoni, a mechanical engineer. After serving a mandatory term in the Italian army, Fabio returned to modeling. The story is that he literally outgrew the profession in Italy, as his physique became too large for the clothing he modeled there. He moved to New York City, where he was signed by the Ford Modeling Agency and worked as a runway and catalog model. He was a popular model for Gap and other sportswear companies. His first romance novel cover was for Johanna Lindsey’s Hearts Aflame (1987). He subsequently appeared on the covers of hundreds of romance novels. His long blond hair and virile, bare-chested, overtly sexual appearance attracted a great deal of attention. Fabio also wrote a handful of romance novels during the 1990’s—although three of these were written “with” (if not to say “by”) Eugenia Riley, an established romance writer. Two were written with Wendy Corsi Staub. Fabio’s best-known television appearance of the decade was probably in the I Can’t Believe It’s Not Butter commercials. He was featured in that product’s commercials throughout the 1990’s and came to be identified with it. He had cameos in a number of Hollywood films, including The Exorcist III (1990), Scenes from a Mall (1991), Death Becomes Her (1992), and Zoolander (2001). On television, he played a character named Claudio in Acapulco H.E.A.T. in 1994, appearing in sixteen episodes. He also made numerous appearances on talk shows, including The Tonight Show with Jay Leno and Late Night with Conan O’Brien, and was featured in several episodes of the

soap opera The Bold and the Beautiful. He even appeared on the box cover of the 1989 video game Ironsword: Wizards and Warriors II. Impact Fabio appears to be one of those personalities who looms large for a brief time, flashes across all the networks and publications, then seemingly sinks back into anonymity. He has occasionally appeared in news stories since the 1990’s, but his appearances have been infrequent. During Super Bowl XL in 2006, Fabio’s appearance in a Nationwide Insurance advertising campaign was said to be the most frequently downloaded commercial from that event.

Fabio in 1993. (AP/Wide World Photos)

The Nineties in America Further Reading

Abrams, M. “Pinup Boy.” Forbes, July 6, 1992, 73. Flora, Carlin. “Fabio on Sex Appeal.” Psychology Today 39, no. 3 (May/June, 2006): 112. June Harris See also

Advertising; Fads; Publishing; Television.

■ Fads Widely popular but short-lived fashions, entertainments, and products

Definition

The fads of the 1990’s represented diverse groups, including alternative subcultures. The development of new technologies and communications channels enabled increased interactivity in popular culture and helped promote and market new fads. During the 1990’s, popular music trends led to fashion fads. Grunge, an alternative hard rock trend, was a commercial success for bands like Nirvana, Pearl Jam, and Soundgarden. The clothing and unkempt appearance of the musicians inspired the rise of the grunge fashion style in the early 1990’s. Adopted by the youth subculture, this style included torn stonewashed blue jeans, plaid flannel shirts, ripped cardigans, Doc Martens shoes or boots, long hair, and basketball caps. Complementing the grunge style was the neohippie style of dress, such as bellbottom jeans and crocheted vests. Gangsta rap, a form of hip-hop music, entered the mainstream and led to a fashion craze characterized by baseball caps, brightly colored and baggy clothing often worn backward, and platinum necklaces or rings with large gems. Another music craze was a cheerful, bouncy, repetitive tune called “Macarena.” Released by the Spanish band Los del Rio in 1995, it became a hit song worldwide in 1996. The song and its accompanying dance were major fads through 1997. The most popular hair fad of the decade was “the Rachel” hairstyle, introduced by Jennifer Aniston’s character Rachel Green in the television sitcom Friends in 1994. Women worldwide copied this bouncy, layered, angled shag hairstyle. In the second half of the decade, bleached hair was popular among high school and college students. Another trend in personal appearance was the waiflike look embodied by fashion models such as

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Kate Moss. At the same time, piercings and tattoos were part of the counterculture image. People pierced and wore metal rings and studs in just about any body part, including ears, noses, lips, tongues, eyebrows, nipples, and navels. Formerly for rebels, gang members, and outsiders, tattoos became mainstream in the 1990’s. Toys, Games, and New Technology One of the most widespread and popular fads was Ty, Inc.’s Beanie Babies, which were first released in 1993. These stuffed animals had tags with their names and birth dates and started a collecting frenzy. By 1996, over 100 million Beanie Babies had been sold, and in 1997, McDonald’s issued over 100 million with its Happy Meals. Polly Pockets, small plastic dolls and accessories, were favorites among girls. Originally played with juice bottle caps in Hawaii, Pogs was the most popular game among schoolchildren during the first half of the decade. Rollerblades became widespread in the early 1990’s. The top fad and must-have children’s toy of 1996 was Tickle Me Elmo, based on the Sesame Street muppet. When squeezed many times, the stuffed toy would laugh and vibrate. Demand was so high that they sold out quickly, and resale prices reached as high as $1,500. The live-action television show Mighty Morphin Power Rangers, which ran from 1993 to 1996, and the Power Rangers toys were both very popular. Many electronic toys and games became fads. Created in 1996, Tamagotchi was a handheld digital pet in a small egg-shaped computer with buttons for selecting activities such as feeding or playing with the pet. Similar to the Tamagotchi, Giga Pets were virtual pets first released in 1997. Furby, an interactive, furry robot with its own language, was the musthave toy of the 1998 holiday season. In 1996, the first Pokémon games were released as Nintendo Game Boy role-playing video games. During the 1990’s, the Internet became increasingly popular as a fad and revolutionized business and communications, as well as entertainment and popular culture. The World Wide Web became available to the public in 1991, and by 2000 there were approximately 295 million Internet users. Impact The fads of the 1990’s expressed the exciting diversity of popular culture and gave voice to alternative subcultures. At the same time, profitable businesses and industries revolved around fads.

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Furby, the interactive robot that speaks both “Furbish” and English, was the must-have toy of the 1998 holiday season. (AP/ Wide World Photos)

Grunge, gangsta rap, and hip-hop music and fashion were strong statements of self-expression from alternative groups. Many of these trends affected the next century. Hip-hop, for instance, entered the musical mainstream, and its clothing evolved from a street style to the chic style of celebrities and stars. Tattoos were a rebellious fashion statement by women, and the tattoo industry became the sixthfastest-growing retail industry during the decade. The new technologies and advanced communications enabled fads and products to be shared and promoted quickly. The Rachel hairstyle, introduced in the television show Friends, became popular worldwide. The Mighty Morphin Power Rangers and Teletubbies television shows helped promote the accompanying toys. Many enduring fads, such as the Beanie Babies, have led to magazines, fan clubs, and Web sites. The Pokémon video games have spawned toys, books, anime, manga, Web sites, trading cards, and other media. The Internet became an increasingly vital marketing, advertising, and shopping medium for other fads of the 1990’s.

Berger, Arthur A. Ads, Fads, and Consumer Culture: Advertising’s Impact on American Character and Society. Lanham, Md.: Rowman & Littlefield, 2004. An entertaining, often humorous study of fads, advertising, and consumer culture. Illustrated. Bibliography and index. Biddle, Julian. What Was Hot! A Rollercoaster Ride Through Six Decades of Pop Culture in America. New York: Citadel Press, 2001. This chronicle includes the major fads of each year of the 1990’s. Illustrated. Fox, Les, Sue Fox, and Jeanette Long. The Beanie Baby Handbook. Midland Park, N.J.: West Highland, 1998. An unofficial handbook and collector’s edition. Illustrated. Kallen, Stuart A. The 1990’s: A Cultural History of the United States Through the Decades. San Diego, Calif.: Lucent Books, 1999. This general overview includes a chapter on pop culture in the digital age. Illustrated. Bibliography and index. Oxoby, Marc. The 1990’s. Westport, Conn.: Greenwood Press, 2003. This popular culture history includes chapters on fashion and “Fads, Games, Toys, Hobbies and Sports.” Illustrated. Bibliography and index. Alice Myers Advertising; Beanie Babies; Fashions and clothing; Grunge fashion; Grunge music; Hairstyles; Heroin chic; Internet; Music; Nirvana; Pogs; Pokémon franchise; Tattoos and body piercing; Toys and games; Video games; World Wide Web.

See also

■ Faludi, Susan American journalist and feminist author Born April 18, 1959; New York, New York Identification

Faludi won a Pulitzer Prize in journalism in 1991 and then established herself as a best-selling feminist author and activist. In Backlash: The Undeclared War Against American Women (1991), Susan Faludi argues that the 1980’s represented a period of backlash against feminism. She points to examples in television shows, films, the fashion industry, and the cosmetics industry to illustrate how popular culture defines women’s roles

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through stereotyping and the mischaracterization of women. She contends that the media contributed to the antifeminism culture through imbalanced reporting. The book heavily relies on Faludi’s skills as a journalist and includes numerous case studies and specific examples as evidence of the change in societal views and in the cultural environment. In 1999, Faludi published another best seller, Stiffed: The Betrayal of the American Man, about men and the culture of masculinity. She later published The Terror Dream: Fear and Fantasy in Post-9/11 America (2007), which examines the spreading of myths in a culture and compares the 2001 terrorist attacks on the United States with events in the early days of U.S. history. Faludi won the Pulitzer Prize for labor reporting while working at The Wall Street Journal. Backlash earned the National Book Critics Circle Award. She has also written for The New York Times, The New Yorker, The Nation, and Newsweek.

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Impact Some considered Backlash the beginning of renewed popularity for feminist issues. At the very least, the book brought discussion of women’s issues to a higher level. The book coincided with another story already dominating the media. In 1991, Anita Hill, then a University of Oklahoma law professor, testified before the Senate Judiciary Committee that Supreme Court justice nominee Clarence Thomas had made unwanted sexually suggestive and lewd comments to her when she worked with him. As a result of this allegation and some high-profile Hollywood films, sexual harassment was a popular topic in the early 1990’s. In Backlash, Faludi frequently refers to Faith Popcorn, a marketing executive and best-selling author, who was gaining popularity in the 1990’s as a selfproclaimed forecaster of pop culture and business trends. In the early 1990’s and for years after its publication date, Backlash was required reading in women’s studies courses and graduate classes at many universities. Further Reading

Faludi, Susan. Backlash: The Undeclared War Against American Women. New York: Crown, 1991. Graham, Judith, ed. “Susan Faludi.” Current Biography 54, no. 2 (February, 1993): 22. Halpern, Sue. “Susan Faludi: The Mother Jones Interview.” Mother Jones 24, no. 5 (September/October, 1999): 36. Sherri Ward Massey See also Hill, Anita; Popcorn, Faith; Schlessinger, Dr. Laura; Women in the workforce; Women’s rights.

■ Falwell, Jerry Identification American evangelist Born August 11, 1933; Lynchburg, Virginia Died May 15, 2007; Lynchburg, Virginia

Falwell continued to be a controversial force in religion and politics as a representative of the Christian Right, although his organization ran up huge debt and suffered a drop-off in donations during the 1990’s. Pulitzer Prize-winning journalist Susan Faludi poses with her book Backlash in 1991. (AP/Wide World Photos)

Falwell established the Thomas Road Baptist Church in 1956 in Lynchburg, Virginia, which grew to over twenty thousand members in the early twenty-first

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century, and in 1971 he founded Liberty Baptist College (now Liberty University). These became the base for his Moral Majority political organization (1979-1989), which took socially conservative and controversial stands against abortion, gay rights, and women’s rights and became a force in Republican Party politics and had some impact on Republican presidential victories in 1980, 1984, and 1988. Such close ties to the Republican Party explain his pronouncing the benediction at the 1996 Republican National Convention. In a bizarre turn of events, Falwell and the publisher of Hustler magazine, Larry Flynt, toured the United States in 1997 to discuss the film The People vs. Larry Flynt (1996), which was based on Falwell’s 1983 lawsuit against Hustler’s parody concerning his first sexual experience. An initial award of $250,000 in damages to Falwell was overturned in a unanimous Supreme Court decision in Hustler Magazine v. Falwell (1988). During the administration of President Bill Clinton (1993-2001), Falwell was a vociferous critic of the Clintons, especially via the 1994 video production The Clinton Chronicles, which alleged that a conspiracy existed to cover up wrongdoings by the Clintons. Falwell also condemned Bill Clinton’s affair with White House intern Monica Lewinsky. In 1995, Falwell began turning over the day-to-day operation of his Old Time Gospel Hour radio and television program and Liberty University to his son and associates. Mounting debts due to a decline in donations and the liberal granting of scholarship monies to students at Liberty University became a problem; however, Falwell embarked on a national God Save America tour, attempting to promote conservative Christian positions, criticizing “partial-birth abortions” and supporting school vouchers. Falwell had a penchant for making controversial remarks. In April, 1997, Falwell called comedian Ellen DeGeneres, who is gay, “Ellen Degenerate.” DeGeneres shrugged off the comment saying that she had been called that before. In February, 1999, a magazine published by Falwell’s organization criticized the character Tinky Winky of the British

Jerry Falwell. (AP/Wide World Photos)

children’s program Teletubbies, shown on the Public Broadcasting Service (PBS). The article claimed that Tinky Winky was gay because of his purple color, the “purse” he carried, and the triangle-shaped antenna on his head (allegedly a gay symbol). Impact Falwell’s place in American religion and politics was controversial because of his conservative Christian positions on moral and political issues and his heavy involvement in Republican politics— which for some raised questions about separation of church and state. Although his influence waned somewhat from its peak in the 1980’s, Falwell remained a figure of national importance, admired by his supporters in the Christian Right and vilified by detractors. Further Reading

Harding, Susan Friend. The Book of Jerry Falwell: Fundamentalist Language and Politics. Princeton, N.J.: Princeton University Press, 2000. Leonard, Bill J. Baptists in America. New York: Columbia University Press, 2005. Mark C. Herman See also Abortion; Bush, George H. W.; Children’s television; Christian Coalition; Clinton, Bill; Clinton, Hillary Rodham; Clinton’s impeachment; Clinton’s

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scandals; DeGeneres, Ellen; Dole, Bob; Education in the United States; Elections in the United States, midterm; Elections in the United States, 1992; Elections in the United States, 1996; Homosexuality and gay rights; Lewinsky scandal; Religion and spirituality in the United States; Republican Revolution; Television; White House attacks.

■ Family and Medical Leave Act of 1993 Legislation to provide emergency medical leave for American workers Date Signed on February 5, 1993 Identification

The Family and Medical Leave Act of 1993 was the first federal law in the United States to mandate that employees who were ill, had new children, or needed to attend to immediate family members’ medical emergencies be allowed a leave of absence from work without penalty. The movement to create the Family and Medical Leave Act of 1993 (FMLA) began when the U.S. Supreme Court struck down a 1972 Equal Employment Opportunity Commission ruling that businesses that allowed medical leaves must also provide maternity leaves. Congress included the same provisions in the Pregnancy Discrimination Act of 1978. Under pressure from constituents, Congress passed a more comprehensive family leave act in 1990 that provided mandatory sick leave for employees and their children, spouse, or parents, as well as maternity leave, only to have it vetoed by President George H. W. Bush. President Bill Clinton had promised to support such legislation during his 1992 campaign, and, at his urging, Congress passed the FMLA, which was the first bill that he signed into law. The dramatic increases in both female full-time labor force participation and the percentage of married-couple households in which both spouses were employed had created strong support for the FMLA within the population as a whole and both major political parties. This federal law, which was drafted by the National Partnership for Women and Families, mandates that an eligible employee may take twelve weeks of unpaid annual leave to care for a new son or daughter (by birth, foster care, or adoption); care for a sick spouse, child, or parent; or recover from a debilitating illness. Any employee who has worked for twelve months and has worked 1,250 hours dur-

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ing those twelve months for a business that employs fifty or more employees within a seventy-five-mile radius is eligible. The employer must allow the employee to return to the same position or one with a similar salary and responsibilities, with no loss of tenure or benefits, and any existing group health insurance must be maintained during the leave. Impact Research showed that, in spite of some critics’ concerns that low-income workers would not benefit from the FMLA because they could not afford to take unpaid leave, employees felt that a temporary loss of income was better than dismissal because of a personal or family emergency, regardless of their socioeconomic status. Overall, employees returned to work sooner after taking an FMLA leave than they did in work places without emergencyleave provisions before the act’s passage. The fact that both men and women are covered under the FMLA, unlike earlier maternity leave laws, has reduced the perception that women are “more trouble” and “more expensive” to employ. Women’s movement and elderly activist organizations agree that this limited relief for family caregivers represents an important move toward equity in the American workplace, although it falls far short of provisions in other industrialized nations. Further Reading

Aitchison, Will. The FMLA: Understanding the Family and Medical Leave Act. Portland, Oreg.: Labor Relations Information System, 2003. Decker, Kurt H. Family and Medical Leave in a Nutshell. St. Paul, Minn.: West Group, 2000. Jack Carter Bush, George H. W.; Business and the economy in the United States; Clinton, Bill; Employment in the United States; Supreme Court decisions; Women in the workforce; Women’s rights.

See also

■ Farrakhan, Louis Identification Leader of the Nation of Islam Born May 11, 1933; Bronx, New York

Farrakhan was one of the most high-profile leaders of the African American community during the 1990’s. In 1978, Louis Farrakhan formed his own sect of the Nation of Islam, a Black Nationalist and separatist

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group. While Farrakhan was well known in the black community, he did not receive much national publicity until 1984, when he endorsed Jesse Jackson for president. Members of the Nation of Islam were encouraged to support Jackson’s presidential bid, thus ending the organization’s policy of noninvolvement in American politics. Subsequently, Farrakhan received notoriety for racist and anti-Semitic statements. Despite Farrakhan’s controversial statements, he and the Nation of Islam achieved a degree of legitimacy and acceptance because of the group’s emphasis on self-reliance and economic development in the African American community. In 1994, a Time/CNN poll of 504 African Americans showed that 73 percent of the respondents knew who Louis Farrakhan was, a figure higher than that of any African American politician other than Jesse Jackson and Supreme Court justice Clarence Thomas. Furthermore, two-thirds of the respondents viewed Farrakhan favorably, and 67 percent considered him to be an effective leader. In 1995, Farrakhan reinforced this leadership role by organizing the Million Man March on Washington, D.C. The march, which had widespread support in the African American community, brought hundreds of thousands of black males to the U.S. capital, where they heard messages emphasizing the need for greater black self-reliance and responsibility. Following the march, there was an increase in black voter registration, application for adoption of African American babies, and involvement and volunteerism by black men in their communities. The Million Man March greatly enhanced Farrakhan’s profile in both the black and white communities. However, his movement toward the political mainstream was curtailed by his World Friendship tours of Africa and the Middle East in 1996 and 1997 when he visited places that were on the U.S. State Department’s list of countries that approved terrorism, including Iran, Iraq, Libya, Syria, and Sudan, and when he referred to the United States as the “Great Satan.” In the late 1990’s, Farrakhan was diagnosed with prostate cancer. While he continued to lead the Nation of Islam for several more years, he ceded his position in September, 2006, because of the illness. Impact While many of Louis Farrakhan’s viewpoints were outside the political mainstream, he

Louis Farrakhan addresses the Million Man March on October 16, 1995. (AP/Wide World Photos)

achieved a degree of acceptance in the larger society, especially after the Million Man March. However, some of his statements and actions hindered his ability to gain broader national recognition as a leader of the African American community. Further Reading

Alexander, Amy. The Farrakhan Factor: African American Writers on Leadership, Nationhood, and Minister Louis Farrakhan. New York: Grove Press, 1998. Gardell, Mattias. In the Name of Elijah Muhammad: Louis Farrakhan and the Nation of Islam. Durham, N.C.: Duke University Press, 1996. Magida, Arthur J. Prophet of Rage: A Life of Louis Farrakhan and His Nation. New York: Basic Books, 1996. William V. Moore African Americans; Million Man March; Race relations; Religion and spirituality in the United States; Sharpton, Al.

See also

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■ Fashions and clothing Definition

Styles of dress and accessories

Fashion in the 1990’s veered away from the luxury and glitz of the 1980’s in favor of more casual styles. In addition, businesses relaxed their dress codes. Individuality took on new importance in the 1990’s, with the range of available styles and fabrics proliferating. American news media depicted a wide diversity of people from all levels of society, which led to a mixture of competing and complementary clothing styles. “Simplicity” was the watchword of the fashion scene, as consumers were more interested in finding clothing that suited their lifestyle than in adopting a particular look developed by fashion houses. Designers noticed the backlash against the previous decade’s flash, so they featured simple, elegant fashion lines. The approaching millennium encouraged a continual wave of retro looks in all types of design. Youth Styles The most influential trend in 1990’s fashion for young people was the rise of grunge fashion, which influenced the mainstream by 1992. Grunge fashion, associated with the Seattle grunge music scene popularized by the rock band Nirvana, shunned bright colors in favor of dark colors such as maroon, forest green, indigo, and brown. Included in grunge fashion were Doc Marten shoes and boots, high-top sneakers, and plaid flannel shirts. The grunge trend was accompanied by a revival of hippie fashion. Tie-dyed shirts, a hippie staple, appeared as early as 1990, followed by the revival of “granny glasses,” last popular in the 1960’s. Bell-bottom jeans and crocheted vests, both part of the hippie revival, were sought after by teenage and preteen girls in the early 1990’s. Sports apparel was another major fashion influence. Baseball caps worn backward was a fad that started with teenage and adolescent boys and was soon taken up by girls. Black-hooded sweatshirts were popular for boys, and denim jackets were worn by both genders. The grunge look, however, was on its way out by 1995. The preppy look made a comeback in 1997 among teenage males. The American designer Tommy Hilfiger’s clothes, mostly in navy, red, black, and white, were aimed at the mass youth market with a line of easily recognizable, casual basics identified by the Hilfiger logo. Among girls and young women, spaghetti-strap tank tops became widely worn, some-

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times with shirts or jackets over them. In the early years of the decade, black tights with short skirts were popular; by the late 1990’s, the nude look (skincolored tights) was in fashion again, but many girls and young women wore nothing on their legs, preferring the natural look. The oversized hip-hop look of baggy jeans and loose cargo pants became popular during the decade. By mid-decade, leather and faux leather styles showed up in pants and jackets. Young girls imitating pop girl bands like the Spice Girls took to wearing bustier tops or halter tops that expose the midriff. These tops were worn with jeans, cropped pants, or short skirts. Hair coloring was widely popular, and blond was a color of choice among the young, particularly among teen and preteen girls. This trend was driven by the style of pop star Britney Spears and many other young pop singers, who let their roots show. Young men and boys also turned to coloring their hair. Women’s Fashions “Power dressing,” which was important to women in the workforce in the 1980’s, became softer in the 1990’s, with exaggerated shoulder pads disappearing and clothing in general becoming less constrictive. Certain American designers became influential—primarily Donna Karan, Tommy Hilfiger, Ralph Lauren, and Calvin Klein. Calvin Klein eliminated all accessories for his clothes, with the exception of sunglasses. Ralph Lauren was known for his classic style, which included a line of reasonably priced fashions. Donna Karan was extremely popular in the 1990’s, designing comfortable clothing for urban career women. She used superior fabrics and cuts to produce garments that conceal women’s “figure defects.” She was already famous when she launched her DKNY (Donna Karan New York) line featuring affordable, ready-to-wear, yet smart clothes. Her subtle color palette emphasized white, cream, and taupe as well as brown and black. Black became the dominant color in women’s clothing, combined with a trend toward long skirts. Although some women reluctantly wore the drab taupe, olive, sand, brown, and grayed navy of the decade, they found it easy dressing, since neutrals tend to go well with each other and with black. Some shades of browns and grays did become the “new black” for a few seasons, but black always remained in style.

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Fashions and clothing

In 1997, feminine dresses in bright colors made a comeback. Lilac, shades of purple, reds, lime green, and turquoise were worn, often with pashmina shawls imported from India. These shawls, made from a type of cashmere wool that is available only from a special breed of goat found in the high altitudes of the Himalayas, became one of the hottest accessories of the decade. Pashminas originated in Nepal, where the shawls have been produced for centuries. Less-expensive pashminas were developed, and they were worn over coats, suits, and blazers as well as dresses. The classic blazer, an early 1990’s fashion, remained popular with women over the age of thirtyfive. By the late 1990’s, however, even though the shoulder line was softened and narrowed, the blazer appeared dated and was worn mostly by the generation over the age of sixty. Skirts, which had been long for most of the decade, grew shorter by the end of the 1990’s, although all lengths continued to be worn. Hair coloring increased in popularity over the course of the 1990’s among both youth and an aging population. A commonly used color for women in the decade was red, a trend that may have been driven by figures in the popular media such as models and actors. Hairstyles were also influenced by actors, particularly by Jennifer Aniston of the Friends television series, whose cut was frequently featured in hairstyle magazines. Meg Ryan’s choppy bob hairstyle worn in Sleepless in Seattle (1993) started a trend. Newly developed, mass-production embroidery machines were used to embellish dresses, jackets, and even purses and shoes meant for special occasions. Knits were everywhere, including knit silk suits and sweaters, thanks to newly designed knitting machines. Silk and cashmere mixes were used in ultrafine fabrics. A new generation of performance fabrics enhanced with thermoactive, antibacterial, and ultraviolet-resistant properties offered protection from the elements. The innovation of fiber optics led to experimentation with the technology in textiles. Linen, silk, cashmere, cotton and rayon velvets, and fleece made of fine-quality polyester were the main fabrics of the decade. The addition of spandex in products such as pants, jeans, and woolen garments improved their appearance and fit. Linen was extremely popular, and natural creases and dis-

New Technologies

tressed fabric became more acceptable than stiffly tailored clothes. The unfinished ends of seams appeared on the outside of clothes, as opposed to the traditional smooth-seam finish, and lent a textural interest to garments in all price ranges. Viscose rayon, popular in the 1980’s, was replaced by microfiber fabrics, trumpeted as environmentally friendly by manufacturers (though difficult to dye without using a variety of chemicals). First featured in women’s clothes, microfiber fabrics were later used in a variety of goods, including sheets, upholstery materials, and towels. Microfiber materials have proven more absorbent than other fabrics. The long-running popularity of Tshirts and jeans continued through the 1990’s across the age spectrum. A variety of jean designs were fashionable at the same time, perhaps more than ever before. Boot-cut jeans, which had long been fashionable in rural and semirural areas, surged in popularity among urban women. This trend may have been prompted by the new emphasis on high-heeled boots, which boot-cut jeans highlighted well. Khaki pants and jackets also grew in popularity during the decade, partly due to the natural properties of the fabric, which was light and wrinkle-resistant. Khaki clothing could be worn for a variety of occasions; by the end of the decade, khaki suits were in style. Along with this trend appeared camouflage patterns, which became a staple of chain stores such as Gap. Animal-print fashion was also popular, in sportswear and eventually dressy clothes. Sports-related fashions reached a peak in the 1990’s, with sports stars hired to publicize certain lines of clothing. Nike was hugely successful, with advertisements by two of the hottest athletes of the decade: Tiger Woods and Michael Jordan. Nike even named a sports shoe after Jordan, the Air Jordan, which made huge profits for the company.

Casual Trends

Impact Fashion in the 1990’s was characterized by individualism. Businesses relaxed their dress codes in accord with new dot-com companies that had no traditional attire. “Casual Fridays” became commonplace. In 1992, about 7 percent of American companies had a casual dress code. By 1998, the figure was 53 percent. Increasing concern regarding global warming and the sustainability of a consumer culture has caused many Americans to reevaluate their patterns of consumption of all goods, including fash-

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ion. Casual clothes that are both versatile and durable may be one of the lasting legacies of the decade’s fashion. Further Reading

Bryant, Michele Wesen. WWD Illustrated: 1960’s to 1990’s. New York: Fairchild, 2004. A chapter on the 1990’s defines many of the social trends that influenced fashions. Illustrated with sketches from Women’s Wear Daily (WWD). Cox, Caroline, and Lee Widdows. Hair and Fashion. London: V & A, 2004. A beautifully photographed book tracing trends from the 1920’s through the 1990’s. Oxoby, Marc. The 1990’s. Westport, Conn.: Greenwood Press, 2003. An excellent overview of the 1990’s that includes an informative chapter on fashion. Sheila Golburgh Johnson Advertising; Casual Fridays; Cell phones; Coffeehouses; DeGeneres, Ellen; Fads; Grunge fashion; Hairstyles; Lewinsky scandal; Madonna; Mall of America; Morissette, Alanis; Murphy Brown; Outsourcing; Photography; Roberts, Julia; Ryan, Meg; Silicone implant ban; Versace murder; Victoria’s Secret; Women in the workforce.

See also

■ Feng shui The ancient Chinese practice of arranging objects in an environment to maximize good fortune

Definition

Feng shui became popular in the United States and Canada at a time when interest in Eastern philosophies and the New Age movement was growing. Feng shui is part of an ancient Eastern philosophy based on principles from the ancient divination text the I Ching. The practice of feng shui is designed to create harmony in an environment and to increase good fortune through careful implementation of feng shui formulas, guidelines, and instructions. The principles of feng shui can be found on a map called the bagua, with nine directions that represent all areas of life: north (career), south (fame and reputation), east (health and family), west (creativity and children), northeast (knowledge and selfcultivation), northwest (helpful people and travel),

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southeast (wealth and prosperity), southwest (love and relationships), and center (linking the eight aspects). Each location on the map is symbolically associated with an element (fire, water, metal, wood, earth), certain shades of color, and an animal (phoenix, dragon, turtle, tiger). Symbols, numbers, the concepts of yin and yang, and Chinese astrology are all part of the practice of feng shui. It is thought that by using the bagua to arrange objects in order to maximize chi, or life energy, one enhances the harmony in one’s environment and thereby the quality of one’s life. When the flow of energy is just right, good fortune is maximized. If there is an excess or lack of chi, then good fortune is diminished. For example, placing red objects in the southern part of a room should increase fame since the color red is associated with the south and the attributes of fame. Feng shui can be applied to the location of a building or house, to rooms in a house, to an office, and even to the arrangement of items on an office desk. Impact Feng shui gained widespread acceptance in the 1990’s. The Westernized version of creating a balanced, comfortable, and harmonious living environment to solve problems with relationships, finances, or even health by simply rearranging furniture or adding or subtracting objects such as mirrors, plants, or wind chimes seemed attractive to those seeking quick fixes to life’s problems. Feng shui’s growing appeal spawned an entire industry, with numerous publications on the art and its incorporation into television design shows. In broader applications, it began to influence architecture and building construction. In North America, feng shui has become more than just a method of creating comfortable surroundings in harmony with the environment; it has evolved into a personal philosophy for creating a better life. Further Reading

Hale, Gill. The Practical Encyclopedia of Feng Shui. London: Hermes House, 1999. Lam, Kam Chuen. Feng Shui Handbook: How to Create a Healthier Living and Working Environment. New York: Henry Holt, 1996. Too, Lillian. Essential Feng Shui: A Step-By-Step Guide to Enhancing Your Relationships, Health, and Prosperity. New York: Ballantine Wellspring, 1998. Susan E. Thomas

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Fen-phen

Architecture; Life coaching; Sustainable design movement.

See also

■ Fen-phen A combination of two prescription drugs for weight loss Producers Marketed by Wyeth-Ayerst Laboratories, the pharmaceutical division of American Home Products (AHP); manufactured by Interneuron Pharmaceuticals Definition

The American public welcomed a medical solution to obesity, but after approximately a year of publicity and widespread use of fen-phen, the Food and Drug Administration recommended withdrawal of one of the two drugs because of side effects. Americans had been trying to lose weight for decades and instead were getting heavier and heavier. In 1992, a National Institute of Health (NIH) panel declared obesity a national problem, damaging both psychological and physical health, yet dieting alone rarely achieved permanent weight loss, as explained in books such as Dr. Dale M. Atrens’s Don’t Diet (1988). People were ready for a prescription that would cure obesity: Fen-phen seemed to be that solution. Phentermine was approved for weight loss by the Food and Drug Administration (FDA) in 1959 but was never prescribed widely on its own. Fenfluramine was approved by the FDA in 1973 and called Pondimin, but the drug was not popular because it caused drowsiness and mood changes. In April, 1996, the FDA approved dexfenfluramine, called Redux. Both phentermine and fenfluramine/dexfenfluramine reduce hunger by affecting neurochemicals, primarily serotonin. A 1992 study in the Journal of Clinical Pharmacology found that 121 obese patients on fen-phen lost an average of thirty pounds each. This news spread in the popular press, later aided by a $52 million marketing campaign for Redux. In 1996, approximately six million patients, mostly women, took fen-phen. Although the drug was intended for short-term use only by seriously overweight patients, some doctors prescribed it indefinitely and to patients who were merely unhappy with their weight. Fen-phen mills popped up on the Internet. The drug made the cover of Time magazine; sales of Pondimin and

Redux were estimated at $300 million in 1996. Early on, some doctors noted that some fen-phen users developed pulmonary hypertension, a thickening of blood vessels in the lungs that causes difficulty breathing. Then, in August, 1997, an article in The New England Journal of Medicine announced that some patients on fen-phen developed heart disease, particularly in the mitral and aortic valves, and in September, 1997, the FDA asked for a withdrawal of Pondimin and Redux. In October, 1999, AHP, while admitting no wrong, agreed to pay $3.75 billion to users of their two popular drugs, and settlements in other cases followed. Impact The short-lived fen-phen craze and its end increased both popular anxiety about weight and caution concerning weight-loss products and their promises. Medical debate continues over fen-phen’s effectiveness, as well as the degree to which it was responsible for the side effects that ended its sale. While some health problems due to obesity are clear, the rush for fen-phen shows that social stigma and worries about appearance also motivate many people who want to lose weight. Until a truly effective and safe drug to control hunger is found, pharmacology will continue to offer better treatment of illnesses linked to obesity than of the condition itself. Further Reading

Food and Drug Administration. Fen-Phen Safety Update Information. http://www.fda.gov/cder/news/ feninfo.htm. Mundy, Alicia. Dispensing with the Truth: The Victims, the Drug Companies, and the Dramatic Story Behind the Battle over Fen-Phen. New York: St. Martin’s Press, 2001. Bernadette Lynn Bosky Antidepressants; Beauty Myth, The ; Drug advertising; Fads; Faludi, Susan; Food trends; Health care; Medicine; Pharmaceutical industry.

See also

■ Ferguson, Colin Identification American mass murderer Born January 14, 1958; Kingston, Jamaica

Ferguson’s murders on the Long Island Rail Road fueled racial tensions in and around New York City and led to serious concerns about the security of the subway system and

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other similar venues for mass transit. The murders also led to a highly publicized and uncanny trial in which Ferguson insisted on representing himself. On the early evening of December 7, 1993, a commuter train left New York’s Penn Station for Hicksville, New York. While the train was pulling into a neighboring station, Colin Ferguson, an African American man, calmly stood up and began to walk down the aisle, methodically shooting the passengers whom he passed, killing six people and injuring nineteen. As he stopped to reload his 9 millimeter pistol, he was overtaken by three of the train’s passengers. At the scene, police found several more ammunition clips with nearly one hundred rounds. They also found notes on Ferguson that suggested that his motive for the murders was a perception of racism that had been directed toward him. He also stated in the note that he had not undertaken the attacks in New York City and had chosen Nassau County instead out of respect for then governor David Dinkins, New York’s first African American mayor. During pretrial arguments, Ferguson’s attorneys contended that he was insane and thus could not be held criminally liable. Ferguson rejected this idea, however, and opted to maintain his innocence and represent himself at trial. This resulted in a highly unusual trial whereby Ferguson cross-examined the victims whom he was accused of shooting. A number of legal analysts have contended that Ferguson’s strange behavior in bringing up conspiracies demonstrated a lack of competency that would be necessary to represent himself at trial. Accordingly, Ferguson’s defense was of very little legal value, and he diminished his ability to bring up issues on appeal. He was found guilty and received six consecutive life sentences amounting to about two hundred years. Impact The Ferguson mass murders had several immediate impacts on policy in and around New York and the United States as a whole. For instance, the concept of “black rage” was brought to the forefront as a legal defense, with the idea that such rage could result from mental illness caused by living in a racially oppressive society. A debate also centered on increasing security on trains and subway systems, yet the expense to provide legitimate protection against guns and other weapons in such venues of mass transportation proved economically unrealis-

Convicted gunman Colin Ferguson is led from the Nassau County Courthouse in Mineola, New York, after he received six consecutive life sentences on March 22, 1995. (AP/Wide World Photos)

tic. Finally, a gun debate ensued following the murders, with much pressure placed on Congress to pass gun control legislation. Further Reading

Bardwell, Mark C., and Bruce A. Arrigo. Criminal Competency on Trial: The Case of Colin Ferguson. Durham, N.C.: Carolina Academic Press, 2002. Fox, James Alan, and Jack Levin. Extreme Killing: Understanding Serial and Mass Murder. Thousand Oaks, Calif.: Sage, 2005. Seidemann, Joel J. In the Interest of Justice: Great Openings and Closing Arguments of the Last One Hundred Years. New York: HarperCollins, 2004. Brion Sever African Americans; Crime; Dahmer, Jeffrey; Dinkins, David; Gun control; Hate crimes; Race relations; Reséndiz, Ángel Maturino.

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Fermat’s last theorem solution

■ Fermat’s last theorem solution Proof by Andrew Wiles of a longstanding mathematical conjecture Date June, 1993-October, 1994 The Event

The success of cracking a problem that had been unsolved for so long and that was comprehensible to the general public gave mathematics an unusually visible place in the news for the rest of the decade. The seventeenth century French mathematician Pierre de Fermat had scribbled in the margin of a book he owned the claim that no cube or higher power of a positive whole number could be written as the sum of two other positive whole numbers to the same power. When the claim (dubbed “Fermat’s last theorem”) was published after his death, proving it rapidly became the outstanding unsolved problem in mathematics and remained so for centuries, although progress was made for various special cases. Trying to figure out how Fermat might have proved it was an exercise for historians, but mathe-

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maticians were looking for any proof. A prize set up in Germany early in the twentieth century for a successful proof attracted plenty of submissions, but all were flawed. There were some sizable steps forward starting in 1984, but the mathematical world was taken aback when Andrew Wiles, a British mathematician teaching at Princeton University, announced at the end of a series of lectures in June, 1993, in Cambridge, England, that his work amounted to a proof of the theorem. Wiles had spent years holed up in the attic of his home in Princeton, New Jersey, working on the problem and trying to reveal as little of his progress as possible to his colleagues. Electronic distribution of the news of Wiles’s announcement created great interest in the mathematical community, and public discussion of the proof led to unprecedented discussion in the news media, such as front-page articles in The New York Times. A public forum on the result filled a one-thousandseat auditorium in San Francisco. Even the news that there was a gap in the proof did not reduce interest, and Wiles, working with a colleague, was

Princeton University mathematics professor Andrew Wiles solved Fermat’s last theorem, a 350-year-old mathematical puzzle. His work was commemorated in a musical. (AP/Wide World Photos)

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able to rectify the flaw by the time he sent in the manuscripts of his proof in October, 1994. An OffBroadway musical titled Fermat’s Last Tango was a fictionalized account of Wiles’s efforts and ran for much of 2000. Wiles was showered with honors for his success and received a knighthood at the end of the decade. Impact It was clear that Wiles’s proof used techniques that had not been available to Fermat. Wiles had built on the work of many colleagues from countries such as France, Germany, Japan, the United Kingdom, and the United States. The general acceptance of Wiles’s proof provided evidence for how modern techniques could help to tackle old problems and for how mathematics even in the United States was an international project. Further Reading

Mahoney, Michael Sean. The Mathematical Career of Pierre de Fermat, 1601-1665. Princeton, N.J.: Princeton University Press, 1994. Ribenboim, Paulo. Fermat’s Last Theorem for Amateurs. New York: Springer-Verlag, 1999. Singh, Simon. Fermat’s Enigma: The Epic Quest to Solve the World’s Greatest Mathematical Problem. New York: Walker, 1997. Thomas Drucker See also

Computers; Science and technology.

■ Film in Canada Motion pictures produced by Canadians and distributed in Canada

Definition

Canadian cinema made significant strides toward worldclass status during the 1990’s, producing films that competed for North American and international distribution on much more equal terms with the United States. Like Canada’s other cultural industries, Canadian film has historically struggled to produce popular products that would not be overwhelmed by flashier and better-budgeted foreign, and particularly American, imports. Sporadic government funding, increasing cultural nationalism, and the gradual development of an infrastructure supporting domestic filmmaking had by 1990 created a still fragile but lively cinematic scene that was ripe for further achievement.

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Film in English Canada David Cronenberg and Atom Egoyan were unquestionably the directorial “stars” of the decade. Cronenberg’s Naked Lunch (1991), Crash (1996), and eXistenZ (1999) enhanced his international reputation as an explorer of horror and science-fiction themes, and he continued to act as a role model and mentor for younger Canadian directors. Calendar (1993) and Exotica (1994) reflected Egoyan’s concern with subjects drawn from his Armenian heritage, while The Sweet Hereafter (1997) and Felicia’s Journey (1999), adaptations of novels by Russell Banks and William Trevor, respectively, found him successfully venturing onto the world stage. Several other Toronto directors produced notable work during this period. Patricia Rozema’s White Room (1990) and When Night Is Falling (1995) solidified her position as Canada’s foremost exponent of a feminist cinematic consciousness, and Bruce McDonald’s Highway 61 (1991) and Hard Core Logo (1996) continued his interest in rock-and-roll themes. Canada’s reputation as one of the world’s most multicultural societies was furthered by films from Srinivas Krishna, whose Masala (1991) and Lulu (1996) dealt with Indo-Canadian and Vietnamese Canadian issues, respectively, and another filmmaker of Indian extraction, Deepa Mehta, who explored her ethnic heritage in Sam and Me (1991) and Fire (1996). Two directors from African Canadian backgrounds also made their first features during the 1990’s: Clement Virgo’s Rude (1995) and The Planet of Junior Brown (1997) and Stephen Williams’s Soul Survivor (1995) were powerful examinations of what it was like to be black in a predominantly white society. A new development during this period found regional centers of film production competing with the established Toronto and Montreal venues. In Vancouver, Lynne Stopkewich’s first feature, Kissed (1996), a shocking and yet touching portrait of a female necrophiliac, and Mina Shum’s Double Happiness (1994), a warm evocation of Chinese Canadian family life, were notable accomplishments, while John Pozer’s two features, The Grocer’s Wife (1991) and The Michelle Apartments (1995), took a surreally engaging approach to deceptively mundane subjects. Winnipeg also developed a lively cinematic scene, with Guy Maddin emerging as the remarkable creator of such avant-garde and yet commercially successful films as Archangel

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Film in Canada

(1990), Careful (1992), and Twilight of the Ice Nymphs (1997). On the East Coast, Nova Scotia’s William MacGillivray continued to explore regional themes in Understanding Bliss (1990), while Newfoundland’s Mike Jones used the traditional humor of his native province to good effect in Secret Nation (1992). Film in Quebec In the 1990’s, Quebec filmmakers continued to be at the forefront of Canadian cinematic activity. Denys Arcand’s Love and Human Remains (1993), his first English-language feature, and 15 Moments (1999), a reflection on media celebrity, joined Gilles Carle’s sex farce La Postière (1992) and screwball comedy Pudding chômeur (1996) in adding interesting films to long and distinguished résumés. Mid-career directors such as Jean-Claude Lauzon, whose Léolo (1992) was a stark depiction of a dysfunctional family, and Marc-André Forcier, whose Une Histoire Inventée (1990) and Le Vent du Wyoming (1994) expressed a distinctively poetic magic realism, also made important contributions, as did Pierre Falardeau, who in Octobre (1994) recounted a fictionalized version of the 1970 October Crisis, a political kidnapping and murder that threatened to spark a Canadian civil war. Several women directors who produced their first features in the 1980’s also crafted interesting work, among which Micheline Lanctôt’s gender-bending improvisation Deux actrices (1993), Paule Baillargeon’s transsexual drama Le Sexe des étoiles (1993), and Léa Pool’s powerfully sensual Mouvements du désir (1994) stand out. A number of younger talents made their first films during this decade. François Girard’s documentary Thirty-two Short Films About Glenn Gould (1993) and musical romance The Red Violin (1998) were English-language features that went on to become international successes. Robert Morin’s crime story Requiem pour un beau sans-coeur (1992) and Windigo (1994), a tale of First Nations political activism, also impressed, as did Michel Langlois’s Cap Tourmente (1993), a steamy change-partners sex drama set at a deceptively placid summer resort. Also of note was the internationally renowned dramaturge Robert Lepage’s turn to filmmaking in the Alfred Hitchcock homage Le Confessional (1995), the postmodern murder mystery Le Polygraphe (1996), and the hilarious theatrical farce Nô (1998).

Impact Although Canadian filmmakers did not entirely free themselves from the constraints imposed by a small domestic market and uncertainty as to whether commercially successful or critically lauded films should be their focus, the 1990’s were on the whole years of encouraging accomplishment and much-increased activity. Established directors continued to bring forth films of interesting and often exceptional quality, while their mid-career and emerging counterparts produced a range of work that was both intrinsically impressive and boded well for the country’s cinematic future. Further Reading

Academy of Canadian Cinema and Television. Who’s Who in Canadian Film and Televison 2002. Toronto: Global Press, 2002. Biographies and contact information for more than 2,000 directors, producers, writers, and technical specialists. Beard, William, and Jerry White, eds. North of Everything: English Canadian Cinema Since 1980. Edmonton: University of Alberta Press, 2002. Thirtytwo assorted essays, most of them excellent, on everything from commercial hits to avant-garde cult favorites to creators obscure and well known. Marshall, Bill. Québec National Cinema. Montreal: McGill-Queen’s University Press, 2001. An examination of the role that cinema plays in Québec’s view of itself as an independent cultural entity, and particularly good on the interface between film and nationalism. Rist, Peter, ed. Guide to the Cinema(s) of Canada. Westport, Conn.: Greenwood Press, 2001. This entry in the publisher’s Reference Guides to the World’s Cinema series is a scholarly, wellorganized, and essential tool for the serious researcher. Wise, Wyndham, ed. Take One’s Essential Guide to Canadian Film. Toronto: University of Toronto Press, 2001. More accessible and wide-ranging than Rist’s Guide, if somewhat less authoritatively researched, and a useful source for reviews of important films and biographies of major players in the field. Paul Stuewe See also

Film in the United States; Television.

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■ Film in the United States Motion pictures produced by Americans and distributed in the United States

Definition

Films of the 1990’s avoided originality and innovation, seeking instead to overwhelm audiences with technological spectacle, endless sequels, and series films. During the 1990’s, the United States motion picture industry found itself in a challenging situation. The overall number of moviegoers was shrinking, and business was declining. By 1997, film budgets had risen to an average of $75.6 million, with marketing costs also soaring into the millions. In a desperate effort to reduce huge financial outlays, the major studios, owned by media conglomerates and television networks, concluded that the answer lay in reducing the number of films that were made. They maintained that the money invested in unsuccessful films, some of whose failures had bankrupted studios, could be better spent by making fewer and bigger films and lavishing money only on those “safe” films that seemed capable of returning large profits. Both the blockbuster and the high-concept film, a film based on a simple, understandable premise that allows audiences to appreciate its stars, were key ingredients in the studios’ move away from complexity toward fantasy or simpler entertainment. To facilitate the blockbuster concept, studios explored other means of cost reduction, which included utilizing the latest technologies. In the area of special effects, advances in digital technology greatly decreased production costs and ultimately transformed the very nature of film. As an analog medium, film relies on light images converted onto film that inevitably involve some loss of information in the transference; whereas, in digital imaging, the original image is reconstructed to create endless new ones without any loss of quality. Computer-Generated Imagery (CGI) Originally used for special effects, computer-generated imagery, or CGI, was found to be economically ideal for the creation of sets, props, and large crowds of people as well as for the simulation of atmosphere or the elimination of unwanted components. A mainstay of science-fiction and disaster films, as well as large historical productions, CGI can also accomplish physical effects, such as image doubling and dangerous stunts. In fact, CGI seemed the perfect tool to enable

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studios to appeal specifically to the primary film viewing age group of twelve to twenty-four and to aggressively target the lucrative teen market. Industrial Light and Magic (ILM), founded by George Lucas and owned by Lucasfilm, had created the pseudopod in James Cameron’s film The Abyss in 1989, but went on to achieve new levels in special effects in the 1990’s. In Cameron’s Terminator 2: Judgment Day (1991), the ILM team designed the T-1000 cyborg capable of morphing into any shape, and initiated the fantasy-adventure, digital-effects blockbusters that were preeminent in the 1990’s. In Death Becomes Her (Robert Zemeckis, 1992), ILM achieved the first computer-generated skin, and in Jurassic Park (Steven Spielberg, 1993), CGI propelled the film to earnings of over $1 billion, becoming the highest-grossing film to date. Jurassic Park is also notable for its marketing strategy that launched a massive merchandising campaign in toys, fast food, and video games. Other significant films featuring ILM CGI technology in 1994 included The Flintstones (Brian Levant), which flaunted the computer-generated character of Kitty, the saber-toothed tiger, complete with hair. Also, Zemeckis’s Forrest Gump, an enormous hit, was benefited by ILM’s scenes of Gump interacting with historical presidents. In The Mask (Chuck Russell), Jim Carrey’s fantasy facial expressions were simulated with CGI and led to the first completely computer-generated character in the three-dimensional cartoon Casper (Brad Silberling) in 1995. James Cameron’s own company, Digital Domain, provided special effects for Cameron’s True Lies in 1994 and Neil Jordan’s Interview with the Vampire (1994) and created the award-winning launch and explosion sequence in Ron Howard’s Apollo 13 (1995). Digital Domain’s effects for the disaster episodes in Cameron’s Titanic (1997) secured the film’s blockbuster status with its gross of over $600 million. Paul Verhoeven’s Starship Troopers (1997) relied on CGI for its insect attacks and space battles, as did Roland Emmerich’s Independence Day (1996) for dogfights between spaceships and F-18 fighter jets, and Emmerich’s Godzilla (1998) for most replications of Godzilla. Notably, Spielberg saved millions of dollars by using digital matte paintings of battleships rather than real ships in Saving Private Ryan (1998). Also in 1999, The Matrix (Larry and Andy Wachowski) was released and impressed audiences

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with its use of Hong Kong action film techniques and the characters’ flying sequences. An outgrowth of CGI was animated films. Disney had long led the field in animation that was created mostly for children, but in 1995, it introduced Toy Story, a computer-generated animation. Later, Jeffrey Katzenberg, a former animator at Disney, lured animators away from Disney to join his new studio, DreamWorks, and began producing computergenerated animated films including The Prince of Egypt (1998) and Antz (1998) for different audiences. The traditional concept of the independent film as a small, low-budget film with unconventional subject matter that expresses the filmmaker’s perspective was no longer valid in the 1990’s. Hollywood’s persistent search for the blockbuster to the exclusion of smaller, more socially conscious films, along with the shrinking foreign film market in the United States, has created a niche for serious films—whether made on an individual’s shoestring budget or on a larger budget filmed at an “independent” arm of a major studio. Ties between Robert Redford’s Sundance Film Festival and large studios have raised concerns about the potential profitability of independent films. Also, the record of Miramax pictures, an “independent” subsidiary of Disney, suggests that Disney enforced its own agenda onto Miramax, consequently doing its part to banish the true independent film into oblivion. Typically, independent films are made by individuals who have been denied a voice in white-malecontrolled Hollywood. Of these individuals, many women have stories to tell of their own experiences that connect with other women. Allison Anders depicted the bleak existence of a single-parent waitress in her initial effort Gas, Food, Lodging in 1992. Nancy Savoca continued her films of Italian American culture with Dogfight (1991), in which an unattractive girl has been unwittingly entered into an ugly girl contest. Maggie Greenwald wrote and directed The Ballad of Little Jo (1993), which concerns a girl in a circumspect family who gives birth to an illegitimate child and, being subsequently cast out, spends the remainder of her life in the frontier West passing as a man. Mary Harron’s I Shot Andy Warhol (1996) depicts Valerie Solanas as an unsympathetic man-hater whose reason for shooting Warhol is not made clear. Numerous non-white directors rose to fame in the 1990’s. Spike Lee, who began in independents

Independent Films

and soon switched to studio-financed films, returned to independent in Get on the Bus (1996), about the Million Man March on Washington, D.C. Charles Burnett’s To Sleep with Anger (1990) cautions black viewers against forgetting their past oppression, and The Glass Shield (1994) surveys racism and corruption in the Los Angeles Police Department. John Singleton’s Boyz ’N the Hood (1991) explores African American issues of gang violence, drug culture, and the absence of strong father figures. Reginald Hudlin’s comedy House Party (1990) is notable for its absence of violence. Julie Dash’s stunning Daughters of the Dust (1991) provides a history of the Gullah culture. Asian American filmmakers— Wayne Wang in Smoke (1995) and Blue in the Face (1995), and Ang Lee in Sense and Sensibility (1995) and The Ice Storm (1997)—both demonstrated a shift in concern from Asian issues to American sensibilities. Many white male independent filmmakers continued careers begun one or two decades earlier. Jim Jarmusch continued in the 1990’s with the visually striking Dead Man (1995) and others; veteran filmmaker John Sayles released five films in the 1990’s, most remarkably Lone Star (1996), which explores corruption and interracial relationships over generations. Master of the controversial, David Lynch again baffled film audiences—this time with Lost Highway (1997). A newer generation of filmmakers who commented on the excesses of modern life included Richard Linklater in Slacker (1991), whose characters talk aimlessly, and Hal Hartley, whose films about self-knowledge reached an apex in Henry Fool (1997). Other low-budget independent films whose fame and earnings soared were Robert Rodriguez’s El Mariachi (1992); Kevin Smith’s Clerks (1994), the story of a day in the life of a convenience store employee; Quentin Tarantino’s violent Pulp Fiction (1994); Billy Bob Thornton’s 1996 directorial debut, Sling Blade ; and Daniel Myrick and Eduardo Sánchez’s The Blair Witch Project (1999), which grossed well over $200 million. Since the birth of noir, films have seemed to delight in exposing the underside of the American Dream and concentrating on moral disorder. Noir films of the 1990’s, mostly in color, are classified as postmodern noirs, in that they typically appropriate past forms, suggesting that creativity resides not in authenticity, but in the reworking of the social and

Film Noir

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Film in the United States

Biggest Box-Office Draws of the Decade 1

Titanic

1997

2

Star Wars: Episode I—The Phantom Menace

1999

3

Jurassic Park

1993

4

Independence Day

1996

5

The Lion King

1994

6

Forrest Gump

1994

7

The Sixth Sense

1999

8

The Lost World: Jurassic Park

1997

9

Men in Black

1997

10

Armageddon

1998

cultural past. However, the economy of the classical form has given way to sensational mise-en-scènes and sound tracks that intensify the paranoia and alienation common to the genre. Following the trend toward excess in the blockbuster films, noirs frequently merge with other genres to generate mass appeal, as in the case of Jonathan Demme’s hybrid Silence of the Lambs (1991), a horror noir that became one of the highest-grossing films of that year. Another postmodern offspring is the erotic thriller, one of the most popular film genres in the 1990’s, whose castrating female derives from the classic femme fatale in early noir films. Paul Verhoeven’s controversial film Basic Instinct (1992) depicts a male victim outmatched by beautiful, wealthy, intelligent Catherine, who represents the ultimate male fantasy and whose appetite for sex and money goes unchallenged. In John Dahl’s The Last Seduction (1994), Bridget, exuding ambition and greed, orders male workers around, double-crosses her husband, flaunts her own aggressive sexuality, and manipulates and frames a naïve admirer for the murder of her husband. Other postmodern films portray the strength and independence of female characters within the bounds of law and propriety. Jeff Kanew’s V. I. Warshawski (1991) explores the perspective of female detectives, as does Sondra Locke’s Impulse (1990), the story of an undercover vice cop, and James Lemmo’s Bodily Harm (1995), which details the experiences of a Las Vegas detective. Postmodern noir male protagonists of the 1990’s exhibit psychological damage. A staple in classic

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noir is the rogue cop, who is frequently psychotic, as portrayed in Mike Figgis’s Internal Affairs (1990) and Jonathan Kaplan’s Unlawful Entry (1992). David Fincher’s Seven (1995) is a grim thriller set in an urban shadowy maze that acts as an imaginative counterpart to the mind of the serial killer, played by Kevin Spacey. Bryan Singer’s 1995 murky noir with a complex narrative, The Usual Suspects, boasts an unreliable narrator and, as such, offers no resolution to the postmodern mystery. Oliver Stone’s controversial Natural Born Killers (1994) indicts American society and the media for the transformation of a teenage couple into crazed killers. While 1990’s noirs are relatively faithful to classic noir psychological realm, the physical terrain is complicated by the substitution of country noirs for the traditional corrupt city settings. In John Dahl’s Red Rock West (1992), a contorted, complex noir unfolds in the mountains of Nevada and Wyoming, while Oliver Stone’s uniquely twisted U-Turn (1997) takes place in Arizona, and Joel and Ethan Coen’s Fargo (1996) is a “white noir” set in Minnesota. Also, many 1990’s noirs dispense with lower-class characters for a shift in economic base to middle-class ones, as in Barry Levinson’s Disclosure (1994), Alan Pakula’s Presumed Innocent (1990), and Robert Altman’s The Gingerbread Man (1998), filmed from author John Grisham’s first script. Sequels and Series In an effort to repeat a popular film, Hollywood studios produce a sequel that continues the film’s same pattern, hoping to capitalize upon a previous success. Many films that target young viewers contain specific plot elements that can materialize into one or more future films. In 1990, part three of Back to the Future, a popular series of films in the 1980’s, was released, sustaining viewers’ desire for escapism into the next decade. Also, Rocky 5 appeared in 1990. The enormously successful Home Alone (Chris Columbus, 1990) expired after two sequels. Many horror films generate sequels. In 1996, Wes Craven, master horror film director for more than three decades, directed Scream, a teenage slasher film in which he plays with the conventions and clichés of 1980’s horror films. Because of its success, Craven directed Scream 2 (1997), which continues

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playfully with the survivors in the first film, and Scream 3 (2000). Kevin Williamson, who authored the first two Scream films, followed them up with I Know What You Did Last Summer in 1997 (Jim Gillespie), which was also followed by a sequel, I Still Know What You Did Last Summer (1998). The oftrepeated sequels of Halloween, originally directed by John Carpenter in 1978, continued with Halloween 6: The Curse of Michael Myers (1995). In 1998, Steve Miner directed Halloween: H20, which looks at Laurie Strode, played again by Jamie Lee Curtis twenty years after the original film. Numerous science-fiction sequels made their appearances during the 1990’s. The long-running Star Trek series finally reached its conclusion with Star Trek 6: The Undiscovered Country in 1991. However, in 1994, Star Trek: Generations, the first film spin-off from Star Trek: The Next Generation television series, came on the scene featuring Captain Picard, followed by Star Trek: First Contact (1996) and Star Trek: Insurrection (1998) for the ninth film in the saga. In 1999, George Lucas completed Star Wars: Episode 1— The Phantom Menace, the first part of his Star Wars prequel trilogy. The 1979 film Alien, which had a successful sequel in 1986, saw two more in the 1990’s: Alien 3 (David Fincher, 1992), ending with Ellen Ripley’s death, and Alien: Resurrection (Jean-Pierre Jeunet, 1997), in which a cloned Ripley returns. Successful crime films also engender sequels that extend the story formula as far as possible. Francis Ford Coppola’s The Godfather, Part III (1990) ended the narrative begun in 1972, and Richard Donner’s Lethal Weapon 3 (1992) and Lethal Weapon 4 (1998) continued the popular adventures of Los Angeles cops Roger Murtaugh and Martin Riggs. The huge box-office returns for the first Die Hard in the late 1980’s called out for a sequel, Die Hard 2: Die Harder (1990), and a third film, Die Hard: With a Vengeance (1995), all starring Bruce Willis. Tim Burton’s second Batman effort, Batman Returns (1992), followed his huge first hit and was succeeded by two more films in the series. Mainstream Films Beyond movies aimed for young audiences, other films during the 1990’s found success by speaking to a different audience. Veteran director Clint Eastwood, whose directorial career had begun twenty years earlier, released Unforgiven (1992) to solid critical acclaim and box-office success. Viewers connected with the film, hailed by

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many as Eastwood’s masterpiece, and its realistic stance toward violence and the mythology of the Western film genre. Kevin Costner’s Dances with Wolves (1990), starring Costner as a United States soldier who becomes a member of a Sioux Lakota tribe, appealed to viewers with its gorgeous scenery and depiction of Native Americans. Martin Scorsese, graduate of New York University’s film school and director of numerous films about violence and the decline of spirituality in the modern world, enjoyed praise and financial returns for GoodFellas (1990) and his remake of Cape Fear (1991). Scorsese also directed The Age of Innocence (1993), Casino (1995), and Bringing Out the Dead (1999). Jonathan Demme’s Philadelphia (1993), with Tom Hanks’s first-rate acting, touched audiences with its depiction of an AIDS victim suing for discrimination. When he is not engineering blockbusters, Steven Spielberg makes films reflecting his own personal interest, namely Schindler’s List (1993), a powerful film concerning the efforts of Nazi businessman Oskar Schindler to employ over one thousand Jewish persons in his factory and save them from extinction in the concentration camps. Another earnest effort from Spielberg was Saving Private Ryan (1998), a highly acclaimed World War II film that de-romanticizes war. Besides his highly controversial film Natural Born Killers, Oliver Stone was busy in the 1990’s making films that mirrored his own American revisionist histories. JFK (1991) endorses the idea of a conspiracy behind the assassination of President John F. Kennedy, and Nixon (1995) presents Stone’s own interpretation of events involving President Richard M. Nixon. Mel Gibson, producer, director, and star of Braveheart (1995), inspired audiences with the life of William Wallace, whose fight for freedom was passionate and bloody. One of the highest-grossing films in 1993 was Sleepless in Seattle, a light, romantic-fantasy comedy directed by Nora Ephron, who also wrote and directed You’ve Got Mail, another romantic comedy, in 1998. Comedies, romantic and otherwise, fared quite well with audiences in the 1990’s, with Shakespeare in Love (John Madden, 1998) collecting abundant acclamation and profits, as did As Good as It Gets (James L. Brooks, 1997), featuring Jack Nicholson as an obsessive-compulsive author in New York. On a slightly different note was Ghost (Jerry Zucker), a romantic thriller whose great popularity made it a topgrossing film of 1990.

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Fleiss, Heidi

Impact Changes in filmmaking in the 1990’s, although aimed at making more money for the studios, actually resulted in an emphasis of style over substance. Technological advances, specifically the use of CGI, stressed the importance of images at the expense of narrative. Clearly targeting the younger audiences, studios sacrifice characterization, depth, and meaning to increase their profits, leaving fewer films available for older, and perhaps more thoughtful, viewers. This trend could, however, be reduced by the production of independent films that would seem to be a necessary means of restoring balance in filmmaking. Further Reading

Allen, Michael. Contemporary U.S. Cinema. Harlow, England: Longman, 2003. Directs attention to the changes in the last thirty years of filmmaking in the United States—specifically, the rise of independent films, the costs of production, and advances in technology. Hurd, Mary G. Women Directors and Their Films. Westport, Conn.: Praeger, 2007. Study of American female directors, from Dorothy Arzner to the present, both mainstream and independent. Levy, Emanuel. Cinema of Outsiders: The Rise of American Independent Film. New York: New York University Press, 1999. History of the “indie” films from the standpoints of region, gender, and ethnicity. Lewis, Jon, ed. The End of Cinema as We Know It: American Film in the Nineties. New York: New York University Press, 2001. Contains thirty-four essays that discuss various changes in the cinema of the 1990’s. Mary Hurd Basic Instinct; Blair Witch Project, The; CGI; Dances with Wolves; Film in Canada; For rest Gump ; GoodFellas ; Home Alone ; Independent films; Jurassic Park; Lee, Spike; Matrix, The ; Philadelphia ; Scream; Star Wars: Episode I—The Phantom Menace ; Sundance Film Festival; Tarantino, Quentin; Terminator 2: Judgment Day; Titanic.

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■ Fleiss, Heidi Identification American madam Born December 30, 1965; Los Angeles, California

Fleiss gained widespread notoriety and media recognition in the mid-1990’s as her call-girl business became a largescale scandal involving A-list Hollywood celebrities. Heidi Fleiss met Beverly Hills call-girl entrepreneur Madam Alex (Elizabeth Adams) in 1988, and although Fleiss was occasionally a call girl, she mainly functioned as Madam Alex’s assistant. After two years, Fleiss left her employer to start her own highclass prostitution service. Fleiss not only imitated Madam Alex’s business model of catering to wealthy and influential members of Los Angeles commerce, politics, and film communities, as well as royalty and big-business executives from overseas (even sending call girls abroad), but also greatly exceeded her former employer’s business by recruiting women from the Los Angeles club scene. Like Madam Alex, Fleiss ensured that her employees were well-groomed, well-mannered, and all-around upscale. Fleiss earned enough money through her illicit business endeavors (reportedly $6 million per year) to purchase a large estate in Beverly Hills, which she bought in her father’s name (pediatrician Paul M. Fleiss, himself convicted in 1995 of money laundering and fraud in connection with Heidi’s com-

See also

Heidi Fleiss in a Los Angeles courtroom in January, 1995. Though she was convicted of pandering and narcotics possession, her sentence was later overturned because of jury misconduct. (AP/Wide World Photos)

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merce). Fleiss conducted her trade from her new home, often throwing high-profile parties with such notables as Mick Jagger and Billy Idol in attendance. Through an undercover sting operation, four of Fleiss’s call girls were arrested on June 9, 1993, at a Los Angeles hotel, and hours later Fleiss herself was arrested at her Beverly Hills home. A deluge of media flooded the trial proceedings; it was speculated that Fleiss’s “black book” could destroy the careers of many top Hollywood celebrities, perhaps even entire studios. Charlie Sheen was one of the few celebrities to publicly admit patronizing Fleiss’s women, spending upward of $50,000 on their services. In 1994, at the age of twenty-eight, Fleiss was tried for pandering and narcotics possession, receiving a three-year sentence that was later overturned for juror misconduct. At the time of her arraignment, Fleiss was approached for multiple publishing and film deals, one of which was the 1995 television film Heidi Fleiss: Hollywood Madam, a sensationalized docudrama starring Fleiss and her real-life confederates. At her retrial in 1996, after a stint in rehab, Fleiss was convicted of conspiracy, money laundering, tax evasion, and attempted pandering and was sentenced in January, 1997, to thirty-five months in prison. After serving twenty months of her sentence in a California federal prison facility, where she was granted early release in 1999, Fleiss was released to a halfway house but chose instead to return to prison, finishing her sentence in September, 1999. Impact Heidi Fleiss’s rise to fame after her illicit activities and the media frenzy surrounding her and her trial represent an emblematic Hollywood scandal for the 1990’s. Her case particularly captured the public’s attention because of its multifaceted appeal: Sex, drugs, Hollywood celebrities, and Fleiss’s own inflated sense of power and influence combined for a tabloid bonanza. Further Reading

Fleiss, Heidi. Pandering. Los Angeles: One Hour Entertainment, 2002. Parish, James Robert. The Hollywood Book of Scandals: The Shocking, Often Disgraceful Deeds and Affairs of More than One Hundred American Movie and TV Idols. New York: McGraw-Hill, 2004. Alan Haslam See also

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Flinn, Kelly

Crime; Drug use; Scandals; Television.

■ Flinn, Kelly Female military pilot discharged from duty Born December 23, 1970; St. Louis, Missouri Identification

Flinn, the first female bomber pilot in U.S. history, resigned from the U.S. Air Force instead of facing court-martial charges for adultery. After receiving the prestigious outstanding camper award at the National Aeronautics and Space Administration’s (NASA) space camp held in Huntsville, Alabama, at the age of twelve, Kelly Flinn knew she wanted a career as a pilot. Keeping with her dream, Flinn was accepted into both the U.S. Naval Academy and U.S. Air Force Academy in late June, 1989. She eventually decided to attend the Air Force Academy and graduated in the top 15 percent of her class in 1993. During her college career, Flinn was invited to partake in numerous prestigious cadet exchange programs in both France and South Korea. At graduation, Flinn was commissioned as an Air Force second lieutenant and was selected for admission to the Undergraduate Pilot Training program at Columbus Air Force Base in Mississippi in January, 1994. In April, 1995, Flinn began the prestigious B-52 flight training program in Louisiana, where she received outstanding evaluations and was named distinguished graduate of her entire class. Flinn was then assigned to Minot Air Force Base in North Dakota in October, 1995. While in Minot, Flinn became mission-qualified as the first female bomber pilot in U.S. history capable of piloting and copiloting both nuclear and conventional weapons missions. However, her impressive career took an immediate turn for the worst when allegations and then official charges of adultery were brought against her by her superiors in January, 1996. Flinn’s charges stemmed from an affair she was having with Marc Zigo, an enlisted airman who also coached an intramural soccer team on the base. Zigo himself was married to another enlisted pilot, who eventually informed her superior officer of Flinn’s adulterous affair with her husband. Flinn admitted her wrongdoing to her superiors and in early December, 1995, signed a statement that she would not engage in such behavior again. However, she again disobeyed a direct order and took Zigo, who was still married, home to meet her parents in Geor-

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expenses to the Air Force Academy since she still had one more year of her five-year commitment to serve. Further Reading

Flinn, Kelly. Proud to Be: My Life, the Air Force, the Controversy. New York: Random House, 1997. Thomas, Evan, and Gregory Vistica. “Sex and Lies.” Newsweek, June 2, 1997. Paul M. Klenowski See also Marriage and divorce; Scandals; Tailhook incident; Women in the military.

■ Food trends Patterns and tendencies within American eating habits, restaurants, and domestic food preparation

Definition

Kelly Flinn, a bomber pilot for the Air Force, arrives on May 20, 1997, at Minot Air Force Base in North Dakota for a pretrial hearing on adultery and disobedience charges. (AP/Wide World Photos)

gia over the Christmas holiday. During this same period, Zigo was secretly telling Air Force investigators of his illicit affair with Flinn. Flinn’s commanding officers were outraged by her behavior and formally filed charges of adultery, fraternization, lying, and disobeying a direct order. If convicted, Flinn faced nine and a half years in prison. Impact After months of debate by high-ranking Air Force officials, along with an official Senate inquiry in late May, 1997, Flinn, instead of facing a criminal trial and possibility of a dishonorable discharge, opted to take a plea agreement of a general discharge, a discharge usually given to soldiers whose negative record outweighs their contributions but who have not fully disgraced their country. Flinn was also ordered to pay back close to $20,000 in tuition

During the 1990’s, following innovations in technology, changes occurred in the production and packaging of food that brought new products and eating habits, as well as new concerns over the safety of food. The increase in restaurant chains effected widespread change in eating habits and stimulated a countermovement for local and organic foods. The line of new products introduced to grocery stores in the 1990’s came largely in the form of prepackaged and frozen foods. Thanks to innovations in flash freezing, a process by which cooked food is exposed to extremely cold temperatures, and modified atmosphere packaging, a technique that changes the air inside a package of food, increasingly busy Americans could conveniently prepare meals for him or herself, or for a family. While frozen dinners and prepackaged meats, cheeses, and salads fed longer-working adults nationwide, new products such as the Oscar Mayer Lunchable, a prepackaged lunch that frequently included crackers, meat, cheese, and a drink, offered an easy alternative to preparing children’s lunches. Again reflecting this busy lifestyle, the creation of cereal bars, PowerBars, and Balance Bars as meal replacements for on-thego individuals was influenced by advances in food engineering, putting as many nutrients as possible into a bar. Genetically modified food was introduced in the 1990’s to increase food’s shelf life and make food

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bug- and rot-resistant, all of which helped increase the production of food throughout the decade. From grocery stores to restaurant chains, companies and individuals were often saving money in the long run by using bioengineered food like the Flavr Savr tomato, introduced in 1994 by California-based company Calgene. Reaction to these bioengineering companies was mixed. While grocery stores embraced longer-lasting fruits, vegetables, and meats, customers and other countries worried over the failure to label these genetically altered products for fear of the effects of consuming genetically modified foods. Despite this worry and a growing movement that embraced organic foods, America was producing more genetically modified food than any other nation by the end of the decade. Fastfood restaurants continued to expand and have a strong presence in the 1990’s, increasing their marketing toward children, adding playgrounds onto their restaurant property, and using movies like Toy Story (1995), as Burger King did, in their advertisements. However, it was non-fast-food restaurant chains like Applebee’s, T.G.I. Friday’s, Olive Garden, Chili’s, and Denny’s that experienced the most growth during the 1990’s. These chains offered an alternative to the home-cooked meal, much as frozen dinners did, while also taking a portion of grocery store sales, encouraging family nights out at the restaurant through aggressive advertising campaigns. The industry was so lucrative that a growing coterie of celebrity chefs like Emeril Lagasse and Wolfgang Puck opened their own chains, which were marketed as upscale restaurants. The fact that chain restaurants were ubiquitous by the end of the decade, cropping up along major highways throughout the United States and Canada, and that genetically modified food was equally ubiquitous in grocery stores stirred concern over health and feelings of skepticism concerning large grocery stores and restaurant chains. This effectively opened a market for individuals and companies to exploit the antiglobalism and/or pro-natural sentiments that many consumers felt was lacking in large restaurant chains. While this organic food movement was often associated with local agriculture, and indeed farmers’ markets increased their popularity during the 1990’s, the largest share of the organic market went to relatively small companies that grew into in-

Restaurant Chains and Organic Food Culture

ternational corporations. For instance, Whole Foods Market, an organic and natural foods grocer founded in 1980 in Austin, Texas, grew through acquisitions during the 1990’s, eventually going international in 2002. Starbucks, the now ubiquitous coffee shop company that began in the natural foods atmosphere of Seattle’s Pike Place Market and, notably, continues to market itself in alliance with the organic food culture, became international in the 1990’s, with the total number of stores growing past two thousand by the end of the decade. Some preexisting, smaller food movements experienced sharp growth in membership and attention during this period as well. The Slow Food movement, founded in 1989 by Italian Carlo Petrini in opposition to the global spread of fast food, experienced global growth, eventually establishing an office in New York just after the turn of the century. Musician Neil Young’s organization, Farm Aid, founded in the 1980’s and centered on an annual concert to benefit local, family-owned farms, gained popular attention during the 1990’s with televised concerts. Impact Food is unavoidably at the heart of much of American culture. As the popularity of organic food increased during the 1990’s, this often more expensive product became a sign of middle-to-upper-class membership. At the same time, fast food came to symbolize American excess, and because of its low nutritional value, growing problems of obesity were often associated with this industry as well. While the overall downward trend in sales at grocery stores reflected a population that increasingly preferred eating at the numerous and ubiquitous chain restaurants, genetically modified foods forced people not only to reconsider the effects of consuming genetically altered products but also to consider the effects this had on American agriculture as other nations became wary of trading such food. Further Reading

Counihan, Carole M. Food in the USA: A Reader. New York: Routledge, 2002. Thirty essays reflecting on the cultural impact of contemporary American food habits and traditions. Fromartz, Samuel. Organic Inc.: Natural Foods and How They Grew. Orlando, Fla.: Harcourt, 2006. A frank discussion on the alienating and damaging policies of large companies that own the bulk of the whole foods market.

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Schlosser, Eric. Fast Food Nation: The Dark Side of the All-American Meal. Boston: Houghton Mifflin, 2001. A penetrating reflection of the negative impact the fast-food industry has had on American society and the international community. Smith, Andrew F., ed. The Oxford Companion to American Food and Drink. New York: Oxford University Press, 2007. With over two hundred contributors, this documentation on all aspects of American food is a particularly good reference for the intersection of food and pop culture. Lawrence Schwegler Agriculture in Canada; Agriculture in the United States; Coffeehouses; Genetically modified foods; Lagasse, Emeril; Organic food movement; Zone diet.

See also

■ Football Definition

Team sport

Football continued its wide popularity in the United States in the 1990’s, dominating both collegiate and professional sports. Professional football in the 1990’s was dominated by the National Football League (NFL). The NFL began in the 1920’s with a handful of teams and had grown to twenty-eight by the mid-1970’s, representing most of the largest cities across the United States. The league expanded to thirty in the mid-1990’s, adding the Jacksonville Jaguars and Carolina Panthers in 1995. Several teams also moved locations during the 1990’s, as the Houston Oilers moved to Tennessee to become the Titans, the Cleveland Browns moved to Baltimore to become the Ravens, and the Los Angeles Rams moved to St. Louis. In the latter part of the decade, the league expanded to thirty-two, as the Cleveland Browns returned and Houston received a team, naming them the Texans. The modernization of stadiums continued in the 1990’s in the NFL: Nine new stadiums were built, and a number of legendary stadiums were torn down. Critics of the new stadiums claimed that they were focused too heavily on box and club seating for the elite fans and that they were becoming too generic. Proponents believed that the new stadiums were more comfortable for all fans and more effi-

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cient. Player safety was also a focus in the 1990’s, particularly seen in the movement to pull up artificial turf and replace it with grass. For several decades, the NFL had been a staple of the Columbia Broadcasting System (CBS) and the National Broadcasting Company (NBC) on Sunday afternoons. This changed in the 1990’s, however, when Fox purchased the rights to the National Football Conference (NFC) games in 1994 and CBS purchased the rights to American Football Conference (AFC) games in 1998. There were also some major rule changes in the NFL during the decade. These included moving the kickoffs from the 35-yard line to the 30, adding a two-point conversion after touchdowns, allowing radio transmitters in quarterbacks’ helmets, limitations of on-field celebrations, and alterations to the replay system. A collective-bargaining agreement in 1993 between players and owners altered the NFL perhaps more than any other event in the 1990’s. This agreement allowed players more freedom in their ability to move from team to team and is credited by some as the springboard that shifted the focus from teams to individual players in the NFL. Free agency also changed the strategy of coaches, who now had to devise game plans for compilations of players who were often unfamiliar with one another. Free agency and the advent of a salary cap system that limited the spending of each team are both credited for a greater parity among the teams. The 1990’s were as notable for on-field accomplishments in the NFL as they were for off-field changes. The team of the decade was the Dallas Cowboys, who won three championships. The Buffalo Bills were the first team to appear in four consecutive Super Bowls, but lost each of the games, two to the Dallas Cowboys. Individual accomplishments of note included Walter Payton becoming the NFL’s all-time leading rusher, Dan Marino the all-time leading passer, and Don Shula the all-time winningest coach. Though the NFL was the most popular football league during the 1990’s, other popular professional leagues included the Canadian Football League (CFL), the Arena Football League (AFL), and the World League of American Football (WLAF), which is owned by the NFL. Arena football faired particularly well during the decade, entrenching itself as a profitable and popular alternative to baseball during the summer. Many analysts believed

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that the success of the AFL was due to its avoidance of any competition with the NFL, including a spring and summer football season and a much smaller field with fewer players. College Football Although there were only a few major rule changes in college football in the 1990’s, they had major implications for the game. First, there continued to be a focus on increasing the difficulty of the kicker position that began in 1989, when kicking tees were eliminated for field goal attempts and extra points. In 1991, the width between field goal posts was decreased from over 23 feet to about 18.5 feet, and kickoffs that went out of bounds were now placed 30 yards from the kickoff point. Perhaps the most significant rule change occurred in 1996, when new overtime rules were employed. Until this time, games with an even score at the end of regulation were considered tie games. The new overtime rule eliminated tie games in college football and, unlike the NFL game, gave both teams a chance to have the ball on offense before the game was determined. Specifically, under the new rule both teams were given an offensive series beginning at the opposing team’s 25-yard line. If the teams were still tied after one series, the process would continue until one of the teams had more points. The rules were not the only facet of college football that underwent change in the 1990’s, as the system in place to determine a national champion was reconsidered. Throughout the history of college football, the crowning of the national champion was commonly surrounded by controversy. The controversy increased greatly in the 1970’s and 1980’s, when conferences came to the forefront of college football and many believed that teams from weaker conferences with weak schedules were being rewarded. This came to a head in 1984, when Brigham Young University (BYU) was awarded a national championship after going undefeated in what was considered a weak conference and then defeating a five-loss Michigan team in the Holiday Bowl. Moreover, dual championships were becoming common in college football, particularly because the two toprated teams were generally not able to play one another because of contractual obligations between conferences and bowl games. The controversy surrounding national championships eventually led to the creation of a special national championship game that would attempt to

trump conference-bowl contracts. Beginning in 1992, five major conferences and independent Notre Dame joined together to form the Bowl Coalition, which used the final standings of the Associated Press to produce a national championship game between the two top-rated teams. However, the Bowl Coalition still did not avert tie-ins between Pac-10 and Big Ten champions to the Rose Bowl and encountered several other difficulties, leading to its demise in 1995. The Bowl Alliance replaced the Bowl Coalition in 1995 but had fewer conferences participating and still did not include the Big Ten and Pac-10 champions. This led to the creation of the Bowl Championship Series (BCS) in 1998, which included all of the major conferences and four major bowl games: the Rose Bowl, Orange Bowl, Sugar Bowl, and Fiesta Bowl. Each year, one of these bowl games would host the national championship game, with the location rotating every year. On the field, college football was dominated by the state of Florida and the University of Nebraska in the 1990’s. Three different universities from the state of Florida won national championships, while the University of Nebraska won three championships. So dominant was the state of Florida in college football that Florida State University finished in the top five teams every year of the decade and a Florida team played for the national championship in seven of the ten years. Impact The 1990’s were a time of drastic change in college football. Besides the changes to the rules and bowl alliances, a stronger connection developed between college football and big business. Several sporting goods companies began advertising contracts with universities, some including advertisements on teams’ uniforms. Bowl games also became tied to businesses, as bowl games were named for the sponsoring businesses. At the same time, the National Collegiate Athletic Association (NCAA) began to pay closer attention to the violations of rules by universities, particularly the relationship between players, boosters, and agents. Further Reading

Fleder, Rob. Sports Illustrated: The Football Book. New York: Sports Illustrated, 2005. Describes the important players, teams, and changes that have occurred throughout the history of professional football.

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Guido, Paul, and Bob Boyles. Fifty Years of College Football: A Modern History of America’s Most Colorful Sport. New York: Skyhorse, 2007. Offers a detailed description of team rosters, statistics, and standings in college football from 1955 to 2007. Includes expert opinions on college football history. MacCambridge, Michael. America’s Game: The Epic Story of How Pro Football Captured a Nation. New York: Random House, 2004. Reviews the history of professional football and analyzes how it went from being a secondary sport to supplanting baseball as America’s favorite sport. Waterson, John Sayle. College Football: History, Spectacle, Controversy. Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press, 2002. Reviews college football history beginning in the nineteenth century and compares controversial issues of the past with those of modern football. Brion Sever See also

Bowl Championship Series; Sports.

■ Forbes, Steve Businessman and editor in chief of Forbes magazine; Republican presidential candidate in 1996 Born July 18, 1947; Morristown, New Jersey

Steve Forbes in 1995. (AP/Wide World Photos)

Identification

During the 1996 presidential primary, Forbes campaigned on a flat-tax platform that would drastically simplify the U.S. federal tax code for individuals. Since 1990, Malcolm Stevenson Forbes, Jr., has served as chief executive officer of Forbes, Inc., the publishers of Forbes, the business magazine of which Forbes is editor in chief. He was also involved in the oversight administration of Radio Free Europe and Radio Liberty in the early years of the decade. In 1993, Forbes campaigned for his friend Christine Todd Whitman, who was elected governor of New Jersey based in large measure on a tax-cut program designed by Forbes. In 1996, Forbes ran as a Republican candidate for U.S. president but eventually lost the nomination to Kansas senator Bob Dole. Forbes spent $38 million of his own money on the campaign and refused to release his personal tax returns. He won the Republican Party primaries in Arizona and Delaware and at-

tracted serious attention for his proposal to simplify the U.S. federal tax code by moving to a flat-tax rate of 17 percent on all personal and corporate earned income, after an agreed upon sum had been exempted. While many voters were in favor of a simpler income tax code, Forbes’s flat-tax rate was seen as very self-serving. As a wealthy businessman, Forbes would have saved a large amount of money in taxes under his plan. Between presidential campaigns, Forbes was the honorary chairman of Americans for Hope, Growth and Opportunity. This was a Republican political group that favored pro-growth business policies and pro-family (antiabortion) legislation. In 1997, he launched Forbes.com, an online version of the magazine. In 1999, as a prelude to his 2000 presidential campaign, he wrote A New Birth of Freedom, in which he laid out his positions on a flat tax, a new Social Security system, term limits for elected officials, and the need for a strong national defense. During his short-lived 2000 presidential campaign, Forbes assured voters he would not use his

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flat-tax rate to his own advantage. After an early exit from the campaign, he returned to his job at Forbes magazine. Forbes holds many traditionally Republican positions, including opposition to abortion, gun control, and legalization of drugs. He is in favor of a strong national defense policy, the death penalty, school choice programs, and a smaller federal government. Impact Forbes’s presidential campaigns highlighted the need felt by many voters and members of Congress to simplify the U.S. federal tax code. However, Forbes articulated no strong positions on the economy or U.S. foreign policy. Further Reading

Forbes, Steve. A New Birth of Freedom: Vision for America. Washington, D.C.: Regnery, 1999. _______. The U.S. Presidency in the Twenty-first Century: Opportunities and Obstacles. London: British Library, 2000. Victoria Erhart Business and the economy in the United States; Conservatism in U.S. politics; Dole, Bob; Elections in the United States, 1996; Income and wages in the United States; Journalism; Publishing; Whitman, Christine Todd.

See also

■ Foreign policy of Canada The interactions of the Canadian government and its representatives with other countries of the world

Definition

Despite the Liberal Party’s landslide victory and the collapse of the Progressive Conservatives in the 1993 election, the new prime minister, Jean Chrétien, continued the policy of his predecessors by emphasizing open markets for trade. As the decade ended, however, Canada paid more attention to the issue of “human security.” The degree of emphasis placed on various global issues by the Canadian government changed as the 1990’s progressed. Though by no means ignored by Progressive Conservative prime minister Brian Mulroney, nontraditional foreign policy issues such as human rights, the environment, and global governance received less attention than expanding trade.

Even though the election of 1993 produced a Liberal victory, remarkable continuity in foreign policy developed. Trade not only remained the top priority in Canadian foreign policy but also was stressed even more than during the preceding administration. This was ironic, as the Liberal Party had been against free trade for at least the previous five years. Following the reelection of the Liberals and Prime Minister Jean Chrétien in 1997, however, Canada devoted relatively more attention to what its foreign minister called the issue of “human security.” The end of the Cold War and the collapse of communism led to a new period of world politics. Western countries were no longer confronted by a perceived common threat in the Soviet Union. Even though Canada sent a modest force to participate in the U.S.-led coalition in the first Gulf War of 1991, the relative lack of threat to national security along with the opening of foreign markets produced greater attention to economic interests in Ottawa as well as much of the rest of the world. After reaching a free trade agreement with the United States in the late 1980’s, Canada signed another pact with the United States and Mexico in 1992 to create the North American Free Trade Agreement (NAFTA). This agreement set as its primary goal the elimination of almost all tariffs between the three member states by 2010. It also abolished several restrictions on foreign investment. Related to the higher priority given to economics in Canadian foreign policy, the accompanying decline in attention to national security can be seen in Mulroney’s decisions to reduce Canada’s North Atlantic Treaty Organization (NATO) deployments in Europe and to cap the country’s commitments to peacekeeping. After succeeding Mulroney and a brief stint by Kim Campbell, Chrétien followed a similar list of priorities. Ironically, during the previous years in opposition, the Liberals expressed skepticism toward free trade. Following their return to power in 1993, they embraced free trade even more than their Conservative predecessors. Particularly significant during his first term in office, Chrétien led multiple “Team Canada” trade missions. The objective of such missions was to promote trade by further opening markets.

The Preeminence of Economics

The emphasis on economics in Canadian foreign policy lessened during Chrétien’s second term. The Liberal prime minis-

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ter’s government began to devote more attention to such issues as the environment, the trade and deployment of small arms, human rights, peacekeeping, and international cooperation in general. Such issues defined the concept of “human security.” This concept became a defining element of Canadian foreign policy with a speech delivered by Foreign Minister Lloyd Axworthy in 1997. Though economics remained a vital component of the country’s foreign policy, humanitarian concerns became important to Canada as well. In many ways, the significant attention given to human security was not new to Canadian foreign policy, as Mulroney took important positions against South African apartheid in the late 1980’s and in favor of environmental protection at the Rio Conference in the early 1990’s. In the late 1990’s, however, the country appeared to stress these kinds of issues even more. The Liberal government was particularly active in the area of arms control and armed conflict. Canada was a leader in creating and implementing the Mine Ban Treaty, formally the Convention on the Prohibition of the Use, Stockpiling, Production and Transfer of Anti-Personnel Mines and on Their Destruction (1997). Chrétien’s government allocated millions of dollars to demine areas and to provide aid to victims of such weapons throughout the world. In regard to other weapons, Canada took a leadership role in working through international organizations to address small-arms trafficking. In regard to the issue of children and armed conflict, Canada worked through the United Nations, the Organization for Security and Cooperation in Europe, and the Organization of American States to try to prevent the use of child soldiers and to assist those who have been forced to serve in such capacity. Perhaps most notable was the country’s role in establishing the International Criminal Court. This judicial body has become the first permanent court with the authority to prosecute people for war crimes, crimes against humanity, and genocide. Canada also was one of the first countries to ratify the Comprehensive NuclearTest-Ban Treaty. Canada was also active in other areas composing the human security agenda. It played a leading role in creating the Declaration on Human Rights Defenders—an international statement on the right and responsibility to promote and protect universally recognized human rights. Also, Canada

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played a leading role on more resolutions addressing human rights in the U.N. Commission on Human Rights than any other country. The country’s role in the United Nations increased when it once again became a member of the Security Council at the end of the 1990’s. To address environmental concerns, Canada became a party to the Kyoto Protocol. Impact The substantial attention devoted to trade in Canadian foreign policy during the first half of the 1990’s reflected the new post-Cold War era and the accompanying intensification of globalization. Canada served as just one example of how several countries perceived a need to further expand trade and foreign investment. The renewed emphasis on human security in the last part of the decade, however, demonstrated another side of the most recent era of globalization—the interdependence of countries, the corresponding necessity of international cooperation, and the significance of human rights violations and environmental degradation. Further Reading

Gough, Barry M. Historical Dictionary of Canada. Lanham, Md.: Scarecrow Press, 1999. A comprehensive list accompanied by brief descriptions of political terminology addressing Canada. Hampson, Fen Osler, et al., eds. Canada Among Nations 1999: A Big League Player? New York: Oxford University Press, 1999. This series of essays explores Canadian foreign policy in the areas of economics, cultural affairs, and international security. Riendeau, Roger. A Brief History of Canada. New York: Facts On File, 2000. A thorough coverage of many significant issues in Canadian history. Gives an especially good description of the relationship between the federal government and Quebec. Kevin L. Brennan See also Business and the economy in Canada; Campbell, Kim; Canada and the British Commonwealth; Canada and the United States; Chrétien, Jean; Cold War, end of; Elections in Canada; Employment in Canada; Europe and North America; Foreign policy of the United States; Gulf War; Haiti intervention; Income and wages in Canada; Mulroney, Brian; North American Free Trade Agreement (NAFTA); United Nations.

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■ Foreign policy of the United States The interactions of the United States government and its representatives with other countries of the world

Definition

Greatly reduced tensions between the United States and the Soviet Union, the primary U.S. rival since the 1940’s, created new opportunities for a decade of U.S. leadership in global affairs. By acting in many instances in concert with other states, Presidents George H. W. Bush and Bill Clinton presided over an era of unprecedented power and extended influence during the 1990’s. In the months leading to January, 1990, more changes in the global distribution of power occurred than in the preceding forty years. Virtually the entire alliance system of states loyal to the Soviet Union collapsed during 1989, as elections in Poland and popular revolutions in East Germany, Czechoslovakia, and Romania brought new noncommunist governments to power. This process continued in the early months of 1990, when further leadership changes swept new governments to power in both Bulgaria and Hungary. All of these new governments looked to the United States and its allies for external support over the next decade. By the end of the 1990’s, every one of these former Soviet allies had initiated a process that aimed at joining the North Atlantic Treaty Organization (NATO); Poland, Hungary, and the Czech Republic formally were admitted in 1998 as full members under the security umbrella of NATO’s armed forces. Of greatest symbolic significance was the unification of formerly communist East Germany as an integral part of the Federal Republic of Germany (West Germany), a U.S. ally, on October 3, 1990. These changes marked a power shift of historic proportions, one that the Soviet communist leader, President Mikhail Gorbachev (1985-1991), substantially accommodated by refusing to intervene militarily to save the communist system, either in EastCentral Europe or within his own country when communism collapsed there in 1991. The shift toward cooperation between the two superpowers also was evident in Gorbachev’s response to U.S. initiatives at the United Nations. Prior to 1988, the Soviets had opposed nearly everything the United States had favored at the United Nations, but in the 1990’s that would change, especially regarding Iraq.

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Led by onetime Soviet-ally Saddam Hussein, Iraq attempted on August 2, 1990, to gain greater control over global petroleum resources through the use of military force against neighboring, oil-rich Kuwait. At the U.N. Security Council in 1990, the Soviet Union chose to join with the United States and the rest of the global community in a series of harsh resolutions demanding Iraq desist and withdraw. Ultimately, though no Soviet troops participated, it was on the basis of authority from the world community (U.N. Resolution 678) that the United States led a successful military operation, Desert Storm, to expel Iraq from Kuwait in the Gulf War. Where presidents before George H. W. Bush (1989-1993) often had been unable to secure congressional authorization to use military force to protect U.S. interests abroad, President Bush’s decision to employ military force against Iraq legally was authorized by Congress on January 12, 1991: 52-47 in the Senate and 250-183 in the House of Representatives. Acting in conjunction with Great Britain, France, and limited numbers of forces from some twenty-eight other nations, U.S. armed forces clearly demonstrated that they were the world’s most capable. Throughout the rest of the decade, the U.S. Air Force patrolled the skies over Iraq to reinforce peace terms that compelled Iraq to disarm, and as doubts about Iraq’s disarmament festered, air raids were frequent, especially in December, 1998. Trying to Lead the Global Community In mobilizing public support in 1990-1991, President Bush had spoken of a “new world order,” invoking deeply felt hopes for a future world in which global institutions would replace the law of the jungle among nations. On the basis of such sweeping aspirations, Bush reluctantly deployed soldiers in a U.N. project to stop famine amid a civil war in the East African country of Somalia. Without a clear tie to U.S. interests, American military leaders were reluctant to commit substantial resources to a seemingly endless Somalia project, and in the face of a small but rising number of U.S. casualties in 1993-1994, Bush’s successor, President Bill Clinton (1993-2001), withdrew from the region. Both Bush and Clinton also displayed reluctance to involve military forces when interethnic tensions in southeastern Europe fractured the former Yugoslavia. The United States long had advocated democratic change in all parts of the communist world,

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but these U.S. leaders preferred that European allies take the lead when voters in a disintegrating Yugoslavia chose hard-line nationalists such as Slobodan Miloševi6 (Serbia) and Franjo Tudjman (Croatia), and then followed them into war. As violence engulfed the states of the formerly communist Yugoslavia in the early 1990’s, the United States championed limited U.N.-authorized measures, such as arms boycotts and no-fly zones. These did little to stop a series of wars in which violence most often was directed against civilians: Vicious “ethnic cleansing” drove groups apart. Under U.N. Resolutions 819 and 824, U.S. allies France, the Netherlands, and Britain proved willing to deploy their troops as part of a lightly armed U.N. Protection Force in “safe areas” designated for civilians, notably the Bosnian cities of Sarajevo, Biha6, Goramde, Tuzla, Mepa, and Srebrenica. Clinton refused to put armed forces on the ground in harm’s way, though U.S. air power did help reinforce U.N. demands that Serbian militias, especially, desist from attacking civilians. Finally, after Dutch peacekeepers were humiliated by a Serb-run massacre of some eight thousand Muslim civilians at Srebrenica in 1995, the United Nations sought and received sufficient air support from U.S. fighter aircraft under NATO command, and the Serbian government accepted a cease-fire. At Dayton, Ohio, the Clinton administration then brought together the heads of government of Croatia, Bosnia and Herzegovina, and Serbia and forged a peace agreement. For the rest of the 1990’s, contingents of U.S. armed forces joined NATO allies’ personnel (and others, such as Russians) to supervise the implementation of peace terms under these Dayton Accords of November, 1995. As part of the peace agreement, the United States insisted that each of these states pledge to cooperate with the International Criminal Tribunal for the Former Yugoslavia, a special U.N.-authorized war crimes tribunal at The Hague, Netherlands, that was established to try those responsible for war crimes in the former Yugoslavia. Human Rights Versus U.S. Interests The preference to act through formal organizations such as the United Nations, treaty organizations such as NATO, or ad hoc multinational coalitions sometimes impeded effective responses to crises. When interethnic tensions turned into a Hutu-led genocide di-

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rected against Tutsi neighbors in the small central African state of Rwanda in April, 1994, division among allies paralyzed the U.N. Security Council. No effective response was taken, and over 800,000 Rwandans were massacred—a crime so large that, though the United States played no direct role whatsoever, President Clinton later felt compelled to apologize to the Rwandans. As was the case with the former Yugoslavia, after the killing stopped in Rwanda, the United States supported a multilateral solution: creation of a U.N.-authorized tribunal to hold legally accountable those most responsible. Great division existed within the United States over whether conflicts in such places as Somalia, Bosnia and Herzegovina, and Rwanda merited U.S. involvement, as no treaty obligations were present and few material interests were visible. Madeleine Albright, U.S. ambassador to the United Nations (1993-1997) and later secretary of state (1997-2001), gave voice to the view that U.S. power was so preeminent that U.S. interests could be defined to include protection of international human rights. Few leaders in the armed forces or the intelligence community embraced this expansive sense of vital U.S. interests. Those who conceived that the United States best could achieve its purposes by embracing a more limited sense of its interests were most successful in shaping U.S. policy toward China. After the collapse of the Soviet Union into fifteen smaller and weaker republics in 1991, China remained the principal potential rival to the United States. Though China was still led by its Communist Party, a program of economic change initiated by one of its leaders, Deng Xiaoping, raised hopes that it, too, was on a path of reform. The Clinton administration, in a move opposed by human rights groups, chose to embrace closer economic ties with China, expressing hopes that the plant of eventual democracy might take root there if nourished by the emergence of a prosperous middle class and capitalistic evolution. Over the course of the decade, both countries enjoyed tremendous economic growth and skyrocketing trade, with U.S. imports from China growing from less than $5 billion in 1990 to more than $163 billion in 1999. This approach to China reversed entirely the order of change in Russia, where political change had occurred prior to major capitalistic economic reform. Indeed, President Bush initially reacted cau-

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tiously when Russia’s first elected president, Boris Yeltsin, led a popular uprising against hard-line Soviet communists who had pushed Gorbachev aside in August, 1991. Only after Yeltsin consolidated power with the backing of key elements in the Soviet Red Army during the fall of 1991 did the United States recognize Russia and the fourteen other Soviet republics as separate and independent states. The Yeltsin administration (1991-1999) concluded agreements with the United States to dismantle many formerly Soviet missiles, nuclear warheads, and chemical weapons, projects partially underwritten by the United States that ran parallel to similar U.S. agreements with Ukraine and Kazakhstan. After January, 1992, when the Yeltsin government ended communist-era wage, price, and ownership controls, the United States encouraged private investors to seek partnerships in developing a new, capitalistic Russia. State-to-state foreign investment and aid flowed far more freely from newly unified Germany than from the United States to democratizing Russia, but private consultants close to the highly successful Clinton campaign operation did play an important role in the successful 1996 reelection campaign of Yeltsin. U.S.-Russian relations soured, however, in 19981999, when Clinton sought without success to secure U.N. authority to intervene to stop a new round of ethnic cleansing in the Serbian region of Kosovo. Prodded to act in March, 1999, by British prime minister Tony Blair, Clinton approved U.S. involvement when NATO launched a seventy-eight-day air war against Serbia. Ultimately, Serbia capitulated on June 10, 1999, and a U.N. force including U.S. armed forces occupied the province. Impact The 1990’s often were thought of during that era as the United States’ “unipolar moment”: a time of unrivaled power and influence, a decade of U.S. global leadership, and a period of growing affluence in a closer, globalized community. These impressions persisted far longer inside the United States than outside it. Though rarely challenged directly, the frequent use of U.S. armed forces in the 1990’s carried indirect costs not readily visible. Reluctance to take on risky missions, as in Bosnia and Herzegovina, annoyed allies. Hasty withdrawals, as in Somalia, conveyed weakness to adversaries. Forceful actions, especially to questionable effect, eroded

the claim that the United States spoke for the global community. Some such incidents also won few friends, as was the case with the August, 1998, launching of a series of Tomahawk missiles at Sudan and Afghanistan in retaliation against Islamic radical Osama Bin Laden’s attack on U.S. embassies in Nairobi, Kenya, and Dar es Salaam, Tanzania. In time, the legacy of U.S. foreign policy in the 1990’s would be measured much like the meteoric rise of stock markets during the decade: an era almost too good to last. Further Reading

Albright, Madeleine. The Mighty and the Almighty: Reflections on America, God, and World Affairs. New York: HarperCollins, 2006. The secretary of state under Clinton reflects on a decade of opportunities, both seized and lost. Layne, Christopher. The Peace of Illusions: American Grand Strategy from 1940 to the Present. Ithaca, N.Y.: Cornell University Press, 2006. A realist casts a skeptical eye on U.S. policy, its costs, and its consequences. Mandelbaum, Michael. The Ideas That Conquered the World. New York: PublicAffairs, 2002. Evaluates critically half measures undertaken to stem chaos in underdeveloped regions of little strategic importance to the United States. Views peace, democracy, and free markets as touchstones of a larger sense of U.S. interests. Smith, Tony. A Pact with the Devil: Washington’s Bid for World Supremacy and the Betrayal of the American Promise. New York: Routledge, 2007. Finds intervention abroad in the 1990’s and beyond to have deep roots: Liberal internationalist ideals came to be paired with a belief in the ease of implanting democracy abroad. Effectively demonstrates connections between liberal and conservative justifications for foreign intervention. Gordon L. Bowen Africa and the United States; Albright, Madeleine; Baker, James; Bosnia conflict; Bush, George H. W.; Cheney, Dick; China and the United States; Christopher, Warren; Clinton, Bill; Cold War, end of; Dayton Accords; Europe and North America; Foreign policy of Canada; Gulf War; Haiti intervention; Israel and the United States; Khobar Towers bombing; Kosovo conflict; Middle East and North America; Russia and North America; Schwarz-

See also

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Forrest Gump

kopf, Norman; Somalia conflict; Terrorism; U.S. embassy bombings in Africa; Wolfowitz, Paul; World Trade Center bombing.

■ Forrest Gump Identification American film Director Robert Zemeckis (1952Date Released on July 6, 1994

)

This ultimate underdog movie about a simple man who experiences and influences the great events of postwar America was a huge success at the box office and won numerous awards. According to the Academy of Motion Picture Arts and Sciences, Forrest Gump was the best film produced in 1994. It won six Academy Awards: Best Picture, Best Director, Best Actor, Best Visual Effects, Best Film Editing, and Best Adapted Screenplay. Gary Sinise was nominated for Best Supporting Actor. The film centers on a mentally challenged man (played by Tom Hanks) who overcomes all odds to become an all-American football player, an international Ping-Pong star, a Congressional Medal of Honor winner, and a millionaire in the shrimp business. The character of Gump, for many, demonstrated that determination, courage, and love are more important than intelligence and ability. For others, Gump was the quintessential baby boomer who experienced (by means of special effects and archive footage) many great postwar events (Watergate, assassinations, Vietnam, demonstrations, integration, and so on), but who was untouched by what he saw or with whom he was photographed. Jenny (Robin Wright), his love, unattainable until she contracts an unnamed deadly “virus” that is clearly AIDS, is touched by what she sees—the dark side of the 1960’s, with its drugs, violence, and politics. Though the film cuts back and forth between Gump’s activities and Jenny’s, the emphasis is clearly on what some critics saw as “Disney’s America.” Impact The film, which the American Film Institute ranked seventy-sixth in its 2007 list of the top one hundred movies of all time, may have won many awards, but it generated a great deal of controversy. Not everyone liked the sentimentality and believed that someone like Gump could not only survive but

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also prosper. Opinion was split along political lines, with the Right being, for the most part, Gump fans and the Left being critical of the lack of political awareness. While Forrest Gump was hardly the only “feel-good film” made in the 1990’s, it certainly was one of the most important ones. Nor was it the only film to make sports underdogs the focus and to create an atypical hero, a Mr. Nice Guy, one at odds with “heroes” who are dysfunctional leaders. The other impact was a linguistic one. Gump’s mother’s sayings became famous, especially the one about life being like a box of chocolates: “You never know what you’re going to get.” Subsequent Events The film was so popular that a sequel was planned. Eric Roth, whose adaptation of Winston Groom’s 1986 novel had won him an Oscar,

Tom Hanks as the title character in Forrest Gump. (©Trapper Frank/Corbis Sygma)

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was hired to write the screenplay. The script lay dormant for several years until Steve Tisch and Wendy Finerman, producers of Forrest Gump, decided to resurrect the project. Because Groom and the producers had some royalty squabbles over Forrest Gump, the sequel, which was to be based on Groom’s Gump & Co. (1995), was again postponed, but the issues seem to have been resolved. The problem then seemed to be with getting Hanks and Sinise to reprise their roles. Further Reading

Gardner, David. The Tom Hanks Enigma: The Biography of the World’s Most Intriguing Movie Star. London: John Blake, 2006. Groom, Winston. Forrest Gump: A Novel. New York: Pocket Books, 1994. Kagan, Norman. The Cinema of Robert Zemeckis. Lanham, Md.: Taylor Trade, 2003. Thomas L. Erskine Academy Awards; Film in the United States; Hanks, Tom; Philadelphia; Saving Private Ryan.

See also

■ Frasier Identification Television comedy series Date Aired from September 16, 1993, to May 13,

2004 In using as its backdrop the postmodern fascination with psychiatry as a quick fix for relationship traumas and emotional catastrophes, this sitcom, within the limits of the genre, offered witty, often insightful investigations into stressful family conflicts, marriage breakdowns, and the struggle to find love. The character of Dr. Frasier Crane (Kelsey Grammer), a pompous, Harvard-educated psychiatrist with a penchant for overanalyzing his own disastrous relationships, was first introduced as part of the ensemble cast of NBC’s successful sitcom Cheers, set in a working-class Boston sports bar in which Frasier’s narcissism and effeminate fondness for wine and opera made him a perfect foil. When that show ended in 1993, Grub Street Productions recognized the potential for the Grammer character to sustain a spinoff. Its premise: Dr. Crane, reeling from a second divorce, returns home to Seattle to accept a position as an AM call-in radio show host specializing in rela-

Cast members of Frasier (from left): Jane Leeves, David Hyde Pierce, Kelsey Grammer, John Mahoney, and Peri Gilpin. (Hulton Archive/Getty Images)

tionship advice. However, his life is quickly complicated when his father, Martin (John Mahoney), a crusty ex-cop wounded during a burglary arrest, must move in with him, along with a live-in physical therapist, a leggy British nurse named Daphne Moon (Jane Leeves). Frasier is also frequently visited by his younger brother, Niles (David Hyde Pierce), another prominent psychiatrist, who is plagued by exotic phobias and panic attacks. The show’s signature comic style—highbrowed, witty, allusive, with droll Noël Coward-esque puns— had wide appeal, as did the inevitable collisions between the blue-collar father and his two foppish sons and the professional rivalries between the two brothers. Most notably, the show tracked Niles’s growing affection for Daphne, counterpointed by Frasier’s own inability to find satisfying love, ironic given his profession of relationship counseling. Although the show featured recurring characters, many of whom

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found an audience (most notably Frasier’s radio show producer, the plainspoken Roz Doyle, played by Peri Gilpin, and Eddie, Martin’s imperturbable Jack Russell terrier), the show centered on the complex character of Frasier Crane, who under Grammer’s subtle development emerged as an intriguing contradiction: both narcissistic and lonely, torn between his needful heart and his overactive mind, an egghead with an appealing neurotic vulnerability. Frasier Crane became one of the most successful characters in television history (only James Arness, Marshal Matt Dillon on Gunsmoke, played a character as long). The show ran for eleven successful seasons, finishing in the top ten in 1993, 1998, and 1999. It received an unprecedented thirty-seven prime-time Emmy Awards, including recognition as Best Comedy Series for five consecutive years (19941998). Impact With a richly ironic sense of comedy, a nuanced approach to character, and intricately complicated plotlines often involving misunderstandings or misperceptions, Frasier broke new ground by setting a standard for highly stylized writing even as network programming moved into an era of unscripted reality shows, lowbrow (often slapstick) sitcoms, and gritty street dramas with barely articulate characters. In addition, given the juxtaposition of the two effeminate grown sons with a gruff macho father, the show was part of the decade’s dissection of the definition of masculinity. Further Reading

Graham, Jefferson. Frasier. New York: Pocket Books, 1996. Grammer, Kelsey. So Far . . . . New York: Signet, 1996. Marc, David. Comic Visions: Television Comedy and American Culture. 2d ed. Malden, Mass.: Blackwell, 1997. Joseph Dewey See also Comedians; Friends; Iron John; Men Are from Mars, Women Are from Venus; Murphy Brown; Psychology; Schlessinger, Dr. Laura; Seinfeld; Sex and the City; Simpsons, The; Television.

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■ Friends Identification Television comedy series Producers Kevin Bright (1955), David

Crane (1957), and Marta Kauffman (1956) Date Aired from September 22, 1994, to May 6, 2004 Using the ensemble cast format, Friends was a half-hour sitcom originally focused on the Generation X demographic. The cast and plotlines, however, appealed to both younger and older audiences, making the show a “mustsee” event. Friends was produced by Kevin Bright, David Crane, and Marta Kauffman, who had worked together on the Home Box Office (HBO) show Dream On, which focused on people who have already made their choices in life and are struggling to figure out how to live with them. Friends focused on people who have yet to make these choices. The show was in part based on the experiences of all three executive producers, who lived in New York as twentysomethings. In the planning stage, the show was first called “Insomnia Café.” The title shifted to “Six of One,” then “Across the Hall” and “Friends Like Us.” The final title, simply Friends, was decided about the time that the National Broadcasting Company (NBC) selected the show to run on Thursday nights at 8:30, preceding the hit series Seinfeld and immediately following another hit sitcom, Mad About You. Even with the advantageous placement, NBC only ordered twelve episodes, plus the pilot. However, because of strong writing and an appealing ensemble cast, the show was a hit and became an integral part of NBC’s “Must See TV.” The six actors who made up the cast were basically unknown when the show was first broadcast in September, 1994. Courteney Cox, playing the compulsively neat, overachieving Monica Geller, was the most well known of the cast members because of her role as Michael J. Fox’s girlfriend on Family Ties. Television audiences first met Lisa Kudrow, playing the eccentric, guitar-playing free spirit Phoebe Buffay, on Mad About You, where she played the ditzy waitress Ursula. Jennifer Aniston, as Rachel Green, was a new face to television audiences and an immediate hit as the spoiled “Jewish American Princess” looking for love and a job. The men were David Schwimmer, playing the nerdy yet sensitive paleon-

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tologist Ross Geller, Monica’s brother; Matt LeBlanc, as the hunky but dim-witted struggling actor Joey Tribbiani; and Matthew Perry, as Chandler Bing, who has a regular job he hates. All are in their twenties and live in New York City in close proximity to one another. Rachel and Monica’s spacious apartment is a gathering place for the six, and Chandler and Joey share a “bachelor pad” across the hall; Ross has his own place, as does Phoebe. Their most frequented hangout is the coffeeshop Central Perk. Finding jobs, except for Chandler and Ross, is a source of plotlines and frustrations. However, paying the rent does not seem to be a concern. In the early episodes, the relationships among the six are as friends only. Ross

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does have a longtime crush on Rachel, which fuels many plotlines. It is not until the fifth season (19981999) that a serious relationship develops between Monica and Chandler that leads to their marriage. What the six friends become for one another is family. The theme song “I’ll Be There For You,” by the Rembrandts, echoes the support they provide. According to the executive producers, the show is about love, sex, careers, and possibilities, but it is also about these friends recreating a family to sustain themselves in a city where they are basically alone. The show’s writers designed plots that ranged from the simple to the ridiculous to the serious. Story lines provided continuity and drew a devoted weekly audience. The on-again, off-again relationship between Ross and Rachel, for instance, includ-

The cast of Friends (from left): David Schwimmer, Jennifer Aniston, Courteney Cox, Matthew Perry, Lisa Kudrow, and Matt LeBlanc. (Hulton Archive/Getty Images)

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ing having a child together, captivated viewers through the show’s last episode on May 6, 2004. Ross’s attempt to be part of his son’s life, even though this means accepting that his ex-wife left him for another woman, brings in another aspect of extended family. Joey’s support of the pregnant Rachel, as well as Monica and Chandler’s desire to keep their developing love a secret, kept viewers emotionally committed to the show. End-of-season cliffhangers, such as Monica and Chandler getting together at Ross’s wedding, as well as Rachel’s pregnancy, helped maintain enthusiasm for the show during the summer hiatus. The series also included guest artists, some playing recurring roles, such as Marlo Thomas as Rachel’s mother and Elliott Gould and Christina Pickles as Ross and Monica’s parents. That America loved the show is illustrated by the ratings; throughout its run, Friends was consistently in the top ten. The show and its actors were nominated for many awards and won Emmy and Screen Actors Guild Awards in the 1990’s. Although the series maintained its popularity in the 1990’s, it began to lose some of its audience in the next decade. Friends continues to engage new viewers through syndication. Impact Unlike other ensemble shows, Friends had no single, big star; each had his or her niche, and all became celebrities because of the show. Plotlines shifted from one character’s dilemmas to another’s,

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with each episode including all six stars. Friends became a regular part of many viewers’ lives. Rachel’s hairstyle, “the Rachel,” became popular with young women. The series became part of a new tradition of shows about young people sharing their lives with one another, yet the show was unique in that these six friends become family. Although criticized for its “whiteness,” Friends reached a wide, enthusiastic, and worldwide audience. As a snapshot of single twentysomethings beginning their adult lives, Friends became part of popular culture. Further Reading

Peyser, Marc. “Losing Friends.” Newsweek, October 6, 2003, 46-53. Provides information on the history of the show and why the show was a success. Sandell, Jillian. “I’ll Be There For You: Friends and the Fantasy of Alternative Families.” American Studies 39, no. 2 (Summer, 1998): 141-155. Discusses the show’s success and its treatment of family. Thomashoff, Craig. “The Joy of Six.” People, April 17, 1995, 80-86. Provides an in-depth look at cast members. Wild, David. “Friends.” Rolling Stone, May 18, 1995, 6269. Includes broadcasting history of Friends as well as profiles of the actors. Marcia B. Dinneen See also

Television.

Coffeehouses; Comedians; Hairstyles;

G ■ Gardner Museum art theft Thieves steal valuable artworks worth more than $200 million Date March 18, 1990 Place Isabella Stewart Gardner Museum, Boston, Massachusetts The Event

The largest art theft in U.S. history, the case remained unsolved in the early twenty-first century. At 1:24 a.m. on March 18, 1990, two men wearing police uniforms persuaded guards to let them into Boston’s Isabella Stewart Gardner Museum to investigate reports of a “disturbance.” The men then bound the guards and left, a little over an hour later, with thirteen pieces of art and the film from the museum’s video surveillance camera. The stolen works included one of fewer than three dozen paintings attributed to Johannes Vermeer, The Concert, two paintings and a tiny etching by Rembrandt, five drawings by Edgar Degas, and a painting by Edouard Manet. One of the Rembrandts, The Storm on the Sea of Galilee, is the great artist’s only seascape. The thieves also took a Chinese ku, or wine beaker, and the eagle-shaped finial, or top piece, from a Napoleonic battle flag. The artworks were estimated to be worth $200 to $300 million, but several factors—including the careless manner in which some of the paintings were cut from their frames—suggest that the thieves were amateurs. Although the Vermeer and the Rembrandt seascape were certainly valuable, the thieves ignored the greatest painting in the collection (and arguably the greatest Italian Renaissance painting in any American museum), Titian’s Rape of Europa. The beaker and the Degas prints were not particularly noteworthy, and the thieves did not even bother to break a glass case in order to remove the Napoleonic flag itself. The works may have been identified ahead of time by an unscrupulous collector, since the Vermeer and Rembrandt paintings are so well known that they could not be sold openly. Yet another theory

holds that the works were to be offered as ransom for imprisoned members of the Irish Republican Army. Suspicion focused on notorious art thief Myles Connor, who admitted to “casing” the museum years earlier with associate Bobby Donati. Connor claimed that Donati (whose 1991 murder remains unsolved) hired two men to carry out the Gardner theft. Although a reward of $1 million (later increased to $5 million) was offered for the works’ return, and although the Federal Bureau of Investigation (which at one time had thirty agents working on the case) offered immunity to those involved, the case has never been solved. Impact Many critics view the Gardner Museum theft as symptomatic of the frantic atmosphere and inflated prices of the art market during the 1990’s— factors that fueled a thriving commerce in stolen art. At the time of the theft, it was estimated that the trade in such art amounted to between $1 and $2 billion per year. Further Reading

Houpt, Simon. Museum of the Missing: A History of Art Theft. New York: Sterling, 2006. Lopez, Steve. “The Great Art Caper.” Time 150, no. 21 (November 17, 1997): 74-75, 77, 79-80, 82. Mashberg, Tom. “Stealing Beauty.” Vanity Fair, March, 1998, 214-219, 255-259. Grove Koger Art movements; Business and the economy in the United States; Crime.

See also

■ Gates, Bill Cofounder and chief executive officer of Microsoft Born October 28, 1955; Seattle, Washington Identification

Gates became the world’s richest entrepreneur on the success of his Windows operating system.

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ness computers. Most important, he started a family, Bill Gates entered the 1990’s on an upswing. The marrying Melinda French on January 1, 1994. In Microsoft Disk Operating System (MS-DOS), had 2000, they created the Bill and Melinda Gates Founheld a commanding share of the personal computer dation to perform charitable works. market and made him a billionaire. However, MSDOS was clumsy and difficult to use, requiring users to memorize arcane commands. The success of rival Impact Bill Gates became inextricably linked in Apple Computer’s Macintosh operating system the public mind with the Windows operating system (Mac OS), with its graphical interface and desktop and with Microsoft’s heavy-handed business pracmetaphor, put the dominance of DOS in peril. The tices. However, he also became a powerful philanonly thing that prevented a wholesale exodus by thropist in the early twenty-first century, helping to DOS users was the stiff price tag Apple put on its probring attention to and reduce inequities in the world prietary equipment. through his foundation, the largest charitable orgaAs a result, Gates had Microsoft working on a new, nization in the world. more user-friendly interface. The earliest versions of the Windows OS had come out in the late 1980’s, but Further Reading these were shell programs that offered users simpliLeibovich, Mark. The New Imperialists: How Five Restfied options. The windows did not overlap, as they less Kids Grew Up to Virtually Rule Your World. Upper did on the Mac OS, and the user’s ability to manipuSaddle River, N.J.: Prentice Hall, 2002. late the icons was very limited. Even Windows 3.0, reWallace, James, and Jim Erickson. Hard Drive: Bill leased in 1990, was mocked by Macintosh users for Gates and the Making of the Microsoft Empire. New failing to deliver a Mac-like interface. York: John Wiley & Sons, 1992. In 1995, Gates announced Windows 95, a truly Leigh Husband Kimmel Mac-like operating system. However, Apple responded with a lawsuit, which absorbed considerSee also Apple Computer; Business and the econable amounts of Gates’s attention and energy until a omy in the United States; Computers; Jobs, Steve; judge ruled that both companies had derived their Microsoft; Science and technology. ideas from the work of Xerox’s Palo Alto Research Center. The lawsuit also brought attention to certain practices Microsoft used to secure its hold on market share. In 1997, Gates worked out a deal with Apple cofounder and chief executive officer Steve Jobs to cooperate in the computer business. By saving Microsoft’s principal rival from going under, Gates ostensibly gained protection from antitrust suits. However, in 1998 the U.S. Department of Justice and twenty states filed a suit against Microsoft for monopolistic practices, including the bundling of its Windows OS with its Web browser, Internet Explorer. Gates also began to examine his life and his role in his business. He delegated executive power of Microsoft to others while concentrating on keeping his company innovative. He wrote books about the future of busiMicrosoft founder Bill Gates. (AP/Wide World Photos)

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■ Gehry, Frank Identification Canadian-born American architect Born February 28, 1929; Toronto, Ontario,

Canada In the 1990’s, Gehry challenged the limits of architecture by creating buildings that some called works of art, others abominations. Frank Gehry, born Ephraim Owen Goldberg, left Canada in 1947 to create a life for himself in Southern California. Once settled in Los Angeles, Gehry drove a delivery truck while attending Los Angeles City College. A bright and ambitious student, Gehry soon transferred, and he graduated from the University of Southern California’s School of Architecture in 1954. After one year in the U.S. Army, he continued his education at the Harvard Graduate School of Design, where he studied urban planning. Throughout the 1960’s, Gehry worked for successful architecture firms, including Pereira and Luckman, Victor Gruen Associates, and André Remondet. In 1967, Gehry branched out on his own, starting Frank O. Gehry and Associates. His early projects were traditional commercial buildings and private residences. He experimented with materials and design in his own residence located in Venice, California, which would become his signature. By the 1970’s, Gehry began experimenting with materials such as chain-link fencing and corrugated steel in his commissions, including the Cabrillo Marine Museum, in San Pedro, California (1979), whose twenty thousand square feet were “laced together” in what Gehry termed a “shadow structure,” and the Santa Monica Place (1980) shopping mall in Santa Monica, California, where he draped a threehundred-foot-long, six-story-tall wall made out of chain-link fencing with another layer of colored chain-link spelling out its name. Never subscribing to one established movement, Gehry has been praised for his abilities to juxtapose raw, harsh materials against simple and fluid geometric shapes. In doing so, he created his “warped style,” which is epitomized in his Guggenheim Museum Bilbao (1997), in Bilbao, Spain. The structure calls upon Gehry’s talent of sculpting, rather than erecting, a building, bringing the intimacy of painting into architecture and allowing the individual to have as equal a relationship with the open space sur-

The Guggenheim Museum Bilbao, designed by Frank Gehry, is reflected in the Nervión River in northern Spain. (AP/Wide World Photos)

rounding the building as with the building itself. The museum is fluid with flowing and sumptuous waves of walls that lack ninety-degree angles. The building was Gehry’s greatest achievement during the 1990’s, paving his way for future projects and solidifying his place as a premier experimental architect of the twentieth and twenty-first centuries. Impact Gehry’s introduction of new materials, forms, and ideas to architecture has caused American architecture to be viewed as experimental and progressive worldwide. His buildings not only allow academia to discuss form, function, and design but also open the conversation of architecture’s purpose to the masses. Gehry has been recognized by his peers for his achievements and contributions and has received numerous honorary doctorates. Gehry has taught architecture at America’s top universities, including Columbia University in New York.

The Nineties in America Further Reading

Dal Co, Francesco, Kurt Forster, and Hadley Arnold. Frank O. Gehry: The Complete Works. New York: Monacelli Press, 1998. Gehry, Frank, et al. Frank Gehry, Architect. New York: Guggenheim Museum Publications, 2003. Johnson, Jinny. Frank Gehry in Pop Up. San Diego, Calif.: Thunder Bay Press, 2007. Sara Vidar Architecture; Art movements; Burning Man festivals; Christo; Feng shui; Graves, Michael; Koons, Jeff; Mall of America; National Endowment for the Arts (NEA); Rock and Roll Hall of Fame Museum; Sustainable design movement.

See also

■ General Motors strike of 1998 An eight-week strike at two General Motors automobile parts factories results in the temporary layoff of thousands of workers and the closing of most of the company’s plants in North America Date June 5-July 30, 1998 Place Flint, Michigan The Event

The strike, one of the costliest in U.S. history, represented the longest work stoppage by autoworkers since 1970. The strike’s underlying issues, the corporate outsourcing of jobs overseas and outsourcing to nonunion, lower-wage factories within the United States, affected millions of American workers in the 1990’s. On June 5, 1998, all 3,400 employees at a General Motors (GM) metal parts factory in Flint, Michigan, walked out. This stamping plant produced essential parts for GM factories throughout the United States, Canada, and Mexico, including fenders, hoods, and engine cradles. Workers were outraged when management hired outside contractors to secretly remove essential equipment, thereby breaking its promise to invest $180,000 to upgrade machinery at the factory. Workers feared that their plant would be closed; thousands of jobs had already been cut. Overall in Flint (GM’s “hometown”), GM jobs had declined from 78,000 in 1980 to 33,000 in 1998. Plans called for more cuts even as GM was building new assembly plants in China, Thailand, Poland, and Argentina.

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National Repercussions Workers saw their local strike in national and international terms. According to United Auto Workers (UAW) national leadership, GM was ignoring its social contract with America by transferring jobs, technology, and capital overseas. The issues of downsizing, outsourcing, speedups, excessive workloads, and the spinning off of union jobs to lower-paid, nonunion suppliers struck a deep chord with the public. With the passage of the North American Free Trade Agreement (NAFTA) in 1993, it was far easier for U.S. corporations to relocate production abroad. Most newspaper coverage and public reaction to the strike was supportive of the workers. On June 11, another 5,800 workers at a nearby spark plug and speedometer plant also went on strike. GM had cut its workforce in half over the previous decade. In both cases, workers struck over local issues. However, the two strikes quickly gained national attention. They demonstrated that unions still retained significant power to cripple production far beyond their local workplaces. Within the first week, GM laid off 50,900 workers. Because of its new “lean production” model and “just-in-time” inventory system, GM had no stores of the critical parts produced by the two plants. By the end of the bitter, fifty-four-day strike, 9,000 striking workers had shut down 90 percent of GM facilities in North America. For over a month, 189,000 GM workers were laid off, along with tens of thousands of workers at GM’s independent supply companies.

Between 1990 and 1998, twenty-two strikes occurred at GM factories. Although each focused on specific local issues, they reflected common concerns over job security and disinvestment, rather than wages or benefits. In 1996, a seventeen-day strike at two brake parts factories had forced GM to temporarily lay off 178,000 workers. During the 1998 strike, GM executives insisted that in order to stay competitive, the company had to become more efficient. GM was at a particular disadvantage. Its two main competitors, Ford and Chrysler, faced less foreign competition because they derived most of their profits from the sale of pickups and minivans (which few foreign companies produced). In contrast, GM sold mostly cars and thus faced heavier pressure from imports. GM also produced more of its own parts.

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In previous union contracts, GM sought to eliminate jobs gradually through attrition while installing more automated equipment. Both sides had settled for quick compromises, avoiding a nationwide showdown. The UAW was able to slow, but not stop, GM’s push to cut jobs. Although GM could not fire unionized workers outright, it failed to replace them when they retired. Between 1993 and 1996, 30,000 GM workers retired but only 5,000 were hired. GM also delayed investments in its American factories. In 1998, GM took a harder stance and at first refused to compromise. Serious negotiations did not begin until well into the fourth week of the strike. Initially, the company sought (unsuccessfully) to block unemployment benefits received by laid-off workers and sued the UAW for the first time in fifty years, claiming it was engaged in an illegal strike. The unprecedented fifty-four-day strike quickly developed into a “war of wills.” Impact Each side suffered significant losses. The work stoppage cost GM $12 billion in lost production and an estimated $3 billion in profits, while the UAW’s 200,000 members lost paychecks totaling $1 billion (1998 dollars). Never had a local strike shut down so much of an auto company for so long. Neither side emerged a clear victor. GM agreed to make investments it had previously promised in Flint (including $180,000 at the metal stamping plant) and not to sell any factories there before 1999. The union agreed to help raise productivity by accepting some changes in work rules. Both sides agreed to meet regularly to avert future strikes. The agreement focused on local grievances at the two striking factories but did not directly address the underlying national issues: job security, disinvestment, outsourcing overseas, the shift to nonunion suppliers, or GM’s efforts to shrink its U.S. workforce. The following month, GM announced its decision to “spin off” its Delphi parts division, and the next year GM closed its last assembly plant in Flint. A depressed city with masses of unemployed, Flint remained best known as the subject of Michael Moore’s 1989 documentary about GM, Roger and Me. General Motors, once the nation’s premier automobile manufacturer, continued its long-term decline, losing market share to its competitors. For labor, although the strike failed to result in a victory of national significance, it did reflect an upturn in the

labor movement. After losing nearly all major strikes in the 1980’s, unions began a slight rebound, winning several key strikes in the 1990’s. The ability of two factories to paralyze one of the largest U.S. corporations demonstrated the power that strategically placed workers continued to wield. Further Reading

Babson, Steve. The Unfinished Struggle: Turning Points in American Labor, 1877-Present. Lanham, Md.: Rowman & Littlefield, 1999. Chapter 5, “At the Crossroads,” offers a thoughtful examination of the crisis of unions in the 1980’s and 1990’s. Dubofsky, Melvyn, and Foster Rhea Dulles. Labor in America: A History. 7th ed. Wheeling, Ill.: Harlan Davidson Press, 2004. This vividly written survey concludes with an excellent chapter on the 1990’s, aptly titled “Hope and Despair.” Milkman, Ruth. Farewell to the Factory: Auto Workers in the Late Twentieth Century. Berkeley: University of California Press, 1997. Exposes the human side of the decline of the U.S. auto industry by allowing workers at a GM factory to speak for themselves. Murolo, Priscilla, and A. B. Chitty. From the Folks Who Brought You the Weekend: A Short, Illustrated History of Labor in the United States. New York: New Press, 2001. This popular survey devotes a lengthy chapter to the 1990’s titled “Brave New World.” L. Mara Dodge See also Automobile industry; Downsizing and restructuring; Income and wages in the United States; North American Free Trade Agreement (NAFTA); Outsourcing.

■ Generation Y Group designation for those born between 1982 and 2000

Definition

Children born during the last two decades of the twentieth century exhibit characteristics markedly different from the two generations preceding them. By the mid-1990’s, sociologists and demographers were beginning to notice a shift in values and behavior emerging between the children born during the 1980’s and those of preceding generations. Since children born between 1964 and 1982 had been

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into a rejection of the obsession with work that characterized previous generations, especially their babyboomer parents. This cohort was the first to grow up comfortable with technology and to rely on it as a means of achieving both independence and connectivity. As such, the mobile phone became the symbol of Generation Y, an instrument that at once freed them from being tied to any location while allowing them to remain in constant contact with those for whom they had concern. Paradoxically, they exhibited a willingness to conform to rules and displayed a sense of moral outrage at the behavior of elders whose sexual promiscuity and unethical business behaviors repulsed them. Every generation seems to have a defining crisis. The crisis for GenerMarketers for the consulting firm U30 pose in Tennessee in November, 1999. The firm ation Y came in 1999, when two stusurveys teenagers and twentysomethings on their likes and dislikes and markets the information to companies. (AP/Wide World Photos) dents massacred twelve classmates and one teacher (and later killed themselves) at Columbine High dubbed Generation X, this new generation was laSchool in Colorado. Generation Y’s confidence in beled Generation Y. Most frequently, the children of their own generation was severely tested as they saw the baby-boom generation (those born between the impact of their collective values on those non1946 and 1964), this new group appeared notably conformists who were shut out from the group. Nevdifferent from their immediate predecessors and ertheless, they continued to maintain a belief in were treated quite differently by their parents and their collective ability to make positive changes in sosociety as a whole. Some researchers even suggested ciety and the environment. that the term “Generation Y” be replaced by the Impact Even before they reached adulthood, Genterm “Millennials,” since these children would be eration Y brought about significant change in socithe first to come of age in the new millennium. Reety. Campaigns marketing products and services searchers began pointing out how the members of were shaped to cater to their interests, laws were writGeneration Y seemed to be developing social, moral, ten or revised to provide greater protection for and behavioral characteristics antithetical to those them, and parents’ lifestyles were often modified to of Generation X. accommodate them. Their willingness to criticize Reasons for these differences were manifold. Unthe values of their elders brought into focus the like the children of Generation X, those in Generashortcomings of preceeding generations and led in tion Y were being watched over by parents who made some cases to a reconsideration of values that had them the center of attention. Virtually every moguided society for decades. ment of their life was being scheduled for them. At the same time, “Yers,” as they were called, were showing signs of optimism and confidence and were alFurther Reading ready demonstrating that they valued relationships Howe, Neil, and William Strauss. Millennials Rising: with family and friends more than individual The Next Generation. New York: Vintage Books, achievements. As they grew older, this translated 2000.

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Huntley, Rebecca. The World According to Y: Inside the New Adult Generation. Crows Nest, N.S.W.: Allen & Unwin, 2006. Laurence W. Mazzeno Alternative rock; Blended families; Blogs; Business and the economy in the United States; Cell phones; Columbine massacre; Education in the United States; E-mail; Fashions and clothing; Internet; Marriage and divorce; MP3 format; Music; School violence; Slang and slogans; Tattoos and body piercing; Television; Video games.

See also

■ Genetic engineering The modification of organisms by the transplantation of genes

Definition

In the 1990’s, the pioneering work in plant and animal genetic engineering that had been done in the 1980’s was applied to a wide range of organisms, many of which had immediate commercial applications. Biotechnology of this sort became big business in the course of the decade; the Los Angeles Times reported in April, 1997, that there were 1,300 biotech companies in the United States, with 100,000 employees and a total annual turnover in excess of $12 billion. Although numerous transgenic plants had been produced in the 1980’s, they had remained largely confined to the laboratory, but their agricultural exploitation made rapid strides in the 1990’s. In 1994, genetically modified (GM) food made its debut in supermarkets in the form of Calgene’s Flavr Savr tomato, engineered for slower ripening, and hence for longer shelf life. Although the product was not a success—it was withdrawn in 1997 by Monsanto, which took over Calgene in that year—it was the vanguard of a revolution in agriculture that proved highly controversial. In spite of tabloid-encouraged anxieties about “Frankenfoods,” the first GM food crops were planted in open field in 1996; the following year, more than eight million U.S. acres were planted with GM soybeans and more than three million with GM corn. The genetic engineering of tobacco and cotton had already become commonplace; more than three quarters of Alabama’s cotton crop had been engineered to produce “natural insecticides” by 1997. Resistance to the consumption of GM foodstuffs complicated their marketing in Europe but had less

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effect in the United States. Anxieties regarding the possible spread of transplanted genes—especially those coding for insecticides—by virtue of cross-pollination between GM crops and wild relatives also inhibited the planting of GM crops in Europe and elsewhere. The development in 1998 of “terminator technology,” whereby crop plants were genetically engineered to make them incapable of producing fertile seeds, was represented as a potential solution to this problem, although cynics saw it as a means by which the producers of GM plants could force their customers to buy new seed every year rather than simply propagating their initial crop in the conventional way. Much research was devoted to the possibility of engineering plants to produce useful animal proteins, especially “plantibodies” useful in the treatment of disease and “plantigens” that might serve as oral vaccines. Engineered microorganisms had proved incapable of producing such complex molecules, but various immunoglobulins were produced in the early 1990’s by GM tobacco, soybean, and maize, while antigens conferring immunity to hepatitis B were produced in GM tobacco, potatoes, and bananas in the second half of the decade. Transgenic Animals The commercial exploitation of transgenic animals had begun with the patenting of the “Harvard oncomouse” in 1988. The 1990’s saw the production of many more kinds of “knockout mice” for use in medical research. Genes analogous to those responsible for various significant human genetic disorders were deliberately deactivated in such mice so that the physiological development of the relevant conditions could be studied in detail and potential therapies tested. Numerous experiments were conducted on sheep and other animals with a view to causing them to produce useful proteins in their milk; the first transgenic sheep whose mammary glands produced a useful additional product was born in 1995. The first transgenic goat of a similar sort was produced the following year, soon followed by pigs and rabbits. The first genetically engineered animal to be released into the wild was a predatory mite released in Florida in 1996 to attack pests responsible for damaging local fruit crops. The development of animal genetic engineering was inhibited by difficulties in the transformation process; whereas plants could be transformed rela-

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tively easily by mechanical means or by the use of bacterial “vectors” capable of transporting genes into plant nuclei, animal egg cells—especially mammals—were much more difficult to transform. The problem of reproducing transformed animals generated considerable interest in the development of cloning techniques. In 1996, the Roslin Institute in Scotland announced the birth of the first cloned GM sheep, Dolly, and in 1998 Gala Design of Wisconsin reported good success rates in transforming bovine egg cells by means of retroviral vectors, suggesting that the GM revolution in agriculture might soon be followed by a similar revolution in animal husbandry. Impact The most explosive impact of genetic engineering in the public arena during the 1990’s was the fierce controversy associated with the development of GM crop plants. Reaction against the introduction of GM crops and their commercial produce further boosted the profile and popularity of the organic food movement, which had long opposed the intensive use of artificial pesticides. That ideological conflict intensified in the later years of the decade and seemed set to be a dominant theme of debates about food production in the twenty-first century. Further Reading

Avise, John C. The Hope, Hype, and Reality of Genetic Engineering: Remarkable Stories from Agriculture, Industry, Medicine, and the Environment. New York: Oxford University Press, 2004. A wide-ranging popular account of the applications of the technology developed in the 1990’s. Boylan, Michael, and Kevin E. Brown. Genetic Engineering: Science and Ethics on the New Frontier. Upper Saddle River, N.J.: Prentice Hall, 2001. A description of the scientific techniques employed in genetic engineering, supplemented by a discussion of the ethical issues raised by their use. Kneen, Brewster. Farmageddon: Food and the Culture of Biotechnology. Gabriola Island, B.C.: New Society, 1999. An alarmist account of the rapid increase in the commercial exploitation of GM organisms. Nicholl, Desmond S. T. An Introduction to Genetic Engineering. 2d ed. New York: Cambridge University Press, 2002. A basic survey of the science and technology in a Studies in Biology series aimed at college students.

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Yount, Lisa. Biotechnology and Genetic Engineering. Rev. ed. New York: Facts On File, 2004. A useful compendium in the Library in a Book series, supplementing synoptic accounts of the relevant science and legislation with a chronology, biographies of significant individuals, and a massive bibliography. Brian Stableford Agriculture in the United States; Cancer research; Cloning; Genetically modified foods; Genetics research; Health care; Medicine; Organic food movement; Pharmaceutical industry; Science and technology.

See also

■ Genetically modified foods Food crops that contain one or more genes from other species

Definition

Genetically modified foods first became commercially available in the early 1990’s. Despite the apparent benefits of these food crops, including increased yield and decreased use of pesticides, opponents have argued that such crops may pose risks to the environment and human health. Humans have been breeding, crossing, cultivating, and improving on food plants for thousands of years. Although traditional crossing techniques had been used extensively in the past, radiation and chemical means were introduced in the late 1920’s and early 1930’s to genetically alter and improve food crops. Food crops are still being altered through traditional breeding techniques. More than two thousand food crops that were genetically altered by traditional methods are commercially available. The development of genetic engineering techniques in the 1970’s gave scientists the ability to insert foreign genes into plant cells, giving rise to transgenic plants and genetically modified (GM) foods. In 1974, the tumor-inducing (Ti) plasmid in tumor-causing strains of Agrobacterium tumefaciens was discovered. A year later, it was demonstrated that the plasmid was the tumor-causing agent that the bacterium injects into the plant, where it is subsequently incorporated into the plant’s genome. As early as 1983, it was dem-

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onstrated independently by Jeff Schell and Marc Van Montagu (University of Ghent), Mary-Dell Chilton (Washington University), Eugene Nester (University of Washington), and Rob Horsch (Monsanto) that the Ti plasmid from Agrobacterium tumefaciens could transfer genes into tobacco plants by deleting from the plasmid the genes required for tumor production and replacing them with foreign genes to be transferred. Now plants could be genetically modified not only by radiation and chemicals but also by introducing genes from other species. By 1984, Ingo Potrykus at the Swiss Federal Institute of Technology (Zurich) produced the first evidence that foreign genes could be transferred into plants, opening the door to plant genetic engineering. Genetically Engineered Food Plants Although it contained no foreign genes, the first genetically engineered food product to come to market was the Flavr Savr tomato, developed by Calgene (subsequently purchased by Monsanto) in 1993. The Flavr Savr tomato could be vine-ripened but would not soften as quickly as other tomatoes, allowing it to be shipped around the country without being as easily damaged. Calgene withdrew the Flavr Savr tomato from the market in 1996 due to high production costs. Robert Fraley and Stephen Rogers from Monsanto and Roger Beachy from Washington University were the first to genetically engineer plants to be disease-resistant. The scientists inserted a promoter, a piece of DNA necessary for a gene to function, from the cauliflower mosaic virus (CaMV) and the coat protein gene from tomato mosaic virus (ToMoV) into tomato plants, thereby making them resistant to ToMoV. Using this technology, Monsanto brought virus-resistant squash seeds to market in 1994 followed by virus-resistant seeds of cantaloupes, potatoes, and papayas. In an effort to increase yield and decrease the use of pesticides, many crop plants were engineered in the 1990’s to resist various herbicides such as glyphosate, the active ingredient in Roundup. Other plants were engineered to produce a natural insecticide by inserting from the bacterium Bacillus thuringiensis the Bt gene that codes for a protein toxic to insect larvae. These genetically modified plants are known as Bt plants. By the end of the 1990’s, the Bt gene had been transferred to cotton, tobacco, tomato, potato, and corn plants. In the United States, genetically al-

tered soybeans, corn, squash, canola, flax, papaya, chicory, sugar beets, tomatoes, and potatoes have been developed and approved as food crops. Cotton, although not a food crop, has also been approved. At the 1984 meeting of the International Rice Research Institute in the Philippines, Peter Jennings of the Latin American Fund for Irrigated Rice suggested that genes that would allow rice to synthesize vitamin A should be engineered into rice plants to enrich their nutritional value. The Rockefeller Foundation funded several studies by many scientists beginning in 1990 that led to the incorporation of vitamin A-synthesizing genes from daffodils into rice. By 1999, Ingo Potrykus and Peter Beyer had genetically engineered vitamin A-producing Golden Rice, a crop that proponents argue could improve the vitamin A-deficient diets of people in developing nations. Approval Process for Altered Crops In the United States, all GM crops must be evaluated for safety and approved by at least two (and often three) government agencies: the U.S. Department of Agriculture (USDA), the Environmental Protection Agency (EPA), and the Food and Drug Administration (FDA). Only crops modified by molecular means are subject to the approval processes. Crops modified by radiation or by conventional breeding methods, even though they may contain genes from different species or genera, do not need to go through the approval process. These requirements for approval stem from the public’s fear that genetically engineered crops may either be harmful to one’s health or upset the balance of nature and cause environmental harm.

Although genetically altered foods such as triticale, a laboratory-created food plant that contains genes from wheat and rye, two unrelated species, have been commercially grown for years, the introduction of genetically engineered food plants caused a firestorm of controversy. The controversy developed in the early 1990’s, when Pam Dunsmuir and her colleagues at DNA Plant Technology Corporation introduced an Arctic flounder gene (which depresses the freezing point of water) into a tomato in an attempt to protect delicate tomato plants from subfreezing temperatures. Although the tomato was never brought to market, the experiment became a focal point for

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Chief executive officer of Calgene Roger Salquist displays genetically modified tomatoes that are able to ripen on the vine before shipping instead of having to be picked green. (AP/Wide World Photos)

the anti-GM movement, which has claimed that there is a danger of genes transferring from one species to another. Other critics of genetically engineered food feared that the CaMV promoter may insert near and activate other plant genes that may result in deleterious effects to humans. Others feared that genetically engineered crops may contain unsuspected allergens and/or that the genes introduced into genetically altered foods may be transferred to other plants and result in environmental damage. Impact The development and subsequent use of genetically modified foods led to increased nutritional value, increased yield, and decreased use of pesticides. Nevertheless, the debate over GM foods continued into the early twenty-first century.

Further Reading

Federoff, Nina, and Nancy Marie Brown. Mendel in the Kitchen: A Scientist’s View of Genetically Modified Foods. Washington, D.C.: J. Henry Press, 2004. Authors contend that the benefits of genetically engineered foods far outweigh the supposed risks. Lurquin, Paul. High Tech Harvest: Understanding Genetically Modified Food Plants. Boulder, Colo.: Westview Press, 2002. Examines the history and nutritional and environmental benefits of GM food production. McHughen, Alan. Pandora’s Picnic Basket: The Potential and Hazards of Genetically Modified Foods. New York: Oxford University Press, 2000. A Canadian agricultural scientist offers an even-minded assessment of the potential risks and benefits of GM foods.

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Nottingham, Stephen. Eat Your Genes: How Genetically Modified Food Is Entering Our Diet. New York: Zed Books, 1998. A broad but detailed overview of the science, business, and ethical concerns regarding GM foods. For the general reader. Charles L. Vigue Agriculture in Canada; Agriculture in the United States; Food trends; Genetic engineering; Genetics research; Organic food movement; Science and technology.

See also

■ Genetics research Scientific investigations of the role, function, and manipulation of the biochemical mechanisms governing heredity and variation in organisms

Definition

Scientific research during the 1970’s and 1980’s produced the laboratory technology that made possible the advances of the 1990’s, including the first successful cloning of a mammal, genetically engineered crops, and the launch of the Human Genome Project. During the 1990’s, techniques such as deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA) sequencing became commonplace, and the order of nucleotides in the DNA from organisms as diverse as bacteria and human beings was largely determined. The technology of animal cloning reached the stage that it became theoretically possible to even clone a human, setting in motion a controversy that continued into the early twenty-first century. The ability to isolate specific genes resulted in the production of genetically modified crops, technology that could be applied to feeding the hungry or to the creation of “super-weeds.” The ethical limits to which scientists could approach were no longer confined to science-fiction movies. While any attempts to clone a human being would clearly create overwhelming controversy, and indeed was not even seriously discussed, the possibility of cloning animals was much more realistic. The experimental basis for animal cloning involved removing the nucleus from an adult cell obtained from the animal and using it to replace the nucleus from an embryonic cell. The adult nucleus was diploid, meaning it contained pairs of chromosomes as found in all somatic cells;

Animal Cloning

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the genetic content itself would pose no problem. The question was whether that cell could survive and be stimulated to replicate and differentiate, ultimately producing a viable animal that would be identical to the animal that provided the nucleus. The scientific background for such experiments dated to the work of British biologist Sir John Gurdon in the early 1960’s. Gurdon, working at Oxford University, demonstrated the viability of nuclear transfer experiments using embryos from Xenopus, a genus of clawed frogs. While Gurdon had been successful in the cloning of tadpoles (even these never fully developed into frogs), attempts to clone other animals had failed, and many scientists felt that attempts to clone animals more evolutionarily advanced than frogs would only result in failure. Gurdon’s work did result in the addition of a new word to the lexicon of animal biology; the British geneticist J. B. S. Haldane referred to the tadpoles as “clones.” In fact, most such attempts to clone mammals had proven unsuccessful; over 270 attempts at cloning sheep were ultimately carried out. However, in 1996, Ian Wilmut and Keith H. S. Campbell at the Roslin Institute in Scotland carried out the first such successful experiment in cloning. The nucleus from a mammary cell obtained from a sheep had been transplanted into an enucleated oocyte. The cell was stimulated by electric shock and implanted into the uterus of a ewe. In July of that year, the first cloned sheep was born and named Dolly—in honor of entertainer Dolly Parton. Dolly lived six years and successfully mothered four lambs of her own. Her relatively early death for a sheep, a consequence of lung infections normally found in older animals, gave rise to concerns that since she had been produced from an adult cell nucleus, Dolly was actually a young sheep with the genetic characteristics of an older animal. Human Genome Project Arguably the most ambitious genetics project was the decision to attempt the sequencing of the complete human genome, a project called the Human Genome Project. The plan of procedure had its origins in the late 1980’s, when a decision was made to carry out collaborative research among a number of universities and research centers around the world. The original outline envisioned a fifteen-year endeavor, with a synopsis of progress to be reported at five-year intervals, begin-

The Nineties in America

ning with fiscal years 1991-1995. In 1990, the U.S. Department of Energy and the National Institutes of Health presented the proposal to Congress as part of a request for funding. By 1994, it became clear not only that the goals of a complete sequence would likely be met by the year 2005 but also that the project was proceeding faster than expected. Goals for 1995 were already met a year ahead of time, as a linkage map for known genes was nearing completion. High-resolution maps for two chromosomes, numbers 16 and 19, were established, while moderate-resolution maps for four other chromosomes, 3, 11, 12 and 22, were available as well. Similar laboratory methods had also resulted in the publishing of complete genome sequences for other organisms, including members of the bacteria genera Mycoplasma (1995) and Methanococcus (1996), Escherichia coli (1997), eukaryotic organisms such as the yeast Saccharomyces cerevisiae (1996), and the 97 million nucleotide bases of the roundworm Caenorhabditis elegans. The potential success of the project became apparent in 1999. In September, it was announced that some 25 percent of the genome had either been sequenced, or was at least in draft form, and a “rough draft” of the genome, encompassing approximately 90 percent of the genome, should be ready within the year. The development of new technology during the years of the project, including DNA sequencing machines and other mapping resources, meant the completion of the project would occur years ahead of the initial goal. In the December 2, 1999, issue of the journal Nature, collaborative researchers from the Sanger Centre in Cambridge, England; Keio University in Tokyo; University of Oklahoma; and Washington University in St. Louis reported the sequence of the more than 33 million nucleotide bases that make up chromosome 22. By 2000, the “working draft” of the human genome was available; it was published early in 2001. Genetically modified foods are plants that have had their DNA altered for a variety of purposes, including improvement in nutrition, increasing resistance to insects, improving shelf life, and reducing the need to use artificial fertilizers. The first serious attempts to create such genetically modified organisms (GMOs) took place in the 1990’s, as the technology for isolating or identifying relevant genes became practical.

Genetically Modified Plant Crops

Genetics research

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The procedures used for creation of a GMO involved isolating the specific genetic information, cloning the gene, and genetically modifying the DNA. The modified genetic material could then be inserted into the nucleus of the plant cell, where it would integrate within the plant’s own genetic material. The first commercially successful genetically modified food was the Flavr Savr brand of tomato created by Calgene and marketed in 1994. The genetically modified tomato was created by inactivating genetic material associated with ripening. The result was a lengthening of the time during which the tomato would ripen and rot. Since this tomato would have a longer shelf life than a non-GMO, it could be allowed to ripen on the vine, allowing for improved taste, and could remain in the store for longer periods of time. The tomato proved popular among consumers and represented the first of several artificially produced and modified foods. During the next several years, modified plants such as corn, soybeans, cotton, and canola were created, which exhibited insect and herbicide resistance, tolerance to both cold and drought, and resistance to several types of parasite infections. However, such foods were not without their own controversies, particularly those foods consumed by humans. Among such concerns were effects on the environment (monarch butterflies feed on some of the plants); crossbreeding with other plants, with concerns about creation of “superweeds”; and possible allergic reactions in humans who consume GMOs. The discovery of illnesses associated with genetic contamination of animals, albeit by accident, as in the case of bovine spongiform encephalopathy (commonly known as mad cow disease), raised additional concerns about the creation of such modified foods. Impact The identification of literally hundreds of loci on the human genome with the potential to influence genetic characteristics, including those with the potential to influence the health and longevity of the individual, has implications beyond simply the monitoring of disease. Screening of the fetus, as well as newborns, for deleterious genes clearly produces a ripple effect in the health care industry. Beyond this, questions have been raised as to the role of the insurance industry. Should health insurance companies be required to provide future health care

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for a potentially debilitating, or even fatal, illness that genetics has made inevitable? What is the responsibility of the individual? If a person is aware of greater susceptibility to alcoholism, should health insurance cover hospitalization that results from that person’s choice to drink alcohol in excess? Should government agencies make the decision for hospitals or insurance companies as to whom to admit or cover, or should such decisions remain a private matter? The issue of confidentiality will potentially have an impact on any decisions. Certain genetic problems may create an element of social stigmatization. Genetic counseling will inevitably play an important role in any decisions the individual or the person’s family carry out. Identification of disease loci in the human genome also produces a potential for treatment of such diseases. While genetic engineering, the insertion of a “normal” copy of a gene to replace one that is defective, has had limited contemporary impact, the ability to screen for genetic disease has provided a means to monitor the potential development, as is the case with the breast cancer genes BRCA1 and BRCA2, or at least to avoid certain foods, as with phenylketonuria. Research has had an impact on plant genetics. Analysis of the genome in plants has allowed for a better understanding of the structure, function, and regulation of genes. Genetically engineered crops such as soybeans or corn have resulted in significantly increased nutritional value, a necessity in feeding the ever-increasing world’s population. The ability to inactivate “ripening genes” has resulted in creation of tomatoes with significantly increased shelf lives. Unfortunately, media-fueled sensationalism—worries about “Frankenfoods”— has created in the public’s mind an image of science gone berserk. Further Reading

Andrews, Lori B., et al. Assessing Genetic Risks: Implications for Health and Social Policy. Washington, D.C.: National Academy Press, 1994. The sequencing of the human genome has implications beyond simply that of science. The authors address issues including confidentiality and potential insurance controversies. Davies, Kevin. Cracking the Genome: Inside the Race to Unlock Human DNA. New York: Free Press, 2001.

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The story of the project, the goal of which was the complete sequence of the human genome. The author describes the determination of the structure of DNA (1953), the origin of the genome project in the late 1980’s, and the work that led to its completion. McHughen, Alan. Pandora’s Picnic Basket: The Potential and Hazards of Genetically Modified Foods. New York: Oxford University Press, 2000. A layperson’s guide to the scientific research behind creation of genetically modified foods. The author addresses the controversies associated with the subject in a logical manner, discussing both advantages and disadvantages. Narod, Steven, and William Foulkes. “BRCA1 and BRCA2: 1994 and Beyond.” Nature Reviews: Cancer 4, no. 9 (2004): 665-676. Description of the two genes associated with congenital forms of breast cancer, accounting for 20,000 cases annually. Roles played by the protein products. Palladino, Michael. Understanding the Human Genome Project. San Francisco: Benjamin Cummings, 2002. Description of the history and science behind the sequencing of the human genome. Written at a level appropriate for the lay reader. Venter, J. Craig. A Life Decoded: My Genome, My Life. New York: Penguin Books, 2007. Autobiography of the man who, along with Francis Collins, was instrumental in deciphering the human genome. Venter’s view of events, while controversial in his description of contributions provided by others, nevertheless provides a detailed account of his own role in the project. Wilmut, Ian, Keith Campbell, and Colin Tudge. The Second Creation: Dolly and the Age of Biological Control. Cambridge, Mass.: Harvard University Press, 2001. “Biography” of Dolly the cloned sheep by the scientists behind her creation. The authors explain the process of cloning, while addressing the controversies and implications resulting from the ability to clone animals. The text is addressed to the lay reader. Richard Adler See also Alzheimer’s disease; Autism; Cancer research; Cloning; Genetic engineering; Genetically modified foods; Human Genome Project; Medicine; Nobel Prizes; Pharmaceutical industry; Science and technology; Stem cell research.

The Nineties in America

The Nineties in America Volume II Gephardt, Dick—Rules, The

Editor

Milton Berman, Ph.D. University of Rochester

Managing Editor

Tracy Irons-Georges

Salem Press, Inc. Pasadena, California Hackensack, New Jersey

Editorial Director: Christina J. Moose Managing Editor: Tracy Irons-Georges Acquisitions Editor: Mark Rehn Copy Editors: Timothy M. Tiernan, Rebecca Kuzins Research Supervisor: Jeffry Jensen Editorial Assistant: Dana Garey Research Assistant: Keli Trousdale Photo Editor: Cynthia Breslin Beres Graphics and Design: James Hutson Production Editor: Joyce I. Buchea Layout: Frank Montano Title page photo: Kurt Cobain leads the popular grunge band Nirvana. (AP/Wide World Photos) Cover images (pictured clockwise, from top left): President Bill Clinton and Vice President Al Gore, 1993. (AP/Wide World Photos); General H. Norman Schwarzkopf, 1991. (AP/Wide World Photos); Brandi Chastain, Women’s World Cup Final, 1999. (AP/Wide World Photos); Keyboard. (©Kts/Dreamstime.com)

Copyright © 2009, by Salem Press, Inc. All rights in this book are reserved. No part of this work may be used or reproduced in any manner whatsoever or transmitted in any form or by any means, electronic or mechanical, including photocopy, recording, or any information storage and retrieval system, without written permission from the copyright owner except in the case of brief quotations embodied in critical articles and reviews or in the copying of images deemed to be freely licensed or in the public domain. For information address the publisher, Salem Press, Inc., P.O. Box 50062, Pasadena, California 91115. ∞ The paper used in these volumes conforms to the American National Standard for Permanence of Paper for Printed Library Materials, Z39.48-1992 (R1997).

Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data The nineties in America / editor, Milton Berman. p. cm. Includes bibliographical references and indexes. ISBN 978-1-58765-500-5 (set : alk. paper) — ISBN 978-1-58765-501-2 (v. 1: alk. paper) — ISBN 978-1-58765-502-9 (v. 2 : alk. paper) — ISBN 978-1-58765-503-6 (v. 3 : alk. paper) 1. United States—History—1969—Encyclopedias. 2. United States—Social conditions—1980— Encyclopedias. 3. United States—Politics and government—1989-1993—Encyclopedias. 4. United States—Politics and government—1993-2001—Encyclopedias. 5. United States—Intellectual life—20th century—Encyclopedias. 6. Popular culture—United States— History—20th century—Encyclopedias. 7. Nineteen nineties—Encyclopedias. I. Berman, Milton. E839.N56 2009 973.92—dc22 2008049939

First Printing

printed in the united states of america

■ Table of Contents

Complete List of Contents . . . . . . . . . . xxxiii Gephardt, Dick . . . . Gifford, Kathie Lee . . Gingrich, Newt . . . . Ginsburg, Ruth Bader . Giuliani, Rudolph . . . Glenn, John . . . . . . Global warming debate GoodFellas. . . . . . . . Gordon, Jeff . . . . . . Gore, Al . . . . . . . . Grafton, Sue . . . . . . Graves, Michael . . . . Greenspan, Alan. . . . Griffey, Ken, Jr. . . . . Grisham, John . . . . . Grunge fashion . . . . Grunge music . . . . . Gulf War . . . . . . . . Gulf War syndrome . . Gun control . . . . . .

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367 368 369 370 371 373 374 376 376 377 379 380 381 382 384 385 385 388 392 393

Hackers . . . . . . . . . . . . Hairstyles. . . . . . . . . . . . Haiti intervention . . . . . . . Hale-Bopp comet . . . . . . . Hamm, Mia . . . . . . . . . . Hanks, Tom . . . . . . . . . . Happy Land fire . . . . . . . . Harry Potter books . . . . . . Hate crimes . . . . . . . . . . Health care . . . . . . . . . . Health care reform . . . . . . Heaven’s Gate mass suicide . . Heroin chic . . . . . . . . . . Hill, Anita . . . . . . . . . . . Hip-hop and rap music . . . . Hobbies and recreation . . . . Hockey . . . . . . . . . . . . . Hogue, James . . . . . . . . . Holocaust Memorial Museum Holy Virgin Mary, The . . . . . Holyfield, Evander. . . . . . .

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396 398 399 401 402 403 404 405 406 408 411 413 415 416 418 419 421 422 423 424 425

Home Alone . . . . . . . . . . . Home run race . . . . . . . . Homeschooling . . . . . . . . Homosexuality and gay rights Hubble Space Telescope . . . Human Genome Project . . . Hurricane Andrew . . . . . .

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426 427 428 431 433 435 438

Illegal immigration . . . . . . . . . . . Immigration Act of 1990 . . . . . . . . Immigration to Canada . . . . . . . . . Immigration to the United States . . . In Living Color . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Income and wages in Canada . . . . . . Income and wages in the United States Independent films. . . . . . . . . . . . Instant messaging . . . . . . . . . . . . Intelligent design movement . . . . . . Internet . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Inventions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Iron John . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Israel and the United States. . . . . . .

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Jenny Jones Show murder . Jewish Americans . . . . Jobs, Steve . . . . . . . . Joe Camel campaign . . Johnson, Magic . . . . . Jordan, Michael . . . . . Journalism . . . . . . . . Jurassic Park . . . . . . .

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Kelley, Kitty . . . . . . . . . . . . . Kemp, Jack . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Kennedy, John F., Jr. . . . . . . . . . Kennedy rape case. . . . . . . . . . Kerrigan, Nancy . . . . . . . . . . . Kevorkian, Jack . . . . . . . . . . . Khobar Towers bombing . . . . . . Killer bees . . . . . . . . . . . . . . King, Rodney . . . . . . . . . . . . King, Stephen . . . . . . . . . . . . Kingsolver, Barbara . . . . . . . . . Klaas kidnapping and murder case. Knox pornography case . . . . . . .

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Komunyakaa, Yusef Koons, Jeff . . . . . Kosovo conflict . . Kwanzaa . . . . . . Kyoto Protocol . . .

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Lagasse, Emeril . . . . . . . . Lang, K. D. . . . . . . . . . . . Laparoscopic surgery . . . . . Larry Sanders Show, The . . . . Las Vegas megaresorts. . . . . LASIK surgery . . . . . . . . . Late night television. . . . . . Latin America . . . . . . . . . Latinos . . . . . . . . . . . . . Lee, Spike . . . . . . . . . . . Left Behind books . . . . . . . Lewinsky scandal . . . . . . . Liberalism in U.S. politics. . . Life coaching . . . . . . . . . Limbaugh, Rush . . . . . . . . Line Item Veto Act of 1996 . . Literature in Canada . . . . . Literature in the United States Lollapalooza . . . . . . . . . . Long Island Lolita case . . . . Los Angeles riots . . . . . . . Louima torture case . . . . . . Love, Courtney . . . . . . . . Lucid, Shannon . . . . . . . .

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497 498 499 500 501 503 504 505 507 509 510 511 513 515 516 517 518 520 525 527 528 531 532 533

McCaughey septuplets . . . . McCourt, Frank . . . . . . . . McEntire, Reba . . . . . . . . McGwire, Mark . . . . . . . . McMansions . . . . . . . . . . McMillan, Terry . . . . . . . . McNally, Terrence . . . . . . . McVeigh, Timothy . . . . . . . Madonna. . . . . . . . . . . . Mafia . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Magic Eye pictures. . . . . . . Mall of America . . . . . . . . Malone, Karl . . . . . . . . . . Mapplethorpe obscenity trial . Marilyn Manson . . . . . . . . Marriage and divorce . . . . . Mars exploration . . . . . . . Matrix, The . . . . . . . . . . . Medicine . . . . . . . . . . . .

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535 536 537 538 539 540 541 542 543 545 546 547 549 550 552 553 554 556 557 xxx

Men Are from Mars, Women Are from Venus . Menendez brothers murder case . . . . . Metallica . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . MetLife scandal . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Mexico and the United States . . . . . . Michelangelo computer virus. . . . . . . Microsoft . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Middle East and North America . . . . . Midnight basketball . . . . . . . . . . . . Militia movement . . . . . . . . . . . . . Milli Vanilli. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Million Man March . . . . . . . . . . . . Minimum wage increases . . . . . . . . . Minorities in Canada . . . . . . . . . . . Mississippi River flood of 1993 . . . . . . Mistry, Rohinton. . . . . . . . . . . . . . Montana Freemen standoff . . . . . . . . Moore, Judge Roy . . . . . . . . . . . . . Morissette, Alanis . . . . . . . . . . . . . Morris, Dick . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Morrison, Toni . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Mount Pleasant riot . . . . . . . . . . . . Mozart effect. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . MP3 format . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . MTV Unplugged . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Mulroney, Brian . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Murphy Brown . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Music . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Myers, Mike . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

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560 561 562 563 564 566 566 568 571 572 573 574 576 578 579 580 581 582 583 584 585 586 588 589 590 591 593 595 599

Nanotechnology . . . . . . . . . . . . . . National debt . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . National Endowment for the Arts (NEA) Native Americans . . . . . . . . . . . . . Natural disasters . . . . . . . . . . . . . . NC-17 rating . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Nicotine patch . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Nine Inch Nails . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Nirvana . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Nobel Prizes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Noriega capture and trial . . . . . . . . . North American Free Trade Agreement (NAFTA) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . North Hollywood shoot-out. . . . . . . . Northern Exposure. . . . . . . . . . . . . . Northridge earthquake . . . . . . . . . . Novello, Antonia Coello. . . . . . . . . . Nunavut Territory . . . . . . . . . . . . . Nye, Bill . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . NYPD Blue . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

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Oakland Hills fire . . . . . . . O’Connor, Sinéad . . . . . . . Oklahoma City bombing . . . Oklahoma tornado outbreak . Olympic Games of 1992 . . . . Olympic Games of 1994 . . . . Olympic Games of 1996 . . . . Olympic Games of 1998 . . . . Olympic Park bombing . . . . Ondaatje, Michael . . . . . . . O’Neal, Shaquille . . . . . . . O’Reilly, Bill . . . . . . . . . . Organic food movement . . . Outsourcing . . . . . . . . . .

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Palahniuk, Chuck . . . . . Paltrow, Gwyneth . . . . . Patriot missile . . . . . . . PDAs . . . . . . . . . . . . Perfect Storm, the . . . . . Perlman, Itzhak . . . . . . Perot, H. Ross . . . . . . . Pharmaceutical industry . Philadelphia. . . . . . . . . Phoenix, River . . . . . . . Photography . . . . . . . . Physician-assisted suicide . Pitt, Brad . . . . . . . . . . Pixar . . . . . . . . . . . . Planned Parenthood v. Casey Plasma screens . . . . . . . Poetry . . . . . . . . . . . Pogs . . . . . . . . . . . . Pokémon franchise . . . . Police brutality. . . . . . . Popcorn, Faith. . . . . . . Poverty . . . . . . . . . . . Powell, Colin. . . . . . . .

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Quayle, Dan . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 694 Quebec referendum of 1995 . . . . . . . . . . 695 Queer Nation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 696 Race relations . . . . . . . . . . . . . Ramsey murder case. . . . . . . . . . Real World, The . . . . . . . . . . . . . Recession of 1990-1991 . . . . . . . . Reeve, Christopher . . . . . . . . . . Reeves, Keanu . . . . . . . . . . . . . Reform Party. . . . . . . . . . . . . . Religion and spirituality in Canada. . Religion and spirituality in the United States . . . . . . . . . . . . Reno, Janet . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Rent. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Republican Revolution . . . . . . . . Reséndiz, Ángel Maturino . . . . . . Rice, Anne . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Right-wing conspiracy . . . . . . . . . Ripken, Cal, Jr.. . . . . . . . . . . . . Roberts, Julia . . . . . . . . . . . . . Rock, Chris. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Rock and Roll Hall of Fame Museum Rock Bottom Remainders. . . . . . . Rock the Vote . . . . . . . . . . . . . Romer v. Evans . . . . . . . . . . . . . Roth, Philip . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Ruby Ridge shoot-out . . . . . . . . . Rules, The. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

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■ Complete List of Contents Volume I Publisher’s Note . . . . . . . . . . ix Contributors . . . . . . . . . . . . xi Complete List of Contents . . . xvii Abortion. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1 Academy Awards . . . . . . . . . . 2 Acquired immunodeficiency syndrome. See AIDS epidemic Advertising . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4 Africa and the United States . . . . 7 African Americans . . . . . . . . . 9 Agassi, Andre . . . . . . . . . . . 12 Agriculture in Canada. . . . . . . 13 Agriculture in the United States . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15 AIDS epidemic. . . . . . . . . . . 18 Air pollution . . . . . . . . . . . . 20 Airline industry . . . . . . . . . . 21 Albee, Edward . . . . . . . . . . . 23 Albert, Marv . . . . . . . . . . . . 24 Albright, Madeleine . . . . . . . . 25 Allen, Woody. . . . . . . . . . . . 26 Ally McBeal . . . . . . . . . . . . . 27 Alternative rock . . . . . . . . . . 29 Alvarez, Julia . . . . . . . . . . . . 30 Alzheimer’s disease . . . . . . . . 32 Amazon.com . . . . . . . . . . . . 33 America Online . . . . . . . . . . 34 Americans with Disabilities Act of 1990 . . . . . . . . . . . 35 AmeriCorps . . . . . . . . . . . . 37 Angelou, Maya . . . . . . . . . . . 39 Angels in America . . . . . . . . . . 40 Antidepressants . . . . . . . . . . 41 Apple Computer. . . . . . . . . . 43 Archaeology . . . . . . . . . . . . 45 Archer Daniels Midland scandal . . . . . . . . . . . . . 46 Architecture . . . . . . . . . . . . 47 Armey, Dick . . . . . . . . . . . . 51 Armstrong, Lance . . . . . . . . . 52 Arnett, Peter . . . . . . . . . . . . 53 Art movements . . . . . . . . . . 54 Asian Americans . . . . . . . . . . 58 Astronomy . . . . . . . . . . . . . 61 Attention-deficit disorder . . . . . 63 Audiobooks . . . . . . . . . . . . 65 Autism . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 66

Auto racing . . . . . . . . . . . . 67 Automobile industry . . . . . . . 69 Bailey, Donovan . . . . . . . . . . 73 Baker, James . . . . . . . . . . . . 74 Baker v. Vermont . . . . . . . . . . 75 Balanced Budget Act of 1997 . . . 76 Ballet . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 77 Barkley, Charles . . . . . . . . . . 79 Barry, Dave. . . . . . . . . . . . . 80 Barry, Marion . . . . . . . . . . . 81 Baseball . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 82 Baseball realignment . . . . . . . 86 Baseball strike of 1994. . . . . . . 87 Basketball team, Olympic. See Dream Team Basic Instinct . . . . . . . . . . . . 89 Basketball . . . . . . . . . . . . . 90 Baywatch . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 93 BCS. See Bowl Championship Series (BCS) Beanie Babies . . . . . . . . . . . 94 Beauty and the Beast . . . . . . . . 95 Beauty Myth, The . . . . . . . . . . 96 Beavis and Butt-Head . . . . . . . . 97 Bernardin, Joseph Cardinal. . . . 98 Beverly Hills, 90210 . . . . . . . . . 99 Bezos, Jeff. . . . . . . . . . . . . 100 Biosphere 2 . . . . . . . . . . . . 102 Blacks. See African Americans Blair Witch Project, The . . . . . . 103 Blended families . . . . . . . . . 104 Bloc Québécois. . . . . . . . . . 106 Blogs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 107 Bobbitt mutilation case . . . . . 108 Body piercings. See Tattoos and body piercings Bondar, Roberta . . . . . . . . . 109 Bono, Sonny . . . . . . . . . . . 110 Book clubs . . . . . . . . . . . . 111 Bosnia conflict . . . . . . . . . . 113 Bowl Championship Series (BCS) . . . . . . . . . . . . . 114 Boxing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 115 Boy bands. . . . . . . . . . . . . 117 Broadway musicals . . . . . . . . 119 Brooks, Garth . . . . . . . . . . 120 Brown, Ron . . . . . . . . . . . . 122

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Browning, Kurt . . . . . . . . Buchanan, Pat . . . . . . . . Buffett, Warren. . . . . . . . Burning Man festivals . . . . Bush, George H. W. . . . . . Business and the economy in Canada . . . . . . . . . . Business and the economy in the United States . . . . . Byrd murder case . . . . . .

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123 124 125 127 129

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Cable News Network. See CNN coverage of the Gulf War Cable television. . . . . . . . . Cammermeyer, Margarethe . . Campaign finance scandal. . . Campbell, Kim . . . . . . . . . Canada and the British Commonwealth . . . . . . . Canada and the United States . . . . . . . . . . . . Cancer research . . . . . . . . Capitol shooting. See U.S. Capitol shooting Car industry. See Automobile industry Carey, Mariah. . . . . . . . . . Carjacking . . . . . . . . . . . Carpal tunnel syndrome . . . . Carrey, Jim . . . . . . . . . . . Casual Fridays . . . . . . . . . Cell phones . . . . . . . . . . . Censorship . . . . . . . . . . . CGI . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Charlottetown Accord . . . . . Cheney, Dick . . . . . . . . . . Chicago heat wave of 1995. . . Chick lit. . . . . . . . . . . . . Child pornography. . . . . . . Children’s literature . . . . . . Children’s television . . . . . . Children’s Television Act . . . China and the United States . . . . . . . . . . . . Chopra, Deepak . . . . . . . . Chrétien, Jean . . . . . . . . . Christian Coalition . . . . . . . Christo . . . . . . . . . . . . .

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150 151 152 153 154 154 155 157 159 160 161 163 165 167 171 174

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The Nineties in America Christopher, Warren . . . . . . Cirque du Soleil . . . . . . . . Civil Rights Act of 1991 . . . . Classical music . . . . . . . . . Clean Air Act of 1990 . . . . . Clinton, Bill . . . . . . . . . . Clinton, Hillary Rodham . . . Clinton’s impeachment . . . . Clinton’s scandals . . . . . . . Cloning . . . . . . . . . . . . . Clooney, George . . . . . . . . Clothing. See Fashions and clothing CNN coverage of the Gulf War . . . . . . . . . . . . . Cochran, Johnnie . . . . . . . Coen brothers . . . . . . . . . Coffeehouses . . . . . . . . . . Cohen, William S. . . . . . . . Cold War, end of . . . . . . . . Columbine massacre . . . . . . Comedians . . . . . . . . . . . Comic strips . . . . . . . . . . Computer-generated imagery. See CGI Computers . . . . . . . . . . . Conservatism in U.S. politics. . . . . . . . . . . . Contract with America . . . . . Copyright legislation . . . . . . Country music . . . . . . . . . Crime . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Crown Heights riot. . . . . . . Cruise, Tom . . . . . . . . . . Culture wars . . . . . . . . . .

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Dahmer, Jeffrey. . . . . . . . Damon, Matt . . . . . . . . . Dances with Wolves. . . . . . . Dayton Accords. . . . . . . . Dead Sea scrolls publication. Death Row Records . . . . . Defense budget cuts . . . . . Defense of Marriage Act of 1996 . . . . . . . . . . . . DeGeneres, Ellen. . . . . . . Demographics of Canada . . Demographics of the United States . . . . . . . . . . . Depo-Provera . . . . . . . . . Devers, Gail. . . . . . . . . . Diallo shooting . . . . . . . . Digital audio . . . . . . . . . Digital cameras . . . . . . . .

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Digital divide . . . . . . . . . . . Digital video discs. See DVDs Dinkins, David . . . . . . . . . . Divorce. See Marriage and divorce Dole, Bob . . . . . . . . . . . . . Domestic partnerships . . . . . . Don’t ask, don’t tell . . . . . . . Dot-coms . . . . . . . . . . . . . Downsizing and restructuring . . . . . . . . . Dream Team . . . . . . . . . . . Drive-by shootings . . . . . . . . Drudge, Matt . . . . . . . . . . . Drug advertising . . . . . . . . . Drug companies. See Pharmaceutical industry Drug use . . . . . . . . . . . . . Dubroff, Jessica. . . . . . . . . . Duke, David . . . . . . . . . . . DVDs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Earth Day 1990 . . . . . . . . . . Earth in the Balance . . . . . . . . Economy. See Business and the economy in Canada; Business and the economy in the United States Ecstasy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Educate America Act of 1994 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Education in Canada. . . . . . . Education in the United States . . . . . . . . . . . . . Egan v. Canada . . . . . . . . . . EgyptAir Flight 990 crash . . . . Elder abuse . . . . . . . . . . . . Elders, Joycelyn. . . . . . . . . . Elections in Canada . . . . . . . Elections in the United States, midterm . . . . . . . . . . . . Elections in the United States, 1992 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Elections in the United States, 1996 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Electric car . . . . . . . . . . . . Electronic mail. See E-mail Electronic music . . . . . . . . . E-mail . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Embassy bombings in Africa. See U.S. embassy bombings in Africa Employment in Canada . . . . . Employment in the United States . . . . . . . . . . . . .

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ER . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 314 Etheridge, Melissa . . . . . . . . 315 Europe and North America . . . 316 Euthanasia. See Physician-assisted suicide Fabio . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Fads . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Faludi, Susan . . . . . . . . . . Falwell, Jerry . . . . . . . . . . Family and Medical Leave Act of 1993 . . . . . . . . . . . Farrakhan, Louis . . . . . . . . Fashions and clothing . . . . . Feng shui . . . . . . . . . . . . Fen-phen . . . . . . . . . . . . Ferguson, Colin . . . . . . . . Fermat’s last theorem solution . . . . . . . . . . . Film in Canada . . . . . . . . . Film in the United States . . . Fisher, Amy. See Long Island Lolita case Fleiss, Heidi. . . . . . . . . . . Flight 592 crash. See ValuJet Flight 592 crash Flight 800 crash. See TWA Flight 800 crash Flight 990 crash. See EgyptAir Flight 990 crash Flinn, Kelly . . . . . . . . . . . Food trends. . . . . . . . . . . Football . . . . . . . . . . . . . Forbes, Steve . . . . . . . . . . Foreign policy of Canada . . . Foreign policy of the United States . . . . . . . . . . . . Forrest Gump. . . . . . . . . . . Frasier . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Friends . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Games. See Toys and games Gardner Museum art theft. . . Gates, Bill . . . . . . . . . . . . Gay rights. See Homosexuality and gay rights Gehry, Frank . . . . . . . . . . General Motors strike of 1998 . . . . . . . . . . . . . Generation Y . . . . . . . . . . Genetic engineering . . . . . . Genetically modified foods . . Genetics research . . . . . . .

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Complete List of Contents

Volume II Complete List of Contents. . . xxxiii Gephardt, Dick . . . . . Gifford, Kathie Lee . . Gingrich, Newt . . . . . Ginsburg, Ruth Bader . Giuliani, Rudolph . . . Glenn, John . . . . . . Global warming debate GoodFellas . . . . . . . . Gordon, Jeff . . . . . . Gore, Al. . . . . . . . . Grafton, Sue . . . . . . Graves, Michael . . . . Greenspan, Alan . . . . Griffey, Ken, Jr. . . . . . Grisham, John . . . . . Grunge fashion. . . . . Grunge music . . . . . Gulf War . . . . . . . . Gulf War syndrome . . Gun control . . . . . .

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Hackers . . . . . . . . . . . Hairstyles . . . . . . . . . . Haiti intervention . . . . . Hale-Bopp comet. . . . . . Hamm, Mia . . . . . . . . . Hanks, Tom . . . . . . . . Happy Land fire . . . . . . Harry Potter books. . . . . Hate crimes. . . . . . . . . Health care . . . . . . . . . Health care reform . . . . Heaven’s Gate mass suicide Heroin chic. . . . . . . . . Hill, Anita. . . . . . . . . . Hip-hop and rap music . . Hispanics. See Latinos Hobbies and recreation . . Hockey . . . . . . . . . . . Hogue, James. . . . . . . . Holocaust Memorial Museum . . . . . . . . . Holy Virgin Mary, The . . . . Holyfield, Evander . . . . . Home Alone . . . . . . . . . Home run race . . . . . . . Homeschooling . . . . . . Homosexuality and gay rights . . . . . . . . . .

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Homosexuals in the military. See Don’t ask, don’t tell Hubble Space Telescope. . . . . 433 Human Genome Project. . . . . 435 Hurricane Andrew . . . . . . . . 438 Ice hockey. See Hockey Illegal immigration. . . . . . . IM. See Instant messaging Immigration Act of 1990. . . . Immigration to Canada . . . . Immigration to the United States . . . . . . . . . . . . In Living Color . . . . . . . . . Income and wages in Canada . . . . . . . . . . . Income and wages in the United States . . . . . . . . Independent films . . . . . . . Indians, American. See Native Americans Instant messaging . . . . . . . Intelligent design movement . . . . . . . . . . Internet . . . . . . . . . . . . . Internet startups. See Dot-coms Inventions . . . . . . . . . . . Iron John. . . . . . . . . . . . . Israel and the United States . . Jenny Jones Show murder Jewish Americans. . . . Jobs, Steve . . . . . . . Joe Camel campaign . . Johnson, Magic . . . . . Jordan, Michael . . . . Journalism . . . . . . . Jurassic Park . . . . . . .

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Kaczynski, Theodore. See Unabomber capture Kelley, Kitty . . . . . . . . Kemp, Jack . . . . . . . . Kennedy, John F., Jr. . . . Kennedy rape case . . . . Kerrigan, Nancy . . . . . Kevorkian, Jack . . . . . . Khobar Towers bombing Killer bees . . . . . . . . King, Rodney . . . . . . . King, Stephen . . . . . .

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476 477 478 479 480 481 482 484 485 486

Kingsolver, Barbara . . . . . . Klaas kidnapping and murder case . . . . . . . . . . . . . Knox pornography case . . . . Komunyakaa, Yusef. . . . . . . Koons, Jeff . . . . . . . . . . . Kosovo conflict . . . . . . . . . Kwanzaa . . . . . . . . . . . . Kyoto Protocol . . . . . . . . .

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Lagasse, Emeril. . . . . . . . . . Lang, K. D. . . . . . . . . . . . . Laparoscopic surgery . . . . . . Larry Sanders Show, The . . . . . . Las Vegas megaresorts . . . . . . LASIK surgery . . . . . . . . . . Late night television . . . . . . . Latin America . . . . . . . . . . Latinos . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Lee, Spike . . . . . . . . . . . . Left Behind books . . . . . . . . Lewinsky scandal . . . . . . . . . Liberalism in U.S. politics . . . . Life coaching . . . . . . . . . . . Limbaugh, Rush . . . . . . . . . Line Item Veto Act of 1996 . . . Literature in Canada . . . . . . . Literature in the United States . . . . . . . . . . . . . Lollapalooza . . . . . . . . . . . Long Island Lolita case . . . . . Long Island Rail Road murders. See Ferguson, Colin Los Angeles riots . . . . . . . . . Louima torture case . . . . . . . Love, Courtney . . . . . . . . . . Lucid, Shannon . . . . . . . . .

497 498 499 500 501 503 504 505 507 509 510 511 513 515 516 517 518

McCaughey septuplets . McCourt, Frank . . . . McEntire, Reba. . . . . McGwire, Mark . . . . . McMansions . . . . . . McMillan, Terry . . . . McNally, Terrence . . . McVeigh, Timothy . . . Madonna . . . . . . . . Mafia . . . . . . . . . . Magic Eye pictures . . . Mall of America . . . . Malone, Karl . . . . . .

535 536 537 538 539 540 541 542 543 545 546 547 549

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The Nineties in America Mapplethorpe obscenity trial. . . 550 Marilyn Manson . . . . . . . . . 552 Marriage and divorce . . . . . . 553 Mars exploration . . . . . . . . . 554 Matrix, The . . . . . . . . . . . . 556 Medicine . . . . . . . . . . . . . 557 Men Are from Mars, Women Are from Venus . . . . . . . . . 560 Menendez brothers murder case . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 561 Metallica . . . . . . . . . . . . . 562 MetLife scandal . . . . . . . . . 563 Mexico and the United States . . . . . . . . . . . . . 564 Michelangelo computer virus . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 566 Microsoft . . . . . . . . . . . . . 566 Middle East and North America . . . . . . . . . . . . 568 Midnight basketball . . . . . . . 571 Military, homosexuals in. See Don’t ask, don’t tell Military, women in the. See Women in the military Militia movement . . . . . . . . 572 Millennium bug. See Y2K problem Milli Vanilli . . . . . . . . . . . . 573 Million Man March . . . . . . . 574 Minimum wage increases . . . . 576 Minorities in Canada. . . . . . . 578 Mississippi River flood of 1993 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 579 Mistry, Rohinton . . . . . . . . . 580 Montana Freemen standoff . . . 581 Moore, Judge Roy . . . . . . . . 582 Morissette, Alanis . . . . . . . . 583 Morris, Dick . . . . . . . . . . . 584 Morrison, Toni . . . . . . . . . . 585 Mount Pleasant riot . . . . . . . 586 Movies. See Film in Canada; Film in the United States Mozart effect . . . . . . . . . . . 588 MP3 format. . . . . . . . . . . . 589 MTV Unplugged . . . . . . . . . . 590 Mulroney, Brian . . . . . . . . . 591 Murphy Brown . . . . . . . . . . . 593 Music . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 595 Musicals. See Broadway musicals Myers, Mike. . . . . . . . . . . . 599 NAFTA. See North American Free Trade Agreement (NAFTA) Nanotechnology . . . . . . . . . 601 National debt . . . . . . . . . . . 602

National Endowment for the Arts (NEA) . . . . . . . . . Native Americans. . . . . . . . Natural disasters . . . . . . . . NC-17 rating . . . . . . . . . . NEA. See National Endowment for the Arts (NEA) Nicotine patch . . . . . . . . . Nine Inch Nails. . . . . . . . . Nirvana . . . . . . . . . . . . . Nobel Prizes . . . . . . . . . . Noriega capture and trial . . . North American Free Trade Agreement (NAFTA) . . . . North Hollywood shoot-out . . Northern Exposure . . . . . . . . Northridge earthquake . . . . Novello, Antonia Coello . . . . Nunavut Territory . . . . . . . Nye, Bill. . . . . . . . . . . . . NYPD Blue. . . . . . . . . . . . Oakland Hills fire . . . . . . O’Connor, Sinéad . . . . . . Oklahoma City bombing. . . Oklahoma tornado outbreak. Olympic basketball team. See Dream Team Olympic Games of 1992 . . . Olympic Games of 1994 . . . Olympic Games of 1996 . . . Olympic Games of 1998 . . . Olympic Park bombing . . . Olympics bid scandal. See Salt Lake City Olympics bid scandal Ondaatje, Michael . . . . . . O’Neal, Shaquille . . . . . . O’Reilly, Bill . . . . . . . . . Organic food movement. . . Organized crime. See Mafia Oscars. See Academy Awards Outsourcing . . . . . . . . . Palahniuk, Chuck . . . . . . Paltrow, Gwyneth . . . . . . . Patriot missile . . . . . . . . PDAs . . . . . . . . . . . . . Perfect Storm, the . . . . . . Perlman, Itzhak . . . . . . . Perot, H. Ross . . . . . . . . Personal digital assistants. See PDAs Pharmaceutical industry . . .

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657 658 659 659 661 662 664

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Philadelphia . . . . . . . . . . . . 667 Phoenix, River . . . . . . . . . . 668 Photography . . . . . . . . . . . 669 Physician-assisted suicide . . . . 670 Pitt, Brad . . . . . . . . . . . . . 672 Pixar . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 673 Planned Parenthood v. Casey . . . . 675 Plasma screens . . . . . . . . . . 676 Poetry . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 677 Pogs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 678 Pokémon franchise . . . . . . . 679 Police brutality . . . . . . . . . . 680 Pollution. See Air pollution; Water pollution Popcorn, Faith . . . . . . . . . . 682 Poverty . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 683 Powell, Colin . . . . . . . . . . . 685 Presidential elections. See Elections in the United States, 1992; Elections in the United States, 1996 Project Gutenberg . . . . . . . . 686 Promise Keepers . . . . . . . . . 687 Proulx, Annie. . . . . . . . . . . 688 Psychology . . . . . . . . . . . . 689 Publishing . . . . . . . . . . . . 691 Pulp Fiction . . . . . . . . . . . . 692 Quayle, Dan . . . . . . . . . . . 694 Quebec referendum of 1995 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 695 Queer Nation. . . . . . . . . . . 696 Race relations . . . . . . . . . Railway Killer. See Reséndiz, Ángel Maturino Ramsey murder case . . . . . . Rap music. See Hip-hop and rap music Real World, The . . . . . . . . . Recession of 1990-1991 . . . . Recreation. See Hobbies and recreation Reeve, Christopher. . . . . . . Reeves, Keanu . . . . . . . . . Reform Party . . . . . . . . . . Religion and spirituality in Canada . . . . . . . . . . . Religion and spirituality in the United States . . . . . . . . Reno, Janet . . . . . . . . . . . Rent . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Republican Revolution . . . . Reséndiz, Ángel Maturino . . .

. 698

. 701

. 703 . 703

. 705 . 706 . 707 . 708 . . . . .

710 713 714 716 718

Complete List of Contents Restructuring. See Downsizing and restructuring Rice, Anne . . . . . . . . . . . . 719 Right-wing conspiracy . . . . . . 720 Ripken, Cal, Jr. . . . . . . . . . . 721

Roberts, Julia . . . . . . . . . Rock, Chris . . . . . . . . . . Rock and Roll Hall of Fame Museum . . . . . . . . . . Rock Bottom Remainders . .

. . 722 . . 723 . . 724 . . 726

Rock the Vote. . . . . Romer v. Evans . . . . Roth, Philip. . . . . . Ruby Ridge shoot-out Rules, The . . . . . . .

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726 728 729 730 732

Volume III Complete List of Contents . . . xlvii RuPaul . . . . . . . . . . . Russia and North America. Rust v. Sullivan . . . . . . . Ryan, Meg . . . . . . . . . Ryder, Winona . . . . . . .

. . . . .

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Salmon war . . . . . . . . . . . Salt Lake City Olympics bid scandal . . . . . . . . . . . Sampras, Pete . . . . . . . . . Saturn Corporation . . . . . . Saving Private Ryan . . . . . . . Scandals . . . . . . . . . . . . Schindler’s List . . . . . . . . . . Schlessinger, Dr. Laura. . . . . School violence. . . . . . . . . Schwarzkopf, Norman . . . . . Science and technology . . . . Scream . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Search engines . . . . . . . . . Seinfeld . . . . . . . . . . . . . Selena. . . . . . . . . . . . . . Seles, Monica . . . . . . . . . . Sex and the City . . . . . . . . . Shakur, Tupac . . . . . . . . . Sharpton, Al . . . . . . . . . . Shaw v. Reno. . . . . . . . . . . Sheehy, Gail . . . . . . . . . . Shepard, Matthew . . . . . . . Shoemaker-Levy 9 comet . . . Showgirls. . . . . . . . . . . . . Silence of the Lambs, The . . . . . Silicon Valley . . . . . . . . . . Silicone implant ban . . . . . . Simpson murder case . . . . . Simpsons, The . . . . . . . . . . Slang and slogans . . . . . . . Slogans. See Slang and slogans Smith, Susan . . . . . . . . . . Smith, Will . . . . . . . . . . . Soccer. . . . . . . . . . . . . . Soccer moms . . . . . . . . . . Social Security reform . . . . .

. . . . .

733 734 737 737 738

. 740 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

741 741 742 743 744 747 749 750 752 754 758 759 760 762 763 764 765 766 767 768 769 770 771 772 772 774 775 778 779

. . . . .

781 782 783 784 786

Somalia conflict . . . . . . . . . Sontag, Susan. . . . . . . . . . . Sosa, Sammy . . . . . . . . . . . South Park . . . . . . . . . . . . . Space exploration . . . . . . . . Space shuttle program . . . . . . Spam . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Speicher, Scott . . . . . . . . . . Spirituality. See Religion and spirituality in Canada; Religion and spirituality in the United States Spoken word movement . . . . . Sport utility vehicles (SUVs). . . Sports . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Star Wars: Episode I—The Phantom Menace . . . . . . . . . . . . . Starr Report . . . . . . . . . . . Stem cell research . . . . . . . . Stephanopoulos, George . . . . Stern, Howard . . . . . . . . . . Stewart, Martha . . . . . . . . . Stock market . . . . . . . . . . . Stockdale, James . . . . . . . . . Stojko, Elvis. . . . . . . . . . . . Storm of the Century . . . . . . Strand, Mark . . . . . . . . . . . String theory . . . . . . . . . . . Strug, Kerri . . . . . . . . . . . . Sundance Film Festival. . . . . . Supreme Court decisions . . . . Sustainable design movement . . . . . . . . . . . SUVs. See Sport utility vehicles (SUVs) Tae Bo . . . . . . . . . . . . Tailhook incident . . . . . . Take Our Daughters to Work Day . . . . . . . . . . . . Talk radio. . . . . . . . . . . Tarantino, Quentin . . . . . Tattoos and body piercings . Technology. See Science and technology

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788 789 790 791 793 795 796 797

798 800 801 803 804 806 808 809 810 811 813 814 815 817 818 818 820 822

. . . .

835 836 837

841 843 845 846 849 850 852 854 855 857 858 858 860 862 865 867 869 870 871 872 873 874 875 876

826

. . 829 . . 829 . . . .

Telecommunications Act of 1996 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Telemarketing . . . . . . . . . . Television . . . . . . . . . . . . . Television ratings system. See TV Parental Guidelines system Tennis. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Term limits . . . . . . . . . . . . Terminator 2: Judgment Day . . . . Terrorism . . . . . . . . . . . . . Texas A&M bonfire collapse . . . . . . . . . . . . Theater in Canada . . . . . . . . Theater in the United States . . . Thelma and Louise. . . . . . . . . Thomas, Clarence . . . . . . . . Three strikes laws . . . . . . . . Tibetan Freedom Concerts . . . Titanic. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Tobacco industry settlement . . . Toys and games. . . . . . . . . . Transgender community. . . . . Travolta, John . . . . . . . . . . Troopergate . . . . . . . . . . . Trump, Donald. . . . . . . . . . TV Martí . . . . . . . . . . . . . TV Parental Guidelines system . . . . . . . . . . . . . TWA Flight 800 crash . . . . . . Twenty-seventh Amendment . . . Twin Peaks. . . . . . . . . . . . . Tyson, Mike. . . . . . . . . . . .

831 832 834 835

Unabomber capture . . . . Unforgiven . . . . . . . . . . United Nations . . . . . . . Updike, John . . . . . . . . UPN television network . . U.S. Capitol shooting . . . U.S. embassy bombings in Africa . . . . . . . . . .

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879 881 882 883 884 885

. . . 886

Vagina Monologues, The . . . . . . 890 ValuJet Flight 592 crash . . . . . 891 Ventura, Jesse. . . . . . . . . . . 892

The Nineties in America Versace murder. Viagra . . . . . . Victoria’s Secret Video games . .

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894 895 896 897

Waco siege . . . . . . . . . . . . 900 Wages. See Income and wages in Canada; Income and wages in the United States Wallace, David Foster . . . . . . 903 Wal-Mart . . . . . . . . . . . . . 904 Washington, Denzel . . . . . . . 905 Water pollution. . . . . . . . . . 906 WB television network . . . . . . 908 Web. See Internet; World Wide Web Web logs. See Blogs Wegman, William . . . . . . . . 908 Weil, Andrew . . . . . . . . . . . 909 Welfare reform . . . . . . . . . . 910 West Nile virus outbreak . . . . . 912 “What would Jesus do?” bracelets. See WWJD bracelets Where’s Waldo? franchise . . . . . 914 White House attacks . . . . . . . 915 Whitewater investigation. . . . . 915 Whitman, Christine Todd . . . . 917 Wigand, Jeffrey . . . . . . . . . . 918 Wilder, L. Douglas . . . . . . . . 919 Will and Grace . . . . . . . . . . . 920 Winfrey, Oprah. . . . . . . . . . 921 WNBA. See Women’s National Basketball Association (WNBA)

Wolfowitz, Paul . . . . . . . . . Women in the military . . . . . Women in the workforce . . . Women’s National Basketball Association (WNBA) . . . . Women’s rights . . . . . . . . . Woods, Tiger . . . . . . . . . . Woodstock concerts . . . . . . Workforce, women in the. See Women in the workforce World Cup of 1994 . . . . . . . World Trade Center bombing. . . . . . . . . . . World Trade Organization protests . . . . . . . . . . . World Wide Web . . . . . . . . WTO protests. See World Trade Organization protests Wuornos, Aileen Carol. . . . . WWJD bracelets . . . . . . . .

. 922 . 923 . 925 . . . .

928 928 931 933

. 935 . 937 . 939 . 941

. 944 . 945

X-Files, The . . . . . . . . . . . . 947 Xena: Warrior Princess . . . . . . . 948 Y 2K problem . . . . . . . . Yahoo! . . . . . . . . . . . Yamaguchi, Kristi. . . . . . Year of the Woman . . . . . Year-round schools . . . . . Year 2000 problem. See Y 2K problem

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. . . . .

. . . . .

950 952 953 954 956

Zone diet . . . . . . . . . . . . . 958

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Entertainment: Major Films of the 1990’s . . . . . . . . . 959 Entertainment: Academy Awards. . . . . . . . . . . . . 967 Entertainment: Major Broadway Plays and Awards . . . . . . . 969 Entertainment: Most-Watched U.S. Television Shows. . . . . 977 Entertainment: Emmy Awards. . . . . . . . . . . . . 979 Legislation: Major U.S. Legislation . . . . . . . . . . 983 Legislation: U.S. Supreme Court Decisions . . . . . . . . 990 Literature: Best-Selling U.S. Books . . . . . . . . . . . . . 997 Literature: Major Literary Awards . . . . . . . . . . . . 1000 Music: Popular Musicians . . . 1003 Music: Grammy Awards. . . . . 1012 Sports: Winners of Major Events . . . . . . . . . . . . 1021 Time Line . . . . . . . . . . . . 1027 Bibliography . . . . . . . . . . 1042 Web Sites . . . . . . . . . . . . 1047 Glossary . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1050 List of Entries by Category . . . 1055 Photo Index . . . . . . . . . . . . III Personages Index . . . . . . . . . VII Subject Index . . . . . . . . . . . XV

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The Nineties in America

■ Gephardt, Dick Identification Prominent Democratic politician Born January 31, 1941; St. Louis, Missouri

Gephardt served as a U.S. representative from Missouri for twenty-eight years, was the minority leader in the House of Representatives from 1995 to 2003, and twice ran for president of the United States. Starting out as a young child in a traditional working-class family, Richard Andrew “Dick” Gephardt graduated from Northwestern University in 1962. He then attended the University of Michigan Law School, where he graduated in 1965 and was admitted to the Missouri bar that same year. From 1965 to 1972, Gephardt served in the Missouri Air National Guard. During this time, he received his start in Missouri politics. Between 1968 and 1971, he served as the Democratic committeeman for the Fourteenth Ward in St. Louis. He became an alderman in 1971 and served in that position until 1976. On January 3,

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1977, Gephardt replaced Leonor Sullivan as the representative for Missouri’s third district. In June, 1989, Gephardt became the majority leader of the House of Representatives. When the Democrats lost control of the House in 1994, Gephardt became the minority leader, serving from 1995 to 2003. During this time, he advocated the expansion of national health care, supported progressive taxation, arms control, and encouraged fair trade practices by trying to penalize nations that would restrict the importation of U.S.-made goods. Although at the beginning of the decade Gephardt was in favor of a pro-life amendment to the Constitution, by the end of the 1990’s and perhaps influenced by his decision to run for president, he had abandoned his support of such legislation. In 1987-1988, Gephardt sought the Democratic nomination for president. He started off strong with victory in Iowa but dropped out due to lack of finances and a poor showing on Super Tuesday. He was briefly considered as a vice presidential candidate when Al Gore won the party nomination in 2000, but Gore selected Joe Lieberman of Connecticut instead. In 2004, Gephardt again ran for president but was viewed as too old-fashioned, and he slowly faded out of the political spotlight. Impact Despite two failed bids for the presidency, Gephardt served his district and his party well. A strong Democratic partisan, he voted along party lines 85 to 94 percent of the time between the 102nd and 108th Congresses. Further Reading

Gephardt, Richard, with Michael Wessel. An Even Better Place: America in the Twenty-first Century. New York: PublicAffairs, 1999. Gottlieb, Alan M., and Dave Workman. Double Trouble: Daschle and Gephardt, Capital Hill Bullies. Bellevue, Wash.: Merril Press, 2001. Kathryn A. Cochran Bush, George H. W.; Clinton, Bill; Gore, Al; Health care reform; Liberalism in U.S. politics.

See also

House minority leader Dick Gephardt. (AP/Wide World Photos)

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■ Gifford, Kathie Lee American television host, actress, and singer Born August 16, 1953; Paris, France Identification

Gifford was one of the most popular daytime television personalities of the 1990’s. On June 24, 1985, Kathie Lee Gifford, then known as Kathie Lee Johnson, joined Regis Philbin as the cohost of the WABC-TV New York morning talk show, The Morning Show. On October 18, 1986, the aspiring talk-show host married former New York Giants football player and sports broadcaster Frank Gifford. In September, 1988, the popular hour-long morning show had its name changed to Live with Regis and Kathie Lee. That same year, Buena Vista Television began the national syndication of the show. By the early 1990’s, the show had become one of the most popular morning talk shows on television, and Gifford had become a television celebrity. The show’s success was due in part to the fact that Live with Regis and Kathie Lee was aired live and unrehearsed. On a daily basis, both Philbin and Gifford shared their personal lives with the viewing audience. Gifford’s sense of humor, charisma, and openness about her life, both good and bad, made her popular with fans. Throughout the decade, she shared untold numbers of stories about her marriage and two children and also shared her personal struggles, including her husband’s infidelity. Utilizing her celebrity, Gifford also pursued numerous business ventures during the 1990’s. She published eight books, including several cookbooks and children’s books as well as an autobiography. She appeared in television advertisements for Carnival Cruise Lines and Ultra Slim Fast and supported children’s charities and the Special Olympics. From 1991 through 1995, she and Philbin cohosted the Miss America Pageant. In 1995, she introduced a profitable clothing line at Wal-Mart stores. Controversy followed in 1996, when it was disclosed that some of the clothing merchandise had been manufactured in Honduran sweatshops that employed children. Gifford denied any knowledge of the exploitation and later vowed to fight such practice, supporting antisweatshop legislation. Throughout the decade, Gifford guest-starred on dozens of sitcoms and prime-time television shows. She also continued to pursue her singing career by

Kathie Lee Gifford with cohost Regis Philbin in 1992. (AP/Wide World Photos)

performing at several New York City nightclubs. In 1993, she released two albums, Sentimental Journey and It’s Christmas Time. On July 28, 2000, Gifford cohosted her last morning show with Philbin. Impact One of the most popular talk-show hosts of the 1990’s, Kathie Lee Gifford endeared herself to television audiences with her natural sense of humor, positive energy, and openness about her personal life. Further Reading

Gifford, Kathie Lee, with Jim Jerome. I Can’t Believe I Said That! An Autobiography. New York: Pocket Books, 1992. Hill, E. D. Going Places: How America’s Best and Brightest Got Started Down the Road of Life. New York: ReganBooks, 2005. King, Norman. Regis and Kathie Lee: Their Lives Together and Apart. Secaucus, N.J.: Carol, 1995. Bernadette Zbicki Heiney See also

Wal-Mart.

Fashions and clothing; Music; Television;

The Nineties in America

■ Gingrich, Newt Speaker of U.S. House of Representatives, 1995-1999 Born June 17, 1943; Harrisburg, Pennsylvania Identification

A colorful and outspoken former professor of history who was elected to the U.S. House of Representatives in 1978, Gingrich proved instrumental in allowing the Republican Party to achieve its first majority in the House after forty years of Democratic Party dominance. It is ironic that the man who would become the face of the “Republican Revolution” barely won reelection to his own seat in the House of Representatives during the midterm elections of 1990. Less than a year before, the boisterous congressman from Georgia had been named the House minority whip, after a decade of using every means at his disposal to revive the fortunes of his party in the House of Representatives. Contract with America and House Speaker In his position as minority whip, Gingrich was responsible along with a number of other Republican congressmen for creating the Contract with America. This document, introduced shortly before the midterm elections of 1994, was a list of ten legislative initiatives focusing on the principles of limited government and fiscal responsibility that Republicans promised to pass if they became the majority party. A few months later, when they won control of the House of Representatives through the addition of fifty-four seats, Republicans named Gingrich the first Republican Speaker of the House in four decades. When Gingrich became Speaker, he initiated a number of measures that increased his power. He had wanted to remake the position of Speaker from one of powerful symbolism into one that had the ability to dictate a political agenda. The House had been organized under a seniority system for decades. Gingrich realized that the only way his agenda could be successful was if the system was changed, and he installed his own loyalists as chairs of many of those key committees that dictated how the House’s business was done. By the end of the first one hundred days in the majority, Gingrich and his “revolutionaries” had passed all but one of the initiatives of the Contract with America. However, most of the bills failed to pass both chambers of Congress and be

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signed into law by President Bill Clinton. Gingrich had a substantial amount of support in the House of Representatives, having been partially responsible for the victory of many House newcomers in 1994. Those men and women owed him their loyalty; therefore, early in his reign as Speaker, Gingrich and his lieutenants were in control of much of the legislation that moved through the institution. However, despite achieving his goals of becoming Speaker and attaining political power, at times Gingrich behaved like the combative rabblerouser who had first arrived in Congress in the late 1970’s. His vitriolic comments about the Democrats as “enemies of normal Americans” caused The Washington Post to name the Speaker “the most hated man in Congress.” An example of the pugnacious behavior Gingrich often displayed was his comment to Time magazine regarding his intention to shut the government down if President Clinton did not accept the Republicans’ demand to cut Medicare. “He can run the parts of government that are left [after the cuts], or he can run no government,” Gingrich boasted in May, 1995. Arguments between Gingrich and the president over that program, along with a number of other pieces of fiscal legislation, culminated with the government shutdown in November, 1995, followed by the government again coming to a halt in early 1996. While many of Gingrich’s colleagues agreed that the legislation was fiscally irresponsible, the reasoning was overshadowed following the Speaker’s negative comments toward Clinton over poor treatment he received by the president’s staff following a trip on Air Force One. Many considered the budget battle and Gingrich’s negative media portrayals as responsible for Clinton’s resounding reelection in November of 1996.

Government Shutdown and 1996 Elections

Attempt at Removal Despite these defeats at the hands of Clinton, Gingrich continued to try to use the Republican majority to control the national legislative agenda. In June, 1997, the Republicans submitted a bill to the White House focusing on disaster relief for flood victims. Besides the major legislation, the bill also contained a number of conservative amendments that Gingrich believed the president would not dare to veto. When Clinton chose to veto the bill, Republicans were outraged as they were criticized by the media and the public for utilizing ob-

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Ginsburg, Ruth Bader

structionist tactics. Following the legislative defeat, a number of House Republicans sought to remove Gingrich from his position as Speaker. However, Gingrich still had a great deal of support within the House, and no overwhelming alternative to fill the position existed. 1998 Elections and Loss of Power When newspapers revealed in late 1997 that Clinton had engaged in an affair with former White House intern Monica Lewinsky, Gingrich utilized the incident as a means of rallying public opinion against the president. Still, many conservatives were cautious, warning Gingrich not to focus all his energies in the hopes of chasing the president from office. The animosity of the Republicans’ attack on the president did not match that of the public. In the end, Gingrich’s choice to ignore outside counsel served him poorly. The Republicans’ refusal to put the president’s indiscretion behind them caused a public backlash that hurt their party during the 1998 elections. In the summer of 1998, the public became even more angry with the Republican leadership when Clinton painted them as a “do-nothing Congress” for their failure to come to an agreement on education legislation, forcing them to remain in session until both sides could come to a compromise. The battle lasted well into October and contributed to the Republicans losing five seats in the House of Representatives when the votes were tallied that November. It was the worst loss for the congressional majority in a midterm election in more than half a century. As the public face of the Republican Party, Gingrich was held responsible for his party’s loss. Shortly after the election, he not only stepped down as Speaker but also resigned his position in Congress, despite having been elected by his district to a tenth term. Following his departure from government, Gingrich became a commentator with Fox News and joined a number of institutes that focus on various areas of public policy. Impact Newt Gingrich was a rare politician who not only had the vision of a national Republican realignment but also possessed the knowledge and skill to bring that goal to fruition. Despite being punished for a number of ethics violations during his congressional tenure, Gingrich brought his party back to the majority in the House of Representatives after forty years. His Contract with America ignited the passions of a new generation of Republican legis-

lators who, despite his absence, held that mandate of leadership until the Democrats regained the majority following the midterm elections of 2006. Further Reading

Gibbs, Nancy, and Michael Duffy. “Fall of the House of Newt.” Time, November 16, 1998, 46-55. Report on Gingrich and his party’s fall from power. Gingrich, Newt. To Renew America. New York: HarperCollins, 1995. Gingrich outlines his political philosophy and his policy goals. Sheehy, Gail. “The Inner Quest of Newt Gingrich.” Vanity Fair, September, 1995, 149-151. A look at Gingrich from the perspectives of his family, friends, associates, and himself. Laurence R. Jurdem See also Christian Coalition; Clinton, Bill; Clinton’s impeachment; Clinton’s scandals; Conservatism in U.S. politics; Contract with America; Elections in the United States, midterm; Elections in the United States, 1996; Lewinsky scandal; Republican Revolution; Term limits.

■ Ginsburg, Ruth Bader Associate justice of the United States since 1993 Born March 15, 1933; Brooklyn, New York Identification

In 1993, Ginsburg became the second woman to sit on the U.S. Supreme Court. Prior to joining the U.S. Supreme Court, Ruth Bader Ginsburg was best known for her work as the first director of the Women’s Rights Project of the American Civil Liberties Union (ACLU). She was the victorious counsel of record in numerous equal protection lawsuits that came before the Supreme Court in the 1970’s. These cases constituted much of the significant sex equity litigation of the twentieth century and had great constitutional and societal significance. Between 1980 and 1993, Ginsburg sat on the U.S. Court of Appeals for the District of Columbia Circuit. On June 14, 1993, when President Bill Clinton nominated Ginsburg to succeed Justice Byron White on the U.S. Supreme Court, he spoke of her “pioneering” work on behalf of women. Her nomination sailed through the Senate Judiciary Committee by an

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18 to 0 vote. The full Senate confirmed her appointment on August 3, 1993, by a vote of 96 to 3. Ginsburg became the 107th justice, the second woman to sit on the Court (joining Sandra Day O’Connor), and the first Jewish justice since Abe Fortas’s departure in 1969. Through the October, 1999, term of the Court, Ginsburg authored 146 opinions: sixty-one majority opinions, forty concurring opinions, thirty-eight dissenting opinions, and seven opinions in part concurring and in part dissenting. More than one-third of her opinions for the Court were unanimous. A liberal associate justice, she most often agreed with Justices John Paul Stevens, David Souter, and Stephen G. Breyer. She most often disagreed with Chief Justice William Ruth Bader Ginsburg accepts her nomination to the U.S. Supreme Court in 1993. (NARA) H. Rehnquist and Justices Antonin Scalia and Clarence Thomas. The subject matter on which Ginsburg has written the most opinions is Further Reading civil procedure, a topic she taught while a law school Glenn, Richard A. “Ruth Bader Ginsburg.” In Great professor during the 1960’s and 1970’s. She has exAmerican Lawyers, edited by John R. Vile. Santa hibited a strong opposition to state-sanctioned reliBarbara, Calif.: ABC-Clio, 2001. gious exercises, and she has consistently voted to Perry, Barbara A. “The Supremes”: Essays on the Current uphold affirmative action programs and minorityJustices of the Supreme Court of the United States. New majority districts. She authored the majority opinion York: Peter Lang, 2001. in Chandler v. Miller (1997), in which the Court struck Richard A. Glenn down Georgia’s 1990 law requiring candidates for public office to submit to drug testing to certify that See also Clinton, Bill; Jewish Americans; Supreme they were drug-free. Court decisions; Thomas, Clarence; Women’s rights. Ginsburg has continued to interpret the equal protection clause of the Fourteenth Amendment to prohibit artificial barriers to equal opportunity. Most notably, she authored the majority opinion in ■ Giuliani, Rudolph United States v. Virginia (1996), in which the Court Identification Mayor of New York City, 1994-2001 struck down Virginia’s exclusion of capable women Born May 28, 1944; Brooklyn, New York from educational opportunities at the Virginia Military Institute. Giuliani reduced citywide crime and corruption, brought conservative values to New York City, and was mayor durImpact Ginsburg’s contribution to women’s rights ing the September 11, 2001, terrorist attacks. in the United States was secure long before she Rudolph Giuliani graduated magna cum laude from joined the Supreme Court in 1993. As a justice, she New York University Law School in 1968. He began emerged as among the most liberal members of the his career as assistant U.S. attorney prosecuting Court.

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bank robbers, kidnappers, and corrupt officials. In 1972, he was appointed federal prosecutor for the Knapp Commission, investigating police corruption. Starting in 1975, he served as associate deputy attorney general in Washington, D.C., where he changed political party affiliation from Democrat to Republican. In 1983, he was appointed U.S. attorney for the Southern District of New York. In this position, he earned a reputation for prosecuting organized crime leaders. In 1986, he prosecuted “The Commission” case, jailing Genovese, Colombo, and Lucchese gangsters. Giuliani began giving press conferences and appeared on talk shows. In 1987, he prosecuted Wall Street financiers Ivan Boesky and Dennis Levine for insider trading, and the “Pizza Connection” drug case, which centered on a scheme to use a number of pizza parlors as fronts for a her-

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oin and cocaine smuggling ring. In 1989, Giuliani ran for mayor against Democratic Manhattan Borough president David Dinkins, an African American. Dinkins was popular with blacks and whites, who saw him as a remedy for race relations, crack, and street crime. Dinkins defeated Giuliani by 42,000 votes but was an ineffectual leader. In 1993, Giuliani ran against Dinkins as a liberal Republican and won by 2 percent of the vote. Mayor Giuliani announced a “quality of life” campaign: Police swept problem areas, arresting even small-time criminals. Graffiti vandals, prostitutes, and squeegee men were removed by police. The campaign drew criticism from civil libertarians. When Giuliani took office in 1994, the city’s deficit was $2 billion. Giuliani cut the city’s budget to the bone, eliminating offices, committees, and social

New York mayor-elect Rudolph Giuliani hugs his wife, Donna, as they celebrate with supporters on November 3, 1993. Giuliani, a Republican, defeated Democratic mayor David Dinkins. (AP/Wide World Photos)

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programs. He also eliminated fifteen thousand municipal jobs and called for increases in worker productivity. He sold the city-owned television station, its two radio stations, and a city-owned hotel; he privatized building maintenance, garbage collection, and road resurfacing. His struggle with the Board of Education to cut jobs was especially bitter, and he gained a reputation as an autocratic bully. In 1994, for example, lawyers from the city’s Legal Aid Department went on strike, and its managers voted for pay raises. Giuliani cut the department’s budget by 16 percent and offered a new contract with a nostrike clause and mandated reorganization. By 1995, crime had dropped by 33 percent. By 1996, with a booming economy, the city had a $450 million surplus revenue. Giuliani’s mayoral opponent in 1997 was Democrat Ruth Messinger, who lost by a significant margin. In his second term, police cameras were installed in Washington Square Park, and smoking was banned in city restaurants. Giuliani ordered a controversial crackdown on jaywalkers and the homeless, and his plan for a gambling casino on Governor’s Island collapsed.

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■ Glenn, John Identification U.S. politician and astronaut Born July 18, 1921; Cambridge, Ohio

A notable career in the U.S. military and his fame as the first American to orbit Earth continued with Glenn’s election to four terms in the U.S. Senate and a return to space in 1998 as the world’s oldest astronaut. Following his election to the Senate in 1974 as a Democrat, John Glenn was reelected in 1980, 1986, and 1992. His committee assignments included Armed Services, Foreign Relations, and the Special Committee on Aging. He chaired the Governmental Affairs Committee (1987-1995). Glenn’s record in the U.S. Senate was unblemished until, along with four other senators, he became involved in a financial scandal involving a failed savings and loan company that sought their assistance in dealing with its problems. The Senate Ethics Committee began hearings in November of 1990 to investigate allegations of improper efforts to assist Charles Keating, the company head. The com-

Impact A 1997 Federal Bureau of Investigation (FBI) report stated that people were more likely to be victims of serious or violent crimes in Anchorage, Alaska, than in New York City. Crime continued to decline in 1999, while the city announced a $2.6 billion surplus. New Yorkers appreciated the restored order, but Giuliani was criticized as abrasive and seeking power by gutting departments and services. In the aftermath of the terrorist attacks on September 11, 2001, he received world praise for his firm control of emergency services and liaisons with federal agencies. Further Reading

Giuliani, Rudolph. Leadership. New York: Hyperion, 2002. Kirtzman, Andrew. The Emperor of the City. New York: William Morrow, 2000. Jim Pauff See also Conservatism in U.S. politics; Crime; Crown Heights riot; Dinkins, David; Lee, Spike; Liberalism in U.S. politics; Mafia; Police brutality; Recession of 1990-1991; Republican Revolution; Sharpton, Al; Terrorism; World Trade Center bombing.

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John Glenn in 1998. (NASA)

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mittee eventually exonerated Glenn in August, 1991. Known for his honesty and ethical standards, he later referred to this controversy as the lowest point in his life. In the aftermath of the “Keating affair,” Glenn defeated his Republican opponent in the 1992 Senate election by a wide margin. He considered running for a fifth term but announced in February, 1997, that he would retire from the Senate at the end of his fourth term, an unprecedented record for a U.S. senator representing Ohio. During the 1990’s, Glenn supported America’s space program as the United States joined other nations to create an International Space Station (ISS) for joint scientific research. He expressed a strong desire to participate as a crew member of one of the space shuttles flying to the ISS. Then in his seventies, he believed that the experience of an older person in space might assist the study of aging and possible effects on the body. Few took him seriously at first, but he continued his determined efforts to gain approval. Finally, the National Aeronautics and Space Administration (NASA) announced in early 1998 that he would return to space. Glenn became a payload specialist assigned to undertake physiological tasks and other experiments on the STS-95 space shuttle Discovery (launched on October 29 and returned to Earth on November 7, 1998). Another focus was Glenn’s involvement in establishing the John Glenn Institute for Public Service and Public Policy at the Ohio State University in 1998. The institute encouraged students to academically train in preparation for public-service careers. Impact John Glenn’s career in public service reveals a deep appreciation for his country. This continued during the 1990’s as a member of the U.S. Senate. His 1998 shuttle flight reaffirmed his long interest in space technology. His support for the John Glenn Institute for Public Service and Public Policy also showed his commitment to utilize his talents and experience to expand opportunities for others who seek to serve their nation. Glenn has been an inspiration to many Americans. Further Reading

Glenn, John, and Nick Taylor. John Glenn: A Memoir. New York: Bantam Books, 1999. Green, Robert. John Glenn: Astronaut and U.S. Senator. Chicago: Ferguson, 2001.

Montgomery, Scott, and Timothy R. Gaffney. Back in Orbit: John Glenn’s Return to Space. Atlanta: Longstreet Press, 1998. Taylor Stults See also Bondar, Roberta; Elections in the United States, 1992; Lucid, Shannon; Space exploration; Space shuttle program.

■ Global warming debate Controversy about a worldwide environmental problem

Definition

Human-induced warming of the Earth’s climate emerged as a major scientific, social, political, and economic issue during the 1990’s, as the effects of climate change became evident in everyday life in locations as varied as small island nations of the Pacific Ocean and the shores of the Arctic Ocean. For the past two and a half centuries, at an accelerating rate, the basic composition of Earth’s atmosphere has been materially altered by the fossil-fuel emissions of human industry. Industry and transport have been emitting increasing amounts of greenhouse gases, including carbon dioxide and methane, which, along with various other synthetic chemicals, retain heat near the surface, contributing to significant warming. Changes in the Atmosphere The proportion of carbon dioxide, the most important of these gases, rose from 280 parts per million (ppm) in about 1880 to roughly 365 ppm in 1999 (and 383 ppm in 2007). Methane’s preindustrial range in the atmosphere was 320 to 780 parts per billion (ppb); by 1999, that level had risen to about 1,700 ppb, a steeper rise, in proportional terms, than carbon dioxide. Carbon dioxide is two hundred times more plentiful in the atmosphere than methane, but a molecule of methane can retain twenty-five times as much heat as one of carbon dioxide. Global temperatures spiked in the late 1980’s and 1990’s, repeatedly breaking records set only a year or two earlier. The warmest year in recorded history to that time was 1998, breaking the record set in 1996, which exceeded 1995’s new benchmark. According to the National Aeronautics and Space Administration (NASA) Goddard Institute for Space Studies,

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the ten warmest years since reliable records have been kept on a global scale (roughly 1890) by 1999 had occurred after 1980. Temperatures continued to rise steadily after the 1990’s. Scientific Consensus and Dissent Though lively debates in political circles and the news media have sometimes raised questions about whether human activity is significantly warming the Earth, scientific evidence in support of global warming accumulated steadily during the 1990’s. With the exception of a minority of contrarians, the human role in a rapid warming of the Earth has become nearly incontrovertible. At the same time that scientific consensus on the seriousness of global warming formed during the 1990’s, however, so did resistance to the idea by a much smaller number of dissenters, some of them funded in part by major fossil-fuel companies. Generally, the skeptics believe that warming will be a balm for humanity. A skeptics’ journal, the World Climate Report, replied to an editorial in the prominent British medical journal The Lancet that asserted that malaria and other mosquito-borne diseases will spread into the temperate zones as global temperatures rise. According to the contrarians, malaria’s spread has very little to do with temperature or humidity and more to do with medical technology and air conditioning. The contrarians assert that epidemics of malaria were common in most of the United States before the 1950’s. In 1878, 100,000 Americans were infected and one-quarter of them died. Impact At stake in the global warming debate is the way in which humans will produce and use energy for the foreseeable future. Many scientists believe that the Earth’s entire energy infrastructure will have to be changed to avoid a crisis. Scientists who study the future potential of human-induced warming also point to several other natural mechanisms that could cause the pace of climate change to accelerate, releasing carbon dioxide and methane from permafrost. Melting Arctic ice also creates a darker ocean surface, changing albedo (reflectivity), causing more heat to be absorbed. The possibility of a “runaway” greenhouse effect by the year 2050 has been raised, often with a palatable sense of urgency. Across Alaska, northern Canada, and Siberia, scientists are finding telltale signs that permafrost is melting at an accelerated rate. As permafrost melts,

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additional carbon dioxide and methane convert from solid form, stored in the earth, to gas, in the atmosphere, retaining more heat. Human contributions of greenhouse gases are provoking natural processes at an alarming rate. The Arctic ice cap melted steadily during the 1990’s, a trend that continued in the subsequent decade. Inuit hunters have reported that enough methane is bubbling out of the Canadian north to light fires. Yellow jacket wasps have been sighted on the far northern Canadian Arctic, where the Inuit have no words in their own language to describe them. In 2006, a manatee, a subtropical marine animal, was observed swimming in the Hudson River near Manhattan Island. Subsequent Events Using a complex set of feedbacks (“thermal inertia”), scientists conclude that humans will feel today’s emissions as heat roughly half a century from now. In the oceans, the feedback loop is longer, probably a century and a half, maybe two. The real debate is not over how much the oceans may rise from melting ice by the end of this century (one to three feet, perhaps) but how much melting will be “in the pipeline” by that time. James E. Hansen, director of the NASA Goddard Institute for Space Studies, estimates that thermal inertia by the year 2100 may guarantee a 25-meter (82-foot) sea-level rise within two centuries. Such a rise could put millions of people out of their homes. Further Reading

Gelbspan, Ross. The Heat Is On: The High Stakes Battle over Earth’s Threatened Climate. Reading, Mass.: Addison-Wesley, 1997. A guide to the political battle over global warming during the 1990’s. Houghton, John. Global Warming: The Complete Briefing. New York: Cambridge University Press, 1997. A concise but expert outline of the issue as it stood in the 1990’s. Johansen, Bruce E. The Global Warming Desk Reference. Westport, Conn.: Greenwood Press, 2001. A summary of the field as it stood at the end of the decade. Lynas, Mark. High Tide: The Truth About Our Climate Crisis. New York: Picador, 2004. A travelogue that illustrates everyday impacts of a changing climate. Bruce E. Johansen See also Agriculture in the United States; Air pollution; Airline industry; Architecture; Biosphere 2;

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Clean Air Act of 1990; Clinton, Bill; Earth Day 1990; Earth in the Balance; Gore, Al; Kyoto Protocol; Nunavut Territory; Science and technology.

■ GoodFellas Identification American gangster film Director Martin Scorsese (1942) Date Released on September 19, 1990

Widely lauded for its skillful directing, Oscar-caliber performances, and references to real-life events, GoodFellas is one of the most critically acclaimed gangster movies of all time and has earned its place in the American film canon. The script for GoodFellas is derived from the Nicholas Pileggi book Wiseguy (1986), which draws heavily from the real-life experiences of Henry Hill, an American gangster and confederate of the Lucchese crime family. The movie follows Henry from childhood as he starts out performing menial tasks for the local mob, run by Paul Cicero (played by Paul Sorvino and based on real-life Lucchese crime figure Paul Vario). Henry’s crime activities increase as he matures into a full-blown “wiseguy,” earning the respect of his cohorts, including Tommy DeVito (Joe Pesci), based on Tommy DeSimone, and Jimmy Conway (Robert De Niro), based on Jimmy Burke. One of the compelling aspects of GoodFellas is the surface appeal of Henry’s life as the story starts out. The audience is introduced to extremely charismatic characters who are treated with respect and living above the standards of average people. They are shown to have a life of freedom and little responsibility to the establishment. As Henry Hill states, “If we wanted something, we just took it.” However, as the story unfolds, the underlying violence and accountability of Henry’s world increasingly surface. In a pivotal scene, Tommy shoots a waiter named “Spider” in the foot. Later, as the bandaged Spider defends himself against Tommy’s belittlements, Tommy murders him in cold blood. This psychopathic action, one of the many shocking scenes in the film, exemplifies how the seemingly fun and prosperous life of the gangster can flip into brutality at any moment. As the narrative progresses, Henry’s life increasingly disintegrates as the negative forces play themselves out. In the end, after Henry is busted by the police, he is reduced to becoming one of the most despised personas in the

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mob world: an informant. Henry’s world has crumbled, and, as he says at the end, “I get to live the rest of my life like a schnook.” Impact GoodFellas not only resonated with audiences worldwide but also established a template for many future gangster films and television series. Martin Scorsese grew up in the Bronx, and throughout his film career his understanding of street nuance set a new standard in the entertainment industry. For example, the Home Box Office (HBO) series The Sopranos drew influence from GoodFellas and Scorsese’s work, and many of the actors from the film itself crossed over to the show. In addition to artistic influence, GoodFellas brought renewed attention to gangster life. Henry Hill has become somewhat of a celebrity, being expelled from the witness protection program and appearing on various talk shows. Further Reading

Friedman, Lawrence S. The Cinema of Martin Scorsese. New York: Continuum, 1997. Scorsese, Martin. Scorsese on Scorsese. Rev. ed. London: Faber & Faber, 2003. Wood, C. J. Nicholas Pileggi and Martin Scorsese: “Wiseguy” and “GoodFellas”—Mob Rules. http:// www.spikemagazine.com/1003nicholaspileggi .php, 2003. Jarod P. Kearney Academy Awards; Crime; Film in the United States; Mafia.

See also

■ Gordon, Jeff Identification American race car driver Born August 4, 1971; Vallejo, California

As four-time NASCAR Winston Cup champion, three-time winner of the Daytona 500, and four-time winner of the Brickyard 400, Gordon has earned a permanent spot in the history of auto racing. As early as age four, Jeff Gordon was racing BMX bikes locally, often competing against older children. At age five, his father purchased two quartermidget racers for Gordon and his older sister. He raced quarter-midget cars and go-karts successfully before growing tired of the sport and temporarily taking up water skiing. At the age of thirteen, Gor-

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don’s life changed forever. For the first time, he raced a 700-horsepower sprint car at the All Star Florida Speedweeks competition. His interest in sprint-car racing was the major reason the Gordon family moved to Pittsboro, Indiana, where there were more opportunities available for a young auto racer. It was suggested that Gordon try driving stock cars, so he went to the Buck Baker Racing School at Rockingham Speedway in North Carolina. Gordon’s enthusiasm and natural talent caught the attention of Hugh Connerty, who found funding for Gordon to race at the Busch Grand National race in 1990. In 1991, Gordon raced for Bill Davis and won the title Rookie of the Year in both the Busch Series and the Winston Cup. In 1992, Gordon won his first career win at the Winston Cup race at the Atlanta Motor Speedway and was noticed by Rick Hendrick. Gordon joined the Hendrick Motorsports team. In 1993, Gordon became the first rookie in history to win the 125-mile qualifying race during Speedweek at the Daytona International Speedway. In 1994, he continued his list of successes with victories at the inaugural Brickyard 400 in Indianapolis and the Coca-Cola 600 in Charlotte. In 1995, Gordon won the Winston Cup championship to become the youngest driver in the modern era to win the crown championship. The next year, he led in Winston Cup Series victories (ten) and laps led (2,313). The year 1997 brought Gordon another Winston Cup championship, with ten victories and one pole. He became the youngest driver ever to win the Daytona 500 and the second driver in history to win the Winston Million—a million-dollar award granted to the winner of three of the four top races on the Winston Cup circuit. That year, he broke the all-time single-season earnings record by winning over $4 million. In 1998, Gordon again won the Winston Cup championship, with thirteen victories, and became the first driver to win the Brickyard 400 twice. Success continued to follow Gordon throughout the following years. He founded the Gordon/ Evernham Motorsports team with his crew chief and, in 1999, established the Jeff Gordon Foundation, which helps chronically ill children. He won his fourth Winston Cup in 2001. Impact Throughout the 1990’s, Gordon proved that one does not necessarily have to win every race

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in order to be in contention for the championship title. From his rookie year in 1993 through 1999, he never finished out of the top ten in points, and he managed to win three Winston Cup championships. His consistency, drive, and dedication to the sport of auto racing alone are admired by many fans. Further Reading

Cothren, Larry. Jeff Gordon: The NASCAR Superstar’s Story. St. Paul, Minn.: Motorbooks International, 2005. Gordon, Jeff, and Steve Eubanks. Jeff Gordon: Racing Back to the Front—My Memoir. New York: Atria Books, 2003. Kathryn A. Cochran See also

Auto racing; Sports.

■ Gore, Al U.S. senator from Tennessee, presidential candidate, U.S. vice president, environmentalist, and author Born March 31, 1948; Washington, D.C. Identification

Gore was a notable force in the proliferation of Internet usage both nationally and internationally. His focus on environmental issues, such as global warning, helped popularize and make mainstream a topic that had previously been a subject discussed primarily among scientists. Al Gore, Jr., began the decade of the 1990’s adjusting to the many changes in his professional and personal life. Having lost a campaign to become the Democratic nominee for president in 1988, Senator Gore was reassessing his political talents and pondering his future in politics. He was also coming to terms with nearly losing his only son, Albert Gore III, who had been seriously injured when hit by a car in 1989. Gore’s wife, Tipper, was suffering from a bout of severe depression caused by her son’s critical illness and the sometimes oppressive responsibilities of being a political wife. All of this caused Gore to reconsider his priorities. He struggled to balance his political life with a desire to make his own mark beyond politics and to honor his deep commitment to his wife and children. Gore entered a period of self-examination and exploration. He spent more time with his family and wrote a book on a subject about which he felt very

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strongly: Earth in the Balance: Ecology and the Human Spirit, which focuses on an environmental crisis of global proportions. Gore claimed that humancaused changes have resulted in catastrophe for the earth’s environment, citing the greenhouse effect of global warming and damage to the ozone as extremely dangerous to the survival of humans, animals, and plant life. Still a senator, Gore spent three years writing the book. In it, he laid out environmental crises and potential solutions. His proposals included nature preservation, population control, environmentally friendly technologies, an international exchange of solutions and policies, and enforceable international agreements aimed at preserving, protecting, and improving planet health. Earth in the Balance was published in 1992 and became a best seller, eventually being translated into more than thirty languages. Gore also had a tremendous interest in the potential for global communication achieved through the use of computer and telephone technologies. He focused on a means to transfer economic information on an international basis and was very influential in popularizing and streamlining use of the Internet. Once fully mainstreamed, such technology made possible a merging of individual nation economies toward a world economy, which some economists criticized as having a dangerous leveling or flattening economic effect. In 1991, Congress passed the High Performance Computing and Communication Act, which had been introduced years earlier as the Gore Bill. This bill led to the creation of the “information superhighway”—an early term for the Internet. Republican president George H. W. Bush was up for reelection in 1992. Gore decided not to seek the Democratic nomination to oppose Bush. Troubled by memories of his failed 1988 attempt, and acknowledging his wife’s resistance to enduring another presidential campaign, he let slide an opportunity to pursue the top spot. Arkansas governor Bill Clinton won the battle to become the Democratic presidential candidate for 1992. Gore was asked to be on Clinton’s list of vice presidential running mates, and he answered in the affirmative. It was not lost on Gore that the vice presidency was a position that his father, Albert Gore, Sr., had coveted but never attained. Clinton liked Gore’s traits of a solid, broad intellect, rigid

Joining Forces with Bill Clinton

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Al Gore. (U.S. Department of Defense)

discipline, firm grasp of even obscure policies, and, perhaps most presciently, his reputation for loyalty. Both Clinton and Gore were from southern states. Generally, presidential candidates choose a vice president from a geographic location different from their own. Clinton, however, felt that Gore brought so many other positives to the ticket that he did not worry about regional balance. Gore’s studiousness and reputation for details nicely contrasted and balanced the perception of Clinton as perhaps a little too laid-back and impetuous. Gore’s image as a rock-solid family man and upright citizen also appealed to Clinton, who faced constant criticism for questionable morals and dubious personal economic investments. The pair won the 1992 election, and President Clinton made good on his promise that Gore would be the most influential vice president in American history. Clinton gave Gore broad influence, especially in matters of the environment

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and telecommunications. Gore was instrumental in helping Clinton design a successful plan to cut the federal deficit, which had skyrocketed under previous Republican administrations. Clinton and Gore were reelected in 1996. Clinton’s sexual involvement with a young female aide, Monica Lewinsky, however, cast a dark shadow over the rest of Clinton’s presidency and resulted in his impeachment. Though Clinton remained in office and enjoyed Gore’s loyal support, the scandal damaged Gore’s chances of winning the presidency in 2000. Impact Although Al Gore’s dream of becoming president of the United States was not realized, his achievements as vice president, environmentalist, and technology proponent made significant contributions to the United States and the world. Further Reading

Gore, Albert. Earth in the Balance: Ecology and the Human Spirit. Boston: Houghton Mifflin, 1992. A scientific treatise, combined with sometimes emotional narrative, on ecological problems. Gore won the Nobel Peace Prize with the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change in 2007 in part for the content and impact of this book. Maraniss, David, and Ellen Nakashima. The Prince of Tennessee: The Rise of Al Gore. New York: Simon & Schuster, 2000. Political biography spanning Al Gore’s rise to national prominence. In-depth discussion of the impact of Gore’s family, especially his father, Senator Albert Gore, Sr. Turque, Bill. Inventing Al Gore. Boston: Houghton Mifflin, 2000. Biography by a Washington, D.C., political correspondent for Newsweek magazine. Explores Gore’s personal and political history, as well as his inner workings. Twyla R. Wells See also Balanced Budget Act of 1997; Campaign finance scandal; Clinton, Bill; Clinton, Hillary Rodham; Clinton’s impeachment; Clinton’s scandals; Earth in the Balance ; Educate America Act of 1994; Elections in the United States, 1992; Elections in the United States, 1996; Global warming debate; Internet; Lewinsky scandal; World Wide Web.

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■ Grafton, Sue Identification American author of crime fiction Born April 24, 1940; Louisville, Kentucky

Grafton became known primarily for her “alphabet series” of detective novels featuring female private investigator Kinsey Millhone, which began in the 1980’s and achieved wide success during the 1990’s. Sue Grafton’s Kinsey Millhone is often cited as one of the first “tough” female private investigators, and the series adheres to many conventions of hardboiled detective fiction, which was popularized in the first half of the century in the works of writers such as Dashiell Hammett, Raymond Chandler, and Ross Macdonald. Grafton’s detective, like those of her predecessors, is unmarried and somewhat cynical. She does not conduct her investigations from the sittingroom setting of the classical sleuth (such as Sherlock Holmes) but goes wherever her investigations take her, often finding herself in violent confrontation with criminals on the brink of being exposed. Possessing less of a dark side than some of her hardboiled predecessors (she does not, like Hammett’s Continental Op, threaten to go “blood simple”), Kinsey retains the tradition’s emphasis on wisecracking persistence, an alternately friendly and contentious relationship with law enforcement, and a frankness with regard to “the job.” Kinsey is not an upper-class sleuth conducting investigations primarily for intellectual pleasure. She is, like Chandler’s Marlowe, a working detective with bills to pay. Also like Marlowe, Kinsey is characterized as someone who lands in the detective profession in part because she possesses an independent streak that makes her a poor fit for occupations requiring obedience to superiors and cooperation with colleagues. Kinsey’s solitude is mitigated somewhat by the presence of kindly friends and neighbors such as the affable landlord Henry and brusquely maternal Rosie, proprietor of Rosie’s Café. Entries in the series during the 1990’s increased Kinsey’s social interconnectedness even further, with story lines focusing more on Kinsey’s personal life, and with the introduction of Kinsey’s estranged extended family. The series began in 1982 with A Is for Alibi and has continued through the alphabet with a new entry being added every one or two years. The chronology of the story itself, however, progresses more slowly.

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Thus, even late entries in the series remain set in the 1980’s. For example, in S Is for Silence (2005), Kinsey goes to a strip mall (not a “big box,” or warehouse, center) in search of a pay phone (there are no cell phones yet), and Henry goes to the theater to see the 1987 film No Way Out starring Kevin Costner. Grafton’s stories do, however, implicitly reference events beyond Kinsey’s time frame. For example, a subplot in P Is for Peril (2001) seems to have been inspired by the widely publicized Menendez brothers murder trial of the 1990’s. Sue Grafton’s success helped pave the way for many female-authored detective series with tough female protagonists, including Patricia Cornwell’s Kay Scarpetta series, Nevada Barr’s Anne Pigeon series, and Linda Barnes’s Carlotta Carlyle series, all of which enjoyed widespread popularity in the 1990’s.

Impact

Further Reading

Kaufman, Natalie Hevener, and Carol McGinnis Kay. “G” Is for Grafton: The Michael Graves poses with a teapot he designed. His partnership with Target stores made him a household name. (AP/Wide World Photos) World of Kinsey Millhone. New York: Henry Holt, 1997. Mizejewski, Linda. Hardboiled and High Gwathmey, and John Hejduk), an unofficial group Heeled: The Woman Detective in Popular Culture. New of modernist architects who had made their repYork: Routledge, 2004. utations during the 1970’s in reaction to the deChristine Photinos signs and issues of the 1960’s, guaranteed his place in cultural history. Graves’s architectural assignSee also Crime; Literature in Canada; Literature ments have included museums, college buildings, in the United States; Menendez brothers murder business towers, arts centers, libraries, hotels, and case; Publishing. residences. Commissions during the 1990’s included the Team Disney Building in Burbank, California, and two resort hotels for Disney World in ■ Graves, Michael Orlando, Florida. Graves, however, was interested in more than Identification American architect and designer buildings by the 1990’s. With his two firms, Michael Born July 9, 1934; Indianapolis, Indiana Graves & Associates (specializing in architecture During the 1990’s, Graves revolutionized the design of evand interior design) and Michael Graves Design eryday objects and the way they are marketed. Group (product and graphic design), he had found new media for his interests. He designed the By the 1990’s, Michael Graves had already estabworkspaces and chairs for his seventy employees and lished himself as an important thinker and teacher formed partnerships to explore applications of his of architecture, with many well-known building aesthetic to fabrics, dinnerware, jewelry, lighting fixcommissions. His inclusion as one of the New York tures, and housewares. His signature touch involves Five (with Peter Eisenman, Richard Meier, Charles

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a whimsical twist on the classical designs that he had learned to love during his early studies in Italy. In 1998, Target stores announced an exclusive Michael Graves line of home products, including closet organizers, teakettles, and laundry baskets. Graves proclaimed that good design should be accessible to everyone. The line proved immensely successful with Target shoppers, paving the way for other “class” designers to partner with stores that served the masses. Graves’s products made him a household name as well as a presence in peoples’ kitchens, and he raised Target’s prestige and stock price. Graves owns a special etching machine to autograph his more expensive products, which appreciate in value. He has designed china and silverware for Italian manufacturer Alessi, packaging for a new corporate image for Lenox china, a coffeemaker for a third company, and blankets and throws with another partner. He was awarded the National Medal of Arts in 1999 and the Gold Medal of the American Institute of Architects in 2001. He maintains his design firms and store in Princeton, New Jersey.

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■ Greenspan, Alan American economist and chairman of the Board of Governors of the Federal Reserve system, 1987-2006 Born March 6, 1926; New York, New York Identification

Greenspan was the longest-serving chairman of the Federal Reserve, serving throughout the decade of the 1990’s and steering the economy through one of the longest bull markets in living history into what became the dot-com bubble. Alan Greenspan began the 1990’s in his third year as chairman of the Federal Reserve, which made him arguably the single most influential force on the U.S. financial markets. The Federal Reserve sets the federal fund rate, which affects the rate at which banks can borrow from each other, which in turn influences the prime rate (typically 3 percent higher than the federal rate). In 1991, Greenspan was faced with a scandal at Salomon Brothers, whose bond-trading division under the leadership of the notorious John Meriwether was caught submitting false bids to the U.S. Trea-

Impact Michael Graves filled a major niche in modern architecture and high-quality design. Graves and his contemporaries, who have been criticized for their celebrity client lists and popular appeal, have informed the work of some younger architects. Further Reading

Eisenman, Peter, et al. Five Architects: Eisenman, Graves, Gwathmey, Hejduk, Meier. New York: Oxford University Press, 1975. Frampton, Kenneth. Modern Architecture: A Critical History. London: Thames and Hudson, 1992. Patton, Phil. Michael Graves Designs: The Art of the Everyday Object. New York: Melcher Media, 2004. Jan Hall See also Architecture; Art movements; Fashions and clothing; Gehry, Frank; Stewart, Martha.

Alan Greenspan. (AP/Wide World Photos)

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Griffey, Ken, Jr.

sury. As a consequence, the federal government was about to withdraw Salomon’s trading privileges, which would have led to bankruptcy. However, after a direct appeal from Warren Buffett, Salomon’s largest investor, Greenspan spared the bank this fate. In 1992, Greenspan was elected to his second term as chairman of the Federal Reserve after being nominated by George H. W. Bush. Despite his Republican background, Greenspan was reelected in 1996 and 2000 by the Bill Clinton administration. Greenspan is renowned for his goal of zero inflation. In 1994, when he was engineering a series of interest-rate increases, he was subjected to much criticism for being willing to sacrifice economic growth in pursuit of this unobtainable goal. However, in 1998 inflation hit an eleven-year low, unemployment was at a twenty-four-year low, and consumer confidence was higher than any other period in the past three decades. The following year, he crossed paths with John Meriwether again, who at this time was running Long-Term Capital Management. The hedge fund was facing a liquidity crisis, having lost $4.6 billion in less than four months. The fund was one of the largest of its kind, and it was feared that its collapse could have triggered a stock market crash. Greenspan intervened and brokered a deal with the creditors. Subsequently, the stock market continued to climb and culminated in the stock market crash in 2000, bursting the dot-com bubble. Many have come to blame Greenspan for his intervention, believing that a stock market correction in 1998 would have prevented the crash of 2000. Greenspan also served on the boards of many companies, including Alcoa, Automatic Data Processing, Capital Cities/ABC, General Foods, J. P. Morgan, Morgan Guaranty Trust Company of New York, Mobil Corporation, and the Pittston Company. Impact Greenspan was often cited as being the second most powerful man in the United States during the 1990’s after the president. His monetary policy led to the longest sustained bull market in recent history and a housing boom across North America. Further Reading

Greenspan, Alan. The Age of Turbulence: Adventures in a New World. New York: Penguin Books, 2007. Hartcher, Peter. Bubble Man: Alan Greenspan and the Missing Seven Trillion Dollars. New York: W. W. Norton, 2006.

Martin, Justin. Greenspan: The Man Behind Money. Cambridge, Mass.: Perseus Books, 2001. Rikard Bandebo Buffett, Warren; Bush, George H. W.; Business and the economy in the United States; Dotcoms; Recession of 1990-1991; Stock market.

See also

■ Griffey, Ken, Jr. Identification Professional baseball player Born November 21, 1969; Donora, Pennsylvania

Griffey won four American League home run titles and ten straight Gold Glove Awards (1990-1999) in the 1990’s. Ken Griffey, Jr., son of former major-league outfielder Ken Griffey, Sr., was drafted first overall by the Seattle Mariners in 1987. He hit a double in his major-league debut on April 3, 1989, and hit a home run off his first pitch at the Seattle Kingdome. The six-foot, three-inch, 205-pound Griffey, who bats and throws left-handed, became in 1990 the first Mariner ever selected to the starting lineup of the All-Star Game. His father joined Seattle that August, the first time a father-son duo played simultaneously on the same major-league team. The younger Griffey, often compared with his idol Willie Mays, showed exceptional ability to hit with power, run, field, and throw. In 1991, he batted a career-high .327 with 100 runs batted in (RBIs). Two years later, Griffey led the American League (AL) with 359 total bases and became the fourth major leaguer under age twenty-four to record three consecutive seasons with at least 100 RBIs. His 45 home runs in 1993 ranked second in the AL. In July, Griffey tied a major-league record by homering in eight consecutive games. In 1994, he won his first AL home run crown with 40 and finished second in slugging percentage. Griffey peaked in the late 1990’s, becoming the fourth major leaguer to belt 40 home runs in five straight seasons and leading the AL in home runs for three consecutive seasons. He hit 56 home runs in 1997 and 1998 and clouted 48 home runs in 1999. Griffey captured the AL Most Valuable Player (MVP) honors in 1997, pacing the AL with a career-high 147 RBI and recording a career-best 185 hits. He finished third in the AL with 146 RBIs in 1998 and

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Ken Griffey, Jr., crosses home plate in the bottom of the eleventh inning in game five of the 1995 American League Division Series. The Seattle Mariners defeated the New York Yankees 6-5. (AP/Wide World Photos)

shared third with 134 RBIs in 1999. The fleet-footed Griffey excelled defensively, diving for sinking liners and making numerous leaping catches to rob opponents of home runs. His arm ranked among the best center fielders. Griffey led Seattle to postseason appearances in 1995 and 1997. He tallied one of the most important runs in Mariner history, scoring from first base on Edgar Martinez’s double in the eleventh inning of game five of the 1995 AL Division Series to eliminate the New York Yankees. He batted .391 with 7 RBIs and tied a single-series record with 5 home runs. He holds Mariner records for most runs (1,063), hits (1,742), home runs (398), and RBIs (1,152). In February, 2000, Seattle traded Griffey to the Cincinnati Reds. Impact During the 1990’s, Griffey earned seven Sporting News Silver Slugger Awards and was named

to the AL All-Star Team each year (1990-1999). In 1999, he made Major League Baseball’s All-Century Team. Griffey ranks sixth in career home runs, trailing only Barry Bonds, Hank Aaron, Babe Ruth, Willie Mays, and Sammy Sosa. Further Reading

Griffey, Ken, Jr. Junior: Griffey on Griffey. New York: HarperCollins, 1997. Jackson, Reggie, ed. Ken Griffey, Jr. Dallas: Beckett, 1999. Thornley, Stew. Super Sports Star: Ken Griffey, Jr. Berkeley Heights, N.J.: Enslow, 2004. David L. Porter African Americans; Baseball; Baseball realignment; Baseball strike of 1994; Home run race; McGwire, Mark; Ripken, Cal, Jr.; Sosa, Sammy; Sports.

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Grisham, John

■ Grisham, John Identification American novelist Born February 8, 1955; Jonesboro, Arkansas

A master of the legal thriller, Grisham was the best-selling novelist of the 1990’s. John Grisham was an avid reader as a boy and discovered John Steinbeck’s novels while attending high school. Although he never planned to become a writer, Grisham began keeping a journal while he was an undergraduate at Mississippi State University. He graduated with a degree in accounting in 1977 and earned a law degree from the University of Mississippi in 1981. He then practiced criminal and personal injury law in Southaven, Mississippi, a suburb of Memphis, Tennessee, and was elected to the Mississippi House of Representatives in 1983. He served in the state’s legislature until 1990. Grisham’s first book, A Time to Kill, was turned down by over twenty-five publishers until 1988, when Wynwood Press paid him an advance of $15,000 and brought it out with an initial print run of five thou-

sand copies. (Grisham bought one thousand copies for himself.) The novel was inspired by the testimony of a twelve-year-old rape victim that Grisham heard in 1984, and it took him three years to write the book. From 1984 to 1989, he got up at 5:00 a.m. every day and wrote for at least two hours. His second novel, The Firm, came out in 1991. It was the number-one best seller of that year and was on The New York Times best seller list for forty-seven weeks. He was able to become a full-time writer after selling the film rights. He wrote eight more novels during the decade, and each one reached the top of The New York Times best-seller list. Grisham reached an even wider audience when six of his novels were made into films during the 1990’s. He also wrote the original screenplay for the film The Gingerbread Man (1998), although he was very unhappy with director Robert Altman’s rewrites. The television series The Client (1995-1996) was based on Grisham’s 1993 book by that title. Impact The legal thriller dates back to at least the 1896 short story “The Corpus Delicti” by Melville Davisson Post. Attorney turned author Scott Turow (Presumed Innocent, 1987) is the novelist usually credited with reviving the genre in the late twentieth century, and Grisham became its most commercially successful practitioner. Other lawyers turned authors during the decade included Mimi Lavenda Latt (Powers of Attorney, 1993), Richard North Patterson (Degree of Guilt, 1993), Lisa Scottoline (Everywhere That Mary Went, 1993), and Steve Martini (Undue Influence, 1995). Grisham’s books sold over sixty million copies during the 1990’s. They have sold more than 235 million copies worldwide and have been translated into twenty-nine languages. The Pelican Brief (1992) alone sold over eleven million copies in the United States. Along with Tom Clancy and J. K. Rowling, he has sold more than two million copies in a first printing. Further Reading

Pringle, Mary Beth. John Grisham: A Critical Companion. Westport, Conn.: Greenwood Press, 1997. Weaver, Robyn M. John Grisham. San Diego, Calif.: Lucent Books, 1999. Thomas R. Feller Book clubs; Literature in the United States; Publishing.

See also John Grisham. (AP/Wide World Photos)

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■ Grunge fashion Definition

Fashion trend

Grunge fashion ironically arose from a complete rejection of fashion. The look created by muted colors and lumberjack plaid flannel, long hair, goatees, and clunky boots embodied the new no-frills ideal of the grunge rock movement that contradicted the previously popular all-frills bombast of hair metal. Grunge appeal influenced not only varied genres of the music scene nationwide but also saturated American culture, the effects of which can still be seen today in the popular casual wear of a long-sleeve T-shirt beneath a polo shirt, for example. Grunge has been hailed by the fashion-forward and myriad magazines as antistyle since its inception. Born of the Seattle music scene of the early 1990’s, which produced bands such as Nirvana and Pearl Jam, the grunge movement evolved out of a widespread refusal among these bands and their fan bases to participate in trendy styles of clothing and hair. Instead, these bands wore onstage that which they might wear each day, and being the Pacific Northwest, this included flannel, long-sleeve T-shirts, jeans, and boots. Much of the look established by this musical movement originally meant to symbolize the working-class spirit that focused on music rather than image, but ultimately the image became inseparable from the music. As with many other previous music and fashion trends, “grunge” came to symbolize an entire subculture that would be a defining element of the 1990’s. Aesthetically, the minimalist approach reflected the collective apathy expressed by those at the latter end of Generation X; the appeal of thrift store fare paired with expensive Doc Martens footwear popularized by grunge swept the United States, moving grunge from an alternative movement out of Seattle to a cross-genre popular fashion trend. Impact Effects of grunge permeated American culture in the larger sense, and one does not have to look far to note the 1990’s emphasis on olive and slate colors in home and office decor. Fashion designers such as Calvin Klein exploited grunge themes and incorporated them into clothing lines. More recently, Marc Jacobs’s 2004 fall line was touted as “grunge inspired” by many fashion magazines. Other key influences in this fashion fad include

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the rebirth of the coffeehouse culture, also established largely in Seattle in the early 1990’s. Before Starbucks became ubiquitous, the dark coffeehouse with mismatched chairs and tableware, full of smoking bookworms and hip young professionals, was a staple of Seattle life. The link between the coffeehouse and the grunge music scene culminates in a film such as Cameron Crowe’s Singles (1992), which chronicles the lives of a group of twentysomethings through the ennui of this cultural moment. Further Reading

Anderson, Kyle. Accidental Revolution: The Story of Grunge. New York: St. Martin’s Griffin, 2007. Lieberman, Rhonda. “Springtime for Grunge.” Artforum International 31, no. 8 (April, 1993): 8. Lomas, Clare. The 80’s and 90’s: Power Dressing to Sportswear. Milwaukee, Wis.: Gareth Stevens, 2000. Christina C. Angel Alternative rock; Coffeehouses; Fads; Fashions and clothing; Grunge music; Heroin chic; Lollapalooza; Nirvana.

See also

■ Grunge music Alternative rock subgenre inspired by a combination of sounds from heavy metal and punk rock

Definition

Grunge music, which originated in the Seattle area, became commercially successful in the early 1990’s and quickly became the most popular alternative music of the time. In addition, grunge became the defining music of Generation X, who came of age during this decade. The term “grunge” was coined by a British journalist to describe the style of music played by a group of bands in the Seattle area in the late 1980’s. At the time, the most well-known grunge band was a group called Green River, whose popularity was limited to the Seattle area. Despite the fact that Green River was together for only a few short years, the band released three albums on the record label Sup Pop, a company that would become famous for signing some of the most prominent grunge bands. Green River’s style greatly influenced the grunge movement, and, after the band broke up, four of Green River’s former members went on to form two other

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Selected 1990’s Grunge Rock Albums Year

Album

Band

1990

Facelift

Alice in Chains

Louder than Live

Soundgarden

Apple

Mother Love Bone

Badmotorfinger

Soundgarden

Every Good Boy Deserves Fudge

Mudhoney

Nevermind

Nirvana

Pretty on the Inside

Hole

Ten

Pearl Jam

Uncle Anesthesia

Screaming Trees

1991

1992

1993

1994

1995

1996

1997

1998 1999

Dirt

Alice in Chains

Piece of Cake

Mudhoney

Sweet Oblivion

Screaming Trees

In Utero

Nirvana

Painkillers

Babes in Toyland

Vs.

Pearl Jam

World of Noise

Everclear

Dystopia

Babes in Toyland

Jar of Flies

Alice in Chains

Live Through This

Hole

MTV Unplugged in New York

Nirvana

Sixteen Stone

Bush

Superunknown

Soundgarden

Vitalogy

Pearl Jam

Foo Fighters

Foo Fighters

My Brother the Cow

Mudhoney

Sparkle and Fade

Everclear

Down on the Upside

Soundgarden

Dust

Screaming Trees

No Code

Pearl Jam

Razorblade Suitcase

Bush

The Colour and the Shape

Foo Fighters

Deconstructed

Bush

So Much for the Afterglow

Bush

Celebrity Skin

Hole

Yield

Pearl Jam

There Is Nothing Left to Lose

Foo Fighters

well-known grunge bands. Stone Gossard and Jeff Ament, after a stint in the shortlived but immensely popular Seattle band Mother Love Bone, made up the core of the band Pearl Jam; Steve Turner and Mark Arm formed a group called Mudhoney. Grunge Goes Mainstream By the early 1990’s, the grunge movement had grown beyond its original geographic boundaries and, seemingly overnight, permeated the popular culture. The band that was largely responsible for propelling grunge music to the forefront of mainstream rock was a group called Nirvana. Led by singer Kurt Cobain, the band formed in 1988 and released its first album, the critically acclaimed Bleach, on Sub Pop a year later. It was the album Nevermind, however, released in 1991, that would enjoy wide commercial success. Nevermind’s first single, “Smells Like Teen Spirit,” peaked at number six on the Billboard charts in early 1992 and can be credited with giving grunge music both national and worldwide popularity. More significant than its chart success was the fact that the song and, subsequently, the album, proved to be an anthem to scores of teenagers and young adults, further strengthening grunge music’s popularity. Other Seattle bands would also enjoy mainstream success in the early 1990’s. Pearl Jam released its first album, Ten, in 1991. By 1992, the album had reached number two on the Billboard charts. Pearl Jam had three hit singles from Ten: “Alive,” “Even Flow,” and “Jeremy.” Another prominent grunge band was Alice in Chains, whose first album, Facelift, was released in 1990. Other Seattle grunge bands that achieved mainstream success in the early 1990’s include longtime Seattle mainstays Soundgarden, Temple of the Dog (consisting of members of Soundgarden and Pearl Jam), and the Screaming Trees. Grunge music was not limited by one particular sound or convention. While the musical style of most grunge musicians was

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Despite their huge success, many grunge musicians were uncomfortable with their mainstream popularity. Accustomed to recording for small, independent record labels and playing to relatively small crowds, they were not used to dealing with the national recording industry or performing in stadiumlike atmospheres. Nirvana’s front man Kurt Cobain provides the most notable example of the difficulties grunge musicians had with their success. Cobain suffered from serious drug addiction and, as a result of this and complications from the pressures he felt from his status as an icon of the grunge movement, eventually committed suicide. His death on April 5, 1994, is often cited as the end of the grunge era.

Eddie Vedder of Pearl Jam performs in 1994 in Chicago. (Hulton Archive/Getty Images)

a combination of punk and heavy metal, there was much variation among bands. For example, Alice in Chains was noted for its driving, distortion-laded heavy metal paired with drug-influenced lyrics, whereas Pearl Jam became famous for its melodic rock and catchy yet cryptic lyrics. Grunge musicians rejected expensive, highly staged performances; most would not use pyrotechnics or other complicated lighting and visual effects during their shows. Grunge music eventually became so popular that it even influenced the fashion of the time. Many grunge musicians were known for their unkempt appearance, wearing thrift store clothing and most notably flannel shirts, a look copied by grunge followers and marketed by the fashion industry. Grunge seeped further into the mainstream by providing a backdrop for the Seattle-based movie Singles (1992), which featured guest appearances by Soundgarden’s Chris Cornell and members of Pearl Jam as bandmates of star Matt Dillon’s group Citizen Dick. Consequently, the movie’s sound track read like a who’s who of the prominent grunge musicians of the day. Grunge Culture

Impact While the popularity of grunge music was primarily limited to the early 1990’s, its influence would continue through the rest of the decade and into the next. Bands like Pearl Jam had long been experimenting with different musical styles that moved them beyond the constraints of the subgenre. In addition, Nirvana’s drummer, Dave Grohl, following Cobain’s death and the subsequent dissolution of the band, formed a group called the Foo Fighters, whose sound, while markedly different from Nirvana’s, was significantly influenced by grunge. Other post-grunge bands included Bush and Candlebox. Further Reading

Anderson, Kyle. Accidental Revolution: The Story of Grunge. New York: St. Martin’s Griffin, 2007. Provides a history of grunge music in the 1990’s, from its origins in Seattle to its mainstream popularity. True, Everett. Live Through This: American Rock Music in the Nineties. London: Virgin Books, 2001. Presents a history of grunge music in the 1990’s based on interviews from some of the movement’s most prominent bands such as Soundgarden, Hole, and Nirvana. _______. Nirvana: The Biography. Cambridge, Mass.: Da Capo Press, 2007. Describes the history of the band Nirvana while concentrating on the life of Cobain. Lindsay Schmitz Alternative rock; Grunge fashion; Lollapalooza; Love, Courtney; Music; Nirvana.

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Gulf War

■ Gulf War After Iraq invades and occupies Kuwait, a thirty-four-nation coalition of military forces responds by attacking the Iraqi army, driving it out of Kuwait Date January 17-February 28, 1991 Place The Persian Gulf, the waterway linking Iraq, Iran, Kuwait, and several other countries with the Arabian Sea The Event

Iraqi aggression against Kuwait and Saudi Arabia was stopped, thereby preventing Iraqi president Saddam Hussein from controlling most of the world’s known oil reserves. When the modern Iraqi state was established after World War I, Kuwait was created as a separate state, although historically the two countries had been governed together from the capital in Baghdad. During the spring of 1990, Iraq presented demands on Kuwait and opened negotiations with the country, while massing troops along the southern border with Kuwait, presumably poised for an offensive to settle such disputes as the location of the border between the two countries.

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As Iraqi troops were moving south toward Kuwait, American ambassador April Glaspie was summoned by Iraqi president Saddam Hussein on July 25, 1990, to inform her of Iraq’s grievances with Kuwait and of his promise to resolve the issues peacefully. After expressing concern over the threat posed by the troop movements, she indicated that the United States was neutral toward disputes between Arab-speaking countries. Subsequently, during a congressional hearing, an assistant secretary of state reported that there were no contingency plans to repel an attack by Iraq on Kuwait, as the United States had no military alliance with either country. Baghdad interpreted American disinterest as a green light for Iraq to annex Kuwait. On August 2, a full-scale Iraqi attack was launched on Kuwait, whereupon Washington summoned the U.N. Security Council for an emergency meeting that resulted in a resolution calling on Iraq to withdraw. Four days later, as Iraq took control of Kuwait, the Security Council authorized economic sanctions. On

Iraq’s Attack and the Immediate Response

Members of the U.S. Army’s 101st Airborne Division take position in Iraq on February 25, 1991. (AP/Wide World Photos)

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August 7, the United States dispatched two aircraft carriers and two battleship groups to the Persian Gulf and, on the pretext that Iraq might also invade Saudi Arabia, airlifted troops to the latter country. With American backing, the Security Council on November 29 demanded that Iraq withdraw from Kuwait by January 15, 1991. To enforce the resolution, the Security Council authorized the use of force. U.S. president George H. W. Bush and Secretary of State James Baker then persuaded thirty-four other countries to form a coalition to drive Iraqi forces from Kuwait. Although all were aware that Iraq had violated the U.N. Charter by waging aggressive war, some countries were attracted to join the coalition by American promises of aid or debt forgiveness. Differing peace proposals were offered. Whereas the United States demanded that Iraq unconditionally withdraw from Kuwait, Baghdad offered to pull out of Kuwait only if Syrian troops pulled out of Lebanon and Israeli troops abandoned the Gaza Strip, the Golan Heights, and the Palestinian West Bank. Iraq’s terms were rejected. On January 12, 1991, Congress authorized Bush to wage war on Iraq despite sizeable votes against the operation. The War Code-named Operation Desert Storm, some 660,000 troops were ultimately mobilized to attack Iraq on January 17, 1991; the American portion was about 74 percent. The initial offensive consisted of aerial attacks on Iraq’s border with Saudi Arabia and in western Iraq, followed by a bombardment of Baghdad. The initial aim was to destroy the Iraqi air force; next, bombing sought to disrupt command communications. Later, the remaining military targets and relevant infrastructure were bombed. Iraq responded with ineffective antiaircraft fire, attempted to send airplanes and naval forces to Iran, dumped oil into the Persian Gulf, attacked a town inside Saudi Arabia and was easily repelled, and launched missiles at Israel, which shot them down but otherwise refrained from involvement in the war. Thanks to American air supremacy, coalition ground forces decisively entered Kuwait in late January. The war was extensively covered around the clock on the Cable News Network (CNN), including live reporting of flashes of light from bombardments and the launching of artillery. On February 2, Iraq accepted a cease-fire agreement proposed by Russia. The terms involved a withdrawal of Iraqi troops to preinvasion positions

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within three weeks, followed by a total cease-fire and U.N. Security Council monitoring of the cease-fire and withdrawal. The United States rejected the proposal, demanding that Iraq exit from Kuwait within twenty-four hours, during which time the coalition would not attack Iraqi troops. Since negotiations were deadlocked, American, British, and French forces attacked inside Iraq, exposing the vulnerability of Hussein’s military defenses. On February 26, Iraqi troops began to leave Kuwait, setting fire to oil fields as they exited, but coalition forces bombed the retreating columns up to 150 miles south of Baghdad. On February 27, President Bush declared that the war was over, that Kuwait had been liberated. After Iraq surrendered, Baghdad was allowed to use armed helicopters to assist in rebuilding damaged transportation infrastructure that was being used by retreating forces. From March 10, coalition troops began to withdraw from Iraq, some staying in Kuwait and in Saudi Arabia to ensure security against future Iraq aggression. Aftermath On February 2, a radio station in Saudi Arabia operated by the Central Intelligence Agency (CIA) called on Shiites to rebel inside Iraq. Similar statements encouraged Kurds in the north to try to topple Hussein. However, when the rebellions occurred after Hussein surrendered, Iraq’s helicopters gunned down the rebels, and American forces did nothing in support. The Security Council responded to massacres of Kurds and Shiites by establishing no-fly zones over northern and southern Iraq, respectively, to be enforced by American, British, and French military aircraft. Nevertheless, Hussein’s antiaircraft and surface-to-air missiles challenged the enforcement, resulting in frequent sorties thereafter to bomb both types of installations. In a sense, the Gulf War did not end in 1991 but continued right up to 2003. Iraq’s remaining air force was also used to suppress rebellions between the two no-fly zones. Although some Saudi officials urged that the no-fly zone be extended over the entire country in order to facilitate those seeking to overthrow Hussein, their suggestion was ignored during the rest of the 1990’s. A U.N. Special Commission (UNSCOM) was assigned to inspect Iraq’s compliance with a Security Council order to dismantle all weapons of mass destruction. In 1999, UNSCOM left Iraq, which claimed

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Gulf War Cease-Fire Is Announced On February 27, 1991, President George H. W. Bush announced the end of the Gulf War. The address was broadcast live on nationwide radio and television: Kuwait is liberated. Iraq’s army is defeated. Our military objectives are met. Kuwait is once more in the hands of Kuwaitis, in control of their own destiny. We share in their joy, a joy tempered only by our compassion for their ordeal. . . . Seven months ago, America and the world drew a line in the sand. We declared that the aggression against Kuwait would not stand. And tonight, America and the world have kept their word. This is not a time of euphoria, certainly not a time to gloat. But it is a time of pride: pride in our troops; pride in the friends who stood with us in the crisis; pride in our nation and the people whose strength and resolve made victory quick, decisive, and just. And soon we will open wide our arms to welcome back home to America our magnificent fighting forces. No one country can claim this victory as its own. It was not only a victory for Kuwait but a victory for all the coalition partners. This is a victory for the United Nations, for all mankind, for the rule of law, and for what is right. After consulting with Secretary of Defense [Dick] Cheney, the Chairman of the Joint Chiefs of Staff, General [Colin] Powell, and our coalition partners, I am pleased to announce that at midnight tonight eastern standard time, exactly 100 hours since ground operations commenced

that all such programs had been dismantled. The Security Council then authorized the replacement of UNSCOM with the U.N. Monitoring, Verification and Inspection Commission (UNMOVIC), which did not begin work in Iraq until 2002, when the United States claimed that weapons of mass destruction remaining in the country constituted a serious threat. When casualty numbers for the war were assessed, some 146 Americans had died in battle, and 467 had been wounded. Other members of the coalition had lost 65 soldiers, and 319 had been wounded. However, more than 25 percent of the ground troops

and 6 weeks since the start of Desert Storm, all United States and coalition forces will suspend offensive combat operations. It is up to Iraq whether this suspension on the part of the coalition becomes a permanent cease-fire. . . . This suspension of offensive combat operations is contingent upon Iraq’s not firing upon any coalition forces and not launching Scud missiles against any other country. If Iraq violates these terms, coalition forces will be free to resume military operations. At every opportunity, I have said to the people of Iraq that our quarrel was not with them but instead with their leadership and, above all, with Saddam Hussein. This remains the case. You, the people of Iraq, are not our enemy. We do not seek your destruction. We have treated your POW’s with kindness. Coalition forces fought this war only as a last resort and look forward to the day when Iraq is led by people prepared to live in peace with their neighbors. . . . This war is now behind us. Ahead of us is the difficult task of securing a potentially historic peace. Tonight though, let us be proud of what we have accomplished. Let us give thanks to those who risked their lives. Let us never forget those who gave their lives. May God bless our valiant military forces and their families, and let us all remember them in our prayers.

were declared permanently disabled by the Department of Veterans Affairs, suffering from unknown causes that have been characterized as the Gulf War syndrome. Estimates of Iraq casualties differ; there were at least 24,000 deaths, including 4,000 civilians. The conduct of the war, including the use of cluster bombs and daisy cutters as well as the number of civilian deaths, prompted some observers to accuse the United States of committing war crimes. In 2003, a war crimes case based on the Gulf War was filed in a Belgian court against former president Bush, former secretary of defense Dick Cheney, former Joint

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Chiefs of Staff chair Colin Powell, and former commander in chief Norman Schwarzkopf. Later in the year, after the United States threatened to move headquarters of the North Atlantic Treaty Organization (NATO) from Belgium to protest the case and similar pending lawsuits, the case was dismissed. Impact Constrained by economic sanctions and two no-fly zones, living conditions in Iraq nosedived while Kuwait enjoyed increasing prosperity. Economic sanctions remained on Iraq despite the devastation of its infrastructure. Insufficient food and medicine were available for ordinary people, so the United Nations agreed to establish an oil-for-food program, which ultimately involved kickbacks to Hussein. United Nations corruption, as later reviewed, led to calls for reform of the organization, especially by officials in the administration of President George W. Bush. Meanwhile, the presence of American troops remaining in Saudi Arabia after the war rankled some in the region. One in particular, Osama Bin Laden, began to build support for his organization, alQaeda, which was dedicated to the removal of the American military presence in the Middle East and to the toppling of Western-backed governments in Arab-speaking countries that he characterized as “apostate” regimes. Al-Qaeda’s policies and program were subsequently revealed by bombings of American embassies in Kenya and Tanzania in 1998, the assault on the USS Cole in the Yemen harbor in 2000, and the terrorist attacks on American soil on September 11, 2001. Some American observers, who regretted the failure to topple Hussein in 1991, urged a second war with Iraq, especially after the terrorist attacks on September 11, 2001. The second war against Iraq began on March 20, 2003. Further Reading

Blum, William. Killing Hope: U.S. Military and CIA Interventions Since World War II. Monroe, Maine: Common Courage Press, 2005. Written by a former employee of the U.S. Department of State, the book condemns American foreign adventures, often kept secret, on a country-by-country basis, including those involving Iraq. Brune, Lester H. America and the Iraqi Crisis, 19901992. Claremont, Calif.: Regina Books, 1993. A historical account that examines the policy choices, including criticisms of Bush’s concept of

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a “new world order” in which the United States might play a dominant world role as the world’s only superpower. Bush, George H. W., and Brent Scowcroft. A World Transformed. New York: Random House, 1998. The former president and his national security adviser present an account of the foreign policy of the United States under their leadership, including a detailed justification for their decision not to topple Hussein in 1991, when American troops were only hours away from Baghdad. The authors argue that most countries in the Gulf War coalition would have refused to go along and that the economic and human cost of extending the war would have been excessive. Hilsman, Roger. George Bush vs. Saddam Hussein: Military Success! Political Failure? Novato, Calif.: Presidio, 1992. A former Department of State official analyzes whether the Gulf War achieved the political objective of stabilizing the Middle East. Munro, Alan. Arab Storm: Politics and Diplomacy Behind the Gulf War. New York: I. B. Tauris, 2006. The British ambassador to Saudi Arabia before and during the Gulf War, Munro provides an account of the various diplomatic efforts to organize the military coalition that evicted Iraq from Kuwait. Nye, Joseph S., Jr., and Roger K. Smith, eds. After the Storm: Lessons from the Gulf War. Lanham, Md.: Madison Books, 1992. A collection of ten essays commenting on the successes and failures of the war in the context of diplomatic, economic, political, regional, and strategic international affairs. Renshon, Stanley A., ed. The Political Psychology of the Gulf War: Leaders, Publics, and the Process of Conflict. Pittsburgh: University of Pittsburgh Press, 1993. Covers psychological aspects of the decision to go to war, focusing on Bush’s punitive attitudes while Hussein was seeking to appear as a stronger leader in the Middle East than his rivals, groupthink driving decision makers to go to war, and the public’s willingness to trust their president’s judgment despite serious misgivings in Congress. Sifry, Micah L., and Christopher Cerf, eds. The Gulf War Reader: History, Documents, Opinion. New York: Times Books, 1991. A balanced compilation of relevant essays, official publications, and editorials about the Gulf War. Smith, Jean Edward. George Bush’s War. New York: Henry Holt, 1992. Argues why Hussein was a hero

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Gulf War syndrome

in the Middle East and how Bush rallied support for the war. Michael Haas Baker, James; Bush, George H. W.; Cheney, Dick; CNN coverage of the Gulf War; Foreign policy of Canada; Foreign policy of the United States; Gulf War syndrome; Middle East and North America; Patriot missile; Powell, Colin; Schwarzkopf, Norman; Speicher, Michael Scott; United Nations; Wolfowitz, Paul.

See also

■ Gulf War syndrome A cluster of illnesses associated with military service in the Gulf War of 1991

Definition

A group of physical and mental disorders among Gulf War veterans created a political furor in the 1990’s. Despite numerous studies, no common cause has been identified, and a majority of experts deny that Gulf War syndrome is a distinct illness. The Gulf War of 1991 was unusual among wars in its short duration and the small percentage of the

660,000 deployed American military personnel who experienced actual combat. About a year after the war ended, veterans’ clinics began reporting demobilized soldiers with a cluster of chronic debilitating physical symptoms including fatigue, headache, muscle and joint pain, skin rashes, chest pain, and diarrhea, plus psychological symptoms including sleeplessness and depression. There were also reports of elevated birth defects among demobilized military and their spouses. A series of articles in The Washington Post in July, 1994, called public attention to the problem and spurred Congress to pass a law providing special compensation for Gulf War veterans disabled by unexplained illnesses. Various causes have been postulated for Gulf War syndrome, including Iraqi biological warfare agents, pesticides, American depleted-uranium weapons, chemical agents released when Iraqi stores were bombed, endemic infectious diseases, pollution from oil well fires, exposure to petroleum products, vaccines for anthrax and botulism, and pyrostigmine bromide, used to counteract nerve gas. Numerous studies by government and independent investigators have concluded that none of these can alone account for more than a small fraction of the reported health problems. However, pyrostigmine and pesticides have synergistic effects, and multiple simultaneously administered vaccines, some experimental, could well cause problems. Actual exposures to pesticides, chemical weapons, and depleteduranium residues may have been higher than the levels the studies found harmless. Since effects of carcinogens can take decades to manifest themselves, the true scope of Gulf War-associated illnesses may still be unknown. Some of the reported symptoms resemble stress-related combat fatigue or post-traumatic stress disorder (PTSD), but this is an unlikely primary cause in view of the short duration of the war and the small percentage of soldiers directly exposed to combat.

Gulf War veteran Brian Martin suffered from a number of maladies that he attributed to exposure to toxic substances during the war. (AP/Wide World Photos)

Impact Comparison of deployed American soldiers with those who

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stayed home indicated no statistical difference in incidence of Gulf War syndrome, whereas illness rates were much lower among British soldiers who served in Iraq. Some people view Gulf War syndrome as a political creation designed to discredit Republicans. However, most of the affected veterans have genuine physical illnesses not common in previous wars or among civilians, suggesting that one or more of the health hazards enumerated above, or one not yet identified, is indeed responsible.

by a law allowing courtroom use of gun-related evidence that had been seized in violation of the Fourth Amendment. The bill was named for James S. Brady, press secretary to President Ronald Reagan who was shot and subsequently paralyzed during an assassination attempt on the president by John Hinckley, Jr., in 1981. In 1990-1992, all but a few states rejected efforts to pass assault weapons bans or handgun waiting periods; state inaction hindered the push for federal laws.

Further Reading

The Early Clinton Administration While Bush’s support for gun control had been sporadic, gun control was a priority under Bill Clinton’s administration. The Bureau of Alcohol, Tobacco, and Firearms (ATF) aggressively used regulatory and enforcement powers on a broad front. By the end of the decade, the ATF had reduced the number of federally licensed firearms dealers by approximately 70 percent. In 1993, Congress passed the Brady bill, signed into law as the Brady Handgun Violence Prevention Act, which went into effect the next February. The act established a waiting period of five government working days for handgun sales, during which local police would conduct a background check of handgun buyers. The law applied to the twenty-eight states that did not already have a background-check provision. Thanks to NRA efforts, the act’s handgun waiting period provision would be replaced in 1998 by the National Instant Check System (NICS). Under NICS, retail purchasers of handguns or long guns in all fifty states must undergo a computerized “instant check” of criminal and other records. The check is conducted by a state agency or by the Federal Bureau of Investigation (FBI), depending on the state. In practice, the background check sometimes takes minutes but can often take hours. In August, 1994, after intense struggle, Congress passed the Violent Crime Control and Law Enforcement Act, a comprehensive anticrime law that included many gun control provisions, most notably one about which congressional Democratic leaders had privately warned President Clinton: a ban on the possession or sale of new assault weapons and of magazines holding more than ten rounds. Also in 1994, eleven states enacted restrictions or bans on juvenile gun or handgun possession, joining the eighteen states that already had such laws.

Fulco, Carolyn E., Catharyn T. Liverman, and Harold C. Sox, eds. Institute of Medicine. Committee on Health Effects Associated with Exposures During the Gulf War. Gulf War and Health. 5 vols. Washington, D.C.: National Academy Press, 20002005. Hyams, Kenneth C., Stephen Wignall, and Robert Roswell. “War Syndromes and Their Evaluation: From the U.S. Civil War to the Persian Gulf War.” Annals of Internal Medicine 125, no. 5 (1996): 398405. Rosof, Bernard M., and Lyla M. Hernandez, eds. Gulf War Veterans: Treating Symptoms and Syndromes. Washington, D.C.: National Academy Press, 2001. Martha Sherwood See also

Gulf War; Health care.

■ Gun control Regulation of the selling, possession, and use of firearms

Definition

President Bill Clinton’s administration sought to enact tough federal gun control legislation, but a powerful progun lobby proved a formidable opponent during Clinton’s tenure. Although Republican presidential candidate George H. W. Bush had run on a strongly pro-Second Amendment platform in 1988, with an endorsement from the National Rifle Association (NRA), President Bush in early 1989 had become a gun control advocate. He banned the importation of “assault weapons” (military-style self-loading rifles, shotguns, and pistols). In 1991, he said he would support the Brady bill, which included a waiting period provision for handgun purchases, but only if it was accompanied

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The midterm elections of that year resulted in the greatest Republican sweep in decades. In December, President Clinton blamed the Republicans’ success on the assault weapons issue, declaring that “the NRA is the reason the Republicans control the House.” Mid-decade The Republican landslide also affected the states. The next year saw state after state enacting a cornucopia of pro-gun laws. State “preemption” laws eliminated municipal or county gun controls. “Instant check” laws exempted states from the Brady Handgun Violence Prevention Act and sometimes eliminated waiting periods that had previously existed in state law. Most significant, state “shall-issue” laws required

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that permits to carry defensive handguns in public places be issued to all adult applicants who passed a background check and a safety class. During the 1990’s, shall-issue laws went from being the exception to being the norm. On the federal level, the progun majorities in Congress knew that they could not overcome a presidential veto, so there was little congressional action. President Clinton continued to use the executive branch to push for gun control, such as an administrative order banning the import of scores of types of firearms. In 1997, a 5-4 Supreme Court decision in Printz v. United States declared part of the Brady Act unconstitutional, holding that Congress could not order state and local officials to carry out background checks.

In 1998, nearly five years after the Brady Handgun Violence Prevention Act was signed into law, President Bill Clinton (adjusting microphone) and James Brady call on Congress to extend the law. (AP/Wide World Photos)

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Stymied in Congress and in all but a few state legislatures, the nation’s leading gun control organization, Handgun Control, Inc. (HCI), convinced several big-city mayors to sue handgun manufacturers, under the theory that the manufacturers were legally responsible for handgun crimes. Chicago and New Orleans sued in November, 1998, and within a few months several dozen cities had filed similar cases, with the support of the Department of Housing and Urban Development, headed by Andrew Cuomo. The Columbine High School massacre on April 20, 1999, near Littleton, Colorado, seemed to provide antigun forces with their greatest opportunity yet, but relatively little gun control legislation resulted. However, the tragedy did cause many schools to abolish shooting sports programs; it also led to more restrictions on gun possession by young people and to enactment of California’s purchase limit of one handgun per month.

The Final Clinton Years

Impact During the 1990’s, the gun control debate became more prominent in American politics than at any previous time in U.S. history. In only a few states (most notably California, New Jersey, and Maryland) were gun control laws significantly stricter at the end of the decade than before. In most of the rest of the country, gun purchasers were now subject to NICS, but some other restrictions had been removed. Reversing a gun control trend of several decades, the shall-issue laws of the 1990’s reestablished the social and legal legitimacy of carrying concealed handguns in public.

President Clinton credited the NRA with providing the crucial margin in George W. Bush’s victory over Al Gore in the 2000 presidential election. The gun issue appeared to have accounted for Bush’s narrow wins in Missouri, Arkansas, Tennessee, West Virginia, and Florida. The federal assault weapons ban expired in September, 2004. The

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large majority of states, as well as Congress, enacted legislation to prohibit municipal antigun lawsuits. Further Reading

Bijlefeld, Marjolijn. People For and Against Gun Control: A Biographical Reference. Westport, Conn.: Greenwood Press, 1999. Fair and sympathetic biographies of leaders in the gun debate. Kleck, Gary. Targeting Guns: Firearms and Their Control. New York: Aldine, 1997. Superb analysis of the subject by a renowned criminologist. LaPierre, Wayne. Guns, Crime, and Freedom. Washington, D.C.: Regnery, 1995. The author, who has served as executive vice president and chief executive officer of the NRA, makes the pro-gun case in the first gun policy book ever to make the best seller lists. Simkin, Jay, Aaron S. Zelman, and Alan M. Rice. Lethal Laws: “Gun Control” Is the Key to Genocide. Milwaukee: Jews for the Preservation of Firearms Ownership, 1994. Influential analysis of twentieth century genocides. Cited by former House Speaker Newt Gingrich. Utter, Glenn H. Encyclopedia of Gun Control and Gun Rights. Phoenix, Ariz.: Oryx Press, 1999. A competent survey of the subject as it existed in the late 1990’s. Weir, William. A Well Regulated Militia: The Battle over Gun Control. North Haven, Conn.: Archon Books, 1997. The constitutional theories of the gun control lobby. David B. Kopel Bush, George H. W.; Carjacking; Clinton, Bill; Clinton, Hillary Rodham; Columbine massacre; Crime; Drive-by shootings; Elections in the United States, midterm; Ferguson, Colin; Gore, Al; Militia movement; Oklahoma City bombing; Reno, Janet; Republican Revolution; Waco siege.

See also

H ■ Hackers People who use programming skills to gain unauthorized access into computer systems, usually for malicious purposes

Definition

The introduction of personal computers and computer networks in the 1980’s invited attacks by a number of hackers. By the 1990’s, these attacks had alarmed those in government, law enforcement, and the general public to such an extent that some of the hackers were prosecuted and incarcerated. Humankind devised ways of misusing or damaging the resources of others long before the invention of computers and networks. One of the earliest misuses of technology was the phreaking attacks by John Draper, nicknamed “Captain Crunch,” and others in the 1970’s. They devised methods of simulating a long-distance telephone signal and were able to make free long-distance phone calls. In 1972, Draper was one of the first technology abusers to be successfully prosecuted. In 1980, a group called the 414s, who took their name from the Milwaukee area code, executed one of the earliest attacks on a computer. They used personal computers with modems to break into a number of mainframes. The attacks were simple, including guessing passwords, but were among the first computer break-ins. A virus is a self-replicating code that spreads by inserting copies of itself into programs or other files. A worm is a self-replicating program that spreads by sending copies of itself to other computers on a network. In addition to replication, viruses and worms damage the computers they are stored on by deleting files, slowing computation, or other actions. In the late 1980’s and early 1990’s, a number of viruses and worms were introduced. The Morris worm flooded ARPANET (the precursor to the Internet) in 1988, becoming one of the first denial-of-service attacks. In 1991, the Michelangelo virus was discovered on a computer in New Zealand. It was a boot sector virus aimed at MS-

Viruses and Worms

DOS and designed to attack computers on the Renaissance artist’s birthday. Many predicted that the Michelangelo virus would do great damage, but effective countermeasures were developed that limited its effect. In 1995, the first macro virus, called WM.Concept, was developed. While it was not a serious threat, the Melissa macro virus that appeared in 1999 was. When a user opened an infected file, Melissa attempted to e-mail a copy of the virus to fifty other people using the Microsoft Outlook address book. In May, 2000, the ILOVEYOU worm appeared and began spreading around the world. It infected graphics files on a computer and spread by causing copies of itself to be sent to everyone in an infected computer’s address book. While Melissa and ILOVEYOU created havoc for computer users in the late 1990’s, antivirus vendors developed effective countermeasures to these and other viruses and worms that appeared during this period. While there were many hackers at work during the 1990’s, the most famous were Kevin Mitnick and Kevin Poulsen. In 1989, Kevin Mitnick (who had earlier been arrested for phreaking) was convicted and placed on probation for monitoring the e-mails of workers at Digital Equipment Corporation (DEC). He continued to hack computers and by 1992 was on the run after his probation was revoked. In 1994, he attacked the computer of Tsutomu Shimomura. Shimomura, a very capable computer security expert, helped the Federal Bureau of Investigation (FBI) find Mitnick in North Carolina in 1995. Mitnick pleaded guilty to hacking and served almost five years in prison. He was released in 2000 and has become a computer security expert, specializing in preventing social-engineering attacks. Poulsen, nicknamed “Dark Dante,” specialized in hacking government and military systems. In 1989, he was charged with a number of attacks and went into hiding. He continued to hack computers, often

The Two Kevins

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Birth of a Social Engineer In his 2002 book The Art of Deception: Controlling the Human Element of Security (coauthored with William L. Simon), Kevin Mitnick describes how he got his start on the road to computer hacking: My first encounter with what I would eventually learn to call social engineering came about during my high school years when I met another student who was caught up in a hobby called phone phreaking. Phone phreaking is a type of hacking that allows you to explore the telephone network by exploiting the phone systems and phone company employees. He showed me neat tricks he could do with a telephone, like obtaining any information the phone company had on any customer, and using a secret test number to make long-distance calls for free. (Actually it was free only to us. I found out much later that it wasn’t a secret test number at all. The calls were, in fact, being billed to some poor company’s MCI account.) That was my introduction to social engineering—my kindergarten, so to speak. My friend and another phone phreaker I met shortly thereafter let me listen in as they each made pretext calls to the phone company. I heard the things they said that made them sound believable; I learned about different phone company offices, lingo, and procedures. But that “training” didn’t last long; it didn’t have to. Soon I was doing it all on my own, learning as I went, doing it even better than my first teachers. The course my life would follow for the next fifteen years had been set.

using phone technology. In 1994, he was caught and pleaded guilty to a number of computer crimes. He served almost four years in prison and was barred from using computers for three years after his release. He later became a journalist, writing about computer security, among other things. In social engineering, a hacker uses deception to gain information that can be used to compromise the security of a computer or network. A Trojan horse is a program designed to appear to be doing one thing (such as searching the Internet for information) but that actually does something else (such as searching a computer’s cookies for a credit card number). A Trojan horse is often introduced into a system by social engineering. For example, a Trojan horse can be installed by requesting a user to click a link in an e-mail Social Engineering and Trojan Horses

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or Web page. It is interesting that some of the earliest attacks by Mitnick and Poulsen were through social engineering, and that many of today’s worst attacks are perpetrated by Trojan horses, installed by social engineering. There were numerous Trojan horses in the 1990’s. Some of the most interesting Trojans were programs that appeared to be remote administration tools for Microsoft Windows 98. The same technology that could be used for remote administration of Windows was perfect for a Trojan horse that could take information from a user’s computer, while being controlled remotely. ProRAT (Professional Remote Administration Tool) and Back Orifice (developed by Josh Buchbinder, better known as Sir Dystic of the Cult of the Dead Cow) were two remote administration tools that had Trojan horse versions.

Impact During the 1990’s, hackers attacked a number of important computer systems. As a result of their success, government, industry, and individual computer users realized that securing their computers and computer networks was extremely important. Society ceased thinking of hackers as misguided enthusiasts and began to treat them as criminals. Further Reading

Baase, Sara. A Gift of Fire: Social, Legal, and Ethical Issues for Computing and the Internet. 3d ed. Upper Saddle River, N.J.: Prentice Hall, 2007. A wellwritten book that covers cyber security, privacy, and law. Mitnick, Kevin D., and William L. Simon. The Art of Intrusion: The Real Stories Behind the Exploits of Hackers, Intruders, and Deceivers. New York: John Wiley & Sons, 2005. Another book by Mitnick describing hacking from the viewpoint of a real hacker. Mitnick, Kevin D., William L. Simon, and Steve

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Wozniak. The Art of Deception: Controlling the Human Element of Security. New York: John Wiley & Sons, 2002. A book whose primary author, Mitnick, is one of the most famous hackers of all time. Ralston, Anthony, Edwin D. Reilly, and David Hemmendinger, eds. Encyclopedia of Computer Science. New York: John Wiley & Sons, 2003. This text is one of the standard reference works in its field. The fourth edition has very accurate articles covering all areas in and related to computers, including many articles on computers security. George M. Whitson III See also Apple Computer; CGI; Computers; DVDs; E-mail; Instant messaging; Internet; Michelangelo computer virus; Microsoft; MP3 format; PDAs; Silicon Valley; Spam; World Wide Web; Y2K problem.

■ Hairstyles Definition

Popular styles or manners of arranging

the hair The 1990’s saw a return to natural and low-maintenance hairstyles for both men and women. During the 1990’s, African American women wore popular 1960’s hairstyles, like the bob and the beehive; Caucasian women cut their Farrah Fawcett styles into shorter styles; and African American and Caucasian men cropped, spiked, or flat-topped theirs. In the early 1990’s, the “Kimberly crop,” named for the actress Kimberly Foster of the primetime soap opera Dallas, was trendy among white women. The early 1990’s also witnessed a popular resurgence of hard rollers, the kind that do not use electricity; their rise in popularity accompanied the return to natural hair, not processed by harsh chemicals and heat. Cornrows, offered in the Caribbean to tourists, saw a revival during those first years of the decade. African American women, who had long struggled with “nappy” hairstyles that required hours of preparation and treatment, dismissed texturizers, Jheri curls, and perms in favor of close crops, natural waves, and braids. Beehives, Afros, and French twists were also popular natural alternatives. The year 1992 also witnessed the rise of the grunge subcul-

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ture, with its accompanying dyed-black, long, stringy hairstyle for both girls and boys. The grunge and goth styles were generally popular for white people, particularly those under age twenty-five. 1993-1995 As the decade progressed, many women of all ethnicities refused to cut their long hair short, a trend that one reporter called “Rapunzel worship,” or the popular belief that a woman’s hair is her crown of glory. In 1993, computers helped men and women “try on” a hairstyle before a cut: Software programs used pictures of clients’ faces to display images of trendy cuts. Newspapers across the country kept tabs on First Lady Hillary Rodham Clinton’s hairstyles. By 1994, stylists and their clients were ready to express imagination with their hairstyles, such as creative updos. For black women’s hair, one new style dictated short or shaved, like black recording artist Me’Shell Ndegeocello’s buzz cut. By mid-decade, men’s unorthodox hairstyles began to draw more media attention, particularly when the hairstyle was long or of an unnatural color. As men’s hair lengthened, young women, inspired by the actresses on the hit television show Beverly Hills, 90210, cut their long locks shorter. Young women and girls began coloring pieces of their hair, known as “chunks” or “streaks,” in primary or neon colors or wearing similar hair pieces, spawning a ripple of middle and high school rules against such behaviors. Because hairstyles received coverage on television, African Americans such as talk-show host Oprah Winfrey were able to dispel many long-standing myths about black hair, including why black men and women do not wash their hair daily, which relates to hair health, not hygiene. 1996-1999 In 1996, with long hair for men and short hair for women in vogue, high-profile men and women began to wear their hair however they wanted, inspiring the nation to do the same. There were, as usual, hair trends, but for the most part Americans felt free to do what they wanted. The previous decades witnessed job instability and public scrutiny concerning extraordinary hairstyles, but as the public’s knowledge about different hairstyles and textures increased, so did acceptance. “The Rachel,” a hairstyle popularized by Jennifer Aniston’s character Rachel Green on the television show Friends, encouraged women to grow their hair and layer it. Other celebrities who influenced hairstyles of the late 1990’s include Halle Berry, George

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Clooney, Michael Jordan, Joan Lunden, Madonna, Sinéad O’Connor, and David Schwimmer. Sports figures such as Mac Cozier and Cobi Jones sported dreadlocks; the style was popular mostly for black hair, but “dreads” also found their way into white men’s and women’s tresses. When Michael Jordan went bald in 1997, he started a hairstyle trend for men unlike any America had ever seen. Perhaps the low-maintenance bald look for men encouraged renewed interest in the messy updo for women, who could simply collect their hair into a scrunchie, a cloth-covered rubber band, letting wisps of it dangle around their faces. The messy updo was also partly political: Appearing to spend less time on hair implied that these women spent time on more important things. Just after President Bill Clinton’s impeachment trial, Hillary sported a new, chic hairstyle, which a watching nation attributed to her need for refinement after the Monica Lewinsky scandal. Impact The “Less is more” attitude of the 1990’s held true for the decade’s hairstyles. The big hairstyles of the 1980’s were no longer in vogue, and there was a return to natural hair. Celebrity-influenced hair trends continued, the most notable of which was “the Rachel.” Further Reading

Jones, Lisa. Bulletproof Diva: Tales of Race, Sex, and Hair. New York: Doubleday, 1994. Anthology of essays that explore the 1990’s multicultural woman and her politicized fashion messages. McCracken, Grant. Big Hair: A Journey into the Transformation of Self. Woodstock, N.Y.: Overlook Press, 1996. Traces hairstyles, mostly women’s, through history, offers scientific information about hair, and connects the biology of hair to hair’s pop culture prestige. Mancuso, Kevin. The Mane Thing. Boston: Little, Brown, 1999. Composed of illustrations of hairstyle trends of the 1990’s, as well as hair-care tips mostly for women, this collection surveys hairstyles across American culture. Sherrow, Victoria. Encyclopedia of Hair: A Cultural History. Westport, Conn.: Greenwood Press, 2006. Anthology offering myriad essays detailing American hairstyles’ history, trends, and cultural meanings. Ami R. Blue

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African Americans; Beverly Hills, 90210 ; Boy bands; Clinton, Hillary Rodham; Clooney, George; Fads; Fashions and clothing; Friends; Generation Y; Grunge fashion; Jordan, Michael; Madonna.

See also

■ Haiti intervention The United States intervenes in Haiti in order to remove the military junta and restore democratic institutions Date U.S. troops arrived September 19, 1994 The Event

The military intervention led by the United States in Haiti was a response to the ongoing terror regime established by General Raoul Cédras and his military junta, which ousted democratically elected Jean-Bertrand Aristide in September, 1991. Between 1991 and 1994, General Raoul Cédras’s military junta conducted a campaign of killing and torture of people who were believed to be opposed to the government, leading to an exodus by Haitians seeking asylum in the United States. The overwhelming influx of Haitians into the United States, along with other strategic reasons, led U.S. president Bill Clinton to push for a forced military intervention in Haiti in 1994. Haiti’s history is one of political instability and conflicts. The country was the second nation in the Americas to become independent, in 1804, and the only nation to be established by a successful slave rebellion. Since the country’s independence, the political struggles have led to a number of autocratic regimes, including the rule of François “Papa Doc” Duvalier (1957-1971) and his son Jean-Claude “Baby Doc” Duvalier (1971-1986). In 1990, Jean-Bertrand Aristide was elected in Haiti’s first democratic elections, but his government lasted less than eight months. On September 30, 1991, a military junta overthrew Aristide, mainly because of his reform policies, which included the demilitarization of the country as well as a comprehensive redistribution of wealth plan. After the coup, Cédras’s junta started to persecute Aristide’s supporters, leading to the raping, torturing, and killing of thousands of Haitian citizens. During the Cédras regime, thousands of Haitians fled their terror-ridden country in makeshift boats in an attempt

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to reach the United States. In his final months in office, President George H. W. Bush ordered the U.S. Coast Guard to turn all fleeing Haitians back to their country, claiming that the United States was not prepared to receive this great influx of refugees. Though then presidential candidate Bill Clinton had promised to allow fleeing Haitians asylum in the United States, his policy changed when he took office in 1993. Clinton tried to resolve the crisis through diplomacy with the Haitian military junta, with no success. Finally, after running out of options, Clinton concluded that the only solution to this problem would be a U.S. military intervention in Haiti. While the military intervention was not popular with Congress and voters, Clinton saw the intervention as imminent. The military operation was planned as a forced intervention, but in a last attempt to convince Cédras’s government to leave of-

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fice peacefully, Clinton sent former president Jimmy Carter in a high-level mission to negotiate with the Haitian government. Carter’s offer was accepted by Cédras and his military junta, but they decided to step down from office mainly because U.S. troops were en route to Haiti. Because Cédras and his government had accepted to step down from power, the military campaign changed from a forced invasion into a semipermissive occupation in which twenty thousand U.S. troops attempted to restore stability in the country. The military intervention, called Operation Uphold Democracy, evolved into a humanitarian effort led by the United States and was later joined by other countries. The reinstatement of Aristide and the consequent democratic elections generated hope that Haiti was moving in the right direction toward political, social, and economic development. Unfortunately, the Haitian government

Haitians cheer as U.S. helicopters escort Army Humvees through Port-au-Prince on September 20, 1994. Supporters of exiled Haitian president Jean-Bertrand Aristide welcomed the intervention. (AP/Wide World Photos)

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proved ineffective at tackling the country’s most important issues—namely, unemployment and the lack of foreign investment. Impact The 1994 intervention was a last resort by the Clinton administration to curb Haitian immigration into the United States as well as an attempt to reestablish democratic rule in the country. This intervention had a great impact on the politics of Haiti and subsequently led to the development of a U.N. humanitarian mission in the country. The intervention and the policies enacted before the intervention also set the tone of American foreign policy in Latin America in the 1990’s and generated heated debates regarding immigration from Latin American countries into the United States. Further Reading

Ballard, John R. Upholding Democracy: The United States Military Campaign in Haiti, 1994-1997. Westport, Conn.: Praeger, 1998. Focuses on the other agencies responsible for the planning and implementation of the intervention, including nongovernmental organizations, intergovernmental agencies, private volunteer organizations, and other actors. Girard, Philippe R. Clinton in Haiti: The 1994 U.S. Invasion of Haiti. New York: Palgrave MacMillan, 2004. Focuses on the political career of Aristide and the foreign policy dynamics between Haiti and the United States. Perusse, Roland I. Haitian Democracy Restored, 19911995. Lanham, Md.: University Press of America, 1995. Focuses on Aristide and his presidency before the military junta overthrow. Also looks at the role of the United States, the United Nations, and other organizations in the intervention. Pezzullo, Ralph. Plunging into Haiti: Clinton, Aristide, and the Defeat of Diplomacy. Jackson: University Press of Mississippi, 2006. Provides an insider’s look at the negotiations between the United States and Haiti before, during, and after the intervention. Pedro dos Santos Bush, George H. W.; Christopher, Warren; Clinton, Bill; Foreign policy of the United States; Illegal immigration; Immigration to the United States; Latin America.

See also

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■ Hale-Bopp comet The appearance of a magnificent naked-eye comet Date July 22, 1995-fall, 1997 The Event

The discovery and later naked-eye appearance of Comet Hale-Bopp galvanized the world’s interest in astronomy. People often feel that the professional scientist who uses the largest telescope and very sophisticated technology makes the greatest discoveries in astronomy. While this is often true, there is still room for the amateur sky watcher to make important discoveries. This is what happened to Alan Hale and Thomas Bopp on the night of July 22-23, 1995. Hale was viewing in the region of the constellation Sagittarius when he noticed a fuzzy object in his telescope’s field of view. Thinking that this might be a possible comet, he made sure he was not looking at a similar known object. Once convinced it was a comet, Hale sent an e-mail message to Brian Marsden at the Central Bureau for Astronomical Telegrams in Cambridge, Massachusetts, informing him of his find. Unknown to Hale, in Stanfield, Arizona, Bopp was also observing in the same region of sky. He too found the fuzzy object and observed its motion against the background stars. He also knew that it was a comet and sent his discovery to the Central Bureau for Astronomical Telegrams via telegram, but Hale’s message had arrived first. In science, when two individuals independently make the same discovery at almost the same time, both are given equal credit. In 1994, people watched images of Comet Shoemaker-Levy collide with Jupiter, and in 1996 the brilliant Comet Hyakutake dominated the evening sky. With predictions that Comet Hale-Bopp would even outshine Hyakutake, people around the world anxiously awaited its arrival. In March, 1997, Comet Hale-Bopp stretched halfway across the evening sky and was easily seen by millions of people. Impact Many people enjoyed their view of Comet Hale-Bopp, but some viewed its appearance very differently. A religious group called Heaven’s Gate believed that the appearance of the comet had special meaning for them. The group’s founder, Marshall Applewhite, told thirty-eight of his followers that Earth was about to be “cleansed” by a cosmic event and that they had to immediately leave the planet.

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He convinced them that a spaceship carrying Jesus Christ was hiding behind the comet and was coming for them; the only way they could leave was by committing suicide, allowing their souls to join the spaceship as it neared Earth. On March 26, 1997, Applewhite and his followers were found dead, victims of a mass suicide. Further Reading

Burnham, Robert. Great Comets. New York: Cambridge University Press, 2000. Newcott, William R. “The Age of Comets.” National Geographic Magazine 192, no. 6 (December, 1997): 94-109. Sagan, Carl, and Ann Druyan. Comet. New York: Random House, 1985. Paul P. Sipiera See also Astronomy; Heaven’s Gate mass suicide; Science and technology; Shoemaker-Levy 9 comet.

■ Hamm, Mia Identification American soccer player Born March 17, 1972; Selma, Alabama

Hamm was the most prolific scorer in soccer history, with 158 international goals. A member of the U.S. women’s national soccer team from 1987 to 2004, she excelled throughout the 1990’s as the U.S. team won the Women’s World Cup (1991, 1999) and an Olympic gold medal (1996). Mariel Margaret “Mia” Hamm began her international soccer career while still a teenager, and she bookended an exemplary academic and athletic career at the University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill (UNC) around her participation as a member on the U.S. women’s national soccer team in 1991, the first of two such U.S. World Cup champion teams in the 1990’s. UNC was 95-1 during Hamm’s undergraduate career there, winning the National Collegiate Athletic Association (NCAA) national championship in all four of her years (1989, 1990, 1992, 1993). In each of her last three years, Hamm was both an All-American and Atlantic Coast Conference (ACC) Player of the Year. Although only of average size (five feet, four inches; 125 pounds), she used breakaway speed, unselfish attitude (“there is no ‘me’ in ‘Mia,’” she was fond of saying), and a competitive sense of shared leadership and team spirit

Mia Hamm runs alongside a defender from Sweden during the 1996 Olympic Games. The U.S. women’s soccer team went on to win the gold. (AP/Wide World Photos)

that helped to establish and maintain the U.S. women’s national soccer team among the elite teams in international competition for nearly two decades. From her position as a starting forward, Hamm was expected to spearhead the U.S. offensive attack, and she nearly always exceeded expectations, whether through goals, assists, tenacious defense, or her passionate leadership style. In the decade during which the term “soccer mom” became a household word, Hamm became perhaps the most identifiable personification of the female soccer player, presenting an image of female agency that projected an attractive, healthy young female actively competing on the playing field rather than cheering from the sidelines or transporting part of the team from the ubiquitous minivan. Although her UNC teammates fondly nicknamed her “Jordan” (referencing the UNC basketball star Michael Jordan, who rewrote many NBA records during his professional career), her role in the history of women’s sports may more accurately be understood with reference to

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Jackie Robinson in baseball or Marion Motley in football: She created a new template in terms of excellence and leadership for women in sports. Impact In addition to providing credibility to U.S. women’s soccer as a powerhouse in FIFA (soccer’s international governing body) and Olympic competition, Hamm’s impact went beyond the sports world to influence the ways in which mass and popular culture both regarded women and used women to market products and attitudes. In 1999, she started the Mia Hamm Foundation, which is dedicated to supporting bone marrow transplant patients and families and providing opportunities for young women in sports. Married in 2003 to professional baseball player Nomar Garciaparra, Hamm seems destined to continue to remain a celebrity role model well beyond her retirement from international competition. Further Reading

Hamm, Mia, and Aaron Heifetz. Go for the Goal: A Champion’s Guide to Winning in Soccer and Life. News York: HarperCollins, 1999. Latimer, Clay. Mia Hamm. Mankato, Minn.: Capstone Books, 2001. Weber, Chloe. Mia Hamm Rocks! New York: Welcome Rain, 1999. Richard Sax See also

Olympic Games of 1996; Soccer; Sports.

■ Hanks, Tom Identification Award-winning actor Born July 9, 1956; Concord, California

Hanks, one of the most prolific actors of the modern era, demonstrated an ability to play a variety of dramatic roles addressing a range of social issues. In the 1990’s, comedies such as Joe Versus the Volcano (1990); romantic films such as Sleepless in Seattle (1993) and You’ve Got Mail (1998); historical dramas such as A League of Their Own (1992), Apollo 13 (1995), and Saving Private Ryan (1998); and children’s films such as Toy Story (1995) and Toy Story 2 (1999) all demonstrated Tom Hanks’s talent for understanding his characters and realistically portraying their motivations and emotions. In the late 1980’s and early 1990’s, Hanks was known mostly for

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his roles in comedies such as Splash (1984), The Money Pit (1986), and Big (1988). Although Splash and Big were both commercial successes—Splash grossed almost $70 million at the box office and Big not only grossed more than $150 million but also earned Hanks an Academy Award nomination—they were still regarded as lightweight, family-friendly comedies. It was not until the 1990’s that Hanks began to delve more deeply into issue-based dramas where he could challenge his abilities as an actor. Two Awards for Best Actor, for Philadelphia (1993) and Forrest Gump (1994), as well as two additional nominations for Best Actor, for Saving Private Ryan (1998) and Cast Away (2000), proved that his change in focus was a wise decision. With this goal in mind, Hanks began his career as a dramatic actor. Philadelphia, a semihistorical examination of one of the earliest AIDS discrimination cases; Forrest Gump, a film based on a 1986 novel by Winston Groom that chronicles the social upheaval of the 1960’s; Apollo 13, which portrays the terrifying events leading up to a near-fatal NASA mission failure; and Saving Private Ryan, a panoramic film depicting the lives and missions of World War II-era soldiers, are all examples of films that addressed a variety of social issues, from homophobia to the plight of deployed soldiers. In particular, Forrest Gump and Saving Private Ryan caused Hanks, and filmgoers, to consider more deeply the sacrifices that previous generations of soldiers have made in the name of American ideals. Impact Tom Hanks appeared in over a dozen films during the 1990’s, putting his acting range to the test by the sheer variety of genres. His talent as an actor notwithstanding, Hanks’s increasing popularity in the mind of mainstream America can be attributed partly to his increasing level of social consciousness, as demonstrated by his selection of roles. Further Reading

Gardner, David. The Tom Hanks Enigma: The Biography of the World’s Most Intriguing Movie Star. London: John Blake, 2006. Pfeiffer, Lee, and Michael Lewis. The Films of Tom Hanks. Secaucus, N.J.: Citadel Press, 1996. Julia M. Meyers Academy Awards; Film in the United States; Forrest Gump; Philadelphia; Saving Private Ryan.

See also

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Happy Land fire

■ Happy Land fire A deliberately set fire in a dance hall kills eighty-seven people Date March 25, 1990 Place Happy Land social club, Bronx, New York The Event

An unemployed factory worker, whose girlfriend worked at a second floor social club that catered to New York City’s Honduran immigrant population, set fire to the club’s single exit, trapping scores of patrons. Lydia Feliciano worked the coat check at Happy Land, one of dozens of so-called social clubs in New York City, neighborhood ethnic clubs that sold large quantities of untaxed liquor in facilities that often did not meet minimum safety codes. Happy Land had operated under the radar for years (although it had been investigated in 1988 and its operators told to shut down as it had no sprinklers or fire alarms and insufficient fire exits). Early on the morning of March 25, 1990, club patrons—no one knows ex-

actly how many—crowded the tiny (sixty-by-twentyfoot) hall to celebrate Carnivale, a festival akin to Mardi Gras. Feliciano’s on-again, off-again boyfriend of six years, Julio González, a Cuban army deserter and ex-con who had just lost his job at a Queens lamp factory, argued with her about her working at the club. After a drunken González was ejected from the club at about 2:30 a.m., he roamed the streets around the club for nearly an hour until he purchased a dollar’s worth of gasoline at an Amoco station three blocks away (he told the attendant his car had broken down). Returning to the club, he poured the gas into the hall’s only open stairwell, tossed several matches into the puddle, and then crossed the street to watch. The fire exploded up the wooden stairwell; patrons immediately panicked, as the only other exit had been locked to prevent customers from dodging the cover charge. Within three minutes, the hall was engulfed. Thick toxic smoke from the building’s insulation and the bar’s plastic supplies was trapped in the windowless hall. Firefighters later determined that most of the eighty-seven fatalities were from asphyxiation. González returned to his apartment and passed out, his gas-soaked clothing next to his bed when he was arrested hours later. He admitted setting the fire and was eventually sentenced to 174 concurrent twenty-five-year sentences (eighty-seven counts of arson, eighty-seven counts of murder)—at the time the most severe prison sentence in New York judicial history. Impact Although the fire initially created a bond within the city’s Honduran community, efforts to forge a permanent ethnic organization lost steam amid allegations of illegal immigrants patronizing the club. Although the number of casualties stirred outrage over the operation of unlicensed clubs, the building’s owners argued that such clubs were an integral (and inevitable) part of neighborhood societies and that the heinous nature of this arson was such that it could have affected virtually any facility. A record $5 billion class-action lawsuit brought against the building owners and the city by survivors and victims’ families was unsuccessful, as the city had theoretically closed the club two years earlier.

The Happy Land social club, where Julio González committed an act of arson that killed eighty-seven people on the night of March 25, 1990. (AP/Wide World Photos)

Further Reading

Bukowski, R. W., and R. C. Spetzler. “Analysis of the Happyland Social Club Fire with Hazard I.”

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Harry Potter books

Fire and Arson Investigator 42, no. 2 (March, 1992): 36-47. Corbett, Glenn P., and Donald J. Cannon. Historic Fires of New York City. Mount Pleasant, S.C.: Arcadia, 2006. Hashagen, Paul. Fire Department, City of New York: The Bravest—An Illustrated History, 1865 to 2002. Paducah, Ky.: Turner, 2002. Joseph Dewey Crime; Illegal immigration; Immigration to the United States; Oakland Hills fire; Texas A&M bonfire collapse.

See also

■ Harry Potter books Identification

Best-selling children’s fantasy

series Author J. K. Rowling (1965) Date Published from 1997 to 2007

These titles became the best-selling children’s books of all time, rekindling interest in reading among grade-school children while sparking protest from some Christians. The idea for the Harry Potter books came to J. K. Rowling in the summer of 1990 while she was riding a train from Manchester to London. That year, she outlined the plots of the first two books, developed the background details, and wrote what eventually became the last book’s epilogue. In 1991, she moved to Oporto, Portugal, to teach English. There she wrote the first three chapters of the first book, was married, gave birth to a daughter, and was divorced. Rowling and her daughter moved to Edinburgh, Scotland, in December, 1993. Rowling finished the first book in 1994 while living on welfare. In 1996, it was purchased by Bloomsbury for a small advance, and Rowling also received a grant from the Scottish Arts Council to complete the second book. Harry Potter and the Philosopher’s Stone was published in the United Kingdom in July, 1997, Harry Potter

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and the Chamber of Secrets in July, 1998, and Harry Potter and the Prisoner of Azkaban in July, 1999. They all won awards, including the Nestlé Smarties Book Prize, received mostly positive reviews, and became best sellers. Although it did not win, Harry Potter and the Prisoner of Azkaban was nominated for the prestigious Whitbread Award. In February, 2000, Rowling was named Author of the Year at the British Book Awards. With some minor revisions and a new title, the first book, renamed Harry Potter and the Sorcerer’s Stone, was published in the United States by Scholastic Press in September, 1998. The second book was published in the United States in June, 1999, and the third in September, 1999. On September 26, 1999, the three books occupied the top three spots on The New York Times best-seller list. They were the first children’s books listed there since E. B. White’s Charlotte’s Web in 1952. The American editions also won awards, such as a Grammy for the audio version of the fourth book, Harry Potter and the Goblet of Fire (2000), as read by Jim Dale, and have been the subject of mostly favorable reviews. Impact Many librarians and teachers have testified that the Harry Potter books are responsible for

J. K. Rowling at a New York bookstore in 1998. (AP/Wide World Photos)

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getting many children to read. In addition, many words coined or used by Rowling, called “potterisms,” have entered the English language. Examples are “muggles” and “dementors.” Some conservative Christian groups protested against the books on the grounds that they glorify sorcery and the occult and promote the practice of witchcraft, which is forbidden by the Bible. As a result, the Harry Potter books were consistently the most censored children’s books in the United States. Other Christians defended the books as harmless or as having the potential for teaching Christian lessons to children. The other books in the series are Harry Potter and the Order of the Phoenix (2003), Harry Potter and the Half-Blood Prince (2005), and Harry Potter and the Deathly Hallows (2007). Further Reading

Heilman, Elizabeth E., ed. Critical Perspectives on Harry Potter. New York: Falmer Press, 2002. Neal, Connie. What’s a Christian to Do with Harry Potter? Colorado Springs, Colo.: Waterbrook Press, 2001. Nel, Philip. J. K. Rowling’s Harry Potter Novels: A Reader’s Guide. New York: Continuum, 2001. Thomas R. Feller Children’s literature; Culture wars; Literature in Canada; Literature in the United States; Publishing.

See also

■ Hate crimes Crimes targeting victims because of prejudice based on race, religion, ethnicity, gender, disability, or sexual orientation

Definition

Responding to national outrage at the large number of violent acts motivated by extreme prejudice, both the U.S. Congress and the state legislatures enacted laws designed specifically to punish such acts. Some jurists argued that these laws were inconsistent with the freedom of expression guaranteed by the First Amendment, but the Supreme Court rejected this argument in an important ruling of 1993. Hate crimes (also called bias-motivated crimes) differ from conventional crimes in that they are not simply motivated by the desire to harm another person or acquire property but are directed at a person

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because of his or her membership in a particular social group, often with the intention of threatening or subordinating members of that group. Before 1990, twenty states either criminalized or provided enhanced punishment for illegal acts motivated by prejudice, and twenty more states enacted such legislation by 1999. Defenders of the legislation argued that heightened punishment was appropriate because hate crimes increase social conflict and threaten entire groups of people. Congress enacted four major hate crime statutes during the decade. The Hate Crime Statistics Act (HCSA) of 1990 requires the Federal Bureau of Investigation (FBI) to acquire and publish data on the crimes motivated by “manifest prejudice.” The Hate Crimes Sentencing Enhancement Act (HCSEA) of 1994 provided additional penalties for an offender committing a federal crime while motivated by prejudice against the victim’s social category. The Church Arsons Prevention Act of 1996 provided for enhanced criminal prosecution for attacks against houses of worship. The Violence Against Women Act of 1994, which provided federal remedies for most gender-based crimes, was ruled unconstitutional on principles of federalism in 2000. The U.S. Supreme Court upheld the constitutionality of hate crime legislation in the case of Wisconsin v. Mitchell (1993). Todd Mitchell and his codefendants were African Americans who had been sentenced to enhanced punishments under the state’s hate crime statute. The state’s high court held that the statute was unconstitutional because it punished offenders on the basis of their ideas, thereby having a chilling effect on freedom of expression. The U.S. Supreme Court, however, unanimously disagreed and found the law to be constitutional. Chief Justice William H. Rehnquist wrote that the law simply punished overt conduct and that motive played the same role as in antidiscrimination laws. Only those persons contemplating criminal acts, moreover, would have to worry about whether their speech might be used as evidence under the statute. The Supreme Court, however, has consistently held that the First Amendment prohibits criminal prosecutions for hate speech that is simply deemed to be offensive or insulting. The case of R. A. V. v. City of St. Paul (1992) dealt with a city ordinance that was used to prosecute teenagers for burning a cross on

Constitutionality of Hate Crime Laws

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an African American family’s lawn. Striking down the ordinance, the Court declared that the First Amendment prohibited “viewpoint discrimination” or punishment for the expression of offensive ideas. The decision left a number of questions unanswered; in particular, it did not clearly distinguish between offensive speech and threatening speech. A decade later, in Virginia v. Black, the Court would clarify that government has the authority to punish persons for speech that is intended to intimidate or threaten to harm other persons. Although hate crimes represented less than half of one percent of the reported crimes of the 1990’s, their aggregate numbers were nevertheless large. In 1996, the FBI reported a total of 8,759 instances of hate crimes, including 4,600 attacks against black victims, compared with 1,445 attacks against whites. Among the known offenders, 5,891 (or 66 percent) were white, and 1,826 (or 20 percent) were black. The FBI also reported 907 antigay crimes, including 757 crimes against gay men and 150 crimes against lesbians. The 1990’s saw many sensational hate crimes targeted at blacks, including the 1991 beating of Rodney King by police officers in Los Angeles. In 1997, two New York officers pleaded guilty to beating and using a police stick to sodomize Haitian immigrant Abner Louima. The most highly publicized incident was the 1998 murder of James Byrd, Jr., in Jasper, Texas, in which three white men chained Byrd to their pickup truck and then dragged him about three miles. As a result, Byrd was decapitated and his limbs were scattered along the road. Although Texas had no hate crime legislation, two of the offenders were given the death penalty, while the driver of the truck, who did not have any proven racist connections, was sentenced to life imprisonment. Although minorities were victims in a majority of hate crimes, whites were also victims. For three days in 1991, the Crown Heights neighborhood of Brooklyn, New York, was the scene of anti-Jewish violence after the driver of a Jewish leader accidentally struck and killed a young African American boy. One group of about twenty young black men attacked and brutally murdered a Jewish university student, Yankel Rosenbaum. The Los Angeles riots of 1992 erupted after a jury acquitted the police officers who had beaten Rodney King. For the next two days, many rioters targeted Korean businesses as well as

Instances of Hate Crimes

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whites like Reginald Denny, a truck driver who was beaten over the head with a fire extinguisher. More than fifty persons died in the riots. The following year, Jamaican immigrant Colin Ferguson boarded a Long Island commuter train and opened fire, killing six people and wounding nineteen. Police discovered that Ferguson possessed antiwhite literature and had written an explanatory note expressing hostility toward whites, Asians, and “Uncle Tom blacks.” Impact During the 1990’s, fewer instances of prejudice-motivated violence against minorities occurred than in earlier periods of American history. Some critics believe that a fixation on hate crimes promoted alarmist and pessimistic perceptions about social fragmentation, even resulting in a self-fulfilling prophesy. Deciding whether a particular incident should be classified as a hate crime is a complex matter of interpretation. Many crimes of rape, for example, are thought to be motivated by animosity toward women, but cases of rape are rarely classified as hate crime. Criminologists and jurists disagree about whether the prosecution of hate crimes resulted in a decrease in such incidents. Without hate crimes laws, of course, almost all bias-motivated offenses would still be criminally prosecuted, and juries would usually have the option of considering motivation as one of the aggravating or mitigating factors for deciding the appropriate sentence. Further Reading

Altschiller, Donald. Hate Crimes: A Reference Handbook. Santa Barbara: ABC-Clio, 1999. A useful guide to the relevant legislation, chronology, and statistics, with annotated references to published and Internet sources. Jacobs, James, and Kimberly Potter. Hate Crimes: Criminal Law and Identity Politics. New York: Oxford University Press, 1998. A balanced analysis emphasizing that the notion of hate crimes emerged because of the desire to give symbolic support to historically disadvantaged groups. Jenness, Valerie, and Ryken Grattet. Making Hate a Crime: From Social Movement to Law Enforcement. New York: Russell Sage, 2004. An insightful sociological study with historical information about the social forces that led to the criminalization of hate crimes. Levin, Jack, and Jack McDevitt. Hate Crimes: the Rising Tide of Bigotry and Bloodshed. New York: Plenum Press, 1993. Pioneering study of hate-motivated

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violence, advocating organized community response as an effective deterrence. Perry, Barbara. In the Name of Hate: Understanding Hate Crimes. New York: Routledge, 2001. Argues the controversial thesis that hate crimes are embedded in continuing patterns of white racism and prejudice against subordinate minorities. Thomas Tandy Lewis See also African Americans; Byrd murder case; Crime; Crown Heights riot; Diallo shooting; Ferguson, Colin; Homosexuality and gay rights; Jewish Americans; King, Rodney; Los Angeles riots; Louima torture case; Police brutality; Race relations; Shepard, Matthew; Supreme Court decisions.

■ Health care Production and consumption of medical services, as well as health outcomes

Definition

Although most measures of health improved for the United States and Canada during the 1990’s, medical costs increased greatly and health care organization and financing remained highly controversial. Good health and long life are among the many benefits enjoyed by countries with a high level of income and economic development. The same process that generated technology to augment production brought repeated major discoveries and inventions that have revolutionized the medical care available to most people. Health, however, is not primarily determined by medical care. It also reflects genetic inheritance and lifestyle choices such as diet, exercise, avoiding risk factors such as smoking, excessive alcohol consumption, addictive drugs, obesity, recreational violence, and irresponsible sexual activity. Education has a large influence on health. Better-educated people take better care of themselves, both in and out of the medical system. Persons with less than a high school education have death rates at least double those with education beyond high school. Public health and sanitation programs—including a clean water supply, sewage disposal, pollution control, pure food, and drug surveillance—are also important. While the United States and Canada are very similar in regard to most of these factors, the two countries differ significantly in regard to public

policies toward the financing of medical services. Health indicators for the United States and Canada were already good in 1990 and became significantly better over the decade. In 1990, a female baby could expect to outlive her male counterpart by seven years. For women of age fifty, the gap was about five years, and for women of sixty-five it was slightly under four years. Life expectancy at birth is heavily influenced by nonmedical factors such as murders, automobile accidents, and smoking, all of which affected men much more than women. Over the course of the 1990’s, life expectancy for men increased to a much greater extent than for women, lowering the gap substantially and equalizing the ratio of men to women surviving into advanced age. Both medical and nonmedical influences were important. Deaths from automobile accidents declined in absolute numbers, from 47,000 in 1990 (17.9 per 100,000 population) to 43,000 in 2000 (14.9 per 100,000). Greater use of seat belts, often mandated by law, helped. Murders declined strikingly, from 23,000 in 1990 to 16,000 in 2000. The proportion of cigarette smokers among persons eighteen years and older fell from 25.5 percent in 1990 to 23.2 percent in 2000. Suicides decreased from 12.4 per 100,000 in 1990 to 10.4 per 100,000 in 2000. The proportion of older people receiving flu vaccinations increased markedly, from about one-third in 1989 to nearly two-thirds in 2000. The U.S. Department of Health and Human Services publication Health United States 2002 presents comparative data estimating life expectancy for individuals in high- and middle-income countries. Esti-

Life Expectancy in the United States, 1990 and 2000 Age

Gender

1990

2000

% Change

At birth

Male

71.8

74.3

3.5

Female

78.8

79.7

1.1

Male

26.4

27.9

5.7

Female

31.3

32.0

2.2

Male

15.1

16.2

7.3

Female

18.9

19.3

2.1

At age 50 At age 65

Source: Statistical Abstract of the United States, 2008, p. 75.

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mates for age sixty-five are generally the most relevant for evaluating medical care conditions. From 1992 to 1997, it reported that the life expectancy for males at age sixty-five in the United States rose from 15.4 to 15.9, while the number of remaining years held steady at 19.2 for females at that age. In Canada during this same period, the life expectancy for males at age sixty-five rose from 16.0 to 16.3 and the figure for females at age sixty-five increased slightly, from 20.0 to 21.1. Infant mortality in 1990 in the United States was almost 1 percent, or 9.2 per thousand live births. By 2000, it had declined to 6.9 per thousand. Much of this improvement reflected better self-care by expectant mothers, particularly nutrition and the avoidance of risk factors. The proportion of pregnant women who smoked dropped from 18 percent in 1990 to 12 percent in 2000. The four principal causes of death in the United States during the 1990’s were heart disease, cancer, stroke, and respiratory conditions, all of which primarily affect older people. The incidence of heartrelated deaths declined significantly, however, reflecting both lifestyle changes and improvements in medications, newer surgical techniques, and the wider use of pacemakers and defibrillators. While the overall incidence of deaths per year declined only slightly, it is known from the improvements in survival rates that the deaths occurred later in life. Improved cancer treatments, for instance, were generally able to slow the advance of the disease. The human immunodeficiency virus (HIV), which causes acquired immunodeficiency syndrome (AIDS), caused much alarm as it spread in the

Life Expectancy at Age 65, 1992 and 1997 Country United States Canada Median of 27 other countries

Gender

1992

1997

Male

15.4

15.9

Female

19.2

19.2

Male

16.0

16.3

Female

20.0

20.1

Male

14.7

15.4

Female

18.1

19.1

Source: U.S. Department of Health and Human Services, Health, United States, 2002, p. 115.

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1980’s. Between 1987 and 1994, HIV mortality increased by 16 percent per year. From that point, however, the incidence declined significantly. In 1990, HIV deaths averaged about 10 per 100,000 people, and by 2000 the incidence was only half as large. Much of this improvement occurred as highrisk populations such as male homosexuals and intravenous drug users adapted their behavior to lower the risk of transmission. Paying for Medical Services Medical goods and services are provided by private market suppliers in both the United States and Canada, but the financing systems differ substantially. In the United States, the government provides three types of financial support: Medicare, Medicaid, and the programs for federal prisoners, military personnel, and veterans. Medicare, established in 1965, provided extensive reimbursement of medical expenses for qualifying persons aged sixty-five and older in the 1990’s. Most people qualified by paying a Medicare tax, at a rate of 1.45 percent, as part of their Social Security payroll tax. This amount provided hospitalization coverage. For doctor reimbursement, a monthly premium was required. The number of Medicare beneficiaries increased from 34 million in 1990 to 40 million in 2000, and the program’s expenditures rose from $111 billion in 1990 to $222 billion in 2000. This rapid growth in expenditures caused alarm among many experts on government finance. As life expectancy increased, the proportion of population on Medicare increased. Medicaid is a means-tested program that covers medical expenses for low-income persons of any age. Each state creates its own program, but there are federal guidelines and federal financial support. Medicaid coverage of persons under age sixty-five generally averaged around 10 percent in the 1990’s, with no clear trend. Only about half the people below the federal poverty line qualified for Medicaid. Medicaid was supplemented by the creation in 1997 of the State Children’s Health Insurance Program (SCHIP). By 2000, 3.4 million children were enrolled. During the decade, most persons under age sixty-five relied on private medical insurance, most of it arranged by employers. Private insurance coverage declined from 76 percent in 1989 to 72 percent in 2000,

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while the proportion of uninsured people Deaths per 100,000 Persons Aged 65 and rose from 15 to 17 percent over the same Older in the U.S., 1990 and 1999 period. Medical costs in the United States inRespiratory All creased rapidly during the 1990’s. While conYear Heart Cancer Stroke Conditions Causes* sumer prices in general rose about 32 percent 1990 2,109 1,149 45 508 5,396 from 1990 to 2000, the price index of medical goods and services increased 60 percent. 1999 1,772 1,133 434 482 5,238 Medical expenditures as a percentage of * Includes items not enumerated. gross domestic product (GDP) increased Source: U.S. Department of Health and Human Services, Health, from 11.9 percent in 1990 to 13.3 percent in United States, 2002, p. 69. 2000—a higher percentage than any other country. For Canada, the proportion was relatively constant at around 9 percent. In ecoemployers offering medical insurance benefits denomic jargon, the demand for medical care was clined, and the proportion of people without insurprice-inelastic. Because most medical expenditures ance increased. The predicament of the uninsured were made through insurance, consumers were relaor underinsured became a major focus of political tively indifferent to price. Only about one-fifth of attention. During Bill Clinton’s first term as presimedical expenditures were out-of-pocket. dent, his wife Hillary headed a team that attempted The supply of medical services was also quite priceto put together a program to expand federal governinelastic. Medical education remained lengthy, ment medical insurance. No such program was stressful, and incredibly expensive. Many new docadopted, however. tors began their professional careers with student Medicare and Medicaid did not simply pay paloan debts of $100,000 or more. Between 1990 and tients’ medical bills. They pressured suppliers to ac2000, the number of physicians in the United States cept far less than list price—that is, the nominal increased from 615,000 to 814,000, with the ratio of billed amounts. As a result, suppliers looked for ways physicians to population increasing from 0.25 perto increase list price. This meant that patients not cent (or 2.5 per thousand) to 0.29 percent. In Cancovered by insurance were hit by bills that were far ada, the ratio was slightly higher in 1990 but failed to greater than those paid by insurance programs. Inincrease over the decade. Most other high-income creasingly, uninsured patients came to rely on hospicountries had more physicians per capita. In 2000, tal emergency rooms, which were obligated under for instance, comparative data on twenty-seven law to treat all persons. This in turn created financial other countries showed that eighteen had more difficulties for many hospitals. than the United States and twenty-two had more than Canada. One of the many deterrents to entering medical How Canada Pays Like that of the United States, practice was the high premiums for malpractice inCanada’s medical system has relied on doctors and surance—often $100,000 a year. Whereas in many hospitals that are independent parts of the market professions, retired people can continue working economy. However, there has long been a national part-time or as volunteers, insurance considerations health program (also called Medicare). Each provlargely ruled out this option for doctors. ince determines its own program, but the national The high earnings of U.S. physicians attracted government has set major guidelines and provides many doctors from other countries. Among the half the financing. Basic physician and hospital roughly 200,000 additional physicians in the United treatments have been provided to patients without States over the decade, roughly one-third were direct charge. foreign-educated physicians. By 2000, this group During the 1990’s, because coverage did not exconstituted about one-fourth of all physicians in tend to such areas as pharmaceuticals and dental the United States. and optical care, about one-third of medical expenditures were privately paid, and the majority of CanaThe rapid rise in medical costs meant that insurdians had some form of private health insurance. ance premiums also increased. The proportion of

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Physicians’ incomes were much more dominated by government policy than those in the United States, and their incomes were significantly below those in the United States. As a result, a substantial number of Canadian doctors migrated south for better pay. Canada’s system proved very popular with the general public. A major criticism involved long waiting times for treatment. Canadian hospitals invested far less in expensive high-tech equipment than did U.S. hospitals. However, such equipment was criticized by U.S. observers who believed that patients were being pressured into high-cost diagnostic procedures that may have little benefit. Abundant anecdotal evidence existed of Canadians seeking treatment in the United States either to bypass long waiting times or to secure top-of-the-line specialist treatment for difficult conditions. Impact By 2000, Americans and Canadians were living longer and healthier lives. Many people adopted healthier lifestyles, although a rise in obesity rates threatened to increase problems such as diabetes. Overall, both the quantity and the quality of medical resources improved. Canadians were generally satisfied with their government-financed medical care system. Americans were not satisfied with the U.S. system—though most had good feelings about their personal medical situation. The United States was the world leader in medical research and innovation. It spent a much higher percentage of the GDP on medical goods and services than other countries and a far lower proportion of government-financed medical care than most other high-income countries. The rapid rise in medical costs during the decade generated pressures for cost control in the Medicare and Medicaid programs, and some of these controls impaired incentives to provide adequate supply. For those in the upper half of the population by income, those with more education, and the elderly in general, U.S. medical facilities were probably better than those in other countries. African Americans, Latinos, and the low-income population, however, fared less well. There was chronic agitation for a more comprehensive system of medical insurance, one more nearly comparable to those in Canada and in Europe, but opponents feared that the attending cost controls would damage supply and innovation.

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Further Reading

Henderson, James W. Health Economics and Policy. 2d ed. Mason, Ohio: Thomson/South-Western, 2002. This college text is designed for noneconomists. Gives an excellent balance of facts and theory. Rejda, George. Social Insurance and Economic Security. 6th ed. Upper Saddle River, N.J.: Prentice-Hall, 1999. A text for college undergraduates. Health problems and policies are emphasized in chapters 7 and 8. Zweifel, Peter, and Friedrich Breyer. Health Economics. New York: Oxford University Press, 1997. A comprehensive analytical survey with an international perspective. Paul B. Trescott See also Abortion; AIDS epidemic; Alzheimer’s disease; Antidepressants; Cancer research; Drug advertising; Health care reform; LASIK surgery; Medicine; Pharmaceutical industry; Science and technology; Stem cell research; Tobacco industry settlement; Viagra.

■ Health care reform Legislative initiatives proposed to moderate health care expenditures and to increase coverage of uninsured persons

Definition

During this decade, increasing health care costs placed undue burdens on individuals, employers, and governments. Reining in costs and expanding coverage were main aims of the unsuccessful national health care reform initiatives. Per capita health care expenditures rose from $1,101 in 1980 to $2,813 in 1990. The average annual growth rate of health care expenditures had exceeded that of gross domestic product (GDP) throughout the 1980’s, 10.8 percent compared to 7.8 percent. Total health care expenditures rose more modestly throughout the 1990’s. By 1999, per capita health care expenditures rose to $4,522, stabilizing at 13.7 percent of GDP. The average annual growth rate of health care expenditures exceeded that of GDP throughout the 1990’s, 6.6 percent vis-àvis 5.3 percent. Total U.S. spending on health care exceeded $1.1 trillion by 1997 and reached nearly $1.3 trillion in 1999. As health care costs rose, so did

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the number of uninsured persons, roughly 35 million in 1990, to about 45 million in the mid- to late 1990’s before declining to about 38.4 million, or 13.7 percent of the population, by 2000. Major Efforts and Initiatives Bill Clinton incorporated health care reform into the 1992 presidential campaign, dozens of health reform proposals were introduced in Congress, and President George H. W. Bush unveiled his plan. Market-oriented reforms sought incremental modifications of private health insurance markets, single-payer tax-financed plans covered all citizens such as that provided by the Canadian government, and a hybrid to universal coverage called “play or pay” plans mandated employers who did not provide health insurance coverage for their workers to contribute to a fund for uninsured workers. On January 25, 1993, President Clinton named First Lady Hillary Rodham Clinton chair of the President’s Task Force on National Health Care Reform to design a universal health care plan. In a nationally televised address on September 22, President Clinton outlined principles of his Health Security Plan meant to provide health insurance to everyone while containing costs. To achieve universal coverage, most employers would be required to fund health care for their employees, with subsidies to small businesses. The federal government would fund the purchase of private health insurance policies for unemployed persons or part-time workers. To contain costs, regional health care alliances would be developed to publicize competing health insurance policies so that consumers could choose, and the government would develop controls over prices charged by pharmaceutical companies for drugs. Questions about costs and complexity plagued President Clinton’s 1,342-page reform initiative from the start. Many feared they would pay more for health insurance under the plan, and private insurance companies augmented these fears by financing a televised campaign featuring the fictitious middleclass couple Harry and Louise voicing their concerns. The proposed legislation languished in congressional committees. Liberal Democrats such as Minnesota senator Paul Wellstone and Washington representative Jim McDermott favored a singlepayer plan similar to Canada’s. Others, like Tennessee Democratic representative Jim Cooper, railed against cost-control provisions and the funding nec-

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essary to obtain universal coverage. Conservatives of both parties preferred to minimize the role of government involvement in health care, portraying the Health Security Plan as a bureaucratic, big-government scheme. By August, 1993, no reform plan commanded a majority of legislators. Congressional elections in 1994 returned control of Congress to the Republican Party, signaling a loss of public confidence in government capacity. Balancing the budget, reliance on market-based mechanisms to address social problems, and shrinking the scope of the federal government were evidenced in the Republican’s Contract with America, released on September 27, 1994, and promoted by Republican representative Newt Gingrich, its main architect who became House Speaker. Impact After 1994, cost containment remained the main impetus of incremental market-based health care initiatives. The Health Insurance Portability and Accountability Act of 1996 (HIPAA) included portability provisions to prevent loss of health insurance due to job changes, health insurance access and renewability guarantees, and, on an experimental basis, medical savings accounts (MSA). The Balanced Budget Act of 1997 expanded the range of managed care options available to Medicare enrollees. Options included provider-sponsored organizations (hospitals or physicians developed plans) and preferred provider organizations (insurance providers developed plans whose enrollees had to obtain treatment from a roster of physicians and hospitals that agreed to charge discounted fees and to secure central approval for treatments). The act also permitted states to implement mandatory Medicaid managed care programs without a waiver from federal authorities. The State Children’s Health Insurance Program (SCHIP) was created as Title XXI of the Social Security Act to help states insure uninsured low-income children who were ineligible for Medicaid. Subsequent Events On December 8, 2003, President George W. Bush signed the Medicare Prescription Drug, Improvement, and Modernization Act of 2003, adding prescription drug benefits to Medicare on a voluntary basis. Health care expenditures rose two to three times faster than GDP after 2000 before tapering off but still exceeded GDP growth between 2004 and 2006. The number of uninsured persons increased again after 2000, reaching a high of nearly

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47 million persons (15.8 percent of the population) in 2006. While the percentage of uninsured children declined steadily between 1998 and 2004 from a high of 15.4 percent to a low of 10.4 percent, it rose to 11.2 percent in 2006; between 2001 and 2004, the percentage of insured persons in employersponsored health plans declined from 62.7 percent to 59.5 percent. Health care reform to reduce costs and shrink if not eliminate uninsured rates was part of the presidential debates throughout 2008. Further Reading

Clinton, William J. “Address to a Joint Session of the Congress on Health Care Reform, September 22, 1993.” Weekly Compilation of Presidential Documents 29, no. 38 (September 27, 1993): 1836-1846. The president announces and outlines the Health Security Plan. Feldman, Roger D., ed. American Health Care: Government, Market Processes, and the Public Interest. New Brunswick, N.J.: Transaction, 2000. This collection of essays examines changes in health care delivery in the 1990’s in light of related legislation. Hacker, Jacob S. The Road to Nowhere: The Genesis of President Clinton’s Plan for Health Security. Princeton, N.J.: Princeton University Press, 1997. Details how the complex idea of managed competition came to occupy a prominent place in the Clinton administration’s health security plan. Skocpol, Theda. Boomerang: Clinton’s Health Security Effort and the Turn Against Government in U.S. Politics. New York: W. W. Norton, 1996. Describes the mobilization of antistatist political forces that defeated the Health Security bill between 1992 and 1994. Smith, David G. Entitlement Politics: Medicare and Medicaid, 1995-2001. New York: Aldine de Gruyter, 2002. Examines the politics behind legislative initiatives targeting Medicare and Medicaid spending between 1995 and 2001. Richard K. Caputo Armey, Dick; Balanced Budget Act of 1997; Canada and the United States; Clinton, Bill; Clinton, Hillary Rodham; Conservatism in U.S. politics; Contract with America; Elections in the United States, midterm; Family and Medical Leave Act of 1993; Gingrich, Newt; Health care; Medicine; Pharmaceutical industry; Poverty; Social Security reform; Welfare reform.

See also

Heaven’s Gate mass suicide

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■ Heaven’s Gate mass suicide Thirty-nine members of the Heaven’s Gate cult commit suicide Date March 23-25, 1997 Place Rancho Santa Fe, California The Event

As Comet Hale-Bopp approached Earth, thirty-nine members of the Heaven’s Gate cult, led by Marshall Applewhite, committed suicide, believing that they would be transported into the cosmos to reunite with a spaceship from the “level beyond human” traveling behind the comet. Marshall Applewhite and Bonnie Nettles met in 1972 at a hospital in Houston, Texas, where Nettles worked as a nurse. Applewhite had recently lost his position as the music director at the University of St. Thomas, and his wife had earlier left him because of several homosexual affairs. The loss of his job and ambivalence over his sexuality made him depressed. Nettles was active in New Age thought, including spiritualism and astrology. When she met Applewhite, her marriage was also dissolving. The two became inseparable, although their relationship was described as strictly platonic. Ti and Do Begin Their Mission Both of them had been hearing voices from unidentified flying objects (UFOs), which persuaded them that they had a des-

Heaven’s Gate on Suicide In 2008, the Heaven’s Gate Web site was still accessible and included a statement, excerpted here, regarding the religious group’s view of suicide: The true meaning of “suicide” is to turn against the Next Level when it is being offered. In these last days, we are focused on two primary tasks: one—of making a last attempt at telling the truth about how the Next Level may be entered (our last effort at offering to individuals of this civilization the way to avoid “suicide”); and two—taking advantage of the rare opportunity we have each day—to work individually on our personal overcoming and change, in preparation for entering the Kingdom of Heaven.

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tiny that required them to leave behind their ordinary lives.“Ti” (Nettles) and “Do” (Applewhite), as they called themselves (referring to notes in the musical scale), headed westward in 1973 on a “trip into the wilderness” to find their calling. On the West Coast, they learned from alien voices that they would be martyred and taken to another planet. Those who wished to join them in that journey would have to undergo a metamorphosis, which required giving up property and human attachments and being celibate, since sex took energy away from “the Process,” as they called that metamorphosis. Their followers were told that they could transform their human bodies into Marshall Applewhite. (AP/Wide World Photos) eternal, extraterrestrial beings, at which time UFOs would come to take them “home.” Little is known 1996, the group rented a mansion in Rancho Santa about them over the next years except that they Fe, an affluent community near San Diego, with dashed from place to place expecting to board a money they made from their Web site business. They UFO. In 1985, Ti died from cancer. Do declared that rose before dawn every morning to scan the sky for a she had come from another planet to teach him the sign that they would soon be taken from Earth. Process and that she was returning to the “level beWhen Comet Hale-Bopp appeared in 1997, rumors yond human.” that a UFO had been sighted behind it led the Do and his followers reappeared in public in Heaven’s Gate members to conclude that Ti was 1993, making a video, advertising in magazines, and coming to take them home. They bought a powerful creating a Web site to gain followers. The site was titelescope to observe the comet. tled “Heaven’s Gate,” and became the popular name for the group. They also formed a business for creatThe Suicides Because they believed that it was necing Web sites. The members took new names, which essary to leave their “earthly containers” behind, Do ended in ody, indicating that they were children in a and thirty-eight followers (twenty-one women and class learning the Process. Their time was tightly regseventeen men) committed suicide in a meticulous ulated; when they left the group to conduct busifashion over a three-day period beginning on March ness, which they always did as male and female pairs, 23. Initially the dead were identified as men, since they had to phone in regularly. After two members the police found them dressed alike in black clothwere arrested for vagrancy because they had no ing and black athletic shoes with close-cropped hair, money, members carried five-dollar bills and quarmaking it difficult to determine their gender at first ters for the telephone calls. When the group ate out, glance. Their faces and chests were covered with they ordered the same menu items, and they were purple shrouds. The dead had five-dollar bills and described as dressing identically and having the quarters in their pockets, and their bags had been same hair cuts, making it difficult to tell apart the packed neatly in the dormitory-style rooms. They women from the men. Also in 1993, Do and seven had taken phenobarbital mixed in pudding and had other men were castrated to remove their sexual drunk vodka before lying down in bed. The last two drive, and others were taking chemicals to reduce it. had cleaned up the house and sent farewell videos By then, Do was suffering from coronary arteriosclerosis, and his message became more urgent. In and a letter to a former member before committing

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suicide themselves. That former member went to the mansion on March 26 and then alerted police. Charles Humphrey, “Rkkody,” a member since 1975, was not present at the mass suicide. He served as a spokesman for the “Away Team” in the months following the incident. Following a botched suicide attempt in May, 1997, that left another member dead, he killed himself in February, 1998, dressed identically to the thirty-nine members who had died the previous year. Impact News of the mass suicide and the castrations of some cult members astounded the nation. Two sociologists, Robert Balch and David Taylor, studied the cult in the 1970’s and the 1980’s; their research provided important insights into the process of creating the sort of group coherence that could lead to mass suicide. The belief system promulgated by Heaven’s Gate has baffled civil authorities and ordinary people, seeming poignant to some and ridiculous to many. Such beliefs, however, hold a strong appeal to those who have difficulty in finding meaning in their lives. One message of the suicides at Rancho Santa Fe, therefore, is the degree to which such personalities may be willing to subject themselves to the visions and wills of others. Further Reading

Balch, Robert. “The Evolution of a New Age Cult: From Total Overcomers Anonymous to Death at Heaven’s Gate.” In Sects, Cults, and Spiritual Communities, edited by William Zellner. Westport, Conn.: Praeger, 1998. A sociologist who studies charismatic leadership, Balch joined Heaven’s Gate as an observer-participant for two months in 1975. His work follows the cult from 1975 to 1997. Lalich, Janja. Bounded Choice: True Believers and Charismatic Cults. Berkeley: University of California Press, 2004. A sociologist specializing in cults uses Heaven’s Gate as a major example of how cult leaders bind their members to them, even to the point of committing suicide. Wessinger, Catherine. How the Millennium Comes Violently: From Jonestown to Heaven’s Gate. New York: Seven Bridges Press, 2000. Contains a lengthy section on Heaven’s Gate with details about Applewhite’s and Nettles’s lives and the founding of their cult. Offers insights into how a group can be motivated into committing mass suicide. Frederic J. Baumgartner

Heroin chic

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See also Hale-Bopp comet; Religion and spirituality in Canada; Religion and spirituality in the United States.

■ Heroin chic Definition

Drug-glamorizing fashion style

In the mid-1990’s, the look of pale, sickeningly thin fashion models became popular in the fashion industry. Heroin overdoses among fashion photographers and criticism from the public and politicians ended the craze. Before the 1990’s, heroin chic was promoted by photographers like Nan Goldin and Larry Clark (writerdirector of Kids, 1995). The look was reinvented by New York fashion photographers Mario and Davide Sorrenti, whose work glamorized the fashion trend more than their predecessors had. Their photographs first appeared in British tabloids and later in American high fashion magazines. Connected with Seattle’s grunge music scene, the Sorrenti brothers believed their work visually documented the counterculture that thrived on Western consumerism. The models had exhausted facial expressions and unnaturally thin figures and sometimes wore torn stockings. Major designers, most notably Calvin Klein, regularly featured waiflike models in their clothing advertisements. Fashion models Kate Moss and, in the late 1970’s and early 1980’s, Gia Carangi (the tragic precursor to heroin chic who became addicted to heroin and died of AIDS in 1986) were the most prominent models to portray the heroin chic look. Kurt Cobain, lead singer for the grunge band Nirvana, was the most closely linked entertainer to heroin chic counterculture. Impact Davide Sorrenti died of a heroin overdose in February, 1997. His death had a strong impact on the New York fashion industry. In May, The New York Times published a series of articles on the heroin chic trend. President Bill Clinton criticized the fashion industry for claiming that the advertisements were a form of artistic expression. Some Republicans claimed they were another method used by the liberal media to corrupt American morals. Films such as Pulp Fiction (1994) and Trainspotting (1996), which dealt with heroin addiction, also drew criticism for allegedly glamorizing the drug. Within weeks of politicians’ speeches shunning such adver-

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tising, heroin chic had all but disappeared. Its largest promoter, Calvin Klein, began featuring healthier models in advertisements. Further Reading

Nash, Alanna. “The Model Who Invented Heroin Chic.” The New York Times, September 7, 1997, p. H90. Summer, Christine C., and Peter Doskoch. “Tracking the Junkie Chic Look.” Psychology Today 29, no. 5 (September/October, 1996): 14. Wren, Christopher S. “Clinton Calls Fashion Ads’ ‘Heroin Chic’ Deplorable.” The New York Times, May 22, 1997, p. A22. Dwight Vick See also Advertising; Drug use; Fads; Fashions and clothing; Grunge fashion; Grunge music; Nirvana; Pulp Fiction.

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denied her allegations. Thomas went on to be confirmed as the next Supreme Court justice by a narrow vote of fifty-two to forty-eight. Hill details her experiences in her 1997 autobiography Speaking Truth to Power. Over the course of her law career, she has served as counsel to the assistant secretary of the Department of Education’s Office for Civil Rights (1981), assistant to the chairman of the Equal Employment Opportunity Commission (1982-1983), law professor at the University of Oklahoma (1986), held a position at the Institute for the Study of Social Change at the University of California, Berkeley (1997), and became a professor of the Heller School for Social Policy and Management at Brandeis University (1997), where she remains. Hill has taught and written about international commercial law, bankruptcy, civil rights, and women’s issues. In 1995, she coedited Race, Gender, and Power in America with Emma Coleman Jordan. She is a sought-after public speaker.

■ Hill, Anita Law professor who accused Supreme Court justice nominee Clarence Thomas of sexual harassment Born July 30, 1956; Lone Tree, Oklahoma Identification

Hill is credited for putting a face on sexual harassment in the 1990’s and for galvanizing women to vote an unprecedented twenty-eight new women into Congress in 1992, the “Year of the Woman.” On October 11, 1991, Anita Hill testified before Congress in televised hearings that Clarence Thomas had sexually harassed her while she was in his employ. Both Hill and Thomas are African American. Hill’s testimony came days before Congress was scheduled to vote on his Supreme Court nomination. Her allegations against Thomas were made public when information from a Federal Bureau of Investigation (FBI) interview regarding these issues was revealed. Thomas was Hill’s supervisor from 1981 to 1983, when they both worked for the Equal Employment Opportunity Commission (EEOC). Hill was vilified by several white male senators who claimed she had romantic designs on Thomas, while she was lauded as a hero by many women for exposing sexual harassment in the workplace. Hill appeared poised and professional as she recounted her experiences of being sexually harassed by Thomas. Thomas vehemently

Anita Hill testifies before the Senate on the nomination of Clarence Thomas to the Supreme Court on October 11, 1991. (AP/Wide World Photos)

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Judge Thomas Responds At the evening session of the hearing of the Senate Judiciary Committee on the nomination of Clarence Thomas to the U.S. Supreme Court on October 11, 1991, Thomas lashed out after testimony was presented against him by Anita Hill, a former employee: Senator, I would like to start by saying unequivocally, uncategorically, that I deny each and every single allegation against me today that suggested in any way that I had conversations of a sexual nature or about pornographic material with Anita Hill, that I ever attempted to date her, that I ever had any personal sexual interest in her, or that I in any way ever harassed her. A second, and I think more important point, I think that this today is a travesty. I think that it is disgusting. I think that this hearing should never occur in America. This is a case in which this sleaze, this dirt, was searched for by staffers of members of this committee, was then leaked to the media, and this committee and this body validated it and displayed it at prime time over our entire nation. How would any member on this committee, any person in this room, or any person in this country, would like sleaze said about him or her in this fashion? Or this dirt dredged up and this gossip and these lies displayed in this manner? How would any person like it? The Supreme Court is not worth it. No job is worth it. I’m not here for that. I’m here for my name, my family, my life and my integrity. I think something is dreadfully wrong with this country when any person, any person in this free country would be subjected to this. This is not a closed room. There was an FBI investigation. This is not an opportunity to talk about difficult matters privately or in a closed environment. This is a circus. It’s a national disgrace. And from my standpoint as a black American, as far as I’m concerned, it is a high-tech lynching for uppity blacks who in any way deign to think for themselves, to do for themselves, to have different ideas, and it is a message that unless you kowtow to an old order, this is what will happen to you. You will be lynched, destroyed, caricatured by a committee of the U.S. Senate rather than hung from a tree.

Impact The Hill-Thomas hearings affected the political landscape of the 1990’s because it was the first time that confounding issues of race and gender were concurrently exposed on a national scale. Subsequent Events In 2007, Clarence Thomas’s autobiography, My Grandfather’s Son, once again highlighted his dealings with Anita Hill. She responded to his declarations that she was a liar by stating in The New York Times on October 2, 2007, that his claims were “unsubstantiated representations and outright smears” and that his accounts were dominated by “blatant inconsistencies.” Further Reading

Garment, Suzanne. Scandal: The Culture of Mistrust in American Politics—Afterword, On Anita Hill and Clarence Thomas. New York: Times Books, 1992.

Hill, Anita. Speaking Truth to Power. New York: Doubleday, 1997. Morrison, Toni, ed. Race-ing Justice, En-Gendering Power: Essays on Anita Hill, Clarence Thomas, and the Construction of Social Reality. New York: Pantheon Books, 1992. U.S. Congress. Senate. Committee on the Judiciary. The Complete Transcripts of the Clarence ThomasAnita Hill Hearings. Chicago: Academy Chicago, 1994. Katherine M. Helm African Americans; Civil Rights Act of 1991; Elections in the United States, 1992; Morrison, Toni; Race relations; Supreme Court decisions; Thomas, Clarence; Women in the workforce; Women’s rights; Year of the Woman.

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Hip-hop and rap music

■ Hip-hop and rap music Interconnected styles of music that emphasize rhythmic spoken words set to beats

Definition

If critics call the 1980’s and early 1990’s “the golden age of hip-hop,” the later 1990’s deserve the label “the rise of rap rivalry.” Rap and hip-hop musicians in the 1990’s wrote complex metaphors and multilayered beats, a nod to advancing technology and keen attention to social injustice. Previously unknown rapper Ice Cube released his immediately classic debut AmeriKKKa’s Most Wanted (1990) and songs such as “The Humpty Dance” by Digital Underground and “Let’s Talk About Sex” by Salt-n-Pepa captivated worldwide audiences with new beats and honest topics, while lip-synching Milli Vanilli and rapper MC Hammer— despite the latter’s two Grammys and his own cartoon—fell from public grace. On March 3, 1991, four Caucasian Los Angeles police officers used nightsticks to beat an African American man named Rodney King. A bystander recorded the beating, which immediately aired worldwide, enraging more than just the African American community. When a trial in 1992 acquitted the officers, the worst intercity rioting that the United States had ever seen erupted in Los Angeles. Hip-hop and rap musicians responded with angry, cop-slandering lyrics, which led Vice President Dan Quayle to call for a ban of Tupac Shakur’s controversial album 2Pacalypse Now (1991). Ice-T’s rap-metal band’s song “Cop Killer” elicited similar responses from the public and caused national law-enforcement protests. The year was not all bad, however, as both Ice Cube and Tupac Shakur (also called 2Pac) made films—Trespass and Juice, repectively—and the Beastie Boys released Check Your Head. In addition, Dr. Dre and Suge Knight created Death Row Records and released Dre’s album The Chronic. Dre’s signature style, G-funk, along with another of his partnerships to then-unknown rapper Snoop Doggy Dogg, propelled West Coast rap back to the top of the charts. Hip-hop artist Jodeci won Billboard’s hottest album and song. In 1993, Snoop Doggy Dogg’s Doggystyle entered the Billboard charts at number one while police charged him with second-degree murder. Meanwhile, the East Coast’s Wu-Tang Clan released Enter the Wu-Tang (36 Chambers), Shakur’s second album, Strictly 4 My N.I.G.G.A.Z., appeared just before police

arrested him on charges of assault and battery, and Sean “Puffy” Combs created Bad Boy Records and signed to his new label Christopher Wallace, known as the Notorious B.I.G. or Biggie Smalls. Female rapper MC Lyte’s single “Ruffneck” went gold and received a Grammy nomination, Queen Latifah won a Grammy, and Salt-n-Pepa’s Very Necessary became the best-selling rap album of all time by a female artist. New rappers emerged in 1994, including Southern rap duo OutKast and Bone Thugs-N-Harmony, and the East Coast, after a two-year hiatus, recaptured the number one spot with the Notorious B.I.G.’s remix “One More Chance.” Queens native Nas released Illmatic to critical acclaim, and Snoop Doggy Dogg created the short film Murder Was the Case. The East versus West Coast rivalry exploded in 1995 when, throughout the year, artists and producers from both sides taunted one another with accusations. First, Shakur accused former friend Smalls and Combs of hiring someone to shoot him. Then, Knight insulted Combs, increasing tensions between Death Row and Bad Boy artists. Finally, from prison, Shakur released the critically acclaimed Me Against the World, and when Knight paid his bail and hired him to Death Row Records, coastal tensions increased. Jay-Z and Da Brat debuted albums, Mary J. Blige and TLC topped the charts, and Eazy-E died of acquired immunodeficiency syndrome (AIDS). On September 7, 1996, gunfire injured Knight and Shakur in Las Vegas after Shakur’s double album All Eyez on Me and B-side single “Hit ’Em Up” slandered Smalls and Death Row Records, a label that Dre soon left to start Aftermath Entertainment. Shakur died in gunfire almost a week later. Bone Thugs-N-Harmony, OutKast, Lil’ Kim, Foxy Brown, and the Fugees—who also captured the Billboard number one album—delivered powerful records in 1996 that propelled them into the national spotlight. Only six months after Shakur’s murder, Smalls was murdered on March 9, 1997, further shocking the rap and hip-hop community. Days later, his final album, Life After Death, became the best-selling rap record of all time. Combs memorialized Smalls and produced No Way Out on his own label. That year, several rappers released solo debuts, including Will Smith, Missy “Misdemeanor” Elliot, Master P, and Mase. The Fugees broke up, and several well-known rappers reappeared, including Rakim, Foxy Brown,

Second Half of the Decade

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and Shakur, via an unreleased collection posthumously produced by his mother. In 1998, Jay-Z, Lauryn Hill, and OutKast produced impressive albums; DMX delivered two; and two new hybrid genres—rap rock and Southern hiphop—brought new talent to the fore, trumping defunct West Coast rap in early 1999. The Hard Knock Life Tour became the first successful rap tour of the decade, and south of the border, Puerto Rican rapper Big Punisher’s Capital Punishment went platinum. The Miseducation of Lauryn Hill won five Grammys, and Eminem, Mos Def and Talib Kweli (as Blackstar), Eve, and Dr. Dre generated powerful hiphop albums. Impact The decade ended on a positive note and had lasting effects. Gangsta rap and Southern hiphop continue to flourish, and both genres—independently and collaboratively—have gained worldwide recognition and validity. The 1990’s brought complexity to the lyrics and beats, but the years also complicated the relationships among rivaling groups: East, West, and South. Further Reading

Hip-Hop: Beyond Beats and Rhymes—About Hip-Hop. http://www.pbs.org/independentlens/hiphop. This Web site accompanies a PBS documentary by Byron Hurt on hip-hop and masculinity, sexism, violence, and homophobia. Light, Alan, ed. The Vibe History of Hip Hop. New York: Three Rivers Press, 1999. Provides comprehensive, chronological coverage of the genre. Smiley, Tavis. Examining Hip-Hop Culture. http:// www.pbs.org/kcet/tavissmiley/special/hiphop. A PBS special highlighting African American perspectives on hip-hop culture; includes numerous comments with possible ideas for argumentative essays on this topic. Watkins, S. Craig. Hip Hop Matters: Politics, Pop Culture, and the Struggle for the Soul of a Movement. Boston: Beacon Press, 2005. Topically organized by essays examining hip-hop culture. Includes an index to help locate information quickly. Ami R. Blue See also African Americans; Death Row Records; Drive-by shootings; Fads; King, Rodney; Los Angeles riots; Milli Vanilli; MP3 format; Music; Police brutality; Race relations; Shakur, Tupac; Smith, Will.

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■ Hobbies and recreation Definition

Leisure-time pursuits and activities

How Americans used their leisure time changed significantly during the 1990’s, in part because of a baby-boomer generation nostalgia craze, prompting growth in collecting hobbies of all kinds, and also because of the growing popularity of Internet-based activities. Having been brought up during decades when childhood hobbies were strongly encouraged, the baby boomers once again embraced hobbies as they neared retirement. Economic gains made during the 1990’s made the collecting hobbies especially attractive, with these accumulations taking almost any form possible. While antiques continued to hold a place of importance among collectors, the pursuit of items from one’s own childhood, especially toys, became a passion for many. Traditional collecting categories with a strong nostalgic aspect—such as dolls, automobiles, advertising signs, or candy containers—enjoyed substantial popularity. This surge in collecting created a greatly increased market for reproduction items, or collectibles, produced specifically for these collectors. Hallmark was a typical company in catering to the nostalgia-minded, while long-established toy retailer F.A.O. Schwarz showed its adaptability to the times in issuing F.A.O. Collectibles catalogs rather than only toy catalogs. Collection-minded adults became the target buyers for many toy companies, with reissues of classic toys from the 1950’s and 1960’s, collector editions of current-run toys, and expensive special productions related to licensed movie and pop culture characters. Collecting such lines as Hot Wheels, Barbie, and Star Wars became more the norm than playing with them. This intense interest in collecting affected other recreational activities, as the widespread success of Magic: The Gathering demonstrated. Released in 1993, this role-playing/strategy game introduced the modern concept of the collectible card game and prompted a flood of collectible card games in the mid-1990’s. Nostalgia also played a part in the continuing interest in crafts, although some of the traditional arts, such as quilting, fell from the spotlight. Newer crafting hobbies, such as rubber stamping, expanded in popularity. Even if not originating in the 1990’s, interest in scrapbooking became so widespread as to

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make it characteristic of this decade. A hobby that incorporated such other popular crafts as collagemaking and papermaking, scrapbooking rose to such a level of mass acceptance that individual scrapbooking retail stores opened across the country. Even if most would soon close due to inadequate business acumen, the presence of such hobbyoriented retail outlets was characteristic of the late years of the decade. As an activity enhanced by the company of friends, scrapbooking was attractive partly for its social aspect. A similar attraction helped generate interest in the new online communities, or digital communities, that resulted from the development of the World Wide Web. New Internet forum software and other developments helped news groups and bulletin boards proliferate and attract sizeable readers and participants. Blogging began gaining in popularity by the end of the decade. These online communities turned out to be central developments to hobbyists of every stripe, especially during the latter part of the 1990’s. Whether the interest was winemaking, reading science fiction, or collecting stoneware, the online world offered ease of communication among hobbyists scattered nationally or even globally. Newsgroups replaced newsletters as means of disseminating information, and many online communities were coterminous with enthusiast, hobby, and craft communities. The burgeoning online communities also turned a minor sports-oriented diversion of previous decades, fantasy football, into one of the most popular pastimes of the late 1990’s. These online activities occupied hours previously given to other hobbies and recreations. The single event that most changed the recreational life of computer-owning Americans, however, was the founding in 1995 of AuctionWeb, renamed eBay in 1997. This online auction house had a bit of the flea market in its makeup—but a flea market with the sky as its limit. With eBay’s national and soon global scope, and with offerings that changed from minute to minute, hobbyists found a perfect outlet for their often obsessive interests. Home entertainment continued its growth in other, more well-established directions as well, with 99 percent of U.S. homes now owning television sets, cable companies thriving, and home film rental businesses enjoying a boom period.

Effect of the Internet

Impact The changes during the 1990’s reflected diametrically opposing trends. On one hand, the desire to find a like-minded community spurred people to spend hours at such diverse activities as scrapbooking and newsgroup reading. On the other hand, the bulletin boards, instant communications, and auction sites made it easier to spend more recreational time than ever before alone inside the home. The ease of Internet trading also eroded some of the institutions that had helped hobbyist and recreational groups gain a sense of community in previous decades. Newsletters, collector magazines, and hobbyist conventions began losing readers and attendees. For similar reasons, business at the flea markets and antique malls that flourished in the 1980’s saw the beginnings of decline. By the end of the decade, almost no hobby or recreational pursuit was left unaffected, for better or worse, by the Internet. Further Reading

Cohen, Adam. The Perfect Store: Inside eBay. Boston: Little, Brown, 2003. A fact-filled chronicle of the unconventional online business that changed the face of nearly every hobby. Haglund, Jill. Complete Guide to Scrapbooking. 5th ed. Sarasota, Fla.: TweetyJill, 2000. This best-selling guide describes the techniques, practices, and ideas that helped make scrapbooking one of the most popular hobbies of the 1990’s. Kennedy, Angus J. The Internet and World Wide Web: The Rough Guide. London: Rough Guides, 1997. This handbook for both novices and experts covers all aspects of the Internet experience in its earlier days, with accurate description of its recreational and hobby aspects. Prince, Dennis. Online Auctions at eBay: Bid with Confidence, Sell with Success. Rocklin, Calif.: Prima, 1999. Accurate depiction of techniques and practices typical in the 1990’s, at this central meeting spot for most of America’s collecting communities. Turlington, Shannon R. Walking the World Wide Web: Your Personal Guide to the Best of the Web. Chapel Hill, N.C.: Ventana Press, 1995. A window upon the online world in its earlier days, with focus on its recreational aspects. Mark Rich

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Amazon.com; Audiobooks; Blogs; Book clubs; Cable television; Coffeehouses; Digital divide; Fads; Film in the United States; Internet; Music; Television; Toys and games; World Wide Web.

See also

■ Hockey Definition

Team sport

An increase in the popularity of the sport led to an expansion in the number of teams in the National Hockey League (NHL). Especially notable was the location of many of the new franchises, as they were often placed in the Sun Belt of the United States. Hockey was noteworthy in the 1990’s for several reasons. At the professional level, numerous changes occurred. The NHL, the most prestigious professional hockey league in the world, expanded from twenty-one to twenty-eight teams. In addition, several players came from Eastern Europe following the collapse of communism and the disintegration of the Soviet Union. The latter also had an impact on Olympic hockey, as previous decades had been dominated by Soviet teams. Entering the 1990’s, the NHL had plans for a significant expansion of its number of teams. The league wanted to have thirty franchises by the end of the decade. It was not just the growth in the number of teams that was important; the location of these franchises marked a new approach, as most of the new teams were placed outside of where the sport had long been popular. Two of the franchises were awarded to cities in California: In 1991, the San Jose Sharks entered the league, and in 1993, the Mighty Ducks of Anaheim made their debut. As with California, the American South was not a location with large numbers of hockey enthusiasts, yet the region was awarded many new NHL teams. Florida received two teams, as the Tampa Bay Lightning entered the league in 1992 and the Florida Panthers began playing in Miami in 1993. Two other franchises placed in the South during the decade were the Nashville Predators and the Atlanta Thrashers, making their debuts in 1998 and 1999, respectively. The only new team located in the geographical areas traditional for hockey was the Ottawa Senators, who started playing in 1992. Not only did the NHL expand its number of

Expansion South and West

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teams, but four franchises moved as well. In two cases, teams moved from Canada to the United States. Three of the four relocated franchises moved from cold climates, where hockey was popular, to the Sun Belt, where the sport was less so. In 1993, the Minnesota North Stars became the Dallas Stars. Perhaps the most controversial relocation was made by the Quebec Nordiques, who moved to Denver and became the Colorado Avalanche prior to the 19951996 season. In its last year as the Quebec Nordiques, the team finished the regular season with the best record in the Eastern Conference. At the end of the following season, the franchise’s first as the Colorado Avalanche, it won the Stanley Cup. The Winnipeg Jets also relocated to an American city, becoming the Phoenix Coyotes before the 1996-1997 season. In 1997, the Hartford Whalers relocated to Raleigh, North Carolina, and became the Carolina Hurricanes. Realignment Entering the 1993-1994 season, the league rearranged divisions, conferences, and the playoff format. Geography became the primary determinant of the composition of divisions and conferences. Instead of the Wales and Campbell Conferences, there were Eastern and Western Conferences. The format of the playoffs also changed. Prior to the 1993-1994 season, the top four teams from each of the four divisions qualified for the playoffs. The first two rounds were the divisional semifinals and the divisional finals. Beginning with the 1993-1994 season, the divisional winners along with the six teams with the next best records qualified for the playoffs from each conference. The first two rounds were now the conference quarterfinals and the conference semifinals.

The Edmonton Oilers’ dynasty ended in 1990 after the team won its fifth Stanley Cup in seven years. Unlike previous decades, the 1990’s did not experience such dynasties in the NHL. The most Stanley Cups won by a single team during the decade was two, achieved by both the Pittsburgh Penguins and the Detroit Red Wings. The Penguins won their championships in the 19901991 and 1991-1992 seasons. The Red Wings also won the Stanley Cup in consecutive seasons, in the 1996-1997 and 1997-1998 seasons. Professional hockey also experienced some significant individual achievements during the 1990’s.

Notable Champions

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The Red Wings’ championship in 1997 marked a milestone in coaching. Scotty Bowman became the first coach in the history of the four major professional sports in the United States to win championships with three different teams. In addition, many winners of the Hart Trophy, awarded to the NHL’s most outstanding player in a season, demonstrated the increasing importance of players from Europe, especially the arrival of players from the former communist countries of Eastern Europe: Sergei Federov in 1994, Dominik Hasek in 1997 and 1998, and Jaromir Jagr in 1999. Finally, Wayne Gretzky, considered by many to be the greatest hockey player ever, retired in 1999. Olympic Changes Major changes in international politics had an impact on the Olympics, especially hockey. With the collapse of the Soviet Union just two months before the Winter Olympics of 1992, the fifteen newly independent countries did not have enough time to organize separate teams. Thus, they agreed to play together under the name Unified Team. The team won another gold medal in hockey, but it would be the end of that region’s dominance of the sport. With the division of the former Soviet players in subsequent Olympics, other countries began to have more success in hockey. In 1994, Sweden won its first gold medal in the sport after defeating Canada in a shootout; it was considered to be one of the best games ever played in the Olympics. In the Winter Olympics of 1998, hockey reached three more milestones. The Czech Republic won its first gold medal by defeating Russia. It was also the first time that NHL players were permitted to participate in Olympic hockey. The third achievement was the introduction of women’s hockey to the Olympics, as the United States defeated Canada to win the sport’s inaugural gold medal. Impact During the 1990’s, the NHL perceived the sport’s increase in popularity as a reason to locate new franchises outside its traditional geographical base of fan support. By doing so, league officials hoped to further increase its popularity by attracting new fans in growing areas of the United States. The collapse of communism allowed great hockey players from Eastern Europe to play professionally in the NHL, and the subsequent disintegration of the Soviet Union leveled the competition in Olympic hockey.

Further Reading

Boyd, Bill. All Roads Lead to Hockey: Reports from Northern Canada to the Mexican Border. Lincoln: University of Nebraska Press, 2006. Case studies about hockey in selected towns across the United States and Canada. Danielson, Michael N. Home Team: Professional Sports and the American Metropolis. Princeton, N.J.: Princeton University Press, 2001. Analyzes the role of government in attracting and keeping sports franchises to their respective areas. Wallechinsky, David. The Complete Book of the Winter Olympics. Woodstock, N.Y.: Overlook Press, 1998. A brief overview and order of finish for all sports in the Winter Olympics in the modern era. Kevin L. Brennan Olympic Games of 1992; Olympic Games of 1994; Olympic Games of 1998; Sports.

See also

■ Hogue, James Identification Ivy League impostor Born October 22, 1959; Kansas City, Kansas

This petty thief turned fraud gained entrance into Princeton University posing as a self-taught Utah rancher. James Hogue was born and raised in rural Kansas, where he excelled in both academics and sports, in particular track and cross-country running. He graduated from high school in 1977 and attempted college at both the University of Wyoming and University of Texas but dropped out of both. In 1986, Hogue, then twenty-six years old, decided that he wanted to attempt to gain entrance to Stanford University as an intercollegiate runner. In order to gain an athletic scholarship as a high school runner, he enrolled at Palo Alto High School under the name Jay Huntsman, a sixteen-year-old orphan from Nevada. The real Jay Huntsman was the identity of a deceased infant. A local reporter eventually uncovered Hogue’s true identity, and he was arrested. Once released, he moved to Colorado, where he posed as a Stanford professor hired to teach young runners at a cross-country camp, until he was discovered again to be a fraud. He then moved to California, where he was hired as a custom bicycle mechanic. Within months, he stole over $20,000 worth of bicycle parts from his employer and moved to

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Utah, where he was eventually arrested and jailed. While in prison, Hogue applied to various Ivy League schools and eventually gained admission to Princeton University. His application stated that he was eighteen-year-old Alexi Indris-Santana, a selfeducated Utah rancher with no formal schooling. Based on his high Scholastic Aptitude Test (SAT) scores, along with his impressive yet fraudulent running career at Palo Alto High School, Princeton offered Hogue a large scholarship for the fall of 1988; however, he was still in a Utah prison. In order to receive a deferment, Hogue lied to Princeton officials, stating that his mother was dying of leukemia in Switzerland and that he had to go back home to be with her until she passed. In the summer of 1989, Hogue was placed on parole but decided to leave Utah in order to pursue his new scheme as a young scholarathlete at Princeton. Hogue, now a fugitive from justice, officially became a member of the Princeton class of 1993, and he immediately began to impress his professors, coaches, and peers with his stellar performances both in the classroom and on the track. Hogue lived as Santana until 1991, when a former classmate from Palo Alto High School recognized him at an intercollegiate track meet. She immediately reported his identity to her coach, who in turn spoke to a local journalist who broke the story. Hogue was arrested for defrauding Princeton of nearly $30,000. After pleading guilty to theft by deception in 1992, he was sentenced to three years in jail and five years probation. Impact James Hogue will be remembered as the con man who pulled off the ultimate scheme—entry into an Ivy League school using made-up school records. Hogue was a master con artist who tricked Princeton into not only allowing him to enter their prestigious school but also giving him a scholarship and arranging for him to receive financial aid. Hogue was essentially a career criminal whose crimes escalated from petty thefts to higher-level frauds like the Princeton scheme. Although many believed that Hogue had the intellect to do great things the conventional way, he opted for some reason to take the darker road of crime and deception. Since the Princeton fraud, he has been arrested numerous times for other frauds and petty thefts. Further Reading

Samuels, David. “The Runner.” The New Yorker, September 3, 2001, 72-85.

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_______. The Runner: A True Account of the Amazing Lies and Fantastical Adventures of the Ivy League Impostor James Hogue. New York: New Press, 2008. Paul M. Klenowski See also

Crime; Scandals.

■ Holocaust Memorial Museum A museum dedicated to the documentation, interpretation, and study of the Holocaust Date Opened to the public on April 26, 1993 Place Located on the National Mall in Washington, D.C. Identification

The United States Holocaust Memorial Museum serves as the official memorial dedicated to preserving the memory of the millions of European Jews and others killed during the Holocaust during World War II. Planning for the Holocaust Memorial Museum began with a presidential commission established by Jimmy Carter in 1978; in 1980, the U.S. Congress passed legislation to establish a council charged with planning the memorial. The land for the museum was donated by the federal government, and the funding was secured through the private donations of more than 200,000 individuals. After years of planning by main architect James Ingo Freed, construction of the museum began in July, 1989. After nearly four years of construction, the building was completed in the spring of 1993. The architectural design of the building is intended to symbolize several aspects of the Holocaust. For example, four towers are located on the north side of the building to represent the watch towers located at many of the death camps. In addition, triangular shapes are located throughout the building to symbolize the triangles that were used to mark the Jewish prisoners. The main part of the museum comprises the permanent exhibition, which details a chronological history of the Holocaust. Included in this exhibition is the Tower of Faces, a three-story-tall tower containing over one thousand photographs of Jewish life in Europe before the Holocaust. In addition to the permanent exhibition, the museum displayed several special exhibitions throughout the 1990’s, including “Faces of Sorrow: Agony in the Former Yugoslavia” and “The Nazi

424

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Olympics: Berlin 1936.” The museum is also home to the Committee on Conscience, a privately and publicly funded think tank that conducts research on genocide throughout the world. During the construction phase of the museum in the early 1990’s, a controversy developed over how the Holocaust should be remembered in the exhibitions. Many of the museum’s planners did not want to use photographs and other artifacts that would depict the Jewish people only as victims. Others, however, argued that displaying such artifacts, while horribly graphic, was the only way to ensure an accurate depiction of the Holocaust. Still other critics believed that a museum that did not commemorate the American experience of the Holocaust should not be built on the National Mall. This controversy had no clear resolution, with some exhibits seemingly satisfying different parties. Impact Despite the criticisms and controversy, the museum has been visited by millions of visitors from all over the world, including many foreign leaders and dignitaries, since its opening. Further Reading

Berenbaum, Michael. The World Must Know: The History of the Holocaust as Told in the United States Holocaust Memorial Museum. Boston: Little, Brown, 1993. Linenthal, Edward. Preserving Memory: The Struggle to Create America’s Holocaust Museum. New York: Viking Press, 1995. Lindsay Schmitz See also Architecture; Israel and the United States; Jewish Americans; Schindler’s List.

■ Holy Virgin Mary, The Identification Controversial painting Date Created in 1996; displayed at the Brooklyn

Museum of Art, New York City, from October 2, 1999, to January 9, 2000 Defended by many art critics, this painting prompted debate on the use of public money to support a museum displaying a painting that many cultural conservatives considered repulsively sacrilegious. Nigerian in ancestry, Chris Ofili was born in 1968 in Manchester, England, and raised Catholic. He re-

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ceived formal training in art in London. In 1992, while in Zimbabwe on a scholarship, he decided to use elephant dung in his paintings and soon gained public attention. Created in 1996, The Holy Virgin Mary consists mainly of oil paint, paper collage, polyester resin, and glitter on an eight-by-six-foot sheet of linen whose frame is supported by two clumps of elephant dung, one bearing the word “Virgin” and the other the word “Mary.” The painting depicts a blackskinned, cartoonlike woman with mismatched irises, a bulbous nose, and big red lips. Through her leaflike gown her right breast, formed from elephant dung and map pins, protrudes. On the goldcolored background are what at a distance appear to be tiny angels but up close turn out to be women’s buttocks and genitals cut from pictures in pornographic magazines. One of five paintings by Ofili in the exhibition Sensation: Young British Artists from the Saatchi Collection, The Holy Virgin Mary provoked less outrage during its initial exhibition, in London, than did another artist’s portrait of a murderer. After the run in London and another in Berlin, Sensation arrived in New York City, where it was to be presented at the Brooklyn Museum of Art, an institution funded in part by the city and housed on city property. Even before the opening, scheduled for October 2, 1999, The Holy Virgin Mary proved to be the center of American outrage at Sensation. The president of the Catholic League, Bill Donohue, called for a boycott and the end of city funding for the museum. Saying that the First Amendment did not require the public to allow its taxes to support offensive art, New York mayor Rudolph Giuliani tried to end city funding for the museum and to evict it from city property. In turn, the Brooklyn Museum of Art sued to keep its city money and building and received not only support from arts-oriented groups and the American Civil Liberties Union but also national publicity. On November 1, while The Holy Virgin Mary, specially shielded, continued to draw enormous attention, a federal judge ruled in favor of the museum. Sensation stayed there until its scheduled closing on January 9, 2000. For the defenders of Ofili’s The Holy Virgin Mary, the eventual settlement in the museum’s favor in an appeals court during March, 2000, was a victory for artistic freedom over censorship and, ac-

Impact

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Holyfield, Evander

cording to some, over white racism. For those who found the painting blasphemous, the case marked a victory for adolescent rebellion supported by taxes. Further Reading

Adams, Brooks, et al. Sensation: Young British Artists from the Saatchi Collection. London: Thames and Hudson, 1998. Kimball, Roger. “The Elephant in the Gallery, or the Lessons of ‘Sensation.’” New Criterion 18, no. 3 (November, 1999): 4-8. Victor Lindsey Art movements; Censorship; Culture wars; Giuliani, Rudolph; Mapplethorpe obscenity trial; National Endowment for the Arts (NEA); Race relations; Religion and spirituality in the United States.

See also

■ Holyfield, Evander World heavyweight boxing champion Born October 19, 1962; Atmore, Alabama Identification

Holyfield, known as “The Real Deal,” replaced Mike Tyson as the most prominent heavyweight boxer of the 1990’s. He engaged in numerous high-profile fights and held several different versions of the heavyweight title during the decade. After winning a silver metal in the 1984 Summer Olympics, Evander Holyfield turned professional later the same year. By 1988, he had won all three versions of the world cruiserweight title: World Boxing Association (WBA), International Boxing Federation (IBF), and World Boxing Council (WBC). In July of 1988, he gave up these titles to campaign as a heavyweight, and on October 25, 1990, he knocked out James “Buster” Douglas in the third round to win the undisputed heavyweight title, which Douglas had won in a stunning upset over Mike Tyson eight months earlier. Following three successful title defenses, including victories over former champions George Fore-

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man and Larry Holmes, Holyfield lost the title to Riddick Bowe in November of 1992. A year later, he regained the IBF and WBA titles from Bowe (who had given up the WBC version of the title), but then lost the titles to Michael Moorer by a twelve-round decision in April of 1994. Holyfield suffered a dislocated shoulder in the bout against Moorer and, while at the hospital after the fight, was diagnosed with a heart condition that temporarily forced his retirement from the ring. After passing the necessary medical exams, Holyfield returned to the ring in May of 1995. He fought for the next year and a half for a chance to fight for a third heavyweight title. His opportunity came on November 9, 1996, when he challenged Tyson for the WBA title. In a dramatic upset, Holyfield defeated Tyson by a technical knockout (TKO) in the eleventh round. Holyfield defended his title in a 1997 rematch with Tyson (which Holyfield won by disqualification when Tyson persisted in biting his ears during the bout) and then added the IBF heavyweight title to his WBA title with a decision win over Moorer in November, 1997. After a controversial draw with WBC heavyweight titleholder Lennox Lewis in March, 1999, Holyfield lost his WBA and IBF titles in a rematch with Lewis the following November.

Mike Tyson, left, and Evander Holyfield battle at the MGM Grand Garden in Las Vegas, Nevada, on November 9, 1996. Holyfield won by technical knockout in the eleventh round. (AP/Wide World Photos)

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Impact Small for a modern heavyweight at an average fighting weight of 210 pounds, Holyfield, as his record indicates, was a fierce competitor, making up by conditioning and determination what he lacked in physical size. In addition to his large number of high-profile fights during the decade, he was also involved in some of the more bizarre occurrences in the ring during the period, including the ear-biting incident in the 1997 bout with Tyson and the appearance of a man in a flying parachute that forced a twenty-minute interruption of Holyfield’s second fight with Bowe in 1993. Holyfield received numerous boxing awards, including being named The Ring magazine’s Fighter of the Year twice, in 1996 and 1997. With Tyson in decline and Lewis still in the process of attaining full prominence in the 1990’s, Holyfield stands as the decade’s dominant heavyweight. Further Reading

McIlvanney, Hugh. The Hardest Game: McIlvanney on Boxing. Rev. ed. Chicago: Contemporary Books, 2001. Thomas, James J., II. The Holyfield Way: What I Learned About Courage, Perseverance, and the Bizarre World of Boxing. Champaign, Ill.: Sports, 2005. Scott Wright See also

African Americans; Boxing; Sports; Tyson,

Mike.

■ Home Alone Identification Comedy film Director Chris Columbus (1958) Date Released on November 16, 1990

An instant hit with the public, this film combined a holiday theme with a child-stranded-at-home story line and broad slapstick humor. The sometimes crude but ultimately sweet movie became one of the biggest movies of 1990 and 1991. The impeccable casting and solid direction of Home Alone overcame a plot with a number of gaping holes. Beyond Macaulay Culkin’s star-making turn as Kevin McCallister, Joe Pesci and Daniel Stern played perfect foils as two stooges, Harry and Marv, intent on breaking into every home in the neardeserted neighborhood during the holidays. Kevin’s parents, Peter (John Heard) and Kate (Catherine

Home Alone star Macaulay Culkin in 1991. (AP/Wide World Photos)

O’Hara), realize too late that they have left their eight-year-old son at home while the rest of the family is in-flight to France. While their attempts to get home to their son provide the heart of the film, it is Kevin’s self-reliance and elaborate booby traps that make the film enjoyable to watch. At the end of its run in 1991, Home Alone sat at the top of the box office from its release on November 16, 1990, through February 3, 1991, and held a top-ten spot until April 26, 1991. The total 19901991 domestic ($285,761,243) and worldwide gross ($533,800,000) earned the film the distinction of being, at the time, the third-highest-grossing motion picture of all time. While a box-office success, the film received a lukewarm reception from critics. John Hughes’s penchant for writing and producing movies that focus on the experiences of young protagonists (Sixteen Candles, 1984; The Breakfast Club, 1985; Ferris

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Bueller’s Day Off, 1986) continued with Home Alone, but crude jokes and comic violence undermined what was promoted as “a family comedy without the family.” While the film did spawn three sequels (1992’s Home Alone 2: Lost in New York, also starring Culkin, directed by Chris Columbus, and written and produced by Hughes; 1997’s Home Alone 3, written and produced by Hughes; and the direct-tovideo Home Alone 4, released in 2002) and a slew of other slapstick-inspired comedies, Home Alone was the box-office high point (and turning point) in a long line of incredibly successful films by Hughes. On the awards front, Home Alone was modestly successful. John Williams was nominated for two Academy Awards: for Best Original Score and (with lyricist Leslie Bricusse) Best Original Song, “Somewhere in My Memory.” Culkin won an American Comedy Award for Funniest Actor in a Motion Picture (Leading Role), and the film was nominated for two Golden Globe Awards: Best Comedy/Musical and Best Performance by an Actor in a Motion Picture—Comedy/Musical (Culkin). The film, cast, and crew received several other minor awards and nominations. Impact Home Alone set the stage for many subsequent broad comedies of the 1990’s and launched the careers of Macaulay Culkin and Chris Columbus. The film remains one of the highest grossing of all time. Further Reading

Maltin, Leonard, Luke Sader, and Spencer Green. Leonard Maltin’s Movie Encyclopedia: Career Profiles of More than Two Thousand Actors and Filmmakers, Past and Present. New York: Plume Books, 1995. Peske, Nancy, and Beverly West. Advanced Cinematherapy: The Girl’s Guide to Finding Happiness One Movie at a Time. New York: Dell, 2002. Christopher Strobel Academy Awards; DVDs; Film in the United States. See also

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■ Home run race Major League Baseball attendance booms as sluggers chase the single-season home run record Date 1998 The Event

The Major League Baseball renaissance of the latter half of the 1990’s was inextricably connected to the league-wide surge in home run production. Two players in particular, Mark McGwire and Sammy Sosa, typified the trend with their dramatic pursuit of Roger Maris’s home run record. As the middle of the 1990’s approached, a series of circumstances threatened baseball’s popularity. Two other American sports leagues, the National Basketball Association (NBA) and the National Football League (NFL)—through innovative marketing and game paces that reflected the increasingly ambulatory American culture—jeopardized baseball’s position as the national pastime. Furthermore, the 1994 Major League Baseball players’ strike depleted attendance figures and disenfranchised most baseball fans. The home run race of 1998 rescued baseball from its slide in popularity and was the culmination of the decade’s unprecedented power display. On opening day of the 1998 season, Mark McGwire of the St. Louis Cardinals hit his first home run—a grand slam—commencing the historic race. McGwire was the primary candidate to break Roger

Top Single-Season Home Run Hitters (through 2001) Player

Home Runs

Year

1

Barry Bonds

73

2001

2

Mark McGwire

70

1998

3

Sammy Sosa

66

1998

4

Mark McGwire

65

1999

5

Sammy Sosa

64

2001

6

Sammy Sosa

63

1999

7

Roger Maris

61

1961

8

Babe Ruth

60

1927

9

Babe Ruth

59

1921

Jimmie Foxx

58

1932

Rank

10

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Maris’s thirty-seven-year-old record of sixty-one home runs. McGwire hit forty-nine home runs in his rookie season (1987), fifty-two in 1996, and fiftyeight in 1997, falling three short of Maris’s magical number. Unlike Babe Ruth, who was the first to reach the sixty-home-run plateau, McGwire had competition in his quest to establish a new home run record. The most obvious rival was Ken Griffey, Jr., who hit fifty-six home runs in 1997. Other sluggers such as Manny Ramirez, Greg Vaughn, Barry Bonds, José Canseco, and Albert Belle were legitimate challengers to McGwire’s supremacy. Two months into the 1998 season, McGwire had twenty-seven home runs and a degree of distance between his challengers. Suddenly, Sammy Sosa of the Chicago Cubs emerged as McGwire’s primary competitor, hitting twenty home runs in June, a record for one calendar month. The juxtaposition of the two hitters—representing traditional and geographical baseball rivals—framed the already intriguing story line. The relationship between McGwire, a humble, often serious American, and Sosa, an affable, gregarious Dominican, developed into a genuine friendship that advanced the popularity of both players. As the likelihood of a new home run record increased, McGwire mused, “Wouldn’t it be great if we just ended up tied?” On August 19, the Cubs played the Cardinals. In the fifth inning, Sosa hit his forty-eighth home run, passing McGwire for the first time. In the eighth inning, McGwire answered with his forty-eighth and reclaimed the home run lead with a game-winner in the tenth inning. On September 1, McGwire hit his fifty-seventh and broke Hack Wilson’s National League record. On September 8, the Cubs and Cardinals reconvened. In the fourth inning, McGwire sent a line drive over the left-field wall to break Maris’s record. As he touched home plate, he lifted his son Matt into the air in celebration. Next, he embraced Sosa—the two were compatriots in an exclusive club. In the same week, Sosa hit his sixty-second. Obscured by the media attention surrounding McGwire and Sosa was the fact that, on Labor Day, Griffey hit his fiftieth home run, signifying the first time three players had hit fifty or more home runs in a year. On the final day of the season, Vaughn joined the fifty-home-run club. The home run race did not end once McGwire and Sosa passed Ruth and Maris. The new home run kings emboldened each other to extend the new all-time mark. On August 25, when

Sosa hit his sixty-sixth, he had hit the most singleseason home runs in history. His record lasted fortyfive minutes before McGwire tied it. Over the last weekend of the season, McGwire hit four more home runs, establishing the record at seventy. The home run record, long thought to be the most elusive of all baseball feats, was broken again in 2001, when Bonds hit seventy-three. Impact The inflation of home run production in the 1990’s—climaxing with the record-breaking 1998 season—was indicative of an era that associated grandiosity with superiority. The home run, a symbol of pomp and potency, reconnected a generation seemingly apathetic toward the game. Given subsequent accusations of a pervasive use of performance-enhancing drugs during the era, speculation clouds the legitimacy of the decade’s batting records. Regardless, the home run race of 1998 reminded the American public of both the relevance and necessity of its national game. Further Reading

McNeil, William. The Single-Season Home Run Kings: Ruth, Maris, McGwire, Sosa, and Bonds. Jefferson, N.C.: McFarland, 2003. Paisner, Daniel. The Ball: Mark McGwire’s Seventieth Home Run Ball and the Marketing of the American Dream. New York: Viking Press, 1999. Schreiber, Lee R. Race for the Record: The Great Home Run Chase of 1998. New York: HarperCollins, 1998. Christopher Rager See also Baseball; Baseball realignment; Baseball strike of 1994; Griffey, Ken, Jr.; McGwire, Mark; Ripken, Cal, Jr.; Sosa, Sammy; Sports.

■ Homeschooling Education of children at home rather than in a school

Definition

Homeschooling is a viable educational option for parents who, for various reasons, wish to be involved in their children’s education under conditions involving reduced stress. In the spring of 1999, approximately 850,000 children across the United States were being homeschooled. An alternative to traditional school, homeschooling is a flexible and diverse educational option for fami-

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Ten Most Common Reasons for Homeschooling and the Percentage of Homeschooled Students Whose Parents Gave Each Reason

48.9

Can give child better education at home 38.4

Religious reasons Poor learning environment at school

25.6

Family reasons

16.8

To develop character/morality

15.1

Object to what school teaches

12.1

School does not challenge child

11.6

Other problems with available schools

11.5

Student behavior problems at school Child has special needs/disabilities

9.0 8.2

Note: Percentages do not add to 100 percent because respondents could give more than one reason. Source: U.S. Department of Education, National Center for Education Statistics, Parent Survey of the National Household Education Surveys Program, 1999.

lies. A homeschool can be organized as a traditional school or through an unstructured approach determined by a child’s readiness and interests. The state may compel all children to attend a school, public or private, and home instruction will not suffice as an exemption from compulsory school attendance unless a state statute so indicates. Several states disallowed home instruction because it was believed that sequestration of students from other classmates would inhibit their social development and prevent the children from living normal lives. In states that permitted homeschooling, the key elements in determining the validity and value of homeschooling involved the educational level of the parents and the regularity and time of instruction. Those states prescribed minimal standards for instruction. Courts have upheld such criteria, provided they are reasonable. In challenging homeschooling as an alternative to compulsory attendance, the state

has the burden of proving that the parent is not providing adequate instruction. As of the early twentyfirst century, homeschooling was legal in all fifty states and throughout Canada. It also became popular in Australia, New Zealand, England, and Japan. Demographics and Reasons Homeschooling families of the 1990’s varied politically and religiously, though the typical homeschooling parents were white married couples who homeschooled their children primarily for religious (Christian) or moral reasons. They had three or more children, and it was usually the mother who remained at home. Single parents also homeschooled. In 1999, 20.6 percent of homeschools in the United States were led by single parents. While the number of students being homeschooled increased in the 1990’s and into the early twenty-first century, race and ethnicity rates remained consistent; the homeschooling rate for

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white students was higher than those for black and Hispanic students. According to a 1999 survey by the Department of Education’s National Center for Education Statistics, reasons for parents to homeschool their children (in descending order)included the following: a better education, religious reasons, poor learning environment at school, family reasons, the desire to develop character and morality, objection to what a school teaches, the lack of challenge at school, other problems with available schools, a child’s behavior problems at school, a child’s special needs or disabilities, transportation difficulties, inability to afford a private school, the parent’s career, and inability to gain admittance into a desired school. Curriculum and Costs Curriculum requirements vary but generally incorporate several subjects, including Bible studies. “All-in-one” curriculum packages, sometimes called “school in a box,” are comprehensive packages that re-create the school environment within the home and are based on the same subject area expectations as public schools, allowing easy transition into the school system. Study guides are extensive and include standardized tests, remote examinations, and an accredited diploma. Learner-paced curricula allow students to progress at their own speed. Regulations regarding homeschooling vary from state to state. Certain states require the completion of paperwork; others simply require notification to the local school district. During the 1990’s, homeschoolers were among those taking advantage of educational opportunities at museums and other community forums and often meeting other homeschoolers to form cooperatives, pooling talent and resources to broaden the scope of children’s education. In addition to purchasing supplies and curriculum materials, there was sometimes a financial impact on families because one parent (generally the mother) usually stayed at home to supervise the child’s education. In 1998, expenses associated with homeschooling ranged from less than $200 to more than $2,000 per student. The national average expenditure for public school students in 1998 was $6,200 to $6,500 per student.

The greatest benefit of homeschooling appears to be in strengthening family bonds. Homeschoolers have great flexibility in what and how they learn and receive an education geared

Pros and Cons

specifically to their own needs, personalities, and interests. There is physical and educational freedom, and the family is free to plan off-season vacations as well as develop a timetable that suits their own lifestyle. There is emotional freedom because students can dress and act as they choose without peer pressure or fear of ridicule. A 1997 study found that the average homeschooled student outperformed his or her public school peers by 30 to 37 percentile points across all subjects. Public school performance gaps between minorities and genders are virtually nonexistent among homeschooled students. Homeschoolers are accepted and recruited by some of the top universities in the country because of their maturity, independent thinking skills, strong academic preparation, and creativity. Socially, homeschooled students excel as well. Several studies have indicated that homeschooled children are more self-confident and less peer-dependent than traditional students. Negatives to homeschooling include time constraints, financial constraints due to one partner foregoing employment in order to homeschool, and living outside the norm, sometimes viewed as an oddity or threat. Impact During the 1990’s, homeschooling became more common and more widely accepted. Families from diverse backgrounds resorted to homeschooling because they disagreed with the philosophy of American schools and were dissatisfied with the content and quality of the education provided. Subsequent Events A 2003 survey of seventy-three hundred adults, most of whom had been homeschooled for more than seven years, indicated that they were living more active lives within their communities and were more involved in civic affairs than their non-homeschooled peers. The majority (58.9 percent) reported that they were “very happy” with life, compared with 27.6 percent for the general population. Further Reading

Guterson, David. Family Matters: Why Homeschooling Makes Sense. New York: Harcourt Brace Jovanovich, 1992. Written by a high school educator whose children are homeschooled, the book discusses the benefits and drawbacks of homeschooling and public schooling. Linsenbach, Sherri. Essential Homeschooling: Every-

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thing You Need to Know to Educate Your Child at Home. Avon, Mass.: Adams Media, 2006. A basic how-to book for homeschoolers. Mur, Cindy, ed. Home Schooling. San Diego, Calif.: Greenhaven Press, 2003. Presents discussions by scholars on the issues surrounding homeschooling. Marcia J. Weiss See also Educate America Act of 1994; Education in Canada; Education in the United States; Mozart effect; Religion and spirituality in the United States; School violence; Year-round schools.

■ Homosexuality and gay rights Same-sex relationships and the struggle for legal and cultural acceptance of gay, lesbian, bisexual, and transgender people

Definition

The gay, lesbian, bisexual, and transgender (GLBT) community suffered from hate crimes in the 1990’s, even as the debate over gay rights developed an intense focus on the military and same-sex marriage. The 1990’s saw a move toward greater civil rights activism in the GLBT community. Where the 1970’s were considered an era of coming out, and the 1980’s were taken up largely by the response to acquired immunodeficiency syndrome (AIDS), the 1990’s brought both opportunities and tragedies to draw homosexual civil rights into the forefront of national attention. In the military, the United States adopted the disastrous “don’t ask, don’t tell” policy, while Canada allowed homosexuals to openly join its military. Canada extended its Human Rights Act to include homosexuals, while three hate crimes against gays in the United States served to draw attention to the need for more inclusive hate crime laws. Also, same-sex couples in both countries began pushing for the right to marry. The Military Throughout his presidential campaign, Bill Clinton promised gay rights groups that, if elected, he would help improve the status of gays in the military. However, once he was in office, he immediately encountered pressure and had to develop a compromise policy that would be accepted by both Democrats and Republicans. The plan he unveiled in 1992 was labeled “don’t ask, don’t tell.”

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Essentially, it stated that a person’s sexual orientation was private business, forbade anyone in the military from asking another’s sexual orientation, and instructed people in the armed forces not to reveal their sexual orientation. The rationalization behind the campaign was that gays could not be persecuted or evicted from the military if nobody knew they were gay. However, in practice, the policy served to push gays in the armed forces even further into the closet. Complaining to a superior officer about being harassed about one’s sexual orientation was tantamount to admitting homosexuality, which invited the military ban. Two gay men were murdered in the military before the new policy’s consequences became obvious to politicians. In the same year that Clinton unveiled “don’t ask, don’t tell” in the United States, Canada lifted its military ban, allowing homosexuals to serve openly in the Canadian Forces. The move did not precipitate any morale loss or other problems for the country, heavily undermining some key arguments by the U.S. military. Indeed, the quiet success served as a spearhead for gay rights groups in the United States. The 1990’s also saw hate crimes committed against gays. Three very public cases highlight the issues raised. In 1992, U.S. Navy airman apprentice Terry Helvey beat his colleague Allen Schindler to death because Schindler was gay. Barry Winchell, a private in the Army, was murdered in 1999 by fellow recruit Calvin Glover following harassment about his sexual orientation that Winchell feared to report to his superior officers. Both military cases had similar components. Schindler and Winchell had both been harassed for their sexual orientation, and both feared repercussions if they reported the problems to superior officers. Winchell’s death was a spearhead for Clinton to ask Congress to review “don’t ask, don’t tell,” but the policy remains in place. The third situation involved the murder of college student Matthew Shepard in 1998. Two strangers, Russell Henderson and Aaron McKinney, murdered Shepard for being gay. Shepard met his killers at the Fireside Lounge in Laramie, Wyoming, then drove away with them because he needed a ride, unaware that they were targeting a gay man and intending to rob him. They pistol-whipped Shepard and left him tied to a fence. A cyclist found Shepard by

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chance, after first mistaking him for a scarecrow, but Shepard later died from his wounds without regaining consciousness. Neither killer could be prosecuted for hate crimes under federal or Wyoming statutes. Though one of Shepard’s killers could have faced the death penalty, Shepard’s mother interceded, asking that the hatred stop, so both Henderson and McKinney received two concurrent life sentences. Shepard’s death spurred action groups to demand legislative action leading to more inclusive hate crime laws, as the Hate Crime Statistics Act that President George H. W. Bush had signed in 1990 stipulated only studying hate crimes against gays, not sanctions against their killers. Not all civil rights victories in the era stemmed from tragedy. Some successes originated in the work of activists throughout North America. For instance, Nova Scotia added sexual orientation to its Human Rights Act as early as 1991. New Brunswick and British Columbia followed suit in the following year, and Saskatchewan in 1993. That year also marked comic strip artist Lynn Johnston’s addition of a coming out theme to her popular strip For Better or For Worse. Finally, in 1996, sexual orientation was added to the Canadian Human Rights Act. In the United States, numerous corporate entities introduced domestic partner health benefits, including those for same-sex domestic partners. In 1996, the Southern Baptist Convention boycotted Disney after it extended benefits to same-sex domestic partners, but the boycott failed to affect the company financially or otherwise. Disney’s move encouraged other corporations to follow its lead. Throughout the decade, states ratified constitutional amendments prohibiting employment and housing discrimination against homosexuals. Also, the Supreme Court ruled against a Colorado law that would have prohibited gays and lesbians from legal protections in Romer v. Evans (1996). In the religious sector, some religions began accepting openly gay clergy, including Reform Judaism, which in 1990 agreed to allow gay and lesbian rabbis. Throughout the decade, celebrities came out of the closet, including actress and comedian Ellen DeGeneres and singers K. D. Lang and Melissa Etheridge. Finally, some victories came in the health arena: The 1994 discovery of protease inhibitors led to a decrease of approximately 50 percent in AIDS deaths.

The Nineties in America Same-Sex Marriage The battle for gay and lesbian rights in the 1990’s, in both Canada and the United States, focused on the struggle to gain equal marriage rights. Starting in 1990, Hawaii became the center of the gay marriage controversy in the United States. Ninia Baehr, her partner Genora Dancel, and two other same-sex couples wished to marry, and they had to go against a state law prohibiting samesex marriage. Their 1991 lawsuit, Baehr vs. Lewin (later renamed Baehr vs. Miike), argued that the state constitution’s due process and equal protection clauses made the law prohibiting same-sex marriage unconstitutional. The Hawaii Supreme Court supported the couples, and they issued a legal challenge against the law. In 1996, Judge Kevin Chang ruled that the couples could marry. However, the historic decision did not precipitate a tide of same-sex weddings. Indeed, Hawaiian public opinion was fairly antigay, and state voters amended the constitution in 1998 to prohibit same-sex marriage. The state had already issued an appeal against Chang’s 1996 ruling, so when the constitution changed, the Supreme Court had to overturn the decision and prohibit the weddings. Nationally, antigay backlash reigned as well. When Chang’s ruling made gay marriage possible in Hawaii, if only for a short while, conservative House Speaker Newt Gingrich introduced the Defense of Marriage Act (DOMA), defining marriage as between one man and one woman. The bill passed the House of Representatives by a vote of 346 to 67 and the Senate by 85 to 14. Moreover, President Clinton agreed to sign it. The act was aimed at discouraging other states from legalizing gay marriage. While it did not prohibit states from doing so, it announced that other states were not required to recognize such unions. The Religious Right controlled the national discussion, with Gingrich and other majority leaders proclaiming same-sex marriages a threat to “traditional” family values. However, same-sex couples challenged this position. In 1998, Alaskan courts ruled that the state’s constitution did not prohibit gay marriage, but the legislature quickly added a constitutional amendment prohibiting same-sex unions. By 1999, the backlash was decreasing, and some states began accepting the notion of gay legal unions. In 1999, the Vermont Supreme Court determined that the state’s constitution ensured same-sex and opposite-sex couples the same protections. The following year,

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Vermont became the first state to recognize samesex civil unions. While not marriages, these unions still carried the same legal rights and responsibilities for couples. More states followed in the early twentyfirst century, even as other states enacted gay marriage bans in the 1990’s and 2000’s. Impact Attention to gay rights fluctuated throughout the decade, with both those for and those against scoring significant victories. Canada’s military moved to allow homosexuals to serve, and the debate over their status in the U.S. armed forces intensified. Canada added homosexuality to its Human Rights Act, while in the United States the hate crimes committed against Allen Schindler, Matthew Shepard, and Barry Winchell (particularly Shepard) served to raise public awareness. Finally, the battle for gay marriage continued into the early twenty-first century, with the country of Canada and some U.S. states ultimately legalizing gay marriage or gay civil unions. Further Reading

Gallagher, John, and Chris Bull. Perfect Enemies: The Religious Right, the Gay Movement, and the Politics of the 1990’s. New York: Crown, 1996. Argues that because the Religious Right and gay rights movement exist on the fringes of society, they are ideal opponents, each spurring the other forward. Includes “don’t ask, don’t tell” and gay marriage debates. Herman, Didi. Rights of Passage: Struggles for Lesbian and Gay Legal Equality. Buffalo, N.Y.: University of Toronto Press, 1994. Discusses the growing gay rights movement in Canada in the late 1980’s and early 1990’s. Offers perspective on the Canadian scene before the Canadian Human Rights Act was amended in the early 1990’s. Nava, Michael, and Robert Dawidoff. Created Equal: Why Gay Rights Matter to America. New York: St. Martin’s Press, 1994. Argues that homosexuals are denied constitutional rights in the United States and encourages gay rights activism from readers. Pierceson, Jason. Courts, Liberalism, and Rights: Gay Law and Politics in the United States and Canada. Philadelphia: Temple University Press, 2005. Focuses on the relationship between legal and social justice in the gay community, with discussions of sexual privacy and gay marriage. Rayside, David Morton. On the Fringe: Gays and Lesbians in Politics. Ithaca, N.Y.: Cornell University

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Press, 1998. Summarizes some key 1990’s gay rights debates. Canadian section includes a discussion of the Canadian Human Rights Act. U.S. section discusses the military ban on homosexuals. Warner, Tom. Never Going Back: A History of Queer Activism in Canada. Buffalo, N.Y.: University of Toronto Press, 2002. In-depth research into the Canadian gay rights movement, including the 1990’s and the modification of the Canadian Human Rights Act as well as the move toward legalizing gay marriages. Jessie Bishop Powell AIDS epidemic; Baker v. Vermont; Defense of Marriage Act of 1996; DeGeneres, Ellen; Domestic partnerships; Don’t ask, don’t tell; Egan v. Canada; Etheridge, Melissa; Gingrich, Newt; Hate crimes; Lang, K. D.; Marriage and divorce; Queer Nation; Shepard, Matthew; Transgender community.

See also

■ Hubble Space Telescope An orbiting astronomical telescope The National Aeronautics and Space Administration and the European Space Agency Date Launched April 24, 1990, from the Kennedy Space Center in Cape Canaveral, Florida Identification Manufacturer

The first large telescope to take advantage of the clear and undisturbed environment in outer space, the Hubble Space Telescope revolutionized astronomy. After it was repaired in 1993, the telescope produced images of unprecedented clarity. The Hubble Space Telescope (HST) consists of a single large tubular enclosure, 13.2 meters (about 43.5 feet) long and 4.2 meters (about 14 feet) wide, and weighs about 12 tons. Inside it is the primary mirror, 2.4 meters (about 7.8 feet) in diameter, and other optics, together with several instruments for detecting and analyzing the images formed by the optics. Initially, there were two cameras with chargecoupled device (CCD) detectors and two spectrographs for both high-resolution and faint-object spectroscopy. The optical design is what is called a Ritchie-Chretien Cassegrain, which involves a series of curved mirrors: the large primary mirror, which

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brings the light to a focus; a smaller secondary mirror, which bounces the light back toward the primary, where it passes through a central hole; and a set of 45-degree mirrors that can reflect the image to a choice of cameras and spectrographs. A thin aluminum shell covers the entire telescope to protect it from solar radiation, and many layers of insulation help to keep temperatures low, as the instruments must be very cold to operate most efficiently. Inside there are four heavy flywheels that are used to orient the telescope toward the place in the sky that is to be observed. The HST is remarkably accurate at pointing at celestial targets: It can hold on a star or galaxy for a few thousandths of an arc second. The telescope is powered by two 8-foot-long solar panels, which are mounted to the sides of the telescope and rotate to face the Sun for maximum power. Batteries provide backup power during the times when Earth eclipses the Sun. Since the telescope’s launch in 1990, the panels have been replaced twice by newer models, which can generate about 5,700 watts of electrical power. The HST remains in a low orbit, about 610 kilometers (380 miles) above Earth, so that it can be serviced by astronauts, but the result is that the planet blocks about half of the sky during the 180-minute orbit. Therefore, exposures are limited to less than half that time, and targets are usually visited many times. Very long exposures can be built up in this way to allow Hubble scientists to detect extremely faint objects, a hundred times fainter than those objects detectable from groundbased telescopes. The telescope was designed to be upgraded as needed, and provisions were made for the easy removal and exchange of various instruments by astronauts visiting the space telescope. This feature resulted in keeping the telescope up-to-date with the most recent technological advances throughout the 1990’s and in the early twenty-first century. There were three such shuttle missions in the 1990’s. Shortly after the launch of the Hubble Space Telescope, the worldwide astronomy community, which had waited forty years to have

access to the wonders expected to be revealed by the HST, was dismayed to learn that a colossal error had been made by one of the National Aeronautics and Space Administration (NASA) contractors who produced the primary mirror. Instead of sharp images, stars appeared fuzzy and indistinct. The mirror suffered from a defect called spherical aberration: It had the wrong shape. NASA and the European Space Agency (ESA) immediately appointed a panel of astronomers, engineers, and technicians to design a solution to the problem. It took three years to produce a complicated instrument, the Corrective Optics Space Telescope Axial Replacement (COSTAR), and to have astronauts install it in the HST’s interior. This occurred in December, 1993, and the COSTAR worked perfectly. The telescope produced images that were basically as good as the original specifications. Throughout the rest of the decade, the HST made an astounding number of dramatic discoveries in virtually all fields of astronomy, ranging from

Disaster, Recovery, and Triumph

A long view of the Hubble Space Telescope over Shark Bay, Australia. The photo was taken from the space shuttle Discovery. (NASA)

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the planets and comets of the solar system to remote galaxies. An especially spectacular achievement occurred in December, 1995, when the telescope was pointed to a particular small area of sky over a period of ten days, resulting in 342 exposures. Called the Hubble Deep Field, this penetration into the universe recorded galaxies 10 to 12 billion light-years away, during the universe’s infancy. The HST showed a different universe, one made up of fragments of galaxies that had not yet coalesced to form giant spiral galaxies like the Milky Way. Cosmology was advanced through the 1990’s by these and similar HST discoveries, including the demonstration that the quasars are actually galaxies undergoing collisions that have led to the formation of black holes in their centers. Black holes in the nuclei of nearby galaxies were also discovered using HST velocity measurements, showing that black holes are the explanation for a variety of puzzlingly active galaxies, known but not understood for decades. Impact The Hubble Space Telescope has had an important impact on the world’s understanding of the universe. The heyday of its discoveries occurred in the years 1993-1999, when it revolutionized concepts of cosmology and dramatically expanded knowledge of the physics of stars, as well as the solar system and other planetary systems. Further Reading

Christensen, Lars Lindberg, and Bob Fosbury. Hubble: Fifteen Years of Discovery. New York: Springer, 2006. A richly illustrated look at space through the HST. Petersen, Carolyn Collins, and John C. Brandt. Hubble Vision: Further Adventures with the Hubble Space Telescope. 2d ed. New York: Cambridge University Press, 1998. Offers a comprehensive discussion of the astronomical discoveries made possible by the HST. Includes attractive illustrations, glossary, bibliography, and index. Smith, Robert W. The Space Telescope: A Study of NASA, Science, Technology, and Politics. New York: Cambridge University Press, 1993. Provides a detailed chronological account of the construction of the HST from its inception to launch preparation. Voit, Mark. Hubble Space Telescope: New Views of the Universe. New York: Harry N. Abrams, 2000. A clearly written book on the HST. Concise, but not comprehensive. Paul Hodge

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See also Astronomy; Hale-Bopp comet; Inventions; Mars exploration; Science and technology; Shoemaker-Levy 9 comet; Space exploration; Space shuttle program.

■ Human Genome Project International research project to sequence the base pairs of DNA in the human genome Date Officially launched October 1, 1990 Identification

Knowledge of the sequence of all 3 billion base pairs of the human genome will allow for a better understanding of the function of genes in healthy human beings, the role genes play in disease, the extent of genetic variation within the human population, and the evolutionary relationship humans have with each other and with other organisms. The Human Genome Project (HGP) had its origins in a 1984 Department of Energy (DOE) meeting, when sequencing of the human genome was first discussed as a way for the DOE to meet its congressional mandate to monitor and assess environmentally induced genetic damage. In 1985, sequencing of the human genome was seriously proposed by molecular biologist Robert Sinsheimer, then chancellor of the University of California, Santa Cruz. In 1986, Sydney Brenner, a molecular biologist at the Medical Research Council in Great Britain, and Renato Dulbecco, a viral molecular biologist at the Salk Institute in La Jolla, California, independently suggested sequencing the human genome. All of these suggestions came to fruition later in 1986 at the Cold Spring Harbor Laboratory in New York, when a serious proposal to sequence the human genome in a multinational effort was developed. The National Research Council (NRC) and Congress’s Office of Technology Assessment soon became interested and sponsored feasibility studies. A committee of the NRC concluded in 1988 that sequencing the human genome was both feasible and desirable. Technological Developments Several technological inventions and developments made the Human Genome Project possible. These include the invention of the polymerase chain reaction (1985), the invention and subsequent development of automatic deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA) sequencers (1986) and their commercialization by Applied Biosystems,

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The Working Draft of the Human “Book of Life” On June 26, 2000, following remarks by President Bill Clinton and British prime minister Tony Blair, the director of the National Human Genome Research Institute, Dr. Francis Collins, announced that a “first draft” of the human genome had been completed: Science is a voyage of exploration into the unknown. We are here today to celebrate a milestone along a truly unprecedented voyage, this one into ourselves. Alexander Pope wrote, “Know then thyself. Presume not God to scan. The proper study of mankind is man.” What more powerful form of study of mankind could there be than to read our own instruction book? I’ve been privileged over the last seven years to lead an international team of more than a thousand of some of the best and brightest scientists of our current generation, some of them here in this room, who have been truly dedicated to this goal. Today, we celebrate the revelation of the first draft of the human book of life. . . . Today, we deliver . . . the most visible and spectacular milestone of all. Most of the sequencing of the human genome by this international consortium has been done in just the last 15 months. During that time, this consortium has developed the capacity to sequence 1,000 letters of the DNA code per second, seven days a week, 24 hours a day. We have developed a map of overlapping fragments that includes 97 percent of the human genome, and we have sequenced 85 percent of this. The sequence data is of higher quality than expected with half of it in finished or near-finished form. And all of this information has been placed in public databases every 24 hours, where any scientist with an Internet connection can use it to help unravel the mysteries of human biology. Already, more than a dozen genes, responsible for diseases from deafness to kidney disease to cancer, have been identified using this resource just in the last year. . . . I think I speak for all of us in this room, and for the millions of others who have come to believe in the remarkable promise of biomedical research, that we must redouble our efforts to speed the application of these profound and fundamental observations about the human genome to the cure of disease. That most desirable of all outcomes will only come about with a continued powerful and dedicated partnership between basic science investigators and academia, and their colleagues in the biotechnology and pharmaceutical industries.

Inc. (1987), the development of yeast artificial chromosomes (1987) and bacterial artificial chromosomes (1992) for cloning large segments of DNA, the invention of fluorescent chain termination sequencing (1987), the development of capillary electrophoresis (1987) and the subsequent development of a capillary sequencing apparatus (1997), the development of the basic local alignment search tool (BLAST, 1990), and the development of computer programs that interpret and assemble DNA sequences (1998). In 1988, the DOE was the first to expend funds on sequencing the human genome. That year, the National Institutes of Health (NIH) decided to get involved with human genome se-

Origins and Start

quencing and established the Office for Human Genome Research. The National Center for Human Genome Research (NCHGR) was established a year later (and renamed the National Human Genome Research Institute in 1997); James D. Watson, codiscoverer (with Francis Crick) of the structure of DNA, was named as associate director (and later director) for human genomic research. The DOE and NIH agreed to collaborate on sequencing the human genome, launching the HGP late in 1988. The NCHGR officially set the start of the HGP as October 1, 1990. In 1990, the NCHGR decided to construct a genetic map of the human genome using markers that was later to be followed by sequencing small regions of the genome and then assembling the sequences

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using the markers as a guide. This strategy would reveal not only the sequence coding for polypeptides but also the control/regulatory regions. In the summer of 1991, at a congressional briefing on the HGP, J. Craig Venter, a molecular biologist at the NIH, indicated that he had been sequencing parts (about three hundred base pairs) of DNA that were expressed as messenger ribonucleic acid (mRNA) and coded for polypeptides. Venter and many other scientists thought that these polypeptide coding regions, the so-called expressed regions, of the genome were the most interesting and important and should be sequenced first. Venter referred to his short, three hundred base-pair pieces as expressed sequence tags (ESTs). This approach would yield most of the information sought after by the HGP, and the cost would be substantially less. Furthermore, Venter announced that the NIH planned to file patent applications on the sequences. Watson, who opposed patenting, resigned as head of the NCHGR in 1992 in a dispute with Bernadine Healy, director of the NIH. He was eventually replaced by Francis Collins. In 1996, the NCHGR funded a consortium of six DNA sequencing centers that included the Whitehead Institute at the Massachusetts Institute of Technology, Washington University, Baylor College of Medicine, the University of Washington, Stanford University, and The Institute for Genomic Research (TIGR), a nonprofit sequencing effort established in 1992 by Venter. The Sanger Sequencing Centre in the United Kingdom later joined the HGP, allowing for the establishment of the publicly funded International Human Genome Sequencing Consortium (IHGSC). In 1998, Venter announced the establishment of Celera Genomics, a private company devoted to DNA sequencing. Venter claimed that he could sequence the human genome by 2001. With Venter’s claim, a sequencing race began between his company and the IHGSC, which intensified its efforts. Each group claimed that it could publish a draft of the sequence earlier than the other. In a June, 2000, meeting at the White House, the IHGSC and Celera jointly announced a working draft of the human genome. The draft of the consortium’s project was published in Nature on

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February 15, 2001, while Celera’s draft was published in Science on February 16. The completion of the project was announced on April 14, 2003, the fiftieth anniversary of the publication of the discovery of the structure of DNA, by the IHGSC. The consortium continues to search for variation within human genomes and the functions of the genes discovered by the project. Impact The sequencing of the human genome has led to an increased understanding of gene function, the mechanisms and causations of human genetic diseases, the extent of variation within the population, and humans’ evolutionary relationship with other organisms. Further Reading

Davies, Kevin. Cracking the Genome: Inside the Race to Unlock Human DNA. New York: Free Press, 2001. Using interviews with Collins and Venter, among many other scientists, Davies presents a rich story of the race to sequence the human genome. “The Human Genome.” Nature 409 (February 15, 2001): 745-964. A special issue publishing the working draft announced in 2000, with a collection of relevant papers. “The Human Genome.” Science 291 (February 16, 2001): 1145-1434. While the parallel special issue of Nature concentrated on the HGP’s contribution, this issue concentrated on Celera’s. Richards, Julia E., and R. Scott Hawley. The Human Genome: A User’s Guide. 2d ed. Burlington, Mass.: Elsevier, 2005. A good general overview of genetics written for the layperson. Ridley, Matt. Genome: The Autobiography of a Species in Twenty-three Chapters. New York: HarperCollins, 1999. The author examines one gene from each chromosome (one per chapter) and writes the history of its role in human development. Shreeve, James. The Genome War: How Craig Venter Tried to Capture the Code of Life and Save the World. New York: Alfred A. Knopf, 2004. An engaging narrative about the personalities and politics behind the Human Genome Project. Charles L. Vigue See also Alzheimer’s disease; Cancer research; Genetic engineering; Genetics research; Medicine; Pharmaceutical industry; Science and technology.

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Hurricane Andrew

■ Hurricane Andrew The most destructive natural disaster to strike the United States in the twentieth century Date August 24, 1992 Identification

The destruction caused by Hurricane Andrew awakened people in coastal areas to the dangers hurricanes pose and resulted in a revision of building codes and preventive tactics in hurricane-prone areas. Andrew, the first named hurricane of the 1992 hurricane season, began on August 14 as a tropical wave off Africa’s west coast. It moved west at about twentyfive miles per hour and on the seventeenth was declared the first tropical storm of the season. By August 22, Andrew, having gained energy as it passed over warm ocean waters, erupted as a hurricane whose wind gusts exceeded 170 miles per hour. The following day it became a category 5 hurricane, the highest category ascribed to such storms, with storm surges of almost twenty feet. By August 22, forecasters realized that a killer storm was headed for South Florida, which, remarkably, had not experienced a hurricane for the past twenty-five years, a quarter century in which its population more than doubled. Andrew reached the Bahamas late on August 23 and, in passing over land, lost some of its intensity, its winds dropping to 145 miles per hour. As it proceeded west, however, it passed over the warm waters of the Gulf of Mexico, which increased its intensity to over 170 miles per hour. Before sunrise on August 24, the storm made a direct hit on Homestead, Florida, with sustained winds estimated at 165 miles per hour. On that day, Hurricane Andrew wrought more destruction than any natural disaster in U.S. history to date, and it was not through yet, continuing its course northwest to hit the Louisiana coast. Hurricane Andrew was directly responsible for fifteen deaths in South Florida, with

twenty-five additional deaths related to the hurricane occurring after the storm’s initial assault. It is difficult to estimate the psychological trauma that ensues after one lives through a storm as violent and terrifying as this one. Even years after the disaster, many people who lived through the storm in Florida and in coastal Louisiana suffered from severe posttraumatic stress. As the storm raged, people hunkered down in their houses, usually in small, confined areas like bathrooms, hallways, or closets. They were completely at the mercy of the winds and rising waters caused by the storm. This feeling of helplessness left many traumatized for years after the disaster. So great was the fear engendered in those who survived the storm that over 100,000 of them did not return to the places where they had lived prior to the hurricane. Whole families were virtually wiped out financially by the storm’s destruction. Over 250,000 residents of South Florida were homeless after Hurricane Andrew. The Economic Toll The overall estimated cost of the damage Hurricane Andrew caused exceeded $30 billion in South Florida and another $1 billion in Louisiana. In 2007 dollars, this would come to

The Human Toll

Hurricane Andrew approaches Florida and the Bahamas to the west. (National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration)

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over twice the stated amounts. No previous disaster had cost the United States more in damage. In south Dade County, over 82,000 businesses were wiped out or damaged so severely that they had to suspend operations for long periods after the storm. Insurance adjusters could not keep up with the flood of claims that resulted from the hurricane, and considerable controversy developed over whether the damage done to residences and businesses was the result of water damage and flooding or wind damage. Many insurance policies did not cover flooding, and it was difficult to prove whether wind or water had caused the damage on which policyholders sought settlements. Nine major insurers became insolvent following the storm. In Dade County, 63,000 of the county’s 528,000 residences were completely destroyed, and another 110,000 were severely damaged. Nine of the county’s public schools were completely destroyed and another twenty-three were so heavily damaged that they could not immediately resume operation. In an area with many mobile home parks, only one percent of the mobile homes survived the storm. The hurricane wiped out much of the agricultural production in the areas affected. The tourist industry on which much of South Florida is dependent was also greatly diminished. The storm’s ecological damage was notable. Century-old coral reefs off the Florida coast were wholly destroyed. Impact Hurricane Andrew was a wake-up call for residents of South Florida and coastal Louisiana, the areas in the United States most affected by the hurricane’s destruction. Serious deficiencies in construction were discovered as whole neighborhoods were swept away in the wake of the storm. As a result, many reputable builders drastically improved their construction practices even before they were called upon legally to bring about such improvements. It was not until a decade after the hurricane struck that Florida lawmakers enacted

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legislation imposing stringent statewide building codes upon builders. Also, considerable attention was given to developing early warning systems and establishing escape routes for those in the path of impending storms. Further Reading

Emanuel, Kerry. Divine Wind: The History of and Science of Hurricanes. New York: Oxford University Press, 2005. A fine, well-illustrated study of hurricanes, with special attention given to Hurricane Andrew in chapter 31. Lovelace, John K. Storm-Tide Elevations Produced by Hurricane Andrew Along the Louisiana Coast, August 25-27, 1992. Baton Rouge, La.: U.S. Geological Survey, 1994. An account of how Hurricane Andrew continued to grow as it crossed South Florida and struck the Louisiana coast, leaving considerable devastation. Mann, Philip H., ed. Lessons Learned from Hurricane Andrew: A Conference Sponsored by Florida International University. Miami: Florida International University Press, 1993. Valuable for the suggestions its contributors make for coping with future hurricanes. Provenzo, Eugene F., Jr., and Asterie Baker Provenzo. In the Eye of Hurricane Andrew. Gainesville: University Press of Florida, 2002. A firsthand account of what it was like to live through Hurricane Andrew, including information about survival and rebuilding after the storm. Sheets, Bob, and Jack Williams. Hurricane Watch: Forecasting the Deadliest Storms on Earth. New York: Penguin Books, 2001. Sound overall coverage with valuable information about how to forecast hurricanes. R. Baird Shuman Global warming debate; Natural disasters; Oklahoma tornado outbreak; Perfect Storm, the; Storm of the Century.

See also

I ■ Illegal immigration

During the decade, approximately half a million persons entered the United States illegally each year, with many experts arguing that the country needed their labor, in contrast to others who asserted that their presence promoted crime and depressed the wages of working citizens.

documented workers were also replacing U.S. citizens in areas like construction and that their willingness to accept lower wages forced citizens to do the same. Opponents also maintained that illegal immigrants were disproportionately involved in the trafficking of illicit drugs, prostitution, and other crimes. An additional argument was that it was imperative that the country be able to control its borders and enforce its laws.

The Census Bureau estimated that there were about 3.5 million illegal immigrants residing in the United States in 1990 and that the number grew to about 8 million by 2000. For this increase to have occurred, it was necessary for the net increase to have been between 450,000 and 500,000 each year. About 80 percent of the illegal immigrants were from Latin America, including 57 percent from Mexico. Another 10 percent came from Asia, 6 percent were from Europe or Canada, and fewer than 4 percent arrived from Africa. The number of illegal immigrants was only about half as large as the number of permanent residents who had entered legally. Although illegal immigration resulted from a number of push and pull factors, the overwhelming majority of immigrants entered the United States for one reason: to find gainful employment. More than two-thirds of the illegal workers were holding lowwage jobs, including cleaning, restaurant labor, child care, packaging, and the harvesting of food. A Commission on Immigration Reform presented a 1994 report emphasizing that the only way to reduce their numbers would be to “turn off the jobs magnet that attracts them.” Economists and sociologists disagreed about the effects of the illegal immigrants. Defenders of illegal immigrants argued that they generally performed jobs that citizens were either unwilling or unable to do. Many farmers and other employers insisted that migrant labor was essential in order to compete with imported goods from Mexico and other low-wage countries. Opponents, however, answered that un-

Attempts at Reform At the beginning of the decade, the major law relating to illegal immigration was the Immigration Reform and Control Act of 1986. This act had granted temporary residency and amnesty to illegal immigrants who had lived in the United States since 1982. The act made it illegal to employ undocumented workers and imposed criminal penalties on employers who knowingly employed illegal immigrants. It also increased funding for the difficult task of attempting to control the U.S.-Mexican border. Despite the law, however, the number of illegal immigrants continued to grow. By the early 1990’s, taxpayers in the border states were increasingly angry and demanding new legislation. On November 8, 1994, almost 60 percent of California voters endorsed Proposition 187, stating that illegal immigrants were ineligible for public education and nonessential health services. Most Latinos, however, bitterly opposed the measure, and their anger helped the Democratic Party prevail in the California elections of 1998 and 2000. Federal courts eventually struck down the proposition’s major provisions as unconstitutional. The referendum, nevertheless, alerted politicians to the intensity of concern about the issue. In 1996, the Republican-controlled Congress responded with the Illegal Immigration Reform and Immigrant Responsibility Act. In an attempt to gain some control over the Mexican border, the statute nearly doubled the size of the Border Patrol and provided funding for motion sensors and other sophisticated technology. It included stiffer penalties for

Entry of persons in violation of U.S. immigration laws

Definition

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smuggling illegal immigrants into the country and for producing or using fraudulent documents. The new law also limited the ability of noncitizens to challenge Immigration and Naturalization Service (INS) decisions in court. The 1996 law, however, did not provide the INS with any effective means for cracking down on employers who hired illegal immigrants. Although employers were required to ask for documentation, they had no effective ways to determine whether documents were counterfeit or authentic. By 1999, the INS had stopped raiding companies and farms to round up immigrants working without proper documentation. Time magazine reported in 2004 that the number of fines imposed on employers actually decreased by 99 percent during the 1990’s. Moreover, when persons were arrested for attempting to cross the Mexican border illegally, they were simply sent back to Mexico, without any effective way to keep them from trying again. Impact While illegal immigrants made up less than 5 percent of the U.S. workforce, they had a significant impact on the economy in many parts of the country. Although experts disagreed about whether this impact was primarily beneficial or pernicious, the majority of Americans agreed that it was important for the country to enforce its immigration laws. However, all attempts during the 1990’s to stem the inflow of illegal immigrants were manifestly unsuccessful. Thus, their numbers would continue to grow, reaching an estimated 10 million by 2006. Further Reading

Borjas, George J. Heaven’s Door: Immigration Policy and the American Economy. Princeton, N.J.: Princeton University Press, 2000. A Harvard economist’s argument in favor of encouraging additional immigrants with high skills while discouraging the entry of low-skilled workers. Dow, Mark. American Gulag: Inside U.S. Immigration Prisons. Berkeley: University of California Press, 2004. An examination of immigrant detention, arguing that prisoners suffered from widespread abuses and the denial of legal rights. Haerens, Margaret. Illegal Immigration. Detroit: Greenhaven Press, 2006. Clearly written chapters with opposing perspectives on topics like immigration law, border patrol, the guest-worker proposal, and racism.

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Huntington, Samuel P. Who Are We: The Challenges to America’s National Identity. New York: Simon & Schuster, 2004. A Harvard professor’s argument that large mass immigration, especially from Latin America, has significant disadvantages. Jacoby, Tamar, ed. Reinventing the Melting Pot: The New Immigration and What It Means to Be an American. New York: Basic Books, 2004. Essays with strongly different views on the ways in which recent waves of immigration have changed the country. Katel, Peter, Patrick Marshall, and Alan Greenblatt. “Illegal Immigration.” In Issues for Debate in American Public Policy: Selections from the CQ Researcher, edited by CQ Press. 8th ed. Washington D.C.: CQ Press, 2008. A good summary of statistics and arguments on the various sides of the issue. Lin, Ann, and Nicole Green, eds. Immigration. Washington, D.C.: CQ Press, 2002. A useful collection of essays about the immigration policies of the United States and other countries. Thomas Tandy Lewis Demographics of Canada; Demographics of the United States; Immigration to Canada; Immigration to the United States; Latinos; Mexico and the United States.

See also

■ Immigration Act of 1990 Immigration law that significantly altered U.S. immigration policy Date Enacted November 11, 1990; went into effect October 1, 1991 Identification

The Immigration Act of 1990 made important changes in U.S. immigration law that resulted in major changes in the size and composition of immigrant flows to the United States. The Immigration and Naturalization Act of 1965 ended the racial/ethnic quota system for issuing immigration visas that heavily favored Northern and Western European countries. The Immigration Act of 1990, while retaining the focus on reducing racial/ethnic bias, initiated comprehensive changes in U.S. immigration law. The 1965 law had limited annual visas to 290,000 worldwide; the 1990 act raised the number to 700,000 for the first three years, and 675,000 thereafter. Three categories

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Immigration to Canada

of visas were distinguished—employment-based, family-sponsored, and a new category called “diversity visas”—and each had numerical restrictions. The maximum number of the first two categories was raised to 26,620 per country compared to 20,000 annually under the 1965 law. The total number of annual visas based on specified occupational categories was increased from 54,000 to 140,000 under the 1990 act, and a larger proportion were allocated for skilled workers. Familysponsored visas were limited to 480,000 for relatives of both U.S. citizens and “legal permanent resident aliens.” Parents, spouses, and minor children of U.S. citizens were included in that number, and, since there was no numerical restriction for these immediate relatives, a minimum of 226,000 visas was established for other family members. Therefore, if more than 254,000 immediate family members of U.S. citizens applied for visas, the total number would be increased. Diversity visas were created to provide additional visas to countries that had received relatively few in the past. The 1965 law was designed to address racial/ethnic discrimination, but its “family reunification” provisions still favored countries that had received the most visas in the past. The 1990 act provided for 55,000 visas to be issued to countries that had received fewer than 50,000 visas during the previous five years. Each of these countries was limited to 7 percent of the total, or 3,850 diversity visas. Lotteries were to be held to determine which applicants would receive the visas. Qualified applicants had to have worked at a skilled occupation for two years or more and have at least a high school education. Impact Since October, 1991, both family-based and employment-based annual immigration has increased significantly, the latter showing the greater increases, with a larger proportion of professional and technical workers. Immigrant flows have become more racially/ethnically diverse because of the increase of per-country visa allocations, diversity visas, and an important change regarding familysponsored visas. Under the 1990 act, visas for the family members of legal permanent resident aliens were given a high priority, the number of visas for their spouses and minor children was significantly increased, and three-fourths of these visas were exempted from countries’ total limits. Research has

shown that changes in the number and diversity of immigrants since 1990 would have been much less pronounced if the 1965 law had remained in effect. Further Reading

DeLaet, Debra L. U.S. Immigration Policy in an Age of Rights. Westport, Conn.: Praeger, 2000. Tichenor, Daniel J. Dividing Lines: The Politics of Immigration Control in America. Princeton, N.J.: Princeton University Press, 2002. Jack Carter Canada and the United States; China and the United States; Employment in the United States; Foreign policy of the United States; Illegal immigration; Immigration to the United States; Income and wages in the United States; Mexico and the United States; Race relations.

See also

■ Immigration to Canada Migration into Canada by people who are citizens of other countries

Definition

In the 1990’s, Canada had the highest per capita immigration rate in the world, and immigration was the primary dynamic in the growth of Canada’s population and labor force. Immigration rates climbed during the decade, so that immigration accounted for about 60 percent of total population growth by the end of the decade. During the 1990’s, the largest immigrant streams came to Canada from the developing countries, especially those in Asia—namely, China, India, Pakistan, Hong Kong, and the Philippines. Throughout Canada’s history, its immigration policy has been tied closely to economic conditions, ethnic background, and humanitarian concerns. Beginning in the early twentieth century, Canada’s immigration was adjusted each year according to the country’s short-term economic indicators—in other words, calculated by the absorptive capacity model. In the late 1980’s, that model was replaced with a “fixedtarget” policy, which meant the Canadian government could set immigration levels independent of economic conditions, ignoring labor conditions and economic growth rates. Immigration declined in the 1980’s in response to a sagging economy but increased through the 1990’s as a result of the new target policy. Immigration averaged 190,000 annu-

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ally in the mid-1990’s, declined to 150,000 per year in the late 1990’s, and climbed to 200,000 annually by the new century. Between 1981 and 2001, about 3.6 million immigrants found homes in Canada, elevating its population to more than 30 million. Immigrants in the 1990’s concentrated heavily in Canada’s cities, especially Toronto, Canada’s most racially and culturally diverse city. Immigrants comprised almost 40 percent of Toronto’s population in 1991, while the figures were 30 percent for Vancouver, 24 percent for Hamilton, 21 percent for Windsor, 20 percent each for Calgary and Victoria, and 17 percent for Montreal. Canada’s three largest cities, Toronto, Vancouver, and Montreal, received about 80 percent of the immigrants during the decade, shouldering high initial costs as well as the ongoing costs of the immigrants’ integration. Ethnic networks and neighborhoods exerted a powerful influence on the initial location and integration of these newcomers. For example, Chinatowns grew and thrived in Toronto and Vancouver. The inflow to smaller places and rural areas was very light, with the Maritime provinces and northern territories the least affected. The decade witnessed a number of significant changes to Canada’s immigration and settlement policies. Policy makers increased the requirements for skilled workers, imposed tighter controls on family sponsorship, implemented changes to language-training programs, introduced the landing fee, and put more emphasis on individual economic responsibility and self-sufficiency. Three broad classes of immigrants were admitted: familyclass immigrants or those admitted for family reunification; independent or economic-class immigrants selected on the basis of points for occupational skills, education, and suitability to the Canadian environment; and the refugee class, whose admission was based on refugee laws and individual suitability. The independent or economic class typically constitutes about 60 percent of the annual total number of immigrants.

Policy Changes

Immigration Problems An economic slowdown in the early 1990’s, coupled with continued high immigration, created a complex of problems related to immigrant adjustment such as unemployment and financial crises. The national data indicate a widening of the income gap during the decade with new immigrants doing worse economically than previous

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immigrants. More than one-third of the immigrants who arrived during the decade lived below the poverty line in 2000, with figures of 47 percent in Montreal and 40 percent in Vancouver. Immigrant incomes in 2000 were 80 percent of the national average after ten years of residence in the country. The widening gap can be attributed to immigrant origins and educational levels as well as a sagging demand for labor during economic downturns. In the early 1990’s, only 13 percent of the immigrants came with university degrees; the change in immigration policy helped to boost that number to 45 percent after 2000. Policy makers worked on ways to better coordinate education, housing, and social services for new arrivals between the various levels of government. The Canadian government continued to grapple with serious demographic issues related to Canada’s aging population, dependency, and the loss of skilled laborers to its American neighbor. The United States exerts a strong pull for skilled immigrants, and even during the best of times, Canada is a way station for many immigrants headed for the bigger economy to the south. The inflow of economic versus political refugees remained an area of discourse, and security issues took on new urgency after the terrorist attacks of September 11, 2001, in New York and Washington, D.C. Impact The debate continues among Canadian policy makers as to the optimum annual target for the admission of immigrants. Canadian policy today permits a targeted flow of 1 percent of the Canadian population or about 300,000 annually. The selection process remains biased toward young skilled workers who can fill important niches in Canada’s modern economy. Further Reading

Cameron, Elspeth, ed. Multiculturalism and Immigration in Canada: An Introductory Reader. Toronto: Canadian Scholars’ Press, 2004. Examines the evolution of the multicultural policy in Canada and how that policy changed public thinking; includes contributions by many recent immigrants. Campbell, Charles M. Betrayal and Deceit: The Politics of Canadian Immigration. West Vancouver, B.C.: Jasmine Books, 2000. A critical look at the ideas, attitudes, institutions, and rhetoric tied to the immigration debates in Canada. Driedger, Leo, ed. Multi-Ethnic Canada: Identities and

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Inequalities. Toronto: Oxford University Press, 1996. An examination of the impact of the multicultural policy on group status and public thinking and perception. Knowles, Valerie. Stranger at Our Gates: Canadian Immigration and Immigration Policy, 1540-2007. Rev. ed. Toronto: Dundurn Press, 2007. Describes the ethnic and demographic character of immigrant streams into Canada, including the role of the economy and racism in policy making. Trebilcock, Michael J., and Ninette Kelley. The Making of the Mosaic: A History of Canadian Immigration Policy. Toronto: University of Toronto Press, 1998. An examination of the key issues, interests, and attitudes that defined Canadian immigration policy and patterns from the preconfederation period to the late twentieth century. Ann M. Legreid Asian Americans; Canada and the United States; Demographics of Canada; Employment in Canada; Illegal immigration; Immigration to the United States; Minorities in Canada; Religion and spirituality in Canada.

See also

■ Immigration to the United States Migration into the United States by people who are citizens of other countries

Definition

The influx of millions of legal and illegal immigrants from Mexico and Latin America reshaped the profile of the U.S. population in the 1990’s and made immigration a central issue on the country’s political agenda. Growth in the U.S. population as a result of immigration has been a persistent part of the country’s history. Even more so than the other “settler societies” of the former British Empire—Canada, New Zealand, and Australia—the United States opened its borders in the mid-nineteenth century, and to no small degree it was the influx of those peoples from foreign lands that enabled the country to expand from coast to coast and emerge as one of the world’s great powers. On the other hand, except for the Africans who were forced into the Americas as slaves, before World War II the overwhelming majority of those entering the United States were Europeans. That profile of the country’s population changed

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slightly during the late 1940’s and 1950’s as U.S. military personnel returned to their homeland with Japanese and Korean war brides. While the Civil Rights movement of the 1960’s led to a firm commitment to multiculturalism as a part of the country’s ethos by the 1970’s, as a result of immigration quotas favoring those with relatives already in the United States, as late as the 1980’s most immigrants still came from European points of origin. Then, in the twentieth century’s final decade, that profile of the typical immigrant to the United States changed abruptly. A Shift in the 1990’s It is mildly ironic, in the light of the degree to which immigration soon became a divisive issue in U.S. politics, that the 1990’s began with legislation designed to depart from the Eurocentric bias of previous immigration laws. Under the Immigration Act of 1990, legal admissions were to be increased by 200,000 per year (to 700,000 per year), and 50,000 of these admissions were reserved for areas from which few had previously immigrated to the United States. Temporary work visas were also made available in expanded numbers—a provision with built-in favoritism toward workers close at hand. Unfortunately, an unintended consequence of a more important policy enacted shortly thereafter resulted in a flood of immigrants from Mexico that quickly dwarfed these allowances. That policy was the North American Free Trade Agreement (NAFTA), whose creation in 1994 forced Mexican farmers to compete with the United States’ vastly more efficient agricultural system. Between 1993 and 2002, at least two million Mexican farmers had to abandon their land for want of markets for their produce, and many came north. Given the fact that at approximately the same time globalization was producing an outsourcing of American jobs to countries with cheaper labor, the arrival of even the allotted number of legal immigrants from Latin America might have produced a minor political backlash. When the numbers entering the country illegally, principally across its southern border with Mexico, came to exceed the total number legally entitled to enter the United States, immigration instead became a major political issue at all levels of government. Signaling that fact, in 1994 California voters approved, by a 59 to 41 percent margin, a statewide referendum that denied public services to illegal immigrants and public education to their children. Other

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states with large numbers of illegal immigrants soon followed California’s lead. In 1996, the U.S. Senate not only voted overwhelmingly (97-3) to tighten U.S. borders but also voted to broaden the criteria under which legal aliens could be deported and to limit federally funded benefits to legal immigrants. Meanwhile, rumors of a pending “Mexicanization” of the country’s Southwest circulated widely, and critics such as Pat Buchanan found receptive audiences for their dire warnings of the pending end of Western civilization. The immigration issue remained salient entering into the new millennium. By 2000, a thousand illegal immigrants per day were entering the country, and the number of illegal aliens in the United States was estimated to be at least twelve million—more than 5 percent of the population. Of these, twothirds were Latinos and half were from Mexico. Most startling to the country’s political scene, the 2000 census revealed that the Latino community had already surpassed African Americans to become the country’s largest minority and that it was also the most rapidly growing segment of the U.S. population. Impact The daily arrival of more legal and illegal Latino immigrants has created a new set of political challenges and reshaped U.S. politics in the early years of the twenty-first century. The welfare and school systems of state and local governments, for example, have been stretched to accommodate new demands. Meanwhile, political parties have walked the thin line between responding to the widespread demand to halt illegal immigration and a desire to court this rapidly expanding segment of the American electorate. Above all, even as national political leaders have sidestepped the sensitive issue of what to do with the millions of Latinos illegally living in the country, local leaders have had to consider how to assimilate a new, non-English-speaking minority so large and, in the Southwest, so territorially concentrated that many of its members can enjoy a middle-class lifestyle without ever leaving their linguistic community. Further Reading

Buchanan, Patrick J. State of Emergency: The Third World Invasion and Conquest of America. New York: Thomas Dunne Books, 2006. Contains a thorough statement of the extreme Right’s uncompromising opposition to admitting further immigrants to the West from the non-European world.

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Guerette, Rob T. Migrant Death: Border Safety and Situational Crime Prevention on the U.S.-Mexico Divide. New York: LFB Scholarly, 2007. Perhaps the best available work on the growing violence and crime in the zone surrounding the border between the United States and Mexico and on the risks run by those crossing it illegally. Swain, Carol M., ed. Debating Immigration. New York: Cambridge University Press, 2007. An immensely valuable paperback whose well-balanced essays cover economic, social, and political dimensions of the immigrant issue in the contemporary United States. Joseph R. Rudolph, Jr. See also Buchanan, Pat; Business and the economy in the United States; Demographics of the United States; Employment in the United States; Illegal immigration; Immigration Act of 1990; Latin America; Latinos; Mexico and the United States; North American Free Trade Agreement (NAFTA).

■ In Living Color Identification Comedy variety television series Producer Keenen Ivory Wayans (1958) Date Aired from April 15, 1990, to August 25,

1994 Later regarded as a springboard for its cast members’ careers, this variety show was the first in television history to feature a predominantly African American cast and to be conceived, directed, and produced by an African American family. In Living Color began airing on the Fox television network in 1990, at a time when the urban entertainment climate was increasingly influenced by hip-hop culture and music. The show’s theme song was performed by Heavy D & the Boyz, and the series earned a reputation for showcasing popular hip-hop and R&B artists as its musical guests, including Public Enemy, En Vogue, Tupac Shakur. Sketch comedy segments focused on African American subject matter, and the show had a decidedly urban feel. The comedy series was created and produced by Keenen Ivory Wayans, and the cast included Wayans’s siblings, Damon, Kim, Shawn, and Marlon. Several comedic actors received their start on the show, including Chris Rock, Jamie Foxx, Jim Carrey, David

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Alan Grier, and Tommy Davidson. The show’s hip-hop dance troupe, the Fly Girls, included Jennifer Lopez, who became a popular singer and actress in the late 1990’s. In Living Color set itself apart from other variety shows of previous decades by putting African American concerns at the forefront and by using African American communication styles to express those concerns, without sacrificing comedy. One of the strengths of the show, aside from its phenomenal cast, was its writing. The show took on white American icons and placed them in an African American context, thereby creating social satire. OfFrom left: Kim Wayans, David Alan Grier, and Jim Carrey at a script rehearsal for In ten, the show would poke fun at Living Color in 1991. Keenen Ivory Wayans is on the far right. (©Neal Preston/ America’s conformist culture of the Corbis) 1950’s and 1960’s by taking a situation comedy or drama from the era and placing it in a 1990’s urban context. In one skit, Further Reading Lassie is set in an inner-city housing project, and the Samuels, Allison. “The Color of Funny.” Newsweek, Autitle canine is a pit bull. With titles such as “The gust, 2000, 54-56. Wrath of Farrakhan,” “The Making of a Tracy ChapTucker, Ken. “In Living Color.” Entertainment Weekly, man Song,” “Ray Charles in Charge,” “Jesse Jackson April 27, 1990. Children’s Books,” and “Barbara Bush Visits the IllitDodie Marie Miller erates,” the sketches were edgy, witty, and sometimes controversial. See also African Americans; Carrey, Jim; CensorThe Wayans and others created memorable reship; Comedians; Hip-hop and rap music; Latinos; curring characters and sketches, including Homey Race relations; Rock, Chris; Shakur, Tupac; TeleviD. Clown (Damon Wayans), a frustrated ex-convict sion. working as a children’s clown; Fire Marshal Bill (Jim Carrey), a deranged officer who teaches fire safety by demonstrating on himself; and the “Homeboy ■ Income and wages in Canada Shopping Network” (Damon and Keenen Ivory Wayans), a parody of the Home Shopping Network Definition Earning and payment of money that features two black men who sell stolen goods deriving from capital or labor in Canada usually from the back of their truck. By the end of the fourth season, many of the In the 1990’s, disparity in income and wages sharply dishow’s most memorable actors had left to pursue vided Canadian society into economically based classes. other interests, usually film roles. Keenen Ivory Wayans had left because of disputes with Fox over its In the 1990’s, the income of Canadians often varied censorship and syndication of the series. significantly depending upon the region of the country in which they lived and worked. The link between income and region was not a phenomenon particular Impact Offering cutting-edge comedy skits and to the decade but rather one dating back to the beginmusical performances, In Living Color was a model ning of the twentieth century. Ontario and British Cofor future comedy variety shows such as Chappelle’s lumbia had the highest per capita incomes, which Show, starring Dave Chappelle.

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were one-third higher than those of Newfoundland and New Brunswick. Quebec’s per capita income was below the national average but slightly higher than that of the Atlantic coast provinces. Upper-class families had a significantly higher concentration of the national income. The income of these families came from investments and property ownership (land or companies) as well as from salaries. In general, this was a period in which the majority of Canadian wage and salary earners suffered from low incomes as a result of the increase in part-time and temporary or contract jobs. In the middle of the decade, one in four workers was employed in a part-time position and one in twelve in a temporary or contract job. The majority of these workers were involuntarily working part time and were unable to secure full-time employment. By 1998, part-time jobs had increased by almost 25 percent while full-time positions had only increased by 8 percent. A major factor affecting wages was the increasing number of women in the workforce. In 1992, almost two-thirds of Canadian families were two-income households. Segregation of the workforce into women’s jobs and men’s jobs continued to control hiring, as women continued to be employed in lower-paying service, retail, and clerical jobs. Although Canadian women were demanding equal pay and their income had risen from previous years, they earned on average about two-thirds of what male workers received. In 1993, more than half of elderly widows and almost two-thirds of families headed by single mothers were below the low-income cutoff point, spending more than one-half of their income for food, shelter, and clothing. The 1990’s witnessed considerable disparity in income and wages based on region, sex, age and type of employment. The proliferation of part-time, temporary, and contract jobs resulted in a greater number of women in the workforce and a greater number of individuals holding multiple jobs. Government transfer payments also became a significant part of many household incomes. Impact

Further Reading

Allahar, Anton, and James E. Coté. Richer and Poorer: The Structure of Inequality in Canada. Toronto: James Lorimer, 1998.

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Blais, François. Ending Poverty: A Basic Income for All Canadians. Toronto: James Lorimer, 2002 Shawncey Webb See also Business and the economy in Canada; Employment in Canada; Income and wages in the United States; Minimum wage increases.

■ Income and wages in the United States Wages (including salaries) represent compensation in money paid to hired labor while real wages measure the amount of goods and services represented by the money wage; other types of income include property income and government transfer payments

Definition

Wages and incomes in the United States rose through most of the decade. In 1990, the American economy generated $4.9 trillion in personal income. By 1999, this total had grown to $7.8 trillion. The burden of personal taxes rose from 12 to 14 percent. Much of the rise in income reflected the general upward movement of the price level, so real incomes did not rise nearly so much as money incomes. In addition, population increased. After adjusting for all these variables, one

Average Weekly Earnings by Industry, 1990 and 2000 Sector

1990

2000

Natural resources and mining

$603

$735

Construction

$513

$686

Manufacturing

$436

$591

Trade, transport, and utilities

$332

$450

Information

$480

$701

Finance

$355

$537

Professional and business services

$381

$535

Education and health

$319

$449

Leisure and hospitality

$156

$217

Other services

$298

$413

Source: Statistical Abstract of the United States, 2008, p. 412.

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Income and wages in the United States

Major Components of Personal Income, 1990 and 1999 (billions of dollars) Employee Compensation

Proprietors’ Income

Property Income

Government Transfers

Total*

1990

$3,338

$381

$975

$573

$4,879

1999

$5,352

$678

$1,411

$988

$7,802

6

78

45

72

60

Year

% Change

*Some minor components are omitted, so total is larger than sum of items listed. Source: Economic Report of the President, 2008, pp. 260-261.

finds that disposable personal income per capita in 2000 prices averaged $21,281 in 1990 and rose to $24,564 in 1999, an increase of about 15 percent. Employee compensation (wages, salaries, and fringe benefits) represented about two-thirds of the total and increased by 60 percent, as did the total. The income of proprietors (owners of unincorporated businesses and farms) rose more, as did government transfer payments such as Social Security. Property income (rents, interest, and dividends) increased less than did the other income categories. Wages Average hourly earnings in private employment rose from $10.20 in 1990 to $13.49 in 1999. Much of this increase, however, was offset by the rise in the price level. When adjusted for inflation (expressed in 1982 dollars), the real wage rose only from $7.66 in 1990 to $8.01 in 1999—an increase of about 5 percent. Average weekly earnings rose from $350 in 1990 to $463 in 1999. After adjustment for inflation, however, the increase went from $263 in 1990 to $275 in 1999, again a 5 percent rise. Considering that labor productivity increased nearly 20 percent over the decade, the foregoing data on real wages (calculated by the Bureau of Labor Statistics) need further inspection. In addition to the wage payout directly received by workers, an additional one-fifth of labor costs involved employer contributions to worker pensions, insurance, and Social Security. Adjusted for inflation and converted to an average per worker, these data show compensation per worker of $21,462 (in 1982-1984 prices) in 1990 and $24,150 in 1999, an increase of about 13 percent. There were wide differences in wages from one industry to another. An examination of average weekly pay for major sectors shows notable ex-

tremes, with very high rewards in natural resource and mining activities and very low rewards in the leisure and hospitality sectors. The 1990’s saw a small shift in the share of income going to families at different levels of income distribution. The top one-fifth of income recipients increased their share of total income over the decade, so that by 1999 they received nearly half of the total. Their increase came at the expense of the other four quintiles.

Hourly Wages for Different Worker Categories, 1990 and 1999 Worker Category Union members Male

1990

1999

$13.16

$17.31

$13.94

$18.08

White

$14.24

$18.56

Black

$12.00

$15.16

Female

$11.81

$16.14

White

$11.92

$16.40

Black

$11.07

$15.16

Nonunion workers Male

$10.55

$14.44

$12.17

$16.44

White

$12.52

$16.85

Black

$8.87

$12.59

Female

$8.88

$12.38

White

$9.00

$12.58

Black

$7.73

$12.59

Source: Historical Statistics of the United States: Millennial Edition, vol. 2, 2006, p. 351.

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Independent films

Despite these results, the number and percent of persons in poverty declined over the decade. In 1990, 13.5 percent of people were classified as poor; by 1999, this number had declined to 11.9 percent. The percentage reductions were particu-

Share of Income Going to Each Quintile, 1990 and 1999 Quintile

1990

1999

Lowest fifth

3.8%

3.6%

Second fifth

9.6%

8.9%

15.9%

14.9%

Third fifth Fourth fifth

24.0%

23.2%

Highest fifth

46.6%

49.4%

Source: Statistical Abstract of the United States, 2008, p. 450.

larly noteworthy for African Americans (from 31.9 to 23.6 percent) and Hispanics (from 28.1 to 22.7 percent). Membership in labor unions was an important element in wage and employment conditions. In 1990, 16.7 million workers were union members; by 2000, this number had declined slightly to 16.3 million. Union membership in government employment rose from 6.5 million to 7.1 million. An increase in the number of schoolteachers was an important contributor. Union membership declined in private-sector employment, from 10.3 million to 9.1 million, decreasing the unionized percentage from 11 to 9 percent in the private sector. An important factor in this decline was the decrease in employment in manufacturing, a location of traditionally strong unions. Unionized employment, however, fell more than nonunionized employment, as industries such as automobile production became more heavily located in traditional nonunion areas. Many of the differentials in wage levels comparing union and nonunion workers, male and female workers, and black and white workers arise because the different categories of workers differ in their occupations and sector employment. On average, however, union members earned about 25 percent more than nonunion workers in 1990, declining to 20 per-

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cent in 1999. Among union members, men’s wage rates exceeded those of women by 12 percent, certainly reflecting different jobs and not different rates for the same job. For nonunion workers, men’s wage rates exceeded those of women by 37 percent in 1990, declining to 33 percent in 1999. Impact During the 1990’s, the demand for labor was strong and employment grew sufficiently to absorb the rising population. The top fifth of income recipients increased their share of total income, but this group did not necessarily comprise the same people in 1999 as in 1990. Poverty declined over the decade. Further Reading

Ehrenberg, Ronald G., and Robert S. Smith. Modern Labor Economics. 8th ed. New York: Pearson/ Addison Wesley, 2003. This college-level text puts wages and employment into historical and analytical perspective. Includes chapters on pay and productivity, discrimination, and the influence of unions. Hirsch, Barry T. “Sluggish Institutions in a Dynamic World: Can Unions and Industrial Competition Coexist?” Journal of Economic Perspectives 22, no. 1 (Winter, 2008): 153-176. The author’s short answer to the question posed by the title is not very well. A good historical review of the extent and influence of unionization. “Symposium on Discrimination in Product, Credit and Labor Markets.” Journal of Economic Perspectives 12, no. 2 (Spring, 1998): 63-126. William Darity and Patrick Mason present evidence of persisting discrimination, while James Heckman takes a skeptical view. Paul B. Trescott Business and the economy in the United States; Employment in the United States; General Motors strike of 1998; Immigration to the United States; Income and wages in Canada; Minimum wage increases.

See also

■ Independent films Definition

Films made outside the Hollywood

system The great popularity of independent films in the 1990’s established them as an alternative to Hollywood films.

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In the 1990’s, independent films escalated into a cinema of diversity that included a great variety of voices and perspectives. In the 1980’s and earlier, films were privately made and financed as underground, eccentric, or experimental works. In the 1990’s, there was a proliferation of personal films by directors who were denied expression in profitsdriven Hollywood. Because of the large number of film school graduates and the popularity of independent films, it became easier to secure financing outside the Hollywood system. Independent films catered to more mature audiences than the age twelve-to-twenty viewers targeted by Hollywood films, and in view of the wide experiences of the filmmakers themselves, created niche audiences outside the mainstream. Also, during the 1990’s, indie films fared well at the Academy Awards, winning Oscars for directing, writing, and editing. The most prominent form of film in the 1990’s was noir, a genre that has fascinated the American public since the 1940’s with its dark perspectives on lust, greed, and death. Having experienced a comeback in the 1980’s in the films of David Lynch, the Coen brothers, and Martin Scorsese, noir continued into the 1990’s through the works of these filmmakers as well as of Quentin Tarantino and his imitators. Perhaps reflecting America’s moral chaos, noir films became the film of choice for numerous fledgling filmmakers, who counted on the genre’s popularity and its relative ease in filming. Classic noir, with its extremes in lighting and character depiction, merges with comedy or comingof-age elements to depict broad ranges of experience, whereas neo-noir tends to flatten the character excesses so that no characters are as virtuous or evil as in conventional noir. Also, many noir films provided an opportunity to shock the audience with their brutally violent situations and language, as if to leave no taboo unexplored. Despite the success of serious drama in the hands of some directors, especially John Sayles, the second most prevalent genre in the 1990’s was satiric comedy. Following the lead of Robert Altman, many filmmakers attempted character-driven, experimental narratives with cynical political themes. Tim Robbins, one of Altman’s protégés, followed similarly in Bob Roberts (1992). Other filmmakers created youthoriented films in which characters confronted anxieties about race, sexual preferences, coming of age,

Major Genres

suicide, pedophilia, dysfunctional families, and other extreme subjects that were not usually present in Hollywood films. Impact The primary venue for showing American independent films, the Sundance Film Festival, located in Park City, Utah, and cofounded by Robert Redford, was established for the purpose of displaying the works of new filmmakers. The festival has been known for its presentation of diverse works by regional artists, women, and ethnic minorities. Beginning as a small showcase for independent films, the annual event has become so enormous that it has moved toward an institutional and mainstream independent cinema festival. Sundance helped to bring attention to such indie films as Clerks (1994) and The Blair Witch Project (1999). Films containing social or ethical issues traditionally ignored by Hollywood studios were taken on by independent filmmakers during the 1990’s. Talented, creative artists who could not work in the Hollywood system had an opportunity for cinematic selfexpression within independent films. Viewers who tired of the traditional viewpoints (white, middleclass, heterosexual, male) yearned for stories that, if not closer to their own lives, at least represented an enjoyable diversity. Further Reading

Biskind, Peter. Down and Dirty Pictures: Miramax, Sundance, and the Rise of the Independent Film. New York: Simon & Schuster, 2004. Biskind devotes much of the book to discussions of Sundance Film Festival cofounder Robert Redford and Miramax cofounder Harvey Weinstein, both of whom are viewed by Biskin as fostering, yet ultimately ruining the “purity” of independent film. Chion, Michel. David Lynch. Rev. ed. London: British Film Institute, 2006. Companion to Lynch’s body of work, focusing on themes and motifs behind his surreal films. Keyssar, Helene. Robert Altman’s America. New York: Oxford University Press, 1991. Examines the films of Altman, America’s premier independent filmmaker, who consistently fuses myths with history to comment on the American Dream. Rowell, Erica. The Brothers Grim: The Films of Ethan and Joel Coen. Lanham, Md.: Scarecrow Press, 2007. Interesting study of the Coen brothers, their beginnings, and their films, including the use of black humor and violence in their films.

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Scorsese, Martin. Scorsese on Scorsese. Rev. ed. London: Faber & Faber, 2003. Book of interviews with Scorsese, who tells of his love of films; his obsession with New York’s Little Italy, the setting of many of his films; and his intense style of filmmaking. Waxman, Sharon. Rebels on the Back Lot: Six Maverick Directors and How They Conquered the Hollywood Studio System. New York: HarperCollins, 2005. Chronicles the rise of Quentin Tarantino, Paul Thomas Anderson, David Fincher, Steven Soderbergh, David O. Russell, and Spike Jonze in their struggle to make films according to their own personal visions. Recounts ego-driven battles that are not always funny. Mary Hurd Academy Awards; Blair Witch Project, The; Coen brothers; Film in the United States; GoodFellas; Lee, Spike; Pulp Fiction; Sundance Film Festival; Tarantino, Quentin.

See also

■ Instant messaging A communications mode that allows two or more persons to use digitally based information (generally text) to communicate synchronously over a network of computers

Definition

Instant messaging (IM) swept the United States in the 1990’s, changing communication styles and expectations of online contact with friends, families, and even strangers. With the development of the Internet and the World Wide Web, communicating between computers was accomplished through e-mail and bulletin boards. E-mails necessitated a time lag between a sent message and the recipient’s reply and required an e-mail address to locate the intended recipient of the message. Bulletin boards operated by dialing into a system and using downloadable software to gain access to an online board. Users, whose identities could remain anonymous, posted messages that all users could read. However, postings appeared in random order, so communication did not lend itself to backand-forth conversation. Instant messaging united the best of e-mail and bulletin boards, offering a more instant exchange than e-mail and a more private exchange than a bulletin board. Instant messaging allowed users to chat

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synchronously through text typing and provided a means to limit the circle of contacts for an online exchange. A user downloaded software to connect to a Web server. From a small window on the screen, the user could add and delete contacts, determine which contacts were online, and click on a contact with whom he or she wished to converse. The user typed a message and clicked a send button. If the recipient was online, the user saw the message scroll across the screen letter by letter with deletions and all other typing actions the sender performed. Although computers connected to the Web server could be located anywhere, users reported that during instant messaging, they felt the “presence” of the other person(s), much like having a phone conversation. Early versions of IM software were developed by UNIX, America Online (AOL), Prodigy, and CompuServe and connected individual computers to a Web server. Messages from senders and recipients traveled through the Web server, then out to the computer. The popularity of instant messaging soared toward the late 1990’s with the introduction of ICQ (“I seek you”), developed by Mirabilis. ICQ was a free instant messaging utility a step beyond other messaging applications. When a user logged into the system, ICQ connected together the computers on the user’s contact list. Messages no longer traveled through the Web server and out, but traveled directly between the linked computers. The result for the user was a faster response time between messages, allowing an almost real-time exchange and opening up an increased ability to multitask while online. Impact Instant messaging laid the foundation for a completely connected world of real-time interchange in the era of multitasking. Further Reading

Bell, Mary Ann, Mary Ann Berry, and James L. Van Roekel. Internet and Personal Computing Fads. New York: Haworth Press, 2004. Lewis, Michael M. Next: The Future Just Happened. New York: W. W. Norton, 2001. Rheingold, Howard. The Virtual Community: Homesteading on the Electronic Frontier. Reading, Mass.: Addison-Wesley, 1993. Taylor Shaw See also America Online; Apple Computer; Computers; Dot-coms; E-mail; Internet; Inventions; Microsoft; Science and technology; World Wide Web.

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Intelligent design movement

■ Intelligent design movement Neocreationist campaign to convince educators and others of a purposeful universe

Definition

Instigated by a Supreme Court ruling that “creation science” is religion, not science, a group of dedicated Christians argued that natural evidence exists that the universe and all life within it bear witness to a wise designer and that this theory should play a role in public school science classes, a proposal that was successfully challenged by the scientific community. Although the argument for God’s existence from the well-ordered world He created has a long history, the modern intelligent design movement began after the Supreme Court decided, in Edwards v. Aguillard (1987), that “creation science,” which proposed that scientific facts and theories supported the biblical view of God’s creative power, was religion and not science, and that teaching this doctrine in public schools violated the separation of church and state. However, the ruling left open the possibility of teaching a variety of scientific theories about the ways in which the universe, life, and humankind developed. Several Christian scholars realized that they would now have to devise a new strategy to attack what they viewed as the materialistic evolutionary theory originated by Charles Darwin. In the late 1980’s, a supplementary high school textbook, Of Pandas and People (1989), contained several arguments that supposedly proved that life on Earth was intelligently, not randomly, designed. Christian groups were able to get this book accepted in several school districts, a campaign that continued throughout the 1990’s. The Controversy over Intelligent Design According to several Christian scholars, the intelligent design movement’s most influential proponent was Phillip E. Johnson, a Berkeley law professor. In 1991, Johnson published Darwin on Trial, which emphasized that Darwinism was nothing but applied materialism and that evidence exists for an intelligent agent’s hand in forging the highly organized complexities of various life-forms. Johnson continued to refine his case in his later books, Reason in the Balance (1995) and Defeating Darwinism (1997). Johnson has been called “the father of the intelligent design movement,” but he also had several important followers, including William A. Dembski, a mathemati-

The Nineties in America

cian, philosopher, and theologian, and Michael J. Behe, a biochemist. Dembski, a convert from Catholicism to Evangelical Christianity, developed, in his books and articles, mathematical arguments to distinguish intelligently designed phenomena from those resulting from random natural causation. Several mathematicians and scientists challenged Dembski’s contention that law, chance, and design are mutually exclusive. They also argued that natural laws are able to explain the complexities of life-forms without needing to appeal to an intelligent designer. Michael Behe, a Roman Catholic who contributed to Of Pandas and People’s second edition, maintained, in Darwin’s Black Box (1996), that random causes are unable to explain the development of “irreducibly complex” cellular structures—that is, those unable to function when a single part is missing. For example, flagella, cellular devices used for locomotion and composed of several different proteins, could not have originated via the accidental, incremental additions required by natural selection. However, Kenneth R. Miller, a Roman Catholic biology professor at Brown University, showed that flagella are not irreducibly complex since a small group of proteins from a flagellum can be used by bacteria for activities different from selfpropulsion. Impact Through their books and articles and through such organizations as the Discovery Institute, which created the Center for the Renewal of Science and Culture in 1996 to manage the intelligent design campaign, the neocreationists were able to influence many American communities to adopt intelligent design in their secondary school science curricula. Many members of the scientific community attacked these adoptions. For example, the National Academy of Sciences issued documents stating that intelligent design is not science because its claims cannot be tested by experiment. The American Association for the Advancement of Science argued in its publications that intelligent design is pseudoscience. Throughout the 1990’s, the consensus of most members of the scientific community remained that intelligent design is covert religion and that Darwinism, in one form or another, was unscathed by neocreationist attacks. Subsequent Events The controversy over intelligent design continued into the twenty-first century. In 2002, the Ohio State Board of Education held a

The Nineties in America

public debate between prominent Darwinian evolutionists and neocreationists. In 2005, several people in this debate were called as expert witnesses in the Kitzmiller v. Dover Area School District case. A group of parents of high school students had challenged the Dover district’s requirement for biology teachers to present intelligent design arguments as an alternative to Darwinian evolution. In a well-documented decision, Judge John E. Jones III ruled in favor of the parents, concluding that intelligent design was unable to uncouple itself from its religious roots. Therefore, the school district’s promotion of intelligent design violated the establishment clause of the First Amendment of the U.S. Constitution. Despite these and other defeats suffered by the intelligent design movement, it continued to garner support and advocacy by many members of the conservative Christian community. Consequently, the intelligent design controversy has not yet reached closure. Further Reading

Behe, Michael J. The Edge of Evolution: The Search for the Limits of Darwinism. New York: Free Press, 2007. This successor to Behe’s Darwin’s Black Box: The Biochemical Challenge to Evolution (1996) extends his arguments from cell structures that are “beyond random mutation and natural selection” to the “edge of evolution,” where Darwinian explanations are inadequate. Extensive notes, four appendixes, and an index. Davis, Percival, and Dean H. Kenyon. Of Pandas and People: The Central Question of Biological Origins. Dallas: Haughton, 1993. This revised edition edited by Charles B. Thaxton was, in this and other versions, at the center of the controversy over an intelligent design textbook in high school science courses. Glossary and index. Johnson, Phillip E. Darwin on Trial. Washington, D.C.: Regnery Gateway, 1991. This book has been called the “founding document” of the intelligent design movement. Research notes and an index. Pennock, Robert T. Tower of Babel: The Evidence Against the New Creationism. Cambridge, Mass.: MIT Press, 1999. The author, a philosopher of science, has written “the most detailed and comprehensive” critique of the intelligent design movement while elucidating the context within which it originated and developed. Notes, references, and an index.

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Scott, Eugenie C. Evolution vs. Creationism: An Introduction. Berkeley: University of California Press, 2004. Written by a committed evolutionist, this book provides an accessible primer to the debate over the teaching of evolution in the United States. “References for Further Exploration,” name index, and subject index. Robert J. Paradowski See also Education in the United States; Homeschooling; Religion and spirituality in the United States; Science and technology; Supreme Court decisions.

■ Internet Definition

A worldwide network of computer

networks In the 1990’s, the Internet grew from about 100,000 hosts—connected by the new, and largely untested, transmission control protocol/Internet protocol (TCP/IP) networking protocol—to over one and a half million hosts, connected by a robust TCP/IP internetworking infrastructure. The 1990’s also marked the rapid development of the World Wide Web as an important way of distributing information and doing business. Computers were first used in the 1950’s, and from their inception scientists tried to connect them so that they could share printers and data. In 1962, J. C. R. Licklider of Massachusetts Institute of Technology (MIT) gave the first description of an internet as a network of networks. The technology of the 1960’s used dedicated circuits to connect computers, and this technique did not support large internets. In 1964, Leonard Kleinrock of MIT described a new technology, packet switching, which sent messages from one computer to another by breaking a message into packets and sending the packets one at a time rather than the entire message all at once. During the 1970’s and 1980’s, packet-switched networking developed at a fast pace and demonstrated that it was capable of supporting large internetworks. The TCP/IP network protocol was a packet-switched internetwork protocol, defined in a paper by Robert Kahn and Vinton Cerf in 1974. TCP was a transport protocol to connect individual computers, and IP was a protocol that facilitated the

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movement of data over the network using routers. Several successful implementations of TCP/IP networks were produced during the 1980’s. In 1983, the government required all computers connected to its Advanced Research Projects Agency Network (ARPANET) to implement TCP/IP, and in 1995 Microsoft implemented TCP/IP as its default networking protocol. These two actions effectively made TCP/IP the standard internetworking protocol after 1995. By the late 1980’s, many computer networks were connected by TCP/IP, and there was considerable transfer of data among these computers. However, the data was transferred as files, and it was not particularly attractive when it arrived at a destination computer. From 1989 to 1992, Tim Berners-Lee of the European Council for Nuclear Research (later renamed the European Organization for Nuclear Research), known as CERN, in Switzerland developed the first version of a Web browser and server using the hypertext markup language (HTML) and hypertext transfer protocol (HTTP). Using the Web to disseminate information over TCP/IP internetworks greatly increased its popularity. Many improvements were made to Web servers and browsers over the 1990’s, and by 2000 the Internet had become one of the major vehicles for the exchange of information. The first real e-business was a CERN telephone directory created by Berners-Lee in 1992. During the remainder of the 1990’s, e-commerce developed at breakneck speed, with many large companies like Amazon.com appearing. While there was a downturn for e-commerce in 2000, the industry recovered shortly after and has since expanded rapidly. A new version of IP, called IPv6 (version 6), was proposed in 1991. This upgraded IP provides better security and enhanced routing capability. Because the current version of IP is widely used, IPv6 has been making slow but steady progress in being deployed. In 1996, the Internet2 project was announced as the next version of the Internet. A highspeed (100 gigabytes per second) state-of-the-art internetwork, Internet2 will support a variety of media transfers and innovative applications. It is anticipated that Internet2 will use IPv6. In 1969, ARPANET was created under the leadership of the Defense Advanced Research Projects Agency (DARPA) of the Department of Defense. Initially, ARPANET consisted of a

Creation of the Internet

The Nineties in America

small number of government and university computers connected with the network control program (NCP) protocol. In 1983, ARPANET made TCP/IP its core protocol. Over the next few years, TCP/IP matured as an internetworking protocol. By 1990, ARPANET had become difficult to operate, and it was officially retired. ARPANET was replaced by several internetworks (including the National Science Foundation Network, or NSFNet) and a group of organizations (including the Internet Society, or ISOC). By 1991, these internets and organizations were regularly referred to as the Internet. In 1991, NSFNet decided to allow use of its network by commercial entities as well as the government and universities. This effectively opened the Internet to everyone and resulted in a dramatic increase in the size of the Internet. The Internet Society was chartered in January, 1992. It is a large organization, made up of individuals, companies, universities, and organizations. ISOC determines the policies and standards for the Internet. ISOC has several important boards, including the Internet Architecture Board (IAB), the Internet Engineering Task Force (IETF), and the Internet Research Task Force (IRTF). The IAB provides technical advice to ISOC, the IETF works on specific standards, and the IRTF does long-range planning. In 1995, the Federal Networking Council (FNC), a coordinating group of representatives from the federal agencies involved in networking, officially defined the Internet as the totality of networks that were interconnected by TCP/IP. This is the definition of the Internet used today. Advances in Networking During the 1990’s, there were many advances in TCP/IP software that helped the Internet to grow. When TCP/IP was selected as the internet protocol of ARPANET, it included a number of important features, including Telnet for remote terminal access, file transfer protocol (FTP) for remote file transfer, transmission control protocol (TCP) for reliable connections, IP for routing, and simple mail transfer protocol (SMTP) for e-mail support. In 1990, the simple network management protocol (SNMP) made its debut by remotely operating an Internet toaster. During the 1990’s, SNMP continued to add features and applications until a single workstation could manage all the computers on a network. The most important addition to the TCP/IP pro-

The Nineties in America

tocol suite made during the 1990’s was HTTP, proposed by Berners-Lee in 1989 and implemented by him at CERN in 1992. This simple protocol allowed the Internet to support the World Wide Web (WWW), and the WWW became the most important application running on the Internet by the end of the 1990’s. The IP gives all computers on the Internet a 32-bit numeric address, such as 121.10.45.255. For a variety of reasons, the Internet community wanted to have a symbolic name for each computer rather than the 32-bit numeric address. In the early days of ARPANET, the symbolic-to-numeric name conversion was handed locally by a hosts file, located on each computer. The domain name system (DNS) was proposed as a better solution for the conversion about 1983, and by 1985 a DNS with several zone servers had been created. In 1993, the NSF started privatizing the DNS by assigning its major administrative functions to private corporations. Since that time, DNS Internet address registration and maintenance of the Internet address database has been handled by a number of companies who jointly maintain thirteen root servers. A major area of improvement in networking that led to the explosive growth of the Internet in the 1990’s was the development of high-speed networks that used fiber-optic cables. Especially important were the backbone internetworks that provided support for transfers of data from one part of the country to another. The increased bandwidth of the communications networks supporting the Internet has resulted in a number of innovative applications, including music and video downloads, rich graphical pages sent over the Web, and telephone service introduced in 1996 that used voice-over IP (VoIP). The improvements in general computer and communications hardware during the 1990’s provided a great deal of support for the Internet. Microchip manufacturers increased their chip density during the 1990’s, and this improved the computers sending and receiving data, as well as the communications equipment connecting these computers. Typical of the companies that experienced dynamic growth in the 1990’s is Cisco Systems. Founded in 1984, Cisco went public in 1990 with assets of $190 million. In 2000, Cisco was estimated to be worth more than $500 billion. Cisco originally produced simple routers and gateways but later marketed a full range of communications products.

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Universal Access The 1990’s marked a time of greatly improved access to the Internet from home and the workplace. Microsoft led the way when it included a TCP/IP stack as part of the Windows 95 operating system, but all personal computers and workstations provided TCP/IP support by the end of the 1990’s. The introduction of the Mosaic Web browser for the Macintosh and personal computer (PC) in 1993 and Internet Explorer as part of the Windows 95 operating system in 1995 made access to the Web simple. Improvements in hardware used to access the Internet were even greater than those for software. For the home user, the 1990’s marked a time of greatly improved choices for high-speed access to the Internet. The 28.8-kilobit modem was introduced in 1994, the 56-kilobit modem in 1996, and the 1- to 2-megabit asymmetric digital subscriber line (ADSL) modem in 1998. These provided home Internet users with a standard telephone line fast access to the Internet. For those with cable television, the cable modem, introduced about 1997, and standardized with the data over cable service interface specification (DOCSIS) protocol in 1999, provided 2- to 10-megabit service that was very reliable. During the same time, cell phone users could communicate with their offices either by 56-kilobit modem or by proprietary cell phone modem. As early as 1995, some were using satellites to access the Internet, although it was expensive. In the workplace, high-speed access became commonplace in the 1990’s. The 10Base-T standard was adopted in 1990, and this allowed companies to provide inexpensive access for their employees, using large switch-based networks. The first wireless local area networks (LANs) appeared about 1997, and in 1999 the IEEE 802.11 wireless LAN standards process began. Wireless access allowed employees to access the Internet without having to plug into an Ethernet connector. At home, inexpensive wireless kits containing access points and connector cards were in wide use by 2000 and allowed multiple home computers access to the Internet.

A number of important Internet applications were developed during the 1990’s, the most important of which was the World Wide Web. Berners-Lee implemented a working WWW system at CERN in 1992. Many improvements were made to the basic ideas of Berners-Lee during the decade, including the development of

Internet Applications

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Inventions

the Mosaic browser by Marc Andreessen and Eric Bina in 1993, the development of Netscape Navigator in 1994 by Andreessen and Jim Clark, and the development of Internet Explorer by Microsoft in 1995. These later browsers added improved graphics and multimedia support. Berners-Lee founded the World Wide Web Consortium (W3C) in 1994, and this organization (replacing the ISOC) became the main standards body for Web-specific activities. The most-used application of the Internet today is e-mail. The first e-mail system was developed by Ray Tomlinson in 1971. In 1991, Philip Zimmerman introduced a way to send e-mail securely with his Pretty Good Privacy technology. The original e-mail format, defined by the request for comments (RFC) 822, was quite limited, and in 1992 it was enhanced by the multipurpose Internet mail extensions (MIME) to support sending pictures and sound in e-mail. As HTML became a popular format for messages, e-mail clients like Outlook Express and Eudora developed a technique of displaying e-mail as an HTML document, while encoding it in the RFC 822 format using MIME. The addition of the post office protocol (POP) in 1999 greatly enhanced reliable e-mail delivery. The secure socket layer (SSL) protocol was originally developed by Netscape in 1994 and has been improved by many others since then. It provides a secure communications path for browsers and e-mail programs, and this has made e-commerce over the Internet much safer. Impact Over the 1990’s, the Internet grew exponentially. The number of Web servers, e-businesses, and users greatly increased. Transmission speeds improved throughout the world and changed the way people communicate. In 1990, few used, or even knew of, the Internet; by 2000, the Internet had become an essential tool for most in the United States. Further Reading

Baase, Sara. A Gift of Fire: Social, Legal, and Ethical Issues for Computers and the Internet. Upper Saddle River, N.J.: Prentice Hall, 2002. Interesting coverage of the social and legal issues surrounding the Internet. Hofstetter, Fred. Internet Literacy. New York: McGrawHill, 2005. Provides a comprehensive introduction to the Internet and the World Wide Web. Salus, Peter H. Casting the Net: From ARPANET to Internet and Beyond. Reading, Mass.: Addison-Wesley,

1995. A good introduction to the development of ARPANET and the early days of the Internet. George M. Whitson III Amazon.com; Apple Computer; CGI; Computers; Dot-coms; DVDs; E-mail; Hackers; Instant messaging; Inventions; Microsoft; MP3 format; PDAs; Silicon Valley; World Wide Web; Y2K problem.

See also

■ Inventions Newly created or improved devices, objects, substances, techniques, or processes

Definition

During the 1990’s, legal, political, and economic factors affected how patent officials determined which inventions merited patent protection and how legislators and judges perceived laws regulating patents. Rapid developments in genetic and computer engineering intensified competition to secure lucrative patents, and invention underwent a transition in which corporations and industry dominated. By 1990, the U.S. Patent and Trademark Office (USPTO) had approved five million patents since it was established in 1790. Entrepreneurs realized innovation was essential in the 1990’s for businesses to compete in the global market, which thrived on electronics, biotechnology, and telecommunications inventions, filing significantly more patent applications compared to prior decades. Those fields often incorporated complex, emerging technology and scientific ideas unfamiliar to many legal and patent personnel, who, although sometimes lacking sufficient scientific expertise, were in the position to evaluate inventions and rule on disputes regarding which inventions were patentable and ownership of rights. These were crucial issues in the escalating infringement litigation initiated by inventors and businesses guarding their innovations and income those inventions generated. Advocates and critics of patent reform discussed laws relevant to inventions in the United States and internationally and how modifications might affect invention practices and influence trade and economic conditions. When the 1990’s began, U.S. patent law recognized that rights to an invention belonged to whoever initially envisioned it, but most countries’ patent laws stated that rights were assured to inventors who first filed applications, complicating

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legal disputes regarding inventions. CorTime Line of Select 1990’s Inventions porations and universities hired researchers and usually owned any inven1990 1994 tions those employees created at work. Hubble Space Telescope HIV protease inhibitor In 1990, inventors filed 163,575 patent World Wide Web applications. The USPTO, staffed by 1995 approximately 1,500 examiners, pro1991 DVD technology cessed most applications within eighJava computer language Digital answering teen months, compared to a two-year machine wait in the 1980’s. Annually, the number V-chip (television 1996 of applications significantly increased, blocking receiver) Web TV and review times also grew during the 1990’s, reaching twenty-five months by 1992 1997 the end of the decade. Smart pill (computerGas-powered fuel cell In the 1990’s, USPTO examiners controlled medication Nonmechanical digital evaluated invention applications subdelivery) audio player mitted by U.S. and international invenWi-Fi wireless networking tors. Canadian inventors secured pat1993 ents though their nation’s patent office Blue LED (light-emitting 1998 and often also filed for U.S. or foreign diode) Viagra (erectile patents. Approximately 55 percent of Global positioning system dysfunction drug) the 109,728 U.S. patents approved in (GPS) 1992 were issued to U.S. inventors, with Pentium processor 1999 22 percent of the patents being granted Tekno Bubbles (blacklight to Japanese inventors and 7 percent to bubbles) Germans. Many U.S. inventors also sought patents in other countries, especially Japan, where technological competition from industries necessitated entertainment. In 1990, Tim Berners-Lee, a Europatent protection. Political changes in Europe, parpean Organization for Nuclear Research (CERN) ticularly German reunification and socioeconomic physicist, created a program to transmit text mesreform efforts in the former Soviet Union, impacted sages, connecting CERN scientists’ computers in1990’s markets for inventions. ternationally. This World Wide Web became pubThe USPTO received less federal funding in the licly available. Within three years, Marc Andreessen 1990’s and relied on increased patent fees approved invented a graphical browser, known as Mosaic, by the U.S. Congress, collecting several hundred which showed images to supplement text. The rapmillion dollars annually. Costs to maintain a patent idly evolving Internet attracted several hundred milfor the standard seventeen-year protection period lion new users yearly during the 1990’s. Online serwere approximately $6,700, which hindered many vices, particularly shopping and banking, appealed individual and small business inventors. By the midto many people, including hackers and identity 1990’s, inventions enhanced the USPTO’s operathieves who took advantage of security vulnerabilitions when that office permitted inventors to fax apties. Some computer scientists created software, plications and considered security and encrypting such as Invention Machine Lab, to assist aspiring inconcerns for future electronic filing online. In 1998, ventors. the USPTO added text of post-1976 patents to its onInventions enhanced medical knowledge and apline database (www.uspto.gov). plications, particularly surgical, pharmaceutical, and equipment innovations. In the early 1990’s, Innovations Early 1990’s computer-related invenW. French Anderson utilized gene therapy for treattions inspired other inventors whose creations exment. Genetics researcher J. Craig Venter used expanded consumers’ options for communication and

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pressed sequence tags (ESTs) to detect genes in DNA and started the Human Genome Project. By the end of the decade, Venter established Celera Genomics with laboratory equipment maker PE Corporation to use computers to establish a genetic database. Genetic researchers attempted cloning animals in the 1990’s. In July, 1996, Keith Campbell and Ian Wilmut of Roslin Institute cloned a sheep named Dolly. Other researchers created genetically engineered flowers and food. While many people supported those achievements, others expressed ethical concerns and protested genetic manipulation. Other 1990’s inventions contributed to transportation and defense needs by improving materials used to construct automobiles, aircraft, and satellites. For example, Peter Searson and Theodore Poehler used their polymer expertise to invent plastic batteries. The Hubble Space Telescope and other aerospace inventions provided researchers with more precise tools to conduct astronomical investigations. Communications inventions permeated daily activities, ranging from personal to industrial and governmental usage. During the decade, inventors designed smaller digital and satellite phones with more functions. Wireless Application Protocol enabled cellular phone connections with the Internet. Introduced in 1992, Sony’s MiniDisc enabled users to record and play audio on a device they could easily carry while exercising or pursuing other activities. By 1998, engineers developed MP3 compression methods to store large amounts of digital files. Some 1990’s inventions were controversial because they presented concerns patent laws did not address. Computer software and biotechnology provoked the most debate about what inventions were patentable. The 1980 U.S. Supreme Court decision supporting Ananda Chakrabarty’s patent for a genetically engineered organism had intensified research to identify and secure rights to genetic material. Pharmaceutical and medical investors recognized the financial potential of genetic patents by selling licenses to drug manufacturers. A 1991 trial in San Francisco, California, resulted in a ruling protecting patents the Cetus Corporation had acquired when its researcher, Kary B. Mullis, determined how a polymerase chain reaction produced copies from a genetic sample, impeding other researchers from using that technique without purchasing rights.

Patenting Biotechnology

In 1992, the National Institutes of Health (NIH) filed for several thousand patents for DNA fragments with unknown genes. Although the USPTO rejected the NIH applications, biotechnology work escalated. Researchers utilized automated sequencers to identify EST. Worldwide, approximately 1,175 patents were issued specifying human DNA sequences by 1995. The USPTO stated that researchers could submit EST patent applications even when associated genes and functions were unknown. This decision upset some researchers because EST patent owners could claim rights to any genes in patented EST, keeping other researchers from investigating those genes. Overwhelmed by EST applications, the USPTO held public hearings to seek ways to manage biotechnology applications so they would not interfere with review of nongenetic applicants. By spring 1999, the USPTO increased its examiner staff to 3,000 to review approximately 240,000 applications. Some examiners lacked sufficient expertise and experience to review complex biotechnology patent applications, rejecting or accepting applications without being aware of precedents or other crucial information. They occasionally asked applicants to present proof that EST had medical applications. Several scientific groups requested more competent evaluations, and the USPTO provided some biotechnology training to examiners. Inconsistent evaluation of software during the 1990’s also distressed inventors. The USPTO did not routinely patent software until 1994. That year the U.S. Court of Appeals for the Federal Circuit, which had been established in the 1980’s specifically for judges experienced in intellectual property law to hear patent cases, stated that software included in hard drives or other storage media such as floppy disks was patentable. While industry leaders, especially the Microsoft Corporation, sought patents to protect their inventions, other software producers, including Oracle Corporation, considered patents detrimental to the creation of future software. Inventors and executives identified a December, 1993, patent to Compton’s New Media as a threat to their multimedia pursuits, especially when Compton’s stated it expected royalties from any company using technological aspects of its patent. Some critics suggested that broad software patents gave owners monopolies over intrinsic functions necessary to

Computer Patents

The Nineties in America

other companies’ services. Commissioner of Patents and Trademarks Bruce A. Lehman, a copyright expert, scheduled meetings at Silicon Valley in California to discuss software patents. Critics complained that examiners lacked computer educational credentials and did not recognize public domain software applications. Lehman and USPTO officials terminated Compton’s patent and sought examiners who had experience programming computers or advanced degrees. Software patents in the 1990’s shaped legal precedents for later inventions. When the USPTO denied a software patent to Mary Ellen Zurko, she appealed that decision to the U.S. Court of Appeals for the Federal Circuit. In May, 1998, that court stated the USPTO should not have rejected Zurko’s application. Commissioner Lehman responded that the appeals court should not counter the authority of the USPTO’s examiners, noting several hundred examiners held doctorates and were competent engineers and scientists. The U.S. Supreme Court heard Lehman v. Zurko in November, 1998. On June 10, 1999, the U.S. Supreme Court ruled 63 against Zurko, with Justice Stephen Breyer stating that the appeals court had ignored an earlier law requiring judges to respect governmental experts unless they had performed maliciously or negligently. Inventors worried the USPTO might be victorious in all application appeals. Other 1990’s court cases considered how inventions such as Amazon.com’s one-click ordering function impacted e-commerce competition. Infringement Lawsuits Inventions’ financial success triggered patent infringement, resulting in economic losses for patent owners who often initiated legal action against people and corporations they accused of stealing their patented devices or processes. Patent infringers frequently targeted electronics and pharmaceuticals. Approximately 50 percent more infringement lawsuits were filed in 1990 compared to 1980 statistics. Many of those lawsuits resulted in large monetary reimbursements for royalties inventors had been denied. During the early 1990’s, Robert Kearns, of Detroit, Michigan, received multimillion-dollar settlements from U.S. and international automobile manufacturers who had installed intermittent windshield wipers identical to those he had patented in the early

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1960’s and shown to Ford Motor Company engineers in Detroit. At that time, Kearns thought Ford would purchase rights to use his invention, but he later realized that manufacturer and others had incorporated his invention in vehicles without his permission and sued. Other notable 1990’s patent infringement cases included the October, 1990, ruling that Eastman Kodak Company pay Polaroid Corporation $909.4 million, the greatest infringement award at that time, because it had infringed on Polaroid’s instant photography patents. Two years later, a court ordered Minolta Camera Company to pay Honeywell Incorporated $127 million for using aspects of Honeywell’s auto-focus lens patents. In 1997, Raymond Damadian of Fonar Corporation received $103 million from General Electric for using his magnetic resonance imaging. Gilbert Hyatt’s 1990 microprocessor patent, based on a 1970 application, upset the computer industry when Hyatt demanded royalties, claiming he was the first inventor to develop a microprocessor. In the early 1990’s, U.S. patent and copyright owners filed over one hundred lawsuits to protest Japanese manufacturers who they claimed had infringed on their intellectual property. For example, in 1993, Eastman Kodak Company began legal proceedings stating Sony Corporation had copied information from Kodak’s patent describing video recording technology. Many of the Japanese defendants filed countersuits, resulting in tensions that threatened trade between those countries. U.S. officials discussed how to control infringement with Japanese and other foreign leaders. Trade incentives proved effective to convince other nations to monitor patent infringement. Jerome Lemelson’s 1990’s infringement lawsuits were among the most controversial. He received several hundred million dollars from Japanese, European, and U.S. automobile companies and parts companies that had appropriated the bar-coding technology he invented in the 1950’s. His critics referred to Lemelson’s patents as submarine patents, because information in his applications remained unknown for decades. They insinuated Lemelson had delayed patent approval to claim infringement after manufacturers used similar inventions, an argument which stimulated patent reform. Lemelson dismissed that criticism as absurd.

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During the early 1990’s, USPTO Commissioner Harry F. Manbeck, Jr., encouraged patent reform to improve the U.S. patent system and make it more compatible with international patenting procedures. Commissioner Manbeck served as chair of the Advisory Commission on Patent Law Reform to consider U.S. and foreign patenting differences which were detrimental to marketing U.S. inventions. After he became USPTO commissioner in 1993, Lehman emphasized the corporate benefits of invention and the need for U.S. patenting strategies that aided U.S. technology and scientific knowledge to be competitive internationally. Under his leadership, U.S. patent protection extended twenty years from the time inventors applied, replacing the previous seventeen-year period starting when patents were approved. In January, 1994, Lehman and Japan Patent Commissioner Wataru Aso negotiated an agreement stating that U.S. inventors’ Englishlanguage applications could be filed in Japan before being translated so that U.S. inventors would not be delayed in claiming rights. In 1996, federal legislators considered an omnibus bill that outlined such reforms as publishing patent applications eighteen months after they were filed. Commissioner Lehman and the bill’s supporters emphasized that publication prevented manufacturers from possible infringement charges because they would be aware of inventors’ ideas instead of them remaining secret. Opponents included the Small Entity Patent Owners Association, Alliance for American Innovation, and invention groups supporting noncorporate inventors who feared their ideas might be vulnerable to infringement prior to patent approval. During 1997, U.S. representatives and senators continued to debate the omnibus bill (H.R. 400) in the U.S. House of Representatives, where sponsor Representative Howard Coble (Republican, North Carolina), speaking on behalf of corporate interests, defended the bill against Representative Dana Rohrabacher (Republican, California), voicing independent inventors’ concerns. Representative Marcy Kaptur (Democrat, Ohio) secured an amendment that stated university, individual, and small company patent applicants were not required to publish application information. U.S. senators considered the legislation (S. 507) in their proceedings. When Commissioner Lehman resigned in Octo-

Patent Reform

ber, 1998, legislators still disagreed on reforms. His successor, patent attorney Q. Todd Dickinson, supported USPTO Office of Independent Inventor Programs, which sought those inventors’ input. Legislators and groups, such as the 21st Century Patent Coalition, continued to seek acceptable patent reforms regarding application publication, patent reevaluation, trade secret provisions, and transforming the USPTO into a corporate organization. Celebrations and activities held in the United States during the 1990’s honored inventions and inventors. That decade began with events commemorating the bicentennial of the 1790 Patent Act. During May, 1990, the Foundation for a Creative America oversaw patent bicentennial festivities that included museum exhibits featuring female and minority inventors. In 1990, the National Inventors Hall of Fame, which had been established in 1973, relocated from the USPTO to the Inventure Place in Akron, Ohio. During the patent bicentennial, the National Inventors Hall of Fame hosted an induction that included the first African American inductees, Percy Julian and George Washington Carver. The next year’s induction ceremony admitted Gertrude Elion as the initial female inventor inducted. By 1995, National Inventors Hall of Fame officials chose Stephanie Kwolek, the Kevlar inventor, for induction. In 1998, computer engineer Mark Dean became the next African American inductee, followed the next year by the fourth African American inducted, James West, an acoustical engineer. The USPTO sponsored the yearly National Inventors Expo in the 1990’s. Organizations and periodicals sponsored invention workshops and competitions for children and adults during the decade. In December, 1992, Successful Farming magazine held the initial National Farmer Inventors Congress at Des Moines, Iowa, because readers had requested help to patent and market inventions they had innovated for practical agricultural uses. Farmers competed in the affiliated Edisons of Agriculture contest throughout the 1990’s, winning farm equipment prizes for their inventiveness. In 1995, the Massachusetts Institute of Technology first presented the annual invention award, the Lemelson-MIT Prize ($500,000), funded by Jerome Lemelson. Winners during the 1990’s included William Bolander, Herbert Boyer, Stanley

History, Events, and Awards

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Cohen, Douglas Engelbart, Robert Langer, and Carver Mead. Lemelson and his wife gave the Smithsonian Institution money to build the Jerome and Dorothy Lemelson Center for the Study of Invention and Innovation, which was founded in 1995 at the Smithsonian’s National Museum of American History. American Heritage and other mainstream magazines printed articles about the history of invention in the United States. The October, 1991, issue of the scholarly journal Technology and Culture focused on invention and patent themes. Popular Science, Newsweek, and Time profiled the decade’s most significant inventions in special issues listing the century’s invention achievements. The digital answering machine, Pentium processor, and Java were among the periodicals’ choices representing the 1990’s. Impact Inventions developed in the 1990’s offered consumers increased technological and scientific choices but limited many inventors’ options to create, patent, and market their ideas autonomously. That decade, although honoring historical precedents, marked notable transitions in inventive culture that sought reform and change from patenting methods in prior decades, adjusting to international economic demands and benefits. Corporate interests transformed the invention process from innovation often envisioned by individuals working alone to groups of researchers hired by industries or universities to develop technology capable of generating millions, sometimes billions, of dollars in licensing fees and royalties. As the USPTO assumed a corporate structure during the 1990’s, its rigid bureaucracy and expensive fees became prohibitive to many independent inventors who received less government support in their endeavors. Of the 250,000 applications filed in 1998, only 15 percent were submitted by noncorporate inventors. Affiliated professionals, notably patent attorneys, profited from legal work involved in filing patents and associated litigation.

Biotechnology and electronic inventions from the 1990’s inspired more refined, quicker, or miniature versions that were patented in the early twenty-first century. Inventors filed approximately 312,000 patent applications in 2000, submitting more each year as new materials and economic opportunities spurred invention. The USPTO devised its Genetic Sequence Database, USGENE. As

Subsequent Events

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profits motivated both inventors and patent thieves, U.S. legislators continued to debate patent reforms, particularly controlling infringement. Further Reading

Brown, David E. Inventing Modern America: From the Microwave to the Mouse. Foreword by Lester C. Thurow. Introductions by James Burke. Cambridge, Mass.: MIT Press, 2002. Discusses contributions of several 1990’s genetics, physics, and computer innovators, including Tim Berners-Lee and Marc Andreessen. Carey, John. “Patent Reform Pending: A New Bill Has Small Inventors on the Defensive.” Business Week, November 22, 1999, pp. 74, 78-79. Outlines the status of patent legislation by the end of the 1990’s and possible compromises. Notes how Jerome Lemelson’s patent settlements provoked demands for reforms. Carlisle, Rodney P. Scientific American Inventions and Discoveries: All the Milestones in Ingenuity—From the Discovery of Fire to the Invention of the Microwave Oven. Hoboken, N.J.: John Wiley & Sons, 2004. Examines such 1990’s inventions as carbon composite materials, digital cameras, and computer products, specifying industrial financial losses due to faulty Pentium II chips. Evans, Harold, with Gail Buckland and David Lefer. They Made America: From the Steam Engine to the Search Engine: Two Centuries of Innovators. New York: Little, Brown, 2004. Comprehensive history of U.S. inventions, with a digital age section profiling such significant 1990’s inventors as Raymond Damadian. Giscard d’Estaing, Valérie-Anne, and Mark Young, eds. Inventions and Discoveries 1993: What’s Happened, What’s Coming, What’s That? New York: Facts On File, 1993. Features inventions from the early 1990’s, placing each invention, sometimes accompanied by an illustration, in appropriate categories identifying its function. Giscard d’Estaing published several other invention almanacs in the 1990’s. Seabrook, John. “The Flash of Genius.” The New Yorker 68 (January 11, 1993): 38-40, 42-52. Account of how Robert Kearns invented the intermittent windshield wiper and reacted when he discovered his patent had been infringed, including quotes from Kearns and automotive manufacturing representatives regarding Kearns’s litigation.

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Van Dulken, Stephen. Inventing the Twentieth Century: One Hundred Inventions That Shaped the World— From the Airplane to the Zipper. Introduction by Andrew Phillips. Washington Square, N.Y.: New York University Press, 2000. Chapter focusing on the 1990’s describes ten inventions, including images or text from patent applications and details relevant to each invention’s creation. Elizabeth D. Schafer Automobile industry; Business and the economy in the United States; Cloning; Computers; Genetics research; Hackers; Human Genome Project; Internet; MP3 format; Nanotechnology; Pharmaceutical industry; Science and technology; Silicon Valley; World Wide Web.

See also

■ Iron John Identification

Mythopoetic men’s movement

book Author Robert Bly (1926Date Published in 1990

psychology, and literature from many cultures through ancient and modern times, all of which add to and explain each other. Bly uses progressive portions of the tale of the wild man/Iron John as a metaphor for different stages of masculine development necessary if modern males are to regain their true direction and their lost vitality. The book was an immediate success, topping the charts for ten weeks and remaining on the best seller list for a year. It is credited with sparking the men’s movement, in which Bly, Michael J. Meade, James Hillman, and others conducted their own weekend retreats, using poems, fairy tales, and myths to teach men to get in touch with themselves and replace passivity with power. In the preface of his book and in interviews, Bly emphasizes his support of the women’s movement and denies encouraging subjugation of women. Nevertheless, feminists charged that the movement was misogynist, the media made fun of it, and some critics felt it was based on and designed for a small and select group of white well-to-do men. Bly is characterized as a poet, author, translator,

)

Bly’s book, an international best seller that has been translated into many languages, is credited with starting the mythopoetic (pertaining to myths) men’s movement in the United States, including workshops and retreats for men led by Bly, Michael J. Meade, James Hillman, and others, as well as hundreds of other men’s support groups nationwide. The title Iron John is derived from a legend set down by the Brothers Grimm in Germany in 1820, but which American poet Robert Bly believes could be many thousands of years old. It is a story of a hairy wild man found in a deep pool in a forest, captured and imprisoned in an iron cage in the courtyard of a king’s house and liberated by the king’s eight-yearold son, whom the wild man takes into the forest, tests in three trials (which the boy fails), and sends out into the world. The king’s son endures reverses and rises in his fortune, finally ending up in true fairy-tale fashion recognized as a royal and married to a king’s daughter. Through his triumph, he liberates from an enchantment the wild man, who turns out to be a rich and powerful king himself. The term “wild man,” according to Bly, carries with it an enormous amount of historical information, which he details through mythology, theology,

Robert Bly. (AP/Wide World Photos)

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and storyteller. He is credited with more than eighteen books of poetry, seven anthologies, eleven translations, and seven books of nonfiction, of which Iron John: A Book About Men is one. Impact Iron John has become synonymous with the men’s movement, including New Warrior Network and Promise Keepers, although their methods and aims may be different. The book and Bly were prominent in the news in the 1990’s, reaping both praise and criticism. Further Reading

Bly, Robert. Iron John: A Book About Men. Reading, Mass.: Addison-Wesley, 1990. Gilmore, David D. Manhood in the Making: Cultural Concepts of Masculinity. New Haven, Conn.: Yale University Press, 1990. Keen, Sam. Fire in the Belly: On Being a Man. New York: Bantam Books, 1992. Erika E. Pilver Culture wars; Life coaching; Marriage and divorce; Men Are from Mars, Women Are from Venus; Million Man March; Native Americans; Promise Keepers; Psychology; Religion and spirituality in the United States; Saving Private Ryan.

See also

■ Israel and the United States Diplomatic and strategic relations between Israel and the United States

Definition

In the 1990’s, two U.S. administrations undertook repeated diplomatic efforts to shepherd peace agreements between Israel and its Arab neighbors. Despite vigorous U.S. diplomacy and numerous formal agreements, final peace between Israel and the Palestinian Arabs could not be attained. Though not formal allies under any treaty, traditionally friendly bilateral relations between Israel and the United States grew more intimate through intelligence cooperation under U.S. president Ronald Reagan (1981-1989). Under his successor, George H. W. Bush (1989-1993), however, strains emerged over the Gulf War of 1991 that raised questions concerning the strategic value of U.S. ties to Israel. Though many other nations were persuaded to join a military coalition to assist this U.S.-led project to expel Iraq from Kuwait, no Israeli participation was

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deemed by the United States to be politically feasible. Coalition members supporting the United States included the Arab states of Egypt and Syria, and both were unwilling to fight on the same side as the Jewish state, Israel. During the Gulf War, Iraq repeatedly struck targets in Israel with Scud missiles, expecting that Israeli retaliation would shatter the U.S.-led coalition. To provide Israel incentive not to retaliate, U.S. Patriot antimissile batteries were rushed to Israel on an emergency basis, and senior U.S. diplomat Lawrence Eagleburger was dispatched to Jerusalem to ensure Israeli restraint for the duration of the Gulf War. Advancing Peace with the Arab World The Bush administration, especially Secretary of State James Baker, approached the post-Gulf War Middle East with the view that opportunities were ripe for new initiatives to maximize U.S. influence. A key obstacle was perceived to be the persistence of hostility between Israel and its Arab neighbors. In this context, the continuing reluctance of many Arab states to cooperate fully with U.S. initiatives led Baker to place new pressures on Israel. Together with the Soviet Union, a peace conference was convened at Madrid, Spain, on October 30, 1991. President Bush opened the conference by declaring the goal of U.S. policy to be “a just, lasting, and comprehensive settlement.” This was the first face-to-face public meeting of Israeli officials with representatives of Jordan, Lebanon, Syria, and the Palestinians. The conference resumed in Washington in December, 1991, and in Moscow in January, 1992. Parallel to this highprofile public diplomacy, U.S. officials continued secret contacts with leaders of Palestinian armed groups that had been begun in the 1980’s. Diplomatic breakthroughs followed, with all subsequent steps completed during Bill Clinton’s administration (1993-2001). A Declaration of Principles (Oslo Accords) pointing to an ultimate peace agreement (to be negotiated later) was signed between Israel and the leadership of the Palestine Liberation Organization at the White House in Washington on September 13, 1993. On May 4, 1994, agreements were reached founding the Palestinian National Authority (PNA); a formal peace and diplomatic relations were initiated between Israel and Jordan on October 26, 1994. A further interim agreement also was consented to by the PNA and Israel, in Washington on September 28, 1995. These

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several steps toward ending hostilities advanced U.S. objectives by conveying that the United States was indispensable if regional problems were to be effectively addressed. Extremists Derail Progress Hard-line nationalists in each community, however, failed to embrace the peace initiatives and undertook to undermine the fragile steps toward peace. On the Jewish holiday of Purim in February, 1994, an American-born Israeli, Baruch Goldstein, massacred twenty-nine Arab Muslims praying at a disputed holy site in Hebron, the Tomb of the Patriarchs, which is known to Muslims as the Ibrahimi Mosque. Extremist Palestinians, chiefly of the Islamist organization Hamas, also accelerated their attacks on Israelis after the signing of the 1993 peace accords: Four suicide bombings in 1994 killed thirty-nine Israelis. The next year, the leading Israeli peacemaker, Prime Minister Yitzhak Rabin, was assassinated by a fellow Israeli on November 4, 1995. After the 1995 interim accord was signed, Hamas bombers killed nearly sixty Israelis in four 1996 attacks. Repeated sessions led by U.S. negotiator Dennis Ross and vigorous U.S. efforts at mediation could not overcome Israeli suspicions that the PNA was not living up to its obligations to rein in Palestinian terrorists, as it had agreed to do under the peace agreements. Palestinian attitudes also hardened when a new Israeli prime minister, Benjamin Netanyahu, approved expansion of Israeli housing units in disputed suburban areas adjacent to Jerusalem in 1998. The United States expressed its displeasure with Israel’s settlement activities in the occupied territories by reducing somewhat its generous loan guarantees to the Jewish state, but these guarantees still amounted to $10 billion (1993-1997). This was in addition to the annual $3 billion in U.S. military and economic aid to Israel given each year in the 1990’s. President Clinton poured much personal energy into trying to stop the unraveling of the Israeli-Palestinian peace agreements in his final years in office. At Wye River, Maryland, in 1998, and at Camp David, Maryland, in 2000, Clinton hosted Palestinian chairman Yasir Arafat and Israeli Prime Ministers Netanyahu (1998) and Ehud Barak (2000). Significant Israeli territorial concessions were offered at the Wye River talks, granting Arafat’s Palestinian National Authority practical control over 98 percent of the Palestinian population on the West Bank. At Wye

River, Netanyahu also strained Israeli relations with Clinton and with U.S. intelligence agencies by attempting to win release of Jonathan Pollard, a U.S. citizen convicted in 1985 of spying for Israel. Clinton refused this request after Director of Central Intelligence George Tenet threatened to resign. Negotiations on implementing the peace agreements continued under U.S. auspices through the end of the decade, but broad differences remained between the parties over the final status of Jerusalem, exact borders, and the Palestinians’ insistence on their “right of return” to homes abandoned in 1948-1949 inside Israel. Impact Though strained at times, U.S. ties to Israel deepened overall in the 1990’s. However, the failure of U.S. mediation efforts regarding the Palestinian element in the Arab-Israeli conflict reinforced skeptical attitudes toward the United States across the Muslim world. Subsequent Events At Camp David in December, 2000, Clinton persuaded Israel to propose further concessions beyond those offered at Wye River, amounting to 91 percent of the lands in the West Bank and 100 percent of Gaza to be composed as a Palestinian state. Chief U.S. negotiator Ross later blamed Arafat for rejecting what Barak, Clinton, and Ross believed to be generous terms for a final settlement. The lingering pace of U.S.-led peace negotiations in the 1990’s had frustrated hopes among many Palestinians, and this reinforced a preference for armed struggle among other Palestinians, chiefly militant Islamists. Widespread civil unrest and violence erupted: The Palestinian second intifada began in September, 2000. The perception that the Palestinian leaders endorsed this renewal of violence undermined Israelis’ support for Barak and for his initiatives to offer further territorial concessions. With forward movement toward peace stalled, a new U.S. administration in 2001 substantially disengaged from further attempts at peacemaking, especially after Muslim extremists launched devastating suicide attacks on the United States on September 11, 2001. Further Reading

Bentsur, Eytan. Making Peace: A First-Hand Account of the Arab-Israeli Peace Process. New York: Praeger, 2001. Useful companion when read with Ross and Qurie. Israeli participant finds Madrid Confer-

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ence and Baker as keys to 1990’s peace process. Druks, Herbert. The Uncertain Alliance: The U.S. and Israel from Kennedy to the Peace Process. Westport, Conn.: Greenwood Press, 2001. Carefully evaluates tensions between Israel and U.S. national security interests in the Gulf War and beyond. Foxman, Abraham. The Deadliest Lies: The Israel Lobby and the Myth of Jewish Control. New York: Palgrave Macmillan, 2007. Analyzes the making of U.S. policy toward Israel from the 1970’s to the 2000’s. Qurie, Ahmed. From Oslo to Jerusalem: The Palestinian Story of the Secret Negotiations. London: I. B. Tauris, 2006. Less focused on U.S. roles, a Palestinian ne-

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gotiator covers the course of peace negotiations that Ross details from the U.S. perspective. Ross, Dennis. The Missing Peace: The Inside Story of the Fight for Middle East Peace. New York: Farrar, Straus and Giroux, 2004. Chief U.S. Middle East peace negotiator, 1988-2001, chronicles U.S. efforts, analyzing key personalities, issues, and lessons learned. Gordon L. Bowen Clinton, Bill; Foreign policy of the United States; Gulf War; Jewish Americans; Middle East and North America; Patriot missile; Terrorism.

See also

J ■ Jenny Jones Show murder Scott Amedure confesses his love for his friend Jonathan Schmitz on the air during a taping of the Jenny Jones Show; three days later, a humiliated Schmitz shoots Amedure twice in the chest, killing him Date March 9, 1995 Place Detroit, Michigan The Event

This murder and subsequent trials served to curtail the “ambush-style” talk-show episode of the early 1990’s. In addition, the trials brought attention to the use of the “gay panic” defense in the courtroom.

action. The argument, which essentially claims that the crime was committed in self-defense, has been criticized as “blaming the victim.” In addition, Amedure’s family filed a civil suit against the Jenny Jones Show asserting that the show’s producers ought to have discovered Schmitz’s history of mental illness. The family won the ruling in 1999, and the show was ordered to pay them $25 million. On October 23, 2003, the Michigan Court of Appeals reversed the 1999 decision of the Oakland County jury, ruling that the show’s owner, Warner Bros., and its distributor, Telepictures, were not liable for the death of Scott Amedure.

Impact Amedure’s murder shook the ground beOn March 6, 1995, Jonathan Schmitz, a guest with a neath the so-called ambush-style talk shows of Jerry history of mental illness and substance abuse, was Springer, Geraldo Rivera, and Maury Povich. After invited to a “secret admirer” episode without the the 1996 verdict, ratings for the Jenny Jones Show and knowledge that the admirer was a man, a friend by the name of Scott Amedure. Though Schmitz was seen to be amicable and joking during the show, he became disturbed after leaving the studio. Three days later, he bought a shotgun, drove to Amedure’s trailer home, and shot him twice in the chest. Schmitz was found guilty of second-degree murder in 1996, but his conviction was overturned on appeal because of a technicality. He was retried and convicted in 1999 and sentenced to twenty-five to fifty years in prison. Schmitz’s lawyers had attempted to use the so-called gay panic defense—which tries to characterize the victim as a homosexual predator (according to trial testimony in 1996, Amedure left suggestive notes at Schmitz’s home before the latter purchased the Jenny Jones answers questions during testimony in the wrongful death lawsuit brought murder weapon) whose advances by the family of Scott Amedure against the Jenny Jones Show. The show was ordered to pay the family $25 million. (AP/Wide World Photos) resulted in the defendant’s violent

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similar talk shows declined. The Jenny Jones Show was subsequently canceled in 2003. Schmitz’s trials became the first in a series of cases probing the degree to which a party can be found culpable when someone else pulls the trigger. In addition, talk-show producers became leery of using gay, lesbian, bisexual, and transgender (GLBT) themes in their repertoire, especially “secret crush” episodes. More important, the trials brought to public attention the gay panic defense, which was thrown out by a judge during the 1999 trial for the murder of gay college student Matthew Shepard. Following the Jenny Jones Show murder, talk shows became less salacious in dealing with the GLBT community, and the gay panic defense became less popular. Further Reading

“Can Media Kill?” The Economist 351 (May 15, 1999): 26-27. Dahir, Mubarak. “Homosexual Panicking.” The Advocate, June 22, 1999, 27-28. “An Unhappy Rerun.” The Advocate, October 13, 1998, 14. Daniel-Raymond Nadon Hate crimes; Homosexuality and gay rights; Shepard, Matthew; Television; Transgender community.

See also

■ Jewish Americans Americans who are Jews by birth or formal conversion

Definition

At the end of the 1990’s there were about 4.5 million people who considered themselves Jews in the United States, making it one of the largest Jewish populations in the world. This group constituted close to 2.5 percent of the U.S. population. During the decade, Jews tended to live in urban centers, with the most significant populations in New York City, Boston, Washington, D.C., South Florida, Los Angeles, San Francisco, and Chicago. These Jews were primarily people who emigrated from Central and Eastern Europe and their American descendants, called Ashkenazi Jews, and people of Western European and North African descent, called Sephardi Jews. There were also small numbers of Jews from Central Asia, called Mizrahi Jews,

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as well as small populations from Ethiopia, India, and Greece. Many different cultural traditions are found among the Jewish population in the United States, as well as different religious practices, from Orthodox to Reform. Many who consider themselves “cultural Jews” are entirely secular and run the gamut from agnosticism to atheism. Jews in Government The 1990’s was a period of extraordinary growth of the participation of American Jews in government and politics. More Jews won election to the Senate and the House of Representatives than during any other era in U.S. history. In the early years of the 1950’s, only one Jew served in the Senate; in the 1990’s, eleven Jews served as senators. Bill Clinton, president of the United States from 1993 to 2001, made history by appointing two Jews to the U.S. Supreme Court: Ruth Bader Ginsburg in 1993 and Stephen G. Breyer in 1994. During the Clinton presidency, Jews received many cabinet posts and ambassadorial appointments, including the appointment of the first Orthodox Jew to an Arab country, Egypt. Shortly after Ambassador Daniel Kurtzer assumed his duties in Cairo, a kosher kitchen was established in the Cairo embassy. The door had been opened for Senator Joe Lieberman to become the first Orthodox Jewish candidate for vice president of the United States in August, 2000. Another distinctive legacy of the Clinton administration was the large number of Jews that he appointed to significant policy-making and advisory positions in the federal government’s executive branch, more than any other president. American Jews had unprecedented influence in political and public life during the 1990’s, influence that would have been impossible in previous decades.

In the 1990’s, the rate at which Jews intermarried was approximately 52 percent, which was both a cause and an effect of assimilation. Financial pressures are another reason that some American Jews chose to become less affiliated or completely unaffiliated with their Jewish traditions. It is estimated that the during the decade it required between $10,000 to $15,000 per year in discretionary income to provide intensive Jewish experiences for a family of four. Intensive Jewish experiences include synagogue membership, day camp or residential camp, Jewish day school, membership in a Jewish community center, and a federation donation. A

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survey of Jewish education in the 1990’s by Jack Wertheimer found that out of approximately 1.1 million Jewish children in the United States, only about 180,000 attended Jewish day schools. For some American Jews, finding a home in a neighborhood where there was a synagogue added to the cost of living as a practicing Jew. Another factor in assimilation was that while for almost fifty years American Jews considered Israel the rock that held them steady against the powerful attractions of assimilation, in 1997 the Israeli parliament considered legislation that would legalize Orthodox control over religious conversions in Israel and bar non-Orthodox representatives from local religious councils. The controversy caused American Jews, of whom roughly 80 percent considered themselves Reform or Conservative, to withhold about $20 million in donations to Israel that year, partly to protest the religious policies of Israel’s conservative government. Two-thirds of Jewish donations of large amounts that would have gone to Jewish causes in the 1990’s went instead to museums, colleges, libraries, and other nonsectarian U.S. institutions. The rapidly growing numbers of Jews in government who were accepted according to their abilities, the high rate of intermarriage, and the increasing investments diverted from Israel to the United States in the 1990’s all were indications that Jews increasingly felt safe, comfortable, and permanent in the United States. Their contributions to society and enrichment of public discourse were far greater than their tiny percentage of the population would suggest. As comfortable as the Jews felt in the United States, their increasing assimilation was seen by Jewish leaders and clergy as detrimental to Jewish identity, continuity, and the worldwide community. Impact

Further Reading

Freedman, Samuel G. Jew vs. Jew: The Struggle for the Soul of American Jewry. New York: Simon & Schuster, 2000. Argues that the Jewish community has become fragmented. At a time when the Jewish community should feel secure and cohesive, congregations, neighborhoods, and even families are taking sides about Jewish identity and authenticity. Heilman, Samuel C. Portrait of American Jews: The Last Half of the Twentieth Century. The Samuel and Althea Stroum Lectures in Jewish Studies. Seattle: University of Washington Press, 1995. A look at

the situation of American Jews in the last five decades of the twentieth century. Covers the divisions of the 1980’s and 1990’s between a small core of committed Jews and a large periphery of Jews who do not participate in Jewish traditions. Meisel, L. Sandy, and Ira N. Forman, eds. Jews in American Politics: Essays. Lanham, Md.: Rowman & Littlefield, 2001. An interesting and informative volume that presents a vast array of information while including many general essays on Jews in politics. Opinions across the political spectrum are included. Includes an introduction by Senator Lieberman. Sheila Golburgh Johnson See also Allen, Woody; Clinton, Bill; Coen brothers; Ginsburg, Ruth Bader; Hate crimes; Holocaust Memorial Museum; Israel and the United States; Perlman, Itzhak; Religion and spirituality in the United States; Roth, Philip; Schindler’s List.

■ Jobs, Steve Identification Cofounder of Apple Computer Born February 24, 1955; San Francisco,

California His return revitalized Apple Computer, which had been in danger of closing its doors altogether. The beginning of the 1990’s found Steve Jobs in eclipse. Exiled from Apple, he had founded a second computer company, NeXT, to build high-end graphics workstations. However, it was foundering because of erratic management and weak marketing. Jobs found more success with Pixar Studios, in which he applied his computer know-how to the creation of sophisticated graphics and animation for the motion-picture industry. After a close call when Disney rejected the first version of Toy Story, released in 1995, Pixar won the executives over with a rewritten version and soon became a leader in computer animation. In the mid-1990’s, Jobs got NeXT out of the hardware business, and the sophisticated NEXTSTEP operating system (OS) became a serious rival for Windows NT in the high-end workstation market. This success paved the way for his return to the company he had originally created. By 1997, Apple had lost its way after a series of uninspiring chief executive offi-

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cers (CEOs). There was serious speculation it would close its doors. Finally, the board approached Jobs and worked out a complex deal to acquire the NEXTSTEP OS, which would form the core of the new Macintosh OS. Jobs returned to the company and immediately simplified Apple’s confusing product line to desktop and laptop machines for professional and consumer use. He also worked out a cooperative deal with Microsoft that provided Apple with vital working capital and ostensibly protected Microsoft CEO Bill Gates from antitrust investigations. When the audience booed his public announcement of the deal, Jobs chided them for ingratitude. In 1998, Jobs caused a firestorm of controversy when he introduced the iMac, which abandoned several major pieces of Macintosh technology as obsolete in order to introduce new interfaces. His decision proved right, and the iMac was key in reversing Apple’s slide to oblivion. Impact Steve Jobs rebounded from his initial reverses of fortune and reemerged as an innovator in several areas of technology. The success of Toy Story proved the capability of computer animation to create lifelike renderings of figures in motion. Jobs’s return to Apple and his bold decisions with the iMac not only revitalized the company but also pushed the entire computer industry to adopt the universal serial bus (USB) and FireWire standards, and to move away from floppy disks in favor of recordable and rewritable CDs and DVDs.

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■ Joe Camel campaign Identification Controversial advertising campaign Date 1987-1997

The mascot for R. J. Reynolds Tobacco Company’s Camel brand of cigarettes was retired after claims that it was a ploy to entice children to smoke. In an effort to revive its sagging cigarette sales, R. J. Reynolds Tobacco Company (RJR) transformed its traditional camel mascot into Joe Camel, a brightly drawn cartoon camel with a cigarette dangling from his mouth. This ultramasculine, “smooth” cartoon character was pictured smoking in a variety of social settings, drinking in bars, shooting pool, or playing his saxophone at a nightclub. Joe Camel appeared nationwide on billboards and posters and quickly became an American pop culture icon. Joe Camel merchandise, such as mugs, jackets, caps, T-shirts, and beach blankets, could be purchased using “Camel cash”—also with the Joe Camel image. Joe Camel sponsored events, such as music concerts and soccer tournaments. Nationwide, RJR’s “smooth character” campaign boosted its Camel cigarette sales to an estimated $476 million per year, and Joe Camel quickly became one of the most successful— and controversial—marketing campaigns in U.S. advertising history.

Further Reading

Linzmayer, Owen W. Apple Confidential 2.0: The Definitive History of the World’s Most Colorful Company. 2d ed. San Francisco: No Starch Press, 2004. Stross, Randall E. Steve Jobs and the NeXT Big Thing. New York: Atheneum, 1993. Young, Jeffrey S., and William L. Simon. iCon: Steve Jobs—The Greatest Second Act in the History of Business. Hoboken, N.J.: John Wiley & Sons, 2005. Leigh Husband Kimmel Apple Computer; Business and the economy in the United States; CGI; Computers; Gates, Bill; Microsoft; Pixar; Science and technology.

See also

Packs of Camel cigarettes and “Camel cash” on display. (AP/ Wide World Photos)

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While RJR insisted that it was using Joe Camel only to entice young adult smokers to switch brands, antismoking advocates accused the tobacco company of targeting children. Criticism against Joe Camel was bolstered by a 1991 research study published in the Journal of the American Medical Association that revealed children between five and six years old were more likely to recognize Joe Camel than children’s cartoon characters such as Fred Flintstone and Mickey Mouse. In 1991, San Francisco activist Janet Mangini sued RJR, accusing the company of violating California law by unfairly marketing to minors with its Joe Camel cigarette ads, and other cities and counties filed similar suits. In 1997, the Federal Trade Commission filed an unfair-advertising complaint against RJR after its investigation revealed that after the launching of the Joe Camel campaign, the percentage of smokers under the age of eighteen who smoked Camel cigarettes became larger than the percentage of all adult smokers aged eighteen and older who smoked Camel cigarettes. In an out-ofcourt settlement with Mangini, RJR agree to stop its Joe Camel campaign and to pay $10 million, $9 million of which went to fund educational and advertising programs to dissuade youth smoking. Impact In July, 1997, RJR retired Joe Camel, replacing him with an updated version of the brand’s traditional Old Joe image. In 1998, the tobacco industry and the attorneys general of forty-six states agreed to ban the use of cartoon characters in tobacco advertising, a practice that many were convinced encouraged young people to start smoking. Further Reading

DeSmith, David. A Camel Named Joe: The Illustrated Story of an American Pop Icon. Boston: Ducap Books, 1998. Fischer, P. M., et al. “Brand Logo Recognition by Children Aged Three to Six Years: Mickey Mouse and Old Joe the Camel.” Journal of the American Medical Association 266, no. 22 (1991): 3145-3148. Garfield, Bob. “Camel Gets Adult, Hip—But It’s Still Too Late.” Advertising Age 68, no. 28 (July 14, 1997): 37. Eddith A. Dashiell See also

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Advertising; Tobacco industry settlement.

■ Johnson, Magic Professional basketball player and HIV/AIDS advocate Born August 14, 1959; Lansing, Michigan Identification

Johnson announced in 1991 that he had contracted human immunodeficiency virus (HIV) and would retire from basketball. He later resumed his basketball career and became an HIV/AIDS advocate. Earvin “Magic” Johnson, Jr., was the fourth of seven children born to Earvin Johnson, Sr., and Christine Johnson. He led Michigan State to a national championship in his one year in college, then began a legendary National Basketball Association (NBA) career with the Los Angeles Lakers in 1979. Much of the media attention focused on Johnson in the 1990’s had little to do with sports. In September, 1991, he married his longtime girlfriend. In November, 1991, a blood test showed that he was HIVpositive. A few days later, Johnson shocked sports fans and the general public when he announced that he was retiring from basketball because of the diagnosis. At the time he made his announcement, many Americans still assumed that HIV/AIDS was restricted to homosexuals or drug addicts. The case of Johnson did not fit either of those categories. Once his wife and baby tested negative, Magic Johnson dedicated his efforts to HIV/AIDS education, a role bolstered by his celebrity status. However, his basketball career was not completely over. He was voted in by fans to play in the 1992 All-Star Game, in which he scored twenty-five points. He played despite objections from some players, namely Karl Malone of the Utah Jazz, who feared on-court contact with Johnson could jeopardize their health. Johnson also played in the 1992 Summer Olympics as part of the formidable “Dream Team,” which won the gold medal. To promote HIV/AIDS education, Johnson authored a book for youth titled What You Can Do to Avoid AIDS (1992), undertook numerous speaking engagements, and filmed a television special that was broadcast by the Nickelodeon network. In the spring of 1992, he was invited by President George H. W. Bush to join the National Commission on AIDS. Controversy erupted when critics speculated that Johnson was being appointed to capitalize on his celebrity status and placate African American AIDS activists. Johnson responded that he did not

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intend to be a token, that he planned to play an active role. He urged President Bush to increase federal support of HIV/AIDS programs, and when no additional support was forthcoming, he used a public letter to resign in September, 1992. Johnson spent time as an announcer for NBC Sports and served as interim coach of the Lakers in 1994. In 1996, he announced his comeback as a player with the Lakers. This time, players such as Malone voiced their support, and other players such as Charles Barkley and Dennis Rodman indicated the fact that Johnson was HIV-positive made no difference in how they felt about playing against him. Once on the court, the comeback proved to be anticlimactic. Johnson had gained weight, he was thirtysix years old, and he was playing against individuals far more athletic than his opponents had been during his best years. Nevertheless, the fact that an HIVpositive player could endure the physical demands of NBA competition was an important contribution. Impact Life after basketball was good for Magic Johnson. He operated numerous thriving businesses, including a chain of movie theaters. His Magic Johnson Foundation supported efforts in HIV/AIDS education and set up “empowerment centers” to narrow the digital divide for inner-city youth. Johnson became a role model in business and philanthropy after a legendary basketball career. Further Reading

Gottfried, Ted. Earvin “Magic” Johnson: Champion and Crusader. New York: Franklin Watts, 2001. Springer, Steve. Los Angeles Times Encyclopedia of the Lakers. Los Angeles: Los Angeles Times, 1998. Michael Polley African Americans; Barkley, Charles; Basketball; Dream Team; Jordan, Michael; Malone, Karl; Olympic Games of 1992; O’Neal, Shaquille; Sports.

See also

■ Jordan, Michael Identification Professional basketball player Born February 17, 1963; Brooklyn, New York

Jordan compiled the highest scoring average (30.12 points) in National Basketball Association (NBA) history and won an unprecedented ten NBA scoring titles, leading the Chicago Bulls to six NBA championships in the 1990’s.

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Michael Jordan starred in basketball at the University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill under legendary coach Dean Smith from 1981 to 1984. In the 1982 National Collegiate Athletic Association (NCAA) championship game, Jordan sank a fifteen-foot jump shot in the closing seconds to give the Tar Heels a dramatic 63-62 victory over Georgetown University. The two-time consensus All-American guard topped the Atlantic Coast Conference (ACC) in scoring as a sophomore and led North Carolina to an ACC title as a junior. In 1984, he won the Naismith and Wooden Awards and led the U.S. Olympic team in scoring en route to a gold medal. The struggling Chicago Bulls selected the six-foot, six-inch, 216-pound Jordan as the third overall pick in the 1984 National Basketball Association (NBA) draft. Jordan earned NBA Rookie of the Year honors in 1985, mesmerizing crowds with his blinding speed, physical artistry, and balletic slam dunks. In 1986, he set an NBA Playoffs record with 63 points in a double overtime loss to the Boston Celtics. Jordan won the first of seven consecutive NBA scoring titles in 1987, becoming the second NBA player to score 3,000 points in a season, and led the NBA in steals. He was selected NBA Most Valuable Player (MVP) and Defensive Player of the Year in 1988 and became the second-fastest player in NBA history to reach 10,000 career points. Jordan and the Bulls captured six NBA championships under coach Phil Jackson in the 1990’s. Jordan won his second NBA MVP Award in 1991, leading the NBA in scoring with a 31.5-point average. Chicago swept the Detroit Pistons in the Eastern Conference Finals and defeated the Los Angeles Lakers in the five-game NBA Finals. Jordan, who changed hands in midair while completing a spectacular layup in game two against the Lakers, averaged 31.1 points in the playoffs. Jordan earned his third NBA MVP Award in 1992, pacing the NBA in scoring with a 30-point average. His dominating performance enabled Chicago to defend its crown in six games over the Portland Trail Blazers. Jordan’s six three-point shots during the first half highlighted game one. The “Dream Team,” a collection of NBA superstars including Jordan, breezed to a gold medal at the 1992 Olympic Games. In 1993, Jordan helped the Bulls become the first team since the 1960’s to win three consecutive NBA titles, topping the NBA in scoring (32.6-point aver-

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age) and steals (1.83 average). Chicago overcame the New York Knicks in the Eastern Conference Finals and bested the Phoenix Suns in the NBA Finals. Jordan set an NBA Finals record by averaging 41 points, becoming the first recipient of three straight NBA Finals MVP Awards. Jordan retired from basketball in October, 1993, citing a diminishing desire to play the game. His physical exhaustion, ever-growing celebrity, and gambling episodes, as well as the murder of his father, James, may have prompted his departure. In 1994, Jordan played minor-league baseball for the Birmingham Barons of the Southern League. His batting struggles and the prolonged strike hastened his return to the Bulls in March, 1995. The Bulls erected a twelve-foot bronze statue of Jordan at their new United Center (replacing Chicago Stadium). They made the playoffs but were ousted by the Orlando Magic in the Eastern Conference Semifinals. The Bulls in 1996 dominated the NBA with a record seventy-two victories. Jordan became the first player since 1970 to capture the NBA regular-season, All-Star Game, and Finals MVP Awards in the same season and took his eighth NBA scoring title, averaging 30.4 points. Chicago regained the NBA championship by defeating the Seattle SuperSonics in the six-game NBA Finals, as Jordan averaged 30.7 points in the postseason. In 1997, Jordan led the Bulls to sixty-nine wins and a fifth NBA championship in seven years. He garnered another NBA scoring title with a 29.6point average and tallied his 25,000th career point. Jordan averaged 32.3 points in the NBA Finals, helping Chicago conquer the Utah Jazz in six games. His buzzer-beating shot won game one. Despite being feverish and dehydrated from a stomach virus, Jordan tallied 38 points and converted the game-deciding three-point shot in the final minute to give the Bulls a dramatic 90-88 victory in game five. In 1998, Chicago finished 62-20 and accomplished a second three-peat. Jordan was chosen the NBA All-Star Game MVP for the third time and led the NBA in scoring for a record tenth time with a 28.7-point average, securing his fifth regular-season NBA MVP Award. Chicago vanquished Utah in the six-game NBA Finals. In the series finale, Jordan enjoyed one of the greatest clutch performances in NBA Finals history. He stole the ball from Karl

Restoring the Bulls’ Dominance

Michael Jordan. (AP/Wide World Photos)

Malone and sunk a dramatic shot with less than ten seconds left, giving Chicago an 87-86 victory and its sixth NBA championship. Jordan registered 45 points in that historic game, earning his unprecedented sixth NBA Finals MVP Award. After leaving the Bulls in January, 1999, Jordan became part owner and president of basketball operations for the Washington Wizards in January, 2000. He played for Washington from 2001 to 2003, becoming the fourth NBA player to attain 30,000 career points, but could not elevate the Wizards to the playoffs. Jordan, third on the NBA all-time scoring list, recorded 32,292 career points (30.1-point average), 6,672 rebounds, 5,633 assists, and 2,514 steals in 1,072 regular-season games, and 5,987 points (33.4point average), 1,152 rebounds, 1,022 assists, and 376 steals in 179 playoff games. The fourteen-time NBA All-Star made the All-NBA First Team ten times (1987-1993, 1996-1998) and NBA All-Defensive First Team nine times (1988-1993, 1996-1998), won the NBA regular-season MVP five times (1988, 1991,

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1992, 1996, 1998) and NBA Finals MVP six times (1991-1993, 1996-1998), and led the NBA in steals three times (1988, 1990, 1993). Jordan’s extraordinary basketball skills translated into very lucrative product endorsements. Jordan endorsed numerous commercial products for bigname brands, including Nike, Hanes, Wheaties, Coca-Cola, Chevrolet, and McDonald’s. The Air Jordan shoe line revived Nike’s sneaker sales. These products netted millions annually in sales and made Jordan a global advertising figure. He also starred in the combination live action/animated film Space Jam (1996) as himself. Jordan left the Washington Wizards in May, 2003, and became co-owner of the Charlotte Bobcats NBA team in June, 2006. Owner Robert Johnson granted him final authority on player personnel decisions. Impact Jordan, whose athletic leaps and dunks influenced a generation of NBA players, won four ESPY Awards for Athlete of the Century, Male Athlete of the 1990’s, Pro Basketball Player of the 1990’s, and Player of the Decade. Further Reading

Greene, Bob. Hang Time: Days and Dreams with Michael Jordan. New York: Doubleday, 1992. Adeptly captures Jordan’s daily life and innermost thoughts. Halberstam, David. Playing for Keeps: Michael Jordan and the World He Made. New York: Random House, 1999. Excellent biographical account of Jordan’s epic life. Jordan, Michael. Driven from Within. New York: Atria Books, 2005. _______. For the Love of the Game: My Story. New York: Crown, 1998. _______. I’m Back! More Rare Air. New York: HarperCollins, 1995. _______. Rare Air: Michael on Michael. New York: HarperCollins, 1993. These four autobiographies provide colorful anecdotes and photographs from Jordan’s illustrious career. LaFeber, Walter. Michael Jordan and the New Global Capitalism. New York: W. W. Norton, 1999. Shows how Jordan’s numerous commercial endorsements changed the global marketplace. Naughton, Jim. Taking to the Air: The Rise of Michael Jordan. New York: Warner Books, 1992. An excellent account of Jordan’s early career. Porter, David L. Michael Jordan: A Biography. West-

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port, Conn.: Greenwood Press, 2007. An up-todate overview of Jordan’s life. Smith, Sam. The Jordan Rules. New York: Simon & Schuster, 1992. A behind-the-scenes critical analysis. David L. Porter Advertising; African Americans; Barkley, Charles; Basketball; Dream Team; Johnson, Magic; Malone, Karl; Olympic Games of 1992; O’Neal, Shaquille; Sports.

See also

■ Journalism The gathering and disseminating of news and information via print, radio, television, and the Internet

Definition

During the 1990’s, the boundaries separating radio, network television, and newspapers began to blur as traditional journalism began to merge with new technologies such as cable television and the Internet. By the 1990’s, consumers of news were no longer content to passively wait for the evening network news programs in order to get updated information. They wanted current news on demand, and that need was met through the growing popularity of twenty-four-hour, real-time news coverage on cable television and the Internet, both of which provided foreign and national stories hours ahead of the evening network news programs that originated in New York. The national news networks faced stiff competition from a number of news-and-information cable networks such as the Cable News Network (CNN), the Cable Satellite Public Affairs Network (C-SPAN), Fox News (owned by Rupert Murdoch’s News Corporation), and MSNBC, a joint venture by the National Broadcasting Company (NBC) and Microsoft. People also began to get their information from the Internet, which had become a strong competitor to traditional news organizations and transformed not only how news was gathered but also who reported it. News on the Internet In order to compete effectively with the rapidly growing, interactive communication technology, the news media rapidly became involved with the Internet by developing their own Web sites. In 1994, there were twenty newspapers online. By mid-1999, there were more than four thou-

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sand online newspapers worldwide, the majority of them in the United States. In 1995, the subscription news service the Associated Press (AP) began distributing its news articles and photographs over the Internet. In late 1999, the most popular Web sites for news included sites such as msnbc.com, cnn.com, abcnews.com, usatoday.com, and nytimes .com. Other tools for online journalism included Internet forums, discussion boards, and chat rooms. Internet radio also emerged as an independent media source. Many people who were not considered professional journalists now had the technology to report and respond to news events. People began to write and post their own stories—known as Web logs or blogs—on the Internet. One of the more popular news-based blogs was the Drudge Report, a conservative, U.S.-based news Web site created by Matt Drudge around 1994. The Drudge Report received worldwide attention on January 17, 1998, when it was the first news source to break the story of White House intern Monica Lewinsky’s affair with President Bill Clinton after the mainstream media reportedly had decided not to publish the story. Media critics warned that Internet news blogs were chipping away at the credibility of the mainstream media and negatively influencing the way in which news was being reported. Mainstream journalists often did not consider bloggers to be professionals because bloggers were not bound by journalistic standards and ethical practices. Online journalists argued, however, that news reported via the Internet was often less biased and more informative than that reported by official media because online journalists were volunteer or freelance reporters and their reporting was free from economic or political influence. After a slow start, blogging rapidly gained in popularity. Some independent Internet forums and discussion boards began to achieve a level of popularity comparable to mainstream news agencies such as television stations and newspapers. Blog usage spread during 1999, and with the development of blog software programs and services, any individual could become a publisher on a global scale. By the end of the decade, the Internet blogs had evolved from being online diaries, where people would keep running accounts of their personal lives or post links to their favorite Web sites, into a distinct class of online publishing and Web journalism.

Media mergers and technological innovations gave birth to convergence journalism. Print, broadcast, and online news staffs began to forge partnerships in which journalists often worked and distributed news content across several platforms such as newspaper, radio, television, and the Internet. For example, one reporter could be assigned to cover and produce several versions of the same story—one version for newspaper, another version for television, and a third version for the Internet (online journalism). Supporters of media convergence believed that it would deliver stronger local journalism by sharing news gathering and reporting resources. Throughout the history of journalism, it was common for journalists to study one medium, such as traditional print or television broadcasting, and to work only in their chosen field. By the end of the 1990’s, however, journalists were expected to have the skills to write and deliver news content in a variety of formats. To meet this expectation, more and more journalism programs began offering majors in online or convergence journalism.

Media Convergence

Impact The Internet and media convergence were significant developments in journalism during the 1990’s. By the end of the decade, the merger of traditional media with the rapidly developing Internet and its blogs had transformed the way in which news organizations operated and had blurred the distinctions between advertising, news, entertainment, and editorial content. Further Reading

Barkin, Steve M. American Television News: The Media Marketplace and the Public Interest. Armonk, N.Y.: M. E. Sharpe, 2003. A social and cultural history of television news during the 1980’s and 1990’s. Conboy, Martin. Journalism: A Critical History. Thousand Oaks, Calif.: Sage Publications, 2004. A history of the development of newspapers, periodicals, and broadcast journalism in which the author demonstrates that concerns about political and economic influence, the impact of advertising, and sensational news coverage are themes that have emerged repeatedly throughout the history of journalism. Hachten, William A. The Troubles of Journalism: A Critical Look at What’s Right and Wrong with the Press. 2d ed. Mahwah, N.J.: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates, 2001. A historical critique of journalism and mass

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communication, including the influence of the Internet on news coverage. Koldozy, Janet. Convergence Journalism: Writing and Reporting Across the News Media. Lanham, Md.: Rowman & Littlefield, 2006. An introductory text on how to think, report, write, and present news across various media such as newspapers, television, and the Internet to prepare journalism students for the future of news reporting. Sterling, Christopher H., and John Michael Kittross. Stay Tuned: A History of American Broadcasting. 3d ed. Mahwah, N.J.: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates, 2001. A thorough review of broadcasting history in the United States from radio to cable television and the Internet. Eddith A. Dashiell Albert, Marv; Arnett, Peter; Blogs; Cable television; CNN coverage of the Gulf War; Drudge, Matt; Internet; Limbaugh, Rush; O’Reilly, Bill; Talk radio; Telecommunications Act of 1996; Television; World Wide Web.

See also

■ Jurassic Park Identification Science-fiction film Director Steven Spielberg (1946Date Released on June 11, 1993

)

This award-winning film introduced unprecedented visual effects, presenting full-motion dinosaurs on the big screen. Stories about prehistoric beasts that live in modern times date back at least to 1912, when Sir Arthur Conan Doyle published The Lost World. His story of a remote plateau where beasts from the Jurassic period dwelled was made into a silent film in 1925, with stop-motion special effects by Willis O’Brien, who also supervised the effects for King Kong (1933). Stop-motion is a painstaking procedure in which realistic models are moved one frame at a time and integrated into live-action scenes. It remained the preferred way to animate until director Steven Spielberg abandoned it in favor of computergenerated imagery (CGI) for Jurassic Park.

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Based on the 1990 novel by Michael Crichton, the film centers on an amusement park that holds cloned dinosaurs, which were re-created from DNA found in Jurassic mosquitoes that sucked dinosaur blood and were later preserved in amber. The park’s founder, John Hammond (Richard Attenborough), invites a group of scientists—Dr. Alan Grant (Sam Neill), Dr. Ian Malcolm (Jeff Goldblum), and Dr. Ellie Sattler (Laura Dern)—to reassure his investors, before the park opens, that nothing can go wrong. Things do, of course, and the story follows the group as they try to survive the chaos. Universal Studios bought the rights to Crichton’s novel even before it was published. Spielberg used realistic, computer-generated dinosaurs, a quantum leap from the stop-motion work of O’Brien and his successor, Ray Harryhausen. At the time, Jurassic Park broke the record as the highest-grossing film ever. The film earned three Academy Awards: Best Sound Effects Editing, Best Visual Effects, and Best Sound. In 1995, Crichton published a sequel, The Lost World, in tribute to Conan Doyle’s 1912 dinosaur novel. Crichton’s novel was adapted to film in 1997, and Spielberg directed. Impact The film sparked interest in dinosaurs and in educational programs as well as films. Computergenerated imagery became the preferred choice for creature special effects and was used in such films as the American version of Godzilla (1998), a remake of King Kong (2005), and Jurassic Park III (2001). Further Reading

Crichton, Michael. Jurassic Park. New York: Alfred A. Knopf, 1990. DeSalle, Rob, and David Lindley. The Science of “Jurassic Park” and “The Lost World”: Or, How to Build a Dinosaur. New York: Basic Books, 1997. Shay, Don. The Making of Jurassic Park. New York: Ballantine, 1993. Paul Dellinger CGI; Cloning; Film in the United States; Genetic engineering; Genetics research; Science and technology.

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K ■ Kelley, Kitty Identification American biographer Born April 4, 1942; Spokane, Washington

Kelley first made her reputation in the 1970’s and 1980’s as the author of unauthorized, sensationalistic, and bestselling biographies of Jacqueline Kennedy Onassis, Elizabeth Taylor, and Frank Sinatra but perhaps became the most famous biographer of the 1990’s with her controversial books on Nancy Reagan and the British royal family.

had to retract what she has published. Although most reviews of Kelley’s work in the 1990’s were negative, many journalists nevertheless admired her tenacity in researching her subjects’ lives and bringing to biography a new level of candor. In 1997, Kelley turned her attention to the British royal family in The Royals, a book that could not be published in Great Britain because of libel laws, which put the onus on the writer and publisher to prove they have not libeled the subject. In the United States, the law is just the opposite, so that the burden of proof is placed on the plaintiff. The Royals became the fourth best-selling nonfiction title of the year in the United States, according to Publishers Weekly. Essentially a history of the Windsors, a German family who sought to obscure their roots on the European continent, Kelley’s biography portrayed the royals as self-indulgent, scandal-ridden, and in-

Kitty Kelley is often cited as one of the factors in the growth of books about famous people and celebrities in the 1990’s. A former reporter for The Washington Post, Kelley made a major impact on how biographies are written with the publication of Nancy Reagan: The Unauthorized Biography (1991), an account that purported to reveal intimate new details about the couple’s private life. President Ronald Reagan repudiated Kelley’s biography of his wife, disputing her reports that the couple smoked marijuana and that Nancy had had an affair with Frank Sinatra, but many of Kelley’s discoveries were later confirmed, including the fact that Nancy had relied on astrologers. Unusual for a biographer, Kelley became a public figure in her own right, making news and appearing in numerous shows on television and radio. So iconic was she that she was spoofed on Saturday Night Live and then became the subject of a biography attempting to expose her lies and half-truths. However, the biographer hardly dented Kelley’s reputation—in part because even though she has often been attacked Author Kitty Kelley poses next to a poster advertising her book Nancy Reagan: The for publishing unsubstantiated stoUnauthorized Biography, which portrays the former First Lady in an unflattering ries, she has never lost a lawsuit or light. (AP/Wide World Photos)

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competent. Attacked by historians of the British royal family, Kelley’s book nevertheless typified much of the negative press surrounding the royal family in the 1990’s. Impact Although Kelley’s brand of biography was frequently deplored in the 1990’s, a minority of critics—chiefly journalists—admired her tenacity and campaigns to reveal in more candid form the lives of public figures. Further Reading

Carpozi, George. Poison Pen: The Unauthorized Biography of Kitty Kelley. Fort Lee, N.J.: Barricade Books, 1991. Rollyson, Carl. A Higher Form of Cannibalism? Adventures in the Art and Politics of Biography. Chicago: Ivan R. Dee, 2005. Carl Rollyson See also Journalism; Literature in the United States; Publishing; Scandals.

■ Kemp, Jack U.S. secretary of housing and urban development, 1989-1993, and vice presidential candidate, 1996 Born July 13, 1935; Los Angeles, California Identification

Kemp’s passion and insight for economic growth through tax relief and balanced budgets, as well as his compassion for the poor, appealed to moderates and centrist Republicans during the 1990’s. Jack Kemp was born to a middle-class family headed by a father who owned his own trucking company. Kemp received his undergraduate degree from Occidental College in 1957 and did postgraduate work at Long Beach State and California Western Universities. In 1958, he married Joanne Main, and together they had four children: Jeffrey, Jennifer, Judith, and James. From 1958 to 1962, Kemp served in the U.S. Army Reserve. Kemp simultaneously began an eleven-year career as a National Football League (NFL) quarterback in 1958, first for the Chargers in Los Angeles and San Diego, then for the Buffalo Bills in New York. Kemp retired from football in 1969. During the latter years of his NFL career, Kemp became involved in Republican politics. After his retirement from football, he ran for office and, in

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1970, was elected to serve as a representative from New York. He remained a congressman from 1971 to 1989. While in Congress, Kemp urged party colleagues to reach out to minorities and to bring them into the Republican fold. Kemp was truly concerned about the plight of the poor in the United States. This concern suited him well for his work in urban improvement during the early 1990’s: Under President George H. W. Bush, Kemp served as the secretary of housing and urban development from 1989 to 1993. Kemp was a Republican, not a conservative ideologue; his positions often sprang from his heart rather than a mind constrained by a conservative tenacity. Thus, in 1994, while weighing options as to whether he should seek the Republican nomination for the presidency in 1996, Kemp opposed Proposition 187, which denied various government benefits to illegal immigrants in California and was supported by 80 percent of that state’s Republicans. Kemp ran as Bob Dole’s vice presidential candidate in the 1996 election. Consequently, the DoleKemp ticket proposed tax relief and government rebate plans, which were exclusively directed toward the lower and middle classes. While these proposed policies were not symbolic of conservatism, they accurately portrayed Kemp’s centrism. Impact Kemp authored An American Renaissance: A Strategy for the 1980’s (1979), in which he expounded his theory of economics. This work is an enduring part of the free market and tax-reduction policies that marked the 1994 “Republican Revolution.” In 1993, he cofounded Empower America, a private organization devoted to free market economics and the promotion of individual freedoms and personal responsibility. Further Reading

Dole, Bob, and Jack Kemp. Trusting the People: The Dole-Kemp Plan to Free the Economy and Create a Better America. New York: HarperCollins, 1996. Kemp, Jack F. An American Renaissance: A Strategy for the 1980’s. New York: Harper & Row, 1979. AWR Hawkins III Bush, George H. W.; Business and the economy in the United States; Dole, Bob; Elections in the United States, midterm; Elections in the United States, 1996; Illegal immigration; Immigration to the United States; Republican Revolution.

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■ Kennedy, John F., Jr. American lawyer, publisher, and celebrity Born November 25, 1960; Washington, D.C. Died July 16, 1999; Atlantic Ocean, eight miles off Martha’s Vineyard Identification

Heir to America’s leading political dynasty, charismatic, and adventurous, Kennedy was closely watched for his celebrity status, publishing venture, and growing political aspirations. The only surviving son of the late president John F. Kennedy and Jacqueline Kennedy Onassis, John F. Kennedy, Jr., had been accorded celebrity status for his entire life. When he passed the New York bar exam on his third attempt on July 24, 1990, it was national news, allowing Kennedy to retain his appointment as an assistant district attorney in Manhattan. Over the next few years, the media followed Kennedy closely: both for his romances as People magazine’s “Sexiest Man Alive,” most notably

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with well-known actors Sarah Jessica Parker and Daryl Hannah, and for possible political aspirations as the leading heir of the Kennedy political dynasty. When his stint as a prosecutor ended in 1993, Kennedy combined his media and political status by starting the unique magazine George. The novel approach of the magazine was indicated by its motto, “Not just politics as usual.” The first issue was published in September, 1995, to great publicity, with supermodel Cindy Crawford posing as George Washington on the cover. With numerous successful issues of George over the succeeding years, Kennedy could point to a signal achievement. He was no longer famous merely for his name but had become publisher and editor in chief of a national magazine with a fresh and breezy approach to politics, which mirrored the perspective of many in his generation. A further sign of his maturation came on September 21, 1996, when he married the glamorous Calvin Klein publicist Carolyn Bessette. Kennedy was considering a possible run for the

John F. Kennedy, Jr., announces the launch of his political magazine, George, on September 7, 1995. (AP/Wide World Photos)

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U.S. Senate in 2000 or for New York governor in 2002. Famously married, nationally celebrated, professionally accomplished, Kennedy seemed poised for a dramatic entrance into political life, one that perhaps could have ended in the White House. Tragedy struck, however, on July 16, 1999, when the small airplane that Kennedy was flying crashed into the Atlantic Ocean, several miles off Martha’s Vineyard, Massachusetts. Kennedy, an amateur pilot, was flying at night from New York to Massachusetts with his wife Carolyn and her sister Lauren to attend a wedding. President Bill Clinton ordered an extensive maritime search and rescue operation. The remains of the bodies were found five days later and were cremated and scattered into the ocean. Impact John F. Kennedy, Jr., represented the intersection of two cultural trends of the 1990’s: the increasing popularization of politics and the fascination with media celebrities. He fruitfully cultivated this union in his magazine George, which strove for serious political commentary with a lively peoplecentered perspective. However, Kennedy’s greatest impact was more one of loss than of accomplishment, as his life was tragically ended just as he seemed poised to realize his full potential. Further Reading

Blow, Richard. American Son: A Portrait of John F. Kennedy, Jr. New York: Henry Holt, 2002. Heymann, C. David. American Legacy: The Story of John and Caroline Kennedy. New York: Atria Books, 2007. Leamer, Laurence. Sons of Camelot: The Fate of an American Dynasty. New York: HarperCollins, 2004. Howard Bromberg See also

Journalism; Publishing.

■ Kennedy rape case A member of a prominent political family is tried and acquitted on a charge of rape Date December 2-23, 1991 The Event

This high-profile criminal trial involved William Kennedy Smith, nephew of the late U.S. president John F. Kennedy and Massachusetts senator Ted Kennedy and the son of former U.S. ambassador to Ireland Jean Kennedy Smith.

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On the evening of March 30, 1991, William Kennedy Smith met Patricia Bowman at a Palm Beach, Florida, bar he was visiting with his uncle Senator Ted Kennedy and cousin Rhode Island representative Patrick Kennedy. Bowman and a friend went back to the Kennedy estate with Smith and his relatives. Smith and Bowman went for a walk on the beach, and it was there that Bowman alleged that he raped her. After the alleged assault, Bowman returned to the Kennedy home, where she called a friend to pick her up and take her to the police station. After giving a statement to the Palm Beach Police Department, she was taken to Humana Hospital to be examined and treated for injuries. Upon questioning, Smith denied the rape allegation, stating that they had engaged in consensual sex. Bowman was subjected to two polygraph tests and a voice stress analysis—all of which suggested that she was telling the truth. Additionally, forensic evidence collected at the hospital, including documentation of the bruises on Bowman’s body, supported her claim of sexual assault. Smith was eventually arrested and charged with rape, but not before the Kennedy family was publicly accused of stonewalling the authorities and attempting to obfuscate the investigation. Several allegations of preferential treatment were leveled at the police, with critics noting that it took weeks after the alleged assault before Smith was questioned or the property searched for evidence. Before the trial, three women came forward to the prosecution and alleged that Smith had also raped them. None of the three women had pressed charges at the time of their alleged attack, noting that they did not think they would be believed because of Smith’s family connections. The prosecution sought to include their testimony in order to establish a pattern of behavior on the part of the defendant; the judge disallowed their testimony for use as evidence at trial. On December 2, 1991, the case went to trial and was televised around the world. Bowman’s face was electronically blurred during her testimony to protect her identity. The case ended with an acquittal on December 23—a verdict reached after seventy-seven minutes of deliberation. Impact This trial is considered to be one of the most highly publicized and televised rape trials in U.S. history. After the trial, Bowman allowed report-

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ers to use her photograph and her name in an effort to help rape victims to feel more comfortable talking about their victimization. Further Reading

Matoesian, Gregory M. Law and the Language of Identity: Discourse in the William Kennedy Smith Rape Trial. New York: Oxford University Press, 2001. Sanday, Peggy Reeves. A Woman Scorned: Acquaintance Rape on Trial. New York: Doubleday, 1996. Rachel Bandy See also

Crime; Scandals.

■ Kerrigan, Nancy Two-time American Olympic figure skating medal winner Born October 13, 1969; Stoneham, Massachusetts Identification

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“Why?” This clip became famous, appearing in many collections of important sports moments of the twentieth century. Even though she was unable to finish the competition, the United States Olympic Committee gave her a spot on the 1994 U.S. Olympic team, for the Winter Games in Lillehammer, Norway. She won a silver medal and later earned multimillion-dollar endorsements from corporations such as Disney. After the 1994 Olympics, Kerrigan retired from competition and married her agent, Jerry Solomon, in 1995. They settled in Massachusetts and raised three children. Kerrigan appears in ice skating shows, and she is active with the Nancy Kerrigan Foundation, which she formed to raise awareness for the vision-impaired in honor of her mother, Brenda.

Kerrigan’s struggle to achieve an Olympic gold medal in 1992 and then in 1994 after becoming the 1993 United States champion was both a sports story and a dramatic sensation. Nancy Kerrigan grew up in suburban Boston, Massachusetts, where she often played ice hockey with her family of two brothers. She showed talent on skates and was competing in figure skating by the age of nine. She was coached by the well known team of Evy and Mary Scotvald, and she placed third in 1991 at the World Figure Skating Championships. As part of a United States team, which swept the medals at that championship, she was one of the favorites for a medal at the 1992 Winter Olympics, where she won a bronze medal. Her subsequent career was marked by a number of high and low points. She earned a silver medal at the 1992 World Championships. In the following year, she became the United States Champion but fell short of her medal hopes in the long program after a strong beginning at the World Championships in 1993. Known primarily as an elegant, athletic skater, Nancy Kerrigan gained wider attention in the news media after an incident in Detroit, Michigan, at the Olympic trials in January, 1994. She was clubbed in the knee after a practice session by a man who was hired by the husband of one of her primary competitors, Tonya Harding. After the attack, Kerrigan was filmed holding her knee in pain and screaming

Nancy Kerrigan practices on February 11, 1994, in Norway, one day before the opening ceremony of the Olympics and one month after she was clubbed in the knee by a man linked to competitor Tonya Harding. (AP/Wide World Photos)

The Nineties in America Impact Nancy Kerrigan demonstrated the grace and athleticism of figure skating, but her experiences also showed the dark side of the fiercely competitive world of these athletes. Her story contrasts the lofty ideals of the Olympics with the harsh realities of competitive sports. Further Reading

Baughman, Cynthia. Women on Ice: Feminist Essays on the Tonya Harding/Nancy Kerrigan Spectacle. New York: Routledge, 1995. Kerrigan, Nancy, and Mary Spencer. Artistry on Ice: Figure Skating Skills and Style. Champaign, Ill.: Human Kinetics, 2002. Dolores A. D’Angelo Yamaguchi, Kristi; Olympic Games of 1992; Olympic Games of 1994.

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■ Kevorkian, Jack American pathologist and right-todie activist Born May 26, 1928; Pontiac, Michigan Identification

Kevorkian’s controversial right-to-die activism revealed how strongly Americans on both sides of the assisted suicide issue felt about their positions and spurred milestone judicial, legislative, and societal responses. In 1990, Jack Kevorkian became a key figure in a movement that sought to allow physicians to legally assist terminally ill patients in committing suicide. On June 4, 1990, Kevorkian initiated a dramatic strategy for confronting the legal and medical establishments. On that date, he used a machine that he had constructed to help Janet Adkins, a fifty-fouryear-old woman with Alzheimer’s disease, kill herself. When the patient pushed a button, the machine, which Kevorkian called the Thanatron (Greek for “death machine”), administered a coma-

Jack Kevorkian displays his Thanatron, or “death machine,” in 1991. (AP/Wide World Photos)

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inducing drug intravenously and then released a dose of potassium chloride that caused a fatal heart attack. Kevorkian sought publicity for his cause and the suicide, which had taken place in his 1968 Volkswagen van, and proudly publicly displayed his machine (once on The Phil Donahue Show). This first assisted suicide, which took place in Michigan, where Kevorkian lived most of his life, began a nine-year odyssey that included many assisted suicides (more than 130 by Kevorkian’s account) and numerous legal entanglements for Kevorkian. He was charged with murder in Adkins’s death, but a judge dismissed the charge. During court appearances, the man now called “Dr. Death” in the media defiantly sought publicity for his cause. Until his March, 1999, trial, the charges were always dismissed, or he was acquitted by a jury. Kevorkian’s medical license was revoked on November 20, 1991, so he could no longer legally obtain or possess the drugs for the Thanatron. He then invented a new machine he called the Mercitron (“mercy machine”), which used a container of carbon monoxide attached to a gas mask to assist patients’ suicides. On November 23, 1998, the television program 60 Minutes broadcast a videotape provided by Kevorkian showing him personally administering a lethal injection to terminally ill Thomas Youk and daring the authorities to arrest and convict him. Kevorkian was charged with second-degree homicide and delivery of a controlled substance, convicted, and, on April 13, 1999, sentenced to ten to twenty-five years in prison. He was paroled on June 1, 2007, because of his failing health, on condition that he not assist with suicides. Impact Kevorkian’s highly publicized activism made the right-to-die issue a high-profile public debate that raised Americans’ consciousness regarding the suffering of the terminally ill. While his crusade to legalize physician-assisted suicide helped to initiate referenda in several states that asked voters to approve legalizing active euthanasia, only Oregon actually enacted such a law. The U.S. Supreme Court upheld states’ rights to outlaw the practice. However, studies done in the 1990’s showed growing support, by doctors and the public in general, for medically assisted termination of life. Further Reading

Atwood-Gailey, Elizabeth. Write to Death: News Framing of the Right to Die Conflict, from Quinlan’s Coma to

Kevorkian’s Conviction. Westport, Conn.: Praeger, 2003. Kevorkian, Jack. Prescription: Medicide—The Goodness of Planned Death. Buffalo, N.Y.: Prometheus Books, 1991. Jack Carter See also Health care; Health care reform; Medicine; Physician-assisted suicide; Supreme Court decisions.

■ Khobar Towers bombing A truck bombing of the Khobar Towers housing complex in Khobar, Saudi Arabia, kills nineteen Americans Date June 25, 1996 The Event

The bombing of the Khobar housing compound was the worst terrorist attack against United States personnel since the 1983 Beirut barracks bombing. It brought pressure on officials in Washington to address the security and intelligence vulnerabilities exposed by the incident, and it heightened awareness of the widening gulf between radical Islam and the West. The Khobar Towers, located on the Persian Gulf near the city of Dhahran, Saudi Arabia, had been occupied by coalition forces from the United States, Saudi Arabia, France, and the United Kingdom since the start of the 1990 Gulf War. Building 131 was an eight-story high-rise located at the northeastern corner of the complex and occupied by members of the U.S. Air Force’s 4,404th Wing. On June 25, 1996, members of the Fifty-eighth Fighter Squadron housed in building 131 were making preparations to turn over their duties to the Twenty-seventh Fighter Squadron the following day. That same evening, two men drove a Datsun into the parking lot located just north of the complex and adjacent to building 131. At 9:43 p.m., they blinked their car lights as a signal, and the driver of a sewage truck drove into the parking lot. The truck, called a “honey pot” by U.S. troops, had been made into a bomb containing what was later estimated to be more than five thousand pounds of plastic explosives. After backing the truck against a chain-link fence approximately ninety feet from building 131, the driver and a passenger exited the truck and climbed into the back seat of a waiting Chevrolet Ca-

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price. The Chevrolet and the Datsun then drove away. After observing the activity in the parking lot from his station on the roof of building 131, Staff Sergeant Alfredo Guerrero became concerned and immediately began an evacuation of the building. Guerrero’s vigilance was the only source of warning the occupants of the building had, and his actions were credited with saving many lives. He was later awarded the Airman’s Medal. At approximately 9:50 p.m., the truck exploded with a blast felt as far as the Persian Gulf state of Bahrain, some twenty miles away. It killed nineteen Americans and one Saudi. Almost four hundred people of various nationalities were wounded. The blast devastated building 131 and left a crater in the parking lot eighty-five feet wide and thirty-five feet deep. Six other buildings in the complex were heavily damaged or destroyed, and windows were shattered as much as a mile away. Intelligence Failures and Suspects In Washington, President Bill Clinton vowed that those responsible would not go unpunished. Secretary of Defense William Perry immediately appointed retired general Wayne A. Downing to do a quick review of the facts. The House National Security Committee had a factfinding team in Saudi Arabia within two weeks. Following their respective investigations, the House report cited intelligence failures, while the Downing report declared that those responsible for force protection had failed to do their jobs satisfactorily. According to the Downing report, intelligence had provided sufficient warning of the terrorist threat to U.S. forces in Saudi Arabia, and there had been both opportunity and motivation to reduce vulnerabilities. The perpetrators were alleged to be thirteen members of the Saudi Hezbollah (party of God) and one unidentified member of the Lebanese Hezbollah. The Saudi Hezbollah members included the leader of the organization and the head of their military wing. The Saudi group was alleged to have acted, at least in part, on behalf of unnamed Iranian government officials who were said to have supported and directed their activities. The unidentified Lebanese Hezbollah member was said to be the supplier of the explosives that the Saudis were believed to have smuggled into the country by car. Investigators said the bombing was part of a campaign begun by the Saudi Hezbollah in 1993 with the aim

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of driving the United States from the Persian Gulf. Immediately after the bombing, all but two of the thirteen Saudis left the country using fake passports. One of those fleeing, Hani Al-Sayegh, was arrested in 1997 in Canada, where he denied any involvement in the bombing. He was later removed to the United States based on a promise to cooperate. He promptly broke that promise and in October, 1999, he was deported to Saudi Arabia to face charges connected to the bombing. By the end of the 1990’s, none of the perpetrators had been brought to trial, and the investigations had still produced insufficient evidence for any indictments. Improvements in relations between Saudi Arabia and Iran had made investigation of the latter country’s involvement more difficult. In June, 2001, fourteen men were indicted for the bombing. No Iranian officials were named in the indictment. Impact Secretary of Defense William S. Cohen, who succeeded Perry in January, 1997, held the commander of the 4,404th Wing, Brigadier General Terryl J. Schwalier, responsible for failure to adequately protect his forces. For that reason, Cohen denied his promotion to major general, even though the promotion had already been announced. In disagreement with Cohen’s decision to deny the promotion, the Air Force chief of staff, General Ronald R. Fogleman, retired before the end of his tour of duty. As a result of the Khobar attack, the Air Force developed its antiterrorism course, increased standoff distances, and improved communication. Comprehensive protection for military members or “force protection” is now an overriding concern in every operational military mission. Since the bombing, force protection often dictates where personnel live, how they behave on and off duty, and even how their mission is performed. Iran angrily rejected U.S. allegations that elements of the Iranian government were involved in the bombing, and the incident significantly heightened tensions between the two countries. The bombing itself emphasized the growing threat to U.S. and Western interests from radical Islam. Further Reading

Copeland, Thomas. Fool Me Twice: Intelligence Failure and Mass Casualty Terrorism. Boston: Martinus Nijhoff, 2007. Evaluation of intelligence failures in terrorist incidents. Examines five case studies,

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including the World Trade Center bombing of 1993, the Khobar Towers bombing, and the attacks of September 11, 2001. Gantzel, Klaus Jurgen, and Torsten Schwinghammer. Warfare Since the Second World War. New Brunswick, N.J.: Transaction, 2000. Analysis of the changing nature of war, from interstate to internal conflicts. Lesser, Ian O. Countering the New Terrorism. Santa Monica, Calif.: RAND, 1999. In-depth analysis of trends in terrorism. Wayne Shirey Clinton, Bill; Cohen, William S.; Defense budget cuts; Foreign policy of the United States; Gulf War; Middle East and North America; Oklahoma City bombing; Olympic Park bombing; Terrorism; Unabomber capture; U.S. embassy bombings in Africa; World Trade Center bombing.

See also

■ Killer bees Definition Africanized honeybees Place Texas, Arizona, New Mexico, California,

and Nevada Africanized honeybees—dubbed “killer bees” because of their aggressive nature—spread into the southwestern United States, frightening people and disrupting beekeepers’ activities.

An Africanized honeybee. (U.S. Department of Agriculture)

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Honeybees were introduced into the New World from Europe in the seventeenth century, but because European bees produce poorly in the tropics, Brazilian scientists began crossing them with more productive (but also more aggressive) African bees in the 1940’s. During the following decade, however, African queen bees escaped into the wild. By 1989, swarms of hybrid, or Africanized honeybees, which had inherited the aggressive nature of the African strain, reached northern Mexico. They had now established a pattern of interbreeding with and displacing ordinary honeybees. Anticipating the bees’ arrival, American officials distributed baited traps along the border, and they caught the first specimens near Hidalgo, Texas, in October, 1990. By the end of the year, the bees had been identified in eight of the state’s southernmost counties. They attacked a man the following year in Brownsville, Texas, and a fatality—the first in the nation—was reported near Harlingen, Texas, in August, 1993. The victim was eighty-two-year-old Lino Lopez, who had been attempting to remove a swarm from the wall of a building on his ranch. Within a few years, killer bees entered the other states sharing a border with Mexico. They were first identified in Arizona and New Mexico in 1993, although scientists suspect that the insects may have entered the former state in 1992. The bees reached California in 1994 but did not claim a human victim there until 1999. Although the news media carried sensational stories about the invading insects, scientists generally rejected the term “killer bees,” pointing out that the insects’ stings are no more venomous than those of ordinary honeybees. Because the bees are more aggressive, attack in larger swarms, pursue their victims further, and remain agitated longer, scientists did warn that they pose a greater threat. Domestic animals such as dogs and horses that might disturb the bees’ colonies were also identified as being in danger. By the mid-1990’s, killer bees appeared to be spreading more slowly and did not reach southern Nevada until 1998. During the following decade, however, they were reported in Louisiana and Florida, having possibly entered as swarms aboard ships, as well as in Arkansas and Virginia. Impact Killer bees were a media sensation during the early 1990’s, but by the end of the decade, only a

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handful of people had died from their stings in the United States. Experts voiced greater concern about the bees’ impact on the honey industry and particularly on the pollination of fields and orchards, as the bees’ aggressiveness disrupts beekeepers’ standard methods of transporting them and extracting their honey. Further Reading

Flakus, Greg. Living with Killer Bees: The Story of the Africanized Bee Invasion. Oakland, Calif.: Quick Trading Company, 1993. Tennesen, Michael. “Going Head-to-Head with Killer Bees.” National Wildlife 39, no. 2 (February/ March, 2001): 16-17. Winston, Mark L. Killer Bees: The Africanized Honey Bee in the Americas. Cambridge, Mass.: Harvard University Press, 1992. Grove Koger

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Early in the morning of March 3, 1991, after a high speed chase of nearly eight miles involving officers from a number of jurisdictions, Rodney King was finally stopped. King exited the car, but did not lie face down as ordered by members of the Los Angeles Police Department (LAPD). Instead, he crouched in what some of the officers thought was a menacing position. Though he was then “tasered” twice, King (a large, well-built man) still did not comply with orders and was able to throw off a number of officers who had tried to subdue him. Some of them then proceeded to beat him with nightsticks, hitting him more than fifty times. King was subsequently hospitalized, having suffered a number of broken bones and serious bruises. Much of this episode was videotaped by a civilian who had been awakened by the noise. This citizen eventually gave the tape to a

See also Agriculture in the United States; Journalism; Latin America; Mexico and the United States; Natural disasters.

■ King, Rodney Victim of a highly publicized beating by members of the Los Angeles Police Department Born April 2, 1965; Sacramento, California Identification

Events following King’s beating led to one of the worst riots in modern American history. It also raised troubling questions about the relations between ethnic minorities and large city police departments. Rodney Glen King was born in Sacramento, California. He struggled in school, was athletic, and enjoyed fishing. At age nine, he was helping his father clean commercial buildings at night and until the early hours of the morning. This lack of sleep did not help his school work. King started drinking at an early age, with most of his adult difficulties stemming from his alcoholism. He eventually dropped out of high school, got married, and held various construction jobs. Before his famous arrest on 1991, he had been convicted of beating his wife (1987) and of assault and robbery at a convenience store (1989), for which he was imprisoned for two years and was out on parole by the end of 1990.

Rodney King pleads for peace in South Central Los Angeles on the third day of the rioting, May 1, 1992. His televised appearance became famous for his appeal, “Can we all get along?” (AP/Wide World Photos)

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local television station, which edited it slightly before putting in on the air. Soon, it was picked up by the Cable News Network (CNN) and shown nationally many times. The reaction to the televised tape was very strong. It was followed by a criminal investigation of the officers’ behavior as well as a “blue ribbon” commission headed by Warren Christopher. Its report was highly critical of the LAPD. Four of the officers were indicted for their actions. Although the trial of the officers would normally have taken place in Los Angeles, their attorneys asked for, and received, a change of venue. Consequently, the trial was held in the largely white suburb of Simi Valley. There were no blacks on the jury, which acquitted all of the officers of all charges. After the verdict was announced, riots broke out in South Central Los Angeles. The officers were subsequently indicted under federal law. That trial, which did take place in the city and which did contain a multiethnic jury, led to the conviction of two of them. Impact The riots that followed the acquittal in the state case lasted about four days and were the worst in modern American history. They resulted in the deaths of more than fifty individuals, more than two thousand injuries that needed hospital attention, and the destruction of nearly one thousand structures. Property losses added up to more than $900 million. One of King’s best moments came during the riots, when in a televised interview he pleaded with the public for calm, asking “Can we all get along?” The reputation of the LAPD, which had been high in many quarters, was severely shaken. King eventually received an award of $3.8 million after he filed a civil suit against the city of Los Angeles. He used the money to start Alta-Pazz Recording, a rap record label.

■ King, Stephen Identification American author Born September 21, 1947; Portland, Maine

Long a prolific best-selling horror and suspense author, King branched out with new forms of publishing in the 1990’s. During the 1990’s, Stephen King experimented with selling novels in serial format, as with The Green Mile (1996), as well as with genre. He wrote novels from a female perspective—Gerald’s Game (1992), Dolores Claiborne (1992), Rose Madder (1995), and The Girl Who Loved Tom Gordon (1999)—and the screenplay for the television miniseries Storm of the Century (1999). King also spent the decade as a key member of the Rock Bottom Remainders, a charity rock group consisting of published authors. In 1999, King was seriously injured when he was struck by a minivan. Early in the decade, King worked on two novels that had their genesis as a single novel: Dolores Claiborne and Gerald’s Game. The two works reference each other at a key point in their respective narratives, and both novels deal with physically and sexu-

Further Reading

Cannon, Lou. Official Negligence: How Rodney King and the Riots Changed Los Angeles and the LAPD. New York: Random House, 1997. Skolnick, Jerome, and James J. Fyfe. Above the Law: Police and the Excessive Use of Force. New York: Free Press, 1993. David M. Jones African Americans; Christopher, Warren; Los Angeles riots; Louima torture case; Police brutality; Race relations.

See also

Stephen King. (Tabitha King)

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ally abused women. Dolores Claiborne lacks chapter breaks and thus presents itself as one long monologue. Both novels received good reviews and left some wondering if King would abandon the horror genre altogether. In 1996, King experimented with serial publication. The Green Mile was published in six volumes, each released a month apart. King found that this style of writing led to new challenges in maintaining readers’ interest with each new installment while still attracting readers who may have missed an earlier segment. During the decade, King joined the Rock Bottom Remainders, a rock group consisting of King and authors Dave Barry, Ridley Pearson, Barbara Kingsolver, Robert Fulghum, and Amy Tan, among others. He also received critical recognition, winning a 1996 O. Henry Award for the short story “The Man in the Black Suit.” On June 19, 1999, while walking along a road in Maine, King was hit by a man driving a minivan. King later described the driver as “a character out of one of my own novels.” King nearly died in the accident but, after five weeks, was back to writing again, completing the nonfiction book On Writing (2000). Impact Stephen King continued his hectic publishing schedule during the 1990’s and continued to explore new methods of publication in the next decade. In 2000, Riding the Bullet, a sixty-six-page electronic book, or e-book, was downloaded over 500,000 times. Later that year, he tried a serialized e-book experiment, The Plant, which was less successful. Further Reading

King, Stephen. On Writing: A Memoir of the Craft. New York: Scribner, 2000. Russell, Sharon A. Revisiting Stephen King: A Critical Companion. Westport, Conn.: Greenwood Press, 2002. Julie Elliott Literature in the United States; Publishing; Rock Bottom Remainders, The.

See also

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■ Kingsolver, Barbara Identification American author Born April 8, 1955; Annapolis, Maryland

Kingsolver writes about economic injustice and cultural differences in many of her fictional works. She combines a thoughtful and sensitive view of life with an insightful approach to issues of culture through her novels, stories, and poetry. Barbara Kingsolver has written novels, short stories, poetry, and essays about topics as wide ranging as missionary life in Africa and community rights in Native American tribal culture. She was born in Maryland but grew up in Kentucky. She left her rural home for college in Indiana, where she majored in biology at DePauw University. With this background of study, Kingsolver often adds vivid description to the settings of her stories. She creates intensely personal tales for each of her characters, which are often set against the larger backdrop of political and economic issues of the time period. Because of her wide range of experience as a scientist, researcher, archaeological worker, and translator, she brings a variety of perspectives to her works. Throughout all of them she remains committed to honesty and social justice. In support of those issues, she established the Bellwether Prize in 1997, which is awarded every other year to a first novel which shows the highest literary quality and the author who shows dedication to creating literature for social impact and change. Kingsolver uses her characters, such as Leah in The Poisonwood Bible (1998), to examine not only the role of missionaries in Africa but also the larger issues of the influence of outside political powers, such as the United States on rural and emerging African nations. She spent time in Africa as a young child with her family. In that setting, she started writing in a journal which she credits as an early influence on her style as a storyteller. Many of her main characters are female and fiercely independent. In Animal Dreams (1990) and Pigs in Heaven (1993), her major characters face life-changing events within the conflict between Native American culture and mainstream America. Despite these trials, her characters always acknowledge the community in which they live and in this way remind the reader that no one exists separately; we are all part of a greater canvas.

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■ Klaas kidnapping and murder case Kidnapping and murder of a twelveyear-old girl by a habitual violent offender Date October 1, 1993 Place Petaluma, California The Event

The kidnapping and murder of Polly Klaas by Richard Allen Davis sparked intense discussion about appropriate sentencing for repeat offenders and measures to ensure the safety of young people.

Barbara Kingsolver. (©Seth Kanter/Courtesy, HarperPerennial)

Impact Kingsolver’s writing reinforces the idea that there is a storyteller in every person. She is able to create rich characters and experiences from both her imagination and her varied experiences. Because many of her main characters are female, she underscores the struggles of being a woman set against a backdrop of social issues and change. Further Reading

A Reader’s Guide to the Fiction of Barbara Kingsolver. New York: HarperCollins, 2004. Snodgrass, Mary Ellen. Barbara Kingsolver: A Literary Companion. McFarland Literary Companion 2. Jefferson, N.C.: McFarland, 2004. Wagner-Martin, Linda. Barbara Kingsolver. New York: Chelsea House, 2004. Dolores A. D’Angelo See also

Literature in the United States.

A lifelong criminal, Richard Allen Davis was first arrested at the age of twelve. By 1993, he had been arrested for forgery, burglary, automobile theft, armed robbery, multiple kidnappings, and sexual assaults. He had served the better part of twenty-six years in prison. In late June, 1993, after serving only half of a sixteen-year sentence for assaulting, kidnapping, and robbing a woman, Davis was paroled from prison, still at war with the world. By October 1 of that year, he was wandering through Petaluma when he noticed a house with windows open. In the house, a group of twelve-year-old girls were having a slumber party. Davis decided to break into the house. Threatening the girls with a knife, he tied them up, put pillowcases over their heads, and abducted Polly Klaas. Davis drove through Petaluma aimlessly, trying to decide how best to dispose of the terrified young girl. Klaas’s disappearance set off a nationwide, twomonth search for the girl. Despite encounters with various police officers, Davis brutalized Klaas and murdered her. He was eventually arrested for parole violation and, after confessing to the crime, led investigators to the body. His trial was short, although not uneventful. During his trial, Davis demonstrated callous disregard for his victim as well as for her family and society in general. In June, 1996, he was found guilty of kidnapping and murder. He was sentenced to death in September. Impact In the short term, the abduction of Polly Klaas terrorized families throughout California, complicating the ordinary tasks of daily living. Ultimately, however, the murder of Klaas spotlighted the shortcomings of the American criminal justice system in appropriately separating habitual violent criminals from potential victims. Several critics at the time and since have questioned how a career

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criminal like Davis, with his record of violence and callousness, could have merited parole. As a result of such questions, a wave of laws were passed by various states in the 1990’s requiring the imposition of lengthy jail terms on offenders who had been previously convicted of multiple violent crimes. These were known as the three strikes laws, borrowing a term from baseball, indicating that convicts would be given a limited number of chances before facing mandatory lengthy prison sentences. Further Reading

Bortnick, Barry. Polly Klaas: The Murder of America’s Child. New York: Pinnacle Books, 1995. Domanick, Joe. Cruel Justice: Three Strikes and the Politics of Crime in America’s Golden State. Berkeley: University of California Press, 2004. Michael R. Meyers See also

Crime; Ramsey murder case; Three strikes

laws.

■ Knox pornography case A series of court reviews that tested definitions of child pornography Date October 11, 1991-June 9, 1994 The Event

The federal court system, amid the heated political atmosphere of the midterm elections of 1994, revisited the legal definition of child pornography as it applied specifically to photography. In 1991, during a warrant-search of the apartment of Stephen Knox, a history graduate student at Penn State who had been twice convicted of possessing child pornography, agents recovered commercially made videotapes of female teenage models ostensibly in fashion poses. Although the girls, ages ten to seventeen, were not nude (they wore bathing suits, leotards, and underwear), were not posed, and were not engaging in sexual acts, Knox was arrested and subsequently, on October 11, 1991, convicted of possessing child pornography, the court citing that the images frequently lingered on the genital area. However, given the definition of child pornography upheld by courts since the mid-1980’s as the “lascivious exhibition” of the genitals of anyone under eighteen, Knox appealed his conviction. The United States Court of Pennsylvania upheld the lower

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court’s ruling (they cited photos in which upper thighs were exposed), and Knox received a five-year prison sentence. His subsequent appeal, to the Third Circuit United States Court of Appeals, was as well denied in October, 1992. When Knox took his case to the Supreme Court in the fall of 1993, however, U.S. solicitor general Drew Days argued that the genitalia needed to be exposed to qualify as “lascivious exhibition.” When the Supreme Court agreed on November 1, 1993, and remanded the decision to the Third Circuit Court, a political firestorm was ignited as the narrowed interpretation would exclude much child pornography from prosecution. Challenged by a vociferous rightwing coalition, the Senate, within three days, voted 100-0 on a nonbinding censure against the Clinton Justice Department (later, in April, the House voted a similar censure). An embattled President Bill Clinton—feeling the first resolve of the political revolution in which conservatives would claim both houses of Congress in an historic midterm election later that year and seeing the political hazards of his administration being viewed as soft on child porn— sent a reprimand to his attorney general, Janet Reno, calling for a tougher definition of child pornography. On June 9, 1994, under considerable media scrutiny and public pressure, the Third District Court rejected Days’s argument. Later, after the midterm elections, the Clinton Justice Department reversed its position on Knox, although there was speculation on the level of disagreement within the department over that reversal. Impact The contentious response over the Knox ruling ignited a national debate over the definition of child pornography, raising thorny questions about what constitutes legitimate commercial modeling and what constitutes exploitative material targeted for pedophiles. Amid a polarized political environment, the courts concluded essentially that photographs were actions not representations protected by First Amendment free speech and consequently could be restricted. Further Reading

Hixson, Richard F. Pornography and the Justices: The Supreme Court and the Intractable Obscenity Problem. Carbondale: Southern Illinois University Press, 1996. Nathan, Debbie. Pornography. Toronto: Groundwood Books, 2007. Joseph Dewey

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Censorship; Child pornography; Clinton, Bill; Conservatism in U.S. politics; Contract with America; Culture wars; Elections in the United States, midterm; Mapplethorpe obscenity trial; Photography; Reno, Janet.

See also

■ Komunyakaa, Yusef Identification African American poet Born April 29, 1947; Bogalusa, Louisiana

After receiving the Pulitzer Prize in poetry in 1994, Komunyakaa achieved even greater attention, noted as one of the most lauded African American poets. One of the foremost African American poets of his time, Yusef Komunyakaa wrote and edited a variety of poetry collections during the 1990’s. Komunyakaa’s poetry collection Magic City, published in 1992, explores themes from the author’s childhood in the rural American South. His poems illustrate a child’s growing awareness of civil rights issues, racial identity, and his place in a rapidly changing community and world. Magic City continues the themes found in his earlier volumes Copacetic (1984) and I Apologize for the Eyes in My Head (1986). It was his next volume of poetry, Neon Vernacular: New and Selected Poems, however, that received the most critical attention. A compilation of his best work from previous poetry collections, along with strong new poetry, this book explores several themes that recur in Komunyakaa’s work: the African American experience, the Vietnam War, and jazz and blues music. It was this volume of poetry that won Komunyakaa the 1994 Pulitzer Prize in poetry. That same year, he also received the Kingsley Tufts Poetry Award and the William Faulkner Prize from the Université de Rennes, also for Neon Vernacular. In 1998, Komunyakaa published Thieves of Paradise, a finalist for the National Book Critics Circle Award. This collection was influenced by the poet’s experience in Australia and reflects his interest in the culture of the Aborigines. Other accolades and awards Komunyakaa received in the 1990’s include the Thomas Forcade Award (1991), the Hanes Poetry Prize (1997), and the Morton Dauwen Zabel Award from the American Academy of Arts and Letters (1998). In 1999, he was named a chancellor of the Academy of American Poets. In addition to publishing his volumes of poetry,

Pulitzer Prize-winning poet Yusef Komunyakaa in 1996. (AP/ Wide World Photos)

Komunyakaa coedited two poetry collections, The Jazz Poetry Anthology (1991) and The Second Set: The Jazz Poetry Anthology (1996), with poet and jazz musician Sascha Feinstein. These collections feature the work of many major American poets. Komunyakaa also worked with scholar Martha Collins in translating Nguyen Quang Thieu’s poetry collection, The Insomnia of Fire, published in 1995. Impact Yusef Komunyakaa’s impact on American poetry during the 1990’s was significant. His Pulitzer Prize-winning work, Neon Vernacular, directed attention to important political and social issues, including the aftermath of the Civil Rights movement, the Vietnam War, and their effects on several generations of Americans. His work with other writers also expanded awareness of jazz poetry and the poetry of Vietnamese writer Nguyen Quang Thieu. Komun-

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yakaa’s poetry, which features a spare, image-rich style and a melodic, rhythmic cadence, blended formal poetry with musical forms of jazz and blues, adding to the repertoire of American poetry. Further Reading

Conley, Susan. “About Yusef Komunyakaa: A Profile.” Ploughshares 23, no. 1 (Spring, 1997): 202-207. Gordon, Fran. “Yusef Komunyakaa: Blue Note in a Lyrical Landscape.” Poets & Writers 28, no. 6 (November/December, 2000): 26-33. Ringnalda, Don. Fighting and Writing the Vietnam War. Jackson: University Press of Mississippi, 1994. Kris Bigalk African Americans; Alvarez, Julia; Angelou, Maya; Literature in the United States; Poetry; Strand, Mark.

See also

■ Koons, Jeff Identification American artist Born January 21, 1955; York, Pennsylvania

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Staller in perhaps his most controversial art pieces— a surreal and sexually explicit series of paintings, photographs, and sculptures called Made in Heaven. The divorce of Staller and Koons later in the decade, followed by a bitter child custody dispute, created yet more publicity for the increasingly notorious artist. In 1993, Koons began a series of paintings and sculptures titled Celebration, which consisted of works based on childhood toys and trinkets. Of special note were pieces that recalled the entertaining art of twisting balloons into animal shapes, conceptualized by Koons into big balloon dogs rendered in candy-colored chrome. Koons’s failed child custody battle and the cost of the ongoing Celebration series led to considerable financial reversals, but he recovered in 1999, when his sculpture based on the cartoon character the Pink Panther sold for just under $2 million. Koons was often derided for his self-promotion; similarly, his work was dismissed as pandering to the desires of the marketplace. Although his art has been denounced as crass and cynical, many per-

Koons gained fame in the United States as a major conceptual/pop artist noted especially for his deployment of kitsch for the purposes of high art. A hot young artist in the “Reagan years” of the previous decade, in the 1990’s Jeff Koons built on his already controversial reputation and reached new levels of both commercial success and artistic recognition. Koons was especially known for transforming simple objects into large and mysteriously empowered sculptures that could be read as either ironic commentary on a shallow and meaningless contemporary consumerism or as a deeper, more ambiguous investigation of pop culture, especially popular imagery associated with childhood. In 1992, for instance, Koons created a major piece called Puppy, a monumental forty-three-foot-tall, eighty-eight-ton sculpture of a terrier composed of sixty thousand flowers on a stainless steel armature. The fascinating puppy was displayed for a time in Rockefeller Center in New York City. In 1997, the Solomon R. Guggenheim Foundation installed it permanently outside the Guggenheim Museum in Bilbao, Spain. Less successful was Koons’s 1991 marriage to Ilona Staller, the Italian pornography star. Before their marriage, Koons created and posed with

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Jeff Koons’s Puppy in Bilbao, Spain.

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ceived mysterious hidden depths beneath his decorative surfaces. Impact Koons was perceived as a phenomenon both in terms of his commercial success and his controversial art work. Disdained by some critics as decadent, tacky, cheap, and sensationalistic, his pieces nevertheless won a great deal of contemporary institutional acceptance, including an exhibition at London’s Royal Academy. Of consistently high market value, his work fetched millions at auction, making him one of the highest-earning artists of his time. He also exerted a major influence on younger artists and found acceptance as an original and important figure within the very high art tradition, whose premises he appeared to subvert. Further Reading

Sylvester, David. “Jeff Koons.” In Interviews with American Artists. New Haven, Conn.: Yale University Press, 2001. Tomkins, Calvin. “The Turnaround Artist: Jeff Koons Up from Banality.” The New Yorker, vol. 83, no. 9 (April 23, 2007): 58-67. Margaret Boe Birns Art movements; Christo; National Endowment for the Arts (NEA).

See also

■ Kosovo conflict Ethnic conflict between Serbs and Albanians in Kosovo Date 1996-1999 Place Kosovo, Serbia The Event

The war in Kosovo was one of several in the breakup of Yugoslavia that led to North American diplomatic and military involvement. Kosovo, particularly Kosovo field, is historically sacred ground for the Serbs, the site of a legendary battle against the Ottoman Turks in 1389. Over the centuries, however, the area became the homeland for Albanian Muslims. After World War II, the communist leader Tito (Josip Broz) reconstructed Yugoslavia along national lines into a federation of six republics, with the Serbian republic containing two autonomous regions—the Hungarian Banat and the Albanian Kosovo. The authorities treated the Albanians as second-class citizens, and the region was

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one of the poorest in the federation. In the 1980’s, after the death of Tito, Yugoslavia fractured as nationalism grew stronger among its various constituents. In the 1990’s, with the fall of communist governments throughout Eastern Europe, Yugoslavia separated into its constituent republics, and wars erupted between ethnic groups. In the middle of the decade, North Atlantic Treaty Organization (NATO) forces led by the United States intervened in Bosnia, where Serbs, Croats, and Bosniaks (Slavic Muslims) fought among themselves. Living in an autonomous region rather than a constituent republic, the Albanians in Kosovo were in a special category. Furthermore, there was an independent Albania next to Kosovo to which they could look for support. As ethnic tensions between the Serbs and Albanians increased, many Serbs fled under threat of Albanian terror raids, and rumors that radical Islamic fundamentalists were aiding the Albanians circulated. In 1987, Serbian nationalist Slobodan Miloševi6 visited the region promising to defend Serbian interests. Two years later as president of the republic, he orchestrated changes in Serbia’s constitution limiting Kosovo’s autonomy and adopted measures causing Albanian unemployment and curtailing cultural activities. In 1991, Albanian nationalists proclaimed the Republic of Kosovo and elected Ibrahim Rugova, an Albanian writer and professor, as president of a shadow government in unsanctioned elections. In 1996, the Albanians formed an army of its own, the Kosovo Liberation Army (KLA), which received arms from Albania and was able to launch attacks against Serbian police and army units in Kosovo. As they did in Bosnia, NATO countries once again attempted to mediate the crisis. The United States Intervenes Throughout the decade, U.S. president Bill Clinton sent warnings to Miloševi6 to stop aggression against the Albanian Kosovars. In March, 1998, U.S. secretary of state Madeleine Albright condemned the Serb attacks. In the meantime, the so-called Contact Group (United States, Great Britain, France, Germany, Italy, and Russia) met in London to discuss the Kosovo crisis. The U.N. Security Council condemned Belgrade, imposed economic sanctions, and banned arms sales to Serbia. In May, Miloševi6 and Rugova met without results. Rugova then traveled to the United States, where he met with Clinton, Albright, and

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U.N. secretary-general Kofi Annan and requested U.N. and NATO intervention. Rambouillet Meeting and Air Raids On February 6, 1999, the Contact Group established peace talks between the warring parties in Rambouillet, France. Both Albanian and Serbian diplomats objected to the proposed accords, but the Albanians finally agreed to sign. Miloševi6 agreed to diplomatic observers in the region. However, in the summer, his army began a new offensive, and thousands more Albanian refugees fled into the mountains. Russian president Boris Yeltsin and Clinton then met in Moscow and issued a joint statement calling for negotiations and for Serbia to end its attack, but on American initiative and over Russian objections NATO began a new bombing campaign in Serbia. Clinton ruled out American use of ground forces but indicated that four thousand American peacekeepers would go to Kosovo after the armistice. NATO objectives in the air raids were to stop all military action, end violence and repression, withdraw the military and police as well as paramilitary forces from the region, establish an international military force and the return of refugees, and force Belgrade to adhere to the Rambouillet Accords. NATO troops including 31,600 Americans and 1,300 Canadians entered into neighboring Albania and Macedonia for protection. About 10,000 Albanian refugees came into the United States and 5,000 to Canada. Finally, Miloševi6 and NATO reached an agreement in June before a possible ground invasion, and NATO and Russian troops came to the province to supervise the area that was divided between the Albanian and Serb populations. About 600,000 Albanians returned to Kosovo, and 200,000 Serbs and Roma left Albanian areas. Twenty thousand Russian and NATO troops moved into Kosovo as peacekeepers, while the Serbian forces left the area and the KLA demilitarized. Impact The Kosovo conflict, along with the other wars in the Balkans, established U.S. leadership in dealing with changes in the Balkans, especially Yugoslavia, in the 1990’s. Although Washington operated principally through NATO, tensions between the United States and the various European countries led to a number of rifts. The conflict also demonstrated that Washington was willing to use armed force to ensure its policies.

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Further Reading

Brune, Lester H. The United States and the Balkan Crisis, 1990-2005: Conflict in Bosnia and Kosovo. Claremont, Calif.: Regina, 2005. A discussion of American involvement in the conflict by an author who has written many books on American foreign policy. King, Iain, and Whit Mason. Peace at Any Price: How the World Failed Kosovo. Ithaca, N.Y.: Cornell University Press, 2006. An analysis by authors who have written about the ethics of world crises. They believe that NATO was unprepared to deal with the crisis. Norris, John. Collision Course: NATO, Russia, and Kosovo. Westport, Conn.: Praeger, 2005. An outstanding summary of the conflict. Ramet, Sabrina P. Thinking About Yugoslavia: Scholarly Debates About the Yugoslavia Breakup and the Wars in Bosnia and Kosovo. New York: Cambridge University Press, 2005. A distinguished author surveys and analyzes the literature and debates about the Yugoslavia crises but with a Croatian bias. Frederick B. Chary See also Albright, Madeleine; Bosnia conflict; Clinton, Bill; Cold War, end of; Dayton Accords; Europe and North America; Foreign policy of Canada; Foreign policy of the United States; United Nations.

■ Kwanzaa African American holiday celebrated from December 26 to January 1

Definition

In the 1990’s, Kwanzaa gained widespread popularity, and its commercialization became evident in this decade. The term “Kwanzaa” comes from the Swahili phrase matunda ya kwanzaa, meaning “first fruits of the harvest.” The holiday was created by Maulana “Ron” Karenga in 1966 as an attempt to affirm and celebrate African American culture and values. There are seven principles that focus on community-building, strengthening family relationships, education about black culture, and African American unity and pride. The principles are umoja (unity), kujichagulia (self-determination), ujima (collective work and responsibility), ujamaa (cooperative economics), nia (purpose), kuumba (creativity), and imani (faith). Kwanzaa supplies include a mat, seven candles, a

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kinara to display the candles, a unity cup, and ears of corn. A candle is lit each night, representing a specific Kwanzaa principle. The 1990’s saw a huge rise in the number of African American families celebrating Kwanzaa. Annual Kwanzaa celebrations were evident at black churches, local and national organizations, schools, college campuses, and homes. The commercialization of Kwanzaa became evident when retailers such as J. C. Penney, Bed Bath & Beyond, Wal-Mart, and Kmart began carrying Kwanzaa supplies. Hallmark began mass-producing Kwanzaa greeting cards. It is estimated that over five million African Americans celebrate Kwanzaa, and it is a more than $700million industry. Kwanzaa expos became popular in U.S. cities. In 1997, the first Kwanzaa stamp was issued by the U.S. Postal Service on October 22. In the late 1990’s, President Bill Clinton discussed Kwanzaa in a White House speech affirming its principles and celebration of African American culture.

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It is believed that the rise of the African American middle class and the acceptance of multiculturalism contributed to the popularization of Kwanzaa as corporate America recognized the buying power of black consumers. It is mostly celebrated by African American middle-class families.The commercialization of Kwanzaa has led some critics to state that today’s Kwanzaa has drifted away from some of its original ideals. One criticism is that Kwanzaa supplies are not often bought from black-owned businesses. However, African American and commercial Kwanzaa suppliers have benefited from Kwanzaa’s increased popularity. The Kwanzaa holiday is a popular subject in children’s books, cookbooks, and African American magazines. Impact The popularization of Kwanzaa celebrations by African Americans in the 1990’s represented corporate America’s long-overdue recognition of the buying power of African American consumers.

A woman lights a candle in her home to mark the start of the celebration of Kwanzaa. (AP/Wide World Photos)

The Nineties in America Further Reading

Karenga, Maulana. Kwanzaa: A Celebration of Family, Community and Culture. Los Angeles: University of Sankore Press, 1998. Winbush Riley, Dorothy. The Complete Kwanzaa. New York: HarperCollins, 1995. Katherine M. Helm African Americans; Amazon.com; Angelou, Maya; Clinton, Bill; Race relations; Wal-Mart; WB television network.

See also

■ Kyoto Protocol An international agreement to control global warming by curtailing the production of greenhouse gases Date Negotiated December 1-11, 1997 Identification

Building on the voluntary reduction targets of the Framework Convention on Climate Change, negotiated at the Rio de Janeiro summit in 1992, the Kyoto Protocol provided that the industrial nations plus the former Soviet Union and Eastern European countries would reduce the emission of greenhouse gases an average of five percent in the period from 2008 to 2012. The treaty entered into force in 2004 when Russia was the final industrial nation save one to ratify the agreement. The United States has not ratified the Kyoto Protocol and is not expected to do so. The 1992 Rio Declaration was based on the recognition that the production of carbon dioxide and five other greenhouse gases was helping to cause global warming. The declaration provided for only voluntary reductions. By 1995, it had become evident that governments must agree to mandatory reductions. In the spring of 1997, representatives from industrialized and developing nations met in Kyoto, Japan, to negotiate reduction targets. During the talks, it was agreed that developing nations would be omitted from the first-round obligatory reductions, as such reductions would impose too great a burden on these nations. Although developing nations’ output of greenhouse gases was increasing rapidly, it was still less than industrialized nations’ emissions. The U.S. delegation, responding in part to criticism at home, tried to include the less-industrialized nations in the requirements of the treaty but failed to win support. Even though the U.S. Senate indicated its disapproval of what appeared to be the treaty stipu-

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lations, the U.S. delegation signed the agreement. Aware of the opposition in Congress, President Bill Clinton chose not to submit it to the Senate for ratification. President George W. Bush would indicate opposition to the treaty after he assumed office in 2001. In order to enter into force, the protocol required ratification by fifty-five nations, including countries that had been responsible for 55 percent of the emissions produced in 1990. Because of U.S. opposition, it was necessary for all other industrialized nations to ratify the treaty for it to enter into force. Russia’s ratification of the treaty in November, 2004, led it to enter into force in February, 2005. The Kyoto Protocol specified targets for reducing carbon dioxide and five other greenhouse gases in the period from 2008 to 2012. The United States was to reduce emissions by 7 percent from 1990 levels, the European Union and some other European nations were to reduce emissions by 8 percent, Canada and Japan were to reduce emissions by 6 percent, and Russia and Ukraine were to hold emissions constant. The less-developed nations were expected to try to hold down emissions voluntarily, but no targets were mandated. The delegates at Kyoto were aware that less-industrialized nations such as China would have to reduce the growth in emissions in the long run if global warming was to be curtailed. A 5.2 percent reduction in emissions below 1990 levels was expected if all nations met their targets. The primary target of emission reduction was industry, especially coal-fired power plants, but agriculture was also a major source of some greenhouse gases. Opposition in the United States Opposition to the Kyoto Protocol came from two related groups in the United States. The first, particularly the representatives of some oil companies and their political friends, indicated that global warming was not influenced by human action or that its impact was severely overstated; therefore, there was no need for a reduction in greenhouse gases. By the late 1990’s, this perspective was becoming increasingly discredited, as most scientists agreed that global warming was human-caused. The second group of opponents agreed that global warming was a problem and that actions should be taken to reduce greenhouse gas emissions. They argued that the Kyoto Protocol was a badly flawed agreement, one that would reduce the competitive position of the United States in the

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world marketplace. These critics pointed to the rapid growth in greenhouse gases by countries such as China. China’s path to industrialization was being supported by the extensive burning of coal, a major source of carbon dioxide as well as other polluting gases. Failing to regulate the emissions of nations such as China or India would give them an economic advantage because of their low costs of production. These critics also pointed out that some of the lessindustrialized nations would soon be major contributors to the level of carbon dioxide in the atmosphere, so failing to regulate them would make a reduction of greenhouse gases in the atmosphere harder to achieve. The second group of opponents made strong points against U.S. ratification of the agreement as written. Efforts would be made at a conference held in Berlin in 2002 to try to address some of these criticisms, but no agreement was reached. Supporters of ratification in the United States and abroad made the point that the reduction of greenhouse gases had to start somewhere. The industrialized nations both were the major contributors to emissions and were better able to withstand potential economic costs of reductions. The failure of the United States to ratify the Kyoto Protocol cast the country in somewhat of a Impact

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bad light internationally. Some foreign nations see the United States as more concerned with its own short-term self interest than in dealing with a major international problem. Even though the United States has not ratified the agreement, it is making some efforts at reducing greenhouse gas emissions. Further Reading

Dessler, Andrew E., and Edward Parson. The Science and Politics of Global Climate Change: A Guide to the Debate. New York: Cambridge University Press, 2006. Excellent brief analysis of Kyoto in a broader context. Nordhaus, William D., and Joseph Boyer. Warming the World: Economics Models of Global Warming. Cambridge, Mass.: MIT Press, 2000. Economic analysis of the impact of Kyoto by two critics. Schneider, Stephen H., Armin Rosencranz, and John O. Niles, eds. Climate Change Policy: A Survey. Washington, D.C.: Island Press, 2002. Good discussion of Kyoto in the broad context of climate change. John M. Theilmann See also Air pollution; Clean Air Act of 1990; Clinton, Bill; Earth Day 1990; Earth in the Balance ; Global warming debate; Gore, Al.

L ■ Lagasse, Emeril World-renowned chef, author, and television personality Born October 15, 1959; Fall River, Massachusetts Identification

During the 1990’s, Lagasse owned and operated several high-end, extremely popular restaurants, and he also became a television star. His enthusiasm for good food inspired a legion of fans to tackle dishes never attempted in their home kitchens. Growing up in Massachusetts as the son of a French Canadian father and a Portuguese mother, Emeril

Lagasse was introduced to ethnic cooking at an early age. As a child, Lagasse embraced his mother’s love of cooking, making kale soup and Portuguese stuffing for family gatherings. In 1978, Lagasse completed the culinary program at Johnson and Wales University. After graduation, he studied cooking in France. Returning to the United States, he worked in a variety of restaurants. His big break came in 1982 when Ella Brennan, owner of the prestigious Commander’s Palace in New Orleans, was looking for a replacement for legendary chef Paul Prudomme. After a five-day, on-site interview, Lagasse was hired. In New Orleans, Lagasse learned to incorporate

Late night television host Jay Leno, left, cooks with chef Emeril Lagasse on Leno’s show on September 30, 1998. (AP/Wide World Photos)

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his Portuguese cooking style with the spices and flavors of creole and Cajun cuisine. Lagasse fell in love with New Orleans and, in 1990, opened his first restaurant, Emeril’s, which was named Restaurant of the Year by Esquire magazine. He opened NOLA, a second restaurant, in 1992, followed by openings in Las Vegas in 1995 and Orlando in 1999. Lagasse’s fame came through television. When his restaurant successes caught the attention of executives at the newly established Food Network, he was invited to New York and featured in How to Boil Water in 1993. Lagasse was encouraged to host his own show, but Emeril & Friends was not successful. His next show, The Essence of Emeril, drew a larger television audience, and in 1997 the hour-long, unscripted Emeril Live became the most successful cooking show on television. Filmed before a live studio audience, Lagasse’s show demonstrated a range of cooking, from creole to “jazzed up” meat and potatoes. His opening monologue, lively sense of humor, and down-to-earth approach had audiences responding with whistles, shouts, and applause. The show also featured Cajun musicians and guest stars. In addition to operating his restaurants and starring on his television show, Lagasse has written bestselling cookbooks, beginning with Emeril’s New New Orleans Cooking (1993). Lagasse produces a number of products bearing his name; particularly popular are the Essence blends. He has won various awards, both as a chef and as a television personality. In 1999, he was named to People magazine’s “25 Most Intriguing People of the Year.” Impact With his signature word “Bam!” and expressions such as “Kick it up a notch” and “Pork fat rules,” Lagasse not only became part of popular culture but also helped create a fascination with cooking for a wide audience. He recast the image of a premier chef from an elitist trained in Europe to a blue-collar, American-oriented food enthusiast, who demonstrated that cooking haute cuisine “ain’t rocket science, it’s just cooking.” Further Reading

Hessler, Amanda. “Under the Toque.” The New York Times, November 4, 1998, p. F1. Vigue, Doreen. “Kicking It Up a Notch.” The Boston Globe, April 26, 1998, p. 12. Marcia B. Dinneen See also

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Lang, K. D.

Cable television; Food trends; Television.

■ Lang, K. D. Identification Canadian pop and country singer Born November 2, 1961; Edmonton, Alberta,

Canada The singer-songwriter came out as a lesbian in the 1990’s, even as she shifted her musical style. Canadian singer K. D. (Kathryn Dawn) Lang, who styles her name in all-lowercase letters as k.d. lang, has developed a unique style based as much in pop and jazz as in her original love, country music. Most of her 1980’s albums bore out her country background, but with Nashville only offering moderate respect to her talent, Lang began to focus on her other interests in the 1990’s. Lang became vocal about vegetarianism and animal rights. Then, in 1991, she marked her film debut as the star of Salmonberries. Her 1992 album Ingénue showed no country influence, and her regular country backup group, the Reclines, was not credited. The single “Constant Craving” from that album won a Grammy Award and critical acclaim. That year also marked a dramatic change in Lang’s public profile. In an article published in the gay magazine The Advocate, Lang came out of the closet about her lesbian identity. She had always been popular with lesbian audiences, who welcomed the news, and she maintained a straight audience as well. The following year, she appeared on the cover of Vanity Fair dressed as a man. She introduced her friend Melissa Etheridge to the audience at a gay, lesbian, bisexual, and transgender (GLBT) inaugural event for U.S. president Bill Clinton, also in 1993, and Etheridge spontaneously outed herself. Always held to the fringes of country music, Lang was now completely removed from it. A genre associated with conservatism, country was not able to welcome such a radical into its most popular circles. However, Lang’s style had always embraced more than country alone, and her move only increased her success in the 1990’s. In 1993, she wrote and performed the sound track for Even Cowgirls Get the Blues. In 1995, Lang released All You Can Eat, and followed in 1997 with Drag. She made two guest appearances in that year on the sitcom Ellen, when Ellen DeGeneres’s character came out of the closet. As Lang’s style shifted, her core audience moved with her, even while she attracted new fans. She took a three-year sabbatical be-

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tween 1997 and 2000 but returned to music in 2000 with the album Invincible Summer. Impact By refusing to accept the pigeonholes that often come with celebrity, K. D. Lang has made a lasting impact on the music world. Though she does not consider being a lesbian the center of her public persona, and feels frustrated when fans expect her to be emblematic of all lesbians’ struggles, she also regularly expresses support for GLBT causes. Her popular and mainstream success in the 1990’s came alongside her coming out, and her fan base increased dramatically throughout the decade. Further Reading

Allen, Louise. The Lesbian Idol: Martina, kd, and the Consumption of Lesbian Masculinity. Washington, D.C.: Cassell, 1997. Starr, Victoria. K. D. Lang: All You Get Is Me. New York: St. Martin’s Press, 1994. Jessie Bishop Powell See also Country music; DeGeneres, Ellen; Etheridge, Melissa; Homosexuality and gay rights; Music.

■ Laparoscopic surgery Identification Medical procedure Date Introduced to wide use in 1990

Laparoscopic surgery provided a minimally invasive way to perform a variety of medical procedures, allowing for smaller incisions, less pain, and faster recovery time for the patient. Laparoscopic surgery, also known as keyhole, pinhole, band-aid, or minimally invasive surgery, is a method of surgery used for many procedures. First developed in the early part of the 1900’s for gynecological procedures, laparoscopic surgery became widespread as a medical procedure in 1990 with the development of a clip advancer that allowed surgeons to easily clamp vessels without having to pull out the clip applier, reload, and then reintroduce the applier into the patient’s body. This reduced the infection risks associated with laparoscopic surgery. Laparoscopic surgery is most commonly used for cholecystectomies (removal of the gallbladder). This procedure is accomplished by introduc-

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ing the surgeon’s tools through small incisions in the abdomen. The surgeon uses a camera, scissors, clip advancer, and graspers in four small incisions; space for these instruments is created by pumping a small amount of carbon dioxide into the body to inflate the surgical area. These primary instruments are introduced through a hollow tube known as a trocar, which is also sealed at one end to keep the carbon dioxide from escaping the abdominal cavity. Bile is suctioned from the gallbladder, and the organ is removed through an incision in the navel. Appendectomies are performed in a similar manner. Laparoscopic surgery is also used for gynecological procedures, the use for which the method was originally devised. Laparoscopy is used to correct intra-Fallopian tube pregnancies, thus preventing serious damage to the patient’s reproductive system. It has also been used as a fertility treatment, whereby surgeons introduce both eggs and sperm into the Fallopian tubes. This procedure has largely been discontinued because of the successes with in vitro fertilization, which can be accomplished in a noninvasive fashion. Laparoscopy is also used to remove parts of the kidneys and colon, though larger incisions are required for these procedures because of the larger size of the organs. This surgical method is also used to correct hernias and for bariatric procedures in obese patients. Benefits and Risks Laparoscopic surgery has several benefits over more traditional surgical methods, including reduced bleeding, smaller incisions, less pain, and shorter hospital stays. Laparoscopic patients also do not require as much pain medication as traditional surgical patients, reducing the risk of other pulmonary problems associated with some narcotic usage; the reduced bleeding also reduces the possible need for a transfusion. Since small incisions are used, the patient’s internal organs are not as exposed to outside contaminants, reducing the risk of infection. Many laparoscopic procedures can now be performed as outpatient surgeries, allowing patients with no complications to go home the same day of the procedure. Like all surgery, laparoscopic surgery has risks associated with it. Previous scar tissue can prevent surgeons from performing a successful procedure. Some patients with previous pulmonary issues are not able to tolerate the carbon dioxide inflation of

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the abdominal cavity, forcing surgeons to transition from a laparoscopic procedure to a more traditional procedure. Damage to blood vessels is the most common risk in laparoscopic surgery. Patient Recovery Patients who receive laparoscopic surgery are generally able to return home on the same day as the procedure. They can experience some pain, both from the actual incisions and manipulation of internal organs as well as from the carbon dioxide remaining in the abdominal cavity. Both sources of pain dissipate after a few days. Patients may also experience difficulty walking and transitioning from a supine to upright position after the surgery. This also eases after a few days. Full recovery from the procedure can be expected within two to three weeks. Impact Now a common surgical technique, laparoscopy has changed the field of surgery for both surgeons and patients. Surgeons are able to perform surgeries more quickly and with less risk. Patients experience less pain and recover faster; since laparoscopy is typically an outpatient surgery, this medical development has made many procedures routine and allowed patients to feel more comfortable when faced with the prospect of surgery. Subsequent Events In 2007, surgeons at Drexel University used a newly developed form of laparoscopic surgery to remove a patient’s gallbladder. This method used only one incision, rather than the multiple incisions typically needed. Referred to as single port access surgery, this method is accomplished through an incision in the naval with highdexterity surgical implements, resulting in a lack of scarring on the torso. Studies indicate that this method may also result in less pain than more traditional laparoscopic surgeries and reduce recovery time even more. Further Reading

Adler, Robert E. Medical Firsts: From Hippocrates to the Human Genome. Hoboken, N.J.: John Wiley & Sons, 2004. Offers a look at the genesis of laparoscopy in the gynecological field. Kennedy, Michael. A Brief History of Disease, Science, and Medicine: From the Ice Age to the Genome Project. Cranston, R.I.: The Writers’ Collective, 2004. Like Porter’s history, Kennedy’s book offers an overview of medical history but adds more detail to developing technologies.

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Porter, Roy. Blood and Guts: A Short History of Medicine. New York: W. W. Norton, 2004. Porter’s short history offers an overview of medical history, including a section devoted to evolving surgical technology that addresses laparoscopic surgery. Ruggieri, Paul. The Surgery Handbook. Omaha, Nebr.: Addicus Books, 1999. Designed for patients approaching surgery, Ruggieri’s book offers an overview of different types of surgery and the benefits and drawbacks of each procedure. Singer, Sanford S. “Laparoscopy.” In Magill’s Medical Guide. 4th rev. ed. Pasadena, Calif.: Salem Press, 2008. A four-column introductory article on the procedure, noting is uses, complications, and a brief history. Emily Carroll Shearer Health care; LASIK surgery; Medicine; Science and technology.

See also

■ Larry Sanders Show, The Identification Television comedy series Date Aired from 1992 to 1998

As a satirical look at network television, this series presented the medium in a way it had not been seen before. Comedian Garry Shandling had already poked fun at the television business with his first series, It’s Garry Shandling’s Show (1986-1990). Still, the neurotic, self-obsessed character he created for that Showtime series was merely a warm-up for the hugely egotistical yet profoundly insecure antihero of HBO’s The Larry Sanders Show, created by Shandling and Dennis Klein. Featuring Shandling as Larry Sanders, the Johnny Carson-like host of a late-night television talk show, the program shifted between Sanders’s on-air interactions with guest stars, his backstage squabbling with writers and network executives, and his very messy personal life, including a wife (Megan Gallagher) who left him after the first season, a former wife (Kathryn Harrold) almost as neurotic as he, and several girlfriends. Striving to hold both the show-within-the-show and his star together was producer Artie (Rip Torn), who tried to smooth talk his way through various dilemmas. Other regulars included Sanders’s clueless sidekick, Hank Kingsley (Jeffrey Tambor), his

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unfazed assistant (Penny Johnson), the show’s talent booker (Janeane Garofalo), the head writer (Wallace Langham), and Hank’s sexy assistant (Linda Doucett). The broadcast networks had offered comedies about television workplaces, such as The Mary Tyler Moore Show and Murphy Brown, but without the irreverent edge of The Larry Sanders Show. Guests such as Carol Burnett and Robin Williams adopted one persona while on the air and another when the camera was turned off, as the famous dropped their friendly facades. Sanders even had affairs with such guests as Sharon Stone, while Alec Baldwin discussed on the air his relationship with Larry’s former wife and David Duchovny seemed to have a crush on the host. In an era filled with entertainment news programs, The Larry Sanders Show made fun of the carefully controlled images of celebrities by showing behavior that would horrify their publicists. The program dealt not only with show business but also with such topics as homosexuality, racism, religion, and sexual peccadilloes. While broadcast network shows had been doing this since the 1970’s, they usually treated these subjects didactically. Working under the assumption that 1990’s audiences had a greater awareness of irony, The Larry Sanders Show simply saw issues as a source of provocative humor. Impact While earlier HBO series Dream On (19901996) titillated with nudity and sexual situations, The Larry Sanders Show illustrated that the greater freedoms given premium cable programs could result in quality equaling or surpassing that of broadcast network shows. Despite modest ratings, it helped pave the way for such rules-breaking series as Sex in the City, The Sopranos, and, especially Curb Your Enthusiasm. Further Reading

Friend, Tad. “Garry Shandling’s Alter Ego Trip.” Esquire 120, no. 1 (July, 1993): 35-40. Shandling, Garry, and David Rensin. Confessions of a Late Night Talk Show Host: The Autobiography of Larry Sanders as Told to Garry Shandling. New York: Simon & Schuster, 1998. Steinberg, Jacques. “Hey Now: It’s Garry Shandling’s Obsession.” The New York Times, January 28, 2007, p. 1. Michael Adams

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See also Cable television; Comedians; Late night television; Murphy Brown; Seinfeld; Sex and the City; Television.

■ Las Vegas megaresorts Lavish, large casino resorts with spectacular side attractions Place Clark County, Nevada Definition

As approximately a dozen huge new complexes joined or replaced already-famous casino-hotels in the 1990’s, the city’s image was transformed, shedding the last vestiges of its reputation as a place of gangsters and Hollywood hipsters and becoming an international tourist destination and major convention locale. The resulting economic and population growth exceeded that of most other Sun Belt cities. After a sixteen-year period in which no new hotelcasinos were built in Las Vegas, the city’s tourist industry was in a slump in the late 1980’s. New gambling venues had opened in Atlantic City, New Jersey, and were on the verge of opening on many Indian reservations. The downward trends were soon to be reversed in Las Vegas’s future, however. The reversal was both foreshadowed and partly inspired by casino financier Steve Wynn’s trailblazing Mirage megaresort, which opened in November, 1989. It was expected to be a failure. Its cost ($700 million), its over 3,000 hotel rooms, and its “surround scenes” of tropical foliage, an erupting volcano, and a giant glass-enclosed tropical fish habitat behind the reservation desk all added up to a venture that would take one million dollars a day to operate. One year after its opening, the Mirage was showing a more than $200 million profit and inspired an unprecedented wave of further megaresort construction. Next to open was the medieval castle-like Excalibur in June, 1990, a project of the publicity-shy Circus Circus owner William Bennett. Designed to pull in visitors with children as well as history buffs, Excalibur set the stage for a decade-long push of Las Vegas as a “Disney World-plus” vacation spot for families. Despite its mock jousting tournaments and pageantry, like other casinos the Excalibur never lost view of the adult traveler and gambler as its primary audience. October of 1993 saw the advent of Treasure Is-

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plete with canals and a doge’s tower. Built by staunchly conservative billionaire Sheldon Adelson, it opened in May, 1999, before its completion, with many legal problems remaining from construction disputes. Despite the difficult beginning, its control of the former Sands convention space helped it to recover and thrive. The decade’s most spectacular new hotel-casino, the Bellagio, was Wynn’s pet project of the 1990’s. Designed as high-end property, it contained a world-class art collection and an artificial lake with a dancing Mandalay Bay, the Luxor, and the marquee of MGM Grand in Las Vegas. (AP/ water fountain synchronized to muWide World Photos) sic and light. At the far south end of the Strip, another high-end megaland, built by Wynn as a destination for the middleresort, Mandalay Bay, opened in March, 1999. Adjaincome tourist. Fronting the sidewalk was an elabocent to the Luxor, it also was visually striking, with rate enactment of a pirate battle staged nightly. The a gleaming gold facade and, on the inside, a shark new MGM Grand opened on December 18 as the reef and Red Square attraction. largest hotel in the world. Its chief entrepreneur was Altogether, the new megaresorts reinvigorated Wynn’s rival Kirk Kerkorian. Following its predecesLas Vegas tourism, spurred the older casinos to add sor casino’s lead, it incorporated movie themes, with new spectacular attractions and space, and set a high the golden MGM lion guarding the main entrance. standard for the resort city’s building boom that The Luxor, built as an astonishing black glass pyracontinued into the next century. The men who envimid with adjacent sphinx, was another 1993 addisioned and led their construction have become playtion. Its ancient Egyptian theme and high-intensity ers in the national arenas of business and politics. beacon made it immediately famous, even as its guiding financier, Bennett, remained out of the Impact Megaresorts redefined “the Las Vegas exspotlight. perience.” Once a scene of elegantly dressed table games and intimate lounge entertainment, megaLater Megaresorts The next wave of megaresorts resorts became a setting characterized by people in included the European-themed Monte Carlo (June, ordinary clothes gambling at whirring banks of slot 1996), the Stratosphere (April, 1996), and New machines. Lavish spectacle shows replaced many of York-New York (January, 1997). The Stratosphere the more intimate lounge acts, although Vegas enwas an outlier, built at the relatively neglected north tertainment still featured well-known singers and ceend of the Las Vegas Strip by flamboyant promoter lebrities. This latter-day mode—minus most of the Bob Stupak. Its landmark observation tower became show-business glitz—has become the standard model the second-tallest freestanding structure west of the for many casinos that have since opened in other Mississippi. states. The financial success of contemporary Las VeFinally, in the late 1990’s came projects that gas casinos has led some of its entrepreneurs to stirred the travel world’s imagination once again. bring their money and expertise to Macau, off the Paris Las Vegas opened in September, 1999, a projcoast of China, which is aiming to become the “Las ect of Park Place Entertainment’s mogul Arthur Vegas of Asia.” Goldberg, who backed it to invigorate his new diverThe public’s fascination with Las Vegas life is as sified combine of properties. Nearby was the Venestrong as ever. Vegas-set movies and television shows tian, a reincarnation of Renaissance Venice comcontinue to be produced. One other possible long-

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term impact of the city’s economic revival is on the labor movement. Las Vegas maintains a strong labor union presence, and most of the new megaresorts have large numbers of unionized employees, typically belonging to the Culinary Workers Union. The union was strengthened in Nevada by the megaresorts’ growth. Further Reading

Gottdiener, M., Claudia C. Collins, and David R. Dickens. Las Vegas: The Social Production of an AllAmerican City. Malden, Mass.: Blackwell, 1999. A sociological study of the modern city, with attention to the role of the megaresorts and their financing. Moehring, Eugene P. Resort City in the Sunbelt: Las Vegas, 1930-2000. Reno: University of Nevada Press, 2000. A scholarly history of the city’s growth. The epilogue summarizes developments in the megaresort era. Smith, John L. Sharks in the Desert: The Founding Fathers and Current Kings of Las Vegas. Fort Lee, N.J.: Barricade Books, 2005. Biographical sketches of the past and present hard-dealing men who built Las Vegas, by the foremost columnist for the city’s largest newspaper. Emily Alward Architecture; Cirque du Soleil; Hobbies and recreation.

See also

■ LASIK surgery Laser eye surgery that corrects nearsightedness, farsightedness, and astigmatism

Definition

During the 1990’s, LASIK surgery allowed many people with myopia to throw away their eyeglasses or contact lenses after undergoing a quick and relatively easy surgical procedure. Myopia (nearsightedness) is a common visual defect. In the 1950’s, Colombian ophthalmologist José Ignacio Barraquer first suggested that myopia could be solved through surgery on the cornea known as keratomileusis (derived from the Greek keratos, “cornea,” and mileusis, “carving”). Surgeons and researchers were skeptical, however, particularly about the safety of the surgery. In 1977, Richard Troutman

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introduced keratomileusis to the United States, but the procedure remained difficult to perform correctly and easily. In 1989, Lucio Buratto performed the procedure using the excimer laser. Since a laser does not generate heat, it can sculpt extremely thin layers of tissue. Buratto’s innovation allowed the cut to be made with great precision, few complications, little surgical trauma to the eye, and little stress for the surgeon. Moreover, the surgery generally took less than thirty minutes. In 1995, the U.S. Food and Drug Administration (FDA) approved laser-assisted in situ keratomileusis (LASIK) surgery for nearsightedness. By the end of the decade, more complicated LASIK procedures had been approved for hyperopia (farsightedness) and astigmatism, but they were less commonly performed. Myopic keratomileusis aims to flatten the central cornea by increasing the radius of curvature of the anterior cornea by removing a specific amount of stromal tissue within a specific optic zone. Keratomileusis became the first operation by which a piece of an organ was removed, modified, and replaced in its original position. A computer determined the degree of surgery necessary to compensate for the defect in the eye. The surgeon numbed the patient’s eye with drops before placing a suction ring over the eye to secure it and maintain pressure. The patient stared at a beam of light to keep the eye still. Using a device called a microkeratome, the doctor cut a thin layer of the cornea—about 30 percent of its thickness—forming a flap and folding it back. The laser reshaped the flawed corneal tissue, then the flap was placed back over the eye and allowed to heal without stitches over the next six to eight weeks. About 98 percent of people who underwent LASIK surgery subsequently enjoyed 20/40 vision or better. The risk of a vision-threatening complication was less than 1 percent. In the 1990’s, LASIK surgery was expensive, with the cost dropping from $4,000 to $2,000 per eye over the decade. Fees were not always covered by insurance. The high cost was due to extensive training and expensive equipment. Impact Myopia affected about 75 million Americans by 2000. Many people reported that LASIK surgery had changed their lives by giving them the ability to see clearly without corrective lenses. Further Reading

Buratto, Lucio, and Stephen F. Brint. LASIK: Principles and Techniques. Thorofare, N.J.: SLACK, 1998.

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Gimbel, Howard V., and Ellen E. Anderson Penno. LASIK Complications: Trends and Techniques. 3d ed. Thorofare, N.J.: SLACK, 2004. Caryn E. Neumann Laparoscopic surgery; Medicine; Science and technology.

See also

■ Late night television Talk and sketch shows that appeared on network and cable television after 11:30 p.m.

Definition

With the rise of cable television, increased syndication of late night shows, and the retirement of Johnny Carson, suddenly late night was a diverse field providing viewers more choices in late night programming.

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against O’Brien, first featuring Tom Snyder, with Craig Kilborn taking over in 1999. Syndicated Late Night For many years, syndicated shows had tried to rival Johnny Carson, but all had failed. The first to have success against Carson was The Arsenio Hall Show, which premiered in 1989. Featuring the first African American late night host, the show appeared hipper than Carson’s and appealed to a younger audience. In 1992, Hall scored a coup when presidential candidate Bill Clinton appeared on the show. An overwhelming response led to the trend of political candidates appearing on late night television. The Arsenio Hall Show did not maintain long-term success, however, and ended in 1994. Still, the success of Hall’s show encouraged other syndicated efforts, such as the short-lived Dennis Miller Show (1992), The Jon Stewart Show (1993-1995), The Keenan Ivory Wayans Show (1997-1998), The Magic Hour (1998-1999; Magic Johnson), and Vibe (1997; hosted by Sinbad). None of these syndicated shows had the success of Hall’s show.

On May 22, 1992, Johnny Carson aired his last Tonight Show after nearly thirty years of late night ratings dominance on the National Broadcasting Company Cable Television With more households subscrib(NBC). On May 25, Jay Leno replaced him as host ing to cable television, a new outlet for late night of The Tonight Show. Leno’s selection as host of the television emerged. Many of these shows took on a show was controversial, as many critics felt the show political bent: from The Chris Rock Show (1997-2000) should have gone to David Letterman, the host of on Home Box Office (HBO), to Comedy Central’s the show following Carson, Late Night with David The Daily Show and Politically Incorrect. Comedy CenLetterman. Instead, Letterman moved to the Columtral began airing Politically Incorrect in 1993, and the bia Broadcasting System (CBS) to have his own 11:30 show, which mimicked the Sunday morning pundit p.m. show, which initially beat Leno in the ratings and continued to have strong ratings throughout the decade. Another initial problem with Leno’s version of The Tonight Show was that his executive producer, Helen Kushnick, would get into booking wars with other shows: banning any talent from appearing on The Tonight Show if they appeared on another late night show. While this eventually led to her firing, the booking wars hurt Leno’s reputation among other late night hosts, such as Arsenio Hall. When Letterman left NBC, the network replaced him with thenunknown comic Conan O’Brien, and while he struggled at first, his ratings stabilized by the end of the Talk-show host Johnny Carson, right, and the show’s announcer, Ed McMahon, shake decade. Letterman also developed a hands during their final episode of The Tonight Show on May 22, 1992. (AP/ Wide World Photos) 12:30 A.M. show for CBS to go up

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shows, was an immediate hit. Moderated by comedian Bill Maher, and featuring a mix of celebrities, former celebrities, and political figures as panelists, the show was a new take on the political issues of the day. In 1996, Maher left Comedy Central and moved the show to the American Broadcasting Company (ABC) late night. To replace Politically Incorrect, Comedy Central premiered The Daily Show, which initially was a spoof of news shows such as the local news and 20/20. After original host Craig Kilborn left in 1998 to move to CBS late night, new host Jon Stewart began moving the show to the political coverage and satire for which it became known. In addition to these cable late night shows, HBO produced a comedy about fictional late night talk show host Larry Sanders (played by Garry Shandling). The Larry Sanders Show (1992-1998) was a hit for the network throughout the decade. Sketch Comedy Shows Saturday Night Live remained the leader in late night sketch comedy throughout the decade, although it did face competition beginning in 1995 with the premiere of the Fox Network’s MADtv. Unlike other Saturday Night Live challengers over the years, MADtv remained on the air and somewhat successful. Saturday Night Live began the decade strong, with Mike Myers, Dana Carvey, and Phil Hartman leading the cast, but it hit a rough patch in 1995 due to an abrupt turnover in the cast; ratings returned by the end of the decade. During the decade, many films based on Saturday Night Live characters were produced, including Wayne’s World (1992), Wayne’s World 2 (1993), Coneheads (1993), and A Night at the Roxbury (1998). Impact With the increase in late night television programming, a new type of television show emerged. With a mixture of skits, interviews, and political commentary, shows such as The Daily Show and Politically Incorrect reenergized late night and helped usher in the increase of political content on all late night shows, a trend that began in 1992 with Bill Clinton’s appearance on The Arsenio Hall Show. Further Reading

Carter, Bill. The Late Shift: Letterman, Leno, and the Network Battle for Late Night. New York: Hyperion, 1994. Excellent overview of the transition from the Carson era to the battle between Jay Leno and

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David Letterman. Also provides some detail about syndicated efforts at late night, such as Arsenio Hall and Dennis Miller. Jones, Jeffrey. Entertaining Politics: New Political Television and Civic Culture. New York: Rowman & Littlefield, 2005. Jones examines how late night shows such as Politically Incorrect and The Daily Show have had an impact on political conversation in the United States. Shales, Tom, and James Andrew Miller. Live from New York: An Uncensored History of “Saturday Night Live.” Boston, Mass.: Little, Brown, 2002. Interviews with nearly every living person involved with Saturday Night Live throughout its run, including major 1990’s stars Dana Carvey and Mike Myers. Spring, Greg. “Tricky Times for Late-Night Contenders.” Electronic Media 16, no. 49 (December 1, 1997): 55-57. Article looks at a number of syndicated shows going up against Letterman and Carson and discusses their chances at long-term survival. Julie Elliott See also Cable television; Comedians; Larry Sanders Show, The; Rock, Chris; Television.

■ Latin America The Western Hemisphere nations located south of the United States

Definition

The end of the Cold War led to a new strategic focus by the United States in Latin America during the 1990’s. With the collapse of communism in the Soviet Union in 1991 and the consequent end of the Cold War, the United States became the sole world hegemonic power. Relations between the United States and Latin American countries were dominated by the rise of economic liberalization and the push for regional free trade agreements in the 1990’s. Latin American countries felt that the United States should start focusing more on its neighbors, and U.S. foreign policy specialists started debating the role of the United States in the region. The shift in U.S. foreign policy toward Latin America was slow and somewhat irregular. While some countries experienced improved relations with the United States in the 1990’s, others did not.

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The 1990’s were seen as the age of economic liberalism. Trade between the United States and Latin American countries increased considerably during this time, and Latin American countries started trading at a higher rate among themselves as well. In 1991, Brazil, Argentina, Uruguay, and Paraguay established Mercado Común del Sur (MERCOSUR), also known as the Southern Common Market, a trade organization intended to increase economic cooperation among the member nations. The North American Free Trade Agreement (NAFTA) among the United States, Canada, and Mexico came into effect in 1994 and started the trend of multilateral agreements in Latin America. In terms of military involvement, the United States had a limited role in Latin America during the 1990’s. With the exception of the Haiti intervention in 1994, the United States did not intercede with force in any other Latin American country during the decade. However, the long-lasting “war on drugs” continued, with the United States supporting Latin American countries, especially Colombia and Bolivia, in their attempts to stop drug trafficking. Politically, the relationship between the United States and Latin America was stable during the decade. One relevant exception was the strained relationship between the United States and Cuba. The long-lasting embargo on Cuba was codified into law in 1992 and expanded in 1996 with the HelmsBurton Act, which restricted U.S. citizens from doing business in Cuba and restricted all financial support to Cuba coming from U.S. citizens. In general, even when politics was involved, the relationship between the United States and Latin America was dominated by economic interests.

Economic, Military, and Political Relations

Impact U.S. foreign policy toward Latin America in the 1990’s had an impact beyond the decade. The rise of economic liberalization, together with U.S. military relations with Latin American states, has helped shape the national and foreign policies of most Latin American countries. With the end of the Cold War, the need for regional collaboration seemed to push the United States toward Latin America, with the focus on economic collaboration instead of military intervention.

Further Reading

Brewer, Stewart. Borders and Bridges: A History of U.S.Latin American Relations. Westport, Conn.: Praeger Security International, 2006. A good starting point to understanding of U.S.-Latin America relations before, during, and after the 1990’s. Chambers, Edward J., and Peter H. Smith, eds. NAFTA in the Millennium. La Jolla, Calif.: Center for U.S.-Mexican Studies, University of California, San Diego, 2002. Looks at the challenges NAFTA experienced in the 1990’s and at the future of the institution. A great collection of works regarding many aspects of NAFTA. Girard, Philippe R. Clinton in Haiti: The 1994 U.S. Invasion of Haiti. New York: Palgrave MacMillan, 2004. Focuses on the political career of Haitian president Jean-Bertrand Aristide and the foreign policy dynamics between Haiti and the United States. Haney, Patrick J., and Walt Vanderbush. The Cuban Embargo: The Domestic Politics of American Foreign Policy. Pittsburgh: University of Pittsburgh Press, 2005. Outlines the history of the Cuban embargo and discusses more recent issues surrounding it. Hartlyn, Jonathan, Lars Schoultz, and Augusto Varas, eds. The United States and Latin America in the 1990’s: Beyond the Cold War. Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 1993. Outlines the changes in U.S.-Latin America relations after the Cold War. Wiarda, Howard J. “Benign Neglect: American Foreign Policy in Latin America in the Post Cold War Era.” In The Crisis of American Foreign Policy. Lanham, Md.: Rowman & Littlefield, 2006. Focuses on the shift in U.S. foreign policy after the Cold War, with an emphasis on the economic policy prescriptions of the Washington Consensus and their consequences. Pedro dos Santos See also Albright, Madeleine; Bush, George H. W.; Business and the economy in the United States; Christopher, Warren; Clinton, Bill; Conservatism in U.S. politics; Foreign policy of the United States; Haiti intervention; Illegal immigration; Immigration to the United States; Latinos; Liberalism in U.S. politics; Mexico and the United States; North American Free Trade Agreement (NAFTA).

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■ Latinos Americans originating from Spanish-speaking countries

Identification

During the 1990’s, the United States experienced an unprecedented increase in the Latino population, affecting the country’s demographics, educational system, politics, and culture. The term “Latino” is often used interchangeably with “Hispanic.” Both terms are used to identify persons of Latin American and Caribbean heritage living within the United States. The term “Hispanic” is derived from the Iberian Peninsula, which contains Spain and Portugal, the two countries which colonized Latin America. Some people dislike this term, believing it ignores Latin American indigenous heritage. The term “Latino” refers instead to Latin America, including countries that largely share the Spanish language, the Catholic religion, and a colonialist past. The countries of origin for Latinos in the United States include all of the Latin American and Caribbean countries. The majority of Latinos can trace their heritage to Mexico. At the end of the twentieth century, Americans of Mexican descent made up 66 percent of the Latino population, Central and South Americans as a group made up 14.5 percent, Puerto Ricans 9 percent, and Cubans 4 percent. Immigration During the 1990’s, the Latino population grew from an estimated 22.4 million in 1990 to 32.8 million in 2000. The influx of immigrants can be attributed to a number of factors. Beginning in the 1980’s and continuing into the 1990’s, Mexico experienced economic hard times. Their national currency, the peso, dropped to half of its previous value. The North American Free Trade Agreement (NAFTA), effective January 1, 1994, led to the failure of many family farms in Mexico and Central America, as they could not compete with tariff-free corn and grains grown by corporate farms in the United States. Factory work that was available in Mexico, producing goods for the U.S. market, was at a poor rate of pay and often entailed unhealthy living and working conditions. Similar jobs in the United States would pay a worker ten times the salary received in Mexico. Instead of lowering the number of Latin American immigrants entering the United States, as predicted by President Bill Clinton,

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NAFTA may have actually increased the number of Mexicans crossing the border. At the end of the twentieth century, one in eight people in the United States were Latino. Latinos live in urban areas, with 91.5 percent living in metropolitan areas, compared with 77 percent of non-Hispanic whites. States with the largest Latino populations are California, Texas, Arizona, Nevada, and New Mexico. Depending on their country of origin, Latinos tend to reside in different areas of the country. Mexicans are likely to settle in the West and the South, Cubans in the South (Florida), and Puerto Ricans in the Northeast (New York City and New Jersey). Latinos are more likely than their white nonHispanic counterparts (by a two-to-one ratio) to be employed in service occupations and as operators and laborers. In 1990, median family income for a Latino family was $25,064, and as of 1999 it had risen to $31,663. Median family income for a white nonHispanic family in 1999 was $54,121. The Latino population in the United States is much younger than that of the white non-Hispanic population. Latino immigrants are likely to be young and of childbearing years, quite different from the baby-boomer age demographics of the white non-Hispanic population in the United States. As of 1999, only 14.5 percent of Latinos were age forty-five to sixty-four, as compared to 24 percent of white non-Hispanics. Latinos sixty-five years or older made up only 5.3 percent of the Latino community, compared with 14 percent of the non-Hispanic whites. Latinos fell largely into two younger age groups, twenty-five to forty-four-year-olds (29.5 percent) and those less than eighteen (35.7 percent). This large number of childbearing-age Latinos, with a birthrate almost double that of the nonLatino population, resulted in a large second generation of school-age Latinos. This second generation differed from their parents in many ways: They were born with U.S. citizenship and mastered the English language at a much younger age than their parents. These two factors gave the second generation opportunities in education and employment that were not available to their parents.

Demographics

Education Education became the key for improving the quality of life for recent immigrant populations. In the 1970’s, 30 percent of Latinos graduated from high school, rising to 40 percent in the 1980’s,

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50 percent in 1990, and 57 percent by 1999. Despite this increase, Latinos still fell below the national graduation rate. This lower rate of graduation can be attributed to language barriers and cultural differences. Students arriving in the United States with minimal English language skills are often held back, thus lengthening the years required to graduate. Cultural norms for education in the United States are different from those of Mexico, where an eighthgrade education may be considered sufficient for joining the labor force. Many Latino students leave high school to join the workforce to contribute to the household income. Schools throughout the United States struggled in the 1990’s with how to best serve the growing Latino student population, particularly recent immigrant, Spanish-speaking students. Bilingual education versus English-only instruction was often at the center of this debate. In the bilingual classroom, students received instruction in either Spanish or English, depending on the language in which they were most proficient. If they were Spanish speakers, additional tutoring was provided for improving English language skills. This allowed students to maintain the learning pace of their peers. Many schools did not have a sufficient number of bilingual teachers to offer bilingual instruction. In spite of the fact that researchers consistently found that bilingual education was effective in teaching students with limited English proficiency, it was opposed by its critics, who deem that bilingual education hinders students’ Englishspeaking skills and assimilation into American culture. More radical opponents believe that bilingual education weakens national identity and divides citizens along ethnic lines. English-only classrooms offered instruction solely in English, supplemented by English-language tutoring. This method typically resulted in Latino children being held back a grade level or performing at a lower level than their peers. For those Latino students who did graduate from high school, additional obstacles existed for continuation into higher education. Many states required undocumented residents to pay out-of-state tuition, even if they had lived in the state for most of their lives and graduated from a state high school. Even for students born in the United States with full citizenship, it proved difficult to apply for and receive financial aid if their parents were undocumented residents. By 1999, only one in eleven Latinos had completed four years or more of college.

According to the U.S. Census Bureau, the number of Latinos who spoke Spanish in their homes rose from 17.3 million in 1990 to 28.1 million in 2000, an increase of nearly 62 percent. About half of these Spanish speakers said that in addition to Spanish, they speak English “very well.” Seven counties in Texas were cited as having more than 80 percent of the population speaking a language other than English, essentially making Spanish the common language for commerce, education, and municipal government. Such statistics were regarded as a potential threat to some members of the English-speaking population. They perceived this trend as threatening to the American culture and lobbied to have laws passed that would declare English as a state’s official language. In the early 1990’s, eighteen states had such laws. On August 1, 1996, the House of Representatives passed a bill that made English the official language of government, creating much debate about what it means to be an American citizen and the importance of the English language in defining American culture.

English-Only Movement

As the Latino population grew in the 1990’s, so did their political power. In 1990, President George H. W. Bush appointed Antonia Coello Novello to serve as the surgeon general of the United States, the first women and the first Latino to serve in this office. In the same year, President Bush also appointed Jimmy Gurlu as an assistant attorney general of the United States. In 1992, President Bill Clinton appointed more Latinos to senior-level positions than any other president in history. Clinton appointees included Henry G. Cisneros as secretary of housing and urban development and Federico Peña as secretary of transportation. Clinton later appointed Peña to serve as the secretary of energy in his second term, beginning in 1997. After Peña’s resignation in 1998, another Latino, Bill Richardson (later elected governor of New Mexico), was named secretary of energy.

Politics

Impact The growth of the Latino population was in direct proportion to the United States’ dependence on cheap, undocumented labor. Halting the flow of immigrants from Mexico would result in higher prices for produce, meat, and goods sold in the United States. The cultural impact of Latinos was evident in the popularity of Latino entertainers, mu-

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sic, dance, and food. Latinos benefit both financially and socially from education and proficient English language skills. In 2003, the U.S. Census Bureau announced that Latinos had officially become the largest minority in the United States, exceeding the number of African Americans. It is estimated that by the year 2020, Latinos will made up 25 percent of the U.S. population.

Subsequent Events

Further Reading

Bean, Frank D., et al. At the Crossroads: Mexico and U.S. Immigration Policy. Lanham, Md.: Rowman & Littlefield, 1997. Examines the economic situation in Mexico, Mexican immigration, and U.S. immigration policy. Diaz Soto, Lourdes, ed. The Praeger Handbook of Latino Education in the U.S. Westport, Conn.: Praeger, 2007. Issues of Latino education, arranged in alphabetical order by topic. Gonzalez, Juan. Harvest of Empire: A History of Latinos in America. New York: Penguin Books, 2000. History of Latinos and Latino immigration in the United States. Padilla, Amanda M., et al. “The English-Only Movement: Myths, Reality, and Implications for Psychology.” American Psychologist, 46, no.2 (February, 1991): 120-130. Article contains the history of English-only advocacy in the United States and issues relating to the bilingual education debate. Also discusses the necessity of bilingual communication in providing health care to patients with limited English skills. Therrien, Melissa, and Roberto R. Ramirez. “The Hispanic Population in the United States: Population Characteristics.” U.S. Census Bureau. http:// www.census.gov/ prod/2001pubs/p20-535.pdf. Summary of demographic trends for Latinos in the United States during the 1990’s. Elizabeth Cramer See also Alvarez, Julia; Demographics of the United States; Illegal immigration; Immigration Act of 1990; Immigration to the United States; Latin

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America; Mexico and the United States; North American Free Trade Agreement (NAFTA); Novello, Antonia Coello; Race relations; Selena; Sosa, Sammy; TV Martí.

■ Lee, Spike American film director, writer, producer, and actor Born March 20, 1957; Atlanta, Georgia Identification

In the 1990’s, Lee was the most visible, vocal, and successful of a growing group of African American filmmakers. He became the first African American producer-director to achieve international fame, working within mainstream American cinema. Born Shelton Lee, the feisty youngster was dubbed “Spike” by his family, who moved to Brooklyn when Lee was a child. New York City would later figure as the primary setting for most of his controversial and innovative films. After graduating from a traditionally black college, Lee received graduate film training at New York University’s prestigious film school. His thesis project won a student academy award and was soon followed by a hugely successful feature, She’s Gotta Have It (1986), made on a shoestring budget. The explosive Do the Right Thing (1989), written, produced,

Spike Lee in 1991. (AP/Wide World Photos)

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directed, and starring Lee, was nominated for the Palme d’Or at the Cannes Film Festival and propelled him into instant celebrity status, a situation the young entrepreneur embraced with gusto. During the 1990’s, Lee’s prodigious output included nine theatrical films—Mo’ Better Blues (1990), Jungle Fever (1991), Malcolm X (1992), Crooklyn (1994), Clockers (1995), Girl 6 (1996), Get on the Bus (1996), He Got Game (1998), and Summer of Sam (1999); several television specials; an important documentary, Four Little Girls (1997); numerous television and film appearances; and a series of television commercials for Nike, in which his on-screen presence made him instantly recognizable to millions. One of only four American directors selected to participate in the French project Lumière et compagnie (1995) commemorating the one hundredth anniversary of the film camera, Lee enjoyed a respect previously unknown to African American filmmakers. Many of Lee’s films explore contemporary race relations and tensions within African American communities with a bluntness rare in commercial American cinema. Lee’s most ambitious, thoughtful, and mature work, Malcolm X, is a masterpiece of biographical film. In it, the director drew a deeply moving performance of the black leader from Denzel Washington, a frequent player in Lee’s films. Often criticized for the limitations of female characters in his screenplays, Lee collaborated with Pulitzer Prize-winning playwright Suzan Lori-Parks in creating a narrative of a young woman’s difficult search for success in Girl 6, with disappointing results. In Get on the Bus, Lee returned to his strengths, deftly dramatizing the political, personal, and class differences among a (fictional) group of African American men traveling to the (actual) Million Man March in Washington, D.C. Lee’s film topics have expanded, while his stylistic verve, his talent for directing actors, his ear for lively dialogue, and his fierce attention to the inequities of urban life continue. Impact Through his production company, Forty Acres and a Mule, Lee provided international audiences with compelling contemporary stories told from an African American perspective, provided professional opportunities for a generation of African American actors and technical crew, and opened the doors of Hollywood for other directors of color.

Further Reading

Aftab, Kaleem, and Spike Lee. Spike Lee: That’s My Story and I’m Sticking to It. New York: W. W. Norton, 2005. Blake, Richard Aloysius. Street Smart: The New York of Lumet, Allen, Scorsese, and Lee. Lexington: University Press of Kentucky, 2005. Donalson, Melvin. Black Directors in Hollywood. Austin: University of Texas Press, 2003. Carolyn Anderson See also Academy Awards; African Americans; Basketball; Crown Heights riot; Film in the United States; Hip-hop and rap music; Independent films; King, Rodney; Los Angeles riots; Million Man March; Police brutality; Race relations; Washington, Denzel.

■ Left Behind books Identification Best-selling Christian fiction series Authors Tim LaHaye (1926) and Jerry B.

Jenkins (1949-

)

These novels depict characters surviving from the Rapture until the Second Coming of Jesus Christ. The blend of conservative Christian content and action-adventure plots made these books widely popular, though controversial. Tim LaHaye and Jerry B. Jenkins began a literary industry when they published Left Behind: A Novel of the Earth’s Last Days in 1995. Tribulation Force: The Continuing Drama of Those Left Behind followed in 1996, then Nicolae: The Rise of Antichrist in 1997, Soul Harvest: The World Takes Sides in 1998, and Apollyon: The Destroyer Is Unleashed and Assassins: Assignment— Jerusalem, Target—Antichrist, both in 1999. Published by Tyndale House, the series grew to include sixteen adult novels (including three prequels) and sold more than fifty million copies; seven novels reached number one on The New York Times best-seller list. In addition, a series for children sold ten million copies. Related items included audiobooks, movies, graphic novels, study guides, and even clothes and collectibles. This success was a first for books with content that is staunchly Christian and conservative. Specifically, the novels espouse dispensational premillennialism, an interpretation of the Bible— namely 1 Thessalonians 4 and the book of Revela-

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tion—developed by John Nelson Darby in the 1800’s. After the Rapture, in which good Christians are taken into Heaven, those remaining on Earth, those “left behind,” suffer ordeal after ordeal and the coming of the Antichrist until Jesus Christ returns to Earth and time ends. LaHaye and Jenkins take the biblical prophecies literally, including menaces such as stinging insects with human faces. The novels follow several characters with whom the reader is encouraged to identify. Jenkins, who did the writing based on LaHaye’s notes, has written over 150 books, both fiction and nonfiction, and has worked for the Moody Bible Institute, at which LaHaye also worked. LaHaye encouraged televangelist Jerry Falwell to found the Moral Majority and sat on its board of directors; he also founded various Christian conservative activist and lobbying groups himself. Although the series appealed mostly to Christians, many did not agree with all the doctrines in the books. Some have criticized the books as being antiCatholic. Others have criticized the depictions of violence, guns, and car chases, and the implied message that solving the world’s problems is unnecessary—or, as in the case of the Antichrist promising world peace, actually bad.

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See also Falwell, Jerry; Grisham, John; King, Stephen; Publishing; Religion and spirituality in the United States.

■ Lewinsky scandal U.S. president Bill Clinton’s sexual dalliance with White House intern Monica Lewinsky leads to his impeachment trial Date 1995-1999 The Event

Only one president before Clinton, Andrew Johnson, was impeached. In both cases, the Congress that demanded impeachment failed to obtain the conviction that would have resulted in removal from office. During his presidency, Bill Clinton was dogged by allegations of scandal related to his private life and legendary womanizing. At the beginning of his second term of office in January, 1997, independent counsel Kenneth Starr was involved in investigating potentially damaging charges, launched in 1994, that Clinton and his wife, Hillary, had enriched themselves substantially before they came to Washington through their involvement in the Whitewater affair,

Impact Perhaps fueled by the approach of the millennium, the popularity of the novels brought attention to Christian publishers, whose books often sold very well but did not generally get covered by bestseller lists. The series also gave a concrete depiction of Darbyist end times events, as believed by a significant and vocal American minority. While many critics simply dismissed the books, others examined them as religious statements, for their cultural significance and as signs of popular tastes in literature. Further Reading

Forbes, Bruce David, and Jeanne Halgren Kilde, eds. Rapture, Revelation, and the End Times: Exploring the Left Behind Series. New York: Palgrave Macmillan, 2004. A collection of essays, academic but generally readable. Shuck, Glenn W. Marks of the Beast: The Left Behind Novels and the Struggle for Evangelical Identity. New York: New York University Press, 2004. Thorough, especially about the theological context. Bernadette Lynn Bosky

Former White House intern Monica Lewinsky. (AP/Wide World Photos)

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“I Misled People” On August 17, 1998, President Bill Clinton testified before a grand jury regarding his relationship with former White House intern Monica Lewinsky. That evening, he delivered a televised address to the nation in which he admitted that he and Lewinsky had a relationship and explained why he was reluctant to acknowledge it: Indeed, I did have a relationship with Miss Lewinsky that was not appropriate. In fact, it was wrong. It constituted a critical lapse in judgment and a personal failure on my part for which I am solely and completely responsible. . . . I know that my public comments and my silence about this matter gave a false impression. I misled people, including even my wife. I deeply regret that. I can only tell you I was motivated by many factors. First, by a desire to protect myself from the embarrassment of my own conduct. I was also very concerned about protecting my family. The fact that these questions were being asked in a politically inspired lawsuit, which has since been dismissed, was a consideration, too. In addition, I had real and serious concerns about an independent counsel investigation that began with private business dealings twenty years ago, dealings I might add about which an independent federal agency found no evidence of any wrongdoing by me or my wife over two years ago. The independent counsel investigation moved on to my staff and friends, then into my private life. And now the investigation itself is under investigation. This has gone on too long, cost too much and hurt too many innocent people. Now, this matter is between me, the two people I love most—my wife and our daughter—and our God. I must put it right, and I am prepared to do whatever it takes to do so.

a real estate deal that smacked of unethical if not illegal machinations. Monica Lewinsky became a White House intern in July, 1995. In that position, she would normally have had, at best, minimal direct contact with the president. Lewinsky, however, lost no opportunity to ingratiate herself with Bill Clinton. On November 15, 1995, their relationship became sexual and was carried on in the Oval Office and in a pantry adjoining it. Realizing

Lewinsky’s Internship and Affair

the potential hazards of such an affair, Clinton, on April 5, 1996, had Lewinsky transferred to the Pentagon. Their sexual contact, however, continued sporadically until March 29, 1997, when Clinton ended it decisively. Lewinsky once harbored the delusion that Clinton would eventually leave his wife and marry her. When it became obvious that this would not happen, she felt badly wronged. She knew few people in Washington but had developed a friendship with one of her coworkers, Linda Tripp, whose hatred of Clinton was undisguised. Tripp referred to him as “the creep,” a term Lewinsky ultimately adopted in referring to the president. As Lewinsky increasingly felt herself being pushed out of Clinton’s life, Tripp became her closest confidant. They had long telephone conversations in which Lewinsky spoke frankly of the affair she had been carrying on with the president. Tripp, delighted at being able to do anything she could to discredit Clinton, recorded all of Lewinsky’s telephone conversations.

The Paula Jones Affair In the midst of Bill Clinton’s clandestine affair with Lewinsky, a woman by the name of Paula Jones emerged from Clinton’s Arkansas past and filed a suit against the president for sexual harassment. Clinton, needing to deal with this accusation, employed Robert Bennett as his counsel and made every effort to forestall this suit until he left office, arguing that defending himself would distract him from dealing with pressing affairs of state that confronted him as president. In January, 1996, the U.S. Court of Appeals refused to allow the president to delay answering the charges against him, so in 1997, Jones v. Clinton came before the U.S. Supreme Court. The president did not testify in person but, in deference to the demands upon him, was permitted to respond in writing to a series of questions submitted by Kenneth Starr’s office.

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The Paula Jones diversion loomed over Clinton as the Lewinsky scandal began to unfold. When asked whether he had engaged in sex with Lewinsky, Clinton denied, eventually under oath, that such a relationship ever existed. Finally, however, Starr, with Tripp’s help, was able to substantiate the existence of the sexual relationship that Clinton had repeatedly denied. He tracked down eleven people in whom Lewinsky had confided that such an affair had occurred. Tripp made available to the prosecutors recordings of her telephone conversations with Lewinsky. She also revealed that Lewinsky had in her possession a blue dress with spots on it. The prosecution obtained this dress, had DNA tests run on the stains, and determined categorically that these stains were semen that was identified unquestionably as the president’s.

Incontrovertible Evidence

Starr reported his findings to Congress on September 9, 1998. The Judiciary Committee of the House of Representatives, after refusing a Democratic request that the president merely be censured, issued four articles of impeachment, of which two, perjury and obstruction of justice, were approved by the House. Clinton’s impeachment trial began on January 7, 1999, and ended on February 12. Neither of the articles brought against Clinton received the requisite majority vote that would have paved the way for his removal from office, although the charge of obstruction of justice received a split 50-50 Senate vote.

Impeachment

Impact One cannot underestimate the impact of the Monica Lewinsky scandal on American politics. Although President Clinton was not convicted of the charges lodged against him and removed from office, the scandal was largely responsible for the Republican victories in the following presidential and congressional elections. Al Gore, in no way involved in the scandals, suffered from the fallout they occasioned. The impeachment and the subsequent hearings were a decisive factor in George W. Bush’s winning the 2000 presidential election against Gore. The Religious Right and other conservative voting blocs reaped considerable political capital from the Lewinsky scandal. Further Reading

Busby, Robert. Defending the American Presidency: Clinton and the Lewinsky Scandal. New York: Pal-

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grave, 2001. A thorough assessment of the Lewinsky scandal, with detailed information about the impeachment and subsequent trial. Clinton, Bill. My Life. New York: Alfred A. Knopf, 2004. Clinton reflects with considerable objectivity on the Lewinsky affair and its effects on his presidency. Good, Howard, ed. Desperately Seeking Ethics: A Guide to Media Conduct. Lanham, Md.: Scarecrow Press, 2003. In chapter 2, “Reporters or Peeping Toms? Journalism Ethics and News Coverage in the Clinton-Lewinsky Scandal,” Tanni Haas analyzes the morality of how the press covered the ClintonLewinsky scandal and the overall moral effects of such coverage. In chapter 8, “A New Class of Heroes: Fallout from the Clinton-Lewinsky Scandal,” Clinton Collins considers the effects of the scandal on public morality. Sternberg, Robert J. Why Smart People Can Be So Stupid. New Haven, Conn.: Yale University Press, 2002. Chapter 6 focuses clearly and concisely on Clinton’s dalliance with Monica Lewinsky and its aftermath, including Clinton’s trial and impeachment. R. Baird Shuman Clinton, Bill; Clinton, Hillary Rodham; Clinton’s impeachment; Clinton’s scandals; Elections in the United States, midterm; Elections in the United States, 1996; Scandals; Starr Report; Troopergate; Whitewater investigation.

See also

■ Liberalism in U.S. politics A political ideology that tends to support progress, civil rights and liberties, reform, social justice, and using the power of the federal government to improve the general welfare of the nation

Definition

During the 1990’s, liberalism experienced both successes and defeats in elections, public opinion, and public policy. In 1990, Republican president George H. W. Bush asked a Democratic-controlled Congress to authorize the use of military force against Iraq after that country, led by President Saddam Hussein, began a full-scale invasion of Kuwait on August 2, 1990. Antiwar interest groups and most liberal Democrats in Congress opposed Bush’s request, but enough Dem-

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ocrats joined Republicans in Congress to pass the Gulf War resolution in 1991. With the rapid increase in the size of the federal budget deficit during the 1980’s and early 1990’s, competing proposals from both major parties dominated discussions of domestic spending. Liberals failed to substantially increase or create new programs to address poverty, urban decay, child care, and health care for uninsured Americans. While public opinion in the United States increasingly expressed support for more liberal policies on public education and environmental protection—that is, greater federal spending and regulations—it also expressed more conservative positions on such issues as deficit reduction, tax cuts, abortion rights, and the death penalty. Liberals hoped that the end of the Cold War meant significantly lower defense spending, decreased use of military power in foreign policy, and a greater emphasis on foreign policy focusing on human rights, the AIDS epidemic, and environmental protection. Nonetheless, it was mostly liberal Democrats in Congress who pressured Bill Clinton’s administration to use military intervention for humanitarian reasons in Haiti, Somalia, and Kosovo. Believing that American voters unfavorably associated liberalism with high taxes, excessive welfare spending, and weakness on crime and national defense, President Clinton did not publicly identify himself as a liberal. Instead, he ran for the 1992 Democratic presidential nomination and in the general election as a self-proclaimed centrist New Democrat who promised deficit reduction, a middle-class tax cut, tougher crime control, and an end to “welfare as we know it.” With most voters dividing their support between Bush and independent presidential candidate H. Ross Perot, Clinton was elected president with 43 percent of the popular vote. Democrats lost seats but retained control of Congress in the 1992 elections. In 1993, House Republicans led by representative Newt Gingrich of Georgia, conservative interest groups like the National Rifle Association (NRA) and the American Medical Association (AMA), the Religious Right, and conservative media commentators portrayed Clinton and the Democratic Congress as insincere, big government liberals who were increasing taxes and regulations and threatening

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traditional moral values. In particular, these conservative critics opposed Clinton’s policy efforts on gun control, national health insurance, and gays in the military. Meanwhile, some liberals, especially those from the environmental protection and labor movements, opposed Clinton’s support for the North American Free Trade Agreement (NAFTA). They feared that NAFTA would be detrimental to global environmental protection and unionized bluecollar jobs in the United States. Likewise, some African American liberals were dismayed by Clinton’s greater emphasis on crime control and prison expansion than on antipoverty programs. These political conditions contributed to the Republicans winning control of Congress in the 1994 midterm elections. The Republican victory, however, enabled Clinton to distance himself from liberal Democrats and behave as a moderate power broker between liberals and conservatives in Congress on such issues as budget negotiations, deficit reduction, antiterrorist legislation, and welfare reform. Clinton’s moderate, compromising leadership style became known as “triangulation” and was the major theme of his reelection campaign strategy in 1996. Polls indicated that most Americans agreed with Clinton’s moderate leadership and his portrayal of Republicans, especially Speaker of the House Newt Gingrich, as unreasonable, right-wing ideologues. Clinton easily defeated Republican presidential nominee Bob Dole in the 1996 presidential election. While many Americans credited Clinton with overseeing a prosperous economy and steadily reducing the budget deficit, some liberals in Congress and among interest groups like the Children’s Defense Fund and Greenpeace were disappointed that Clinton had not attempted or accomplished more policy progress on poverty, environmental protection, and urban decay. Nevertheless, liberals staunchly supported Clinton when Republicans impeached, tried, but failed to convict Clinton in 1998-1999 on legal issues stemming from his sexual affair with White House intern Monica Lewinsky. Polls and voting behavior in the 1998 midterm elections indicated that there was a clear, growing division of cultural and moral values among Americans that was highlighted by the issues of impeachment and adultery. These value differences between pro-impeachment and anti-impeachment Americans became a major influ-

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ence on voting behavior in the 2000 presidential election. Impact Liberalism in U.S. politics during the 1990’s was most successful in promoting stronger environmental protection compared to the 1980’s; racial, ethnic, and gender diversity in Clinton’s executive and judicial appointments; and the retention of noncash medical and nutritional benefits in the Personal Responsibility and Work Opportunity Reconciliation Act of 1996. Nonetheless, the Republicans controlled Congress during most of the 1990’s after they negatively associated the early Clinton administration with liberalism. Liberals failed to achieve national health insurance and to reject or revise NAFTA and other free trade agreements in order to pressure U.S. trading partners to improve their environmental, labor, and human rights policies. In the 2000 presidential campaign, some liberals supported the Democratic presidential candidacy of Bill Bradley and later the Green Party presidential candidacy of Ralph Nader as alternatives to Vice President Al Gore’s Democratic candidacy. Further Reading

Drew, Elizabeth. Showdown: The Struggle Between the Gingrich Congress and the Clinton White House. New York: Simon & Schuster, 1996. An analysis of the conflicts and compromises between Clinton and the Republican Congress, especially on welfare reform and budget negotiations. Germond, Jack W., and Jules Witcover. Mad as Hell: Revolt at the Ballot Box, 1992. New York: Warner Books, 1993. A detailed account of the events, candidates, and issues of the 1992 presidential election. Woodward, Bob. The Choice. New York: Simon & Schuster, 1996. A study of the events, issues, and policies during Clinton’s first term as president, including his relationship with liberals. Sean J. Savage Abortion; Albright, Madeleine; Bush, George H. W.; Clinton, Bill; Clinton’s impeachment; Conservatism in U.S. politics; Crime; Don’t ask, don’t tell; Elections in the United States, midterm; Elections in the United States, 1992; Elections in the United States, 1996; Foreign policy of the United States; Gingrich, Newt; Ginsburg, Ruth Bader; Gore, Al; Gulf War; Gun control; Haiti intervention; Health

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care reform; North American Free Trade Agreement (NAFTA); Kosovo conflict; Lewinsky scandal; Reno, Janet; Republican Revolution; Somalia conflict; Welfare reform.

■ Life coaching A philosophy emphasizing unconditional support that aims to motivate individuals to achieve their life goals and life satisfaction

Definition

Life coaching began in the early 1990’s as a way of helping individuals maximize their life satisfaction and potential. Life coaching began as a movement to help chief executive officers (CEOs), top executives, and athletes achieve their professional goals. In the 1990’s, the coaching principles were expanded to everyday individuals seeking advice on how to become more successful in life. Life coaching seeks to use individuals’ strengths to help them achieve what they want in life. It draws heavily from schools of psychology, executive coaching, career development, sports, and behavior modification. Life coaches help their clients define and achieve their goals in the areas of career, interpersonal relationships, fiscal management, and internal motivation. The practice of life coaching has been criticized as the application of psychotherapy without adequate therapeutic training. There is no official regulatory body for life coaching; one does not have to have any specific educational training to use the title of “life coach.” In the late 1990’s, the International Coach Federation (ICF) and International Association of Coaching (IAC) were established and started training programs for life coaches. Life coaches state that what they do is similar to psychotherapy, but with important differences: They do not treat mental illness, they are present-oriented rather than past-oriented, and their interventions are not aimed at “fixing” individuals or their problems. They see their approach as a supportive partnership with their clients and liken their interventions to preparing an athlete for the intensive race ahead through a process of inquiry, personal discovery, and acceptance of personal responsibility. Life coaching can be done in person or over the phone. Sessions typically last from thirty to sixty minutes and typically start at $100 per hour.

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Impact In the late 1990’s, life coaching was recognized as its own unique popular discipline. Books, magazines, and television shows began to discuss and explore the impact of life coaching as a pop cultural phenomenon. The discipline, its scope of topical areas, and the number of individuals it reached continued to grow in the early twenty-first century. Further Reading

Ellis, David B. Life Coaching: A New Career for Helping Professionals. Rapid City, S.Dak.: Breakthrough Enterprises, 1998. Hudson, Frederic M. The Handbook of Coaching: A Comprehensive Resource Guide for Managers, Executives, Consultants, and Human Resource Professionals. New York: Jossey-Bass, 1999. Miedaner, Talane. Coach Yourself to Success: 101 Tips from a Personal Coach for Reaching Your Goals at Work and in Life. Chicago: Contemporary Books, 2000. Richardson, Cheryl. Take Time for Your Life: A Personal

Coach’s Seven-Step Program for Creating the Life You Want. New York: Broadway Books, 1998. Katherine M. Helm See also

Feng shui; Psychology.

■ Limbaugh, Rush Identification Conservative radio talk-show host Born January 12, 1951; Cape Girardeau, Missouri

The voice of conservatism in the 1990’s, Limbaugh changed the course of talk radio for the foreseeable future. Rush Limbaugh began taking courses at Southeast Missouri State University in 1969. After one year, he left college to pursue a career in radio. During the 1970’s, Limbaugh worked as a disc jockey at several Top 40 radio stations in Pennsylvania and Kansas City, Missouri. In 1979, he took a position as promoter of the Kansas City Royals baseball team and

House Speaker Newt Gingrich, right, gestures as conservative radio talk-show host Rush Limbaugh speaks on a phone during a taping break on NBC’s Meet the Press in November, 1995. Limbaugh helped transform talk radio into one of the most politically influential forms of mass media. (AP/Wide World Photos)

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dropped out of the radio business. In 1984, Limbaugh returned to radio as a talk-show host at KFBK, an AM station in Sacramento, California. After just over three years in Sacramento, Limbaugh began searching for a way to break into the national market. With help from friend and colleague Bruce Marr, Limbaugh began broadcasting nationally from New York on WABC on August 1, 1988. Limbaugh’s audience size in 1988 was approximately 250,000 listeners, and his show was carried on fifty-six stations. Limbaugh’s format was unlike any other on talk radio at the time. He did not have guests or do interviews. Rather, he addressed what he deemed relevant social and political issues as they occurred. He was told that such a format would not work, but it made him the voice of the political conservative movement by the early 1990’s. In 1992, Limbaugh began airing his “Morning Update,” a ninety-second blurb on AM radio during morning rush hour. In 1993, he was inducted into the Radio Hall of Fame. By the end of the 1990’s, Limbaugh’s audience had grown from 250,000 per week to approximately twenty million, and the number of stations that carried him had grown to nearly six hundred. From 1992 through 1996, Limbaugh had a syndicated half-hour television show, which he used as another vehicle to provide commentary on contemporary politics and society. He also authored two books in the 1990’s, The Way Things Ought to Be (1992) and See, I Told You So (1993), both of which reached number one on The New York Times best-seller list. Impact Rush Limbaugh was credited with helping the Republicans win control of Congress in 1994. By the end of the 1990’s, Limbaugh’s show was the most popular talk radio show in America. Further Reading

Barker, David C. Rushed to Judgment: Talk Radio, Persuasion, and American Political Behavior. New York: Columbia University Press, 2002. Limbaugh, Rush. See, I Told You So. New York: Pocket Books, 1993. _______. The Way Things Ought to Be. New York: Pocket Books, 1992. AWR Hawkins III Abortion; Christian Coalition; Conservatism in U.S. politics; Elections in the United States, midterm; Elections in the United States, 1992; Elec-

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tions in the United States, 1996; O’Reilly, Bill; Republican Revolution; Right-wing conspiracy; Talk radio; Television.

■ Line Item Veto Act of 1996 Federal law authorizing the president to exercise a limited line-item veto Date Signed into law April 9, 1996; declared unconstitutional June 25, 1998 Identification

Congress, unable to control its own spending, permitted the president to cancel specific items within appropriations and tax bills after signing the bill into law. A line-item veto permits the executive to veto parts of a bill without vetoing the entire bill. In the 1980’s, with the annual deficit and national debt rising, President Ronald Reagan proposed that the president be given the authority to discourage wasteful spending and reduce the national debt. Although Reagan’s efforts were unsuccessful, the executive was subsequently given this power, however briefly, by the Line Item Veto Act of 1996. The act, which went into effect on January 1, 1997, authorized the president to “cancel” individual spending and tax benefit provisions contained in a bill within five days after signing the bill into law. On January 2, 1997, two representatives and four senators filed a lawsuit asserting that the law unconstitutionally strengthened the presidency. Although the federal district court declared the law unconstitutional, the U.S. Supreme Court, in Raines v. Byrd, dismissed the lawsuit, holding that the litigants did not have standing. Shortly thereafter, President Bill Clinton canceled one provision in the Balanced Budget Act of 1997 and two provisions of the Taxpayer Relief Act of 1997. These provisions, if not canceled, would have benefited two public hospitals in New York City and a potato farmers’ cooperative in Idaho. These parties filed suit in federal district court, which declared the statute unconstitutional. The Supreme Court granted expedited review. In Clinton v. City of New York, decided on June 25, 1998, the justices held that the cancellation provisions set forth in the Line Item Veto Act of 1996 violated the presentment clause of Article I, section 7, clause 2 of the Constitution. Writing for six members of the Court, Justice John Paul Stevens noted that there were important differences between the presi-

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Worcester, Courtney. “An Abdication of Responsibility and a Violation of a Finely Wrought Procedure: The Supreme Court Vetoes the Line Item Veto Act of 1996.” Boston University Law Review 78 (December, 1998): 1583-1608. Richard A. Glenn See also Balanced Budget Act of 1997; Clinton, Bill; National debt; Supreme Court decisions.

■ Literature in Canada Definition

Drama, prose, and poetry by Canadian

authors During the 1990’s, most of the writers who had helped to establish Canada as an important literary center continued to publish outstanding works. Moreover, new writers appeared on the scene, bringing new ideas and subjects into an already rich literary culture. President Bill Clinton signs the Line Item Veto Act at the White House on April 9, 1996. (AP/Wide World Photos)

dent’s “return” of a bill pursuant to Article I, section 7 and the president’s cancellation authority pursuant to the Line Item Veto Act—most notably that the Constitution expressly authorized the president to play a role in the process of enacting statutes, but was silent on the subject of unilateral presidential action that either appealed or amended parts of duly enacted statutes. Although the Congress was willing to grant such sweeping powers to the president, the Court found it unconstitutional. Impact The impact of the Line Item Veto Act was negligible. The act was struck down less than eighteen months after it went into effect. Prior to that, the line-item veto was employed eleven times to strike eighty-two provisions from the federal budget. Since Clinton v. City of New York, Congress has considered, but never proposed, a constitutional amendment that would grant line-item veto power to the president. Further Reading

Dewar, Helen, and Joan Biskupic. “Line-Item Veto Struck Down; Backers Push for Alternative.” The Washington Post, June 26, 1998, p. A01.

Inevitably, the decade saw the departure of some writers who had played important roles in Canada’s literary renaissance. Robertson Davies (1913-1995) was a journalist, critic, playwright, and novelist who had won international renown for his two trilogies. His novels Murther and Walking Spirits (1991) and The Cunning Man (1994) were the first two volumes in a projected trilogy dealing with modern Canada. Another literary leader who passed away during the 1990’s was Anne Szumigalski (1922-1999), an awardwinning poet and the founder of the influential Saskatchewan Writers Guild. Many established writers produced award-winning works of fiction during the decade. Mordecai Richler (1931-2001) again found in Montreal ample subjects for satire. His novel Barney’s Version (1997) was awarded the Giller Prize. The English Patient (1992), by Michael Ondaatje, won the Trillium Award, shared the Booker Prize, and was made into a film that in 1997 won nine Academy Awards, including Best Picture. Timothy Findley (1930-2002), whose experience as actor and playwright is evident in his highly dramatic novels, published four works during the 1990’s. Two of them, The Piano Man’s Daughter (1995) and Pilgrim (1999), which was Findley’s most complex work, were finalists for the Giller Prize. Several well-known writers ventured into new areas. After three decades as a master of the short story, Alistair MacLeod tried his hand at long fiction.

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His first novel, No Great Mischief (1999), which like his short stories focuses on Cape Breton and the Gaelic heritage, won critical acclaim and the Trillium Award. Like MacLeod, Rudy Wiebe was known for his association with a particular place, the Canadian West, and the people who live there. Like many of his earlier works, his eighth novel, A Discovery of Strangers (1994), shows how English explorers were unwilling to understand the peoples they encountered. Another book that Wiebe published during the decade, however, was very different from anything he had written previously. Wiebe became interested in Yvonne Johnson, a descendant of the famous Cree chief Big Bear who had written Wiebe from prison. The result was a coauthored work, Stolen Life: The Journey of a Cree Woman (1998). It was a finalist for the 1998 Governor General’s Award for Nonfiction. Canada’s female writers, too, were often extremely versatile. Anne Hébert (1916-2000) published L’Enfant chargé de songes (1992; Burden of Dreams, 1994), which won the Governor General’s Award for French-Language Fiction, and three years later brought out an impressive volume of poetry. Another of Canada’s most famous writers, Margaret Atwood, won a Trillium Award for a collection of short stories, Wilderness Tips (1991), shared a Trillium Award for her psychological novel The Robber Bride (1993), and two years later again shared a Trillium Award, this time for a poetry collection titled Morning in the Burned House (1995). Atwood’s Alias Grace (1996), which won the Giller Prize, is a historical novel based on an 1843 murder case. Though the plotline is about the title character’s guilt or innocence, the theme of the novel is the question of identity. In works by Canada’s male writers, the identity issue most often involves responding to an ethnic heritage or seeking one’s place in a diverse and everchanging society. For female writers, the issue of identity is even more complex. After centuries of being confined to rigid roles, many women were attempting to find out who they really were. It is hardly surprising that Canada’s female writers made the search for personal identity one of their major themes. There is no shortage of examples. Wendy Lill’s play Sisters (pb. 1991) focuses on the denial of personal identity to the women assigned to teach in resi-

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dential native schools. Similarly, Sandra Birdsell’s fiction shows how women were deprived of a sense of self in an isolated, rural society. Her novel The Chrome Suite (1992) is about a young woman’s venture into the past in an attempt to understand the person she has become. Most of the women in the short fiction of Alice Munro and in the novels of Carol Shields (1935-2003) also search for their identities. Both writers attained international recognition early in the decade. Munro’s Friend of My Youth (1990) won a Trillium Award, and Shields’s novel The Stone Diaries (1993) won the Governor General’s Award and the Pulitzer Prize. Variety and Diversity During the 1990’s, all Canadian writers looked at broad psychological issues. Shields’s Larry’s Party (1997) points out how the outward appearance of a forty-seven-year old man belies the richness of his inner life. The Selected Stories of Mavis Gallant (1996) emphasizes the feelings of alienation that make Gallant’s characters so unhappy. In her third novel, Away (1993), which brought her a shared Trillium Award, Jane Urquhart showed how the O’Malleys’ Irish heritage haunts them in their Canadian home. In Urquhart’s The Underpainter (1997), which won the Governor General’s Award for English-Language Fiction, an elderly artist realizes that by repeatedly choosing art instead of real life, he has become alienated from humanity and even from his art. A number of new writers gained prominence during the 1990’s. Bonnie Burnard won the Giller Prize for her family saga A Good House (1999); Yann Martel wrote a novel called Self (1996), the story of an unexpected gender change; and Diane Schoemperlen produced a woodcut-illustrated short-story collection, Forms of Devotion (1998), which won the Governor General’s Award for English-Language Fiction. Other new writers explored their own cultural identities, among them the dramatist Djanet Sears, whose play Harlem Duet (pb. 1997) won a Governor General’s Award in 1998; the Caribbean poet Marlene Nourbese Philip; the Japanese Canadian authors Joy Kogawa and Kerri Sakamoto; the Chinese Canadian writer Wayson Choy, who shared a Trillium Award for his novel The Jade Peony (1995); and M. G. Vassanji, an Indian from East Africa, who won the Giller Prize for The Book of Secrets (1994). Another fiction writer, Rohinton Mistry, established an international reputation by re-creating the world he

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had known in his native Mumbai. His novel Such a Long Journey (1991) won the Governor General’s Award for English-Language Fiction and the Trillium Award. A Fine Balance (1995) won numerous awards, including the Giller Prize. Both books were short-listed for the Booker Prize. A Fine Balance was the first Canadian work to be chosen by the popular talk-show host Oprah Winfrey for her book club. Impact The 1990’s were characterized by consolidation of the cultural gains that had been made during the previous decades, by an increasing acceptance of experimental forms, and by expansion of the subject matter of Canadian literature. Though female writers continued to recall past oppression and to emphasize the need for a sense of personal identity, they were now moving on to other subjects, including specific social problems, such as poverty, or philosophical issues, including the need to define the national spirit. During the decade, talented new writers from every province and from other parts of the world were appearing on the literary scene. At the end of the decade, it was evident that the reputation of Canada as the home of great literature would continue into the twenty-first century. Further Reading

Gilbert, Paula Ruth, and Roseanne L. Dufault, eds. Doing Gender: Franco-Canadian Women Writers of the 1990’s. Madison, N.J.: Fairleigh Dickinson University Press, 2001. A useful volume about an important group of writers. Bibliography and index. Kruk, Laurie. The Voice Is the Story: Conversations with Canadian Writers of Short Fiction. Oakville, Ont.: Mosaic Press, 2003. Revealing discussions with ten writers, all with achievements in several genres. Biographical notes. Indexed. Pearlman, Mickey, ed. Canadian Women Writing Fiction. Jackson: University Press of Mississippi, 1993. Ten essays by American and Canadian scholars, pointing out their use of such themes as family, place, memory, and identity. Includes an excellent introduction by the editor. Schaub, Danielle, ed. Reading Writers Reading: Canadian Authors’ Reflections. Edmonton: University of Alberta Press, 2006. Comments about books and reading by twenty-three writers, along with Schaub’s photographic portraits. Toye, William, ed. The Concise Oxford Companion to Canadian Literature. 2d ed. Don Mills, Ont.: Oxford University Press, 1997. Updates earlier refer-

ence works with entries on new writers and recent publications. Williamson, Janice, ed. Sounding Differences: Conversations with Seventeen Canadian Women Writers. Toronto: University of Toronto Press, 1993. Each interviewee comments on her craft, on gender issues, and on her impact on social change. Includes a biographical note on each writer and an excerpt from her work. Rosemary M. Canfield Reisman Audiobooks; Book clubs; Canada and the United States; Literature in the United States; Minorities in Canada; Mistry, Rohinton; Ondaatje, Michael; Poetry; Publishing; Theater in Canada.

See also

■ Literature in the United States Definition

Drama, prose, and poetry by American

authors In this first fully electronic decade of American history and culture, the 1990’s revealed a new sense of energy and growth in several areas of literature. Literature in the last decade of the nineteenth century was accused of decadence, escapism, and/or extreme aestheticism, reflecting, critics argued, the world-weariness that came with the end of those tumultuous hundred years. The literature of the 1890’s came to be known as the “yellow decade” in England (through writers like Oscar Wilde and Bram Stoker), the “decadent decade” in France (in Arthur Rimbaud and Paul Verlaine), and the “mauve decade” in the United States (a term coined by Thomas Beer in a 1926 study of the culture surrounding writers like Henry James, Stephen Crane, and Ambrose Bierce). The 1990’s, by contrast, was a period of renewed energy and production in American literature. New literary movements flourished, writers explored different genres and forms, and whatever end-of-the-century despair that appeared was soon lost in a rush of new voices. Some of this energy can be attributed to changes in the literary marketplace. The 1990’s were the first electronic decade in American culture, the first full decade when readers could go online to read books (on Project Gutenberg, for example) and order them (from Amazon.com), find out about literary matters, and even talk to authors. Audiobooks be-

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came more popular, for travel and as a substitute for reading. At the same time, large chains (notably Borders and Barnes & Noble) could do mass marketing of books that smaller bookstores could not afford. Finally, book clubs proliferated during the period, both nationally (Oprah Winfrey’s book club sold hundreds of thousands of copies of recommended books) and locally. Publishers began to insert readers’ “book club guides” at the end of books they hoped might become book club choices. The decade began with the completion of a work begun years before: John Updike published the last volume in his Rabbit quartet, opened with Rabbit, Run in 1960, with Rabbit at Rest, which won both the Pulitzer Prize and the National Book Critics Circle Award for 1990. Other writers who had dominated the previous decades of the twentieth century were also active: Philip Roth won the National Book Award in 1995 with Sabbath’s Theater, and the Pulitzer for American Pastoral in 1997. The prolific Joyce Carol Oates produced Because It Is Bitter and Because It Is My Heart in 1990, and followed with another two dozen volumes of fiction, drama, and poetry, including the novels Foxfire: Confessions of a Girl Gang (1993), What I Lived For (1994), We Were the Mulvaneys (1996), and Broke Heart Blues (1999). T. C. Boyle published six volumes in the decade, including The Road to Wellville (1993) and The Tortilla Curtain (1995). Barbara Kingsolver (Animal Dreams, 1990, Pigs in Heaven, 1993, and The Poisonwood Bible, 1998), Carol Shields (The Stone Diaries, 1993, which won both the Pulitzer Prize and the National Book Critics Circle Award in 1994), Mark Helprin (A Soldier of the Great War, 1991), Larry McMurtry (Comanche Moon, 1997), and other established writers continued their fictional efforts through the decade. At the same time, newer writers were emerging, both traditional fictionists and those who were expanding literary boundaries. Jane Smiley emerged to national prominence with A Thousand Acres, a novel set on a farm in Iowa but built around Shakespeare’s King Lear (pr. c. 1605-1606), and won the National Book Critics Circle Award and the Pulitzer Prize in 1991. Annie Proulx followed two years later with the best-selling The Shipping News, which took both the Pulitzer and the National Book Award for 1993. Richard Ford won the Pulitzer for Independence Day (1995), a sequel to The Sportswriter (1986). Charles Frazier won the National Book Award for Long Fiction

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Cold Mountain (1997), a novel about the Civil War that became a runaway best seller, and Michael Cunningham won the Pulitzer for The Hours (1998), a novel based on Virginia Woolf’s Mrs. Dalloway (1925). While traditional novelists continued to dominate the decade, writers who more often used the nonlinear and fragmentary tools of postmodernism continued to grow in popularity. Cormac McCarthy won the National Book Award and the National Book Critics Circle Award with All the Pretty Horses in 1992, a novel set in Mexico in the middle of the twentieth century and the first volume in what would become known as The Border Trilogy, with the publication of The Crossing in 1994 and Cities of the Plain in 1998, novels that sometimes lose traditional story lines in linguistic labyrinths. McCarthy became a major American writer during the decade and began to attract not only faithful readers but also scholarly interest. Don DeLillo had already established himself as a major postmodernist with his novel White Noise in 1985, and he confirmed that rank with Mao II (1991), a novel mixing themes of terrorism and writing that won the PEN/Faulkner Award, and Underworld (1997), a novel that covers baseball, nuclear threat, and much more in a dazzling fusion of history and fiction. Jonathan Lethem gained national prominence, and a National Book Critics Circle Award, with Motherless Brooklyn in 1999, and he became one of a group of younger writers (such as William Vollman and Michael Chabon) bending traditional genres—here, for example, using detective fiction (as he had used science fiction in earlier novels) in a mainstream work. Finally, Art Spiegelman broke all bounds with his Maus (volume 2, 1991), a graphic novel that pours family history and the Holocaust into a comic book format with cats, mice, and other animals as characters. The book was given a Pulitzer Prize Special Award. Short Fiction The 1990’s can also be noted as the decade when the short story was infused with new life. Raymond Carver died in 1988, but his popularity continued to grow during the 1990’s, inspiring numerous other practitioners of short fiction with his minimalist, realist style. The decade saw the publication of important collections of stories from Robert Olen Butler (A Good Scent from a Strange Mountain, 1992, which won the Pulitzer Prize in 1993), John Updike (The Afterlife, and Other Stories, 1994), Grace

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Paley (The Collected Stories, 1994), Rick Bass (In the Loyal Mountains, 1995), Andre Dubus (Dancing After Hours, 1996), Gina Berriault (Women in Their Beds, which won the National Book Critics Circle Award in 1996), Andrea Barrett (Ship Fever, and Other Stories, which took the National Book Award in 1996), Ann Beattie (Park City, 1998), and Alice Munro (The Love of a Good Woman, which won the National Book Critics Circle Award in 1998). Annie Proulx published Close Range: Wyoming Stories in 1999, a collection that included the story “Brokeback Mountain,” which was made into a film in 2005. The New York Times at the end of 1999 included twenty-nine shortstory collections in a list of 130 “Notable Books” of the previous year. The emergence of short, short fiction (also called sudden fiction, or stories of 5001000 words) also increased the popularity of the form. The genre that after World War II (with the death of The Saturday Evening Post, Collier’s, Scribner’s Monthly, and other popular magazines that had showcased short fiction through its heyday of the 1920’s through the 1940’s) was dying was suddenly given new life. The Multicultural 1990’s The 1990’s consolidated the movements toward inclusion and diversity in American letters that had been building during preceding decades. Both popular and academic books reflected a new awareness of the importance of issues of gender, race, age, and social class, and the very tone of the discussion of American literature was changing. To read but one barometer, The Heath Anthology of American Literature appeared in 1990 and quickly became one of the most popular college textbooks in the field. Its second (1994) and third (1998) editions only confirmed its importance in demonstrating the diversity and breadth of American literature, which earlier anthologies had defined much more narrowly. In the second volume (covering 1865-present) of that third edition, for example, earlier women writers (Anzia Yezierska, Tillie Olsen) were rediscovered, there was a new section on “The New Negro Renaissance” of 1920-1940, there were samples of the poetry carved in the walls of Angel Island detention center in San Francisco Bay by Chinese immigrants, and there were contemporary examples of writing from every major ethnic group in the United States. The Heath Anthology only clarified what was already taking place in the literary marketplace and in bookstores nationwide, and other

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textbook publishers soon followed Heath’s lead. Whatever question there was of the importance of women’s writing in American culture was certainly settled by the 1990’s. Best sellers by Oates, Proulx, Smiley, Shields, Alice McDermott (Charming Billy won the National Book Award in 1998), and others had long been commonplace. To cite just The New York Times best-seller lists from the 1990’s, women dominated in every genre of literature, from celebrity memoirs (Madonna, Dolly Parton), through romances and historical fiction (Jean M. Auel, Judith Krantz, Mary Higgins Clark—even Alexandra Ripley writing a sequel to Margaret Mitchell’s 1936 Gone with the Wind), thrillers (Anne Rice), mysteries (Sue Grafton, Sara Paretsky), humor (Erma Bombeck), political commentary (Molly Ivins), feminist theory (Deborah Tannen, Susan Sontag, Susan Faludi), and photography (Annie Leibovitz). Gender had become an accepted category of literary discussion by the 1990’s, and there appeared collections of women’s writing, even women’s humor (such as The Penguin Book of Women’s Humor, 1992), as well as numerous anthologies of writings by gay and lesbian writers. The more narrowly defined American literature of a half century earlier, which had assumed male heterosexual hegemony, had been broadened in all directions. Ethnic American Literature The 1990’s also confirmed the power and possibility of ethnic American literature. The emergence of modern ethnic literature accompanied the fight for identity of various groups in the second half of the twentieth century. While there had certainly been ethnic American writers earlier, theirs had often been isolated, exceptional contributions. When the movements for ethnic recognition began in the second half of the twentieth century—first the Civil Rights movement for black Americans in the 1950’s, and then the American Indian Movement in the 1960’s—they were accompanied by, or helped to create, new waves of ethnic literature. By the 1990’s, the essential place of ethnic writing in American culture was clearly established. The Cuban American writer Oscar Hijuelos took the Pulitzer Prize in fiction with The Mambo Kings Play Songs of Love (1989) in 1990, the African American novelist Charles Johnson won the National Book Award the same year for Middle Passage, and Ernest Gaines followed with the National Book Critics Circle Award

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for A Lesson Before Dying in 1993. Asian American writers played a major part in the cultural climate of the 1990’s. Amy Tan had emerged as a major force with The Joy Luck Club in 1989—still on the best-seller lists in 1990—and she followed with The Kitchen God’s Wife in 1991 and The Hundred Secret Senses in 1995. Another Chinese American writer, Ha Jin, ended the decade by winning the National Book Award for Waiting in 1999, while Jhumpa Lahiri took the Pulitzer Prize in 2000 for her stories collected in Interpreter of Maladies (1999). Between Tan and Lahiri, Asian American writers were everywhere: Chinese American writers Gish Jen, Gus Lee, David Wong Louie, Sandra Tsing Loh, and Fae Myenne Ng, among others, established themselves in fiction, and other Asian groups represented in the decade included Filipino American Jessica Hagedorn (Dogeaters, 1990), Japanese American Cynthia Kadohata (In the Heart of the Valley of Love, 1992), Indian American Bharati Mukherjee (The Holder of the World, short stories, 1993), and Korean American Chang-Rae Lee (Native Speaker, 1995). Native American writers likewise emerged as a force in the decade. Louise Erdrich had already gained a critical reputation in the 1980’s with novels like Love Medicine (1984), but she consolidated her place in the 1990’s with The Bingo Palace (1994), Tales of Burning Love (1996), and The Antelope Wife (1998). With her husband, Michael Dorris, she also published The Crown of Columbus (1991). Dorris collected his short stories a few years later in Working Men (1993). Other Native American writers included Gerald Vizenor (The Heirs of Columbus, 1991), Sherman Alexie, whose collection of short stories, The Lone Ranger and Tonto Fight in Heaven, immediately gained critical attention in 1993, and Leslie Marmon Silko, who published Gardens in the Dunes in 1999. African American writers were similarly busy during the 1990’s. Toni Morrison followed her awardwinning Beloved (1987) with Jazz in 1992, in the same year published Playing in the Dark: Whiteness in the Literary Imagination, and followed in 1998 with the novel Paradise. Terry McMillan produced best sellers in Waiting to Exhale (1992) and How Stella Got Her Groove Back (1996). Likewise, Walter Mosley established himself in the 1990’s not only as one of the premier writers of mystery fiction (in Devil in a Blue Dress, for example, in 1990) but also as a writer who could deal with issues of race and urban poverty (Al-

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ways Outnumbered, Always Outgunned, 1997, and Walkin’ the Dog, 1999). Jamaica Kincaid (born in Antigua) published Lucy in 1990 and The Autobiography of My Mother in 1996. Edwidge Danticat (born in Haiti) published a collection of short stories, Krik? Krak! in 1995 and the novel The Farming of the Bones in 1998. Latino fiction was likewise active. Sandra Cisneros followed her critically acclaimed The House on Mango Street (1984) with Woman Hollering Creek (1991), while Dagoberto Gilb published The Magic of Blood in 1993. Helena Maria Viramontes succeeded her 1985 collection of short stories, The Moths, with Under the Feet of Jesus (1995), a young adult novel concerning the plight of migrant workers in California’s Central Valley. Isabel Allende published the popular Daughter of Fortune in 1999. Dominican American Junot Díaz was one of a number of Caribbean writers to appear in the decade, with the short-story collection Drown (1996). Dominican American Julia Alvarez published the popular How the García Girls Lost Their Accents in 1991, Oscar Hijuelos followed up his 1990 Pulitzer with The Fourteen Sisters of Emilio Montez O’Brien (1993) and Mr. Ives’ Christmas (1995), and Christine Bell (also Cuban American) published the novel The Perez Family in 1990. Middle Eastern writers who published in the decade included Jordanian writers Joseph Geha (Through and Through, short stories, 1990) and Diana Abu-Jaber (Arabian Jazz, 1993), and Meena Alexander (Fault Lines, 1993) and Chitra Banerjee Divakaruni (The Mistress of Spices, 1997, and Sister of My Heart, 1999), both from India. The emergence of new ethnic literature actually spurred recognition of older traditions that had been taken for granted. There was renewed interest in Irish American writers (T. C. Boyle, Maureen Howard, William Kennedy, Mary Gordon, Alice McDermott), Italian American authors (Gay Talese, Mario Puzo, John Fante), and Jewish American writers (Saul Bellow, Cynthia Ozick, Norman Mailer). Globalism and Regionalism The increasing diversity in American literature could be felt in other ways as well. While American readers were discovering the breadth and depth of the American ethnic mix, they were at the same time expanding their horizons in the recognition of writers from around the globe. Writers in English had always been popular, and this included in the 1990’s British writers like A. S. Byatt

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(Possession, 1990) and J. K. Rowling (the Harry Potter series, 1997-2007), and also meant Canadian writers like Margaret Atwood (Alias Grace, 1996) and Alice Munro, Indian writers like Arundhati Roy (The God of Small Things, 1997) and Rohinton Mistry (A Fine Balance, 1995), and South African writers like J. M. Coetzee (Disgrace, 1999). The 1990’s saw best sellers in the United States by world writers like Umberto Eco, whose Il pendolo di Foucault (1988; Foucault’s Pendulum, 1989) was still a best seller in 1990, Gabriel García Márquez (El general en su laberinto, 1989; The General in His Labyrinth, 1990), and Laura Esquivel (Como agua para chocolate, 1989; Like Water for Chocolate, 1992). At the same time that the literary marketplace was welcoming world writers, American writers were celebrating their regional roots. In the tumultuous pressures of the 1990’s, in other words, readers were becoming both more “macro” and more “micro” in their literary tastes, expanding their reading interests worldwide, yet homing in on familiar, local geography. Of writers already cited, Jane Smiley and Louise Erdrich celebrate their Midwestern roots, Larry McMurtry and Cormac McCarthy focus on Texas and the West, Barbara Kingsolver on Arizona, Rick Bass on Montana, Charles Frazier on North Carolina, and Don DeLillo on New York City. Such geographical identifications are almost endless. Garrison Keillor mines Minnesota in his stories of Lake Wobegon, William Kennedy upstate New York, Rick Moody (The Ice Storm, 1994) Rhode Island, John Edgar Wideman (Two Cities, 1998) Pittsburgh and Philadelphia, Jim Harrison (The Road Home, 1998) Nebraska, Kent Haruf (Plainsong, 1999) the American prairie, and David Guterson (Snow Falling on Cedars, 1994) and Annie Dillard (The Living, 1992) the Northwest. There have always been writers drawing stories from their rich southern heritage, and in the 1990’s they included Lee Smith (The Devil’s Dream, 1992), Dorothy Allison (Bastard Out of Carolina, 1992), and Wendell Berry with stories and novels of his native Kentucky. Nonfiction: The Creative Memoir Possibly the most noticeable literary movement in the 1990’s occurred not in fiction, but in nonfiction, with the emergence of the creative memoir as a distinct and popular form. Memoirs and autobiographies have been popular for centuries, but in the 1990’s the creative memoir began to emerge as a distinct genre

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and to compete with fiction in its storytelling power. Fiction and nonfiction had crossed lines before in the 1960’s and 1970’s with the New Journalism, a form of news reporting that borrowed fictional techniques (such as point of view and stream of consciousness) to present a more intimate portrait of a subject. In the 1990’s, this was clearly occurring in the memoirs that began to dominate nonfiction best-seller lists. Frank McCourt’s Angela’s Ashes (1996), his gripping story of growing up in Cork, Ireland, and emigrating to America, was on the New York Times best-seller list for over a year. Mary Karr’s The Liars’ Club (1995) and Rick Bragg’s All Over but the Shoutin’ (1997) had attributes similar to McCourt’s volume: an almost incredible amount of detail about childhood hardship, and a compelling, novelistic plot. (A few years later, this line between fiction and nonfiction would explode when James Frey’s 2003 memoir, A Million Little Pieces, chosen for Oprah Winfrey’s book club, was exposed to be significantly fictionalized.) Memoirs appeared in the 1990’s from all ranks: from political figures (Jimmy Carter in 1997) to actors and entertainers (Katherine Hepburn in 1992, Howard Stern in 1993). Ethnic autobiographies also proliferated in the decade, in part because the memoir gives the ethnic writer the perfect literary form to write about such themes as assimilation and cultural conflict, dual identity, and generation gaps. Judith Ortiz Cofer published Silent Dancing: A Partial Remembrance of a Puerto Rican Childhood (1990); Elmaz Abinader Children of the Roojme: A Family’s Journey from Lebanon (1990), Victor Villaseñor Rain of Gold (1991), and Mary Crow Dog Lakota Woman (1990). Richard Rodriguez published Days of Obligation: An Argument with My Mexican Father in 1992, and Luís J. Rodriguez his chronicle of L.A. gang life in Always Running (1993); Henry Louis Gates, Jr., published Colored People (1994), and Bell Hooks Bone Black (1997); Gustavo Pérez Firmat published Next Year in Cuba in 1995, and Chinese American Shirley Geok-lin Lim Among the White Moon Faces in 1996. A new interest in people’s lives is evident in the 1990’s, as well as a fresh desire to tell the story of becoming American. These impulses resulted in a large number of creative memoirs. Impact Changes in the literary marketplace—the ways in which books were distributed, read, and reviewed—helped to stimulate literary discussion and

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dissemination in the 1990’s. Like the poetry and drama of the decade, a new energy infused the fiction and nonfiction of the 1990’s and spilled over into the opening years of the twenty-first century, in literature that was more open, inclusive, and alive. Further Reading

Heilbrun, Carolyn G. “Contemporary Memoirs: Or, Who Cares Who Did What to Whom?” The American Scholar 68, no. 3 (Summer, 1999): 35-42. Discussion of the development of recent women’s memoirs as a unique genre. Lauter, Paul, et al., eds. The Heath Anthology of American Literature: Volume E—Contemporary Period, 1945 to the Present. 5th ed. Lexington, Mass.: Heath, 2005. Still the best sampling of the diverse range of contemporary American literature. Millard, Kenneth. Contemporary American Fiction: An Introduction to American Fiction Since 1970. New York: Oxford University Press, 2000. Fresh analysis and interpretation of more than thirty texts, including recent works by Roth, Updike, Jen, and Alexie. Muller, Gilbert H. New Strangers in Paradise: The Immigrant Experience and Contemporary American Fiction. Lexington: University Press of Kentucky, 1999. Hijuelos, Kincaid, Tan, and Mukherjee are among the many ethnic writers Muller discusses against the historical and sociological forces shaping recent American life. Prosser, Jay, ed. American Fiction of the 1990’s. New York: Routledge, 2008. Collection of essays on individual writers and geographical, ethnic, technological, and sexual topics by a range of academic writers. Rowe, John Carlos, ed. Post-nationalist American Studies. Berkeley: University of California Press, 2000. Nine contributors propose new approaches to the study of multiethnic American culture. Schlager, Neil, and Josh Lauer, eds. Contemporary Novelists. Detroit: St. James Press, 2001. Massive project profiles hundreds of contemporary novelists, including many Americans. David Peck Albee, Edward; Alvarez, Julia; Amazon .com; Angelou, Maya; Angels in America; Audiobooks; Barry, Dave; Book clubs; Censorship; Chick lit; Children’s literature; Faludi, Susan; Grafton, Sue; Grisham, John; Harry Potter books; Kelley, Kitty;

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King, Stephen; Kingsolver, Barbara; Komunyakaa, Yusef; Literature in Canada; McCourt, Frank; McMillan, Terry; McNally, Terrence; Morrison, Toni; Palahniuk, Chuck; Poetr y; Project Gutenberg; Proulx, Annie; Rice, Anne; Rock Bottom Remainders, The; Roth, Philip; Sontag, Susan; Spoken word movement; Strand, Mark; Theater in the United States; Updike, John; Vagina Monologues, The; Wallace, David Foster.

■ Lollapalooza The Event Touring music festival Date 1991-1997

Unlike previous rock festivals, Lollapalooza represented a 1990’s sensibility that music festivals should be accessible to audiences in a variety of locations. The eclectic tour also helped define the word “alternative” in relation to a lifestyle and not just a music genre. At the time of the first Lollapalooza tour in 1991, American rock festivals had been around for decades. In the post-MTV 1990’s, fans were more discriminating and desired another outlet besides the aging music-video format to keep them in touch with the music that defined the last generation to come of age in the twentieth century. Lollapalooza was the creation of Perry Farrell, singer for the alternative rock band Jane’s Addiction and Porno for Pyros. Although often thought of as a rock festival, Lollapalooza included a range of acts, including the hip-hop group Arrested Development, the rap-metal band Rage Against the Machine, and rap artist Ice-T’s metal band, Body Count. The precursor to Lollapalooza was A Gathering of the Tribes, a two-day music festival in California. That event paved the way for the event that Lollapalooza eventually became, with a broad range of styles offered by the performers—from Queen Latifah to Iggy Pop. Like Lollapalooza, it demonstrated itself to be a reflection of a number of American subcultures. As a result, the final form of Lollapalooza was that of a traveling show, one that would draw in hundreds of thousands of music fans from across the United States and Canada. While the musical acts featured at Lollapalooza represented a range of styles, what they

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all had in common was an edginess that made them relevant to audiences who were growing increasingly dissatisfied with the standard Top 40 music that dominated the industry. As a result, rappers and rock artists alike found Lollapalooza to be a venue in which they could perform to the largest number of receptive fans. The festival was not only for established acts to connect or reconnect with a youthful contingent but also for new bands, giving them the opportunity to build a fan base. Most notably, Rage Against the Machine, which had been heard in few places outside of the West Coast prior to Lollapalooza 1992, gained a much higher profile after the tour. The band earned a great deal of radio play as result of festivalgoers from around the United States responding positively to the music. In terms of genres, although hip-hop and techno acts were definitely a part of Lollapalooza, the festival itself was characterized and earned a reputation as a grunge, alternative rock show. Each year from 1991 to 1997, grunge acts figured prominently, although in 1991 and 1992 hip-hop acts from Ice-T and Body Count to Cypress Hill to Arrested Development and others were major draws to the festival. The tone of Lollapalooza in the 1990’s was set by

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bands such as Red Hot Chili Peppers, Tool, Stone Temple Pilots, Violent Femmes, and Jane’s Addiction. One of the successes of Lollapalooza was that listeners of nonstandard pop music finally found a music event that related to them. It not only encapsulated what they listened to but also reflected how they lived and what they believed in, especially with regard to the environmental issues. By the 1990’s, MTV had begun to limit alternative music to a late Sunday night show called 120 Minutes; music fans who had grown up watching the network might have felt disappointed by its inability or unwillingness to continue showing cutting-edge music in prime time. Without the vehicle for edginess upon which they had relied for years, the generation who had grown up on MTV turned to a live music festival to be their avenue of musical expression.

Other Attractions and Discontent Because Lollapalooza was a lifestyle festival, there was more than just music present at the touring shows. Nonmusical acts also helped Lollapalooza differentiate itself from other festivals. Lollapalooza festivals included virtual reality games, a circus sideshow, tattoo and piercing booths, folk vendors who sold everyday items made of hemp, information kiosks where concertgoers could learn about environmental and political concerns, and, perhaps most telling and symbolic of all, a television-smashing area. Before the Internet, concertgoers had to physically purchase tickets from Ticketmaster outlets, sometimes spending multiple days in front of outlets while waiting for Lollapalooza tickets to go on sale. When ticket and concession prices rose, so did fans’ impatience. After the first couple of tours, reports of violence and mayhem began to be reported from the festival. It is unclear what the cause of the unrest was—a mix of displeasure at the prices or simply an outpouring of unrest that was present in the target demographic for the festival. The festival’s run in the 1990’s ended in Eddie Vedder of Pearl Jam performs at Lollapalooza 1992.(Hulton Archive/Getty 1997, with a mix of new and forImages)

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merly famous bands performing on two stages (a feature present since 1992), including: Devo, Snoop Doggy Dogg, Porno for Pyros, Julian and Damian Marley, and Beck. Impact Lollapalooza marked the first time an American music festival was run as a concert tour. With roughly a dozen acts representing the most cutting-edge performers of the time, Lollapalooza arguably picked up where MTV stopped. Further Reading

Kendall, Gavin. “Pop Music: Authenticity, Creativity and Technology.” Social Alternatives 18 (April, 1999): 25-28. Explores the relationship between a time period’s existing technologies and the resulting pop music creativity. Van Zandt, Steven. “Garage Rock.” Billboard 119 (June, 2007): 24. Details the methods by which the music industry and musicians support programs that benefit the environment. White, Timothy. Music to My Ears: The Billboard Essays, Profiles of Popular Music in the ’90’s. New York: Henry Holt, 1996. Provides detailed reviews of essential popular music artists of the 1990’s. Dodie Marie Miller Alternative rock; Culture wars; Electronic music; Grunge fashion; Grunge music; Hip-hop and rap music; Love, Courtney; Marilyn Manson; Music; Nine Inch Nails; Nirvana; Tibetan Freedom Concerts; Woodstock concerts.

See also

■ Long Island Lolita case Seventeen-year-old Amy Fisher shoots and severely wounds Mary Jo Buttafuoco, the wife of her alleged lover Joey, at the Buttafuoco home Date May 19, 1992 Place Massapequa, Long Island, New York The Event

The Long Island Lolita case raised the issues of the sexual exploitation of teenagers and the sexism of the mass media. On a May morning, Amy Fisher rang the doorbell of the Buttafuoco home in Long Island and spoke to Mary Jo Buttafuoco, a thirty-seven-year-old mother of two young children and the wife of auto body shop owner Joey Buttafuoco. Fisher claimed that Joey

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was having an affair with her younger sister. When a skeptical Mary Jo turned to go back into her home, Fisher shot her in the head with a .25-caliber pistol. Fisher claimed that the shooting was accidental and that she had meant only to strike Buttafuoco for refusing to take her seriously. Buttafuoco survived, with a bullet lodged in her head, deaf in one ear, and half of her face paralyzed. She described her assailant as a young woman with long, violet hair, and Joey Buttafuoco named Fisher for the Nassau County police investigating the case. Fisher was arrested and jailed on attempted murder charges, while Joey faced statutory rape charges. Fisher claimed that he had served as her pimp and had asked her to kill his wife. He initially confessed to the affair but subsequently denied it. As soon as the story broke, the case grabbed headlines in the press. Fisher also became the butt of latenight comedians’ jokes and a recurring feature on tabloid television shows. Part of the shock over the case seemed to result from Fisher’s background. The term “Long Island” stood as a metaphor for white, suburban, and middle class. As a white, middle-class girl, Fisher did not fit the stereotypical image of a bad girl, yet she became a prostitute and would-be murderer. Meanwhile, Joey Buttafuoco’s protestations of innocence strained the credulity of many Americans, while Mary Jo’s willingness to believe her husband proved just as stunning. In 1999, Fisher left prison after spending seven years in Albion Correctional Facility. She apologized to Mary Jo Buttafuoco and declared that she would not let the media affect her life. Joey Buttafuoco served four months for statutory rape and remained in the public eye as a minor celebrity. The Buttafuocos divorced in 2000. Impact The Long Island Lolita case grabbed the attention of the public to the degree that between 100 and 125 million people, about half of the U.S. population, watched at least one of the three made-fortelevision movies about the shooting that aired during the week of December 28, 1992: The Amy Fisher Story, starring Drew Barrymore; Casualties of Love: The Long Island Lolita Story, starring Alyssa Milano; and Amy Fisher: My Story, starring Noelle Parker. Further Reading

Eftimiades, Maria. Lethal Lolita: A True Story of Sex, Scandal, and Deadly Obsession. New York: St. Martin’s Press, 1992.

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Kenny, Lorraine Delia. Daughters of Suburbia: Growing Up White, Middle Class, and Female. New Brunswick, N.J.: Rutgers University Press, 2000. Caryn E. Neumann See also

Bobbitt mutilation case; Crime; Journalism.

■ Los Angeles riots Four days of continuous violence, including arson, assault, looting, and shooting, erupts after the unexpected acquittal of four Caucasian Los Angeles police officers on charges of police brutality Date April 29-May 2, 1992 Place Los Angeles, California The Event

The largest multiracial urban disturbance of the twentieth century, the Los Angeles riots brought to the fore issues of immigrant assimilation, racism, poverty, and gang warfare. When a private citizen brought forward a videotape of a lengthy beating of African American Rodney King by four Los Angeles Police Department (LAPD) officers on the night of March 3, 1991, television stations eagerly played the tape. The public then expected that the Caucasian officers would surely be found guilty of police brutality. The officers, however, believed that they were trying to apprehend a motorist who was resisting arrest after a high-speed highway chase. On April 1, 1991, Los Angeles Mayor Tom Bradley, an African American, decided to set up an independent commission to determine whether King’s beating was part of a pattern of racism within the police department. The report, issued on July 9, found that LAPD officers often used excessive force without being disciplined. Once again, the public expected convictions of the four officers. A key recommendation, to institute community policing, was ignored by Bradley. The report also asked Police Chief Daryl Gates to resign, but he refused. When the four officers were arraigned on charges of excessive force, the judge moved the trial outside Los Angeles because of prejudicial pretrial publicity, including remarks by Bradley that the officers should be punished and numerous replays of the most sensational segment of the videotape on television. The venue chosen, Simi Valley, was a suburb in Ventura County. The jury, assembled from residents

of a nearby community in Los Angeles, consisted of ten Caucasians, one Hispanic, and one Asian. About a year later, on March 16, 1992, fifteenyear-old African American Latasha Harlins entered Empire Liquor Market, a convenience store owned by a Korean American immigrant family that previously experienced burglary, shoplifting, and gang terrorism. After putting a bottle of orange juice in her backpack, she approached the counter with money in her hands. Observing the bottle in her backpack but not the money, proprietor Soon Ja Du attempted to take the backpack away, whereupon Latasha knocked the woman down and put the juice bottle on the counter. As Latasha attempted to leave the store, Du shot and killed her. On March 22, Du was charged with voluntary manslaughter. On April 21, a jury found Du guilty and recommended a sixteen-year sentence. Judge Joyce Karlin, however, reduced the sentence to five years probation, four hundred hours of community service, and a fine of $500. The verdict seemed much too light from the viewpoint of the African American community in Los Angeles. Then, on April 29, three of the LAPD officers were acquitted and there was a hung jury for the fourth officer. Exculpatory evidence included a thirteen-second segment that had been edited out of the television broadcasts during which King got up from the ground and charged one of the officers. The officers also testified that King held all four off, but that was not on tape. Unaware of the exculpatory evidence outside the courtroom, many African American residents were incredulous of yet another apparent miscarriage of justice involving their community. Thirty minutes after the verdict was announced, about three hundred people appeared outside the downtown Los Angeles courthouse to protest; the number doubled over the next two hours. At approximately the same time, a large crowd of African Americans assembled at an intersection (Florence and Normandie) in South Central Los Angeles. Members of the group began to loot businesses and accost those with white faces. When Reginald Denny, a construction worker, stopped at the intersection, his truck was surrounded, and he was dragged from his vehicle, severely beaten, and almost murdered by the mob in the presence of a television news helicopter. However, several African

The Riots Begin

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American residents rushed to the scene after watching the televised beating to prevent his death. Construction worker Fidel Lopez, a Guatemalan immigrant, arrived at the same intersection soon afterward. Members of the mob tore him from his truck, ripped off his clothes, spray painted his body, stole nearly $2,000, and smashed his head open. Arriving on the scene as one of Lopez’s ears was being severed, an African American minister took his unconscious body to the hospital, where his ear was reattached and he regained consciousness. Although some police arrived at the fateful intersection, they were frightened by what they saw. Lieutenant Michael Moulin, the officer in charge, ordered his small unit to withdraw from the scene. Later, firefighters were also so intimidated by the mayhem that they were not on the scene to stop the burning. One hour after the rioting began at the intersection, local businesses were completely looted and burning. The mob then moved into other areas, blocking the path of firefighters and police by positioning burning vehicles. Carjackings occurred, and drivers were beaten as they proceeded. Other mobs emerged as far away as Inglewood, not far from Los Angeles International Airport, where flight patterns were altered. The downtown protest turned more violent, with rocks thrown at windows of buildings. Police Chief Gates, assuring the public on television that rioting would soon be brought under control, went to a political fund-raiser instead of directing a response while police donned riot gear and awaited orders to act. Within six hours after the verdict was announced, the riots were out of control. Mayor Bradley declared a state of emergency and a curfew. California Governor Pete Wilson ordered two thousand members of the National Guard to mobilize; they arrived the following day (April 30). Korean Americans, many of whom had served in the military, organized to defend Koreatown in open gun battles as mobs moved north toward Hollywood and northwest toward Beverly Hills. California Highway Patrol officers were flown in. President George H. W. Bush also pledged to bring support. Calm Gradually Returns On the third day (May 1), the burning and looting continued while the National Guard presence swelled to 4,000, and 1,700 federal law-enforcement officials arrived. Rodney

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King, interviewed on television, asked “Can we all get along?” To assure African Americans that their cries for justice were being heard, President Bush assured that a federal grand jury investigation would consider civil rights charges against the four officers. On the fourth day (May 2), 4,000 active-duty soldiers arrived with tanks and armed personnel carriers. A peace rally attracted 30,000 people. Calm returned to the city, though there was a lone incident on May 3. The riots were quelled before reaching Beverly Hills and Hollywood. On Monday, May 4, Bradley canceled the curfew and banks and schools opened, but sporadic criminal activities continued for several days. California National Guard personnel left on May 14. Federal troops exited on May 27. In all, fifty-three people died in the riots. Gunfire from rioters killed twenty-five persons, and National

A fire rages near Vermont Avenue in Los Angeles on April 30, 1992, during the riots. (AP/Wide World Photos)

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Guard and law-enforcement personnel shot ten dead. Six were killed in car crashes. The rest died from stabbings, strangulation, or beatings. Five women died. Among the dead were twenty-five African Americans, sixteen Hispanics, eight Caucasians, two Asians, and two Middle Easterners. Some 4,000 were wounded. The Empire Liquor store and about 2,000 Korean-owned businesses were burned to the ground. Among the 12,000 arrested for looting and other crimes, Latinos were the most numerous. There was approximately $1 billion in property damage, mostly from the destruction of a thousand buildings. Koreatown resembled a war zone because of the burning after the looting. Observers have called the event an “urban disturbance” rather than a “race riot.” The main reason is that many participants simply took advantage of the chaos to loot nearby stores, with little interest in the political overtones that began the riots. Impact The Los Angeles riots made it clear that class conflict complicates racial conflict in the United States, involving immigrant Asians and Hispanics as well as the black-white conflict. Observers commented that resentment builds when some immigrants with limited English ability succeed while some articulate African Americans do poorly in American society, and indeed there were mini-riots in sixteen other American cities after the verdict. The looting by some of the poorest Latino immigrants brought to light the way in which the demographics of Los Angeles had become increasingly complex throughout the 1990’s. The United States struggles to find a coherent concept of how to deal with a burgeoning multicultural, multiracial population. Riots are possible anywhere when events bring to the fore reminders of injustice. Indeed, disturbances continued beyond the 1990’s, notably in Cincinnati during 2001. The 1992 riots also brought to light the practice of racial profiling, that is, the tendency of white police officers to stop black motorists and pedestrians more frequently than Asians or whites. The Rodney King incident also made television media realize the viewing potential of film car chases, and the public realized the importance of private videotaping. Subsequently, Hollywood films capitalized on the theme of race relations in Los Angeles. The film Grand Canyon, released in 1992 after the King beating but before the riots, promoted racial cooperation. In Amer-

ican History X (1998), the character played by actor Edward Norton speculates that there would have been no Los Angeles riots in 1992 if Gates’s successor, African American Willie Williams, had been the police chief. Crash (2005) suggests that nothing had improved in race relations since 1992. Subsequent Events On April 17, 1993, the verdict in the federal civil rights trial found two of the police officers guilty; they were sentenced to thirty months in prison. Three were fired and one resigned from LAPD. Gates resigned after Bradley’s office released unfavorable information about him. Williams tried to restore confidence in LAPD by establishing community policing as he had done while Philadelphia police chief. Bradley did not seek reelection. King was awarded $3.8 million in compensation, largely to pay his attorneys, but he was arrested several times thereafter. Koreatown was rebuilt. While some Koreans moved to homes outside the city, many Latino immigrants moved into their former Koreatown apartments. Some $1.4 billion was used from the Rebuild Los Angeles project, but South Central Los Angeles observers found little evidence of any major reconstruction besides a Home Depot, Wal-Mart, and new grocery stores. The Multicultural Collaborative and other groups emerged to bring African Americans and Korean Americans together. Further Reading

Cannon, Lou. Official Negligence: How Rodney King and the Riots Changed Los Angeles and the LAPD. New York: Crown, 1998. The definitive account of the trials of the four Los Angeles police officers, including the impact of the missing thirteen seconds of videotape on the jury, with a conclusion about the way in which a new mayor and police chief tried to correct the city’s many problems regarding law enforcement. Report of the Independent Commission on the Los Angeles Police Department. Los Angeles: Independent Commission on the Los Angeles Police Department, 1991. After reviewing five years of reports, the commission concluded that many LAPD officers used excessive force against the public in violation of written guidelines, while complaints were dismissed without corrective action. The commission was chaired by well-respected Los Angeles business executive Warren Christopher, who later became secretary of state. Tervalon, Jervey, ed. Geography of Rage: Remembering

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the Los Angeles Riots of 1992. Los Angeles: Really Great Books, 2002. A collection of essays written by Los Angeles residents who reflect on what happened ten years earlier. Williams, Willie L., with Bruce Henderson. Taking Back Our Streets: Fighting Crime in America. New York: Scribner, 1996. The former police chief in Los Angeles and Philadelphia explains how community policing can restore the morale of police officers while building trust with the public. Michael Haas African Americans; Christopher, Warren; Crime; Crown Heights riot; Hate crimes; King, Rodney; Mount Pleasant riot; Police brutality; Race relations.

See also

■ Louima torture case Arrest and subsequent mistreatment of Abner Louima by four New York City police officers Date August 9, 1997 Place Brooklyn, New York The Event

The outrageous nature of the allegations of physical abuse by NYPD officers after they arrested Louima galvanized the public and focused intense attention during the subsequent trial proceedings on the police use of force. Abner Louima was a Haitian immigrant arrested during a brawl outside a social club in Brooklyn, New York, during the early morning hours of August 9, 1997. One of the police officers called to the scene was struck and identified Louima as his assailant (this charge was later dropped). Louima was handcuffed and taken to the seventieth police precinct in Brooklyn. During that drive, it was alleged that the officers stopped and beat Louima. Once at the station, he was strip searched and then taken from the holding cell to a bathroom where the assault continued. The most heavily publicized aspect of this assault occurred when one officer used a plunger to sodomize Louima, later sticking the handle into his mouth and breaking several of his teeth. This was accompanied by racial slurs; he was eventually returned to the holding cell. The next morning, Louima was taken by ambulance to a local hospital emergency room, where police told staff that he had been injured as the result

A nurse wipes the forehead of Abner Louima, the victim of police torture, at Coney Island Hospital in Brooklyn, New York, on August 14, 1997. (AP/Wide World Photos)

of homosexual behavior. A nurse at the hospital did not believe this and notified Louima’s family and the New York Police Department (NYPD) Internal Affairs Bureau. The latter did not act on these allegations until his relatives called them thirty-six hours after the arrest. Louima remained hospitalized for two months, during which time the NYPD applied disciplinary measures (including transfer, suspension, and modified assignment) to fifteen officers and filed misconduct charges against the four officers involved in the initial incident. On February 27, 1998, following an investigations by the U.S. Attorney’s Office, the Federal Bureau of Investigation (FBI), and the NYPD’s own Internal Affairs Division, the arresting officers were charged with civil rights violations and a supervisor was charged with trying to cover up the assault. The NYPD filed additional charges in October, 1998, against the officers, claiming that they had lied to FBI agents investigating the case. Two of the officers received prison terms (one for thirty years), while Louima himself received $8.75 million—the largest police brutality settlement in New York City history. Impact This incident sparked outrage in the Haitian community, which joined with thousands of

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other citizens in several high-profile protests in New York City and Washington, D.C., against police brutality. Mayor Rudolph Giuliani created a task force to investigate the brutality allegations and promised to review recommendations from an Amnesty International report in June, 1996, that highlighted accusations of police brutality and excessive force in the NYPD. The resistance of police personnel to the investigation itself and the allegations of a cover-up prompted many recommendations for reform in NYPD procedures and supervisory structures. This included a proposal by Richard Emery, a prominent civil rights lawyer, that police station houses be equipped with video cameras to record all proceedings, including interrogations. Further Reading

Alfieri, Alfred V. “Prosecuting Race.” Duke Law Journal 48, no. 6 (1999): 1157-1264. Kleinig, John. “Civil Rights and Civil Liberties: Videotaping the Police.” Criminal Justice Ethics 17, no. 1 (1998): 42-49. Eric W. Metchik Diallo shooting; Giuliani, Rudolph; Hate crimes; King, Rodney; Police brutality. See also

■ Love, Courtney Rock musician, actor, and wife of Nirvana lead singer Kurt Cobain Born July 9, 1964; San Francisco, California Identification

During the 1990’s, Love achieved notoriety as a rock musician. Much of her success as a musician, however, was overshadowed by her lifestyle and her status as the wife, and later widow, of Cobain. Courtney Love spent much of her childhood living in communes with her mother. As a teenager, she developed an appreciation for punk rock music and, in 1989, formed the band Hole in Los Angeles. Shortly after forming her band, Love met her future husband, Nirvana front man Kurt Cobain, at a club in Portland, Oregon. The two began a courtship that would last the next couple of years. During this time, Hole’s first album, Pretty on the Inside, was released in 1991 to favorable reviews by many underground music critics. Love and Cobain made their relationship official with a wedding on Waikiki Beach, Hawaii, on

Courtney Love performs with her alternative rock band, Hole, at the MTV Video Music Awards in September, 1998. (AP/Wide World Photos)

February 24, 1992. Less than six months later, on August 18, Love gave birth to the couple’s daughter, Frances Bean Cobain. Prior to the birth of their daughter, Love and Cobain already had reputations as partying, drugusing rock stars, identities they did little to discourage. However, Love’s negative public image increased as a result of a 1992 article in Vanity Fair that revealed that Love had used heroin during her pregnancy. Over the next several years, Love and Cobain struggled with parenthood, superstardom, and drug addiction, all under the watchful and ever-present eye of the mainstream media. As a result of his inability to deal with many of his problems, Cobain committed suicide on April 5, 1994. Shortly after his body was found, Love read Cobain’s suicide note to fans at a memorial service in Seattle. Love’s musical career would continue despite Cobain’s death. Only four days after Cobain’s body was discovered, Hole’s breakthrough second album, Live Through This, was released. The album was such a commercial and critical success that Rolling Stone

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magazine declared it best album of the year. In 1996, Love starred in the film The People vs. Larry Flynt, a performance that earned her a Golden Globe nomination. Her career successes continued with the release of Hole’s third and final album, Celebrity Skin, which was also released to wide critical acclaim in 1998. Impact Despite Courtney Love’s many career milestones following Kurt Cobain’s death, her public image never recovered or improved following Cobain’s death. In the latter part of the 1990’s, Love found herself the subject of many tabloid photographs, appearing drunk or stoned onstage or passed out in various venues. In addition, she had a reputation for being sexually promiscuous and found herself arrested several times for disorderly conduct and drug use. At the end of the decade, however, Love’s career continued to flourish despite her flawed public image. Further Reading

Brite, Poppy Z. Courtney Love: The Real Story. New York: Simon & Schuster, 1997. Coates, Norma. “Moms Don’t Rock: The Popular Demonization of Courtney Love.” In “Bad” Mothers: The Politics of Blame in Twentieth-Century America, edited by Molly Ladd-Taylor and Lauri Umansky. New York: New York University Press, 1998. Lindsay Schmitz

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naut class to accept women. After two space shuttle flights in 1985 and 1989, Lucid’s third spaceflight was a nine-day mission from August 2-11, 1991, on the space shuttle Atlantis. On this mission of 142 orbits, she and the crew conducted thirty-two experiments related to extended spaceflights. Her fourth spaceflight was a fourteen-day mission on the space shuttle Columbia from October 18 to November 1, 1993, lasting a record 225 orbits. She and the crew conducted sixteen engineering tests and twenty extended-duration medical experiments on themselves and on forty-eight rats. With this flight, Dr. Lucid had logged 838 hours and 54 minutes in space to achieve the record for American women in space. After a year of training in Star City, Russia, Lucid began her last and most famous spaceflight from Kennedy Space Center, Florida, on March 22, 1996, aboard the space shuttle Atlantis. She was transferred to the Mir space station, where she served as a board engineer 2 with Russian cosmonauts Yuri Onufrienko and Yuri Usachev. She conducted many science experiments during her six months in space

Alternative rock; Drug use; Film in the United States; Grunge music; Lollapalooza; Music; Nirvana.

See also

■ Lucid, Shannon Identification American astronaut Born January 14, 1943; Shanghai, China

Lucid served as a mission specialist on four space shuttle flights before her most famous spaceflight in 1996 on the Russian Mir space station. On that mission, she earned the U.S. single-mission endurance record of 188 days in space and the international endurance record for any female astronaut at the time. The National Aeronautics and Space Administration (NASA) selected Dr. Shannon Lucid in 1978 as one of six women out of thirty-five in the first astro-

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and became the first American to conduct a spacewalk on Mir. Her return was scheduled for July 31 but was delayed nearly two months because of mechanical and weather problems with shuttle launches. She finally returned to Kennedy Space Center aboard Atlantis on September 26, 1996, after traveling more than 75 million miles in space. Shannon Lucid’s career in space demonstrated that female astronauts could equal or surpass their male counterparts. When no one expressed interest in an extended trip on the sparse Mir space station, she volunteered and established several space records. After six months of weightlessness, she surprised experts by walking on her own from the space shuttle to the medical transporter. Over the next three years, she was NASA’s most important source of data for the effects of space on the human body. In Impact

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December of 1996, she became the tenth astronaut to receive the Congressional Space Medal of Honor, and in February of 1997 she won the Free Spirit Award from the Freedom Forum. Further Reading

Bredeson, Carmen. Shannon Lucid: Space Ambassador. Brookfield, Conn.: Millbrook Press, 1998. Lucid, Shannon W. “Six Months on Mir.” Scientific American, May, 1998, pp. 46-55. Shayler, David, and Ian Moule. Women in Space: Following Valentina. New York: Springer, 2005. Joseph L. Spradley Astronomy; Bondar, Roberta; Glenn, John; Science and technology; Space exploration; Space shuttle program; Women in the workforce.

See also

M ■ McCaughey septuplets The world’s first living set of septuplets Born November 19, 1997; Des Moines, Iowa Identification

News media worldwide celebrated the birth of Bobbi McCaughey’s septuplets as a medical miracle. Conception had been facilitated by infertility treatment, and advances in medical technology assured the septuplets’ survival. On November 19, 1997, Kelsey, Brandon, Nathan, Joel, Alexis, Natalie, and Kenneth McCaughey were delivered nine weeks early by cesarean section at Iowa Methodist Medical Center in Des Moines, Iowa. Their birth weight ranged from two pounds, five ounces, to three pounds, four ounces. Like their older sister, Mikayla, the septuplets were conceived with the help of Metrodin, an ovulation-stimulating fertility drug. Early in the course of Bobbi McCaughey’s second pregnancy, a sonogram revealed the presence of seven babies. Pregnancies with a high number of fetuses pose a significant health risk to both the mother and her unborn children. A reduction in the number of fetuses by selective abortion was discussed with the expecting parents, but this was an option that Kenny and Bobbi McCaughey, fundamentalist Christians, refused. On October 15, the expecting mother was hospitalized so that her highrisk pregnancy could be closely monitored. Two weeks later, on October 29, the press received word of the pending delivery and poured into town. The McCaugheys appointed a spokesperson to help them deal with the onslaught of requests for interviews and statements. Impact Forty health care workers, including nurses, respiratory therapists, neonatologists, anesthesiologists, and obstetricians, attended the babies’ delivery. The news media closely informed the general public about the birth and progress of the septuplets, and this led to an avalanche of congratula-

tions and gifts. U.S. president Bill Clinton chatted with the mother over the phone. Iowa’s governor committed to the construction of a larger home for “The Seven from Heaven.” The citizens of Carlisle, Iowa, home of the McCaughey family, provided housekeeping, cooking, and day-and-night child care services. Donations to the family included diapers for life, one year of free groceries, university scholarships, and a fifteen-seat van. The birth was celebrated as a medical miracle. There was little discussion of the financial burden to society: The cost of the birth and prolonged hospitalization of the seven has been estimated at $1.2 million. The injudicious use of a fertility drug responsible for higherorder pregnancies also escaped media scrutiny. The news media’s initial claim that seven healthy babies had been born was not entirely accurate. Two of the babies relied on feeding tubes until they were four years old. Another suffered seizures, and two were diagnosed with cerebral palsy.

Subsequent Events

Further Reading

Halvorson, George, and George Isham. “Miracles Cost Money.” In Epidemic of Care. A Call for Safer, Better, and More Accountable Health Care, edited by George Halvorson and George Isham. San Francisco: Jossey-Bass, 2003. Klotzko, Arlene. “Medical Miracle or Medical Mischief? The Saga of the McCaughey Septuplets.” Hastings Center Report 28, no. 3 (May/June, 1998): 5-8. Pence, Gregory. “The McCaughey Septuplets: God’s Will or Human Choice?” In Bioethics: An Anthology, edited by Helga Kuhse and Peter Singer. Malden, Mass.: Blackwell, 2006. Elisabeth Faase See also

cine.

Abortion; Health care; Journalism; Medi-

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■ McCourt, Frank Identification American author Born August 19, 1930; Brooklyn, New York

McCourt’s artful, emotionally wrenching first memoir won the Pulitzer Prize in biography in 1997 and was a best seller for over three years. The book is credited with generating an increase in popularity of the memoir genre.

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mentary film titled The McCourts of Limerick. A sequel, The McCourts of New York, was produced the following year. McCourt published a second memoir, ’ Tis, in 1999. It centers on McCourt’s experiences as a young man returning to America, trying to carve out a life for himself and find a better future, and the challenges he faces as a person caught between the cultures of Ireland and America. This book was also a critical and commercial success, shooting to the top of the best-seller lists immediately after it was published. In 1999, a film titled Angela’s Ashes, based on McCourt’s first memoir, was released.

In the early 1990’s, after retiring from teaching high school in New York City for thirty years, Frank McCourt sat down to write a memoir. What resulted from this project was an account of his childhood that was an unprecedented literary and commercial Impact Frank McCourt’s contribution to Amerisuccess. The book, titled Angela’s Ashes (1996), cencan letters, especially in the memoir genre, generated a new interest in biography, memoir, and the ters on the first eighteen years of McCourt’s life, which was spent primarily in Ireland, in extreme immigrant experience. Few authors are so admired poverty. His sensitive prose, combined with a converby both their peers and the public. sational and engaging style, elevated the genre of memoir to a new level. Further Reading Upon its publication, Angela’s Ashes received great McCourt, Frank. Angela’s Ashes. New York: Scribner, critical and public acclaim, winning such prestigious 1996. accolades as the Pulitzer Prize, National Book Critics _______. Teacher Man. New York: Scribner, 2005. Circle Award, Salon Book Award, American Library _______. ’Tis. New York: Scribner, 1999. Association Award, Los Angeles Times Book Award, Kris Bigalk and many other book of the year awards from magazines and newspapers across the United States. See also Book clubs; Film in the United States; LitMcCourt enjoyed instant stardom as a first-time erature in the United States; Publishing. author at the age of sixty-five. The book was distributed in eighteen countries and became a modern classic. Angela’s Ashes relates the life of an impoverished Irish family in the 1930’s and 1940’s from a child’s perspective. An alcoholic father who eventually abandons the family, two brothers and a sister who die in infancy, and his mother, Angela, who tries to hold everything together, make for a captivating tale, told with humor, grief, and every emotion in between. As the boy Frank matures, he takes on more responsibilities for the family and learns some hard lessons along the way. In 1998, McCourt, his brother Malachy, and nephew Conor teamed up to produce a docuFrank McCourt. (Gasper Tringale/Scribner)

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■ McEntire, Reba Identification American country music singer Born March 28, 1954; Chockie, Oklahoma

Reba McEntire was the most successful female country music recording artist of the decade. By 1990, Reba McEntire was already a popular country music singer with a large fan following. Her music contract, signed in 1984 with MCA Nashville Records, had successfully propelled her to the status of being among the best-selling country music artists of all time. In 1990, she gave birth to her son, Shelby Stephen, and released her fifteenth album, Rumor Has It, which contained the number one hit “You Lie” and what would become her signature song, “Fancy.” Tragically, on March 16, 1991, seven of her band members and her road manager were killed in an airplane crash. One week after the accident, amid criticism, McEntire performed the song, “I’m Checking Out,” at the Academy Awards in honor of her band members. In October 1991, she released her sixteenth album, For My Broken Heart, which was also dedicated to her band members. In December, 1992, she released her seventeenth album, It’s Your Call, which went triple platinum. The song “The Heart Won’t Lie,” which was performed as a duet with country singer Vince Gill, reached number one on the country music charts in April, 1993. Another duet on the album “Does He Love You,” which she performed with Linda Davis, also reached number one on the country charts in November, 1993. In April, 1994, she produced her eighteenth album, Read My Mind, as well as her nineteenth album, Oklahoma Girl. Read My Mind produced five country chart singles and went triple platinum. Her twentieth album, Starting Over, was released in October, 1995, and marked the singer’s twentieth anniversary in the music industry. In November, 1996, she released her twenty-first album, What If It’s You, in 1998 she released her twentysecond album, If You See Him, and in November 1999, she released her twenty-third album, So Good Together. In addition to producing nine albums during the 1990’s, McEntire also toured with her band to promote her music. In 1994 and 1995, her stage shows earned more money than any other concert tour in country music at the time. As if her music did not keep her busy enough, in 1994, she published her autobiography, Reba: My Story. She also starred in sev-

Reba McEntire performs at the Country Music Association Awards in Nashville, Tennessee, on October 4, 1995. (AP/Wide World Photos)

eral television movies during the decade, including The Gambler IV (1991), with Kenny Rogers, The Man from Left Field (1993), with Burt Reynolds, and The Secret of Giving (1999). Throughout the 1990’s, McEntire also won numerous awards for her music, including several American Music Awards, People’s Choice Awards, and Academy of Country Music Awards. Impact With diligence and hard work, Reba McEntire became a country music superstar during the 1990’s. She produced nine studio albums and two compilation albums, performed hundreds of stage shows, wrote her autobiography, and starred in several television movies. She revolutionized the stereotypical image of a female country music star. Her upbeat songs, elaborate stage shows, and vibrant personality proved that a female country music star could be as glamorous as any other music diva.

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Further Reading

Keel, Beverly. “Reba McIntire.” In Popular Musicians, edited by Steve Hochman. Vol. 3. Pasadena, Calif.: Salem Press, 1999. McEntire, Reba. Comfort from the Quilt. New York: Bantam Books, 2000. McEntire, Reba, and Tom Carter. Reba: My Story. New York: Bantam Books, 1994. Bernadette Zbicki Heiney See also

Brooks, Garth; Country music; Lang, K. D.;

Music.

■ McGwire, Mark Identification American baseball player Born October 1, 1963; Pomona, California

McGwire broke the single-season home run record in 1998 and helped rejuvenate interest in Major League Baseball.

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runs in his last three games, he finished the season with seventy home runs to Sosa’s sixty-six. For his achievements, McGwire won the Silver Slugger Award and finished second to Sosa in the voting for National League Most Valuable Player. Impact The home run chase between McGwire and Sosa in 1998 was one of the events that attracted widespread interest and helped repair baseball’s image after the damage it suffered in the wake of the 1994-1995 baseball strike. Fans returned to games in droves, and attendance rose by seven million fans between the 1997 and 1998 seasons. Indicative of the cultural significance of the home run race, McGwire’s seventieth home run ball sold for over $3 million. However, McGwire’s accolades were short-lived. During the 1998 season, an Associated Press story revealed that McGwire’s locker contained androstenedione, a muscle-building substance legal for use in Major League Baseball but banned by most other sports organizations.

Mark McGwire was one of the best power hitters of Subsequent Events Despite the furor over the supthe 1980’s and 1990’s. Over the course of sixteen seaplement, McGwire’s reputation remained mostly insons, McGwire hit 583 home runs, drove in 1,414 tact until 2005, when José Canseco alleged that he runs, and was a twelve-time all-star. In 1987, his first full year in the major leagues, McGwire hit forty-nine home runs, a rookie record, and won the American League Rookie of the Year Award as first baseman for the Oakland Athletics. In 1997, after he had spent nine seasons in Oakland, the Athletics traded McGwire to the St. Louis Cardinals, where he became a national sports icon. After finishing the 1997 season with fifty-eight home runs, McGwire began the 1998 season by hitting home runs in each of his first four games. Despite McGwire’s hot start, by June, Chicago Cubs outfielder Sammy Sosa and McGwire were neck and neck for the league lead in home runs. For the rest of the season, McGwire and Sosa pursued the single-season home run record set by Roger Maris with sixty-one home runs in 1961. On September 8, McGwire hit his sixty-second home Mark McGwire hits his sixty-first home run of the 1998 season, tying Roger Maris’s run, and after hitting five home single-season record. (AP/Wide World Photos)

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and McGwire had used steroids while teammates in Oakland. At a congressional hearing, McGwire’s refusal to answer questions about his steroid use left many fans and sportswriters suspicious about his history with performance-enhancing drugs. Although considered a future hall of famer upon his retirement, McGwire was not elected to the National Baseball Hall of Fame during his first year of eligibility. The taint of steroid use has made him the only eligible player with five hundred home runs to not be a member of the Hall of Fame. Further Reading

Fainaru-Wada, Mark, and Lance Williams. Game of Shadows: Barry Bonds, BALCO, and the Steroids Scandal That Rocked Professional Sports. New York: Gotham Books, 2006. Golenbock, Peter. The Spirit of St. Louis: A History of the St. Louis Cardinals and Browns. New York: Spike Books, 2000. Paisner, Daniel. The Ball: Mark McGwire’s Seventieth Home Run Ball and the Marketing of the American Dream. New York: Viking Press, 1999. Jacob F. Lee See also Baseball; Baseball realignment; Baseball strike of 1994; Home run race; Griffey, Ken, Jr.; Ripken, Cal, Jr.; Sosa, Sammy; Sports.

■ McMansions Large mass-produced houses for a family market

Identification

The growth of entire communities of large faux-luxury homes during the 1990’s drew withering criticism for the houses’ mixed stylistic elements, wasted space, and high energy requirements. Their popularity, however, showed the extreme home centeredness of many of the decade’s families, seeking ways to incorporate indoor leisure pursuits with individuals’ needs for “personal space.” When the first mass-produced housing developments appeared after World War II, the typical tract house was small. Levittown, Long Island’s 17,500 new houses averaged only 750 square feet each. With two bedrooms, one bathroom, a small living room, and kitchen, these quickly sold out to young families as new home owners. As prosperity spread and baby-boom children became teenagers and

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then adults, the average home size also increased, although not dramatically. As late as 1984, the first New American Home, an ideal model sponsored by the housing industry, still contained only 1,500 square feet and two bedrooms, although with two and a half baths. In the preceding forty years, however, residential construction had changed from the bailiwick of individual small builders and contractors to an industry dominated by large-scale corporate builders. Aided by new techniques such as five-way wooden trusses (allowing larger open interior spaces to be built cheaply), such builders adapted tract, predesigned methods to larger, upscale housing. The 1990’s growing prosperity, falling mortgage rates, and new cultural patterns brought eager buyers for such new, lavish “McMansions.” Their most usual locale was the outer suburbs of American cities. The name comes from the word “mansion” with the use of “Mc,” which conjures the common concepts surrounding the McDonald’s fast-food franchise— assembly-line process, quick and generic, mass appeal. Most McMansions featured striking front facades; they might mix styles and decorative elements such as gables, stone inlays, and lavish windows. Inside, two-story entrance atriums allowed light to flood into the house for immediate impact. The ground floor typically included little-used formal living and dining rooms, a large open area incorporating a giant kitchen flowing into an informal dining area and/or a family room, and perhaps special purpose rooms. Upstairs, a master suite usually included a lavish bathroom and multiple closets, and there were additional bedrooms and baths. Attached garages provided space for at least three cars. These homes were roundly condemned for their heavy energy demands, for using unneeded space, and for the aesthetic imbalance between large house “footprints” and small surrounding yards. Reasons for their popularity were less remarked. Besides serving as a status symbol, the new space possibilities appealed to extreme commuters, blended families, and immigrant extended families. Seldom-used formal living areas were not a new phenomenon. Since the advent of family rooms, most Americans have preferred to concentrate the messy activities of everyday living and television watching in a kitchenfamily room nexus and to keep the front areas pristine for important visitors. Except for gardeners,

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many middle-class families confined their yard use to the barbecue patio and the swimming pool. Even children played outdoors less than formerly. Impact McMansions remained part of the urban and suburban housing stock. Their greater impact may be in the features that have become expected in any new middle-class dwelling: a master bedroom suite, an open-plan kitchen-family room core, and rooms wired for various electronic connections. Further Reading

McGinn, Daniel. House Lust. New York: Doubleday, 2007. McGuigan, Cathleen. “The McMansion Next Door.” Newsweek, October 27, 2003, 85-86. Emily Alward See also

Architecture; Sustainable design move-

ment.

■ McMillan, Terry Identification African American novelist Born October 18, 1951; Port Huron, Michigan

In novels that accurately describe the lives of upwardly mobile African American women, McMillan provided a voice for an important segment of the population. Terry McMillan’s novels dramatize the plight of African American professional women struggling with relationships. Some of McMillan’s heroines have never been married, others have been deserted by their lovers, and still others are divorced. Those who have never had children fear that they are growing too old to establish a family. Others, rearing children alone, desperately try to be good parents without jeopardizing their careers. One of her goals in writing about the trials of these single mothers, McMillan has said, is to show how the structure of the African American family has altered. Like her earlier fiction, the novels that McMillan wrote during the 1990’s reflect her own experiences. For Waiting to Exhale (1992), the author drew on years of frustration in her continuing search for someone with whom she could share her life. The novel is about four African American women, all of whom have trouble either finding or keeping a good man. Although the book was extremely popu-

Terry McMillan. (©Marion Ettlinger)

lar with women, African American men insisted that the author had treated them unfairly, that the book simply reflected her own prejudices. The tone of McMillan’s next novel, How Stella Got Her Groove Back (1996), was very different. Like McMillan herself, the fictional Stella went on a Jamaican vacation, met a local man half her age, and brought him to California, where at the end of the novel they expect to live happily ever after. Unfortunately, McMillan’s own Jamaican romance ended in disillusionment and divorce. McMillan’s fiction is as authentic in style as it is in content. Perhaps more than any other writer of the decade, McMillan captured the rhythms of African American conversation, complete with idiomatic expressions. Late in the 1990’s, book-length critical studies of McMillan began to appear, indicating that she was not just a popular writer but also a major figure in American literary history.

The Nineties in America Impact Finding in McMillan’s novels a genuine understanding of their lives, African American women flocked to bookstores to buy her books. McMillan is credited with creating a new reading audience. Moreover, her success stimulated other African American women to produce similar realistic fiction. Thus, it has been said that she established a new genre. Her emergence in the 1990’s as the voice of upwardly mobile African American women made her one of the most important writers of the decade. Further Reading

Nunez, Elizabeth, and Brenda M. Greene, eds. Defining Ourselves: Black Writers in the 90s. New York: Peter Lang, 1999. Patrick, Diane. Terry McMillan: The Unauthorized Biography. New York: St. Martin’s Press, 1999. Richards, Paulette. Terry McMillan: A Critical Companion. Westport, Conn.: Greenwood Press, 1999. Rosemary M. Canfield Reisman African Americans; Chick lit; Literature in the United States; Marriage and divorce; Race relations; Women’s rights.

See also

■ McNally, Terrence Identification American playwright Born November 3, 1939; St. Petersburg, Florida

McNally achieved huge success in the 1990’s with his books for musicals and his plays grappling with gay issues. American playwright Terrence McNally is one of the most respected and prolific playwrights since Tennessee Williams. His straight plays often contain gay characters and themes, while his writing for musicals leans heavily toward work that embraces dreamers trying to forge a better life. McNally’s work does not shy away from gay themes. In 1990, he won an Emmy Award for the televised broadcast of Andre’s Mother, a play that deals with a woman trying to cope with her son’s death from AIDS. The following year, he wrote Lips Together, Teeth Apart, which also deals with the disease, although this time from the perspective of two heterosexual couples vacationing on Fire Island and afraid to go in a pool owned by a man who died of AIDS. McNally wrote the book for the 1992 musical Kiss of the Spider Woman, for which he won the Tony Award

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for Best Book of a Musical. The following year, his India-themed A Perfect Ganesh opened to moderate reviews. The year 1994 brought critical acclaim in the form of Love! Valour! Compassion!—a look at the relationships of eight gay men during summer weekends at a Dutchess County getaway. In 1995, it won the Tony Award for Best Play and the Drama Desk Award for Outstanding Play, as well as the New York Drama Critics’ Circle Award for Best American Play. It was adapted to film in 1997. In 1995, McNally’s look at famed opera diva Maria Callas in his play Master Class opened on Broadway and won the Tony Award for Best Play. In 1996, his collaboration with Lynn Ahrens and Stephen Flaherty produced Ragtime, which won him his fourth Tony Award of the decade. This victory ensured his position as America’s foremost playwright during the 1990’s. McNally’s most controversial play, Corpus Christi, opened in October, 1998. The story of a gay Jesus Christ and Apostles living in modern-day Texas, its allusions to Judas betraying Jesus out of sexual jealousy proved too much for many theatergoers. Fearing public safety concerns, the Manhattan Theatre Club, producer of the work, canceled the opening. A nationwide censorship debate followed, and the production was rescheduled. The new opening followed the death of gay Wyoming student Matthew Shepard and continued the dialogue of religion, art, and gay politics. Impact By the end of the decade, McNally was hailed as one of America’s most prominent and important American playwrights. Further Reading

Drukman, Steven. “Terrence McNally.” In Speaking on Stage: Interviews with Contemporary American Playwrights, edited by Philip C. Kolin and Colby H. Kullman. Tuscaloosa: University of Alabama Press, 1996. Frontain, Raymond-Jean. “’All Men Are Divine’: Religious Mystery and Homosexual Identity in Terrence McNally’s Corpus Christi.” In Reclaiming the Sacred: The Bible in Gay and Lesbian Culture. 2d ed. New York: Haworth Press, 2003. Zinman, Toby Silverman, ed. Terrence McNally: A Casebook. New York: Garland, 1997. Tom Smith

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Broadway musicals; Censorship; Homosexuality and gay rights; Literature in the United States; Mapplethorpe obscenity trial; Theater in the United States.

See also

■ McVeigh, Timothy Domestic terrorist responsible for the 1995 Oklahoma City bombing Born April 23, 1968; Pendleton, New York Died June 11, 2001; Terre Haute, Indiana Identification

McVeigh committed the deadliest terrorist attack on U.S. soil up to that time and the deadliest example of domestic terrorism ever in the United States. Timothy McVeigh was the middle child born to William McVeigh and Mildred Noreen Hill in Pendleton, New York. His parents divorced when he was ten, and he went to live with his father while his two sisters went to live with their mother in Florida. In May of 1988, he enlisted in the Army. He served in the Gulf War and was awarded a Bronze Star. He then began training for the Army’s Special Forces (Green Berets) but dropped out after a couple of days. On April 17, 1995, in Junction City, Kansas, McVeigh rented a Ryder truck, which he and Army friend Terry Nichols packed with a two-ton bomb. McVeigh then drove to Oklahoma City, where he parked the truck a few blocks from the Alfred P. Murrah Federal Building. On the early morning of April 19, McVeigh drove to the federal building, lit the five-minute fuse, and parked the truck in a dropoff zone. At 9:02 a.m., the truck bomb exploded, hitting the northern face of the building and leaving a third of the building in ruins and downtown Oklahoma City devastated. The blast was felt over fifty miles away and measured about 3.0 on the Richter scale, damaging over three hundred surrounding buildings. Preparation for this event began around September, 1994. McVeigh was angry at the government’s handling of the incidents at Ruby Ridge, Idaho, in 1992 and Waco, Texas, in 1993. He had traveled to Waco during the siege to distribute antigovernment pamphlets. McVeigh thought that certain Bureau of Alcohol, Tobacco, and Firearms (ATF) agents whom he blamed for the Waco incident had their offices in the Alfred P. Murrah Federal Building and felt that that building was an easy target.

Oklahoma City bombing suspect Timothy McVeigh is escorted by law-enforcement officials on April 21, 1995. In 1997, he was found guilty on eleven counts of murder and conspiracy and was sentenced to death by lethal injection. (AP/Wide World Photos)

About an hour after the bombing, a police officer pulled over McVeigh about sixty miles from Oklahoma City for not having a rear license plate. When the officer approached the car, he noticed a bulge in McVeigh’s jacket, which was the gun McVeigh brought with him in case the bomb failed to ignite. He admitted to the officer that he had a concealed weapon and was arrested. When they searched his car, police discovered documents that revealed the motivations behind the bombing. They connected the vehicle identification number on the Ryder truck to McVeigh, then began searching for his accomplices. In the largest criminal case ever, McVeigh was convicted on all eleven counts against him, including eight counts of first-degree murder, use of a weapon of mass destruction, destruction by explo-

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sives, and conspiracy to use a weapon of mass destruction. He was executed on June 11, 2001, in Terre Haute, Indiana. Impact One hundred sixty-eight lives were lost and over eight hundred people were injured in the Oklahoma City bombing. The incident shocked the American public, creating an increased fear of potential future attacks. Further Reading

Kight, Marsha, comp. Forever Changed: Remembering Oklahoma City, April 19, 1995. Amherst, N.Y.: Prometheus Books, 1998. Linenthal, Edward T. The Unfinished Bombing: Oklahoma City in American Memory. New York: Oxford University Press, 2001. Roleff, Tamara L. The Oklahoma City Bombing. San Diego, Calif.: Greenhaven Press, 2004. Sheryl L. Van Horne

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versy over her performance of “Like a Virgin.” In November, she released her first greatest hits album, The Immaculate Collection, including two new songs, "Justify My Love" and “Rescue Me.” The music video for “Justify My Love” showed suggestive scenes of Madonna with her lover, actor Tony Ward, as well as scenes of sadomasochism between gay and lesbian characters. It was considered too explicit for MTV, which banned it from the station. However, when Warner Bros. released “Justify My Love” as a video single, it became the best-selling video of all time. The album Erotica, released in October of 1992, contained only three overtly sexual songs out of fourteen. Although the title song was panned by critics, “Erotica” topped the charts around the world. Madonna’s soft-core book Sex was published around

See also Columbine massacre; Crime; Militia movement; Montana Freemen standoff; Oklahoma City bombing; Olympic Park bombing; Ruby Ridge shootout; Terrorism; Unabomber capture; Waco siege.

■ Madonna American singer, songwriter, producer, actor, and entertainer Born August 16, 1958; Bay City, Michigan Identification

Madonna’s use of sexual and religious themes in her work provoked controversy in the 1990’s, and her work in film and music brought her a number of awards. Madonna starred as Breathless Mahoney in the 1990 film adaptation of the well-known Dick Tracy comic strip. She released the album I’m Breathless in the same year to accompany the film. It included the Stephen Sondheim song “Sooner or Later,” which won an Academy Award for Best Original Song. I’m Breathless was a great hit in the United States, Europe, and Australia, and sold over five million copies worldwide. Controversial Music From April to August of 1990, Madonna toured Japan, the United States, and Europe on her Blond Ambition World Tour, featuring sexual and religious themes and creating contro-

Madonna performs during her Blond Ambition World Tour in July, 1990, in London. (AP/Wide World Photos)

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the same time and featured many erotic photos of Madonna. The book became an international best seller and one of the most controversial books of the decade. In 1993, the highly erotic film Body of Evidence, starring Madonna, was released and subsequently bombed at the box office. In 1993, The Girlie Show Tour featured the singer as a whip-wielding dominatrix surrounded by topless dancers. Her performance in Puerto Rico incited controversy over her vulgar use of the Puerto Rican flag, and her show was protested by Orthodox Jews at her first performance in Israel.

ferred to work with computers and synthetic sounds rather than live musicians, and the computers frequently broke down. Madonna earned rave reviews for Ray of Light, which many reviewers considered her most successful album to date. It won three Grammy Awards in 1999 for Best Dance Recording, Best Pop Album, and Best Recording Package. The title track also won a Grammy for Best Short Form Music Video. Three years later, Rolling Stone readers voted Ray of Light as the twenty-ninth greatest album of all time.

The 1996 film Evita, based on the 1978 stage musical by Andrew Lloyd Webber with lyrics by Tim Rice, was Madonna’s most critically successful film. It stars Antonio Banderas as Ché, an Argentinean everyman, and Madonna as Eva Perón, the charismatic wife of Juan Perón (played by Jonathan Pryce) who became the most powerful woman in Argentina during her husband’s presidency. Madonna, who took voice lessons to extend her range for the movie, performs the music flawlessly and is convincing as Evita, the poor, urban child who converts herself into a nightclub singer, radio star, voluptuous mistress, and political leader. The sound track of the film became Madonna’s twelfth platinum album and included two songs that became hit singles: “Don’t Cry for Me Argentina” and “You Must Love Me,” which was written for the film. The following year, “You Must Love Me” won an Academy Award and a Golden Globe Award for Best Original Song. Madonna also won a Golden Globe Award for Best Actress in a Comedy or Musical for her performance in Evita. In 1998, Madonna released the album Ray of Light, which indicated a new musical direction. It blended introspective and personal lyrics about motherhood and spirituality with electronic instrumentation, strings by Craig Armstrong, and Eastern music. Many of the songs were written in collaboration with British electronic musician William Orbit, whose work Madonna admired. Ray of Light was recorded over four and a half months in 1997, the longest Madonna had ever worked on an album. Since she had taken singing lessons for Evita, Madonna’s voice was easy to record, and many of her vocal tracks required only one take. The recording was plagued with technical difficulties, however, as Orbit pre-

Impact Madonna ranks among the best-selling female artists in pop music, having sold over 300 million records. More than just a performer, Madonna is a cultural icon who has pushed the boundaries of religion and sexuality in her work, influencing popular culture and other artists.

Later Hits

Further Reading

Guilbert, Georges-Claude. Madonna as Postmodern Myth: How One Star’s Self-Construction Rewrites Sex, Gender, Hollywood, and the American Dream. Jefferson, N.C.: McFarland, 2002. An analysis of Madonna’s influence on American culture, including other artists and feminists. Appropriate for cultural studies professors and students. Paglia, Camille. Sex, Art, and American Culture: Essays. New York: Vintage Books, 1992. The first two sections, “Madonna I: Animality and Artifice” and “Madonna II: Venus of the Radio Waves,” offer an incisive discussion of the cultural meaning of Madonna’s excesses by an accomplished journalist. Sexton, Adam, ed. Desperately Seeking Madonna: In Search of the World’s Most Famous Woman. New York: Delta, 1993. An anthology of cartoons, articles, quotations, and poetry that the music journalist Sexton has collected from such sources as the National Review, Christianity and Crisis, Rolling Stone, Ellen Goodman, Art Buchwald, Helen Gurley Brown, and others. Illuminates the many sides of Madonna. Sheila Golburgh Johnson See also Academy Awards; Broadway musicals; Censorship; Electronic music; Film in the United States; Music; Rock and Roll Hall of Fame Museum.

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■ Mafia Criminal organization that traces its history back to immigrant ethnic groups, usually of Italian descent, and that operates illegal businesses or corrupt legal enterprises in many American cities

Identification

The serious challenge mounted by various law-enforcement agencies to the Mafia’s ability to conduct criminal activities and continue its involvement in a number of legitimate industries changed the landscape for organized crime during the 1990’s. Mafia leaders were forced to enter into partnerships with other organized crime groups and engage in some activities they had avoided in the past. A veteran New York City crime reporter once referred to the 1990’s as “the twilight of the Mob.” For more than a hundred years, the organization that had its roots in the Italian immigrant communities of the late nineteenth century had been a major criminal force in American cities, conducting criminal operations, causing serious problems for legitimate businesses, and often injecting a sense of fear into communities where it had notable influence. Mafia “families,” normally working independently but often joined in loose alliances to maximize their ability to generate profits by agreeing to limit competition among themselves, had operated until the 1970’s with little real threat from conventional lawenforcement agencies. In 1970, however, the federal government passed the Racketeer Influenced and Corrupt Organizations (RICO) Act, which made it a crime simply to be involved in certain illegal activities. Under RICO, government prosecutors could prosecute Mafia leaders as well as those who actually committed crimes at their direction. Additionally, stiff penalties for individuals convicted under this law, as well as longer sentences imposed for a number of crimes committed by subordinates in the organization, helped to break down the notion of omertà. For decades this “code of silence” had virtually guaranteed leaders immunity from prosecution, since underlings would simply accept jail sentences—which were usually brief—rather than testify against their bosses. RICO was used successfully during the 1980’s, especially in New York City, where U.S. attorney Rudolph Giuliani mounted a campaign against all five of the major crime families in the city.

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Government Crackdown The tone for the 1990’s was set early in the decade when federal agents arrested John Gotti, the flamboyant head of New York City’s Gambino crime family. Gotti was convicted of murder and other crimes and sentenced to life in prison. Prosecutors were able to get convictions against Gotti and others because they had finally convinced Mafia members to testify for the government in exchange for reduced sentences for crimes they may have committed. Additionally, the government began making extensive use of sting operations in which Mafia members were caught redhanded. During the 1990’s, heads of Mafia groups in New York, as well as in other American cities such as Boston, Philadelphia, Chicago, Detroit, Cleveland, New Orleans, and Kansas City, began feeling intense pressure from federal agencies. Among the more notable figures sent to prison was Vincent “The Chin” Gigante of New York’s Genovese family, considered by many the most influential of New York’s crime bosses. Even though leaders who remained free tried to keep a low profile and restrain activities of their subordinates, law-enforcement officials kept up the pressure. A coordinated national effort launched in 1996 by the Federal Bureau of Investigation (FBI) resulted in the arrest and conviction of hundreds of Mafia members and the seizure of millions of dollars in assets. By the end of the decade, membership in the Mafia had declined by as much as eighty percent. The New Face of Organized Crime In addition to pressure from law enforcement, Mafia leaders began seeing their traditional territories and business activities threatened by new criminal gangs, often with international ties. Many of these gangs were engaging in activities the Mafia had largely avoided, such as white-collar crime or drug trafficking. When pressure from law enforcement began making it more difficult for Mafia groups to continue realizing significant profits from traditional businesses such as prostitution, gambling, loan sharking, or bid rigging of government or private contracts for construction and transportation, leaders found themselves forced to consider new criminal activities or partnering with groups already carrying on such trade. As a result, while the number of Mafia members declined during the decade, those who remained within the organizations across American

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cities were now part of a worldwide network of organized crime that engaged in drug smuggling, stock market fraud, cyber crime, human trafficking, and even international terrorism. Impact Unquestionably, the efforts of law-enforcement agencies to eradicate the influence of those groups traditionally designated as “the Mafia” in America did serious damage to well-established organizations that had conducted numerous illegal operations for a century. Unfortunately, the rise of other organized crime cartels both in the United States and abroad tended to serve as a counterweight to the effectiveness of government initiatives in eradicating the kinds of illicit activities for which the Mafia had long been famous. The resiliency of the new generation of Mafia leaders also played a significant role in the organization’s ability to adapt to changing conditions in the global marketplace, allowing these criminal elements to join forces with others bent on taking advantage of both disadvantaged groups and new industries where safeguards had not yet been established to protect against infiltration by criminal groups. Further Reading

Lunde, Paul. Organized Crime: An Inside Guide to the World’s Most Successful Industry. New York: Dorling Kindersley, 2004. A lengthy chapter outlines the history of the American Mafia. Includes numerous photographs. Raab, Selwyn. Five Families: The Rise, Decline, and Resurgence of America’s Most Powerful Mafia Empires. New York: Thomas Dunne, 2005. Extensive, detailed accounts of the history of Mafia activity in New York City and interactions of its groups with others across the nation. Also describes lawenforcement efforts to eradicate organized crime during the 1990’s. Reppetto, Thomas A. Bringing Down the Mob: The War Against the American Mafia. New York: Henry Holt, 2006. Traces activities of federal, state, and local agencies to wipe out organized crime in America. Describes the changing nature of organized crime during the 1990’s as its leaders reacted to pressure from law enforcement and responded to new opportunities in other parts of the world. Ryan, Patrick J. Organized Crime: A Reference Handbook. Santa Barbara, Calif.: ABC-Clio, 1995. Useful summaries of the activities of Mafia groups, outlining the organization of groups in cities

throughout America and abroad. Contains brief biographies of key leaders, describes efforts by law enforcement to eliminate Mafia activities, and provides a chronology of law-enforcement efforts directed against organized crime groups. Laurence W. Mazzeno Business and the economy in the United States; Crime; Giuliani, Rudolph.

See also

■ Magic Eye pictures Computer-generated optical illusions that hide three-dimensional images in seemingly random patterns Manufacturer N. E. Thing Enterprises (renamed Magic Eye Inc. in 1996) Definition

A fad that became a multimillion-dollar worldwide industry in a few short years, Magic Eye pictures swept the globe in the early 1990’s, gracing posters, newspapers, greeting cards, advertisements, and books. Although three-dimensional (3-D) images had been around since the 1830’s, early incarnations required mechanical devices, such as View-Masters or 3-D glasses, in order to be viewed. In the late 1950’s, a neuroscientist named Béla Julesz generated a random dot stereogram, which used two sets of slightly offset dots to produce a 3-D image that did not require a viewing device. Instead, the viewer could focus his or her eyes beyond the surface of the image, tricking the mind into perceiving depth and thus revealing a hidden 3-D image. In 1990, an entrepreneur named Tom Baccei saw an example of a random dot stereogram in Stereo World, a magazine about 3-D images. Baccei quickly realized the endless marketing possibilities for the technology and created a company called N. E. Thing Enterprises in response. With the help of an artist and a computer programmer, Baccei refined the technique and contracted out the production of posters and a calendar utilizing the hidden images. He then began giving away samples and running advertisements, hoping that the gimmick would catch on. Before long, other entrepreneurs noticed what Baccei was doing and decided to exploit the images as well. A company named Nvision set up kiosks and carts in shopping malls across the United States to sell posters, which turned out to be the best possible

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advertising for the fledgling enterprise. Because not everybody could immediately see the 3-D images, people gathered to coach each other, creating a congenial atmosphere and a willing customer base. Baccei wisely allowed Nvision to concentrate on the posters and, in the meantime, coined the phrase “Magic Eye” to market a series of books from publisher Andrews and McMeel. The books quickly topped various best-seller lists in the United States and elsewhere, leading to licensing deals featuring Disney, Looney Tunes, Garfield the cat, and Star Wars characters in books and on greeting cards, cereal boxes, and lunch boxes. N. E. Thing Enterprises even began running a syndicated newspaper feature, with a different hidden image each week. In 1996, Baccei renamed the company Magic Eye, Inc. in order to capitalize on the brand name recognition that he had worked so hard to achieve. Impact The Magic Eye pictures became one of the most widespread, lucrative, and enduring popular culture phenomena of the twentieth century. Although the peak of the pictures’ popularity occurred in the mid-1990’s, Baccei’s company and its competitors continue to seek out or invent new niches for this technology, including custom-made images for companies or individuals, neckties, and puzzles, proving that this multimillion-dollar industry was not merely a simple fad that would quickly run its course and fade away. Further Reading

Grossman, John. “In the Eye of the Beholder.” Inc. 16, no. 10 (October, 1994): 60-67. N. E. Thing Enterprises. Magic Eye: A New Way of Looking at the World: 3D Illusions. Kansas City, Mo.: Andrews and McMeel, 1993. Amy Sisson Advertising; Beanie Babies; CGI; Fads; Science and technology.

See also

■ Mall of America The second-largest shopping and entertainment complex in North America Date Opened on August 11, 1992 Place Bloomington, Minnesota Identification

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Since its opening, the Mall of America has regularly attracted over forty million visitors annually to the more than five hundred shops within it that are housed in an enclosed area of approximately 4.2 million square feet. With parking facilities for 12,550 cars (later increased to 20,000 cars), the mall employs some twelve thousand people, making it a significant factor in Minnesota’s economy. Strategically located at the intersection of Interstate 494 and Highway 77 close to the Minneapolis-St. Paul International Airport in Minnesota, the Mall of America is the most visited megamall in the United States, attracting annually more visitors than the Statue of Liberty and the Washington Monument combined. Although it is not the largest mall in North America—a distinction held by the West Edmonton Mall in Alberta, Canada, whose square footage is 5.2 million—the Mall of America attracts more visitors than any mall in North America. It is the third-largest enclosed mall when measured by its retail space, but it is the largest in the United States when measured by its total enclosed area. The Architectural Plan The sprawling Mall of America is essentially rectangular. Three sides of the rectangle have three levels with over five hundred shops facing the pedestrian passageways on its sides. There is a fourth level on the remaining side of the rectangle, much of it devoted to restaurants, bars, cocktail lounges, and other service facilities. The mall is subdivided into four zones, each distinctive in its decor. Because of Minnesota’s harsh winters, the mall is totally enclosed so that visitors are not subjected to the extreme weather. The design is also environmentally friendly: Hundreds of skylights provide illumination as well as solar-generated heat. Only the entrances to the mall are heated. Some of the heat needed to make the mall comfortable is generated by its lighting fixtures, and a great deal more comes from the body heat of people working in or visiting the mall. It amazes many people to learn that in the dead of winter, it is often necessary to cool the mall artificially to make it comfortable. Aside from more than five hundred retail stores that occupy three levels of the mall, each of the corners of the mall is occupied by a so-called anchor store, a large department store with a well-known name. In the Mall of America, the anchor stores are Bloomingdale’s, Macy’s, Nordstrom, and Sears.

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the Triple Five Group, the Canadian concern that built the West Edmonton Mall, to construct a megamall in Bloomington. Ground was broken for the Mall of America on June 14, 1989, and some three years later, on August 11, 1992, the mall opened its doors to its first customers. Impact The Mall of America has become an American icon. Within its walls are a fourteen-screen movie theater, a wedding chapel, a church, an eighteen-hole miniature golf course, and an alternative high school, the Metropolitan Learning Alliance. The Hiawatha Light Rail connects the mall to the nearby international airport and to downtown Minneapolis. The economic impact of the Mall of America has been substantial. It has turned suburban Bloomington, the third-largest city in Minnesota, into a thriving metropolis with a workforce of thousands of people who have jobs ancillary to those of the twelve thousand people employed directly in the mall itself. Visitors from around the world have come to Minnesota, the northernmost of the forty-eight contiguous states, to visit and shop in the mall. Further Reading

An inside view of the Mall of America in Bloomington, Minnesota. (AP/Wide World Photos)

The Mall of America is ideally situated for accessibility by the populations of Minneapolis and St. Paul. Its proximity to an international airport has made it possible for the mall, in cooperation with various airlines, to offer special inducements to fly people from abroad to Minnesota for shopping sprees at the legendary mall. The site on which the mall was constructed was originally occupied by the Metropolitan Sports Arena and Met Stadium, where the Minnesota Twins baseball team played for many years. One seat from the Met Stadium was placed in the Mall of America at the spot it originally occupied to mark the 520-foot home run hit by Harmon Killebrew, who went on to be enshrined in the Baseball Hall of Fame. The Bloomington Port Authority contracted with

An Accessible Location

Herwig, Oliver. Dream Worlds: Architecture and Entertainment. New York: Prestel, 2006. A wellillustrated volume especially valuable for its chapter titled “Southdale Mall and the Mall of America: A Shopping Universe.” Lysloff, René T. A., and Leslie C. Gay, Jr. Music and Technoculture. Middletown, Conn.: Wesleyan University Press, 2003. Especially relevant is chapter 13, “Sounds Like the Mall of America: Programmed Music and the Archtectonics of Commercial Space.” Nelson, Eric. The Mall of America: Reflections of a Virtual Community. Lakeville, Minn.: Galde Press, 1998. An extremely valuable resource that covers the history of the Mall of America as well as the social implications of such an enterprise. Rubenstein, Harvey. Pedestrian Malls, Streetscapes, and Urban Spaces. New York: John Wiley & Sons, 1992. One of the best sources on the types of malls found worldwide. The historical perspective of this book is broad and, although it was published shortly before the Mall of America was established, the book is worth referring to for its overall portrayal of malls throughout the world. R. Baird Shuman

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Architecture; Business and the economy in the United States; Employment in the United States; Recession of 1990-1991; Ventura, Jesse.

See also

■ Malone, Karl Identification American basketball player Born July 24, 1963; Summerfield, Louisiana

Characterized by consistency and durability, Malone’s nineteen-year National Basketball Association (NBA) career flourished in the 1990’s. During the decade, he received two Olympic gold medals and two Most Valuable Player Awards and led the Utah Jazz to successive appearances in the NBA Finals. On January 27, 1990, allegedly disgruntled by his exclusion from the starting lineup of the Western Conference All-Star Team, Karl Malone scored a careerhigh (and Utah Jazz franchise record) sixty-one points against the Milwaukee Bucks. The effort was part of his strongest statistical season and was a harbinger of Malone’s decade-long dominance of the power forward position. In the 1990’s, he was the only player selected to the All-NBA First Team each season and made a total of eleven appearances on the team over the course of his career. Malone finished his career as the second-highest all-time scorer in NBA history, behind Kareem Abdul-Jabbar. Malone’s total was augmented by his fortuitous partnership with point guard John Stockton, the NBA’s career assists leader. The two were teammates for sixteen seasons and utilized the pick-androll to confound opponents and produce unprecedented success for the Jazz franchise. Beginning in 1992, the Jazz advanced to the Western Conference Finals five times in seven years. “When we play the game like we’re supposed to play it, it is pretty easy. Making the extra pass, making the simple play, it’s not about between your legs, behind your back, and all of that, it’s just about scoring the bucket,” Malone said, highlighting the team’s work ethic. In 1997, Malone received the first of his two Most Valuable Player (MVP) Awards and guided the Jazz into the NBA Finals against the team of the decade, Michael Jordan’s Chicago Bulls. With the series tied after four games, Jordan, sick with the flu, scored thirty-eight points to help Chicago win game five in Utah. In a close game six, the Bulls eliminated the Jazz. The following year, the two teams finished with

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identical 62-20 regular-season records and met again in the NBA Finals. With his team down three games to one, Malone had his strongest Finals performance—thirty-nine points, nine rebounds, and five assists—to force a game six. With time expiring in game six, Jordan made a twenty-foot jump shot that gave Chicago a 87-86 lead and its sixth championship of the 1990’s. Malone returned once more to the NBA Finals—in 2004, his only season with the Los Angeles Lakers—but was hampered by a knee injury; as evidence of his integral role with the team, his inability to contribute cost the Lakers the championship. Malone’s durability—he played in at least eighty games in all but two seasons—was partly attributable to his fitness regimen. He cultivated an intimidating physique and employed a physical playing style. Opponents often accused Malone of playing dirty; on one occasion, Isiah Thomas required forty stitches above his eye because of contact with one of Ma-

Utah Jazz power forward Karl Malone, left, defends against the Chicago Bulls’ Michael Jordan during game two of the 1997 NBA Finals. (AP/Wide World Photos)

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lone’s notorious elbows. Malone’s willingness to improve was also responsible for his longevity: Over the course of his tenure, he sharpened his passing ability as well as his free throwing and perimeter shooting. Impact In the 1990’s, Malone won two Olympic gold medals—one with the 1992 “Dream Team.” His career statistics rival Abdul-Jabbar’s, and though he retired without an NBA championship, he was a worthy adversary for Jordan, Hakeem Olajuwon, and other dominant players of the decade. Malone’s success was heightened by the fact that he played for a small-market franchise. His on-court demeanor and his conspicuous musculature are indelible images of the NBA in the 1990’s. Further Reading

Hareas, John. NBA’s Greatest. New York: Dorling Kindersley, 2003. Kalb, Elliott. Who’s Better, Who’s Best in Basketball? Mr. Stats Sets the Record Straight on the Top Fifty NBA Players of All Time. Chicago: Contemporary Books, 2004. Latimer, Clay. Special Delivery: The Amazing Basketball Career of Karl Malone. Lenexa, Kans.: Addax, 1999. Lewis, Michael C. To the Brink: Stockton, Malone, and the Utah Jazz’s Climb to the Edge of Glory. New York: Simon & Schuster, 1998. Christopher Rager African Americans; Barkley, Charles; Basketball; Dream Team; Johnson, Magic; Jordan, Michael; Olympic Games of 1992; Olympic Games of 1996; O’Neal, Shaquille; Sports.

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Robert Mapplethorpe’s (1946-1989) highly erotic The Perfect Moment to great public outrage, due in part to the openly homosexual nature of much of Mapplethorpe’s work. The display resulted in the unsuccessful prosecution of director Dennis Barrie on charges of pandering obscenity. Mapplethorpe, who was highly regarded for his large-scale, blackand-white portraits of celebrities and photos of flowers and nudes, photographed the human body in a manner that combined formal beauty and sexuality and included in his work homoerotic imagery and sadomasochistic acts. He was best known for his 1978 sexually explicit Portfolio X series, which resulted in national outrage because it was displayed at publicly funded exhibitions. It should be remembered that in the early 1990’s, the pendulum was swinging toward a more politically and socially conservative America. In 1990, the National Endowment for the Arts (NEA) had one of its highest budgets ever, $170 million, and Republicans made plans to eliminate the agency entirely. The opposition of the American Family Association and other religious organizations to Mapplethorpe’s work led to a direct attack on the NEA, which funded the Mapplethorpe exhibit. Also, since the exhibit began its national tour almost a year before it reached Cincinnati, those in that city who objected to the exhibition had plenty of time to prepare an attempt to close the exhibit under Ohio’s obscenity statute, which made it illegal to display obscene material.

See also

■ Mapplethorpe obscenity trial A highly publicized trial over the display of allegedly obscene art Date September 24-October 5, 1990 Place Cincinnati, Ohio The Event

The acquittal of the Cincinnati Contemporary Arts Center and its director Dennis Barrie on charges of pandering obscenity was a reaffirmation of freedom of speech protection, particularly with regard to homoerotic art, and set off a national controversy about the public funding of artworks. In 1990, the Cincinnati Contemporary Arts Center (CAC) exhibited popular American photographer

The Trial A watchdog group, Citizens for Community Values, organized a protest against Mapplethorpe’s exhibit. Hours after the opening on April 7, 1990, the CAC and Barrie were indicted by the Hamilton County Grand Jury for criminal violations of the Ohio obscenity statute for pandering obscenity and illegally displaying photographs of nude children. The trial began on September 24, with a jury made up of four men and four women and Judge F. David J. Albanese presiding. The lawyers for the CAC and Barrie were Marc D. Mezibov and H. Louis Sirkin; the prosecutors were Richard A. Castellini, Frank H. Prouty, Jr., and Melanie J. Reising. At issue were 7 of 175 photographs, also referred to as the “Dirty Pictures” (and the name of the 2000 film about the trial), which depict children with exposed genitals and men in sadomasochistic poses. The cross-examination of witnesses by the prosecution, led by Prouty, concluded that what some peo-

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Demonstrators in support of the late Robert Mapplethorpe’s controversial exhibit, The Perfect Moment, march through downtown Cincinnati on April 6, 1990. (AP/Wide World Photos)

ple view as pornography, others view as art. The prosecutors had to convince the jury that the pictures were “obscene,” as defined by the Supreme Court in the 1973 case Miller v. California. The defense witnesses, made up of art experts, saw the pictures in the light of artistic freedom. Janet Kardon, a defense witness, viewed the photographs themselves as symmetrical and classically composed figure studies, while witnesses for the prosecution viewed the photographs as deeply offensive sexually explicit merchandise. This debate led to the decisive questions: Who determines art and how does one know if something is art? Ultimately, Barrie and the CAC were acquitted in a much-publicized trial six months after the indictment.

Impact The acquittal of the defendants was a reaffirmation of freedom of speech. Also, the obscenity trial served to illustrate the struggle between the liberal and conservative values of early 1990’s America. As an issue, public arts funding remained in the forefront throughout the decade, and politicians continued the debate about the government’s need to sponsor art. Indeed, some argue that the Mapplethorpe trial was a catalyst for bringing about the culture wars. The Cincinnati Institute of Fine Arts temporarily dropped funding for the CAC. Between 1990 and 1995, the NEA saw the abolishment of twenty categories of grants. Consequently, funding plummeted and attempts were made to eliminate the agency. Ultimately, however, the Mapplethorpe trial brought

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arts advocates together and galvanized support for the NEA and the federal role for arts support in the United States. Indeed, state legislatures across the country granted arts councils $292 million in 2000. Still, those who brought the 1990 obscenity charges against the Contemporary Arts Center claim that the trial worked to their advantage simply because their primary intention was not to close art museums but merely to force them to act responsibly in their selection of art, which, they argue, was the ultimate outcome. Further Reading

Danto, Arthur C. Playing with the Edge: The Photographic Achievement of Robert Mapplethorpe. Berkeley: University of California Press, 1996. Offers a lucid discussion of Mapplethorpe’s works. Illustrated. Gurstein, Rochelle. “Current Debate: High Art or Hard-Core? Misjudging Mapplethorpe—the Art Scene and the Obscene.” Tikkun (November/December, 1991): 70-80. Gurstein, who teaches history and other subjects at Bard Graduate Center in Manhattan, argues against avant-garde artists such as Mapplethorpe who she believes invoke free speech rights to justify what she considers violent, dehumanizing, or pornographic works. Merkel, Jayne. “Art on Trial.” Art in America (December, 1990): 41-46. Not only details the events of the Mapplethorpe obscenity trial but also argues that it was not so much Mapplethorpe on trial as art in America. M. Casey Diana See also Art movements; Censorship; Child pornography; Conservatism in U.S. politics; Culture wars; Holy Virgin Mary, The; Homosexuality and gay rights; National Endowment for the Arts (NEA); Photography; Republican Revolution.

■ Marilyn Manson Identification Industrial metal band Date Formed in 1989

The band established itself in the American music scene by courting controversy through provocative lyrics and shock metal antics during its shows. Thematically, the band grapples with the subjects of death, violence, drug use, youth alienation, and American religious culture.

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Marilyn Manson is an industrial metal band influenced by the shock rock bands of Kiss and Alice Cooper and by the glam rock of David Bowie. The band was established to be shocking to the public as a whole, as demonstrated by the stage names the band adopted for its early acts. The idea behind the stage names was to reflect the dichotomy of good and evil in American popular culture. For example, “Marilyn Manson” links Hollywood sex symbol Marilyn Monroe to serial killer Charles Manson; “Gidget Gein,” stage name of one of the band’s bassists in the 1990’s, combines the names of the television character Gidget and serial killer Ed Gein. The early stage act in Fort Lauderdale, Florida, had band members dressing in androgynous costumes on a stage decorated with bloody crosses, naked women, and animal parts. In 1992, Trent Reznor of the industrial band Nine Inch Nails helped to popularize Marilyn Manson by coproducing its first three albums. The band’s debut album, Portrait of an American Family (1994), had limited commercial success. Following its first headlining tour, the band released the extended play record Smells Like Children (1995), which contained the hit single remix “Sweet Dreams (Are Made of This).” With Antichrist Superstar (1996), the band became popular in the mainstream. A considerable portion of the band’s popularity derived from the protest of parents and religious groups who found Antichrist Superstar obscene and anti-Christian. Singles from the album, including “The Beautiful People” and “Tourniquet,” contributed to the protests, as did the lead singer, Marilyn Manson (Brian Warner), who stoked protests with provocative comments about the need to end Christianity. To promote the album, the band headlined the Dead to the World tour, which featured an elaborate goth-inspired stage show, which was picketed by protesters and even banned in some cities. In 1998, the band released Mechanical Animals, which featured the hit singles “The Dope Show,” “I Don’t Like the Drugs (But the Drugs Like Me),” and “Rock Is Dead.” As the band began its Rock Is Dead tour in 1999 with Hole (led by Courtney Love) and Monster Magnet, the Columbine massacre caused the band to cancel the rest of the tour dates out of respect for the victims. In the immediate aftermath, Marilyn Manson and its music was often cited as a contributing factors in the rampage.

The Nineties in America Impact Marilyn Manson, a self-proclaimed advocate for individuality and self-expression, became the symbol for all that is wrong with American culture during the mid- to late 1990’s, especially because of the band’s seeming promotion of violence, drug abuse, and generally antisocial, anti-Christian behavior. Further Reading

Brackett, Nathan, and Christian Hoard, eds. The New Rolling Stone Album Guide. 4th ed. New York: Simon & Schuster, 2004. Manson, Marilyn, and Neil Strauss. The Long Hard Road out of Hell. New York: HarperCollins, 1998. John P. Cryderman Alternative rock; Censorship; Columbine massacre; Drug use; Love, Courtney; Music; Nine Inch Nails; Religion and spirituality in the United States; School violence; Wal-Mart.

See also

■ Marriage and divorce Social institution under which two people become legally united and the legal dissolution thereof

Definition

Complex historical and social trends created significant cultural changes since the 1960’s, establishing diverse family and household compositions and unique challenges for marriage in the 1990’s. Until the 1960’s, the divorce and remarriage rates in the United States changed jointly. As one increased or decreased, so did the other. However, beginning in the 1960’s, marriage, divorce, and remarriage patterns changed dramatically. First marriage rates began to fall, and divorce rates rose. The remarriage rate initially increased in response to the rising divorce rate but ultimately declined. The divorce rate remained relatively unchanged at high levels during the 1970’s and 1980’s—dropping slightly at the end of the second decade. First marriage rates and remarriage rates continued to decrease through the 1970’s and 1980’s. In the 1990’s, demographic indicators pertaining to marriage and divorce stabilized as compared to the previous two decades. Marriage and remarriage rates continued a long-term decline, but more gradually, and divorce rates dropped slightly.

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From 1990 to 2000, crude marriage rates (number of marriages per year per 1,000 population) declined from 9.8 to 8.5. This modest decline could suggest that individuals are simply marrying at later ages than in earlier decades or choosing an alternative such as single parenting or cohabitation over marriage. The low marriage rate during the mid1990’s was similar to rates experienced during the Great Depression. Age at marriage increased throughout the 1990’s. In 1980, the median age of marriage was 24.7 for men and 22.0 for women. By 1990, men married at a median age of 26.1 and women at 23.9. By 2000, the median age had risen to 26.7 for men and 25.1 for women. Women often postponed marriage because of economic and opportunity costs of early marriage and child rearing, while men delayed marriage because of a more restricted pool of women to marry. The crude divorce rate (number of divorces per year per 1,000 population) peaked in the United States at 5.3 in 1970 and 1983. Liberalizing divorce laws and lessening social stigma associated with divorce contributed to high rates of divorce. Additionally, as women’s economic opportunities improved, divorce also increased because women could be financially independent. In 1990, the divorce rate stood at 4.7 and dropped to 4.0 by 2000, still at one of the highest levels in the industrialized world. Fewer marriages, resulting in less opportunity for divorce, and older average age at marriage contributed to the slight decline of the divorce rate. Lower marriage rates and increased childbearing out of wedlock resulted in a decline in the growth of family households (families maintained by married couples or a man or woman living with other relatives—children may or may not be present). Between 1980 and 1990, household growth rate slowed from 1.7 million per year to 1.3 million per year and dropped even further to 1.1 million in the 1990’s. Postponement of marriage and lower remarriage rates after divorce coupled with changing social norms led to a larger percentage of births to unmarried woman in the 1990’s than ever before reported. Women spent less time in marriages, and thus the opportunity for nonmarital childbearing increased. While divorce, marriage, and remarriage trends are important indicators of marriage and family change, throughout the 1990’s the emer-

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gence of cohabitation and same-sex marriage demonstrated the shifting meaning of marriage and family in the United States. Cohabitation grew during the 1990’s and became a more socially accepted familial alternative to traditional marriage. The number of cohabiting couples in the United States grew from 2.8 million in 1990 to 4.5 million in 2000. The escalation of cohabitation helped account for lower remarriage rates. Court decisions appeared to set the stage for legal same-sex marriages. The Hawaii Supreme Court ruled in 1993 that restricting marriages to oppositesex partners violated the equal protection clause in the state constitution. However, in 1998, Hawaiian voters gave the state legislature power to block samesex marriages, which it quickly did. The 1996 Defense of Marriage Act signed by President Bill Clinton denied federal recognition to same-sex couples. However, the Vermont Supreme Court ruled in 1999 that the state must allow same-sex couples to marry or permit them the same rights of married couples. In April, 2000, Vermont began to recognize civil unions. Impact Economic and cultural changes since the 1960’s increased the prevalence of and tolerance for diverse family forms. A weakening of social bonds and norms that traditionally defined people’s behavior in the family led to negotiation of new family roles and in new types of families. The traditional, biological two-parent family was no longer the idealized or most common family form. Birthrates dropped, people delayed marriage, cohabitation rates soared, and divorce rates increased. Further Reading

Cherlin, Andrew J. “The Deinstitutionalization of American Marriage.” Journal of Marriage and Family 66, no. 4 (2004): 848-861. Examines the changing significance of marriage in society, including practical implications for economic well-being and childrearing as well as symbolic meanings of marriage in the United States. Fields, Jason, et al. America’s Families and Living Arrangements. Washington, D.C.: Government Printing Office, 2001. Reports trends about households, families, and living arrangements in the United States. Kreider, Rose M., et al. Marital Status 2000: Census 2000 Brief. Washington, D.C.: U.S. Government

Printing Office, 2003. Presents U.S. Census data on marital status from 1950-2000. Martin, Teresa Castro, et al. “Recent Trends in Marital Disruption.” Demography 26, no. 1 (1989): 3751. Examines the reduction in marital stability in the United States, with emphasis on the decline in divorce rates in the 1980’s and the leveling off in the 1990’s. Norton, Arthur J., et al. Marriage, Divorce, and Remarriage in the 1990’s. Washington, D.C.: U.S. Government Printing Office, 1992. Includes analysis of data from several surveys explaining patterns of marriage, divorce, remarriage, and redivorce. Teachman, Jay D., et al. “The Changing Demography of America’s Families.” Journal of Marriage and Family (2000): 1234-1246. An overview of changes in American families related to declining prevalence of early marriage, increasing levels of marital dissolution, and the growing tendency to never marry. Barbara E. Johnson See also Blended families; Demographics of the United States; Defense of Marriage Act of 1996; Domestic partnerships; Homosexuality and gay rights.

■ Mars exploration The intensive study of Mars by spacecraft

Definition

In the 1990’s, NASA began an ambitious, decade-long program to explore Mars by flying two spacecraft to the planet every twenty-six months. This program resulted in highquality photographic imaging of most of the surface of Mars as well as the deployment of the first rover, a small, semiautonomous laboratory that performed chemical analysis of rocks and soil. Mars is the most Earth-like planet in the solar system, so it provides insights into how Earth-like planets evolved and, possibly, how life originated. The major objective of the National Aeronautics and Space Administration’s (NASA) Viking 1 and 2 spacecraft, which landed on Mars in 1976, was to search for evidence of life, possibly in the form of microorganisms in the soil. Unfortunately, the reactive chemistry of the Martian soil interfered with these analyses. After a hiatus of more than fifteen years, NASA resumed its exploration of Mars with the launching of

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the Mars Observer on September 25, 1992. This large observatory was intended to study the geology and climate. On August 21, 1993, just three days before it was scheduled to enter orbit, radio contact was lost. A review panel determined that a fuel-line rupture in the propulsion system during preparation for orbital insertion probably caused its failure. Following the failure of the Mars Observer, NASA shifted its Mars exploration efforts to more frequent but smaller spacecraft. Mars Pathfinder, the second of NASA’s low-cost Discovery missions, was designed to test a new way to deliver payloads to the Martian surface. Pathfinder was launched by a Delta II rocket on December 4, 1996, and landed on Mars on July 4, 1997, directly entering the Martian atmosphere using a small parachute to slow its descent and a system of air bags to cushion its impact. Pathfinder hit the surface at forty miles per hour, bouncing five hundred feet into the air. It bounced sixteen times before coming to rest after 2.5 minutes, about 0.6 mile from its initial impact. The landing site, Ares Vallis, was selected because photographs from the Viking spacecraft indicated it was an ancient floodplain containing a variety of different types of rocks. The six-hundred-pound Pathfinder carried the twenty-two-pound Sojourner rover, named after the civil rights crusader Sojourner Truth. The sixwheeled rover rolled onto the surface of Mars on July 6. It was controlled from Earth, but the tenminute time delay for communication required autonomous control of some rover activities. Mars Pathfinder took 16,500 images of the surface and monitored weather. Sojourner took 550 images and analyzed 15 rocks. The results suggest that Mars was once warm and wet with a thick atmosphere. Communications with Pathfinder and Sojourner were lost, for unknown reasons, on September 27, 1997.

Mars Pathfinder

Mars Global Surveyor Launched on November 7, 1996, aboard a Delta II rocket, the Mars Global Surveyor was a fast, low-cost spacecraft to perform most of the science planned for Mars Observer. The spacecraft entered a highly elliptical orbit around Mars on September 12, 1997, and began sixteen months of aerobraking, repeatedly passing through the upper atmosphere to reduce the high point of the orbit, putting it into a nearly circular, two-hour polar orbit. This orbit allowed the Surveyor to ob-

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serve each spot on Mars every seven days. Beginning in March, 1999, Surveyor performed high-resolution mapping, studied the gravitational field, investigated the role of water and dust on the atmosphere, and mapped the Martian magnetic field. Some images showed bright, new deposits in two gullies, suggesting that water may still flow, at least sporadically, on the Martian surface. High-resolution images of the Cydonia Region showed that the “face on Mars,” a formation resembling a human face in lowerresolution Viking images, was simply a natural rock formation. After studying Mars for four times as long as planned, the Mars Global Surveyor ceased transmitting in November, 2006, probably resulting from a computer error leading to battery failure. The Surveyor was one of the first spacecraft in NASA’s planned, decade-long exploration of Mars, with launches every twenty-six months.

Mars Global Surveyor prior to a second launch attempt on November 7, 1996. (NASA Kennedy Space Center)

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Launched on December 11, 1998, by a Delta II rocket, the Mars Climate Orbiter carried instruments to study weather, atmospheric ozone, distribution and transport of dust and water, effects of topography on atmospheric circulation, and atmospheric response to solar heating. The spacecraft reached Mars on September 23, 1999, and fired its engine to enter orbit. Radio contact was not reestablished after the spacecraft passed behind Mars. A failure review board determined that some commands were sent in imperial instead of metric units and that the spacecraft was destroyed by atmospheric stresses when it came too close to Mars. The Mars Polar Lander, launched aboard a Delta II rocket on January 3, 1999, was targeted to land near the edge of the south polar ice cap. The spacecraft was designed to record weather conditions, analyze samples of polar deposits for water and carbon dioxide, and determine soil composition. The last radio signal from the lander was sent just prior to atmospheric entry on December 3, 1999. When the Mars Climate Orbiter was lost, the task of relaying communications from the Polar Lander was shifted to the Mars Global Surveyor, but no communications were received from the surface. The Polar Lander carried two soil penetrators, intended to separate from the spacecraft just before atmospheric entry to measure thermal conductivity of the surface, but these were lost as well.

Mars Climate Orbiter and Polar Lander

Impact Indications that Mars was once warm, wet, and had a dense atmosphere suggest that it was Earth-like in the past, raising the question of how it evolved into an inhospitable planet. The successes of Mars Pathfinder and Mars Global Surveyor set the stage for more ambitious exploration in the twentyfirst century, possibly including human exploration of Mars. The Sojourner rover marked the beginning of a program of ever more ambitious Mars rovers in the twenty-first century. However, the failures of the Mars Observer, Mars Climate Orbiter, and Mars Polar Lander emphasized the difficulty of planetary exploration. Further Reading

Bizony, Piers. The Exploration of Mars: Searching for the Cosmic Origins of Life. London: Aurum Press, 1998. A well-illustrated, two-hundred-page account of the search for life on Mars.

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Mishkin, Andrew. Sojourner: An Insider’s View of the Mars Pathfinder Mission. New York: Berkeley, 2004. A firsthand account of the Mars Pathfinder probe by a systems engineer at the Jet Propulsion Laboratory. Illustrated. Shirley, Donna. Managing Martians. New York: Broadway Books, 1998. An account of the development of Sojourner by the first woman to manage a NASA spaceflight program. George J. Flynn See also Science and technology; Space exploration; Space shuttle program.

■ Matrix, The Identification Science-fiction action film Directors Larry Wachowski (1965) and

Andy Wachowski (1967) Released on March 31, 1999

Date

This highly influential and popular film reflected popular concerns about the relationships among technology, cyberspace, and humanity. The Matrix tells the story of Thomas “Neo” Anderson (Keanu Reeves), a weary computer programmer for a megacorporation by day and a computer hacker by night. When he follows the advice of unusual strangers, Neo learns the truth of his existence: It is not 1999 as he and most humans believe, but nearly two hundred years later. Machines rule the world and have created a virtual reality—the Matrix—to pacify humans. The rebels free Neo and train him to manipulate the Matrix, hoping he will be the hero who will save the human race. The story’s mystery is heightened by the philosophical questions it overtly raises: What is reality? Does a self exist? How do images relate to reality? How are humans and machines related? The almost constant allusions to literature, philosophy, theory, film, and popular culture provide resonance and sometimes humor. For example: Neo must follow the white rabbit to find the rebels and then go down the “rabbit hole” (Lewis Carroll’s Alice’s Adventures in Wonderland, 1865). Neo’s understanding that his “life” in 1999 is an illusion exemplifies Plato’s “Allegory of the Cave.” The names Zion and Nebuchadnezzar come from the Bible, and Neo may be “the One,” a clear symbol for Christ. Film buffs will recog-

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nize allusions to Star Wars (1977), Ghost in the Shell (1995), and The Wizard of Oz (1939). Although clearly much of the film is derivative, the cyberpunk visual style is memorable, from the vertically falling “rain” of data on rebel computer screens to the extremely violent, stylized kung fu fighting sequences enhanced with wirework and computer-generated images. The bullet-time effect (in which computer graphics enhance simulations of hyperslow and hyperfast speeds) is particularly striking, not only producing breathtaking images but also expressing the heightened perceptions of the main characters while in the Matrix.

■ Medicine

Impact This film reflects many of the concerns of the 1990’s: worries about pollution, the approaching millennium, and the increasing electronification of American lives (proliferation of cell phones and surveillance technology, miniaturization of electronic devices, and increased reliance on computers and the Internet) that might lead to social alienation. The Matrix became a modern myth as viewers engaged with both the themes and the style. The film’s visual style was much copied, especially the sophisticated fight scenes and special effects. The success of The Matrix prompted the completion of the trilogy (The Matrix Reloaded and The Matrix Revolutions in 2003). The Matrix is also the base of a large transmedia franchise that includes The Animatrix (2003), a video game, comics, and an online game; each of these contributes information valuable to the story as a whole. The Matrix is taught in a variety of college courses, including courses focusing on philosophy, science fiction, media, and psychology.

The 1990’s represented a period during which newer technologies were introduced or underwent increased development and application. New generations of drugs were approved, both for treatment of infectious disease as well as for palliative measures in dealing with chronic problems or illnesses.

Further Reading

Irwin, William, ed. The Matrix and Philosophy: Welcome to the Desert of the Real. Chicago: Open Court, 2002. Kapell, Matthew, and William G. Doty, eds. Jacking in to the Matrix Franchise: Cultural Reception and Interpretation. New York: Continuum, 2004. Kathryn A. Walterscheid CGI; Computers; Film in the United States; Hackers; Internet; Reeves, Keanu.

See also

Medical discoveries and advances as well as newly recognized illnesses during the decade

Definition

During the 1990’s, medicine was characterized by a mixture of both medical successes and setbacks. The eradication of poliomyelitis in the Western Hemisphere was announced by the World Health Organization, while the introduction of a new generation of therapeutic drugs offered additional weapons against illness or disease. At the same time, new outbreaks of diseases such as Ebola and hantavirus respiratory infections took place.

The use of rectal or oral thermometers as currently recognized dates to the latter half of the nineteenth century. The use of mercury within the instrument, as well as the discomfort and time associated with their use, was problematic. In 1990, new forms of thermometers were introduced, with one type inserted into the ear canal, and a second type placed on the forehead. Each produced a relatively rapid reading, though their accuracy was later called into question. In 1999, new forms of painkillers were introduced. Treatment of arthritis or other forms of inflammation or pain had previously relied on nonsteroid drugs such as ibuprofen or aspirin. Bleeding and possible organ damage were occasional side effects, albeit rare when these drugs were properly used. The drug Celebrex was the first of the cyclooxygenase-2 (COX-2) inhibitors to be approved, inhibiting the enzyme pathway that results in production of inflammatory chemicals. The use of hysterectomy as a means to treat uterine problems such as bleeding or fibroids, the most common benign tumors in the reproductive tract of young women, remained controversial. During the 1990’s, approximately 600,000 hysterectomies were carried out annually. In the mid-1990’s, an alternative treatment for dealing with fibroids was introduced: myomectomy, a method that removes the fibroids while allowing the uterus to remain intact.

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Unfortunately, in almost half these cases, fibroids returned. Nevertheless, the issue of research into alternative treatments for bleeding or fibroids was brought to the public’s attention. The last “natural” case of poliomyelitis in the United States had been diagnosed in 1979. The introduction of the first inactivated poliomyelitis vaccine developed by Jonas Salk in the mid1950’s, subsequently followed by the oral poliomyelitis vaccine developed by Albert Sabin in the mid1960’s, had resulted in control of what had been annual devastating epidemics. The last case of polio in the Western Hemisphere occurred in Peru in 1991, and in 1994 the Pan American Health Organization within the World Health Organization announced the eradication of the disease in the West. Both Salk and Sabin died during the decade, Salk in 1995 at age eighty, and Sabin in 1993 at age eighty-six. Meanwhile, a newly recognized disease appeared in the southwestern United States in 1993. In March, the first case of acute respiratory distress syndrome (ARDS) was diagnosed in the Native American area near the Four Corners region. By June, sixteen patients, twelve of whom had died, had been diagnosed, with another twenty-five persons likely infected. In the period between 1993 and 1995, fortyfive deaths were attributed to the infection. The etiological agent was identified in 1993 as a member of the hantavirus group, first described during the Korean War. The reservoirs for the agent were the deer mouse and cotton rat, as well as other regional rodents. Isolated infections by the same family of viruses were subsequently reported in other regions of the country. While stomach ulcers were not normally classified as infectious illnesses, Australian gastroenterologist Dr. Barry Marshall proposed in 1983 that a bacterium he had isolated from the stomachs of patients, Helicobacter pylori, was the likely agent underlying development of ulcers. Marshall’s work was confirmed by others during the 1990’s, resulting in possible treatment of ulcers using antibiotics. The first examples of “extensively drug-resistant” (XDR) cases of tuberculosis were reported in the United States during the 1990’s. Between 1993 and 1999, over 111,000 culture-confirmed cases of the disease were reported by the National Tuberculosis Surveillance System (NTSS). Thirty-two of these cases were due to infection by XDR strains of Myco-

Infectious Disease

bacterium tuberculosis. Antibiotic-resistant strains of other bacteria were likewise becoming an increasing problem. In 1996, vancomycin-resistant strains of Staphylococcus aureus, previously found to be resistant to other commonly used antibiotics such as methicillin, were isolated from infected patients. The incidence of acquired immunodeficiency syndrome (AIDS) in the United States peaked in the mid-1990’s, with 257,000 cases reported between 1993 and 1995. Approximately 600,000 cases were reported during the decade, though the numbers were inflated from the previous decade in part as a result of redefining the disease to include additional opportunistic infections. In 1996, the incidence of new cases began to decline, in part the result of increased emphasis on altering risk behaviors. Approximately two-thirds of persons diagnosed with AIDS since its recognition in 1981 had died by the end of the 1990’s. Among the persons diagnosed in 1991 as being HIV-positive was Los Angeles Lakers basketball player Magic Johnson. However, in 1996, the first of a new generation of anti-human immunodeficiency virus (HIV) drugs was introduced and approved by the Food and Drug Administration. A series of protease inhibitors received “fasttrack” approval and were incorporated into drug cocktails, combinations of anti-AIDS drugs acting at different targets of viral infection. Despite the development of new forms of treatment, the isolation of a drug-resistant virus was reported by the end of the decade. The incidence of breast cancer in women continued to rise during the 1990’s, surpassing 100 cases per 100,000 women, with approximately 180,000 cases diagnosed annually; by age eighty-five, a woman had one chance in eight of developing the disease. However, the “good” news was that the death rate attributed to breast cancer in women declined by greater than 6 percent, with a decline of nearly 10 percent in women under the age of sixty-five. Several explanations accounted for these results. First, emphasis on early detection resulted in earlier diagnosis and treatment. The proportion of women who reported having undergone a yearly breast examination, including mammography, increased to nearly 40 percent, a tenfold increase when compared with surveys in the 1970’s. Improved treatment also had an impact. For example, use of the hormone tamoxifen was found to reduce by 40 percent the

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chance of the second breast developing cancer in women previously diagnosed with the disease. However, the drug was also linked to increased risk of developing uterine cancer. Funding by Congress for research into the disease was increased to over $300 million. The rate of cancer mortality in general dropped during the 1990’s, reversing a trend that had shown an increase in the death rate during the previous twenty years. The mortality rate for prostate cancer among men of all ages dropped by greater than 6 percent; in men under age seventy-five, mortality was reduced by 7.5 percent. The improvement was a direct result of earlier diagnosis, with emphasis on yearly digital examinations and increased reliance on the blood test that measured prostate specific antigen (PSA) levels. Similar emphasis on examination and early detection also accounted for decreased mortality of other forms of cancer, including that of colorectal cancer (7 percent), with improved diet being a contributing factor, and several forms of lymphoma. Even the trend associated with lung cancer, the most common form of malignancy, showed improvements. While persons over the age of sixty-five showed an increase greater than 14 percent in mortality associated with lung cancer, the direct result of an increase in smoking associated with this generation, the mortality in both men and women under age sixty-five showed a leveling in the rate, and by the end of the decade, a slight reduction (4 percent) in the mortality rate of the disease. In 1994, the FDA argued that tobacco companies “manipulated” the concentration of nicotine in cigarettes, with the purpose being to establish an addiction to cigarettes. That year, the former head of research at one of the major tobacco companies supported the FDA contention by providing documentary evidence that not only the nicotine content had been manipulated but also that additional chemicals had been added to cigarettes to boost the addictive effects of the nicotine. One alleged cause of cancer was eliminated during the decade. A report in 1992 had initially linked the presence of electromagnetic fields (EMF) associated with power lines with increased risk of development of a malignancy. Further analysis within the Department of Health and Human Services showed that no such relationship existed, and EMF posed no cancer risk.

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Health Care Reform The increase in research costs during the 1990’s reflected a general increase in costs of health care. However, estimates projected that over thirty-seven million Americans had no health insurance, with the number climbing as unions lost much of their power and as jobs were eliminated as a result of outsourcing. For businesses, the cost of health care was estimated as greater than $4,500 per year per employee. In 1993, President Bill Clinton placed health care reform as one of America’s highest priorities. The costs associated with the pharmaceutical industry were among the areas open to criticism. Clinton observed that on an annual basis, pharmaceutical companies spend over $1 billion more for advertising than they do on research into newer drugs. President Clinton appointed his wife, First Lady Hillary Rodham Clinton, to head a commission with the job of reforming the system. Among the opponents of reform as President Clinton saw it was the health insurance industry. Shortly after the commission was established, the Health Insurance Agency of America began a series of television advertisements that made light of the attempted reforms. In the end, little was accomplished in the area of health care reform, and the issue continued into the new century. Impact The decline in most forms of cancer continued into the twenty-first century. Mortality due to breast cancer decreased an average of 2 percent annually, with a decline averaging greater than 3 percent in women under the age of fifty. Most of this improvement was the result of improved methods of diagnosis; the five-year survival after diagnosis approached 90 percent by 2005. While the incidence rate for diagnosis of prostate cancer in men remained unchanged between 1990 and 2005, the mortality associated with the disease was reduced among white males from nearly 26 to 20 per 100,000. Rates remained significantly higher among African Americans but still demonstrated an improvement, from 48 to 35 per 100,000. Mortality rates associated with colorectal cancer leveled off during the ensuing years but was half that reported during the 1970’s. The safety of COX-2 analgesics was eventually called into question. Both Celebrex, manufactured by Pfizer, and Vioxx, produced by Merck, were associated with increased risk of heart disease or stroke.

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In 2004, Vioxx was removed from the market. While Celebrex remained available, the FDA recommended that other forms of nonsteroid analgesics such as acetaminophen be substituted when indicated. Further Reading

Harper, David, and Andrea Meyer. Of Mice, Men, and Microbes: Hantavirus. San Diego, Calif.: Academic Press, 1999. Description of the hantavirus outbreak that took place in the Four Corners region of southwestern United States in the early 1990’s. Nuland, Sherwin. How We Die: Reflections on Life’s Final Chapter. New York: Vintage Books, 1995. Discussion of methods by which both physicians and their patients deal with impending death. Sampson, Wallace, and Lewis Vaughn, eds. Science Meets Alternative Medicine: What the Evidence Says About Unconventional Treatments. Amherst, N.Y.: Prometheus Books, 2000. Collection of articles that address the quality and efficacy of alternative medical treatments such as holistic medicine, alternative healing, and therapeutic touching. Stine, Gerald. AIDS Update 2007. San Francisco: Benjamin Cummings, 2007. Yearly update on research into the AIDS virus, as well as information about biological events that follow infection. Discussion about the progress of treatment is also included. Preventives undergoing testing, such as “pre-exposure prophylaxis,” are also described. Richard Adler AIDS epidemic; Alzheimer’s disease; Antidepressants; Attention-deficit disorder; Autism; Cancer research; Carpal tunnel syndrome; Clinton, Bill; Clinton, Hillary Rodham; Depo-Provera; Drug advertising; Drug use; Elders, Joycelyn; Fen-phen; Genetic engineering; Genetically modified foods; Genetics research; Health care; Health care reform; Human Genome Project; Johnson, Magic; Kevorkian, Jack; Laparoscopic surgery; LASIK surgery; McCaughey septuplets; Nicotine patch; Novello, Antonia Coello; Pharmaceutical industry; Physicianassisted suicide; Science and technology; Silicone implant ban; Stem cell research; West Nile virus outbreak.

See also

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■ Men Are from Mars, Women Are from Venus Identification Best-selling self-help book Author John Gray (1951) Date Published in 1992

One of the biggest-selling books of the decade and one of the most widely read books about relationships ever published in America, Gray’s book dominated the best-seller charts for over half of the 1990’s. John Gray’s subtitle for Men Are from Mars, Women Are from Venus states his purpose succinctly: to provide his readers with A Practical Guide for Improving Communication and Getting What You Want in Your Relationships. What distinguished Gray’s work from that of other authors with similar goals was his approach, one derived from cultural anthropology and linguistics rather than purely from psychology and conventional wisdom. Gray encourages his readers to interpret conflict between the sexes as the result of cultural differences not unlike those that confuse people from one civilization when they interact with representatives from another. Just as people sometimes misunderstand or offend people from other societies because of the contrasting values and customs of the two groups, men (“Martians”) and women (“Venusians”) likewise annoy each other because they tend to operate according to different sets of assumptions, habits, and concerns. Since both sexes are ignorant of these genderbased cultural contrasts, men and women take offense where none is intended and so need to study the cultural values and customs of the opposite gender. Therefore, Gray advises readers about various differences he perceives in male and female behavior, especially in regard to politeness and language. For example, women, claims Gray, tend to talk as a way of thinking through a problem and of relieving negative emotions, while men tend to talk primarily to exchange information. As a result of these habits, a wife may talk to her husband about problems at her workplace as a means of venting her frustrations. The wife assumes that her husband understands that she needs to talk in order to express her feelings; however, he assumes, based on typically male conversational motives, that she is asking for his advice and so promptly gives it. The wife is then offended because she interprets his behavior as interruptive and domineering; the husband is offended because

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she apparently has rejected what he meant as an attempt to help. Impact With its novel approach to gender-based conflicts, eye-catching title, and aggressive marketing campaign, Mars/Venus became a publishing phenomenon, spawning numerous sequels, a line of videos, a series of television programs, and even a board game. As popular as the book was with readers, many found its portrayal of gender differences sexist and outdated, seemingly depicting men as active and women passive. Nevertheless, Gray’s anthropological/cultural approach to gender conflict offered Americans of the 1990’s a nonjudgmental, nonhierarchical interpretation of differences between the sexes that did not overtly “bash” or belittle one gender in favor of the other. Further Reading

Gray, John. Men Are from Mars, Women Are from Venus: A Practical Guide for Improving Communication and Getting What You Want in Your Relationships. New York: HarperCollins, 1992. Tannen, Deborah. You Just Don’t Understand: Women and Men in Conversation. New York: Ballantine, 1990. Thomas Du Bose Domestic partnerships; Marriage and divorce; Publishing; Rules, The.

See also

■ Menendez brothers murder case Lyle and Erik Menendez kill their wealthy parents and are convicted of firstdegree murder Date Murders took place on August 20, 1989; brothers convicted on March 20, 1996 Place Beverly Hills and Van Nuys, California The Event

The Menendez trials were covered extensively in popular magazines and on television, reflecting and expanding on the American public’s interest in sensational crimes and how media coverage impacts the legal system. On the evening of August 20, 1989, film company executive Jose Menendez and his wife, Kitty, were murdered in their Beverly Hills home, each suffering multiple shotgun blasts. Police inquiries focused initially on Jose’s business relationships. Jose, a driven

Lyle, left, and Erik Menendez in a courtroom in Santa Monica, California, in August, 1996. The brothers were found guilty of the first-degree murder of their parents on March 20, 1996. (AP/ Wide World Photos)

and brutal executive whose personal estate was worth $14 million, had been sued by a former business associate with rumored links to organized crime. However, the police turned their attention to Jose and Kitty’s sons Lyle, age twenty-one, and Erik, age eighteen, in the weeks following the murders, as the brothers gave up their plans to attend college and spent thousands of dollars on new cars, designer clothes, and jewelry. In October, 1989, Erik confessed to his psychologist, Jerome Oziel, that he and Lyle had killed Jose because he had been too domineering and had planned to disinherit them; they had murdered Kitty because she was unhappy in her marriage. Five months later, Oziel’s girlfriend Judalon Smyth contacted police, saying she had overheard the confession and that Oziel had recorded it on audiotape. Based on Oziel and Smyth’s evidence, police arrested the brothers in March, 1990, charging each

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with suspicion of murder. Their trial was delayed by arguments over whether Oziel’s information was protected by therapist-client confidentiality. Ultimately, juries were allowed to hear portions of Oziel’s audiotapes. The brothers were tried together, but with separate juries. Lyle and Erik testified that Jose had psychologically and sexually abused them for years and that they had feared he was planning to kill them. Neither jury could agree on a verdict. At a second trial, before a single jury, Lyle and Erik were found guilty of first-degree murder and conspiracy to commit murder. Each was sentenced to two consecutive terms of life in prison without parole. Impact During the first trial, the Court TV network provided live coverage of the trial. Attorneys and witnesses made dramatic statements outside the courtroom, knowing they would appear on national television. Combined with the court’s inability to render a verdict, the transformation of a murder trial into entertainment raised questions about the impact of increasing media coverage on the American justice system. Further Reading

Dunne, Dominick. “Nightmare on Elm Street.” In Justice: Crimes, Trials, and Punishments. New York: Crown, 2001. Scott, Gini Graham. “When Rich Kids Kill.” In Homicide by the Rich and Famous: A Century of Prominent Killers. Westport, Conn.: Praeger, 2005. Soble, Ron, and John Johnson. Blood Brothers: the Inside Story of the Menendez Murders. New York: Onyx, 1994. Maureen Puffer-Rothenberg

■ Metallica Identification American heavy metal band Date Formed in 1981

Considered by many to be the foremost heavy metal band of the 1990’s, Metallica is known for bringing heavy metal to mainstream audiences. Formed by guitarist James Hetfield and drummer Lars Ulrich in Los Angeles in 1981, Metallica became one of the top thrash metal bands of the 1980’s, releasing Kill ’Em All (1983), Ride the Lightning (1984), Master of Puppets (1986), and . . . And Justice for All (1988). Other principal members of the group in the 1980’s and 1990’s included lead guitarist Kirk Hammett and bassist Jason Newsted, who replaced Cliff Burton after Burton was killed in a bus accident in 1986. The band met commercial success in 1991 with the release of its self-titled album, dubbed by fans as the “Black Album.” Although the band became synonymous with heavy metal music during the 1990’s, Metallica ironically sacrificed a number of heavy metal tropes, such as lengthy heavy metal jam sessions found on its earlier albums. The inclusion of the ballads “Nothing Else Matters” and “The Unforgiven” on Metallica distanced the band from some heavy metal purists but set the tone for its next release, Load

See also Crime; Ramsey murder case; Simpson murder case; Television; Versace murder.

The members of Metallica (from left)—Jason Newsted, Lars Ulrich, Kirk Hammett, and James Hetfield—stand with their award for Favorite Artist: Heavy Metal/Hard Rock at the 1997 American Music Awards. (AP/Wide World Photos)

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(1996). The music on this album bordered between the alternative and heavy metal genres, and the entire Metallica image underwent significant reform with band members cutting their trademark long hair and remaking the signature jagged-edged Metallica logo into a blocky, simpler form. This change in image, which seemed to fit the rock fashions made popular by MTV, carried into the band’s next album, ReLoad (1997), which was originally intended for release as a double CD with Load and bore similar artwork and music as the previous album. A testament to its continued popularity, Metallica was given a star on San Francisco’s Walk of Fame the year after the release of Garage Inc. (1998), a collection of cover songs, including the popular rendition of Bob Seger’s “Turn the Page.” Metallica rounded out the decade in collaboration with the San Francisco Symphony Orchestra, performing songs with the symphony in April, 1999. The performance was released on CD and DVD later that year as S&M.

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■ MetLife scandal The nation’s largest life insurer and the second-largest insurance company misleads thousands of its customers who had purchased policies disguised as retirement plans or saving accounts Date 1994 The Event

MetLife sales agents were alleged to have misrepresented facts about policies and deceived nearly forty thousand customers who had bought insurance policies that were disguised as high-interest retirement savings accounts. Although MetLife denied wrongdoing, over a billion dollars was refunded to most of the plaintiffs who filed a civil action.

Berlinger, Joe, and Greg Milner. Metallica: This Monster Lives. New York: St. Martin’s Press, 2004. Chirazi, Steffan. So What! The Good, the Mad, and the Ugly. New York: Broadway Books, 2004. Crocker, Chris. Metallica: The Frayed Ends of Metal. New York: St. Martin’s Press, 1993. Lawrence Schwegler

During the fall of 1994, it was discovered that sales agents at the Metropolitan Life Insurance Company (MetLife) in the Tampa, Florida, had sold life insurance policies disguised as retirement savings plans or investment products. The word “insurance” was never mentioned in these particular policies. Furthermore, an industrywide practice known as churning was purposely used by some of MetLife sales agents to persuade customers to exchange old policies for newer ones, with the false claim that the newer policies were more cost-effective and offered more comprehensive coverage. It was later asserted that the underlying goal of these agents was to obtain high-end commissions at the expense of their customers. Most of the victims of the agents’ actions in Tampa were nurses and other health care professionals who resided in the state. Aside from the practice of churning, other customers alleged that MetLife also sold policies with so-called vanishing premiums, in which the premium would not have to be paid after a given number of years. For some customers, this premium never disappeared as promised, leading to more allegations and subsequent civil suits filed against the company. Although MetLife publicly claimed no wrongdoing and that deceptive practices were never used by its employees, it did provide thousands of customers with monetary refunds for the miscommunication that took place between MetLife agents and their customers.

Alternative rock; Grunge music; Lollapalooza; MP3 format; Music; Nine Inch Nails; Nirvana; Woodstock concerts.

Impact By the end of 1994, some fifteen states, including New York, California, Texas, Pennsylvania, and West Virginia, had followed in Florida’s foot-

Impact Metallica pushed the boundaries of the heavy metal genre into new territory in the 1990’s, often raising questions as to whether it could justly be called a heavy metal band. Nevertheless, the staccato rhythms and power chords characteristic of Metallica’s first four albums were incorporated into the more traditional song structures that would make up later albums, exposing heavy metal sounds to a broader audience. Because Metallica’s popularity continued to grow throughout the 1990’s and its sound was continually reshaped, it is hard to say exactly what sounds other bands have borrowed. Metallica’s influence, rather, is more appropriately seen in paving the way on MTV and the radio for such “nu metal” bands as Korn, Limp Bizkit, and Linkin Park. Further Reading

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steps by opening up investigations of their own. Nearly forty thousand customers alleged that they had fallen victim to the deceptive sales tactics of some of MetLife’s agents. Those customers, including many working-class families along with thousands of senior citizens who did not receive MetLife refunds, opted to pursue the matter in civil court. From 1994 through 1999, thousands of customers filed civil actions against MetLife. The company agreed to pay $1.7 billion to settle customer lawsuits regarding the deceptive sales practices. Further Reading

Brewer, Geoffrey, and Nancy Arnott. “Can MetLife Insure Honest Selling?” Sales and Marketing Management 146, no. 3 (March, 1994): 8-9. Hartley, Robert F. Business Ethics: Mistakes and Successes. New York: John Wiley & Sons, 2005. Meier, Barry. “Metropolitan Life in Accord for Settlement of Fraud Suits.” The New York Times, August 19, 1999, p. A1. Paul M. Klenowski Advertising; Archer Daniels Midland scandal; Business and the economy in the United States; Crime; Health care; Health care reform; Scandals; Stock market; Tobacco industry settlement; Wigand, Jeffrey.

See also

■ Mexico and the United States Diplomatic relations between the two countries

Definition

During the 1990’s, political leadership in both the United States and Mexico changed, with numerous significant consequences. At the beginning of 1993, Bill Clinton, a Democrat, became the U.S. president. He replaced George H. W. Bush, a Republican, and remained in office until early 2001. In Mexico, the six-year presidency of Carlos Salinas de Gortari ended in 1994. His successor, Ernesto Zedillo (replacing a previously nominated candidate who was assassinated), remained in office until 2000. Both Salinas and Zedillo were members of the Institutional Revolutionary Party (PRI), which held a grip on power for most of the century, although it climactically lost that hold by the end of the decade.

NAFTA and Financial Crisis On January 1, 1994, a most significant event in U.S.-Mexican economic relations occurred. The North American Free Trade Agreement (NAFTA) went into effect, removing tariffs on trade among Canada, the United States, and Mexico. The treaty spewed a cornucopia of American goods at reduced prices into Mexico, benefiting Mexican consumers. Mexican producers, however, at a competitive disadvantage, suffered losses. Moreover, U.S. labor saw jobs lost as companies moved to Mexico to lower their cost of wages. After 1995, U.S. companies that built assembly plants in Mexico and then shipped the lower-cost goods back to the United States, called maquiladoras, appeared at a rate of one a day. They accounted for one-fourth of the Mexican gross domestic product (GDP) and nearly one-fifth of its jobs. On the day that NAFTA took effect, Maya Indian rebels in Chiapas, the Zapatistas, staged an uprising. In December, 1994, just after the inauguration of President Zedillo, Mexico devalued its currency, the peso. Financial panic ensued, and capital fled the country. Fearing bankruptcy, Mexico appealed for international aid. President Clinton engineered a multinational response to the appeal, providing $20 billion from the United States toward a $50 billion international bailout for the country. The financial shock wave that rippled other countries was known as the “tequila effect.”

Issues of illegal immigration and drug smuggling into the United States swelled during the 1990’s. The United States experienced economic expansion and widespread job growth. Mexico had a surplus of workers. From 1950 to 2000, the Mexican population soared from 25 to 100 million people, and average life expectancy extended to more than seventy years. Young job-seekers flocked to the United States because even low American wages were higher than average Mexican incomes. They concentrated in U.S. states along the Rio Grande border. The advancing influx pushed farther north, however, settling in areas previously without Hispanic populations. By decade’s end, one-third of the 30 million foreign-born residents of the United States were from Mexico, and 10 million of the foreign-born were undocumented, with half from Mexico. Thus, it was estimated that one of two Mexicans in the

Immigration and Trafficking

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United States, the largest foreign group in the country, was undocumented. Drug smuggling and gang warfare magnified the border violations. Major and expanding Mexican drug cartels operated from Tijuana, Juarez, and the Gulf of Mexico. Smaller, competing groups emerged throughout Mexico. Cartels compromised the police and military, using bribery, blackmail, and assassinations. In 1997, General Jesús Gutiérrez Rebollo, Mexico’s antidrug czar, was arrested for accepting cartel money. Raul Salinas, the brother of the president, was widely alleged to court financial advantages from the cartels. In 1997, President Clinton sent his antidrug czar, General Barry McCaffrey, to confer with President Zedillo. From Fort Bliss, Texas, the Pentagon expanded its military monitoring that supported interagency antidrug operations along the border. By decade’s end, 10 percent of Mexico’s population lived along the U.S. border. Moreover, the U.S. border population was the fastestgrowing in the country, attracted to the Sunbelt. These mutually increasing populations augmented the character of a hybrid culture growing across the region since the middle of the twentieth century. Mexicans living in Baja California but working in Southern California were described as “Mexifornians.” The number of speakers of Spanglish, combining Spanish and English, increased. Chicano studies and literature expanded, and U.S. trade publishers launched unprecedented lines of books in Spanish. “Tex-Mex” described people living along or between Texas and Mexico and a cuisine that they developed characterized by the ingredients of cheese, beef, beans, and chilies. Tejano music, intermixing rock and cumbia, evolved with the Houston-based group La Mafia. The group added electronic instruments and created a bicultural pop-country genre. It also launched the career of the Grammy-winning Tejano artist Selena, whose murder by a fan in 1995 made national headlines.

Border Culture

The 1990’s were a decade in which problems and opportunities in U.S.-Mexican relations grew and an evolving hybrid culture became more widely recognized and accepted. Impact

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Further Reading

Anderson, Joan B, and James Gerber. Fifty Years of Change on the U.S.-Mexico Border: Growth, Development, and Quality of Life. Austin: University of Texas Press, 2008. Examines U.S.-Mexican relations during the 1990’s within a broader frame beginning in the 1950’s. Includes photos. Castañeda, Jorge G. The Mexican Shock: Its Meaning for the United States. New York: New Press, 1995. A prominent Mexican intellectual reflects on his country in the mid-1990’s, finding it extraordinarily polarized. He believes, however, that NAFTA will offer the opportunity to mold the agreement into one of “growth with justice.” Davidow, Jeffrey. The U.S. and Mexico: The Bear and the Porcupine. Princeton, N.J.: Markus Wiener, 2004. The author was U.S. ambassador to Mexico from 1998 to 2002. He examines recent U.S.-Mexican relations, characterizing perceptions of the United States as overbearing and of Mexico as prickly or oversensitive. Folsom, Ralph Haughwout. NAFTA and Free Trade in the Americas in a Nutshell. 2d ed. St. Paul, Minn.: West, 2004. A concise assessment of NAFTA in the first ten years following its enactment. Provides an overview of contemporary free trade policies and practices in the context of the Western Hemisphere. Includes the text of NAFTA. Otero, Gerardo, ed. Mexico in Transition: Neoliberal Globalism, the State, and Civil Society. Black Point, N.S.: Fernwood, 2004. Examines the effects of neoliberalism on Mexican economics, politics, society, and culture, concentrating specifically on the consequences of NAFTA. Payan, Tony. The Three U.S.-Mexico Border Wars: Drugs, Immigration, and Homeland Security. Westport, Conn.: Praeger Security International, 2006. Summarizes recent decades of history for the three most contentious elements of relations between the United States and Mexico, examining economic, sociopolitical, and ethnic conditions. Edward A. Riedinger Business and the economy in the United States; Demographics of the United States; Health care; Immigration Act of 1990; Immigration to the United States; Latinos; North American Free Trade Agreement (NAFTA); Selena.

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Michelangelo computer virus

■ Michelangelo computer virus A destructive piece of computer code designed to make a person’s computer unusable and trigger on March 6 of a given year

Definition

The Michelangelo virus was hyped by the media to proportions that far exceeded its actual distribution and caused panic among computer users. The incident also damaged the credibility of many of the industry experts. The Michelangelo computer virus was first discovered in 1991. It overwrote the boot sector of a computer’s hard drive running an operating system based on DOS (Disk Operating System) as well as floppy disks inserted into an infected machine. The boot sector contains the information that a computer needs to start. This virus would have made the computer unusable and the data irretrievable for the average user. The name is derived from the virus’s activation date of March 6, the birthday of Italian Renaissance artist Michelangelo. Leading Edge, a major computer manufacturer at the time, accidently shipped five hundred computers infected with the virus in January of 1992. This prompted the manufacturer to start shipping all new computers with antivirus software preinstalled. A computer virus expert wrongly called the Michelangelo virus the third most commonly distributed virus after the announcement. Soon after, about nine hundred infected floppy disks were shipped by another vendor in the computer industry. The two incidents brought the virus to the forefront of media attention. The infection numbers were further inflated to five million possible computers worldwide by the antivirus industry, and the media also reported, incorrectly, that the virus could be spread through computer bulletin boards. A few reporters and industry experts remained skeptical about the claims of millions of infected computers, but by the end of February, 1992, the media had fueled the public’s fears and the experts were largely ignored. The antivirus industry added to the furor by offering free detectors that could be downloaded. Symantec, another industry leader, placed a full page ad in Computerworld in order to take advantage of the media attention. The days leading up to the virus activation date saw the virus receiving constant media reports, including speculation that damages could be in the millions. March 6, 1992, brought a mere ten to twenty thousand cases

of reported data loss. The low rates of infection were touted as a success by the antivirus industry and media coverage. Analysts, however, saw nowhere near the initial reported rates of infection. The virus dropped from the headlines by the following day. The first report about the virus surfaced a full two weeks after the virus release date and criticized the industry and the media for the whole incident. Impact The media hype and poor reporting about the Michelangelo virus caused a panic among computer users. Antivirus experts inflated claims of infection and companies that produced antivirus programs took advantage of the hysteria to sell their products. The poor handling of the reporting damaged the reputation of computer-virus experts for some time to come, and the media lost a measure of credibility. Further Reading

Caldwell, Wilma R., ed. Computer Security Sourcebook. Detroit, Mich.: Omnigraphics, 2003. Erbschloe, Michael. Trojans, Worms, and Spyware: A Computer Security Professional’s Guide to Malicious Code. Boston: Elsevier Butterworth Heinemann, 2005. Furnell, Steven. Cybercrime: Vandalizing the Information Society. Boston: Addison-Wesley, 2002. James J. Heiney America Online; Computers; Hackers; Internet; Microsoft; Science and technology; World Wide Web; Y2K problem.

See also

■ Microsoft Identification

Computer software company

As manufacturer of Windows, the leading microcomputer operating system, Microsoft came under fire for alleged antitrust violations. At the beginning of the 1990’s, Microsoft was one of the leading computer software companies. During the second half of the 1980’s its Disk Operating System, often called MS-DOS, had come to dominate the home computer market, displacing earlier systems such as CP/M. However, it was a command-line interface, which required users to memorize commands and type them exactly at the C-prompt. A mistyped command could destroy hours or even days of work.

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By contrast, the Macintosh Operating System, or Mac OS, pioneered by Apple for its Macintosh line of computers, used a graphical user interface, or GUI, based on the metaphor of a desktop. Using a mouse, the user pointed and clicked upon files and folders to work on them. One of the reasons that kept MS-DOS users from defecting to this simple, intuitive interface was the high price point, maintained by Apple’s steadfast refusal to license their technology to clone makers. To protect their market share, Microsoft developed a shell program called Windows that would give users a simplified interface. The earliest version, released in 1985, gave the user a set of tiled windows with buttons representing the options for opening application software and working with files. However, successive versions delivered a smoother and more flexible interface, although Mac users still lambasted Windows 3.1, released in 1990, as still not up to Macintosh standards. This was in spite of a 1988 copyright suit by Apple alleging that Microsoft had infringed upon the Mac OS with an earlier version of Windows, which was settled only because the judge knew that both Microsoft and Apple had drawn upon the work of the Xerox Palo Alto Research Center in creating their interfaces. Throughout the first half of the 1990’s, Microsoft continued to promise the successor to Windows 3.1 would be finished and shipped, yet the actual date kept moving into the future. In 1995, the date finally came, as Windows 95 was revealed to have undergone a complete revamping of the user interface to make it more Mac-like. Yet again Apple made angry noises about copyright infringement, but by this time Apple was in serious financial trouble, having become committed to multiple overambitious products and a muddled product line. However, their complaints drew the attention of the United States Department of Justice. For years, rival software companies had been complaining that Microsoft was taking unfair advantage of its position as manufacturer of Windows to promote their own office suite, Microsoft Office. When Novell owned WordPerfect, they alleged that Microsoft used their intimate knowledge of the inner workings of Windows to tweak Microsoft Word to perform better than any other company’s wordprocessing software could hope to attain. Netscape became annoyed when Microsoft not only released its own Web browser, Internet Explorer, but also

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made it the default browser in Windows. The final straw was a licensing agreement Microsoft made with a number of computer hardware manufacturers that stipulated that, in order to license Windows to be preinstalled on their computers, they had to agree to have it preloaded with a startup screen that identified several other Microsoft products as preferred options. Throughout 1998, Microsoft fought the Department of Justice suit with various tactics that many observers regarded as disingenuous. One of the most memorable moments in the investigation was Bill Gates’s testimony, in which he was cornered about an aspect of his company’s activities and responded that the answer depended upon the definition of the word “is.” In the end, Microsoft executives realized that although they might win in the legal arena, the loss of public goodwill would only ensure an endless series of battles, until the company was exhausted by the legal expenses and the drain of intellectual capital away from the company’s real work of designing and producing software. Gates transferred the day-to-day responsibility of running Microsoft to Steve Ballmer and concentrated on keeping Microsoft innovative. He also worked on improving Microsoft’s image with such gestures as a deal with Steve Jobs, which saved Apple, and the creation of the Bill and Melinda Gates Foundation to focus upon charitable giving. Impact The 1990’s marked the period in which Microsoft solidified dominance in the personal computer operating-system market. Although MS-DOS and Windows were to be found on almost every desktop in the nation, resentment about the way in which Microsoft did business began to solidify. Many people regarded Microsoft as taking unfair advantage of their position and treating its customers poorly. The resulting efforts to bring legal judgment against Microsoft for monopolistic practices led to a reorienting of Microsoft’s efforts, although even in the first decade of the twenty-first century there were complaints that the Vista operating system was poorly designed and inordinately restricted users’ options to install and run non-Microsoft applications. Further Reading

Bank, David. Breaking Windows: How Bill Gates Fumbled the Future of Microsoft. New York: Free Press,

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2001. Highly critical of Gates’s management, particularly during the antitrust suit crisis. Edstrom, Jennifer, and Marlin Eller. Barbarians Led by Bill Gates: Microsoft from the Inside—How the World’s Richest Corporation Wields Its Power. New York: Henry Holt, 1998. A critical look at Microsoft at the time of the antitrust suit. Rohm, Wendy Goldman. The Microsoft File: The Secret Case Against Bill Gates. New York: Times Business, 1998. Details of Microsoft’s actions to dominate the microcomputer operating-system market. Slater, Robert. Microsoft Rebooted: How Bill Gates and Steve Ballmer Reinvinted Their Company. New York: Portfolio, 2004. Microsoft’s response to the antitrust suit. Wallace, James, and Jim Erickson. Hard Drive: Bill Gates and the Making of the Microsoft Empire. New York: John Wiley & Sons, 1992. Extensive biography of both Gates the man and Gates the business tycoon. Leigh Husband Kimmel Apple Computer; Business and the economy in the United States; Computers; Gates, Bill; Internet; Jobs, Steve.

See also

■ Middle East and North America Actions and events that shaped, and were shaped by, relations between governments and peoples in the Middle East and North America

Definition

Events in the Middle East and related events inside the United States during the 1990’s deepened, expanded, and changed the direct and overt involvement of the United States, especially militarily, in Middle Eastern affairs. Prior to 1979 few Americans knew or even cared much about events or peoples in the Middle East. Western stereotypes of Middle Easterners abounded, although they did not fit the facts of the region. While Americans identified Middle Easterners with Arabs and Arabs with Muslims, in fact almost half of the people in the Middle East are not Arab (for example, the Turks in Turkey and Persians in Iran) and fewer than one-fourth of the world’s Muslims are Arabs. The complacence and lack of awareness of Americans about the Middle East changed with the advent of the Islamic Revolution in Iran and the

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emergence of power of the Ayatollah Khomeini in 1979. The overthrow of Iran, an American political ally, and the subsequent takeover of the U.S. embassy in Iran’s capital, Tehran, brought the region’s social and political unrest to the attention of many Americans, even though other important relevant events had also taken place that same year, such as the signing of the Camp David peace agreement between Egypt and Israel. Another important event that occurred in 1979 was the assuming of political and military control of Iraq by Saddam Hussein. While the majority of Iraqis were Shia Muslims, Hussein represented the ruling Sunni Muslims, and he maintained a brutal regime. Iran was predominantly Shia Muslim, and Hussein was concerned about the expansion of Iran’s Islamic Revolution, particularly in light of Khomeini’s calls for “Western-oriented” Arab leaders (such as Hussein) to be overthrown. An immediate result of the rise of Khomeini and Hussein was the Iran-Iraq War, which lasted from 1980 to 1988. This war engaged the United States in particular because of the interruption of oil exports from the region, resulting in the United States “reflagging” Kuwaiti oil tankers late in the war. The Gulf War A consequence of the eight-year-long Iran-Iraq War was that both nations exhausted their economic resources. In 1990, because of this and reports exposing that the United States, under President Ronald Reagan’s administration, secretly had been providing weapons to both countries while publicly declaring its opposition to Iran (an episode that came to be known as the Iran-Contra scandal), Hussein declared that other Arab nations, particularly the oil-rich U.S. ally of Kuwait, owed Iraq economic restitution, since Iraq had depleted its resources protecting Arabs from Persians (Iranians) and Sunnis from the Shia revolution. Neither the United States nor the leaders of the nations neighboring Iraq fully agreed with Hussein. Despite multiple diplomatic efforts and interpretations, in August, 1990, Iraq attacked Kuwait. Immediately, the United States formed a coalition of nations to send troops to the region and repel the invasion. The effort was dubbed Operation Desert Shield, which included troops, equipment, and financial resources from thirty-four countries from around the world, including Canada and many Middle Eastern nations. The stated mission was to defend Kuwait,

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Saudi Arabia, and other neighboring nations. In early 1991, Operation Desert Shield ended and was followed by Operation Desert Storm, with the stated mission of liberating Kuwait. Operation Desert Storm was a dramatically swift success, with the coalition forces routing the Iraqi forces in only a few weeks. A result of Operation Desert Storm was that Iraq was effectively stripped of its military might. Hussein retained his official status as the nation’s leader, but the United States established no-fly zones in the southern third of the country, where most of the Shia Iraqis lived, and in the northern third of the country, where ethnic Kurds lived. The no-fly zones prevented Iraqi military operations in those areas and provided much more autonomy to them than they had enjoyed prior to 1991. Bill Clinton became U.S. president in 1992, and under his administration the no-fly zones were maintained throughout the 1990’s and into the first several years of the twenty-first century. Israel and Palestinians The state of Israel, as a sovereign political entity, was established by the United Nations in 1948 by parceling out part of the land of Palestine. From that time up to the 1990’s, the region experienced continuing and ongoing conflict, with Palestinians and neighboring Arab states claiming that Palestinian territory had been illegally stolen and Israelis claiming that they were subject to military attacks and were defending themselves. Over the course of several decades, multiple IsraeliArab wars ensued, in 1948, 1956, 1967, 1973, and 1982. In 1991, following the events of the Gulf War and Operation Desert Storm, many world leaders urged U.S. president George H. W. Bush to set a peace agreement between Israel and its neighbors, including Palestinians, as a top priority for U.S. foreign policy. With the collapse of the Soviet Union at the end of the 1980’s and with many Arab leaders insisting that Middle Eastern unrest would continue and worsen without some resolution to the “Palestinian problem,” the United States was seen as the only world power that could broker a genuine and lasting peace accord. As a result, multilateral peace talks began in Madrid, Spain, to deal with this issue. Over the next several years, progress was slow to nonexistent, in part because a new administration, under Bill Clinton, took office in 1992, with a subsequent

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refocusing of U.S. foreign and domestic priorities and policies. In 1993, it became public that, in spite of slow progress in Madrid, the Israeli government and the Palestinian leadership (under the name of the Palestine Liberation Organization, or PLO, later to be recast as the Palestine National Assembly, or PNA) had been holding secret meetings in Oslo, Norway, and negotiations had been hopeful. The result was the Oslo Accords, which led to a Declaration of Principles for Palestinian self-rule and recognition by the PNA of Israel’s sovereign status. A consequence of this apparent progress was that, in 1994, Jordan became the second Arab state (after Egypt) to sign an official peace treaty with Israel. Hopes for further movement toward ending the conflicts were dashed in 1995, with the assassination of Israeli prime minister Yitzhak Rabin by an Israeli Orthodox Jew, who believed that Rabin was aiding the enemies of Israel. A result of this was the election of Benjamin Netanyahu as Rabin’s successor and a hardening by both Israelis and Palestinians toward each other. In 1999, a new Israeli prime minister was elected, Ehud Barak. In his final years in office, President Bill Clinton worked closely with Barak and Palestinian leader Yasir Arafat to sign a final peace agreement. These close talks and negotiations broke down, however, over several final, important issues, such as the status of East Jerusalem as the capital of Palestine, questions about the final borders of Israel and Palestine, security guarantees, and questions concerning Palestinians returning to land now inside of Israel as well as Israelis living in settlements in Palestinian territories. The 1990’s ended with no peace agreement between the Israelis and Palestinians. Events in North America Several dramatic events connected to U.S. actions and policies related to the Middle East took place outside the region during the 1990’s. Within the United States, in 1993 a car bomb was detonated beneath Tower One of the World Trade Center in New York City. Six people were killed and more than a thousand were injured in the attack. It was the first such attack within the United States that most Americans identified as an act of terrorism connected to the Middle East. In the subsequent trial, main perpetrator, Ramzi Yousef, openly acknowledged this as an act of terrorism and that it was directly related to U.S. policies and actions in the Middle East.

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Middle East and North America

A second event that took place, not in North America but that was directly related to U.S. actions and policies in the Middle East, was the bombing of U.S. embassies in Kenya and Tanzania on August 7, 1998. The bombings were coordinated, as they occurred simultaneously, together killing more than two hundred people and injuring thousands. Subsequent investigation showed these attacks were planned by a group known as al-Qaeda. These bombings brought to the world for the first time the name of their primary planner, Osama Bin Laden. A third event that occurred was the crash of EgyptAir Flight 990 sixty miles south of Nantucket Island, Massachusetts, in October, 1999. The plane was headed from New York to Cairo, and the crash killed more than two hundred people. Transcripts from flight information indicated that the airplane crashed shortly after relief pilot Gamil el-Batouti took control of the airplane and was reported to have said, “I made my decision now. I put my faith in God’s hands.” Investigators stated that the crash was the result of human, not mechanical, error. Although there was never concrete proof that the crash was a deliberate act of terrorism, many Americans came to that conclusion. Impact Events in the Middle East during the 1990’s were a mixture of both stasis and change. What remained static were the relations between Israel and the Palestinians, with another decade gone by without a peace agreement or final status for either party. In addition, the United States continued to be seen as the one external party that could break the deadlock on progress, but without any significant results. What changed was the level and types of U.S. involvement in the Middle East. The primary change was the direct military involvement by U.S. forces in Iraq. Another major change was the taking of center stage for U.S. foreign affairs of Middle Eastern issues. With the Cold War over at the end of the 1980’s, many officials saw the 1990’s as the emergence of a clash of civilizations between the West and a revived Islamic Middle East. Although others downplayed such a clash, a marked focus on the Middle East, for both government officials and for Americans generally, was a definite consequence.

Events in the Middle East, particularly as they related to U.S. action and policies, led to even more dramatic events in the first years of the new millennium. Barely into the twenty-first cen-

Subsequent Events

tury, the world witnessed the attacks of September 11, 2001, and the subsequent “war on terrorism” and invasion of Iraq in 2003. U.S. foreign policy became dominated by concerns related to the Middle East, with an important carryover to domestic issues, both political and economic. Further Reading

Barber, Benjamin R. Jihad vs. McWorld. New York: Ballantine, 1995. A very readable examination of the impact of Western culture on traditional Middle Eastern societies. Barboza, Stephen. American Jihad: Islam After Malcolm X. New York: Image Books, 1994. A close look at the rise of Islam in America during the second half of the twentieth century, particularly among African Americans. Gerner, Deborah J., and Jillian Schwedler. Understanding the Contemporary Middle East, 2d ed. Boulder, Colo.: Lynne Rienner, 2004. An excellent overview of contemporary Middle Eastern culture and societies, going beyond merely politics and history. Kamalipour, Yahya R., ed. The U.S. Media and the Middle East: Image and Perception. New York: Praeger, 1997. A fine collection of essays focused on portrayals of the Middle East and how those portrayals both shape and are shaped by popular and political values. Roberts, John. Visions and Mirages: The Middle East in a New Era. Edinburgh, Scotland: Mainstream Publishing, 1995. A thorough and accessible look at contemporary Middle Eastern societies, particularly social and cultural changes over the past century. Rugh, William. American Encounters with Arabs: The “Soft Power” of U.S. Public Diplomacy in the Middle East. New York: Praeger, 2005. An in-depth and “on the ground” review of public diplomacy practiced by the United States over the past century in relation to nations in the Middle East. Schoenbaum, David. The United States and the State of Israel. New York: Oxford University Press, 1993. An unflinching look at the history and ongoing web of relations between the United States and Israel and how they impact general U.S. policies in and toward the Middle East. Sifry, Micah L., and Christopher Cerf, eds. The Gulf War Reader. New York: Doubleday, 1991. An expansive and rich collection of material, written

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from multiple perspectives, documenting the 1990-1991 Gulf War and Operation Desert Storm. Spencer, William J. Global Studies: The Middle East. 11th ed. Dubuque, Iowa: McGraw-Hill, 2007. A superb and comprehensive survey of Middle Eastern nations, with information on each individual country, as well as data on the region as a whole. Taylor, Alan. The Superpowers and the Middle East. Syracuse, N.Y.: Syracuse University Press, 1991. A detailed look at the history of international relations involving nations in the Middle East and their relationships to the United States, Europe, and Soviet diplomacy and policies. David Boersema See also Clinton, Bill; CNN coverage of the Gulf War; EgyptAir Flight 990 crash; Foreign policy of the United States; Gulf War; Israel and the United States; Terrorism; U.S. embassy bombings in Africa; World Trade Center bombing.

■ Midnight basketball Crime-prevention program designed for youths Date Began in 1985 Identification

Later considered a secondary program for attempting to control inner-city crime, midnight basketball, like other neighborhood-oriented programs in the United States, lost community support and necessary funding for its survival. The concept of midnight basketball was first proposed in the mid-1980’s. However, it was not until the early 1990’s that midnight basketball gained notoriety as a possible crime-prevention program. President Bill Clinton’s 1994 crime bill provided funding for neighborhood crime-prevention strategies. The primary rationale for funding neighborhood programs such as midnight basketball was a proactive approach by the government and community leaders to deter crime by providing youths with character-building activities. Police chiefs, city mayors, and even Sports Illustrated praised midnight basketball for its success in aiding in the decline of violent offenses, property crimes, and nonviolent juvenile offenses. The major flaw with midnight basketball was not found in the concept itself but rather was evident in the era in which such programs were established.

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The 1990’s witnessed an increase in violent crimes, especially by inner-city youth. Also, the national consensus in the 1990’s was to “get tough on crime” and punish offenders with incarceration. Midnight basketball was seen by some as a poorly developed scheme. Senator Bob Dole, the 1996 Republican presidential candidate, many members of Congress, and even radio personality Rush Limbaugh criticized governmental spending for a crime-prevention program aimed at urban neighborhoods as a waste of money and as having a potentially racist undertone. Communities that started midnight basketball programs, such as those in Maryland, saw a 60 percent drop in youth drug-related crime. Inner-city public housing neighborhoods saw as high as a 78 percent reduction in juvenile crime. This trend was seen in Atlanta; Kansas City, Missouri; and Fort Worth, Texas. The goal of midnight basketball programs was to remove youth from the streets and allow them to become attached to a formal group rather than criminal elements. Along with governmental funding, community support from police, businesses, and private donors funded such programs. The goal was twofold: keep participants busy and provide positive role models, and keep participants crime-free while providing job skills. Guidelines were strict, and participation in crime would often bar an individual from playing midnight basketball. Although many inner-city programs were developed in the early 1990’s, federal cutbacks and lack of city funding limited the potential growth of the midnight basketball in the early twenty-first century. Impact The desire for midnight basketball programs had not declined by the late 1990’s, but federal and local spending for programs deemed “expendable” had shifted to other crime-prevention programs. Nevertheless, even if the intended impact of midnight basketball was not found on a large scale, testimonials of a small percentage of Americans, including some National Basketball Association (NBA) athletes, praised midnight basketball for its positive influence on their lives. Further Reading

Farrell Walter, et al. “Redirecting the Lives of Urban Black Males: An Assessment of Milwaukee’s Midnight Basketball League.” Journal of Community Practice 2, no. 4 (May, 1996): 91-107.

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Kennedy, P., et al. “Round Midnight.” Sports Illustrated 85, no. 8 (August, 1996). Keith J. Bell African Americans; Basketball; Clinton, Bill; Crime; Limbaugh, Rush; Sports.

See also

■ Militia movement A paramilitary movement that emerged in the United States in the 1990’s

Definition

Collectively, the militias constituted the largest right-wing movement in the United States in the decade. Paramilitary groups are not a recent right-wing phenomenon in the United States. In the 1930’s, a group called the Christian Front was created to defend the United States. Then, in the 1960’s, the Minutemen was created to provide a citizen army to fight communists, both domestic and foreign. There were two catalysts for the 1990’s citizen militia movement: the events at Ruby Ridge, Idaho, and Waco, Texas. Both were government standoffs involving federal weapons violations, and both ended with charges that federal officials had acted incorrectly. At Ruby Ridge, Randy Weaver, a survivalist and Christian Identity church member, bought sawed-off shotguns from an undercover agent in 1989. Weaver failed to appear in court to face the charges. When federal marshals attempted to arrest Weaver in 1992, a shoot-out occurred at Weaver’s isolated cabin. A federal marshal and Weaver’s wife and fourteen-year-old son were killed. Later, Weaver was acquitted of all charges except for failure to appear in court, and the federal government lost a civil suit in the case. In Waco, Texas, four federal agents were killed in February, 1993, when the Bureau of Alcohol, Tobacco, and Firearms (ATF) raided the Branch Davidian compound of cult leader David Koresh in search of illegal weapons. Following a fifty-oneday siege, the Federal Bureau of Investigation (FBI) used armored vehicles and tear gas to end the standoff; however, a fire broke out and seventysix men, women, and children from the religious sect were killed. This event, like Ruby Ridge, was seen by the radical right as an example of the federal government using unjustified force to stifle dissent. In fact, an article in Modern Militiaman maga-

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zine asserted that the militia movement was conceived at Ruby Ridge in 1992 and born at Waco in 1993. On January 1, 1994, the Militia of Montana (MOM) was officially started by John Trochman, a friend of Randy Weaver, in Noxon, Montana. Trochman’s militia became a major supplier of propaganda documents, paramilitary supplies, and paramilitary manuals for the movement in the 1990’s. In April, the Michigan Militia was formed by gun shop owner Norm Olson. This group became one of the largest organizations, with an estimated membership of six thousand. Militia groups grew rapidly throughout 1994, but few Americans were aware of the militias until the bombing of the Oklahoma City federal building in April, 1995, that killed 168 people. This bombing, by Timothy McVeigh, occurred on the second anniversary of the Waco fire and was at first incorrectly linked to the militias. In June, 1995, members of militia groups were called to testify before the U.S. Senate Judiciary Committee. As Americans became more aware of the militias’ presence, militias continued to grow. By early 1996, there were paramilitary groups in most states and an estimated membership of forty thousand. Overall, the Southern Poverty Law Center estimated that there were 370 militia groups in the United States in 1996, most of which operated autonomously. The militia movement began to decline in late 1996 because of arrests and less hard-core members dropping out. There were numerous arrests of militia members on charges of conspiracy and of possession of illegal weapons and explosives. By 1997, the Southern Poverty Law Center estimated there were only 221 militia groups, with the strongest support coming from the midwestern and western states. Issues There were several major issues that resulted in individuals becoming involved in militias. The first issue was gun control. Militia members were opposed to federal laws, such as the Brady bill, that were seen as limiting the rights of citizens to keep and bear arms. Many felt that such measures were the first steps toward government confiscation of all firearms. Second, militia members were suspicious of government, especially the federal government, because of events such as Ruby Ridge and Waco. Some believed that no government was legitimate above the county level. Third, many militia

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Milli Vanilli

members believed that there was a conspiracy to create a “New World Order” that would result in a oneworld socialist government. They were especially suspicious of the United Nations and international agreements between the United States and foreign governments, especially those dealing with free trade. Some militia groups were also racist and antiSemitic; however, there were also some militias with African American and Jewish members. Impact The militia movement tended to attract rural, lesser-educated, blue-collar males who owned guns and were suspicious of the actions of the federal government. Many of them disliked government policies linked to gun control, environmental protection, free trade, smoking bans, and affirmative action for women and minorities. The militias were formed to protect themselves from what they perceived as illegal and illicit practices of government. Some groups actually planned terrorist actions against the government. In fact, in the three years following the Oklahoma City bombing, twentyfive major domestic terrorist conspiracies were thwarted by law-enforcement officials. While militia activity decreased in the latter part of the decade, domestic terrorism remained a major concern for government officials. As illegal immigration became more of an issue in the early part of the twenty-first century, some militia group members became involved in private patrol movements along the U.S.-Mexico border.

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City bombing by the American Jewish Committee’s expert on hate groups and hate movements. William V. Moore Conservatism in U.S. politics; Gun control; Illegal immigration; McVeigh, Timothy; Montana Freeman standoff; Oklahoma City bombing; Ruby Ridge shoot-out; Terrorism; Waco siege.

See also

■ Milli Vanilli Identification Pop music group Date Formed in 1988

Initially notable for its immense popularity, the duo known as Milli Vanilli became infamous for lip-synching, in videos and onstage, to the vocals of other singers and thus inspiring litigation from fans who believed they had been deceived and from studio singers who believed they were not being duly recognized or monetarily compensated for their performances. The story of Milli Vanilli began in the 1970’s, when Frank Farian, a white German performer discouraged by his record company from recording “black” music, formed Boney M, a quartet whose members hailed from Jamaica and Aruba and contributed little to Boney M’s recordings. By the mid-1980’s, after a decade of international popularity, Boney M ap-

Further Reading

Levitas, Daniel. The Terrorist Next Door: The Militia Movement and the Radical Right. New York: St. Martin’s Press, 2002. The definitive history of the origins and impact of the militia movement. Sonder, Ben. The Militia Movement: Fighters of the Far Right. New York: Franklin Watts, 2000. A short journalistic account of the militia movement. Stern, Kenneth S. A Force upon the Plain: The American Militia Movement and the Politics of Hate. New York: Simon & Schuster, 1996. An early work on the militia movement written after the Oklahoma

Rob Pilatus, left, and Fabrice Morvan of Milli Vanilli pose after winning the Best New Artist Grammy on February 21, 1990. (AP/Wide World Photos)

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peared to have run its course, and Farian, in the role of producer, recorded songs for a new project using the studio singers John Davis, Brad Howell, twin sisters Jodie and Linda Rocco, and Charles Shaw. Convinced that the group needed a more video-friendly appearance, and buoyed by his success at having gotten away with masking performances before, Farian hired photogenic German models and dancers Fabrice “Fab” Morvan and Rob Pilatus to “perform” the new songs as Milli Vanilli (a name taken from a Turkish advertising slogan). Milli Vanilli, whose music was a catchy blend of high-tech, postdisco dance music and R&B that included a little rap, became an instant success. Girl You Know It’s True, the group’s debut album, sold over six million copies upon its U.S. release in 1989, and all four of its singles (“Baby Don’t Forget My Number,” “Blame It on the Rain,” “Girl I’m Gonna Miss You,” and the title track) reached the top five on Billboard ’s pop singles chart. Even after a technical gaffe at a July, 1989, performance revealed Morvan and Pilatus to have been lipsynching onstage, the ruse might have continued. However, as criticism over their live nonsinging grew, Morvan and Pilatus began pressuring Farian to allow them to sing on future Milli Vanilli recordings, and, in November, 1990, nine months after Milli Vanilli had won a Grammy Award for Best New Artist, Farian responded by officially unmasking the duo as a fraud. In 1993, Morvan and Pilatus attempted a comeback by releasing Rob & Fab, but the album failed. In 1996, Pilatus was convicted of vandalism, attempted robbery, and assault and served a brief jail term. Following a stint in a drug rehabilitation program, Pilatus returned to Germany and committed suicide there on April 2, 1998. Impact After the scandal, the practice of using nonsingers to pose as a song’s actual performers (a practice that, in fact, was not widespread but that showed signs of becoming prevalent) came to an end. In the wake of lawsuits filed by the singer Martha Wash against the acts C+C Music Factory, Black Box, and Seduction, each of whom had disguised her contributions to their music with more fashionably presentable lip-synching performers, legislation was passed requiring all recordings to accurately credit their participants.

Further Reading

Bogdanov, Vladimir, Stephen Thomas Erlewine, and Chris Woodstra, eds. All Music Guide to Rock: The Definitive Guide to Rock, Pop, and Soul. 3d ed. Milwaukee: Hal Leonard, 2002. Popyk, Bob. “How Can They Call This Junk Music? Or, How Seeing Milli Vanilli in Concert Made Me Feel Ready for the Geriatric Ward.” Music Trades 138, no. 9 (October, 1990): 89-90. Arsenio Orteza African Americans; Hip-hop and rap music; Music; Scandals.

See also

■ Million Man March African American men participate in a massive rally Date October 16, 1995 Place The National Mall in Washington, D.C. The Event

The Million Man March was composed of African American men and others who supported its stated goals of “unity, atonement, and brotherhood.” The rally was also political, as its leaders were critical of the conservative Republican leadership that rose to power in the 1994 congressional elections. Louis Farrakhan, the leader of the Nation of Islam, conceived the idea for the Million Man March. Farrakhan was born Louis Eugene Walcott and later assumed a Muslim name. Recognized as a powerful and inspirational speaker, he was a controversial figure because some of his comments were viewed as racist, sexist, or anti-Semitic. Republican leader and Speaker of the House Newt Gingrich criticized the gathering for supporting Farrakhan. President Bill Clinton supported the march but was critical of Farrakhan’s comments, as were many African Americans. Farrakhan defended his remarks by stating that they were taken out of context. Although Farrakhan’s primary role in the Million Man March was the subject of great controversy, most Americans respected the importance of the issues addressed by the event. The program agenda and thousands of discussions on the National Mall focused upon fundamental social issues important to African American males. Besides Farrakhan, many others played important roles in the Million Man March. Benjamin Chavis, Jr., served as the

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national director for the event, and about sixty people spoke or entertained, including the Reverend Jesse Jackson, activist Rosa Parks, comedian Dick Gregory, poet Maya Angelou, and singers Isaac Hayes, Hammer, and Stevie Wonder. The numbers attending the Million Man March have been in dispute since the event. The estimates range from less than a halfmillion to more than one and a half million. Boston University used aerial photographs to estimate the crowd at 837,000, with a 20 percent margin for error. In any case, the gathering was one of the largest and most peaceful gatherings on the National Mall and was much larger than the gathering for Martin Luther King, Jr.’s “I Have a Dream” speech in 1963, which was presented to 250,000 during the March on Washington for Jobs and Freedom. The tone for the Million Man March was summed up by Farrakhan, who asked attendees to pledge to the following beliefs:

Goals of the March

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“We Got to Get Back to the Houses of God” On October 16, 1995, Louis Farrakhan addressed his audience at the Million Man March, held in Washington, D.C. Farrakhan urged blacks to join organizations that seek to uplift the people: Everyone of you, my dear brothers, when you go home, here’s what I want you to do. We must belong to some organization that is working for, and in the interests of, the uplift and the liberation of our people. Go back, join the NAACP if you want to, join the Urban League, join the All African People’s Revolutionary Party, join us, join the Nation of Islam, join PUSH, join the Congress of Racial Equality, join SCLC, the Southern Christian Leadership Conference. But we must become a totally organized people and the only way we can do that is to become a part of some organization that is working for the uplift of our people. . . . I know that the NAACP did not officially endorse this march. Neither did the Urban League. But, so what? So what? Many of the members are here anyway. . . . These are our brothers and we’re not going to stop reaching out for them simply because we feel there was a misunderstanding. We still want to talk to our brothers because we cannot let artificial barriers divide us. . . . No, we must continue to reach out for those that have condemned this, and make them to see that this was not evil, it was not intended for evil, it was intended for good. Now, brothers, moral and spiritual renewal is a necessity. Every one of you must go back home and join some church, synagogue or temple or mosque that is teaching spiritual and moral uplift. . . . The men are in the streets, and we got to get back to the houses of God.

To love my brother as I love myself To strive to improve myself spiritually, morally, mentally, socially, politically and economically To build businesses, hospitals, factories, and conduct international trade To never use a gun or a knife to harm any human being other than in self-defense To never abuse one’s wife or children physically or sexually To never use the “b” word to describe any female, especially black women. To never again abuse one’s body with drugs or other things that are self-destructive To support black media and artists who have clean acts and show respect for themselves and others

While most African American women supported the goals of the march, many were bothered by the

fact that women were not welcome to attend the event. Activist Angela Davis provided one view of the sexist aspect of the Million Man March by saying, “No march, movement or agenda that defines manhood in the narrowest terms and seeks to make women lesser partners in this quest for equality can be considered a positive step.” While other women were less strident in their view, they were still critical of the male-only march, even though some women were featured on the program. Impact The goals established at the Million Man March motivated and inspired many African American men who adhered to the pledge that they made on October 16, 1995. While some fell short of the pledge, efforts continued to attract African Americans to the widely accepted goals that were initiated

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at the march. An immediate impact was felt in elections, as voter registration statistics reveal that one and a half million African American men registered to vote in the months following the march. Although the Million Man March is not the only impetus for this increase in voter registration, it is viewed as being a major contributing factor. In addition, the National Association of Black Social Workers reported a surge in the adoption of black children after the march. While not solely responsible, the Million Man March appears to have served as inspiration for both organizations and individuals to adopt black children. Subsequent Events The Million Man March inspired a tenth-anniversary commemoration called the Millions More Movement, which was also initiated by Farrakhan. A second march was held from October 14 to 17, 2005, in Washington, D.C. This movement has continued to address issues of importance to African American men. Among them are many themes initiated during the Million Man March, including unity, spiritual values, education, economic development, political power, reparations, prison issues, health, artistic and cultural development, and peace. The group has developed many state affiliates and maintains a national contact office in Chicago. Further Reading

Bennett, LaRon D., Sr. The Million Man March: The Untold Story. Brunswick, Ga.: Bhouse, 1996. The author’s personal narrative of the event. Describes the march from the point of view of participants. Cottman, Michael. Million Man March. New York: Crown, 1995. A beautifully photographed book with text by Cottman. Madhubuti, Haki R., and Maulana Karenga, eds. Million Man March/Day of Absence: A Commemorative Anthology. Chicago: Third World Press, 1996. Contains speeches, commentary, photography, poetry, illustrations, and documents related to the march. Terry, Roderick, and Cliff Giles. One Million Strong: A Photographic Tribute of the Million Man March and Affirmations for the African-American Male. Edgewood, Md.: Duncan & Duncan, 1996. A pictorial work that features quotations from famous African American men and the Million Man March pledge. Douglas A. Phillips

See also African Americans; Angelou, Maya; Elections in the United States, midterm; Farrakhan, Louis; Gingrich, Newt; Hip-hop and rap music; Promise Keepers; Race relations; Religion and spirituality in the United States.

■ Minimum wage increases U.S. federal minimum wage increases four times during 1990’s

The Event

Following nearly a decade of no change and the continued erosion of its real value due to inflation, the minimum wage began to increase in the 1990’s. The minimum wage, the lowest hourly rate that employers can legally pay employees, became law in the United States for most workers with the passage of the Fair Labor Standards Act of 1938. The act was the outgrowth of the exigencies created by falling wages during the Great Depression and of the “living wage movement,” which argued that workers in a democratic society were not truly citizens if their work could not provide a minimal standard of living. Opposition to the act was strongest in the South, where it was argued that a minimum wage would lead to job losses. Since the act did not provide for automatic increases in the minimum wage, similar debates emerge each time the issue is raised. With no increase since 1981, by 1989 the real value of the U.S. federal minimum wage was at its lowest level since 1950. Soon after becoming president in 1989, George H. W. Bush expressed a willingness to increase the minimum wage to $4.25 per hour if the bill included the provision for a training wage of 85 percent of the minimum for six months for new hires. After vetoing a bill put forward by U.S. House and Senate Democrats raising the minimum to $4.55, President Bush approved an increase in the minimum wage from the existing $3.35 to $4.25 in two stages. The first increase occurred April 1, 1990, to $3.80. The second increase occurred on April 1, 1991, to $4.25. The legislation also included the provision for a training wage for new hires under age twenty for their first ninety days of employment. Despite this 27 percent increase, the real value of the minimum wage remained relatively low compared to the previous thirty-five years. By 1995, the real value of the minimum wage had sunk nearly to the level it had been in 1989, before the

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previous increase. Support was once again building for an adjustment. In the years since the minimum wage had last been raised, the political environment had changed. The Democratic Party now controlled the White House and the Republican Party controlled Congress. Despite being in the minority, congressional Democrats were able to build sufficient support for raising the minimum wage, which was approved by President Bill Clinton. The legislation again involved a two-stage increase. The first occurred on October 1, 1996, raising the wage to $4.70 per hour. The second increase on September 1, 1997, raised the wage to $5.15. A $4.25 training wage for ninety days was included for new hires under age twenty. Although the increase represented a real gain over the earlier increase, the real value of the new minimum wage was still less than it had averaged during each of the previous three decades. In addition to the federal minimum wage, states have the right to set a higher minimum wage. During the 1990’s, a number of states had a minimum wage above the federal one. This differs slightly from the policy in Canada, where there is no federal minimum wage and each province and territory has the authority to set its own minimum wage. The movement to increase the minimum wage during the 1990’s received wide support from the public but still faced serious challenges in getting implemented. The main argument against raising the minimum wage was based on the classical economics view that a government-imposed wage rate above the market wage rate will reduce the number of available jobs because workers lack the skills to justify higher wages. As a result, an increase will hurt those it is intended to help. The primary argument for increasing the minimum was to be found in the view that a full-time worker should be able to raise a family without living in poverty. Since most minimum-wage employees were found to be part-time workers under age twenty-five, never married, and living in households with incomes well above the U.S. Census Bureau’s poverty threshold, it was argued that increasing the minimum wage would reduce employment opportunities for teenagers without having much impact on poverty. However, research conducted following the increases in the minimum wage during the 1990’s found little evidence of its leading to increased unemployment.

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Welfare reforms aimed at reducing the number of individuals receiving benefits implemented during the Clinton administration strengthened arguments that full-time work should keep families out of poverty. The increases in the minimum wage during the 1990’s were sufficient to keep a single individual above the U.S. Census Bureau’s poverty threshold, but not a family of three as it had during the 1960’s and 1970’s. Impact The 1990’s provided minimum-wage workers with their first increase since 1981. With increases in prices during the intervening years, the purchasing power of the minimum wage had fallen to its lowest level in four decades. Since increases in the minimum wage tend to also increase wages for those earning slightly above the minimum, the increases in the 1990’s represented a real gain for millions of low-wage workers. Despite these gains, however, the purchasing power of the minimum wage for the decade was at its lowest level since the 1940’s. Further Reading

Ehrenreich, Barbara. Nickel and Dimed: On (Not) Getting By in America. New York: Metropolitan Books, 2001. A compelling look at one woman’s sojourn into the world of low-wage work and the struggles she encountered. Levin-Waldman, Oren M. The Case of the Minimum Wage: Competing Policy Models. Albany: State University of New York Press, 2001. A multidisciplinary presentation of the forces that have shaped minimum wage laws in the U.S. Waltman, Jerold. The Case for the Living Wage. New York: Algora Publishing, 2004. The book presents a well-reasoned argument advocating the role that the minimum wage could play in reducing poverty. _______. The Politics of the Minimum Wage. Urbana: University of Illinois Press, 2000. A thoughtprovoking look at the political maneuvering that has guided and will likely continue to guide minimum wage policy. Randall Hannum See also Clinton, Bill; Income and wages in Canada; Income and wages in the United States; Poverty; Welfare reform.

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Minorities in Canada

■ Minorities in Canada Racial, ethnic, cultural, and linguistic segments of the Canadian population

Definition

The population of Canada, about 26 million at the beginning of the 1990’s, reached about 31 million by the end of 1999. Visible minorities accounted for 3.5 million people at the end of the decade, or 13 percent of the total population. Under the Employment Equity Act of Canada adopted in 1986, minorities are identified as “visible” minorities, people whose race is non-Caucasian and who are not white. Ten such groups constitute visible minorities in Canada: Arabs, blacks, Chinese, Filipinos, Japanese, Koreans, Latin Americans, Pacific Islanders, South Asians (Indians and Pakistanis), Southeast Asians, and West Asians. Aboriginal peoples—American Indians, Inuit (known colloquially as Eskimos), and Metis (persons of mixed native and Old World genetic heritage)—were guaranteed unique rights under the Constitution Act of 1982, part of the Canadian Charter of Rights and Freedoms. Because aboriginal populations were the first peoples occupying Canada, they are not considered minorities but are accorded a separate status in Canadian legislative processes. The Role of Immigration Between 1991 and 2000, Canada welcomed 2.2 million immigrants, the highest number for any decade during the twentieth century. While European nations such as the United Kingdom, Germany, Italy, and the Netherlands were the most common sources of immigrants to Canada up to the 1960’s, immigration from Asia had become increasingly important, with 58 percent of all immigrants to Canada in the 1990’s arriving from Asia, and with only 20 percent coming from Europe, 11 percent from Central and South America and the Caribbean, 8 percent from Africa, and 3 percent from the United States. Asian immigrants originated mostly from the People’s Republic of China, India, the Philippines, Hong Kong, Sri Lanka, Pakistan, and Taiwan. These countries and territories constituted more than 40 percent of all immigrants to Canada in the decade. New immigrants to Canada in the 1990’s were overwhelmingly attracted to large metropolitan areas, with 73 percent of them settling in or near Toronto, Vancouver, and Montreal. This pattern was probably the result of the greater economic oppor-

tunity that cities provide and the immediate benefit derived from moving into a community in which minorities were already well established. Toronto was home to 25.8 percent of the nation’s visible minorities in 1991, and 31.6 percent in 1996. Vancouver had 24 percent of Canada’s visible minorities in 1991, 31.1 percent in 1996, and by the end of 1999 had overtaken Toronto as the nation’s center of minority residence. In the process of integration of new immigrants, communication in one of the two official languages in Canada, English and French, is very important. However, because of its political history—the amalgamation of a dominant English and an intensely nationalistic French population following the French defeat in 1763—Canada embraces a multiculturalism that also encourages immigrant minorities to maintain their traditional cultures and languages. The tension between these sometimes contradictory goals of integration and cultural maintenance has resulted in much linguistic diversity. During the decade, the desire to perpetuate minority group languages was accommodated by the creation of individual language courses, by having schools teach the minority languages as part of their curricula, and by the founding of clubs and organizations in which the language was spoken. Census studies during the 1990’s showed that 88 percent of Chinese reported speaking a nonofficial language at home and 29 percent were unable to speak an official language, while 15 percent of immigrants from India and 13 percent of those from Taiwan were unable to converse in either English or French. In the census completed in 2001, threequarters of these minorities were able to speak English, but still one in ten remained incapable of self-expression in either official language. The nonofficial languages spoken by visible minorities were Chinese (31 percent), Punjabi (7.3 percent), Arabic (5.1 percent), Spanish (4.7 percent), Tagalog (Filipino) and Russian (4.5 percent), Persian (Farsi) and Tamil (4.2 percent), Urdu (3.4 percent), and Korean (3.3 percent). Chinese, South Asians, and blacks accounted for almost two-thirds of the visible minorities. The number of Chinese in Canada approached one million; Chinese immigration is very old, with the first major wave beginning during the late 1850’s in British Co-

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lumbia after the first Gold Rush. Vancouver, the preferred port of entry for people coming from China because of its location on the West Coast, housed an immigrant population of which 57 percent spoke Chinese in the 1990’s, compared to 28.9 percent in Toronto and 13.8 in Montreal. South Asians and blacks were more abundant in the eastern provinces of Canada. Many Canadians of African descent have been part of Canada for a very long time, and they are proportionally more important in Quebec and the Atlantic provinces (Nova Scotia, New Brunswick, Prince Edward Island, and Newfoundland and Labrador). During the 1990’s, minority groups were very heterogeneous not only in their origins and distribution within Canada but also in their patterns of integration. There was a marked increase (25 percent over the decade) in the number of marriages between visible minority and nonminority individuals. Blacks were more likely than any other visible minority group to intermarry, while Chinese ranked second, increasing the number of their mixed marriages during the 1990’s by more than 50 percent. Impact The influx of visible minorities transformed Canada’s population greatly by increasing its cultural diversity as well as it multiethnicity. The history of these immigrant peoples has been, and will continue to be, an experiment in the production of a functioning multicultural society as the forces of integration and those of cultural maintenance and/ or isolation seek to achieve a workable equilibrium in the lives of all Canadians. Further Reading

Beaujot, Roderic, and Don Kerr, eds. The Changing Face of Canada: Essential Readings in Population. Toronto: Canadian Scholars’ Press, 2007. A study of the Canadian population and the implications of population changes in sociology, economics, and geography. Jones, Beryle Mae. “Multiculturalism and Citizenship: The Status of ‘Visible Minorities’ in Canada.” Canadian Ethnic Studies Journal, March 22, 2000. Examines the Canadian population in the 1990’s, including location, political representation, languages, and the integration of visible minorities. Mackey, Eva. The House of Difference: Cultural Politics and National Identity in Canada. Toronto: University of Toronto Press, 2002. Examines the national

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identity of the multiethnically diverse Canadian population through interviews. Denyse Lemaire and David Kasserman See also

Immigration to Canada; Race relations.

■ Mississippi River flood of 1993 Flooding along the Mississippi River and its tributaries inundates vast regions of the Midwest Date April-October, 1993 Place Particularly Minnesota, Iowa, Missouri, and Illinois The Event

The flooding of the Mississippi River and its tributaries was unprecedented in its scope and duration and ranks as one of the greatest natural disasters in U.S. history. During the spring and summer of 1993, an abnormal pattern of upper-level and lower-level steering winds prevented weather systems from following their normal track across the central plains. Instead, they followed a more northerly course, generating a series of persistent storms. The recurrent storms resulted in heavy rainfalls on soils already saturated by the wet autumn of the previous year. Record amounts of precipitation fell across nine states, with some locations recording up to four feet of rain. Minnesota, Iowa, Missouri, and Illinois were among the hardest hit states. North Dakota, South Dakota, Nebraska, Kansas, and Wisconsin also were affected. The rainfall amounts ran 200 to 350 percent of normal for the impacted regions. Many locations experienced precipitation for twenty or more days in July compared to the normal average of eight to nine days. The runoff sent streams and rivers spilling over their banks, as over 1,000 of 1,300 levees failed to hold back the overflows. However, the larger cities like St. Louis, where the Mississippi reached a record crest of 49.47 feet, were protected by massive floodwalls. The Mississippi remained over flood stage at St. Louis for nearly two months. Across the state, the Missouri River crested at Kansas City at a record 48.9 feet. At one stage, close to 600 river forecast stations, stretching along nearly 150 major streams and tributaries, were above flood stage. Altogether, over ninety locations set record crests. At one point, the flooding disabled a major water plant

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nation’s flood-control measures. Special emphasis was placed on the forecasting of river flows during periods of extensive runoffs. Further Reading

Changnon, Stanley Alcide, ed. The Great Flood of 1993: Causes, Impacts, and Responses. Boulder, Colo.: Westview Press, 1996. Lauber, Patricia. Flood: Wrestling with the Mississippi. Washington, D.C.: National Geographic Society, 1996. William H. Hoffman Agriculture in the United States; Natural disasters; Perfect Storm, the; Storm of the Century.

See also

■ Mistry, Rohinton Identification Canadian novelist Born July 3, 1952; Bombay (now Mumbai), India

In novels describing the lives of poor or middle-class Indians, Mistry explores the human condition.

The severity of the Mississippi River flooding can be seen in this July 9, 1993, photo taken in Festus, Missouri. (Federal Emergency Management Agency)

near Des Moines, Iowa, leaving the city without safe drinking water. Following the flood, the U.S. Army Corps of Engineers had to inspect affected docks, dams, and levees for damage. The overall economic impact of the flooding was monumental. Approximately fifty thousand homes were either destroyed or damaged. Tens of thousands of residents were forced to evacuate. Over fifteen million acres of farmland and at least seventy-five towns ended up under water. In addition, railroad and barge traffic was brought to a standstill for extended periods. Bridges, highways, and several major commercial airports also were shut down. Total damage was estimated around $15 billion. Over fifty people died in the flooding. Impact In addition to its massive economic impact, the devastation wrought by the Mississippi River flood led to an extensive review and revision of the

Though he has lived in Canada since 1975, Rohinton Mistry chose the India he knew in his youth for the setting of the two novels he wrote during the 1990’s. Such a Long Journey (1991) is set in Bombay in the 1970’s, and most of A Fine Balance (1995) takes place between 1975 and 1977 in an unnamed city that resembles Bombay. Because he uses such meticulous detail in describing the daily routines of his characters and the small crises that are the stuff of everyday life, Mistry is often compared to nineteenth century realists like the English novelists Charles Dickens and George Eliot. Like them, he sees life as a precarious matter. At the beginning of Such a Long Journey, Gustad Noble, a Parsi bank clerk, is giving thanks to his deity, Ahura Mazda, for his good health and his happy family life. However, his older son soon rebels against him, his young daughter becomes seriously ill, and Noble finds himself innocently involved in transactions involving corrupt government officials that could cost him his job and even his life. Though he escapes, Noble will never again face life so confidently. A Fine Balance is an even darker novel. After fate brings them together, the four protagonists settle into a seemingly secure life. Though the widow Dina Dalal still misses her young husband, her sewing

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business permits her to live independently. Her employees, the low-caste Ishvar and Omprakash Darji, are delighted to have jobs. The fourth member of the little family is Dina’s boarder, Maneck Kohlah, a college student. However, their happiness is shortlived. Government officials bulldoze the slum shanties and remove the residents, including the two Darjis, to be forcibly sterilized; afterward, they become beggars. Another government ruling deprives Dina of her home and her business, and she becomes a drudge in her brother’s household. Disillusioned with life, Maneck kills himself. Though Mistry admits that chance plays a role in the lives of his characters, what they have to fear most is the cruelty of other human beings, as reflected in the caste system, the greed of government officials, and religious intolerance. The only power one has, Mistry suggests, is to will to be good rather than evil. Impact Such a Long Journey won the 1991 Governor General’s Literary Award for Fiction and the Commonwealth Writers Prize and was short-listed for the Trillium Award. A Fine Balance won the 1995 Giller Prize, the Canada-Australia Literary Prize, the Winifred Holtby Memorial Prize, and the Commonwealth Writers Prize for Best Book. Both books were short-listed for the Booker Prize. Thus, with his first two novels, Rohinton Mistry established himself not only as a superb realist but also as one of Canada’s finest writers.

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■ Montana Freemen standoff Standoff between federal agents and a right-wing extremist group Date March 25-June 13, 1996 Place Justus Township ranch, in Brusett, Montana The Event

The patient approach of the Federal Bureau of Investigation (FBI) in negotiating with the Montana Freemen led to the surrender of the Freemen without the violence that had been anticipated and that had marked FBI confrontations with several other extremists in the 1990’s. The Montana Freemen were one of many extremist groups established in the 1990’s that were part of the Patriot movement. Like other Patriot groups, the Freemen perceived the federal government as having been corrupted and controlled by a Jewish conspiracy. In addition to strong anti-federal government beliefs, the Freemen espoused a Christian Identity religious doctrine, which holds that Caucasians are the descendants of the biblical Adam, Jewish people are the descendants of Satan, and ethnic minority groups are subhuman. The Freemen standoff had its origins in a January, 1994, incident in which twenty-six Freemen

Further Reading

Allen, Brooke. Twentieth-Century Attitudes: Literary Powers in Uncertain Times. Chicago: Ivan R. Dee, 2003. Bahri, Deepika. Native Intelligence: Aesthetics, Politics, and Postcolonial Literature. Minneapolis: University of Minnesota Press, 2003. Morey, Peter. Rohinton Mistry. Manchester, England: Manchester University Press, 2004. Rosemary M. Canfield Reisman See also Immigration to Canada; Literature in Canada; Minorities in Canada.

A sign erected at the Montana Freemen compound reads, “Grand Jury. It’s the law! Why not? Who fears the evidence?” The antigovernment militants were demanding that they be tried by a jury of their own choosing. (AP/Wide World Photos)

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briefly took over a county courthouse in Montana and proclaimed the establishment of their own government and court. Many of the Freemen who faced charges from the incident refused to appear in court and took refuge on ranches in Roundup and Brusett, Montana. Fearing violence with the armed Freemen, local law enforcement did not seek to take the ranches by force. In addition to the conflict with local law enforcement, several Freemen faced conflict with the federal government for threatening a federal judge, tax evasion, and bank fraud. The Freemen had been printing fake money orders with which they defrauded banks, credit card companies, and other businesses for over one million dollars. Like local enforcement, the FBI sought to avoid an armed conflict with the Freemen, but federal agents maintained surveillance around the ranches. In 1995, the Freemen abandoned the ranch in Roundup and combined their forces at the ranch in Brusett. They named the ranch Justus Township and proclaimed it an independent state, free from the jurisdiction of the federal government. In March, 1996, two of the Freemen leaders, LeRoy Schweitzer and Daniel Peterson, were arrested after being lured to a secluded location by an undercover FBI agent who had infiltrated the fringe group. Eighty-one days after the arrest of Schweitzer and Peterson, the remaining Freemen surrendered peacefully. Schweitzer was sentenced to twenty-two years in prison, and Peterson to fifteen years. Several other Freemen were also sentenced to lengthy prison terms. Impact After the violent standoffs between the FBI and the Branch Davidians in Waco, Texas (1993), and the Weaver family in Ruby Ridge, Idaho (1992), it was feared that a standoff between the FBI and the heavily armed Freemen would also end in violence. The patient and relatively hands-off approach of the FBI and the subsequent peaceful surrender of the Freemen ended what could have been a deadly conflict. The surrender of the Freemen also effectively marked the end of their organization.

Further Reading

Crothers, Lane. Rage on the Right: The American Militia Movement from Ruby Ridge to Homeland Security. Lanham, Md.: Rowman & Littlefield, 2003. Neiwert, David. In God’s Country: The Patriot Movement and the Pacific Northwest. Pullman: Washington State University Press, 1999. Damon Mitchell McVeigh, Timothy; Militia movement; Oklahoma City bombing; Ruby Ridge shoot-out; Waco siege.

See also

■ Moore, Judge Roy Former chief justice of the Alabama Supreme Court Born February 11, 1947; Gadsden, Alabama Identification

Moore was dubbed the “Ten Commandments Judge” for his controversial display of the Ten Commandments in his courtroom. Moore graduated from U.S. Military Academy at West Point and studied law at the University of Alabama School of Law. Following law school, he be-

Judge Roy Moore addresses the media during a news conference in his Etowah County courtroom in February, 1997. Behind him is the controversial wood carving of the Ten Commandments. (AP/Wide World Photos)

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came the first full-time deputy district attorney for Etowah County, Alabama. In 1982, he ran an unsuccessful campaign for circuit court judge of Etowah County. Moore returned to Gadsden, where he established a private practice. In 1986, he ran another unsuccessful campaign, this time for district attorney. He remained politically inactive until his appointment by Governor Guy Hunt as Etowah County judge. Upon taking his position, Moore decorated his courtroom with various state and legal symbols. He also placed a handmade wooden Ten Commandments plaque behind his bench “to reflect [his] belief in the Supreme Lawgiver of the universe . . . [and] to acknowledge God.” Moore also opened his court with prayer every day. In June, 1993, Joel Sogol, an attorney with the Alabama American Civil Liberties Union (ACLU), threatened to file suit against anyone who conducted public prayer in court, but Moore was not deterred. The ACLU recorded Moore’s prayer in June, 1994, and continued to threaten lawsuit. During that summer, Moore began campaigning for circuit judge, facing opposition led by the ACLU regarding his public prayer and Ten Commandments display. November witnessed his election by nearly 60 percent of those voting. The ACLU filed suit in U.S. district court against Moore regarding his prayer and Ten Commandments plaque, declaring the prayer a “religious test.” However, on July 7, 1995, the judge dismissed the case, determining that the plaintiffs lacked standing. The ACLU filed complaint again in 1996, and trial began in September of that year. The judge in the trial declared the plaque constitutional but the prayer unconstitutional; though prayers had to cease, Moore’s display was permissible as part of a historical display. In February, 1997, the judge from the trial visited Moore’s courtroom and determined that the display must be removed. An appeal set before the Alabama Supreme Court was ultimately dismissed in January, 1998. Increasingly confident, Moore declared his campaign for chief justice of the Alabama Supreme Court on December 7, 1999. Impact Moore’s case brought renewed national attention to issues of religion and politics and new fervor to the church-state debate. Subsequent Events Judge Moore was sworn in as chief justice of the Alabama Supreme Court on January 15, 2001. Justice Moore installed a two-ton monument of the Ten Commandments in the rotunda of

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the Alabama Judicial Building on July 31, 2001. He faced legislation from the ACLU and Southern Poverty Law Center in the federal courts in 2002 and 2003. The monument was removed from the rotunda by order of a judge, and Roy Moore was removed from his position as chief justice. Further Reading

Feldman, Noah. Divided by God: America’s Church-State Problem—and What We Should Do About It. New York: Farrar, Straus and Giroux, 2005. Moore, Roy, with John Perry. So Help Me God: The Ten Commandments, Judicial Tyranny, and the Battle for Religious Freedom. Nashville: Broadman & Holman, 2005. Meredith Holladay Censorship; Christian Coalition; Conservatism in U.S. politics; Religion and spirituality in the United States; Right-wing conspiracy; Supreme Court decisions.

See also

■ Morissette, Alanis Identification Canadian singer-songwriter Born June 1, 1974; Ottawa, Ontario, Canada

Morissette gave voice to a new generation of young women who felt both aggrieved and empowered with respect to the social situation in the 1990’s. She became one of the most popular singers of the latter half of the decade. Alanis Morissette, the daughter of a Canadian man (Anglophone despite the French surname) and a woman who had been a refugee from the suppression of the Hungarian rebellion in 1956, was a child star during the 1980’s and early 1990’s. She was promoted by various producers, at least one of whom pursued a romantic relationship with her, to which she later referred in her songs. Importantly, Morissette wrote or cowrote her own songs after the age of fifteen. Morissette released two albums in the early 1990’s. These were only limited successes. These were followed by her 1995 breakout, Jagged Little Pill, cowritten with producer Glen Ballard. Female singers had become increasingly prominent during the 1990’s, but Morissette was one of the youngest and most unconventional of these to gain wide acclaim. The first single from Jagged Little Pill, “You Oughta Know,” concerns a woman in the after-

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Morissette toured widely to support her album. Its success meant that she was on the road for longer than anticipated. Exhausted, Morissette sought spiritual relief in December, 1996, by traveling to India and practicing yoga. She paid tribute to this experience on “Thank U,” the first single from her next album, Supposed Former Infatuation Junkie (1998). “Unsent,” the album’s second single, paid poignant tribute to former boyfriends and tantalized the listener with the sense that it was referring to real relationships. Earlier in 1998, Morissette had released “Uninvited.” This song, originally composed for a movie sound track, was sad and plaintive. It also became a major hit and received wide airplay. Though Morissette’s second album was not the pop culture phenomenon the first had been, it sold millions of copies. Supposed Former Infatuation Junkie confirmed Morissette’s rank as a major rock star of the 1990’s.

Alanis Morissette receives the Album of the Year award for Jagged Little Pill at the 1996 Grammy Awards. She also won Best Female Rock Vocal Performance, Best Rock Song (both for “You Oughta Know”), and Best Rock Album. (AP/Wide World Photos)

math of a bitter breakup with a boyfriend and contains graphic references to sexual situations, conveying a palpable sense of regret and disgust. The second and third singles, “Hand in My Pocket” and “You Learn,” incarnated more constructive attempts to deal with romantic setbacks. The fourth single, the more lyrical “Ironic,” spoke of life’s bittersweet juxtapositions and incongruities (and was the subject of much controversy as to whether the word “ironic” was used aptly therein). The fifth single, “Head over Feet,” bouncily reassured a lover that he had already won the singer’s love without totally being sure of it. The very fact that one album in itself produced five hit singles is remarkable. Jagged Little Pill became the best-selling rock album of the 1990’s and the second best-selling album of the decade.

Impact Although the first wave of the “riot grrrl” movement had passed by the time Jagged Little Pill was released, Morissette’s angry yet introspective songs confirmed the visibility of young women in the media. Morissette helped ensure that the 1990’s was a decade as associated with the prominence of women and girls in popular culture as the 1980’s had been with more masculine presences. Further Reading

Cantin, Paul. Alanis Morissette. New York: St. Martin’s Press, 1998. Tomashoff, Craig. You Live, You Learn: The Alanis Morissette Story. New York: Berkley, 1998. Nicholas Birns See also Alternative rock; MTV Unplugged; Music; Women’s rights.

■ Morris, Dick Identification Political strategist Born November 28, 1948; New York, New York

A powerful bipartisan political strategist during the 1990’s, Morris assisted U.S. president Bill Clinton in winning a second term in office during the 1996 presidential election. During the campaign, he gained notoriety when his relationship with a prostitute became public knowledge.

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After attending Columbia University, Dick Morris began what would become a very successful and lucrative career as a political strategist. Throughout the 1970’s and 1980’s, he assisted various Republican and Democratic politicians with their political campaigns. In 1977, Arkansas attorney general Bill Clinton hired Morris as a political adviser for his upcoming 1978 gubernatorial race in Arkansas. Clinton won the election, but the campaign was the beginning of a turbulent professional relationship between the two men. In 1992, Clinton was elected as president of the United States. Then, in 1994, the Republicans took control of both the House of Representatives and the Senate. In response, Clinton secretly hired Morris to help him with his 1996 reelection campaign. Morris’s three-pronged approach to winning the presidential election for Clinton involved campaigning on the same issues that the Republicans used to gain control of Congress in 1994, implementing an early but aggressive television advertising campaign, and relying heavily on political polling to guide his campaign strategy. On August 29, 1996, the same day that Clinton accepted the Democratic presidential nomination, Star magazine published an article about Morris having a long-term paid relationship with Sherry Rowlands, a high-priced prostitute. The ensuing scandal destroyed Morris’s reputation as a political adviser, and he resigned from the Clinton campaign. Morris rebounded from the scandal by using his talents as a campaign strategist to reinvent himself. In 1997, he published Behind the Oval Office, an inside account of Clinton’s reelection campaign. In 1999, he published The New Prince, a guide to political strategy. Morris also established himself as a political commentator and by 1998 was appearing regularly on the Fox News Channel. That year, he was hired to write a weekly political column for the New York Post. In 1999, he was also hired to write a syndicated political column for United Feature Syndicate, Inc. Impact During the 1996 presidential campaign, Morris worked for President Clinton as his confidential campaign strategist. His brilliant political insights and campaign strategy helped Clinton win a second term in office. Unfortunately, Morris also became notorious for his long-term paid relationship with a prostitute. Ultimately, he used his talents as a campaign strategist to transform himself publicly

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from a disgraced political adviser to a celebrity political commentator. Further Reading

Morris, Dick. Behind the Oval Office: Winning the Presidency in the Nineties. New York: Random House, 1997. _______. The New Prince: Machiavelli Updated for the Twenty-first Century. Los Angeles: Renaissance Books, 1999. Weisberg, Jacob. “Who Is Dick Morris?” New York 28, no. 31 (August, 1995): 34-26, 86. Bernadette Zbicki Heiney See also Cable television; Clinton, Bill; Elections in the United States, midterm; Elections in the United States, 1992; Elections in the United States, 1996; Journalism; Republican Revolution; Scandals.

■ Morrison, Toni Identification African American novelist Born February 18, 1931; Lorain, Ohio

In 1993, Morrison was awarded the Nobel Prize in Literature, becoming the first African American woman to win the prize. In the press release announcing Toni Morrison as the 1993 winner of the Nobel Prize in Literature, the Swedish Academy noted both the uniqueness of Morrison’s vision as well as her connections to the American tradition: “One can delight in her unique narrative technique, varying from book to book and developed independently, even though its roots stem from [William] Faulkner and American writers from further south.” The statement hints at the importance of the Morrison’s work for the American canon. Morrison bridges chasms that have long divided Americans: black and white, male and female, urban and rural, lowbrow and highbrow. The importance of her work grows directly from what it provides all Americans and all human beings: a way to view the world and its far-from-tranquil history with realism, humanity, and humor. She unflinchingly examines the most painful circumstances of American life—slavery, discrimination, even incest and infanticide—and yet still manages to find something redeeming and even humorous in human beings and in the American experience.

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slave who survived to write and speak about slavery. In Paradise, she examines that most persistent of American and human obsessions—the attempt to create paradise—and turns the matter on its head: What if paradise depends upon the absence of white people? In these three novels—Beloved, Jazz, and Paradise —Morrison takes her readers from the 1850’s to the 1970’s, essentially rewriting and reexamining the history of American and African American life. Impact Toni Morrison’s literary achievement enables Americans to understand themselves on deeper, more realistic levels. Further, it deepens and broadens the shared language of black and white, male and female, educated and uneducated. Further Reading

Toni Morrison. (Stephen Chernin/Reuters/Landov)

Morrison’s work in the 1990’s continued to provide Americans with profound questions about themselves, their culture, and most importantly their history. One year before she won the Nobel Prize, Morrison published her first book-length volume of literary criticism: Playing in the Dark: Whiteness and the Literary Imagination. Therein, she explores the way in which the American literary tradition has always contained an unacknowledged African presence. She explores this theme in canonical American writers, such as Mark Twain, Herman Melville, Willa Cather, and Edgar Allan Poe. Later in the decade, she produced Paradise (1997), a novel that completed the trilogy started in 1987 with Beloved and included the 1992 novel Jazz. Each of these novels grows out of a specific point in African American history, often a specific and relatively unknown historical event. Beloved is based on the newspaper account of Margaret Garner’s partially successful attempt to kill her children upon the return of her slave master. Paradise is based on an advertisement for an all-black township in the West: “Come Prepared or Not at All.” In Beloved, she addresses the unexplored reality of the life of an average slave, not a

Beaulieu, Elizabeth Ann, ed. The Toni Morrison Encyclopedia. Westport, Conn.: Greenwood Press, 2003. Morrison, Toni. Playing in the Dark: Whiteness and the Literary Imagination. Cambridge, Mass.: Harvard University Press, 1992. Rice, Herbert William. Toni Morrison and the American Tradition: A Rhetorical Reading. New York: Peter Lang, 1996. Weinstein, Philip. What Else but Love: The Ordeal of Race in Faulkner and Morrison. New York: Columbia University Press, 1996. H. William Rice See also African Americans; Literature in the United States; Nobel Prizes; Publishing; Winfrey, Oprah.

■ Mount Pleasant riot A two-day civil disturbance in the Mount Pleasant neighborhood of Washington, D.C. Date May 5-6, 1991 Place Washington, D.C. The Event

The Mount Pleasant riot in Washington, D.C., in May, 1991, highlighted the tensions between the primarily English-speaking African American metropolitan police force and the primarily Spanish-speaking residents of the Mount Pleasant neighborhood. It further exposed various procedural and communications failures of the police department and widespread violation of civil rights by members of the metropolitan police force.

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The Mount Pleasant riot is categorized as an urban commodity riot in which members of a lower socioeconomic urban group riot against property owners and symbols of public authority, represented by the police. On May 5, 1991, during a Cinco de Mayo neighborhood festival, an African American Englishspeaking female police officer attempted to arrest a Spanish-speaking male for drinking alcohol in public. The police officer initially stated that the male suspect threatened her with a knife. The officer shot the man in the chest. She later stated she thought the male suspect had a knife in his possession. The crowds of Hispanics celebrating in the streets of Mount Pleasant heard about the shooting and quickly turned violent against other police on duty at the festival. Widespread communications equipment failures among members of the metropolitan police force, lack of specific information about what actually happened, no Spanish-speaking officers available to respond quickly, and an overall lack of coordinated police response contributed to an escalation of the violence. Few additional police officers were deployed to the neighborhood, and some police cars and neighborhood stores were damaged. Rain in the early hours of the morning helped break up crowds of angry Hispanic young men in the streets. Washington, D.C., mayor Sharon Pratt Kelly met with Hispanic community leaders on May 6 to ask them to help restore order. By nightfall, however, the metropolitan police force had deployed more than one thousand police in riot gear in the foursquare-mile Mount Pleasant area. This heavy police presence infuriated the Mount Pleasant residents. Local news stations carried extensive coverage of the disturbance. The news coverage attracted a number of young men from outside the Mount Pleasant neighborhood who simply wanted to participate in the disturbance and fight with the police. Largerscale rioting and property damage ensued. Mayor Kelly declared a state of emergency not only in Mount Pleasant but also in the surrounding neighborhoods of Adams Morgan and Columbia Heights, which was not lifted until May 9, 1991. This curfew upset many of the residents of the wealthier neighborhood of Columbia Heights. The vast majority of residents stayed inside after the mayor declared the state of emergency. Small groups of young men continued to engage the police and threw rocks and bottles at them, but little additional property was dam-

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aged. The statistics are significant: 230 people were arrested for curfew violations and looting; 50 police officers were injured; 60 police cars and at least 20 city buses were damaged or burned. Property damage totaled several hundred thousand dollars. The U.S. Commission on Civil Rights investigated police conduct during the Mount Pleasant riot. In its 1993 report, the commission found the metropolitan police department guilty of widespread police misconduct both leading up to and during the disturbance, including the use of racist language against Hispanics, excessive force, harassment of Hispanics for possible immigration violations, and a failure to investigate previous charges of police misconduct against Hispanic members of the community. Mayor Kelly accepted the commission’s findings. She acknowledged that members of the Hispanic community had long-standing, legitimate complaints against the metropolitan police force, including repeated police failures to respond to emergency calls in Spanish. The police force immediately began efforts to recruit bilingual Spanish-English candidates for police officers and emergency dispatchers. To help regain the trust of the Hispanic community, the police further agreed to cease asking any questions regarding a person’s immigration status. The police force agreed to place as many Spanish-speaking officers as possible in predominantly Spanish-speaking neighborhoods and to institute a type of community policing that deployed the same officers in the same areas so both police officers and community residents could get to know one another. Mayor Kelly disputed the accusation that the police acted in a heavy-handed manner in Mount Pleasant at the request of newer and wealthier residents. The accusation was that these newer residents wanted the police to get tough on groups of Hispanic men who were causing problems such as littering and public consumption of alcohol. Impact As a result of police behavior during the Mount Pleasant riot, the U.S. Department of Justice took over investigations of metropolitan police misconduct as the police force itself was deemed unable to conduct impartial investigations. Mayor Kelly was criticized for hesitating in her response to the first night of disturbances, for not holding the police to high standards of professional conduct, for their

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lapses in its training methods, for their faulty internal investigatory procedures, and for not adequately funding the police department at a level that would permit it to purchase fully functioning communications equipment. In her defense, Mayor Kelly stated that problems in and with the metropolitan police force occurred long before her tenure as mayor. Mayor Kelly subsequently left politics. The police force did establish community liaisons within the Hispanic community in order to have ongoing channels of communications. They also made a sustained effort to recruit, train, and hire more bilingual police officers. The Mount Pleasant neighborhood has seen an influx of wealthier nonHispanic residents move in and gentrify the neighborhood. Rising housing prices have pushed portions of the Hispanic community into less expensive areas of the city. Further Reading

Fuchs, Lawrence. The American Kaleidoscope: Race, Ethnicity, and the Civic Culture. Middletown, Conn.: Wesleyan University Press, 1990. A sociological study of the conditions necessary in order for riots and other types of civil disturbances to occur. Waddington, David. Public Order Policing: Theory and Practice. London: Willan Publishing, 2007. A scholarly study and classification of all types of civil disturbances around the world. Includes a brief analysis of the Mount Pleasant riot. Victoria Erhart See also African Americans; Demographics of the United States; Illegal immigration; Immigration to the United States; Latin America; Latinos; Los Angeles riots; Police brutality; Race relations.

■ Mozart effect A temporary effect whereby listening to a Mozart sonata leads to improved performance on a spatial-temporal task

Definition

The broader interpretation of the Mozart effect—the idea that just listening to Mozart can make one smarter— caught both researchers’ attention and the public’s imagination in the 1990’s. Specifically, the Mozart effect refers to a finding published by Frances H. Rauscher, Gordon L. Shaw,

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and Katherine N. Ky in a 1993 issue of Nature. Rauscher and her colleagues found that just listening to a Mozart sonata led to temporary improvement in undergraduate students’ performance on a spatial-reasoning task. In this research, college undergraduates listened to different kinds of music (and silence, in one condition) for ten minutes. Afterward, they were administered a mental paperfolding and -cutting test getting at spatial-reasoning ability. In comparison to the other conditions, students who listened to Mozart showed improved performance on their immediate test. Since this listening effect was only temporary (about fifteen minutes), there were few implications for education. Further, the numerous follow-up studies have been mixed as to the phenomenon’s existence. Nevertheless, in the 1990’s, a Mozart effect industry developed, and numerous books and classical music CDs were marketed toward parents who wanted to enhance their children’s intelligence. Indeed, in 1998, Georgia governor Zell Miller went so far as to propose a budget that would spend $105,000 so that a classical music CD could be sent to every newborn in the state. On another front, the Mozart effect has sometimes been associated with additional research findings as to the potential cognitive benefits of music instruction. Again, in an early study, Rauscher and her colleagues found that preschoolers who received music instruction did better on a puzzle test than did a comparison group who did not receive music instruction. The music instruction effect has been more consistently supported by subsequent research and has more implications for education since the benefits seem to last longer. That is, children who receive music instruction may end up higher in spatial-reasoning ability than those who do not. Rauscher and her colleagues have further concluded that music instruction can lead children to score higher in hand-eye coordination and arithmetic. It is important to note that the music instruction effect is a more general effect and is not limited to the music of Mozart. Impact In the 1990’s, the Mozart effect grew from an obscure research finding to a well-known (if somewhat confused) phenomenon. While the purported, temporary listening effect has limited educational implications, the value of music instruction holds more promise.

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Further Reading

Hetland, Lois. “Listening to Music Enhances SpatialTemporal Reasoning: Evidence for the ‘Mozart Effect.’” The Journal of Aesthetic Appreciation 34 (2000): 105-148. Rauscher, Frances H., and Sean C. Hinton. “The Mozart Effect: Music Listening Is Not Music Instruction.” Educational Psychologist 41 (2006): 233-238. Rauscher, Frances H., Gordon L. Shaw, and Katherine N. Ky. “Music and Spatial Task Performance.” Nature 365 (1993): 611. Russell N. Carney See also Classical music; Education in the United States; Music; Psychology.

■ MP3 format Definition

Digital audio-encoding format

MPEG Audio Layer 3, also known as MP3, is a method of digital audio compression that significantly decreases the size of an audio file while minimizing reduction of sound quality. The late 1990’s saw the release of portable music players that used this revolutionary digital audio-encoding format. The technology allowed for improved storage of audio data and faster online transmission of music, facilitating the development of computer-based music distribution centers like Napster and amazingly small music players like Apple Computer’s revolutionary iPod. The first portable music systems tapped into a desire for mobility in the music-listening public in the 1980’s, as seen with the immense popularity of the Walkman cassette player, introduced by Sony in 1979, and the D-50 Discman compact disc (CD) player, in 1984. Throughout the 1980’s, music lovers saw continuing improvements to media-storage methods that would not only allow better sound reproduction but also eliminate the tendency of CD players to “skip” when the players were subjected to vibration. The Fraunhofer Institute for Integrated Circuits IIS in Erlangen, Germany, was founded in 1985 to research audio- and video-source coding, among other commercial projects. Initially headed by Dr. Deiter Seitzer, and later by Drs. Heinz Gerhaeuser and Karlheinz Brandenburg (the “father” of the MP3), the Fraunhofer team started developing a digital audio-encoding format under the project name of EUREKA.

The Rio PMP300 digital portable music player, the first device to use the MP3 format. (AP/Wide World Photos)

In 1993, Fraunhofer researchers formally named their audio-encoding format “MP3” as a simplified file name extension. MP3 was then selected by the WorldSpace satellite broadcasting system as that system’s coding format of choice. Then, on July 7, 1994, 13enc, a software MP3 encoder developed by the Fraunhofer Society, was released to the general public as a generic audio format. The format had immediate appeal to users because of its small size (it took up little computer memory) and its broad range of use in a variety of music players (as opposed to such proprietary formats as Vorbis and Windows Media Audio, or WMA). In 1998, the Rio PMP300, the first music player capable of handling the new encoding format, was released and became the forerunner of many new players that would be able to hold hundreds, if not thousands, of audio recordings in digital format. The music player contained 32 megabytes of memory, enough to hold about twelve songs. Impact The streamlined nature of the MP3 format made it possible for online file servers to act as virtual storehouses of audio files and to support a newly

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observed trend toward commercial online music sharing. Napster, one of the most prolific file-sharing services, attracted a great deal of media attention as well as massive numbers of online users before a lawsuit by the Recording Industry Association of America (RIAA) led to its shutting down in 2001. The RIAA continued to try to limit the explosion of pirated music files from music-sharing services in the early twenty-first century. Further Reading

Ewing, Jack. “How MP3 Was Born.” BusinessWeek, March 5, 2007, 17. _______. “An Idea Incubator Tries to Grow Cash.” BusinessWeek, March 12, 2007, 61. Julia M. Meyers See also Apple Computer; Computers; Digital audio; Jobs, Steve; Internet; Inventions; Microsoft; Music; Science and technology; World Wide Web.

■ MTV Unplugged Identification Television concert series Date Began airing in 1989

MTV Unplugged became the first television concert series revolving around popular musicians performing in acoustic settings. The program spawned a series of best-selling sound-track CDs and VHS/DVD releases, which, in some cases, have left a seminal impact on the modern-day entertainment industry. The roots of “unplugged” music, acoustic music performed by musicians who typically play with electric instruments, date back to Elvis Presley’s ’68 Comeback Special and the Beatles’ 1970 documentary Let It Be. Though the trend occasionally crept into concert performances during the early to mid-1980’s, it truly hit a stride in 1989 when Jon Bon Jovi and Richie Sambora (both of the band Bon Jovi) performed stripped-down versions of their hard rock hits “Livin’ on a Prayer” and “Wanted Dead or Alive” during the MTV Video Music Awards. Following the initial broadcast, the network was flooded with positive feedback over what was still considered an unconventional medium, inspiring MTV producers to brand an entire program around the concept. Though MTV Unplugged debuted in fall, 1989, with an episode led by English rockers

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Squeeze, the concept did not fully catch on until the following year, becoming a mainstay of the subsequent decade and attracting a cavalcade of marquee names. One of the series’ most popular 1990 episodes featured guitarists Stevie Ray Vaughan and Joe Satriani, two of the most recognizable electric guitar players who proved equally proficient in acoustic contexts. Having those major names on the series landed instant credibility to the program, which soon attracted the likes of Don Henley, Elton John, and Aerosmith. In addition to revisiting the songbooks of already-established stars, the program also introduced new acts of the time, such as metal men Damn Yankees (comprised of Ted Nugent with members of Styx and Night Ranger). The blockbuster first year also attracted Paul McCartney for one of 1991’s most-viewed episodes, which focused on solo material and several rarely performed Beatles treasures. After inciting extreme fan demand for copies of the recording, he and the network eventually compiled Unplugged: The Official Bootleg (1991), launching the first of several episode sound tracks. The momentum from McCartney’s appearance carried over into 1992, which began with an emotional performance from Eric Clapton (who had just lost his young son in an accident). The famed rock guitarist performed “Tears in Heaven,” a tribute to his son; several blues tunes; and a reimagined “Layla” as a jangle-based ballad. Once again, the television audience rapturously received the performance, which led to an audio and video sound-track release. That process was also duplicated by soulful pop star Mariah Carey the same year, followed by Bruce Springsteen, though he was the first artist to tinker with the show’s tried and true formula. “The Boss” and his solo band of that time period performed an intimate concert, but outside of one acoustic selection, ran through the rest of the set with amplified instruments, in turn rebranding that sound track’s title In Concert/MTV Plugged, released in the United States in 1997. Additional attention came in 1993, when entirely acoustic albums were released by 10,000 Maniacs, Neil Young, and Rod Stewart with Ron Wood. Yet Nirvana’s appearance became one of the most critically acclaimed concerts to date, in part because of the band’s inventive reworking of its alternative rock

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pedigree and possibly because the album MTV Unplugged in New York was released shortly after singer Kurt Cobain’s 1994 suicide. As MTV Unplugged proved its longevity, producers sought to include an even wider variety of genres and generations and sought out entertainers who would embark on additionally experimental tendencies. The 1994 season featured artists as diverse as vintage swinger Tony Bennett, ex-Led Zeppelin members Jimmy Page and Robert Plant, electronic artist Björk, and folk troubadour Bob Dylan. The 1995 season highlight came from Kiss, not only because the band reunited all four original members but also because it was the band’s first-ever concert appearance without its trademark makeup. In fact, public reaction was so rabid over the taping and sound track that it prompted a full-fledged Kiss reunion tour. The following year was best known for a notorious episode involving the English rock band Oasis, whose lead guitarist, Noel Gallagher, substituted vocals for his temporarily estranged brother Liam. Tapings remained regular throughout 1997 (including a sound track from Bryan Adams), but the production schedule slowed down considerably as the decade came to a close. Despite the network pumping most of its promotion into the music-video countdown show Total Request Live, there was still considerable interest in Björk’s 1998 return to the series, along with 1999 performances by the Corrs, Shakira, and Alanis Morissette. As a result of the groundwork built throughout the 1990’s, MTV Unplugged remained a visible brand via occasional episodes throughout the 2000’s, relaunching with regularity for a full 2007 season. Impact While the concept of unplugged music first seemed risky and unconventional, this program shaped the performance style into a mainstream phenomenon. In doing so, MTV Unplugged helped springboard the careers of several newcomers, while simultaneously reviving public awareness of older artists and introducing them to younger audiences. Though the show’s popularity fluctuated at various points of its lengthy run, the concept lingered on and earned a revival with an entirely new generation. Further Reading

Gundersen, Edna. “MTV Flips the Switch Back on for ‘Unplugged.’” USA Today, September 20,

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2007, 18D. An article tracing the birthing and revival of MTV Unplugged, including an analysis of key episodes and a sidebar of its best-selling sound tracks. McGrath, Tom. MTV: The Making of a Revolution. Philadelphia: Running Press, 1996. This historical documentation of the famed music channel features coverage of MTV Unplugged, including information about several famous episodes and the show’s overall contributions to the music industry at large. MTV. MTV Uncensored. New York: Pocket Books/ MTV, 2001. Compiles a series of interviews, quotes, and sound bites featured on various programs, including MTV Unplugged. Focuses on the network’s most outrageous and outlandish guests, incidents, and bloopers. Andy Argyrakis See also Alternative rock; Cable television; Carey, Mariah; Lollapalooza; Morissette, Alanis; Music; Nirvana; Television; Woodstock concerts.

■ Mulroney, Brian Prime minister of Canada, 19841993 Born March 20, 1939; Baie-Comeau, Quebec, Canada Identification

During the 1990’s, Mulroney negotiated Canada’s membership in the North American Free Trade Agreement. He also sought to resolve underlying constitutional problems. At the beginning of the 1990’s, Brian Mulroney was in his second term of office as Canadian prime minister and leader of the Progressive Conservative Party. He had been reelected unexpectedly in 1988 on the Canada-United States Free Trade Agreement platform, despite massive criticism of government corruption, patronage, and his abrasive personal style. His economic policies were close to those of Ronald Reagan (1981-1989) in the United States and Margaret Thatcher (1979-1990) in the United Kingdom. Negotiations on the extension of the CanadaUnited States Free Trade Agreement to include Mexico went ahead in 1990, again with considerable opposition from Liberals, who had once been free trade proponents. Mulroney’s internationalism even

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caused him to suggest in September, 2000, that all border posts between the United States and Canada should be abolished, a suggestion rebuffed by the United States. The North American Free Trade Agreement (NAFTA) was passed by all three governments in 1992 and came into effect in 1994. With the passage of the Constitution Act of 1982, Canada assumed full control over its constitution, ending British legislative authority over Canada. Sovereignist Quebec, however, refused to approve the new constitution. In 1987, Mulroney, a committed federalist, proposed the Meech Lake Accord to settle outstanding difficulties, especially concerning Quebec as well as First Nations (Canada’s Native American population) over the Charter of Rights and Freedoms section of the Constitution Act. In the spring of 1990, it was clear that no unanimity was to be achieved over the accord, with Manitoba and Newfoundland refusing to sign. By June, it was dead. Consequently, in 1992 Mulroney pushed through a document known as the Charlottetown Accord, which seemed to have general agreement from all parties. However, when put to a national referendum, it too failed, leaving the constitutional issue over Quebec unresolved. What was worse for Mulroney was the breakaway of Mulroney’s senior Québécois partner, Lucien Bouchard, to form his own Bloc Québécois, with the object of gaining the province’s independence. On a positive note, just before his resignation in the early summer of 1993, Mulroney legislated for the formation of Nunavut as a new territory to be formed out of the Northwest Territories by 1999. Nunavut would include most of the Inuit population.

Constitutional Issues

Other Issues One of Mulroney’s new tax initiatives in the 1990’s was the Goods and Services Tax (GST), to replace the Manufacturers’ Sales Tax. Legislated in 1989 and imposed in 1991, the GST was similar to the European value-added tax (VAT) in that services as well as goods were taxed, but at a rate set at 7 percent, considerably less than the European model and more in line with sales tax rates. However, because its range was wider than the old tax, and because it was added in a much more visible way, the GST became instantly unpopular, particularly in Alberta, where there had been no previous sales tax. Some of the Alberta Conservative members of Parliament deserted the party for the Reform Party,

Brian Mulroney. (AP/Wide World Photos)

which, in the 1993 election, had great support in western Canada. In that election, the Liberals, under Jean Chrétien, campaigned against the tax; however, once the Liberals were in power, it was retained as a significant source of revenue. On the international front, Mulroney’s record is less controversial. With the collapse of the Iron Curtain and the emergence of newly independent states across Eastern Europe, Mulroney was particularly supportive of such states. Also, through membership of the British Commonwealth, Mulroney had been a fierce opponent of apartheid in South Africa and saw its crumbling with the installation of a new leadership under Nelson Mandela. Both Reagan and Thatcher admired Mulroney’s international role. In the spring of 1993, Mulroney realized his unpopularity would severely handicap the party at the upcoming elections and resigned as party leader and hence effectively as prime minister,

Life After Politics

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just as Thatcher had done in the United Kingdom in 1990. After the election, he retired from politics and returned to the practice of law, becoming a senior partner in the Montreal law firm of Ogilvy Renault. He also sat on the boards of various major companies. Impact The beneficial effect of NAFTA on the Canadian economy was pronounced. The recession at the beginning of the 1990’s began to lift by 1993, largely as a result of the agreement. Trade with the United States especially continued to grow, and by 2004 the United States and Canada were the biggest trade partners in the world; trade between the two countries was worth some $700 billion annually. Mulroney’s Progressive Conservative Party lost all but two of its parliamentary seats in the 1993 elections. The change of leadership to Kim Campbell, Canada’s first female prime minister, had no effect at all on the party’s unpopularity, which remained for many years. Reassessment of Mulroney’s national and international contributions has varied widely, and he remains a controversial figure. His recognition of the independence of postcommunist countries has been praised, especially by the Ukraine, as has his help in ending apartheid in South Africa. His environmental policies, also, have come out as forward-looking. Further Reading

Blake, Raymond B., ed. Transforming the Nation: Canada and Brian Mulroney. Montreal: McGill-Queen’s University Press, 2007. Leading Canadian politicians and scholars discuss the major policy debates of Mulroney’s period of office. McDonald, Marci. Yankee Doodle Dandy: Brian Mulroney and the American Agenda. Toronto: Stoddart, 1995. One of a number of books and articles highly critical of the influence of big business on Mulroney. Mulroney, Brian. Memoirs: 1939-1993. Toronto: McClelland & Stewart, 2007. Mulroney’s own account of his political life until his resignation. Savoie, Donald J. Thatcher, Reagan, Mulroney: In Search of a New Bureaucracy. Pittsburgh: University of Pittsburgh Press, 1994. Examines the common beliefs of all three conservative leaders toward privatization and the reduction of state bureaucracy. David Barratt

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Bloc Québécois; Business and the economy in Canada; Campbell, Kim; Canada and the British Commonwealth; Canada and the United States; Charlottetown Accord; Chrétien, Jean; Elections in Canada; Foreign policy of Canada; North American Free Trade Agreement (NAFTA).

See also

■ Murphy Brown Identification Television comedy series Date Aired from 1988 to 1998

This groundbreaking series won eighteen Emmy Awards, including two for Outstanding Comedy Series during its ten-season run and five for star Candice Bergen. When it premiered in 1988, Murphy Brown was a very funny series, similar to The Mary Tyler Moore Show, but with a more cynical Mary as its protagonist and with topical news headlines incorporated into many of the story lines. Candice Bergen played Murphy, a recovering and world-weary alcoholic reporter, just back from the Betty Ford Center in the first episode, who works for the Washington, D.C.-based magazine television show FYI. The supporting cast included Grant Shaud as emotional yuppie producer Miles Silverberg; Charles Kimbrough as stuffy Jim Dial, anchor on FYI; Faith Ford as former model but now flighty reporter Corky Sherwood; Joe Regalbuto as macho correspondent Frank Fontana; and, perhaps most important, Robert Pastorelli as the moody beatnik housepainter Eldin Bernecky, who serves as Murphy’s sounding board and nanny. Plotlines covered everything from romance to friendship, national politics to office politics, with a running joke throughout the series being the revolving door of secretaries that Murphy has. One episode had John F. Kennedy, Jr., showing up to publicize his new magazine, George, with Murphy mistaking him for her new secretary. Perhaps the most controversial story line involved Murphy’s pregnancy. The father is her ex-husband, Jake Lowenstein, a political activist who was unable to commit to fatherhood. The pregnancy was heavily criticized by family values groups and then vice president Dan Quayle, who accused single mom Murphy of being a poor example of a parent, public comments that ignited a firestorm of discussion on the importance of marriage and legitimacy. However,

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the fact that the vice president criticized the series showed the degree to which it was a bellwether of the period in which it ran. In its hour-long finale, George Clooney, then the star of ER, appeared as a silent member of the medical team helping Murphy face her breast cancer ordeal. After the take, Clooney asked Bergen if she was okay. Bergen opened her mouth to speak, then turned away to cry. This final episode also included cameos from Julia Roberts (as herself) and Bette Midler (as “No. 93” in the long line of Murphy’s temp secretaries). Robert Pastorelli reprised his role as Eldin after an earlier departure from the series, and Murphy even nabbed the ultimate interview, with God (comedian Alan King in a dream sequence).

The Nineties in America Impact Murphy Brown, with its career woman star, built on the success of the earlier television comedy hits such as That Girl and The Mary Tyler Moore Show, but with more of an edge. Story lines explored life situations that these earlier series (products of the 1960’s and 1970’s, respectively) could only mention, if even that. Most notable was Murphy’s breast cancer and pregnancy and her decision to raise the child as a single mother. Further Reading

Alley, Robert S., and Irby B. Brown. Murphy Brown: Anatomy of a Sitcom. New York: Delta, 1990. Dow, Bonnie J. Prime-Time Feminism: Television, Media Culture, and the Women’s Movement Since 1970. Philadelphia: University of Pennsylvania Press, 1996.

The F.Y.I. news team from the television series Murphy Brown (from left): Corky Sherwood (Faith Ford), Jim Dial (Charles Kimbrough), Murphy Brown (Candice Bergen), Frank Fontana (Joe Regalbuto), and Miles Silverberg (Grant Shaud). (CBS/Landov)

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Klein, Allison. What Would Murphy Brown Do? How the Women of Prime Time Changed Our Lives. Emeryville, Calif.: Seal Press, 2006. Lowe, Denise. Women and American Television: An Encyclopedia. Santa Barbara, Calif.: ABC-Clio, 1999. Martin J. Manning See also Clooney, George; ER; Journalism; Quayle, Dan; Television; Women in the workforce; Women’s rights.

■ Music The many styles of popular music and its subgenres

Definition

The 1990’s, in terms of popular music, was the decade in which subgenres of all styles that had developed in previous decades rose to mainstream prominence. Additionally, technological advances at the end of the decade influenced the way musicians shared their work with fans, and how fans shared music with one another. The rise of new genres challenged the way rock, pop, and rap music were classified. Further, in regard to performers, the 1990’s gave rise to iconoclastic female performers, boy bands, and a new generation of teen performers whose looks and sounds separated them from their counterparts of previous decades. By the 1990’s, rock music was forty years old, and popular music in all its forms had become such a part of the North American entertainment landscape that individuals from a variety of ethnicities and social and political designations wanted to represent their style and need for expression in the new varieties of music that began during the decade. As a result, the demographics of popular performers were beginning to more closely resemble that of the United States and North America as a whole. The 1990’s were seemingly a time for all popular music genres to reinvent themselves. By 1990, Music Television (MTV) was almost a decade old. Audiences expected to see their favorite performers and up-and-coming acts on the video channel. In short, what had been new and important in the previous decade was at risk of becoming irrelevant in the new decade. Like the previous decade, pop music as a danceand fashion-oriented genre remained popular throughout the 1990’s. However, new performers created dances to go with their songs in a number of

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crazes that swept through club scenes and wedding receptions. The new dances punctuated beats from drum machines that were harsher than those of the 1980’s, and the high-energy dances were often more strictly aerobic than their smoother counterparts of the previous decade. Relevant to the musical style revolution of the 1990’s is techno, a type of electronic dance music that was invented in the United Kingdom in the 1980’s, and house music, a form of electronic music that is a hybrid of American funk and soul combined with European techno, featuring strong, often anthemic vocals. These styles entered the mainstream via chart-topping singles. Guitar-oriented rock music underwent a revolution as well. The 1990’s were ushered in by an underground rock sound that, prior to 1990, was known mostly around the Seattle, Washington, area of the United States. It was called “grunge.” Typified by heavy guitar riffs, reminiscent of punk rock, but played at a slower tempo, with energetic drums and rough-edged vocals that often grew into sounds that resembled screams, grunge at first was difficult to define. A number of bands became popular as grunge moved from the West Coast to all of North America. Even rap music, the relative newcomer to the popular music scene, underwent a metamorphosis to remain relevant to a changing audience base and the music industry—which at one time in the 1980’s had disparaged it as a fad because of its apparent lack of live instruments—and as a result became one of definitive genres of the 1990’s. While genres as a whole made changes, individual performers, especially in the genres of rhythm and blues, pop, and rap, and in particular those whose careers began in previous decades, also revised their styles, or in some cases, switched from their typical genres to maintain their place in music history throughout the 1990’s. In addition, the teen performers of the 1990’s displayed an adult sensibility that was largely absent in their counterparts of the previous decade. Rock While the public backlash against disco as early as 1980 allowed Top 40 Pop and various forms of rock music to dominant the decade and in effect bring about the extinction of disco, arguably, it was heavy metal’s inability to develop and, as a result, parody itself that made it possible for grunge to take over as the hard rock sound of the 1990’s.

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Of all the bands and variations of grunge and alternative sounds that came out of the Seattle movement, the first and perhaps most famous was Nirvana. In 1992, Nirvana’s single, “Smells Like Teen Spirit” was played on radio stations across the United States, and the song’s video aired on MTV. While clearly noticeable as a rock song, the single caught audience’s attention by failing to be categorized by any previously existing genre. What was obvious was a punk sensibility (grunge can be defined as punk rock played slowly) and a tone of disaffected or antisocial lyrics. Further, the video medium allowed the band to make fun of the typical American high school social scene. The result was that the generation who had grown up on MTV and had defined themselves with an underground, or nonmainstream type of music, now had a genre of hard rock with which they could identify. Other bands from the Seattle scene, or who at least helped define the sound, were Soundgarden, Pearl Jam, Mudhoney, Alice in Chains, and Temple of the Dog—comprised of members of Soundgarden and Pearl Jam. The Seattle scene not only had its own bands but also a movie and a dress code. The movie Singles (1992) illustrated the Seattle scene and the professional and social lives of young adults of a new generation. The dress code for those who wished to identify with the Seattle music scene consisted chiefly of heavy lace-up boots, jeans, and flannel shirts. Even though in many ways grunge was like punk rock, it was also influenced by heavy metal. However, the new, heavy sound was at odds with heavy metal of the 1980’s. Those 1980’s bands were still around, but because the new sound was the most novel subgenre to develop in nearly a decade, heavy metal was quickly usurped in popularity by grunge. Diehard fans, however, supported their favorite older acts by attending shows such bands would play in small clubs throughout the 1990’s. This was a dramatic shift from the bands’ abilities to sell out large arenas in the previous decade. One possible reason for heavy metal being replaced by grunge was that audiences’ priorities were changing. Perhaps audiences had grown tired of songs that in large part detailed substance abuse and physical relationships. On the other hand, grunge and similar alternative rock forms paid attention to, and protested against, human rights abuses, environmental concerns, and other socio-

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political themes, establishing hard rock with a message as a relevant genre for the 1990’s. The Rise of Gangsta Rap Although thought marginalized because of its predominantly African American performers, who wrote songs about their communities’ issues, rap increased its popularity in a subgenre known as gangsta rap. Defined by its focus on street life—or means of survival in neighborhoods and communities marked by rampant drug trade, prostitution, and street gangs—by 1993, gangsta rap was as popular with suburban youth as it was with urban youth who had perhaps experienced the songs’ themes firsthand. Before the 1990’s, the category of rap seemed to be a broad category of music that simply meant a performer, known as an emcee, talking rhythmically over prerecorded beats, or music samples. With a growing number of groups who had street life stories to tell, the genre began, and separated itself from more mainstream, or party-oriented, or positivethemed rap, such as that of Will Smith. Sonically, gangsta rap was darker than most mainstream rap. While rap that had managed to break into the pop charts before 1990 was relatively light and danceable, gangsta rap was dark and brooding, with heavy bass underscoring the pessimistic lyrics. The result was an ominous sound that coincided with a social culture that included customizing older cars, outfitting them with an array of bass speakers through which to play gangsta rap loudly. Key to the development of gangsta rap was Ice Cube, a former member of the rap group N.W.A. from Compton, California. In 1990, Ice Cube’s album Amerikkka’s Most Wanted was released. With it, he continued to detail the Compton community’s antagonistic relationship with the Los Angeles Police Department. The sentiments, however, resonated in African American communities across the United States, especially with youth who felt unjustly profiled and harassed by law-enforcement officers. Other groups such as Geto Boys, Bone Thugs-NHarmony, and solo artists such as Dr. Dre and Snoop Doggy Dogg contributed to the genre. In 1991, Ice Cube starred in Boyz ’N the Hood, a movie that exemplified the pluralities of inner-city life and the choices that young men are forced to make in drugand crime-ridden areas. While there were clearly shifts in performance styles and lyrical content, the other important de-

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velopment in terms of rap was a geographic shift. Previously, the East Coast of the United States represented the home base of rap, but when Californiabased Ice Cube and others began to rap unabashedly about their dissatisfaction with America’s criminal justice system, it resonated in communities similar to Compton throughout the United States, and eventually found its way to suburban listeners. Other Rap Genres In the 1990’s, other forms of rap continued to exist that had their roots in previous decades. Jazz-rap and alternative rap became popular because of artists such as Digable Planets and Arrested Development. After 1993, it became obvious that neither the West Coast nor the East Coast had a particular claim to rap music: Artists from across the United States and Canada were putting their particular spin on the genre, creating many subgenres, including trip-hop. It was during this time that a new brand of hip-hop was created. Hip-hop involves using a turntable on which to push a vinyl album by hand to create a scratching sound to mix two different sounds. Scratching causes the turntable to perform like a drum or other percussion instrument. Often, prerecorded music samples are included in the mixing. Throughout the 1990’s, hip-hop evolved to include singers who performed with the rappers, and who might also sing over melody samples from prerecorded samples. Even though it was a predominantly African American art form, there were Caucasian rappers who were quite popular during the 1990’s. From Canada, there was Snow, a rapper from Toronto whose reggae-inflected songs were often performed rapidly and told of problems with the police and his hardscrabble upbringing. Vanilla Ice was another Caucasian rapper who earned fame in the early 1990’s. His brand of dance rap was largely about urban scenes in Miami. His videos featured the rapper and backup dancers performing choreographed moves. In the late 1990’s, Eminem was featured with veteran rapper Dr. Dre in Dre’s comeback single, “Forgot About Dre.” Eminem, however, had his own brand of self-deprecating rap that catapulted him to fame through the end of the decade. In 1992, the Beastie Boys released Check Your Head, which went double platinum in the United States. This was followed by Ill Communication (1994), which included the hit song “Sabotage,” and Hello Nasty (1998); both albums went triple platinum.

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By the middle of the decade, there was a form of hip-hop that was street-life oriented but also included harmony in the vocal performance and contained the heavier bass associated with gangsta rap. This form of rap would come to define hip-hop. An example of this is Bone Thugs-N-Harmony from Cleveland, Ohio. Considered by some critics to be particularly dangerous because of their willingness to depict graphic violence in detail, Bone Thugs-NHarmony nonetheless became famous for their rapid-fire delivery, which was sometimes sung, and the limber, yet dark, rhythmic bass that accompanied it. Inevitably, sometimes the street life that many rappers illustrated in their songs became a part of their real life. In a feud whose origin is unknown, rappers from the East Coast began to grow at odds with rappers from the West Coast, and vice versa. The most famous, and arguably most tragic, example of the feuding was when onetime friends Tupac Shakur and Notorious B.I.G., also known as Biggie Smalls, created songs that taunted each other. Things came to an end when Tupac Shakur was gunned down in Las Vegas in 1996. A short time later, in March, 1997, Biggie Smalls was ambushed by gunfire. Shakur was represented by the West Coast record company Death Row Records, while Smalls recorded with New York-based Bad Boy Records. Both murder cases remain unsolved. Female Performers Female groups were popular in the 1990’s as they had been at no other time in music history, except perhaps the 1960’s. Throughout the decade, female groups with pop sensibilities, regardless of the genre to which they actually belonged, were popular with audiences who desired a more radio- and dance-friendly sound than could be found in most rap. En Vogue was a quartet who sang in harmony. Comprised of African Americans, the group sometimes created a sound that hearkened back to earlier times in rhythm-and-blues (R&B) history. SWV, or Sisters with Voices, was an African American trio who had radio-friendly hits and contemporary-sounding melodies. While women dominated the pop R&B charts, they also excelled as rap artists. Throughout the 1990’s, performers such as MC Lyte, Queen Latifah, Salt-n-Pepa, and TLC proved that women could rap while providing socially positive messages and a danceable beat with memorable hooks.

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In the late 1990’s, Destiny’s Child came into national prominence with their single, “No, No, No.” The group was an example of the fashion-consciousness that would mark contemporary R&B and pop for years to come. Also, the superfast delivery of clean but clever lyrics made them radio-ready immediately. While groups of female performers were integral to the changing scheme of popular music, the 1990’s were also the years of the single performer, typically a sultry singer who sang about love. Characterized by arguably stunning physical features and distinctive voices, these performers—such as Shakira, Jennifer Lopez, Christina Aguilera, and Britney Spears—created models of dance music that would change audiences’ expectations for female singers for the rest of the decade. New in the 1990’s was the phenomena of teen acts who performed music exactly as their adult counterparts did. In a departure from previous decades’ packaging popular teen performers as innocents, the 1990’s allowed underage performers the opportunity to express mature sentiments, sometimes with controversial results. The rise of teen stars was seen in a cross-section of musical genres: in country music, there was LeAnn Rimes; in pop, there was Britney Spears; and in hard rock, there was Silverchair. Additionally, the 1990’s continued the trend of boy bands. Typically, these were groups of four or five young men with an urban sense of choreographed dance, soulful lyrics, and pop hooks. Boy bands were definitely popular with the teen demographic but, unlike in previous decades, were also well-received by adult listeners. Examples of 1990’s boy bands were Backstreet Boys, *NSYNC, and Soul Decision. Arguably, Motown’s Boyz to Men could have been considered a boy band, but the seriously romantic tone of the group’s music and the almost built-in audience of Motown fans (which was the band’s label) separate them from other all-male singing groups of the era. The opportunity for teens to interact with audiences like adult performers was indicative of fact that the decade was a time for redefining previously held conventions.

Teen Acts

Reinvention in the music industry was not limited to child stars performing like adults. Adult stars from previous decades were either continuing to enjoy success previously earned or

Veteran Performers

were crossing over to new genres. Most notably, Cher became a techno singer and was widely known for the single “Believe.” Madonna remained nearly as popular in the 1990’s as she was in the 1980’s. She even sparked a dance craze by taking a move from the gay dance scene, the Vogue, and created a single of the same name. Veteran rock acts such as Van Halen (albeit with a new lead singer) were popular as well. Perhaps most notable was the 1999 release of Supernatural by Carlos Santana, formerly of 1970’s supergroup Santana. On this release, Santana performed with a number of contemporary young artists with a range of musical styles, from rap to rock. The meshing of styles on the recording, in essence, symbolizes what the 1990’s had to offer audiences, which was a mixing of styles, instead of confining styles to the genre designations created in decades past. Previously ignored by mainstream audiences, country music underwent musical and cosmetic changes to garner a significant share of audiences in the 1990’s. Like the rest of the music industry during the decade, country music was given to anthemic songs that were accompanied by a dance. In the early 1990’s, Billy Ray Cyrus entered the national music consciousness with a song called “Achy Breaky Heart.” The catchy, rhyming lyrics, and the resulting line dance, made the song an instant hit that would remain popular throughout the early 1990’s. With movie star looks and sporting a “mullet,” or a hockey haircut popular with rock stars and fans in the 1980’s, Cyrus was just unexpected enough to make certain audiences rethink their perception of country music. Female country performers enjoyed a makeover and retail success as well. Canadian Shania Twain paved the way for other female country stars of the era to embrace a sophisticated look in terms of fashion and cosmetics, while singing a brand of country that some critics claimed was simply retooled 1970’s light rock. Regardless of criticism, the new country had a pop sensibility that caused the genre to be played on Top 40 stations all over North America.

Country Music

Sultry Sounds The 1990’s were a time for both groups and individual artists to enjoy success. Artists who were considered R&B, or soul performers, often ensured their popularity with sensuous love songs. Singers such as Toni Braxton, Adina Howard, Mariah Carey, Keith Sweat, R. Kelly, and 1970’s ro-

The Nineties in America

mance king Barry White all had chart-toppers that had a particularly sensual quality to them. However, because of the pop influence that could be heard in a variety of music markets, the songs not only fared well in R&B markets but sometimes on Top 40 charts as well. Impact In the 1990’s, the soundscape of American popular music changed in ways that moved beyond style or genre. Furthermore, toward the end of the decade, there were also changes in the way in which music was shared between listeners. The increasing popularity of the Internet allowed for new musical artists to reach potential audiences more quickly than through the traditional means of previous decades and for most of the 1990’s. The 1990’s also saw genres once on the periphery of mainstream music commanding a great deal of attention. Country music, especially female artists of that genre, enjoyed a great deal of success due in large part to the revamping of country music in terms of the look of artists and the redesigning, and redefinition of the country sound. Other genres that would remain a part of American music culture— Latin, gangsta rap, and techno music—underwent significant evolutions in the 1990’s, either by way of their creation, increased popularity, or ability to change from the decade’s beginning to its end. Similarly, rock music added subgenres that helped the aging form maintain its relevance forty years after its inception.

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Alternative rock; Boy bands; Carey, Mariah; Censorship; Coffeehouses; Country music; Death Row Records; Digital audio; Ecstasy; Electronic music; Grunge fashion; Grunge music; Heroin chic; Hip-hop and rap music; Internet; Latinos; Lollapalooza; Love, Courtney; McEntire, Reba; Madonna; Milli Vanilli; Morissette, Alanis; MP3 format; MTV Unplugged; Nine Inch Nails; Nirvana; O’Connor, Sinéad; Rock and Roll Hall of Fame Museum; Selena; Shakur, Tupac; Smith, Will; Tibetan Freedom Concerts; Woodstock concerts. See also

■ Myers, Mike Identification Canadian comedian and actor Born May 25, 1963; Scarborough, Ontario,

Canada Myers’s characters on Saturday Night Live as well as the Austin Powers spy spoof films became cultural touchstones for teenagers and young adults in the 1990’s. A former child actor in commercials, Mike Myers joined Saturday Night Live in 1989 and quickly created several popular featured characters: Wayne Campbell, the teenage host of the Aurora, Illinois,

Further Reading

Bell, Thomas L. “Why Seattle? An Examination of an Alternative Rock Culture Hearth.” Journal of Cultural Geography (Fall/Winter, 1998): 35-48. Details the history of the Seattle sound, and how the youth culture of one region became a cultural phenomenon. Harding, Cortney. “Back to the Future.” Billboard 120 (April, 2008): 24-24. Discusses how particular rock acts of the 1990’s returned to their independent roots. Touré. Never Drank the Kool-Aid. New York: Picador, 2006. A collection of articles and essays by urbanmusic insider and journalist Touré. Illustrates the real people behind the recordings and artistic personas. Dodie Marie Miller

Mike Myers plays the British superspy Austin Powers in the 1997 film of the same name. (Reuters/Landov)

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cable access television show Wayne’s World, Coffee Talk host Linda Richman (based on his mother-in-law), and Dieter, the host of Sprockets. Each character had a popular catchphrase—Wayne’s “Excellent!” and “Not!” Richman’s “It’s like buttah,” and Dieter’s “Would you like to touch my monkey?”—that soon entered the teenage lexicon. The Wayne’s World sketch was made into a 1992 feature film and became the only film based on a Saturday Night Live skit to gross more than $100 million. Wayne’s World, with Myers as Wayne and Dana Carvey as his sidekick, Garth Algar, became the most famous of Myers’s Saturday Night Live creations. Still, some were concerned about how the sketch would fare. Carvey thought “we’d be nailed as doing a Bill and Ted ripoff”—referring to the popular comedy Bill and Ted’s Excellent Adventure (1989). Then-show writer Conan O’Brien even tried to dissuade Myers from submitting the idea for the sketch. Both O’Brien and Carvey were shocked at its success. On one occasion, in 1992, the skit caused a minor political furor when Myers’s character mocked Chelsea Clinton’s looks and compared her unfavorably to Vice President Al Gore’s daughters. Myers later apol-

ogized to First Lady Hillary Clinton for the sketch. Wayne’s World 2 (1993) was less successful than the original film, as was his next comedy, So I Married an Axe Murderer, released the same year. After leaving Saturday Night Live in 1995, Myers created the satirical character of 1960’s British spy Austin Powers. A spoof of the James Bond films, Austin Powers: International Man of Mystery (1997) was a cult hit, and two successful sequels followed in 1999 and 2002. Myers, with his work on Saturday Night Live and the Austin Powers movies, along with Jim Carrey, another comedian who went from television to film, was a major comedy force of the 1990’s.

Impact

Further Reading

Shales, Tom, and James Andrew Miller. Live from New York: An Uncensored History of “Saturday Night Live.” Boston: Little, Brown, 2002. Sydney, Leah. “The Very Groovy Life of Mike Myers.” Biography 3, no. 6 (June, 1999): 96-101. Julie Elliott Carrey, Jim; Comedians; Film in the United States; Late night television; Television.

See also

N ■ Nanotechnology Fabrication of functional systems at the molecular level between 1 and 100 nanometers (one billionth of a meter)

Definition

During the 1990’s, nanotechnology posed the possibility of improving human life with better materials and tools to provide breakthroughs in medicine, artificial intelligence, and the conquest of space. The first book about nanotechnology, Engines of Creation, was published by Eric Drexler in 1986. In 1991, International Business Machines (IBM) endorsed the use of nanotechnology to produce electronic and mechanical devices atom by atom. Later that year, carbon nanotubes were discovered. Possessing remarkable tensile strength and varying electrical properties, they proved useful as molecular components. Drexler published the first nanotechnology textbook, Nanosystems, in 1992. In it, he outlined how to design, analyze, and manufacture high-performance machines from the molecular lattice of carbon. That same year, Drexler testified before a U.S. Senate committee about the implications, applications, and major scientific benefits of nanotechnology. He pointed out that products of unprecedented quality and performance could be constructed by precisely guiding the assembly of molecules. In 1993, the first Feynman Prize in Nanotechnology was awarded to Charles Musgrave for modeling a hydrogen abstraction tool useful in nanotechnology. The first industrial analysis of military applications of nanotechnology was released by Hughes Aircraft Company in 1995. In 1996, the National Aeronautics and Space Administration (NASA) began work in computational nanotechnology. NASA researchers proposed the use of a single carbon nanotube as the tip of an atomic force microscope (AFM). The first nanotech company, Zyvex, was founded in 1997 in Richardson, Texas. Zyvex proposed using

nanotubes for scanning force microscope (SFM) probes and pursued the production of nanorobots that could break the chemical bonds of cheap ingredients and reassemble them into sophisticated, useful products. Federal funding of nanotechnology research began in earnest in the late 1990’s. In 1998, researchers at New York University published a paper showing a molecular mechanical system that was constructed from branched DNA molecules. Other research focused on nanotechnology design that mimics the process of biological evolution at the molecular scale. The first safety guidelines addressing the potential positive and negative consequences of nanotechnology were released by the Foresight Institute in 1999. Impact Nanotechnology research is focused on developing programmable, molecular-scaled systems that can precisely and inexpensively produce nanostructured materials and devices that are permitted by the laws of physics. This approach has led to the manufacture of polymers based on molecular structure and the design of computer chip layouts based on surface science. Commercial applications of nanotechnology have taken advantage of colloidal nanoparticles in bulk form to produce protective coatings, antireflective and antifogging glass, stainresistant and water-repellent clothing, and some lines of sunscreens, cosmetics, and paints. Nanotubes, quantum dots, and other nanomaterials show promise for providing universal clean water supplies, molecular-engineered food, cheap and powerful energy generation, drastically improved formulation of drugs and organ replacements, greater information storage and communication capacities, and long-term life preservation. Further Reading

Drexler, Eric. Engines of Creation. New York: Anchor Books, 1986. King, Vernon B. Nanotechnology Research Advances. New York: Nova Science, 2007. Wiesner, Mark R., and Jean-Yves Bottero. Environ-

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mental Nanotechnology: Applications and Impacts of Nanomaterials. New York: McGraw-Hill, 2007. Wolf, Edward L. Nanophysics and Nanotechnology: An Introduction to Modern Concepts in Nanoscience. New York: Wiley-VCH, 2004. Alvin K. Benson See also Computers; Genetic engineering; Genetically modified foods; Genetics research; Inventions; Medicine; Science and technology; Space exploration.

crease in the debt since Richard M. Nixon’s first term and represented a measure of success. Clinton’s inability to seriously reduce the deficit during his first two years in office made the national debt an issue in the 1994 midterm elections. Republican candidates promised deficit reduction, mostly through budget cuts, and a constitutional amendment mandating a balanced budget. The Republican sweep in 1994 turned the Congress over to the party for the first time in forty years. In 1995, Congress passed a series of measures to reduce or eliminate the budget deficit and to gain control of the national debt. A constitutional amendment mandating a balanced budget was offered in the House of Representatives but did not pass with the necessary two-thirds majority. The amendment would have forced Congress to pass a balanced budget every fiscal year but provided little direction on how the amendment would be enforced. Also in 1995, Congress passed a stringent budget for the 1996 fiscal year, cutting some federal programs and holding others to zero growth. The result was a swiftly declining deficit and a flattening of the national debt. Finally, Congress gave the president greater authority in making spending cuts. The line-item veto was approved, and it allowed the president to eliminate excessive spending in a bill. Clinton’s second term saw a flattening of the national debt. At the start of his administration, the debt totaled more than $4 trillion, rising to $5.25 trillion by the time of his reelection, but by the end of the decade, the debt had increased less than 10 percent to a total just above $5.5 trillion. The Asian financial crisis contributed to a $130 billion increase in the debt, the largest in four years. The reduction in the debt led to changes in the interest costs for government borrowing. The Treasury Department announced that it was discontinuing the long-term thirty-year bonds. The decision reduced government’s interest costs as the thirty-year bond enjoyed a higher interest rate than the tenyear bonds. The demise of the thirty-year bond further lowered the interest paid by the federal government as high-interest bonds from the 1970’s and 1980’s were retired and replaced by shorter-term bonds and notes costing less. The Treasury also introduced inflation-sensitive bonds. The bonds’ interest rates were adjusted to include the inflation rate but, because inflation was relatively low during

Republican Congress

■ National debt The national debt is the total amount of unrepaid money borrowed by the federal government since it was created

Definition

The national debt increases the cost of government as it is forced to pay interest to those who have loaned money to the government. During the 1990’s the growth of the national debt slowed. During the 1980’s, federal budget deficits had swelled the national debt beyond $2 trillion. As the decade of the 1990’s began, the debt and deficit became a potent political issue. President George H. W. Bush negotiated a budget agreement with the Democratic Congress intended to reduce the budget deficit and slow the growth of the national debt. The agreement, though, proved politically unpopular, and the debt issue ignited the third-party candidacy of billionaire H. Ross Perot. The election of Bill Clinton, with Perot’s help, was based partly on his promise to reduce the deficit and with it the national debt. In 1993, Clinton pushed through a series of tax increases with some of the additional revenue going to reduce the deficit. Clinton also reduced spending, mostly in defense, as part of the “peace dividend” that was to save the federal government money after the collapse of communism. During his first term, Clinton slashed defense spending by more than $30 billion or 10 percent. Yet even with his tax increases and budget cuts, Clinton only slowed the growth of the national debt during his first term. From just under $3 trillion in 1992, the debt exceeded $3.7 trillion by 1996, a nearly 25 percent increase. This was the smallest percentage in-

Clinton administration

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the 1990’s, the bonds cost less in interest than the regular EE bonds. In his 2000 state of the union address, President Clinton announced the national budget enjoyed a $184 billion surplus, some of which would be used to pay off a portion of the national debt. Yet in his announcement of a budget surplus, Clinton left unsaid that some $160 billion came from the Social Security trust fund. Starting in 1984, the retirement program ran a surplus because of higher payroll taxes. The Social Security funds were then loaned to the federal government, artificially lowering the deficit. Also contributing to the budget surplus were the everincreasing tax revenues from the skyrocketing stock market. By 2000, cracks had developed in the market, a warning of a future crash and a significant reduction in the taxes paid. Impact The reduction of the national budget deficit calmed political fears of an out-of-control debt and removed the national debt as a political issue in the 2000 presidential race. Further Reading

Berman, William C. From the Center to the Edge: The Politics and Policies of the Clinton Presidency. New York: Rowman & Littlefield, 2001. An examination of the Clinton administration and its economic and foreign policy. Includes discussions of his budget policies and his achievements in reducing the budget deficit. Christensen, Jane. The National Debt: A Primer. Hauppauge, N.Y.: Nova Science Publishers, 2004. A wide-ranging examination of the debt, who owns the debt, how it has grown, and the cost in interest payments. Kelly, Robert, and Nelson Benton. The National Debt of the United States, 1941-2008. Jefferson, N.C.: McFarland, 2008. A detailed analysis of the national debt and its growth through the latter years of the twentieth century. Particular attention is paid to the Clinton administration and the president’s attempt to reduce the budget deficit. Douglas Clouatre See also Balanced Budget Act of 1997; Bush, George H. W.; Clinton, Bill; Contract with America; Defense budget cuts; Line Item Veto Act of 1996; Social Security reform; Stock market.

National Endowment for the Arts (NEA)

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■ National Endowment for the Arts (NEA) U.S. public agency that supports projects in the arts

Identification

During the 1990’s, the NEA awarded thousands of grants but struggled economically as a result of controversial budget cuts. The NEA is the largest national funder of the arts in the United States. Its mission is to support works of artistic excellence, advance learning in the arts, and strengthen the arts in communities. Funding Controversies From 1990 to 1995, Congress granted the NEA between $152 and $175 million annually. In 1996, however, Congress cut NEA funding to $99.5 million because of pressure from conservative groups, such as the Reverend Donald Wildmon’s American Family Association. The Religious Right criticized the agency for funding such controversial artists as Robert Clark Young, Andres Serrano, Robert Mapplethorpe, and the “NEA Four”—Karen Finley, Tim Miller, John Fleck, and Holly Hughes—whose proposed grants had been vetoed by NEA chairperson John E. Frohnmayer in 1990. Congress also voted to phase out funding for the agency over a two-year period, and the House of Representatives announced a plan to eliminate the endowment. Congress placed specific limitations on the NEA. Except for the literature fellowships, all individual grants were eliminated, but the honorific National Heritage Fellowships and American Jazz Masters awards were kept. Congress also prohibited the seasonal or general operating support grants, allowing only project support to organizations. Restrictions were imposed on allowing grantees to subgrant to third-party organizations and artists. As a result of the budget reduction, the agency was forced to organize itself and the staff was cut by 47 percent, from 279 to 148. The NEA suffered further reductions in its budget with a 1999 budget of $98 million. Chairs The 1990’s opened with a change in the chair of the NEA. At the very end of 1989, Frohnmayer was appointed by President George H. W. Bush to lead the agency. His leadership was challenged by the Religious Right, however, and after two years of controversies, especially those surrounding its funding of projects by polarizing

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National Endowment for the Arts (NEA)

National Endowment for the Arts Funding Funding and Grants

1990

1995

1999

2000

2001

Funds available (in millions)

170.8

152.1

85.0

85.2

94.0

Grants awarded (number)

4,475

3,685

1,675

1,882

2,093

Source: U.S. National Endowment for the Arts, Annual Report.

figures such as photographer Mapplethorpe, he was forced to resign. In 1993, Jane Alexander, an American actor and author, was appointed to head the NEA by President Bill Clinton. During her four years in this position, she faced unsuccessful attempts by Congress to shut down the program. In May, 1998, Bill Ivey became the seventh chair of the NEA. Appointed by President Clinton, he was given the task of leading the organization into the new century. In 1999, Ivey launched a five-year strategic plan that became the basis for Challenge America, a new national program to expand the reach and impact of NEA activities. The NEA awards grants in three areas: art projects, leadership initiatives, and partnership agreements. In 1996, it established the Open Studio project in partnership with the Benton Foundation, to bring free public Internet access to arts organizations around the United States. In 1997, thanks to a $225,000 leadership initiative, the NEA helped the Young Men’s Christian Association (YMCA) to establish literary arts centers in neighborhoods across the country. The NEA also published The Accessible Museum (1993), a guide to creating accessibility programs for museums in collaboration with the American Association of Museums and the Institute of Museum Services, and it continued to fund ventures such as the Sundance Film Festival. Additionally, the NEA awards individual fellowships in literature. A number of recipients of NEA Creating Writing Fellowships during the 1990’s, including Jeffrey Eugenides and Annie Proulx, have won National Book Awards, National Book Critics Circle Awards, or Pulitzer Prizes in fiction and poetry. In January 23, 1995, the series American Cinema premiered on public television as part of the NEA’s millennium celebration of American art in the twentieth century.

Grants and Awards

Impact During the 1990’s, the National Endowment for the Arts awarded about forty thousand grants, totaling in excess of $1 billion, that brought art to Americans by supporting regional theater, opera, ballet, symphony orchestras, museums, and other art organizations. Further Reading

Alexander, Jane. Command Performance: An Actress in the Theater of Politics. New York: PublicAffairs, 2000. Alexander recounts her experience as head of the NEA from 1993 to 1997. Binkiewicz, Donna M. Federalizing the Muse: United States Arts Policy and the National Endowment for the Arts, 1965-1980. Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 2004. A study on the U.S. national arts policy that refutes the assumption that the NEA has had a liberal agenda. Campbell, Mary Schmidt, and Randy Martin, eds. Artistic Citizenship: A Public Voice for the Arts. New York: Routledge, 2006. Essays by artists and scholars address the role of art and artists in civic life. National Endowment for the Arts. National Endowment for the Arts, 1965-2000: A Brief Chronology of Federal Support for the Arts. New York: Author, 2000. An overview of the first thirty-five years of the NEA. Reiss, Alvin H. “For Long-Term NEA Survival, Arts Must Reach Unreached Constituencies.” Fund Raising Management 28, no. 4 (June 1, 1997): 1-36. Focuses on the aftermath of the 1996-1997 controversies. Zeigler, Joseph Wesley. Arts in Crisis: The National Endowment for the Arts Versus America. Pennington, N.J.: A Cappella Books, 1994. Extremely helpful for understanding the underlying problems of a government-funded arts system. Concepcion Saenz-Cambra

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Art movements; Bush, George H. W.; Censorship; Classical music; Clinton, Bill; Culture wars; Education in the United States; Gardner Museum art theft; Gehry, Frank; Holocaust Memorial Museum; Literature in the United States; Mapplethorpe obscenity trial; Music; Photography; Poetry; Project Gutenberg; Sundance Film Festival; Theater in the United States.

See also

■ Native Americans Members of any of the aboriginal peoples of the United States

Definition

Despite the economic success of casinos on certain Native American reservations, Native Americans as a whole continued to be one of the most disadvantaged segments of American culture during the 1990’s. Early English settlers, such as the Pilgrims at Plymouth and the subsequent Puritan settlers at Massachusetts Bay Colony, divided Native Americans into “good Indians” and “bad Indians.” Early American novelists, such as James Fenimore Cooper, provided the same simplistic analysis, celebrating the virtues of the “good Indians” while portraying the “bad Indians” as sly and untrustworthy. From the Native American point of view, European contact created similar divisions. Some tribal members became “reservation Indians,” Native Americans who depended on government handouts for survival, often falling prey to that most destructive of the white man’s gifts—alcohol. Others, such as the famed Sioux warrior Crazy Horse, lived the old way. They were known as “traditionals.” Even in the protests of the 1970’s and 1980’s, this division in Native American life continued. In organizing protests, such as the occupation of Mount Rushmore in 1971, the American Indian Movement (AIM) became the organization that represented traditionals. On the other side of Native American life were those who sought to accommodate themselves to American culture. Some of them became victims of alcohol or drugs. Others figured out ways to make large sums of money through casinos. Significantly, the divisions lasted into the 1990’s, and Native Americans remained a population of people who were divided, discriminated against, and disadvantaged.

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In the 1999 afterword to the reprint of his 1991 book Black Hills White Justice, Edward Lazarus points out the stark irony of the phenomenal rise of gaming on Native American reservations: “But such benefits and success provide cold comfort to the vast majority of Native Americans, who like the Sioux, reap little money from gaming and will suffer immeasurably from a growing popular perception—what Senator Ben Nighthorse Campbell (the sole Native American in Congress) has called ‘the Foxwoods myth’—that Indians all over the country are now getting rich by exploiting the vices of the white man.” Statistics support Lazarus’s observation. The improved economic status for tribes that have introduced and profited from gaming is undeniable. In an essay from Legalized Casino Gaming in the United States (1999), Carl Boger, Jr., and colleagues report that the Foxwoods Resort Casino in Connecticut, opened in 1986, had created 9,500 jobs by 1993. With an average salary of $35,000 per year, these jobs paid some $2,000 more per year than the average job in the area. Moreover, each casino job created roughly 1.23 noncasino jobs through the increased flow of people into and out of the area. Each of those jobs decreased reliance of those in the area on government programs and increased area home values. Boger and colleagues estimate that for every 1,000 new jobs, 175 recipients of Aid to Families with Dependent Children (AFDC) were removed from government rosters. These statistics reflect the impact of one casino, the Foxwoods casino that Senator Campbell alluded to in his statement. Precise measurement of the economic impact of casinos on Native American life is impossible since Native Americans are not required to report their earnings. Nonetheless, that gaming has been a boon to those tribes that have developed casinos is undeniable. Still, the other side of the issue is significant. Casinos divide tribes and divide the Native American population as a whole. Casinos bring with them increased crime rates and an abandonment of traditional ways, much to the dismay of some tribal members. Further, for Native Americans as a whole, they create a division between rich and poor. Lazarus points out that most of the tribes that have profited from gaming are small tribes near major cities, a relatively small segment of the Native American population. During the same period of economic expan-

Indian Gaming

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sion for the Mashantucket Pequot tribe, proprietors of the Foxwoods casino, the Sioux on the Pine Ridge Reservation in South Dakota, site of the famous AIM protests of the 1970’s and the notorious Wounded Knee Massacre of 1891, remained among the poorest people in America. Three out of four people were unemployed. Lazarus quotes tribal vice president Milo Yellow Hair: “It is like living at the bottom of a well, . . . the Great White Father looks down and says ‘Here’s a few dollars.’” Complicating matters further, the federal government has continued to fail to take responsibility for the long-standing mistreatment of Native Americans. In the 1830’s, during President Andrew Jackson’s administration, infamous for the Trail of Tears, a trust fund was established by the federal government to manage income from federal use of Native American land and other assets. Royalties were supposed to be passed along to the tribes. Though up to $350 million has been deposited into that account each year, the money has not been distributed in an equitable fashion to the tribes in question. When Keith Harper, attorney for the Native American Rights Fund, sued the federal government on behalf of 300,000 Native Americans in the late 1990’s, government officials were unable to explain what happened to the disbursements. Furthermore, after U.S. district judge Royce C. Lamberth demanded an explanation from federal authorities, the U.S. government disclosed that in 1998, 162 boxes of records had been shredded, making reconstruction of what happened to the money almost impossible. Though the shredding was apparently a part of a routine purging of government records, the documents destroyed contained information on the disbursement of funds between 1900 and 1958. Furthermore, the shredding of documents was revealed only after an attempt on the part of government officials to cover up the matter. Impact In 1990, 30.9 percent of Native Americans lived in poverty, compared to 13.1 percent of the U.S. population as a whole. In 2000, 25.7 percent of Native Americans lived in poverty, compared to 12.4 percent of the total U.S. population. Similar discrepancies continue to exist in educational opportunities: 9.3 percent of Native Americans were collegeeducated in 1990, whereas 20.3 percent of whites

were; by 2000, 11.5 percent of Native Americans were college-educated, compared to 26.1 percent of whites. Despite the popular perception that gaming has been a panacea for Native Americans, the majority of Native Americans continue to be an underprivileged people, seemingly forgotten and abandoned by the federal government. Further Reading

Hsu, Cathy H. C., ed. Legalized Casino Gaming in the United States: The Economic and Social Impact. Binghamton, N.Y.: The Haworth Hospitality Press, 1999. Though Hsu’s book covers gambling throughout the United States and not just on Native American reservations, three chapters provide detailed analyses of the impact of gambling on Native American reservations. The book as a whole gives useful perspectives on gaming in the United States, both its history and its impact. Jackson, Robert L. “Officials Destroyed Records on Native Americans.” Los Angeles Times, December 5, 1999, p. 5. Jackson reports on the ongoing suit concerning the trust fund the federal government established for income from Native American land and assets. Lazarus, Edward. Black Hills White Justice: The Sioux Nation Versus the United States, 1775 to the Present. Reprint. Lincoln: University of Nebraska Press, 1999. The most complete account available of what is arguably the most famous treaty violation in the history of U.S.-Native American relations. Since the matter of the broken 1868 treaty granting the Black Hills to the Sioux is still not resolved, the book is well worth reading for those interested in the continuing failure of the United States to make good on its promises to Native Americans. Staurowsky, Ellen J. “American Indian Imagery and the Miseducation of America.” Quest 51, no. 4 (1999): 382-392. Presents the continuing debate about team mascots. H. William Rice Dances with Wolves; Demographics of the United States; Employment in the United States; Income and wages in the United States; Minorities in Canada; Nunavut Territory; Poverty; Race relations.

See also

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■ Natural disasters Meteorologic and geologic events resulting in significant loss of life or property

Definition

During the 1990’s, 3,397 people in the United States and 54 people in Canada died as a result of natural disasters. Natural disasters are conceptually divided into geologic disasters (earthquakes, avalanches, landslides, and volcanic eruptions) and climatic disasters (floods, hurricanes, tornadoes, heat waves, blizzards, droughts, and wildfires). Earthquakes In the 1990’s, Canada experienced no earthquake of significance. No one was killed in any of the very small earthquakes that occurred, and only minimal damage resulted. On the other hand, the United States had eight major earthquakes during the decade. The worst earthquake of the decade occurred on January 17, 1994, in Northridge, one of the northern suburbs of Los Angeles. Felt as far away as 400 kilometers from the epicenter, the earthquake had an impact over 200,000 square kilometers, including the heavily populated areas of Santa Monica, Malibu, Santa Clarita, the Simi Valley, and west and central Los Angeles. Fifty-seven people were killed, sixty thousand buildings were damaged, six major bridges collapsed, and five freeway overpasses fell. The cost of this earthquake exceeded $20 billion. On February 28, 1990, an earthquake injured thirty people and caused $12.7 million in damages in the city of Upland in Southern California. Another small earthquake affected the area around Alamo in Northern California at the end of March, 1990. A year later, on June 28, 1991, an earthquake struck near Pasadena in Southern California, resulting in property damage equaling $33.5 million, the deaths of two people, and injuries to another hundred. On April 25, 1992, a quake in the Cape Mendocino area of Northern California caused $75 million in damage and injured ninety-four people. Two months later, the town of Landers in Southern California was severely damaged by an earthquake, killing one, injuring three hundred, and causing destruction amounting to $100 million. It also triggered a second large earthquake that day in the mountain resort town of Big Bear. Outside California, the town of Klamath Falls in Oregon was hit in 1993 by an earthquake that killed two, displaced

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three thousand people, and caused $7.5 million in damage. The last earthquake of significance of the decade occurred on December 26, 1994, in Eureka, affecting 225 people and causing $2.1 million in damage. Avalanches and Landslides During the 1990’s, the United States ranked second among all nations in the number of deaths caused by avalanches, with about 17 percent of the world avalanche fatalities. Canada ranked sixth, with about 8 percent of the fatalities. The number of people killed in avalanches was the highest in Alaska, Colorado, and Utah and increased steadily during the decade as the number of snowmobiles grew and imprudent people explored more remote areas in the wilderness. During the winter of 1997, several large landslides occurred in California along Highway 50 between Placerville and South Lake Tahoe. Called the Mill Creek landslide, this event forced authorities to close the well-traveled highway for four weeks. Landslides occur regularly during the rainy season on the bluffs and hillsides of Seattle and other areas of the Puget Sound region. During the decade, there were 334 landslides within the northwest of the United States. In 1990, 1996, and 1997, winter storms triggered landslides. About 70 percent of the landslides occurred in 1997, and it is not surprising that the heaviest damage took place that year as well, causing the deaths of four people on Bainbridge Island in Washington during a heavy winter storm. In Canada, British Columbia suffered severe damage from landslides in Donna Creek (1992), Chisca River (1995), Buckinghorse River (1995), Chilliwack River (1997), Bear River Valley (1997), Capricorn Creek (1998), Five Mile Creek (1999), and Clanwilliam (1999). In Ontario, the South Nation River Valley landslide of 1993 was similarly destructive.

In the 1990’s, there were fifty-five major floods in the United States and Canada. Forty-nine of these floods happened in the United States, killing four hundred, while the remaining six, in Canada, killed twenty-five. The worst of these floods took place in 1993, affecting the Mississippi River and 150 major rivers and tributaries that flow into it, causing fifty fatalities and costing almost $15 billion. This flood was one of the most severe ever recorded in the United States. It was caused by intense late spring precipitation in the eastern Dakotas, southern Min-

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nesota, Kansas, Wisconsin, Iowa, southern Nebraska, and Missouri. The rainfall totals were 12 inches above normal. Hundreds of levees broke along the Missouri and Mississippi rivers, severely disrupting both land transportation, through the flooding of highways and the destruction of bridges, and barge traffic, with hazardous waterways making movement impossible for more than seven weeks. In Canada, the twelve provinces and territories experienced 170 floods during the twentieth century, with 62 percent of the disasters occurring in Manitoba, Ontario, New Brunswick, and Quebec. In the last decade of the century, floods affected the eastern regions of Canada, northwestern and southwestern British Columbia, and southern Manitoba. Most of the flooding in the 1990’s happened in the southern part of Ontario and Quebec, where the population is highly concentrated. In the west, Manitoba and the city of Winnipeg suffered flooding in 1993, when three episodes of intense rainfall occurred from July 25 to August 14, causing extensive damage to agricultural land infrastructure, roads, homes, and power lines. Four years later, the Winnipeg, Red, and Assiniboine rivers again overtopped their banks between April and May, 1997, as a result of the spring melting of snow. It took seven weeks for the 7,000 military personnel sent to the rescue to help relocate more than 25,000 people who had been evacuated from their homes. Hurricanes and Tornadoes During the decade, 1,653 people in the United States and 29 people in Canada lost their lives as a result of wind storms, which have their most dramatic expression in hurricanes, tornadoes, and tropical storms. Nineteen hurricanes affected the United States in the 1990’s: Bob and Grace in 1991; Andrew, Axel, and Iniki in 1992; Emily and Wylie in 1993; Alberto in 1994; Opal and Erin in 1995; Fran in 1996; Danny in 1997; Bonnie, Frances, and George in 1998; and Brett, Floyd, Irene, and Dennis in 1999. The worst of them was Hurricane Andrew, which caused extensive damage to Florida, Louisiana, and the Bahamas. Forty-four people perished, fifty-five were injured, and a quarter million were left homeless after the passage of the storm. The total property loss exceeded $30 billion. Hurricane Floyd destroyed property worth $4.5 billion, followed (in cost) by Fran with $3.2 billion in losses, Opal with $3 billion, Bob with $1.5 billion, Bonnie with $720 million, Erin

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with $700 million, and Alberto and Frances with $500 million each. More than 95 percent of the tornadoes of the world occur in the United States. Tornadoes are a yearly event in Tornado Alley, stretching from Texas through Indiana and into Ohio. An unusual concentration occurred, however, when a swarm of tornadoes hit fifteen states between May 16 and 19, 1995, causing $10 billion in damage, killing three people, and injuring sixty-seven. In Canada, there were two tornadoes the 1990’s. On August 5, 1994, a tornado near Ottawa injured four people and affected another three hundred, and on July 6, 1999, a tornado in Drummondville (Quebec) two hundred people were left homeless and four thousand more reported damages. Extreme Temperatures During the 1990’s, five heat waves (1990, 1993, 1995, 1998, and 1999) killed 1,116 people in North America and cost over $5 billion in energy usage, crop damage, and water usage. Periods of record cold temperatures affected the United States in 1990, 1993, 1994, and 1995 in Washington, Ohio, Illinois, Indiana, Pennsylvania, Tennessee, Kentucky, North Carolina, South Carolina, New Jersey, New York, and Connecticut. During these colder periods, blizzards affected a large area of the center of the United States. Winter weather was ranked second after floods by the number of fatalities caused in 1996 and in 1997, and 1996 had the record number of blizzards with twenty-eight. These blizzards, which combined very cold temperatures and blowing snow, caused more than $500 million in damage. Among the cities that sustained the largest number of casualties were Atlanta, Detroit, Philadelphia, Chicago, and Milwaukee, where forty people lost their lives. In 1998, a large-scale ice storm caused $4.2 billion in damage in Ontario and Quebec. Drought and Wildfires During the decade, two significant periods of drought were reported in the United States. A seven-month period in 1991 produced droughts that affected California, Pennsylvania, and Maryland and cost $1.3 billion. In the summer of 1999, Kentucky, Maryland, Ohio, Pennsylvania, and Virginia suffered a drought resulting in $800 million in damage. While drought in Canada has been the most expensive natural disaster over the past two hundred years, no significant events were reported in the 1990’s. Wildfires affected California repeatedly every

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year of the 1990’s except for 1995. California’s one quiet year was not so in Canada, however, where wildfires in Saskatchewan cost of $89.5 million and those in British Columbia cost $120 million. By the 1990’s, it seemed apparent that, despite continuing debate over its causes and rate, global climate change was occurring. This change almost certainly promised to increase the number and severity of climatic disasters, as what was considered normal was altered and extreme weather increased in frequency worldwide. Meanwhile, the growing world population put more people and property at risk. Even geological disasters, which can be expected to remain relatively unchanged in frequency, became significantly more expensive as more people crowded into more of the world’s less stable areas. The natural disasters that occurred during the decade served as reminders that these events are, for the most part, inevitable and can produce devastating costs, prompting calls for improvements in preparation efforts, such as better engineering, better site usage, better event prediction, and better emergency-response systems. Impact

Further Reading

Bolin, Robert, and Lois Stanford. The Northridge Earthquake: Vulnerability and Disaster. New York: Routledge, 1998. Presents details about the Northridge earthquake, providing the reader with excellent photographic documents. Greenberg, Michael. Disasters. Sudbury, Mass.: Jones and Bartlett, 2006. A compendium of natural and human-made catastrophes. Hough, Susan Elizabeth. Earthshaking Science: What We Know (and Don’t Know) About Earthquakes. Princeton, N.J.: Princeton University Press, 2002. Presents basic information about earthquakes for the nonscientific reader. _______. Finding Fault in California: An Earthquake Tourist’s Guide. Missoula, Mont.: Mountain Press, 2004. Provides readers with pertinent observations on faults. Spignesi, Stephen J. Catastrophe! The One Hundred Greatest Disasters of All Time. New York: Citadel, 2005. Gives a brief synopsis of each of the one hundred greatest disasters of the last two thousand years. Yeats, Robert S. Living with Earthquakes in California: A Survivor’s Guide. Corvallis: Oregon State Uni-

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versity Press, 2001. Provides suggestions on how to live safely in earthquake-prone country. Denyse Lemaire and David Kasserman Chicago heat wave of 1995; Hurricane Andrew; Mississippi River flood of 1993; Northridge earthquake; Oakland Hills fire; Oklahoma tornado outbreak; Perfect Storm, the; Storm of the Century.

See also

■ NC-17 rating Certification mark prohibiting children seventeen years of age and younger from attending such films Date Established September 26, 1990 Definition

Created to replace the original X rating, which had acquired the stigma of pornography, the NC-17 rating enjoyed a brief flurry of acceptability before falling into disfavor. When the classification and rating system was first introduced in 1968 for motion pictures released in the United States, the letter X was reserved for films considered inappropriate—because of sex, violence, and/or aberrational behavior—for viewers seventeen years old and younger. Although the other ratings—initially G (general audiences), M (mature audiences), and R (restricted), and later PG (parental guidance suggested), which essentially replaced M, and PG-13 (parents strongly cautioned)—were trademarked by the Motion Picture Association of America (MPAA), the X rating was not, and soon it was appropriated by hard-core pornography, which proudly proclaimed itself XX, XXX, and higher. As a result, some newspapers and television stations would not allow advertisements for X-rated films, and some theaters refused to show such films. Serious motion pictures in danger of receiving the X rating were usually self-censored, with producers trimming footage deemed too graphic or offensive. The issue came to a head in early 1990, when two serious art films—The Cook, the Thief, His Wife, and Her Lover (1989; Great Britain) and Tie Me Up! Tie Me Down! (1990; Spain)—were both rated X. At the same time, two lawsuits were filed that challenged the constitutionality of the X rating, and a petition to the MPAA was signed by major film directors, advocating a new rating that might signal the presence of themes or images unsuitable for minors, albeit without the X stigma.

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Accordingly, on September 26, 1990, the MPAA replaced X with NC-17, intending that the rating be applied not to pornography, but only to films that many parents would not want their children to see. The first film so labeled was Henry and June (1990), a sexually explicit account of the affair between writers Henry Miller and Anaïs Nin. Other notable films of the 1990’s rated NC-17 included Showgirls (1995), Crash (1996), and Two Girls and a Guy (1997)—all for explicit sexual content. Impact During its first two years, the NC-17 rating was given to 41 pictures, or roughly 3.5 percent of all films that were rated by the MPAA in 1990 and 1991. However, these numbers quickly declined. From 1992 through 1999, only 35 pictures were rated NC17, representing less than one percent of the 5,292 films that were rated during these eight years. Because the NC-17 rating is usually applied to sexual, rather than violent, content, it carries much the same pornographic stigma as the former X. By eliminating a large part of a film’s potential audience (those seventeen and under), the NC-17 rating is rarely welcomed by filmmakers, theater owners, and viewers. Further Reading

Sandler, Kevin S. “The Naked Truth: Showgirls and the Fate of the X/NC-17 Rating.” Cinema Journal 40, no. 3 (Spring, 2001): 69-93. Vaughn, Stephen. Freedom and Entertainment: Rating the Movies in an Age of New Media. New York: Cambridge University Press, 2006. James I. Deutsch Basic Instinct ; Censorship; Film in the United States; Showgirls; TV Parental Guidelines system.

See also

■ Nicotine patch A transdermal patch intended to help smokers quit Date Introduced in the United States in 1992

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surgeon general reported that smoking was dangerous to health. By the 1970’s, the deaths of millions of Americans were attributed to smoking-related illnesses—lung cancer and other respiratory and cardiovascular diseases. In 1988, Surgeon General C. Everett Koop called smoking “the chief, single, avoidable cause of death” in America, highlighting its highly addictive nature. Cigarette companies denied the dangers of smoking, but secret documents, leaked to the public in 1994, revealed that they had repeatedly lied to Congress and manipulated the contents of cigarettes to increase addiction. In 1995, the Food and Drug Administration (FDA) declared that cigarettes were drug-delivery devices and proposed restrictions on marketing and sales. Cigarette advertising was banned from television, and smoking was banned on airplanes and in most public places. By the end of the decade, taxes on cigarettes had increased dramatically, and cigarette companies settled lawsuits with most states for smokingrelated illnesses. Most people knew that smoking was harmful and wanted to quit. When, in 1992, four drug companies introduced nicotine patches (available by prescription only), the demand for the patch far exceeded the supply. The palm-sized circular patch, attached to the skin on the back or upper arm every twenty-four hours, delivered a steady dose of nicotine to help satisfy physical cravings and reduce withdrawal side effects. After a month, ex-smokers could wean themselves by using successively smaller patches. Studies comparing the patch to a placebo patch showed that it doubled the odds of quitting for at least six months, whether used alone or in combination with other interventions. However, only 26 percent of those wearing the patch quit smoking, as opposed to 12 percent using the placebo. Many smokers continued to smoke while using the patch, leading to toxic, and occasionally, dangerous health risks. The patch became available over the counter in 1996.

Definition

Introduction of the nicotine patch, also known as transdermal nicotine replacement therapy, offered hope to millions of smokers who wanted to break a life-threatening addiction. For most of the twentieth century, smoking was acceptable, and even glamorous, but in 1964, the U.S.

Impact Demand for the patch spurred pharmaceutical companies and therapists to increase public awareness of the dangers of smoking and to develop other aids to help smokers quit. Limited success underscored the complexity of addiction to tobacco and challenged researchers in the field. Although not a cure-all, the patch still offered a one-in-four chance of quitting—roughly the odds of dying from a tobacco-related illness if one continues to smoke.

The Nineties in America Subsequent Events Meta-analyses of numerous studies have shown that the patch doubles the chances of quitting smoking. However, only 20 percent of patch users have actually broken the habit. Tobacco use has decreased among adults but increased among teenagers, whom the tobacco industry targets. In 2000, the Supreme Court ruled that the FDA has no authority to regulate tobacco as a drug. The FDA has subsequently revoked its restrictions on the sale of cigarettes to minors. Further Reading

Kranz, Rachel. Straight Talk About Smoking. New York: Facts On File, 1999. Sherman, Carl. “Kicking Butts.” Psychology Today 27, no. 5 (September/October, 1994): 40-46. Edna B. Quinn See also Cancer research; Drug use; Health care; Health care reform; Medicine; Psychology; Tobacco industry settlement.

■ Nine Inch Nails Identification Industrial rock band Date Founded in 1988

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album while maintaining the electronic beat-driven hallmarks of Reznor’s previous work. “Closer” was the album’s most popular single in spite of (perhaps because of) the explicit sexual refrain and launched Nine Inch Nails fully into mainstream radio play as it blended pop sensibility and taboo subject matter. Reznor’s Self-Destruct Tour supporting the album included a stop at Woodstock ’94, where the Grammy-winning performace of “Happiness in Slavery” was filmed as well as beamed into twenty-four million homes. Reznor would not release another album with new material for five years, a delay due to his admitted difficulties with perfectionism, substance abuse, and writer’s block. When the much-anticipated double-CD The Fragile arrived in 1999, it debuted at number one on Billboard’s 200. The epic album was thematically similar to The Downward Spiral, featuring layered soundscapes and a continuous narrative; however, The Fragile was hailed as a more mature and subtle effort, a richer evolution of Reznor’s distinctive sound. The album received positive reviews but fell off the charts quickly. It was nominated for a Grammy for Best Alternative Music Performance in 1999. Reznor has worked as a producer for movie sound tracks, including one for Natural Born Killers (1994), and other artists, notably Marilyn Manson, whom he

Nine Inch Nails influenced and popularized industrial rock in the 1990’s. Although he regularly tours with a band, Trent Reznor is the sole member of Nine Inch Nails, acting as singer, songwriter, instrumentalist, and producer. Nine Inch Nails garnered recognition and acclaim in the 1990’s through the continued popularity of 1989’s Pretty Hate Machine and the subsequent release of 1992’s Broken and 1994’s groundbreaking The Downward Spiral. Broken, influenced by Reznor’s touring in 1991, was harder and more raw than the pop- and New Wave-influenced Pretty Hate Machine, though it still featured existential and personal lyrics. Songs from Broken earned Reznor his only Grammy Awards, but his work would receive more nominations. Nine Inch Nails’ second full-length album, The Downward Spiral, was much anticipated and entered the Billboard 200 at number two following its release in 1994. Following a central character’s mental path toward collapse, The Downward Spiral featured more textures of sound than any previous Nine Inch Nails

Nine Inch Nails lead singer Trent Reznor, caked in mud, performs at Woodstock ’94. (AP/Wide World Photos)

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helped introduce to the mainstream. Nine Inch Nails is also well known for its remix material. Impact Nine Inch Nails combined techno beats and hard rock guitar and brought this sound to mainstream acceptance, while connecting with fans through introspective and risqué lyrics. Trent Reznor proved to be an intriguing front man: tortured, withdrawn, and explosive on stage. Further Reading

Huxley, Martin. Nine Inch Nails. New York: St. Martin’s Press, 1997. Udo, Tommy. Nine Inch Nails. London: Sanctuary Records, 2002. Alan Haslam

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students and cheerleaders wearing anarchist symbols and ends with the students destroying the set and the band’s equipment. Nevermind spawned three other hit singles and music videos that cemented the grunge look and sound into the public consciousness. In 1993, amid much hype and press, Nirvana released In Utero, and listeners were shocked as they were introduced to a radically different Nirvana. In Utero harked back to Nirvana’s punk roots, almost an intentional move to alienate Nirvana’s brand-new legion of fans as quickly as they had come. The album was raw, dissonant, and difficult, yet featured many of Nirvana’s hallmark melodies and hooks. In September, 1993, In Utero debuted at number one on the Billboard 200 but did not enjoy the lasting power of Nevermind.

See also Alternative rock; Electronic music; Grunge music; Lollapalooza; Marilyn Manson; Music; Woodstock concerts.

■ Nirvana Identification

Alternative rock band

Nirvana and grunge icon Kurt Cobain initiated the alternative music explosion in the early 1990’s. Nirvana in its ultimate incarnation featured singerguitarist Kurt Cobain, bassist Krist Novoselic, and drummer Dave Grohl. After the independent release of 1989’s Bleach, Nirvana signed with Geffen Records and recorded the hugely successful Nevermind (1991). While Bleach was heavily influenced by punk rock, Nevermind fused grunge-era guitar rock with pop hooks and melody. Nevermind was more polished and accessible than Bleach, and though the band expressed some dissatisfaction with the postproduction of the album, its radio-friendliness was a main factor in its widespread popularity. Nevermind shifted popular rock music away from the glam and arena rock of the 1980’s toward alternative rock. In January, 1992, Nevermind was selling about 300,000 copies per week, and the album reached number one on the Billboard charts. The album’s popularity was boosted by heavy rotation on MTV of the music video for the hit single “Smells Like Teen Spirit.” The music video begins in a surrealistic high school pep rally where Nirvana plays to uninterested

Nirvana front man Kurt Cobain. (AP/Wide World Photos)

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As important as Nirvana’s music was for the burgeoning grunge scene in the early 1990’s, Kurt Cobain was equally important as the personification of the angst-ridden, identity-lacking, and disillusioned Generation X. Born in 1967, Cobain lived near the depressed logging town of Aberdeen, Washington, for most of his life. When Cobain was seven years old, his parents divorced, an event that profoundly affected him and contributed to the rebellious tendencies that eventually attracted him to the Pacific Northwest punk scene, where he met and befriended many of the musicians who would influence him for years to come. Cobain received his first guitar as a gift at the age of fourteen and finally convinced Krist Novoselic, fellow denizen of Aberdeen and devotee of punk rock, to begin playing with him in 1985. In 1992, Cobain married Courtney Love of the band Hole. They were immediately hailed as the next Sid Vicious and Nancy Spungen because of their copious heroin use and “live fast, die young” rock-star behavior. Cobain turned to drug use early in his life as a response to depression and chronic pain due to an undiagnosed stomach condition for which he tried to find a cure for most of his life. Heroin dominated his adult life, and although he would occasionally enter a drug rehabilitation program, he always relapsed. Cobain’s habit contributed to his grunge hero status as he slurred and sometimes nodded off on stage and during interviews and photo shoots, but he would often perform and speak lucidly even while under the influence. As with so many other artists, heroin would prove to be his final undoing. On April 8, 1994, Cobain’s body was discovered in a room above the garage of his Lake Washington home. Cobain had fled rehab just days before. The official cause of death was a self-inflicted shotgun blast to the head; a suicide note was found nearby, and heroin was in his system. Seven thousand mourners attended a vigil on April 10 in Seattle. Cobain’s death spawned conspiracy theories, but none were ever deemed probable.

Kurt Cobain

In November, 1993, Nirvana taped a popular and critically acclaimed perforPost-Cobain Nirvana

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mance on MTV Unplugged, and an album of the show was released in November, 1994. A “plugged-in” concert compilation, From the Muddy Banks of the Wishkah, was released in 1996, named for the river that flows through Cobain’s hometown. Grohl’s career flourished after Nirvana as he became front man and the creative force behind the Foo Fighters. Novoselic continued to be involved in recording and playing live music and became increasingly involved in politics. Impact Nirvana inaugurated a new musical era and managed to occupy the rare space of achieving commercial success and critical acclaim while maintaining artistic integrity. Cobain’s suicide rendered him a John Lennon-esque figure for Generation X and fostered a myth around his life. Further Reading

Azerrad, Michael. Come as You Are: The Story of Nirvana. New York: Doubleday, 1993. Members of Nirvana contributed to this biography, which was amended in a 1994 reprint to include information on Nirvana’s final tour and Cobain’s death. Cross, Charles R. Heavier than Heaven: A Biography of Kurt Cobain. New York: Hyperion, 2001. Cross conducted more than four hundred interviews over four years for the book and was granted exclusive interviews and access to Cobain’s private journals, lyrics, and photos by Courtney Love. True, Everett. Nirvana: The Biography. New York: Omnibus Press, 2006. Includes nearly full transcripts of many interviews with Nirvana members and their acquaintances and offers somewhat more exhaustive details of the controversy surrounding Cobain’s death and Nirvana’s place in grunge music and the culture of the 1990’s than previous biographies of the band. Alan Haslam See also Alternative rock; Drug use; Grunge fashion; Grunge music; Heroin chic; Lollapalooza; Love, Courtney; MTV Unplugged; Music.

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■ Nobel Prizes Definition Prizes awarded each year for achievements in chemistry, economic sciences, literature, peace, physics, and physiology or medicine

In the 1990’s, North Americans dominated the scientific and economic Nobel Prizes. North Americans were awarded about 60 percent of the Nobel Prizes of the decade, with Canadians constituting about 10 percent of the North American total. The Nobel Prize award signifies international praise for scientific and cultural achievements. Nobel laureates bring prestige to their country and its institutions and attract the attention of students and funding bodies to their work. Chemistry Prizes were awarded in chemistry for a diverse group of achievements. Elias James Corey was honored for work on the methodology of organic chemical synthesis, and George Olah for studies of positively charged carbon ions. Walter Kohn developed density functional theory and John Pople developed new computational methods for quantum mechanics. Rudolph A. Marcus elucidated electron transfer reactions in chemical systems, while Ahmed Zewail employed femtosecond spectroscopic techniques to study transition states in reactions. Mario J. Molina and F. Sherwood Rowland shared a prize for studies of ozone depletion in the atmosphere. Richard Smalley and Robert Curl were honored for work on the structure and properties of fullerenes: carbon cage molecules. On the biochemical side, Kary B. Mullis shared a prize with Michael Smith; Mullis developed the polymerase chain reaction (PCR), and Smith was honored for protein studies using oligonucleotidebased, site-directed mutagenesis. Paul D. Boyer shared a prize for work on the mechanism of synthesis of adenosine triphosphate (ATP). Literature and Peace Writer Toni Morrison was awarded the prize for her novels, such as Beloved (1987), which speak to aspects of American reality. She was the first African American woman to win the Nobel Prize in Literature. Derek Walcott was honored for his luminous poetry with its historical vision. The Nobel Peace Prizes were awarded to Joseph

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Rotblat and the Pugwash Conferences on Science and World Affairs in 1995 for efforts to ban nuclear weapons proliferation, and in 1997 to Jody Williams and the International Campaign to Ban Landmines for efforts to ban antipersonnel land mines. Physics Scattering of electrons by protons and bound neutrons formed the basis of studies by Jerome I. Friedman, Henry W. Kendall, and Richard E. Taylor, which earned their award. Bertram N. Brockhouse was honored for developing neutronscattering techniques in the study of condensed matter. He shared the prize with Clifford G. Shull, who concentrated on neutron diffraction. Condensed matter also figured in the prize awarded to David M. Lee, Douglas D. Osheroff, and Robert C. Richardson, who discovered superfluidity in helium-3. A prize was shared by Martin L. Perl for discovery of the tau lepton and by Frederick Reines for detection of the neutrino. Steven Chu and William D. Phillips shared a prize for cooling and trapping atoms with laser light. Robert B. Laughlin, Horst L. Störmer, and Daniel C. Tsui were honored for discovery of a new type of quantum fluid. Russell A. Hulse and Joseph H. Taylor, Jr., were awarded the prize for discovering a new type of pulsar, important in the study of gravitation. Physiology or Medicine Joseph E. Murray and E. Donnall Thomas shared the Nobel Prize for discoveries related to organ and cell transplantation. Edmond H. Fischer and Edwin G. Krebs were honored for studies on reversible protein phosphorylation. Phillip A. Sharp shared a prize for the discovery of split genes. Alfred G. Gilman and Martin Rodbell shared a prize for the discovery of G proteins and their role in cellular signaling. Edward B. Lewis and Eric F. Wieschaus shared a prize for discoveries concerning genetic control of embryonic development. Stanley B. Prusiner won a prize for the discovery of prions, a new principle of infection. Robert F. Furchgott, Louis J. Ignarro, and Ferid Murad were honored for discoveries related to nitric oxide as a signaling agent in the cardiovascular system. Günter Blobel won his prize for discovering the signals proteins have that govern their transport and localization in the cell. Economic Sciences Harry M. Markowitz, Merton H. Miller, and William F. Sharpe were awarded the 1990 prize for work on the theory of financial

North American Nobel Prize Winners, 1990-1999 Year

Chemistry

Economic Sciences

1990

Elias James Corey

1991 1992

Literature

Peace

Physics

Physiology or Medicine

Harry M. Markowitz

Jerome I. Friedman

Joseph E. Murray

Merton H. Miller

Henry W. Kendall

E. Donnall Thomas

William F. Sharpe

Richard E. Taylor

Ronald H. Coase Rudolph A. Marcus

Gary S. Becker

Derek Walcott

Edmond H. Fischer Edwin G. Krebs

1993

1994

1995

Kary B. Mullis

Robert W. Fogel

Michael Smith

Douglass C. North

Joseph H. Taylor, Jr.

George Olah

John C. Harsanyi

Bertram N. Brockhouse

Alfred G. Gilman

John F. Nash, Jr.*

Clifford G. Shull

Martin Rodbell

Joseph Rotblat

Martin L. Perl

Edward B. Lewis

Pugwash Conferences on Science and World Affairs

Frederick Reines

Eric F. Wieschaus*

Mario J. Molina

Robert E. Lucas, Jr.

F. Sherwood Rowland* 1996

Robert Curl

Toni Morrison

Russell A. Hulse

William Vickrey*

Phillip A. Sharp*

David M. Lee

Richard Smalley*

Douglas D. Osheroff Robert C. Richardson

1997

1998

Paul D. Boyer*

Walter Kohn

Robert C. Merton

Jody Williams

Steven Chu

Myron S. Scholes

International Campaign to Ban Landmines

William D. Phillips*

Amartya Sen

John Pople

1999

Ahmed Zewail

Robert A. Mundell

*Prize shared with non-North American.

Stanley B. Prusiner

Robert B. Laughlin

Robert F. Furchgott

Horst L. Störmer

Louis J. Ignarro

Daniel C. Tsui

Ferid Murad Günter Blobel

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economics. Ronald H. Coase won in 1991 for work on transaction costs and property rights for the institutional structure and functioning of the economy. Gary S. Becker extended microeconomic analysis to a wide variety of human behavior. Robert W. Fogel and Douglass C. North shared a prize in 1993 for applying economic theory and quantitative methods to explain changes in the economy and institutions. John C. Harsanyi and John F. Nash, Jr., shared a prize for analysis of noncooperative games. Robert E. Lucas, Jr., was honored for transforming macroeconomic analysis by developing the hypothesis of rational expectations. William Vickrey shared a prize for contributions to an economic theory of incentives under asymmetric information. Robert C. Merton and Myron S. Scholes were honored for a new method for determining the value of derivatives. Amartya Sen was the winner of the 1998 prize for contributions to welfare economics. Robert A. Mundell won in 1999 for analysis of monetary and fiscal policy under differing exchange-rate regimes. Impact During the 1990’s, North Americans were particularly prominent in the Nobel Prizes in Economic Sciences, Physiology or Medicine, Physics, and Chemistry, and sparsely in Literature and Peace. The only two female winners were in the latter areas. Particularly significant work included the polymerase chain reaction of Mullis, which is important in DNA testing; Molina and Rowland’s studies that revealed the pollutants that threaten the ozone layer and that led to a worldwide ban on chlorofluorocarbons; and the discovery of fullerenes by Smalley and Curl, which contributed to the important field of nanotechnology. Further Reading

Feldman, Burton. The Nobel Prize: A History of Genius, Controversy, and Prestige. New York: Arcade, 2000. Prizewinners are classified in various ways, and stories are told of unexpected controversies. Morrison, Toni. Beloved. New York: Alfred A. Knopf, 1987. The novel that won the author a Pulitzer Prize concerns the emergence of a woman from the evils of slavery. Roberts, Shawn, and Jody Williams. After the Guns Fall Silent: The Enduring Legacy of Landmines. Washington, D.C.: Vietnam Veterans of America Foundation, 1995. An account of the land mines remaining around the world and the danger they pose for children and others.

Zewail, Ahmed. Voyage Through Time: Walks of Life to the Nobel Prize. Cairo: American University of Cairo, 2002. Personal reminiscences of the 1999 prizewinner in chemistry. John R. Phillips Air pollution; African Americans; Asian Americans; Astronomy; Genetics research; Inventions; Jewish Americans; Literature in Canada; Literature in the United States; Medicine; Morrison, Toni; Nanotechnology; Poetry; Science and technology.

See also

■ Noriega capture and trial U.S. forces arrest Panama’s military dictator, General Manuel Noriega, who is subsequently tried for drug trafficking and money laundering Date 1990-1992 Place Panama and Miami, Florida The Event

The surrender and capture of Noriega brought an end to his de facto regime that had ruled for nearly six years. The removal of Noriega from power put a stop to the human rights abuses that were associated with his ruling, allowed a new Panamanian government to take over, and greatly helped the U.S. “war on drugs” in the region. Manuel Antonio Noriega was a soldier for most of his life; he trained on U.S. military bases and slowly rose among the ranks of his own government in Panama. Noriega became a close informant for the U.S. Central Intelligence Agency (CIA), and the death of Panamanian leader Omar Torrijos helped to launch his career as the next Panamanian leader. Noriega was not elected to his position but rather became the de facto leader by succeeding a man who removed himself from the presidential race. Noriega promoted himself to the position of general and took power in 1983. He continued his good relations with the United States by giving the United States more access to the Panama Canal and by helping U.S. interests in the region. Noriega allowed presidential elections in the following year, but when it appeared that he might lose, he halted the elections to ensure he stayed in power. It was about this time, when Noriega assumed his role as a dictator, that he was first accused of being involved in drug trafficking. In addition, the general

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was suspected of murdering one of his critics, and the news of this brought the Panamanian public into the streets to protest his leadership. Despite these accusations, Noriega remained in the good graces of the United States until he was finally indicted on drug charges in 1988. Investigations took place into Noriega’s activities and his alleged deals with drug cartels to allow the transportation of cocaine over the Panamanian border. After enough evidence had been compiled proving that Noriega was, in fact, involved in the trafficking of millions of dollars worth of narcotics, the U.S. government called for his resignation. Noriega fervently refused to comply, and tensions between U.S. troops that were stationed in Panama and Noriega’s troops intensified. The United States placed economic sanctions on Panama, and on December 16, 1989, the situation reached a climax when a U.S. Marine was shot in an altercation. President George H. W. Bush responded by sending American forces to invade Panama and to depose Noriega. The general managed to avoid capture by U.S. forces for nearly a month. Surrendering on January 3, 1990, he was immediately transported to Miami, Florida, where he would face trial. General Noriega was tried on eight counts of drug trafficking, money laundering, and racketeering. He was found to have been supplying information and assistance to drug cartels in the region while at the same time pledging to help the United States fight the so-called war on drugs in Panama. Noriega was ultimately convicted of his crimes and was sentenced on July 10, 1992, to serve forty years in a U.S. state penitentiary.

The Capture and Trial

Impact A onetime ally of the U.S. administration, in particular the CIA, Noriega slowly distanced himself from his northern neighbors. His involvement in the transportation of cocaine across the Panamanian border made him a target in the U.S. war on drugs. His capture and eventual conviction was a success for the Drug Enforcement Administration (DEA), which saw his imprisonment as a step toward severely depleting drug trafficking into the United States and in helping end the reign of large drug cartels with which Noriega had been involved.

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Though Noriega’s capture did not win the war on drugs for the United States, it certainly stopped a great deal of the flow of illegal drugs through Panama. In March, 1999, his fortyyear sentence was reduced to thirty. There have been repeated attempts by his lawyers to have him released. However, if released, Noriega may still serve time for his 1995 convictions of human rights abuses and murder in Panama. Also, the French government has attempted to have Noriega extradited so that he may serve time for a 1999 moneylaundering conviction on French soil. In 2004, Noriega suffered a small stroke and was briefly hospitalized.

Subsequent Events

Further Reading

Behar, David S., and Godfrey Harris. Invasion: The American Destruction of the Noriega Regime in Panama. Los Angeles: Americas Group, 1990. Describes the events leading up to the invasion of Panama by the United States. Behar pays a great deal of attention to the invasion itself and the steps that were taken to ultimately bring down Noriega’s government. McMillan, Robert R. Global Passage: Transformation of Panama and the Panama Canal. Charleston, S.C.: Booksurge, 2006. Focusing on the historical context of the Panama Canal, this book explains the effect the creation of the canal has had on the developing country. The author refers to Noriega throughout the text in relation to his negotiations about canal expansion and usage. Murillo, Luis E. The Noriega Mess: The Drugs, the Canal, and Why America Invaded. Berkeley, Calif.: Video-Books, 1995. Murillo investigates the uneven politics in Panama, the vindictive nature of Noriega, and the history and circumstances that allowed the general to rise to power. The book is a truthful tale of the harsh realities of Panama and the extenuating circumstances that led to the U.S. invasion. Jennifer L. Titanski See also Bush, George H. W.; Crime; Foreign policy of the United States; Latin America.

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■ North American Free Trade Agreement (NAFTA) Trade agreement reducing barriers to the flow of goods, services, and investment among Canada, Mexico, and the United States Date Signed in 1992; ratified in 1993; implemented in 1994 Identification

This agreement allowed for increased economic interactions among the three nations. The treaty was highly debated with regard to its merits and flaws both before and after its implementation. On January 1, 1994, the North American Free Trade Agreement (NAFTA) came into effect. The United States, Canada, and Mexico entered a new era in

their economic history by promising to remove most tariffs on products traded among them and to phase out all tariff barriers over the next fifteen years. This agreement was an expansion of the Canada-United States Free Trade Agreement of 1988 and resulted from trade talks among U.S. president George H. W. Bush, Canadian prime minister Brian Mulroney, and Mexican president Carlos Salinas de Gortari. While NAFTA was ratified by all the legislatures, January 1, 1994, was the date set for the agreement to begin; the actual treaty had been signed in December, 1992, and ratified by the legislatures of all three countries in 1993. Ratification was not an easy task, however, as strong opposition to the treaty existed in different areas of society, including labor unions in the United States and Canada and farmers in Mexico.

Preamble to the North American Free Trade Agreement The Government of Canada, the Government of the United Mexican States and the Government of the United States of America, resolved to: Strengthen the special bonds of friendship and cooperation among their nations; Contribute to the harmonious development and expansion of world trade and provide a catalyst to broader international cooperation; Create an expanded and secure market for the goods and services produced in their territories; Reduce distortions to trade; Establish clear and mutually advantageous rules governing their trade; Ensure a predictable commercial framework for business planning and investment; Build on their respective rights and obligations under the General Agreement on Tariffs and Trade and other multilateral and bilateral instruments of cooperation; Enhance the competitiveness of their firms in global markets; Foster creativity and innovation, and promote trade in goods and services that are the subject of intellectual property rights; Create new employment opportunities and improve working conditions and living standards in their respective territories; Undertake each of the preceding in a manner consistent with environmental protection and conservation; Preserve their flexibility to safeguard the public welfare; Promote sustainable development; Strengthen the development and enforcement of environmental laws and regulations; and Protect, enhance and enforce basic workers’ rights.

The Nineties in America The Debate over NAFTA Proponents of the trade agreement included U.S. and Canadian politicians who favored free trade, transnational corporations, a number of economists, and other proponents of a liberal system in which trade barriers are limited among countries. The arguments used to support NAFTA included increased trade among the three countries and increased job growth and economic output, as well as a reduction of poverty, especially in Mexico. Opponents of the trade agreement included labor unions in the United States and Canada, which feared that manufacturing jobs would move away from their countries into Mexico because of lower wage costs; Mexican farmers, who feared that agriculture subsidies provided to American farmers would put them at a further disadvantage and run them out of business; advocacy groups focusing on the environment and social justice; and human rights groups, which feared that the impact of the treaty would lead to noneconomic negative consequences, especially in Mexico. Impact NAFTA was one of the most significant agreements signed in the 1990’s by the United States and Canada, and the consequences of this trade agreement could be seen throughout the decade. While the main goal of NAFTA was to change the economic picture of North America, the agreement affected much more than just the economies of these countries. While numbers show that trade among them increased, many economists claim that such a change did not help the economy as a whole: Instead of creating new markets, NAFTA simply diverted trade from countries that are not members of the agreement. Also, the increased number of maquiladoras (Mexican factories that take in imported raw materials and produce goods for export) raised many questions about the hiring practices and work conditions of these industries. NAFTA was the topic of many heated political debates of the 1990’s in all three of the signatory countries, and the economic, political, social, and cultural changes prompted by the trade agreement helped change the relationship between Mexico and North America in many ways during this period. Further Reading

Chambers, Edward J., and Peter H. Smith, eds. NAFTA in the Millennium. La Jolla: Center for U.S.Mexican Studies, University of California, San

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Diego, 2002. Examines the challenges that NAFTA experienced in the 1990’s and the future of the treaty. A great collection of essays on many aspects of the agreement. Hufbauer, Gary Clyde, and Jeffrey J. Schott. NAFTA Revisited: Achievements and Challenges. Washington, D.C.: Institute for International Economics, 2005. One of the most comprehensive analyses of NAFTA to date, this book examines the first seven years of the trade agreement and outlines the new challenges that NAFTA may encounter in the future. McKinney, Joseph A., and M. Rebecca Sharpless, eds. Implications of a North American Free Trade Region: Multidisciplinary Perspectives. Waco, Tex.: Program for Regional Studies, Baylor University, 1992. Written before the implementation of NAFTA, this book discusses the debate regarding the agreement and what effects it would have on the economy, politics, law, culture, and society. Villers, David R. Dávila, ed. NAFTA, the First Year: A View from Mexico. Lanham, Md.: University Press of America, 1996. A collection of papers presented at the First Forum of the Americas, whose main objective is to evaluate NAFTA on a yearly basis. Provides an in-depth analysis of the impact that NAFTA had in Mexico in the first year of its inception and discusses the proposition of creating other trade agreements, focusing especially on those targeting Latin America. Pedro dos Santos Agriculture in Canada; Agriculture in the United States; Bush, George H. W.; Canada and the United States; Clinton, Bill; Foreign policy of Canada; Foreign policy of the United States; Mexico and the United States; Mulroney, Brian.

See also

■ North Hollywood shoot-out A shoot-out between police officers and two heavily armed men wearing body armor Date February 28, 1997 Place A district of Los Angeles The Event

Although this confrontation was shocking to many, some in law enforcement had feared its occurrence, believing that law enforcement had been greatly limited in its ability to

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contend with heavily armed suspects. The event was also aired live on television, allowing millions of viewers to witness the inability of hundreds of law enforcement officers to quickly restrain two men. Shortly after 9 a.m. on February 28, 1997, Larry Phillips, Jr., and Emil Matasareanu entered a Bank of America in the North Hollywood section of Los Angeles, California. The two men wore body armor and carried automatic weapons, including AK-47s, a fully automatic Bushmaster rifle, a semiautomatic H&K, and a semiautomatic 9-millimeter Beretta handgun. A Los Angeles Police Department (LAPD) officer driving down the street had seen the two enter the bank, and police had the bank surrounded by the time Phillips and Matasareanu attempted to leave. When officers attempted to stop Phillips and Matasareanu, the bank robbers shot the cars of the officers, who were only carrying 9-millimeter pistols

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and revolvers. The bullets shot by police would simply ricochet off the suspects’ body armor, while the suspects were able to injure several officers and civilians. Shortly thereafter, the two gunmen attempted to drive away in the getaway car, which was soon rendered inoperable due to heavy police fire. Phillips then left the protection of the getaway car and brazenly walked down the street firing at officers and television news helicopters. He was finally shot and killed by officers. After Phillips was killed, Matasareanu attempted to escape in an abandoned pickup truck, only to find that the owner had taken his keys with him when he fled. Matasareanu then encountered special weapons and tactics (SWAT) members who shot underneath the truck into his unprotected legs, badly injuring him. He died from loss of blood on the street as officers were attempting to secure the scene. Before their deaths, the suspects fired over 1,100 rounds, injuring

One of the two armed gunmen stands in a parking lot across the street from the Bank of America in North Hollywood on February 28, 1997. Following a botched bank heist, the robbers fired hundreds of rounds in a gun battle that injured several police officers and civilians and ended in the robbers’ deaths. (AP/Wide World Photos)

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eleven officers and six civilians and destroying several police cars. Impact Although individual police officers received high praise for their heroic actions on the day of the shoot-out, the event resulted in criticism of the police response overall and a debate about policies surrounding automatic weapons and the weapons that police carry. While many concluded that such events would occur with more frequency in the future if police did not increase their weaponry, others contended that drastic policy change should not be the result of media sensationalism surrounding a few infrequent events. Further Reading

Rehder, William J., and Gordon Dillow. Where the Money Is: True Tales from the Bank Robbery Capital of the World. New York: W. W. Rob Morrow as Dr. Joel Fleischman in Northern Exposure. (CBS/Landov) Norton, 2003. Robinson, Paul. Would You Convict? 1991. Well accepted by critics and audiences, it beSeventeen Cases That Challenged the Law. New York: came a regular series in the fall of 1991. For its first New York University Press, 1999. full three seasons, it was among the top twenty shows Brion Sever in the United States, was honored with two Peabody Awards, and won three Emmys, two Golden Globes, See also Crime; Gun control; Los Angeles riots; and one Directors Guild Award. Police brutality. The show found Dr. Joel Fleischman (Rob Morrow) unexpectedly assigned to the isolated town of Cicely, Alaska, to fulfill his debt for a medical school ■ Northern Exposure loan. Fleischman, a Jew from Manhattan, is angry about the assignment and unable to relate to the Identification Television series town’s 215 residents. The townspeople, however, acProducers Joshua Brand (c. 1952) and cept his churlishness nonchalantly. John Falsey (1945) The townspeople are not the typical “rubes” comDate Aired from July 12, 1990, to July 26, 1995 monly depicted in shows that mix urban and rural This series was an early example of the “dramedy”—a realcharacters: Maurice Minnifield (Barry Corbin), a istic blending of sitcom and dramatic series—but mixed former astronaut, is a wealthy land developer; forwith a dose of Magical Realism. Its characters were an exmer felon Chris Stevens (John Corbett) has started ceptionally diverse mix of ages, ethnicities, and sexual oriover in Cicely as an artist and the radio station’s entations. Aging and death were presented as natural parts morning disc jockey, mixing eclectic musical selecof life. tions with philosophical musings and readings from Walt Whitman, Carl Jung, and others; Maggie Northern Exposure first appeared on the Columbia O’Connell (Janine Turner), a former debutante Broadcasting System (CBS) network as a summer refrom a prominent family in Grosse Pointe, Michiplacement in 1990 and resumed in the spring of

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gan, is a bush pilot; widow Ruth-Anne Miller (Peg Phillips) retired to Cicely and is now the town’s postmistress and runs the general store.

quake within the San Fernando Valley. However, economic losses were estimated to have exceeded $20 billion, making the quake the costliest in U.S. history at that time.

Northern Exposure featured many scenarios that were unusual or daring for network television in the early 1990’s. Two homosexual couples were featured in several episodes: Ron (Doug Ballard) and Erick (Don R. McManus), proprietors of a local inn, were married on the show, a first for prime-time television. This was not accepted in many quarters: Two network affiliates refused to air the episode, and one sponsor pulled out. Other episodes discuss the town’s founding by a lesbian couple, Roslyn and Cicely. Ethnic diversity on a show starring white characters was also uncommon. Northern Exposure featured two Native Americans—naïve, loveable Ed Chigliak (Darren E. Burrows) and Marilyn Whirlwind (Elaine Miles), Fleischman’s receptionist—and Chris’s half brother, Bernard Stevens (Richard Cummings, Jr.), was African American. Ruth-Ann was another unique character for television: a feisty, independent septuagenarian who interacted with the townspeople as an equal, not a frail, doddering senior citizen.

Located twenty miles northwest of downtown Los Angeles, the community of Northridge lies within the suburban San Fernando Valley. At 4:30 a.m. on the morning of January 17, 1994, an earthquake with a Richter scale magnitude of 6.7 shook the region, causing widespread damage, especially to wood-framed buildings and freeway overpasses. The National Geophysical Data Center estimated the quake’s epicenter at ten miles below the ground surface. Although located in the vicinity of the San Andreas fault, the quake occurred along a previously unknown blind thrust fault within the Oak Ridge fault system. Thirty-eight accelerographs positioned throughout Southern California were used to measure movement associated with the quake. For a period of eight seconds, the rupture moved upward and northwest along the fault plane at two miles per second. At the surface, vertical movements lifted structures off their foundations while horizontal accelerations shifted walls laterally. With shaking lasting twenty seconds in some areas, the quake caused deformation within the Earth’s crust across an area of more than fifteen hundred square miles. The quake’s tremendous force caused the Santa Susana Mountains and much of the San Fernando Valley to be pushed upward more than a foot. Hundreds of aftershocks continued for months, with the largest recorded at 4.0 on the Richter scale.

Impact

Further Reading

Chunovic, Louis. The “Northern Exposure” Book. New York: Citadel Press, 1993. Williams, Betsy. “‘North to the Future’: Northern Exposure and Quality Television.” In Television: The Critical View, edited by Horace Newcomb. 5th ed. New York: Oxford University Press, 1994. Irene Struthers Rush See also

Cable television; Television.

■ Northridge earthquake A 6.7 magnitude earthquake strikes a densely populated area in Southern California, resulting in fifty-seven deaths Date January 17, 1994 Place The San Fernando Valley of Los Angeles The Event

The Northridge earthquake was among the largest quakes ever to occur directly beneath a major urban area in the United States. Building design and reinforcement programs were credited with preventing catastrophic loss of life. Many structures in the region, including freeway bridges, had been designed using standards implemented after a 1971 earth-

Among buildings suffering total collapse was a four-level parking facility at California State University, Northridge. Inside buildings, severe shaking damaged sprinkler pipes, interior partitions, ceilings, and air-handling systems. Throughout the region, about one hundred buildings designed to withstand severe ground motion experienced failure of their steel frames or reinforced concrete. In contrast to other seismic events, the legacy of the Northridge earthquake was not calamitous damage but that more severe destruction and loss of life had been adverted. Experience with prior earthquakes had prompted building codes and the reinforcement of existing structures in order to reduce damage and threats to building occupants. Despite close proximity to the quake’s epicenter, many buildings experienced minimal damage. However, the quake caused severe damage to large wood-

Damage

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Human Toll The death toll for the quake included fifty-seven persons, with eleven thousand others injured. A majority of persons killed were in multifloor woodframe structures. The early morning timing of the quake contributed to the low number of persons killed. Had the quake occurred just hours later, the loss of life on freeways would have been considerably higher. Immediately following the quake, more than nine thousand homes and businesses were without power. Responding to the disaster, the American Red Cross established forty-seven shelters for persons displaced from their homes. Impact Information collected from the Northridge earthquake represents among the most detailed data sets on shaking intensity ever recorded in the United States. Scientific research based on data collected during the quake led to new building codes for the construction of steel-framed buildings. The quake also affected policy making. Damage to local hospitals prompted the California state legislature A collapsed connector structure at the Interstate 5 and State Route 14 interto pass a law requiring emergency and change. (National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration) acute care facilities to be built to higher standards. As a result of enormous recovframed buildings, including many apartment comery payouts, many insurance companies discontinplexes. Damage to streets was considerable in some ued earthquake coverage for property owners. To areas, especially in western parts of the San address this problem, the California Earthquake AuFernando Valley and within the cities of Simi Valley, thority was created as a publicly managed but priSherman Oaks, and Santa Monica. Significant damvately funded agency offering minimal earthquake age to freeways occurred within twenty miles of the coverage. epicenter, affecting sections of Interstates 5 and 10 and State Route 14. The interchange connecting InFurther Reading terstate 5 and State Route 14 located between Bolin, Robert C., and Lois Stanford. The Northridge Newhall and San Fernando experienced a complete Earthquake: Vulnerability and Disaster. New York: collapse. Routledge, 1998. A look at the effects of urbanizaA total of 170 freeway bridges experienced damtion, population movement, and other sociodeage that affected traffic for months following the mographic factors on the vulnerability of Southquake. In addition to damage to structures, the ern California to major disasters. quake caused landslides that destroyed homes and Bolt, Bruce A. Earthquakes. New York: W. H. Freeutility lines and blocked roads and streams. In conman, 1999. Provides a well-illustrated reference trast to other large earthquakes such as the 1964 about earthquakes, with topics ranging from Alaska and 1989 Loma Prieta quakes, liquefaction ground acceleration to earthquake forecasting. and ground failure did not cause massive destrucSeveral examples are provided from quakes, intion. This was due to the relatively arid climate and cluding Northridge in 1994 and Kfbe in 1995. dry soil in the Northridge area. Hough, Susan E. Finding Fault with California: An

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Earthquake Tourist’s Guide. Missoula, Mont.: Mountain Press, 2004. A guidebook to major faults and earthquakes in the state of California. In addition to explaining characteristics of faults, the book provides profiles of geologists and the methods they use to study seismic activity. Palm, Risa I., and Michael E. Hodgson. After a California Earthquake: Attitude and Behavior Change. Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1992. Through twenty-five hundred interviews, the authors examine the attitudes of home owners regarding vulnerability to a major earthquake. Stein, Seth, and Michael Wysession. An Introduction to Seismology, Earthquakes, and Earth Structure. Malden, Mass.: Blackwell, 2003. Provides an excellent reference for understanding the role of plate tectonics and seismic waves and their relationship to earthquakes. Thomas A. Wikle See also

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Novello, Antonia Coello

Natural disasters.

■ Novello, Antonia Coello Surgeon general of the United States, 1990-1993 Born August 23, 1944; Fajardo, Puerto Rico Identification

Novello was the first woman as well as the first Hispanic to be appointed U.S. surgeon general. Antonia Coello Novello was appointed U.S. surgeon general by President George H. W. Bush on March 9, 1990. Dr. Novello had a background in pediatric medicine and in public health care policy. Novello joined the Public Health Service Commissioned Corps in 1978. As a minority woman, Novello was very concerned that all federal health care policy decisions include the health care concerns of women, most especially minority women. While surgeon general, Novello led workshops and conferences to form the National Hispanic/Latino Health Initiative, which addressed problems non-Englishspeaking patients have accessing health care information and providers. Novello also insisted that children’s medical issues be of paramount importance in the allocation of federal health care dollars. Novello developed the Healthy Children Ready to Learn Initiative, which tied basic pediatric health care, including immuni-

zations, with programs to promote proper nutrition. She believed that children who are physically as well as mentally healthy are able to perform well in school. Novello developed a program to address pediatric acquired immunodeficiency syndrome (AIDS), a health care problem that began to grow substantially during her term in office. Novello also targeted the health care problems of older children, particularly teenagers. Novello repeatedly urged the U.S. Department of Health and Human Services to develop national programs to combat underage drinking, including banning the advertising of alcohol and alcohol-related products in various types of media. She campaigned against cigarette advertising that used Joe Camel, designed specifically to appeal to a younger audience. Novello resigned as surgeon general on June 30, 1993, and accepted the position as special representative for health and nutrition to the United Nations Children’s Fund (UNICEF). Novello continued to work as an advocate for children’s medical issues on a global basis until 1996, when she accepted a oneyear visiting professorship in health policy and management at The Johns Hopkins School of Hygiene and Public Health, the institution at which she earned her master’s degree in public health in 1982. Novello then served as commissioner of health for the state of New York until her retirement in 2007. While commissioner of health, Novello continued her campaign to ban tobacco advertising aimed at children and teenagers. She supported youth antismoking initiatives. Novello also worked to support the design and delivery of healthcare support programs to human immunodeficiency virus (HIV) and AIDS patients throughout New York. Impact Much of U.S. health care policy and funding concentrated primarily on the medical conditions, problems, and diseases of adult males. Novello forced changes in federal health care policies to address the needs of women, especially minority women, and children. Further Reading

“Antonia Novello.” In Notable Hispanic American Women, Book 2, edited by Joseph M. Palmisano. Detroit: Gale Research, 1998. Hawxhurst, Joan C. Antonia Novello, U.S. Surgeon General. Brookfield, Conn.: Millbrook Press, 1993. Victoria Erhart

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AIDS epidemic; Bush, George H. W.; Elders, Joycelyn; Health care; Joe Camel campaign; Latinos; Medicine; Tobacco industry settlement.

See also

■ Nunavut Territory Definition Canada’s largest and newest territory Date Created on April 1, 1999, by division of the

Northwest Territories Nunavut, meaning “our land,” came into existence as a result of the political initiative of the Inuit people, who felt aboriginal interests in the Canadian Arctic were increasingly threatened by nonaboriginal policymakers and developers. Composed of the central and eastern portions of the Canadian Arctic, Nunavut has 31,000 residents in twenty-eight communities spread over about 735,000 square miles, one-fifth of Canada’s total land area. Specifically, the territory includes the eastern mainland, much of the Arctic archipelago, and all of the islands in the Hudson, James, and Ungava Bays. The legal basis for its creation dates from the Canadian Supreme Court decision in 1973 that ruled in favor of aboriginal title claims to traditional lands. The Canadian government began negotiating land claims settlements with the indigenous peoples in 1974, and in 1982 the Inuit lent their overwhelming support to a plebiscite to divide the Northwest Territories. The Nunavut Land Claims Agreement Act, passed by the Canadian parliament in June, 1993, gave the Inuit people title to more than 136,000 square miles of land, of which 14,000 square miles include mineral rights; one billion dollars in capital transfer payments over fourteen years; representation for Inuit on several resource and environmental boards; and creation of a new territory, Nunavut, with a system of self-government. All residents of the territory can participate in the election of the government, regardless of ethnicity or origin; there are no political parties; and decisions are made by consensus within a unicameral legislative assembly and are based heavily on the wisdom and values of Inuit elders. A premier and commissioner lead the territorial government, there are three internal administrative districts, and Iqaluit, formerly Frobisher Bay, is the largest city (about 6,000 residents) and the territorial capital. Nunavut’s inhabitants, or Nunavummiut, are about 85 percent Inuit, and Inuktitut, the Inuit lan-

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guage, is the primary language of government and internal communication. Hunting, trapping, and fishing remain important activities for the local food supply, and minerals such as lead, zinc, and gold are valuable components of the territory’s resource base. Arts and crafts are significant industries, and tourism is likely to grow as a result of three new national parks. Impact The creation of Nunavut Territory represents an important milestone in the history of indigenous peoples in Canada. Pride in Inuit culture and history has experienced a rebirth. The Nunavut Land Claims Agreement Act transferred jurisdiction over property taxation, land-use planning, and natural resource management to the territorial government. Outside interests in energy and resource development have posed a threat, but the citizens of Nunavut have a strong voice in the protection of their fragile Arctic environment. Still, Nunavut’s residents are faced with daunting problems of high unemployment, dependency on Ottawa for federal funding, environmental limits and vulnerabilities, and a cost of living about twice that of southern Canada. Further Reading

Bennett, John, and Susan Rowley, eds. Uqalurait: An Oral History of Nunavut. Montreal: McGill-Queen’s University Press, 2004. Kulchyski, Peter Keith. Like the Sound of a Drum: Aboriginal Cultural Politics in Denendeh and Nunavut. Winnipeg: University of Manitoba Press, 2005. Ann M. Legreid See also Chrétien, Jean; Demographics of Canada; Elections in Canada; Employment in Canada; Minorities in Canada; Mulroney, Brian; Native Americans.

■ Nye, Bill Television personality, science educator, comedian, engineer, author and inventor Born November 27, 1955; Washington, D.C. Identification

Best known as “Bill Nye the Science Guy,” Nye earned national acclaim by combining his talents for science and entertaining on the small screen, creating a popular television program that made science exciting and accessible for young audiences.

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William Nye first realized his talent for teaching while tutoring his schoolmates in mathematics during high school. Always being interested in how things worked, Nye went on to earn a degree in mechanical engineering from Cornell University, which in turn led him to Seattle, Washington, where he took a position as an engineer for the Boeing Company. While Nye maintained a successful career as an engineer, he also fostered an additional interest in comedic performance, being particularly inspired by the work of Steve Martin. Before long, he found himself juggling both passions at once. Soon after winning a Steve Martin look-alike contest, he began moonlighting as a stand-up comedian himself and quickly launched into the entertainment industry. Nye eventually left engineering as a profession and took on a position as performer and writer on Almost Live, a late night Seattle comedy show, where he would earn the well-known title of “Bill Nye the Science Guy.” In 1993, armed with his trademark bow ties, Nye

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left the show to pursue a different venture, one that would ultimately make him famous: an educational program aimed at reaching preteen audiences that would inspire an enthusiasm and appreciation for the world of science and that would encourage youths to get personally involved in kid-friendly scientific experiments. Nye worked to demystify a wide array of challenging subjects such as ecology, physics, chemistry, and biology. The show quickly became a success among young audiences, as well as stimulated interest in many adults, teachers, and college students. The show originally aired on the Public Broadcasting Service (PBS) from 1993 to 1997, totaling one hundred episodes in all; reruns were later released to such channels as Noggin and the Disney Channel. In 1998, Nye devoted his scientific skills to the collaborative development of the MarsDial: a small sundial designed as a camera calibration target to be mounted on each rover for the Mars exploration missions. Among other inventions, Nye went on to

Bill Nye, right, and Vice President Al Gore use a pitcher of water to discuss global warming with summer camp students at the National Geographic Society in Washington, D.C., in 1999. (AP/Wide World Photos)

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develop several patents, including a ballet toe shoe and a ball-throwing training device. The series Bill Nye the Science Guy won multiple awards, including seven Emmy Awards for production, performance, and writing. It remained in syndication until 2008 and continued to be widely used in classrooms as an educational resource. Nye has also written several children’s books, which inspire an appreciation for science in young audiences nationwide.

Impact

Further Reading

Haven, Kendel, and Donna Clark. One Hundred Most Popular Scientists for Young Adults: Biographical Sketches and Professional Paths. The cast of NYPD Blue pose in New York in 1993. From left: David Caruso, Dennis Westport, Conn.: Libraries UnFranz, Amy Brenneman, James McDaniel, Sherry Stringfield, and Nicholas Turturro. (Hulton Archive/Getty Images) limited, 1999. Nye, Bill. Bill Nye The Science Guy’s Big Blast of Science. New York: Basingle episode that followed one day’s events in a posic Books, 1993. lice precinct house. Bochco was a devoted advocate _______. Bill Nye’s Great Big Book of Science: Featuring of gritty realism, so the scripts for NYPD Blue were reOceans and Dinosaurs. New York: Hyperion, 2005. viewed by a former police officer for accuracy. The Danielle A. DeFoe program was a schedule mainstay of the American Broadcasting Company (ABC) for twelve years and See also Children’s television; Mars exploration; won many honors and recommendations, including Science and technology; Space exploration; Televifour Golden Globe Awards. sion. The program’s main character was Detective Andy Sipowicz, portrayed for all twelve seasons by veteran character actor Dennis Franz. Sipowicz had ■ NYPD Blue a kind heart and a keen sense of justice, both of which he hid behind a coarse and gruff personality. Identification Television drama series The tragedies he suffered through and survived, inCreators Steven Bochco (1943) and David cluding but not limited to being shot, beaten, having Milch (1945) cancer, and the murders of his son and wife, would Date Aired from September 21, 1993, to March 1, have destroyed a weaker person. The program was 2005 not exclusively about Sipowicz, however. No viable This program redefined acceptable limits for broadcast teletopic was considered too inflammatory or offensive, vision in the areas of language, violence, and nudity. It and episodes dealt with such diverse topics as orgaalso presented an extremely realistic view of police life and nized crime, gangs, sexual perversion, and racial haimportant social issues, while retaining the occasional cotred. medic element. It was the frank and open treatment of obscenity and nudity, along with the fine scripts and acting, Created by Steven Bochco and David Milch, NYPD which truly differentiated NYPD Blue from the myrBlue was partly based on an earlier series by Bochco, iad other police and drama programs. The program Hill Street Blues, and both programs generally had a

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routinely featured adult language, which until then had been heard only on cable and satellite television. This did offend many viewers, and ABC was often threatened with boycotts and other forms of retribution.Others, however, felt the program was only reflecting the way police officers really spoke, and the consistently high ratings appeared to indicate most viewers were not too upset. It was its treatment of nudity that was most upsetting to the drama’s most vocal detractors, however. Both sexes appeared in various forms of undress on a fairly regular basis. Full-frontal nudity was avoided, but little else was left to the imagination. Like the obscenity, though, the use of nudity was not gratuitous but seemed to flow naturally from the plots.

The Nineties in America Impact NYPD Blue changed the standards and mores of dramatic broadcast television. For better or worse, it opened the doors for a host of increasingly more explicit programs that followed. Its main appeal, though, was that it featured outstanding ensemble acting, intriguing scripts, and story lines that millions of viewers found to be entertaining. Further Reading

Collins, Max Allan. NYPD Blue: Blue Blood—NYPD (NYPD Blue). New York: Signet, 1997. Nelson, Robin. TV Drama in Transition, Values, and Cultural Change. New York: St. Martin’s Press, 1997. Thomas W. Buchanan See also

GoodFellas; Pulp Fiction; Television.

O ■ Oakland Hills fire One of the most destructive urban fires in American history Date October 19-20, 1991 Place Oakland-Berkeley Hills, California The Event

gling to help others, or with no available path to safety, never made it out of their community and perished in the fire. Most people managed to escape the blaze, but many of them lost their pet companions, their homes, and all their possessions. By evening on October 20, the winds lessened and the fire burnt at a reduced ferocity, no longer spreading rapidly. It was completely suppressed on its third day. The final damage tally was not calculated until weeks later, but the extensive wildfire had destroyed approximately 1,600 residential acres, including roughly 3,800 homes and apartment units. Twenty-five people were killed in the blaze (including two emergency workers), another 227 individuals required medical treatment, mostly for smoke-related injuries, and thousands were left homeless.

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The fire was one of a series of 1990’s events that demonstrated the vulnerability of California residents to natural disasters—in this case, an inadequately suppressed grassland fire, which reignited the following day and tore through affluent residential neighborhoods, resulting in destruction, death, and injury. In 1991, Northern California was suffering from five years of drought, which meant that the OaklandBerkeley Hills were covered with dried vegetation and the fire risk was extremely high. This was a region that had experienced previous wildfires, the most extensive conflagration in 1923 and a smaller one in 1970. However, despite these earlier events, fire-resistant building and landscaping practices still had not been fully implemented in the neighborhoods. Also, in the years since 1970, residential development had moved higher into the hills, creating increased urban-grassland interface areas and escalating challenges for fire-control strategies. On October 19, 1991, emergency crews suppressed a small brush fire in the Oakland-Berkeley Hills and left the scene. Unfortunately, windy conditions the following morning fanned the embers, and the increasing gusts drove the flames into the adjacent residential neighborhoods. Firefighting services were rapidly mobilized, ultimately deploying approximately fifteen hundred individuals. It was soon apparent, however, that the wildfire was too fast and hot to be controlled and that local residents needed to be evacuated quickly. The police and other emergency-response teams moved into action, but in most locations people had little or no warning before they had to leave their homes, attempting to flee with family members, pets, and limited possessions. Some residents, disoriented by smoke, strug-

In the coming months, people dealt with grief and the psychological challenges of coping with a disaster of such magnitude. By the end of November, approximately 3,700 individuals had accessed counseling and mental health services through the American Red Cross. Presumably, many more people obtained mental health assistance on their own. Emotional difficulties are a common outcome of a natural disaster. In the case of this fire, these challenges also contributed to the logistical and financial difficulties experienced by the Oakland-Berkeley population after the catastrophe, including finding new accommodations, dealing with insurance paperwork, replacing necessary items, and returning to work, educational pursuits, or other activities. The unique geographic and cultural context of the Oakland-Berkeley Hills also resulted in some distinctive reactions by residents to the disaster. The area is located on the outskirts of San Francisco, an eclectic American city, highly supportive of the arts and diversity in general. The neighborhood population is middle class to upper class, fairly well educated, and numbers high proportions of academics,

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writers, and artists, many of whom work or attend the University of California, Berkeley. In the years following the fire, people wanted to memorialize the event in a manner that reflected the unique character of the residents and paid tribute to their losses. Given this context, it was not surprising that a number of literary and visual remembrances were published or displayed in local galleries. In addition, an official memorial was created by the city, which featured tiles painted by local residents. Impact The fire had a major impact on many aspects of urban life in the Oakland-Berkeley area and California in general. The fatalities, injuries, and losses of pets and possessions affected individual families and neighborhoods. The rapidity with which the fire moved across the residential district

resulted in improvements in many areas of emergency response and in neighborhood strategies to protect homes and key transportation links, such as the reduction of flammable vegetation in selected zones. Further Reading

Adler, Patricia, et al., eds. Fire in the Hills: A Collective Remembrance. Berkeley, Calif.: Patricia Adler, 1992. A poignant recollection through words and photographs of the Oakland Hills fire by residents, rescue workers, authors, and artists. Beebe, Grant S., and Philip N. Omi. “Wildland Burning: The Perception of Risk.” Journal of Forestry 91, no. 9 (1993): 19-24. A consideration of fire-control policies, including public awareness of residential protective strategies and the effects

Beyond the charred foreground stand the chimneys of homes destroyed in the 1991 Oakland Hills fire. (AP/Wide World Photos)

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of media reporting about the Oakland Hills fire. Hoffman, Susanna M. “The Monster and the Mother: The Symbolism of Disaster.” In Catastrophe and Culture: The Anthropology of Disaster, edited by Susanna M. Hoffman and Anthony OliverSmith. Santa Fe, N.Mex.: School of American Research Press, 2002. A consideration of the Oakland Hills fire’s effects on the community by an anthropologist who lost her home, two pets, and all of her possessions. Oliver-Smith, Anthony. “Anthropological Research on Hazards and Disasters.” Annual Review of Anthropology 25 (1996): 303-328. A review of disaster research, with brief reference to the Oakland Hills fire and some broader themes for understanding its context. Shusterman, Dennis, Jerold Z. Kaplan, and Carla Canabarro. “Immediate Health Effects of an Urban Wildfire.” Western Journal of Medicine 158 (1993): 133-138. An examination of the effects of the Oakland Hills fire on human health, documented by coroner and hospital records. Susan J. Wurtzburg Chicago heat wave of 1995; Hurricane Andrew; Mississippi River flood of 1993; Natural disasters; Northridge earthquake; Oklahoma tornado outbreak.

See also

■ O’Connor, Sinéad Identification Pop singer Born December, 8, 1966; Dublin, Ireland

Sinéad O’Connor is a Grammy Award-winning international recording artist whose successful career has been sprinkled with controversy. Sinéad Marie Bernadette O’Connor was born in Dublin, Ireland, to Jack and Marie O’Connor. The O’Connors had five children, of whom Sinéad is the middle child. At eight years old, her parents divorced, and she lived with her physically and mentally abusive mother. Her father later became a barrister to protect the rights of children and divorced fathers. At age thirteen, O’Connor was sent to a reform school after incidents of shoplifting and truancy. Unhappy at Sisters of Our Lady of Charity, O’Connor

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enrolled at the liberal Newtown School, in 1983. Her musical talents were recognized at once, and by 1984, O’Connor had formed a band called Ton Ton Macoute. She gained the attention of Fachtna O’Ceallaigh, former head of U2’s Mother Records, who helped produce her first album in 1987, The Lion and the Cobra, which contained the college radio hits “Mandinka” and “I Want Your (Hands on Me).” The album received tremendous praise and earned O’Connor a Grammy nomination for Best Female Rock Vocal Performance. In 1990, O’Connor released I Do Not Want What I Haven’t Got, which contained her biggest hit, Prince’s “Nothing Compares 2 U.” The song’s international success was aided by the haunting video directed by John Maybury, which primarily featured O’Connor’s face. Her striking shaved head and large eyes, coupled with her raw emotional and powerful delivery of the song’s lyrics, resonated with fans and made the song a number one hit internationally. O’Connor’s career was not without controversy, as she made her political, social, and religious beliefs known throughout her career. This came to a head in 1992, when she performed on Saturday Night Live. During a live performance of Bob Marley’s “War,” O’Connor replaced the lyric “racism” with “child abuse” in a protest against the sexual molestation scandals plaguing the Catholic Church, and she culminated the performance by holding up a photo of Pope John Paul II to the camera and tearing it to pieces while saying “fight the real enemy.” Saturday Night Live never aired the incident again, choosing instead to air rehearsal footage. The reaction to the performance was mixed; some radio stations refused to play her music, and people destroyed her albums, others praised her for her passion and bravery. By the end of the decade, O’Connor was more comfortable with herself and her background. In 1996, she married John Waters, a journalist, and they had a daughter named Roisin. She also appeared in Irish director Neil Jordan’s The Butcher Boy (1997). Impact Sinéad O’Connor’s music and convictions inspired music lovers throughout the 1990’s and beyond. She appeared on compilation albums and performed in several benefit concerts. Her devotion to her beliefs and causes comes through in her lyrics and music, offering inspiration to her fans.

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Further Reading

George-Warren, Holly. The Rolling Stone Encyclopedia of Rock and Roll. New York: Fireside, 2001. A comprehensive history of rock and roll. Jeffries, Stan. Encyclopedia of World Pop Music: 19802001. Westport, Conn.: Greenwood Press, 2003. A thorough look into the music that defined the 1990’s. Struthers, Irene. “Sinéad O’Connor.” In Popular Musicians, edited by Steve Hochman. Vol. 3. Pasadena, Calif.: Salem Press, 1999. Four-column summary of O’Connor’s life and career. Woodstra, Chris. All Music Guide to Rock: The Definitive Guide to Rock, Pop, and Soul. San Francisco: Backbeat Books, 2002. A complete guide to all things music. Sara Vidar See also Alternative rock; Electronic music; Grunge music; Love, Courtney; Madonna; Morissette, Alanis; Music; Nine Inch Nails; Nirvana; Rock and Roll Hall of Fame Museum; Rock the Vote.

■ Oklahoma City bombing A terrorist attack kills 168 people and injures 842 Date April 19, 1995 Place Oklahoma City, Oklahoma The Event

This was the deadliest terrorist attack in the United States until the attacks on September 11, 2001. On April 19, 1995, the nine-story Alfred P. Murrah Federal Building in Oklahoma City, Oklahoma, was destroyed by a bomb, killing 168 people and injuring 842 others. The conspiracy began a year earlier, when a man named Timothy McVeigh and others met in a trailer in Kingman, Arizona. Investigators later learned that McVeigh hated the government for its raid on the Branch Davidian compound on April 19, 1993, in Waco, Texas, as well as the incident at Ruby Ridge, Idaho, in 1992. He chose the two-year anniversary of the Waco siege to carry out his attack. The other man involved in the bombing was Terry Nichols, an Army friend of McVeigh from Michigan. Two days before the bombing, using false identification with the name “Robert D. Kling,” Timothy McVeigh rented a Ryder truck in Junction

The Bombing

City, Kansas, 270 miles from Oklahoma City. He and Nichols packed 108 bags of ammonium nitrate fertilizer, three fifty-five-gallon drums of liquid nitromethane, and several crates of explosives into the Ryder truck and moved it to Geary County State Lake, where they mixed the materials; a dual-fuse ignition system finished the truck bomb. At this point, Nichols left for Herington, Kansas, while McVeigh drove the truck to Oklahoma City. Carrying quotes from white supremacist William Luther Pierce’s The Turner Diaries (1978), McVeigh drove toward the Alfred P. Murrah Federal Building on the morning of April 19. At 8:57 a.m., he lit a fiveminute fuse before parking the truck in front of an employee day-care center on the north side of the federal building. He then walked back to his getaway vehicle, which he had parked there days before. At 9:02 a.m., the bomb discharged, destroying a third of the building and leaving a thirty-foot-wide crater. The explosion damaged more than three hundred other buildings; the blast could be felt more than fifty miles away and measured approximately 3.0 on the Richter scale. The victims, nineteen of whom were children, ranged in age from three months to seventy-three years. At 9:25 a.m., State Emergency Operations Center (SEOC) specialists arrived on the scene. In addition, representatives from the Air Force, the Civil Air Patrol, the American Red Cross, the Oklahoma National Guard, and the Department of Civil Emergency Management were quickly on hand. Fifty people were rescued from the building and treated at local hospitals. Meanwhile, news trucks arrived en masse and began broadcasting. Initial stories speculated that there was a Middle Eastern connection to the bombing, given that the 1993 World Trade Center bombing was masterminded by Islamic terrorists. Similarly, agents of the Federal Bureau of Investigation (FBI) initially believed the Oklahoma City bombing to be an outside terrorist attack on the United States and immediately sent government investigators to Oklahoma City. They soon found a piece of metal that turned out to be the truck axle. It was etched with a vehicle number that was quickly traced to Junction City, Kansas. In addition, a nearby bank videotape showed the Ryder truck parked in front of the building. They were well on their way to capturing the perpetrators. Composite sketches

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9:45 a.m. Oklahoma governor Frank Keating declared a state of emergency. Later that day, President Bill Clinton declared a federal emergency and consoled the nation. The whole country, and indeed the world, responded to the people of Oklahoma City and donated so many supplies that drop-off centers had to be set up to collect and disperse donations. Citizens helped by donating blood, and restaurants provided meals. Americans donated more than $15 million to help the victims. In all, 12,000 people helped in relief and rescue efforts. K-9 units searched for survivors and bodies, while about 200 tons of rubble were removed every day for ten days in an attempt to uncover additional bodies. Recovery efforts ceased on May 4, and on May 23 the building was demolished. In 1996, the image of firefighter Chris Fields holding the dying infant Baylee Almon won the Pulitzer Prize for Spot News Photography. Five years later, on April 19, 2000, the Oklahoma City National Memorial was dedicated, and the victims are remembered annually on April 19 at 9:02 a.m. The investigation, known as OKBOMB and led by FBI Special Agent Weldon L. Kennedy, was the nation’s largest criminal case in history. On August 10, 1995, a grand jury indicted McVeigh and Nichols. They were charged with one count of conspiracy to use weapons of mass destruction and one count of death and injury, in addition to charges of malicious destruction of federal property and the murder of eight federal employees. An Army friend of McVeigh and Nichols named Michael Fortier confessed to charges of conspiracy and became the prosecution’s star witness. McVeigh and Nichols pleaded not guilty to all charges, and the defense dismissed the prosecutor’s case as “thin” and “circumstantial” by claiming that the real bombers died in the explosion. It also contended that Fortier could not be believed because he had earlier lied to the FBI. The defense argued for a change of venue, and the trial was moved to Denver, Colorado. Joseph Hartzler led the government’s prosecution, which called 137 witnesses. Fortier and his wife Lori testified about McVeigh’s plans to blow up the Alfred P. Murrah Federal Building. McVeigh’s sister Jennifer McVeigh testified about his hatred for the government. The defense, which presented twentyfive witnesses, was led by Stephen Jones. In spite of

The Trial

The remains of the Alfred P. Murrah Federal Building following an explosion on April 19, 1995, that killed 168 people. Timothy McVeigh was convicted of the terrorist act. (U.S. Department of Defense)

were soon broadcast around the country, and a motel owner in Junction City quickly identified McVeigh. While all of this activity was occurring at the bombing site, however, McVeigh and Nichols were not making their way across country in an escape attempt or going underground to safety. Indeed, McVeigh was already in custody just sixty miles away, pulled over while traveling north out of Oklahoma City on Interstate 35 near Perry, Oklahoma, after a state trooper stopped him because his car was lacking a license plate. The police officer arrested him for carrying a concealed weapon. Just before McVeigh was scheduled to be released after a hearing, federal agents arrived. McVeigh’s real driver’s license led to a Michigan farm owned by James Nichols, the brother of Terry Nichols, who gave himself up two days after the bombing. While McVeigh was making his failed getaway, at

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the defendant’s wish that his lawyer claim the bombing was meant to protect future incidents such as Ruby Ridge and Waco, Jones attempted to create reasonable doubt by arguing that McVeigh could not have acted alone. Dr. Frederic Whitehurst, a witness for the defense, was highly critical of the FBI’s poor handling of evidence. Traces of explosives on the shirt that McVeigh wore on April 19, however, were particularly damning. On June 2, 1997, McVeigh was found guilty on eleven counts of murder and conspiracy; he was later sentenced to death by lethal injection. On June 11, 2001, he was executed at the U.S. penitentiary in Terre Haute, Indiana, exactly three months before the September 11, 2001, attacks. On August 9, 2004, Nichols was sentenced to life in prison without the possibility of parole. Michael Fortier was given a twelve-year sentence and a fine of $200,000 for failing to warn the U.S. government. The Motive Immediately after the Oklahoma City bombing occurrred, Americans expected to find that foreign terrorists were responsible and were deeply shocked when pictures of Midwestern Americans McVeigh and Nichols flashed across television screens. How, they wondered, could such seemingly everyday Americans, indeed U.S. Army veterans, be responsible for such a heinous crime? Soon it became apparent that McVeigh and Nichols were members of an antigovernment militia group and intent on attacking the U.S. government in retribution for the deaths in Waco, Texas, and Ruby Ridge, Idaho. Many Americans were surprised to discover that various militia groups existed throughout the United States and regularly practiced military exercises. While some groups advocated white supremacy, others believed that the federal government conspired to deprive them of their rights as Americans. Another group, The New World Order, was highly suspicious of the United Nations, which they believed wanted to take over America. The militia groups shared the opinion, however, that they had the right to bear firearms, a right granted by the U.S. Constitution’s Second Amendment. Thus, they considered any form of gun control legislation to be anti-American. Many militia group members viewed the raid by the government at Waco against the Branch Davidian religious cult and the 1992 raid at Ruby Ridge against white supremacist Randy Weaver and his family as acts of murder.

Impact The Oklahoma City bombing shook America to its core and deeply affected the country’s sense of security. As a result of the bombing of the Alfred P. Murrah Federal Building, the government took legislative measures, notably the Antiterrorism and Effective Death Penalty Act of 1996 and the Victim Allocution Clarification Act of 1997, in an effort to prevent future terrorist attacks. In 1995, Clinton, who criticized promoting hatred of the government and violence against authority, signed a bill increasing the number of federal antiterrorist agents, making the planning of a terrorist act a crime, lessening restrictions on information gathering on terrorist groups, and increasing funds for counterterrorism efforts. In addition, all federal buildings were surrounded with protective barriers and engineering improvements were made to construct safer buildings. Until the attacks of September 11, 2001, the Oklahoma City bombing was the deadliest act of terror against the United States on American soil. Although the bombing brought Americans together in expressions of grief, the revelations about militia movements divided the country. Some argued that militia members were simply obeying the law and strongly believing in the constitutional right to bear firearms. Others saw militia members as traitors, terrorists, and fanatics intent on destroying the U.S. government. Further Reading

Davis, Jayna. The Third Terrorist: The Middle East Connection to the Oklahoma City Bombing. Nashville: WND Books, 2004. Suggests that McVeigh and Nichols were not alone in the Oklahoma City bombing but were part of a greater conspiracy involving Islamic terrorists. Kight, Marsha, comp. Forever Changed: Remembering Oklahoma City, April 19, 1995. Amherst, N.Y.: Prometheus Books, 1998. A compilation of seventynine essays, including testimonies from survivors. Serrano, Richard A. One of Ours: Timothy McVeigh and the Oklahoma City Bombing. New York: W. W. Norton, 1998. Provides a compelling profile of McVeigh in an attempt to understand how and why an American man became a terrorist. Wright, Stuart A. Patriots, Politics, and the Oklahoma City Bombing. New York: Cambridge University Press, 2007. Demonstrates the rise of domestic

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terrorism. Suggests that the U.S. armed forces may indirectly serve as training camps for future terrorists such as McVeigh. M. Casey Diana Clinton, Bill; Gun control; McVeigh, Timothy; Militia movement; Montana Freemen standoff; Ruby Ridge shoot-out; Terrorism; Waco siege; World Trade Center bombing.

See also

■ Oklahoma tornado outbreak Tornadoes take forty-seven human lives and cause immense property damage Date May 3, 1999 Place Central and northern Oklahoma, as well as Kansas The Event

The many tornadoes that hit Oklahoma and Kansas would have cost more lives had scientific weather forecasting, technologically advanced communications, and alert television and radio reporting not given most residents adequate warning.

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per hour (32 kilometers per hour). A tornado with a rotational speed that high is capable of causing such extreme damage that it would be rated as an F5, the highest category of the Fujita scale used then to indicate tornadic severity. It was the highest wind speed ever measured at the Earth’s surface. Immediately north of the McClain County town of Newcastle, near the Interstate 44 bridge across the South Canadian, the tornado entered Cleveland County and the southernmost part of Oklahoma City, from which it moved on to the large suburb of Moore, crossing Interstate 35 at its junction with Shields Boulevard. After further movement through Moore, the tornado reentered Oklahoma City and crossed the Oklahoma County line, then proceeded into Del City and past Tinker Air Force Base. Having already slackened enough to become an F4, the tornado eventually disappeared over Midwest City, north of Interstate 40 and east of Sooner Road. It had traveled 38 miles (61 kilometers) and lasted 85 minutes.

At 8:00 a.m. on Monday, May 3, 1999, the Storm Prediction Center (SPC) in Norman, Oklahoma, issued a notice that the risk for thunderstorms was slight. As the day advanced, the SPC raised the risk to moderate, then to high. At 4:45 p.m., it issued a tornado watch to alert much of the state and part of Kansas that atmospheric conditions might lead to supercell thunderstorms, which generate tornadoes. At 4:47 p.m., the National Weather Service issued a tornado warning, and soon a small tornado touched the ground in northern Comanche County, Oklahoma. Television and radio stations were quick to inform their audiences of the general danger; as events proceeded, the efforts to warn residents proved valuable.

Although the F5 tornado in Grady, Cleveland, and Oklahoma counties was the most powerful, it was only one among dozens from eleven supercell thunderstorms in Oklahoma and Kansas in the late afternoon and night of May 3. An F3 tornado hit Stroud, Oklahoma, on Interstate 44 in Lincoln County, midway between Oklahoma City and Tulsa. More powerful was the F4 tornado that struck the small town of Mulhall, Oklahoma, in northern Logan County. Mobile Doppler radar measured the distance between the highest speeds on either side of that enormous tornado at 1.0 mile (1.6 kilometers) and measured a diameter of 4.3 miles (7.0 kilometers) between points where gusts exceeded 96 miles per hour (155 kilometers per hour). Farther north, another F4 hit Haysville, Kansas, and moved into Wichita.

The worst of the tornadoes began at 6:23 p.m. in rural Grady County, Oklahoma, near the small town of Amber, and, as tornadoes usually do in North America, moved northeast—in this case, toward metropolitan Oklahoma City. At about 6:54 p.m., as the tornado left the community of Bridge Creek, near the South Canadian River, mobile Doppler radar measured its rotating wind speed on the ground at 301 miles per hour (484 kilometers per hour), plus or minus 20 miles

Impact Altogether, at least seventy-one tornadoes struck Oklahoma on May 3, and a total of ninety-six occurred on the Great Plains that day and the next. Property damage was immense. Tornadoes destroyed 2,314 houses and damaged 7,428 others. As for apartments, 473 were destroyed in Cleveland and Oklahoma counties. Among the total of 164 destroyed businesses were all 53 in Stroud’s Tanger Factory Outlet Center, a shopping mall that has not been rebuilt. Additionally, the tornado outbreak de-

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stroyed four public buildings, two schools, and five churches. The estimate of the total property damage was $1.2 billion. In contrast to the immense damage, the human death toll was low. Of the forty-seven fatalities, five were in Sedgwick County, Kansas, and the other forty-two were in eight Oklahoma counties. The F5 tornado that began in Grady County and ended in Oklahoma County claimed thirty-eight lives. As almost everyone knew beforehand, mobile homes, as in Bridge Creek, are death traps in tornadoes. As many people learned because of this outbreak, overpasses create wind tunnels during tornadoes and therefore prove unsafe places for shelter. Three persons who tried to take cover at overpasses along interstate highways in Oklahoma died from their injuries: one each in McClain, Cleveland, and Payne counties. Along with the high number of injuries, the number of deaths did have the positive result of encouraging people in Oklahoma, where basements are rare, to have storm cellars or safe rooms built at their houses, and the total of injuries and deaths should have reminded Oklahomans, Kansans, and others of the need for solid construction and of the threat tornadoes pose. Further Reading

Bluestein, Howard B. Tornado Alley: Monster Storms of the Great Plains. New York: Oxford University Press, 1999. A meteorologist’s depiction of tornadoes through text and photographs and a history of relevant research. Bradford, Marlene. Scanning the Skies: A History of Tornado Forecasting. Norman: University of Oklahoma Press, 2001. Traces the history of tornado forecasting and the technological advances that helped improve it. Grazulis, Thomas P. The Tornado: Nature’s Ultimate Windstorm. Norman: University of Oklahoma Press, 2001. A meteorologist’s thorough, statistically rich account of tornadoes in general, with a page about the Oklahoma outbreak of 1999. Mathis, Nancy. Storm Warning: The Story of a Killer Tornado. New York: Simon & Schuster, 2007. A mixture of the stories about meteorologists and tornado victims, with an emphasis on the tornado that struck metropolitan Oklahoma City in 1999. National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration. National Weather Service. Weather Forecast Office. “The Great Plains Tornado Outbreak

of May 3, 1999.” http://www.srh.noaa.gov/oun/ storms/19990503/. A short account, with a map and photographs. Victor Lindsey Business and the economy in the United States; Chicago heat wave of 1995; Global warming debate; Natural disasters; Perfect Storm, the; Science and technology; Storm of the Century.

See also

■ Olympic Games of 1992 The staging of XVI Winter and XXV Summer Olympiads, international athletic competitions, held every four years Date Winter Games, February 8-23, 1992; Summer Games, July 25-August 9, 1992 Place Winter Games, Albertville, France; Summer Games, Barcelona, Spain The Event

The 1992 Olympics marked the end of a decade of political boycotts and the first Games to be held after the Iron Curtain had come down. They were also the last Olympics in which Winter and Summer Games were held in the same year. Albertville, France, had been selected to host the 1992 Winter Olympics out of eight bids, including Anchorage, Alaska, and Lillehammer, Norway. Lillehammer actually staged the next Winter Olympics, held just two years later in 1994. Sixty-four nations were represented, fielding some 1,801 athletes: 1,313 men and 488 women. Seven sports were included, generating fifty-seven separate events. The sports included figure skating, speed skating, alpine and Nordic skiing, and ice hockey. Freestyle skiing, short-track speed skating, and women’s biathlon were held as medal competitions for the first time. Curling was included for the first time as a demonstration sport. Of the fifty-seven events, eighteen were held in Albertville, the remainder being held at nearby resorts in the French Alps. The Games were opened by French president François Mitterrand in a ceremony featuring dancers and acrobats. The Olympic torch was lit by French soccer star Michel Platini and a local boy, François-Cyrille Grange. The Olympic Oath was taken on behalf of the athletes by figure skater Surya Bonaly and the Official Oath by alpine skier Pierre Bornat.

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The Olympics of 1992 were held Leading Medal Winners of the soon after the collapse of the com1992 Winter Olympics munist Soviet Union (December, 1991), which quickly produced a Country Gold Silver Bronze Medals Won number of newly independent states, Germany 10 10 6 26 and the unification of East and West Germany (October, 1990). As many Unified Team 9 6 8 23 (former Soviet Union) of the new states had not had time to organize themselves for the OlymNorway 9 6 5 20 pics, they were allowed to compete Austria 6 7 8 21 as the former Soviet team, but under United States 5 4 2 11 the title of the Unified Team (UT, or Italy 4 6 4 14 EUN). On the other hand, the two France 3 5 1 9 Germanies had managed to unite Finland 3 1 3 7 and for the first time since 1960 competed as a single nation. This led Canada 2 3 2 7 them to immediate success, and they South Korea 2 1 1 4 headed the medal table with ten gold medals and twenty-six medals Leading Medal Winners of the in all, outstripping the UT team, 1992 Summer Olympics which gained nine golds and twentythree medals in all. Frequently, the Country Gold Silver Bronze Medals Won host country does very well, but this Unified Team 45 38 29 112 was not the case in 1992. France, one (former Soviet Union) of the dominating skiing countries, United States 37 34 37 108 could only manage three gold medals and nine medals in all. Of the Germany 33 21 28 82 smaller countries, Norway did unexChina 16 22 16 54 pectedly well, finishing with nine Cuba 14 6 11 31 golds and twenty medals in all. The Spain 13 7 2 22 United States earned five gold medSouth Korea 12 5 12 29 als and a total of eleven. Hungary 11 12 7 30 Of individual performances, that of Raisa Smetanina of the UT was France 8 5 16 29 one of the most outstanding. At Australia 7 9 11 27 thirty-nine years old, she was the oldest woman ever to win a crosscountry skiing gold medal in the 4by-5-kilometer relay race, bringing had not won in six years, and only came out of retireher total haul of Olympic medals to ten. Another ment to compete in the Winter Olympics, having outstanding winner was the Austrian skier Petra had reconstructive knee surgery. Behind her, in silKronberger, who won golds in both the slalom ver medal position, was another surprise in Hilary and giant slalom events. Close behind her in the Lindh of the United States, comprehensively breakmedals tally came the veteran Italian skier Alberto ing the Alpine countries’ stranglehold over the Tomba, who won gold in the giant slalom for a event. In figure skating, American Kristi Yamaguchi record-breaking second time and silver in the won gold, with Nancy Kerrigan taking the bronze. slalom. Paul Wylie of the United States gained a silver medal Among other outstanding individual perforin the men’s figure skating, behind Viktor Petrenko mances was that of Canadian skier Kerrin Leeof the UT. Gartner, who won the women’s downhill skiing. She

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In the team sports, Canada won the women’s 3,000-meter relay in speed skating, with the U.S. team taking silver. Canada started favorites in the ice hockey but were beaten in the final by the UT. Canada also gained the silver in the men’s 500-meter speed skating relay. For the twenty-fifth Olympiad, Barcelona, in the Catalonian region of Spain, had been chosen over five other cities in an International Olympic Committee (IOC) meeting in 1986. Catalonia was fittingly the birthplace of IOC president Juan Antonio Samaranch. Some 169 nations participated, a record number, and 9,356 athletes competed: 6,652 men and 2,704 women. Thirty-two sports were represented in 286 separate events. Baseball, badminton, and women’s judo were added as new sports, and slalom canoeing returned after twenty years. The demonstration sports were roller hockey and tae kwon do as well as the local Spanish sports of Basque pelote and Valencian pilota. King Juan Carlos I of Spain presided over the opening ceremony in the newly constructed Olympic Stadium, and Spanish paraplegic archer Antonio Rebollo shot a flaming arrow to ignite the Olympic torch. The Olympic Oath was read by the veteran Spanish sailor Luis Doreste Blanco. The theme song “Barcelona” could only be played as part of a recorded travelogue, as Freddie Mercury (of the British rock band Queen), the song’s composer and one of the singers, had recently died. The other theme song, Andrew Lloyd Webber’s “Amigos para Siempre” (always friends), was sung at the closing ceremony. As with the Winter Games, the former Soviet team competed as the Unified Team using the Olympic flag and anthem, while the Germans competed as a single team. The breakup of Yugoslavia presented difficulties for the constituent parts of that country. Because of U.N. sanctions against their country, Yugoslav athletes were allowed to compete under the Olympic flag, but not their own. Newly independent Croatia and Slovenia, who had been invited by the IOC to Albertville, made their Summer Olympic debuts, while Bosnia and Herzegovina competed for the first time. South Africa was able to compete for the first time in several decades, the IOC having decided the notorious apartheid policy of that country had been dismantled sufficiently to bring it into compliance with Olympic rules.

The Summer Olympics

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Under Samaranch, the financial basis of the Olympics had been secured during the 1980’s by allowing commercial sponsorship and sale of broadcasting rights. This continued at the 1992 Summer Olympics. The rules that sought to ensure that all athletes were nonprofessionals were relaxed. In the case of basketball, the International Basketball Federation (FIBA) allowed any professional to participate, and thus the United States was able to field its “Dream Team” of leading professional basketball players, easily securing the gold medal. Cycling and soccer also eased the professional rules considerably. After the 1988 drug scandal surrounding Canadian sprinter Ben Johnson, drug testing was for the first time rigorously monitored. Outstanding Performances Every Olympic Games produces its crop of outstanding performances, sur-

Dream Team members Scottie Pippen (left), Michael Jordan, and Clyde Drexler rejoice after defeating Croatia for the gold. (AP/ Wide World Photos)

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prises, and disappointments. The Barcelona Games were no exception. Probably the most extraordinary success was in men’s gymnastics, in which the UT gymnast Vitaly Scherbo took six gold medals, four of them on a single day. He won in the men’s allaround, still rings, pommel horse, vault, parallel bars, and in the team all-around. In swimming, Hungary’s Krisztina Egerszegi became a triple champion in the 100-meter backstroke, 200-meter backstroke, and the 400-meter individual medley. Egerszegi had first won Olympic gold at Seoul when she was just fourteen. She became the world record-holder over both 100-meter and 200-meter backstroke. The UT swimmer Alexander Popov won golds in both the 50meter and 100-meter freestyle, beating strong U.S. challenges. In rowing, the great British oarsman Steve Redgrave won another gold medal, this time rowing with Matthew Pinsent in the coxless pairs, a victory to be repeated in Atlanta four years later. Redgrave went on to win golds in no fewer than five Olympics, Pinsent in four. The German oarsman Thomas Lange retained his 1988 title in the single sculls. In the track-and-field events, the great Cuban high jumper Javier Sotomayor finally gained a gold medal, having been forced to boycott the previous two Olympics. In the sprints, the U.S. dominance was broken by the win of the British 100-meter sprinter Linford Christie and the arrival of sprinters from Africa, particularly Namibia and Nigeria. At thirty-two, Christie was the oldest sprint champion on record. Hassiba Boulmerka, the Algerian winner of the women’s 1,500-meter, became the first female medalist from a Muslim country, having run despite great criticism from some of her fellow Muslims. The host country is thought to have an advantage in winning medals. This proved particularly true for Spain, normally regarded as quite an average country in world sport, and was nowhere better seen than in the men’s 1,500-meter, in which a relatively unknown Spaniard, Fermin Cacho, won the race of a lifetime in an impeccably timed race. The Spanish also gained golds in soccer, the men’s 20-kilometer walk, and their first ever in a swimming event. Spain came an astonishing sixth in the unofficial medals table, with 13 gold and 22 medals altogether. The UT team won the most medals, with 45 gold and 112 altogether, ahead of the United States with 37 gold and 108 altogether. Technology continued to play a significant role in

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a number of sports, ranging from improved materials in the construction of poles for pole vaulting to the materials for canoes, kayaks, and boats. Perhaps the most dramatic technological innovation was in cycling, in which British rider Chris Boardman sported a revolutionary new bicycle designed using the latest aerodynamic technology—though his bicycle was still within Olympic specifications. He won the 4000-meter individual pursuit event, beating world champion Jens Lehmann. Later, allegations were made that he would not have won had it not been for the new bicycle, allegations proved wrong when, after the Olympics, he won similar pursuit races using a conventional bicycle. The most dramatic event marking the return of South Africa to the Olympics was the women’s 10,000-meter, in which South African Elana Meyer battled the whole race with Ethiopian Derartu Tulu, with Tulu just beating Meyer to the finish. The two athletes ran the lap of honor hand in hand, black and white athlete together. Another dramatic event was in the men’s 400meter. In the semifinal, the British runner Derek Redmond suddenly pulled a hamstring on the final bend. Struggling to continue, Redmond found his father jumping on to the track to support his son to the finish. Probably the greatest disappointment was in the men’s pole vault, in which the UT jumper Sergei Bubka was widely expected to win, having taken gold at Seoul in 1988 and setting a new Olympic record. Bubka in fact totally failed to make any height, though just a month later he set a new world record. The U.S. contingent consisted of 578 athletes, compared to 494 from the UT and 486 from the united German team. Canada’s contingent amounted to 304 athletes, on a level with Australia, with 295 athletes. During the first week, the swimming and diving events were held. In these, Americans took eleven golds, more than any other country. Mike Barrowman, who had finished fourth in Seoul in the men’s 200-meter breaststroke, broke his own world record in that event despite the death of his father shortly before. The win in the men’s 4-by-100-meter freestyle relay gave Matt Biondi his seventh Olympic gold, though he was well beaten in other events. In the men’s medley relay, the U.S. team beat two world records in their win. The other outstanding U.S.

U.S. Achievements

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swimmer was Pablo Morales, who won the men’s 100-meter butterfly. In the women’s competitions, Summer Sanders won the 200-meter butterfly, but elsewhere the challenge from Hungary, China, and the UT was too strong. However, in the second week, the synchronized swimming events took place, and the U.S. teams proved unrivaled there. The gymnastics events were also held the first week. Shannon Miller emerged as the most successful American gymnast, earning silver medals in the women’s all-around and the balance beam and bronze medals in the uneven bars and floor exercise. The only U.S. gold was won by Trent Dimas in the men’s horizontal bar. The athletics events were held the second week, and, as usual, U.S. athletes excelled. Gail Devers was seeking to become the first woman since Fanny Blankers-Koen in 1948 to win the 100-meter and the 100-meter hurdles double, despite having been seriously ill for several years before the Olympics. She had only resumed training in March, 1992. She managed to win the 100-meter but found the hurdles race, held later in the week, beyond her. In the 200meter, Gwen Torrence edged out two Jamaicans to win, and in the women’s 4-by-100-meter relay, Evelyn Ashford won her fourth Olympic gold, with Torrence adding a second. The other outstanding female athlete on the U.S. team was Jackie JoynerKersee, who won the heptathlon. Among the men, the veteran Carl Lewis won the long jump at his first attempt, setting up an American clean sweep of medals. He then added an eighth gold to his overall tally in the 4-by-100-meter relay to bring an outstanding Olympic career to an end. Mike Marsh was also in the relay team, whose time was a new world record. Marsh had previously taken gold in the 200-meter, with an Olympic record time in the semifinals. Michael Johnson, the 200-meter favorite, had been surprisingly knocked out at that stage. Other U.S. triumphs in track and field included Quincy Watts’s victory in the men’s 400-meter, with the United States also taking silver. In the 400-meter hurdles, Kevin “Spiderman” Young set a new world record time to win gold. The 4-by-400-meter men’s relay was also a U.S. victory. A new world record was set in the triple jump, in which the U.S. team took both gold and silver, as they did in the shot put, with Mike Stulce’s outstanding performance beating the heavily favored Swiss Werner Gunther.

In other sports, the Dream Team won the men’s basketball competition, defeating Croatia in the final game, and Jennifer Capriati won the women’s singles tennis gold, beating the much-favored German Steffi Graf in the final. Elsewhere, successes were more moderate. In boxing, for example, U.S. boxers gained only three medals in all, a bronze, silver, and gold, finishing behind Cuba and Germany in the boxing medals count. In men’s volleyball, the team that had won at Seoul was knocked out in the first round. The baseball team also failed to make a great impression. Overall, however, it was a good Olympics for the United States, narrowly behind the UT in the medals count, but well ahead of the Germans. Impact The Summer and Winter Games were great successes, both in terms of records broken and outstanding performances achieved, but also because they were not marred by boycotts or any great controversies. Drug problems were minimal, and a disqualification of the Moroccan winner of the 10,000meter was quickly overturned on appeal. The Games were well organized and the financial backing secure. It marked a particular triumph for IOC president Juan Antonio Samaranch on his home turf. Further Reading

Goldstein, Gabriella, and Brad Lewis, eds. Olympic Results, Barcelona 1992: A Complete Compilation of Results from the Games of the XXV Olympiad. New York: Garland, 1993. This volume of the Garland Reference Library is one of the most comprehensive results lists available. Hargreaves, John. Freedom for Catalonia? Catalan Nationalism, Spanish Identity, and the Barcelona Olympic Games. Cambridge, England: Cambridge University Press, 2000. An investigation into the wider political and cultural forces at work in the Olympics of recent years. Rendell, Matt, ed. The Olympics: Athens to Athens 18962004. London: Weidenfeld & Nicholson, 2004. A pictorial survey of the Summer Olympiads, picking out the highlights from each of the Games. U.S. Olympic Committee. The Olympic Century: XXIV Olympiad, Seoul 1988, and Albertville 1992. Tonawanda, N.Y.: Firefly Books, 1997. Includes the official report on the 1992 Winter Olympics from the U.S. point of view. _______. The Olympic Century: XXV Olympiad, Barcelona 1992, and Lillehammer 1994. Tonawanda,

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N.Y.: Firefly Books, 1996. Includes the official U.S. report of the Barcelona Olympics. Wallechinsky, David. The Complete Book of the Olympics, 1992. New York: Little, Brown, 1992. A complete preview of that year’s Olympic Games, with full descriptions of leading athletes and events. David Barratt Barkley, Charles; Baseball; Basketball; Boxing; Browning, Kurt; Dream Team; Hockey; Johnson, Magic; Jordan, Michael; Kerrigan, Nancy; Malone, Karl; Olympic Games of 1994; Olympic Games of 1996; Olympic Games of 1998; Olympic Park bombing; Salt Lake City Olympics bid scandal; Soccer; Sports; Stojko, Elvis; Tennis; Yamaguchi, Kristi.

See also

■ Olympic Games of 1994 The staging of the XVII Winter Olympiad, an international athletic competition held every four years Date February 12-27, 1994 Place Lillehammer, Norway The Event

These Games marked the first time that the Winter and Summer Olympics were not held in the same year. Norway performed exceptionally well, as did Russia and Germany. Despite that Lillehammer was a town of only twentyfive thousand inhabitants, it beat rival bids from Anchorage, Alaska; Östersund in neighboring Sweden; and Sofia, Bulgaria, for the 1994 Olympics. The city put in a great number of resources, even moving the jumping hills to accommodate the Columbia Broadcasting System (CBS). Sixty-seven nations participated—with 1,737 athletes, 1,215 men and 522 women— statistics comparable with the previous Winter Games. This time, the former Soviet bloc countries competed separately, rather than under the Unified Team banner of the previous Games. These included Russia, Ukraine, Uzbekistan, Kazakhstan, and Belarus. Sixtyone events were slated across six sports, one less sport (curling) than the previous games, at nine separate locations. King Harald V of Norway presided over the opening ceremony. The Olympic Oath

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was taken by cross-country skier Vegard Ulvang and the Official Oath by figure skater Kari Karing. The Olympic torch was lit by Crown Prince Haakon in the Lysgårdsbakkene Stadium. The theme for the opening spectacular was based on Norwegian folklore. The day of the opening was marred by the theft of Norway’s iconic painting The Scream, by Edvard Munch, from the National Museum in Oslo. The thieves reckoned on everyone being distracted and off guard because of the opening ceremony. The painting was recovered several years later. The host country is seen to have an advantage, and its athletes often gain unexpected success. In these Games, Norway’s athletes performed outstandingly, gaining more medals than any other country overall and gaining ten gold medals in all, only one fewer than Russia. Their total medal count of twenty-six equaled the combined total of the U.S. and Canadian teams, who gained thirteen medals each. On the opening day, for example, Norwegian Johann Koss earned a gold medal in the men’s 5,000-meter speed skating, setting a world record, though downhill champion Kjetil Aamodt, widely expected to win, could only attain silver. Koss went on to pick up two other golds in speed skating, again setting new world records. In cross-country skiing, Italian Manuela Di Centa gained a medal in every one of the women’s events.

Outstanding Achievements

Leading Medal Winners of the 1994 Winter Olympics Country

Gold

Silver

Bronze

Medals Won

Russia

11

8

4

23

Norway

10

11

5

26

Germany

9

7

8

24

Italy

7

5

8

20

United States

6

5

2

13

South Korea

4

1

1

6

Canada

3

6

4

13

Switzerland

3

4

2

9

Austria

2

3

4

9

Sweden

2

1

0

3

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She gained the gold in the toughest of the races, the 30-kilometer, in which Russian Lyubov Yegorova, who had already won three golds and a silver, was favored. Yegorova finished fifth. The famous Alberto Tomba failed in his bid to win a third successive gold for Italy in the men’s slalom, having to settle for the silver. The figure skating usually produces a number of outstanding performances. By 1994, the rules had been relaxed, in keeping with certain other sports, to allow professionals to compete, though on an amateur basis. This meant that the British dancers Jayne Torvill and Christopher Dean, previous gold medalists at Sarajevo (1984), could compete again, as could Germany’s Katarina Witt. However, the judges seemed at odds with the new rules and awarded Torvill and Dean a very controversial bronze, behind two Russian dance pairs. At a later press conference, the judges admitted that they had made mistakes in the scoring. Witt also placed very poorly. Equally controversial was the gold awarded to the young Ukrainian Oksana Baiul. Her gold was a fairytale ending for her, as her coach had previously left her, she had no funding, and she had been helped only by her fellow Ukrainian, former gold medalist Viktor Petrenko, and his coach. However, many felt that the gold should have gone to American Nancy Kerrigan, the more mature of the skaters. Moreover, a few months earlier, Kerrigan had been clubbed in the knee by an assailant linked to rival Tonya Harding; thus, there was a large sympathy vote for Kerrigan. The incident certainly produced the largestever American viewing audience for the women’s figure skating events. Besides Kerrigan’s silver, Canadian Elvis Stojko won a silver medal in men’s figure skating, and many felt that he, too, should have received the gold with his athletic brilliance. Canada gained gold in the women’s 7.5kilometer biathlon, breaking the European stranglehold over this event. However, in ice hockey, Canada was defeated by Sweden in the final on a penalty shoot-out. For the United States, American speed skater Dan Jensen finally won a gold medal in the men’s 1000meter, setting a world record, having failed to gain a medal in four Olympic attempts at the 500-meter. Yet he had won at the world championships a few weeks earlier at the shorter race, breaking his own

U.S. and Canadian Successes

world record. In women’s speed skating, Bonnie Blair won the 1000-meter, making it a U.S. double. Canada took the silver. U.S. success began on the first day of the Games, when Tommy Moe from Alaska beat the Norwegian favorite in the downhill. Moe later gained silver in the men’s super giant slalom. In the women’s version, Diann Roffe won for the United States, making another double. Impact International Olympic Committee president Juan Antonio Samaranch declared the 1994 Games the “best Winter Games ever” in his closing speech, but he also reminded his audience of the 1984 Sarajevo Games and the fact that Bosnia and Herzegovina was in the midst of a war in 1994. The peaceful and reconciling work of the Games was still needed. Further Reading

Klausen, Arne Martin, ed. Olympic Games as Performance and Public Event: The Case of the XVII Winter Olympic Games in Norway. New York: Berghahn Books, 1999. A sociological series of essays on the Games. U.S. Olympic Committee. The Olympic Century: XXV Olympiad, Barcelona 1992, and Lillehammer 1994. Tonawanda, N.Y.: Firefly Books, 1996. Includes the official U.S. report of the 1994 Winter Games. Wallechinsky, David. The Complete Book of the Winter Olympics, 1994. New York: Little, Brown, 1993. A preview of the 1994 Winter Games. Wukovits, John. The Encyclopedia of the Winter Olympics. New York: Franklin Watts, 2002. A compendium of information on all the Winter Olympics. David Barratt See also Hockey; Kerrigan, Nancy; Olympic Games of 1992; Olympic Games of 1996; Olympic Games of 1998; Sports; Stojko, Elvis.

■ Olympic Games of 1996 The staging of the XXVI Summer Olympiad, an international athletic competition held every four years Date July 19-August 4, 1996 Place Atlanta, Georgia The Event

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Olympic Games of 1996

The 1996 Olympic Games demonstrated that there was tremendous fan interest in the Olympics, as two million visitors came to Atlanta and another 3.5 billion spectators watched the Games through mass media. In September, 1990, during the ninety-sixth International Olympic Committee (IOC) session in Tokyo, it was announced that Atlanta, by a vote of fifty-one in favor and thirty-five against, would be the host city for the 1996 Olympic Games. The 1996 Games would mark the centennial anniversary of the Olympic Games. Several other cities had submitted proposals to host the Games, including Athens, Belgrade, Manchester, Melbourne, and Toronto. Many thought that Athens would get the bid since it was in Athens where the inaugural 1896 Olympic Games took place. However, in part because of the unstable economic conditions in Greece, the committee selected Atlanta. The year 1996 marked the fourth time that the Summer Games were held in the United States: 1904 in St. Louis, 1932 and 1984 in Los Angeles. On July 19, 1996, the opening ceremony to the twenty-sixth Summer Olympics took place in the host city, Atlanta. The opening ceremony was attended by a crowd of 83,000 at the Olympic stadium. President Bill Clinton officially opened the Games, and boxing great Muhammad Ali lit the Olympic torch. The Games were presided over by IOC president Juan Antonio Samaranch. The 1996 Games were not burdened with the political and economic strife that plagued the Games in the 1970’s and 1980’s, but 1996 was not free of tragedy. On July 27, a pipe bomb located at the Centennial Olympic Park exploded during a concert, killing one spectator and wounding 111. Economics of the Games In funding the $1.8 billion Games, which were the most expensive to date, Atlanta received considerable contributions from the private sector. Corporate sponsors such as Atlantabased companies Coca-Cola and the

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Cable News Network (CNN) provided considerable support. The six-year preparation for the Games included revitalizing the downtown area with hotel expansion, addition of new restaurants and businesses, and $500 million to construct new athletic facilities and improve existing facilities. More than two million visitors came to Atlanta during the Olympic Games, and an estimated 3.5 billion people watched the 1996 Olympics on television worldwide. The IOC had negotiated a television contract with the National Broadcasting Company (NBC) for $456 million to give NBC the rights to broadcast the Games. The overall economic impact on the city was $5.14 billion, and as a result, the Games made a profit. More significant was the impact of the Games in revitalizing Atlanta’s downtown area and moving Atlanta forward as a modern city. More than twenty-five different athletic sites were used for competition. Many of the top spectator events of the Olympics, including the

Olympic Venues

Carl Lewis jumps just over eight meters on June 17, 1996, at the Olympic track trials in Atlanta. He later won the gold in the long jump. (AP/Wide World Photos)

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opening and closing ceremonies, were located at sites located within the downtown area of Atlanta. As a result, there were numerous traffic problems, which became a major criticism of the Games. A twelve-acre Olympic Centennial Park was developed in the heart of the downtown area. The 85,000-seat Olympic Stadium was constructed for the opening and closing ceremonies and to be used for the track-and-field competitions. At the conclusion of the Olympic Games, the stadium was modified to become the home of the Atlanta Braves baseball team. Existing facilities were used to accommodate the competition of several sports. The Atlanta-Fulton County Stadium was used for baseball competition; the Omni Coliseum, home of the National Basketball Association (NBA) Atlanta Hawks, was used for volleyball matches. The Georgia Dome, with a seating capacity of 69,000, was used for men’s and women’s basketball as well as artistic gymnastics and team handball. Neighboring colleges and universities provided their facilities for competition. For the first time in Olympic history, all four of the aquatics sports—diving, swimming, synchronized swimming, and water polo—were held at the same venue: the Georgia Tech Aquatic Center. In addition, Georgia Tech’s Alexander Memorial Coliseum, home to Georgia Tech’s basketball team, was used for boxing matches. The campus of Georgia State University was used for badminton competition. The Georgia World Congress Center was used for fencing, judo, table tennis, weight lifting, and wrestling. Although many of the competitive sports were conducted at facilities located in the downtown area, there were several competitive events that were located elsewhere. Canoe and kayak events were held on the Ocoee River in Cleveland, Tennessee. Columbus, Georgia, was the site for the softball events. Soccer matches were played in Miami, Orlando, Washington, D.C., and Birmingham, Alabama, and finals were held at the University of Georgia campus located in Athens, Georgia. A total of 10,318 athletes (3,512 women, 6,806 men) from 197 nations participated in the 1996 Olympic Games. A record-setting seventy-nine nations won medals and fifty-three won gold. Three new sports were introduced: mountain biking, soft-

Medals

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Olympic Games of 1996

Leading Medal Winners of the 1996 Summer Olympics Country

Gold

Silver

Bronze

Medals Won

United States

44

32

25

101

Russia

26

21

16

63

Germany

20

18

27

65

China

16

22

12

50

France

15

7

15

37

Italy

13

10

12

35

Australia

9

9

23

41

Cuba

9

8

8

25

Ukraine

9

2

12

23

South Korea

7

15

5

27

ball (women), and beach volleyball. In addition, women’s football (soccer) made its first Olympic appearance. Cycling professionals were permitted for the first time, and each soccer team that qualified was allowed to have three professional soccer players. A total of 1,933 medals were awarded. The top four nations with medal accumulations and gold medals won were the following: The United States won the most medals, 101, and the most gold medals, 44; Russia had a total of 63 medals and 26 gold; Germany had 65 total medals and 20 gold; China had a total of 50 medals and 16 gold. There were seventeen Olympic records in track-and-field events and two world records. In aquatics, twelve Olympic and four world records were established. Athletic Achievements In track and field, Donovan Bailey of Canada won the gold medal in the men’s 100 meters with a world record of 9.84 seconds. Michael Johnson of the United States won gold medals in the men’s 200 and 400 meters, setting a new world record in the 200 meters with a time of 19.32 seconds. Gail Devers of the United States won the gold in the women’s 100 meters. Marie-José Pérec received gold medals in the women’s 200 and 400 meters. This was the second Olympic Games in which she won a gold medal in the 400 meters; it was the first time that a runner of either sex won the 400 meters twice. The United States won gold medals in the men’s 110-meter hurdles (Allen Johnson) and

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the 400-meter hurdles (Derrick Adkins). Canada achieved the gold medal in the men’s 4-by-100meter relay, with the United States winning the silver. The U.S. men won the gold in the 4-by-400meter relay. U.S. women achieved gold medals in both relays. Carl Lewis, at the age of thirty-five, won the gold medal in the long jump; he was one of only three athletes ever to win the same individual event four times. This was the last Olympics for Lewis. During his Olympic career, he compiled a total of nine gold medals, becoming one of only four Olympic athletes to achieve this feat. Men and women swimmers from the United States won gold medals in all of the relay events, with a world record in the men’s 4-by-100-meter medley. Amy Van Dyken of the United States won four gold medals in swimming; she was the first American woman to win four titles in a single Olympics. World records were established in men’s 100-meter breaststroke by Belgium’s Fred Deburghgraeve and in women’s 100-meter breaststroke by Penelope Heyns of South Africa. Russia’s Denis Pankratov set a world record in the men’s 100-meter butterfly. Gary Hall, Jr., of the United States and Alexander Popov of Russia each won four medals in swimming, two gold and two silver. In gymnastics, Alexei Nemov of Russia compiled a total of six medals, the most of any athlete during the 1996 Olympics. U.S. women won the gold medal in women’s gymnastics, and Kerri Strug became the heroine as she had to endure an injury during her final event. Another U.S. athlete who had to overcome an injury during competition was wrestler Kurt Angle, who won the gold medal in the 100-kilogram weight class while suffering a fractured neck. In tennis, Andre Agassi of the United States won the gold medal in men’s singles, and fellow American Lindsay Davenport won the women’s gold medal. In basketball, U.S. men’s and women’s teams won gold medals. On April 7, 1989, the international basketball rules were changed to allow professional basketball players to compete in the Olympic Games. In 1992 in Barcelona, the first “Dream Team” of NBA superstars represented the United States. In 1996, another Dream Team was gathered, which consisted of NBA players and was coached by Lenny Wilkins, the NBA’s all-time winning coach. The team was undefeated at 8-0, and the attendance on the average was 32,263 fans when they played. In baseball, Cuba won the gold medal, Japan the silver, and the United

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States the bronze. The United States won the gold medal in the debut sport of softball. With players such as Mia Hamm, Brandi Chastain, and Julie Fowdy, the U.S. women’s soccer team won the gold medal. Impact The hosting of the 1996 Olympic Games proved to be an economic success for Atlanta. The Games served as a significant force to the revitalization of the downtown area in Atlanta. Corporate sponsors played a major role in contributing to the financial support for hosting the Games; however, there was criticism that the Games were overcommercialized as a result of corporate involvement. Further Reading

Albertson, Lisa H., ed. Athens to Atlanta: One Hundred Years of Glory. Salt Lake City, Utah: Commemorative Publications, 1996. Provides an overview of the 1996 Olympic Games. Guttmann, Allen. The Olympics: A History of the Modern Games. 2d ed. Urbana: University of Illinois Press, 2002. A look at the political and social climate of the Olympic Games. Miller, David. Athens to Athens: The Official History of the Olympic Games and the IOC. Edinburgh: Mainstream, 2003. Definitive history of the Olympics, including engaging stories of competitors. Payne, Michael. Olympic Turnaround: How the Olympic Games Stepped Back from the Brink of Extinction to Become the World’s Best Known Brand. Westport, Conn.: Praeger, 2006. Provides a business perspective on the Olympics by the IOC’s first marketing director. Pound, Richard W. Inside the Olympics: A Behind-theScenes Look at the Politics, the Scandals, and the Glory of the Games. Etobicoke, Ont.: John Wiley & Sons Canada, 2004. A well-written inside look at the Games from a former IOC vice president. Wallechinsky, David. The Complete Book of the Summer Olympics. Woodstock, N.Y.: Overlook Press, 2000. Packed with statistics and records from the 1896 Olympics through the 1990’s. Alar Lipping See also Bailey, Donovan; Basketball; Dream Team; Hamm, Mia; Malone, Karl; Olympic Games of 1992; Olympic Games of 1994; Olympic Games of 1998; Olympic Park bombing; O’Neal, Shaquille; Salt Lake City Olympics bid scandal; Soccer; Strug, Kerri.

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■ Olympic Games of 1998 The staging of the XVIII Winter Olympiad, an international athletic competition held every four years Date February 7-22, 1998 Place Nagano, Japan The Event

The first Winter Olympics held in Japan since 1972, these Games had a record number of athletes participating. Events such as ice hockey and women’s figure skating were among the most watched. Nagano had been chosen as the site of the 1998 Games, beating bids from Aosta, Italy; Jaca, Spain; Salt Lake City, Utah; and Östersund, Sweden. Seventy-two nations took part, five more than in the 1994 Games. A record 2,176 athletes participated, 1,389 men and 787 women, about 400 more than in the previous Winter Games. Sixty-eight events took place in eight sports. Curling returned to the list of sports, having been dropped at Lillehammer in 1994, and snowboarding made its debut. There were 32,000 volunteers and 8,329 accredited media personnel. Nagano lies two hundred miles northwest of Tokyo, across a high mountain range called “the roof of Japan.” Mount Happo’one was chosen for the site of the downhill races. The Japanese built a new bullet train track to make the city more accessible and added new roads, the total investment amounting to $10 billion. A new stadium was built in the shape of a cherry blossom. The Games were officially opened by Emperor Akihito, with the Olympic Oath being taken by Nordic skier Kenji Ogiwara and the Official Oath by figure skater Junko Hiramatsu. The Olympic torch was lit by figure skater Midori Ito. There was also a purification ceremony performed by Japan’s leading sumo wrestler, Akebono. As in the Lillehammer Games, the opening ceremony focused on mythic and folkloric themes. Nor wegian cross-country skier Björn Daehlie achieved golds in the 10-kilometer and the 50-kilometer race, then gained another gold in the team event. He also gained a silver in the combined pursuit event, bringing his total number of Olympic medals to twelve, eight of

Outstanding Achievements

which were gold, and making him the most successful Nordic skier in Olympic history. In the downhill, the Austrian favorite, Hermann Maier, had a spectacular crash on a very difficult course. The race had been postponed several times because of snowstorms. However, Maier recovered to win both the super giant slalom and the giant slalom. Germany’s Katja Seizinger was one of the outstanding athletes, successfully defending her gold medal in the women’s downhill. Another was the Italy’s Deborah Compagnoni, who won her third Olympic gold in the giant slalom and super giant slalom events. Though the host country usually has some advantage over its competition, this was not the case for Masahiko Harada. Widely expected to win the skijumping competition, he made a poor second jump and lost all medal chances. This was a repeat of a similar loss at Lillehammer. However, Harada did win bronze in the new large-hill ski jump, which his compatriot Kazuyoshi Funaki won. Both skiers took part in the team event, gaining another gold for Japan. Japan also won the men’s 500-meter speed skating. The country that made a name for itself in speed skating was the Netherlands. The Dutch claimed that new technology and new clothing gave them a one-third-second advantage per lap. Results proved they were right, for example in the men’s 1000-meter and 10,000-meter, in which they made a clean sweep of all the medals.

Leading Medal Winners of the 1998 Winter Olympics Country

Gold

Silver

Bronze

Medals Won

Germany

12

9

8

29

Norway

10

10

5

25

Russia

9

6

3

18

Canada

6

5

4

15

United States

6

3

4

13

Netherlands

5

4

2

11

Japan

5

1

4

10

Austria

3

5

9

17

South Korea

3

1

2

6

Italy

2

6

2

10

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For the first time, ice hockey allowed professionals to participate in the Olympics. Both Team USA and Team Canada were made up of National Hockey League (NHL) professionals, and one of the teams was expected to win. However, Canada was eliminated during the semifinals, and the United States lost to a brilliant team from the Czech Republic, many of whose players were also from the NHL. In women’s ice hockey, the United States beat Canada in the final game. In figure skating, U.S. success was concentrated in the women’s event, where Michelle Kwan went head-to-head with fifteen-year-old Tara Lipinsky. Many felt that Kwan was unlucky to have to skate first while Lipinsky skated last, which may have tipped the scales in Lipinsky’s favor. She thus became the youngest figure skater in Olympic history to win a gold medal. In men’s figure skating, Russian Ilia Kulik just edged out Elvis Stojko of Canada and Todd Eldredge of the United States for the gold. Canadian snowboarder Ross Rebagliati won the gold in the men’s giant slalom, had it denied to him by failing a drug test, then had it reinstated on appeal. Other Canadian victories were in the women’s curling event, in which Denmark was defeated in the final. The men’s team, however, lost to Switzerland in the final. Catriona LeMay Doan won the 500meter speed skating, breaking the Olympic record. In the bobsleigh, Canadian Pierre Lueders shared the gold with Italy, the first time a gold had been shared in the event. For the United States, Picabo Street won the women’s super giant slalom, quite unexpectedly beating the Europeans. She then confirmed her skills by winning the gold medal in downhill. The United States won golds in both the men’s and the women’s aerial freestyle skiing.

U.S. and Canadian Successes

Impact The most successful country in the unofficial medals table was Germany, with twelve gold medals and twenty-nine total, even though the Germans did not have any of the most successful athletes. This showed the broad range of skills the country still possessed even after the dissolution of the communist East German sports machine. Canada did very well, as did the Netherlands. The Columbia Broadcasting System (CBS) alone paid $375 million for a major share of the television rights to the Olympics, but the huge audience gener-

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ated by the ice hockey events and the women’s figure skating justified the scale of such expenditure and ensured the continued economic viability of the Games. Further Reading

International Olympic Committee. The Official Olympic Games Companion: The Complete Guide to the Olympic Games, 1998. Drexel Hill, Pa.: Brassey’s, 1997. The official pre-Games guide. Wallechinsky, David. The Complete Book of the Winter Olympics, 1998. New York: Little, Brown, 1997. One of a series of pre-Games guides. Wukovits, John. The Encyclopedia of the Winter Olympics. New York: Franklin Watts, 2002. A full account of all the Winter Games. David Barratt See also Hockey; Olympic Games of 1992; Olympic Games of 1994; Olympic Games of 1996; Salt Lake City Olympics bid scandal; Sports; Stojko, Elvis.

■ Olympic Park bombing A terrorist bombing at the 1996 Summer Olympics kills one and injures 111 Date July 27, 1996 Place Atlanta, Georgia The Event

The Centennial Olympic Park bombing, a terrorist act committed by Eric Robert Rudolph, shocked America and increased concern about domestic terrorism and security. In the early morning of July 27, 1996, about fifty thousand people were gathered at AT&T’s Global Village in Atlanta to hear the band Jack Mack and the Heart Attack when an explosion occurred. Shortly before the explosion, a backpack placed underneath a bench was discovered by thirty-threeyear-old security guard Richard Jewell, who warned authorities and also called 911 before he and fellow officers began clearing the area for federal explosives experts from the Bomb Management Center at Dobbins Air Reserve Base. Although attempts were made to evacuate the noisy crowd, the bomb, made up of three separate pipe bombs surrounded by nails, exploded and killed a forty-four-year-old Georgia woman, Alice Hawthorne. A Turkish cameraman, Melih Uzunyol, suffered a fatal heart attack as he ran to capture the action.

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Centennial Olympic Park in Atlanta, Georgia, after an explosion during the 1996 Summer Olympics killed one person and injured more than one hundred people. (AP/Wide World Photos)

The Aftermath and Subsequent Bombings The nation was horrified, and the White House vowed to bring those responsible to justice. Although officials considered closing down the Olympic Games, the decision was made to allow the athletes to compete. Desperate to find the culprit, officials looked in the wrong direction. The Atlanta Journal-Constitution ran a story saying that security guard Richard Jewell, who had earlier been regarded as a hero, was being investigated. Although Jewell was never arrested, he suffered greatly at the hands of the media, and two of the victims even brought lawsuits against him. Three months later, he was cleared and issued a public apology by Attorney General Janet Reno. Jewell said publicly: “I am not the Olympic Park bomber. I am a man who has lived

eighty-eight days afraid of being arrested for a crime I did not commit.” Before his death in 2007, he settled libel lawsuits against various television networks and a former employer. While Jewell was wrongfully accused in the bombing case, the real culprit, Eric Rudolph, was free. On January 16, 1997, a bomb exploded at the Atlanta Northside Family Planning Clinic, an abortion clinic, and another bomb exploded on February 21 at the Otherside Lounge, a lesbian nightclub in northeast Atlanta. Both bombs were similar in design to the Olympic Park bomb. On January 29, 1998, another bomb exploded at the New Woman, All Women Health Care Clinic, an abortion clinic in Birmingham, Alabama, which resulted in the death of police officer Robert Sanderson but also provided

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a partial license plate number that identified thirtyyear-old Rudolph. Despite a $1 million reward for his arrest, Rudolph managed to escape capture in the heavily wooded hill country of the North Carolina Appalachian Mountains for five years. Finally, on May 31, 2003, Rudolph was arrested behind a Save-A-Lot grocery store in Murphy, North Carolina. Federal grand juries in Atlanta and Birmingham had indicted Rudolph on November 15, 2000. In an effort to avoid the death penalty, he pleaded guilty in 2005 to the Olympic Park bombing and the three other bombings, claiming his purpose in the 1996 bombing was to punish the government for legalizing abortion and to ensure that the canceled Olympic Games would lose money. On August 22, 2005, Rudolph was sentenced to three concurrent life sentences without the possibility of parole. At his sentencing, he apologized to the Olympic Park bombing victims and their families and stated that he was angry at the government, not them. He was sent to the supermax federal prison in Florence, Colorado. At Centennial Olympic Park, the Quilt of Remembrance stone mosaic memorializes the bombing victims. Before the 1996 Summer Olympic Games commenced, chief organizer Billy Payne stated that “the safest place on this wonderful planet will be Atlanta, Georgia, during the time of our Games.” However, the occasion that was to bring people together in international fellowship was marred by an act of terrorism. While the Olympic Park bombing did not lead to the cancellation of the Games, government officials became increasingly concerned about terrorism on U.S. soil. The bombing also led to increased domestic surveillance and heightened security at places such as shopping malls, parks, and airports. At the closing ceremonies, the president of the International Olympic Committee, Juan Antonio Samaranch, called the Atlanta Games “most exceptional”—instead of the customary declaration at the end of each Olympics, “the best Olympic Games ever”—out of respect for the bombing victims. Impact

Further Reading

Schuster, Henry, and Charles Stone. Hunting Eric Rudolph. New York: Berkley, 2005. Account of the five-year hunt for the man behind the 1996 Atlanta Olympic Park bombing by Schuster, a CNN senior producer, and Stone, the former

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head of the Georgia Bureau of Investigation AntiTerrorist Force. Turchie, Terry D., and Kathleen M. Puckett. Hunting the American Terrorist: The FBI’s War on Homegrown Terror. Palisades, N.Y.: History Publishing Company, 2007. Focuses primarily on the cases of Theodore Kaczynski (Unabomber), Timothy McVeigh (Oklahoma City bomber), and Eric Rudolph. Vollers, Maryanne. Lone Wolf: Eric Rudolph—Murder, Myth, and the Pursuit of an American Outlaw. New York: HarperCollins, 2006. The author of Ghosts of Mississippi (1995) was the only journalist with whom Rudolph corresponded. The book attempts to understand the mind of the Olympic Park bomber. M. Casey Diana Abortion; Clinton, Bill; Homosexuality and gay rights; Oklahoma City bombing; Olympic Games of 1996; Reno, Janet; Terrorism; Unabomber capture; World Trade Center bombing.

See also

■ Ondaatje, Michael Identification Canadian novelist and poet Born September 12, 1943; Colombo, Ceylon

(now Sri Lanka) During the 1990’s, Ondaatje published the poetry collection The Cinnamon Peeler (1991) and the novel The English Patient (1992), for which he is now most celebrated. Michael Ondaatje was born to an English mother and a Burgher (European-native) father in Ceylon. The family split because of his father’s alcoholism, and young Michael and his mother moved to England in 1954, then to Canada in 1962. There he earned a bachelor’s degree at the University of Toronto in 1965 and a master’s degree at Queen’s University in 1967. He began teaching at the University of Western Ontario, and then moved to his current post at Glendon College, York University, in 1971. Ondaatje wrote amusingly about his childhood in Running in the Family (1982), but he became known principally as a poet. The English Patient takes place in the waning days of World War II, bringing together two Canadians, a nurse and a soldier; an Indian sapper from the British army; and a mysterious, badly burned man recov-

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ering in a deserted Italian villa. The characters ruminate on their past as they endure the tension of their isolation and uncertainty about the postwar world. (Interestingly, the two Canadian characters were introduced in Ondaatje’s 1987 novel, In the Skin of a Lion.) The English Patient was a worldwide best seller and won the Booker Prize, the Canada-Australia Prize, and the Canadian Governor General’s Award. In 1996, The English Patient was released as a feature film, with the screenplay adapted by director Anthony Minghella. The film highlighted the romance between a beautiful Englishwoman and the Hungarian archaeologist who becomes “the English patient.” The young nurse was prominently featured—indeed, Juliette Binoche won the Oscar for Best Supporting Actress for the role—but the Indian sapper was reduced to a minor character. Ondaatje, however, pronounced himself satisfied with the changes represented in the cinematic version. The film earned nine Academy Awards, two Golden Globes, and six BAFTAs from the British Academy of Film and Television Arts. It won Best Picture in each competition. Ondaatje was named an Officer of the Order of Canada in 1988. The citation hailed his “extraordinarily visual” writing and his “interest in film as a complement to literature.” Impact Ondaatje is the author of more than a dozen books of poetry, several novels, a memoir, and numerous films, anthologies, and works of criticism. The English Patient brought him worldwide acclaim that solidified his reputation as a fiction writer, and his subsequent novels have been well received. Anil’s Ghost (2000) returned to Sri Lanka to investigate the brutal guerrilla war between the government and the Tamil Tigers. Further Reading

Barbour, Douglas. Michael Ondaatje. New York: Twayne, 1993. Jewinski, Ed. Michael Ondaatje: Express Yourself Beautifully. Toronto: ECW Press, 1994. Jan Hall See also Academy Awards; Film in the United States; Literature in Canada; Poetry.

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■ O’Neal, Shaquille Identification Professional basketball player Born March 6, 1972; Newark, New Jersey

During the 1990’s, O’Neal was a dominant force on the basketball court and became a media personality through film and music. Shaquille O’Neal starred in basketball at Robert G. Cole High School in San Antonio, Texas, from 1987 to 1989. Louisiana State University (LSU) won the recruiting battle for the seven-foot, one-inch, 301pound center’s services. Coach Dale Brown was impressed with O’Neal’s tremendous work ethic, quickness, and tenacious rebounding. As an LSU freshman in 1990, O’Neal led the Southeastern Conference (SEC) in rebounds. He earned College Player of the Year honors and made consensus All-American in 1991. Besides pacing the nation in rebounds, O’Neal became the first player to lead the SEC in scoring, rebounding, field-goal percentage, and blocked shots in the same season. The 20-10 Tigers shared the SEC crown. A repeat All-American as a junior in 1992, O’Neal ranked first in blocked shots and second in rebounds and scoring nationally. During his three-year LSU career, O’Neal scored 1,941 points (21.6-point average), converted 61 percent of his field goals, made 1,217 rebounds (13.5 average), and blocked 412 shots (4.6 average) in 90 games. He made three National Collegiate Athletic Association (NCAA) tournament appearances and trails only David Robinson in NCAA career blocked shots average. The Orlando Magic selected O’Neal as the first overall pick in the 1992 National Basketball Association (NBA) draft. O’Neal, who played for Orlando from 1992 to 1996, garnered NBA Rookie of the Year and All-Rookie First Team honors and finished second in rebounding and blocked shots in 1993. He collected a career-best 28 rebounds and 15 blocked shots against the New Jersey Nets on November 20, 1993. Besides lifting the Magic to the NBA Playoffs for the first time in the franchise’s history in 1994, he led the NBA in field-goal percentage and ranked second in points and rebounds. The following season, O’Neal topped the NBA in scoring with 2,315 points (29.3-point average). Orlando captured the Atlantic Division and reached the NBA Finals. O’Neal holds Orlando career records for rebounds (3,691) and blocked shots (824). In 1996, O’Neal made the NBA’s Fiftieth Anniver-

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O’Reilly, Bill

sary All-Time Team and starred on the gold-medalwinning U.S. Olympic basketball team, dubbed the “Dream Team.” After signing with the Los Angeles Lakers in July, 1996, O’Neal attained All-NBA First Team accolades in 1998 and led the NBA in scoring with 1,289 points (26.3-point average) in 1999. Impact O’Neal took advantage of his larger-thanlife size and charismatic personality to expand into music and films during the decade. He released the rap albums Shaq Diesel (1993), Shaq-Fu: Da Return (1994), You Can’t Stop the Reign (1996), and Respect (1998) and starred in a handful of films, including Blue Chips (1994), Kazaam (1996), and Steel (1997). Subsequent Events O’Neal enjoyed his most productive years with the Lakers under coach Phil Jackson, winning three consecutive NBA championships from 2000 through 2002. In 2000, O’Neal led the NBA in scoring with 2,344 points (a career-high 29.7point average) and was chosen as the regular-season and NBA Finals Most Valuable Player. He posted a career-high 61 points against the Los Angeles Clippers on March 6. O’Neal was traded to the Miami Heat in July, 2004, and helped Miami capture the 2006 NBA title. He was traded again, this time to the Phoenix Suns, in 2008.

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■ O’Reilly, Bill Broadcast journalist and political commentator Born September 10, 1949; New York, New York Identification

A prominent broadcast journalist during the 1990’s, O’Reilly launched the popular but controversial cable news program The O’Reilly Factor on the Fox News Channel. Bill O’Reilly earned a bachelor’s degree in history from Marist College in 1971 and a master’s degree in broadcast journalism from Boston University in 1976. O’Reilly then spent the next two decades working as a news reporter and/or anchor at numerous television news stations across the United States, including WNEP-TV in Scranton, Pennsylvania, and KATU-TV in Portland, Oregon. Following a three-year stint as a news correspondent for ABC World News Tonight, O’Reilly was hired in 1989 by King World Productions as a correspondent for the newly created syndicated program Inside Edition. The program, which competed with other tabloid news programs such as Hard Copy and A Current Affair, included a mix of crime stories, investigative news stories, and celebrity reporting. Shortly after the program’s inception, O’Reilly replaced the show’s original anchor, David Frost.

Further Reading

Nelson, Murry R. Shaquille O’Neal: A Biography. Westport, Conn.: Greenwood Press, 2007. O’Neal, Shaquille. Shaq Talks Back. New York: St. Martin’s Press, 2001. O’Neal, Shaquille, with Jack McCallum. Shaq Attaq! New York: Hyperion, 1993. David L. Porter African Americans; Barkley, Charles; Basketball; Dream Team; Film in the United States; Hip-hop and rap music; Johnson, Magic; Jordan, Michael; Malone, Karl; Olympic Games of 1996; Sports.

See also

Bill O’Reilly, seen here in 1993, hosted the tabloid news show Inside Edition from 1989 to 1995. (Hulton Archive/Getty Images)

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O’Reilly was popular with television audiences during the 1990’s, and his reports about workingclass issues brought a legitimacy to the television show and solidified his professional status as a news anchor. In 1995, he left the television show to attend the Kennedy School of Government at Harvard University, where he earned his master’s degree in public administration. In 1996, Roger Ailes, the chief executive officer of the fledgling Fox News Channel, hired O’Reilly to produce and host his own television show, The O’Reilly Report. It premiered on October 7, 1996, and his first guest was General Barry McCaffrey, director of the Office of National Drug Control Policy. Shortly after the show debuted, its name was changed to The O’Reilly Factor. Maintaining complete creative control of the hour-long news program, O’Reilly declared his show to be the “no spin zone,” where news reports contained just the facts without any political spin. Both liberal and conservative guests were invited to his program in an attempt to fairly cover the issues. His confrontational interview style and strong political commentary also made him popular with viewers and set his show apart from competing news programs, such as the Cable News Network’s (CNN) Larry King Live. In 1998, O’Reilly published his first book, Those Who Trespass, a fictional story about the world of broadcast journalism. Impact Through diligence and hard work, Bill O’Reilly became a leading news anchor during the 1990’s. His strong opinions and aggressive interviewing style, while controversial, made him popular with the American public. With the launch of The O’Reilly Factor in 1996, he helped change the way news was delivered to American television audiences.

Further Reading

Kitman, Marvin. The Man Who Would Not Shut Up: The Rise of Bill O’Reilly. New York: St. Martin’s Press, 2007. O’Reilly, Bill. The O’Reilly Factor: The Good, the Bad, and the Completely Ridiculous in American Life. New York: Broadway Books, 2000. _______. The No Spin Zone: Confrontations with the Powerful and Famous in America. New York: Broadway Books, 2001. Bernadette Zbicki Heiney

Cable television; Conservatism in U.S. politics; Journalism; Liberalism in U.S. politics; Limbaugh, Rush; Talk radio; Television.

See also

■ Organic food movement Definition

Agricultural and consumer movement

The organic food movement of the 1990’s affected agriculture and grocery stores and launched a rapidly expanding industry. The environmental movement of the 1960’s and 1970’s laid the foundation for the increased support for the organic food movement in the 1990’s. Following grassroots advocacy for organic standards in the 1980’s, the U.S. government passed the Organic Foods Production Act (OFPA), Title XXI of the Food, Agriculture, Conservation, and Trade Act of 1990. The purpose of the OFPA was to establish national standards for the marketing of certain agricultural products as organic; to assure consumers of a consistent organic standard; and to facilitate interstate commerce in organically produced food. The act established standards for organic products and criteria for certifying a farm or part of a farm as organic. During the 1990’s, the organic food industry experienced sustained growth. Major chains such as Whole Foods Market and Wild Oats Markets grew rapidly and incorporated smaller chains and independent organic grocery stores. These large organic grocery chains helped to bring the prices of organic food down, although it remained more expensive than conventional food in part because of increased production costs in some areas and higher expenses due to smaller-scale production, and because of the costs associated with governmental certification. These large chains marketed organic food to consumers as a moral and enjoyable alternative to conventionally grown food products. Community-Supported Agriculture Organic gardening and community-supported agriculture (CSA) increased in popularity during the 1990’s. Home gardeners used organic techniques to grow fruits and vegetables as well as ornamentals. Home gardeners and some small organic farmers also focused on growing heirloom varieties. Community-supported agriculture was a way for small farmers to have a successful closed market. In a

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National Standards for Organic Certification The U.S. Department of Agriculture’s National Organic Program published a fact sheet in October, 2002, that explains the national standards for the certification of organic products laid out in the 1990 Organic Foods Production Act: The national organic standards address the methods, practices, and substances used in producing and handling crops, livestock, and processed agricultural products. The requirements apply to the way the product is created, not to measurable properties of the product itself. Although specific practices and materials used by organic operations may vary, the standards require every aspect of organic production and handling to comply with the provisions of the Organic Foods Production Act (OFPA). Organically produced food cannot be produced using excluded methods, sewage sludge, or ionizing radiation. Crop standards

The organic crop production standards say that: Land will have no prohibited substances applied to it for at least 3 years before the harvest of an organic crop. The use of genetic engineering (included in excluded methods), ionizing radiation and sewage sludge is prohibited. Soil fertility and crop nutrients will be managed through tillage and cultivation practices, crop rotations, and cover crops, supplemented with animal and crop waste materials and allowed synthetic materials. Preference will be given to the use of organic seeds and other planting stock, but a farmer may use non-organic seeds and planting stock under specified conditions. Crop pests, weeds, and diseases will be controlled primarily through management practices including physical, mechanical, and biological controls. When these practices

CSA system, consumers subscribed to a weekly share of food products and accepted whatever was seasonal. Some CSA farms encouraged subscribers to work on the farm in exchange for part of membership costs. The system reduced risk to the farmer and provided consumers with a way to obtain fresh, local food. Not all CSA farms were organic, but many were, and CSA systems were closely tied to the local food movement, founded on similar principles.

are not sufficient, a biological, botanical, or synthetic substance approved for use on the National List may be used. Livestock standards

These standards apply to animals used for meat, milk, eggs, and other animal products represented as organically produced. The livestock standards say that: Animals for slaughter must be raised under organic management from the last third of gestation, or no later than the second day of life for poultry. Producers are required to feed livestock agricultural feed products that are 100 percent organic, but may also provide allowed vitamin and mineral supplements. Producers may convert an entire, distinct dairy herd to organic production by providing 80 percent organically produced feed for 9 months, followed by 3 months of 100 percent organically produced feed. Organically raised animals may not be given hormones to promote growth, or antibiotics for any reason. Preventive management practices, including the use of vaccines, will be used to keep animals healthy. Producers are prohibited from withholding treatment from a sick or injured animal; however, animals treated with a prohibited medication may not be sold as organic. All organically raised animals must have access to the outdoors, including access to pasture for ruminants. They may be temporarily confined only for reasons of health, safety, the animal’s stage of production, or to protect soil or water quality.

Criticism and Controversy Consumers wanted organic food for a variety of reasons. These included concerns about pesticide residues on conventionally grown plants and artificial hormones given to livestock; the belief that organic food tastes better; and a desire to lessen environmental impact. All of these reasons have been criticized as incorrect or unfounded, but evidence remains inconclusive. The organic food movement has been criticized

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Outsourcing

for being antitechnological and unsustainable. Some studies have shown organic farming to result in lower yield and higher impact than conventional farming; others have shown comparable or higher yields for organic techniques in certain parts of the world. Critics argue that conventional techniques produce more food per acre and have lower impact because they preserve more nonagricultural land; proponents of organic agriculture claim that small farms are more efficient overall, although they do not produce large volumes of single crops the way monoculture farms do. Critics have also claimed that organic food is too expensive for low-income families and poorer countries and thus a luxury available only to the elite. Others contend that the cost of synthetic fertilizers and pesticides is prohibitively expensive to poorer countries and that application of organic farming methods would improve crop yield. The many variables involved in measuring agricultural yield make it difficult to determine definitively the effectiveness of organic farming as compared to conventional methods. Impact The organic food movement of the 1990’s changed how many Americans viewed food and widely affected agricultural and marketing practices. The enormous success of organic food chains like Whole Foods Market and Wild Oats Markets proved that organic food could be profitable to retailers and producers as well as appealing to the general public. The impact of the growth in the organic food industry reverberated throughout the decade and continued to arouse public debate in the twenty-first century. The increased popularity of organic agriculture brought up many issues, such as the relative impacts of different agricultural methods on the environment; food safety and public health; whether industrial organic agriculture is in keeping with the ideals of the organic food movement; and socioeconomic topics.

responsible use of technology and argues that resources are not finite but rather created by technology. Fromartz, Samuel. Organic Inc.: Natural Foods and How They Grew. Orlando, Fla.: Harcourt, 2006. Addresses the history of the organic movement and its connections to industry, assessing the compromises the movement has made to reach mainstream consumers. Groh, Trauger, and Steven McFadden. Farms of Tomorrow Revisited: Community Supported Farms, Farm Supported Communities. Junction City, Oreg.: BioDynamic Farming and Gardening Association, 1998. Provides an introduction to, history of, and argument for community-supported agriculture. Kristiansen, Paul, Acram Taji, and John Reganold. Organic Agriculture: A Global Perspective. Ithaca, N.Y.: Cornell University Press, 2006. The authors critically examine the successes and limitations of the organic agriculture movement worldwide, including in the United States. Lipson, Elaine Marie. The Organic Foods Sourcebook. Chicago: Contemporary Books, 2001. Covers the history of the organic food movement, profiles influential people and companies, and provides a list of resources. Norberg-Hodge, Helena, Todd Merrifield, and Steven Gorelick. Bringing the Food Economy Home: Local Alternatives to Global Agribusiness. London: Zed Books, 2002. Examines global food issues from multiple angles in an argument for local food. Melissa A. Barton Agriculture in Canada; Agriculture in the United States; Earth Day 1990; Food trends; Genetically modified foods; Global warming debate; Kyoto Protocol; Science and technology.

See also

■ Outsourcing The business practice of subcontracting labor to external sources for greater efficiency or cost saving

Definition Further Reading

DeGregori, Thomas R. Origins of the Organic Agriculture Debate. Ames, Iowa: Blackwell, 2004. DeGregori discusses two historically contrasting views, the technological view that led to modern agriculture and the “vitalist” view that supports organic agriculture. The author is a proponent of

During the 1990’s, outsourcing rapidly expanded beyond manufacturing and clerical functions to include business and knowledge processes, resulting in the offshoring of white-collar jobs. This trend not only helped American and

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European corporations to become more efficient and profitable but also globalized and integrated the world economy in unprecedented ways. Although outsourcing has long existed prior to the 1990’s, until the late 1980’s most of the outsourcing work by corporations based in the United States, Canada, or Europe occurred domestically. Toward the end of the 1980’s and early 1990’s, outsourcing turned to offshoring technology-assisted whitecollar jobs, qualitatively changing the nature of business and the structure of the world economy. Outsourcing through offshoring in the 1990’s was triggered by a coincidence of several economic and political changes that occurred worldwide. The initial impetus for outsourcing information technology (IT) jobs in the late 1980’s, most of which went to India, was the millennium bug crisis, also known as the year 2000 problem (Y 2K). Corporations could not cope with the Y 2K compliance work without external assistance. Also, the early 1990’s witnessed a number of global economic and political changes that facilitated outsourcing. They included the collapse of communism in the former Soviet Union and the liberalization of socialist economies in India and Eastern Europe; China’s transition to market capitalism; the explosive growth of information technology; the rise of dot-com companies, spurring global entrepreneurship; and the availability of a large, welltrained, and inexpensive workforce in developing nations. In addition to wanting to take advantage of inexpensive foreign labor, global companies turned to outsourcing in order to keep abreast of the best practices in areas outside their core competencies and functions, thereby leveraging their profitmaking capacity and improving customer service. As a result, during the 1990’s outsourcing quickly grew into business process outsourcing (BPO), the subcontracting of many back-office business functions that included billing, accounting, finance, payroll, human resources, procurement, accounts payable, accounts receivable, collections, customer service, and call center operations. Because some of these operations required original research and development as well as knowledge management, some have used the term “knowledge process outsourcing” (KPO) to describe some aspects of the process. The nations that served as major destinations for out-

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sourcing in the 1990’s included India, China, the Philippines, Vietnam, Dubai, Hungary, Romania, Poland, and Mexico, where skilled technical labor was available at relatively cheaper rates. Among them, India soon emerged as the leader, thanks to its large pool of highly educated, English-speaking engineers, technicians, and entrepreneurs. Impact The success of outsourcing convinced global companies that virtually every business process could be outsourced in order to create value for customers, to increase market share, and to achieve innovation. For instance, International Business Machines (IBM), which was on the verge of collapse in the early 1990’s, reversed its decline as a result of outsourcing many of its operations to India, where it also found new markets. With its substantial investment and a large Indian workforce, IBM launched its expansion to other developing countries, including China, Brazil, and Russia. Through outsourcing, companies also learned that their success depended on pursuing their core competencies and specializations while shifting the burden of routine management tasks to others who specialize in such operations. Some companies outsourced a single business process such as customer service, while others outsourced multiple processes that included human resources, finance, and accounting. During the 1990’s, the typically outsourced BPO was human resources. Subsequent Events Since the 1990’s, outsourcing has affected areas beyond businesses. For instance, higher education has recognized the need for internationalization in areas such as business, engineering, information technology, and cultural studies. As companies move their operations from country to country seeking greater value and profitability, there is pressure on skilled and white-collar professions in the United States and Europe to innovate. Outsourcing has spurred such innovation not only in client countries but also in the provider countries such as India and China. The success of outsourcing through offshoring has caused controversy. Concerns have been raised about the loss of jobs in the United States and Europe as companies began to ship jobs abroad. Some have questioned the wisdom of sharing technology and equipment with countries such as India and China that are potential competitors to the United States and Europe. Others are concerned about

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the security and privacy of data, intellectual property rights, potential political instability, and the possibility of losing control over core functions and operations. Some of these concerns appeared to be unfounded. For instance, in the 1990’s, the loss of IT-related jobs in the United States due to outsourcing was approximately one percent, and although that percentage has since grown modestly, IT employment has also grown robustly in the United States, suggesting that outsourcing has not had a significant negative impact on IT job growth in the United States. Outsourcing has created for global companies a workforce that “never stops working”: At every hour of the day or night, some people somewhere in the world are working for them, contributing to their unprecedented growth productivity. There has emerged a corporate mindset that work should flow to places where products and services can be delivered most efficiently. Perhaps more than any other factor in recent decades, the new turn in the outsourcing trend that began in the 1990’s has compelled the world economy to become more interdependent and integrated. Further Reading

Brown, Douglas, and Scott Wilson. The Black Book of Outsourcing: How to Manage the Changes, Challenges, and Opportunities. Hoboken, N.J.: John Wiley &

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Sons, 2005. Excellent overview of the outsourcing process, including practical advice for managers interested in outsourcing. Halvey, John K., and Barbara M. Melby. Business Process Outsourcing: Process, Strategies, and Contracts. 2d ed. Hoboken, N.J.: John Wiley & Sons, 2007. A useful guide to the world of BPO, the emerging market, and choosing providers. Power, Mark J., Kevin Desouza, and Carlo Bonifazi. Outsourcing Handbook: How to Implement a Successful Outsourcing Process. Philadelphia: Kogan Page, 2006. Offers tools to assess the potential for outsourcing success as well as practical strategies to avoid common mistakes. Robinson, Marcia, and Ravi Kalakota. Offshore Outsourcing: Business Models, ROI, and Best Practices. Alpharetta, Ga.: Mivar Press, 2005. Clear introduction to offshoring business processes, using examples of successful companies. Mathew J. Kanjirathinkal See also Business and the economy in Canada; Business and the economy in the United States; China and the United States; Computers; Dot-coms; Downsizing and restructuring; Employment in Canada; Employment in the United States; Health care; Income and wages in Canada; Income and wages in the United States; Mexico and the United States; Science and technology.

P ■ Palahniuk, Chuck Identification American author Born February 21, 1962; Pasco, Washington

Palahniuk gained recognition and a cult following with the publication and film adaptation of Fight Club (1996) in the 1990’s. Chuck Palahniuk’s Fight Club, published in 1996, won both the 1997 Pacific Northwest Booksellers Association Award and the 1997 Oregon Book Award for Best Novel. However, Fight Club’s and Palahniuk’s fame would truly skyrocket after the release of David Fincher’s 1999 film adaptation starring Brad Pitt and Edward Norton. Fight Club struck a chord with audiences for its critique of consumerism and the state of masculinity in America and for its highly realistic depiction of violence, for which it was sometimes criticized. “Fight Club” refers to a network of secret, underground fighting rings that serve as radical psychotherapy for the disconnected males of Palahniuk’s world. Palahniuk led a varied life before becoming a published author, attending the University of Oregon and then working as a journalist for a local paper after graduation. Unsatisfied with journalism, Palahniuk worked as a diesel mechanic and technical writer and volunteered to help care for terminally ill patients, bringing them to and from the type of support group meetings that figure heavily in Fight Club. In his mid-thirties, Palahniuk began attending fiction-writing workshops. The first novel he submitted for publication was Invisible Monsters, which was rejected by publishers as too disturbing. He wrote Fight Club next, intending to shock the publishers even more, but it was accepted for publication. After Fight Club, Palahniuk penned Survivor, published in February, 1999, which relates the story of

Tender Branson, the last member of a suicide cult, and deals with themes such as identity, free will, commercialism, consumerism, and nihilism, themes that recur in much of Palahniuk’s work. In September of 1999, Invisible Monsters was finally published. Perhaps Palahniuk’s most disturbing work to hit readers up to that point, it tells the story of Brandy Alexander’s search for a new future. She is a formerly beautiful, now disfigured young model who has lost the ability to speak. Palahniuk revisits familiar themes in Invisible Monsters, but under more shocking circumstances. Palahniuk is sometimes criticized for the absurdity of the situations and characters in his novels; critics allege that he is interested in nothing more than shock value and that his characters are treated ironically and humorously rather than with true humanity. Palahniuk has refuted this viewpoint. Impact Chuck Palahniuk’s fiction pushed the boundaries of popular fiction even in a decade when everything seemed acceptable, and he captured the angst of disillusioned young men with his vision of Fight Club. His unconventional rise to success as a writer influenced many other writers, and his Web site has maintained a large community of writers since its inception in 1999. Further Reading

Grayson, Eric M., ed. “Special Issue: The Fiction of Chuck Palahniuk.” Stirrings Still: The International Journal of Existential Literature 2, no. 2 (Fall/Winter, 2005). Palahniuk, Chuck. Fight Club. New York: W. W. Norton, 1996. Alan Haslam Film in the United States; Literature in the United States; Pitt, Brad.

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■ Paltrow, Gwyneth Identification American actor Born September 27, 1972; Los Angeles, California

Although her first film role was not until 1991, by the end of the decade Paltrow had won an Academy Award for Best Actress, cementing her reputation as one of the most talented young actors of her generation. Gwyneth Paltrow assumed from a young age that she would be an actor, playing several small roles as a child at the Williamstown Theatre Festival alongside her parents, director Bruce Paltrow and actor Blythe Danner. In 1991, Paltrow enrolled at the University of California at Santa Barbara, but her performance in the play Picnic convinced her parents that she should pursue acting full time. That same year, she landed a small role as the young Wendy in Steven Spielberg’s Hook, followed by parts in Malice (1993) and Flesh and Bone (1993). Although Paltrow was given increasingly larger parts in several films during the mid-1990’s, including Seven (1995) with Brad Pitt, her talent was not widely recognized until she won the coveted title role in Emma (1996), a remake of the classic Jane Austen novel. Paltrow’s performance as the incurable matchmaker was praised for her comedic timing and authentic British accent, and she followed that film’s success with no fewer than five movies released in 1998: Sliding Doors, Great Expectations, Hush, A Perfect Murder, and Shakespeare in Love. In Shakespeare in Love, perhaps best described as period romantic comedy, Paltrow portrayed Viola de Lesseps, a fictional noblewoman whose starcrossed romance with William Shakespeare inspires him to write the play Romeo and Juliet (pr. c. 15951596). Shakespeare in Love won the Academy Award for Best Picture, and Paltrow’s luminous performance earned her both an Academy Award and a Golden Globe. In the summer of 1999, she returned triumphantly to the Williamstown Theatre Festival, where she earned rave reviews as Rosalind in Shakespeare’s As You Like It (pr. c. 1599-1600). Having won an Academy Award at such a young age, Paltrow felt free to pursue projects that interested her without concern about commercial success. At the same time, she had already begun to slow the frantic pace of her career, due in part to her highly publicized broken engagement with Brad Pitt in 1997 as well as to her father’s cancer diagnosis.

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Paltrow rounded out the decade with The Talented Mr. Ripley (1999) and also began filming a longdelayed project directed by her father titled Duets, which was ultimately released in 2000. Although the film flopped commercially, Paltrow was widely praised for her vocal talents. In addition, although she found the experience emotionally difficult in light of her father’s continuing health issues, she relished the opportunity to work with him before his death in 2002. Impact Gwyneth Paltrow’s career experienced an almost meteoritic rise during the 1990’s, from her first small movie roles in 1991 to an Academy Award for Best Actress in 1999 at the age of twenty-six. Her consistently strong performances earned both critical and popular acclaim, and in 2000 she was named one of Premiere magazine’s “Power Elite” on the strength of her work in the 1990’s.

Gwyneth Paltrow receives the Academy Award for Best Actress for her role in the 1998 film Shakespeare in Love. (AP/Wide World Photos)

The Nineties in America Further Reading

Hill, Anne E. Gwyneth Paltrow. Philadelphia: Chelsea House, 2002. Milano, Valerie. Gwyneth Paltrow. Toronto: ECW Press, 2000. Amy Sisson Academy Awards; Film in the United States; Pitt, Brad.

See also

■ Patriot missile Identification

American air-defense missile system

Deployed during the Gulf War, the Patriot missile attracted great interest based on the U.S. Army’s claims that the system was capable of shooting down other missiles. The effectiveness of the system has since come into question. The Patriot missile (officially designated by the U.S. Army as the MIM-104) is a ground-launched missile designed to shoot down airborne targets. Development of the Patriot system began in 1964, when the Department of Defense initiated the Surface-to-Air Missile Development (SAM-D) project to replace the existing Homing All the Way Killer (HAWK) surface-to-air missile. After successful initial tests in 1976, the Army renamed the SAM-D the Patriot, an acronym for “phased array tracking radar to intercept of target.” After prolonged development, the Patriot system became operational in 1984. Patriot introduced several new technologies to the battlefield. Instead of a traditional rotating radar system, Patriot used a stationary phased array system that “aimed” the radar beam. Once in flight, the Patriot missile engaged its target using track-while-scan, with which the missile received radar information from the ground and also tracked the target with its own onboard radar. The missile constantly compared the two radar images to ensure a hit. The missile also came packaged in its launch container, requiring no maintenance from the operating crew. Patriot made its combat debut in the 1991 Gulf War. Deployed initially to Saudi Arabia and other friendly Persian Gulf states, the Patriot system performed its designed task of air defense against Iraq’s air force. The Iraqi use of Soviet-made SS-1 Scud missiles, however, forced the U.S. Army to use the Patriot as an antiballistic missile weapon, a task for which it was not designed. Over the course of the

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conflict, the Patriot engaged more than forty Iraqi Scuds fired at Saudi Arabia and Israel. The military credited the success of the Patriot in downing Iraqi Scuds with preventing damage to coalition forces and defeating Iraq’s hopes of provoking Israel into entering the war. Impact Although claimed at the time to be a technological miracle, the success rate of the Patriot provoked some dispute. The system failed to intercept one Scud attack on Dhahran, Saudi Arabia, that caused the death of twenty-eight U.S. soldiers. While the Army claimed a 70 percent success rate, some observers claimed the Patriot was not nearly as accurate as the Army claimed. Despite the controversy, the U.S. military continued to use the Patriot as an antiballistic missile weapon, with the latest Patriot Advanced Capability-3 (PAC-3) upgrade to the Patriot capable of defending four times as much airspace with vastly improved accuracy. Further Reading

Hildreth, Steven A. The Patriot Air Defense System and the Search for an Antitactical Ballistic Missile System. Washington, D.C.: Congressional Research Service, 1991. Mitchell, Gordon R. Strategic Deception: Rhetoric, Science, and Politics in Missile Defense Advocacy. East Lansing: Michigan State University Press, 2000. Steven J. Ramold Arnett, Peter; Cheney, Dick; CNN coverage of the Gulf War; Defense budget cuts; Gulf War.

See also

■ PDAs Personal digital assistants are computers small enough to be held in the hand, generally with a simplified operating system and application software Manufacturer Apple Computer, 3Com, Research In Motion Definition

The development and proliferation of these small computer devices led to the increasing ubiquity of computing. A computer that could fit in the palm of one’s hand and be carried everywhere had long been a staple of science fiction. The earliest realization of the idea was the pocket calculator of the early 1970’s, but it

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was limited to purely mathematical functions. After the development of the microprocessor, which put the circuitry of a computer’s central processing unit on a single chip, computers were able to become smaller, lighter, and less expensive. Pocket calculators began to go beyond basic arithmetic into advanced mathematical functions such as trigonometry. Some even included larger screens that could graph functions or the capacity to program equations into them, which could be recalled and used later. At the same time, the earliest electronic organizers were beginning to appear for business users. These devices generally had a date book and an address book but little in the way of installable software. Some had the capacity to synchronize with a desktop computer, but many were stand-alone devices; the only input was through their tiny keyboards. As a result, the earliest generation of electronic organizers were regarded as little more than expensive toys by many consumers. In 1993, Apple Computer’s chief executive officer (CEO), John Sculley, announced that Apple would be producing a new kind of handheld computer, which he called a personal digital assistant, or PDA. This device, which Apple would sell under the name of MessagePad, would not use a keyboard. Instead, the user would write directly on its touchsensitive screen with a plastic stylus (a device like a pen but without ink) and the computer’s “electronic ink” would write the letters. It would be particularly suitable for people who needed to use a computer while walking around and thus found a laptop too bulky and awkward. The initial response to the MessagePad was enthusiastic, but once the device actually shipped, the excitement quickly waned. The handwriting recognition, which had been promoted so heavily, was problematic, often turning one’s messages into incomprehensible messes. The processor was slow, and synchronization with a desktop machine, even Apple’s own Macintosh, was inconsistent. Worst of all, the battery life was notoriously short, and users often lost all their data when the batteries suddenly died. As a result, the MessagePad, often called Newton after its operating system (OS), proved to have disappointing sales figures. Although the Newton went through multiple revisions over the next several years, none of them was able to create an acceptable combination of price and performance. In

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1997, Steve Jobs put an end to the Newton as part of his program to simplify Apple’s product line. However, even as Apple was struggling with the MessagePad and the Newton OS, Jeff Hawkins was creating his own pen-based handheld computer. Initially called a Zoomer, it was later renamed the Palm Pilot, or simply the Palm. In order to strike a balance between battery life and processor power, Hawkins decided to abandon true handwriting recognition in favor of a simplified alphabet called Graffiti. As a result, the Palm made a respectable, if not spectacular, showing that allowed its company to grow and expand. While Apple had sought to produce a perfect product, Palm was satisfied to make one that would make a practical difference in people’s lives while staying within the constraints of workable technology. In 1998, another contender entered the PDA field when the Canadian company Research In Motion (RIM) introduced the BlackBerry. Originally a two-way pager with some organizer functions, it was distinct from pen-based PDAs, such as the Newton and the Palm, because it had a tiny keyboard on which one typed, using the thumbs. This feature reminded one of the designers of the seeds in a strawberry; however, a linguist suggested that “straw” sounded slow, and as a result, the official name became BlackBerry. Because the BlackBerry’s organizer functions were closely integrated with its wireless connection, it was notable for the smoothness with which a user could contact someone. As a result, later BlackBerry models began to expand their organizer functions until they effectively became fullservice PDAs with wireless connectivity. The success of the BlackBerry led Palm to investigate the possibility of a PDA with wireless Internet connectivity. The first attempt, the Palm VII, debuted as the 1990’s gave way to the twenty-first century. However, it used a proprietary network and “web clippings,” miniature Web pages that had to be acquired from Palm. Impact In spite of the commercial failure of the Apple Newton, it proved the viability of the idea of the handheld computer sufficiently enough that other companies were willing to produce their own designs. By using less ambitious software, these were able to keep costs down to the point that they could sell enough to make the venture economical. With the addition of wireless connections that enabled

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the user to remain connected with either a base computer or the Internet while moving around, PDAs became indispensable for executives and others who needed computing not bounded by location. As a result, by the beginning of the twenty-first century a convergence began to develop between PDAs and cellular telephones. Further Reading

Butter, Andrea, and David Pogue. Piloting Palm: The Inside Story of Palm, Handspring, and the Birth of the Billion-Dollar Handheld Industry. New York: John Wiley & Sons, 2002. A history of the Palm PDA. Kounalakis, Markos. Defying Gravity: The Making of Newton. Hillsboro, Oreg.: Beyond Worlds Publishing, 1993. The history of the Apple Newton in words and pictures. Malone, Michael S. Infinite Loop: How Apple, the World’s Most Insanely Great Computer Company, Went Insane. New York: Doubleday, 1999. Places the Newton into the context of Apple’s confused business model during the middle of the 1990’s. Swedin, Eric G., and David L. Ferro. Computers: The Life Story of a Technology. Greenwood Technographies. Westport, Conn.: Greenwood Press, 2005. A basic overview that puts the PDA in perspective as part of the larger computer revolution. Leigh Husband Kimmel See also Apple Computer; Cell phones; Computers; Internet; Jobs, Steve; MP3 format; Science and technology.

■ Perfect Storm, the An unusual combination of three weather systems produces a severe single storm Date October 28-November 1, 1991 The Event

This huge storm caused havoc along the eastern seaboard of North America, killing twelve people and causing hundreds of millions of dollars worth of damage. The moniker the “Perfect Storm” was coined by author and journalist Sebastian Junger after a comment made by a National Weather Service (NWS) deputy. The term refers to the combination of three lesser weather events into a single massive storm that was far more damaging than if the storms had stayed separate. The Perfect Storm is also referred to as the

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“1991 Halloween Nor’easter” or colloquially as the “No-Name Storm” in New England. On October 28, 1991, a mass of warm air from over the Atlantic Ocean and a flow of cool dry air from Canada created a classic weather event called a nor’easter. The event was typical for the time of year, although larger than average. The nor’easter was located a few hundred miles east of Nova Scotia. The resulting low pressure system pulled the remnants of Hurricane Grace into the storm on October 29. Hurricane Grace had already been generating tento fifteen-foot swells, and with the added energy, the Perfect Storm was generating hurricane-force gusts up 65 knots (74.9 miles per hour) and wave heights of thirty-nine feet by its peak on October 30 according to the NWS. The storm itself was over fifteen hundred miles wide, well over five times the size of a typical hurricane. Although the NWS has no data to support it, waves at sea were reported to be as high as one hundred feet by eyewitness accounts. A Canadian weather buoy also recorded similar readings. The storm at this time had drifted southward and was about 350 miles south of Halifax. The storm was so large that waves ten to thirty feet high were common from North Carolina to Nova Scotia. By October 31, the storm had stalled and started moving backward toward the west. It lost energy over the next few days but did not dissipate. Instead, it gained energy from the warm waters of the Gulf Stream and developed into a hurricane by November 2. It made landfall in Nova Scotia and quickly degenerated into a tropical depression. It dissipated within ten hours of landfall, and no damage was reported. The hurricane was never named to avoid confusion between the unnamed hurricane and the Halloween Nor’easter. Rescue Efforts and Aftermath Because of the unexpected formation and severity of the storm, fishing and sailing vessels were caught unawares in the fourstory-high waves. The Coast Guard cutter Tamaroa rescued three people from the sailing vessel Satori on October 30. That day, a New York National Guard helicopter had to ditch because of lack of fuel after trying to rescue a solo sailor 250 miles southeast of Long Island. A Coast Guard helicopter tried to rescue the downed crew members, but the winds were so strong that the rescue basket threatened to blow into the tail rotor. The Tamaroa arrived on the scene, and the helicopter assisted by dropping flares and

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using its searchlight to help the ship locate the crew members. The Tamaroa threw a cargo net over the side of the ship to assist the crew members in climbing aboard, but a fifth member of the crew was lost to the storm despite the efforts. The Andrea Gail was a seventy-two-foot fishing vessel returning from a fishing expedition and was caught in the storm. On October 28, the last transmission from the ship reported waves of thirty feet and wind gusts up to 80 knots (92.2 miles per hour) The ship was reported overdue on October 30, and after a massive search, the six-member crew was presumed dead, missing at sea. Debris from the ship was later found on Sable Island. Overall, the storm was responsible for twelve deaths. Beach erosion and flooding were widespread. There were reports of damage from the Bahamas to northern Canada, with the worst effects seen in the New England states. There was a record-high tide in Ocean City, Maryland, that reached 7.8 feet; in Boston, the tide reached 14.1 feet above the mean low water. Lighthouses, homes, and businesses were damaged by the lengthy storm. Piers and seawalls were destroyed, and in an area where fishing is vital to the economy, numerous small boats and lobster traps were also destroyed. Federal disaster sites were declared for seven counties in Massachusetts, five counties in Maine, and one county in New Hampshire. Impact The Perfect Storm was a rare and massive combination of three separate weather events that created a front hundreds of miles wide. It affected an area that encompassed the entire eastern seaboard of the United States and Canada and affected areas as far south as Puerto Rico. It caused hundreds of millions of dollars of damage, and the impact on the New England coast has been referred to as “the worst in living memory.” Further Reading

Houghton, Gillian. The Wreck of the “Andrea Gail”: Three Days of a Perfect Storm. New York: Rosen Central, 2003. An account of the Perfect Storm that focuses on the ship, Andrea Gail, and its crew. Junger, Sebastian. The Perfect Storm: A True Story of Men Against the Sea. New York: W. W. Norton, 1997. A riveting account of the Perfect Storm that was the basis for the 2000 film adaptation. Sargent, William. Storm Surge: A Coastal Village Battles the Rising Atlantic. Hanover, N.H.: University Press of New England, 2004. Focuses on the regional ef-

fects of storms, with a section on the Perfect Storm. U.S. Department of Commerce. National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration. National Weather Service. The Halloween Nor’easter of 1991: East Coast of the United States . . . Maine to Florida and Puerto Rico, October 28 to November 1, 1991. Natural Disaster Survey Report. Silver Spring, Md.: Author, 1992. The official account of the Perfect Storm by the National Weather Service. James J. Heiney See also Global warming debate; Hurricane Andrew; Natural disasters; Oklahoma tornado outbreak; Storm of the Century.

■ Perlman, Itzhak Identification Israeli American musician Born August 31, 1945; Tel Aviv, Palestine (now in

Israel) Perlman became an ambassador for classical music in the 1990’s with his engaging personality and ability to appeal to popular audiences. From the 1960’s through the 1980’s, Itzhak Perlman developed a reputation as one of the finest classical violinists in the world, despite having survived a childhood bout with polio that left him partially paralyzed. Possessed of an accessibility and sense of humor that endeared him to popular audiences, Perlman had also increased public awareness and appreciation of classical music through numerous television and radio appearances and by the 1990’s had become the face of classical music to many audiences who previously had had little or no exposure to the genre. In addition to historic visits to former Soviet-bloc nations in the early 1990’s and to China and India in 1994, Perlman raised the profile of classical music in the United States, appearing on such popular American television programs as Mister Rogers’ Neighborhood and Late Show with David Letterman. He appeared frequently on programs broadcast by the Public Broadcasting Service (PBS) and in 1994 hosted the U.S. broadcast of a performance by the Three Tenors, viewed by millions of Americans. Perlman continued to perform frequently during the 1990’s and released a prolific body of recorded

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struction of musically gifted children, and often participated personally in this program as a teacher and conductor. His appearances on children’s television programs also raised awareness of classical music among young Americans. In addition, Perlman supported aid and musical education for disabled children through several foundations and scholarship programs, and he advocated for the rights of the disabled by speaking out against lags in implementation of the Americans with Disabilities Act of 1990 and by insisting upon performing only in concert halls offering full accessability to disabled patrons and performers. Impact Through numerous television appearances and charitable projects, Perlman exposed classical music to a wider audience during the 1990’s, conveying a public image that contradicted the popular stereotype of the elitist clasRenowned violinist Itzhak Perlman performs with the klezmer group Brave Old sical musician. His virtuosity and promiWorld at New York’s Radio City Music Hall, on July 2, 1996. Perlman helped nence in the American media also raise awareness of classical music among popular audiences. (AP/Wide World served to dispel stereotypes of disabled Photos) persons and call attention to issues affecting the disabled. At the end of the twentieth century, Perlman remained a vibrant force classical music during the decade, winning a both in classical music and in American popular culGrammy Award in 1991 for his recording of Brahms: ture. The Three Violin Sonatas and an Academy Award for his work on the score of the 1993 film Schindler’s List. Further Reading Perlman had also begun to explore music from Behrman, Carol H. Fiddler to the World: The Inspiring other genres, collaborating with jazz pianist Oscar Life of Itzhak Perlman. White Hall, Va.: Shoe Tree Peterson on the 1994 album Side by Side and perPress, 1992. forming traditional Jewish klezmer music. His forays Morin, Alexander. Classical Music: Third Ear—The Esinto other musical genres led some classical music sential Listening Companion. San Francisco: Backpurists to conclude that his best work was behind beat Books, 2001. him; yet his appeal among popular audiences conMichael H. Burchett tinued to grow. Throughout the 1990’s, Perlman also maintained See also Americans with Disabilities Act of 1990; a long-standing dedication to classical music educaClassical music; Jewish Americans; Music; Schindler’s tion for children. In 1995, he founded the Perlman List. Summer Music Program, which sponsors the in-

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■ Perot, H. Ross American businessman and U.S. presidential candidate in 1992 and 1996 Born June 27, 1930; Texarkana, Texas Identification

Although not endorsed by either of the two major political parties in the United States, Perot had a substantial following among fiscal and social conservatives in his runs for the presidency as an independent in the election of 1992 and as a candidate of the Reform Party in the election of 1996.

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that his ability to manage a corporation with more than seventy thousand employees demonstrated his strong administrative ability. The 1992 Presidential Election In 1992, the Republican incumbent, George H. W. Bush, sought a second term as president. His Democratic opponent, Bill Clinton, was a newcomer to the national political scene. Perot, appalled by the looming federal debt the Bush administration was incurring, called for a drastic reduction in the budget deficit that was developing at an alarming rate. Perot’s bid for the presidency began in February, 1992, when he announced his intention to run for the nation’s highest office if his name appeared on the ballots of all fifty states before the November presidential election. It was obvious that Perot had the means to finance his own campaign, thereby enabling him to avoid having ties with corporate contributors. Staffed by a strong cadre of volunteers, the Perot campaign went well, but in July, 1992, the candidate

A self-made billionaire when the decade of the 1990’s dawned, H. Ross Perot made his fortune as the founder of a multibillion-dollar data-processing organization that grew into a corporation with more than seventy thousand employees. After General Motors bought him out in 1984 for over two and a half billion dollars, Perot became the largest shareholder in General Motors and served on its board of directors. The ever-restless Perot established a computer service company in 1988, but he now set his sights on attempting to alter significantly the political Ross Perot on the Economy scene in the United States. Rich and influential, he attracted an enthusiastic following of conserDuring the third presidential debate of 1992, Perot spoke further of his vatives who rankled at governplan to eliminate the budget deficit: ment interference in businesses and who were suspicious of the Our challenge is to stop the financial bleeding. If you take a paclose ties that many high-level poltient into the hospital that’s bleeding arterially, step one is to stop iticians established with influenthe bleeding. And we are bleeding arterially. tial contributors to their political There’s only one way out of this, and that is to stop the deteriocampaigns. It seemed obvious ration of our job base, to have a growing, expanding job base, to that executives of corporations give us the tax base—see, balancing the budget is not nearly as that contributed substantially to difficult as paying off the $4 trillion debt and leaving our children politicians’ war chests expected the American Dream intact. reciprocity once their candidates We have spent their money. We’ve got to pay it back. This is gowere elected. ing to take fair, shared sacrifice. My plan balances the budget Perot, able and willing to fiwithin six years. We didn’t do it faster than that because we didn’t nance his own presidential camwant to disrupt the economy. We gave it off to a slow start and a paign, appeared to many to reprefast finish to give the economy time to recover. But we faced it and sent a new direction in American we did it, and we believe it’s fair, shared sacrifice. politics. Even though Perot had The one thing I have done is lay it squarely on the table in front no political experience and had of the American people. You’ve had a number of occasions to see never held an elective office, peoin detail what the plan is, and at least you’ll understand it. I think ple were convinced that his busithat’s fundamental in our country, that you know what you’re getness acumen compensated for ting into. his lack of such experience and

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announced that he did not think he could win and was withdrawing from the competition. Despite this retreat, the volunteers working for Perot persisted and saw to it that their candidate’s name was eventually on the ballots of all fifty states. These volunteers considered Perot an outsider in a field dominated by one insider, Bush, and by a novice on the national scene, Clinton, who, they feared, would sell out to special interest groups to finance his campaign. His campaign seemingly stalled, Perot changed his mind and, in October, 1992, announced that he would run for the presidency in the upcoming election. He chose retired vice admiral James Stockdale as his running mate. Given the on-and-off nature of Perot’s campaign, it is surprising that he managed to receive approximately 19 percent of the popular vote in an election that brought Clinton into office but failed to give Perot any electoral votes. Perot and Clinton both benefited from public discontent with the Bush administration. The Election of 1996 After his defeat in 1992, Ross Perot founded the Reform Party. He became its standard bearer in his 1996 bid for the presidency, running with Pat Choate, an economist, as the vice presidential candidate. Perot wrote several books during the 1990’s that expounded his political and social philosophies. In 1993, almost immediately after the 1992 election, he published Not for Sale at Any Price: How We Can Save America for Our Children, which presented a clear impression of what Perot stood for. This book was written for an electorate that he hoped would join his Reform Party movement and sweep him into office in 1996. Bill Clinton’s first term was a popular success. Government spending was brought under reasonable control, and the budget deficit decreased. Much that Perot hoped to achieve was already being achieved by the incumbent. In November, 1996, Clinton scored an easy victory, and Perot won just 8 percent of the popular vote. Impact Ross Perot was the quintessential self-made man. He succeeded impressively in the corporate world. He had a strongly held vision for an America that would limit government intrusion into the lives of citizens and that would strictly control government spending with a resultant decrease in the national budget deficit.

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Perot stood for principles that many Americans espoused, but his views were shared by people from both major political parties. In regard to the economy, Perot’s principles were not substantially different from those of Clinton, who had the advantage of having served as governor of a state that provided him with experience that served him well as president. Further Reading

Perot, H. Ross. Not for Sale at Any Price: How We Can Save America for Our Children. New York: Hyperion, 1993. Includes his plan for resolving the budget deficit. _______. Ross Perot: My Life and the Principles for Success. Arlington, Tex.: Summit, 1996. A clear statement of Perot’s political posture and his conviction that drastic political change is urgently needed. _______. United We Stand: How We Can Take Back Our Country. New York: Hyperion, 1992. A lucid preelection statement of what Perot stands for. Posner, Gerald. Citizen Perot: His Life and Times. New York: Random House, 1996. The most complete and authoritative assessment of Perot and of his contributions to the American political scene. R. Baird Shuman See also Bush, George H. W.; Clinton, Bill; Conservatism in U.S. politics; Dole, Bob; Elections in the United States, 1992; Elections in the United States, 1996; Recession of 1990-1991; Republican Revolution; Stockdale, James.

■ Pharmaceutical industry Industry involved in the manufacture and sale of medicinal drugs

Identification

The pharmaceutical industry in the 1990’s introduced a wide variety of new medications for use by the general public, as well as adding to the advertisements of the decade. During the 1990’s, the use of medication to treat a variety of illnesses, both serious and nonserious, increased dramatically. The pharmaceutical industry nearly doubled posted profits between 1990 and 1996, and what was already a multibillion-dollar industry continued to expand. At the same time, phar-

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maceutical industries contributed millions of dollars to politicians. New Drugs Several types of medications were introduced and approved by the Food and Drug Administration (FDA) in the 1990’s, including some socalled blockbuster drugs, those that post earnings of more than $1 billion in a year. Some of these drugs were Lipitor (approved in 1996), a drug for lowering cholesterol, which became the top-selling medication of all time; Viagra (1998), a drug originally designed to increase circulation and used to treat erectile dysfunction; and Effexor (1993), a drug that treats anxiety and depression and is used for pain management, though this last use is off-label (not an approved treatment according to the FDA). In addition, many drugs were developed for rheumatoid arthritis, asthma, depression, and other medical problems.

Several drugs were withdrawn during the 1990’s, most notably Fen-phen, a drug manufactured by Wyeth. Designed to be a weightloss aid, Fen-phen was linked by the Mayo Clinic to heart disease in several women. The FDA requested Fen-phen’s withdrawal in 1997. Most of the drugs withdrawn from the market during the 1990’s were not widely used. Some drugs approved during the 1990’s were withdrawn at a later date. Vioxx, a drug used to treat osteoarthritis, was approved in 1999 but withdrawn from the market in 2004, after reports of increased risk of heart disease.

Drugs Withdrawn

Research Research in the 1990’s focused on several primary avenues. Medication designed for heart disease was responsible for a large amount of research, as was medication to treat anxiety and depression. Research also focused on antiretrovirals to halt the duplication of the human immunodeficiency virus (HIV) and acquired immunodeficiency syndrome (AIDS); highly active antiretroviral therapy (HAART) was developed in 1996, allowing many HIV/AIDS patients to have their symptoms stabilized. Drug research also focused on antidiabetic drugs, as diabetes rates continued to increase alongside obesity rates. As diagnoses of Alzheimer’s disease increased, so did research for drug therapy to slow and stop the onset of the disease, as well as to treat patients already in advanced stages. As diagnoses of attention-deficit disorder (ADD)

and attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder (ADHD) increased, so did prescriptions for drugs to treat the conditions; most drugs used to treat ADD/ADHD are amphetamines, such as methylphenidate hydrochloride, commonly known by its brand name Ritalin. Adderall was introduced in 1996 as a mixture of amphetamines and dextroamphetamines to treat ADD/ADHD. Direct-toconsumer (DTC) advertising of pharmaceuticals was approved in 1997 by the FDA. Prescription drug advertising was placed under the direct surveillance of the FDA, rather than the Federal Trade Commission, which oversees over-the-counter medication advertising. This permission for DTC advertising came under much criticism from both doctors and politicians, as some saw this advertising as a method to sell medications to people who did not need them. Critics have also called for an end to drug marketing to physicians, claiming that physicians may become biased in prescribing drugs. Toward the end of the 1990’s, drug lobbying in Washington reached new levels as the pharmaceutical industry outspent all other industries in lobbying; at the same time, drug companies donated large amounts of money to politicians, primarily Republicans, though Democrats also received donations. With the development of blockbuster drugs, drug advertising, and increased political contributions, the moniker of “Big Pharma” was introduced to refer to pharmaceutical companies that posted yearly profits in excess of $3 billion. Many of the most well-known companies, like Johnson & Johnson, Merck, AstroZeneca, GlaxoSmithKline, Pfizer, Eli Lilly, and Bristol-Myers Squibb are included under the term.

Drug Advertising and Business Growth

Impact During the 1990’s, the pharmaceutical industry experienced a period of rapid growth and expansion; this was assisted by looser regulations for advertising of drugs directly to the consumers as well as the development of blockbuster drugs. With the introduction of numerous medications for a variety of illnesses and disorders, pharmaceuticals became a multibillion-dollar industry vital not only to the economy but also to the health of patients. Further Reading

Anderson, Stuart, ed. Making Medicine: A Brief History of Pharmacy and Pharmaceuticals. Grayslake, Ill.:

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Pharmaceutical Press, 2005. A history of the profession of pharmacy from the time of the ancient civilizations to 2005. Cohen, Jillian Clare, Patricia Illingworth, and Udo Schuklenk, eds. The Power of Pills: Social, Ethical, and Legal Issues in Drug Development, Marketing, and Pricing. London: Pluto Press, 2006. Essays discuss the development, pricing, and distribution of drugs worldwide, with a focus on the lack of access by one-third of the world population to pharmaceuticals and on what drives new drug research. Hilts, Philip J. Protecting America’s Health: The FDA, Business, and One Hundred Years of Regulation. Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 2003. This history of the FDA tracks the agency responsible for drug approval from its inception during Theodore Roosevelt’s administration into the twenty-first century. Ruschmann, Paul. Prescription and Non-prescription Drugs. Point/Counterpoint. New York: Chelsea House, 2007. Discusses the legal issues of regulation and access to pharmaceuticals, presenting arguments for different sides of regulation of the drug industry. Emily Carroll Shearer See also Advertising; Antidepressants; Attentiondeficit disorder; Cancer research; Depo-Provera; Drug advertising; Drug use; Fen-phen; Health care; Viagra.

■ Philadelphia Identification Academy Award-winning film Director Jonathan Demme (1944) Date Released on December 23, 1993

This groundbreaking film dealt openly with homophobia and discrimination and was one of the first motion pictures to deal with HIV/AIDS in the workplace. The film Philadelphia was written by Ron Nyswaner, who based the screenplay partly on the story of Geoffrey Bowers, an attorney who, after having been wrongfully terminated in 1987 from his law firm, Baker and McKenzie, filed one of the earliest AIDSdiscrimination lawsuits. In the film, Tom Hanks plays Andrew Beckett, a young, successful lawyer trying to live a normal life despite having recently been

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diagnosed with acquired immunodeficiency syndrome (AIDS). Since he works for a very conservative law firm and an openly homophobic boss, the University of Pennsylvania graduate has kept his sexual orientation (and his partner) secret from his friends and colleagues. Unfortunately, when his disease begins to become apparent to his colleagues, Beckett finds that any goodwill he might have enjoyed among them has vanished and he is no longer welcome. His work on a major case is sabotaged, leading to his prompt dismissal from the firm. Angered by his callous treatment, Beckett decides to sue his company for illegal dismissal, lost earnings, and punitive damages, but he is shocked to discover that none of the attorneys he approaches are willing to take an AIDS patient as a client. Only Joe Miller, played by Denzel Washington, is willing to give Beckett a chance to take his case to court. Their case is not an easy one by any stretch of the imagination. Over time, both individuals come to respect each other’s tenacity. Miller’s task—to prove that Beckett has been fired solely because of his homosexuality and HIV status—is difficult because of the inherently controversial nature of Beckett’s disease. Further, the partners of Beckett’s firm prove themselves only too willing to defame their former colleague and openly lie on the stand. Fortunately, their perjury does not, ultimately, sway the opinion of the jury; the firm is ordered to pay Beckett $140,000 in back pay, $100,000 for pain and suffering, and $4 million in punitive damages even as he, suffering the final ravages of his disease, lies dying. Impact Philadelphia was not the first film to deal with the treatment of AIDS sufferers in mainstream society—the made-for-television movie And the Band Played On (based on the 1987 book by Randy Shilts), starring Alan Alda and Matthew Modine, had previously been released in 1993—but it was equally groundbreaking in its realistic depictions of homosexual characters. Hanks won an Academy Award for Best Actor, and Bruce Springsteen earned an Academy Award for Best Original Song for “Streets of Philadelphia.” Philadelphia was part of a general trend in the 1990’s toward increased visibility of homosexuality in television, film, and the media. Further Reading

Cante, Richard C. “Afterthoughts from Philadelphia . . . and Somewhere Else.” In Gay Men and the

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Forms of Contemporary U.S. Culture. London: Ashgate, 2008. Harty, K. J. “The Failures of Jonathan Demme’s Philadelphia.” Four Quarters 8, no. 1 (Spring, 1994): 13-20. Julia M. Meyers Academy Awards; AIDS epidemic; Domestic partnerships; Don’t ask, don’t tell; Film in the United States; Hanks, Tom; Homosexuality and gay rights; Washington, Denzel.

See also

■ Phoenix, River Identification American actor Born August 23, 1970; Madras, Oregon Died October 31, 1993; Los Angeles, California

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sion and the environment. As a vegan, he consumed no animal products of any kind, even refusing to wear costumes made of leather. Although he smoked, he advocated clean living and spoke forcefully against junk food and drug use. For those reasons, his death from an accidental drug overdose on October 31, 1993, while accompanied by Mathis and his brother, Joaquin, was a tremendous shock. After the fact, Hollywood insiders speculated that Phoenix’s intensity may have led to either depression or a dangerous tendency to identify too much with the often-troubled characters he played. Impact River Phoenix’s intensity and passion, both on- and offscreen, not only earned him a reputation as one of Hollywood’s most promising young actors but also made him a role model in the eyes of many

In addition to earning unusual accolades for such a young actor, Phoenix became a role model for many young Americans because of his outspoken views, before his ironic and tragic death from a drug overdose at the age of twenty-three. Following a breakout performance in the drama Stand by Me (1986), River Phoenix quickly cemented his reputation as a serious and talented young actor when he was nominated for a Best Supporting Actor Oscar for his role in Running on Empty (1988). Never one to pursue huge blockbuster projects, and eager to shed his teen idol image, Phoenix continued his career into the 1990’s with a series of offbeat roles. In 1991, Phoenix starred alongside Keanu Reeves in My Own Private Idaho, an independent film about personal discovery and rebellion based loosely on William Shakespeare’s Henry IV, Part I (pr. c. 15971598). Phoenix’s edgy portrayal of a gay narcoleptic earned Best Actor awards from both the Venice Film Festival and the National Society of Film Critics. Phoenix followed up with a role in another critically acclaimed independent film, Dogfight (1991), before returning briefly to a more mainstream project, the 1992 thriller Sneakers, which boasted an impressive ensemble cast including Robert Redford and Sidney Poitier. Phoenix’s next film, The Thing Called Love (1993), was the first to showcase his musical ability; Phoenix performed his own vocals as an aspiring country singer who falls in love with another wouldbe Nashville star played by Samantha Mathis, whom Phoenix began dating during the filming. In addition to acting, Phoenix became well known for his passionate views on animal compas-

River Phoenix poses in a 1993 photo shoot. (Hulton Archive/ Getty Images)

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young Americans who subscribed to his views on veganism and clean living. Ironically, the unaccustomed pressure of that role may have contributed to Phoenix’s substance abuse and untimely death, which shocked the acting world and garnered comparisons to the tragic death of James Dean. Further Reading

Glatt, John. Lost in Hollywood: The Fast Times and Short Life of River Phoenix. New York: Donald I. Fine, 1995. Robb, Brian J. River Phoenix: A Short Life. New York: HarperPerennial, 1994. Stempel, Penny. River Phoenix. Philadelphia: Chelsea House, 1999. Amy Sisson Academy Awards; Drug use; Film in the United States; Reeves, Keanu.

See also

■ Photography An art form whereby images are produced through the manipulation of technology

Definition

During the 1990’s, advancements in technology brought forth a whole new revolution in photography. With the introduction of digital imaging, both professional and amateur photographers were able to have more control over the final image. Technology resulted in much progress in photography during the twentieth century, and the 1990’s saw several revolutionary advances. During the 1980’s, Kodak introduced the Disc camera, which became the precursor to digital imaging. In 1985, Minolta produced the first autofocus single-lens reflex (SLR) system camera known as Maxxum. With these advancements in technology, it was becoming almost unnecessary for anyone to be knowledgeable about the mechanical end of photography. The cameras had the capacity seemingly to handle all technical issues for the user. With the introduction of digital photography, the medium was dramatically altered forever. These advancements changed not only the way in which individuals would take photographs but also what they could do with the images. Since digital cameras allowed for immediate results, images would appear in an instant on the camera’s screen. If

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the image was not satisfactory, then it could be easily deleted. The photographer did not have to worry about wasting film because there was no film. The best digital images could be loaded onto a computer. Once the images were saved, it was possible with the use of various computer programs to alter, retouch, and crop each image as desired. Digital Revolution In 1990, Adobe Photoshop introduced Photoshop 1.0 for the Macintosh operating system used on Apple computers. This computer graphics editing program allowed images to be manipulated. It was not until 1992 that a version of Photoshop could work with Microsoft Windows operating systems. By 2007, Photoshop was in its tenth iteration. In 1991, Kodak released a photo CD system that allowed photographers to store their digital images for the first time. The next year, Kodak introduced the DCS-100 digital SLR camera, the first digital SLR to be made commercially available. During the 1990’s, several other companies also released digital SLR cameras, including Nikon, Canon, Pentax, Panasonic, Olympus, and Fujifilm. A consortium of manufacturers released the Advanced Photographic System (APS) in 1996. By this same year, the prices on mass-market digital cameras had become competitive with more conventional cameras. The first megapixel camera that could be used by the public was introduced in 1998. By 2000, digital photography was being adopted by more and more professional photographers. The price for these professional digital cameras, however, remained at several thousand dollars. For the public, digital cameras eventually became less expensive. Depending on the desired camera features, an easy-to-use, high-quality digital camera could be bought for less than five hundred dollars by the end of the decade. As a strong indicator of the trend toward market dominance of digital cameras, close to 80 percent of the cameras sold by both Nikon and Canon were digital cameras by 2003. Taking this trend to heart, most major manufacturers of cameras increased the number of digital models available for sale by the turn of the twenty-first century. Exhibitions, Publications, Media Events The Museum of Modern Art (MOMA) in New York put on the exhibit Photography Until Now in 1990. In the same year, documentary filmmaker Ken Burns made use of historic photographs from the Ameri-

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can Civil War for his highly regarded series The Civil War, shown on the Public Broadcasting Service (PBS). Robert Mapplethorpe’s traveling exhibition The Perfect Moment created controversy in 1990 because of its sexual imagery. The Whitney Museum of American Art in New York presented a major retrospective of Richard Avedon photographs in 1994 entitled Richard Avedon: Evidence, 1944-1994. In 1997, Getty Images, Inc., was founded. That year, the twenty-seventh photography festival held in Arles, Frances, devoted a significant portion of the festival to digital images. The Barbican Gallery in London presented the Native Nations: Journeys in American Photography exhibition in 1998. During the 1990’s, several extraordinarily courageous photojournalists—including Gideon Mendel, Stephanie Welsh, Lucian Perkins, Kevin Carter, and Paul Weston—continued the tradition of going into harm’s way to photograph the horrors of war, rare animals in their habitat that were on the verge of extinction, the tragic consequences of disease, and the frightening circumstances surrounding natural disasters. In the 1990’s, many museums, publishers, galleries, libraries, and picture archives believed that it was advantageous for storage and access purposes to digitize their photographic images. By doing so, the images could be easily linked to the Internet, which allowed millions of people to have access to rare photographic collections. Impact The advancements in digital technology during the decade dramatically changed the world of photography. Images could be manipulated with ease on the computer. With the introduction of digital imaging, photographs could be altered beyond all recognition. Both the professional and the amateur photographer were now capable of creating startling images. The photographer could focus more on the images that could be created and less on documenting reality. A commercial market for artistic photography blossomed during the 1990’s. With the emergence of this new outlet, photographers felt emboldened to experiment more with the photographic process. Historically, photographers had been attempting to alter photographs since the early twentieth century. Retouching and cropping had become common practices employed by photographers to enhance “reality.” With the introduction of as-

semblages, various art forms could be merged. Photography, painting, printmaking, and sculpture were being combined in order for an artist to fulfill his or her imagination. With the photographic advancements of the 1990’s, photographers and other artists had their artistic options dramatically expanded. It seemed that the nature of an image was now limited only by the imagination of the photographer. Further Reading

Hoy, Anne H. The Book of Photography. Washington, D.C.: National Geographic, 2005. A fascinating look at the creative spirit that is at the heart of photography. Mora, Gilles. Photo SPEAK: A Guide to the Ideas, Movements, and Techniques of Photography, 1839 to the Present. New York: Abbeville Press, 1998. A wonderful overview of the technological advancements in photography and the impact that they have had on the art world. Parr, Martin, and Gerry Badger. The Photobook: A History Volume II. New York: Phaidon Press, 2006. This volume shows the extraordinary expansion of the art of photography since the introduction of digital technology. Rosenblum, Naomi. A World History of Photography. 3d ed. New York: Abbeville Press, 1997. A solid explanation of what photography is and where it is going. Wands, Bruce. Art of the Digital Age. New York: Thames and Hudson, 2006. Includes beautiful examples of how digital technology has revolutionized photography. Jeffry Jensen See also Art movements; Digital cameras; Internet; Mapplethorpe obscenity trial; World Wide Web.

■ Physician-assisted suicide Termination of a patient’s life by administration of lethal drugs with a physician’s direct or indirect assistance

Definition

In 1994, Oregon voters endorsed the country’s only program that permits persons who meet certain conditions to enlist physicians to help them terminate life. The issue engendered debate about mercy killings, the sanctity of life, and medical ethics.

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In November, 1994, voters in Oregon approved the Death with Dignity Act by a margin of 51 to 49 percent. The act permitted physicians to provide drugs to induce death in qualified patients. This was the first (and still the only) law of its kind. A similar measure had been defeated in Washington in 1991 and in California the following year, both by a 55 to 46 percent margin. According to the act, a candidate for physicianassisted suicide must be an adult and an Oregon resident and has to personally initiate the request to be aided by a physician in inducing death. The suicide candidate has to be free of documented depression and has to be diagnosed by two doctors as terminally ill, with a reasonable expectation of no more than six months to live. Physicians have to inform the suicide applicants of the prognosis regarding their condition; alternative options, including hospice care; potential risks of the procedure (there have been reports of prolonged periods between taking the drugs and death); and medication that would control pain. The law also establishes a fifteen-day waiting period between the patient’s request and the signing of a consent form. Thereafter, the doctor can prescribe lethal doses of drugs that the patient is required to self-administer. Oregon is a relatively secular state. A 1995 survey found that 60 percent of the 2,761 Oregon doctors responding had no ethical objections to prescribing deadly drugs, and a sizeable number indicated that in treating terminally ill patients in the past they had prescribed drugs to control pain that also hastened death. Injunctions held up implementation of the results of the 1994 Oregon Death with Dignity referendum. Meanwhile, citizens in New York (in Vacco v. Quill, 1997) and Washington (in Washington v. Glucksberg, 1997) challenged the right of their legislatures to ban physicianassisted suicide. The Supreme Court upheld the states’ prohibition on assisted suicide. The Court emphasized that the states are the proper forum for the approval or disapproval of assisted-suicide laws. The Court also declared that were a state to pass a law endorsing physician-assisted suicide, this would not violate the constitutional requirements of due process and equal protection. A second referendum was called for by the Oregon legislature seeking the repeal of the original measure. It failed in the No-

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vember, 1997, vote by a 60 to 40 percent margin. Congressional disavowal of physician-assisted suicide was expressed in the federal Assisted Suicide Funding Restriction Act of 1997, which forbade the use of federal moneys to support such programs. This was followed in 1997 by a declaration from the federal Drug Enforcement Administration (DEA) stating that it would initiate actions under the Controlled Substances Act to revoke the license of any physician who prescribed death-inducing drugs. That action, however, was overturned by the Department of Justice on the ground that it was beyond the authority of the DEA. The Oregon Health Division monitors the physician-assisted suicide program. Its initial report covered the period from November, 1997, through December, 1998. During that time, twenty-three patients had applied for physician-assisted suicide and fifteen had died by its use, while six died of their illness, and two were still alive. Most patients were suffering from cancer. Their average age was sixty-nine, and all were white. In 1999, there were thirty-three applications and twenty-seven deaths by physician-assisted suicide. The average age that year was seventy-one, and in both reports the patients were about evenly divided by gender. Neither financial considerations nor pain were said to underlie the decision to seek death but rather the issue of personal autonomy and control over the method of dying. Pros and Cons Civil liberties advocates have generally hailed the Death with Dignity Act as providing freedom from religious doctrines that insisted that suicide was immoral because it represented a usurpation of divine prerogative to determine matters of life and death. The American Medical Association argued against physician-assisted suicide on the grounds that it violated a doctor’s obligation to protect and preserve human life. Other opponents of the process regard it as a “slippery slope,” an entry point to authorize physicians to kill elderly incapacitated persons and children born with disabilities. It is also argued that the Oregon law might encourage some persons to give up rather than to fight to construct what could be a fulfilling existence. Also, the desire to save money might result in pressure exerted on terminally ill persons to end their lives. Impact The physician-assisted program has had more symbolic than practical importance outside of

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Oregon. No other jurisdiction has adopted the measure, though many legislatures have debated the subject. Further Reading

Hillyard, Daniel, and John Dombrink. Dying Right: The Death with Dignity Movement. New York: Routledge, 2001. A comprehensive examination of the “death with dignity” movement in the United States and worldwide, including an in-depth consideration of the Oregon experience. McKhann, Charles F. A Time to Die: The Place for Physician Assistance. New Haven, Conn.: Yale University Press, 1999. McKhann, a cancer surgeon, bases his recommendations on interviews with terminally ill patients. Smith, Wesley J. Forced Exit: The Slippery Slope from Assisted Suicide to Legalized Murder. Dallas: Spence, 2003. The author argues that physician-assisted suicide reflects the failure of contemporary society to care for and respect elderly, dying, and disabled persons. Snyder, Lois, and Arthur L. Caplan, eds. Assisted Suicide: Finding Common Ground. Bloomington: Indiana University Press, 2002. A collection of wellreasoned papers presented at a symposium at the University of Pennsylvania Center for Bioethics. Weir, Robert F., ed. Physician-Assisted Suicide. Bloomington: Indiana University Press, 1997. Weir provides valuable historical background and a sophisticated discussion of legal and policy issues involved in physician-assisted suicide. Gilbert Geis See also Alzheimer’s disease; Cancer research; Elder abuse; Health care; Heaven’s Gate mass suicide; Kevorkian, Jack; Liberalism in U.S. politics; Medicine; Supreme Court decisions.

■ Pitt, Brad Identification American actor Born December 18, 1963; Shawnee, Oklahoma

Beginning in the 1990’s, Pitt proved himself to be among the most effective, conscientious, and versatile actors in Hollywood. Brad Pitt spent the 1990’s consciously molding his career in ways that would reflect his extraordinary

Brad Pitt poses with his Golden Globe Award at the 1996 awards ceremony. He won Best Supporting Actor for his role in Twelve Monkeys. (AP/Wide World Photos)

acting ability. Driven by a compelling work ethic, Pitt acted in several undistinguished films and a number of television shows before 1991, when he appeared for a fleeting fifteen minutes as J. D. in Thelma and Louise, which won an Academy Award for Best Original Screenplay. Although Pitt’s role was small, his performance, particularly his love scene with Geena Davis, projected his sexuality and charisma so authentically that he clearly established his star quality. Remarkably handsome, the blond-haired, blue-eyed Pitt with his perfect physique quickly became a sex symbol, but this is precisely what Pitt feared and struggled to thwart. He could have had a comfortable career playing shallow pretty-boy roles, but he was too serious an actor to do so. In 1991, Pitt starred as a guitar-playing teen icon with his hair in a huge pompadour in Johnny Suede. Pitt attracted the attention of actor-director Robert Redford, who cast him in the role of Paul MacLean, a champion fly fisherman, in A River Runs Through It

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(1992). In the same year, Pitt played a police officer in the partially animated film Cool World. Critics thought that Pitt was the only saving grace in Johnny Suede and had little good to say about Cool World, a film with special effects that bewildered Pitt, who had won the role over more than two hundred auditioning actors. In all of these films, Pitt played drastically different roles, none of which emphasized his good looks. Pitt worked hard to bring authenticity to his roles, learning fly fishing for A River Runs Through It, and frequently ending up with fishhooks in his scalp. In the 1990’s, Pitt acted in several films, including Kalifornia (1993), Interview with the Vampire (1994), Legends of the Fall (1994), Seven Years in Tibet (1997), and Fight Club (1999). Each provided him with dramatic roles that advanced his acting accomplishments, and none were dependent upon his looks. He won the Golden Globe Award for Twelve Monkeys (1995), which also earned him an Oscar nomination. Ever the consummate professional, Pitt did most of his stunts himself. In 1995, his role as a homicide detective in Seven was much heralded. In doing his own stunts in that movie, he fell through the windshield of a car and badly injured his arm, but the filming went on. The following year, People magazine named Pitt the Sexiest Man Alive. A cottage industry sprang up around tracking his romances. Impact Brad Pitt set a high standard for professionalism in the film industry. Versatility distinguished his stellar career in the 1990’s and beyond. Further Reading

Dempsey, Amy. Brad Pitt. Philadelphia: Chelsea House, 1998. Robb, Brian J. Brad Pitt: The Rise to Stardom. London: Plexus, 1996. R. Baird Shuman Cruise, Tom; Film in the United States; Paltrow, Gwyneth; Palahniuk, Chuck; Thelma and Louise.

See also

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■ Pixar Identification

American computer animation and

film studio In the 1990’s, Pixar was at the center of the computer revolution transforming communications in America. Largely owned by computer pioneer Steve Jobs, Pixar was a leader in creating software and hardware to render computergenerated images onto film. Combining their technological progress with artistic imagination, Pixar animators made three feature-length, fully computer-animated films that took Hollywood by storm. In 1990, Pixar was a five-year-old computer company with a limited market for its expensive Pixar Image Computers, narrowly staving off bankruptcy by producing computer-animated commercials. Its owner, chairman of the board, and eventual chief operating officer was Steve Jobs, the creative cofounder of Apple Computer. With Pixar’s computer-animated short film Knick Knack (1989) winning numerous prizes, Pixar and Walt Disney Studios in 1991 entered into a $26 million agreement to produce and distribute three feature-length computer-animated films. As Pixar continued to make award-winning commercials and develop computer-imaging technologies through its RenderMan development team, Pixar animator John Lasseter took charge of developing Pixar’s first feature film. Although beginning with hand-drawn sketches, Lasseter’s team rendered each frame of the film on computers. It was a laborious, multistep process but promised the ability to show three-dimensional representation of lighting, perspective, and tactile surfacing in a realistic manner beyond the capabilities of traditional animation. The First Computer-Animated Film On Thanksgiving, 1995, Toy Story opened in theaters, the first completely computer-animated feature film in history. In a thoroughly charming story, the memorable lead characters—toys cowboy Woody and space ranger Buzz Lightyear—overcome their rivalry for the attention of their owner, nine-year-old Andy, to save each other from threatened destruction. The talented actors Tom Hanks and Tim Allen dexterously supply the voices of Woody and Buzz, respectively. The other toys, such as grouchy Mr. Potato Head (Don Rickles), self-centered piggy bank Hamm (John Ratzenberger), loyal Slinky Dog (Jim Varney), and angst-ridden dinosaur Rex (Wallace Shawn),

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have personalities rooted in their aspects as toys. Randy Newman and Lyle Lovett composed and sang the musical score, carefully calibrated to each character and including the Academy Award-nominated song “You’ve Got a Friend in Me,” perfectly capturing the theme of the film. Pixar’s union of technological achievement and dramatic skill is well demonstrated in the first moments of the film. Andy is playing with his toys, twirling them around and speaking their words so as to give them a semblance of life. Andy then leaves the room and all is still. Suddenly the toys spring to life, the film audience for the first time seeing fully realized, three-dimensional animation of inanimate objects. From that opening to the last rousing scene when the toys are joyfully reunited, Toy Story was a critical and popular hit, the largest revenue-grossing film of 1995. To make Toy Story, Pixar animators filled over one thousand CD-ROMs with 110,000 individually rendered frames. Woody himself required one hundred animation variables, or “avars,” to animate his face and fifty-nine motion controls to animate his mouth alone. Pixar directors and animators never allowed their technological skills to overwhelm the film’s plot and

human—or perhaps better said, toy—warmth and authenticity. The Online Film Critics Society ranked Toy Story as the greatest animated film of all time. The American Film Institute included it as one of the one hundred greatest American films ever made.

In 1995, Pixar became a publicly traded company, raising $140 million in the biggest initial public offering (IPO) of the year. With the success of Toy Story, it was clear that Pixar’s future lay with its animation studio. Pixar’s animated short film Geri’s Game (1997), an ingenious tale of a chessplaying senior citizen in a park matching wits against himself, reflected dramatic improvements in the ability to computer-animate human skin and clothing. Pixar showed its new techniques to good effect in its next two films. A Bug’s Life (1998) is a stirring story of a colony of ants and a troupe of comical bugs learning to stand up to a bullying grasshopper. In Toy Story 2 (1999), the friendship of Woody and Buzz is deepened as they team up to save other toys from exile to a collector’s museum. A sequel that measured up to the high dramatic and artistic standards of the original, Toy Story 2 grossed over $485 million worldwide. Demonstrating the genius of the Pixar-Disney collaboration, Woody, Buzz, and the poignant toy cowgirl Jessie of Toy Story 2 (voiced by Joan Cusack) joined the pantheon of Disney icons in Disney parades, ice shows, and amusement parks. By the end of the 1990’s, it was evident that Pixar had become not only a technological leader in computer development and animation but also one of the finest film studios in American history. Every Pixar film was charming, witty, wholesome, and an artistic success, the exquisite details rendered in its computer-animated frames outdone only by the care and attention Pixar animators lavished on character and story. The inspiring Steve Jobs, CEO of Pixar, which created the animated film “Toy Story.” (Hulton Archive/ Getty Images) message of each film: the Pixar Animation Studio

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willingness of humans—although enacted by animated toys and bugs—to sacrifice for their friends. Pixar, based in Emeryville, California, was one of the most creative, innovative, and in the end successful companies of the 1990’s. It pioneered three-dimensional computer-animated technology. As a computer hardware, software, and media company, it represented the successful return of entrepreneur Jobs and shared in the glory and rising stock prices of the dot-com craze. However, Pixar’s greatest impact was derived not only by looking forward but also by looking to the past. Its three high-grossing feature films, Toy Story, A Bug’s Life, and Toy Story 2, and the entertaining shorts it showed before each one, recalled the golden age of Hollywood, now rendered through digital technology. With compelling stories, engaging dialogue, attention to detail, stirring music, and a commitment to warm and wholesome entertainment, Pixar Animation Studios created the films in the 1990’s that were perhaps most destined to endure as classics in the decades to come. Impact

Further Reading

Deutschman, Alan. The Second Coming of Steve Jobs. New York: Broadway Books, 2000. Conversational biography of Jobs, with a chapter on his success with Pixar, thereby putting himself in the center of the computer industry for a second time. Paik, Karen. To Infinity and Beyond! The Story of Pixar Animation Studios. San Francisco: Chronicle Books, 2007. Beautifully illustrated, carefully documented, definitive history of Pixar animation, with forewords by founder Steve Jobs, technology director Ed Catmull, and animator John Lasseter. Price, Daniel. The Pixar Touch. New York: Alfred A. Knopf, 2008. Inspiring story of Pixar’s corporate success, emphasizing its role as the most important film studio of the modern era. Rubin, Michael. Droidmaker: George Lucas and the Digital Revolution. Gainesville, Fla.: Triad, 2005. Narrates the history of Pixar from its first days as an outgrowth of George Lucas’s computergenerated imagery (CGI) technology. Howard Bromberg Advertising; Amazon.com; Apple Computer; CGI; Computers; Dot-coms; Film in the United States; Internet; Jobs, Steve; Science and technology; Stock market; Toys and games.

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Planned Parenthood v. Casey

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■ Planned Parenthood v. Casey Identification U.S. Supreme Court decision Date Decided on June 29, 1992

The Supreme Court upheld the central holding of Roe v. Wade, the 1973 case that held that a woman’s choice of whether to have an abortion was protected by the constitutional right of privacy. Of the nine Supreme Court justices who had participated in Roe v. Wade, six had left the Court by 1992. All six replacements had been appointed by Republican presidents, and of the three remaining on the Court, two, William H. Rehnquist and Byron White, had dissented in Roe. These circumstances created an expectation that Roe might be overturned. An opportunity for reversal arose when five provisions of the Pennsylvania Abortion Control Act of 1982 were challenged by Planned Parenthood of Southeastern Pennsylvania, an abortion provider. The district court held all five provisions to be unconstitutional. The U.S. Court of Appeals for the Third Circuit held only the spousal notification provision to be invalid. The Supreme Court essentially affirmed the holding of the court of appeals. In Planned Parenthood v. Casey, the Court rejected the rigid trimester structure created in Roe, substituting instead an “undue burden” test, in which a restriction on the abortion right would be invalid if it “has the purpose or effect of placing a substantial obstacle in the path of a woman seeking an abortion of a nonviable fetus.” Applying this test, the Court upheld provisions requiring a minor seeking an abortion to notify at least one of her parents; requiring abortionists to provide information to a woman requesting an abortion regarding the nature and risks of abortion and childbirth; requiring a twenty-fourhour waiting period after the woman’s receipt of the mandated information, after which her consent for the abortion would become valid; and requiring certain recordkeeping. The Court struck down a provision of the Pennsylvania law that required physicians to refrain from performing an abortion on a married woman unless she had notified her husband of her decision to abort. Impact The Supreme Court reaffirmed both the right of a woman to choose to have an abortion before fetal viability without undue governmental interference and the state’s power to restrict abortions

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after viability so long as exceptions are made for pregnancies that endanger the woman’s life or health. That a majority in Casey reaffirmed the fundamental nature of the abortion right makes it less likely that the right will be overturned in the future. Four justices in Casey, however, would have overturned Roe, and Samuel Alito, who while on the Third Circuit opined that all the provisions of the Pennsylvania statute should be upheld, was later nominated associate justice of the United States in 2005 and assumed office the following year. Further Reading

Baird, Robert M., and Stuart E. Rosenbaum, eds. The Ethics of Abortion: Pro-Life vs. Pro-Choice. 3d ed. Amherst, N.Y.: Prometheus Books, 2001. Glenn, Richard. The Right to Privacy: Rights and Liberties Under the Law. Santa Barbara, Calif.: ABCClio, 2003. Mersky, Roy M., and Suzanne F. Young, comps. A Documentary History of the Legal Aspects of Abortion in the United States: Planned Parenthood v. Casey. Littleton, Colo.: Fred B. Rothman, 1996. Howard C. Ellis See also Abortion; Marriage and divorce; Medicine; Rust v. Sullivan; Supreme Court decisions; Thomas, Clarence; Women’s rights.

■ Plasma screens Screens consisting of thousands of gasfilled cells that are sandwiched between two glass plates, two sets of electrodes, and protective layers

Definition

Plasma screen development led to the production of television sets and monitors that can produce bright, clear pictures on large screens that are only a few inches thick. In an effort to develop effective displays for educational purposes, the plasma screen display was invented in the 1960’s at the Coordinated Science Laboratory at the University of Illinois by Donald Bitzer, Gene Slottow, and Robert Wilson. Because of their relatively large screen size and thin profile, the original monochrome displays were popular in highprofile places like lobbies, airport lounges, and stock exchanges. In 1987, Larry F. Weber formed a com-

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pany called Plasmaco to produce plasma screens. The company manufactured monochrome plasma computer displays until 1993. When liquid crystal display (LCD) screens that produced color started taking over the market, Weber began the development of a color plasma display. He produced a flat-panel display consisting of tiny, colored phosphors that were sandwiched between two glass panels and illuminated to different intensities by a mixture of noble gases that were electrically converted into the plasma state. The excited phosphors emitted light of varying colors to generate an overall image. By 1994, Weber demonstrated the brightness and contrast ratios available with such screens. In 1996, Plasmaco was purchased by Matsushita Electrical Industries. Weber was retained as the president of Plasmaco. Pioneer started selling the first plasma screen televisions to the public in 1997. In 1998, plasma display panels (PDPs) were used for televising Olympic events. It was a huge success. Through the efforts of Weber and Bill Schindler, a 60-inch plasma screen prototype was unveiled in 1999. It had the best contrast ratio of any screen in the industry. After the price of plasma screen televisions began to fall in the later part of 1999, they became increasingly popular. Impact Consumers are shifting from the traditional cathode-ray tube (CRT) televisions to flatpanel plasma and LCD televisions that provide a better television-viewing experience. With their high resolution of images, exceptional color accuracy, image depth, widescreen aspect ratio, uniform screen brightness, wide viewing angle, and slim, space-saving design, plasma screen displays have revolutionized every aspect of television viewing. Plasma screens have universal display capability. They can accept any video format, including highdefinition television (HDTV), digital television video (DTV), DVD video, computer video, and digital satellite broadcasts. Plasma screens have dominated in the larger television sizes, particularly 40 inches and above. The largest plasma screen display in the world, 103 inches, was shown at the Consumer Electronics show in Las Vegas, Nevada, in 2006. Over time, plasma screen manufacturers have devised ways to greatly reduce the problem of screen burnin, the retention of images shown for a prolonged period of time on plasma screens.

The Nineties in America Further Reading

Mitchell, Mitch. Visual Effects for Film and Television. Woburn, Mass.: Focal Press, 2004. Whitaker, Jerry C. Standard Handbook of Video and Television Engineering. New York: McGraw-Hill, 2003. Alvin K. Benson Computers; DVDs; Inventions; Science and technology; Television.

See also

■ Poetry A form of concentrated expression through meaning, sound, and rhythm

Definition

While poetry of the 1990’s was certainly engaged with the theme of the fin de siècle—the end of the twentieth century as well as the beginning of the new millennium with its promises of yet more endings and uncertainties—there were also bold, frequently controversial new approaches to the art during the decade. Diversity characterizes American poetry of the 1990’s as a whole. Anthologists of 1990’s literature disagreed vigorously on what poetry was “best.” Poetic experiments based on information-age technology along with the rich assortment of political, ethnic, social, and aesthetic principles presented a challenge to any editor of poetry. The culmination of transcendental poet A. R. Ammons’s career received a great deal of recognition in the 1990’s, including the National Book Award. Ammons’s main achievement for the decade was Garbage (1993), a defense of meaning and connection. Louise Glück’s Pulitzer Prizewinning volume The Wild Iris (1992) combines confession, metaphysics, and the mundane. Yusef Komunyakaa’s jazz-inspired Pulitzer Prize winner Neon Vernacular (1993) is grounded in his Vietnam War experience. The Best American Poetry 1996 editor Adrienne Rich made politically oriented choices for the volume, including Alberto Álvaro Ríos’s “Domingo Limón,” a mix of realism and surrealism. Literary critic Harold Bloom’s anthology, The Best of the Best American Poetry, 1988-1997, features seventyfive important poems, including W. S. Merwin’s “The Stranger.” In 1998, Merwin wrote Folding Cliffs: A Narrative, an epic in verse about Hawaii. His La-

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ment for the Makers (1996) eulogizes poets who have influenced his poetry. Pulitzer Prize winners of the decade were Charles Simic, The World Doesn’t End (1989), Mona Van Duyn, Near Changes (1990), James Tate, Selected Poems (1991), Louise Glück, The Wild Iris, Yusef Komunyakaa, Neon Vernacular, Philip Levine, The Simple Truth (1994), Jorie Graham, The Dream of the Unified Field (1995), Lisel Mueller, Alive Together: New and Selected Poems (1996), Charles Wright, Black Zodiac (1997), and Mark Strand, Blizzard of One (1998). Poets laureate to the Library of Congress included Mark Strand, 1990-1991; Joseph Brodsky, 1991-1992; Mona Van Duyn, 1992-1993; Rita Dove, 1993-1995; Robert Hass, 1995-1997; and Robert Pinsky, 1997-2000. From 1999-2000, the special bicentennial consultants were Rita Dove, Louise Glück, and W. S. Merwin. Margaret Atwood’s 1996 Morning in the Burned House takes an elegiac approach to feminism. Métis writer Joanne Arnott’s Wiles of Girlhood (1991), based on her experience as a mixed-race person, won the Gerald Lampert Award. Gary Barwin, who also writes for children, offered Cruelty to Fabulous Animals (1995) and Outside the Hat (1998). Retrospectives of note included metaphysical poet Margaret Avison’s Selected Poems (1991) and Ted Plantos’s Daybreak’s Long Waking: Poems Selected and New (1997). Among French Canadian poets, Gilles Vigneault enjoyed commercial success in 1992 with the elegant Bois de marée. Madeleine Gagnon won the Governor General’s Award for Poetry in 1990 with Chant pour un Québec lointain. Her volume La Terre est remplie de langage (1993) dealt with meaning, while Louise Dupré treated the themes of time and death in Noir déjà (1993). Robert Melançon brought beauty to ordinary objects in L’Avant-printemps à Montréal (1994). In 1998, performance poets like Stéphane Despatie found a venue in Les Intouchables, a new publishing firm. Likely to be overlooked by the dichotomy of English/French is work by ethnic groups such as the Southeast Asian Canadians. Surjeet Kalsey, writing in both English and Punjabi, published Glimpses of Twentieth Century Punjabi Poetry (1992) as well as two volumes of her own poetry, Behind the Palace Doors and Woman, Words, and Shakti (both in 1999).

Canadian Poets

Experimental Poetry Out of earlier Black Mountain experiments with multilayered texts, “new me-

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Pogs

dia poetry”—that is, cyberpoetry or digital poetry— made aesthetic use of hypertext and other computer technologies to produce interactive poetry. Also important were Language and performance poetry. Experimental writers in the 1990’s included David Antin, Rae Armentrout, Tina Darragh, Hedwig Gorski, Adolfo Guzman-Lopez, Erica Hunt, Maggie Estep, P. Inman, Ron Silliman, Edwin Torres, Carla Harryman, Fanny Howe, Jackson Mac Low, Bernadette Mayer, Harryette Mullen, Steven McCaffery (Canadian), Ricardo Sanchez, Hannah Weiner, Saul Williams, and Emanuel Xavier, creator of the Glam Slam poetry competition in New York. Impact The 1990’s were important for poetry in at least two ways. Publicly accessible poetry was made possible by the exponential rise of Web usage. Also, in the United States more than in Canada, the trend was toward a more democratized and accessible poetry. There was a degree of acceptance in the public mind of poetic experiments that went far beyond the printed page. Institutions such as the National Endowment for the Arts did not make changes that supported performance poetry, although the presence of Language poets in university writing programs during the 1990’s demonstrates acceptance of some experimental approaches. Further Reading

Bloom, Harold, and David Lehman, eds. The Best of the Best American Poetry, 1988-1997. New York: Scribner, 1998. Assembles a large number of poems from the 1990’s and criticizes Adrienne Rich’s contribution to this series. Glazier, Loss. Digital Poetics: Hypertext, Visual-Kinetic Text and Writing in Programmable Media. Tuscaloosa: University of Alabama Press, 2001. Celebrates the arrival of digital poetry, its contribution to theories that recognize texts as problematic; hypertext; interactive poetry; and more. Lang, Robert, ed. Contemporary Canadian Authors. Vol. 1. New York: Gale Canada, 1996. This resource has both Canadian poets’ biographies and lists of works. Morris, Adalaide, and Thomas Swiss, eds. New Media Poetics: Contexts, Technotexts, and Theories. Cambridge, Mass.: MIT Press, 2006. The articles maintain that the new poetics is a vast digital break from traditional written poetry. Rich, Adrienne, and David Lehman, eds. The Best American Poetry 1996. New York: Scribner, 1996.

Includes some overlooked poets from the 1990’s. Schaub, Thomas, ed. Contemporary Literature 42, no. 2 (Summer, 2001). This issue is titled “American Poetry of the 1990’s,” a resource for those who would like to explore a fin de siècle theme of loss. Silliman, Ron, ed. In the American Tree. Orono, Maine: National Poetry Foundation, 2001. Anthology of 1990’s poetry. Suzanne Araas Vesely Alvarez, Julia; Angelou, Maya; Komunyakaa, Yusef; Literature in Canada; Literature in the United States; National Endowment for the Arts (NEA); Ondaatje, Michael; Spoken word movement; Strand, Mark; Updike, John.

See also

■ Pogs Definition

Children’s game of milk caps

Playing Pogs became a major national fad for school-age children of the early-middle 1990’s. While a game of the simplest nature, it inspired a contentious disagreement over rights to use the name “Pog” itself. The game of Pogs, which children played with small cardboard wafers, or milk caps, was a sidewalk activity popular for decades in Hawaii. In 1993, after it caught on in California, Pogs gave rise to a national, multimillion-dollar industry. Once introduced, Pogs easily gained popularity at schools, where the milk caps themselves could be carried unobtrusively in pockets. The game’s popularity was enhanced by the ease with which it could be turned to gambling, prompting some school administrations to ban it from campuses. Pogs was otherwise regarded in favorable light by educators, it being a group activity in contrast to the video and computer games massively popular since the prior decade. The game entered the marketplace in the form of “collector Pogs,” featuring various licensed characters from comic strips, television, or films. Due to the ease of their manufacture, advertising Pogs also quickly appeared. The name of the cardboard disks and the game itself originated in Hawaii, where a Maui beverage company, Haleakala Dairy, made a juice drink of passion fruit, orange, and guava, marketed under the Pog name. The cardboard disks found on these drinks provided the original playing pieces.

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Pokémon franchise

Numerous variants of the game existed, most involved stacking the disks facedown in a pile. Players took turns with “slammers,” larger disks of plastic or metal, which they brought down onto the stack in such a way as to upset it, the aim being to make as many Pogs as possible land faceup instead of still facedown. Players “won” or gained points from faceup Pogs. Disagreement over rights to the “Pog” name arose in 1994. One firm believed “Pog” was a generic term chosen by children at play and not by a manufacturer. The World Pog Federation of Costa Mesa, California, however, won exclusive rights to the name in November, 1994, due in part to Haleakala Dairy being 14 percent owner of the Costa Mesa federation. The move may have helped the fad falter, since competitors such as the Universal Pogs Association, which afterward became Universal Slammers, Inc., were forced to use generic terms such as “milk caps,” which appealed less to children. Impact Although primarily a fad of the earlymiddle decade, Pogs achieved nearly universal recognition among all age groups and became one of the symbols of the times.

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■ Pokémon franchise Identification Gaming phenomenon Date Created in 1995

Pokémon became one of Nintendo’s most successful franchises, branching out of the original video game to television, film, manga, and other merchandise, and influencing a large group of the youth population. Pokémon, also known as Pocket Monsters, was created in 1995 by Japanese game designer Satoshi Tajiri. It was originally a role-playing game released in Japan for Nintendo’s Game Boy personal gaming system. After success in Japan, the video game was released in the United States. In the game, the player creates a character and battles with other characters by using a captured Pokémon. In 1998, United Paramount Network (UPN) began airing Pokémon anime in the United States. The main character was known as Ash and was given Pikachu, the yellow creature often seen in Pokémon advertising, as his first Pokémon. Later games were based on Ash, including Pokémon Yellow, which was the first Pokémon game created for Nintendo’s Game Boy Color. Pokémon continued to expand. Pokémon: The First

Further Reading

Derolf, Shane. The WPF Official Pog Collector. New York: Random House, 1995. A useful guide for gaining insight into how Pogs were seen by youths who played the game. Lewis, Tommi, and Craig C. Olsen. Pogs: The Milkcap Guide. Kansas City, Mo.: Andrews McMeel, 1994. A guide to game history, rules, and tournaments, with color illustrations. Page, Jason. The Unofficial POG and Cap Players’ Handbook. London, England: Bloomsbury Publishing, 1995. Useful for its international perspective upon an Americanoriginating game. Mark Rich Fads; Hobbies and recreation; Pokémon franchise; Toys and games.

See also

A boy hugs an oversized Pikachu doll at the premiere of the animated feature Pokémon: The First Movie on November 6, 1999, in Los Angeles. (AP/Wide World Photos)

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Movie was released in Japan to ecstatic reception and then in the United States in 1999. Game publisher Wizards of the Coast also released the first edition of the Pokémon Trading Card Game. Several collections of manga based on both the anime and the trading card game were also released in the late 1990’s. In 1999, Pokémon sound tracks were released on compact disc. Several films and sound tracks followed. Controversy erupted over Pokémon and the popularity the game and series enjoyed. The “evolution” that Pokémon experience in the game was said to run counter to Judeo-Christian creationism; in addition, many believed that Pokémon contained occult themes and promoted violence, especially toward animals. The claim that Pokémon was anti-Christian was refuted by the Vatican. Several episodes of the television series were banned in the United States for a variety of reasons; one included the villain James of Team Rocket crossdressing in a woman’s bathing suit with inflatable breasts, while another featured guns being pointed at characters. More notable was a 1997 episode that caused over six hundred Japanese children to experience seizures because of a scene’s strobe effects. The episode was banned in the United States, as well as in other countries around the world. Impact The cult status of Pokémon has left a mark on popular culture. Pikachu, the main Pokémon from the original anime series, has become a widely recognized figure, even featured as a balloon in the Macy’s Thanksgiving Day Parade. Pokémon is the second most successful game franchise in history, behind only Mario, another Nintendo property. Further Reading

Allison, Anne. Millennial Monsters: Japanese Toys and the Global Imagination. Berkeley: University of California Press, 2006. Kelts, Roland. Japanamerica: How Japanese Pop Culture Has Invaded the U.S. New York: Palgrave MacMillan, 2006. Emily Carroll Shearer Children’s television; Television; Toys and games; UPN television network; Video games.

See also

The Nineties in America

Police brutality

■ Police brutality Excessive use of force accompanied by bodily injury and/or death

Definition

High-profile cases in the 1990’s led to greater societal awareness and media attention. Calls for greater accountability have led to restructuring and the creation of citizen boards and watchdog groups. The 1990’s witnessed increased attention to the potential problem of systemic police brutality. While isolated instances of police brutality have occurred throughout history, the number of cases, the severity of beatings and/or shootings, and the increased media attention in the 1990’s brought the problem to the forefront of societal awareness. This was helped in part by new technologies that allowed citizens to record incidents of violence that traditionally went unreported. The cause or scope of police brutality is not certain, but many commentators have speculated that a number of factors converged in the 1990’s that made the use of excessive force seem an almost natural outcome. First was the increased militarization of police forces to combat more sophisticated weaponry and violent criminals. This militarization created an “us against them” mentality that led to anyone outside the force being viewed as a potential enemy. Second was a movement to “get tough on crime.” Along with policy changes such as mandatory sentencing, truth in sentencing, and threestrikes laws, the push to get tough on crime advanced the notion of zero tolerance that gave tacit authorization for police officers to do whatever is necessary to get criminals off the streets. Third is the fact that police officers enjoy a tremendous amount of discretion, limited supervision, and fairly low visibility. Finally, while not all officers engage in police brutality, another important factor that allowed for the spread of power abuse was the “Blue Wall of Silence.” Working closely with one another in a highstress/high-risk profession creates something of a closed society wherein individuals within are charged with looking out for one another. Even those who do not commit abuse are reluctant to turn in their brethren—thus allowing the cases to go unreported and allowing those with a tendency toward violence to remain on the job. Between fellow officers looking the other way and victims being afraid to come

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forward because of the extreme power they believe officers hold, most cases of police brutality have traditionally gone unreported. Key Incidents Three cases were particularly troubling and were national news for quite some time: the beating of Rodney King in 1991, the torture of Abner Louima in 1997, and the shooting of Amadou Diallo in 1999. King was pulled over by Los Angeles Police Department (LAPD) officers on March 3, 1991, after a highspeed chase. King, who had a history of drunk driving and other crimes, resisted arrest. Three officers used force to get King to assume a prone position, but they continued to kick him, stomp on him, and hit him with metal batons after he was down—while their supervisor watched. The incident happened to be caught on tape by a bystander, George Holliday, who witnessed the event. Media outlets began airing the tape immediately, and the entire nation witnessed what was clearly an excessive use of force. On August 9, 1997, New York Police Department (NYPD) officers were dispatched to investigate a disturbance outside a city nightclub, Club Rendez-Vous. A fight broke out, and one of the officers, Justin Volpe, was hit. Abner Louima, a Haitian immigrant, was identified as the assailant and was booked on a number of charges. Officers beat Louima on the way to the precinct and carried on the savagery once inside. At one point, he was stripped to the waist and sodomized with a bathroom plunger that was then shoved into his mouth, breaking some of his teeth. He required medical attention, and an ambulance was called. Police initially stated that he was a homosexual and that they had “found” him. An anonymous tip from within the hospital brought the Daily News onto the scene, and the Louima case would, like the King beating, make national headlines. On February 4, 1999, four plainclothes members of the NYPD Street Crimes Unit (a special unit created to target violent crime) approached Amadou Diallo, an immigrant from West Africa, because he loosely resembled a rape suspect. Upon their approach, Diallo reached into his back pocket to pull out a wallet. Fearing that he was reaching for a gun, the officers shot Diallo forty-one times. The sheer volume of gunfire left many wondering whether police were quick to pull the trigger and whether less

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lethal methods could have been employed. Regardless, this was yet another case that made national headlines and put the issue of excessive force in the minds of the general public. Impact Public attention and embarrassment on the part of many police departments in the 1990’s led to a number of changes designed to hold law enforcement accountable. One such change was an increasing number of citizen review boards created and charged with monitoring police activities. Another change has been the installation of monitoring devices in patrol cars that can keep an accurate record of what transpires between the time an officer encounters a suspect and the time the suspect is taken into custody. While isolated cases of abuse are bound to continue, law enforcement has apparently bent to public outcry and agreed to mechanisms that help society to “police the police.” Further Reading

Juarez, Juan Antonio. Brotherhood of Corruption: A Cop Breaks the Silence on Police Abuse, Brutality and Racial Profiling. Chicago: Chicago Review Press, 2004. Written by a former Chicago policeman, this work provides an insider’s view into the behindthe-scenes actions of some police officers and how the “wall of silence” can perpetuate problems. McArdle, Andrea, and Tanya Erzen, eds. Zero Tolerance: Quality of Life and the New Police Brutality in New York City. New York: New York University Press, 2001. Collection of articles that highlight the inherent tensions created with zero-tolerance and tough-on-crime policies that pit police against society. Winters, Paul A., ed. Policing the Police. San Diego, Calif.: Greenhaven Press, 1995. An anthology that provides different insights into the problem of police brutality. Includes a good bibliography. Jeffrey S. Ashley African Americans; Conservatism in U.S. politics; Crime; Diallo shooting; Giuliani, Rudolph; Gun control; Hate crimes; Immigration to the United States; King, Rodney; Los Angeles riots; Louima torture case; Mount Pleasant riot; Race relations; Scandals; Sharpton, Al.

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Popcorn, Faith

■ Popcorn, Faith Identification Marketing consultant Born February 11, 1947; New York, New York

Named the “Nostradamus of marketing” by Fortune magazine in the early 1990’s, Popcorn was the most famous prognosticator of trends in that decade. The head of the market analysis firm BrainReserve, Faith Popcorn achieved success through advising powerful corporate clients on consumer behavior, consolidating her reputation as a baby-boom prophet with her 1991 national best seller The Popcorn Report. She was famous for her identification of such trends as “cocooning,” the inclination to withdraw into the security of home, which pointed to the growth in home delivery, home business, and home shopping. Popcorn was also adept at formulating colorful words and phrases—such as her own catchy, invented surname—that captured the imagination of the public; additionally, her identification of trends appealed to a general wish on the part of her

readers for greater clarity and control over their lives. As much intuitive and emotional as scientific, Popcorn later in the decade published a second book, Clicking (1996), with Lys Marigold, which identified such tendencies as a suspicion of authority, or “icon toppling,” and the search for a spiritual dimension to life, or “anchoring.” The identification of the latter trend demonstrated the way in which Popcorn’s analyses of cultural developments moved beyond market trends and addressed issues that were less secular in nature. Impact Popcorn’s identification of trends not only had a major impact on the business decisions of her corporate clients but also spoke to the baby-boom generation as it entered middle age and pondered the upcoming new millennium. Further Reading

Popcorn, Faith. The Popcorn Report: Faith Popcorn on the Future of Your Company, Your World, Your Life. New York: Doubleday, 1991.

Faith Popcorn. (Hulton Archive/Getty Images))

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Sherdan, William A. The Fortune Sellers: The Big Business of Buying and Selling Predictions. New York: John Wiley & Sons, 1998. Margaret Boe Birns See also Advertising; Business and the economy in the United States; Jewish Americans; Religion and spirituality in the United States.

■ Poverty A relative measure of income below a certain threshold

Definition

In the 1990’s, Canada based its response to national poverty on a tax-transfer system that stabilized national poverty rates. The U.S. government relied on a distributive system that widened the inequality chasm between the wealthy and the poor. Economically, both countries shared common experiences during the 1990’s. At the beginning of the decade, both countries suffered through an economic recession. By the end of the 1990’s, Canada and the United States had increased trade with other nations. Technological advancements catapulted both countries beyond their expectations. The definition of poverty was adjusted periodically to include such quantifiable and qualitative variables as social exclusion, economic growth rates, family composition, and access to jobs. U.S. and Canadian leaders supported some level of devolution— a shift of political and economic responsibilities from the national government to the individual states. Their policies, particularly regarding those living below the national poverty lines, had both similar and differing impacts on their citizens. As Canada’s national income increased, so did the salaries and wages of its citizens, yet these financial and social gains did not eradicate poverty. Canada relied on a statistical formula called low-income cut-off (LICO) to determine level of poverty and need for governmental support. This formula was very popular among the Canadian public and officials at all levels of government. It linked the percentage that an average Canadian household spent on basic necessities to the amount that a person currently earned and qualified to receive in government subsidies.

Canadian Policies for the Poor

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The median income, however, remained stagnant throughout the decade. An increasing number of Canadians who were once part of the middle class were falling behind the national income average. The LICO standard for assistance was established too low to assist working-class families who were once part of the middle class. Poverty increased throughout all major cities and rural provinces, particularly among women, single-parent households, children, racial minorities, and laborers. It was estimated that those living in poverty would need to work seventy-three hours more hours weekly in order to overcome poverty. Women were more likely than men to live below the poverty line, especially those who were mothers of children less than seven years of age. Child mortality rates among poorer families were twice the amount of those born to middle- and upper-class families. Furthermore, these children were more likely to have lower birth weights and to die from childhood injuries. They were much more likely to suffer from psychiatric and/or learning disabilities than were other children. Racial minorities were more likely to live in poverty than were Caucasians. The longer they remained in poverty, the more likely they were to remain in it and remain dependent on governmental subsidies. The only escape existed through obtaining additional education. Similar situations existed in the United States. Though the United States remained the wealthiest country in the world and its antipoverty programs alleviated many social problems, it had the highest level of poverty among all industrialized nations. In 1990-1991, a recession occurred and slowed growth. These economic problems caused many Americans to support Arkansas governor Bill Clinton’s economic and welfare reform plans in his bid for the presidency in 1992. Later in the decade, the United States expanded economic opportunities, advanced social policies, and increased foreign trade. Welfare reform, tax relief for the poor, earned-income tax credits, and educational opportunities were several programs created to decrease poverty in the United States. These measures increased aftertax income among all Americans during the remainder of the decade. The same variables that contributed to poverty in Canada existed in the United States. Persons who

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Poverty

Number of U.S. Families Below the Poverty Level and Poverty Rate, 1990-1999 Year

Number of Poor Families (in millions)

Poverty Rate for Families

Number of Poor Families with Female (NSP)* Householder (in millions)

Poverty Rate for Families with Female Householder

1990

7.1

10.7

3.8

33.4

1991

7.7

11.5

4.2

35.6

1992

8.1

11.9

4.3

35.4

1993

8.4

12.3

4.4

35.6

1994

8.0

11.6

4.2

34.6

1995

7.5

10.8

4.1

32.4

1996

7.7

11.0

4.2

32.6

1997

7.3

10.3

4.0

31.6

1998

7.2

10.0

3.8

29.9

1999

6.8

9.3

3.6

27.8

*No spouse present. Source: U.S. Census Bureau, Housing and Household Economic Statistics Division.

lived in poverty would be required to work the equivalent of two full-time jobs in order to overcome poverty. Women were more likely to live in poverty than were men, with single mothers with children experiencing higher poverty rates. Childhood morality and disability rates were higher among children living in poverty than among their middle- or upperclass counterparts. African Americans and Hispanics were more likely to live in poverty than were Caucasians. Impact The debate over how to address poverty expanded throughout the decade to include topics such as basic human rights, the encouragement of self-reliance, the elimination of disability and discrimination in the workplace, and money flow into poverty-stricken households. Despite efforts to fight poverty, more than 3.6 million Canadians and 32.8 million Americans lived in poverty by the late 1990’s. In both countries, higher-wage earners owned more wealth than those who lived at or below the poverty lines. The economic distance between the “haves” and “have-nots” grew. Canada narrowed the distance between these two groups, however, by creating a tax-transfer system that offset and stabilized the redistribution of income, while the United States experienced rising inequality between the groups.

Further Reading

Casper, Lynne M., Sara S. McLanahan, and Irwin Garfinkel. “The Gender-Poverty Gap: What We Can Learn from Other Countries.” American Sociological Review 59, no. 4 (1994): 594-605. Examines eight industrialized countries’ poverty rates and the factors affecting rates between men and women. Myles, John. “How to Design a ‘Liberal’ Welfare State: A Comparison of Canada and the United States.” Social Policy and Administration 32, no. 4 (1998): 341-364. Aims to show how differences in the two otherwise “liberal” welfare systems have generated substantially different patterns of welfare state retrenchment and distributive outcomes since the 1970’s. Osberg, Lars. “Poverty in Canada and the United States: Measurement, Trends, and Implications.” The Canadian Journal of Economics 33, no. 4 (2000): 847-877. Explains why Canadian economic, social, education, and health care policies remain distinct from U.S. policies. Dwight Vick See also Business and the economy in Canada; Business and the economy in the United States; Clinton, Bill; Employment in Canada; Employment in the United States; Health care reform; Income

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and wages in Canada; Income and wages in the United States; Recession of 1990-1991; Welfare reform.

■ Powell, Colin Chairman of the Joint Chiefs of Staff, 1989-1993 Born April 5, 1937; New York, New York Identification

General Powell’s leadership during the Gulf War catapulted him into the national spotlight and caused many to think of him as a suitable candidate for major national office. Colin Powell’s distinguished military career began in 1958 and included valorous combat service and a succession of increasingly responsible command and staff positions, frequently in the offices of highranking political figures. In 1987, he was named national security adviser to President Ronald Reagan. His appointment as chairman of the Joint Chiefs of Staff (JCS) in October, 1989, made him the highestranking military official in the new administration of President George H. W. Bush and put him in the forefront of several key issues that would dominate the national agenda for the next four years. Powell was called on almost immediately to orchestrate a military intervention in Panama to oust dictator Manuel Noriega. The lessons learned from this operation were important when he was called on to marshal U.S. forces against Iraq’s Saddam Hussein, who invaded neighboring Kuwait in August, 1990. For the next seven months, Powell was the public face of the U.S. military buildup aimed at protecting Saudi Arabia, Kuwait’s neighbor, and evicting Iraq from Kuwait. Powell promoted a strategy that would commit overwhelming force to the operation once the American public was solidly behind the effort. The United States’ unqualified success solidified the American public’s esteem for Powell, whose candor and integrity made people feel confident in his abilities. Both during and after the Gulf War, Powell was active in developing a new strategic mission for the U.S. military, reducing force size and eliminating many nuclear weapons. Meanwhile, although he was still on active duty, Powell was approached by both Republican and Democratic political strategists regarding his willingness to serve in high political of-

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fices. Then and later, Powell turned down such opportunities. When Bill Clinton was elected president in 1992, Powell remained in his position as JCS chairman and almost immediately became embroiled in debates about Clinton’s wish to permit gays and lesbians to serve openly in the military. In 1993, Powell retired from active duty, although not before engaging in confrontations with members of Clinton’s cabinet over potential U.S. involvement in Somalia and Bosnia. After retiring, Powell committed himself to public speaking and writing his autobiography, My American Journey, which became a best seller in 1995. Pressure to become a candidate for president continued, fueled in part by Powell’s immense popularity. Finally, in 1995, Powell made a public announcement that he would not run, effectively quelling efforts by both parties to have him be their standardbearer. Two years later, he founded America’s Promise, a nonprofit organization committed to improving educational and employment opportunities for American youth.

Colin Powell. (U.S. Air Force)

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Impact In 2001, Powell became secretary of state under President George W. Bush. His four-year tenure in the position was marred by constant squabbling with more conservative members of the president’s cabinet. Further, his public image was damaged when, in an attempt to convince the United Nations Security Council to declare war against Iraq in 2003, he asserted that Iraq possessed weapons of mass destruction, a claim later proven to be false. Further Reading

DeYoung, Karen. Soldier: The Life of Colin Powell. New York: Alfred A. Knopf, 2006. Powell, Colin, with Joseph E. Persico. My American Journey. New York: Random House, 1995. Steins, Richard. Colin Powell: A Biography. Westport, Conn.: Greenwood Press, 2003. Laurence W. Mazzeno See also Bosnia conflict; Bush, George H. W.; Cheney, Dick; Clinton, Bill; CNN coverage of the Gulf War; Cold War, end of; Defense budget cuts; Don’t ask, don’t tell; Elections in the United States, 1996; Gulf War; Noriega capture and trial; Schwarzkopf, Norman; Somalia conflict; Wolfowitz, Paul.

■ Project Gutenberg Definition

Text digitization project

As a pioneer nonprofit volunteer project to digitize published works in the public domain, Project Gutenberg has amassed a collection of tens of thousands of e-books. Making them freely available on the Internet, it has prompted numerous similar projects around the world and changed the nature of publishing and libraries. Project Gutenberg (named after the fifteenth century craftsman Johannes Gutenberg, who revolutionized the printing of books) began at the University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign in 1971. A student at the school, Michael Hart, was allotted a grant for use of a university computer and conceived the idea of storing public domain literary works as electronic texts freely accessible by anyone. Entering the Declaration of Independence as his first document, Hart used 7-bit (Plain Vanilla) ASCII, elementary coding that would allow any type of computer to access materials. By 1989, Hart had suc-

ceeded in storing ten works, keying in the entries as continuous text (not page) files. With the development of the Internet, mushrooming capacity for computer storage, and mass commercial acquisition of personal computers, Project Gutenberg experienced a quantum advance. During the 1990’s, the project accumulated more than two thousand electronic books, both in English and other languages. Hart established monthly production targets with exponential annual increments: one text per month during 1991; two per month in 1992; three in 1993; and reaching one hundred e-books by 1994. To accelerate this pace, Hart began to attract and coordinate a corps of volunteers, who produced over the rest of the decade a monthly average of about three dozen texts. With the collection growing, a categorization of holdings was devised: reference literature for encyclopedias and dictionaries; “heavy” literature denoting works of classical authors such as Dante, William Shakespeare, and Miguel de Cervantes; and “light” literature for works such as Lewis Carroll’s Alice’s Adventures in Wonderland (1865) or James Barrie’s Peter and Wendy (1911). As the project entered into the twenty-first century, it surpassed more than ten thousand digitized or scanned texts, had enrolled hundreds of volunteers worldwide, and spawned Gutenberg projects in Europe, Australia, Canada, Portugal, and the Philippines. Impact Project Gutenberg pioneered an impressive innovation. Nonetheless, by the following decade, e-books had become a commonplace of publishing and reading. The Google search engine enterprise initiated a project to scan millions of books from the world’s leading libraries. Commercial enterprises, such as NetLibrary, offered full-text retrieval of books still in copyright. Full-text retrieval of articles from scholarly journals began with JSTOR (University of Michigan) and Project MUSE (The Johns Hopkins University). E-texts have definitively changed how publishers and libraries produce, store, and make accessible the printed word. Further Reading

Fairhead, Elizabeth. “The Final Workshop of the Gutenberg-e Project.” Perspectives on History 44, no. 5 (2006): 12-15. Hans, Paula J. “Project Gutenberg Progresses: This Resource, Developed in 1971, Has Experienced

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Its Share of Progress and Growing Pains.” Information Today 21, no. 5 (2004): 28. Hart, Michael S. “The Linear File: Project Gutenberg—Access to Electronic Texts.” Database 13, no. 6 (December, 1990): 6. Edward A. Riedinger See also Audiobooks; Book clubs; Computers; E-mail; Internet; Literature in Canada; Literature in the United States; Publishing; World Wide Web.

■ Promise Keepers Identification Christian men’s movement Date Founded in 1990

The 1990’s saw a growing concern over male identity among men themselves, partly in reaction to the feminist and gay movements of previous decades, as well as a growth of interest in a specifically male spirituality. Promise Keepers was a spontaneous Christian response, particularly from the growing evangelical churches, to these concerns, manifesting itself mainly in mass rallies and in a specific agenda of “promises” that defined a male role. Promise Keepers (PK) was formed by a group of evangelical Christian laymen led by the head football coach at the University of Colorado at Boulder. Bill McCartney was a highly successful coach who was involved with the Fellowship of Christian Athletes (FCA), among other Christian ventures. He had a vision of a men’s movement that would disciple Christian men. Behind the vision was the awareness of both the success of the FCA in promoting a “muscular Christianity” and the insecurity of male identity both culturally and in the church, after several decades of feminism, gay rights activism, and successful Christian women’s movements. By contrast, male spirituality seemed fragmented, uncertain, and lacking direction and leadership. Establishing Promise Keepers A group of seventytwo laymen met at Boulder in 1990. They called the incipient movement “Promise Keepers,” since one of the planks would be a specific list of promises. The seven promises were to honor Jesus Christ; to be in a small accountability group of other men; to practice purity; to build strong marriages; to honor their pastors; to reach beyond denominational and racial

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boundaries; and to obey the “Great Commandment” (Mark 12:30-31) and the “Great Commission” (Matthew 28:19-20). There was also a doctrinal minimum, which was basically that of conservative evangelicalism, holding to a belief in the Trinity, the Bible, salvation by faith in Christ alone, and his virgin birth and Second Coming. There was to be no membership as such. It was also to be a men’s-only organization, with sons included. The organization arranged large rallies in stadiums around the country and encouraged attendees to organize themselves into accountability groups based on their local churches. The first such big rally was held in July, 1991, in Boulder’s Folsom Field, with 4,200 men in attendance. From that point, the movement mushroomed over the next five years. The year 1993 saw one rally, again at Folsom Field, but with 50,000 attending. In 1994, six rallies saw more than 270,000 attending. The total attendance for 1995 was 738,000 at thirteen rallies, and in 1996, twenty-two rallies included a total of 1.1 million men. The conferences were held over two days and cost $60 per person. Rallies consisted of inspirational messages, testimonies, and times of reconciliation and repentance. The atmosphere was often highly charged emotionally. In 1994, McCartney resigned his coaching job, though he refused to take a Promise Keepers salary. Standing in the Gap The high point of the movement came during the Stand in the Gap rally on October 4, 1997, in Washington, D.C. There had already been some seventeen other rallies that year, attracting some two million men. It was hoped that this one-day rally at the capital would attract one million men, a parallel to the Million Man March held in Washington two years before and organized by Louis Farrakhan and the Nation of Islam. The Promise Keepers rally saw a 700,000-plus turnout comparable to the Million Man March. Men from every state in the union were in attendance, as were Native American representatives. PK organizers had invited men from fifty-seven other countries as well. At the rally, it was announced that all future events would be free, and the Promise Keepers substituted volunteers for many of the paid staff.

The most outspoken criticism of the Promise Keepers came from the National Organization for Women (NOW). NOW’s president, Patricia Ireland, saw Promise Keepers as a thinly disguised at-

Criticism

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Proulx, Annie

tempt to reinstate old-fashioned patriarchy and rob women of hard-won rights. Other women’s groups criticized NOW for such a sweeping attack and recognized the family-values agenda as helpful to women. Gay rights and pro-choice groups attacked the Promise Keepers’ antiabortion and antigay stances. Civil rights activist Jesse Jackson and others feared that the organization could divert black voters away from the Democratic Party. At the other end of the political spectrum, fundamentalist Christian groups attacked Promise Keepers for not being doctrinally specific, for welcoming Roman Catholics, and for being merely “feel-good” Christianity. None of this criticism was particularly heard by PK members. If anything, the movement’s leaders responded much more to charges of commercialism. Impact The main goal of the Promise Keepers was to change the style of male spirituality, to help men become more confident as Christians, sharing their faith with other men and becoming more aware of their roles as fathers and husbands. There were real efforts to bridge the color divide, and speakers from the black community were frequently invited to conferences. Branches of Promise Keepers were formed in Canada, Australia, and New Zealand. Sociologists and church historians are still assessing its lasting impact. By the end of the decade, the Promise Keepers movement was in decline. Although rallies continued, their attendance dropped. The agenda to form a huge network of accountability groups never materialized; many local churches were happy to send their men to rallies, but not to have the groups as part of the church network. With the growth of male spirituality, the felt need for a movement like Promise Keepers lessened. However, the movement continued into the next century. Further Reading

Brickner, Bryan W. The Promise Keepers: Politics and Promises. Lanham, Md.: Lexington Books, 1999. Explores the ideology of the evangelical movement. Clausen, Dane S., ed. The Promise Keepers: Essays on Masculinity and Christianity. Jefferson, N.C.: McFarland, 2000. A varied collection of academic essays on the movement, some critical, some supportive. Gutterman, David S. Prophetic Politics: Christian Social

Movements and American Democracy. Ithaca, N.Y.: Cornell University Press, 2005. Gutterman explores four Christian social movements, including the Promise Keepers. Novosad, Nancy. Promise Keepers: Playing God. Amherst, N.Y.: Prometheus Books, 2000. A feminist critique of the Promise Keepers movement. Williams, Rhys H., ed. Promise Keepers and the New Masculinity: Private Lives and Public Morality. Lanham, Md.: Lexington Books, 2001. Essays examine the movement in the contexts of history, gender, and race relations. David Barratt See also Farrakhan, Louis; Iron John; Million Man March; Religion and spirituality in the United States.

■ Proulx, Annie Identification American fiction writer Born August 22, 1935; Norwich, Connecticut

Proulx’s fiction described the beauty of remote areas of North America and celebrated the courage and tenacity of ordinary human beings. It was not until Annie Proulx published her first novel in 1992 that she was recognized as a writer of major importance. Her characters are always involved in a struggle for survival, often against nature, which though magnificent is also unforgiving, and often against equally merciless human beings. However, Proulx’s grimly realistic assessments of the human condition are expressed in such exuberant prose, lightened with such flashes of humor, and brightened by so many evidences of the strength of the human spirit that they are ultimately more optimistic than pessimistic. In Postcards (1992), the main character flees the family farm in backwoods Vermont because he has accidentally killed his fiancé. Over the next four decades, he wanders throughout the West, periodically reporting his activities in postcards sent to the family, whose lives prove to be as precarious as his. When Postcards won the 1993 PEN/Faulkner Award, Proulx became the first woman writer to be so honored. The hero of her second novel, The Shipping News (1993), is a bumbling journalist who, after his wife’s death, moves to his ancestral home in a remote

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Newfoundland village. The Shipping News won numerous awards, including a 1994 Pulitzer Prize, and was adapted into a 2001 film. In Accordion Crimes (1996), Proulx traces the adventures of an accordion as it moves from owner to owner over the course of a century. Though each of the nine owners is a member of a different ethnic group and lives in a different part of America, they are all new immigrants and thus subject to harassment, discrimination, and cruelty. In 1999, Proulx returned to short fiction with Close Range: Wyoming Stories, in which ranchers and cowhands are pitted against nature and their own frailties. One of the stories in the collection, “Brokeback Mountain,” was made into a 2005 film. Unlike many earlier women writers, Proulx does not focus merely on issues related to gender. The subject of her novels is the heroism of ordinary human beings, both women and men, whether they are confronted by an inhospitable natural environment or, as in the case of the immigrants, by an equally inhospitable social order. This breadth of focus, along with her masterful characterization and her brilliant style, guarantee Proulx’s standing as one of the most significant writers of the 1990’s. Impact

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Rood, Karen Lane. Understanding Annie Proulx. Columbia: University of South Carolina Press, 2001. Steinberg, Sybil. “E. Annie Proulx: An American Odyssey.” Publishers Weekly 243, no. 23 (June 3, 1996): 57-58. Rosemary M. Canfield Reisman See also

Literature in the United States.

■ Psychology The scientific study of human mental processes and behaviors

Definition

With its myriad specialties and branches, psychology in the 1990’s explored a range of topics, including language acquisition; emotional intelligence; prescription privileges; memory acquisition, retention, and retrieval; and social influences on cognition.

In the waning years of the 1980’s, President George H. W. Bush encouraged American citizens to become more involved in giving back to their communities, a call to action that the psychology community embraced. In 1990, psychology professionals began using magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) on the brain Further Reading to study human cognition; in the same year, a comBilton, Alan. An Introduction to Contemporary American mittee from the American Psychological Association Fiction. New York: New York University Press, 2003. (APA) discussed possibilities for the up-and-coming branch of psychology called pharmapsychology, or behavioral biology. Interdisciplinary approaches began forming during the early part of this “Decade of the Brain,” a time when psychologists researched cognition, language acquisition, memory, and aging. Mental health professionals began studying a cluster of illnesses, known as Gulf War syndrome, that some Gulf War combat veterans experienced. During the early 1990’s especially, psychology became more accepting of the possibility of genetic influences on human cognition, so much so that some psychologists needlessly worried that focus would shift away from social dynamics toward genetic factors, and social influences would Pulitzer Prize-winning author Annie Proulx on her property in Vershire, Vermont, in become irrelevant. In truth, social April, 1994. (AP/Wide World Photos)

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psychology reached maturity during this decade, and today it remains integral to the field as a whole. As mid-decade approached, psychologists continued to examine the individual’s behavior and the elusive subject of human consciousness and automaticity, or how certain human processes become automatic over time. Ever mindful of their quest toward unified theories about how humans know and appreciate the world, researchers turned to reading comprehension and image cognition, then to educational and mathematical psychology, also called psychological economics, particularly later in the decade. Ecopsychology, previously known as environmental psychology, also originated during this time, offering another example of psychology’s tendency during the 1990’s to return its focus to the way in which the human psyche intersects with its surroundings. Other (re)emerging fields, such as evolutionary psychology, which situates psychology as a subfield of biology, also evinced psychology’s intersectionality. Transpersonal psychology, with its attention to religious and spiritual issues, received scholarly attention and renewal in the early part of the decade. In 1994, the American Psychiatric Association released the fourth edition of its Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders (DSM-IV), the reference book psychologists and psychiatrists use to diagnose patients. Exacerbated by the ongoing AIDS epidemic and millennial anxieties, the United States was a hotbed for psychological and psychiatric conditions, and the increase of patients in psychologists’ offices led to higher demands for trained mental health professionals. By the mid-1990’s, the exciting field of psychology had become the most popular science major for undergraduate university students, and with the United States’ multiethnic population expanding, educators began emphasizing multicultural and global approaches in the psychology classroom. The disciplinary shift toward educational psychology led later in the decade to increased research and publication concerning teacher-student interaction. At the 1995 American Psychological Association convention, psychologists gained prescription privileges, contingent upon the profession’s developing legal protocols and proposing training curricula. Shortly thereafter, former Walter Reed pharmacology fellow U.S. Navy Com-

The Second Half of the Decade

mander John L. Sexton was the first psychologist to prescribe medication. Later that same year, the APA created a new division for the study of men and masculinity. During the second half of the 1990’s, “emotional intelligence” surfaced as one of psychology’s most popular terms. Made widely recognizable in the academic community by journals and conferences, the term also caught the popular imagination, finding its way into newspapers and magazines around the world. The American Dialect Society named it one of the most useful new phrases of the decade. Through this positive publicity, the typically academic field of psychology began forming alliances with mainstream culture, inspiring the popular psychology movement. In 1998, APA president Martin Seligman chose the theme “positive psychology” for his term as president and thereby introduced a new branch of psychology to the field. Positive psychology refigures the aim of mental health counseling from its previous intent—treating mental illness—to a more optimistic goal: making life more fulfilling. After a long decade of soaring antidepressant statistics, the American public along with television and radio personalities embraced positive psychology and the onslaught of self-help books that ensued. Impact Over the decade, the fragmented field of psychology remained malleable, capable of allying itself with economics, literature, and a number of sciences. The interdisciplinarity of psychology made it accessible to students interested in diverse aspects of the human condition, which therefore made psychology a popular subject to study in school. In tandem with the increasing demand for trained psychologists—particularly those capable of distributing pharmaceuticals—psychology’s likability increased its visibility both in America and abroad. Further Reading

Freedheim, Donald K., and Irving B. Weiner. Handbook of Psychology Volume 1: History of Psychology. Hoboken, N.J.: John Wiley & Sons, 2003. Organized topically over four volumes. Pickren, Wade E., and Donald A. Dewsbury, eds. Evolving Perspectives on the History of Psychology. Washington, D.C.: American Psychological Association, 2002. Academic essays that explore methods and disciplinary divisions across time. Schultz, Duane P., and Sydney Ellen Schultz. A His-

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tory of Modern Psychology. 9th ed. Florence, Ky.: Wadsworth Cengage Learning, 2007. Focused primarily on the late nineteenth and twentieth centuries. Contains an epilogue centered on late twentieth century psychological developments. Ami R. Blue AIDS epidemic; Alzheimer’s disease; Americans with Disabilities Act of 1990; Antidepressants; Attention-deficit disorder; Genetics research; Gulf War syndrome; Health care; Pharmaceutical industry; Religion and spirituality in the United States; Science and technology.

See also

■ Publishing The business of the commercial production and distribution of literature

Definition

The 1990’s was a time of transition for the publishing industry. With the advent of the Internet, the industry had a new method for content delivery but also a competitor for its audience’s leisure time. Large chain bookstores such as Barnes & Noble and Borders were becoming increasingly popular in the 1990’s, and as their sales grew, more independent bookstores began to close. The impact this had on the publishing industry was determined by the kind of materials the big bookstores wanted—namely, books by big-name authors and celebrities. While major authors and celebrities were offered large advances by the publishing houses, these titles did not always sell well. Millions of dollars were being lost because of these advances in combination with a high rate of returns (unsold copies returned to publishers for a refund). Not all books sold poorly. Textbook sales increased during the 1990’s, as did the sales of audiobooks. Audiobooks had initially been sold through direct mail, but as the 1990’s progressed, they became more popular and widely available, first through libraries and then bookstores. The landscape of the book publishing industry changed significantly during the 1990’s, with over six hundred mergers and acquisitions among publishing companies taking place during the decade. Large media conglomerates acquired or created publishing companies: For instance, the Walt Disney Company established its publishing branch,

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Hyperion, and CBS/Viacom purchased Simon & Schuster. The consolidation of the industry into a few major players concerned bookstore owners across the country; booksellers claimed that they had less contact with publishing representatives and that larger publishing houses were putting all of their resources into best sellers and major chain bookstores. The result—they claimed—was a blander, less robust literary scene. In July of 1995, Amazon.com opened for business. The site became a very popular venue for the purchase of books and other media, and as its sales took off, more online bookstores followed, including online outlets of chain stores Barnes & Noble and Borders. The Internet not only was a new forum from which to sell books but also became another competitor for readers’ (and viewers’) leisure time. With home computers and the Internet taking off, publishers experimented with different methods of content distribution, such as CD-ROMS, e-books, and print on demand (POD)—in which books are printed only after an order has been placed. By printing only what is needed, publishers using POD technology could save money. Experimentation with content distribution would continue into the next decade.

Internet

In 1996, Oprah Winfrey started her book club. Once a month, she selected a new title that would be discussed in a later episode of her show. Oprah’s Book Club took off, with her selections (many by unknown authors) becoming best sellers. In 1997, British author J. K. Rowling’s Harry Potter and the Philosopher’s Stone (published in the United States as Harry Potter and the Sorcerer’s Stone in 1998) became a phenomenon with children and adults alike, and Rowling’s popular sequels continued to be published into the following decade. Christian fiction also surged in popularity and sales during the 1990’s, notably the Left Behind series by Tim LaHaye and Jerry B. Jenkins, beginning with Left Behind: A Novel of the Earth’s Last Days in 1995. Harry Potter, Left Behind, and Oprah

Impact The introduction of the large chain bookstore and Internet bookstores such as Amazon.com changed the publishing industry. Because of their size and dominance of the market, these large companies were able to sell books at a steep discount, making it more difficult for smaller, independent

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bookstores to remain in business. With the consolidation of the publishing industry through mergers and acquisitions, the majority of top-selling books came from fewer publishers every year, and the number and types of books published also diminished. Further Reading

“Book Sales Flat in ’90’s—Report.” Publishers Weekly 244 (October 27, 1997): 14. Provides an overview of the publishing industry up to 1996, including areas of strong sales, the impact of chain bookstores, and return rates. Greco, Albert N. The Book Publishing Industry. 2d ed. Mahwah, N.J.: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates, 2005. Examines the major issues in the book publishing industry: return rates, mergers, and the Internet. Provides a good historical overview, but much of book deals with the post-2000 industry. Has an excellent glossary of publishing terms. Jones, Margaret. “Mergers-and-Acquisition Aftershocks.” Publishers Weekly 246 (September 20, 1999): 25-28. Provides an overview of the aftermath of the major mergers of the 1990’s. Lofquist, William S. “Economic Outlook for the U.S. Printing and Publishing Industry.” Publishing Research Quarterly 12, no. 3 (Fall, 1996): 22-28. Examines the state of the publishing industry up to 1996 and anticipates the impact the Internet will have on the industry. Whitten, Robin. “Growth of the Audio Publishing Industry.” Publishing Research Quarterly 18, no. 3 (Fall, 2002): 3-11. Covers the growth of the audiobook industry in the 1990’s. Julie Elliott Amazon.com; Audiobooks; Bezos, Jeff; Blogs; Business and the economy in the United States; Harry Potter books; Internet; Left Behind books; World Wide Web.

See also

■ Pulp Fiction Identification American crime film Director Quentin Tarantino (1963Date Released on October 14, 1994

)

Drawing on the conventions of hard-boiled pulp fiction, auteur Tarantino brought independent film to the forefront of the American imagination with this stark, complicated crime drama.

Quentin Tarantino, a video store clerk turned writer-director, fused Pulp Fiction together from a wide array of influences: undervalued American crime fiction, samurai films, the French New Wave, the work of directors Martin Scorsese and Brian De Palma, blaxploitation films, and 1950’s, 1960’s, and 1970’s pop culture. The film, cowritten with Roger Avary, was successful, in part because it was an homage to Tarantino’s favorite writers, directors, and singers. It was also challenging in a time when Hollywood was pushing safe, formulaic blockbusters, and it stood out because it relied heavily on dialogue and challenged standard conventions of storytelling. Pulp Fiction was also a tremendous success for the actors and actresses involved. John Travolta, the star of one of Tarantino’s favorite films—Brian De Palma’s Blow Out (1981)—had long been resigned to mediocre Hollywood fare and made his comeback with this film, playing the type of character he had played early in his career. Pulp Fiction also served as a breakthrough for Samuel L. Jackson, who built an entire career around his performance as Jules Winnfield. The film also solidified Uma Thurman’s place as Tarantino’s muse and showcased Bruce Willis, who was recovering from a series of commercial flops, as a punchy boxer straight out of a classic film noir. Pulp Fiction won the Palme d’Or (Golden Palm) at the 1994 Cannes Film Festival, and it grossed $107.93 million at the U.S. box office, making it the first independent film to surpass $100 million. It was also nominated for several Academy Awards, including Best Picture and Best Director. The decision by the Academy of Motion Picture Arts and Sciences to award the Best Picture Oscar to Forrest Gump, a film that was the polar opposite of Pulp Fiction in both intention and execution, spoke to a divide in the American consciousness and revealed a hesitation to give highest honors to a film that reveled in vulgarity, dark humor, and B-movie conventions. Tarantino and Avary did, however, receive the award for Best Original Screenplay. Impact Pulp Fiction inspired a generation of young filmmakers to forego film school and to simply make their own movies, and it had a deep impact on the conventions of crime films, as more and more writers and directors began to experiment with time and point of view. It also helped to launch a prolific decade for independent films, and Tarantino, who re-

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Mia Wallace (Uma Thurman) and Vincent Vega (John Travolta) dance at Jack Rabbit Slim’s in the film Pulp Fiction. (Reuters/ Landov)

ceived his big break at the Sundance Film Festival, opened doors for filmmakers like Robert Rodriguez (with whom he later collaborated), Christopher Nolan, and others.

Myths, and His Movies. London: John Blake, 2007. Peary, Gerald, ed. Quentin Tarantino: Interviews. Jackson: University Press of Mississippi, 1998. William Boyle

Further Reading

See also Academy Awards; DVDs; Film in the United States; Forrest Gump; Independent films; Literature in the United States; Music; Sundance Film Festival; Tarantino, Quentin; Travolta, John.

Bernard, Jami. Quentin Tarantino: The Man and His Movies. New York: HarperPerennial, 1995. Clarkson, Wensley. Quentin Tarantino: The Man, the

Q ■ Quayle, Dan Vice president of the United States, 1989-1993 Born February 4, 1947; Indianapolis, Indiana Identification

Though Quayle was an intelligent and capable politician, his single term as vice president is unfortunately best remembered for his verbal malapropisms and the huge amount of scorn and ridicule heaped upon him by the media and political adversaries. Dan Quayle was born into a wealthy family and enjoyed a privileged lifestyle. He graduated from DePauw University and Indiana University School of Law—Indianapolis. A conservative by inclination, he was recruited by the Republican Party, and he sought a seat in the U.S. House of Representatives from the Fourth District of Indiana. He won handily in 1976 and was reelected in a landslide in 1978. In 1980, at the age of thirty-three, he won a seat in the Senate and was easily elected to a second term in 1986. As a senator, Quayle was reliably conservative and unfailingly ingratiating. In 1988, George H. W. Bush, the Republican presidential candidate, surprised the nation by choosing Quayle to be his running mate. Quayle’s nomination was met with a wave of derision and opposition. His giddy enthusiasm about being chosen for the nomination seemed like immature behavior to many observers. In a debate between rival vice presidential nominees, Democrat Lloyd Bentsen delivered a memorable retort to Quayle’s comparison of himself to John F. Kennedy in terms of congressional experience, stating that Quayle was “no John Kennedy.” Despite Quayle’s campaign mistakes and the unrelenting criticism by the media, the Bush-Quayle team won the election, and Quayle became the forty-fourth vice president of the United States. As vice president, he competently chaired the National Space Council and the Council on Competitiveness and occasionally presided over the Senate,

but the attacks and derision continued, fueled by his ongoing verbal gaffes, such as “the future will be better tomorrow.” After a brief period of high poll ratings due to the Gulf War, the economy failed to flourish, and President Bush disastrously broke an often repeated campaign promise by raising taxes. When the Bush-Quayle team sought reelection in 1992, they were soundly defeated. Impact While vice president, Quayle had chided fictional television character Murphy Brown for giving birth out of wedlock and thus setting a bad moral example. Although Quayle was criticized for these

President George H. W. Bush, left, and Vice President Dan Quayle pose at the White House in 1989. (NARA)

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remarks, many believed he had a valid point about the irresponsibility of mainstream media. The unending criticism he drew apparently ended his political career, thus revealing again the power and influence of the media. Further Reading

Quayle, Dan. Standing Firm. New York: HarperCollins, 1994. Woodward, Bob, and David S. Broder. The Man Who Would Be President: Dan Quayle. New York: Simon & Schuster, 1992. Thomas W. Buchanan See also Bush, George H. W.; Elections in the United States, 1992; Gulf War; Murphy Brown.

■ Quebec referendum of 1995 Quebec votes against secession from Canada Date October 30, 1995 Place Quebec Province, Canada The Event

The Quebec referendum of 1995, sponsored by the Parti Québécois government of Jacques Parizeau, was the second referendum on Quebec sovereignty to be held in fifteen years. Voters rejected the plan, but only by the narrowest of margins. Historians cite a variety of reasons for the resurgence of French Canadian nationalism in the early 1990’s. Prominent among them were the ambivalent outcome of Quebec’s first referendum on sovereignty in 1980; Quebec’s opposition to the Constitution Act of 1982; controversial Supreme Court rulings on Quebec’s language and commerce laws; and failure of the Meech Lake (1987) and Charlottetown accords (1992). On September 12, 1994, Jacques Parizeau, leader of the Parti Québécois and longtime advocate of the sovereignty movement, was elected premier of Quebec. During the electoral campaign, he had promised voters that, if elected to the premiership, he would formulate a new plan for Quebec sovereignty and organize a referendum on the issue. He was joined in his effort by Lucien Bouchard, leader of the Bloc Québécois, and Mario Dumont, leader of Action Démocratique du Québec. On June 12, 1995, the three men drafted the outline of a new bill and

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agreed on a mutually acceptable platform for the referendum. Bill 1, the so-called Sovereignty Bill, was placed before the province’s National Assembly in early September with a referendum scheduled for October 30. The campaigns for and against secession received heavy media coverage and were emotionally charged. Quebec Liberal Party leader Daniel Johnson, Labor Minister Lucienne Robillard, and Prime Minister Jean Chrétien were among the most outspoken opponents of the plan. Each contended that the referendum question was confusing, even disingenuous. With the future of Quebec at stake, Canadians were wrought with anxiety on referendum day. Voter participation rose to a surprising 93.5 percent. In the final tally, 50.58 percent of Quebec’s citizens voted against the government’s plan. The measure was thus defeated by less than 1 percent of the popular vote. In a referendum night concession speech, Premier Parizeau sparked indignation when he blamed his defeat on “money and the ethnic vote” yet failed to acknowledge that approximately 40 percent of the francophone community had rejected his party’s sovereignty plan. Impact Following the referendum, Parizeau resigned as Quebec premier and was replaced by Bouchard. Most observers felt that the 1995 referendum had failed to resolve any of the tough political issues at hand. In a gesture of reconciliation, Chrétien’s federal government hastened to recognize Quebec as a “distinct society” with its own language, culture, and legal system. However, Canada’s parliament also passed the Clarity Act of 2000, stipulating that any future referendum on independence must be founded on a clear and unambiguous question and must obtain a clear majority approval before negotiations with the federal government could be initiated. Further Reading

Cardinal, Mario. Breaking Point Quebec/Canada: The 1995 Referendum. Montreal: Bayard Canada Books, 2005. Jedwab, Jack, et al. À la prochaine? Une Rétrospective des référendums Québécois de 1980 et 1995. Montreal: Éditions Saint-Martin, 2000. Young, Robert Andrew. The Struggle for Quebec: From Referendum to Referendum? Montreal: McGillQueen’s University Press, 1999. Jan Pendergrass

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A huge Canadian flag is shown among a crowd on October 27, 1995, in Montreal, where thousands of people rallied in support of the Quebec referendum. (AP/Wide World Photos)

Bloc Québécois; Business and the economy in Canada; Charlottetown Accord; Chrétien, Jean; Minorities in Canada; Mulroney, Brian.

See also

■ Queer Nation Gay and lesbian activist organization Date Founded in 1990 Identification

Queer Nation’s founding marked the first large-scale reclamation of the word “queer” for the gay and lesbian community. It also introduced a new style of activism for lesbians and gays, a shift away from assimilation-based efforts that preceded the group. In the spring of 1990, a small group of activists for gay and lesbian equality joined together in New

York’s Greenwich Village to start a new movement. They were disenchanted with the state of most largescale gay and lesbian rights organizations, which had turned so much of their focus to AIDS or tolerance models of inclusion. Of these organizations, those who were concentrating on broader issues of gay and lesbian equality focused on a goal of assimilation of gays and lesbians with the heterosexual mainstream. Groups such as the Human Rights Campaign espoused that lesbians and gays were just like heterosexuals and thus should be treated equally. Much like ACT UP (AIDS Coalition to Unleash Power), Queer Nation rejected this moderate position, choosing instead to promote the unique qualities of gay and lesbian people in order to be celebrated (rather than just tolerated) because of these attributes. Fundamentally opposed to the way organizations

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of the time framed themselves, these activists came together to form Queer Nation. In the tradition of reclamation, they chose to refer to themselves as “queer,” a word that had been used pejoratively to label homosexuals, and by doing so empowered themselves as individuals who were proud to reside outside the heteronormative structure. The act of using such a powerful term that had negative connotations to so many people was only the first of many “inyour-face” political actions of the organization. The New York chapter of Queer Nation, as well as those in major cities around the country, began to actively engage the mainstream culture through radical rhetoric and action, hosting sit-ins against companies who openly discriminated against gays and lesbians, organizing kiss-ins in traditionally heterosexual spaces, and protesting activities that catered to heterosexual audiences. Unlike the organizations that had come before it, Queer Nation was loud and abrupt, coining the popular slogan “We’re here, we’re queer, get used to it.” By the organization’s first anniversary, chapters had been established in many major cities around the United States, including Albuquerque, Atlanta, Houston, and San Francisco. However, by that time, the organization was already beginning to experience an identity crisis. Founding members quickly found themselves burned out with such direct activ-

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ism. It was at this time that members of the group began trying to make Queer Nation a platform for their own particular causes. The combination of these factors saw some of the chapters begin to dissolve in early 1991, while others lasted well into the mid-1990’s. Queer Nation as a whole has never officially disbanded, though no active chapters are currently in existence. Impact Queer Nation moved facets of the gay and lesbian movement into a new territory—that of aggressive disobedience. The organization will be best remembered for reclaiming the word “queer” and for resisting assimilation in favor of celebrated diversity. Further Reading

Baker, James N., et al. “What Is Queer Nation?” Newsweek, August 12, 1991, 24-25. Slagle, R. Anthony. “In Defense of Queer Nation: From Identity Politics to a Politics of Difference.” Western Journal of Communications 59, no. 2 (Spring, 1995): 85-102. Needham Yancey Gulley AIDS epidemic; Domestic partnerships; Don’t ask, don’t tell; Hate crimes; Homosexuality and gay rights; Transgender community.

See also

R ■ Race relations Social, political, and economic interactions among persons associated with different racial and ethnic groups, often involving patterns of prejudice, discrimination, and subordination

Definition

In both the United States and Canada, the 1990’s saw significant controversies, changes, and developments in race relations. During the 1990’s, social scientists and journalists wrote numerous books and articles about continuing conflict, negative stereotypes, and discriminatory treatment. Activists with liberal and left-wing perspectives often argued that aggressive steps were needed in order to reduce the continuing effects of institutional racism and “white privilege.” Moderates and conservatives, in contrast, tended to be satisfied with the goal of promoting equal opportunities for individuals, and they sometimes focused on allegations of “reverse discrimination.” Although radical right-wing organizations had much less public support than in the past, the Ku Klux Klan and other white identity groups continued to denounce the idea of racial integration and to proclaim the inherent superiority of persons of European ancestry. Throughout the 1990’s, American society was growing increasingly diverse in race and ethnicity. By the end of the century, African Americans made up about 12.1 percent of the population, whereas the growing Hispanic population reached 12.5 percent, of which almost half also classified themselves as white. Persons of Asian ancestry represented 3.6 percent, and Native Americans made up less than 1 percent. The conceptualization of a binary black-white society was clearly anachronistic, even though most discussions of race relations tended to focus on that aspect of the topic. The Supreme Court issued a number of decisions that were more conservative than in previous de-

The United States

cades. When considering court-ordered busing to desegregate schools, for example, the Court allowed communities to terminate mandatory programs after making good-faith efforts at desegregation. A Harvard University study, directed by Gary Orfield, found that largely because of these decisions, classrooms were becoming increasingly segregated. White students were particularly segregated by race; by 1999, they attended schools in which more that 80 percent of the students were white and less than 20 percent were from other racial groups. Experts disagreed about the consequences of this renewed segregation. Many conservatives argued that racial integration had little to do with the quality of education, whereas most liberals insisted that segregation inevitably meant less equality in funding schools and fewer opportunities for children of diverse backgrounds to learn to live and work together. The decade saw much controversy over the matter of equal opportunity versus parity in employment and admissions to competitive schools. One contentious issue was the use of employment qualifications that had a “disparate impact” on historically disadvantaged groups. After the Supreme Court modified its previous, more liberal rulings, Congress reacted with the Civil Rights Act of 1991, which required employers to demonstrate that all qualifications were closely connected to performing the particular job. Affirmative action programs, which usually included limited preferences for minorities and women, were often denounced by opponents as unfair to white males. In the case of Adarand Constructors v. Peña (1995), the Supreme Court ruled that all racial preferences in government-financed programs were inherently suspect and must be evaluated by the criteria of “strict scrutiny,” which made it much more likely that they would be struck down as unacceptable. In California, voters approved a 1996 referendum, Proposition 209, which outlawed all race-based preferences in state-sponsored activities. Two years later, voters in Washington State passed a similar law. Although affirmative action

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programs continued in much of the country, most polls indicated that about 60 percent of whites and 35 percent of blacks opposed racial preferences. Numerous instances of racial violence took place. In 1990, Congress passed a law requiring the Federal Bureau of Investigation (FBI) to keep records of hate crimes. In 1996, a rather typical year, the agency reported 8,769 such occurrences, with about 63 percent based on race. The decade’s most highly publicized racial hate crime was the 1998 murder of African American James Byrd, Jr., when three white supremacists dragged his mangled body behind a pickup truck in Jasper, Texas. Although black-white conflict tended to attract the headlines, in Los Angeles and many other cities confrontations between Hispanics and blacks, often organized into hostile gangs, was a growing problem. Two significant race riots occurred. In 1991, when a car driving a Hasidic Jewish leader struck and killed a black child in the Brooklyn community of Crown Heights, the result was four nights of rioting, in which one Jewish student was murdered, 188 persons were injured, and more than 150 were arrested. That same year, several police officers were taped beating Rodney King following a high-speed chase and his refusal to obey their orders. The next year, after three of the officers were acquitted of using excessive force, rioting and looting broke out in Los Angeles, resulting in fiftythree deaths, ten thousand arrests, and the destruction of about four thousand buildings. The sensational murder trial of O. J. Simpson demonstrated that African Americans and European Americans tended to perceive American society from radically different perspectives. For the latter, the evidence against Simpson appeared overwhelming. In addition to DNA tests and the bloody glove found on his property, he had a motive, time to commit the murders, and a history of violent behavior. Yet, Johnnie Cochran achieved an acquittal by convincing the predominantly black jury that Mark Furman and other white police officers had planted evidence because of their desire to destroy a successful black man. When the jury announced that Simpson was not guilty, one juror raised his fist in a black-power salute. Over national television, a group of black law students at Howard University cheered in delight. Following the trial, 85 percent of blacks said they agreed with the verdict, compared with some 24 percent of whites.

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Canada In comparison with the U.S. population, a much larger majority of Canada’s peoples were of European ancestry. According to official statistics, racial minorities constituted only about 9.4 percent of Canadians in 1991, but largely because of immigration, they grew to include almost 14 percent by the end of the decade. Despite the country’s global reputation for toleration and equal rights, it had many of the racial and ethnic inequalities found in other modern societies. In employment and education, racial minorities were significantly underrepresented in prestigious positions, and a number of studies indicated that discrimination continued to be practiced against minorities. There were significant differences, however, among the various groups, with Asian Canadians showing more gains than black Canadians or aboriginal peoples. Statistics also showed even greater variation in the criminal justice system. Whereas black Canadians in 1996 made up about 2.2 percent of the country’s population, they comprised over 6 percent of prison inmates. Asian Americans, in contrast, made up 7.2 percent of the population but only 2.4 percent of persons incarcerated. At the beginning of the decade, Canada already had strong federal and provincial human rights legislation prohibiting discrimination on the basis of race or ethnicity. In 1995, the Parliament revised and strengthened the Employment Equity Act, declaring that no person should be “denied employment opportunities or benefits for reasons unrelated to ability.” The statute further announced the goal of correcting the “conditions of disadvantage” of minorities in employment equity, which “means more than treating persons in the same way but also requires special measures and the accommodation of differences.” In 1996, the federal government proclaimed the Canadian Race Relations Foundation Act, designed to focus its efforts on eliminating all racism against minorities, with particular emphasis on systematic discrimination in education and employment. Public opinion polls by the Centre for Research and Information on Canada (CRIC) usually showed growing support for the concept of racial and ethnic diversity, even though many French-speaking people in Quebec feared that multiculturalism posed a challenge to the survival of French culture. A minority of Canadians agreed with Neil Bissoondath’s Selling Illusions: The Cult of Multiculturalism in Canada

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(1994), which argued that multiculturalism promotes social conflict and a diminished sense of Canadian identity. In contrast, Will Kymlicka, in Finding Our Way: Rethinking Ethnocultural Relations in Canada (1998), argued that the multiculturalism had not decreased the rate of integration by immigrants. His statistics showed considerable levels of political participation, rates of intermarriage, and the ability of new Canadians to speak an official language, French or English. Canadians experienced considerably less ethnic violence than persons living in the United States, although violent incidents did occasionally take place. The most highly publicized event occurred in the town of Oka, Quebec, during the summer of 1990, when the town announced plans to expand a golf course into an area near the Mohawk community of Kanesatake. The disputed area included a traditional burial ground and a grove of pine trees that was considered sacred. After losing a court battle, members of the Mohawk community erected a barricade around the area. At the request of the town mayor, the provincial police of Quebec intervened, and they attacked the barricade, deploying tear gas and flash-bang grenades to create confusion in the Mohawk ranks. One police officer was killed during the resulting fifteen-minute gunfight. Native American groups in Canada and the United States then joined the conflict. In solidarity, several Mohawks from another community, Kahnawake, blockaded a bridge between Montreal and a southern suburb, resulting in large traffic jams and angry anti-Mohawk crowds. The federal government then brought in the Royal Canadian Mounted Police (RCMP) as well as 2,500 members of the Canadian armed forces. Most citizens of Quebec expressed outrage with the Mohawk actions. After lasting seventy-eight days, the crisis finally ended when the federal government agreed to spend $5.3 million to purchase the disputed land. One consequence of the dispute was passage of the First Nations Policing Policy, which allowed aboriginal peoples more control over their police services. Impact In 1997, U.S. president Bill Clinton sponsored a national discussion on racial issues, which was called One America in the Twenty-first Century: The President’s Initiative on Race. The announced goal of the initiative was to promote appreciation for the nation’s growing diversity as it entered the new

century. Although the initiative produced a number of interesting conferences, most observers were disappointed with its results. Native Americans and other minority groups protested their lack of inclusion in the initial organization, and some conservative white Americans bitterly complained that their ideas and perceptions about issues like affirmative action were not taken seriously. As the twentieth century ended, in both the United States and Canada there were many indications of improvements in race relations. In the United States, for instance, 12.1 percent of the new marriages were between persons of different races, compared with only 3 percent in 1970. A Pew Carter poll of 1999 found that 63 percent of respondents said that interracial marriages were good “because they helped break down racial barriers.” Many businesses and educational institutions tried to improve race relations with sensitivity training—with mixed results. Although growing numbers of disadvantaged minorities were achieving middle-class status, the U.S. Census Bureau reported in 1999 that African Americans, in comparison with non-Hispanic whites, were three times more likely to be poor and six times more likely to serve prison terms. Although overt racial discrimination was illegal and increasingly rare, most experts agreed that covert discrimination, often encouraged by negative stereotypes, continued to be widespread. Further Reading

CQ Research Staff. Issues in Race, Ethnicity and Gender. Washington D.C.: CQ Press, 2002. Balanced discussions of controversies relating to Native Americans, African Americans, Latinos, and Asian Americans at the end of the twentieth century, with bibliographical essays. Feagin, Joe R., and Clairece B. Feagin. Racial and Ethnic Relations. 7th ed. New York: Prentice Hall, 2002. A popular, one-sided textbook asserting that American institutions continue to be white supremacist, racially hierarchical, and oppressive of minority groups. Li, Peter S., ed. Race and Race Relations in Canada. 2d ed. New York: Oxford University Press, 1999. An interesting collection of essays about issues of discrimination, multiculturalism, and the status of visual minorities. Marger, Martin. Race and Ethnic Relations: American and Global Perspectives. 5th ed. Belmont, Calif.:

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Wadsworth, 1999. A comparative approach that emphasizes racial groups in the United States and includes a good chapter on Canada. Swain, Carol. The New White Nationalism in America: Its Challenge to Integration. New York: Cambridge University Press, 2002. Argues that contemporary multiculturalism with its emphasis on racial pride has the unintended consequence of promoting virulent forms of white racism. Thernstrom, Stephan, and Abigail Thernstrom. America in Black and White: One Nation, Indivisible. New York: Simon & Schuster, 1997. A scholarly work that opposes affirmative action and argues that the country has made significant progress toward ending racial discrimination. Thomas Tandy Lewis African Americans; Asian Americans; Byrd murder case; Cochran, Johnnie; Civil Rights Act of 1991; Crown Heights riot; Demographics of Canada; Demographics of the United States; Diallo shooting; Hate crimes; Illegal immigration; King, Rodney; Latinos; Los Angeles riots; Mount Pleasant riot; Native Americans; Sharpton, Al; Simpson murder case.

See also

■ Ramsey murder case The murder of a six-year-old and its investigation Date December 26, 1996 Place Boulder, Colorado The Event

JonBenét Ramsey’s murder generated sensational press coverage, largely focused on JonBenét’s appearances in child beauty pageants. This media attention reflected Americans’ rising interest in criminal investigation and the American justice system. Six-year-old JonBenét Ramsey, daughter of Patsy and John Ramsey, was found dead in the basement of her parents’ home in Boulder, Colorado, on the morning of December 26, 1996. A blow to the head had fractured her skull; she had been strangled with a cord tied around her neck and tightened with a garrote. Patsy Ramsey had called police early that morning to report JonBenét missing. Patsy had found a ransom note demanding $118,000 and promising

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that the kidnappers would contact the Ramseys before 10:00 a.m. After several hours had passed with no contact from the kidnappers, Boulder Police detective Linda Arndt asked John Ramsey and his friend Fleet White to search the house. Ramsey found JonBenét’s body lying on the floor of a small basement room. The first uniformed officer on the scene had searched the house but had not opened the latched door to that room; a friend had opened the door in a later search but had not entered the room and seen the body. John Ramsey was president and chief executive officer of Access Graphics, a wholesale computer parts company owned by Lockheed Martin. Patsy Ramsey was involved with community and charitable activities, and the Ramseys regularly attended Boulder’s St. John’s Episcopal Church. The couple also maintained large homes in Atlanta, Georgia, and Charlevoix, Michigan. Patsy was a former Miss West Virginia and Miss America contestant, as was her sister Pam. Along with Patsy’s mother, they had begun entering JonBenét in child beauty pageants, and she had already won several titles. Patsy spent thousands of dollars on singing and dancing lessons for JonBenét, as well as custom-made costumes. News stories distributed photographs and video showing six-year-old JonBenét posing and performing wearing elegant, flamboyant showgirl outfits, high heels, and makeup. Investigators wondered if a child molester or pornographer might have found JonBenét’s pageant appearances sexually provocative, leading to a pursuit of the child resulting in her death. Investigators were divided as to whether John and Patsy Ramsey should be considered suspects. Handwriting experts eliminated more than seventy people as possible writers of the ransom note, but could not definitely say Patsy had not written it. The garrote used to strangle JonBenét was made with the broken handle of an artist’s paintbrush belonging to Patsy. Boulder was an affluent, politically liberal community whose police had little experience with murder cases. District attorney Alex Hunter preferred to negotiate plea bargains rather than prosecute defendants in court. The police failed to completely search the Ramsey home, interview the Ramseys, or secure the crime scene, and later rejected offers of help from both the Federal and Colorado Bureaus

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Detailed in countless media outlets, their failure contributed to the American public’s growing concern about the effectiveness of the American justice system.

The adorned gravesite of JonBenét Ramsey. (AP/Wide World Photos)

of Investigation. While Boulder detectives assembled a case against Patsy Ramsey, Hunter’s office hired its own investigators, allowed the Ramsey attorneys to review police files and physical evidence, and insisted detectives treat the Ramseys as victims rather than suspects. Ramsey supporters argued that an intruder had entered the Ramsey home through a broken basement window. The layout of the home was complex; Boulder detectives argued that an intruder could not have maneuvered through the mansion in the dark to locate JonBenét’s bedroom or the basement room where her body was found. Hunter’s investigators believed JonBenét could have been killed by anyone already familiar with the home. Neither the duct tape on JonBenét’s mouth nor the cord used to strangle her could be matched to anything belonging to the Ramseys. In 1998, Boulder County convened a grand jury to decide if there was sufficient evidence to support any indictment. After thirteen months, the grand jury ruled no charges could be filed based upon the evidence. Impact The Ramsey case generated intense public scrutiny and tabloid coverage. The Ramseys were unable to counter images of Patsy as a stage mother and JonBenét as an oddly mature-looking child beauty queen. Boulder’s legal officials could not collaborate to solve a murder among the city’s elite.

Subsequent Events Patsy Ramsey died of ovarian cancer on June 24, 2006. In August, 2006, an American substitute teacher named John Mark Karr confessed to killing JonBenét. Witnesses placed him in Alabama at the time of the murder, however, and Boulder authorities announced that he would not be charged. In July, 2008, the Boulder district attorney’s office announced that new deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA) sampling and testing techniques had cleared all members of the Ramsey family.

Further Reading

Bardach, A. L. “Missing Innocence: The JonBenét Ramsey Case.” Vanity Fair, no. 446 (October, 1997): 322. Bardach’s frequently cited overview of problems within the investigation and relevant political connections in the Boulder district attorney’s office. Douglas, John E., and Mark Olshaker. “The JonBenét Ramsey Murder.” In The Cases That Haunt Us. New York: Charles Scribner’s Sons, 2000. Federal Bureau of Investigation profiler once employed by the Ramseys argues that an intruder killed JonBenét. Gentile, Don, and David Wright, eds. JonBenét: The Police Files. Boca Raton, Fla.: American Media, 2003. Includes transcripts of police interviews with the Ramseys. Ramsey, John, and Patsy Ramsey. The Death of Innocence: The Untold Story of JonBenét’s Murder and How Its Exploitation Compromised the Pursuit of Truth. Nashville: Thomas Nelson, 2000. The Ramseys’ account of their loss and their struggles with the media and Boulder police. Schiller, Lawrence. Perfect Murder, Perfect Town. New York: HarperCollins, 1999. Often cited as a definitive account in spite of occasional inaccuracies and the author’s decision to draw no conclusions; later editions include index. Thomas, Steve, with Don Davis. JonBenét: Inside the Ramsey Murder Investigation. New York: St. Mar-

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tin’s Press, 2000. Lead detective on the Ramsey case argues that the Boulder district attorney’s office protected the Ramseys. Maureen Puffer-Rothenberg See also Crime; Klaas kidnapping and murder case; Simpson murder case.

■ Real World, The Identification Reality television show Creators Mary-Ellis Bunim (1946-2004) and

Jonathan Murray (1955) Premiered on May 21, 1992

Date

The series mixed documentary and soap opera elements, spawning a new era of television programming, the reality show. The Real World, created by Mary-Ellis Bunim and Jonathan Murray, first aired on May 21, 1992, on MTV. Bunim, who had produced soap operas for sixteen years, and Murray, with a background in journalism, became partners in 1992 and created the 24/7 documentary series about seven strangers ages eighteen to twenty-five living together in New York City and having their lives filmed. The house was filled with cameras, the residents wore recording packs, and camera crews followed them whenever they left the house. Each subsequent year, the show moved to a new city with seven new housemates. Impact The Real World became the model for future reality television series. It enjoyed enormous popularity, becoming the longest-running MTV show of the 1990’s and continuing its success into the twentyfirst century. Despite the show’s popularity, many critics believed that what began as a legitimate look at young people as they tried to find their way in the world became increasingly voyeuristic, self-referential, and orchestrated. When the series began, serious issues such as prejudice, politics, morality, sexuality, and personal growth were explored honestly and openly. Many subjects taboo on network shows were routinely presented. Then the show gradually changed, providing casts with weeklong vacations, ready-made employment situations, and fantasy housing, which increased the show’s artificiality. Cast members were chosen to ensure conflict and controversy, and some participants seemed to have serious medical and emotional problems. Instead of

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locating the casts in cities with varied cultural and employment opportunities, producers started placing them in resort communities, with cast members becoming overly self-aware and too focused on sex, fame, and binge drinking. Further Reading

Hill, Annette. Reality TV: Factual Entertainment and Television Audiences. New York: Routledge, 2005. Murray, Susan, and Laurie Ouellette, eds. Reality TV: Remaking Popular Culture. New York: New York University Press, 2004. Leslie Neilan See also

Cable television; Television.

■ Recession of 1990-1991 The Event U.S. economic contraction Date Lasted from July, 1990, to March, 1991

Although the recession of 1990-1991, the only recession of the 1990’s, was considered to be mild in terms of its duration and the reduction in output experienced, President George H. W. Bush claimed that the Federal Reserve’s response to it was the reason that he was not reelected in 1992. Market economies experience periods of economic expansion and contraction, often referred to as business cycles. Difficult to predict, these periods of economic contraction are called recessions. By common usage, a recession is said to occur if real gross domestic product (GDP) falls for two or more consecutive quarters. Real GDP is a measure of the market value of the output produced in a country that ignores the impact of inflation on prices, and a quarter is a three-month period of time. The National Bureau of Economic Research (NBER), the organization that assigns the beginning and ending dates to recessions, does not use this definition, instead defining a recession as “a significant decline in activity spread across the economy, lasting more than a few months,” which may be seen through a number of economic indicators, one being real GDP. A recession is said to have ended when the economy begins to expand. The recession of 1990-1991 ended the secondlongest period of economic expansion up to that point in the twentieth century and was followed by the longest period of economic expansion in U.S.

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history. At only eight months in length, the economic contraction of 1990-1991 was less than the average of nearly eleven months for the nine recessions that occurred during the twentieth century after 1945, and with a drop in real GDP of about 1.3 percent, the 1990-1991 recession recorded the second-lowest drop in real GDP among these nine recessions. Cause of Recession The causes of recessions are the subject of numerous disagreements, and the 1990-1991 recession is no exception. The disagreements arise as a result of differences in how economists view the workings of the economy. Since a recession occurs when the economy produces less output, this may result from two basic sources: one being that less output is demanded, causing producers to produce less, and the other being that producers supply less output as a result of a reduction in the availability of resources. John Maynard Keynes (1883-1946), the founder of macroeconomics, built his theory regarding the cause of recessions on a reduction in the demand for output. Although many economists have continued in this tradition, others have developed theories based on the role reduced supply plays in explaining recessions. While there is general agreement among economists that reductions in either the demand for output or the supply of output may lead to recessions, there is less agreement about which has led to a specific recession and what factors caused either a reduction in demand or a reduction in supply to occur. These differing views can be seen in some of the explanations economists have offered for the cause of the 1990-1991 recession. Viewing a reduction in demand as the cause, some economists have argued that the recession may have been brought on by a reduction in consumer purchases due to concerns about the economy. Others suggest that a decline in demand for output may have been due to efforts by the Federal Reserve to reduce the growth of the money supply in the year prior to the recession. Still others argue that the increase in oil prices that accompanied Iraq’s invasion of Kuwait reduced the supply of output. As a result, no agreed-upon explanation has emerged regarding the cause of the 19901991 recession. The Federal Reserve, the central bank of the United States, is responsible for monetary policy in the United States and as such often takes the lead in

dealing with recessions. Under the leadership of Federal Reserve chairman Alan Greenspan, the Fed began taking steps to increase the money supply once there were signs that the economy was contracting. Increasing the money supply tends to lower interest rates and thereby increase the demand for output. President George H. W. Bush criticized these efforts as insufficient and cited them as the reason he was not reelected in 1992. Impact Effects of the recession can be seen in the impact that it had on the unemployment rate and wages during the early 1990’s. Just prior to the start of the recession, the June, 1990, unemployment rate was 5.2 percent. Over the course of the next two years, it reached a high of 7.8 percent in June, 1992. The economy did not achieve an unemployment rate of 5.2 percent again until August, 1996. The increase in the unemployment rate was accompanied by a slight reduction in average hours worked per week and wage rates that remained stagnant during the first several years of the decade. While the 1990’s will be better remembered for its long uninterrupted period of economic growth, the 1990-1991 recession is a reminder that recessions are an inevitable part of market economies. Occurring between two of the longest periods of economic expansion in U.S. history, the 1990-1991 recession is often dismissed as a minor deviation from the slow but steady growth of the U.S. economy. Nevertheless, this recession, though mild in comparison to other post-World War II recessions, did adversely impact life in the United States. Further Reading

Heilbroner, Robert, and Lester Thurow. Economics Explained. Rev. ed. New York: Touchstone, 1998. A concise overview of key economic concepts such as unemployment, inflation, and recessions and how they have affected society. Knoop, Todd A. Recessions and Depressions: Understanding Business Cycles. Westport, Conn.: Praeger, 2004. A comprehensive look at recessions in the United States and a review of the difficulties encountered in trying to predict and prevent them. Woodward, Bob. Maestro: Greenspan’s Fed and the American Boom. New York: Simon & Schuster, 2000. An engaging look at the workings of the Federal Reserve during the 1990’s under the guidance of Alan Greenspan. Randall Hannum

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Bush, George H. W.; Business and the economy in the United States; Clinton, Bill; Downsizing and restructuring; Elections in the United States, 1992; Employment in the United States; Greenspan, Alan; Income and wages in the United States.

See also

■ Reeve, Christopher Identification American actor and activist Born September 25, 1952; New York, New York Died October 10, 2004; Mount Kisco, New York

An established actor, Christopher Reeve became internationally recognized for his courageous advocacy of rights for the disabled after a horse-riding accident left him nearly completely paralyzed.

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immobilized and compelled to use a ventilator except for brief periods. His medical trauma, however, received international coverage, and within a year of his injury Reeve began making public appearances—most notably at the 1996 Academy Awards—to advocate for the rights of the disabled and increased funding for spinal cord injury research. Along with his wife, Dana, Reeve established the Christopher Reeve Paralysis Foundation in 1996, which led efforts both to protect the insurance coverage of victims of such injuries and to promote controversial stem cell research as the best hope for genuine advances toward cures for spinal cord injury. In 1997, Reeve returned to filmmaking, directing the Home Box Office (HBO) film In the Gloaming, a sobering look at AIDS. It was nominated for five Emmy Awards. Reeve’s performance the following year as the Jimmy Stewart character in a remake of Alfred Hitchcock’s 1954 classic Rear Window earned him a Screen Actors Guild Award for best television actor. Reeve published two inspirational best sellers that urged victims of spinal cord injuries to live as independently as possible even as he had begun to reclaim limited muscle response in his fingers and to feel hot and cold sensations. Despite his heroic re-

A working actor since fourteen, Christopher Reeve had found his hunky good looks and self-deprecating charisma a fortunate combination as first a villain on the soap opera Love of Life and then most prominently as Superman in a trilogy of highly successful films in the 1980’s. Gifted with financial security but restless for professional challenges, Reeve by the early 1990’s was selecting film and theater roles that worked against the Superman persona. In addition, Reeve, a lifelong athlete, pursued high-risk hobbies including piloting, scuba diving, and most notably horse riding, particularly eventing, a demanding three-day competition that combines the finesse of dressage with the speed of cross-country racing. It was on May 27, 1995, during an eventing competition in Culpepper, Virginia, that Reeve was thrown forward off his horse when it froze before a rail jump. Reeve landed headfirst, shattering the uppermost vertebrae in his spine (actually severing his skull from the column). Instantly paralyzed, Reeve was unable to breathe, and only urgent neurological care saved his life. Rehabilitation over the next months was an Christopher Reeve accepts the 1996 National Courage Award from the Courage Center excruciating and frustrating regiin Bloomington, Minnesota. After suffering a spinal injury from a horse-riding accimen: Reeve was confined to an elecdent that rendered him a quadriplegic, Reeve became an advocate for the disabled. tric wheelchair, nearly completely (AP/Wide World Photos)

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covery, Reeve struggled constantly to ward off infections. On October 10, 2004, he succumbed to a heart attack after being treated with an antibiotic for sepsis, a blood infection. Impact Immediately after his accident, Reeve later admitted, he considered suicide. That he refused to surrender, that he maintained his courage—and grace—under such catastrophic pressure made him an international symbol of the human spirit. Perhaps more important, however, was Reeve’s determination to raise awareness about the promise of controversial medical research and his campaign to protect the rights of victims of catastrophic accidents. Further Reading

Havill, Adrian. Man of Steel: The Career and Courage of Christopher Reeve. New York: Signet, 1996. Karp, Gary, and Stanley D. Klein, eds. From There to Here: Stories of Adjusting to Spinal Cord Injuries. Horsham, Pa.: No Limits Communication, 2004. Reeve, Christopher. Nothing Is Impossible: Reflections on a New Life. New York: Random House, 2002. Joseph Dewey Academy Awards; Americans with Disabilities Act of 1990; Audiobooks; Cable television; Film in the United States; Genetic engineering; Health care; Health care reform; Stem cell research; Television.

See also

■ Reeves, Keanu Identification Canadian American actor Born September 2, 1964; Beirut, Lebanon

An actor who enjoys experimenting with roles, Reeves helped reshape audience expectations for action and science-fiction blockbusters in the 1990’s. While Keanu Reeves’s first widely known film was Bill and Ted’s Excellent Adventure (1989), in which his portrayal of a time-traveling party lover earned a cult following, the young Canadian actor had already starred in several movies after moving to the United States in the mid-1980’s. He followed his first big commercial success with a sequel, Bill and Ted’s Bogus Journey (1991), as well as Point Break (1991), a buddycop film with Patrick Swayze set among the California surfing scene; My Own Private Idaho (1991), a

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quirky independent film on which Reeves became close to costar River Phoenix; Bram Stoker’s Dracula (1992); and Much Ado About Nothing (1993), based on William Shakespeare’s play. With this eclectic mix, Reeves hoped not to be pigeonholed as the airheaded Ted, and he was successful to some degree, earning particularly good reviews for My Own Private Idaho. It was not until the movie Speed (1994), however, that Reeves became a household name. Reeves bulked up and got a buzz haircut for the role of police officer Jack Traven, thus creating an Everyman action-hero persona popular with both male and female audiences. Reeves’s on-screen chemistry with the not-yet-widely-known Sandra Bullock, as well as the movie’s fast-paced, clever plot and dazzling special effects, made Speed wildly popular, and Reeves began earning multimillion-dollar salaries. In spite of this success, Reeves did not partake of the glamorous Hollywood lifestyle, in part because of his grief over River Phoenix’s death from a drug overdose in October of 1993. Following the universally panned Johnny Mnemonic (1995), Reeves continued to experiment with roles, including the romantic A Walk in the Clouds (1995), the offbeat Feeling Minnesota (1996), and the creepy The Devil’s Advocate (1997), which costarred Al Pacino. Reeves’s next big breakthrough occurred with the action-filled yet cerebral science-fiction film The Matrix (1999), in which he played Thomas Anderson, a corporate drone by day and a hacker named Neo by night, who discovers that the entire world is a virtual reality environment created by machines who have enslaved what is left of the human race. Reeves’s understated confusion fit the role perfectly, and his facility during the groundbreaking kung fu fight scenes was impressive. The Matrix was an instant cult favorite and a huge financial success, cementing Reeves’s reputation as a reliable box-office draw. Impact Keanu Reeves’s career throughout the 1990’s, while varied in both the genre and the success of his chosen projects, contained two unmistakable high points that widely influenced the industry: Speed, which led audiences to expect smarter action movies with more everyday heroes than the industry had previously seen, and The Matrix, which introduced revolutionary special effects and showed that audiences’ interest in high-concept science fiction had not ended with the Star Wars and Terminator movies.

The Nineties in America Further Reading

Brown, Scott. “The Man Who Would Be Keanu.” Entertainment Weekly, no. 736 (November 7, 2003): 24-28. Grossman, L. “The Man Who Isn’t There.” Time, February 21, 2005, 54-56. Membery, York. Keanu Reeves. Philadelphia: Chelsea House, 1998. Amy Sisson See also Film in the United States; Matrix, The; Phoenix, River.

■ Reform Party “Radical center” third-party movement Date Established in 1995

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Stand during Richard M. Nixon’s administration to aid the cause of American prisoners of war in North Vietnam. When Perot announced his independent run for the presidency in February, 1992, he had a readymade structure in place, made up of his own Electronic Data Systems (EDS) employees, Gargan’s THRO lists, and grassroots volunteers. Under the aegis of United We Stand America, Perot ran an unconventional but remarkably successful campaign. Despite a two-month shutdown during summer, 1992, he reentered the race on October 1, keeping most of his supporters. His folksy plain speaking and colorful charts made him the star of the candidates’ debates. In the 1992 election, he won 19 percent of the vote, a new record for a third party.

Identification

The Reform Party’s rise and successes demonstrated the dissatisfaction felt by many Americans with two-party politics as usual, especially on economic issues. Although the Reform Party was not officially established until 1995, many citizens’ dismay at the major parties’ disregard of their concerns spurred the rise of several independent political movements during the 1990’s. Of these, the most spectacular were the two attempts by Dallas software billionaire H. Ross Perot to win the presidency. The Reform Party, established as a vehicle for Perot’s 1996 campaign, continued as a viable political entity through the rest of the decade. At the beginning of the decade, a manifesto titled “Grassroots Petition” was published by retired financial planner Jack Gargan. Gargan’s outrage was fueled by the political system’s “dirty little secrets” that the major news media seldom covered. A national debt of $3 trillion, self-enacted congressional raises, depleting of the Social Security system to cover the deficit, and lobbyists’ inordinate influence due to their political contributions, were among his complaints. Enough response greeted Gargan’s petition to start an organization called Throw the Hypocritical Rascals Out (THRO). In fall, 1990, Ross Perot, who agreed with Gargan’s complaints about the system, contacted Gargan. Perot had long meddled in high-level politics himself. Among other efforts, he had founded United We

The Antecedents

The Party Although Perot was initially coy about making another presidential run, his dismay about the enactment of the North American Free Trade Agreement (NAFTA), the lack of genuine campaign finance reform, and other disappointments meant that this remained a live option. In September, 1995, appearing on the Larry King Live show, Perot announced the creation of a new party “for the independent voters.” Its convention was held in Long Beach, California, in August, 1996, with a second session held a week later in Valley Forge, Pennsylvania. Unlike the relatively disciplined 1992 movement, these events were preceded by infighting and a fair amount of chaos in Reform Party ranks. Perot had a challenger, former Colorado governor Richard Lamm. To no one’s surprise, Perot’s selection as the party’s nominee was announced in Valley Forge. His 1996 campaign largely emphasized the same issues of economic nationalism and citizen access on which he had run before. This time, however, much of the electorate’s attention had returned to twoparty rivalries, and some anger had been deflected by the Clinton administration’s budget-balancing success and the nation’s rising prosperity. The Reform Party won approximately 8 percent of the presidential vote in 1996. This was enough, however, to qualify the party for federal matching funds in 2000. During the intervening years, as Perot removed himself from the party’s active leadership, the gap between the EDS and party activists and its local volunteers widened. State organizations went their own way, adding to the fragmentation. In Minnesota, former profes-

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sional wrestler and suburban mayor Jesse Ventura won the support of one of the more robust state Reform Party organizations in a run for governor. His outspoken advocacy of ideas like smaller classes in public schools, a light-rail system for the Twin Cities, freezing property taxes, and a medical approach to drug addiction came as a fresh approach to politics. The entire nation was shocked when he won Minnesota’s governorship in 1998. Ventura’s victory was largely attributed to his appeal to younger voters and to working-class citizens, who liked his combination of fiscal sobriety and a libertarian stance on cultural issues. Elsewhere, there were several Reform Party candidates for Congress and for local offices in 1998, but they had little success. The prospect of $12 million in federal matching funds led to a contentious struggle for the party’s 2000 presidential nomination. Ventura’s victory made him a major force within the party, but he declined to run, throwing his support to Jack Gargan, the “godfather” of early movement efforts. Meanwhile, pundit Pat Buchanan set out to capture the party’s nomination. He brought his own supporters into the party, added goals drawn from his own isolationist hard-right ideology, and outmaneuvered several attempts to stop him with short-lived candidacies such as that of entrepreneur Donald Trump. Neutralizing both the Perot and the Ventura factions, Buchanan entered the 2000 presidential election season as the Reform Party’s candidate. Buchanan succeeded in turning the party’s platform in a totally different direction from its “radical center” origins and presided over its disintegration as a force in the nation’s political life.

Further Reading

At its height, the Reform Party served the traditional function of American third parties: bringing neglected issues into the mainstream and forcing the major parties to confront them. President Bill Clinton’s deficit-reduction measures were, arguably, made possible by the Reform Party’s highlighting of the problem. Others among the party’s issues, however, remained unaddressed or even worsened. The party’s meteoric rise and successes also showed the gap between many citizens’ expectations and the “issues” that most politicians want to talk about. Even after the party’s near-demise, this gap remains, perhaps providing ammunition for future reform efforts.

Traditionally characterized by the Roman Catholic, Anglican, and United Church of Canada denominations, religion in Canada in the 1990’s also embraced an increasing variety of religious faiths and spiritualities.

Impact

Edwards, Tamala M. “The Ventura Way: If It Isn’t Fun, I Quit.” Time, August 9, 1991, p. 8. Reporting from the trenches of the party’s national convention, showing the rivalries and stresses that shaped its downfall. Jelen, Ted G., ed. Ross for Boss: The Perot Phenomenon and Beyond. Albany: State University of New York Press, 2001. A collection of articles on aspects of Perot’s campaigns and on the Jesse Ventura phenomenon. Sifry, Micah L. Spoiling for a Fight: Third Party Politics in America. New York: Routledge, 2002. Examines the rise and fall of the Reform Party and other third parties that sprang up during the 1990’s. Emphasizes the forces working against the party’s long-term survival. Emily Alward Balanced Budget Act of 1997; Buchanan, Pat; Bush, George H. W.; Business and the economy in the United States; Clinton, Bill; Elections in the United States, midterm; Elections in the United States, 1992; Elections in the United States, 1996; North American Free Trade Agreement (NAFTA); Perot, H. Ross; Stockdale, James; Ventura, Jesse.

See also

■ Religion and spirituality in Canada Organized and nonorganized expressions of spiritual belief and practice among Canadians

Identification

Reflecting a long-term trend, Canada’s religious life in the 1990’s was marked by its increasing pluralism, sharing the increasing multiculturalism of Canada. At the same time, there was a seeming decline in formal religious membership, accompanied by a reduced role for the religious perspective in civic life. Demographics of Religion Unlike the United States, Canada asks about religious preference in its census data. The 1991 Canadian census indicated that Canadians were 45 percent Roman Catholic, 35 per-

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cent Protestant, and 1.4 percent Eastern Orthodox. Jews represented about 1.2 percent of the Canadian population. Reflecting the changing sources of immigration and Canada’s increasingly multicultural society, these demographics changed significantly over the decade of the 1990’s. The total number of Christians in percentage terms declined from 81 percent in 1991 to 74 percent in 2001, with Catholics falling to 43.6 percent of the population and Protestants to 29 percent of the population. Meanwhile, there was a significant increase in adherents of Islam (doubling in population over the 1990’s to become 2 percent of the Canadian population). Likewise, there was a large increase of adherents to Hinduism and Sikhism (both increasing by 89 percent) and Buddhism (increasing by 84 percent), with all three of these religions growing to about 1 percent each of the Canadian population by decade’s end. This increase is largely explained by the large number of adherents of these religions who were part of the 1.8 million immigrants to Canada during the 1990’s. The most influential faiths in Canada have traditionally been Roman Catholic, Anglican, and the United Church of Canada (formed by a union of Presbyterian, Methodist, Congregational, and other churches in 1925).These three denominations were traditionally granted special prerogatives under Canadian law, especially in the field of education, and played a dominant role in Canadian society. All three underwent significant changes in the latter half of the twentieth century, including the 1990’s. While the number of adherents and the traditions of Catholicism did not diminish, the same cannot be said of the influence on society of the Catholic hierarchy and priests, especially in Quebec. (Particularly damaging to the Catholic Church in Canada were disclosures of abuse at the Mount Cashel Boys Home in Newfoundland, which was closed in 1990.) The Anglican and United Churches seemed to show a decline in both numbers and influence. It seems that the progressive social attitudes of the mainline Protestant denominations on such issues as homosexual and abortion rights did not draw more adherents to these churches. In fact, the Protestant groups that showed the most growth were those of an evangelical and freestanding character. A vivid example is the “Toronto Blessing” revival that began in the Toronto Airport Vineyard Fellowship in January, 1994, and attracted millions of participants to its physically charismatic worship services.

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The heartland of Canadian Catholicism has always been French-speaking Quebec. The Quiet Revolution of the 1960’s and 1970’s had already seen the secularization of the once clericalist Quebec society. This trend was to continue through the 1990’s. A symbol of this changed status occurred in 1990. The chairman of the Montreal Catholic School Commission called upon the Quebec provincial government to encourage immigration by people who shared Judeo-Christian values. This call was immediately repudiated by the provincial leaders as conflicting with Quebec’s secular character. Another sign of Canada’s determination to accommodate a broader faith experience than the traditional Catholic and Protestant religions inherited from the mother countries of France and England was illustrated in a debate over national prayer. The federal parliament in Canada traditionally began its daily sessions with a prayer dedicated in part to Jesus Christ. In February, 1994, the Canadian Parliament voted unanimously to substitute the nondenominational reference to “Almighty God” for the Christian reference. The Canadian government traditionally funded, at least to some extent, Catholic and Protestant schools; this led to controversy in the 1990’s. In 1991, protesters took over an Amherstburg public school to protest the increasing jurisdiction of the Catholic school system over formerly public schools. In 1994, a suit by Jewish parents to obtain public funding for their schools was rejected by the Ontario Court of Appeal. In 1996, the Supreme Court in its Adler v. Ontario decision upheld the Province of Ontario in funding Catholic schools to the exclusion of Jewish schools as part of the political compromise that made the 1867 confederation possible. While accepting the advantages granted to Canada’s largest denominations in school funding, however, the courts were eager to show that Canada welcomed all faiths. In the same year, for example, in the case of Ross v. New Brunswick School District No. 15, the Supreme Court found that a school board was liable for discrimination for failing to take action against a teacher who made vituperative comments against Jewish people during his off-duty time. Despite these debates over Canada’s increasingly pluralistic and even secularized approach to faith and spirituality, there is an academic consensus on the different role that religion plays in Canadian political life from that of its southern neighbor, the

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United States. In the last decades of the twentieth century, religion played a potent, persuasive, and at times divisive role in U.S. politics, but organized religion did not play a similar role in Canada during the 1990’s. Despite Canada’s traditional conservatism, a consensus had emerged accepting Canada’s diverse and personalized approach to religion, separated from the tumult of politics. Impact Religion in Canada in the 1990’s reflected the changes in Canadian society. From its French and English roots, Canadian religion took on a more diverse character, with the greatest increases registered among non-Christian religions and among religious nonadherents. Whether because of the declining influence of the Catholic Church in Quebec, the sometimes extreme stands of the Protestant mainline churches, or the more personal, expressive faith of the evangelical denominations, Canadian religion did not seem to play a major role in Canadian politics of the 1990’s. Further Reading

Choquette, Robert. Canada’s Religions: An Historical Introduction. Ottawa: University of Ottawa Press, 2004. Part of the Religion and Beliefs series, this volume traces the history of religion in Canada as shaped by traditional beliefs and modern practices. Menendez, Albert. Church and State in Canada. Amherst, N.Y.: Prometheus Books, 1996. An update on Canadian church-state relations in the mid1990’s, critical of the role of religion in Canadian life. Murphy, Terrence, and Roberto Perin, eds. A Concise History of Christianity in Canada. Toronto: Oxford University Press, 1996. A comprehensive history of the institutions of Canada’s Christian denominations and their social and political impact. Howard Bromberg Abortion; Canada and the United States; Dead Sea scrolls publication; Demographics of Canada; Education in Canada; Elections in Canada; Homosexuality and gay rights; Immigration to Canada; Minorities in Canada; Religion and spirituality in the United States.

See also

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■ Religion and spirituality in the United States Organized and nonorganized expressions of spiritual belief and practice among Americans

Identification

Religion and spirituality played an important, if at times contradictory, role in political and social life of the United States in the 1990’s. Like much of American history, the 1990’s were marked by both religious and spiritual dynamism and by growing secularism. These somewhat paradoxical tendencies are well exemplified in the results of a public opinion data poll that identified 1992 as both the “Year of the Evangelical” and the “Year of the Secular.” New religious movements and spiritualities partook both of traditional devotions and a practical, entrepreneurial spirit that has always been an American characteristic. America’s ability to harmonize the conflicting strands of religiosity and secularism in the 1990’s was perhaps nowhere better illustrated than in politics. Although the United States prides itself on separation of church and state, changing religious affiliations played a crucial role in national and local politics. Demographics Most American adults identify themselves with one particular religion or denomination. There is no quicker way of understanding the social landscape of the 1990’s than by surveying the demographics of religious adherence in the United States. Although the U.S. Census does not ask about religious affiliation, the Graduate School of the City University of New York conducted a National Survey of Religious Identification in 1990, one of the most extensive surveys of religious affiliation ever undertaken. This comprehensive survey found that of the total adult civilian population of approximately 175 million Americans, 86 percent were identified as Christian. The largest Christian denomination was Roman Catholic, with approximately 46 million adult adherents, a little more than a quarter of the adult population. The largest Protestant denomination was Baptist, with about 34 million adherents, or about one-fifth of the adult population. About 17 million American adults— one-tenth of the population—were identified as nondenominational Protestants. The next largest Protestant denominations were Methodist, with ap-

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proximately 14 million adult members, Lutheran with 9 million, Presbyterian with 5 million, Pentecostal with 3 million, Episcopalian with 3 million, and the Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints (Mormon), with about 2.5 million adult members. Other non-Christian religions surveyed in 1990 were much smaller in comparison. Approximately 3 million adults were identified as Jewish, about 2 percent of the population. In addition, 527,000 adults were identified as Muslim, 401,000 as Buddhist, 227,000 as Hindu, 47,000 as belonging to Native American religions, 45,000 as Scientologist, 28,000 as Baha’i, 23,000 as Taoist, and about 20,000 as New Age adherents. Nonbelieving or nonclassified adults constituted about 10 percent of the population. From this it can be seen that the United States entered the 1990’s as a nation in which the vast majority of adults identified themselves as belonging to Christian denominations. Although the nation had a large number of adherents of almost every other religion in the world, making the United States the most religiously diverse country on earth, their numbers remained small in comparison with Christianity. Immigration patterns of the 1990’s would play an important role in religious demographics. In 1990, 7.2 million Americans, or 2.9 percent of the population, were of Asian origin. Increased immigration from Asia and Africa accounted for most of the rise in numbers of non-Christian religions. Politics and Religion The influence of the Religious Right in American politics continued unabated in the 1990’s. At the beginning of the decade, Pat Robertson founded the Christian Coalition to assert the values of conservative Christianity in local and national politics. By 1995, the Christian Coalition under its director Ralph Reed had become remarkably active, claiming 1.7 million members in local chapters nationwide. These chapters registered and educated millions of voters and lobbied legislators in support of their principles. These principles were summarized in the Coalition’s Contract with the American Family, introduced on the steps of the U.S. Capitol. Likewise, the Reverend Jerry Falwell spoke of reviving his Moral Majority organization, a political force in the 1980’s, if the federal government pushed for abortion and homosexual rights. The Supreme Court decision in Lee v. Weisman (1992), which prohibited nonsectarian prayer at public school graduations, illustrated the

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federal judiciary’s push toward secularization. Since September 1, 1960, when presidential candidate John F. Kennedy delivered a major address distinguishing between his private religious beliefs and his political actions, candidates for the presidency had followed an unwritten rule. Religion was not to be an issue, and matters of faith were not relevant in political campaigns. This unwritten code was stretched to the limit in the 1992 presidential race between President George H. W. Bush and Bill Clinton. As political columnist William Safire noted, no presidential campaign in American history was more explicit in invoking the name and blessings of God than the 1992 campaign. For example, President Bush often invoked the religious and Christian heritage of the United States, especially in appearances before conventions of America’s largest Protestant denomination, the Southern Baptists, and before evangelical groups, which were becoming increasingly active and influential in American politics. His challenger Bill Clinton was competing for the same votes and in his speeches often quoted from the Bible and referred to the “new covenant” he wanted to make with America and the “crusade” he would carry out to reform government. Even third-party candidate H. Ross Perot found religious demographics to be one of the chief determinants of the presidential campaign. The votes for Perot came almost exclusively from one demographic category: white Protestants. As a result, the famous 1990’s pollster George Gallup, Jr., was well able to conclude that religious affiliation was one of the most accurate of political indicators. Religion and the Media The 1990’s saw the continued visibility of religious figures on the most dominant media of the decade—television. Using the new capabilities of cable television, Paul Crouch built the Trinity Broadcasting Network and Mother Mary Angelica built her Eternal Word Television Network into international media empires. Pat Robertson, already a significant voice through his Christian Broadcasting Network featuring The 700 Club, founded International Family Entertainment in 1990 to promote and distribute family-oriented programming to cable television. The Reverend Billy Graham, perhaps the best-known and mostrespected religious figure in the United States, increasingly reached out to groups beyond his fundamentalist roots. His ecumenical evangelistic crusades

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attracted millions of Americans. Perhaps the most influential American Catholic prelate of the 1990’s was Joseph Cardinal Bernardin of Chicago, who developed the “seamless garment” ethic to moral questions involving human life. But certainly the most forceful and telegenic personality for American Catholics was Pope John Paul II, whose worldwide travels, charisma, and personal holiness made him a vivid presence. Traveling to the United States in the years 1993, 1995, and 1999, Pope John Paul II called on Americans to return to their moral roots, while working for a more peaceful, pluralistic, and economically just world. Under his leadership, the United States Conference of Catholic Bishops reaffirmed its vigorous opposition to the practice of abortion, euthanasia, and capital punishment. Religious broadcasting on both television and radio figured significantly in the ongoing “culture wars.” Religious leaders, networks, and groups chose sides in the bitter ethical and political debates over issues such as abortion, divorce, homosexuality, and public education. Other religious leaders stirred up different kinds of controversies, which inevitably received the widest publicity on television news and talk shows. Allegations of clergy abuse of parishioners were mushrooming into a nationwide scandal. Televangelists Jimmy Swaggert, Mike Warnke, and Robert Tilton were exposed for scandalous behavior in 1991. Minister Louis Farrakhan, leader of the Nation of Islam sect and organizer of the successful Million Man March on October 16, 1995, was accused of making anti-Semitic statements. As the United States became a more pluralistic society through the 1990’s, its religious life became more diverse as well. Religions other than Christianity and Judaism had entered the mainstream. For example, during this decade the U.S. Navy commissioned its first Muslim chaplain and opened its first mosque. The 2001 American Religious Identification Survey, a follow-up to its 1990 survey by the Graduate School of the City University of New York, revealed that over the course of the decade the proportion of American adults identifying themselves as Christian had declined by 7 percent of the population. Meanwhile, adherents of non-Christian religions had increased during the 1990’s from 3.5 percent to 5.2 percent of the total population, with the number of Muslims in the United States increasing 109 percent, Buddhists

Religious Pluralism

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170 percent, and Hindus 237 percent. The number of those reporting no adherence to religion increased to 15 percent of the population; it is likely that many of these nonadherents still counted themselves as spiritual but followed a syncretistic mix of religious and spiritual beliefs. The United States has been a nation of remarkable dynamism, with its ingenuity, inventiveness, and productiveness admired throughout the world. The American approach to religion has likewise been characterized by the rapid and easy birth of new religions, denominations, and spiritual traditions, a process that defined the 1990’s as well. Promise Keepers was founded by Bill McCartney in 1990 to encourage men to commit to responsible and biblical relationships. Kwanzaa, an African American spiritual holiday, grew in popularity and was commemorated by a U.S. postal stamp in 1997. Perhaps the most remarkable American phenomenon was the rise of the New Age movement. New Age beliefs represented a distinctly American and eclectic synthesis of Asian meditation practices, insights from modern science, and a search for a holistic balance of mind and body. One of its leading practitioners, Dr. Deepak Chopra, founded the Chopra Center for Wellbeing in La Jolla, California, in 1996. America’s innovative approach to religion had a dark side as well, with the proliferation of several dangerous cults. In 1993, in response to the killing of four federal agents, a Federal Bureau of Investigation (FBI) siege of the Branch Davidian compound in Waco, Texas, resulted in the deaths of seventy-six cult members. In 1997, thirty-nine members of the Heaven’s Gate sect in San Diego, California, committed suicide after the sighting of the Hale-Bopp comet. Impact In American politics, religion seemed to play a largely conservative role, as evangelical Protestants helped move local elections toward a more traditional footing and forced presidential aspirants to answer to their concerns. In spiritual and moral terms, the United States saw a resurgence in traditional religion perhaps best symbolized by the ecumenical appeal of the Reverend Billy Graham and Pope John Paul II. At the same time, the United States saw an increasingly eclectic and practical approach to the spiritual quest undertaken by many Americans. In the end, it is hard to say whether the

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1990’s was an age in which religion shaped American beliefs and values or whether American pragmatism reshaped American religion. Further Reading

Eck, Diana. A New Religious America: How a “Christian Country” Has Become the World’s Most Religiously Diverse Nation. San Francisco: HarperCollins, 2002. Explores the growth of non-Christian religions in modern America. Kosmin, Barry, and Seymour Lachman. One Nation Under God: Religion in Contemporary American Society. New York: Harmony Books, 1993. Sociological analysis based on a comprehensive demographic analysis of American religion. McGraw, Barbara. Rediscovering America’s Sacred Ground: Public Religion and Pursuit of the Good in a Pluralistic America. Albany: State University of New York Press, 2003. Academic analysis of religion and the culture wars in America at the end of the twentieth century. Porterfield, Amanda. The Transformation of American Religion: The Story of a Late Twentieth-Century Awakening. New York: Oxford University Press, 2001. Places recent American religiosity in its historical context, with an emphasis on religious pluralism. Roof, Wade Clark, ed. Contemporary American Religion. New York: Macmillan Reference USA, 2000. Over five hundred articles on various facets of the modern religious and spiritual life of the United States. Wald, Kenneth. Religion and Politics in the United States. Lanham, Md.: Rowman & Littlefield, 2003. Argues that despite America’s increasingly secularized society, religion continues to play an important political role. William, Martin. With God on Our Side: The Rise of the Religious Right in America. New York: Broadway Books, 1996. The accompanying text to a PBS television series, this book examines the confluence of religious faith and political life in modern America. Wuthnow, Robert. After Heaven: Spirituality in America Since the 1950’s. Berkeley: University of California Press, 1998. Finds the trend of modern American religious faith to be practice-oriented, personalized, and ephemeral. Howard Bromberg Bernardin, Joseph Cardinal; Chopra, Deepak; Christian Coalition; Conservatism in U.S.

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politics; Culture wars; Dead Sea scrolls publication; Demographics of the United States; Elections in the United States, 1992; Falwell, Jerry; Farrakhan, Louis; Heaven’s Gate mass suicide; Holocaust Memorial Museum; Jewish Americans; Kwanzaa; Promise Keepers; Waco siege; WWJD bracelets.

■ Reno, Janet Attorney general of the United States, 1993-2001 Born July 21, 1938; Miami, Florida Identification

Reno was the first female attorney general of the United States. Her tenure as the highest-ranking law-enforcement official was marked by controversial, high-profile decisions. After his inauguration as president in 1993, Bill Clinton turned his immediate attention to filling cabinet positions. He identified two women as possible candidates to be attorney general, but both withdrew. Having twice visited the drug court Janet Reno established in Florida, Clinton was impressed by the success of this visionary project that spared first offenders from prison terms. Clinton examined Reno’s credentials, which included considerable judicial experience in Florida and a law degree from Harvard University. He asked his aide, Vince Foster, to interview Reno. Foster was impressed by the candidate and recommended that she become attorney general. Clinton nominated Reno on February 11. On March 11, the Senate confirmed her appointment unanimously. The first crisis in a tenure that involved innumerable crises was already raging when Reno assumed office. In February, 1993, a group of heavily armed religious fundamentalists, the Branch Davidians, barricaded themselves inside their compound near Waco, Texas. Following a shoot-out between Davidian members and agents from the Bureau of Alcohol, Tobacco, and Firearms (ATF) that left four agents and an undetermined number of Davidians dead, a siege led by the Federal Bureau of Investigation (FBI) lasted for fifty-one days. The FBI pressured Reno to end the standoff, which deployed dozens of agents who were needed elsewhere, by storming the compound. Reno took the proposal to Bill Clinton, who reluctantly assented. On April 19, the assault occurred. The compound went up in flames, killing seventy-six Da-

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The Nineties in America Impact Janet Reno was the first (and to date only) female attorney general of the United States. That Reno weathered the numerous storms that occurred during her tenure and was the longest-serving U.S. attorney general in the twentieth century speaks volumes for her strength of character. Further Reading

Anderson, Paul. Janet Reno: Doing the Right Thing. New York: John Wiley & Sons, 1994. Hamilton, John. The Attorney General Through Janet Reno. Edina, Minn.: Abdo and Daughters, 1993. Meachum, Virginia. Janet Reno: United States Attorney General. Springfield, N.J.: Enslow, 1995. R. Baird Shuman Clinton, Bill; Clinton, Hillary Rodham; Clinton’s impeachment; Hate crimes; Illegal immigration; Lewinsky scandal; McVeigh, Timothy; Montana Freemen standoff; Oklahoma City bombing; Shaw v. Reno; Waco siege; Whitewater investigation.

See also

■ Rent Janet Reno. (AP/Wide World Photos)

Identification Broadway musical Author Music and lyrics by Jonathan Larson

(1960-1996) Premiered on Broadway on April 29, 1996

Date

vidians, including twenty-one children. This event evoked questions about religious freedom. Critics of the Clinton administration hurled barbed vituperations at both Clinton and Reno. Meanwhile, many other crucial matters occupied Reno. She brought action against Microsoft for violations of the Sherman Antitrust Act, led the prosecution of twenty-one radicals in Montana for staging an eighty-one-day standoff, and oversaw the arrest and conviction of the Unabomber (Theodore Kaczynski) and of Timothy McVeigh and Terry Nichols for engineering the 1995 Oklahoma City bombing. In the Elián González proceeding in 1999, the father of a young Cuban boy being cared for by relatives in Miami sought custody of his son. Public sentiment deplored the boy’s return to Cuba, but the law favored the father. Reno ordered armed guards to seize Elián and return him to Cuba.

This prize-winning rock opera took Broadway by storm. Focusing on the lives of young New Yorkers struggling with HIV/AIDS, poverty, homelessness, and sexual identity, the show’s creator attempted to bring a new layer of relevancy to musical theater. Jonathan Larson got his start studying theater and music at Adelphi University; during that time, he met Stephen Sondheim, who became his mentor. After moving to New York City, the aspiring musical writer attempted to break into Broadway. Two of his pieces, Superbia and Tick, Tick . . . Boom! were staged in small workshop-type settings; in 1988, he won a Richard Rodgers Studio Production Award for the former. The idea for Rent came in collaboration with Billy Aronson, a young playwright, and was to be a modern retelling of Giacomo Puccini’s opera La Bohème (pr. 1896). Puccini’s is the story of struggling artists and philosophers living in the 1830’s Parisian

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Left Bank; Rent tells the story of young bohemian artists and musicians in 1990’s New York lower East Side. Larson ultimately took the idea on his own and penned the music and book. Aronson is credited as “Original Concept/Additional Lyrics.” After repeated attempts and multiple revisions, Larson received a $45,000 Richard Rodgers Award in January, 1994, to stage a workshop version of the show the following October. After a well-received two-week run, plans were made for a full-scale workshop production at New York Theatre Workshop (NYTW). Rent was set to open on January 25, 1996. The night before, after the final dress rehearsal, Larson collapsed from an aortic aneurysm; the creator of Rent was dead at thirty-five. The official NYTW opening was delayed, but when the musical opened, it received critical acclaim. The first month of the workshop’s performances sold out in a matter of days. Its run was extended by one month to the end of March and sold out within one week. Rent opened on Broadway on April 29, 1996, at the Nederlander Theatre. The U.S. national tour began

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in Boston in November, 1996, with other scheduled tours in Los Angeles, Toronto, and London for the following year. Recognition Rent received multiple awards and international acclaim. In 1996, it received ten Tony Award nominations. It won for Best Musical, Best Book of a Musical (Larson), Best Original Score (Larson), and Best Featured Actor in a Musical (Wilson Jermaine Heredia). Rent tied with Bring in ’da Noise, Bring in ’da Funk and The King and I for four Tonys. Larson posthumously received the 1996 Pulitzer Prize in drama. The New York Drama Critics’ Circle awarded Rent Best Musical. Rent also received Drama Desk Awards for Outstanding Musical, Outstanding Music (Larson), Outstanding Featured Actor in a Musical (Heredia), and Outstanding Orchestrations (Steve Skinner), and the Drama League Award for Best Musical. The Theatre World Award for Outstanding New Talent went to two Rent cast members, Adam Pascal and Daphne Rubin-Vega. The Village Voice’s

The cast of Rent at New York’s Nederlander Theatre in 1996. (AP/Wide World Photos)

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Obie Awards for Outstanding Book, Music, and Lyrics (Larson), Outstanding Direction (Michael Greif), and Outstanding Ensemble Performance also speak to Rent’s success. Jonathan Larson set out to write a Hair (pr. 1967) for the 1990’s. His rock opera was intended to be a response to the HIV/AIDS crisis and a celebration of the lives of those lost at a young age. He wanted to “reclaim Broadway from stagnation and empty spectacle . . . to bring musical theater to the MTV generation.” By all critical accounts he succeeded, offering a generational anthem of sorts and bringing a new energy to the Great White Way. Many credit Rent with revitalizing musical theater as an art form. New York Times theater writer Peter Marks remarked that Larson “rekindled faith in the American musical when many in the theater business, particularly younger people, believed it had reached an artistic dead end.” Rent also brought to the public eye issues of sexuality, poverty, and homelessness and heightened awareness of the AIDS crisis. Critics argue that Larson gave warmth and emotion to difficult and controversial personae, particularly with a littleknown disease and non-normative sexual identities. Impact

Rent’s enormous popularity resulted in a cult following. Fans of the rock opera camped outside the Nederlander Theatre for the chance to win one of the thirty-four seats in the first two rows. Seats were offered for $20, as Rent’s producers wanted to ensure that the musical was affordable for all. Fans who camped out multiple times were dubbed “Rent Heads,” some seeing the show dozens of times. Shortly after Rent’s Broadway debut, novelist Sarah Schulman threatened a plagiarism suit against the Larson estate, claiming that Larson had lifted entire portions of her book People in Trouble (1990). Schulman also did not appreciate what she viewed as the commodification of the gay culture portrayed in the musical, as well as the placement of straight allies as saviors in the homosexual cause. However, no claim was filed and no legal action taken. Rent has enjoyed numerous tours across the United States and Canada, as well as several international tours, including Australia, the United Kingdom, Ireland, Italy, the Netherlands, Brazil, Spain, Japan, and South Korea. In 2005, Rent became a ma-

Subsequent Events

jor motion picture from Revolution Studios and Columbia Pictures, starring many members of the original Broadway cast. Further Reading

Larson, Jonathan. Rent. New York: Rob Weisbach Books/William Morrow, 1997. Compendium of photographs, stories, and libretto. Follows Larson’s and Rent’s journey through the stories of those who knew Larson and those involved in the musical’s production, including cast and family members. Rapp, Anthony. Without You: A Memoir of Love, Loss, and the Musical “Rent.” New York: Simon & Schuster, 2006. A fascinating backstage account of the production of Rent from an original cast member. Schulman, Sarah. Stagestruck: Theater, AIDS, and the Marketing of Gay America. Durham, N.C.: Duke University Press, 1998. Schulman’s provocative take on Rent and her argument for Larson’s taking her plot and characters. Also offers a different perspective on the musical and its impact. Meredith Holladay AIDS epidemic; Alternative rock; Art movements; Broadway musicals; Homosexuality and gay rights; Music; Race relations; Religion and spirituality in the United States; Shepard, Matthew; Theater in the United States; Transgender community.

See also

■ Republican Revolution A shift that gave Republicans control of both the House and Senate for the first time since 1952 Date November, 1994 Definition

The “Republican Revolution” was significant for many reasons, not the least of which was the fact that it was first time since Ronald Reagan left office that political candidates ran on pure conservatism. The event was inadvertently significant for President Bill Clinton, in that his reelection in 1996 signaled the demise of the revolution and resulted in the Senate refusing to remove him from office after his impeachment in 1998. In the weeks leading up to the elections of November, 1994, polls showed that political change was imminent in the legislature of the United States. Yet,

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while it was obvious that change was coming, not many predicted a political shift of the magnitude that would take place. The 1994 Republican Revolution was an event of near unprecedented political force. It took the reins of both houses of Congress from the Democrats, who had unflinchingly held them for decades, and gave them wholly to the American right. This seismic shift is best understood by viewing it through two key figures, President Bill Clinton and Speaker of the House Newt Gingrich, for it was as much a testimony to the failures of Clinton as to the ideals of Gingrich. After Clinton’s victory in the 1992 presidential race, the Democrats held not only both houses of Congress but the White House as well. Though the future seemed bright, Clinton’s election was hard for his fellow Democrats, who were constantly asked to explain allegations tied to his governorship in Little Rock, Arkansas. Once in office, Clinton went back and forth on matters that his party held as paramount, and First Lady Hillary Rodham Clinton led an effort to overhaul the nation’s health care system. Taken together, the allegations, Clinton’s “waffling” on key Democratic issues, and outrage at the attempt to universalize health care were too much. The ambience of a honeymoon that normally surrounds the surge in political power that the Democrats managed in 1992 was gone a year and half later, as members of Congress in Clinton’s own party distanced themselves from him. Subsequently, the American people were weary of both Clinton and the Democratic Congress. Public approval ratings for Congress fell to 18 percent in polls conducted in the spring of 1994. While Clinton and Congress were losing favor with the American people, a group of congressional Republican candidates promising to give the government back to the people was garnering support. Led by men such as Dick Armey of Texas and Gingrich of Georgia, these Republicans outlined their agenda for change in the form of Gingrich’s Contract with America. This contract contained ten parts, each of which was no less than a political promise to the American people. Among them were the Taking Back Our Streets Act, directed toward greater crime control; the American Dream Restoration Act, focusing on tax code reform; and the Personal Responsibility Act, designed to bring about welfare reform.

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On November 8, 1994, the Republicans took control of both houses of Congress, with Gingrich becoming the first Republican Speaker of the House in four decades. They had accomplished this feat both by promoting the Contract with America as a solution to the big government policies of the Democrats and by campaigning nationally instead of through district-specific campaigns, although the norm in politics at that time was summed up in the popular maxim “All politics is local.” On the other side of the aisle, Clinton and the Democratic leadership were stymied but not surprised. Shortly after the elections, Clinton held press conferences in which he said that the American people had sent a message that they did not want government to be as intrusive as it had been in the recent past. After taking their places in Congress in January, 1995, the Republicans sought to emulate Franklin D. Roosevelt’s first hundred days in office. By mid-April, the House of Representatives had passed most of the legislative items tied to the Contract with America, but they faced a tougher fight in the Senate. Many of the freshmen Republicans who had run as conservatives, however, began to compartmentalize their conservatism and to describe themselves as either fiscal or social conservatives rather than purely conservative. This meant that among the newly elected Republican majority were true conservatives who opposed abortion and gun control and supported tax cuts, fiscal conservatives who supported tax cuts and business deregulation but who were not very concerned about stopping abortion or curtailing gun control, and social conservatives who opposed abortion and gun control but were not avidly opposed to the level of taxation then in place. Gingrich’s coalition appeared less and less unified with time. The election of 1996 brought an end to the Republican Revolution when Clinton defeated Republican presidential candidate Bob Dole for his second term. The Republicans had been given a chance and squandered it through a lack of party cohesion. Clinton, who had seen his chances of reelection drifting away in 1994, had found a way back into favor with his fellow Democrats.

The First Hundred Days

Impact Ironically, the impact of the Republican Revolution remained strong until George W. Bush, a Republican, became president in 2001. The early

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months of the revolution had put so much pressure on Clinton that he signed welfare reform and other vital aspects of the Contract with America into law. Once Clinton left office and Bush was elected as a Republican who was not necessarily a conservative, enduring qualities of the revolution were undermined. Limited government, a staple of the revolution, was lost in the shuffle as Bush agreed to new entitlements and government expansion. Further Reading

Garrett, Major. The Enduring Revolution: How the Contract with America Continues to Shape the Nation. New York: Crown Forum, 2005. Attempts to trace the enduring qualities or aspects of the Republican Revolution. It provides a brief overview of how the ideas of small government as espoused by Gingrich in 1994 was neither dead nor dying in some parts of the country ten years later. Gimpel, James G. Fulfilling the Contract: The First One Hundred Days. Boston: Allyn & Bacon, 1996. Provides a statistical overview of the breakdown of the electorate and the Republican approach to the 1994 elections. Gingrich, Newt. Winning the Future: A Twenty-first Century Contract with America. Washington, D.C.: Regnery, 2005. Gingrich tries to show the way to a continued Republican Revolution and thus smaller government, lower crime rates, and improved border security, among other things. A worthy read for anyone seeking to understand the philosophical underpinnings of the 1994 revolution. AWR Hawkins III Armey, Dick; Christian Coalition; Clinton, Bill; Conservatism in U.S. politics; Contract with America; Elections in the United States, midterm; Gingrich, Newt; Line Item Veto Act of 1996; Term limits.

See also

■ Reséndiz, Ángel Maturino Identification Serial murderer Born August 1, 1959; Matamoros, Mexico Died June 27, 2006; Huntsville, Texas

Reséndiz crisscrossed international borders to commit murder in several regions, demonstrating the difficulty of investigating murder by stranger and the porousness of U.S. borders.

Between 1997 and 1999, a series of murders occurred in the United States and Mexico that were connected by the crimes’ proximity to railroad tracks. For instance, two University of Kentucky students walking beside some railroad tracks were assaulted, one murdered; in Texas, a neurologist who lived near a railroad was sexually assaulted and murdered; in Illinois, an eighty-year-old man was murdered less than a quarter mile from railroad tracks. The murderer in each case was a drifter named Ángel Maturino Reséndiz, dubbed the “Railway Killer.” For almost two years, Reséndiz rode the rails looking for victims. Like other serial murderers, Reséndiz was able to avoid detection by committing crimes in various jurisdictions, stowing away on freight trains and committing crimes wherever the train stopped. After choosing a likely victim and bludgeoning him or her with whatever object was at hand, Reséndiz rode the rails back to his wife in Mexico. Sometimes he stole from his victims, but more often Reséndiz left valuables behind, suggesting that murder itself was his goal. Reséndiz often left evidence behind, including fingerprints. Eventually, investigators were able to identify him and convince his relatives to cooperate in order to prevent unnecessary bloodshed. He was arrested in July, 1999, and was later linked to at least fifteen murders around the United States. After being convicted and sentenced to death, Reséndiz confessed to murders in five states. Impact Like most criminals of his ilk, Reséndiz has little personal significance. He was a sloppy, impulsive, brutal murderer. In the late 1990’s, he found much more significance as a symbol of the threat posed by easily penetrated international borders and slack security. More tragically, Reséndiz’s case demonstrates the difficulty of investigating murders committed by strangers with seemingly unfathomable motives. Had he not been so sloppy and left so much forensic evidence behind, Reséndiz might have been able to commit far more crimes before being caught. Further Reading

Booth, Daniel. “Federalism on Ice: State and Local Enforcement of Federal Immigration Law.” Harvard Journal of Law and Public Policy 29, no. 3 (2006): 1063-1083. Clarkson, Wensley. The Railway Killer. London: John Blake, 2007.

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Malkin, Michelle. Invasion: How America Still Welcomes Terrorists, Criminals, and Other Foreign Menaces to Our Shores. Washington, D.C.: Regnery, 2002. Michael R. Meyers See also Crime; Dahmer, Jeffrey; Ferguson, Colin; Illegal immigration; Latinos; Mexico and the United States.

■ Rice, Anne Identification American novelist Born October 4, 1941; New Orleans, Louisiana

Author of numerous horror fiction novels during the 1990’s, Rice wrote stories about the supernatural that earned her a cultlike following of loyal fans.

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As Rice became increasingly popular with her fans, their devotion to the author became cultlike. In response, Rice published four more books in the vampire series. These included The Tale of the Body Thief (1992), Memnoch the Devil (1995), The Vampire Armand (1998), and Merrick (2000). It was also in the 1990’s that she expanded the vampire stories by creating another series known as New Tales of the Vampires. The first book in the series, Pandora: New Tales of the Vampires, was published in 1998. She published the second book in the series, Vittorio the Vampire, the following year. Amazingly enough, in addition to writing six vampire novels during the 1990’s, Rice also entertained readers with the Lives of the Mayfair Witches trilogy. The three novels, The Witching Hour (1990), Lasher (1993), and Taltos (1994), told the story of the Mayfair Witches of New Orleans, Louisiana. Other novels that Rice completed during the decade included the gothic romance, Violin (1997), and Servant of the Bones (1996).

Unbeknownst to Anne Rice at the time, the 1976 publication of her first horror novel, Interview with Impact Anne Rice achieved enormous success as a the Vampire, set the stage for the aspiring author to behorror fiction novelist during the 1990’s. Her novels come one of the most-read authors of contemporary introduced readers to a complex world in which horror fiction during the 1990’s. The critically acvampires and witches lived. By humanizing her charclaimed novel, which was written in the first person, explored the lives of the vampires Louis and Lestat. Her fluid storytelling, attention to detail, and sympathetic treatment of the characters redefined for readers the stereotypical image of vampires. In response to the book’s success, Rice wrote The Vampire Lestat in 1985 and The Queen of the Damned in 1988. Both of these vampire stories were based on characters that were first introduced in her original vampire novel. By the 1990’s, Rice’s vampire books became collectively known as The Vampire Chronicles, and her popularity soared. In 1994, Warner Bros. released the motion picture version of the book, Interview with the Vampire: The Vampire Chronicles. The film, which was a success at the box office, starred Tom Cruise as Lestat, Brad Pitt as Louis, Antonio Banderas as Armand, Christian Slater as the interviewer, and Kirsten Dunst as Claudia. Anne Rice poses in 1992. (Hulton Archive/Getty Images)

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acters and making them almost romantic in nature, Rice helped to change the way people viewed the supernatural. Rice also earned the status of being one of the most talented and best-selling authors in contemporary times. Further Reading

Ramsland, Katherine. Prism of the Night: A Biography of Anne Rice. Rev. ed. New York: Plume Books, 1994. Riley, Michael. Conversations with Anne Rice: An Intimate, Enlightening Portrait of Her Life and Work. New York: Ballantine, 1996. Bernadette Zbicki Heiney Cruise, Tom; Film in the United States; Literature in the United States; Pitt, Brad.

See also

■ Right-wing conspiracy An alleged conspiracy by right-wing opponents of U.S. president Bill Clinton intended to falsely implicate him in scandals

Definition

By asserting that President Clinton was the target of a rightwing conspiracy determined to damage him politically, Clinton’s defenders sought to turn the tables against his opponents and convince the public that the numerous charges directed at him were unfounded. Following the apparent suicide of deputy White House counsel Vince Foster in July, 1993, conspiracy theories began to circulate that his death might have been a murder orchestrated by President Bill Clinton. Allegations from Arkansas state troopers were

A Vast Right-Wing Conspiracy On January 27, 1998, in an interview with Matt Lauer on NBC’s Today Show, First Lady Hillary Rodham Clinton defended her husband against allegations of sexual impropriety: Clinton: Bill and I have been accused of everything, including murder, by some of the very same people who are behind these allegations. So from my perspective, this is part of the continuing political campaign against my husband. . . . Lauer: Did [Kenneth Starr] go outside of his rights, in your opinion, to expand this investigation? After all, he got permission to expand the investigation from a three-judge panel. Clinton: The same three-judge panel that removed Robert Fiske and appointed [Starr]. The same three-judge panel that is headed by someone who is appointed by Jesse Helms and Lauch Faircloth. . . . It’s just a very unfortunate turn of events that we are using the criminal justice system to try to achieve political ends in this country. . . . Lauer: There have been reports that you’ve taken charge at the White House and decided to be the chief defender of your husband, of the president, and deflect these charges. How much of a role are you taking in this and do you think you should take? Clinton: Well, I certainly am going to defend my husband. And I’m certainly going to offer advice. But I am by no means running any kind of strategy or being his chief defender. He’s got very capable lawyers and very capable people inside the White House, and a lot of very good friends outside the White House. . . . Lauer: James Carville . . . has said that this is war between the president and Kenneth Starr. You have said, I understand, to some close friends that this is the last great battle and that one side or the other is going down here. Clinton: Well, I don’t know if I’ve been that dramatic. That would sound like a good line from a movie. But I do believe that this is a battle. I mean, look at the very people who are involved in this. They have popped up in other settings. This is—the great story here for anybody willing to find it and write about it and explain it is this vast right-wing conspiracy that has been conspiring against my husband since the day he announced for president. A few journalists have kind of caught on to it and explained it. But it has not yet been fully revealed to the American public. And actually, you know, in a bizarre sort of way, this may do it.

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published in 1994 claiming that Clinton had engaged in sexual improprieties while governor of Arkansas, which ultimately led to Paula Jones coming forward to sue the president for sexual harassment. Also in 1994, Kenneth Starr was appointed independent counsel to investigate the Whitewater land development project that was linked to the president and his wife, Hillary Rodham Clinton, an investigation that was later broadened to the Paula Jones and Monica Lewinsky matters. This combination of scandalous allegations continued to plague the Clinton White House and provide fodder for a continuous stream of news stories. In 1995, the White House compiled a 331-page document that charged that a “media food chain” was passing conspiracy theories and innuendo from conservative newsletters and newspapers to Internet Web sites, which in turn passed them to the British tabloid press and to the right-wing American news media, the whole process allegedly backed by wealthy conservative foundations. On January 27, 1998, ten days after the Web site Drudge Report broke the news of the Lewinsky scandal, Hillary Clinton stated on national television that the real story to be told was how a “vast right-wing conspiracy” had conspired against her husband since he announced for president. Impact Hillary Clinton’s right-wing conspiracy charge attracted considerable press attention but was widely dismissed as an exaggeration, although it was generally conceded that her husband had been the target of persistent attacks on both a personal and political level from his conservative opponents. Public opinion polls showed that only a minority of Americans agreed that such a right-wing conspiracy existed. At the same time, President Clinton’s approval ratings benefited from widespread satisfaction with the economy, and he continued to retain support from the Democrats in Congress that forestalled his removal from office after he was impeached in 1999. The emergence of proof that he had engaged in an affair with former White House intern Monica Lewinsky and lied under oath during the Jones civil case served to make him appear less an innocent victim of false charges, however, and while running for the Senate in 2000, Hillary Clinton maintained that she did not know the truth when she made her famous charge of a right-wing conspiracy.

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Further Reading

Brock, David. Blinded by the Right: The Conscience of an Ex-Conservative. New York: Crown Publishers, 2002. Toobin, Jeffrey. A Vast Conspiracy: The Real Story of the Sex Scandal That Nearly Brought Down a President. New York: Random House, 1999. Larry Haapanen Clinton, Bill; Clinton, Hillary Rodham; Clinton’s impeachment; Clinton’s scandals; Drudge, Matt; Journalism; Lewinsky scandal; Starr Report; Troopergate; Whitewater investigation.

See also

■ Ripken, Cal, Jr. Identification American baseball player Born August 24, 1960; Havre de Grace, Maryland

Ripken, an all-star shortstop and third baseman for the Baltimore Orioles during the 1990’s, broke Lou Gehrig’s record for consecutive games played on September 6, 1995. Cal Ripken, Jr., known as baseball’s “Iron Man,” was a Major League Baseball player from 1981 until 2001. He played shortstop and third base and spent his entire major-league career with the Baltimore Orioles. A nineteen-time all-star, Ripken played in all of the all-star games in the 1990’s and was the Most Valuable Player (MVP) in the American League in 1991. Ripken was named MVP in the 1991 All-Star Game and won Golden Gloves in 1991 and 1992 for his outstanding fielding at shortstop. He won numerous other sporting awards and in 1999 was named to the prestigious Major League Baseball All-Century Team. Ripken’s most significant achievement during the 1990’s was his breaking of Lou Gehrig’s consecutivegames streak of 2,130 games. With a packed stadium at Baltimore and millions at home, the nation watched as he tied Gehrig’s record on September 5, 1995, marking the event with a home run. Incredibly, on the following night he also hit a home run in the game that broke Gehrig’s record. The stadium erupted after the home run, and a humble Ripken was pushed out of the dugout by his teammates to receive the praise of his fans. These two games are the most historic for Major League Baseball in the 1990’s, as many credit Ripken for saving the game after the disastrous baseball strike of 1994. Ripken’s consecu-

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Beckett, James. Nine Innings with Cal Ripken, Jr. Dallas: Beckett, 1998. Ripken, Cal, Jr. Ripken: Cal on Cal. Arlington, Tex.: Summit, 1995. Ripken, Cal, Jr., and Mike Bryan. The Only Way I Know. New York: Penguin Books, 1997. Douglas A. Phillips See also Baseball; Baseball realignment; Baseball strike of 1994; Griffey, Ken, Jr.; Home run race; McGwire, Mark; Sosa, Sammy; Sports.

■ Roberts, Julia Identification American actor Born October 28, 1967; Smyrna, Georgia

One of the highest-paid actors of the 1990’s, Roberts won moviegoers’ hearts with her charm and varied roles.

Cal Ripken, Jr., waves to fans after breaking Lou Gehrig’s record of 2,130 consecutive games on September 6, 1995. (AP/Wide World Photos)

tive-game streak ended at 2,632 games on September 20, 1998, when he voluntarily missed a game. Impact Ripken’s significance extended far beyond his achievements on the field. In 1992, he was presented the Roberto Clemente Award for his character and outstanding contributions to his community. Standing at six feet, four inches, Ripken broke new ground at the shortstop position. In the past, players at this position had been small, quick, and generally not power hitters. With Ripken’s success at shortstop, he paved the way for other larger shortstops that followed, such as Derek Jeter and Alex Rodriguez. Subsequent Events Cal Ripken, Jr., retired from baseball in 2001 after he was again named the Most Valuable Player in the All-Star Game. Ripken was elected to the Baseball Hall of Fame in 2007 with the third-highest percentage of votes in history and the highest ever for a position player. He has continued his charitable works and has used his celebrity to advance youth baseball in the twenty-first century.

Raised in a theater environment in which their parents hosted workshops for children, Julia Roberts and her brother, Eric (also an actor), showed an early interest in performance. She survived a difficult childhood to perform in four minor films and win a significant supporting role as a feisty waitress in Mystic Pizza (1988). The part sparked her casting, with Sally Field, as a fatally diabetic young mother-tobe in Steel Magnolias (1989), which culminated in an Oscar nomination and Golden Globe Award. Roberts’s career was launched after she starred in director Garry Marshall’s romantic comedy Pretty Woman (1990), costarring Richard Gere, in which she played a good-hearted prostitute redeemed by a millionaire client. The role established her comedic star-quality appeal and won her an Oscar nomination and Golden Globe Award for Best Actress. A romantic-comedy favorite with both sexes, Roberts also proved popular with the critics, who applauded her acting in My Best Friend’s Wedding (1997) and Notting Hill (1999). Her reunion with Gere in Runaway Bride (1999) capitalized on Pretty Woman’s success. Furthermore, Roberts’s appeal and salary strengthened and steadily rose when she undertook serious roles in somewhat less successful films, including Flatliners (1990), The Pelican Brief (1993; based on John Grisham’s novel), Michael Collins (1996), Everyone Says I Love You (1996; with director Woody Allen), and Conspiracy Theory (1997).

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Rock, Chris

Along with her screen career, Roberts’s lively love life endeared her to the tabloids. Boyfriends included Liam Neeson, Kiefer Sutherland, Daniel Day-Lewis, singer Lyle Lovett (a short-lived marriage ensued), Benjamin Bratt, and cameraman Daniel Moder (whom she married in 2002). Additionally, Roberts made television appearances on Friends and Murphy Brown and made goodwill tours for the United Nations Children’s Fund (UNICEF). By the end of the 1990’s, Roberts, one of the highest-grossing actors of the decade and one of America’s favorite movie stars, had completed more than twenty-five films. Roberts reached her greatest success in 2000 with her Academy Award-winning performance in the title role of director Steven Soderbergh’s Erin Brockovich, based on the true story of a single mother who against all odds wins a hard battle against a California power giant that has contaminated the water supply. Without legal training, she worms into a job with a law firm and proceeds to unearth evidence that the corporate violator has denied liability while many people’s health has been ruined. Similar to the real-life person, Roberts’s character portrayed a pertinacious individual who dresses inappropriately (short skirts, low-cut tops) but connects effectively with the victims, enabling her firm to win a huge settlement. Critics and audiences praised Roberts’s performance, which earned her $20 million, an Oscar for Best Actress, and other awards.

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■ Rock, Chris African American comedian and actor Born February 7, 1966; Andrews, South Carolina Identification

Rock’s humor represented an evolution in African American and urban-oriented, stand-up comedy. Chris Rock’s clenched-teeth delivery and energetic onstage pacing as he explained aspects of cultural and political phenomena to urban audiences made him one of the most popular stand-up comedians of the 1990’s. In a style that could be described as one part rap artist, one part urban intellectual, Rock put into perspective the issues that confronted African Americans as well as Americans in general, taking on sensitive subjects such as race relations and black poverty. Rock’s particular brand of comedy seemed to resonate with African Americans who had been born during or after the Civil Rights movement of the 1960’s, and who therefore were familiar with the comedian’s topical humor about integrated schools, rap music, the Rodney King beating, and the dating scene in the 1990’s. Additionally, Rock’s stand-up

Impact Performances from Pretty Woman to Erin Brockovich made Julia Roberts the decade’s most popular actress. Her best roles represented a warm yet independent woman not intimidated by male or corporate power. Further Reading

Sanello, Frank. Julia Roberts. Edinburgh: Mainstream, 2000. Spada, James. Julia: Her Life. New York: St. Martin’s Press, 2004. Christian H. Moe Academy Awards; Allen, Woody; Film in the United States; Friends ; Grisham, John; Murphy Brown; Television.

See also

Chris Rock accepts his award for entertainment host for HBO’s The Chris Rock Show at the 1997 CableACE Awards. (AP/Wide World Photos)

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performances included material about the African American community’s relationship with television news media and that community’s internal divisions. By 1990, Rock had already appeared on national comedy shows and in films, such as Home Box Office’s (HBO) Uptown Comedy Express and Beverly Hills Cop II (1987) with Eddie Murphy. In 1990, Rock had become a regular on Saturday Night Live, where he remained until 1993. Throughout the early 1990’s, Rock appeared in a variety of films, most of which held a great deal of significance for the new generation of African American urban audiences, including New Jack City (1991), Boomerang (1992), and CB4 (1993), which he also cowrote. The early 1990’s saw Rock returning to television. In 1993, Rock briefly joined the cast of the Fox network variety show In Living Color. By 1994, he was headlining HBO’s Comedy Half-Hour. Throughout the late 1990’s, Rock’s urban wit would be showcased on several HBO shows, including the Emmy Awardwinning Chris Rock: Bring the Pain (1996) and Chris Rock: Bigger and Blacker (1999). In 1997, Rock was the host of HBO’s The Chris Rock Show. In the late 1990’s, Rock appeared on a number of shows, including Bill Maher’s Politically Incorrect on Comedy Central and the MTV Video Music Awards, which he hosted in 1997. In a return to film, Rock offered his trademark voice to a guinea pig character in Eddie Murphy’s remake of Dr. Dolittle (1998) and starred as Rufus, the fictional thirteenth apostle, in Kevin Smith’s Dogma (1999). Rock’s relevance to the MTV generation was evidenced by his hosting the MTV Video Music Awards for a second time in 1999. Impact Rock came into prominence at a time when African American comedians’ routines were expected to contain a certain amount of vulgarity, following in the footsteps of previous decades’ stars, such as Richard Pryor in the 1970’s and Eddie Murphy in the 1980’s. Rock’s approach to comedy was traditional in that sense; his sharp insight demonstrated his cultural and political knowledge and illustrated the complexity of the postmodern, urban, African American experience, appealing to audiences who had yet to find a comedian who shared their voice. Further Reading

Blue, Rose, and Corinne J. Naden. Chris Rock, Comedian. Philadelphia: Chelsea House, 2000.

Rock, Chris. Rock This! New York: Hyperion, 1997. Zolten, J. Jerome. “Black Comedians: Forging an Ethnic Image.” Journal of American Culture 16 (Summer, 1993): 65-76. Dodie Marie Miller See also African Americans; Cable television; Comedians; In Living Color; Late night television.

■ Rock and Roll Hall of Fame Museum Museum and archives dedicated to rock-and-roll music Date Opened on September 2, 1995 Place Cleveland, Ohio Identification

After years of planning, the Rock and Roll Hall of Fame Museum building was completed, providing a home for the Hall of Fame and a museum of memorabilia and interpretive experiences for visitors to enjoy. In 1985, the officials of the Rock and Roll Hall of Fame Foundation decided to create a museum and archives dedicated to the heritage of rock-and-roll music. After an exhaustive search, world-renowned architect I. M. Pei was chosen to design the museum. In 1993, Pei’s vision began to take shape as construction commenced on the building to house the Rock and Roll Hall of Fame Museum following a formal agreement with the city of Cleveland. Funding for the construction project came from a combination of public and private sources, and the project progressed rapidly as the Hall of Fame continued to induct rock-and-roll legends into its ranks while awaiting its permanent venue. When completed in 1995, the Rock and Roll Hall of Fame Museum consisted of 150,000 square feet and carried an $84 million price tag. The building, which dominates the Lake Erie shoreline, is a dramatic representation of the raw power of rock-androll music. It uses daring geometric forms and cantilevered spaces anchored around a 162-foot tower to create exhibition areas. The tower, which emerges from the harbor, also anchors a large triangularshaped tent made of glass that serves as one of the primary distinguishing features of the building. The building consists of spaces for exhibition and administrative functions as well as dedicated areas for library and archival functions.

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Rock and Roll Hall of Fame Museum

Inductees into the Rock and Roll Hall of Fame, 1990-1999* 1990

1993

Bobby Darin Hank Ballard Simon and Garfunkel The Four Seasons The Four Tops The Kinks The Platters The Who Charlie Christian Louis Armstrong Ma Rainey Gerry Goffin and Carole King Holland, Dozier and Holland

Cream Creedence Clearwater Revival Etta James Frankie Lymon and the Teenagers Ruth Brown Sly and the Family Stone The Doors Van Morrison Dinah Washington Dick Clark Milt Gabler 1994

1991

Ike and Tina Turner Jimmy Reed John Lee Hooker LaVern Baker The Byrds The Impressions Wilson Pickett Howlin’ Wolf Nesuhi Ertegun Dave Bartholomew Ralph Bass 1992

Bobby “Blue” Bland Booker T. and the M.G.’s Sam and Dave The Isley Brothers The Jimi Hendrix Experience The Yardbirds Elmore James Professor Longhair Bill Graham Doc Pomus Leo Fender

Bob Marley Duane Eddy Elton John John Lennon Rod Stewart The Animals The Band The Grateful Dead Willie Dixon Johnny Otis 1995

Al Green Frank Zappa Janis Joplin Led Zeppelin Martha and the Vandellas Neil Young The Allman Brothers Band The Orioles Paul Ackerman 1996

David Bowie Gladys Knight and the Pips Jefferson Airplane

Little Willie John Pink Floyd The Shirelles The Velvet Underground Pete Seeger Tom Donahue 1997

Buffalo Springfield Crosby, Stills and Nash Joni Mitchell Parliament-Funkadelic The (Young) Rascals The Bee Gees The Jackson Five Bill Monroe Mahalia Jackson Syd Nathan 1998

Fleetwood Mac Gene Vincent Lloyd Price Santana The Eagles The Mamas and the Papas Jelly Roll Morton Allen Toussaint 1999

Billy Joel Bruce Springsteen Curtis Mayfield Del Shannon Dusty Springfield Paul McCartney The Staple Singers Bob Wills and His Texas Playboys Charles Brown George Martin

*Includes “Performers,” “Early Influences,” “Lifetime Achievement,” and “Nonperformers” categories.

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The official opening of the museum on September 2, 1995, kicked off a week of events celebrating rock-and-roll music that included a benefit concert with a stellar list of performances by rock-and-roll giants such as Chuck Berry, Johnny Cash, Jerry Lee Lewis, Bob Dylan, and Bruce Springsteen. At the museum’s opening, its exhibits revolved around a large collection of John Lennon artifacts donated by Yoko Ono that included Lennon’s guitar from the 1965 Beatles concert at Shea Stadium, written lyrics, and a pair of eyeglasses worn by Lennon while he lived in Hamburg. Impact The Rock and Roll Hall of Fame Museum provided a centralized location for the preservation, commemoration, and promotion of rock-and-roll music. The museum uses its collections to tell the story of how and why this popular genre of music has had a tremendous impact on American culture. In this capacity, the Rock and Roll Hall of Fame serves as an important educational institution. Further Reading

Juchartz, Larry, and Christy Rishoi. “Rock Collection: History and Ideology at the Rock and Roll Hall of Fame.” Review of Education, Pedagogy, Cultural Studies 19, nos. 2/3 (May, 1997): 311-332. Rock and Roll Hall of Fame. http://www.rockhall .com. Talevski, Nick. The Unofficial Encyclopedia of the Rock and Roll Hall of Fame. Westport, Conn.: Greenwood Press, 1998. Amanda Bahr-Evola See also

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Rock Bottom Remainders

Architecture; Music.

■ Rock Bottom Remainders Rock band consisting of best-selling authors Date Formed in 1992 Identification

In realizing the youthful dream of playing in a rock-androll band, a group of successful middle-aged professional writers spoke to the ascendancy of the culture of the babyboom generation. Taking its name from a publisher’s term for heavily discounted books, the Rock Bottom Remainders is a

group of well-known authors who gained a second celebrity through their participation in an enthusiastic amateur “garage band”-style rock group. The rock band was founded by literary publicist Kathi Kamen Goldmark in 1992 for a charity event at the American Booksellers Association convention. The group’s sense of fun and its party-band performance style found an appreciative audience and attracted professional rock musicians such as Bruce Springsteen, Roger McGuinn, and Warren Zevon, who on occasion enjoyed sitting in with the band. Ever-shifting personnel included Dave Barry, Stephen King, Amy Tan, Barbara Kingsolver, Roy Blount, Jr., Robert Fulghum, Scott Turow, James McBride, and Matt Groening, with actual rock musician Al Kooper as musical director. Its repertoire consisted of classic blues and familiar rock standards, such as “Louie Louie,” “Wild Thing,” “Bye Bye Love,” “Nadine,” “Midnight Hour,” and “Gloria.” Impact With a music video, an album, and performances for charity all over the country, the band enjoyed success throughout the 1990’s and beyond. The band achieved legendary status when, in 1995, it was part of the famous celebration of the opening the Rock and Roll Hall of Fame in Cleveland, Ohio. Further Reading

McGrath, Charles. “Rock On, but Hang On to Your Literary Gigs.” The New York Times, June 4, 2007, p. E1. Marsh, Dave, ed. Mid-life Confidential: The Rock Bottom Remainders Tour America with Three Chords and an Attitude. New York: Viking Press, 1994. Margaret Boe Birns See also Barry, Dave; King, Stephen; Kingsolver, Barbara; Literature in the United States; Music; Publishing; Rock and Roll Hall of Fame Museum.

■ Rock the Vote Identification Political advocacy organization Date Founded in 1990

Rock the Vote offered a nonpartisan voting drive for the under-thirty demographic, which had been notorious for abstaining from elections in the United States.

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Rock the Vote is a nonprofit, nonpartisan organization devoted to engaging the youth of the United States in political discussion and participation. During the 1990’s, Rock the Vote was lauded as responsible for stopping the twenty-year decline in youth voter turnout. Jeff Ayeroff, a recording industry executive, in conjunction with other members of the recording industry, founded Rock the Vote in 1990 after perceived attacks on free speech. The first Rock the Vote campaign, “Censorship is UnAmerican,” debuted that year, and celebrities like Iggy Pop, Red Hot Chili Peppers, and Woody Harrelson recorded public-service announcements for the organization. In 1991, President George H. W. Bush vetoed the National Voter Registration Act (also known as the Motor Voter Act), a bill supported by Rock the Vote that would standardize voter registration through a variety of services like the Departments of Motor Vehicles, libraries, schools, and disability centers. The bill was later passed in 1993 and signed into law by President Bill Clinton. It came into effect in 1995.

Early Years

In 1992, more celebrities signed on to record public-service announcements, including R.E.M., Queen Latifah, and Aerosmith. Queen Latifah later hosted a special on the Fox network for Rock the Vote, which featured more celebrities such as Robin Williams, Michael Douglas, Madonna, Tom Cruise, and Chris Rock. The broadcast won a prestigious Peabody Award. That year, more than 350,000 voters were registered by Rock the Vote. The organization is credited for the turnout of over two million new youth voters during that year’s elections. Youth voter participation had been declining steadily over the previous twenty years but actually increased because of Rock the Vote’s efforts. After signing the National Voter Registration Act into law in 1993, Clinton signed the National and Community Service Trust Act, which promoted volunteerism and was supported by Rock the Vote. In 1994, Rock the Vote published its pamphlet “Rock the System: A Guide to Health Care for Young Americans” and distributed it free of charge. Rock the Vote also awarded R.E.M. the first annual Patrick Lippert Award, honoring former executive director Patrick Lippert, who had died in 1993 from complications related to AIDS. Queen Latifah and Pearl Jam were honored with the award in 1995. That year, 1992, 1994, and 1996 Elections

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Rock the Vote won a second Peabody Award for a series of short films focusing on health care. In 1996, Rock the Vote expanded through a partnership with MTV’s Choose or Lose campaign. The organization then debuted a program to register voters via phone and, in partnership with MCI, created the first Internet voter-registration program. Celebrities such as Drew Barrymore, Seal, L L Cool J, and Hootie and the Blowfish recorded public-service announcements, and the Ford Foundation gave Rock the Vote a grant to help fund its voter-registration campaign. Rock the Vote directly registered over half a million new voters for the 1996 elections. As the decade wound down, Rock the Vote continued to record public-service announcements with celebrities. In 1998, the Schoolhouse Rocks the Vote album was produced and featured artists such as Isaac Hayes and Etta James. During the 1998 midterm election season, Rock the Vote registered over onequarter of a million new voters. In 1999, First Lady Hillary Rodham Clinton was awarded the first Rock the Nation Award. Impact Rock the Vote was directly responsible for the registration of over one million new voters during the 1990’s and indirectly responsible for bringing even more of those voters to the polls. Through the use of new technology, celebrity and industry partnerships, and direct street contact, Rock the Vote has effectively brought the attention of the American youth to the political world. Subsequent Events Rock the Vote has expanded beyond the United States since its inception in 1990, encouraging voters in other countries such as Ireland. The Rock the Vote movement expanded significantly during the 2000 and 2004 elections, became more aware of the growing number of Hispanic voters, and held a youth gathering after September 11, 2001, to discuss youth reactions and impact, later sending copies of the proceedings to Congress. Further Reading

Connery, Michael. Youth to Power: How Today’s Young Voters Are Building Tomorrow’s Progressive Majority. Brooklyn, N.Y.: Ig Publishing, 2008. Connery examines how the current generation have become civically and technologically minded and are applying their skills to create a new progressive political atmosphere. Highlights some of the key figures responsible for the creation of this movement.

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Eisner, Jane. Taking Back the Vote: Getting American Youth Involved in Our Democracy. Boston: Beacon Press, 2004. Discusses the lack of youth participation in voting since the 1970’s, highlights reasons why youth choose not to vote, and suggests solutions to increase the youth voter turnout. Rigby, Ben. Mobilizing Generation 2.0: A Practical Guide to Using Web 2.0 Technologies to Recruit, Organize and Engage Youth. San Francisco: Jossey-Bass, 2008. Demonstrates how to use the Internet to gather youth around nonprofit or political issues. Rock the Vote. http://www.rockthevote.org. The site provides general information about the nonprofit, as well as links to register for voting and more information about political and social issues. Emily Carroll Shearer See also Bush, George H. W.; Clinton, Bill; Clinton, Hillary Rodham; Elections in the United States, midterm; Elections in the United States, 1992; Elections in the United States, 1996.

■ Romer v. Evans Definition U.S. Supreme Court decision Date Decided on May 20, 1996

This decision struck a Colorado state constitutional amendment prohibiting gay rights laws, aiding a later case that labeled laws forbidding consensual homosexual sodomy unconstitutional. Colorado passed an anti-gay rights amendment to the state constitution in 1992 in the hopes of overturning existing gay rights laws. Amendment 2 prohibited people from claiming minority status based on sexual orientation and forbade the state and local government from protecting people because of their sexual orientation. An immediate lawsuit sought to keep the amendment from being enacted, claiming the change conflicted with the federal constitution. The majority of the opposition stemmed from the federal Fourteenth Amendment, which requires the government to offer equal protection under the law to everyone. Additionally, those filing the suit argued that there was no logical government interest and that the amendment put an unreasonable burden on gay, lesbian, bisexual, and transgender (GLBT) victims to seek protection from discrimination. The Colorado Supreme Court and District Court

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supported the opposition, in 1993, stating that Amendment 2 failed the strict scrutiny test, which requires laws to present a compelling state interest. The state of Colorado appealed to the federal Supreme Court in 1995. During oral arguments, the Supreme Court justices asked state counsel to justify the amendment’s vague language and its preventing one group from being protected from prejudice unless by constitutional amendment. The Supreme Court ruled 6 to 3 that the amendment was unconstitutional. However, whereas Colorado’s Supreme Court and District Court focused on the law’s failure to meet the strict scrutiny test, the federal Supreme Court declared that the law did not demonstrate a legitimate government interest. The Court determined that the law subjected homosexuals to unfair barriers to legal protection and forever prohibited its enactment. Impact Romer v. Evans went against an earlier Supreme Court ruling, Bowers v. Hardwick (1986), upholding a Georgia law prohibiting consensual sodomy. Thus, Romer came into play in 2003, when Lawrence v. Texas reached the Supreme Court. That 2003 decision overturned the Bowers decision and prohibited the government from creating laws making homosexual sodomy illegal. Moreover, the language the Supreme Court used in the Romer ruling demonstrated that the real argument was about the morality of homosexuality. Even though the state claimed that Amendment 2 prevented gays and lesbians from having special rights, the Supreme Court felt strongly that, in reality, it would have singled out homosexuals for discrimination. Even the dissent showed this bias, suggesting that the amendment was acceptable because it protected heterosexual mores. Further Reading

D’Emilio, John, William B. Turner, and Urvashi Vaid. Creating Change: Sexuality, Public Policy, and Civil Rights. New York: St. Martin’s Press, 2000. Gallagher, John, and Chris Bull. Perfect Enemies: The Religious Right, the Gay Movement, and the Politics of the 1990’s. New York: Crown, 1996. Walzer, Lee. Gay Rights on Trial. Santa Barbara, Calif.: ABC-Clio, 2002. Jessie Bishop Powell Homosexuality and gay rights; Supreme Court decisions; Transgender community.

See also

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■ Roth, Philip Identification American author Born March 19, 1933; Newark, New Jersey

During the 1990’s, Roth produced five novels and one autobiographical volume about his relationship with his father. Two of the novels became part of his American trilogy, hailed as trenchant commentary on American life. Philip Roth’s output of books during the 1990’s was great. Roth’s first work of the decade, Deception: A Novel (1990), blurs the boundary between truth and fiction. As such, it fits in with many postmodernist works in which “truth” itself is regarded as a kind of fiction. His second, Patrimony: A True Story (1991), tells the story of his father’s death. He wrote it, in part, to dispel the idea that Roth’s relationship to his father was the same as that of Roth’s frequent narrator, Nathan Zuckerman, who is estranged from his family as a result of the things he puts in his novels. The third, Operation Shylock: A Confession (1993), treats the idea of doubles, one of whom is a man in Israel who calls himself Philip Roth, claims to be the novelist, and works toward a plan that will send the Jews from Israel back to the European countries from which they came. This plan, the fictional Roth says, is the only way to save the lives of Israel’s Jews. The next book, Sabbath’s Theater (1995), treats Mickey Sabbath, whose literal theater involves hand puppets but whose metaphoric theater consists of himself and the people with whom he interacts. Sabbath is a lecherous character many readers find despicable. The final two works of the decade, American Pastoral (1997) and I Married a Communist (1998), along with The Human Stain (2000), constitute Roth’s American trilogy. In the first, he creates Seymour “Swede” Levov, a blond-haired, blue-eyed Jew from Newark, a former high school football hero, who marries an Irish Catholic who is a former Miss New Jersey. He moves to the country and tries to blend into the white Anglo-Saxon Protestant world that surrounds him, but his life falls apart when his daughter, Merry, protesting the war in Vietnam, sets off a bomb in the local post office. The explosion kills a man, and Merry goes underground. I Married a Communist treats the era of Senator Joseph McCarthy, in which, as Roth depicts it, the idea of guilt by association replaced ideas of freedom and justice in America. Nathan Zuckerman, the narrator, sees his friend Ira Ringold, known to the radio

Philip Roth. (©Nancy Crampton)

audience as “Iron Rinn,” destroyed by innuendo rather than any kind of judicial proceedings. Ringold loses his radio job and his influence because of the assertion—which is, incidentally, correct— that he is a communist. Impact Roth influenced a generation of Jewish American authors and Jewish Americans to reevaluate their positions in America and their ability to achieve the American Dream. He also showed that as a mature writer, he continued to write novels considered sensitive and powerful and involving fresh ideas. Further Reading

Posnock, Ross. Philip Roth’s Rude Truth: The Art of Immaturity. Princeton, N.J.: Princeton University Press, 2006. Safer, Elaine B. Mocking the Age: The Later Novels of Philip Roth. Albany: State University of New York Press, 2006. Richard Tuerk

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Israel and the United States; Jewish Americans; Literature in the United States; Theater in the United States.

See also

■ Ruby Ridge shoot-out Federal agents assault and besiege a family, resulting in deaths of a mother, child, and U.S. marshal Date August 21-22, 1992 Place The remote mountains of northern Idaho The Event

The Ruby Ridge incident led to a U.S. Senate investigation and increased mistrust of federal law enforcement. Randy Weaver was a white separatist who lived with his family in a remote plywood cabin in northern Idaho. Their friend and neighbor was a young man named Kevin Harris. Attending the July, 1986, Aryan Nations World Congress, Weaver was befriended by a biker who called himself Gus Magisono but who was actually Kenneth Fadeley, an undercover informant for the federal Bureau of Alcohol, Tobacco, and Firearms (ATF). Three years later, Weaver sold him two sawed-off shotguns shorter than the legal limit. In 1990, the ATF threatened to prosecute Weaver unless he himself became an undercover informant; he refused and warned the Aryan Nations. In December, 1990, Weaver was indicted for federal gun law violations. At the arraignment, Weaver was incorrectly told by the magistrate that if Weaver were convicted, his family might lose their home in order to pay for the court-appointed defense attorney. The trial was scheduled for February 20, 1991, but Weaver was incorrectly told that the trial date was March 20. Weaver had no intention of going to trial on any date and did not appear. Assistant U.S. attorney Ron Howen had Weaver indicted for failure to appear, and a warrant was issued for his arrest. The U.S. Marshals Service (USMS) was notified, and the agency deployed its paramilitary Special Operations Group (SOG). For sixteen months, the USMS surveilled Weaver’s home. The Marshals Attack and FBI Siege On August 21, 1992, six deputy marshals entered the Weaver property, and three of them threw rocks toward the cabin, alerting one of the Weavers’ dogs. Weaver, Harris, and Weaver’s fourteen-year-old son, Sammy, grabbed guns and went to investigate, thinking that the dog

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had detected game. The marshals shot the Weavers’ dog. Marshal Larry Cooper fired his 9-millimeter machine pistol at Sammy, killing him with a shot in the back as he was running away. Marshal William F. Degan was fatally shot by Harris, who then fled with Randy Weaver to the cabin. The Federal Bureau of Investigation (FBI) Hostage Rescue Team (HRT) was next brought in. Commander Richard Rogers created rules of engagement authorizing FBI snipers to shoot any adult male outside the cabin carrying a gun. The shoot-tokill orders were approved by FBI supervisor Larry Potts, in violation of Idaho’s homicide law. At 6:00 p.m. on August 22, Weaver, Harris, and Weaver’s teenage daughter Sara exited the cabin. FBI sniper Lon Horiuchi shot to kill Weaver but hit him in the shoulder. Standing in the cabin doorway, Weaver’s wife, Vicki, holding her ten-month-old baby, Elisheba, shouted to the group to get inside. Horiuchi then fatally shot Vicki Weaver in the head, although he later claimed that he was aiming at her husband. The siege ended after Vietnam War hero and right-wing commentator Bo Gritz volunteered to negotiate. Gritz talked Weaver into surrendering, in exchange for Weaver being allowed to meet with Gerry Spence, the famous criminal defense lawyer. Harris surrendered on August 30 and the Weavers on the following day. Trial Spence took Weaver’s case pro bono. At an April, 1993, trial, Weaver and Harris were acquitted of murder and all other charges, except for Weaver’s failure to appear for the original trial. Judge Edward Lodge fined the FBI $1,920 for illegally withholding evidence and lying, and chastised their “callous disregard” for the rights of defendants and a “complete lack of respect” for the court. Weaver was sentenced to eighteen months, to be reduced by credit for the fourteen months he had already spent in custody. Impact In 1995, a Senate subcommittee held hearings on Ruby Ridge. ATF director John Magaw promised to end immediately the agency’s practice of paying informants on a contingency basis. (Fadeley had been paid this way.) The FBI decorated sniper Horiuchi for his work at Ruby Ridge. In 1995, Potts was appointed second in command of the FBI by Director Louis Freeh, but public outrage quickly forced him to resign. The USMS honored the six marshals as heroes. Coupled with the 1993 events at

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Waco, Texas (where Potts, Rogers, and Horiuchi were prominently involved), Ruby Ridge prompted wide public concern that federal law-enforcement agencies were dishonest, out of control, and recklessly violent. In 1995, the government paid $3.1 million to Weaver and his three surviving children in an out-ofcourt settlement. In 1997, after the federal government refused to prosecute any of its employees for their actions at Ruby Ridge, or for perjury, the Boundary County, Idaho, district attorney charged Horiuchi with the voluntary manslaughter of Vicki Weaver and charged Harris with the killing of Degan. The charges against Harris were dismissed that year. Horiuchi’s lawyers had the case transferred from Idaho state court to federal district court. In 1998, the federal district court dismissed the charges on the grounds that Horiuchi, as a federal employee, was immune from prosecution for state law crimes.

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On June 5, 2001, an en banc panel of the U.S. Court of Appeals for the Ninth Circuit reversed the district court’s decision. However, the prosecutor then had all the charges dismissed. In 2000, the federal government paid Harris $380,000 in compensation.

Subsequent Events

Further Reading

Bock, Alan W. Ambush at Ruby Ridge: How Government Agents Set Randy Weaver Up and Took His Family Down. Irvine, Calif.: Dickens Press, 1995. Fair and thoroughly researched history of the incident. Spence, Gerry. From Freedom to Slavery: The Rebirth of Tyranny in America. New York: St. Martin’s Press, 1993. The famed attorney who won Weaver’s acquittal examines many issues, including the Weaver case. U.S. Congress. Senate. Committee on the Judiciary. Subcommittee on Terrorism, Technology, and Government Information. The Federal Raid on

Supporters of Randy Weaver and his family in Ruby Ridge, Idaho, hold signs protesting the FBI’s actions. (AP/Wide World Photos)

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Ruby Ridge, ID. Washington, D.C.: Government Printing Office, 1997. Hearings before the subcommittee. U.S. Department of Justice. Department of Justice Report Regarding Internal Investigation of Shootings at Ruby Ridge, Idaho, During Arrest of Randy Weaver. http://www.courttv.com/archive/legaldocs/ government/rubyridge.html. New York: American Lawyer Media, 1994. The Department of Justice kept secret its internal investigation, but Legal Times obtained a copy. Walter, Jess. Ruby Ridge: The Truth and Tragedy of the Randy Weaver Family. Rev. ed. New York: HarperPerennial, 2002. The author’s coverage of the story for the Spokane Spokesman-Review earned him a Pulitzer Prize nomination. Weaver, Randy, Sara Weaver, and Bill Henry. The Federal Siege at Ruby Ridge: In Our Own Words. Marion, Mont.: Ruby Ridge, 1998. The viewpoint of the father and his surviving daughter. Whitcomb, Christopher. Cold Zero: Inside the FBI Hostage Rescue Team. Boston: Little, Brown, 2001. FBI sniper autobiography, with extensive material on Ruby Ridge. David B. Kopel Bush, George H. W.; Clinton, Bill; Crime; Gun control; Militia movement; Montana Freemen standoff; Oklahoma City bombing; Reno, Janet; Waco siege.

See also

■ Rules, The Identification

Dating guidebook for heterosexual

women Authors Ellen Fein and Sherrie Schneider Date Published in 1995

Full of advice the two authors heard from their grandmothers, this self-help book was intended to help the 1990’s woman successfully attract a man who will propose marriage. In February, 1995, two married women named Ellen Fein and Sherrie Schneider published a self-help book for women called The Rules: Time-Tested Secrets for Capturing the Heart of Mr. Right, which offers thirtyfive pieces of advice to the 1990’s American woman as she navigates the dating game. The book defines the kind of man that a “Rules Girl” should wed, a

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purpose illustrated on the front cover of the paperback edition with a picture of a large diamond engagement ring. The top five strategies to obtain this ring, and the promise of monogamy, are as follows: “Be a ‘creature’ unlike any other,” “Don’t talk to a man first (and don’t ask him to dance),” “Don’t stare at men or talk too much,” “Don’t meet him halfway or go Dutch on a date,” and “Don’t call him and rarely return his calls.” Thirty more rules guide women through the entire dating process, including “Don’t expect a man to change or try to change him” and “Don’t discuss The Rules with your therapist,” as well as sections encouraging young women to consider plastic surgery and to continue following the rules even against their parents’ and friends’ advice. Impact After its publication, and with the help of the authors’ appearances on such shows as The Oprah Winfrey Show and 20/20, the dating and marriage guidebook quickly became a New York Times best seller. Simultaneously, groups of women worldwide began assembling themselves into self-help groups founded upon The Rules, and the authors offered personal consultations ranging from $50 to $250. The service became so popular that Fein and Schneider created a Web site for the book, where they market face-to-face, telephone, and e-mail consultations, as well as several spin-off publications, including The Rules II: More Rules to Live and Love By (1997). When Fein and Schneider announced the release of The Rules III: Time-Tested Secrets for Making Your Marriage Work in 2001, Fein also announced her divorce; the publicity unfavorably affected many women’s faith in the book series. Nevertheless, The Rules has sold more than two million copies and has been published in twenty-seven languages. Further Reading

Gerston, Jill. “So Many Rules, So Little Time.” The New York Times, October 23, 1996, p. C1. Leo, John. “Rule 36: Ignore rules 1 through 35.” U.S. News & World Report, October 21, 1996, 38. Walsh, Catherine. “The Rules Encourage Women to Take Responsibility for Their Lives and Not Be Victims in Romantic Relationships.” America 175, no. 16 (November 23, 1996): 9. Ami R. Blue Fads; Marriage and divorce; Men Are from Mars, Women Are from Venus; Publishing.

See also

The Nineties in America

The Nineties in America Volume III RuPaul—Zone Diet Appendixes Indexes

Editor

Milton Berman, Ph.D. University of Rochester

Managing Editor

Tracy Irons-Georges

Salem Press, Inc. Pasadena, California Hackensack, New Jersey

Editorial Director: Christina J. Moose Managing Editor: Tracy Irons-Georges Acquisitions Editor: Mark Rehn Copy Editors: Timothy M. Tiernan, Rebecca Kuzins Research Supervisor: Jeffry Jensen Editorial Assistant: Dana Garey Research Assistant: Keli Trousdale Photo Editor: Cynthia Breslin Beres Graphics and Design: James Hutson Production Editor: Joyce I. Buchea Layout: Frank Montano Title page photo: O. J. Simpson smiles after his acquittal on murder charges in 1995. (AP/Wide World Photos) Cover images (pictured clockwise, from top left): President Bill Clinton and Vice President Al Gore, 1993. (AP/Wide World Photos); General H. Norman Schwarzkopf, 1991. (AP/Wide World Photos); Brandi Chastain, Women’s World Cup Final, 1999. (AP/Wide World Photos); Keyboard. (©Kts/Dreamstime.com)

Copyright © 2009, by Salem Press, Inc. All rights in this book are reserved. No part of this work may be used or reproduced in any manner whatsoever or transmitted in any form or by any means, electronic or mechanical, including photocopy, recording, or any information storage and retrieval system, without written permission from the copyright owner except in the case of brief quotations embodied in critical articles and reviews or in the copying of images deemed to be freely licensed or in the public domain. For information address the publisher, Salem Press, Inc., P.O. Box 50062, Pasadena, California 91115. ∞ The paper used in these volumes conforms to the American National Standard for Permanence of Paper for Printed Library Materials, Z39.48-1992 (R1997).

Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data The nineties in America / editor, Milton Berman. p. cm. Includes bibliographical references and indexes. ISBN 978-1-58765-500-5 (set : alk. paper) — ISBN 978-1-58765-501-2 (v. 1: alk. paper) — ISBN 978-1-58765-502-9 (v. 2 : alk. paper) — ISBN 978-1-58765-503-6 (v. 3 : alk. paper) 1. United States—History—1969—Encyclopedias. 2. United States—Social conditions—1980— Encyclopedias. 3. United States—Politics and government—1989-1993—Encyclopedias. 4. United States—Politics and government—1993-2001—Encyclopedias. 5. United States—Intellectual life—20th century—Encyclopedias. 6. Popular culture—United States— History—20th century—Encyclopedias. 7. Nineteen nineties—Encyclopedias. I. Berman, Milton. E839.N56 2009 973.92—dc22 2008049939 First Printing

printed in the united states of america

■ Table of Contents Complete List of Contents . . . . . . . . . . . xlvii RuPaul . . . . . . . . . . . Russia and North America Rust v. Sullivan . . . . . . . Ryan, Meg . . . . . . . . . Ryder, Winona . . . . . . .

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733 734 737 737 738

Salmon war . . . . . . . . . . . . . Salt Lake City Olympics bid scandal Sampras, Pete . . . . . . . . . . . . Saturn Corporation . . . . . . . . . Saving Private Ryan . . . . . . . . . Scandals . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Schindler’s List . . . . . . . . . . . . Schlessinger, Dr. Laura . . . . . . . School violence . . . . . . . . . . . Schwarzkopf, Norman. . . . . . . . Science and technology . . . . . . . Scream . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Search engines. . . . . . . . . . . . Seinfeld . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Selena . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Seles, Monica . . . . . . . . . . . . Sex and the City . . . . . . . . . . . . Shakur, Tupac . . . . . . . . . . . . Sharpton, Al . . . . . . . . . . . . . Shaw v. Reno . . . . . . . . . . . . . Sheehy, Gail . . . . . . . . . . . . . Shepard, Matthew . . . . . . . . . . Shoemaker-Levy 9 comet . . . . . . Showgirls . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Silence of the Lambs, The . . . . . . . Silicon Valley. . . . . . . . . . . . . Silicone implant ban . . . . . . . . Simpson murder case . . . . . . . . Simpsons, The . . . . . . . . . . . . . Slang and slogans . . . . . . . . . . Smith, Susan . . . . . . . . . . . . . Smith, Will . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Soccer . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Soccer moms. . . . . . . . . . . . . Social Security reform. . . . . . . . Somalia conflict . . . . . . . . . . . Sontag, Susan . . . . . . . . . . . . Sosa, Sammy . . . . . . . . . . . . . South Park . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

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740 741 741 742 743 744 747 749 750 752 754 758 759 760 762 763 764 765 766 767 768 769 770 771 772 772 774 775 778 779 781 782 783 784 786 788 789 790 791 xlv

Space exploration . . . . . . . . . . . . . Space shuttle program . . . . . . . . . . Spam . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Speicher, Scott . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Spoken word movement . . . . . . . . . Sport utility vehicles (SUVs) . . . . . . . Sports . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Star Wars: Episode I—The Phantom Menace . Starr Report . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Stem cell research . . . . . . . . . . . . . Stephanopoulos, George . . . . . . . . . Stern, Howard . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Stewart, Martha . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Stock market . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Stockdale, James . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Stojko, Elvis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Storm of the Century . . . . . . . . . . . Strand, Mark . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . String theory. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Strug, Kerri . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Sundance Film Festival . . . . . . . . . . Supreme Court decisions . . . . . . . . . Sustainable design movement . . . . . .

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793 795 796 797 798 800 801 803 804 806 808 809 810 811 813 814 815 817 818 818 820 822 826

Tae Bo . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Tailhook incident . . . . . . . . . Take Our Daughters to Work Day Talk radio . . . . . . . . . . . . . Tarantino, Quentin . . . . . . . . Tattoos and body piercings . . . . Telecommunications Act of 1996. Telemarketing . . . . . . . . . . . Television . . . . . . . . . . . . . Tennis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Term limits. . . . . . . . . . . . . Terminator 2: Judgment Day. . . . . Terrorism . . . . . . . . . . . . . Texas A&M bonfire collapse . . . Theater in Canada. . . . . . . . . Theater in the United States . . . Thelma and Louise . . . . . . . . . Thomas, Clarence . . . . . . . . . Three strikes laws . . . . . . . . . Tibetan Freedom Concerts . . . . Titanic . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Tobacco industry settlement . . . Toys and games . . . . . . . . . .

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829 829 831 832 834 835 835 836 837 841 843 845 846 849 850 852 854 855 857 858 858 860 862

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The Nineties in America

Transgender community . . . Travolta, John . . . . . . . . . Troopergate . . . . . . . . . . Trump, Donald . . . . . . . . TV Martí . . . . . . . . . . . . TV Parental Guidelines system TWA Flight 800 crash . . . . . Twenty-seventh Amendment . Twin Peaks . . . . . . . . . . . Tyson, Mike . . . . . . . . . .

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865 867 869 870 871 872 873 874 875 876

Unabomber capture. . . . . . . . Unforgiven . . . . . . . . . . . . . United Nations . . . . . . . . . . Updike, John . . . . . . . . . . . UPN television network . . . . . . U.S. Capitol shooting . . . . . . . U.S. embassy bombings in Africa .

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879 881 882 883 884 885 886

Vagina Monologues, The. . ValuJet Flight 592 crash . Ventura, Jesse . . . . . . Versace murder . . . . . Viagra . . . . . . . . . . Victoria’s Secret . . . . . Video games . . . . . . .

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890 891 892 894 895 896 897

Waco siege . . . . . . . . . Wallace, David Foster . . . Wal-Mart . . . . . . . . . . Washington, Denzel . . . . Water pollution . . . . . . WB television network. . . Wegman, William . . . . . Weil, Andrew. . . . . . . . Welfare reform . . . . . . West Nile virus outbreak . Where’s Waldo? franchise . . White House attacks. . . . Whitewater investigation . Whitman, Christine Todd . Wigand, Jeffrey . . . . . . Wilder, L. Douglas . . . . . Will and Grace . . . . . . . Winfrey, Oprah . . . . . . Wolfowitz, Paul . . . . . . Women in the military . . Women in the workforce .

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900 903 904 905 906 908 908 909 910 912 914 915 915 917 918 919 920 921 922 923 925

Women’s National Basketball Association (WNBA). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Women’s rights . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Woods, Tiger. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Woodstock concerts . . . . . . . . . . . . World Cup of 1994 . . . . . . . . . . . . World Trade Center bombing . . . . . . World Trade Organization protests. . . . World Wide Web. . . . . . . . . . . . . . Wuornos, Aileen Carol . . . . . . . . . . WWJD bracelets . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

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928 928 931 933 935 937 939 941 944 945

X-Files, The . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 947 Xena: Warrior Princess . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 948 Y2K problem. . . . Yahoo! . . . . . . . Yamaguchi, Kristi . Year of the Woman Year-round schools

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950 952 953 954 956

Zone diet. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 958 Entertainment: Major Films of the 1990’s . . . 959 Entertainment: Academy Awards . . . . . . . . 967 Entertainment: Major Broadway Plays and Awards . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 969 Entertainment: Most-Watched U.S. Television Shows . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 977 Entertainment: Emmy Awards . . . . . . . . . 979 Legislation: Major U.S. Legislation . . . . . . . 983 Legislation: U.S. Supreme Court Decisions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 990 Literature: Best-Selling U.S. Books . . . . . . . 997 Literature: Major Literary Awards. . . . . . . 1000 Music: Popular Musicians . . . . . . . . . . . 1003 Music: Grammy Awards . . . . . . . . . . . . 1012 Sports: Winners of Major Events . . . . . . . 1021 Time Line . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1027 Bibliography . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1042 Web Sites . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1047 Glossary. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1050 List of Entries by Category. . . . . . . . . . . 1055 Photo Index. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . III Personages Index . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . VII Subject Index . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . XV

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■ Complete List of Contents Volume I Publisher’s Note . . . . . . . . . . ix Contributors . . . . . . . . . . . . xi Complete List of Contents . . . xvii Abortion. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1 Academy Awards . . . . . . . . . . 2 Acquired immunodeficiency syndrome. See AIDS epidemic Advertising . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4 Africa and the United States . . . . 7 African Americans . . . . . . . . . 9 Agassi, Andre . . . . . . . . . . . 12 Agriculture in Canada. . . . . . . 13 Agriculture in the United States . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15 AIDS epidemic. . . . . . . . . . . 18 Air pollution . . . . . . . . . . . . 20 Airline industry . . . . . . . . . . 21 Albee, Edward . . . . . . . . . . . 23 Albert, Marv . . . . . . . . . . . . 24 Albright, Madeleine . . . . . . . . 25 Allen, Woody. . . . . . . . . . . . 26 Ally McBeal . . . . . . . . . . . . . 27 Alternative rock . . . . . . . . . . 29 Alvarez, Julia . . . . . . . . . . . . 30 Alzheimer’s disease . . . . . . . . 32 Amazon.com . . . . . . . . . . . . 33 America Online . . . . . . . . . . 34 Americans with Disabilities Act of 1990 . . . . . . . . . . . 35 AmeriCorps . . . . . . . . . . . . 37 Angelou, Maya . . . . . . . . . . . 39 Angels in America . . . . . . . . . . 40 Antidepressants . . . . . . . . . . 41 Apple Computer. . . . . . . . . . 43 Archaeology . . . . . . . . . . . . 45 Archer Daniels Midland scandal . . . . . . . . . . . . . 46 Architecture . . . . . . . . . . . . 47 Armey, Dick . . . . . . . . . . . . 51 Armstrong, Lance . . . . . . . . . 52 Arnett, Peter . . . . . . . . . . . . 53 Art movements . . . . . . . . . . 54 Asian Americans . . . . . . . . . . 58 Astronomy . . . . . . . . . . . . . 61 Attention-deficit disorder . . . . . 63 Audiobooks . . . . . . . . . . . . 65 Autism . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 66

Auto racing . . . . . . . . . . . . 67 Automobile industry . . . . . . . 69 Bailey, Donovan . . . . . . . . . . 73 Baker, James . . . . . . . . . . . . 74 Baker v. Vermont . . . . . . . . . . 75 Balanced Budget Act of 1997 . . . 76 Ballet . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 77 Barkley, Charles . . . . . . . . . . 79 Barry, Dave. . . . . . . . . . . . . 80 Barry, Marion . . . . . . . . . . . 81 Baseball . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 82 Baseball realignment . . . . . . . 86 Baseball strike of 1994. . . . . . . 87 Basketball team, Olympic. See Dream Team Basic Instinct . . . . . . . . . . . . 89 Basketball . . . . . . . . . . . . . 90 Baywatch . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 93 BCS. See Bowl Championship Series (BCS) Beanie Babies . . . . . . . . . . . 94 Beauty and the Beast . . . . . . . . 95 Beauty Myth, The . . . . . . . . . . 96 Beavis and Butt-Head . . . . . . . . 97 Bernardin, Joseph Cardinal. . . . 98 Beverly Hills, 90210 . . . . . . . . . 99 Bezos, Jeff. . . . . . . . . . . . . 100 Biosphere 2 . . . . . . . . . . . . 102 Blacks. See African Americans Blair Witch Project, The . . . . . . 103 Blended families . . . . . . . . . 104 Bloc Québécois. . . . . . . . . . 106 Blogs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 107 Bobbitt mutilation case . . . . . 108 Body piercings. See Tattoos and body piercings Bondar, Roberta . . . . . . . . . 109 Bono, Sonny . . . . . . . . . . . 110 Book clubs . . . . . . . . . . . . 111 Bosnia conflict . . . . . . . . . . 113 Bowl Championship Series (BCS) . . . . . . . . . . . . . 114 Boxing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 115 Boy bands. . . . . . . . . . . . . 117 Broadway musicals . . . . . . . . 119 Brooks, Garth . . . . . . . . . . 120 Brown, Ron . . . . . . . . . . . . 122

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Browning, Kurt . . . . . . . . Buchanan, Pat . . . . . . . . Buffett, Warren. . . . . . . . Burning Man festivals . . . . Bush, George H. W. . . . . . Business and the economy in Canada . . . . . . . . . . Business and the economy in the United States . . . . . Byrd murder case . . . . . .

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123 124 125 127 129

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Cable News Network. See CNN coverage of the Gulf War Cable television. . . . . . . . . Cammermeyer, Margarethe . . Campaign finance scandal. . . Campbell, Kim . . . . . . . . . Canada and the British Commonwealth . . . . . . . Canada and the United States . . . . . . . . . . . . Cancer research . . . . . . . . Capitol shooting. See U.S. Capitol shooting Car industry. See Automobile industry Carey, Mariah. . . . . . . . . . Carjacking . . . . . . . . . . . Carpal tunnel syndrome . . . . Carrey, Jim . . . . . . . . . . . Casual Fridays . . . . . . . . . Cell phones . . . . . . . . . . . Censorship . . . . . . . . . . . CGI . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Charlottetown Accord . . . . . Cheney, Dick . . . . . . . . . . Chicago heat wave of 1995. . . Chick lit. . . . . . . . . . . . . Child pornography. . . . . . . Children’s literature . . . . . . Children’s television . . . . . . Children’s Television Act . . . China and the United States . . . . . . . . . . . . Chopra, Deepak . . . . . . . . Chrétien, Jean . . . . . . . . . Christian Coalition . . . . . . . Christo . . . . . . . . . . . . .

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140 141 142 144

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150 151 152 153 154 154 155 157 159 160 161 163 165 167 171 174

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175 177 178 179 181

The Nineties in America Christopher, Warren . . . . . . Cirque du Soleil . . . . . . . . Civil Rights Act of 1991 . . . . Classical music . . . . . . . . . Clean Air Act of 1990 . . . . . Clinton, Bill . . . . . . . . . . Clinton, Hillary Rodham . . . Clinton’s impeachment . . . . Clinton’s scandals . . . . . . . Cloning . . . . . . . . . . . . . Clooney, George . . . . . . . . Clothing. See Fashions and clothing CNN coverage of the Gulf War . . . . . . . . . . . . . Cochran, Johnnie . . . . . . . Coen brothers . . . . . . . . . Coffeehouses . . . . . . . . . . Cohen, William S. . . . . . . . Cold War, end of . . . . . . . . Columbine massacre . . . . . . Comedians . . . . . . . . . . . Comic strips . . . . . . . . . . Computer-generated imagery. See CGI Computers . . . . . . . . . . . Conservatism in U.S. politics. . . . . . . . . . . . Contract with America . . . . . Copyright legislation . . . . . . Country music . . . . . . . . . Crime . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Crown Heights riot. . . . . . . Cruise, Tom . . . . . . . . . . Culture wars . . . . . . . . . .

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219 220 224 225 227 231 233 234

Dahmer, Jeffrey. . . . . . . . Damon, Matt . . . . . . . . . Dances with Wolves. . . . . . . Dayton Accords. . . . . . . . Dead Sea scrolls publication. Death Row Records . . . . . Defense budget cuts . . . . . Defense of Marriage Act of 1996 . . . . . . . . . . . . DeGeneres, Ellen. . . . . . . Demographics of Canada . . Demographics of the United States . . . . . . . . . . . Depo-Provera . . . . . . . . . Devers, Gail. . . . . . . . . . Diallo shooting . . . . . . . . Digital audio . . . . . . . . . Digital cameras . . . . . . . .

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238 239 240 241 242 243 244

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182 183 184 186 187 188 191 193 196 199 201

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250 253 254 255 256 257

Digital divide . . . . . . . . . . . Digital video discs. See DVDs Dinkins, David . . . . . . . . . . Divorce. See Marriage and divorce Dole, Bob . . . . . . . . . . . . . Domestic partnerships . . . . . . Don’t ask, don’t tell . . . . . . . Dot-coms . . . . . . . . . . . . . Downsizing and restructuring . . . . . . . . . Dream Team . . . . . . . . . . . Drive-by shootings . . . . . . . . Drudge, Matt . . . . . . . . . . . Drug advertising . . . . . . . . . Drug companies. See Pharmaceutical industry Drug use . . . . . . . . . . . . . Dubroff, Jessica. . . . . . . . . . Duke, David . . . . . . . . . . . DVDs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Earth Day 1990 . . . . . . . . . . Earth in the Balance . . . . . . . . Economy. See Business and the economy in Canada; Business and the economy in the United States Ecstasy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Educate America Act of 1994 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Education in Canada. . . . . . . Education in the United States . . . . . . . . . . . . . Egan v. Canada . . . . . . . . . . EgyptAir Flight 990 crash . . . . Elder abuse . . . . . . . . . . . . Elders, Joycelyn. . . . . . . . . . Elections in Canada . . . . . . . Elections in the United States, midterm . . . . . . . . . . . . Elections in the United States, 1992 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Elections in the United States, 1996 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Electric car . . . . . . . . . . . . Electronic mail. See E-mail Electronic music . . . . . . . . . E-mail . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Embassy bombings in Africa. See U.S. embassy bombings in Africa Employment in Canada . . . . . Employment in the United States . . . . . . . . . . . . .

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258 259 260 263 264 267 270 271 272 272 274

275 276 277 278 281 282

283 284 285 287 290 290 293 294 295 297 299 302 306 308 310

311 312

ER . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 314 Etheridge, Melissa . . . . . . . . 315 Europe and North America . . . 316 Euthanasia. See Physician-assisted suicide Fabio . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Fads . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Faludi, Susan . . . . . . . . . . Falwell, Jerry . . . . . . . . . . Family and Medical Leave Act of 1993 . . . . . . . . . . . Farrakhan, Louis . . . . . . . . Fashions and clothing . . . . . Feng shui . . . . . . . . . . . . Fen-phen . . . . . . . . . . . . Ferguson, Colin . . . . . . . . Fermat’s last theorem solution . . . . . . . . . . . Film in Canada . . . . . . . . . Film in the United States . . . Fisher, Amy. See Long Island Lolita case Fleiss, Heidi. . . . . . . . . . . Flight 592 crash. See ValuJet Flight 592 crash Flight 800 crash. See TWA Flight 800 crash Flight 990 crash. See EgyptAir Flight 990 crash Flinn, Kelly . . . . . . . . . . . Food trends. . . . . . . . . . . Football . . . . . . . . . . . . . Forbes, Steve . . . . . . . . . . Foreign policy of Canada . . . Foreign policy of the United States . . . . . . . . . . . . Forrest Gump. . . . . . . . . . . Frasier . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Friends . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Games. See Toys and games Gardner Museum art theft. . . Gates, Bill . . . . . . . . . . . . Gay rights. See Homosexuality and gay rights Gehry, Frank . . . . . . . . . . General Motors strike of 1998 . . . . . . . . . . . . . Generation Y . . . . . . . . . . Genetic engineering . . . . . . Genetically modified foods . . Genetics research . . . . . . .

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318 319 320 321

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323 323 325 327 328 328

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. 337

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338 339 341 343 344

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. 356 . . . . .

357 358 360 361 364

Complete List of Contents

Volume II Complete List of Contents. . . xxxiii Gephardt, Dick . . . . . Gifford, Kathie Lee . . Gingrich, Newt . . . . . Ginsburg, Ruth Bader . Giuliani, Rudolph . . . Glenn, John . . . . . . Global warming debate GoodFellas . . . . . . . . Gordon, Jeff . . . . . . Gore, Al. . . . . . . . . Grafton, Sue . . . . . . Graves, Michael . . . . Greenspan, Alan . . . . Griffey, Ken, Jr. . . . . . Grisham, John . . . . . Grunge fashion. . . . . Grunge music . . . . . Gulf War . . . . . . . . Gulf War syndrome . . Gun control . . . . . .

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367 368 369 370 371 373 374 376 376 377 379 380 381 382 384 385 385 388 392 393

Hackers . . . . . . . . . . . Hairstyles . . . . . . . . . . Haiti intervention . . . . . Hale-Bopp comet. . . . . . Hamm, Mia . . . . . . . . . Hanks, Tom . . . . . . . . Happy Land fire . . . . . . Harry Potter books. . . . . Hate crimes. . . . . . . . . Health care . . . . . . . . . Health care reform . . . . Heaven’s Gate mass suicide Heroin chic. . . . . . . . . Hill, Anita. . . . . . . . . . Hip-hop and rap music . . Hispanics. See Latinos Hobbies and recreation . . Hockey . . . . . . . . . . . Hogue, James. . . . . . . . Holocaust Memorial Museum . . . . . . . . . Holy Virgin Mary, The . . . . Holyfield, Evander . . . . . Home Alone . . . . . . . . . Home run race . . . . . . . Homeschooling . . . . . . Homosexuality and gay rights . . . . . . . . . .

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396 398 399 401 402 403 404 405 406 408 411 413 415 416 418

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423 424 425 426 427 428

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Homosexuals in the military. See Don’t ask, don’t tell Hubble Space Telescope. . . . . 433 Human Genome Project. . . . . 435 Hurricane Andrew . . . . . . . . 438 Ice hockey. See Hockey Illegal immigration. . . . . . . IM. See Instant messaging Immigration Act of 1990. . . . Immigration to Canada . . . . Immigration to the United States . . . . . . . . . . . . In Living Color . . . . . . . . . Income and wages in Canada . . . . . . . . . . . Income and wages in the United States . . . . . . . . Independent films . . . . . . . Indians, American. See Native Americans Instant messaging . . . . . . . Intelligent design movement . . . . . . . . . . Internet . . . . . . . . . . . . . Internet startups. See Dot-coms Inventions . . . . . . . . . . . Iron John. . . . . . . . . . . . . Israel and the United States . . Jenny Jones Show murder Jewish Americans. . . . Jobs, Steve . . . . . . . Joe Camel campaign . . Johnson, Magic . . . . . Jordan, Michael . . . . Journalism . . . . . . . Jurassic Park . . . . . . .

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Kaczynski, Theodore. See Unabomber capture Kelley, Kitty . . . . . . . . Kemp, Jack . . . . . . . . Kennedy, John F., Jr. . . . Kennedy rape case . . . . Kerrigan, Nancy . . . . . Kevorkian, Jack . . . . . . Khobar Towers bombing Killer bees . . . . . . . . King, Rodney . . . . . . . King, Stephen . . . . . .

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466 467 468 469 470 471 473 475

476 477 478 479 480 481 482 484 485 486

Kingsolver, Barbara . . . . . . Klaas kidnapping and murder case . . . . . . . . . . . . . Knox pornography case . . . . Komunyakaa, Yusef. . . . . . . Koons, Jeff . . . . . . . . . . . Kosovo conflict . . . . . . . . . Kwanzaa . . . . . . . . . . . . Kyoto Protocol . . . . . . . . .

. 487 . . . . . . .

488 489 490 491 492 493 495

Lagasse, Emeril. . . . . . . . . . Lang, K. D. . . . . . . . . . . . . Laparoscopic surgery . . . . . . Larry Sanders Show, The . . . . . . Las Vegas megaresorts . . . . . . LASIK surgery . . . . . . . . . . Late night television . . . . . . . Latin America . . . . . . . . . . Latinos . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Lee, Spike . . . . . . . . . . . . Left Behind books . . . . . . . . Lewinsky scandal . . . . . . . . . Liberalism in U.S. politics . . . . Life coaching . . . . . . . . . . . Limbaugh, Rush . . . . . . . . . Line Item Veto Act of 1996 . . . Literature in Canada . . . . . . . Literature in the United States . . . . . . . . . . . . . Lollapalooza . . . . . . . . . . . Long Island Lolita case . . . . . Long Island Rail Road murders. See Ferguson, Colin Los Angeles riots . . . . . . . . . Louima torture case . . . . . . . Love, Courtney . . . . . . . . . . Lucid, Shannon . . . . . . . . .

497 498 499 500 501 503 504 505 507 509 510 511 513 515 516 517 518

McCaughey septuplets . McCourt, Frank . . . . McEntire, Reba. . . . . McGwire, Mark . . . . . McMansions . . . . . . McMillan, Terry . . . . McNally, Terrence . . . McVeigh, Timothy . . . Madonna . . . . . . . . Mafia . . . . . . . . . . Magic Eye pictures . . . Mall of America . . . . Malone, Karl . . . . . .

535 536 537 538 539 540 541 542 543 545 546 547 549

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520 525 527

528 531 532 533

The Nineties in America Mapplethorpe obscenity trial. . . 550 Marilyn Manson . . . . . . . . . 552 Marriage and divorce . . . . . . 553 Mars exploration . . . . . . . . . 554 Matrix, The . . . . . . . . . . . . 556 Medicine . . . . . . . . . . . . . 557 Men Are from Mars, Women Are from Venus . . . . . . . . . 560 Menendez brothers murder case . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 561 Metallica . . . . . . . . . . . . . 562 MetLife scandal . . . . . . . . . 563 Mexico and the United States . . . . . . . . . . . . . 564 Michelangelo computer virus . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 566 Microsoft . . . . . . . . . . . . . 566 Middle East and North America . . . . . . . . . . . . 568 Midnight basketball . . . . . . . 571 Military, homosexuals in. See Don’t ask, don’t tell Military, women in the. See Women in the military Militia movement . . . . . . . . 572 Millennium bug. See Y2K problem Milli Vanilli . . . . . . . . . . . . 573 Million Man March . . . . . . . 574 Minimum wage increases . . . . 576 Minorities in Canada. . . . . . . 578 Mississippi River flood of 1993 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 579 Mistry, Rohinton . . . . . . . . . 580 Montana Freemen standoff . . . 581 Moore, Judge Roy . . . . . . . . 582 Morissette, Alanis . . . . . . . . 583 Morris, Dick . . . . . . . . . . . 584 Morrison, Toni . . . . . . . . . . 585 Mount Pleasant riot . . . . . . . 586 Movies. See Film in Canada; Film in the United States Mozart effect . . . . . . . . . . . 588 MP3 format. . . . . . . . . . . . 589 MTV Unplugged . . . . . . . . . . 590 Mulroney, Brian . . . . . . . . . 591 Murphy Brown . . . . . . . . . . . 593 Music . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 595 Musicals. See Broadway musicals Myers, Mike. . . . . . . . . . . . 599 NAFTA. See North American Free Trade Agreement (NAFTA) Nanotechnology . . . . . . . . . 601 National debt . . . . . . . . . . . 602

National Endowment for the Arts (NEA) . . . . . . . . . Native Americans. . . . . . . . Natural disasters . . . . . . . . NC-17 rating . . . . . . . . . . NEA. See National Endowment for the Arts (NEA) Nicotine patch . . . . . . . . . Nine Inch Nails. . . . . . . . . Nirvana . . . . . . . . . . . . . Nobel Prizes . . . . . . . . . . Noriega capture and trial . . . North American Free Trade Agreement (NAFTA) . . . . North Hollywood shoot-out . . Northern Exposure . . . . . . . . Northridge earthquake . . . . Novello, Antonia Coello . . . . Nunavut Territory . . . . . . . Nye, Bill. . . . . . . . . . . . . NYPD Blue. . . . . . . . . . . . Oakland Hills fire . . . . . . O’Connor, Sinéad . . . . . . Oklahoma City bombing. . . Oklahoma tornado outbreak. Olympic basketball team. See Dream Team Olympic Games of 1992 . . . Olympic Games of 1994 . . . Olympic Games of 1996 . . . Olympic Games of 1998 . . . Olympic Park bombing . . . Olympics bid scandal. See Salt Lake City Olympics bid scandal Ondaatje, Michael . . . . . . O’Neal, Shaquille . . . . . . O’Reilly, Bill . . . . . . . . . Organic food movement. . . Organized crime. See Mafia Oscars. See Academy Awards Outsourcing . . . . . . . . . Palahniuk, Chuck . . . . . . Paltrow, Gwyneth . . . . . . . Patriot missile . . . . . . . . PDAs . . . . . . . . . . . . . Perfect Storm, the . . . . . . Perlman, Itzhak . . . . . . . Perot, H. Ross . . . . . . . . Personal digital assistants. See PDAs Pharmaceutical industry . . .

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603 605 607 609

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610 611 612 614 616

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618 619 621 622 624 625 625 627

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629 631 632 635

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636 641 642 646 647

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649 650 651 652

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657 658 659 659 661 662 664

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Philadelphia . . . . . . . . . . . . 667 Phoenix, River . . . . . . . . . . 668 Photography . . . . . . . . . . . 669 Physician-assisted suicide . . . . 670 Pitt, Brad . . . . . . . . . . . . . 672 Pixar . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 673 Planned Parenthood v. Casey . . . . 675 Plasma screens . . . . . . . . . . 676 Poetry . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 677 Pogs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 678 Pokémon franchise . . . . . . . 679 Police brutality . . . . . . . . . . 680 Pollution. See Air pollution; Water pollution Popcorn, Faith . . . . . . . . . . 682 Poverty . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 683 Powell, Colin . . . . . . . . . . . 685 Presidential elections. See Elections in the United States, 1992; Elections in the United States, 1996 Project Gutenberg . . . . . . . . 686 Promise Keepers . . . . . . . . . 687 Proulx, Annie. . . . . . . . . . . 688 Psychology . . . . . . . . . . . . 689 Publishing . . . . . . . . . . . . 691 Pulp Fiction . . . . . . . . . . . . 692 Quayle, Dan . . . . . . . . . . . 694 Quebec referendum of 1995 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 695 Queer Nation. . . . . . . . . . . 696 Race relations . . . . . . . . . Railway Killer. See Reséndiz, Ángel Maturino Ramsey murder case . . . . . . Rap music. See Hip-hop and rap music Real World, The . . . . . . . . . Recession of 1990-1991 . . . . Recreation. See Hobbies and recreation Reeve, Christopher. . . . . . . Reeves, Keanu . . . . . . . . . Reform Party . . . . . . . . . . Religion and spirituality in Canada . . . . . . . . . . . Religion and spirituality in the United States . . . . . . . . Reno, Janet . . . . . . . . . . . Rent . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Republican Revolution . . . . Reséndiz, Ángel Maturino . . .

. 698

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. 703 . 703

. 705 . 706 . 707 . 708 . . . . .

710 713 714 716 718

Complete List of Contents Restructuring. See Downsizing and restructuring Rice, Anne . . . . . . . . . . . . 719 Right-wing conspiracy . . . . . . 720 Ripken, Cal, Jr. . . . . . . . . . . 721

Roberts, Julia . . . . . . . . . Rock, Chris . . . . . . . . . . Rock and Roll Hall of Fame Museum . . . . . . . . . . Rock Bottom Remainders . .

. . 722 . . 723 . . 724 . . 726

Rock the Vote. . . . . Romer v. Evans . . . . Roth, Philip. . . . . . Ruby Ridge shoot-out Rules, The . . . . . . .

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726 728 729 730 732

Volume III Complete List of Contents . . . xlvii RuPaul . . . . . . . . . . . Russia and North America. Rust v. Sullivan . . . . . . . Ryan, Meg . . . . . . . . . Ryder, Winona . . . . . . .

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Salmon war . . . . . . . . . . . Salt Lake City Olympics bid scandal . . . . . . . . . . . Sampras, Pete . . . . . . . . . Saturn Corporation . . . . . . Saving Private Ryan . . . . . . . Scandals . . . . . . . . . . . . Schindler’s List . . . . . . . . . . Schlessinger, Dr. Laura. . . . . School violence. . . . . . . . . Schwarzkopf, Norman . . . . . Science and technology . . . . Scream . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Search engines . . . . . . . . . Seinfeld . . . . . . . . . . . . . Selena. . . . . . . . . . . . . . Seles, Monica . . . . . . . . . . Sex and the City . . . . . . . . . Shakur, Tupac . . . . . . . . . Sharpton, Al . . . . . . . . . . Shaw v. Reno. . . . . . . . . . . Sheehy, Gail . . . . . . . . . . Shepard, Matthew . . . . . . . Shoemaker-Levy 9 comet . . . Showgirls. . . . . . . . . . . . . Silence of the Lambs, The . . . . . Silicon Valley . . . . . . . . . . Silicone implant ban . . . . . . Simpson murder case . . . . . Simpsons, The . . . . . . . . . . Slang and slogans . . . . . . . Slogans. See Slang and slogans Smith, Susan . . . . . . . . . . Smith, Will . . . . . . . . . . . Soccer. . . . . . . . . . . . . . Soccer moms . . . . . . . . . . Social Security reform . . . . .

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733 734 737 737 738

. 740 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

741 741 742 743 744 747 749 750 752 754 758 759 760 762 763 764 765 766 767 768 769 770 771 772 772 774 775 778 779

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781 782 783 784 786

Somalia conflict . . . . . . . . . Sontag, Susan. . . . . . . . . . . Sosa, Sammy . . . . . . . . . . . South Park . . . . . . . . . . . . . Space exploration . . . . . . . . Space shuttle program . . . . . . Spam . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Speicher, Scott . . . . . . . . . . Spirituality. See Religion and spirituality in Canada; Religion and spirituality in the United States Spoken word movement . . . . . Sport utility vehicles (SUVs). . . Sports . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Star Wars: Episode I—The Phantom Menace . . . . . . . . . . . . . Starr Report . . . . . . . . . . . Stem cell research . . . . . . . . Stephanopoulos, George . . . . Stern, Howard . . . . . . . . . . Stewart, Martha . . . . . . . . . Stock market . . . . . . . . . . . Stockdale, James . . . . . . . . . Stojko, Elvis. . . . . . . . . . . . Storm of the Century . . . . . . Strand, Mark . . . . . . . . . . . String theory . . . . . . . . . . . Strug, Kerri . . . . . . . . . . . . Sundance Film Festival. . . . . . Supreme Court decisions . . . . Sustainable design movement . . . . . . . . . . . SUVs. See Sport utility vehicles (SUVs) Tae Bo . . . . . . . . . . . . Tailhook incident . . . . . . Take Our Daughters to Work Day . . . . . . . . . . . . Talk radio. . . . . . . . . . . Tarantino, Quentin . . . . . Tattoos and body piercings . Technology. See Science and technology

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788 789 790 791 793 795 796 797

798 800 801 803 804 806 808 809 810 811 813 814 815 817 818 818 820 822

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835 836 837

841 843 845 846 849 850 852 854 855 857 858 858 860 862 865 867 869 870 871 872 873 874 875 876

826

. . 829 . . 829 . . . .

Telecommunications Act of 1996 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Telemarketing . . . . . . . . . . Television . . . . . . . . . . . . . Television ratings system. See TV Parental Guidelines system Tennis. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Term limits . . . . . . . . . . . . Terminator 2: Judgment Day . . . . Terrorism . . . . . . . . . . . . . Texas A&M bonfire collapse . . . . . . . . . . . . Theater in Canada . . . . . . . . Theater in the United States . . . Thelma and Louise. . . . . . . . . Thomas, Clarence . . . . . . . . Three strikes laws . . . . . . . . Tibetan Freedom Concerts . . . Titanic. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Tobacco industry settlement . . . Toys and games. . . . . . . . . . Transgender community. . . . . Travolta, John . . . . . . . . . . Troopergate . . . . . . . . . . . Trump, Donald. . . . . . . . . . TV Martí . . . . . . . . . . . . . TV Parental Guidelines system . . . . . . . . . . . . . TWA Flight 800 crash . . . . . . Twenty-seventh Amendment . . . Twin Peaks. . . . . . . . . . . . . Tyson, Mike. . . . . . . . . . . .

831 832 834 835

Unabomber capture . . . . Unforgiven . . . . . . . . . . United Nations . . . . . . . Updike, John . . . . . . . . UPN television network . . U.S. Capitol shooting . . . U.S. embassy bombings in Africa . . . . . . . . . .

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879 881 882 883 884 885

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Vagina Monologues, The . . . . . . 890 ValuJet Flight 592 crash . . . . . 891 Ventura, Jesse. . . . . . . . . . . 892

The Nineties in America Versace murder. Viagra . . . . . . Victoria’s Secret Video games . .

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894 895 896 897

Waco siege . . . . . . . . . . . . 900 Wages. See Income and wages in Canada; Income and wages in the United States Wallace, David Foster . . . . . . 903 Wal-Mart . . . . . . . . . . . . . 904 Washington, Denzel . . . . . . . 905 Water pollution. . . . . . . . . . 906 WB television network . . . . . . 908 Web. See Internet; World Wide Web Web logs. See Blogs Wegman, William . . . . . . . . 908 Weil, Andrew . . . . . . . . . . . 909 Welfare reform . . . . . . . . . . 910 West Nile virus outbreak . . . . . 912 “What would Jesus do?” bracelets. See WWJD bracelets Where’s Waldo? franchise . . . . . 914 White House attacks . . . . . . . 915 Whitewater investigation. . . . . 915 Whitman, Christine Todd . . . . 917 Wigand, Jeffrey . . . . . . . . . . 918 Wilder, L. Douglas . . . . . . . . 919 Will and Grace . . . . . . . . . . . 920 Winfrey, Oprah. . . . . . . . . . 921 WNBA. See Women’s National Basketball Association (WNBA)

Wolfowitz, Paul . . . . . . . . . Women in the military . . . . . Women in the workforce . . . Women’s National Basketball Association (WNBA) . . . . Women’s rights . . . . . . . . . Woods, Tiger . . . . . . . . . . Woodstock concerts . . . . . . Workforce, women in the. See Women in the workforce World Cup of 1994 . . . . . . . World Trade Center bombing. . . . . . . . . . . World Trade Organization protests . . . . . . . . . . . World Wide Web . . . . . . . . WTO protests. See World Trade Organization protests Wuornos, Aileen Carol. . . . . WWJD bracelets . . . . . . . .

. 922 . 923 . 925 . . . .

928 928 931 933

. 935 . 937 . 939 . 941

. 944 . 945

X-Files, The . . . . . . . . . . . . 947 Xena: Warrior Princess . . . . . . . 948 Y 2K problem . . . . . . . . Yahoo! . . . . . . . . . . . Yamaguchi, Kristi. . . . . . Year of the Woman . . . . . Year-round schools . . . . . Year 2000 problem. See Y 2K problem

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950 952 953 954 956

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Entertainment: Major Films of the 1990’s . . . . . . . . . 959 Entertainment: Academy Awards. . . . . . . . . . . . . 967 Entertainment: Major Broadway Plays and Awards . . . . . . . 969 Entertainment: Most-Watched U.S. Television Shows. . . . . 977 Entertainment: Emmy Awards. . . . . . . . . . . . . 979 Legislation: Major U.S. Legislation . . . . . . . . . . 983 Legislation: U.S. Supreme Court Decisions . . . . . . . . 990 Literature: Best-Selling U.S. Books . . . . . . . . . . . . . 997 Literature: Major Literary Awards . . . . . . . . . . . . 1000 Music: Popular Musicians . . . 1003 Music: Grammy Awards. . . . . 1012 Sports: Winners of Major Events . . . . . . . . . . . . 1021 Time Line . . . . . . . . . . . . 1027 Bibliography . . . . . . . . . . 1042 Web Sites . . . . . . . . . . . . 1047 Glossary . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1050 List of Entries by Category . . . 1055 Photo Index . . . . . . . . . . . . III Personages Index . . . . . . . . . VII Subject Index . . . . . . . . . . . XV

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■ RuPaul American drag performer, actor, and songwriter Born November 17, 1960; San Diego, California Identification

RuPaul is an openly gay performer whose good looks and friendly persona in an astounding frame (six feet, seven inches) made him hard to ignore. His talent as a performer and his charisma promoted a successful career on television, in films, and in other entertainment venues, helping to make alternative lifestyles more acceptable to American society. RuPaul Andre Charles moved from San Diego to Atlanta as a teenager, and finally to New York City, where in the early 1990’s he began performing in local clubs and on public-access television on a Channel 4 series Manhattan Cable. In 1993, he got a recording contract with Tommy Boy Records. His first album, Supermodel of the World (1993), had a hit single, “Supermodel (You Better Work),” whose music video was nominated for Best Dance Video at the 1994 MTV Video Music Awards. Other records and videos included “Back to My Roots” and “A Shade Shady (Now Prance),” hits on the Billboard Hot Dance Music/Club Play charts. He recorded a hit duet of “Don’t Go Breaking My Heart” with the British singer Elton John. RuPaul’s music and his “love everyone” attitude made him easy to promote not only as a drag queen but also as a singer and actor. Between 1993 and 1999, RuPaul acted, sometimes in drag, in various television shows and films: Veronica’s Closet; Walker, Texas Ranger; Sabrina, the Teenage Witch; Nash Bridges; Saturday Night Live; Crooklyn (1994); The Brady Bunch Movie (1995); and To Wong Foo, Thanks for Everything! Julie Newmar (1995). In 1996, he hosted a talk show on VH1 that lasted three seasons, The RuPaul Show, with celebrity interviews and musical acts. He continued recording albums, including a 1997 Christmas album titled Ho, Ho, Ho. RuPaul created his “Glamazon Look” with the help of a makeup artist and a costumer. Having a good fashion sense, he knew what looked good for him. He became the “First Face of MAC” spokesperson for Make-up Art Cosmetics in 1998, and his face and full-drag figure graced billboards. With RuPaul’s help, the company raised millions of dollars for its AIDS fund. In 1999, he received the Vito Russo Entertainer of the Year Award from the Gay and Lesbian Alliance Against Defamation (GLAAD)

Drag queen performer RuPaul sings at a gay rights march in Washington, D.C., in April, 1993. (Hulton Archive/Getty Images)

media awards. His autobiography, Lettin’ It All Hang Out, came out in 1995, selling more than 400,000 copies on Amazon.com alone. Impact RuPaul won the GLAAD award for his success as an openly gay entertainer who furthered understanding of the gay, lesbian, bisexual, and transgender (GLBT) community through his work. With his many talents, he showed a slowly changing society that alternative lifestyles were not threatening and that GLBT individuals could make valued contributions to society. Further Reading

Feinberg, Leslie. Transgender Warriors: Making History from Joan of Arc to RuPaul. Boston: Beacon Press, 1996.

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RuPaul. Lettin’ It All Hang Out. New York: Hyperion, 1995. Jane L. Ball See also African Americans; Cable television; Homosexuality and gay rights; Transgender community.

■ Russia and North America Diplomatic, economic, and strategic relations between two former Cold War rivals

Definition

Relations between Russia and North America during the 1990’s principally dealt with issues related to the unraveling of the Soviet Union and its successor states’ desires to reform their economies and political systems, transform their foreign policies, and seek accommodation with the West, in general. As the largest successor state of the former Soviet Union and the inheritor of the Soviet Union’s nuclear weaponry, the Russian Federation was of enormous significance to American and Canadian national security interests as it moved toward a market-based economy and a democratic polity. Since coming to power in 1985, Mikhail Gorbachev had attempted to lead the Soviet Union toward a more open and market-oriented socialist system. During the 1990’s, U.S. president George H. W. Bush and the Canadian prime minister Brian Mulroney generally supported Gorbachev’s reformist policies while he remained in power. However, his reform efforts failed because of their internal inconsistency and ineffectiveness, as well as strong conservative opposition. Ultimately, conservative reaction to the program led to an abortive coup d’état against the Gorbachev regime in August, 1991. As Gorbachev’s chief rival and the chief executive of the largest constituent unit of the Soviet Union, Boris Yeltsin oversaw the eventual dissolution of the Soviet Union in late 1991, edging Gorbachev out of any meaningful political role and inheriting as president of the newly created Russian Federation many of Gorbachev’s former powers and responsibilities. As many of these processes unfolded, both the U.S. and Canadian governments sought to encourage a peaceful transformation of the Soviet state, while the United States continued negotiations with the Soviet Union over German reunification and

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restationing of Russian troops, strategic arms control, and economic assistance. To that end, the United States and the Soviet Union implemented the major provisions of the Treaty on the Final Settlement with Respect to Germany on October 3, 1990, allowing for the formal reunification of East and West Germany, separated since the end of World War II. In addition, in July and August of 1991, Bush visited the Soviet Union and held a two-day summit with Gorbachev; at the closing meeting, the two leaders signed the first treaty of the Strategic Arms Reduction Talks (START I), which committed the two sides to dramatic reductions in strategic, or long-range, nuclear missiles. As well, during the remaining months of the Gorbachev era, Bush and other Western leaders pledged billions of dollars in agricultural support credits in response to increasingly severe food shortages in the Soviet Union. In the remaining year of their tenure as president and prime minister, Bush and Mulroney vigorously supported Yeltsin’s attempts to jettison half-baked economic reform measures and institute a sweeping transformation of the socialist economy, including the wholesale freeing of prices, the imposition of hard budget constraints on loss-making Russian enterprises, and an extensive privatization program for state-owned industry. Soon after introducing these reforms, Yeltsin met with Bush and Mulroney in their respective capitals, whereupon the two Western leaders initialed an agreement, Operation Provide Hope, that would supply former Soviet republics with international emergency assistance. In addition, the Bush and Yeltsin issued a joint statement proclaiming that their respective countries no longer viewed one another as potential adversaries. At the June, 1992, summit in Washington, D.C., the two leaders signed additional agreements marking the definitive end of the Cold War. These dealt primarily with relaxing economic restrictions on trade and intensifying progress toward strategic nuclear arms cuts; however, both parties also signaled their intention to step up joint U.N. peacekeeping efforts in the Balkans, while also agreeing to send American Peace Corps volunteers to Russia for the first time. At the 1992 G7 (Group of Seven) meeting in Munich, Germany, the world’s seven most advanced, industrialized countries committed

The West Supports Yeltsin’s Reforms

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$1 billion in aid to Russia but linked this assistance to further progress toward economic reform, as progress toward implementation of the sweeping reform program was meeting significant resistance from conservative elements within the state bureaucracy, from enterprise and state farm directors, as well as from the burgeoning numbers of dispossessed within Russian society. In one of his last official acts as U.S. president, George H. W. Bush traveled to Moscow in January, 1993, to initial the START II agreement, which codified verbal agreements made the previous summer, formally committing Russia and the United States to reduce their strategic nuclear arsenals by over three thousand warheads. As 1993 progressed, the new U.S. president, Bill Clinton, continued to pursue many of the same policies with regard to Russia that had been inaugurated by his predecessor. Indeed, at the Vancouver Summit between Clinton and Yeltsin, further commitments on arms control, economic and humanitarian assistance to Russia, and the promotion of democracy in Eastern Europe and the successor states of the former Soviet Union were signed by the two leaders. In addition, the Vancouver negotiations also achieved a novel agreement on U.S.-Russian technical cooperation in space, which witnessed the formation of a new U.S.Russian commission headed by Vice President Al Gore and Prime Minister Viktor Chernomyrdin. The other seminal event of 1993 in the West’s developing relationship with Russia was the unwavering support that American and Canadian governments lent Yeltsin in his successful attempt to disperse communist and nationalist parliamentary rebels that had sought to overthrow his nascent regime. After shelling the Russian parliament and arresting the coup’s ringleaders, Yeltsin called for new elections and the passage of a new constitution that would favor heavily the victorious president. In general, the West rallied to support the embattled president, fearing a return to communist revanchism; throughout the fall, Clinton in particular supported Yeltsin in his successful attempt to persuade the Russian people to back the new constitutional framework in the upcoming December elections, arguing that Yeltsin’s moves were consistent with the democratic course. In the end, Yeltsin’s pro-presidential constitution narrowly passed; however, ultranation-

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alist and communist parties fared very well in the parliamentary elections, as the Russian people grew weary with market reforms that produced severe social dislocations. Although heartened by the passage of the presidential constitution, American officials announced a rethinking of aid programs because of the strong showing of oppositional forces in the parliamentary elections. Following these dramatic events, Clinton paid his first official visit to Moscow in January, 1994. Besides agreeing on further restationing of Russian troops in Eastern Europe, particularly the newly independent states of Estonia and Latvia, the two presidents agreed to no longer target their strategic nuclear missiles at each other’s country. Yeltsin also announced Russia’s intention to participate in the new Partnership for Peace program of the North Atlantic Treaty Organization (NATO). Immediately following this summit, the first joint U.S.-Russian space shuttle mission was launched, ushering in an era of greater cooperation between the two countries in space endeavors; this event was followed by other joint endeavors in the ensuing years, such as the successful docking of the U.S. space shuttle Atlantis with the Russian space station Mir in 1995 and the development and launching of the International Space Station’s control module in November, 1998. Despite several breakthroughs in the latter half of the 1990’s, including the January, 1996, ratification of START II by the U.S. Senate, the signing in May, 1997, of the NATO-Russia Founding Act (which deepened Russia’s involvement in the alliance’s political and military structures), and Russia’s formal joining of the G7 nations (now renamed the G8) in June, 1997, a growing divide began to plague the U.S.-Russian relationship during the second terms of Presidents Yeltsin and Clinton. Under pressure from vocal nationalist and communist opposition over NATO’s expansion into Eastern Europe and its possible inclusion of Estonia, Latvia, and Lithuania, the three Baltic states of the former Soviet Union, Yeltsin was forced to decelerate progress toward greater Russian involvement in the military alliance. Added to these pressures were Russian objections over NATO’s and the United States’ intervention in the 1996-1999 conflict between Russian-backed Serbia and Kosovar Albanians over control of the autonomous Kosovo region. More-

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over, many Russian political figures were distressed by continued U.S. calls for the removal of Russian troops from separatist regions in the newly independent, post-Soviet states of Moldova and Georgia, as well as from the Baltics. In addition, the United States, Canada, and various European countries grew increasingly concerned over alleged human rights abuses committed by Russia in its renewed war with the renegade province of Chechnya in late 1999. As the frail and ailing Yeltsin prepared to bequeath his presidency to the newly appointed prime minister, Vladimir Putin, leading Western members (including Clinton) of the Organization for Security and Cooperation in Europe, the world’s largest regional security organization, criticized the outgoing president’s military conduct in the Chechen conflict. This added yet another layer of angst between Russia and Western nations. Impact The collapse of the Soviet Union in late 1991 was arguably the seminal event in postwar history. The West’s major Cold War nemesis had imploded as a result of Gorbachev’s ineffective reforms, and its disintegration threatened major political, economic, and military turmoil in the region and world. The leaders of both Russia and the United States, as well as those of other major countries, were tasked with steering the post-Soviet states, particularly nuclear-armed Russia, on a path toward greater stability, which presupposed success toward the development of a market economy, a democratic political system, and a less confrontational foreign policy. Although the record of Russian reform in each of these areas met with both important suc-

cesses as well as significant and consequential failures, history will undoubtedly demonstrate that the successive American and Russian administrations ultimately chartered a reasonably steady course through the precarious and troubled waters of the immediate post-Cold War era. Further Reading

Aron, Leon. Russia’s Revolution: Essays, 1989-2006. Washington, D.C.: AEI Press, 2007. Essays discuss major Russian reform efforts in the economic, political, and foreign policy realms. Powaski, Ronald E. Return to Armageddon: The United States and the Nuclear Arms Race, 1981-1999. New York: Oxford University Press, 2000. Includes extensive attention to disarmament and the START I and II agreements. Remington, Thomas F. Politics in Russia. 5th ed. New York: Longman, 2008. Presents a broad overview of the Soviet state, its collapse, and the course of reform, as well as chapters on Russian political culture, political party activity, legal reforms, and Russia’s place in the world. Shevtsova, Lilia. Yeltsin’s Russia: Myths and Reality. Washington, D.C.: Carnegie Endowment for International Peace, 1999. Examines the course of Russian reform during the Yeltsin era, focusing especially on his achievements and failures. Thomas E. Rotnem See also Bosnia conflict; Bush, George H. W.; Clinton, Bill; Cold War, end of; Dayton Accords; Foreign policy of Canada; Foreign policy of the United States; Kosovo conflict; Mulroney, Brian; Space exploration.

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■ Rust v. Sullivan Identification U.S. Supreme Court decision Date Decided on May 23, 1991

The Supreme Court upheld a federal regulation that prohibited any abortion counseling at family-planning clinics receiving federal funds. In 1970, Congress passed a statute, Title X of the Public Health Service Act, providing federal funds to support family-planning services. The statute limited application of the resources, however, stating that no appropriated funds could be used in programs in which abortion was a method of family planning. In 1988, the Reagan administration instituted a gag rule under which clinics receiving federal funds could not counsel pregnant women about the availability of abortions, and employees could not refer pregnant women to clinics that performed abortions. In Rust v. Sullivan, the gag rule was challenged by family-planning services, which argued that Congress did not authorize the regulation and that it violated their free speech rights and their clients’ rights outlined in the Supreme Court decision of Roe v. Wade (1973). The Court held, by a margin of 5-4, that the regulation was a permissible interpretation of the statute. It also held that clinic doctors were not forced to forgo their free speech rights, finding that the relationship between a doctor in a family-planning clinic and the clinic’s patients was narrow and noting that doctors could advise women about abortions outside the federally funded program. The Court also reasoned that the rules did not overly burden a woman’s right to choose an abortion. While it acknowledged that abortions would be easier for women to obtain if they could receive adequate information from family-planning services, the Court added that the right to choose did not require the government to “distort the scope of its mandated program” of providing family-planning services. The majority for the decision was led by Chief Justice William H. Rehnquist, joined by Justices Byron White, Antonin Scalia, Anthony Kennedy, and David Souter. Dissents were filed by Justices Harry A. Blackmun, Thurgood Marshall, John Paul Stevens, and Sandra Day O’Connor.

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Impact The Rust decision was important as an indicator of the Court’s shifting views on abortion and suggested a Court that was willing to erode Roe v. Wade. Further Reading

Cook, Elizabeth Adell, Ted G. Jelen, and Clyde Wilcox. Between Two Absolutes: Public Opinion and the Politics of Abortion. Boulder, Colo.: Westview Press, 1992. Cushman, Clare, ed. Supreme Court Decisions and Women’s Rights: Milestones to Equality. Washington, D.C.: CQ Press, 2001. Sanger, Alexander. Beyond Choice: Reproductive Freedom in the Twenty-first Century. New York: PublicAffairs, 2004. Marcia J. Weiss See also Abortion; Planned Parenthood v. Casey; Supreme Court decisions; Women’s rights.

■ Ryan, Meg Identification American actor Born November 19, 1961; Fairfield, Connecticut

Ryan’s comedic sense, perky behavior, and wholesome good looks made her an icon for romantic comedy in the 1990’s. Born Margaret Mary Emily Anne Hyra, Meg Ryan grew up in Bethel, Connecticut. After high school, she acted in some commercials and played a major role in the soap opera As the World Turns. Her big break as an actress came in 1989 in When Harry Met Sally. Ryan, who by that time had adopted her mother’s maiden name, captured the audience’s open-mouthed attention with her version of faking an orgasm. Her success led to her first film with Tom Hanks, Joe Versus the Volcano (1990). In the film, Ryan demonstrated her acting skills by playing three widely different characters. Although the film was not a popular success, the Ryan-Hanks connection appealed to the audience and led to other films. Her next film with Hanks was the huge box-office success Sleepless in Seattle (1993), with Ryan playing a smart Baltimore reporter who falls in love with a man after hearing him talk about his dead wife on a call-in radio show. Director and screenwriter Nora Ephron described Ryan as someone whom both male and fe-

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Impact Although Ryan has played a number of serious roles, she is best known for her comedy. More cute than beautiful, Ryan is the representative heroine of 1990’s romantic comedy. She plays professional women who, with humor, charm, and a certain pertness, not only are able to “get their man” but also have a career. Whereas Doris Day, with her immaculate hairstyles and designer clothes, was the star of romantic comedy in the 1950’s, Meg Ryan— tousle-headed and wearing casual clothes—assumed this position in the 1990’s. Further Reading

Corliss, Richard. “Star Lite, Star Bright.” Time, May, 22, 1995, 79. Schneider, Karen, et al. “Ryan’s Express.” People, December 21, 1998, 104-110. Marcia B. Dinneen See also Comedians; Film in the United States; Hanks, Tom.

■ Ryder, Winona Meg Ryan in 1997. (AP/Wide World Photos)

male audiences like. The next hit with Hanks was You’ve Got Mail (1998). Ryan plays the owner of a small bookstore who is put out of business by a giant bookshop, owned by Hanks’s character. All three films show Ryan’s comic flair and made her an audience favorite. During the 1990’s, Ryan also played serious roles, ranging from Jim Morrison’s hippie girlfriend in The Doors (1991) to an alcoholic in both Flesh and Bone (1993) and When a Man Loves a Woman (1994). Another major role was as a helicopter pilot who is killed in action in Courage Under Fire (1996). In City of Angels (1998), she played a caring doctor, and in the same year Ryan startled film critics with her fine performance as the drugged-out stripper in Hurlyburly, based on David Rabe’s black comedy. Ryan started her own production company, Prufrock Pictures, in 1993 and coproduced French Kiss (1995) and Two for the Road (1997). In 1991, she married actor Dennis Quaid. Their son was born in 1992. Ryan and Quaid divorced in 2001.

Identification American actor Born October 29, 1971; Winona, Minnesota

Ryder was the best-known actress of her generation in the 1990’s and starred in the movie that characterized Generation X. Born Winona Laura Horowitz to Cynthia Istas Palmer and Michael, Winona Ryder moved to San Francisco with her family at age seven. Her parents were intellectuals with strong ties to the nation’s alternative communities. Family friends included her godfather, counterculture icon Timothy Leary, and Beat poet Allen Ginsberg. Living for some time with six other families on a 300-acre commune in Mendocino, California, Ryder attributes this experience, as well as other counterculture influences, to her approach to acting, selection of movie roles, and life. Despite her adult elegance and glamorous appearance, Ryder felt like an outsider when her family moved to Petaluma, California, in 1981. Her choice of film roles—ranging from ghoulish teen, serial killer, child bride, devout Catholic, to several period roles—reflects a quirkiness concerning appropriateness of roles. Ryder turned down roles that she felt were not right for her and with-

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stood agents pushing scripts at her that she had no understanding for—in particular, blockbuster movies featuring cookie-cutter characters. Instead, Ryder strove for artistry and challenges in her roles in both independent and major studio releases. In 1990, Ryder starred in three movies: Welcome Home, Roxy Carmichael, Edward Scissorhands, and Mermaids. Exhaustion from working on those three films forced her to withdraw her commitment to play Michael Corleone’s daughter in The Godfather, Part III (1990). Her work in the early 1990’s propelled her into the spotlight for the rest of the decade. She earned a Golden Globe nomination in 1991 for her supporting role in Mermaids and a Golden Globe Award in 1994 for her supporting role in Age of Innocence (1993). She received Oscar nominations for her supporting role in Age of Innocence and for her lead role in Little Women (1994). Her empathy for young women was reflected in her dedication of Little Women to Polly Klaas, a girl from Petaluma who was kidnapped and murdered. Ryder offered a $200,000 reward for information on Klaas’s abduction and persuaded Universal Studios to have the premiere of Reality Bites (1994) benefit the Polly Klaas Foundation. She narrated the audiobook version of Anne Frank: The Diary of a Young Girl—The Definitive Edition in 1995 and was nominated for a Grammy for her performance. Set in Houston, Texas, Reality Bites explores the angst of transition from college to adulthood that twentysomethings experience. The movie influenced Ryder’s personal appearance, as she took on a

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grunge look while dating David Pirner of the rock band Soul Asylum. She dressed for interviews in frayed overalls and combat boots and immediately became the icon of Generation X. Ryder was named one of the “Top Players Under 35” by People magazine in 1996 and one of the “50 Most Beautiful People” in 1997 by the same magazine. Ryder read Susanna Kaysen’s 1993 memoir, Girl, Interrupted, which tells the story of the author’s stay at a mental hospital in the 1960’s, and felt an immediate affinity with Kaysen. Ryder was too late to option the rights but was signed on to the project. She starred in the 1999 film and was its executive producer. Impact Ryder’s ability to transform from tomboy to androgyne to ingénue indicates her broad range offscreen and onscreen, thus rendering her one of the greatest actresses of her generation. Further Reading

Us Magazine. Winona Ryder. Boston: Little, Brown, 1997. An oversized collection of interviews, magazine profiles, and photographs of Ryder. “Winona Ryder.” Current Biography. New York: H. W. Wilson, 1994. A standard biography of the actor covering her career up to 1994. Rebecca Tolley-Stokes Academy Awards; Fashions and clothing; Film in the United States; Grunge fashion; Independent films; Klaas kidnapping and murder case.

See also

S ■ Salmon war Harvesting dispute between U.S. and Canadian Pacific Northwest fisheries Date 1994-1999 Identification

The salmon war showed the dangers to native fisheries from free-for-all competition and loosely regulated industrial fishing in international and territorial waters. The salmon fisheries of the Pacific Northwest are binational resources because native Pacific salmon migrate across state and international borders during their ocean life cycle. Difficulties arise when harvesters in one territory intercept salmon heading to spawn in the rivers of another territory. The difficulty of establishing a fisheries management policy satisfactory to all harvest participants is nearly impossible because fishing in one region results in major shifts in abundance of spawning salmon in another region. What one group of fishers interprets as a legal salmon harvest, another group of fishers interprets as theft of their native resource, their share of a potential harvest, and the resultant destruction of their native fisheries’ sustainable potential. In 1994, Canada attempted to effect changes in the international harvest allocations of Pacific salmon by imposing fees on American fishing vessels passing through British Columbia territorial waters on their way to Alaska. The United States retaliated by threatening to raise trade duties on ships traveling to Canadian ports via the Juan de Fuca Strait. In 1995, Native North American tribes, the Canadian government, and the state governments of Oregon and Washington sued the state of Alaska over what they felt were Alaska’s unfair salmon management policies. Between 1996 and 1998, Canadian officials criticized Alaska’s chinook salmon quota and began again to impound American vessels en route to Alaskan fishing grounds. During this time, the Canadian government also unilaterally established fishing quotas on Pacific salmon. American fisheries managers retaliated by allowing an unlimited harvest on

Fraser River Basin sockeye salmon, intercepting the salmon before they could reach the Fraser River spawning grounds in British Columbia. In response, Canadian fishers took as many American salmon as possible to maintain what they felt was equity; in a show of solidarity, Canadian fishing boats blockaded an American ferry in Prince Rupert Harbor. Impact On June 30, 1999, the Canadian and U.S. governments signed the Pacific Salmon Treaty in an effort to coordinate management of the North American salmon fisheries. The treaty takes into account the fact that various fisheries along the West Coast differ substantially, and establishes two types of harvest quotas: abundance-based fisheries harvests based on aggregate abundance of salmon present, and individual stock-based harvests based on the evolving status of endangered or threatened stocks. As the salmon war demonstrated, industrial fishing can lead to cutthroat competition as fishers battle for sea space to intercept salmon before their competitors. Unfortunately, years of unchecked maximum salmon harvests, hydroelectric and water retention dams across spawning rivers, and destruction of spawning habitat from human encroachment have resulted in such low abundance of salmon returning to spawn that a temporary ban on commercial salmon harvests was initiated along the West Coast in 2008. Further Reading

Brown, Dennis. Salmon Wars: The Battle for the West Coast Salmon Fishery. Madeira Park, B.C.: Harbour, 2005. Cone, Joseph, and Sandy Ridlington, eds. The Northwest Salmon Crisis: A Documentary History. Corvallis: Oregon State University Press, 2000. Rogers, Raymond A. The Oceans Are Emptying: Fish Wars and Sustainability. Montreal: Black Rose Books, 1995. Randall L. Milstein

The Nineties in America See also Canada and the United States; Earth in the Balance; Foreign policy of Canada; Foreign policy of the United States.

■ Salt Lake City Olympics bid scandal A bribery scandal to obtain the 2002 Olympic Winter Games for Salt Lake City, Utah

Identification

Recognized as the biggest corruption scandal in the history of the Olympics, the Salt Lake City Olympics bid scandal led to reform and new guidelines in site selection for the Olympic Games. Prior to the 2002 Olympic Winter Games, Salt Lake City had made several attempts to secure the Olympics but never received the honor. After an extensive amount of prebid groundwork by the Salt Lake Organizing Committee (SLOC) during the early 1990’s, it was almost certain that the 2002 Winter Games would be granted to the city. On June 16, 1995, the International Olympic Committee (IOC) announced that Salt Lake City had indeed won the bid. In 1998, more than three years later, it was discovered that the city’s bidders had spent more than one million dollars in gifts, travel, scholarships, medical bills, cash, and gratuities for thirteen IOC officials and their relatives. On December 13, 1998, the SLOC apologized for the alleged rule violations. Massachusetts businessman Mitt Romney was appointed to head the SLOC on February 11, 1999, in order to revamp the image of Salt Lake City and provide the necessary leadership for a successful 2002 Winter Olympics. After extensive investigations, former SLOC president Thomas K. Welch and vice president David R. Johnson were indicted on fifteen charges by a federal grand jury. Both were charged with one count of conspiracy, four violations of the Travel Act, five counts of mail fraud, and five counts of wire fraud. As a result of insufficient evidence, however, U.S. District Judge David Sam had dismissed all of the charges by November 15, 2001. After the U.S. Court of Appeals for the Tenth Circuit reversed Judge Sam’s decision and reinstated the charges against Welch and Johnson, the defense filed for a motion of acquittal, which is rarely granted. On December 5, 2003, Judge Sam acquitted Welch and Johnson, offi-

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cially ending the five-year-old bribery scandal of the 2002 Winter Olympics. Impact After a thorough investigation of the Salt Lake City Olympics bid scandal, ten IOC members were expelled and another ten were sanctioned. It was the first expulsion or sanction for corruption in the history of the IOC. Further investigation revealed that bribery scandals were employed in securing the 1998 Winter Olympics for Nagano, Japan, and the 2000 Summer Olympics for Sydney, Australia. As a result of the scandals, stricter guidelines and rules were adopted by the IOC for future Olympic Games bids. Limits were placed on how much IOC members could accept from bid cities. Fifteen former Olympic athletes were added to the IOC, and new term and age limits were instituted for IOC membership. Further Reading

Gerdy, John R. Sports: The All-American Addiction. Jackson: University Press of Mississippi, 2002. Romney, Mitt. Turnaround: Crisis, Leadership, and the Olympic Games. Washington, D.C.: Regnery, 2004. Thompson, Hunter S. Hey Rube: Blood Sport, the Bush Doctrine, and the Downward Spiral of Dumbness: Modern History from the Sports Desk. New York: Simon & Schuster, 2004. Alvin K. Benson Olympic Games of 1992; Olympic Games of 1994; Olympic Games of 1996; Olympic Games of 1998; Scandals; Sports.

See also

■ Sampras, Pete Identification Professional tennis player Born August 12, 1971; Washington, D.C.

Sampras established himself in the 1990’s as not only the best tennis player of the decade but also one of the best ever. Having competed extensively as a promising amateur, Pete Sampras turned professional in 1988. In that year, he entered his first grand-slam tournament, the U.S. Open, but lost in the first round after having won the first two sets. In the next year, he competed in all four grand-slam tournaments, losing in the first round at the Australian Open, reach-

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Saturn Corporation

ing the second round in the French Open, losing in the first round at Wimbledon, and reaching the fourth round in the U.S. Open. During the 1990’s, Sampras made himself famous. Early in the summer of 1990, in Manchester, England, Sampras won his first professional tournament. Later that year, in the U.S. Open, he defeated Andre Agassi in the final match to become the youngest man ever to win the tournament, which marked the first of his record-setting fourteen grand-slam singles titles. More victories in grand-slam tournaments followed in the decade: at the Australian Open in 1994 and 1997, at Wimbledon from 1993 to 1995 and then from 1997 to 1999, and at the U.S. Open in 1993, 1995, and 1996. Among the grand-slam tournaments, only victory in the French Open eluded Sampras. The clay courts in that tournament worked against his favorite style of play, marked by powerful serves that were more effective on grass, as at Wimbledon, or on a hard surface, as at the U.S. Open. Nevertheless, he sometimes played exceptionally well on clay, as in Moscow during the 1995 finals of the Davis Cup, when his skill and determination in singles as well as doubles helped the United States defeat Russia. After the 1990’s, because of age and a genetic tendency toward anemia, Sampras lost enough quickness and endurance to make it hard for him to stay at his peak. Nevertheless, he won Wimbledon in 2000, and he won the 2002 U.S. Open in a final against longtime rival Agassi. After that tournament, although he played exhibition matches and participated in a senior tour, he effectively retired from topflight competition. Impact Some experts consider Sampras to be the greatest tennis player of all time, while others point to his failure at the French Open as a reason for choosing someone else for that unofficial honor. Nevertheless, his record itself is beyond dispute. For 286 weeks, he held the top rank among the world’s tennis players, including every week between April 15, 1996, and March 30, 1998. At the end of each of six years in a row, from 1993 to 1998, he emerged ranked number one. Without doubt, Sampras was the best tennis player of the 1990’s. Further Reading

Branham, H. A. Sampras: A Legend in the Works. Chicago: Bonus Books, 1996. Parsons, John. The Ultimate Encyclopedia of Tennis: The

Definitive Illustrated Guide to World Tennis. London: Carlton Books, 1998. Rich, Sue. The Tennis Handbook: A Complete Guide to Acing Your Game. New York: Three Rivers Press, 2006. Victor Lindsey Agassi, Andre; Olympic Games of 1992; Olympic Games of 1996; Seles, Monica; Sports; Tennis.

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■ Saturn Corporation Small-car division of General Motors Date Started production in 1990 Place Spring Hill, Tennessee; Detroit, Michigan Identification

The creation of Saturn Corporation was an attempt by General Motors to use innovative management strategies and systems to build economical vehicles that would compete with Japanese imports in terms of quality and cost. The oldest and largest automotive conglomerate in the world, General Motors (GM) created a wholly owned subsidiary, Saturn Corporation, in the mid1980’s, and conducted a nationwide search for a location for its final assembly plant, which was built in Spring Hill, Tennessee. GM created a unique distribution network of new dealerships with a new sales philosophy: no-haggle pricing where the manufacturer’s suggested retail price (MSRP) was the nationwide price, with no discounting. Each dealership had its own region so that there was supposedly no competition among Saturn dealers, only against all other carmakers. Although GM had for over two decades built nearly identical vehicles on the same platforms under different marques, Saturn was allowed to create its own subcompact vehicle platform with a unique engine (initially, a 1.9-liter in-line 4 with single-cam and dual-cam versions). The final assembly plant in Tennessee had a management structure that blended union and management personnel. All Saturns built throughout the 1990’s had polymer (hard plastic) dent-free side panels, but by 2007, the use of polymer side panels had been discontinued on all Saturn vehicles. There were innovative structures at Saturn, including work teams of six to fifteen persons with an elected team leader, but design and

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engineering of the vehicles occurred elsewhere (principally in Michigan or California with GM corporate designers and engineers). With the initial slogan of “A different kind of car, a different kind of company,” Saturn dealerships attempted to cultivate a relationship with their customers that went beyond the sale, providing refreshments and small children’s playscapes in service waiting rooms. Service consultants were trained to sit down with owners in a cubicle before and after the automotive servicing, similar to a doctor’s office visit. However, sales peaked at 286,000 units in 1994, and in the remainder of the decade the lack of multiple car lines caused sales to decline. In the first decade of the twenty-first century, new car lines were introduced, but only through building off other GM or Opel platforms, mitigating the distinctiveness that once characterized the marque. Impact The creation of Saturn Corporation constitutes a signature example of a large American corporation trying to “think small.” However, its products often did not connect with the intended audience. The heralded introduction of the Saturn electric car, the EV1, in 1996 (as a 1997 model) was undermined by a lack of corporate vision, offering the vehicle only by closed-end lease in California and Arizona and in limited quantity. When the model was discontinued in 2003, there was still a long waiting list of prospective customers. Further Reading

O’Toole, Jack. Forming the Future: Lessons from the Saturn Corporation. Cambridge, Mass.: Blackwell, 1996. Rubinstein, Saul A. Learning from Saturn: Possibilities for Corporate Governance and Employee Relations. Ithaca, N.Y.: ILR Press/Cornell University Press, 2001. Richard Sax Automobile industry; Electric car; Recession of 1990-1991.

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■ Saving Private Ryan Identification American film Director Steven Spielberg (1946Date Released on July 24, 1998

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A commercial and critical success, this World War II drama honored U.S. soldiers. Set in German-occupied France in 1944, Saving Private Ryan follows Captain John Miller (Tom Hanks) as he survives the Normandy invasion and then leads a mission to locate and bring home Private James Ryan (Matt Damon), a missing paratrooper. Ryan’s three brothers had recently been killed in battle, and military authorities did not want another war death in that family. Miller’s squad questions the worth of the mission, wondering why the life of one soldier is worth risking the lives of eight other soldiers. Despite their resentment, the soldiers do their duty. When they finally find Ryan, he refuses to go home, preferring to continue to fight the enemy with his brothers in arms. The film’s twenty-five-minute depiction of the D-day invasion of Omaha Beach is often praised for its realism: graphic depictions of soldiers dying and gritty details including men vomiting and body parts flying, all seen in desaturated colors from the point of view of a foot soldier and accompanied by sounds of screaming and machine gun bullets. The brutality depicted prevents the film from being a glorification of war. The depiction of battle throughout the film helps viewers understand how combat affects soldiers. After the invasion, the film focuses only on the squad’s mission, which undercuts the film’s commitment to authenticity and leaves it open to historical criticism. Very little of the context of the war is shown; the film ignores the reasons why U.S. troops were in Europe and the importance of the role of America’s allies in winning the war. Impact The 1990’s marked the fiftieth anniversary of World War II, bringing a revival in films about the war. Americans had long been dealing with the painful legacy of the Vietnam War and the controversies of the more recent Gulf War, so a patriotic film about World War II, “the good war,” was reassuring. World War II has become a mythic moment symbolizing American unity and both moral and military triumph against an evil enemy; heroic soldiers

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From left: Captain John Miller (Tom Hanks), Private James Ryan (Matt Damon), and Private Richard Reiben (Edward Burns) prepare to fight German forces in a scene from Saving Private Ryan. (Reuters/Landov)

could easily identify the enemy and fight with what are now considered conventional weapons, rather than the space-age aerial bombardments of the Gulf War. Saving Private Ryan won many international film awards and five Academy Awards. Many critics hailed this film as an homage to the brave soldiers of World War II. The military community also lauded the film: Spielberg received honors from the American Legion and the U.S. Army, and both Spielberg and Hanks received awards from the U.S. Navy for raising awareness about veterans. Overall, this film served to inspire patriotism; dying Captain Miller’s words offer a challenge both to Ryan and to the audience, “Earn this.” Further Reading

Auster, Albert. “Saving Private Ryan and American Triumphalism.” In The War Film, edited by Robert Eberwein. New Brunswick, N.J.: Rutgers University Press, 2005.

Lewis, Jon, ed. The End of Cinema as We Know It: American Film in the Nineties. New York: New York University Press, 2001. Kathryn A. Walterscheid See also Damon, Matt; Film in the United States; Gulf War; Hanks, Tom; Schindler’s List.

■ Scandals Incidents involving violations of law or morality, usually by public figures

Definition

Following the Iran-Contra, Abscam, and savings and loan scandals of the 1980’s, the 1990’s offered another wave of ongoing political and nonpolitical scandals that deeply affected the morale, economy, and government of the United States. Because they are unanticipated and violate what society terms moral behavior, scandals always cause

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public uproar. While some might think of some behaviors as scandalous or shocking, however, others view the same behavior as normal or at least not morally reprehensible. For instance, some might view engaging in prostitution as grounds to fire a member of Congress, while others might shrug their shoulders. Thus, scandals, which generally center on politics, show business, corporations, academia, and sports, remain arbitrary. Although numerous scandals center on heinous events at the local level, only widely publicized major scandals are presented here. During the final decade of the twentieth century, scandal ran rampant. Layers of political and nonpolitical scandals involved Congress, the Supreme Court, the president of the United States, the military, and famous sports figure O. J. Simpson. Scandals are categorized as political when public officials are involved. As representatives of the people, political figures are held to high moral standards and are very often forced to leave office when their less-than-stellar behavior becomes public. The 1990’s was rife with political scandals that involved finances. In addition, the Supreme Court became deeply involved in the Clarence Thomas/Anita Hill sexual harassment scandal, while President Bill Clinton and his wife Hillary provided decade-long fodder for the scandal machine. The 1990’s began and ended with political scandals involving finances. During the first year of the decade, Minnesota senator David Durenberger was unanimously denounced by the Senate for the misuse of public funds and was ultimately disbarred and sentenced to probation. The following year, Washington insider and Lyndon B. Johnson’s former defense secretary Clark Clifford was implicated in the Bank of Credit and Commerce International (BCCI) scandal. BCCI, the parent company of First American Bankshares of which Clifford was chairman, was charged with involvement in money laundering, bribery, terrorism, arms trafficking, and the sale of nuclear technology. Clifford had earned $6 million from an unsecured loan from BCCI. In 1992, the House banking scandal exposed the fact that members of Congress could, and did, overdraw their checking accounts without penalty. In all, more than 450 representatives were named, with 22 members of Congress made to answer to the

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House Ethics Committee for allowing overdrafts of at least eight months. Ultimately, four former members of Congress, a delegate, and the former House sergeant-at-arms were convicted of wrongdoing involving bribery, conspiracy, and campaign finance irregularities. In 1994, Dan Rostenkowski, chair of the House Ways and Means Committee, was named a key player in the congressional post office scandal, which involved a conspiracy to launder post office money through stamps and vouchers. He was indicted on corruption charges, lost his seat, and ultimately spent fifteen months in prison. In 1997, Speaker of the House Newt Gingrich was involved in a financial scandal that led to a House reprimand and a $300,000 fine. The following year, Vice President Al Gore was accused of improper fund-raising. In 1991, University of Oklahoma law school professor Anita Hill accused Clarence Thomas of sexual harassment shortly after his Supreme Court nomination. Hill, who used to work for Thomas at the Equal Employment Opportunity Commission, maintained that while she was in his employ the nominee made several crude remarks of a sexual nature to her. During the televised Senate confirmation hearings, Hill was called to testify to a large national audience. Angela Wright, another former employee of Thomas, made similar accusations, and others backed up Hill’s testimony. Thomas fought back, denying all allegations of sexual impropriety and comparing the treatment that he had received during the nomination hearings to a lynching; Thomas, Hill, and Wright are all African Americans. The Senate Judiciary Committee forwarded the nomination to the Senate, which confirmed Thomas, who went on to become the 106th associate justice of the Supreme Court. Popularly known as Travelgate, the first Clinton administration scandal began in 1993. After seven employees of the White House Travel Office were fired after being accused of financial improprieties, the FBI began an investigation. Accusations were made that the Clintons wanted friends to benefit from White House travel. First Lady Hillary Rodham Clinton was found to have made false statements but was never prosecuted. In 1996, Filegate followed. This scandal centered on the improper White House inspection of between 400 and 700 security-clearance documents

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that included those on high-ranking Republicans. Accusations arose that Hillary Clinton requested the files. After five years, independent counsel Kenneth Starr exonerated the Clintons in Filegate. Between 1994 and 2000, the Whitewater scandal cast President Clinton and his wife in a harsh light. In the 1970’s and 1980’s, the Clintons had invested in the Whitewater Development Corporation with James and Susan McDougal; they lost money. In 1993, claims were made that, while he was governor of Arkansas, Bill Clinton pressured banker David Hale into making a loan to Susan McDougal for $300,000. The U.S. Securities and Exchange Commission charged the McDougals but not the Clintons. Susan McDougal refused to answer questions about the Clintons’ role in the Whitewater affair and spent time in prison for contempt. Ultimately, as a result of insufficient evidence, no criminal charges were brought against the Clintons. In January, 1998, the public became aware of twenty-two-year-old White House intern Monica Lewinsky and her notorious affair with President Clinton, which led to his impeachment trial for perjury under oath. Earlier, while governor of Arkansas, Clinton had been accused of sexual misconduct with Arkansas state employee Gennifer Flowers and of a sexual encounter with another Arkansas state employee, Paula Jones. Jones’s charges resulted in the outing of Lewinsky when federal prosecutor Starr received recordings from Lewinsky’s friend Linda Tripp that incriminated Clinton. Subsequently, in a televised news conference, Clinton denied having had sexual relations with Lewinsky. Ultimately, Clinton admitted that he had lied, that he had indeed had an improper relationship with Lewinsky, but he maintained his denial of perjury. Ultimately, he was impeached but later acquitted by the Senate. Jones’s lawsuit was dismissed after a settlement of $850,000. In the Jones matter, Clinton was held in contempt for lying and suspended from practicing law for five years. Nonpolitical Scandals Although political scandals grabbed headlines during the 1990’s, scandals also sprang up in other segments of society, in particular the military Tailhook scandal and the O. J. Simpson murder trial. The Tailhook Association is a nonprofit organization whose members are primarily associated with aircraft carriers. In 1991, nearly five thousand mili-

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tary men and women, many returning from Operation Desert Storm, attended the Tailhook annual convention at the Las Vegas Hilton Hotel. After the conference, eighty-three women and seven men reported incidents of assault and sexual harassment. The inspector general and the Naval Investigative Service called for an investigation that culminated in an unsatisfactory 2,000-page report. Subsequently, the Pentagon issued a report on the Navy’s inquiry charging that Navy officials deliberately performed an inadequate investigation in an effort to avoid bad publicity. They also dismissed any involvement of senior officers. In addition, the Pentagon referred 140 officers for possible disciplinary action for assault and indecent exposure and for lying under oath. However, none of the 140 cases ever went to trial. The most newsworthy Tailhook scandal case involved Marine lieutenant Paula Coughlin, who charged a Marine Corps captain with sexual assault; the case was ultimately dismissed for insufficient evidence. In 1994, famous former professional football player O. J. Simpson was charged for the murder of his ex-wife Nicole Brown and her friend Ronald Goldman. After he failed to turn himself in, police pursued Simpson at low speed as he attempted to escape in a white Ford Bronco. The pursuit, arrest, and trial were among the most widely publicized events in U.S. history. Simpson’s lengthy 1995 trial, which contained high courtroom drama and an array of colorful characters that included defense attorney Johnnie Cochran, prosecutor Marcia Clark, and Judge Lance Ito, was called the “trial of the century” by some. Although he was acquitted, in a 1997 civil case Simpson was subsequently found liable and ordered to pay more than $30 million in restitution to the victims’ families. Impact The 1992 House banking scandal disturbed the nation and contributed to a major change in the makeup of the House of Representatives. Rostenkowski’s 1994 downfall after the congressional post office scandal provided opportunities for Republicans to portray Democrats as corrupt, led to a Republican victory in the House, and paved the way for the emergence of Gingrich and his Contract with America. Hill’s allegations against Thomas highlighted the issue of sexual harassment and divided the country. The Lewinsky scandal damaged Clinton’s presidency and conse-

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quently damaged the Democratic Party. The issues surrounding the 1991 Tailhook scandal were never settled, but the incident brought attention to women’s role in the military and the Pentagon, and the Navy’s prosecutorial methods came under scrutiny. The 1995 verdict in the Simpson murder trial on live television illustrated the continued racial division in the United States when many African Americans loudly applauded, while whites overwhelmingly believed in Simpson’s guilt. Subsequent Events In an effort to eliminate a repeat of the early 1990’s banking scandal, Congress passed a banking bill providing the Federal Reserve with increased power to oversee foreign banks. As time went on, Bill Clinton’s affair with Lewinsky hindered Gore’s presidential campaign, but Hillary Clinton won a seat in the Senate and was a strong contender for the Democratic presidential nomination in 2008. The Tailhook scandal affected the careers of fourteen admirals and almost three hundred naval aviators and resulted in a rule ensuring that officers in line for promotion played no role in the Tailhook event. Simpson continued to dodge collection efforts by the victims’ families; in 2007, a Florida court gave the rights to his book If I Did It: Confessions of the Killer to the Goldman family and Simpson was arrested for breaking into a Las Vegas Palace Station hotel room as part of a dispute over sports memorabilia. Further Reading

Busby, Robert. Defending the American Presidency: Clinton and the Lewinsky Scandal. New York: Palgrave Macmillan, 2001. Analyzes the strategies adopted by Clinton to weather the Lewinsky scandal, and explains how and why he survived. Dershowitz, Alan. Reasonable Doubts: The Criminal Justice System and the O.J. Simpson Case. New York: Touchstone, 1997. Appellate attorney and Harvard Law School professor Dershowitz succinctly addresses the facts in the Simpson scandal and argues for the validity of the verdict. Hill, Anita. Speaking Truth to Power. New York: Anchor Books, 1998. Details Hill’s professional relationship with Clarence Thomas and her role in the 1991 Supreme Court nomination hearings. Merriner, James. Mr. Chairman: Power in Dan Rostenkowski’s America. Carbondale: Southern Illinois University Press, 1999. The story of Rostenkowski’s rise and fall provides insights on how power

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was sought, won, exercised, and distributed in 1990’s America. Zimmerman, Jean. Tailspin: Women at War in the Wake of Tailhook. New York: Doubleday, 1995. The author sheds light on Navy fighter pilot culture and the role that it played in the events of the 1991 Tailhook scandal. M. Casey Diana Business and the economy in the United States; Campaign finance scandal; Clinton, Bill; Clinton, Hillary Rodham; Clinton’s impeachment; Clinton’s scandals; Cochran, Johnnie; Elections in the United States, midterm; Elections in the United States, 1992; Elections in the United States, 1996; Gingrich, Newt; Gore, Al; Hill, Anita; Lewinsky scandal; Race relations; Simpson murder case; Tailhook incident; Thomas, Clarence; Whitewater investigation; Women in the military.

See also

■ Schindler’s List Identification American film Director Steven Spielberg (1946) Date Released on December 15, 1993

This film is a docudrama about Oskar Schindler, a Catholic, Sudeten German businessman who started up a factory in Kraków, Poland, and used Jewish slave labor to produce enamelware for the German war effort. Based on the book Schindler’s Ark (1982) by Thomas Keneally, it is a powerful story of one man’s conversion from crass opportunism to salvation. Schindlerjuden (“Schindler’s Jews”) were those Jews saved from the “final solution” (genocide) through the actions of one man. Schindler, a Nazi war profiteer who took full advantage of Nazi anti-Semitic policies, inexplicably used his position and his acquired wealth to save the lives of his workers. Not especially an honorable (or even honest) man, when faced with the moral dilemma of allowing his Jews to die or of acting on their behalf at enormous personal danger, Schindler chose to act. Risking all, he ultimately lost everything—except for the loyalty and devotion of those whom he saved. Now buried in the Latin cemetery in Jerusalem, Schindler was accorded the title of “Righteous Among the Nations” by Yad Vashem (the Israeli Holocaust Martyrs’ and Heroes’ Remembrance Au-

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thority), an honor given only to non-Jews who risked their lives to save Jews during the Holocaust. Poldek Pfefferberg, a Schindlerjude, wanted the world to learn of one Gentile who truly practiced the rabbinic teaching, “If you save one life, it is as if you have saved the world.” Written with Pfefferberg’s information (and extensive research), Keneally’s book was published in 1982, eight years after the death of Schindler. American director Steven Spielberg, who is Jewish, convinced Universal Studies to purchase the rights to Schindler’s Ark, but it took a decade for him to feel ready to film the story. Following the German conquest of Poland in September, 1939, Polish Jews from southeastern Poland are relocated to a ghetto in Kraków, to which Oskar Schindler (Liam Neeson), a business failure but talented raconteur, comes. The quintessential schmoozer, Nazi party member Schindler soon acquires a confiscated enamelware factory and military contracts for mess kits. Itzhak Stern (Ben Kingsley), a member of the local Judenrat (Jewish council), neither likes nor trusts Schindler but views his offer to run the factory (after raising the necessary capital from the Jewish community) as an opportunity to help his people. “Herr Direktor” deals with the Nazis, while Stern handles administrative matters and ensures that as many Jews as can be hired become employees. SS-Untersturmführer (second lieutenant) Amon Göth (Ralph Fiennes) arrives in Kraków with orders to construct a labor camp at Puaszów, on the outskirts of Kraków. When completed, SS troops clear the Kraków ghetto, shooting those who object and others simply for sport. Schindler, out riding with his mistress, observes the bloodbath from a hill overlooking the ghetto and is profoundly affected. Surviving Jews are removed to Puaszów, but Schindler befriends Göth and convinces him to allow a sub-camp at his factory for his workers. When Göth is ordered to dismantle Puaszów and to ship the inmates to the death camp of Auschwitz-Birkenau, Schindler convinces Göth to allow him to move the workforce to a factory at Brinnlitz, Schindler’s hometown. “Schindler’s List” consists of approximately 1,100 names of those who are to be transported to the new site. En route, train cars carrying 300 women are accidentally directed to AuschwitzBirkenau, but Schindler rushes to the camp and bribes the camp commander with diamonds to spare

The Story

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the women. At his factory, Schindler controls the guards, while spending most of his fortune to protect his workers. With the Red Army closing in, Schindler flees but only after the Schindlerjuden provided him with a letter stating that he was not a criminal to them. The film concludes with actors from the film and living Schindlerjuden placing stones on Schindler’s grave in Jerusalem. Schindler’s List focuses less on Schindler and more on the Jewish tragedy of the Holocaust. Except for the opening and the closing sequences, the film is primarily black and white, thereby providing the impression of a documentary. The pivotal event in the film is a lengthy sequence that portrays the liquidation of the Kraków ghetto. Spielberg intended for it to be horribly gruesome— literally so shocking that it would be almost unwatchable. At one point, a bewildered little girl in a red

Reaction to Spielberg’s Film

Steven Spielberg, director of Schindler’s List, speaks at an event celebrating the tenth anniversary of the film and the Shoah Foundation in Los Angeles. (Fred Prouser/Reuters/Landov)

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(deliberately colored) coat takes the hand of a German soldier, and they walk up the street together. Later, her body appears on a cart, just one more corpse to be incinerated. Indeed, smoke is a theme of the film: candle smoke from the Shabbat, ash and soot from cremation, and candle smoke again at the end. Schindler’s List won seven Oscars, including Best Picture and Best Director. It has been highly ranked in virtually every list of outstanding films. When it appeared on American television in 1997, Spielberg insisted that it be shown unedited and uncensored. Except for a minor sex scene that was edited, this occurred, although a new rating category for the TV Parental Guidelines, TV-MA, was created just for the film. Impact At the end of the film, the viewer learns that survivors and descendants of the Schindlerjuden then numbered over 6,000. Three million Polish Jews (as well as a like number of Polish Gentiles) died under Nazi occupation. Schindler stands as a shining example of moral action; in that dark period, so many people did nothing, which is at best an act of complicity. The film is flawed, but its most positive accomplishment is the raising of overall awareness of the tragedy. It surely bespeaks the importance of the Holocaust Memorial Museum in Washington, D.C., dedicated the same year Schindler’s List opened. Spielberg himself founded and financed the Shoah Foundation, an archive of videotaped or oral histories of Holocaust survivors and witnesses.

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popular audience work, it contains essays, interviews, magazine articles, and a bibliography. Keneally, Thomas. Schindler’s Ark. New York: Simon & Schuster, 1982. Keneally’s work reads like a novel: The facts are accurate but the dialogue is approximate. The real Schindler is far less personable than Neeson’s character, and Schindler’s motives remain enigmatic, but his basic humanity comes through clearly. Loshitzky, Yosefa, ed. Spielberg’s Holocaust: Critical Perspectives on “Schindler’s List.” Bloomington: Indiana University Press, 1997. The flaw of this work is clear from the title: Many of the essays are hypercritical of the movie. Fortunately, some of the essays (such as Omer Bartov’s) focus on the real strength of the film—the heightening of awareness of the Holocaust. Robinson, Plater. “Schindler’s List” Teaching Guide. http://=www.southerninstitute.info/holocaust_ education/schind.html. New Orleans: The Southern Institute for Education and Research at Tulane University, 1997. The film provides a basis for a study of anti-Semitic prejudice and of its consequences. William S. Brockington, Jr. Academy Awards; Film in the United States; Holocaust Memorial Museum; Israel and the United States; Jewish Americans; Literature in the United States; Saving Private Ryan; TV Parental Guidelines system.

See also

Further Reading

Brecher, Elinor J. Schindler’s Legacy: True Stories of the List Survivors. New York: E. P. Dutton, 1994. Brecher presents the stories of over forty Schindlerjuden who live in the United States. A significant contribution to Holocaust literature, it relates their stories before, during, and after the war. Crowe, David M. Oskar Schindler: The Untold Account of His Life, Wartime Activities, and the True Story Behind the List. Cambridge, Mass.: Westview Press, 2004. A scholarly biography of the notorious yet celebrated Oskar Schindler was long overdue. Crowe scrutinizes the myths and realities of Schindler’s life, especially during the postwar period when he attempted to capitalize on his fame. Fensch, Thomas, ed. Oskar Schindler and His List: The Man, the Book, the Film, the Holocaust, and Its Survivors. New York: P. S. Eriksson, 1995. Essentially a

■ Schlessinger, Dr. Laura Identification Conservative radio host and author Born January 16, 1947; Brooklyn, New York

Schlessinger’s career took off in the 1990’s, as she provided frank advice and support to her audience through her callin show and self-help books. Laura Schlessinger was born to Monroe and Yolanda Ceccovini Schlessinger. Her father was a nonpracticing Jew, and her mother was a nonpracticing Italian Roman Catholic. Schlessinger described her family as dysfunctional and lacking love because of her extended family’s rejection of her parent’s mixed marriage. She earned her bachelor’s degree from the State University of New York at Stony Brook and her Ph.D. in physiology from Columbia University. After

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Laura Schlessinger at her radio show in 1998. (AP/Wide World Photos)

moving to California, Schlessinger continued her education, receiving certification in marriage, family, and child counseling from the University of Southern California. Schlessinger began her radio career in 1974 when she called into the Bill Ballance Show, where she became a weekly guest. Her weekly segment brought her recognition and her own show on several small stations. By 1979, she had an evening call-in show from 9:00 p.m. to midnight on KWIZ-AM in Los Angeles. In the late 1980’s, Schlessinger began filling in for Barbara De Angelis’s popular night relationship talk radio program on KFI-AM in Los Angeles and replaced her when De Angelis moved to the coveted noontime slot. After De Angelis left the station completely, Schlessinger was moved to the prestigious slot. The Dr. Laura Show, which she referred to as a “moral health program,” was syndicated nationally in 1994. The show quickly became popular because of Schlessinger’s trademark bluntness and ability to get to the root of a problem quickly. In addition to her radio persona, Schlessinger penned several books throughout the 1990’s, including Ten Stupid Things Women Do to Mess Up Their Lives (1994), How Could You Do That?! The Abdication of Character, Courage, and Conscience (1996), Ten Stupid Things Men Do to Mess Up Their Lives (1997), The Ten Commandments:

The Significance of God’s Laws in Everyday Life (1998), and Why Do You Love Me? (1999). Schlessinger’s conservative insight brought scrutiny to relationships. She addressed issues such as extramarital affairs, premarital cohabitation, and having children out of wedlock, all of which she vigorously opposed. She became a target of criticism for her antihomosexual remarks, in particular for calling homosexuality a “biological error.” After Paramount Television announced plans for Schlessinger’s television show in 2000, gay rights activists organized protests against Paramount and the host. Schlessinger’s show began airing that year but was canceled a year later because of poor ratings.

Impact Despite such controversy, Laura Schlessinger’s no-nonsense advice both on-air and in her books has helped many. Though her television show was short-lived, the conservative moralist was one of the most popular radio hosts of the 1990’s. Further Reading

Bane, Vickie. Dr. Laura: The Unauthorized Biography. New York: St. Martin’s Press, 2000. Schlessinger, Laura. Bad Childhood, Good Life: How to Blossom and Thrive in Spite of an Unhappy Childhood. New York: HarperCollins, 2006. Sara Vidar Abortion; Chopra, Deepak; Homosexuality and gay rights; Limbaugh, Rush; Men Are from Mars, Women Are from Venus; O’Reilly, Bill; Talk radio; Winfrey, Oprah.

See also

■ School violence Definition

Crimes of physical assault in the school

context School attacks were part of a growing pattern of juvenile crime in the 1990’s. Rehabilitative, punitive, and deterrent responses have posed significant challenges for criminal justice personnel.

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The 1990’s were turbulent for schools, especially concerning student victimization. Most prominent were the shooting rampages, culminating in 1999 with the infamous Columbine attack in which twelve students and one teacher were murdered. Interestingly, the final report from the Safe School Initiative, a federal joint commission of the United States Secret Service and the Department of Education, noted that of the school shooting rampages covered during the study period (1974-2000), twenty-eight of thirty-seven (75.7 percent) occurred during the 1990’s. Other forms of victimization were also disturbing. For example, a 1996 study of high school dating relationships found that 59 percent of the students reported physical violence and 96 percent reported psychological intimidation. Fifteen percent of the sample asserted that they engaged in sexual activity against their will. Yet it is not the case that violent crime was endemic in the school system during the 1990’s. This needs to be viewed in the context of other types of victimization. Differentiations should also be made regarding the categories of violent crime. Furthermore, its prevalence has not been uniform across different countries. For example, data on school safety from 1993 to 1997 indicate that 7 to 8 percent of American high school students were threatened with a weapon or sustained actual injuries and 15 percent had a physical fight. Less than one in one million students died by either murder or suicide during that period. According to a Canadian survey from 1995 to 2002, youths there have traditionally had a very low rate of court involvement and violent crime, especially involving firearms. As in the United States, however, the 1990’s saw large percentage increases in serious juvenile criminality. Violent crime in the schools should be evaluated in light of other crimes, especially property crimes, that have traditionally dominated the juvenile caseload. 1.6 million thefts were perpetrated against American high school students in 1998. There were only 60 violent student fatalities in the schools. Finally, one needs to consider violence in other places, such as home and work. The U.S. Departments of Education and Justice reported that only 1.4 percent of 3,000 children who were murder or suicide victims during 1997-1998 died in school. Students felt safer in school at the end of the 1990’s than at the beginning, despite the school rampages.

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School crimes decreased by the end of the 1990’s, along with the number of students coming to school with weapons. School violence during the 1990’s focused much attention on the search for motivations, especially regarding the infrequent but catastrophic shooting rampages. Among those investigated were biological variables, including chromosomal makeup, inadequate fetal nutrition, and neurological impairments leading to verbal deficits. Many children with legal records have dual diagnoses including hyperactivity and learning disabilities. Other analyses cited a lack of parental attention during infancy and ineffective discipline, including parents’ own sense of their ineffectiveness. Children’s sensitivity to being frequently evaluated may cause increasingly severe exhibitionistic behaviors. The socioeconomic reality of living for years at or below poverty level may produce aggressive responses reflecting frustration. One of the most interesting theories emphasizes antigay bullying to which school rampage perpetrators are frequently subjected. All of the above factors can and do interact in complex ways, presenting a challenge to school administrators and teachers trying to anticipate violent episodes and deal with them preventively.

Etiological Factors

Violence in American schools has created many victims. Even though the most virulent forms of school violence are statistically infrequent, an atmosphere of fear pervades what should normally be a protected sanctuary for the free expression of ideas. Analysts of school violence in the 1990’s conclude that although the gun rampages do not seem to have been committed by students fitting any uniform profile, there are common aspects that can and should be noted to reduce the likelihood of similar incidents. Among them are the following: The attacks themselves were almost all preplanned, with specific types of behaviors involved from several days to even a year before the incident. Many other students knew about these preparations and much harm might have been prevented if there were a structure in place to encourage them to inform school personnel of the warning signs. Significant life losses and failures, and incidents of victimization by bullying, have frequently preceded the attacks. While certainly not all such students go on to commit a rampage, these populations are significantly at

Policy Implications

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risk. There should be a structure in place to anticipate their needs and deal with frustrations before they escalate. Because of their short duration, most attacks were actually stopped by school personnel before law enforcement was able to arrive. Therefore, schools need to refine their own emergency management procedures and anticipate future threats. One example of this is reacting firmly and swiftly to guns brought in, as well as reports of weapons or bombs. These are frequent precursors of an actual attack. Impact Violence in schools during the 1990’s dramatically highlighted the necessity for law-enforcement and educational personnel to redouble and coordinate their efforts to restore a sense of order and balance, ensuring a comfortable environment for students. Although the most serious forms of violence have been infrequent, the fear generated propelled government at the highest levels to prioritize its attempt to ensure safety. Lessons learned from experiences with school violence in the 1990’s provide a solid basis for future preventive planning, with the recognition that it cannot be guaranteed that schools can avoid all incidents. Further Reading

Borum, Randy. “Assessing Violence Risk Among Youth.” Journal of Clinical Psychology 56 (2000): 1263-1288. Research addressing fundamental school violence issues. Klein, Jessie. “Sexuality and School Shootings: What Role Does Teasing Play in School Massacres?” Journal of Homosexuality 51, no. 4 (2006): 39-62. The “bullying” etiological theory. Reddy, Marisa, et al. “Evaluating Risk for Targeted Violence in Schools: Comparing Risk Assessment, Threat Assessment, and Other Approaches.” Psychology in the Schools 38 (2001): 157-172. Contrasts threat assessment with more traditional risk assessment approach to predicting violent incidents. Thomerson, Julie. School Violence: Sharing Student Information. Denver: National Conference of State Legislatures, 2001. A valuable guide to the legal issues involved in coordinating agency efforts to counter school violence. Eric W. Metchik

Antidepressants; Attention-deficit disorder; Columbine massacre; Crime; Drive-by shootings; Gun control; Hate crimes; Homeschooling; Homosexuality and gay rights; Shepard, Matthew; Video games; Year-round schools.

See also

■ Schwarzkopf, Norman American general who commanded coalition forces during the 1991 Gulf War Born August 22, 1934; Trenton, New Jersey Identification

A highly decorated combat officer in the Vietnam War, Schwarzkopf opted to remain a soldier and to be a part of the rejuvenation of the U.S. military in the post-Vietnam era. Rising ultimately to the rank of general (four star), he was head of U.S. Central Command (Middle East) when Iraq under Saddam Hussein invaded Kuwait. His battle plan resulted in a stunning one-hundred-hour victory for coalition forces. Norman Schwarzkopf spent his formative years in the Middle East, matriculated at West Point, and was commissioned as a second lieutenant in 1956. Highly intelligent, Schwarzkopf served two years with the 101st Airborne Division before returning to West Point to teach. The escalation of American involvement in Vietnam abbreviated that assignment, and Captain Schwarzkopf was posted as an adviser to a South Vietnamese Airborne Division in 1965. His two tours of duty during the war transformed the young officer into the passionate, yet compassionate, commander who dominated the battlefield as few others have in the modern era. Standing an imposing six foot, three inches, and possessing a fiery temper, Schwarzkopf was a soldier’s soldier. He worked closely with his Vietnamese counterparts and was known to defy orders that might jeopardize his men. When his unit inadvertently entered an enemy minefield, Schwarzkopf personally rescued a wounded soldier, for which he was awarded a Silver Star. More important, he won the respect of black soldiers who were astonished to see a white colonel save a black soldier at a time when the Army was experiencing racial turmoil. Vietnam made him more reflective of the human costs of war; body counts and captured weapons were not measures of success, the lives of his troops were. His personal philosophy mirrored what later would become known as the Weinberger Doctrine:

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goals had to be specific, public support had to be curried, and the military had to have the power to accomplish the mission. In the two decades following Vietnam, Schwarzkopf worked within the military to achieve those goals. When Kuwait was invaded by Iraq on August 2, 1990, Schwarzkopf was head of Central Command, which was responsible for the American military presence in the Middle East. There was probably no one better equipped to handle the task of leading a U.N.-sanctioned military force of almost threequarters of a million (541,000 of whom were American) from thirty-four nations while simultaneously maintaining an effective relationship with Arab political and military leaders and with Washington. He moved his command post to Riyadh, Saudi Arabia, and became the military face of the Gulf War. He was also fortunate to have the complete support of General Colin Powell, chairman of the Joint Chiefs of Staff, and of President George H. W. Bush. Media coverage of the Vietnam War left him wary of any possible threat to his security, so he closely moni-

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tored and controlled information, this to the dismay (and anger) of reporters. Operation Desert Storm began with an air interdiction of Iraqi forces on January 17, 1991, and was followed by the ground attack on February 24. In a span of one hundred hours, Schwarzkopf’s battle plan resulted in the annihilation of the Iraqi military presence in Kuwait at a cost of 146 Americans killed in action. He retired from the military in August, 1991, and wrote his autobiography. While he made numerous public appearances, he has steadfastly declined to capitalize on his popularity as the hero of the Gulf War. Impact The Gulf War occurred at a time when the Cold War was ending and many international roles were changing. Russia was not the major player it had been, although it did attempt to broker a deal with Iraqi president Saddam Hussein. The U.S. presence in the Middle East expanded, but the oil-rich area remained volatile as peace between Arabs, Jews (Israel), and Westerners remained elusive. Political instability in places like Somalia plagued the 1990’s. Iraq was severely battered militarily and economically, but its dictator remained. George W. Bush, elected president following two terms by President Bill Clinton, used the “war on terror” as a way to eliminate the dictator. Further Reading

Cohen, Roger, and Claudio Gatti. In the Eye of the Storm: The Life of General H. Norman Schwarzkopf. New York: Farrar, Straus and Giroux, 1991. Hughes, Libby. Norman Schwarzkopf: Hero with a Heart. New York: Dillon Press, 1992. Morris, M. E. H. Norman Schwarzkopf: Road to Triumph. New York: St. Martin’s Press, 1991. Schwarzkopf, H. Norman. It Doesn’t Take a Hero. New York: Bantam Books, 1992. William S. Brockington, Jr. Arnett, Peter; Baker, James; Bush, George H. W.; Cheney, Dick; CNN coverage of the Gulf War; Foreign policy of the United States; Gulf War; Israel and the United States; Jewish Americans; Middle East and North America; Patriot missile; Powell, Colin; Terrorism; United Nations.

See also

Norman Schwarzkopf. (U.S. Department of Defense)

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■ Science and technology Representative scientific and technological advances and developments

Definition

The 1990’s saw the blossoming of the World Wide Web, great strides in genetics, the launching of the Hubble Space Telescope, and such growing dependence on computers that Y2K was a problem. Many forces drove progress in science and technology in the 1990’s. The United States government’s research budget grew from $30 billion in 1990 to $43 billion in 2000, with the majority of the increase going to the National Institutes of Health (NIH). The NIH and the Department of Energy (DOE) sponsored the Human Genome Project. The National Aeronautics and Space Administration (NASA) scored with the Hubble Space Telescope and the explorations of Mars and Jupiter. The Gulf War pushed the development of weapons and other military gear. As computer chips became ever more capable and ever smaller, they were placed into almost anything, from cars to kitchen stoves. The World Wide Web grew, cellular telephones multiplied prodigiously, and the younger generation adopted text messaging. Electronics and Communication As complex electronic circuits were made ever smaller and cheaper, electronic devices became smaller, more capable, and more portable. Cellular telephones evolved from bulky, heavy bag phones to models that easily fit into a shirt pocket. As the world moved into the twenty-first century, a poll by Wired magazine found that people viewed the mobile telephone as the technological advance that they used most in their daily lives—more than computers, e-mail, or the Internet. By 1999, there were more than seventy-six million wireless telephone subscribers. Other devices that gained popularity during the 1990’s were MP3 (MPEG Audio Layer 3) players and the digital video disc (DVD). MP3 itself is a computer format that can compress tens of megabytes of high-quality audio data into only a few megabytes without losing quality. The players could store one or more hours of music on a memory card or stick. The sound played back over earphones worn by the listener. DVDs are optical storage devices that can hold gigabytes of data, about fifteen times more than compact discs (CDs), and DVDs can load infor-

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mation onto a computer twenty times faster than CDs. DVDs can be formatted either for video or digital information. The roots of the Internet go back to the early 1960’s. Cold War jitters led to the thought that the telephone system was especially vulnerable. An attack on a few central locations could cripple the whole system. The first computer network linked research laboratories to a few large computers. The network grew from there with the addition of other sites and later with the annexation of private webs. Aiding the growth, relatively inexpensive but powerful desktop computers became available in the mid-1980’s. The World Wide Web became publicly available in 1991 with the invention of hypertext markup language (HTML). HTML allowed users to create Web pages and link them to the Web. Hypertext transfer protocol (HTTP) is the set of rules that allows computers across the world to talk to each other. Unfortunately, browsing the Web required knowledge of several arcane computer commands. Mosaic, the first program to make browsing easy, was released in 1993. Mosaic allowed its users to exchange not only text but also color photos, sound bites, and video clips. With the release of Netscape Navigator in 1994, Web browsers went commercial. By 1999, e-mails outnumbered first-class letters delivered by the U.S. postal system, and the Web linked seventy million Web sites worldwide. True to its origins, the Web still has no central hub or central control. Since the earliest days, travelers out of sight of known landmarks have probably wished for some way to know exactly where they were. The Global Positioning System (GPS) was developed to solve that problem. The first of ten developmental GPS satellites was launched in 1978. Twenty-four new satellites were launched between 1989 and 1994 when the system became fully operational. The system also requires several ground stations that monitor the orbits of the satellites and send this information up to the satellites. In use, a receiver on the ground must simultaneously pull in signals from four or more satellites. A computer in the receiver gains time and position information from these satellite signals that enables it to calculate its location on Earth: longitude, latitude, and altitude. Originally, GPS was developed for the military, and signals received by civilians were downgraded. The downgrading was ended at the end of the 1990’s so that both civilians and the military can locate posi-

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tions to within ten meters. (The military can augment the signals for greater accuracy.) Chemistry and Physics Fundamental discoveries include what may be the first of a new class of compounds. In 1992, researchers in the United States successfully combined helium and nitrogen at 77,000 times the Earth’s normal atmospheric pressure to form a solid compound, a feat previously thought impossible since helium is a noble gas and should form no compounds. Another fundamental discovery was made in 1995, this time by scientists at the Fermi National Accelerator Laboratory in Batavia, Illinois. They produced top quarks by colliding protons and antiprotons. Theory had long predicted the existence of the top quark, but no evidence for it had been seen before. Quarks are believed to be the fundamental particles from which the familiar proton and neutron are made. More specifically, theory predicts six kinds of quarks that differ in electric charge and other properties analogous to charge. These other properties are whimsically named: up, down, strange, charmed, top, and bottom. The proton is thought to be made of two up quarks and one down quark, while the neutron is made of an up quark and two down quarks. It has been known since 1938 that cooling helium-4 below 2.17 Kelvin produced a liquid superfluid. For example, since superfluid helium is already in its lowest energy state, it cannot lose energy to friction, so it flows without friction. Unless warmed above 2.17 Kelvin, superfluid helium will flow effortlessly up the walls of its container and down the outside walls until it has all escaped. This special state of matter is known as a Bose-Einstein condensation and is named for Satyendra Nath Bose and Albert Einstein, whose theories predicted it. In 1995, Eric Cornell and Carl Wieman chilled rubidium-87 vapor to 170 nanokelvin and showed that it became a Bose-Einstein condensate just as theory predicted. This was the first such condensate to be made after helium-4. Such condensates are important because they make quantum behavior visible on a macroscopic scale.

The international Human Genome Project officially began in 1990. Its purpose was to map the estimated 100,000 genes on the twenty-three pairs of human chromosomes in the hope that this would lead to the diagnosis and cure

Biology and Genetics

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of genetic diseases. The DOE and the NIH were the project’s initial backers. They were joined by other nations and by corporations hoping to patent useful genetic material and medications. The first draft of the genome was published in 2001. In July, 1997, a group of eleven scientists (including five from the United States) announced that a study of Neanderthal deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA) was sufficiently different from that of modern humans that intermarriage can be ruled out. Apparently, the Neanderthals were an evolutionary dead end. The following year, the American James A. Thomson was able to isolate human embryonic stem cells. This provoked controversy since his process involved destroying human blastocysts (an early stage in the development of an embryo). In another breakthrough, biologist William French Anderson developed a technique to insert a healthy gene to replace a damaged gene, a process known as gene therapy. That raised the question of designer children: Should parents be allowed to pick the eye color, body type, and intelligence of their children? The 1990’s brought the ever-increasing use of DNA as evidence in criminal trials. An early case involved DNA evidence from a rape victim. At the trial, the prosecution claimed that there was only one chance in 300 million that the DNA came from anyone other than the accused, and the jury convicted him. The defendant appealed in 1992, but in the first major federal ruling on the use of DNA evidence, the court of appeals upheld the lower court’s decision to allow the evidence. The 1991 Gulf War The Gulf War was a proving ground for military technology. For example, the M-1A1 Abrams tank was touted as the world’s best tank. It could travel up to 75 kilometers per hour (45 miles per hour) and fire accurately while bouncing across the terrain. Its 105-millimeter (4.1-inch) shells traveled 1,000 meters (3,280 feet) farther than shells from Iraqi tanks. The tank’s shells were filled with depleted uranium, 2.5 times denser than steel, to give them greater penetrating power. (Depleted uranium is only mildly radioactive and is dangerous only as a fine powder since it can then be ingested.) In one well-publicized incident, an Abrams gun was tracking an Iraqi tank as it went behind a sand dune. The Abrams’s shell went right through the sand dune and still destroyed the tank.

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The Gulf War was also the first battlefield test of the Tomahawk cruise missile (BGM-109). Early versions were 6 meters (20 feet) long, had a 2,500kilometer (1,500-mile) range, and could carry 450 kilograms (1,000 pounds) of explosives. Tomahawks fly low, 15 to 30 meters (50 to 100 feet) above the ground, and fast, 880 kilometers per hour (550 miles per hour), to avoid detection. At first, they navigated by recognizing the ground terrain; later versions used GPS for navigation. They are the ideal weapon for striking air-defense radar and missile sites deep behind enemy lines. During the Gulf War, 297 Tomahawk missiles were launched. Of these, 282 successfully began flights to their targets, and between two and six Tomahawks were shot down. Once the air defenses were softened up, piloted aircraft were used. Originally designed to bring down airplanes, Patriot missiles were modified to destroy incoming missiles. A single radar antenna located the incoming missile, guided the Patriot to the target, and helped the Patriot hit the enemy missile. Earlier Patriots used a proximity fuse to explode their warheads near the enemy missile, destroying it with shrapnel. Later Patriots were modified to use the more certain “hit to kill” tactic. There has been considerable debate about just how effective the Patriots were in the Gulf War. Most of the controversy can be resolved by agreeing on what a kill is, how it is to be verified, and how it is to be counted. For example, if four Patriots are launched at an incoming Scud missile, and the Scud is hit by at least one Patriot, is that four kills, or one kill and three misses? The U.S. Army reasonably claimed a Patriot success rate of 70 percent in Saudi Arabia and 40 percent in Israel. Astronomy and Space Science Comet Hale-Bopp was a spectacular sight as it moved rather swiftly across Earth’s skies during 1997. Five years earlier, astronomers Eugene and Carolyn Shoemaker and David Levy were studying the Shoemaker-Levy group of comets. These comets were unknown to the general public since they were invisible to the naked eye. The three astronomers watched comet number 9 of that group break apart as it passed close to Jupiter. It broke into twenty-one pieces that traveled one after the other like railroad cars in a train. Comets are made of water ice along with frozen carbon dioxide and perhaps ices of ammonia and methane. The ice is riddled with grains of carbon, flecks of iron, and other bits of rock. The accepted model is that of

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a dirty, fragile iceberg. Comets coming within the same distance from the Sun as the planet Mars begin to sublimate—the ice turning to great clouds of water vapor. The solar wind drags out some of this vapor into spectacular tails. Astronomers soon realized that the fragments of Shoemaker-Levy 9 were on a collision course with Jupiter, and that they would hit at 60 kilometers per second (36 miles per second). At this speed, their impact energies would be several hundred times that of the same mass of dynamite. Various telescopes, including the Hubble, monitored the resulting fireballs in July, 1994. Had they hit the Earth, any of the larger fragments could have ended civilization, or worse. The Galileo mission to Jupiter proved to be one of the most successful planetary probes. Launched from Earth in October, 1989, Galileo released a probe in July, 1995. Both the probe and Galileo reached Jupiter on December 7, 1995, but while Galileo entered Jupiter orbit, the probe plunged into Jupiter’s atmosphere. As the probe descended beneath its parachute, it continued to broadcast data for fifty-seven minutes until it reached a hellish region 156 kilometers (97 miles) below the cloud tops, where the pressure was twenty times Earth’s surface pressure, the temperature was 127 degrees Celsius (260 degrees Fahrenheit), and the wind blew at 550 kilometers per hour (330 miles per hour). The Galileo spaceship itself explored Jupiter and its inner moon system, finding evidence that the moons Callisto, Ganymede, and Europa all had subsurface oceans. It is possible that Europa’s vast ocean harbors life around undersea vents. Low on fuel after fourteen years of exploration, Galileo was pushed headlong into Jupiter’s atmosphere so that it could not accidently contaminate Europa’s surface some time in the future. In 1996, NASA called a news conference to announce that organic compounds and other possible evidence for life had been found in a meteorite from Mars. Study has since shown that the various evidences for life could have had nonlife origins, so the case for life on Mars is yet to be proved. On July 4, 1997, the Mars Pathfinder carrying the rover Sojourner landed on Mars. Sojourner was used to photograph and analyze various rocks near the landing site. Pathfinder continued to function for three months, and sent over 16,000 images back to Earth. Mars Global Surveyor orbiter arrived at Mars in September of 1997. An early surprise from Surveyor was

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that ancient rock strata in the southern highlands were weakly magnetized, strongly suggesting that the young Mars had a global magnetic field and a molten iron core. Telescopes on the Earth’s surface must look up through a turbulent ocean of air. Because that turbulence causes stars to twinkle and blurs the finer details of planets and stars, astronomers place telescopes on mountain tops in an effort to rise above as much of that ocean as possible. Launched on April 24, 1990, the Hubble Space Telescope fulfilled the long-held dream of placing a telescope completely above the atmosphere. Hubble photographed a dusty disk swirling around the nucleus of galaxy M87. The rotational speed of the disk implied that it circled an otherwise invisible object that was around three billion times the mass of the Sun—the first direct evidence for the existence of such a supermassive black hole candidate. Black holes are predicted by Einstein’s general theory of relativity. Perhaps the two most bizarre predicted properties of a black hole are first, that if enough mass is concentrated within a given volume bounded by the event horizon, gravity will become so strong that light itself cannot escape; second, if the mass collapses forever, it will eventually form a vanishingly small ball of infinite density called a singularity. The Achilles heel of general relativity is that it does not incorporate quantum mechanics, the theory that governs the behavior of atoms. Quantum mechanics predicts that the singularity will never form; instead, before a solar mass object could collapse to a ball a few centimeters across, the energy of the gravitational field would go into the creation of matter in the form of electron-positron pairs, halting the collapse. The event horizon is so named because since light cannot escape from it, the outside universe can never know of events that occur within it. In 1997, Harvard astrophysicist Ramesh Narayan and his colleagues studied X rays from neutron stars and from black hole candidates. They interpreted their data to mean that they could observe X rays from a neutron star’s surface, but not from the surface of a black hole candidate—presumably because it lies within the event horizon. This was heralded as proof of the existence of the event horizon, and hence of black holes. Dr. Stanley Robertson of Southwestern Oklahoma State University soon challenged this conclusion. Robertson has shown that with the in-

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clusion of more data points, and accounting for the deeper gravity wells of the black hole candidates, there was no evidence for event horizons. However, astronomers are in the habit of calling any collapsed object over three solar masses a black hole, regardless of the lack of evidence for event horizons. Impact Computer chips with their digital electronics have seeped into the very fabric of American society. They direct electric power generation and subway trains. They are embedded in pets for identification, in artificial limbs for better control and operation of the limb, and in automobile braking systems evervigilant for wheel slippage. If computer chips magically disappeared, modern civilization would stagger, and perhaps even fall in some places. The past few decades have been called the “information age,” “digital age,” and “computer age.” All three titles are intertwined. For example, information can be digitized by a computer, assembled into packets, and sent across the world in such a small fraction of a second that it is not worth billing. This makes any computer connected to the Web a cornucopia of information about the world past and present. While the Web is used for many other purposes, the free flow of news strengthens the currents of democracy. It is thought that the spreading influence of the Web played an important role in the breakup of the Soviet Union.

The astrophysicist Abhas Mitra calculated that a true black hole could not actually form because it would take an infinitely long time to release the energy of its collapse. He called such preblack holes eternally collapsing objects (ECOs). In 2001, Robertson, with the American astrophysicist Darryl Leiter, wrote a paper showing that ECOs would have both a surface and a magnetic field, but no event horizon. They proposed such objects be called magnetospheric eternally collapsing objects, or MECOs. In 2004, Robertson and Leiter demonstrated that the MECO model could explain a hitherto unexplained universal correlation between radio and X-ray luminosities of black hole candidates. In 2005, American astronomer Rudy Schild joined Robertson and Leiter in showing that the detailed structure of quasar Q0957+561 was convincingly explained by the MECO model, but not by the black hole model. If (and only if) new experimental data continue to support the MECO model, astronomy is on the verge of an important paradigm shift.

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Further Reading

By the mid-1990’s, the phenomenal popularity that horror films had enjoyed in the 1980’s had waned so much that some critics were declaring the genre dead, much like Westerns and musicals. Director Wes Craven—a longtime genre veteran with such films as Last House on the Left (1972), The Hills Have Eyes (1977), and A Nightmare on Elm Street (1984)— brought an experienced hand and a fresh eye to screenwriter Kevin Williamson’s postmodern take on slasher films. The plot is fairly standard: A serial killer is gutting, ripping, and crushing his way through a group of high school students, with heroine Sidney Prescott (Neve Campbell) particularly in peril. The twist is that these characters are mediasavvy, experienced scary-movie fans, and they act the part. One of Sidney’s friends, Randy (Jamie Kennedy), recites the “rules” for surviving in a horror movie, which characters disregard at their peril, unaware that they are indeed in a horror movie. At one point, the famous theme music from Halloween (1978), playing on a television, momentarily becomes the theme music of Scream, further blurring the boundaries of reality, film reality, and film-aware reality. Unlike its predecessors, Scream has much overt, character-driven humor, which occasionally verges on slapstick. That this comic element does not detract from the terror is due in part to Craven’s precise balancing of laughs and scares, and an unusually talented cast including Courteney Cox (of the then-popular television series Friends), David Arquette, Rose McGowan, and most famously Drew Barrymore, who is terrorized and slaughtered in an opening sequence that has the shock value of the infamous shower scene in Alfred Hitchcock’s Psycho (1960). As with most of his films, Craven encountered difficulties with the Motion Picture Association of America Code and Rating Administration, which termed Scream’s original version a perfect example of an NC-17 movie. Cuts required for an R rating amounted to approximately twenty seconds of violence and gore. Even the sound track had to be toned down for being too intense. Scream was a tremendous box-office hit, with gross profits of over $100 million, making it one of the most commercially successful horror films ever. Two sequels followed: Scream 2 (1997) and Scream 3 (2000). Scream’s success brought the supposedly “dead” horror genre back to robust life, particularly

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Finlan, Alastair. The Gulf War 1991. New York: Routledge, 2003. Well-written account of the war showing how the various technologies were used. Harland, David M. Jupiter Odyssey: The Story of NASA’s Galileo Mission. New York: Springer, 2000. Profusely illustrated, detailed account of the travels and discoveries of the Galileo spacecraft. Rezende, Lisa. Chronology of Science. New York: Facts On File, 2006. Nice compilation of advances from the Stone Age to the present. Includes time lines and some longer entries. Everything considered, a good source for quick facts or to start a deeper study. Rosner, Lisa, ed. Chronology of Science: From Stonehenge to the Human Genome Project. Santa Barbara, Calif.: ABC-Clio, 2002. Fascinating collection of brief entries and some longer ones. Easily used since it is arranged by decade, then by field: astronomy, biology, chemistry, earth science, ecology, mathematics, and physics. Charles W. Rogers Apple Computer; Archaeology; Astronomy; Biosphere 2; Blogs; Bondar, Roberta; Cell phones; CGI; Cloning; Computers; Digital audio; Digital cameras; DVDs; E-mail; Fermat’s last theorem solution; Glenn, John; Gulf War; Hackers; HaleBopp comet; Hubble Space Telescope; Instant messaging; Internet; Inventions; Kyoto Protocol; Lucid, Shannon; Mars exploration; Michelangelo computer virus; Microsoft; MP3 format; Nanotechnology; Nobel Prizes; Patriot missile; PDAs; Plasma screens; Search engines; Shoemaker-Levy 9 comet; Silicon Valley; Space exploration; Space shuttle program; Spam; String theory; Telecommunications Act of 1996; World Wide Web; Y2K problem.

See also

■ Scream Groundbreaking postmodern horror film Director Wes Craven (1939) Date Released on December 20, 1996 Identification

This film revitalized the horror genre while introducing a self-reflexive viewpoint and proving that horror and humor could effectively mix.

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teen-oriented films and even television series such as Buffy the Vampire Slayer (1997-2003), whose star, Sarah Michelle Gellar, appeared in Scream 2. Impact The success of Scream proved that the horror genre was indeed viable and led to its resurgence through the remainder of the 1990’s and into the twenty-first century. Further Reading

Marriott, James, and Kim Newman. Horror: The Definitive Guide to the Cinema of Fear. London: André Deutsch, 2006. Robb, Brian J. Screams and Nightmares: The Films of Wes Craven. Woodstock, N.Y.: Overlook Press, 1998. Charles Lewis Avinger, Jr. See also Basic Instinct; Blair Witch Project, The; Cell phones; Censorship; Film in the United States; Friends; NC-17 rating; Silence of the Lambs, The.

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■ Search engines Technology that enabled the systematic retrieving of information from the World Wide Web

Definition

The World Wide Web contains billions of items of information located on its millions of sites. With the development of search engines in the 1990’s, Web users were able to locate quickly the information they queried. Becoming indispensable to Web use, search engines contributed to the cachet and soaring stock prices of Internet-related companies. Various kinds of search engines retrieve data from computers, but it was the emergence of efficient Web search engines in the mid-1990’s that helped make the resources of the Internet widely available. The Internet is the worldwide network of interconnected computers. The Web is the collection of billions of pages containing information in standardized interface that can be accessed on the Inter-

Google founders Larry Page, left, and Sergey Brin at the Googleplex headquarters in Mountain View, California. Google had become the dominant Internet search engine by the beginning of the twenty-first century. (AP/Wide World Photos)

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net through Web browsers. In 1990, the first search engine, Archie, was developed at McGill University, retrieving information from the then 300,000 Internet hosts. It was soon followed by rivals Veronica, Jughead, and Gopher. With the release of the Web to the public in 1991, a new generation of efficient search engines was developed that used “indexes” (the engine’s catalog of Web pages), “spiders” (programs that searched the Web to add pages to the index), and “relevancy software” that ranked retrieved pages for their match to the query. To use a search engine, the user formulates a search query, usually based on a combination of terms (Boolean) or natural language. The search engine instantly combs through billions of Web pages to retrieve those that match the search criteria. The success of a search engine depends largely on the number of Web pages in its index and its algorithms for generating the most relevant search results. The launching of the search engine Excite in 1993 represented a breakthrough with Excite’s innovative statistical analysis of word relationships. The year 1994 saw the birth of Yahoo!, which included a directory classifying Web sites by subject category. Lycos (1994) pioneered the ranking of documents by relevance. Infoseek (1994) and AltaVista (1995) were metasearch engines, combining the results of individual search engines; AltaVista also offered a translation service and a search capability for sound and image files. Inktomi (1996) impressed with large-scale search capability made possible by using distributed network technology. Ask Jeeves (1997), now Ask, allowed for search queries in everyday language. Google, formed by two Stanford graduates in 1998, quickly became popular with its extensive search capabilities and such features as “cached,” which highlighted search terms in the document and displayed information from Web pages that had expired. By decade-end, search engines were processing tens of millions of searches daily, utilizing billions of indexed pages. With the dot-com bubble, search engine companies skyrocketed in stock price and status. Impact The emergence of increasingly powerful search engines in the 1990’s made vast resources of human intelligence available to any inquiry. Whatever fame and profit search engine companies achieved were a small reflection of the precise access to Web information that search engines made possible.

The Nineties in America Further Reading

Battelle, John. The Search: How Google and Its Rivals Rewrote the Rules of Business and Transformed Our Culture. New York: Portfolio, 2005. Hock, Randolph. The Extreme Searcher’s Internet Handbook: A Guide for the Serious Searcher. Medford, N.J.: CyberAge Books, 2004. Howard Bromberg See also Advertising; America Online; Computers; Dot-coms; E-mail; Internet; Microsoft; Spam; Stock market; World Wide Web; Yahoo!.

■ Seinfeld Identification Television comedy series Creators Jerry Seinfeld (1954) and Larry

David (1947) Aired from July 5, 1989, to May 14, 1998

Date

This sitcom proved that sophisticated, irreverent humor could be popular with a mass television audience. Famous as the program about nothing, Seinfeld was the creation of little-known comedian Jerry Seinfeld and Larry David, a comedian turned comedy writer. Because their program was more subtle than the typical situation comedy, National Broadcasting Company (NBC) executives were puzzled by it. A pilot episode shown in the summer of 1989 was encouraging enough to warrant four more episodes the following spring. The series finally joined NBC’s regular schedule in January, 1991, and slowly became the most popular program on broadcast network television. Seinfeld played a fictional version of himself, a comedian living in a small Manhattan apartment. In the early seasons, each episode featured bits of Seinfeld’s stand-up routines. Seinfeld revolved around Jerry’s dealings with his boyhood best friend, the neurotic George Costanza (Jason Alexander), his former girlfriend, the vivacious Elaine Benes (Julia Louis-Dreyfus), and his eccentric neighbor, Cosmo Kramer (Michael Richards). Seinfeld reflected the concerns of many Americans, especially baby boomers, in the 1990’s by presenting youthful characters approaching middle age but reluctant to give up their youth. Jerry and George, in particular,

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seemed to have changed little since their high school days. Kramer accused Jerry of being an example of Peter Pan syndrome, though he, the eldest, was the most immature of the four, an unemployed (and unemployable) hedonist impulsively following his infantile instincts. George was a lovable loser who failed at every endeavor. Elaine, the brightest of the four, charged from one brief relationship to another. Seinfeld revolved around its characters’ reluctance to accept responsibility for anything. David, Seinfeld, and the other writers exaggerated this point on several occasions, as when a small kitchen fire broke out during a children’s birthday only for George to push everyone, including an elderly woman, aside to be the first to escape and then pathetically tried to defend himself. David, the inspiration for George, made many of the show’s loyal viewers uneasy with the series finale by having the protagonists go to prison for a selfish act. In an era when the so-called excesses of the 1960’s and 1970’s were passé and Americans were expected to devote themselves to work and family, Seinfeld satirized commitment by having its characters go to the other extreme. Elaine and George changed jobs frequently, and all four were afraid of romantic commitments: falling for someone else while in a relationship and becoming unsettled by being loved. Engaged to Susan (Heidi Swedberg), George was desperate to avoid marriage but lacked the courage to pull out. He was relieved when Susan suddenly died from licking the cheap envelopes he bought for their wedding invitations. Jerry did not want to see too much of his parents (Barney Martin and Liz Sheridan), while George was constantly embarrassed by his loud, vulgar folks (Estelle Harris and Jerry Stiller). In addition to death, Seinfeld treated numerous other sensitive subjects cavalierly. Almost every episode launched an attack upon the era’s politically correct views of the handicapped, cancer and other illnesses, alcoholism, old age, religion, serial killers, and homosexuality. Jerry and George were mistaken for a gay couple, leading to one of the series’ many famous catchphrases: “Not that there’s anything wrong with that” mocked not homosexuality but the timid way many Americans tried to mask their prejudices. While most television programs dealt with similar issues moralistically, Seinfeld

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The cast of Seinfeld (from left): Jerry Seinfeld, Julia LouisDreyfus, Jason Alexander, and Michael Richards. (Hulton Archive/Getty Images)

never stooped to didacticism or sentimentality. Seinfeld was the most sexually implicit comedy on the broadcast networks, often touching previously verboten subjects. The protagonists made a bet about who could resist masturbation for the longest time. Elaine forced a reluctant musician boyfriend to provide cunnilingus, resulting in his inability to play his saxophone afterward. After returning from a swim, George was embarrassed when one of Jerry’s girlfriends accidentally saw his shriveled penis. Also irreverent about itself, Seinfeld presented a series of episodes in which Jerry and George created an autobiographical pilot about nothing, mocking the way television networks operate. Oblivious to their failings, George and Kramer were horrified to see how actors interpreted them. Arguably the smartest situation comedy ever, Seinfeld was also notable for giving its audience credit for getting jokes without having to spell matters out.

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A subplot involving a homoerotic relationship between Susan’s father (Warren Frost) and John Cheever assumed that the audience was familiar with the bisexual novelist. Many episodes parodied famous films, such as The Graduate (1967), JFK (1991), Midnight Cowboy (1969), and Pulp Fiction (1994), without making the spoofs too obvious. Because of Seinfeld and such situation comedies as Frasier, Friends, and Will and Grace, NBC created the slogan “Must-See TV” to describe its popular lineup. Seinfeld finished first or second in the Nielsen ratings every year from 1994 to 1998 and won ten Emmy Awards, including one as Outstanding Comedy Series, three for Richards, and one for Louis-Dreyfus. In 2002, TV Guide named it the top program of all time. In 101 Reasons the ’90s Ruled, a 2004 special on the E! network, Seinfeld was designated as the first reason. While most long-running series eventually grow stale, the most remarkable achievement of Seinfeld was the amazing consistency of its quality. Though the program reflected the concerns of the 1990’s by satirizing them, it had a remarkable timelessness. Its continuing popularity in syndication and on DVD resulted not from nostalgia for the decade but from its inspired humor. Impact

Further Reading

Delaney, Tim. Seinology: The Sociology of “Seinfeld.” Amherst, N.Y.: Prometheus Books, 2006. Sociology professor examines the show’s treatment of crime, ethnicity, race, and relationships. Hirsch, Irwin, and Cara Hirsch. “Seinfeld Humor Noir: A Look at Our Dark Side.” Journal of Popular Film and Television 28, no. 3 (Fall, 2000): 116-123. Consideration of the characters’ cynicism and narcissism. Hurd, Robert. “Taking Seinfeld Seriously: Modernism in Popular Culture.” New Literary History 37, no. 4 (Autumn, 2006): 761-776. Applies Pierre Bourdieu’s literary theories to Seinfeld. Irwin, William, ed. “Seinfeld” and Philosophy: A Book About Everything and Nothing. Chicago: Open Court, 1999. Academics examine the ethical and philosophical issues raised by Seinfeld. Lavery, David, and Sara Lewis Dunne, eds. “Seinfeld,” Master of Its Domain: Revisiting Television’s Greatest Sitcom. New York: Continuum, 2006. Essays by television scholars. Includes a comprehensive episode guide.

Morreale, Joanne. “Sitcoms Say Goodbye: The Cultural Spectacle of Seinfeld’s Last Episode.” Journal of Popular Film and Television 28, no. 3 (Fall, 2000): 108-115. Discusses how the last episode was a unifying national moment. Olbrys, Stephen Gencarella. “Seinfeld’s Democratic Vistas.” Critical Studies in Media Communication 22, no. 5 (December, 2005): 390-408. Contends that Seinfeld was not nihilistic but political satire. Michael Adams Comedians; Frasier ; Friends; Larry Sanders Show, The ; Murphy Brown; Sex and the City ; Television; Twin Peaks; Will and Grace.

See also

■ Selena Identification Mexican American singer Born Lake Jackson; Texas; April 16, 1971 Died Corpus Christi, Texas; March 31, 1995

Selena transformed Tejano music from a local genre performed on a circuit of small venues into an international form that expressed the aspirations of many in the Latino community. Selena Quintanilla was born to a Texan family of Mexican background who lived on the Gulf coast of Texas, southeast of Houston. The Quintanillas were Jehovah’s Witnesses, and Selena was raised in this faith. Because of financial trouble, in 1980 the Quintanillas relocated to Corpus Christi, closer to the Mexican border. Selena’s musical career grew alongside that of her father, Abraham Quintanilla, a longtime Tejano musician and front man of the group Selena y Los Dinos. By the time she was nine, Selena herself was singing for the group. She assumed a prominent role in the band, as did her brother A. B. Quintanilla III. Tejano music combines Mexican forms such as mariachi with polkas and waltzes constructed by European migrants to the Rio Grande Valley at the turn of the twentieth century. The accordion plays a big role in Tejano music, as does bass guitar. Selena grew up with English as her first language, singing in Spanish only in order to reach an international audience. Selena’s haunting voice, at once determined, melodic, and plangent, helped Selena y Los Dinos rise above the touring circuit and garner a major-label album contract. Selena released a self-titled album

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way to a long and fruitful career. The president of Selena’s fan club, Yolanda Saldivar, however, was a mentally unbalanced and aggressive individual. When Selena confronted Saldivar about possible theft and misbehavior, Saldivar fatally shot her. The extensive coverage of Selena’s death in the media helped to make her song “Dreaming of You,” as well as the album of the same title, a huge crossover hit. Saldivar was later convicted of first-degree murder. Impact Selena’s death made her even more famous than she had been while alive. She became one of the best-known Latina singers in the world. A 1997 movie about the beloved singer, played by rising star Jennifer Lopez, only increased her posthumous visibility. Her tragic death also underscored the violence and instability associated with celebrity lifestyles in the 1990’s. Further Reading

Arrarás, María Celeste. Selena’s Secret: The Revealing Story Behind Her Tragic Death. New York: Simon & Schuster, 1997. Valdes, Carlos. Justice for Selena: The State Versus Yolanda Saldivar. Victoria, B.C.: Trafford, 2005. Nicholas Birns See also

Latinos; Madonna; Music; Shakur, Tupac.

Selena. (AP/Wide World Photos)

■ Seles, Monica in 1989 and then Ven Conmigo in 1990. She also made several advertising endorsements and became a well-known figure in Hispanic media and popular culture. Selena’s music helped to increase respect for Tejano as a serious cultural form, and other Tejano groups such as La Mafia and Mazz found increased exposure. Selena’s career embodied Latina theorist Gloria Anzaldúa’s idea of la frontera (the borderlands). Anzaldúa urged a greater acknowledgment of mestizaje, or cultural mixture. Selena’s 1992 album, Entre a Mi Mundo, and her 1994 Grammy-nominated Amor Prohibido were examples of an American singer becoming a mass phenomenon in Latin America through Spanish-language songs. She won a Grammy Award for Best Mexican-American Album for Selena Live! (1993). In 1992, Selena married Chris Perez, the guitarist for Selena y Los Dinos. Selena seemed to be on her

Identification Professional tennis player Born December 2, 1973; Novi Sad, Yugoslavia

(now in Serbia) After winning seven grand-slam tournaments in 1991 and 1992, Seles was stabbed in the back by a zealous fan of Steffi Graf and did not return to the professional circuit until 1995. Her injury not only prevented her from becoming the outstanding female player of the decade but also emphasized the vulnerability of professional athletes to attack. After leaving her native Yugoslavia in 1986 for the United States, Monica Seles attended Nick Bollettieri’s tennis academy in Florida and turned professional in 1989, when she was just fifteen years old. In 1990, she was the youngest player ever to win the French Open; in 1991, she won three grand-slam events (the Australian, French, and U.S. Opens); and in 1992, she repeated as champion in those tournaments.

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The most controversial part of Seles’s game was her grunting as she hit each shot, and some of her opponents objected to it as being distracting. In fact, her loss to Steffi Graf at Wimbledon, the only major she never won, may have been influenced by her decision to refrain from grunting during the final match. (One member of the British press even claimed to have measured the loudness of her grunts by a “gruntometer.”) Having eclipsed Graf as the number one player in women’s tennis, Seles was a distinct possibility for winning all four grand-slam events in 1993, but after winning again in Australia, her career was cut short by Günter Parche, a Graf fan, who stabbed her at a tennis match in Hamburg, Germany. Although she soon recovered from the wound, she suffered from post-traumatic stress disorder and did not resume her career until 1995, when she was co-ranked number one with Graf. That year, she reached the finals of the U.S. Open and was voted Comeback Player of the Year by the Women’s Tennis Association. In the remainder of the decade, she won one more grandslam tournament, the Australian in 1996, won her fourth consecutive Canadian Open, and in 1999 was a semifinalist at both the Australian and French Opens. Impact Seles’s comeback story from post-traumatic stress disorder, especially in the light of the 1994 attack on professional figure skater Nancy Kerrigan, heightened public awareness of the vulnerability of professional athletes, and the incredibly light punishment for her attacker brought worldwide condemnation. Security has since been increased at athletic events, but professional athletes have found that they are targets both on and off the field. Seles also demonstrated that, as the titles of books about her suggest, one can overcome adversity: She continued her tennis career into the next century. Further Reading

Blue, Rose, and Corinne J. Naden. Monica Seles: Overcoming Adversity. Philadelphia: Chelsea House, 2002. Layden, Joe. Return of a Champion: The Monica Seles Story. New York: St. Martin’s Press, 1995. Seles, Monica, with Nancy Ann Richardson. Monica: From Fear to Victory. New York: HarperCollins, 1996. Thomas L. Erskine

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Agassi, Andre; Kerrigan, Nancy; Sampras, Pete; Sports; Tennis.

See also

■ Sex and the City Identification Cable television dramedy Creator Darren Star (1961) Date Aired from June 6, 1998, to February 22,

2004 This groundbreaking comedy/drama chronicled the sex lives of four New York City women and their friends. Sex and the City was based on a 1997 novel of the same name by Candace Bushnell. Bushnell, a journalist who wrote about sex and dating for The New York Observer, based the novel on her newspaper column. The Home Box Office (HBO) television series, produced by Darren Star, followed the book closely for the first season, using vignettes and documentarystyle interviews with various single people in New York City. By the second season, the series began to focus less on large numbers of characters and more on the main four: Carrie Bradshaw (Sarah Jessica Parker), a sex columnist based on Bushnell; Samantha Jones (Kim Cattrall), a public relations executive; Miranda Hobbes (Cynthia Nixon), a lawyer; and Charlotte York (Kristin Davis), an art gallery curator. Impact The show was groundbreaking for pushing the limits of sexuality on television. The characters discussed all sexual topics; nothing was taboo. The show displayed full nudity of both genders as well as intimate sexual acts between heterosexual and homosexual partners. While critics felt that the series was gratuitously sexual, supporters praised its frank approach to women’s sexuality and their relationships, especially the deepening friendships among the women. It was nominated for more than fifty Emmy Awards, winning seven, and more than twenty-four Golden Globes, winning eight. A film adaptation of the hit series was released in 2008. Further Reading

Akass, Kim, and Janet McCabe, eds. Reading “Sex and the City.” New York: I. B. Tauris, 2004. Bushnell, Candace. Sex and the City. New York: Warner Books, 1997. Leslie Neilan

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The cast of Sex and the City (from left): Sarah Jessica Parker, Kristin Davis, Cynthia Nixon, and Kim Cattrall. (Hulton Archive/ Getty Images)

See also Ally McBeal; Beverly Hills, 90210 ; Cable television; Chick lit; Television.

■ Shakur, Tupac Identification Rap artist and actor Born June 16, 1971; New York, New York Died September 13, 1996; Las Vegas, Nevada

Continuing the tradition of socially conscious rap, Shakur wrote songs about the oppression of African Americans in American society. His music paved the way for the rise and notoriety of gangsta rap in the late 1990’s and early 2000’s. Shakur was a son of a Black Panther Party member, Afeni Shakur, who remained a strong influence on his life. He grew up in an impoverished community, and this experience later became the basis of many of his songs. Shakur began his career in the entertainment business when he was hired as a backup dancer and roadie for the rap group Digital Under-

ground in 1990. His first solo album, 2Pacalypse Now, was released in 1991 and followed by four albums, Strictly 4 My N.I.G.G.A.Z. (1993), Thug Life (1994), Me Against the World (1995), and All Eyez on Me (1996). He also starred in three movies, Juice (1992), Poetic Justice (1993), and Above the Rim (1994). Shakur was known for his voracious reading, which influenced his songwriting. His encounter with the work of Renaissance writer Niccolò Machiavelli resulted in his pseudonym Makaveli and the album The Don Killuminati: The Seven Day Theory (1996), his last work. At the age of twenty-five, Shakur was killed in a drive-by shooting in Las Vegas. Some say his murder was related to the rivalry between Los Angeles-based Death Row Records, Shakur’s label, and New Yorkbased Bad Boy Records, which had signed the commercially successful Christopher “Notorious B.I.G.” Wallace, who became Shakur’s rap rival. Wallace was murdered six months after Shakur. Both homicides remain unsolved.

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He has been the topic of popular and academic books, an academic conference at Harvard University, and several college courses. His mother established the Tupac Amaru Shakur Foundation in 1997 to support youth in the arts. Further Reading

Dyson, Michael Eric. Holler If You Hear Me: Searching for Tupac Shakur. New York: Basic Civitas Books, 2006. Vibe Magazine. Tupac Shakur. New York: Three Rivers Press, 1998. Yasue Kuwahara African Americans; Death Row Records; Drive-by shootings; Hip-hop and rap music; Music; Race relations.

See also

■ Sharpton, Al American Baptist minister and civil rights activist Born October 3, 1954; Brooklyn, New York Identification

Sharpton was a prominent spokesman for racial justice throughout the 1990’s. Tupac Shakur in 1992. (Hulton Archive/Getty Images)

Impact Shakur’s music reflected an American culture that idealizes freedom and equality on one hand yet oppresses racial minorities on the other. He inherited the tradition of socially conscious rap pioneered by Grandmaster Flash and the Furious Five in the early 1980’s and developed by such artists as Public Enemy and KRS-One in the late 1980’s and early 1990’s. His lyrics, while focusing on the pain and suffering of the oppressed in contemporary America, were criticized for their graphic, violent, and misogynistic language. He idealized the thug life and toward the end of his life was involved in sexual abuse charges, gang violence, and shootings. His work paved the way for the rise and notoriety of gangsta rap in the late 1990’s and early 2000’s. Shakur left an enormous impact on rap music as well as on American culture. After his death, the number of his devotees continued to grow as six albums, a film, and two documentaries were released.

After making himself a national figure with headline-grabbing advocacy for African Americans in notorious racially charged incidents in the 1980’s, the Reverend Alfred Charles Sharpton, Jr., attempted to enlarge his constituency and establish himself as a political player during the 1990’s. Despite a new sense of introspection in his analysis of American racism and his role in confronting it, he remained controversial among both white and black citizens. Many blamed him for inciting violence in various incidents, but Sharpton maintained that inherent racism gave rise to the violence. The first major incident for Sharpton in the 1990’s was a carryover from an ugly racial confrontation in 1989 in Bensonhurst, New York, in which a black youth by the name of Yusuf K. Hawkins was slain by a white mob. Sharpton led several protest marches through the neighborhood after unsatisfactory court verdicts, raising tensions. As Sharpton organized marchers for a new round of protest in January, 1991, an intoxicated resident stabbed him. Aides seized the man and turned him over to police; Sharpton’s wound was nearly fatal. He later sued the

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city for the failure of police to protect him; New York City settled for $200,000 in 2003. Sharpton was also involved in the aftermath of the 1991 Crown Heights riot, which ignited after a Guyanese boy and his cousin were struck by a vehicle in a motorcade for a prominent Jewish rabbi. Although rumor and misunderstanding led to the original violence, many people blamed Sharpton for inciting anti-Semitism with a threatening comment, “If the Jews want to get it on, tell them to pin their yarmulkes back and come over to my house.” In four days of rioting, a Jewish graduate student from Australia was killed. Mayor David Dinkins had attempted to prevent Sharpton’s protest march, fearing clashes between residents. As if to prove Sharpton’s observation on barely concealed northern racism, New York City saw several more shocking incidents during the decade. In 1995, a Jewish merchant in Harlem asked his subten-

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ant, a black record-shop owner, to move. Sharpton declared that the community would not stand for “some white interloper” closing a black business. A homeless man subsequently set fire to the store, killing seven employees and fatally shooting himself. Even Sharpton conceded that his comment was regrettable, though he stopped short of accepting responsibility for the ill will and violence. Sharpton jumped in to lead protests following the torture of Haitian immigrant Abner Louima while in police custody in 1997 and the 1999 shooting of Guinean immigrant Amadou Diallo by New York police officers. Impact Al Sharpton was widely viewed as a grandstanding loudmouth who incited violence; others saw him as an incorruptible champion of civil rights. Sharpton ran for mayor of New York in 1997 and for the U.S. Senate in 1992 and 1994, signaling a wish to be taken seriously on a political level. Although he received respectable shares of the vote, he was unlikely to succeed as a politician, given his divisive image. Further Reading

McFadden, Robert D. “Sharpton Is Stabbed at Bensonhurst Protest.” The New York Times, January 13, 1991, p. A1. Sharpton, Al, with Anthony Walton. Go and Tell Pharaoh: The Autobiography of the Reverend Al Sharpton. New York: Doubleday, 1996. Jan Hall African Americans; Crown Heights riot; Diallo shooting; Dinkins, David; Farrakhan, Louis; Giuliani, Rudolph; Louima torture case; Police brutality; Race relations.

See also

■ Shaw v. Reno Identification U.S. Supreme Court decision Date Decided on June 28, 1993

The Court declared that voting districts based on race should be held to the legal standard of “strict scrutiny.”

Al Sharpton in 1994. (AP/Wide World Photos)

This case dealt with a black majority North Carolina congressional district. The district stretched over a 150-mile-long area, and the design’s only purpose seemed to be to connect heavily black areas. A lawsuit ensued. The U.S. Supreme Court, in a 5-4 deci-

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sion authored by Sandra Day O’Connor, ultimately held that the district was illegal, as it did not survive the “strict scrutiny” analysis, which holds that the questioned legislation must serve a “compelling government interest,” be “narrowly tailored,” and be the “least restrictive means” of accomplishing this goal. The majority consisted of Chief Justice William H. Rehnquist and Justices O’Connor, Antonin Scalia, Clarence Thomas, and Anthony Kennedy. The Court held that as race was involved, the equal protection clause came into play. The Court also held that the district had a “bizarre shape”—making it likely that the only purpose of the district was a racial one. The Court then remanded the issue to a lower court to apply the strict scrutiny test. The dissenters, consisting of Justices Harry A. Blackmun, David Souter, John Paul Stevens, and Byron White, argued that this case was different from other racial ones, as a racially weighted district did not deny anyone else his or her rights and that using the strict scrutiny test only in districts that favored minorities resulted in policies disfavoring minorities overall. The dissent essentially argued that since no one was harmed, the lawsuit should not have been allowed. The majority held, however, that a harm was done to the political body as a whole. It was also noted by the dissent that whites, not blacks, were the ones arguing in favor of reversing the district. Impact In 2001, after four more trips to the Supreme Court, a redrawn district (but still a blackmajority one) was allowed. This shift was the result of two significant differences: First, evidence was the basis of the 2001 decision and the testing was against an evidentiary standard; and second, Justice O’Connor moved her vote from against the district to in favor of it. The Shaw v. Reno decision still holds legal significance, and it puts a high bar in front of states who wish to create districts on racial grounds. It thus makes it difficult for a state to attempt to ensure minority representation in legislatures. Further Reading

Canon, David T. Race, Redistricting, and Representation: The Unintended Consequences of Black Majority Districts. Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1999. Darling, Marsha J. Tyson, ed. Race, Voting, Redistricting, and the Constitution: Sources and Explora-

tions on the Fifteenth Amendment. New York: Routledge, 2001. Yarbrough, Tinsley E. Race and Redistricting: The Shaw-Cromartie Cases. Lawrence: University Press of Kansas, 2002. Scott A. Merriman See also African Americans; Elections in the United States, midterm; Elections in the United States, 1996; Reno, Janet; Supreme Court decisions.

■ Sheehy, Gail Identification American journalist and lecturer Born November 27, 1937; Mamaroneck, New

York Sheehy is best known for her books on life stages. A number of her books covering passages through life were published in the 1990’s. Considered a landmark work, Gail Sheehy’s Passages: Predictable Crises of Adult Life, published in 1976, remained on The New York Times best-seller list for more than three years and was translated in a number of languages. The Library of Congress noted it as one of the ten most influential books of the time. In the 1990’s, Sheehy published “Passages” books as well as biographies. The Passages series included The Silent Passage: Menopause (1992), New Passages: Mapping Your Life Across Time (1995), and Understanding Men’s Passages: Discovering the New Map of Men’s Lives (1998). New Passages took into account the impact of history on persons in young adulthood and in later life stages. The theme of passages in Sheehy’s books has been controversial, as many social scientists have concluded that most persons do not go through life stages. Sheehy published two biographies in the 1990’s, The Man Who Changed the World: The Lives of Mikhail S. Gorbachev (1990) and Hillary’s Choice (1999). Her writings about Hillary Rodham Clinton also stirred controversy. Following an interview with Clinton for a 1992 Vanity Fair article, Sheehy published comments by Clinton that were off-the-record. Hillary’s Choice was said to have factual errors. Nevertheless, among other awards, Sheehy is a seven-time recipient of the New York Newswomen’s Club Front Page Award for distinguished journalism.

The Nineties in America Impact Sheehy’s books are popular works that have had a powerful impact on many people. Readers often define their lives through these books. In New Passages, Sheehy mapped out an optimistic new frontier for her readers—a second adulthood in midlife. According to Sheehy, men and women who embrace this second adulthood can progress through new passages of meaning, playfulness, and creativity. Sheehy is a sought-after lecturer who reports the results of her investigations and observations of women and men in different phases of their lives. In addition, she speaks on women’s health issues and lectures on how companies can survive global competition with a “Winning with Women” strategy. Further Reading

“Gail Sheehy 1937, American Nonfiction Writer, Journalist, Biographer, and Novelist.” Contemporary Literary Criticism 171 (2003): 323-358. Kaplan, Fred. “Gail Sheehy’s Guide to Manopause: The Author Tackles Male Anxiety in an Era of Gender-Role Uncertainty.” Boston Globe, May 14, 1998, p. E1. “New Passages: Author Gail Sheehy Hails the Advent of a Second Adulthood.” U.S. News & World Report, June 12, 1995, 148. Ski Hunter Amazon.com; Audiobooks; Book clubs; Clinton, Hillar y Rodham; Employment in the United States; Health care; Hobbies and recreation; Income and wages in the United States; Internet; Journalism; Life coaching; Marriage and divorce; Psychology; Religion and spirituality in the United States; Soccer moms; Women’s rights.

See also

■ Shepard, Matthew Gay college student murdered because of his sexual orientation Born December 1, 1976; Casper, Wyoming Died October 12, 1998; Fort Collins, Colorado Identification

Shepard’s murder raised the public’s awareness of hate crimes against gays and lesbians and led to demands for state and federal hate crime laws. When Matthew Shepard met Russell Henderson and Aaron McKinney at the Fireside Lounge in

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Laramie, Wyoming, on the night of October 6-7, 1998, he thought he was meeting two fellow gays. He was wrong. He left the bar with the men, who later pistol-whipped him and tied him to a fence, leaving him for dead. By the time a passing cyclist found him, he was beyond help, and he died in a Fort Collins, Colorado, hospital on October 12. After police found evidence in the perpetrators’ truck connecting them to the crime, Henderson and McKinney were arrested. Without question their attack was motivated by homophobia. They chose Shepard because of his sexual orientation, hoping to rob him and later deciding to try to burglarize his home. However, the pair could not be charged with a hate crime, as no state or federal statute allowed for such a charge. In 1999, Henderson pleaded guilty (thereby avoiding the death penalty) and was sentenced to two consecutive life terms. McKinney pleaded not guilty but was convicted easily, and the prosecution initially wanted to seek the death penalty. However, Matthew Shepard’s mother, Judy, interceded and asked prosecutors to work a plea bargain that would allow McKinney to keep his life. McKinney agreed to sacrifice any right to appeal the trial and to serve two consecutive life sentences without possibility of parole. Impact Media attention surrounding the tragedy had a huge effect on the public. Celebrities denounced the crime, and Shepard was memorialized in films and music. However, at least one group, Kansas’s Westboro Baptist Church, claimed that Shepard’s death was justified based on his sexual orientation. The group’s very public stance, which included picketing Shepard’s funeral and his attackers’ trials, only demonstrated the need for more inclusive hate crime legislation. President Bill Clinton even called for Congress to draft stronger hate crime legislation. Change, however, has been slow to come. In 2007, both the House of Representatives and the Senate passed a version of a hate crime bill inclusive of crimes against homosexuals, dubbed the Matthew Shepard Act. However, President George W. Bush suggested that he would veto the bill if it reached him. Further Reading

Loffreda, Beth. Losing Matt Shepard: Life and Politics in the Aftermath of Anti-Gay Murder. New York: Columbia University Press, 2000.

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Patterson, Romaine, and Patrick Hinds. The Whole World Was Watching: Living in the Light of Matthew Shepard. New York: Advocate Books, 2005. Jessie Bishop Powell Clinton, Bill; Crime; Hate crimes; Homosexuality and gay rights; Transgender community.

See also

■ Shoemaker-Levy 9 comet The Event A comet strikes the planet Jupiter Date July 16-July 22, 1994

The impact of the Shoemaker-Levy 9 comet with Jupiter provided the first direct observation of a collision between two objects from the solar system. On March 24, 1993, at the Mount Palomar Observatory in California, astronomers Carolyn and Eugene Merle Shoemaker and David Levy codiscovered Comet ShoemakerLevy 9. The comet was unusual in that it orbited the planet Jupiter and not the Sun. Several professional astronomers confirmed this discovery at roughly the same time. The Shoemaker-Levy 9 comet consisted of multiple objects that traveled in the same path. It orbited Jupiter approximately every two years and had passed close to Jupiter on July 7, 1992. This close pass subjected the comet to Jupiter’s intense gravitational pull, which probably fragmented the original comet into the multipart object observed in 1993. The tight orbit of the comet around Jupiter strongly suggested that it would collide with Jupiter on its next pass. On July 16, 1994, at 20:15 coordinated universal time (UTC), the first fragment of the comet struck the southern hemisphere of Jupiter at a speed of about thirty-seven miles per second. The comet struck the side of Jupiter hidden from Earth, but the rapid rotation of Jupiter brought the impact sites into view only a few minutes after the collisions. Since Jupiter is a gas giant and not a solid planet, the comet passed into Jupiter’s atmosphere and was eventually crushed by the enormous pressure. This massive release of energy generated an intense fireball and a plume of

cometary debris eighteen hundred miles high. The dark spot that formed soon after the impact measured half the diameter of Earth. Over the following six days, twenty more objects collided with Jupiter. Atmospheric gases expelled in the plumes confirmed the existence of Jupiter’s outer atmospheric cloud layer of ammonia (NH3) and second, lower cloud layer of ammonium hydrosulfide (NH4SH). Scientists postulated a third water vapor cloud layer, but the amount of water vapor in the plumes was less than expected, which suggests that the water vapor layer is thinner than previously postulated. Far more sulfur was ejected than would be expected for a comet, which shows that Jupiter’s lower atmosphere contains respectable quantities of sulfur.

An ultraviolet image of Jupiter taken by the Hubble Space Telescope on July 21, 1994, shows a number of fragments from Comet Shoemaker-Levy 9 that struck the planet’s southern hemisphere. These fragments were embedded in clouds of debris, which appear very dark in the ultraviolet photo, as dust absorbs light. (NASA/JPL)

The Nineties in America Impact The Shoemaker-Levy 9 comet taught scientists a great deal about Jupiter and also illustrated how the strong gravitational field of Jupiter helps it serve as a magnet for small comets and asteroids, which frequently collide with the planet. Without Jupiter, the probability of asteroid impacts with the solar system’s inner planets would be much greater. Fragmented comets have collided with Jupiter and its satellites as shown by the Voyager missions to Jupiter that revealed several crater chains on two of Jupiter’s moons. Further Reading

Beatty, J. Kelly, and Stuart J. Goldman. “The Great Crash of 1994.” Sky and Telescope, October, 1994, p. 18-23. Levy, David H. “Pearls on a String.” Sky and Telescope, July, 1993, p. 38-39. Noll, Keith S., Harold A. Weaver, and Paul D. Feldman, eds. The Collision of Shoemaker-Levy 9 and Jupiter. New York: Cambridge University Press, 1996. Michael A. Buratovich See also Astronomy; Hale-Bopp comet; Science and technology.

■ Showgirls Identification Sexually explicit film Director Paul Verhoeven (1938) Date Released on September 22, 1995

As the first big-budget production to earn an NC-17 rating, this film was released amid massive publicity and high expectations for box-office success. However, the reviews were near-unanimous in condemning it as one of the worst films ever made. Screenwriter Joe Eszterhas and director Paul Verhoeven had previously collaborated on Basic Instinct (1992), a highly successful erotic thriller that pushed the acceptable boundaries of sex and violence for an R-rated film. When they decided to make a new film about showgirls and strippers in Las Vegas, they agreed that they would expose sexuality and sexual power in ways so graphic that an NC-17 rating—rare in Hollywood, and unprecedented for a film costing $40 million to make—would be inevitable.

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The film follows the rise of Nomi Malone (Elizabeth Berkley), who hitchhikes to Las Vegas hoping to become a professional dancer in an elaborate stage show. Paralleling the plot of other backstage musicals, as well as All About Eve (1950), Nomi thrusts her way to the top. However, just when she finally achieves her dream and becomes the star of the show, her best friend is brutally raped. Realizing the price one must pay to reach the pinnacle of success in Las Vegas, Nomi forsakes her newly won fame and hitchhikes to Los Angeles. Upon its release, Showgirls played on 1,388 U.S. screens—more than any other film rated NC-17, either before or since. Although Metro-GoldwynMayer/United Artists had whetted audience appetites with advertising and promotions that were both salacious and shrewd, the film bombed at the box office. Its gross ticket sales in the United States were just over $20 million domestically, well below expectations. Moreover, film critics were merciless, calling it sleazy, vulgar, tawdry, laughable, shallow, trite, dull, joyless, cynical, manipulative, and even unerotic. The film also set a record for the most Golden Raspberries, or Razzies, awarded annually to the most egregious films made each year in Hollywood, including Worst Picture, Worst Actress, Worst Director, and Worst Screenplay. Impact The box-office failure of Showgirls confirmed for the Hollywood studios that films rated NC-17 were financially risky at best. However, by the end of the 1990’s, the film was being reevaluated by both scholars and fans, who were admiring it in several ways: as a camp classic, as a postmodern comedy, and as an ironic critique of American capitalism and consumer culture. Further Reading

Lippit, Akira Mizuta, et al. “Round Table: Showgirls.” Film Quarterly 56, no. 3 (Spring, 2003): 32-46. Sandler, Kevin S. “The Naked Truth: Showgirls and the Fate of the X/NC-17 Rating.” Cinema Journal 40, no. 3 (Spring, 2001): 69-93. Verhoeven, Paul. Showgirls: Portrait of a Film. New York: Newmarket Press, 1995. James I. Deutsch See also Basic Instinct; Film in the United States; Las Vegas megaresorts; NC-17 rating.

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■ Silence of the Lambs, The Identification American horror film Director Jonathan Demme (1944) Date Released on February 14, 1991

Besides winning five Academy Awards and grossing over $130 million in the United States alone, The Silence of the Lambs became the film for which the director Jonathan Demme would become best known and established not only Anthony Hopkins as a leading man but also his character, Hannibal “The Cannibal” Lecter, as one of the most infamous villains in Hollywood history. Part horror film, part crime drama, and part psychological thriller, The Silence of the Lambs wove together a complex story from the perspective of Clarice Starling (Jodie Foster), a young Federal Bureau of Investigation (FBI) trainee for whom the capture of a serial killer represents her biggest and most dangerous challenge. The danger is not only physical—as a woman, Starling herself risks becoming the killer’s next victim—but also psychological: Encouraged by her superior Jack Crawford (Scott Glenn) to enlist the assistance of the incarcerated serial killer Dr. Hannibal Lecter, whose trademark had been the devouring of his victims, she reluctantly becomes vulnerable to his insidiously subtle manipulation. Thus, the capturing of the killer becomes a sort of red herring (or, as such devices have come to be known in cinema, a MacGuffin). Jonathan Demme’s main concern was the effective dramatization of Starling’s loss of innocence and her initiation into maturity as she comes face to face with criminals capable of a brutality, a deviousness, and a depravity she had previously only experienced secondhand. In the process, she discovers weaknesses within herself that she had been unable to confront and develops the strength to overcome them. Impact Before directing The Silence of the Lambs (based on the 1988 novel of the same name by the crime novelist Thomas Harris), Jonathan Demme had made thirteen films ranging from cult favorites such as Caged Heat (1974), Melvin and Howard (1980), and the Talking Heads concert film Stop Making Sense (1984) to the hit comedy Married to the Mob (1988). With The Silence of the Lambs, however, he established himself as a director capable of transforming serious cinema into box-office and Oscar largesse. The film had a similar, status-cementing ef-

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fect upon the careers of Anthony Hopkins and Jodie Foster, both of whom, despite having compiled lengthy and critically well-regarded Hollywood résumés, had never been considered top-draw performers. Besides spinning off the sequels Hannibal (2001), Red Dragon (2002), and Hannibal Rising (2007), The Silence of the Lambs also gave rise to controversy. That the serial killer turns out to be a transvestite obsessed with creating an outfit from the flayed skins of his victims led members of the gay rights community to accuse the film of having insensitively reinforced the stereotypical linking of homosexuality and pathological instability. Demme’s 1993 film, Philadelphia, a sympathetic portrayal of an AIDS victim suffering unfair discrimination, was generally considered to have been, at least in part, his response to such criticism. Further Reading

Bliss, Michael, and Christina Banks. What Goes Around Comes Around: The Films of Jonathan Demme. Carbondale: Southern Illinois University Press, 1996. Harris, Thomas. The Silence of the Lambs. New York: St. Martin’s Press, 1988. Simon, John. John Simon on Film: Criticism, 19822001. New York: Applause Theatre & Cinema Books, 2005. Arsenio Orteza Academy Awards; Dahmer, Jeffrey; Film in the United States; Homosexuality and gay rights; Philadelphia; Transgender community.

See also

■ Silicon Valley A region of Northern California associated with technology and science Place The southern part of the San Francisco Bay Area in California, encompassing San Mateo and Santa Clara counties Identification

Known for the large number of silicon chip innovations in the 1950’s and 1960’s, this area emerged as a leader in global communications systems by the late twentieth century. Silicon Valley is recognized for its role in the expanding electronics industry in the fields of radio, televi-

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Million-dollar homes under construction near a country club in San Jose, California. Silicon Valley saw a boom in housing sales during the dot-com bubble that began in the mid-1990’s. (AP/Wide World Photos)

sion, and computers throughout the twentieth century. Companies in the region pioneered the electronics revolution in the United States beginning in 1909 with the Federal Telegraph Corporation (FTC) in Palo Alto; by the 1930’s, they were conducting innovative work in the radio industry. The area made a name for itself when Ralph Vaerst, an entrepreneur, coined the term “Silicon Valley” in 1971, and the region soon began to attract more national attention when a feature article appeared in Fortune magazine three years later. During the Cold War period (the mid-1940’s to the early 1990’s), Silicon Valley experienced economic growth as a result of the military-industrial complex, which required electronic equipment, semiconductors, and transistors to help bolster the defense industry. The region evolved into a magnet for students who majored in technology and science fields, and graduate students in engineering from

nearby Stanford University were given unprecedented career opportunities for professional advancement. In order to provide local employment incentives to recent graduates, the Stanford Industrial Park was developed to give leases to companies that fostered technological innovations, such as the Shockley Semiconductor Laboratory and HewlettPackard, which gained recognition in the home printing market and evolved into one of the largest personal computer manufacturers in the world. During the 1990’s, as the computer industry burgeoned with corporate giants such as Adobe, Microsoft, and Apple, Silicon Valley earned a reputation for advancements in software, Internet services, and operating systems. Investors, stockholders, and chief executive officers who took advantage of the high-tech market did very well financially. Silicon Valley churned out a number of young entrepreneurs who led lavish lifestyles that ended up contrib-

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uting to the large real estate boom in the area during the 1980’s and 1990’s. The region became associated with the rise of dot-coms, new Internet-based companies. Even after the stock market decline in 2000 linked to the bursting of the dot-com bubble, Silicon Valley companies continued to be ranked in the top tier worldwide for technological developments. Impact

Further Reading

Kenney, Martin, ed. Understanding Silicon Valley: The Anatomy of an Entrepreneurial Region. Stanford, Calif.: Stanford University Press, 2000. Lewis, Michael. The New New Thing: A Silicon Valley Story. New York: W. W. Norton, 2000. Lewis, Ted G. Microsoft Rising—and Other Tales of Silicon Valley. Los Alamitos, Calif.: IEEE Computer Society, 1999. Gayla Koerting Apple Computer; Computers; Dot-coms; Gates, Bill; Jobs, Steve; Microsoft; Science and technology.

See also

■ Silicone implant ban As a result of health concerns, the U.S. government declares that breast implants cannot be filled with silicone Date 1992 The Event

When the Food and Drug Administration (FDA) banned silicone implants, it created enormous distrust of the health care industry. Thousands of women sued manufacturers for damages. In 1976, the FDA enacted the Medical Devices Amendment, requiring that all medical devices be approved for safety and effectiveness. A grandfather clause exempted devices already in use unless their safety was questioned. Silicone breast implants, in use for over ten years, were therefore exempt. In 1988, following reports of illness linked to ruptured implants, the FDA required the four manufacturers of implants to prove the safety of silicone implants, giving them three years to conduct studies and compile data. In 1992, Dow Corning provided data from 329 studies. The FDA found the results inconclusive and banned the use of implants for cosmetic surgery. Only women undergoing reconstruc-

tive surgery for breast cancer, breast injuries, or deformities could receive silicone-filled implants, and then, only as part of a research study. Impact By the 1990’s, cosmetic breast surgery had become popular, as more than 1.5 million women in the United States had received silicone implants. Thousands of women who believed their implants caused disease, such as cancer and autoimmune disorders (rheumatoid arthritis and lupus), sued the manufacturers for billions of dollars in settlements. Dow Corning filed for bankruptcy to settle claims. In 1997, Congress instructed the Department of Health and Human Services to examine safety issues related to silicone implants. Scientists from numerous medical specialties reviewed all available studies and concluded that there is no evidence that silicone implants cause cancer, autoimmune diseases, diseases specific to implants, birth defects, or danger to a developing fetus. Problems associated with implants are local to the implant and areas affected by the surgery. The greatest risk of silicone implants, compared with saline implants, is an increased incidence of capsular contracture (scar tissue formed by the body). All implants result in some degree of contracture, but, in some women, the appearance and feel of the breast is so altered that surgical correction is required. Breast implants do not last forever and will rupture eventually. When rupture is detected, surgery, with the usual risk of hematoma and infection, is required to replace the implant. Rarely, rupture results in silicone gel escaping into tissue near the breast and becoming encapsulated by the body, resulting in a lump in the chest, armpit, or arm. Surgical correction requires removal of the implant and escaped silicone. Although radiation therapy can cause an increase in capsular contracture, mammography or other X rays have no adverse effects on implants. Subsequent Events Subsequent research has failed to show a causal relationship between silicone implants and disease, but uncertainty and controversy continue. It is possible that an undetected rupture could result in long-term risks. More research is indicated and the FDA ban remains in effect. Further Reading

Grigg, Martha, et al. Information for Women About the Safety of Silicone Breast Implants. Washington, D.C.: National Academy Press, 1999.

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Stewart, Mary White. Silicone Spills: Breast Implants on Trial. Westport, Conn.: Praeger, 1998. Zimmerman, Susan. Silicone Survivors: Women’s Experiences with Breast Implants. Philadelphia: Temple University Press, 1998. Edna B. Quinn See also Cancer research; Health care; Medicine; Psychology.

■ Simpson murder case Former football star O. J. Simpson is charged with the stabbing deaths of his ex-wife and her friend Date January 24-October 3, 1995 Place Los Angeles, California The Event

The Simpson murder case was the 1990’s “trial of the century” that included all the ingredients of a sensational news

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story: domestic violence, murder, celebrity, and live television coverage. Race also was a key issue in this high-profile case, because O. J. Simpson was an African American man charged with killing two white people in a country that had been struggling with racism and bigotry for centuries. On June 12, 1994, O. J. Simpson’s ex-wife, Nicole Brown Simpson, and her friend, Ronald Goldman, a waiter at the restaurant where she had just dined, were found stabbed and slashed to death in front of her home in the Los Angeles neighborhood of Brentwood. A pair of bloody gloves and other evidence found at the scene led police to suspect that O. J. Simpson was the murderer. The Slow-Speed Chase Five days after the murders, Los Angeles police issued an all-points bulletin for Simpson’s arrest after he failed to voluntarily turn himself in to authorities and hinted in a letter that he may attempt suicide. Police spotted Simpson riding in a white Ford Bronco down a Los Angeles freeway. When police discovered that Simpson had a

O. J. Simpson and attorneys discuss strategy for cross-examining a forensic scientist during Simpson’s 1995 murder trial. (AP/Wide World Photos)

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If It Doesn’t Fit . . . In his closing statement at the criminal trial of O. J. Simpson, lead defense attorney Johnnie Cochran appealed to the jury’s sense of racial injustice and distrust of the police investigation: The Defendant, Mr. Orenthal James Simpson, is now afforded an opportunity to argue the case, if you will, but I’m not going to argue with you, ladies and gentlemen. What I’m going to do is to try and discuss the reasonable inferences which I feel can be drawn from this evidence. . . . From the very first orders issued by the LAPD so-called brass, they were more concerned with their own images, the publicity that might be generated from this case than they were in doing professional police work. . . . Because of their bungling, they ignored the obvious clues. . . . We think if they had done their job as we have done, Mr. Simpson would have been eliminated early on. . . . And so as we look then at the time line and the importance of this time line, I want you to remember these words. Like the defining moment in this trial, the day Mr. Darden asked Mr. Simpson to try on those gloves and the gloves didn’t fit, remember these words; if it doesn’t fit, you must acquit. . . . And when you are back there deliberating on this case, you’re never going to be ever able to reconcile this time line and the fact there’s no blood back there. . . . They don’t have any mountain or ocean of evidence. It’s not so because they say so. That’s just rhetoric. We this afternoon are talking about the facts. And so it doesn’t make any sense.

gun, they backed off but continued to follow the Bronco in a slow-speed chase. News helicopters followed Simpson and the police, televising the pursuit live on national television. The National Broadcasting Company (NBC) interrupted coverage of the 1994 NBA Finals to show images of the Bronco traveling along the freeway with a squad of police cruisers trailing behind it. Hundreds of spectators packed overpasses along the freeway. Some of them held signs in support of Simpson. The slow-speed chase ended at Simpson’s Brentwood home, where he surrendered to authorities.

It just doesn’t fit. If it doesn’t fit, you must acquit. . . . Then we come, before we end the day, to Detective Mark Fuhrman. This man is an unspeakable disgrace. He’s been unmasked for the whole world for what he is. . . . And they put him on the stand and you saw it. You saw it. It was sickening. . . . Then Bailey says: “Have you used that word, referring to the ‘n’ word, in the past ten years? . . . I want you to assume that perhaps at some time since 1985 or ’86, you addressed a member of the African American race as a nigger. Is it possible that you have forgotten that act on your part?” . . . Let’s remember this man. . . . Why did they then all try to cover for this man Fuhrman? . . . This man could have been off the force long ago if they had done their job, but they didn’t do their job. People looked the other way. People didn’t have the courage. One of the things that has made this country so great is people’s willingness to stand up and say that is wrong. I’m not going to be part of it. I’m not going to be part of the coverup. That is what I’m asking you to do. Stop this coverup. Stop this coverup. If you don’t stop it, then who? Do you think the police department is going to stop it? Do you think the D.A.’s office is going to stop it? Do you think we can stop it by ourselves? It has to be stopped by you.

Covered and televised by Court TV, the Simpson murder trial began on January 24, 1995. Television exposure made celebrities of many of the figures in the trial, including Judge Lance Ito and lead prosecutor Marcia Clark. Simpson’s legal defense, dubbed the “Dream Team” by the media, consisted of high-profile attorneys that included Johnnie Cochran and Robert Shapiro. Prosecutors presented blood samples and DNA evidence, which was still a relatively new form of evidence to use in trials, to place Simpson at the scene of the crime. On June 15, in one of the key moments

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of the trial, prosecutor Christopher Darden asked that Simpson try on the gloves that were found at the murder scene, a move that backfired when Simpson tried unsuccessfully to pull on the gloves. The event inspired Cochran’s often-repeated refrain in his closing argument: “If it doesn’t fit, you must acquit.” The prosecution team portrayed Simpson as a violent man who killed his ex-wife in a jealous rage. The prosecution’s domestic-violence strategy, however, was overshadowed by the Simpson defense team’s accusations of police misconduct, ranging from mishandling of the DNA evidence to racist treatment of Simpson. Some viewed the use of the “race card” by Simpson’s defense team as nothing more than a public spectacle, while others believed it had a legitimate purpose and played an important role in getting Americans to have frank discussions about race. Public opinion polls showed that Americans quickly polarized along racial lines over Simpson’s guilt or innocence. Many white Americans believed that Simpson was guilty even before the trial began, while many African Americans did not believe Simpson committed the murders. While most white Americans feared that the predominantly African American jury would acquit Simpson solely because of his race, many African Americans feared that he would not get a fair trial because of what they perceived to be a racist criminal justice system. On October 3, 1995, after 134 days of televised testimony but only three hours of jury deliberation, an estimated 150 million viewers watched as the jury returned a verdict of not guilty. Television news cameras captured the vastly different reactions of African Americans and white Americans, and those images spoke volumes about race relations during the 1990’s. At the verdict’s announcement, many African Americans across the country celebrated Simpson’s vindication, while many outraged white Americans criticized the acquittal as being a miscarriage of justice. The Goldman and Brown families later sued Simpson in civil court for the wrongful deaths of Ronald and Nicole. In 1997, a civil court jury, using a lesser standard of proof than is required at a criminal trial, found Simpson liable in the murders and awarded the families $33.5 million.

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Impact Americans were captivated by the Simpson murder case, making it the most publicized trial in U.S. history. By the end of the eight-month trial, national surveys showed dramatic differences in opinion between most African Americans and most white Americans over Simpson’s guilt. The news media also came under severe scrutiny over the fairness of televising the courtroom trial and their role in transforming the Simpson murder case into the so-called trial of the century. Further Reading

Clark, Marcia, with Teresa Carpenter. Without a Doubt. New York: Viking Press, 1997. The chief prosecutor in the Simpson case recounts trial proceedings, from jury selection to final summation, and concludes that nothing could have saved her case, given the prominent role of race in the defense’s strategy and a judicial system overly impressed by celebrity. Darden, Christopher A., with Jess Walter. In Contempt. New York: ReganBooks, 1996. An account of the Simpson murder trial and the ostracism that Darden suffered because he was an African American prosecutor trying to convict a famous African American celebrity. Goldman Family. If I Did It: Confessions of the Killer. New York: Beaufort Books, 2007. Ronald Goldman’s family seized the rights to Simpson’s ghostwritten book, which includes a hypothetical first-person account of the 1994 murders that the family considers to be Simpson’s confession. Morrison, Toni, and Claudia Brodsky Lacour, eds. Birth of a Nation’hood: Gaze, Script, and Spectacle in the O. J. Simpson Case. New York: Pantheon Books, 1997. A collection of essays about the Simpson case that focuses not on Simpson’s guilt or innocence but on the marketing of the Simpson trial and perception of race in the media. Thaler, Paul. The Spectacle: Media and the Making of the O. J. Simpson Story. Westport, Conn.: Praeger, 1997. A detailed analysis of the media during the O. J. Simpson trial, revealing that the media did not just report the case but were instrumental in creating it. Eddith A. Dashiell African Americans; Cochran, Johnnie; Crime; Journalism; Race relations.

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■ Simpsons, The Identification Television comedy series Creator Matt Groening (1954) Date Began airing on December 17, 1989

The Simpsons is the longest-running sitcom in television history, representing the late twentieth century clash between ideal nuclear families of the past and contemporary dysfunctional ones. The traditional sitcom format paired with biting contemporary social, political, and religious satire is the cornerstone of its success. Created by Matt Groening, The Simpsons originally appeared on The Tracey Ullman Show as a short sketch in 1987 and was later developed as its own series, debuting in December, 1989. The Simpson family readily identifies with previous American sitcom families insofar as Homer (voice of Dan Castellaneta), Marge (voice of Julie Kavner), Bart (voice of Nancy Cartwright), Lisa (voice of Yeardley Smith), and Maggie represent the nuclear family of married parents and exactly 2.2 children. Also familiar is their middle-class existence in the fictional average American town of Springfield, coupled with weekly churchgoing. Conventional gender roles are also largely upheld, as evidenced by Homer going to work each day and Marge staying home to care for the house and children. Such an idealized family stereotype lends itself immediately to parody after decades of sugary, morally edifying story lines from other television series, and The Simpsons has challenged both nuclear family politics as well as the notion that there is no “fun” in dysfunctional. The animated nature of The Simpsons permits Homer, a lazy, drunken father, to strangle Bart, his foul-mouthed, vandalizing son, nearly every episode without broaching the subject of child abuse in any meaningful way. Soon after the series began, the story lines made use of this medium to progressively shift the central features of the show from the American family to America, and this is perhaps why the series has such a sustained viewer base and lengthy history. The show’s ability to connect with the real world in a completely unreal way leaves the door wide open for all kinds of satire, from the social to the political to the religious and beyond. Cultural Satire By the 1990’s, The Simpsons was one of Fox network’s most successful programs, due in large part to its contemporaneity. While the show ap-

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pears to be fixed in time and place, one can easily identify the passage of time across the series based on the subject matter. Homer and Marge remain married, and, in spite of various episodic events, Homer works at the nuclear power plant and Marge is a homemaker; Bart is always ten years old, in the fourth grade, with a best friend named Milhouse; Lisa is always eight years old, in the second grade, and is the liberal voice of reason for the family; Maggie, ever known for her pacifier-sucking, has yet to outgrow her babyhood. Even though the characters never age, there are developments in the series that reveal a passage of time, such as the deaths of Bleeding Gums Murphy and Maude Flanders. Most remarkably, though, the passage of time is noted by the relevance of the material upon which the various shows comment. In the 1990’s, show topics did not always center on current events, yet episodes did not hesitate to

The Simpsons creator Matt Groening stands with a cardboard cutout of character Bart Simpson. (Hulton Archive/Getty Images)

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lampoon news topics, such as President Bill Clinton’s well-publicized affair with Monica Lewinsky, the grunge rock movement and Lollapalooza, as well as the dot-com boom. These kinds of popular culture motifs typically do not take center stage but rather appear as subtle elements of story lines involving the central characters. For example, Bill Clinton often appears in The Simpsons as a lusty and shameless womanizer, Smashing Pumpkins and Sonic Youth make appearances as part of the Hullabalooza festival Homer joins as part of the sideshow, and Homer attempts to start his own Internet business, only to be thwarted, mob-style, by Bill Gates himself. Unlike the satirical depictions of American culture on a show like Saturday Night Live, The Simpsons not only criticized but also paradoxically became American culture. Merchandise touting phrases such as “Eat my shorts” and “I’m Bart Simpson. Who the hell are you?” made these taglines common property to the point of cliché, and Homer’s annoyed grunt of “D’oh!” eventually became so ubiquitous that the Oxford English Dictionary included it as a word in its own right. Impact The influence of The Simpsons is immeasurable. The success of the show created a new category of animated television programs aimed at adult audiences and is cited as directly influential in the creation of such other Fox series as King of the Hill, Family Guy, and American Dad! as well as the Comedy Central hit South Park, to name but a few. Further Reading

Alberti, John, ed. Leaving Springfield: “The Simpsons” and the Possibilities of Oppositional Culture. Detroit: Wayne State University Press, 2004. A collection of essays of cultural criticism, the basic premise of which examines the conflict between the show’s parody of American consumerism and the show’s simultaneous complicity in this state of affairs. Episodes are discussed at length and in a variety of academically appropriate critical approaches. Cantor, Paul A. “The Simpsons: Atomistic Politics and the Nuclear Family.” Political Theory 27, no. 6 (December, 1999): 734. Covers The Simpsons in terms of its links to previous family sitcoms and the ways in which the edgy series comments on the state of the American family in light of idealistic nuclear families such as that on Leave It to Beaver. Irwin, William. “The Simpsons” and Philosophy: The D’oh! of Homer. Chicago: Open Court, 2001. A col-

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lection of eighteen essays centered on philosophical theory—from Aristotle to Friedrich Nietzsche and beyond—applied to the series. The various articles are funny, scholarly, and thoughtprovoking. Pinsky, Mark I. The Gospel According to “The Simpsons”: The Spiritual Life of the World’s Most Animated Family. Louisville, Ky.: Westminster John Knox Press, 2001. Examines in a comical manner the various levels of spiritual and religious motifs of the show. Turner, Chris. Planet Simpson: How a Cartoon Masterpiece Defined a Generation. Cambridge, Mass.: Da Capo Press, 2004. Turner’s text, while perhaps not scholarly in nature, is a whole lot of fun, examining the series to such an extent that fans and would-be fans alike will be able to follow the entertaining premise of this book. Christina C. Angel See also Cable television; Comedians; Comic strips; South Park; Television; TV Parental Guidelines system.

■ Slang and slogans Informal, or nonstandard, language particular to a subculture and short, catchy phrases used as expression of identity, branding, or advertisement

Definition

During the 1990’s, the slang and slogans characterized not only the culture but the decade, the vernacular typifying social, commercial, and technological influences. As informal, euphemistic, and even vituperative vernacular, 1990’s slang was a result of and a contributor to the culture in general and dominant subcultures in particular. Taking power over standard language, people coined new phrases, words, and terms. To perpetuate the trend and/or to profit from it, just as many others outside the group originating the slang borrowed from the uniquely formed nouns, verbs, adjectives, adverbs, and other parts of speech now turned slang and subsequently turned slogan. Some language, breaking with convention, was colloquial. Some was euphemistic. Some was borderline abusive, treading the lines between legitimate and taboo.

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Social Influence Whether as a protective device or as a weapon of rebellion, slang carried through the 1990’s the identity, reputation, and communication strategies of a particular group exercising individual expression and seeking popularity or like connection. A woman might be identified as a “bitch,” or a “beeotch.” A “playah” was one for the girls to stay clear of, and a “pigeon” was one for the guys to avoid. More attractive were the “chicas” and “dawgs”; most revered were the “homeys” or the “gangstas,” or “Gs.” People impressed others with money or jewelry (“bills,” “bling,” or “coin”) or offered nothing as a “buzzkill,” “borechore,” or “geek.” They could relax by “chillin’,” show anger by “going postal,” or challenge another to “throw down” (fight). They might opt instead to “get blazed” (drunk or high) or just “bounce” (leave). Those who impressed were “phat,” “dope,” or “fly”; those who had exceptional attributes were “hella pimpin’.” If none of the above were applicable or stress was incurred, then one might suggest anything from “Don’t have a cow, man” and “Eat my shorts” (references to The Simpsons) to “Talk to the hand,” “what-ever,” or “your mom,” resorting to the throwback insult known as part of “the dozens” and in earlier decades beginning with “your mother.” Technological and Commercial Influence The slang of the 1990’s was both exclusive to particular subcultures and globally inclusive. This was attributable to the increasing availability and accessibility of such profoundly unique technology as the Internet, Palm Pilots, and BlackBerries. Besides having linguistic components that included the adoption, alteration, and incorporation of borrowed parts of speech— which has been the case for language for centuries— slang took on the tenor and technique that the new technology introduced. Computer superstars, experts with the new technology, would no longer be the “nerds” sent into embarrassed exclusivity but the “geeks” sought after by those who formerly had ostracized them. Instant messaging, also known as “IM-ing,” would give way to “text messaging,” then reduced linguistically to “texting.” This activity would yield a complete legend of slang, acronyms, and abbreviations that became words in their own right. OMG meant “Oh my God,” IDK translated to “I don’t know,” and LOL was “laughing out loud.” Words were replaced with numbers, as 2 for “to” and 4 for “for.” This truncated and

tech-driven way of visual communication was promoted by the musical prodigy Prince, among others. Marketing and advertising would have the next angle in selling to a target audience—not only because of the general slang but also thanks to the technology-specific slang turned, hopefully, into slogan. Fairly catchy slogans such as Nike’s “Just do it” were used in the movement to empower people while also trying to convince them that empowerment was available in a high-tech shoe. The slogan “Got milk?” was popular thanks to clever ads by the California Milk Processor Board and became the material for everything from Saturday Night Live skits to branded T-shirts. Short-lived but briefly effective slogans included “Yo quiero Taco Bell” (“I want Taco Bell” in Spanish), spoken by a low-rider accessory chihuahua come alive, and Volkswagen’s one-word Fahrvergnügen (“driving enjoyment” in German) made a stake in the profit cycle. Most popular, and most lucrative, were the slogans that either played on the combination of technology and related slang, that were borrowed from a target demographic, or that were invented to be based on that subculture and accompanying vernacular. Apple Computer introduced a variation of an earlier common adverbial phrase by bringing out posters and billboards—featuring world-famous personalities such as Albert Einstein—that read “Think different.” Sun Microsystems claimed during the dot-com bubble that “We put the dot in dotcom.” Product and service proponents latched onto labels and bandied about cyberslang and names— Bluetooth, blogging, and BlackBerry (so addictive that it was also known as “CrackBerry”)—while pulling from the slang of the decade as seated in contemporary media, music, and culture. Impact As with slang or slogans of any decade, those of the 1990’s not only took inspiration from the culture at large but also informed and influenced society. Hard-hitting and emotionally loaded slang characterized reactive and expressive subcultures, unconventional slang and metaphorical slogans reflected the rapidly growing technology-based culture, and colloquial phenomenon-specific language and jargon exemplified an accelerated commercial society. Further Reading

Allan, Keith, and Kate Burridge. Euphemism and Dysphemism: Language Used as Shield and Weapon.

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New York: Oxford University Press, 1991. With expansive exploration of hundreds of examples, the authors discuss the aspects and implications of “good-sounding” versus “bad-sounding” slogans, phrases, and words. Lederer, Richard. Fractured English. New York: Pocket Books, 1996. In anecdotal form, Lederer explores the hilarity of a language as it is bastardized. A pure delight for any language aficionado. Reid, Luc. Talk the Talk: The Slang of Sixty-five American Subcultures. New York: Writer’s Digest Books, Susan Smith, shown here in police mug shots released after her arrest in 1994, re2006. As the title suggests, this ceived a sentence of thirty years to life for the murder of her two sons. (AP/Wide World Photos) book is a fascinating survey of the slang specific to subcultures and countercultures alike. her out of the car at gunpoint and sped off with her Tompkins, Jim. Think Outside the Box: The Most Trite, terrified children, three-year-old Michael and fourGeneric, Hokey, Overused, Clichéd, or Unmotivating teen-month-old Alex. The sheriff initially accepted Motivational Slogans. Raleigh, N.C.: Tompkins Asher story and immediately called for assistance. sociates, 2001. Though seemingly more appealNationwide BOLO (be on the lookout), televiing to advertisers and marketers, this book is a sion spots, and even Internet groups urged the pubcharming satire on the slogans that have been lic’s help in the search. The charade lasted for more tried and died. Amusing and informative at the than a week. With each passing day, racial tensions same time. and distrust grew as Smith’s story came under inRoxanne McDonald creasing scrutiny. Finally, after nine days of fruitless efforts to locate her children, the car, or a black male See also Advertising; Alternative rock; Cable telesuspect, Smith confessed to rolling her car into a vision; Cell phones; Computers; Generation Y; nearby lake while her sons were asleep in the back. Grunge music; Hip-hop and rap music; Internet; Divers later recovered the car with the bodies of the Music; Scandals; Spoken word movement; Televichildren still strapped in their car seats. sion; Video games. Initial public support quickly turned to anger and revulsion. The public had been duped by a mother who had callously murdered her children. Blacks ■ Smith, Susan had to endure an undercurrent of racial fingerpointing unleashed when Smith falsely claimed that Identification Woman convicted of murdering a black man was the culprit. her two small sons Smith’s trial began on July 10, 1995. Since she had Born September 26, 1971; Union, South Carolina confessed in a death penalty case, her defense team Smith’s crime resulted in one of the 1990’s most notorious, argued that Smith, though not insane, was psychointernationally covered investigations and trials. logically disturbed as a result of a traumatic childhood that had included sexual molestation by her During the evening of October 25, 1994, Susan Smith stepfather and her own failed suicide attempts. The reported to authorities that she and her sons had children’s deaths, her lawyers further argued, were been carjacked by a black man while she was driving the culmination of severe depression and part of analong a deserted road. According to Smith, sometime other suicide attempt that she managed to overduring the purported abduction the man ordered

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come in a split second, but not in time to save the children. The prosecution countered by producing documentation of an extramarital affair that had recently failed because her lover did not want children. Smith, in her desperation to salvage this relationship, made the cool, calculated decision to eliminate the obstacles, namely Michael and Alex. After a brief deliberation, the jury agreed with the prosecution’s theory and convicted Smith on two counts of murder but spared her from the death penalty. She received a sentence of thirty years to life and will be eligible for parole in 2025. Impact Susan Smith’s fabrications and eventual confession captivated a national audience and left a small town in turmoil over false accusations, sexual impropriety, and murder. The principal fallout included a book written by her ex-husband and confirmed revelations that her stepfather, a leader in South Carolina’s Republican Party and Christian Coalition, had sexually molested her on numerous occasions.

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Philadelphia teenager was sent by his mother to live with his wealthy relatives in Los Angeles, California. The sitcom remained popular with television audiences for the six seasons it was broadcast on NBC and ended only because Smith wanted to pursue other interests. In 1992, the aspiring actor made his motionpicture debut in Where the Day Takes You. In 1993, he starred in Made in America with Ted Dansen and Whoopi Goldberg. That same year, Smith starred in Six Degrees of Separation, a drama that many Hollywood critics considered his breakout film. Released in 1995, the successful action-comedy film Bad Boys gave Smith his first action hero role and grossed $140 million worldwide. In 1996, Smith earned superstar status after starring in the blockbuster science-fiction film Independence Day. The film earned more than $96 million within the first six days of its release and a total of $306.1 million by the

Further Reading

Rekers, George. Susan Smith: Victim or Murderer. Lakewood, Colo.: Glenbridge, 1996. Smith, David, with Carol Calef. Beyond All Reason: My Life with Susan Smith. New York: Kensington Books, 1995. Henry W. Mannle See also Crime; Klaas kidnapping and murder case; Psychology; Race relations; Ramsey murder case; Wuornos, Aileen Carol.

■ Smith, Will Identification American rap artist and actor Born September 25, 1968; Philadelphia,

Pennsylvania Smith became an award-winning rap artist, television star, and blockbuster movie star during the 1990’s. Willard Christopher “Will” Smith, Jr., who was professionally known as the rap artist the Fresh Prince during the 1980’s, catapulted to stardom during the 1990’s. On September 10, 1990, Smith made his television debut on the National Broadcasting Company (NBC) sitcom The Fresh Prince of Bel-Air. The comedy followed the exploits of Smith’s character, who as a

Will Smith wins the award for best rap video for “Gettin’ Jiggy wit It” during the 1998 MTV Video Music Awards. (AP/Wide World Photos)

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end of the year. It also became the number one film of 1996. In 1997, Smith starred in another successful film, Men in Black, with Tommy Lee Jones. In 1998, he starred in Enemy of the State, and in 1999 he starred in Wild, Wild, West. In addition to his acting career, Smith continued to pursue his music during the decade. Collaborating with D. J. Jazzy Jeff (Jeffrey Townes), with whom he had worked during the 1980’s, Smith released the album Homebase in 1991. In 1997, Smith released the title song to the Men in Black sound track. That year, Smith launched his solo music career with the release of Big Willie Style, and in 1999 he released Willennium. Both albums went multiplatinum. During the 1990’s, Smith won three Grammy Awards in the category of Best Rap Performance: for “Summertime” (1992), “Men in Black” (1998), and “Gettin’ Jiggy wit It” (1998). Impact An award-winning rap artist, television star, and a film superstar, Will Smith is among a rare group of American performers who have enjoyed success in more than one field of entertainment. As both a rap artist and an actor, Smith had an enormous impact on the popular culture of the 1990’s. Further Reading

Anderson, Marilyn D. Will Smith. San Diego, Calif.: Lucent Books, 2003. Marron, Maggie. Will Smith: From Rap Star to Mega Star. New York: Warner Books, 2000. Bernadette Zbicki Heiney African Americans; Film in the United States; Hip-hop and rap music; Music; Television.

See also

■ Soccer Definition

International team sport

Soccer made a big comeback in the United States in the 1990’s thanks to the success of World Cup USA 1994 and the U.S. women’s team. U.S. major-league soccer started again in 1996. In Canada, the national soccer league folded in 1992. By 1990, soccer was not a mass spectator sport in America, yet the game was popular among young amateur and college players and also attracted those who did not want to become professional athletes.

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As there were many strong female players at the collegiate level, it was a gratifying moment when the U.S. women’s national team won the first Women’s World Cup in China in 1991. The decade’s biggest soccer event was the 1994 World Cup, held in the United States. Its great success against some odds led to a renaissance of professional soccer in the United States, with a major league forming again in 1996. When the U.S. women’s team won the 1999 Women’s World Cup in the United States, some of its outstanding players like Mia Hamm became recognized nationwide. In Canada, too, the women’s national team outperformed the men’s team. Further U.S. Developments In the early part of the decade, soccer struggled to become a popular professional sport in the United States. At the 1990 World Cup, the United States was eliminated after the first round because of an embarrassing 1-5 loss to the Czechs, a respectable 0-1 against hosting Italy, and a bitter 1-2 against Austria. At home, there were many competing leagues fighting with one another over the best players, and it was only gradually that outdoor soccer beat its rival indoor game in popularity. At last the 1989 merger of the Western Soccer Alliance with the American Soccer League put together the new American Professional Soccer League (APSL), which finished its first season in 1990. To save travel expenses, the league had two divisions. Its winners met to determine the championship, which fell in 1990 to the Maryland Bays with a 2-1 victory over the San Francisco Bay Blackhawks in penalty kicks. Professional soccer continued to consolidate in 1991-1993. The weaker regional leagues folded, as well as the weaker professional teams. However, the surviving teams became stronger by attracting the best players. The national team disappointed when it failed to move beyond round one in the 1992 Olympics. By 1994, however, the United States amazed a skeptical world by not only filling the stadiums of the hosted World Cup but also having its team advance to round two. There, the United States lost to the later world champion Brazil with a respectable 0-1. In 1995, the women’s team could not defend its title at the second Women’s World Cup, held in Sweden, losing against Norway but winning against China to earn third place. However, the women’s

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team won gold at the 1996 Olympics, where the men’s team did not get beyond round one. By 1997, professional soccer had its major league of ten teams in two divisions, and D.C. United took the championship by defeating the Colorado Rapids 2-1. With the A-League, there was also a Division 2. The World Cup of 1998 was a big disappointment. National coach Steve Sampson clashed with his players, firing team captain John Harkes and instituting a controversial lineup. In France, the U.S. team lost 0-2 to Germany and decisively 1-2 to Iran, being eliminated even before losing 0-1 to former Yugoslavia. Sampson resigned and was replaced by Bruce Arena, who rejuvenated the U.S. team for the next millennium. Canadian Developments The decade began well for Canadian soccer. In 1990, the Vancouver EightySixers, champions of the Canadian Soccer League (CSL), beat the U.S. champion Maryland Bays 3-2 in Burnaby, British Columbia, to win the only North American Club Championship ever held. Canada’s national team, which failed to qualify for the 1990 World Cup, won the 1990 North American Nations Cup in Canada 1-0 over a B-team from the United States and an upset 2-1 over Mexico. Professional soccer in Canada suffered a serious setback when the CSL folded in 1992. Low spectator interest and high travel costs were prime factors. The three most successful Canadian clubs, the Vancouver Eighty-Sixers, the Toronto Blizzard, and the Montreal Impact, joined the APSL and continued to play there and in its successor league. By 1999, plans to revive a Division 1 Canadian soccer league were deemed too financially risky. Canada’s national men’s team failed to qualify for the three World Cups and both Olympics of the 1990’s. The team was modestly successful in the CONCACAF Gold Cup, eliminated after the first round in 1991, 1993, and 1996 but withdrawing in 1998. Canada’s national women’s team did better, playing in the first rounds of the 1995 and 1999 Women’s World Cup.

Soccer became somewhat of a surprise sport in the United States after the 1994 World Cup. Mainstream American audiences took a liking to this game that was new to many. The professional teams consolidated and were able to relaunch a Division 1 soccer league. However, the game continued to be Impact

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Soccer moms

most successful at the amateur, collegiate, and national women’s level. In Canada, the folding of the CSL and the lack of success for the men’s national team meant that soccer remained a niche sport. The national women’s team was far more successful, presenting an interesting sports alternative for female athletes. Further Reading

Brodsgaard, Shel, and Bob Mackin. Goals and Dreams: A Celebration of Canadian Women’s Soccer. Gibsons Landing, B.C.: Nightwood Editions, 2005. The 1990’s is covered in a historical overview; profiles of players include those active during the decade. Introduction by Andrea Neil, Canadian midfielder since 1991. Hunt, Chris, ed. The Complete Book of Soccer. Richmond Hill, Ont.: Firefly Books, 2008. Covers all major competitions of the professional and national U.S. and Canadian teams of the 1990’s. Richly illustrated, with index. Markovits, Andrei, and Steven Hellerman. Offside: Soccer and American Exceptionalism. Princeton, N.J.: Princeton University Press, 2001. Chapters 5 to 7 cover the 1990’s; chapter 6 is devoted to the 1994 World Cup. Index, appendix, with data on collegiate soccer. Szymanski, Stefan, and Andrew Zimbalist. National Pastime: How Americans Play Baseball and the Rest of the World Plays Soccer. Washington, D.C.: Brookings Institution, 2005. Comparison of the two sports, with emphasis on the role of economics and television on a sport’s popularity. Analyzes changes in U.S. soccer in the 1990’s. R. C. Lutz See also Hamm, Mia; Olympic Games of 1992; Olympic Games of 1996; Soccer moms; Sports; World Cup of 1994.

■ Soccer moms Middle- to upper-middle-class suburban mothers who drive their children to soccer practices in minivans or SUVs

Definition

Soccer moms were viewed as a vital swing vote in the 1996 presidential election, helping incumbent president Bill Clinton to defeat Republican candidate Bob Dole.

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The term “soccer mom” was created by the media to portray the population of white, suburban, married females who favored Bill Clinton in the 1996 presidential election. The mythical soccer mom is a middle- to upper-middle-class mother of two to three children, is college-educated, and works at least parttime outside the home. The media focused on soccer since it was the fastest growing sport in the country for both boys and girls. Families throughout the United States are involved in the sport, particularly in the suburbs. Parents of soccer players spend many evenings and weekends driving to soccer games, preparing snacks, supplying uniforms, and cheering from the sidelines. The stereotype assumes that mothers spend more time involved with their children’s activities than fathers and that this adds to their already busy, hectic lives. Political Gender Gap In the 1992 presidential election, polls showed that married, white, suburban women voted 5-3 for Republican candidate George H. W. Bush over Democratic candidate Bill Clinton. This trend reversed in 1996, with these same women voting 5-4 for Clinton over Republican candidate Bob Dole. In reporting on this trend, the media labeled these suburban women as “soccer moms,” giving their concerns significant coverage that effectively swayed the focus of the presidential debate. The politics of soccer moms highlight their dedication to their children, to their aging parents, and to social concerns for the poor and elderly. Bill Clinton and the Democratic Party addressed these issues when they spoke of education, family leave, teen smoking, V-chips (which allow parental control over television content viewed by children), pensions, and health care. Bob Dole and the Republican Party, on the other hand, tended to focus on the economy and government ineffectiveness. The role of government is perceived differently between men and women. Women tend to believe that government has a moral responsibility to recognize and address social concerns, while men tend to view the government as defective and burdensome. The 1995 Republican-sponsored cuts in social spending were viewed with apprehension and disapproval by many women who saw cuts in programs for the poor and elderly as radical and dangerous. Many men, on the other hand, viewed Dole’s promise to cut taxes by 15 percent as necessary.

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Female voters generally preferred Clinton over Dole. They believed that Clinton was more in tune with the realities of the 1990’s and with the concerns of youth. Dole was seen as too old, mean-spirited, and out of touch with the modern world. He was viewed as lecturing and impersonal. He spoke out against many issues valued by the female swing vote, such as abortion rights and the Family and Medical Leave Act. Toward the end of his campaign, Dole attempted to appeal to the soccer mom vote. The media had created the impression that soccer moms, if won over, would sway the 1996 presidential election, but Dole’s effort to capture this demographic came too late. Soccer Moms and Women’s Issues With this focus on the soccer mom, many other women’s issues were ignored or downplayed. In actuality, suburban soccer moms represented less than 10 percent of the American public and the voting electorate. Bluecollar working mothers were also a swing vote in the 1996 presidential election but did not receive the same media attention. Issues of minority women, poor women, and feminists were largely ignored. Issues such as welfare reform, abortion, child care, or sexual harassment were not discussed in the presidential debates. The only women’s issues discussed were those that reflected a woman’s role as a mother. Impact By focusing on a small section of female voters identified by the term “soccer moms,” the media effectively guided the focus of the presidential debate to issues relevant to middle-class, suburban families. Further Reading

Carroll, Susan J. “The Disempowerment of the Gender Gap: Soccer Moms and the 1996 Elections.” PS: Political Science and Politics 32, no. 1 (March, 1999): 7-11. The author argues that the framing of some women as “soccer moms” by the media actually resulted in the disempowerment of most women in the 1996 presidential election. Carroll, Susan J., and Richard L. Fox, eds. Gender and Elections: Shaping the Future of American Politics. New York: Cambridge University Press, 2006. Offers insight into how gender affects contemporary American elections, including the labeling of some women as “soccer moms” in the 1996 presidential election. McCormick, John, and John Leland. “The Fight over the Soccer Moms.” Newsweek, August 26,

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1996, 28. Looks at the fight over middle-class female voters in the 1996 presidential race. MacFarquhar, Neil. “What’s a Soccer Mom Anyway?” The New York Times, October 20, 1996, p. D1. Explores the use of the term “soccer moms” and why many people find it so misleading. Poole, Barbara L., and Melinda A. Mueller. “Alienation and the ‘Soccer Mom’: A Media Creation or a New Trend in Voting Behavior?” In Engaging the Public: How Government and the Media Can Reinvigorate American Democracy, edited by Thomas J. Johnson, Carol E. Hays, and Scott P. Hays. Lanham, Md.: Rowman & Littlefield, 1998. Research on the gender gap in the 1996 presidential election and the oversimplification of women’s attitudes about the role of government by the use of labels such as “soccer moms.” Elizabeth Cramer See also Clinton, Bill; Dole, Bob; Elections in the United States, 1996; Family and Medical Leave Act of 1993; Soccer; Sport utility vehicles (SUVs); Women in the workforce.

■ Social Security reform Proposed changes to the Old Age, Survivors, and Disability Insurance and Medicare programs

Definition

In the 1990’s, federal largesse to middle class and elderly Americans was viewed as pushing government debt to levels projected to place intolerable burdens on the young and future generations. Social Security was a main target of reform. Deficit reduction was the primary driving force of Social Security reform efforts in the early 1990’s. Balancing the federal budget in part by cutting back on Social Security spending fueled the 1992 third-party presidential candidacy of businessman H. Ross Perot, who received 18.9 percent of the popular vote. Entitlement programs comprised 54 percent of all government spending in 1993, and about half of that went to Social Security. In 1994, the Republican Party’s Contract with America proposed a constitutional amendment for a balanced federal budget, raising the Social Security earnings limit, and repeal of the 1993 tax hikes on Social Security benefits.

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By the end of the decade, the federal budget was balanced and the Social Security Trust Fund ran surpluses. Raising payroll taxes to generate surpluses sufficient to cover projected costs was viewed with political opprobrium. Payroll taxes were 7.65 percent of wages paid each by workers and employers; self-employed persons paid 15.3 percent of their annual income. The taxable upper limit was $51,300 in 1990 and $72,600 in 1999. Increasing national savings and greater retirement incomes were added to the rationale of reducing projected deficits for reforming Social Security. Privatization of part or all of Social Security also received national attention. Major Efforts and Initiatives for Reform In 1992, Massachusetts senator Paul E. Tsongas, New Hampshire senator Warren Rudman, and Secretary of Commerce Peter G. Peterson founded the Concord Coalition, a national organization advocating responsible fiscal policy and targeting Social Security. In Facing Up (1993), Peterson highlighted the projected federal deficits from roughly 5 percent of the country’s gross domestic product in the 1990’s to 20 percent by 2020, the increased life expectancy at age sixty-five from 16.8 years in 1990 to about 21.0 years by 2040, the possible quadrupling of those over age eighty-five, the reduction of the number of workers supporting each Social Security beneficiary from four in 1990 to two by 2040, and the portended increased share of workers’ payroll to cover the costs of Social Security and Medicare from 17 percent in 1990 to 50 percent by 2040. President Bill Clinton’s Bipartisan Commission on Entitlement and Tax Reform, of which Peterson was a member, could reach no agreement on specific reforms. In 1995, the Cato Institute, a libertarian think tank, formed the market-based Project on Social Security Privatization. The project immediately released two studies, “Dismantling the Pyramid: The Why and How of Privatizing Social Security” and “Retiring with Dignity: Social Security vs. Private Markets.” In January, 1997, the Cato Institute published an adapted version of Harvard University economist Martin Feldstein’s Richard T. Ely lecture delivered at the annual meeting of the American Economic Association in 1996. Feldstein argued that the difference between Social Security benefits and taxes, or Social Security wealth, crowded out private capital accumulation, produced a rate of return to beneficiaries lower than would be the case on av-

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erage if payroll taxes were invested in nonfinancial corporate capital, and reduced private savings nationally by about 60 percent. In 1998, the Concord Coalition issued its framework for reforming Social Security. In addition to principles of reform such as fairness, intergenerational equity, and fiscal responsibility, the report highlighted two options. The first, or “defined benefit,” approach entailed continuing the current program with deficit financing when balances were negative. The second approach entailed moving partially or entirely toward “defined contributions,” more like workplace 401(k) plans. President Clinton announced his Universal Savings Accounts (USA) plan in the 1999 state of the union address and elaborated on it throughout the year. Among other Social Security reforms, Clinton proposed that workers earning up to $80,000 per year receive refundable tax credits, deposited directly into their USA accounts, and that the federal government match additional contributions on a sliding scale depending on their income, with extra help to those least able to save. A nonpartisan electronic discussion and debate on Social Security, dubbed the National Dialogue on Social Security, occurred between April 19 and June 4, 1999. Fifteen hundred people from fortyseven states and Puerto Rico participated. Viewpoints covered support for current structure, meanstesting benefits, and privatizing the system. Initiatives that had individual accounts either as an optional or mandatory percentage of wages as a component of Social Security reform were discussed. However, legislative measures were assigned to and languished in congressional committees with no further action taken. Impact Efforts to reform Old Age, Survivors, and Disability Insurance (OASDI) and Medicare had no substantive legislative successes during the 1990’s. Nonetheless, Social Security reform efforts increased public awareness of and debate about the nature and extent of the “crisis” the nation faced in light of an aging population and diminishing numbers of workers to support increasing numbers of retirees. Furthermore, privatization of Social Security either in whole or in part, whose support in any event had been limited to a small number of econo-

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mists and conservative think tanks such as the Cato Institute, found much greater receptivity as a viable reform option among key politicians, including President Clinton, as well as among younger and more affluent segments of the population. Social Security reform, dormant since the previous reform efforts in the early 1980’s, was once again on the political agenda. Social Security reform was an integral part of the presidential election debates in 2000. In 2001, President George W. Bush made personal retirement accounts a central component of his domestic agenda.

Subsequent Events

Further Reading

Blackburn, Robin. Banking on Death: Or, Investing in Life—The History and Future of Pensions. London: Verso, 2002. Examines the “crisis” of pensions, placing Social Security reforms in the United States in a global context. Clinton, William J. “Remarks on the Universal Savings Accounts Initiative.” Weekly Compilation of Presidential Documents 35, no. 15 (April 19, 1999): 640-642. The president’s announcement and brief description of his Social Security reform initiative. DiSimone, Rita. “Bipartisan Commission on Entitlement and Tax Reform.” Social Security Bulletin 58, no. 2 (Summer, 1995): 74-76. Summarized interim and final reports of the commission. Peterson, Peter G. Facing Up: How to Rescue the Economy from Crushing Debt and Restore the American Dream. New York: Simon & Schuster, 1993. Popularized the idea of a national fiscal crisis well into the twenty-first century unless immediate reforms were implemented. Richard K. Caputo See also Americans with Disabilities Act of 1990; Balanced Budget Act of 1997; Clinton, Bill; Conservatism in U.S. politics; Contract with America; Defense budget cuts; Demographics of the United States; Elections in the United States, midterm; Elections in the United States, 1992; Elections in the United States, 1996; Gingrich, Newt; Greenspan, Alan; Health care reform; Liberalism in U.S. politics; National debt; Perot, H. Ross; Poverty; Stock market; Welfare reform.

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■ Somalia conflict The U.S. military plays a role in a volatile African nation Date 1992-1994 The Event

In one of the first post-Cold War operations involving U.S. military forces, a humanitarian mission changed into an unsuccessful effort to stem violence among rival factions. After years of war with Ethiopia followed by civil war in his own nation, Somalia’s longtime military ruler fled the country in January, 1991. Without a central government, the nation was controlled by guerrilla groups who continued to fight with one another. Over the next two years, Somalia experienced both a devastating famine and the effects of African’s worst drought in a century. As many as 300,000 Somalis died during this period. These conditions led to the first of three U.N. operations. From April to December, 1992, the United Nations sought to broker a cease-fire among competing factions as well as to provide humanitarian relief. Fighting intensified, however, and six U.N. military personnel were killed. In December, 1992, the United Nations accepted a United States proposal to establish a multinational force under its own leadership. This U.N.sanctioned operation, composed of twenty-four nations, was begun while George H. W. Bush was president and persisted after the inauguration of Bill Clinton as chief executive. In March, 1993, the U.N. Security Council approved a third operation in Somalia, which included participation from thirtyseven nations and 28,000 troops. The objectives of this operation were to facilitate humanitarian assistance, disarm rebels, establish stability, and assist in the creation of a new government. After the murder of twenty-four Pakistani troops by Somali militia members in June, 1993, U.S. forces actively sought the capture of rebel warlords, particularly Mohammed Farrah Aidid. Aidid and his allies opposed the United Nations’ intervention and sought to derail both humanitarian and nationbuilding assistance. The Americans issued a $25,000 warrant for Aidid’s arrest. Several attacks against rebel forces were carried out between June and October, 1993. A July, 2003, combat operation killed seventy-three clan elders loyal to Aidid. In August, 1993, the United States deployed Task Force Ranger in Somalia, a

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combination of Delta and Ranger troops who could conduct operations without U.N. control. This change in strategy was approved by President Clinton and supported by members of his administration. On October 3, 1993, Task Force Ranger forces attempted to capture Aidid associates. The plan was to deploy troops from helicopters in the capital city of Mogadishu, find and capture the targets, and transport them to the U.S. base. A series of missteps, however, led to the downing of two Black Hawk helicopters and the trapping of American troops who sought to rescue the pilots. After a day-long battle against a combination of Aidid forces and local civilians, eighteen U.S. troops were killed, seventy-three were injured, and one Black Hawk pilot was taken hostage but later released. A relief convoy of U.N. troops from Pakistan and Malaysia helped to rescue American troops, though one of its personnel was killed and nine were injured. It is estimated that a thousand militiamen and Somali civilians were killed in the battle. Following the battle, local citizens dragged American casualties through the streets of Mogadishu. On October 6, 1993, a mortar struck the U.S. base, killing one American soldier and injuring twelve more. Impact When American television broadcast the pictures of dead U.S. soldiers being abused by Somalis, support for the mission quickly diminished. As a result of a national security review session held on October 6, 1993, President Clinton announced several responses to the recent events. First, the acting chair of the Joint Chiefs of Staff was ordered to stop all actions by American forces against Aidid except in cases of self-defense. Second, Ambassador Robert Oakley was reappointed as special envoy to Somalia. Third, all U.S. forces were to be withdrawn from Somalia by March 31, 1994. The fallout from the disastrous Mogadishu battle led to the resignation of Defense Secretary Les Aspin and sidetracked the career of Major General William Garrison, who as Task Force Ranger commander took the blame for the debacle. Congressional and military investigations of the fateful Mogadishu battle uncovered several mistakes made by American forces. These blunders included attacking during daylight rather than at night, not carrying needed equipment, animosity between Delta and Ranger units leading to poor coordination, flawed intelligence, and underestimation of enemy capabilities.

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In March, 1994, President Clinton signed a directive that required that American participation in peacekeeping operations be contingent on the threat to international security and on whether such assistance directly serves American interests. Reluctance to the use of military ground forces in foreign crises helps explain the U.S. response to subsequent events during the Clinton presidency, including the genocide in Rwanda in 1994, Bosnian Serb army operations in Bosnia and Herzegovina in 1995, and Yugoslav army attacks against the province of Kosovo in 1999. Subsequent Events The third U.N. operation in Somalia ended in March, 1995. It took another nine years for Somalia to form a transitional government. In June, 2006, an Islamist militia took over Mogadishu, though the capital was recaptured by transitional government forces in December, 2006. In February, 2007, the U.N. Security Council authorized an African Union peacekeeping mission to Somalia. However, efforts at reconciliation between rival groups have proven futile to date. Further Reading

Allison, William Thomas, Jeffrey Grey, and Janet G. Valentine. American Military History: A Survey from Colonial Times to the Present. Upper Saddle River, N.J.: Pearson-Prentice Hall, 2007. This text contains a section on Somalia as part of a discussion of peacekeeping and nation-building. Bowden, Mark. Black Hawk Down: A Story of Modern War. New York: Atlantic Monthly Press, 1999. This detailed narrative of the Mogadishu battle inspired the 2001 film of the same name. Doughty, Robert A., et al. American Military History and the Evolution of Warfare in the Western World. Lexington, Mass.: D. C. Heath, 1996. A section on the Somalia mission is included in a chapter on post-Cold War interventions. Stevenson, Jonathan. Losing Mogadishu: Testing U.S. Policy in Somalia. Annapolis, Md.: Naval Institute Press, 1995. Stevenson, a journalist, covered events in Somalia for several newspapers and maga-

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zines. Two years before the publication of this book, he published an article in Foreign Policy that traced events in the besieged country until just before the Mogadishu battle. Stewart, Richard W. The United States Army in Somalia, 1992-1994. Washington, D.C.: U.S. Army Center of Military History, 2003. One of several militarybased studies of the Somalia operation. Samuel B. Hoff Africa and the United States; Bush, George H. W.; Christopher, Warren; Clinton, Bill; Cohen, William S.; Defense budget cuts; Kosovo conflict; United Nations.

See also

■ Sontag, Susan Identification American critic and novelist Born January 16, 1933; New York, New York Died December 28, 2004; New York, New York

An essayist who championed avant-garde and contemporary art, Sontag turned to historical fiction and a feminist play in the 1990’s. Susan Sontag made her reputation as a public intellectual with her first essay collection, Against Interpretation, and Other Essays (1966). She maintained her

Susan Sontag. (Library of Congress)

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status as a provocative and controversial public figure in books and essays, culminating in her return to fiction with The Volcano Lover (1992) and In America (2000), historical novels that summed up much of her work in the preceding decades, as did her play Alice in Bed: A Play in Eight Scenes (pb. 1993) and her eyewitness account of the war in Bosnia, on which she reflected in her direction of Samuel Beckett’s Waiting for Godot (pr. 1954), produced in Sarajevo in 1993. The Volcano Lover is the often-told story of Admiral Horatio Nelson, the hero of the Battle of Trafalgar, his mistress, Emma Hamilton, and her husband, William Hamilton, the British ambassador to Naples. This is the stuff of romantic, historical fiction— perhaps the least likely subject, it would have seemed, for Sontag, an aesthete who built her reputation on scorning conventional novels and deploring the mediocre state of American fiction. However, the novel reflected the 1990’s by featuring a narrator using Sontag’s own voice, one that commented from the vantage point of the present on the significance of the past. Thus, the narrator comments on imperialism and critiques Nelson’s role in suppressing the Neapolitan Revolution against the Bourbon monarchs. The narrator’s reflections on William Hamilton’s role as an art collector was an indirect way of commenting on the acquisitiveness and speculation that marked the late 1980’s and early 1990’s. Sontag’s use of three female narrators at the end of her novel reflected her growing consciousness in the 1990’s of feminist concerns—of the way women’s points of view had been suppressed in history. She continued exploring this feminist theme in Alice in Bed, an examination of Alice James’s secluded life among her more famous brothers, Henry, the novelist, and William, the psychologist. Similarly, In America, which concentrates on the nineteenth century sojourn of Polish actress Maryna Zalewska in California, continues Sontag’s concern in the 1990’s with juxtaposing the present and the past. Thus, her first chapter, “Zero,” explains who the writer of In America is, detailing much of her own biography and inviting the reader to see Zalewska’s story as also exemplifying the career of other ambitious women, including Sontag herself. Always a political activist, Sontag expressed her solidarity with the people of Sarajevo who were shelled during the Bosnian war. She risked her life

by taking up residence in the city and directing a production of Waiting for Godot, which explored fundamental questions about human suffering and the responsibility of individuals to do something about it. Impact In the 1990’s, Sontag enhanced her reputation as a woman of letters and public intellectual by publishing in diverse genres and amplifying feminist and political issues. Further Reading

Rollyson, Carl. Female Icons: Marilyn Monroe to Susan Sontag. New York: iUniverse, 2005. Rollyson, Carl, and Lisa Paddock. Susan Sontag: The Making of an Icon. New York: W. W. Norton, 2000. Seligman, Craig. Sontag and Kael: Opposites Attract Me. New York: Counterpoint, 2004. Carl Rollyson See also Art movements; Bosnia conflict; Literature in the United States; Theater in the United States; Women’s rights.

■ Sosa, Sammy Identification Professional baseball player Born November 12, 1968; San Pedro de Macorís,

Dominican Republic Sammy Sosa started the 1990’s as an interesting prospect and ended the decade as a record-breaking home run slugger who, along with Mark McGwire, was credited with bringing baseball back to its former popularity after a long and bitter strike. Sammy Sosa made his major-league debut in 1989 with the Texas Rangers and was traded to the Chicago White Sox that year. In 1990, he hit fifteen home runs but gave no indication that he would become the slugger who would twice break (in the 1990’s) Roger Maris’s single-season home run record of sixty-one home runs. He showed great potential with the White Sox, causing future hall of famer Carlton Fisk to comment, “He can achieve anything he wants.” After a somewhat successful first year with the White Sox, he slumped during the 1991 season and was traded to the White Sox crosstown rival, the Cubs, in 1992. The baseball strike of 1994-1995 put baseball in a difficult position. When the season resumed in April, 1995, the enthusiasm was just not there, and

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amazing seventy home runs, while Sosa had slugged sixty-six and been voted Most Valuable Player (MVP) of the National League. The next year, Sosa had another terrific season, hitting sixty-three home runs. While the home run competition helped to bring fans back to the ballparks, the chase also had a dark side. Rumors of steroid use by both McGwire and Sosa cast a long shadow on the time period. Nevertheless, it was never proven that Sosa had taken steroids. Impact Sosa became a symbol of achievement for the Latino population in the United States, and his cheerfulness and sportsmanship captured the hearts of the country. He went on to hit over six hundred home runs in his career—a feat matched only by a handful of baseball greats. Further Reading

Bayless, Skip. Sammy’s Season. Chicago: Contemporary Books, 1998. Duncan, Patricia J. Sosa! Baseball’s Home Run Hero. New York: Simon & Schuster, 1998. Sosa, Sammy, with Marcos Bretón. Sosa: An Autobiography. New York: Warner Books, 2000. Denis Mueller

Sammy Sosa was the National League MVP in 1998, having slugged sixty-six home runs that season. (AP/Wide World Photos)

See also Baseball; Baseball realignment; Baseball strike of 1994; Griffey, Ken, Jr.; Home run race; Latinos; McGwire, Mark; Ripken, Cal, Jr.; Sports.

■ South Park attendance was down. In 1998, Sosa and Mark McGwire of the St. Louis Cardinals engaged in a home run race that captured the imagination of the United States. Sosa had an incredible June in which he hit a record twenty home runs. The unbelievable month by Sosa triggered one of the greatest dramas in baseball history and put the grand old game back in the public’s mind. Throughout that summer, each player slugged his way toward the single-season home run record set in 1961. What made the chase so special was the friendly competition between the two players. Sosa became a darling to the fans of the “lovable loser” Cubs, and baseball benefited as a result. The Cubs, backed by Sosa’s 158 runs batted in (RBI), made the playoffs to the delight of fans. By the end of the 1998 season, McGwire had broken Maris’s record with an

Identification Animated television comedy series Creators Trey Parker (1969) and Matt

Stone (1971) First aired on August 13, 1997

Date

One of several animated television series aimed at an adult audience in the late 1990’s, South Park quickly became one of the most-watched programs on cable television. However, with its controversial subject matter and off-color humor, the series was often cited as an example of a general trend toward vulgarity in American popular entertainment. A cartoon series aired on the cable network Comedy Central, South Park was created by film students Trey Parker and Matt Stone using simple construction paper cutouts. The series featured four third-graders living in South Park, a small Colorado town. The

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four boys, Eric, Kyle, Kenny, and Stan, are casually cruel to other children, enjoy jokes about bodily functions, and use off-color language. In every episode, Kenny dies violently and his friends curse the animators for killing him. Although the program was intended for adults, at least one-fifth of its audience was estimated to be younger than twenty-five. Comedy Central gave South Park a TV Parental Guidelines system rating of TV-MA for its frequent violence, crude jokes, and controversial subject matter including sex, homosexuality, suicide, religion, flatulence, drug use, masturbation, menstruation, and death. South Park’s popularity signaled a turning point for Comedy Central, at the time a floundering sixyear-old network. The show not only was popular in itself but also lured viewers to other Comedy Central shows, as series aired immediately after South Park re-

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ceived higher ratings. South Park’s success also contributed to a trend in inexpensive, innovative programming developed by cable channels rather than major networks. The show’s popularity allowed its creators and the network to profit from merchandising and related products, including a computer game based on the series. Eric Cartman, the foulmouthed, antisocial eight-year-old voiced by Parker, became a breakout character with his own widely recognized catchphrases. In 1997, South Park won a CableACE Award for Animated Programming Special or Series. In 1998, Parker and Stone won the Producers Guild Nova Award for Most Promising Producer in Television, and South Park was nominated for an Emmy Award for Outstanding Animated Program. In 1999, the R-rated feature film South Park: Bigger, Longer, and Uncut, written by Parker, Stone, and Pam Brady, won several film industry awards; one of the film’s original songs, “Blame Canada!” was nominated for an Academy Award. South Park demonstrated the commercial potential of animated television programs and ensured the success of Comedy Central, one of many new cable channels offering television viewers alternatives to major-network programming. Cultural critics repeatedly turned to South Park and its popularity to show that mass entertainment was becoming more controversial and potentially offensive, even as it reached an ever-younger audience.

Impact

Further Reading

Arp, Robert, ed. “South Park” and Philosophy: You Know, I Learned Something Today. Malden, Mass.: Blackwell, 2007. Johnson-Woods, Toni. Blame Canada! “South Park” and Popular Culture. New York: Continuum, 2007. Maureen Puffer-Rothenberg See also Academy Awards; Cable television; Simpsons, The ; Slang and slogans; Television; TV Parental Guidelines system.

South Park creators Trey Parker, left, and Matt Stone pose with cutouts of their animated characters. (AP/Wide World Photos)

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■ Space exploration Use of satellites and other spacecraft to gather scientific information about space and other planets

Definition

During the 1990’s, NASA sent large spacecraft to Venus, the Sun, and Jupiter and launched three large astronomical observatories, which reshaped scientists’ ideas about the solar system and the universe. Human exploration continued with shuttle flights to the Mir space station, and NASA embarked on programs to explore space using smaller, cheaper spacecraft. In collaboration with Russia, eleven space shuttle missions flew to the Mir space station between 1995 and 1998. The shuttles delivered new solar-power arrays and performed crew exchanges allowing American astronauts to carry out scientific experiments on Mir. The National Aeronautics and Space Administration’s (NASA) Magellan spacecraft, launched by the space shuttle Atlantis on May 4, 1989, entered orbit around Venus on August 10, 1990. Because of the thick clouds, Magellan mapped the surface of Venus using radar, identifying fields of small lava domes and larger shield volcanoes. Magellan found few impact craters, indicating that lava flowed over the surface over the past billion years. Ulysses, a joint effort between NASA and the European Space Agency (ESA), was launched by the space shuttle Discovery on October 6, 1990. It flew near Jupiter in February, 1992, swinging Ulysses out of the plane of planetary orbits. Ulysses passed over the Sun’s south pole in mid-1994 and the north pole in mid-1995. Ulysses discovered that charged particles emitted from the Sun’s poles move twice as fast as those near its equator. Galileo, launched on October 18, 1989, by Atlantis, became the first spacecraft to fly near an asteroid. On October 29, 1991, the spacecraft passed within 1,600 kilometers (994 miles) of Gaspra and took pictures that showed a cratered, irregular body. On August 28, 1993, Galileo passed within 2,400 kilometers (1,491 miles) of Ida, discovering that it had a moon, which was named Dactyl. While en route, Galileo observed the collision of Comet ShoemakerLevy 9 with Jupiter in July, 1994. Galileo arrived at Jupiter on December 7, 1995. A descent probe measured the composition of the atmosphere, while the 2.5-ton orbiter observed Jupiter and its moons. Gali-

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leo found evidence for a saltwater ocean on Europa and observed intense volcanic activity on Io. Space Observatories The Hubble Space Telescope was launched by Discovery on April 24, 1990. Because Hubble orbits above Earth’s atmosphere, its images are not compromised by atmospheric distortions or light scattered by the atmosphere, and Hubble can observe regions of the spectrum absorbed by the atmosphere. During commissioning, the main mirror was found to have “spherical aberration,” causing light from a point to spread out, compromising the telescope’s resolution. The problem was solved during a servicing mission in 1993. Since then, Hubble has revolutionized ideas about the universe, contributing to the discovery of dark energy, a force that causes the universe to expand at an ever-increasing rate, and the discovery and characterization of planets outside the solar system. The Compton Gamma Ray Observatory, launched on Atlantis on April 5, 1991, produced the first all-sky map of high-energy gamma-ray sources and discovered a possible cloud of antimatter above the center of the galaxy. The Chandra X-Ray Observatory, launched on the space shuttle Columbia on July 23, 1999, detected an object, possibly a neutron star or black hole, at the center of the Cassiopeia A supernova remnant and imaged a previously unknown ring around the central pulsar of the Crab nebula.

On January 25, 1994, the Clementine spacecraft, a joint mission by NASA and the Ballistic Missile Defense Organization, was launched to test defense technology. Clementine, the first of a series of small spacecraft designed for low-cost space missions, orbited the Moon, taking 620,000 high-resolution images and 320,000 infrared thermal images over a two-month period. Clementine’s results suggested that there was ice at the bottom of a crater near the Moon’s south pole. NASA initiated its Discovery program for small, inexpensive spacecraft using innovative technology to fly highly focused missions designed by a small team of investigators. The first Discovery project, the Near Earth Asteroid Rendezvous (NEAR) spacecraft, launched on February 17, 1996, flew by the asteroid Mathilde on June 27, 1997. Images showed Mathilde to be 53 kilometers (33 miles) in diameter, smaller than astronomers had estimated. It was found to be twice as dark as charcoal, suggesting that

“Smaller, Faster, Cheaper” Missions

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Mathilde preserves carbon-rich material from the early solar system. NEAR became the first spacecraft to orbit an asteroid in January, 2000, when it arrived at the asteroid Eros. The Mars Pathfinder was the second project of the Discovery program. The Pathfinder landed on Mars on July 4, 1997, deploying the 10-kilogram (22-pound) Sojourner rover, which analyzed rocks and soils, while the Pathfinder monitored weather. The results suggest that in its past Mars had been warmer and wetter and had a thicker atmosphere. The Mars Global Sur veyor, launched on November 7, 1996, was the first of a series of Mars missions planned for launching every twentysix months for a decade. Mars An artist’s conception of the Galileo spacecraft during its encounter with Io, a volcanic moon of Jupiter. (NASA) Global Surveyor mapped the surface and the gravitational and magnetic fields. Scientists found that success of large observatories reshaped views of the water may still flow sporadically on the Martian sursolar system and the universe. face. Lunar Prospector was the third Discovery misFurther Reading sion. It was launched on January 6, 1998, and began Grinspoon, David. Venus Revealed: A New Look Below orbiting 101 kilometers (63 miles) above the Moon’s the Clouds of Our Mysterious Twin Planet. New York: surface five days later. Prospector provided detailed Perseus Books, 1997. Explains the advances in unmaps of the gravity, magnetic properties, and chemiderstanding of Venus from the Magellan observacal composition of the Moon’s entire surface and tions. found evidence for water ice in shadowed craters Harland, David. Jupiter Odyssey: The Story of NASA’s near its poles. Galileo Mission. New York: Springer-Praxis, 2000. Deep Space 1, the first of NASA’s New MillenA 447-page account of the quarter-century from nium spacecraft designed to test advanced, high-risk the conception to the flight and discoveries of the technologies, was launched on October 24, 1998. It Galileo spacecraft. demonstrated advanced solar-electric propulsion Mishkin, Andrew. Sojourner: An Insider’s View of the and an autonomous navigation system, the first artiMars Pathfinder Mission. New York: Berkley Books, ficial intelligence system to control a spacecraft with2003. A well-illustrated, firsthand account of the out human supervision. Its three-year mission took it Mars Pathfinder probe by a systems engineer at past the asteroid Braille and comet Borrelly, providNASA’s Jet Propulsion Laboratory ( JPL). ing the best images of a comet up to that time. George J. Flynn Impact Joint missions to Mir allowed NASA and the Russian Federal Space Agency to cooperate as interSee also Astronomy; Bondar, Roberta; Glenn, national partners, preparing for the assembly of the John; Hale-Bopp comet; Hubble Space Telescope; International Space Station. The Discovery proLucid, Shannon; Mars exploration; Science and techgram demonstrated that “smaller, faster, cheaper” nology; Shoemaker-Levy 9 comet; Space shuttle program. spacecraft can produce important results, while the

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■ Space shuttle program Program using reusable manned spacecraft

Definition

After the tragic loss of the space shuttle Challenger in 1986, the 1990’s saw a record sixty-four space shuttle flights. The decade featured numerous shuttle flights by Atlantis, Columbia, Discovery, and the Challenger replacement Endeavour. The majority of the space shuttle missions were dedicated to science, with only a few flown for the U.S. Department of Defense. From its conception, the space shuttle was designed to push the limits of aviation and space technology. Many of the new inventions created for the space shuttle eventually made their way into the hands of the general public. The medical industry in particular benefited from the innovative instrumentation used to monitor the physical condition of the astronauts in space. Another of the original goals of the space shuttle program was to make spaceflight cost-effective through reuseable spacecraft and booster rockets. Unfortunately, this was not accomplished, even with the relatively short turnaround time between launches. The 1990’s also saw several firsts in space. In 1992, Mae Jemison became the first African American woman in space. In 1996, Shannon Lucid set a U.S. single-mission endurance record of 188 days in space. John Glenn, one of the original 1960’s Mercury program astronauts, made a historic shuttle flight in 1998, becoming the oldest person to go into space at age seventyseven. Several other countries sent their representatives to participate in Russian Soyuz or U.S. space shuttle missions. One of the primary goals of the space shuttle program was to launch and support various astronomical missions such as Galileo to Jupiter and Ulysses to study the Sun. Four missions were dedicated to the Hubble Space Telescope (HST): The 1990 STS-31 (Discovery) placed it into orbit, followed by the repair and service missions of STS-61 in 1993 (Endeavour), STS-82 in 1997, and STS-103 in 1999 (both Discovery). Although a faulty optical system got the Earthorbiting observatory off to a bad start, an ingenious repair corrected a defective mirror. It took

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highly skilled astronauts to install the corrective component. The HST finally gave astronomers their first unimpeded look at the universe from beyond Earth’s atmosphere. Other astronomy-related satellites carried into orbit in the 1990’s included the Astro-1 Spacelab, the Compton Gamma Ray Observatory, and the Chandra X-Ray Observatory. In addition, a wide range of science would be conducted from orbit either from the shuttle or by satellites placed in orbit. Several missions were dedicated to studying the effects of microgravity on both biological and inorganic materials for possible industrial and biological applications. Life science and medical experiments were always an important part of every shuttle flight. The United States and the Soviet Union had realized the need for cooperation in emergency situations with the near tragic 1970 flight of Apollo 13. The Soviets had offered

International Cooperation

Science

Orbiting over Lake Baikal in Russia, the space shuttle Atlantis and Mir space station dock on June 29, 1995. (NASA)

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their assistance, but there were no practical plans for a rescue mission in space and U.S. and Soviet spacecraft were not compatible for rendezvous and docking. The success of the 1975 Apollo-Soyuz mission changed all of that and opened the door for international cooperation in space. By the 1990’s, the European Space Agency, Canada, and Japan had become important partners in space exploration with the United States, and Russian Soyuz flights often carried mixed-nationality crews. The 1990’s were highlighted by the 1995 STS63 (Discovery) rendezvous and the STS-71 (Atlantis) docking missions with the Mir space station. Subsequent missions between Mir and several space shuttles saw U.S. astronauts being launched with Russian cosmonauts in their Soyuz capsules and Russians returning from Mir on a U.S. shuttle. Impact The sixty-four successful space shuttle flights of the 1990’s achieved many goals. Cooperation in space between the United States and the former Soviet Union took a giant leap forward with shuttle flights to the Russian Mir space station. Toward the end of the decade, space shuttle mission planners saw the eventual end of the Mir space station and the beginning of the long-awaited International Space Station, the assembly of which began in 1998. Throughout the 1990’s, shuttle after shuttle completed its mission, and the vivid memories of the 1986 loss of space shuttle Challenger faded into the past. It seems that a false sense of confidence settled in at NASA as officials believed that all the problems that befell Challenger had been resolved. It was decided that the shuttle could serve as the U.S. space transportation system well into the future. Plans continued for the construction of the International Space Station, with most of the component modules being taken into orbit by the shuttle. Although the space station was behind schedule, the new timetable was still well within the operational lifetime of the space shuttles. Everything looked positive for the new decade as the final STS-103 (Discovery) mission lifted off in December, 1999. Subsequent Events The disintegration of the shuttle Columbia upon reentry in February, 2003, would demonstrate that dangers still existed, and the program was suspended for more than two years.

Further Reading

Duggins, Pat. Final Countdown. Gainesville: University Press of Florida, 2007. The author presents the history of NASA’s space shuttle program from its initial planning stage through the individual missions and to its planned conclusion in 2010. Godwin, Robert. Space Shuttle Fact Archive. Burlington, Ont.: Collectors Guide, 2007. Godwin presents a concise yet comprehensive collection of facts pertaining to the space shuttle program. It serves as a very handy reference source. Linenger, Jerry M. Off the Planet. New York: McGrawHill, 2000. A harrowing tale of the five-month experiences of U.S. astronaut Linenger aboard the space station Mir. His vivid recollections of daily routine pale in comparison to his description of the near tragic fire that threatened his life. Mullane, Mike. Riding Rockets. New York: Scribner, 2006. Astronaut Mullane describes the space shuttle program as only an insider can as he reveals the often-controversial side of NASA. Paul P. Sipiera Astronomy; Bondar, Roberta; Glenn, John; Hubble Space Telescope; Lucid, Shannon; Science and technology; Space exploration.

See also

■ Spam An unsolicited message sent to a large number of recipients, often transmitted over the Internet as e-mail

Definition

As the Internet became a pervasive system in the 1990’s, it became possible to send bulk e-mails to large numbers of people. This allowed inexpensive access to customers for marketing, but on the other hand, it meant that many e-mail users were flooded with unwanted ads. Regardless of one’s viewpoint, spam changed the way products were marketed. The first spam messages were sent by telegraph in the 1860’s. The early online and Usenet bulletin board users often got many messages posted to their accounts, and this was another early form of spam. Today, most spam comes as electronic mail, or e-mail, but instant messaging and Web 2 feeds are also spam producers. It is important to understand the development of e-mail to see why spam became such a problem in the 1990’s and into the next decade. Electronic

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messaging between computers started in the 1960’s. The simple mail transfer protocol (SMTP) was released in 1982, and the famous RFC 822 description of how to format e-mail messages was published later that year. From that point on, e-mail programs were a fixture on mainframes. Online services like CompuServe and America Online (AOL) allowed personal computers to access the Internet in the early 1990’s. In addition to giving home users access to their mainframe e-mail, online services provided their own e-mail. By the time Microsoft’s Outlook Express was bundled with Windows in 1998, millions of people were using a common transport and format for e-mail. In 1978, the first spam e-mail was sent by a Digital Equipment Corporation (DEC) salesman, Gary Thuerk, to advertise the introduction of a new DEC operating system. While no one knows for sure how much spam was sent during the 1990’s, one estimate is that consumers received more than 100 billion spam e-mails in 1999. Typical of spamming attacks in the 1990’s were those of Alan Ralsky, who used spam to sell fraudulent insurance policies in 1996, and continued to successfully send spam until 2008, when he was indicted under the new Controlling the Assault of Non-Solicited Pornography and Marketing Act of 2003 (CAN-SPAM Act). One of the best-known spam attacks of the 1990’s was the 419, or Nigerian spam scam. This scam asked those receiving it to reveal their checking account information, and the spammers then drained their bank account. Impact Almost everyone gets spam e-mail, and a large number of people get instant message, bulletin board, or RSS feed spam as well. During the 1990’s, antispam software was developed for individuals and companies to control the problems of spam flooding. The total volume of spam on the Internet had become a major problem for network throughput. Many of the efforts to counter spam involve removing spammers’ Internet access. Spam and spam scams became such serious problems that in 2003 Congress passed the CAN-SPAM Act, which established the United States’ first national standards for the sending of commercial e-mail and required the Federal Trade Commission (FTC) to enforce its provisions. Further Reading

Goodman, Danny. Spam Wars. New York: SelectBooks, 2004.

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Schryen, Guido. Anti-Spam Measures: Analysis and Design. New York: Springer, 2007. George M. Whitson III See also America Online; Apple Computer; CGI; Computers; DVDs; E-mail; Hackers; Internet; Instant messaging; Microsoft; MP3 format; PDAs; Silicon Valley; World Wide Web; Y2K problem.

■ Speicher, Scott First U.S. pilot shot down during Operation Desert Storm Born July 12, 1957; Kansas City, Kansas Died Perhaps January 17, 1991; central Iraq Identification

Speicher was listed as one of the first U.S. casualties of the Gulf War; however, his status was changed to missing and he may still be alive. Michael Scott Speicher was born and raised in Kansas City, Kansas. While in his early teens, his family moved to Jacksonville, Florida, where he finished high school. Speicher then enrolled in Florida State University, where he received a bachelor’s degree in accounting and business management. Following in his father’s footsteps, Speicher joined the U.S. Navy and became a pilot. During the time leading up to the Gulf War, he became a distinguished F/A-18 Hornet fighter pilot and was assigned to the aircraft carrier USS Saratoga in the Red Sea along with twenty-five hundred other airmen. As the war erupted, the U.S. military began conducting its strategic air assault on Iraqi president Saddam Hussein’s insurgent forces. On January 17, 1991, the evening of the first night invasion carried out by U.S. pilots, Lieutenant Commander Michael Speicher was shot down by enemy fire. Mixed reports from U.S. military and intelligence officials believe that it may have been either a surface-to-air missile (SAM) or a projectile from a Iraqi Mig-25 fighter plane that brought down his plane. Then secretary of defense Dick Cheney stated that Speicher’s plane had exploded into pieces, making Speicher the first U.S. casualty of Operation Desert Storm. Thus, Cheney along with other top Pentagon officials refused to send an elite military unit to conduct search and rescue for Speicher’s remains. Speicher’s status was officially listed as killed in action (KIA) by the Pentagon. During these early campaigns, Iraqi offi-

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cials announced the capture of numerous U.S. fighter pilots. In early March, 1991, over twenty American prisoners of war (POWs) were released by Iraqi military officials, but unfortunately Speicher was not one of them. In January, 2001, the secretary of the Navy changed Speicher’s status from killed in action to missing in action (MIA). This was the first time in U.S. history that Pentagon officials changed a KIA to an MIA. Intelligence officials further believe that Speicher may have ejected from his plane and parachuted to safety. Speicher’s status was changed again to “missing/captured” in early October 11, 2002, exactly one day after the U.S. Congress authorized military action against Iraq after the terrorist attacks of September 11, 2001. Impact Since 2002, numerous investigative bodies have attempted to determine what happened to Speicher but have yet to develop solid evidence of what actually took place. United States military officials state that they have exhausted all potential leads. During his absence, the military has promoted Speicher from lieutenant commander to commander. Today, Speicher is still unaccounted for and remains on the missing/captured list although no real evidence exists that he was captured. Speicher was thirty-three years old at the time of his disappearance and left behind a wife and two children. Further Reading

Ritter, Scott. “Missing in Iraq.” Harper’s 308 (June, 2004): 75-77. Yarsinske, Amy Waters. No One Left Behind: The Lt. Comdr. Michael Scott Speicher Story. New York: Dutton, 2002. Paul M. Klenowski See also Cheney, Dick; CNN coverage of the Gulf War; Gulf War; Powell, Colin; Schwarzkopf, Norman.

■ Spoken word movement Definition

Literary and performance movement

Created from a mix of 1960’s and 1970’s experimental jazz vocalization, coffeehouse poetry readings, slam poetry events, theater actors, and hip-hop emcees, the spoken word movement synthesized into a nationwide revolution that

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transformed the way in which poetry is presented and shared. During the 1990’s, this art form began to permeate film, advertisements, music, and culture worldwide. Spoken word poetry, which is poetry that uses elements of performance when recited, can be traced back to humankind’s earliest ancestors on the continent of Africa. It has transformed into versions that include formal rhymed verse in Turkey and the lyrical poetry of primitive northern European nomadic tribes. In the 1990’s, it combined democratic aspects of American culture to create a new movement that was rooted in providing poetic access to all ethnicities and classes. In Chicago, Marc Smith created the first poetry slam competitions. In New York, Miguel Algarín founded the Nuyorican Poets Café, which featured spoken word greats like Sandra Maria Esteves, Pedro Pietri, Saul Williams, and Tracie Morris. In San Francisco, Gary Mex Glazner organized the first national poetry slam competition, along with Marc Smith, in 1990. At the time, Smith did not know how much his humble idea would grow. This poetry reading format, unlike exclusive academic readings, allows audience participation in the form of judging. The “open mic” structure also allows anyone with a poem to share his or her work. More important, these readings were created by a multicultural, working-class pool of poets who welcomed anyone to participate. Typical readings include works by people of various ethnicities, and activist topics include struggles in academia, poverty, male-female relationships, police brutality, racism, sexism, homophobia, commercialism, and existentialism, among others. To add to the diversity, some spoken word organizers invite actors, hip-hop emcees, singers, and dancers to perform at events. While the slam fueled the spoken word movement’s growth, many artists, such as Pietri, refused to take part in it and simply used the new creativity to inform noncompetitive spoken word readings. Bob Holman, on the other hand, added fuel to the fire and created the slam explosion that resulted in the Nuyorican Poets Café becoming one of the strongest forces on the slam scene in the early years of the decade. Morris, Willie Perdomo, and Reg E. Gaines were the exemplar poets at the Nuyorican and caused other industries to take notice. Poetic Glamour and Commerce Highly publicized awards and anthologies in New York City created ex-

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During the last part of the decade, spoken word began to permeate popular culture in general. Lines with typical spoken word intonation could even be heard in commercials for fast food and popular soft drinks, leading some poets to criticize the insularity of the spoken word movement and the tendency of poets to read their work in the same fashion. Soon, “anti-slams” began to appear, some of which gave awards for the worst poems read. Nevertheless, the spoken word movement did not lose steam. Not only did national slam venues multiply all over the United States, poetry venues of all kinds multiplied, and spoken word artists came out in record numbers. It is now common to find poetry venues in the New England states and the Southwest. Famous artists also took on the art form. For example, Jello Biafra, former lead singer of the punk band the Dead Kennedys, and Henry Rollins produced multiple spoken word albums in the 1990’s. Spoken word was featured on television shows as well. The comedy sketch series In Living Color regularly featured a character who would spout verse. Even MTV Real World contestants in Hawaii could be expected to utter a few verses at a party.

Marc Smith, who started the first poetry slam in Chicago, recites in August, 1998, in Austin, Texas. (AP/Wide World Photos)

citement around the movement. Morris won the Nuyorican Grand Slam Champion title in 1993 and soon after became a creative writing professor at multiple universities, including Sarah Lawrence College. In 1994, Algarín and Holman published Aloud: Voices from the Nuyorican Poets Café, which featured pieces by the founding poets and new poets. It won the 1994 American Book Award. Saul Williams, an actor by training, won the Nuyorican Grand Slam Champion title in 1996, and this led to a film and music career. Slam, an independent film starring Williams, came out in 1998 and won the critics over. It was awarded the Cannes Camera d’Or and the Sundance Film Festival’s Grand Jury Prize. Spoken word had already been a topic of interest at Sundance in the form of a previous year’s entry, Love Jones, featuring Larenz Tate as a spoken word artist who woos a Chicago woman.

Impact The lyrical verse of poets like Gil ScottHeron and Miguel Piñero inspired working-class leaders in Chicago, San Francisco, and New York to create a national community that could revive poetry into a living art accessible to everyone. Slam poetry, spoken word venues, performance art, and the publishing, film, music, and advertising industries merged into a movement that transformed popular culture. Spoken word poetry is applauded overseas in countries like France and Germany, even if audiences do not understand the language in which it is performed; the African, Latino, and jazz/Beat rhythms in the poetry help to create a universal language. Education programs in large cities place spoken word artists in classrooms in order to teach students writing and oratory skills. Hip-hop producer Russell Simmons banked on the movement and created the Home Box Office (HBO) program Def Poetry Jam, which features spoken word. This multicultural movement has resonated into the twenty-first century. Further Reading

Algarín, Miguel, and Bob Holman, eds. Aloud: Voices from the Nuyorican Poets Café. New York: Henry Holt, 1994. An award-winning collection of poems from 145 poets.

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Sport utility vehicles (SUVs)

Eleveld, Mark, ed. The Spoken Word Revolution: Slam, Hip Hop, and the Poetry of a New Generation. Naperville, Ill.: Sourcebooks, 2003. The collection was advised by Marc Smith, includes an audio CD that includes Viggo Mortensen, and has an introduction by Billy Collins, U.S. poet laureate from 2001 to 2003. Glazner, Gary Mex, ed. Poetry Slam: The Competitive Art of Performance Poetry. San Francisco: Manic D Press, 2000. This anthology covers the first ten years of the national slam and its participants. Kaufman, Alan, ed. The Outlaw Bible of American Poetry. New York: Thunder’s Mouth Press, 1999. Featuring artists ranging from the Beats to Lou Reed to Richard Pryor to Luis J. Rodriguez, this comprehensive anthology covers the roots of spoken word. Grisel Y. Acosta Alvarez, Julia; Angelou, Maya; Coffeehouses; Hip-hop and rap music; Homosexuality and gay rights; In Living Color ; Komunyakaa, Yusef; Latinos; Poetry; Race relations; Real World, The; Shakur, Tupac; Slang and slogans. See also

■ Sport utility vehicles (SUVs) Four-wheel-drive light trucks with a high wheelbase, intended primarily for off-road use but increasingly used for general transportation

less space as necessary. When gasoline supplies increased in the 1980’s, however, the corporate average fuel economy (CAFE) standards continued to favor smaller automobiles. As a result, Americans longing for larger vehicles began turning to these light trucks, which had less stringent standards. In 1991, actor Arnold Schwarzenegger became the first person to purchase a Hummer, the civilian version of the high mobility multipurpose wheeled vehicle (HMMWV, generally pronounced “humvee”) that had become familiar during the recently concluded Persian Gulf War. This highly publicized event in Mishawaka, Indiana, served to ignite interest in SUVs. Although the huge Hummer was out of reach of most Americans’ pocketbooks, many found that smaller SUVs such as the Chevy Blazer more than adequately satisfied their need for elbow room and cargo capacity. SUVs became a popular choice for families. By the middle of the 1990’s, however, critics began to publicize problems associated with the SUV. The lower fuel efficiency was the most obvious one, although in a period of cheap gasoline prices it was of little concern. The high profile and narrow wheelbase of the SUV made it more prone to rollovers than a passenger car. Worse, most SUV owners drove them as if they were passenger cars, and most states did not require a truck license to drive them.

Definition

While carpool mothers of the 1960’s and 1970’s generally carried their broods in station wagons, the soccer moms of the 1990’s did so in SUVs. The sport utility vehicle, or SUV, had its start as a military vehicle, intended to enable soldiers and officers to go where there were no roads. The most famous of these vehicles was the Jeep, made by WillysOverland for the U.S. government. The sale of large numbers of surplus Jeeps in the aftermath of World War II brought these rugged, versatile vehicles into civilian society. The energy crisis of the 1970’s resulted in the significant downsizing of the American automobile. Although this change substantially increased fuel efficiency, it also resulted in significant reduction in cargo capacity and general passenger roominess. As long as gasoline was in short supply, people accepted

Impact The surge in popularity of SUVs during the decade changed the makeup of traffic on the nation’s streets and highways to increasingly larger and heavier vehicles. This shift had immediate consequences in fuel consumption and accident rates and longer-term consequences in the rate at which roads needed to be repaired, all of which led to growing opposition to their use. Further Reading

Bradshaw, Keith. High and Mighty: SUVs—The World’s Most Dangerous Vehicles and How They Got That Way. New York: PublicAffairs, 2002. Jacobs, David H. Sport Utility Vehicles: The Off-Road Revolution. New York: Todtri, 1998. Penenberg, Adam L. Tragic Indifference: One Man’s Battle with the Auto Industry over the Dangers of SUVs. New York: HarperBusiness, 2003. Leigh Husband Kimmel See also

Automobile industry; Soccer moms.

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■ Sports Athletic contests, both team and individual

Definition

The 1990’s experienced the usual sports dynasties, emerging athletic superstars, tragedies, triumphs, labor strikes, and even the birth of a new league. One word could summarize the decade of the 1990’s: dynasty. The National Football League (NFL) had the Dallas Cowboys. The National Basketball Association (NBA) produced the six-time-champion Chicago Bulls led by Michael Jordan. The Atlanta Braves and the New York Yankees emerged as perennial powerhouses for Major League Baseball (MLB). Dale Earnhardt won four NASCAR championships, and rookie Jeff Gordon would materialize as the face of a new generation of stock car racing in the late 1990’s. The National Hockey League (NHL) began the decade with the dominance of the Pittsburgh Penguins, and two Penguins, Mario Lemieux and Jaromir Jagr, would win countless player of the year awards. Tennis produced a competition like no other with the rivalry between Steffi Graf and Monica Seles. The Women’s National Basketball Association (WNBA) formed in 1997, and the Houston Comets would win the first three WNBA championships. Finally, the one-man golfing dynasty of Tiger Woods began: In 1994, the eighteen-year-old Woods won the first of three U.S. Amateur Golf Championships, and in 1997, his first full professional year, he would win the Masters Tournament. Basketball If one basketball franchise were the face of the 1990’s, then it would be the Chicago Bulls. The Bulls, led by NBA great Jordan, would produce two “three-peats,” a phrase coined by former Los Angeles Lakers coach Pat Riley to describe three championships in a row. The Bulls won in 1991, 1992, 1993, 1996, 1997, and 1998 and set an NBA record with most wins in a season with a 72-10 record in 1996. Jordan had retired in 1993 after the murder of his father and played professional baseball in the interim before returning to basketball and the Bulls in 1995. He retired a second time after the 1998 season, but his Nike shoes, hanging tongue, high-flying slam dunks, and ability to make clutch shots created a lasting legacy.

Three teams dominated the NFL in the 1990’s: The Dallas Cowboys, the San Francisco Forty-

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Niners, and the Denver Broncos combined for seven of the ten championships won during the decade. However, it was the second-place finisher that garnered most of the headlines: Between 1991 and 1994, the Buffalo Bills represented the American Football Conference (AFC) in the NFL championship game, and each time the Bills were on the losing end. For the first time in NFL history, a team finished as runner-up in the championship game for four consecutive years. The Bills lost a heartbreaker in 1991 when Scott Norwood’s field goal attempt sailed just wide, resulting in a 20-19 loss to the New York Giants. The Bills would go on to lose in 1992 to the Washington Redskins and in 1993 and 1994 to the Dallas Cowboys. Baseball Major League Baseball in the 1990’s is remembered for the play of two great franchises: the Atlanta Braves and the New York Yankees. The Braves won their division every year during the decade and appeared in the World Series five times, winning once in 1995. The Yankees won the World Series in 1996, 1998, and 1999. In 1992, the Toronto Blue Jays became the first non-American team to win the World Series. The Blue Jays would win again in 1993 with Joe Carter’s famous game-winning walk-off home run against the Philadelphia Phillies’ Mitch Williams. The 1993 season also saw the birth of two new franchises. The Colorado Rockies and the Florida Marlins were created and joined the National League in 1993. Just four years later, in 1997, the Marlins would win the World Series, the quickest rise for an expansion team in history. In 1994, the highlights and positive stories in baseball were replaced with a labor strike between MLB and the players’ union. The standoff would lead to the cancellation of most of the regular season and result in baseball becoming the first major sport to lose its postseason because of a strike. In 1998, however, baseball would rebound with one of the most electrifying seasons in professional sports. Mark McGwire of the St. Louis Cardinals and Sammy Sosa of the Chicago Cubs both chased the single-season home run record of sixty-one set by Roger Maris thirty-seven years before. Both would eclipse Maris, but it was McGwire’s seventy home runs that would outdo Sosa’s sixty-six. The home run battle is said to be responsible for bringing baseball back as the national pastime. McGwire would

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cap the 1998 season by being named the Associated Press Male Athlete of the Year. Speculations of steroid use among athletes and the resulting inflation of statistics produced by these synthetic drugs began to swirl following the 1998 season. The NHL began the 1990 campaign with a win by the blue-collar Pittsburgh Penguins. That championship would be followed by a second in 1991 as team captain and new star of the NHL, Mario Lemieux, led his team to victory. Scotty Bowman, who would leave the Penguins and resurface in Detroit, coached the Penguins to one of their two championships. He then led the Detroit Red Wings to championships in the 1996-1997 and 1997-1998 seasons, for a total of three championships in the 1990’s. Another first was the play of Manon Rheaume, the goaltender for the Tampa Bay Lightning of the NHL who in 1992 became the first female athlete to play competitively in one of the four big sports (football, baseball, basketball, hockey). The 1994 season is also well remembered by hockey fans because on October 1, 1994, the NHL locked out the players in a labor dispute similar to that of Major League Baseball. The dispute would shorten the NHL season to forty-eight games and conclude with a New York Rangers victory. Once a perennial powerhouse of the league, the Rangers ended a fifty-four-year drought as champions of hockey with their Stanley Cup victory in 1994.

Hockey

Tennis Tennis was a sport of rising popularity in the 1990’s because of four athletes. On the men’s side, Andre Agassi and Pete Sampras dominated individual play and were responsible for seventeen grand-slam victories during the era. Sampras won Wimbledon six times during the 1990’s, as well as six additional victories in the Australian and U.S. Opens. Agassi battled Sampras throughout the 1990’s and won the 1992 Wimbledon tournament as well as four additional Australian, French, and U.S. Opens. Additionally, Agassi won gold in the 1996 Atlanta Summer Olympics for the United States. On the women’s side, two athletes competed as the face of the 1990’s: Monica Seles and Steffi Graf. Seles was victorious eight times between 1990 and 1993 in the four grand-slam tournaments. Graf continued her reign as the best female tennis player of the 1980’s and produced fourteen additional grandslam tournaments in the 1990’s. She won three of

the four grand-slam tournaments in 1993 and 1995, losing the Australian Open both years, once to rival Seles. Their rivalry was suspended briefly after Seles was stabbed on the court by a deranged Graf fan during a match in 1993. A rattled Seles left tennis but returned in 1995 and won another Australian Open title in 1996. The domination of these two women opened the door for many other greats in the sport. One of them was Jennifer Capriati, but after a brief career that included an Olympic title, she would fade from glory as a result of drug use. The Williams sisters, Serena and Venus, emerged on the court in the late 1990’s and would reign supreme over female tennis by the start of the twenty-first century. Boxing was another sport that faced ups and downs in popularity during the decade. Heavyweight champion Mike Tyson was on the losing end of one of sports most famous upsets. On February 11, 1990, he was defeated by 42-1 underdog James “Buster” Douglas in Tokyo. Tyson was one of the most feared heavyweight fighters of all time and undefeated coming into the bout with Douglas. The boxing world would be scarred by the antics of Tyson for years to come, as he was arrested and convicted in 1992 for the rape of Desiree Washington, a Miss Black Rhode Island pageant competitor. He served three years in prison and returned to boxing in 1995. In 1996, just as the sport was beginning to lose fan support, boxing got the fight for which it had been waiting: a match between Tyson and Evander Holyfield. Tyson lost in the eleventh round, and a rematch was scheduled for the next year. Once again, Tyson would let the sport of boxing down: Following a second attempt at biting, in which Tyson partially removed part of Holyfield’s ear, Tyson was disqualified. A near riot broke out, and several people were injured in the arena. The 1990’s brought black eyes and bad memories for boxing, but there were a few bright spots. In 1994, George Foreman became the oldest heavyweight champion ever when he defeated Michael Moorer for the belt. The decade also saw the emergence of champions Oscar de la Hoya, Roy Jones, Jr., and Lennox Lewis.

Boxing

The 1990’s also witnessed the beginning and end of careers in several lesser-known sports. In cycling, the Tour de France witnessed the

Other Sports

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end to the dynasty of Greg LeMond in 1990 but the beginning of seven-time champion Lance Armstrong’s reign in 1999. The National Association for Stock Car Auto Racing (NASCAR) also had some ups and downs. Early in the decade, Dale Earnhardt dominated the field, winning four major championships and finally capturing the elusive Daytona 500 race in February, 1998. The sport also witnessed the emergence of the popular Jeff Gordon. He and the Earnhardt dynasty helped catapult NASCAR into the limelight in 1995, and the sport branched out internationally in 1996 with the Suzuka Circuit in Japan. NASCAR celebrated its fiftieth anniversary two years later, in 1998. The sport was not without loss, however, as Alan Kulwicki and Davey Allison were killed in separate aviation accidents in 1993. At the end of the decade, horse racing, and particularly the Triple Crown races, would regain glory. In 1997, the gray colt Silver Charm narrowly missed winning the final leg of the Triple Crown at Belmont Park. The following year, another near miss by Real Quiet further promoted horse racing. In 1999, the 29-1 long shot Charismatic won the Kentucky Derby and the Preakness and then broke down in the Belmont, failing to win the last leg of the Triple Crown but reviving fan support in the search for a champion. Impact Sports in the 1990’s were a time of tragedy and triumph. The story of Dennis Byrd, the New York Jets football player who was paralyzed in a game with the Kansas City Chiefs in 1992 and later made a full recovery, was heartwarming and gave faith to many that they could overcome any obstacle. Nolan Ryan’s seventh and final career no-hitter in 1991, Cal Ripken, Jr.’s eclipse of Lou Gehrig’s consecutive games played streak in 1998, and the U.S. dominance at the 1996 Olympic Games in Atlanta were positive memories of the role of sports in society. However, stories such as the final-hole collapse of French golfer Jean Van de Velde in the 1999 British Open with a three-stroke lead, the Olympic Park bombing of 1996, the O. J. Simpson trial of 1995, and the deaths of great athletes such as American football player Red Grange and Croatian basketball player Drazen Petrovic were reminders of how sports is not always about happy endings. Nevertheless, sports played a crucial role in giving hope to many Americans.

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Further Reading

Brown, Gerry, and Mike Morrison, eds. ESPN Sports Almanac. New York: Ballantine, 2009. A definitive source for statistics and trivia. Layden, Joe. The Great American Baseball Strike. Brookfield, Conn.: Millbrook Press, 1995. A book designed for young adults that examines the 1994-1995 baseball strike within the context of the history of the game and its past labor problems. McNeil, William. The Single-Season Home Run Kings: Ruth, Maris, McGwire, Sosa, and Bonds. Jefferson, N.C.: McFarland, 2002. Reviews the careers of each player and his record-breaking season. Keith J. Bell Agassi, Andre; Armstrong, Lance; Auto racing; Bailey, Donovan; Barkley, Charles; Baseball; Baseball realignment; Baseball strike of 1994; Basketball; Bowl Championship Series (BCS); Boxing; Browning, Kurt; Devers, Gail; Dream Team; Football; Gordon, Jeff; Griffey, Ken, Jr.; Hamm, Mia; Hockey; Holyfield, Evander; Home run race; Johnson, Magic; Jordan, Michael; Kerrigan, Nancy; McGwire, Mark; Malone, Karl; Olympic Games of 1992; Olympic Games of 1994; Olympic Games of 1996; Olympic Games of 1998; O’Neal, Shaquille; Ripken, Cal, Jr.; Salt Lake City Olympics bid scandal; Sampras, Pete; Seles, Monica; Soccer; Sosa, Sammy; Stojko, Elvis; Strug, Kerri; Tennis; Tyson, Mike; Women’s National Basketball Association (WNBA); Woods, Tiger; World Cup of 1994; Yamaguchi, Kristi.

See also

■ Star Wars: Episode I—The Phantom Menace Identification Science-fiction adventure film Director and writer George Lucas (1944) Date Released on May 19, 1999

A long-awaited fourth film in the Star Wars saga and the first story in the chronology, this prequel was met with mixed reviews by fans and critics. Nevertheless, the film’s visual artistry earned praise from a number of reviewers. The Phantom Menace was the first Star Wars movie to be released in sixteen years, following Star Wars (1977; later retitled Star Wars: Episode IV—A New Hope), Star Wars: Episode V—The Empire Strikes Back (1980), and Star Wars: Episode VI—Return of the Jedi

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(1983). George Lucas conceived of the saga as akin to old-time serials such as Flash Gordon, billing the 1977 film in its novelization as being “From the Adventures of Luke Skywalker.” Luke is a young man from a backwater planet who is told by Obi-Wan Kenobi that his father was a Jedi Knight, one of the psychically talented guardians of the universe betrayed, and was killed by one of their own number, Darth Vader. This leads Luke and his ragtag group of companions, including Princess Leia and Han Solo, into a conflict with the Galactic Empire, which had seized power from the Old Republic. As the story unfolds in The Empire Strikes Back and Return of the Jedi, Luke undergoes Jedi training and learns that Vader is his father, tricked and manipulated by the powerful Emperor into turning to the Dark Side as a Sith lord. He has a confrontation with the Emperor in which Vader saves Luke’s life but loses his own. Even before the last two segments of the story, Star Wars: Episode II—Attack of the Clones (2002) and Star Wars: Episode III—Revenge of the Sith (2005), audiences realized with The Phantom Menace that the latest saga was not about Luke Skywalker at all but about the early life of Darth Vader, taking the series in an unanticipated direction. The film was not a sequel but a prequel revealing the boyhood days of Anakin Skywalker, played by Jake Lloyd in this film and later by Hayden Christensen. The Phantom Menace also starred Ewan McGregor as a young Obi-Wan Kenobi, Liam Neeson as Jedi master Qui-Gon Jinn, and Natalie Portman as Queen Padmé Amidala, the future mother of Luke and Leia. Lucas had waited for the development of new special effects before attempting The Phantom Menace, which was also the first film recorded in Dolby Digital Surround EX. The film featured Jar-Jar Binks, a detailed computer-generated character that interacted extensively with the live actors. Impact Star Wars and its many spin-offs had always been in the pop culture background of youngsters born around the early 1990’s. It had influenced the science-fiction genre in many ways, including the special effects taken for granted in such films, and references to its characters and themes were part of everyday conversations. It was not until nearly the end of the decade, however, that they got to see something new in the science-fiction universe created by George Lucas. Toys and other merchandise

were successfully marketed, and lines formed at some theaters for weeks before the film’s premiere. Despite a generally poor critical reception and the disappointment of some longtime fans, The Phantom Menace earned more than $430 million in the United States and almost $1 billion worldwide and was nominated for three Academy Awards in technical categories. Further Reading

Hearn, Marcus. The Cinema of George Lucas. New York: Harry N. Abrams, 2005. Pollock, Dale. Skywalking: The Life and Films of George Lucas. Updated ed. New York: Da Capo Press, 1999. Paul Dellinger CGI; Computers; Film in the United States; Science and technology; Space exploration.

See also

■ Starr Report The report by special prosecutor Kenneth Starr that provided the basis for the impeachment proceedings against U.S. president Bill Clinton Date Released in September, 1998 Identification

The multivolume report stained the reputation of President Clinton and provided the basis for an abortive impeachment attempt—the first such attempt to impeach a president in more than one hundred years. In 1993, not long after Bill Clinton became president, rumors of his involvement in a questionable real estate development called Whitewater during his tenure as governor of Arkansas became louder. In response, President Clinton asked Attorney General Janet Reno to appoint a special prosecutor who would be independent of the executive branch to investigate these rumors. Soon thereafter, she appointed Robert Fiske, an attorney with prosecutorial experience and strong ties to the Republican Party. This was done in January, 1994. Fiske began his investigation quickly, and he had accomplished a significant amount by June of that year, when the Independent Counsel Reauthorization Act was passed. Although the new law contained provisions that allowed Fiske to be appointed to this new position, he was not.

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This was so because, under the new law, three federal appellate judges (from the District of Columbia circuit) who were appointed by the chief justice decided not to reappoint him. This panel seemingly was dominated by David Sentelle, a protégé of the very conservative Senator Jesse Helms. It appointed Kenneth Starr to the position. Though Starr’s appointment was criticized by some, he did have strong legal credentials. A graduate of Duke University Law School, Starr had served as federal appeals court judge before he left that position to serve as solicitor general during the George H. W. Bush administration. Indeed, he had at one time been seriously considered as a nominee to the United States Supreme Court. Starr’s Investigations As time went on, a number of other issues involving Bill and Hillary Rodham Clinton arose, and Starr received power to expand his investigation into them. These included the firing of employees in the White House travel office, Travelgate, and the transfer of Federal Bureau of Investigation (FBI) files concerning Bush and Ronald Reagan administration personnel to the White House. The more publicized (and salacious) issues investigated by Starr involved the personal (mis)conduct of the president. This began with a sexual harassment lawsuit brought by Paula Jones, an Arkansas government employee, based on an incident that allegedly took place when Clinton was governor. Jones’s lawyers sought depositions from others allegedly involved in sexual relations with the president. One of these was Monica Lewinsky. Lewinsky had served as an intern in the White House, where she gained the president’s eye. They developed a personal relationship, the exact nature of which became a matter of great controversy (and the basis for the impeachment proceedings). Eventually, she was transferred to the Pentagon. There, she became friends with Linda Tripp, to whom she confessed her relationship with the president. She also talked to Tripp about efforts made by a friend of the president to help her get another job. Unbeknownst to Lewinsky, Tripp recorded a number of these conversations, which she turned over to Starr. Because materials on the tape suggested Clinton may have tried to influence Lewinsky’s testimony in the Paula Jones proceedings, an obstruction of justice issue was raised. Starr quickly asked for, and re-

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ceived on January 15, 1998, permission to extend his investigation to the Lewinsky affair. In his subsequent deposition to the Jones lawyers, the president denied having sexual relations with Lewinsky. It turned out that, while Clinton and Lewinsky had not engaged in intercourse, oral sex had been a part of their encounters. Clinton argued that, in his definition, this did not constitute “sexual relations.” After having received immunity for testimony given in the Jones affair, Lewinsky testified before a grand jury about her relations with the president. The pressure put on her to testify was criticized by many Clinton partisans. Approximately one month later, in accordance with a provision of the Independent Counsel Act, Starr submitted his report to Congress. It contained eighteen boxes of information and a 445-page report. In a partisan vote, the House Judiciary Commit-

The cover of the Starr Report, released in early September, 1998. (AP/Wide World Photos)

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Stem cell research

tee released to the public 3,135 pages of documents assembled by the office of independent counsel. These included Lewinsky’s grand jury testimony, including those parts that explicitly described the physical nature of the relationship, as well as references to a semen-stained blue dress that she had kept from one of their encounters. President Clinton’s videotaped grand jury testimony was also released. The Starr Report, in which the word “sex” appeared more than five hundred times (Whitewater was mentioned twice), alleged eleven impeachable offenses, including lying under oath, obstruction of justice, witness tampering, and abuse of constitutional authority. None of these were related to the Whitewater investigation, Travelgate, or the FBI issue. The report was criticized as being biased, lurid, and designed to embarrass the president. Many also argued that, though Clinton’s behavior was reprehensible, none of his actions constituted an impeachable offense. The House Judiciary Committee, voting almost entirely along party lines, submitted four articles of impeachment to the House of Representatives in November of 1998. The House approved two articles of impeachment, which it sent to the Senate. The Senate vote took place on February 12, 1999. The tallies in both cases were well short of that needed for impeachment. Impact While the investigation, the report, and the subsequent impeachment proceedings revealed unseemly elements of President Bill Clinton’s personal life, they did not hurt him politically. Indeed, the public perception seemed to be that Starr and the Republicans were abusing the proceedings for partisan gain. They did not achieve this, for the Republicans actually lost seats in the House of Representatives in the 1998 election. When the Independent Counsel Act came up for reconsideration in 1999, it was not renewed. Further Reading

Clinton, Bill. My Life. New York: Alfred A. Knopf, 2004. Includes Clinton’s perspective on the Starr report. Harriger, Katy H. The Special Prosecutor in American Politics. 2d ed. Lawrence: University Press of Kansas, 2000. Places the Starr investigation in political and historical context. Rae, Nicol, and Colton C. Campbell. Impeaching Clinton: Partisan Strife on Capitol Hill. Lawrence:

University Press of Kansas, 2004. Discusses national political trends that made the impeachment almost inevitable. Washington Post editors. The Starr Evidence: Including the Complete Text and Grand Jury Testimony of President Clinton and Monica Lewinsky. New York: PublicAffairs, 1998. Verbatim testimony from the grand jury proceedings. Wittes, Benjamin. Starr: A Reassessment. New Haven, Conn.: Yale University Press, 2002. Argues that Starr misconstrued the role of the special prosecutor; critical of Clinton. David M. Jones Clinton, Bill; Clinton, Hillary Rodham; Clinton’s impeachment; Clinton’s scandals; Lewinsky scandal; Reno, Janet; Scandals; Whitewater investigation.

See also

■ Stem cell research Research with undifferentiated cells capable of producing the various kinds of specialized cells found in organs and tissues

Definition

The potential importance of stem cells as a medical resource is the possibility of using them—or their progeny—to repair tissues and organs that have been damaged to an extent that exceeds the capacities of innate processes of repair. Such research became increasingly controversial in the 1990’s because of the apparent necessity of using early embryos as sources of totipotent and pluripotent stem cells, and because of attempts to use cloning techniques to generate stem cells compatible with the tissues of adult patients. A newly fertilized egg cell is “totipotent” because it is the ultimate ancestor of all specialized cells, but once the process of differentiation has begun, its constituent cells lose that ability by degrees, becoming “pluripotent” before any evident specialization is manifest and “multipotent” thereafter. A few “unipotent” stem cells are preserved within most mature tissues, making limited provision for their renewal and repair. The enormous potential of stem cells in promoting the repair of diseased or injured organs is inherently compromised by problems of supply. Although mature bodies do contain multipotent stem cells, they are very difficult to locate and harvest, as well as being potentially less useful than totipotent or plu-

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ripotent cells. The acquisition of embryonic stem cells by U.S. researchers was, however, drastically inhibited by legislation forbidding the public funding of research using human embryos. Most fundamental research into the properties of stem cells and most practical experiments in their acquisition and maintenance carried out in the 1990’s employed mouse cells, but embryonic stem cells were first extracted from primates—rhesus monkeys—in 1995. The first human embryonic stem cell line was established by a team led by James A. Thomson at the University of Wisconsin-Madison, as reported in the journal Science in November, 1998. That breakthrough generated considerable controversy, partly by virtue of coming so soon after the crucial breakthrough in cloning techniques advertised by Dolly the sheep in 1996. In March, 1999, the Wisconsin Alumni Research Foundation began exporting batches of stem cells from Thomson’s lines for use by other researchers and set up a specialist WiCell Research Institute in October to continue that distribution process. Although the 1990’s ended before any human embryos were cloned for the specific purpose of generating stem cells, the debate surrounding that possibility had already become fervent. In 1999, the U.S. National Bioethics Advisory Commission (NBAC) recommended that federal law be changed to allow public funding for research using human embryos, specifically to explore the possibility of using human stem cells in the treatment of disease; the National Institutes of Health (NIH) drafted a set of guidelines for the regulation of such research. President Bill Clinton—who had accepted an amendment to legislation banning such public funding in 1995—backed the move, and celebrity paralysis victim Christopher Reeve quickly became one of the most outspoken advocates of stem cell research, but the controversy continued long beyond the end of the decade. Apart from embryos, the principal potential source of human stem cells was the umbilical cords of newborn babies; the potential future utility of such stem cells encouraged some parents to freeze and preserve their children’s cords, while others donated cords for research. In 1999, Jack and Lisa Nash, who had a daughter afflicted with a generelated disorder, used in vitro fertilization and genetic screening techniques to conceive a second child—a son—free from the disease, with a view to

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harvesting stem cells from his cord that might be used to treat his sister. The fervor of the controversy that raged in the United States was not reproduced elsewhere in the world, where Thomson’s breakthrough was followed up with great alacrity. Similar cell lines were rapidly developed in Australia, India, Sweden, and Israel, although many proved unsustainable in the long term. Impact The controversy surrounding the use of human embryos in stem cell research became a major factor in the political disputes of the final years of the Clinton presidency; the backlash of protest against the NBAC recommendation and the NIH’s draft guidelines was exploited by Republican candidate George W. Bush, who was subsequently to use a prime-time address to the nation to reveal his decision on the matter, thus keeping it firmly in the public arena. Further Reading

Bellomo, Michael. The Stem Cell Divide: The Facts, the Fiction, and the Fear Driving the Greatest Scientific, Political, and Religious Debate of Our Time. New York: American Management Association, 2006. A summary of the science and various aspects of the controversy, with an eye to the potential exploitation of related technologies. Fox, Cynthia. Cell of Cells: The Global Race to Capture and Control the Stem Cell. New York: W. W. Norton, 2007. A comprehensive, though somewhat journalistic, history of scientific and technological developments in the field. Holland, Suzanne, with Karen Lebacqz and Laurie Zoloth, eds. The Human Embryonic Stem Cell Debate: Science, Ethics, and Public Policy. Cambridge, Mass.: MIT Press, 2001. An early overview of the controversy, with a heavy emphasis on its moral and political aspects. Scott, Christopher Thomas. Stem Cell Now: From the Experiment That Shook the World to the New Politics of Life. New York: Pi Press, 2006. A careful popularization of the science and its implications, less sensational than its subtitle (toned down in the subsequent paperback edition) implies. Snow, Nancy, ed. Stem Cell Research: New Frontiers in Science and Ethics. Notre, Dame, Ind.: University of Notre Dame Press, 2004. An anthology providing a general overview of the topic and the debates surrounding it.

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Thomson, James A., et al. “Embryonic Stem Cell Lines Derived from Human Blastocysts.” Science 282 (November 6, 1998): 1145-1147. The paper announcing the crucial breakthrough in human stem cell research, which prompted the controversy. Brian Stableford Cancer research; Cloning; Genetics research; Health care; Medicine; Reeve, Christopher; Science and technology.

See also

■ Stephanopoulos, George Senior political adviser and communications director for President Bill Clinton, political analyst, and author Born February 10, 1961; Fall River, Massachusetts Identification

One of the senior policy advisers for President Bill Clinton, Stephanopoulos was partly responsible for Clinton’s election in 1992 and 1996. After leaving the White House, Stephanopoulos became a political analyst for ABC News, offering insights into American politics, particularly during the Monica Lewinsky scandal. A graduate of Columbia University with a B.A. in political science, and a Rhodes Scholar with an M.A. in theology from the Oxford University, George Stephanopoulos was one of the primary members of Bill Clinton’s 1992 presidential campaign, serving as the communications director during the campaign. As the communications director, Stephanopoulos performed duties more traditionally assigned to the press secretary. He was replaced both as the de facto press secretary (returning those duties to Dee Dee Myers) and as communications director six months into the Clinton administration. He was given the new title of senior adviser on policy and strategy, a position he retained through the 1996 election until his resignation shortly after. In 1997, Stephanopoulos joined the American Broadcasting Company (ABC) as a political analyst for This Week on ABC News. These duties were expanded, and Stephanopoulos began to contribute to other ABC news shows, such as Good Morning America and World News Tonight. In popular culture, he was discussed, though not seen, in an episode of the first season of Friends, “The One with George Stephanopoulos,” when a pizza meant for the pun-

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dit was delivered to Monica instead. The character of Sam Seaborn from the television series The West Wing (1999-2006) was also based on Stephanopoulos. In 1999, Stephanopoulos released his memoirs, focusing mostly on his years with the Clinton administration. Titled All Too Human: A Political Education, the book rose to the number one spot on The New York Times best-seller list. The book described the constant stresses of working in the White House and gave a candid look at the depression Stephanopoulos suffered during that time, which caused the analyst to break out into hives, as well as giving an inside look at the early years of the Clinton White House. Impact Given much of the credit for the election of Bill Clinton to the White House, Stephanopoulos helped guide U.S. policy decisions throughout his tenure in Washington and helped the administration weather some of the early scandals, notably

George Stephanopoulos. (AP/Wide World Photos)

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Whitewater. After leaving the White House, Stephanopoulos’s coverage of American politics for ABC News allowed him to continue being engaged in politics without the cutthroat stresses that had been involved in Washington. His exemplary journalism during the 1990’s resulted in a promotion at ABC, and he followed Sam Donaldson and Cokie Roberts as the anchor of This Week in 2002. Further Reading

Clinton, Bill. My Life. New York: Alfred A. Knopf, 2004. Stephanopoulos, George. All Too Human: A Political Education. Boston: Little, Brown, 1999. Emily Carroll Shearer Clinton, Bill; Clinton’s Radio shock jock Howard Stern shows his book Private Parts at a New York book signscandals; Elections in the United ing in 1993. (AP/Wide World Photos) States, midterm; Elections in the United States, 1992; Elections in the nouncement and the Columbine High School United States, 1996; Gore, Al; Journalism; Liberalshootings. ism in U.S. politics; Whitewater investigation. Stern’s graphic discussion of sexual acts with his guests often led him into trouble with conservative groups such as the American Family Association and ■ Stern, Howard the American Decency Association. More important, the Federal Communications Commission Identification Radio personality (FCC) had fined Stern’s employer, Infinity BroadBorn January 12, 1954; Roosevelt, Long Island, casting Company, $1.7 million by 1995. The total inNew York cluded an unheard-of fine of $600,000 for comBy the 1990’s, Stern had become a national figure thanks to ments made on the show between October and the growth of the syndication of his radio show throughout December of 1992. The method of payment for the United States. As his fame grew, so did Stern’s fines from these fines was somewhat unusual: Infinity paid the the Federal Communications Commission, and he became fines “voluntarily” to the U.S. Treasury, and in rean important figure in national conversations about free turn, the FCC wiped Infinity’s record clean, which speech and censorship. helped the company renew its license to broadcast. Throughout the decade, conservative groups taped While The Howard Stern Show first became syndicated Stern’s show daily in order to find objectionable in 1986, its syndication truly began in earnest in the content, filed complaints to the FCC, and requested 1990’s, with the radio show debuting in major marthat the companies that owned the stations that ran kets such as Los Angeles, Chicago, Miami, Dallas, Stern’s show (which by the late 1990’s included the and Detroit. Howard Stern’s guests ranged from major conglomerate Clear Channel) either fire strippers to Richard Simmons, and while sex was alStern or have their broadcasting licenses revoked. ways a topic of discussion, Stern and his group of regSome groups also began letter-writing campaigns to ulars, called the “Wack Pack,” also controversially the show’s advertisers. By the close of the decade, discussed issues such as Magic Johnson’s HIV anSee also

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this effort to end The Howard Stern Show had proven unsuccessful. While the battle over Stern’s right to free speech played out in the press, his fame and exposure grew. Stern branched out into television (the cable channel E! began airing a half-hour daily excerpt of his show in 1994), books (his first memoir, Private Parts, debuted at number one on The New York Times bestseller list in 1993; a second memoir, Miss America, was published in 1995), politics (he ran an aborted campaign as a libertarian candidate for governor of New York in 1994), and film (Private Parts was made into a film starring Stern in 1997). Impact Howard Stern was a polarizing figure in the brewing culture wars of the 1990’s. While many were taken aback by his shocking and politically incorrect statements, there was also concern about movements to get him off the air. Because so much of what he said was disturbing and outside the mainstream, he made for an excellent test case on the rights of free speech in the media. Further Reading

Bachman, Katy. “Stern Words for Howard.” MediaWeek 9, no. 41 (November 1, 1999): 14-16. Colford, Paul D. Howard Stern: King of All Media. New York: St. Martin’s Press, 1996. Regal, Brian. Radio: The Life Story of a Technology. Westport, Conn.: Greenwood Press, 2005. Julie Elliott Cable television; Censorship; Culture wars; Talk radio. See also

■ Stewart, Martha American businesswoman, home economist, author, and media personality Born August 3, 1941; Jersey City, New Jersey Identification

Stewart transformed a home-based catering business into a multibillion-dollar media franchise centered upon her image as a consummate hostess, food expert, and do-it-yourself decorator. A former model, stockbroker, and caterer, Martha Stewart released her best-selling first book, Entertaining, in 1982. Over the next several years, she published additional food books and a popular wedding planner that extended her name recognition and

Martha Stewart on CBS’s The Early Show in 1997. (CBS/ Landov)

provided the foundation upon which the Martha Stewart brand was built. In 1986, she made her debut as a featured host on “Holiday Entertaining with Martha Stewart,” a public television special; the success of the program, distributed as a mail-order video, brought Stewart additional television opportunities. In 1990, Stewart launched a new lifestyle magazine, Martha Stewart Living, an instant success and a forerunner of other celebrity-based women’s glossies such as Oprah Winfrey’s O, along with spin-off television programs, videos, and books. Stewart’s deal with Time Warner also included regular appearances on the National Broadcasting Company (NBC) morning program The Today Show. In 1993, Stewart launched a television version of her magazine, also titled Martha Stewart Living, which was produced through a subsidiary of Time and syndicated throughout the country. With Stewart as the show’s host, the series became one of the

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most-watched morning programs among female viewers and earned several Emmy Awards before it was discontinued in 2004 in the midst of Stewart’s legal troubles. In 1997, Stewart founded a new company, Martha Stewart Living Omnimedia, an umbrella company for her diverse publishing, television, online, and merchandising ventures. In October, 1999, Stewart took her company public in an initial public offering. Stock prices for Martha Stewart Living Omnimedia skyrocketed, and Stewart, owner of 60 percent of the company’s shares, amassed paper assets worth more than $1 billion almost overnight. In 2000, Martha Stewart Living Omnimedia reported profits in excess of $21 million with annual sales of over $285 million. Stewart represents a smart, ambitious, and attractive woman, whose judgments on food, home decor, and style have achieved the status of the Good Housekeeping seal of approval. With the authority of her brand name, Stewart has been able to expand into new product lines, from paint to bedding to stationery, but she has also been the subject of scorn and ridicule in what suggests a double standard for traits often deemed praiseworthy in male executives. Impact

In 2002, Stewart came under federal investigation for insider stock trading as a result of her suspicious sale of nearly four thousand shares of ImClone stocks on December 27, 2001, the day prior to a Food and Drug Administration (FDA) announcement declaring that the company’s promising cancer drug would not be reviewed. In 2003, Stewart was indicted by a federal grand jury for securities fraud, obstruction of justice, and conspiracy, and she stepped down from her position as chairman and chief executive officer of Martha Stewart Living Omnimedia. In 2004, she was convicted of obstruction of justice and lying to investigators and was sentenced to five months in prison, followed by five months of house arrest. Following her release, Stewart returned to her varied business activities, including her daily television show.

Subsequent Events

Further Reading

Allen, Lloyd. Being Martha: The Inside Story of Martha Stewart and Her Amazing Life. Hoboken, N.J.: John Wiley & Sons, 2006.

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Byron, Christopher. Martha Inc.: The Incredible Story of Martha Stewart Living Omnimedia. New York: John Wiley & Sons, 2002. Price, Joann F. Martha Stewart: A Biography. Westport, Conn.: Greenwood Press, 2007. Martin J. Manning Business and the economy in the United States; Stock market; Television; Winfrey, Oprah; Women in the workforce.

See also

■ Stock market A public exchange for the trading of shares of company stock

Definition

Both a symbol and major component of the economy, the U.S. stock market soared during the 1990’s, increasing nearly fourfold. The 1990’s represented one of the great decade-long bull markets of the century, with the most explosive growth coming in the prices of Internet stocks, which reached dizzying highs by decade end. The 1980’s had been a historic decade for the U.S. stock market. The most widely watched American stock market index, the Dow Jones Industrial Average (the Dow), had risen 226 percent over the tenyear period. On January 2, 1990, the Dow stood near record levels at 2,702. Stock exchanges of other industrialized nations were also enjoying record levels. The world’s second-largest stock market, Japan’s Nikkei 225 index, experienced an even more meteoric rise, soaring from its July, 1984, level of 9,703 to 37,189 on January 3, 1990. The year 1990, however, proved difficult for the U.S. stock market. Iraq invaded Kuwait that summer. A recession that would last until 1991 did further damage to the market, and the Dow declined by 20 percent. Its decline was taken to represent the end of the historic bull market that lasted from 1982 to 1990 (a bull market represents a period of broad advances for the stock exchange; a bear market represents a period of broad, and often swift, decline for the exchange). The Dow is the representative index for the nation’s leading stock exchange—the New York Stock Exchange—on which most of the Dow stocks trade. By the end of 1990, other exchanges had fallen significantly as well. The second- and third-largest exchanges in the United States—the American Stock Exchange and the National Associa-

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tion of Securities Dealers Automated Quotation System (NASDAQ)—had fallen between 18 and 24 percent, as had the widely followed Dow transport and Value Line indexes. With the resolution of the international crisis, the stock market returned to its upward climb. In 1991, the Dow rose above the 3,000 level for the first time in history. On January 3, 1995, it hit 4,157. With the increase of the market and the proliferation of initial public offerings (IPOs), pension funds, and financial news networks, investors poured money into the stock market. Over the course of the decade, the percentage of Americans who owned stocks and mutual funds doubled to 46 percent. The number of mutual funds more than doubled from 3,086 to 7,400. On November 29, 1995, the Dow had its first close above 5,000. Stock market mavens became national celebrities: Michael Bloomberg for his financial information empire, Warren Buffett for the success of his investment vehicle, Berkshire Hathaway. The biggest financial celebrity of all was the chairman of the U.S. Federal Reserve, Alan Greenspan, whose astute management of interest rates was credited as perhaps the key component in the decade-long bull market. At a December 5, 1996, speech at the American Enterprise Institute, Greenspan voiced concern over the “irrational exuberance” that had seemed to overtake the stock market. Greenspan’s words hit the news instantly. Within minutes, overseas markets began plunging, with some, such as the Nikkei, falling over 3 percent by night’s end. When the U.S. stock market opened the following morning, the Dow fell over 2 percent in the first half hour. However, if stock prices were “irrationally exuberant,” they would remain so for the rest of the decade. Swiftly recovering from Greenspan’s remarks, the stock market again resumed its upward climb. In 1998, the Dow surpassed 9,000. On March 29, 1999, the Dow closed above the 10,000 level. On May 3, 1999, the Dow climbed over the 11,000 mark.

The New Bull Market

Internet Stocks The highest-flying stocks of the decade were shares of the newly created Internet companies, nicknamed “dot-coms.” With excitement over the growth of the Internet, share prices of Internet companies—and companies connected to the Internet, and companies that stuck “.com” after their names—soared, even if they had no profits to report. In 1995, NASDAQ, the stock exchange that

listed most of the Internet and technology stocks, was below 1,000. By decade end, it was approaching 5,000. As an example of the stock mania, Netscape Communications Corporation began trading in 1995 at $28 a share; the price doubled the first day of trading. By year end, it stood at $171. Internet stock analysts Jack Grubman, Mary Meeker, and Henry Blodget became financial news celebrities, earning tens of millions of dollars for predicting an endless rise in dot-com share prices. But the strength and duration of the U.S. bull market was not shared worldwide. In 1997 and 1998, the currencies of southeast Asia collapsed, Argentina was approaching bankruptcy, and Russia and Eastern Europe struggled with the transition to market economies, with resulting convulsions to their stock markets. The Japanese market, near an all-time high at the beginning of the 1990’s, had dropped almost two-thirds over the course of the decade, with the Nikkei 225 falling to 13,564 in October, 1998. Impact The great bull market of the 1990’s symbolized the success of the U.S. economy and contributed to both the 1996 reappointment of Alan Greenspan as chairman of the Federal Reserve and the reelection of Bill Clinton as president. Likewise, the astonishing surge in the prices of dot-com shares presaged the explosive growth of the Internet and the World Wide Web in modern society. However with the 60 percent plunge of the NASDAQ and bankruptcy of many dot-com companies from March, 2000, to March, 2001—representing a staggering $4.5 trillion loss in the U.S. stock market— the frenetic final years of the 1990’s bull market has been labeled a stock market bubble. Further Reading

Gasparino, Charles. Blood on the Street: The Sensational Inside Story of How Wall Street Analysts Duped a Generation of Investors. New York: Free Press, 2005. Exposé of the Wall Street analysts who fueled the Wall Street and stock market bubble of the late 1990’s. Gross, Daniel. Bull Run: Wall Street, the Democrats, and the New Politics of Personal Finance. New York: PublicAffairs, 2000. Convincingly argues that the 1990’s saw the “democratization” of Wall Street through an expanding stockholder population. Sicilia, David, and Jeffrey Cruikshank. The Greenspan Effect. New York: McGraw-Hill, 2000. Describes Greenspan’s enormous influence over the econ-

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omy, interest rates, and the stock market, organized around quotations from Greenspan’s speeches, testimony, and writings. Howard Bromberg Amazon.com; America Online; Apple Computer; Bezos, Jeff; Buffett, Warren; Business and the economy in the United States; Cable television; Dot-coms; Greenspan, Alan; Internet; Microsoft; Recession of 1990-1991; World Wide Web; Yahoo!.

See also

■ Stockdale, James Independent vice presidential candidate, 1992 Born December 23, 1923; Abingdon, Illinois Died July 5, 2005; Coronado, California Identification

In sharing the 1992 independent ticket with H. Ross Perot, Stockdale took part in one of the best-known third-party runs in U.S. history.

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and as president of The Citadel, and he spent fifteen years as a fellow of Stanford University’s Hoover Institution. He then took on a wholly new role in 1992, running on the independent ticket as H. Ross Perot’s vice presidential candidate. Stockdale did not perform well on the political stage, particularly in the vice presidential debate with fellow candidates Al Gore (Democrat) and Dan Quayle (Republican). He actually seemed lost and disoriented, and his warriorlike reputation was replaced by a view of Stockdale as a crazy old man in the minds of many. Impact Stockdale’s 1992 vice presidential run demonstrated the chasm between history and image. When he entered the political stage, it was as if he had popped out of vacuum, as if he had no glorious past on which to stand. He appeared to be a senile old man who had walked into a room where he did not belong. Nevertheless, the Perot-Stockdale independent ticket won approximately 19 percent of the popular vote that year. Further Reading

Stockdale, James Bond. Courage Under Fire: Testing James Stockdale was born in Abingdon, Illinois, letEpictetus’s Doctrines in a Laboratory of Human Behavtered in football, and then entered the Naval Acadior. Stanford, Calif.: Hoover Institution, 1993. emy during World War II. He graduated in 1946 and _______. A Vietnam Experience: Ten Years of Reflection. attended flight and pilot schools. Although StockStanford, Calif.: Hoover Institution, 1984. dale made a name for himself through sports in AWR Hawkins III Abingdon, his most famous residence was not in Illinois but in North Vietnam’s Hoa Lo Prison, known as the “Hanoi Hilton,” where he spent more than seven years in captivity as a prisoner of war. His plane was shot down during a bombing raid over North Vietnam on September 9, 1965, breaking his back and dislocating one of his knees upon impact. He landed in a small village and was seized by villagers. Thereafter, he spent four of his years at the prison in complete isolation, but Stockdale never gave the North Vietnamese the information they sought. He was released in 1973 and returned home from Vietnam a hero. He received the Medal of Honor in 1976 and achieved the rank of rear admiral. Stockdale served for a time as James Stockdale speaks during the vice presidential debate in Atlanta on October 13, president of the Naval War College 1992. (AP/Wide World Photos)

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See also Bush, George H. W.; Clinton, Bill; Elections in the United States, 1992; Gore, Al; Perot, H. Ross; Quayle, Dan; Reform Party.

■ Stojko, Elvis Identification Canadian figure skater Born March 22, 1972; Newmarket, Ontario,

Canada Known throughout the figure skating world as a man with an incredibly unique style that shines through while he is on the ice, Stojko was the first man ever to land a quadruple toe loop-double toe loop combination jump in competition.

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Named for the famous singer Elvis Presley, Elvis Stojko in many ways became the “King on Ice” during the 1990’s. Learning to skate at age four, Stojko started to win skating trophies as early as age six. He truly came of age on the ice when, at the 1991 World Figure Skating Championships, he became the first man ever to land the quadruple-double jump combination. The following year, Stojko represented Canada at the Winter Olympics in Albertville, where he finished seventh, just barely losing to fellow Canadian Kurt Browning. Stojko’s skill continued to improve as he entered the 1992 world championships, where he took third place behind Viktor Petrenko and Browning. In the 1993 world championships, he once again placed behind Browning, winning second place overall.

Elvis Stojko, seen here competing in the World Figure Skating Championships in Lausanne, Switzerland, on March 16, 1997, was world champion in 1994, 1995, and 1997. (AP/Wide World Photos)

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The year 1994 was huge for Stojko. He won the silver medal at the 1994 Olympic Games in Lillehammer, Norway, narrowly defeated by Alexei Urmanov. That same year, Stojko won the world championships in Japan, skating to music from Dragon: The Bruce Lee Story (1993), and landing a quadruple jump in competition. Stojko also won Skate Canada that year and was awarded the title of Canadian Male Athlete of the Year. In 1995, he repeated his championship performance. The 1996 world championships were held in Edmonton, Alberta. Stojko fell in a combination jump in his short program but landed the only quadruple combination jump in the competition, bringing him from seventh place to fourth. In the 1997 Grand Prix Finals, he made history by being the first man to successfully land a quadruple-triple combination jump in his free-skate program. He went on to win the Grand Prix and then the world championships, becoming a three-time world champion. One month before the 1998 Olympic Games, while skating at the Canadian National Championships, Stojko suffered a minor groin injury. He continued to train for the upcoming Olympics in Nagano, Japan, where he was favored to medal, and did not mention his injury. A few days before his event, Stojko came down with a serious case of the flu. Undaunted, he still planned to compete. On the day of his short program, a few hours before his competition, Stojko further injured his groin during practice. He managed to win the silver medal in spite of his horrific pain. As a result, he was recognized by many Canadians as a national hero. Impact Following his performance at the 1998 Olympic Games, Stojko was revered by many in the skating community for his determination. Further Reading

Shulman, Carole. The Complete Book of Figure Skating. Champaign, Ill.: Human Kinetics, 2002. Stojko, Elvis. Heart and Soul. Toronto: Rocketeer, 1997. Kathryn A. Cochran Browning, Kurt; Olympic Games of 1992; Olympic Games of 1994; Olympic Games of 1998; Sports.

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■ Storm of the Century An extreme winter storm kills more than forty people Date March 12-15, 1993 Place Eastern United States and Canada The Event

An immense storm made up of tornadoes, high winds, and unusually heavy snows immobilized the Atlantic coastal region of North America for days, resulting in a high death toll and billions of dollars in damages. As early as five days before it struck, meteorologists using newly advanced technology were able to predict the threat of an unseasonably severe snowstorm. Weather satellite photos revealed a large mass of Arctic air traveling south as the jet stream looped down into the Gulf of Mexico before turning northeastward along the Atlantic coast. While this pattern itself is not unusual, computer models generated alarming meteorological data predicting a nontropical storm of unprecedented magnitude. Forecasters initially dismissed the reports as errors; however, as similar findings continued to emerge, the National Weather Service issued strongly worded warnings to the public sector, and emergency relief agencies went into action. On the night of March 11, 1993, a cold front streaming south over warm air in the Gulf of Mexico created spectacular thunderstorms resulting in a huge spinning storm, or cyclone. Forecasters were unable to predict the speed and ferocity of the system as it traversed the gulf. Many Florida residents were surprised when the entire state was swept by an eighteen-hour onslaught beginning the night of Friday, March 12. Torrential rains, hurricane-force winds, a storm surge of up to twelve feet, and fifteen tornadoes slammed into the state. Up to six inches of snow fell in the northwestern panhandle. Weatherrelated hazards resulted in over forty deaths and extensive property damage. The storm roared northward into the Atlantic coastal regions, razing crops, flooding streets, smashing marinas, and eroding shorelines. Frequent wind gusts in excess of eighty miles per hour uprooted trees and downed power lines. Similar damage continued as the storm blasted the entire coastline, and at least eighteen Long Island homes were swept into the ocean. Near Cape Sable Island, Nova Scotia, the freighter Gold Bond Conveyor sank in sixty-five-foot seas. All thirty-three crew members were lost.

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Storm of the Century

An infrared image of the storm taken on March 13, 1993, indicates its vast reach across the United States and Canada. (National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration)

As it began to snow in New York City, the center of the immense storm was still as far south as Georgia, approximately seven hundred miles away. With little capacity for dealing with snow, the South suffered especially heavy damage. In the southern Appalachian region, the storm brought activity to a standstill, with snow depths ranging from six to twenty-four inches. The downfall contained an unprecedented quantity of water, the weight of which collapsed roofs and blocked roads. Two hundred or more hikers were rescued from mountainous areas, and numerous fatalities resulted from exposure. Further north, many residents remained at home for the weekend, and business closures generated fears of damage to the economy. In Pittsburgh, snow fell at the rate of two to three inches per hour and exceeded twenty-four inches in total, an amount equal to one-third of the city’s 1993 year-long accumulation. Inland snow depths in excess of one foot accumulated as far north as Canada, where blizzard conditions stretched from Eastern Ontario to Newfoundland. The intense storm produced wind gusts of 144 miles per hour in New Hampshire and a snowfall of fifty-six inches in Tennessee. Twenty-five percent of

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the nation’s airline flights were canceled during the weekend of the storm. When the storm abated, temperatures fell to record lows, adding bitter cold to the disaster and hampering snow-removal efforts. Meteorologists compared the amount of moisture deposited by the storm, an estimated forty-four million acre feet, as equal to forty days of flow of the Mississippi River at New Orleans. In the aftermath of the storm, calls for investigations regarding the effectiveness of meteorological warning systems and the preparedness of disaster relief agencies were issued. However, weather officials pointed out that early predictions of the storm had actually saved many lives.

The massive storm adversely affected over 100 million people, up to one-half of the nation’s population. Modern forms of transportation ground to a halt. Railways and interstate highways were shut down, and for the first time in aviation history a single storm forced the closure of every major eastern airport sometime during the disturbance. Millions of people were left without power for up to a week, at times in the midst of record-low temperatures. Two hundred seventy weather-related deaths were recorded. Damages from the storm exceeded $6 billion, making it the most expensive nontropical cyclone in the history of the United States. As forecasters had anticipated, the superstorm proved to be of historic proportion, a fact that led to early media identification of the event as the “Storm of the Century.” Impact

Further Reading

Addison, Doug. “Superstorm Success.” Weatherwise 48, no. 3 (June/July, 1995): 18-24. Reviews the performance of meteorologists in predicting the storm. Includes photos, maps. Brandli, Hank. “The Blizzard of ’93.” Weatherwise 46, no. 3 (June/July, 1993): 9-11. Brief chronological description and photos of satellite views of the storm by a meteorologist.

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Kocin, Paul J., et al. “Overview of the 12-14 March 1993 Superstorm.” Bulletin of the American Meteorological Society 76, no. 2 (February, 1995): 165-182. A meteorological description of the storm and its many effects. Numerous charts and graphs. Ludlum, David M. “March 1993.” Weatherwise 46, no. 3 (June/July, 1993): 43-47. Describes March weather, emphasizing the storm and weather records set by the blizzard. O’Meara, Stephen James. “Storm of the Century.” Odyssey 13, no. 2 (February, 2004): 38-40. Excellent summary of the storm and its effects from a historical perspective. Uccellini, Louis W., et al. “Forecasting the 12-14 March 1993 Superstorm.” Bulletin of the American Meteorological Society 76, no. 2 (February, 1995): 183-199. Describes the effectiveness of meteorologists in predicting storm size and issuing warnings. U.S. Department of Commerce. National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration. National Weather Service. Superstorm of March 1993: March 12-14, 1993. Silver Springs, Md.: Author, 1994. Official natural disaster survey report. Wood, Chris. “A Nightmare Revisited.” Maclean’s 106, no. 13 (March 29, 1993): 20-21. Relates news of the March, 1993, storm in Canada to the destruction in Florida following Hurricane Andrew in 1992. Margaret A. Koger Business and the economy in the United States; Hurricane Andrew; Natural disasters; Oklahoma tornado outbreak; Perfect Storm, the.

See also

■ Strand, Mark Identification American poet Born April 11, 1934; Summerside, Prince Edward

Island, Canada Though already an established American poet, Strand achieved national and international prominence in the 1990’s, serving as U.S. poet laureate and winning the Pulitzer Prize in poetry, among other honors and achievements. Mark Strand’s poetry is informed by his deep appreciation for and scholarship in art. In the 1990’s, his poetry expanded in both length and scope. His use of artistic conventions regarding the use of abstraction and negative space are often addressed by critics.

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In 1990, Strand began his one-year term as poet laureate consultant in poetry to the Library of Congress. That same year, he published his first book of poetry in ten years, The Continuous Life, which won the Bobbitt National Prize for Poetry in 1992. In 1993, Strand published Dark Harbor ; this was also the year that he received the coveted Bollingen Prize for lifetime achievement in poetry. In 1998, Strand’s collection titled Blizzard of One was published, and it won the Pulitzer Prize in poetry. Many poets and critics believe this collection to be his best work, a culmination of more than thirty years of publishing poetry. Strand has also enjoyed a long college teaching career and has a reputation as an excellent writing teacher. In the early 1990’s, he taught at The Johns Hopkins University, serving as the Elliot Coleman Professor of Poetry. In 1998, he joined the faculty at the Committee on Social Thought at the University of Chicago. As a well-respected poet and teacher, Strand was chosen to edit The Best American Poetry 1991, an annual anthology featuring the poetry of new and seasoned American poets. He also edited The Golden Ecco Anthology: One Hundred Great Poems of the English Language in 1994. In his only non-poetry publishing project of the 1990’s, Strand built upon his scholarship in fine art, authoring a book of critical essays in 1994 titled Hopper, focusing on the work of painter Edward Hopper. Strand’s poetry has influenced several generations of American poets, critics, and readers. His spare, artistic style and accessible subject matter are both appealing and groundbreaking. As his accolades indicate, his contribution to American literature in the 1990’s was noteworthy, and arguably unmatched by any of his peers. Impact Mark Strand’s influence on American poetry reached its peak in the 1990’s. He began the decade with his tenure as poet laureate, promoting poetry as an art form. The middle of the decade found him promoting excellence in poetry by editing two respected anthologies and being honored for his lifetime achievements. He ended the decade by achieving the pinnacle of poetic achievement, the Pulitzer Prize. Few other American poets have been so influential and accessible. Further Reading

“Mark Strand.” Contemporary Authors Online. New York: Thomson Gale, 2005.

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Nicosia, James F. Reading Mark Strand: His Collected Works, Career, and the Poetics of the Privative. New York: Palgrave Macmillan, 2007. Kris Bigalk See also Angelou, Maya; Komunyakaa, Yusef; Literature in the United States; Poetry.

■ String theory A theory that replaces the dimensionless point particles of the Standard Model with vibrating strings and/or membranes Date Second string revolution, 1995-1998 Definition

Despite a great deal of excitement generated by a wave of discoveries in the previous decade, string theorists faced a serious dilemma in the early 1990’s: The equations that defined the theory were either impossibly difficult or nonexistent. To get around this, approximations of the needed equations were produced. However, when faced with spending their careers finding approximate solutions to approximate equations with no real proposals for improving the situation, many physicists turned to other lines of research. If the potential “theory of everything” was to avoid the backwaters of science, new methods of attacking the equations would be required. In addition to its difficult mathematics, string theory had evolved into five separate theories by the beginning of the 1990’s. All five variations were similar in many ways. For instance, each required the existence of ten dimensions, the familiar fourdimensional space-time plus six other spatial dimensions. However, there were also some significant differences, and having so many different variations hurt the credibility of the theory with many observers. Then, in the mid-1990’s, a breakthrough occurred that was christened the “second string revolution.” It was proposed that the five separate variants of the theory were actually parts of an overarching, elevendimensional theory given the name M-theory. Even more important for theorists, it was also discovered that the equations for the five different variants exhibited a property physicists refer to as duality. Duality occurs when two theoretical models appear to be different when in fact they describe identical physics. An example of linguistic duality would be a sentence in English and one in French that are

very different in appearance but in fact make the same statement. It was found that any of the variants’ more obscure equations had more manageable counterparts in the other variants. Another promising proposal for string theory, sometimes called superstring theory because of its supersymmetry, was that supersymmetry itself was a tool that could be used to improve the equations. It was shown that the constraints necessarily added by supersymmetry could make the equations more precise. Impact Even with these major advances, opinions were mixed about the value of string theory as the decade ended. Critics still felt that the theorists were promising too much with too little to back them up. Adherents believed more than ever that the theory was bringing them nearer to the grand unification theory, an elusive goal of science since the days of Albert Einstein. In either case, the theory caught the imagination of a group of physicists and mathematicians who have used their new perspective along with the new tools developed by and for the theory to provide a better understanding of the universe. Further Reading

Adams, Steve. Frontiers: Twentieth Century Physics. New York: Taylor & Francis, 2000. Greene, Brian. The Elegant Universe: Superstrings, Hidden Dimensions, and the Quest for the Ultimate Theory. New York: W. W. Norton, 1999. _______. The Fabric of the Cosmos: Space, Time, and the Texture of Reality. New York: Alfred A. Knopf, 2004. Salmon, Wesley C. Causality and Explanation. New York: Oxford University Press, 1998. Wayne Shirey See also

Science and technology.

■ Strug, Kerri Identification American gymnast Born November 19, 1977; Tucson, Arizona

Strug is best known for her performance in the 1996 Olympic Games that clinched the first-ever gold medal for the U.S. women’s gymnastics team, landing her vault despite a severe ankle injury. Although Kerri Strug became well known as a result of her performance in the 1996 Olympic Games in

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Kerri Strug is carried by her coach, Bela Karolyi, during the awards ceremony in the women’s team gymnastics competition at the Summer Olympics in Atlanta on July 23, 1996. The U.S. women’s team won the gold. (AP/Wide World Photos)

Atlanta, she was, at the age of fourteen, on the bronze-medal-winning U.S. gymnastics team at the Barcelona Olympics in 1992. Strug was originally trained by the legendary Romanian American coach Bela Karolyi (for which training Strug left her family home to move to Houston), but Strug’s career underwent a period of turmoil after Karolyi’s temporary retirement from coaching after the Barcelona Olympics. After going through a series of trainers and gyms, injuring her back in the U.S. Classic competition in Palm Springs, California, in 1994, and overcoming eating disorders, Strug made the 1996 Olympic team in her sport, a seven-member group that also included Amanda Borden, Shannon Miller, Dominique Dawes, Jaycie Phelps, Dominique Moceanu, and Amy Chow—later to be known as the “Magnificent Seven.”

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At the 1996 Atlanta Games at the Georgia Dome, on the final day of team competition, the U.S. women’s gymnastics team competed with the Russians for the gold. Strug, the last of the Magnificent Seven to compete, fell on her first vault, spraining her ankle. She persisted through pain to attempt her second vault, which she landed before collapsing to the floor in pain. Her 9.712 score won the gold medal for the United States, the first ever for the U.S. women’s gymnastics team. Strug’s triumph was perhaps the most memorable American athletic achievement at the 1996 Olympics and decisively differentiated the tone of the Atlanta Games from the previous Olympics staged on American soil, the 1984 Olympics in Los Angeles. Whereas the 1984 Games, staged at the height of Cold War tensions and boycotted by Soviet-bloc athletes, was full of a robust American patriotism, the 1996 Games had a more ecumenical, less insistently nationalistic or chauvinistic feel— epitomized by the ailing boxer Muhammad Ali being the final carrier of the Olympic torch. With Strug’s achievement, the 1996 Olympics were a ratings success for the National Broadcasting Company (NBC) and helped capture the key demographic of female viewers. At the time of the victory of the Magnificent Seven in Atlanta, commentators predicted that gymnastics would be in the national spotlight for years to come. However, as with so many pop culture phenomena of the 1990’s, the media glare faded after a short while, and women’s gymnastics receded to a comparatively low point of media exposure for the remainder of the decade. Impact That a young woman was the face of the 1996 Olympic Games signaled the increasingly prominent role played by young women in 1990’s popular culture, as opposed to the masculinist ethos of the 1980’s. That Strug was part of a team, an ensemble, and not just an individual athlete striving for medals, also differentiated mutuality and community over a win-at-all-costs striving. Further Reading

Kleinbaum, N. H. The Magnificent Seven: The Authorized Story of American Gold. New York: Bantam Books, 1996. Senn, Alfred Erich. Power, Politics, and the Olympic Games. Champaign, Ill.: Human Kinetics, 1999.

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Strug, Kerri, and John Lopez. Landing On My Feet: A Diary of Dreams. Kansas City, Mo.: Andrews McMeel, 1997. Nicholas Birns Olympic Games of 1992; Olympic Games of 1996; Sports.

See also

■ Sundance Film Festival Identification A film festival in the United States Place Park City, Utah

During the 1990’s, the Sundance Film Festival became the premier showcase for aspiring filmmakers and established itself as the largest independent cinema festival in the United States and as one of the leading international film festivals. When it began in September, 1978, in Salt Lake City, Utah, the annual Sundance Film Festival was called the Utah/U.S. Film Festival. Conceived by the Utah Film Commission as a way to attract both filmmakers and tourists to the state, the original festival presented a retrospective of classic American films, panel discussions, and some independent (indie) films, works by unknown filmmakers outside the Hollywood structure. Heavily in debt, the festival was renamed the United States Film and Video Festival and moved to the ski resort of Park City for the third festival in January, 1981. In 1985, Robert Redford’s Sundance Institute, founded in 1981 to help independent filmmakers, took over the management of the festival. With the new financial support, staffing, and Redford’s celebrity, the festival began to flourish and gain prominence. The 1985 festival included international films for the first time. A turning point came in 1989 with Steven Soderbergh’s debut film, sex, lies, and videotape, which won the inaugural Audience Award (Dramatic) and received sensational promotion and press. It was the festival’s first film to become a commercial success, earning over $25 million at the box office. In 1990, the festival changed its name to the Sundance/United States Film Festival. That year’s event included Jane Campion’s feature debut, Sweetie, Michael Moore’s documentary Roger and Me, and Hal Hartley’s debut film, The Unbelievable Truth, all released the year before. In 1991, the Sundance Institute celebrated its tenth anniversary, and the festival was renamed the

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Sundance Film Festival. Todd Haynes’s Poison (1991), an early independent film with gay themes, won the Grand Jury Prize (Dramatic). Sundance 1992 presented Quentin Tarantino’s debut feature, Reservoir Dogs (1992), a violent heist movie that set the tone for his subsequent films. Other highlights included Mira Nair’s Mississippi Masala (1991), which starred Denzel Washington and Sarita Choudhury, and Errol Morris’s A Brief History of Time (1991), a documentary about physicist Stephen Hawking. Highly acclaimed films shown at the 1993 festival included Robert Rodriguez’s El Mariachi (1992) and Paul Thomas Anderson’s Cigarettes and Coffee (1993). By 1994, the business aspect of the festival had become obvious, as agents, attorneys, filmmakers, distribution companies, publicists, and others in the film industry crowded into Park City. The 1994 festival screened ninety feature films, including Mike Newell’s Four Weddings and a Funeral, Ben Stiller’s Reality Bites, Steve James’s documentary Hoop Dreams, and Kevin Smith’s cult film Clerks (all released in 1994), which won the Sundance Filmmakers Trophy, as well as awards at the Cannes Film Festival. The huge overflow of rejected films led to the creation of Slamdance, the first of numerous alternative festivals. Sundance 1995 showed over one hundred feature films and seventy shorts. Ed Burns’s debut film The Brothers McMullen (1995) won the Grand Jury Prize. Sundance 1996 had about 10,000 attendees and heavy snowfall of ten feet in ten days. The Grand Jury Prize winner was Todd Solondz’s Welcome to the Dollhouse (1995). By 1997, the festival was generating over $20 million of direct investment into Park City. However, the huge crowds were overwhelming the facilities, and the entire telephone system crashed regularly, so the new 1,300-seat Eccles Center was built in time for Sundance 1998. Marc Levin’s Slam (1998), a prison drama about a jailed black poet, won the 1998 Sundance Grand Jury Prize (Dramatic) and also the Cannes Film Festival Camera d’Or prize. The decade ended with more excitement, commercial success, and hype than ever before, with the screening of the independent horror film The Blair Witch Project (1999) at the 1999 festival. The film follows three Montgomery College film students who disappear in the woods near Burkittsville, Maryland, while shooting a documentary in October, 1994, and

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Robert Redford speaks at a press conference for the film Four Weddings and a Funeral during the 1994 Sundance Film Festival. (Hulton Archive/Getty Images)

their footage is found a year later. It grossed over $140 million in the United States alone. Impact During the 1990’s, the Sundance Film Festival changed from a low-profile venue for smallbudget films to become the most significant showcase for independent films. This annual ten-day event became the place where unknown film creators could become famous overnight, often with studio executives or distribution companies in a bidding war over their films. For instance, The Blair Witch Project, filmed with a budget of $35,000, sold for over $1 million after a midnight screening at Sundance. Filmmakers whose big break came at Sundance in the 1990’s include Quentin Tarantino, Ed Burns,

Kevin Smith, Paul Thomas Anderson, and Robert Rodriguez. With fame and commercial success, many Sundance filmmakers eventually became part of mainstream cinema and Hollywood. The festival itself had become a major media and marketing event by the end of the decade, but Sundance continued its commitment to showcase the world’s most creative independent films. Further Reading

Biskind, Peter. Down and Dirty Pictures: Miramax, Sundance, and the Rise of Independent Film. New York: Simon & Schuster, 2004. Entertaining narrative of how Robert Redford, the Sundance Film Festival, and the Weinstein brothers of Miramax promoted the growth of independent American

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films during the 1990’s. Bibliography and index. Craig, Benjamin. Sundance: A Festival Virgin’s Guide. London: Cinemagine Media, 2004. An indispensable and comprehensive source about the festival, including interviews and complete history and business sections. Illustrated, plus maps. Mottram, James. The Sundance Kids: How the Mavericks Took Back Hollywood. New York: Faber & Faber, 2006. Portraits focusing on commercially successful directors whose first recognition came at the Sundance Film Festival during the 1990’s. Illustrated. Bibliography and index. Smith, Lory. Party in a Box: The Story of the Sundance Film Festival. Salt Lake City, Utah: Gibbs Smith Publisher, 1999. Written by one of the festival’s founders, this twenty-year retrospective includes insider stories and revelations. Illustrated. Index. Turan, Kenneth. Sundance to Sarajevo: Film Festivals and the World They Made. Berkeley: University of California Press, 2002. A leading film critic provides in-depth accounts of film festivals, including a chapter on Sundance as a film festival with a business agenda. Illustrated. Alice Myers Academy Awards; Blair Witch Project, The ; Film in the United States; Independent films; Pulp Fiction; Tarantino, Quentin.

See also

■ Supreme Court decisions Rulings made by the highest court in the United States

Definition

During the 1990’s, the United States Supreme Court, marked by controversial appointments and increasing politicization, rendered constitutional and judicial opinions that affected nearly every sphere of American life. The 1990’s was a remarkable decade for the U.S. Supreme Court, characterized by several striking paradoxes. The decade commenced with the most controversial and disputed nominations to the Court and ended with the most stable Court in American history. Marked by the profound conservatism of Chief Justice William H. Rehnquist and a series of appointments by Republican presidents, the Court had one of the most conservative temperaments of any in the twentieth century. In many ways, however, its chief legacy was to confirm the progressive deci-

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sions of the Chief Justice Earl Warren and Chief Justice Warren E. Burger Courts that preceded it. Espousing a philosophy that eschewed judicial activism and partisan factors in its decision making, the Supreme Court was in fact deeply divided along political lines. In 1990, Rehnquist had been the chief justice for four years. The eight associate justices were William J. Brennan, Byron White, Thurgood Marshall, Harry A. Blackmun, John Paul Stevens, Sandra Day O’Connor, Antonin Scalia, and Anthony Kennedy. In 1990, David Souter replaced Justice Brennan. In 1991, President George H. W. Bush nominated African American conservative Clarence Thomas to replace the retired Justice Marshall. After Thomas’s Equal Employment Opportunity Commission subordinate Anita Hill testified that Thomas had sexually harassed her, a media and political frenzy broke loose. After weeks of nationally televised and disputed Senate hearings, often assuming a circus-like atmosphere, Thomas was narrowly confirmed on October 15, but not before the Supreme Court had been revealed to be as politicized and divided as the other branches of government. After Ruth Bader Ginsburg was appointed in 1993 and Stephen G. Breyer in 1994, both by President Bill Clinton, the composition of the Court resumed an air of tranquility, not changing its personnel for the next eleven years, the longest such period in American history. With the Court divided on almost every controversial decision, two voting blocs had emerged: Justices Rehnquist, Scalia, and Thomas on the Right, Justices Souter, Ginsburg, Breyer, and Stevens on the Left, and Justices Kennedy and O’Connor as swing votes in the middle. With seven of these nine justices being Republican appointments, and Justices Kennedy and O’Connor often joining in majority opinions with Justices Rehnquist, Scalia, and Thomas, the Court reflected a largely conservative composition. To some commentators, the conservative bloc harked back to the era of the Court of the 1920’s and 1930’s, when, dominated by four conservative judges known as the “Four Horsemen,” the Supreme Court almost strangled the New Deal at birth. Still, the traditional leanings of the Rehnquist Court itself presented a paradox. Would this conservative Court take the radical step of uprooting the progressive decisions pioneered by the Warren Court, thus completely redirecting Supreme Court jurisprudence, or would the Rehnquist

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Court’s conservatism be shown in patient adherence to precedent and stare decisis, as much for recent innovative decisions as for historic ones? Over the decade of the 1990’s, the Supreme Court acted on approximately twenty thousand judicial cases that came before it. On about one thousand of these cases, the Supreme Court issued signed opinions, the most influential of which are the subject of this article. What follows is a summary and analysis of thirty-six major Supreme Court decisions of the 1990’s, sufficient to observe the Court’s impact on American life as well as to answer the above questions. Social Issues The Supreme Court made numerous decisions affecting the social and moral life of Americans. Reaching into areas that federal courts had left untouched as recently as fifty years ago, the Supreme Court decided cases that reflected many of the controversial issues of the 1990’s. No decision would be more controversial than the Supreme Court’s single decision directly affecting abortion. In Planned Parenthood of Southeastern Pennsylvania v. Casey (1992), five abortion providers challenged Pennsylvania’s recently enacted Abortion Control Act as unconstitutionally violating a woman’s right to abortion. The Abortion Control Act required several steps that would be implicated in an abortion decision. Prior to obtaining an abortion, except for medical emergencies, a woman had to be provided with specific information regarding the procedure and had to wait twenty-four hours. If a minor, the woman needed the consent of her parents; if married, to notify her husband. The act also required certain recordkeeping. The Supreme Court, in a plurality opinion, invalidated only the spousal notification provision as imposing an “undue burden” on the right to abortion as set out in the famous Roe v. Wade case (1973). The opinion authored by Justices Kennedy, O’Connor, and Souter emphasized that Roe v. Wade and the right to abortion had become widely accepted in American society. Curtailing this right would disturb both the social fabric of the nation and the legitimacy of its highest court. In contrast, in Rust v. Sullivan (1991), the Court held that its abortion rulings allowed Congress to forbid counselors in federally funded birth control clinics from discussing abortion as an option for their patients.

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The Court also decided important discrimination decisions. In United States v. Virginia (1996), the Court found that the male-only admission policy of Virginia Military Institute, the oldest state military college in the nation, violated the equal protection clause of the Fourteenth Amendment. In the cases of Shaw v. Reno (1993), Miller v. Johnson (1995), Shaw v. Hunt (1996), and Bush v. Vera (1996), the Court applied strict scrutiny to and invalidated the plans of several states to reshape and gerrymander voting districts according to racial criteria. In one of its most anticipated decisions, Cruzan v. Director, Missouri Department of Health (1990), the Court held that the Fourteenth Amendment liberty clause provided a constitutional right for a patient to refuse life-saving measures, as long as the patient is competent and his or her wishes can be clearly determined. In what seemed a departure from this precedent, however, the Court in Washington v. Glucksberg (1997) and Vacco v. Quill (1997) upheld the bans of New York and Washington on physician-assisted suicide, as the Court found that the Fourteenth Amendment liberty clause and equal protection clause do not include a right to commit suicide, nor do they include the right for a physician to assist a patient to commit suicide. The Court made decisions affecting other controversial social issues. In Romer v. Evans (1996), the Court invalidated Colorado’s Amendment 2 as denying its citizens equal protection of the law under the Fourteenth Amendment of the U.S. Constitution. Amendment 2 prohibited Colorado state entities from protecting the status of homosexual residents from discrimination. The Court held that this amendment had to be evaluated under the strict scrutiny standard. When the case was remanded for application of that standard, Amendment 2 was judged to have invalidly disabled homosexuals and only homosexuals from gaining legal protection from discrimination. With the increasing trend to subject state police actions and procedures to the protections of the Fourth, Fifth, Sixth, and Eighth Amendments of the Constitution, the Supreme Court issued numerous constitutional decisions affecting criminal law. In the area of search and seizure, the Court decided in Ohio v. Robinette (1996) that it may be permissible to conduct a search of a suspected person stopped for a traffic offense if the

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suspect consents, even if the police neglect to inform the suspect that he or she is free to go after the stop. Likewise, in Florida v. Bostick (1991), the Court found that passengers on a bus could validly consent to have their luggage searched by police who board the bus as part of an antidrug campaign. As to confessions, in Arizona v. Fulminante (1991) the Court found that when a Federal Bureau of Investigation (FBI) informant obtained a confession from a fellow prisoner in exchange for protection from other inmates who had been threatening him with bodily harm, that confession was obtained in violation of the Fifth Amendment because of the fear of physical violence. The Court in the 1990’s made several decisions involving application of the Eighth Amendment prohibition against cruel and unusual punishment to death penalty cases. In Payne v. Tennessee (1991), the Court overruled two earlier precedents to allow friends and relatives of murder victims to testify at the penalty stage of the bifurcated two-stage capital trial as to the impact of the killing on their lives. In McCleskey v. Zant (1991), the Court refused to grant a writ of federal habeas corpus to a prisoner on death row because he had not presented his claims in an earlier petition, which was now exhausted. The defendant was executed a few months later. Likewise, in Herrera v. Collins (1993), the Court rejected another petition for federal habeas corpus relief of a Texas murder convict who claimed newly discovered evidence demonstrated his innocence. The Court, noting that all trials, motions, and appeals in the cases had already been concluded, rejected the petition. In one of the few 1990’s Supreme Court capital punishment cases deciding in favor of the defendant, Dawson v. Delaware (1992), the Court held that prejudicial evidence concerning the beliefs and statements of a convicted murderer could not be introduced by the state in the penalty phase of the bifurcated two-stage capital trial. The First Amendment As with previous decades, the 1990’s saw the Supreme Court make significant decisions concerning the First Amendment rights to free speech and free exercise of religion. In Barnes v. Glen Theatre, Inc. (1991), the Court rejected the claim that Indiana’s law prohibiting totally nude dancing in public establishments violated the right to free speech, thereby finding that the states retained some right to enact public indecency statutes.

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The Court held that states can have a legitimate interest in proscribing public nudity but are prohibited from regulating dancing any further than that limit. Likewise, in Osborne v. Ohio (1990), the Court upheld an Ohio statute prohibiting private possession of child pornography, as a state can act so as to protect minors without violating the constitutional right for adults to view sexually explicit material. Although the Court expanded the states’ ability to prohibit obscene speech, in a controversial case it seemed to limit Congress’s power to do so. In Reno v. ACLU (1997), the Supreme Court found two provisions of the federal Communications Decency Act of 1996 to be too vague to satisfy the free speech clause. These provisions criminalized transmission of indecent messages and displaying patently offensive messages over the Internet to any person under eighteen years of age. However, the statute failed to define “indecent” or “patently offensive,” as well as suffering other defects, and thus was not narrowly tailored so as to pass constitutional muster. An important First Amendment free exercise clause case with widespread consequences was Oregon v. Smith (1990). In Smith, a member of a Native American religion that made use of peyote for ceremonial purposes was terminated from his job, as his use of peyote was found to constitute drug abuse. In upholding the termination, the Court found that the free exercise clause cannot be used to invalidate state laws prohibiting illegal activity that generally and neutrally apply to all persons. In response to this ruling, Congress passed the Religious Freedom Restoration Act to override certain portions of the Smith decision. In response, in City of Boerne v. Flores (1997), the Court held the Religious Freedom Restoration Act to be an unconstitutional interference by Congress with the powers of the Court. In contrast to the Smith case is the Court’s decision in Church of the Lukumi Babalu Aye v. Hialeah (1993), striking down Florida’s prohibition of religious practices involving animal sacrifice. A related First Amendment case was the Court’s controversial decision regarding the establishment clause in Lee v. Weisman (1992). In that case, the Court found that the First Amendment forbade any prayers at a high school graduation, even if nonsectarian, as coercive to students. This decision was consistent with decades of Supreme Court establishment clause jurisprudence that vigilantly looked to exclude religious intrusion from public schools.

The Nineties in America Property and Antitrust The Court acted to restrain the powers of states to regulate private property. In Lucas v. South Carolina Coastal Council (1992) and Dolan v. City of Tigard (1994), the Court found various municipal regulations of the use of property to constitute takings of private property for a public use under the Fifth and Fourteenth Amendments. Thus, the state was required to pay just compensation to the property owners. In Kansas et al. v. Utilicorp United, Inc. (1990), the Court limited antitrust lawsuits under section 4 of the Clayton Act to the business entities that “suffered injury” as opposed to state officials like the attorney general. In Professional Real Estate Investors, Inc. v. Columbia Pictures (1993), the Supreme Court adopted the Ninth Circuit’s refusal to characterize a lawsuit that the plaintiff had reason to institute as a sham attempt to interfere with the business relationships of a competitor—thus violating antitrust law— even though it did not survive the defendant’s motion for summary judgment. In City of Ladue v. Gilleo (1994), the Court held that municipal zoning ordinances could not ban homeowners from displaying signs on their property because such a blanket prohibition violated the residents’ rights to freedom of speech. Likewise, in City of Edmonds v. Oxford House, Inc. (1995), the Court struck down a zoning ordinance that excluded nonrelated persons from a neighborhood zoned for single-family residences.

Issues of federalism concern the constitutional division of powers between the federal and state governments and have been an important area for Supreme Court jurisprudence from the beginning of the American Republic. For several decades, the Supreme Court had seemed to approve most expansions of federal power. In the 1990’s, the Court was more careful to preserve the powers of states against federal encroachment. For example, in Printz v. United States (1997), the Court struck down the portion of the federal Brady Handgun Violence Prevention Act that required state officers to conduct background checks of prospective purchasers of handguns pursuant to the newly created federal regulatory system. The Court held that the American system of federalism does not permit the federal government to compel the actions of state officials. Likewise, it held that the attempt by Congress to forbid handguns in

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schools under the Gun-Free School Zones Act of 1990 unconstitutionally infringed on the powers of states to police their own citizenry. Congress purported to be acting under the commerce clause, but the Court in United States v. Lopez (1995) could find no connection between possession of a handgun and economic activity affecting interstate commerce. Nor could Congress abrogate the immunity of states against being sued in their own courts. The Court recognized in Alden v. Maine (1999) that immunity from lawsuits in one’s own courts is an inherent and traditional part of state sovereignty, which the individual states did not surrender under the Constitution. Thus, Maine’s immunity from being sued under the Fair Labor Standards Act in Maine courts was upheld. The Court also refused to allow the president to expand his powers at the expense of Congress. In 1996, Congress enacted the Line Item Veto Act, which allowed the president to strike out portions of congressional appropriations. In Clinton v. City of New York (1998), the Court held that this act violated the presentment clause of the Constitution, which requires the president to sign or veto a bill in its entirety. Likewise, in Clinton v. Jones (1997), the Court found that the president is not immune from civil suits while in office for his actions performed in a nonofficial capacity. Impact The Supreme Court in the 1990’s constituted almost the precise middle decade of the Rehnquist Court, which began in 1986 and ended in 2005. It is an appropriate symbol of the politicized Court of the 1990’s, often divided in 5-4 votes between its conservative and liberal members, that following the procedure set out in the Constitution, Rehnquist presided over President Clinton’s impeachment trial in the U.S. Senate in the winter of 1999. The Senate trial ended in party-line voting that allowed Clinton to remain in office. Marked by a profoundly conservative chief justice and mostly Republican appointments, the Rehnquist Court had the most conservative composition of any Supreme Court in a half-century, and while the Supreme Court of the 1920’s and early 1930’s was equally conservative, Supreme Court jurisprudence of that era played a smaller role in the life of most Americans. Significantly, the 1990’s Court reflected its conservatism not by overturning the more progressive

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Supreme Court jurisprudence of the 1960’s, 1970’s, and early 1980’s but by ratifying it. The Court did trim away at the margins of such rights granted by earlier Courts as the right to abortion, the right to refuse many police searches and seizures, and the right to engage in unlimited speech of any character. It also trimmed the broadest reading of congressional powers, for example, by limiting congressional power to take property under eminent domain, and to regulate public schools. However, seen in their totality, the Court’s decisions were not a major scalingback of recent jurisprudence. The Courts of recent decades have made vast changes in American social, economic, and political life. The Supreme Court of the 1990’s for all extents and purposes accepted these changes as valid precedents. By affirming in the main the jurisprudence of its predecessor Courts, the 1990’s Supreme Court helped legitimatize the expansion of its own role, as the Court itself acknowledged in its Planned Parenthood of Southeastern Pennsylvania v. Casey decision, and hence of the Court’s impact on the everyday lives and decisions of Americans. Further Reading

Bradley, Craig, ed. The Rehnquist Legacy. New York: Cambridge University Press, 2006. Collection of essays examining the impact of the decisions of the Rehnquist Court. Breyer, Stephen. Active Liberty: Interpreting Our Democratic Constitution. New York: Alfred A. Knopf, 2005. A member of the liberal wing of the 1990’s Court offers his views on constitutional interpretation. Gerber, Scott. First Principles: The Jurisprudence of Clarence Thomas. New York: New York University Press, 2002. Examines the decisions of the most conservative and controversial justice of the 1990’s. Hensley, Thomas. The Rehnquist Court: Justices, Rulings, and Legacy. Santa Barbara: ABC-Clio, 2006. A volume in the ABC-Clio Supreme Court Handbook series, this comprehensive reference work is organized around the question of whether the Rehnquist Court brought about a counterrevolution in Supreme Court jurisprudence. Keck, Thomas M. The Most Activist Supreme Court in History: The Road to Modern Judicial Conservatism. Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 2004. Keck argues that the Rehnquist Court has reaffirmed the activist decisions of preceding Courts while

engaging in its own conservative brand of activism. Lang, Carolyn. Religious Freedom and Indian Rights: The Case of “Oregon v. Smith.” Lawrence: University Press of Kansas, 2000. In-depth study of the Court’s most significant free exercise case of the 1990’s. Maltz, Earl, ed. Rehnquist Justice: Understanding the Court Dynamic. Lawrence: University Press of Kansas, 2003. Legal scholars take varying positions on the Supreme Court jurisprudence of the Rehnquist Court. Perry, Barbara A. “The Supremes”: Essays on the Current Justices of the Supreme Court of the United States. New York: Peter Lang, 1999. Analyzes the jurisprudence of the individual members of the 1990’s Court. Strum, Philippa. Women in the Barracks. The VMI Case. Lawrence: University Press of Kansas, 2002. Indepth study of the case of United States v. Virginia barring exclusion of women from Virginia Military Institute. Thomas, Clarence. My Grandfather’s Son: A Memoir. New York: HarperCollins, 2007. Justice Thomas provides his version of his 1991 confirmation hearings, the most contested in Supreme Court history. Howard Bromberg See also Abortion; Bush, George H. W.; Clinton, Bill; Clinton’s impeachment; Conservatism in U.S. politics; Crime; Culture wars; Ginsburg, Ruth Bader; Hill, Anita; Liberalism in U.S. politics; Line Item Veto Act of 1996; Planned Parenthood v. Casey; Romer v. Evans; Rust v. Sullivan; Shaw v. Reno; Thomas, Clarence.

■ Sustainable design movement Architecture and design philosophy based on economic and environmental sustainability

Definition

The sustainable design movement of the 1990’s encouraged architects and other designers to design products that would benefit people and the environment while still creating a profit. An early landmark in sustainable design philosophy was the publication of the Hannover Principles in

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1992 by American architect William McDonough and German chemist Michael Braungart, who were hired to plan the 2000 World’s Fair in Hannover, Germany. The Hannover Principles connected human rights, economic and environmental sustainability, design, and function, and encouraged designing objects with long-term value, eliminating waste, and using nature as a model for design. The Hannover Principles argued that projects could be designed to support the environment rather than only to minimize damage and that design should strive to emulate the abundant, effective cycles of nature. Sustainable design principles can apply to anything that is designed, from toilet paper to buildings. Common subdivisions include landscape architecture, graphic design, agriculture, machinery and appliances, technologies, and disposable products. Sustainable (sometimes called “green,” although it is a related rather than identical concept) architecture is the best-known sustainable design field. Sustainable or Green Architecture Sustainable architecture is based on the idea that architecture can be “green” (good for environment), well-designed for the people who use it, and profitable for both architects and businesses. Since housing and other buildings were major consumers of resources and an increasing population required additional building, sustainable architecture rapidly became an important focus of the sustainable design movement. Sustainable architecture seeks to minimize environmental impact by efficient use of materials and energy. Common techniques include the use of recycled or sustainably produced building materials and installation of sustainable energy options such as solar panels. Simple measures such as proper insulation to improve the function of heating, ventilation, and air conditioning systems are also sustainable design techniques. Urban planning and landscape architecture are closely related to sustainable architecture. Cities can be planned to discourage sprawl and encourage walking, bicycling, and use of public transportation. Sustainable landscape architecture designs outdoor spaces for sustainability, including techniques such as planting trees to shade houses, using local materials, xeriscaping in arid areas, and buying stock from local growers to reduce transportation energy costs.

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An important milestone in sustainable architecture came in 1998, when the U.S. Green Building Council, a nonprofit dedicated to encouraging the building industry to shift toward sustainability, established Leadership in Energy and Environmental Design (LEED) certification. LEED provides a publicly reviewed suite of standards for environmentally sustainable construction. LEED began its development in 1994, when Robert K. Watson, the senior scientist of the Natural Resources Defense Council (NRDC), founded a committee to develop a standard for new construction. LEED evolved into six interrelated standards for all phases of the development and construction process. Buildings can qualify for four levels of certification, depending on the percentage of standards met.

Leadership in Energy and Environmental Design

Another major application of sustainable design principles is in sustainable graphic design. Designers consider the impact of all parts of the design chain, from raw material to disposal. Methods include using recycled and biodegradable materials, reducing overall materials use, replacing the end product with a digital form when possible, designing the end product to be recyclable or biodegradable, and using low-volatile organic compound inks. Appliances and disposable products can also be designed with sustainability principles in mind, by using recycled materials and designing the product to be recyclable or biodegradable. Sustainable technologies generally use fewer limited resources, less energy, and can be used or reused at the end of their useful life. Sustainable technology is often, but not always, the same as appropriate technology, which advocates the use of the most appropriate technology for the situation. Economically, sustainable design can reduce both shortterm and long-term costs by minimizing waste.

Other Types of Sustainable Design

Impact The sustainable design movement of the 1990’s created widespread philosophical changes in various design fields, particularly architecture, graphic design, and disposable products. McDonough and Braungart’s Hannover Principles were particularly influential in shaping the philosophical and practical principles behind sustainable design, and LEED certification provided concrete standards and a goal for architects to achieve in designing green building projects.

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Sustainable design principles encouraged builders and designers to consider sustainability as part of the overall project, not an afterthought. During the 1990’s, the popularity of sustainable design led to the founding and growth of sustainable design programs and classes in architectural programs throughout the United States. Further Reading

Cairncross, Frances. Costing the Earth: The Challenge for Governments, the Opportunity for Business. Boston: Harvard Business School Press, 1993. Presents a case for governments to create conditions that encourage businesses to use environmentally sound practices, and argues that the needs of the environment and industry are not at odds. Chapman, Jonathan, and Nick Gant, eds. Designers, Visionaries, and Other Stories. Sterling, Va.: Earthscan, 2007. Essays by some of the world’s leading thinkers in sustainable design. Graedel, T. E., and B. R. Allenby. Industrial Ecology. Upper Saddle River, N.J.: Prentice Hall, 1995. A comprehensive and practical introduction to applying sustainability principles in industry. McDonough, William, and Michael Braungart. Cradle to Cradle: Remaking the Way We Make Things. New York: North Point Press, 2002. An argument for

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sustainable design by the authors of the 1992 Hannover Principles. Not specific to architecture. McLennan, Jason F. The Philosophy of Sustainable Design. Bainbridge Island, Wash.: Ecotone, 2004. A book on the principles of sustainable design, with strong emphasis on architecture and building. U.S. Green Building Council. www.usgbc.org/. This official Web site provides information on LEED certification. Walker, Stuart. Sustainable by Design: Explorations in Theory and Practice. Sterling, Va.: Earthscan, 2006. Discusses theory and practice of sustainable design. Wertheimer, Lester. Architectural History. Chicago: Kaplan AEC Education, 2004. A course or textbook on architectural history that covers twentieth century architecture, including the history of sustainable design. Melissa A. Barton See also Architecture; Biosphere 2; Business and the economy in Canada; Business and the economy in the United States; Clean Air Act of 1990; Earth Day 1990; Global warming debate; Kyoto Protocol; Organic food movement; Science and technology; Water pollution.

T ■ Tae Bo A popular high-intensity exercise workout Creator Billy Blanks (1955) Date First taught in 1997 Definition

Tae Bo is an exercise program developed by world martial arts champion Billy Blanks and is credited with revitalizing the fading aerobics industry in the late 1990’s. The term “Tae Bo” comes from the Korean word Tae, meaning “foot” and “leg,” and the shortened form of “box.” The high-intensity cardiovascular workout is a combination of moves taken from martial arts, boxing, and aerobic dance. Set to fast-paced hiphop-style music, the workouts typically begin with warm-up stretching exercises and then progress to the cardio portion, composed of repetitive punches and kicks, followed by a cooldown involving breathing, stretching, and tai chi-like movements. The simple, repetitive moves are designed to establish cardiovascular endurance and build muscle strength and agility. Billy Blanks developed the basics of Tae Bo in his basement in 1976 primarily as a fitness routine for himself. In 1997, he began to teach his workout routine at the Billy Blanks World Karate Center, and in 1998 the first set of four workout videocassette tapes were marketed and sold through television infomercials and the Internet. Classes were also available by company-certified Tae Bo instructors in California and Texas. Blanks notes that while Tae Bo is available for everyone, he developed the program specifically to teach women martial arts and boxing movements to aid in self-defense. Tae Bo was considered another form of kickboxing aerobics, which in the late 1990’s was the latest workout fad. What sets Tae Bo apart from other workout trends is its philosophy, which promotes self-awareness, discipline, and agility. While various health organizations and professionals have criticized the workouts, noting that the repetitive movements Impact

could lead to serious injury, Blanks encourages modification of the movements at any time and also recommends consulting with an appropriate health care practitioner before beginning his routines. From his book, The Tae Bo Way (1999), and his Web site, www.billyblanks.com, Blanks details the philosophy and purpose of Tae Bo, noting that each letter in the name signifies a Tae Bo principle: Total commitment to whatever one does; Awareness of oneself and the world; Excellence, the truest goal in anything one does; Body as a force for total change; and Obedience to one’s will and one’s true desire for change. His exercise program coupled with his charismatic and motivating coaching style has created an exercise industry that is a sought-out favorite among many individuals, including many wellknown celebrities. The high-intensity exercise coupled with the can-do philosophy revolutionized aerobic workouts and made Tae Bo the best-selling fitness video series of the late 1990’s. Further Reading

Blanks, Billy. The Tae Bo Way. New York: Bantam Books, 1999. Labi, Nadya. “Tae Bo or Not Tae Bo?” Time, March 15, 1999, 77. Susan E. Thomas See also African Americans; Boxing; Cable television; Fads; Health care; Hobbies and recreation; Life coaching; Television.

■ Tailhook incident Widespread sexual harassment and assault at an annual U.S. Navy and Marine Corps symposium leads to investigations and lawsuits Date September 5-7, 1991 Place Las Vegas Hilton Hotel, Las Vegas, Nevada The Event

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The 1991 symposium had a record turnout of nearly five thousand, due in part to a two-day debriefing on the effects of naval airpower in the recent Desert Storm operation in the Persian Gulf. However, a different type of storm was brewing in the halls of the Hilton. Junior officers had traditionally viewed the symposium as a place to let loose, and in 1991 there was a victorious military operation to celebrate. The Academy Award-winning film Top As Labor Day 1991 approached, final preparations Gun (1986) had set a model for macho aviator bewere made at the Las Vegas Hilton to hold the havior. Moreover, integration of women into the milThirty-fifth Annual Tailhook Symposium. The Tailitary was not going smoothly. Resentment grew as hook Association was a private organization, named downsizing, another trend in the military, threatfor the hook underneath an aircraft’s tail that ened the tenure of career officers. catches the arresting wire on the aircraft carrier and Usually, what went on at Tailhook stayed at brings the landing plane to a stop quickly. Its memTailhook, but 1991 was not destined to be such a bers included Navy and Marine Corps aviators as year. Lieutenant Paula Coughlin, a thirty-year-old well as government civilian employees and defense helicopter pilot and admiral’s aide, filed charges contractors. Most of the memberships were related that as she emerged from an elevator onto the third directly or indirectly to aircraft carriers. The meetfloor Hilton hallway, she faced a gauntlet of fellow ing had grown over the years, but so had problems officers who grabbed her private parts, tore her related to drunkenness and lewd behavior. The fact clothing, and hurled her to the ground. Dozens of that squadrons celebrated together led to some of other women reported running through this same the less refined aspects of group behavior. During gauntlet and being attacked in a similar manner. the 1980’s, competition had developed among Resistance resulted in a torrent of curses being squadrons over who could party the hardest. hurled at them—although one female officer reportedly “decked” her assailant. Coughlin’s complaint to her commander, Admiral John W. Snyder, produced no overt concern. She then filed charges through normal naval channels, but nothing happened. In frustration, she related the story to the press. Interviews with World News Tonight and The Washington Post turned the spotlight on “outlaw” pilot behavior. On October 29, 1991, the Department of the Navy ended all ties with the Tailhook Association and hoped that reaction to the scandal would soon fade away. It did not. Seven months after the incident, amid public outcry, the Naval Investigative Service (NIS) investigated the charges, interviewing the nearly Lieutenant Paula Coughlin, right, arrives for the first day of the Tailhook trial in four thousand male military attenLas Vegas on September 12, 1991. Coughlin sued the Las Vegas Hilton for failing dees. The investigation was continto provide the necessary security to prevent the sexual harassment and assault on herued by the Naval Criminal Investiself and others. (AP/Wide World Photos) The scope and nature of the sexual harassment and the attempted cover-up produced a national scandal resulting in the disciplining of more than seventy senior officers and a multimillion-dollar judgment against the hotel in which the symposium was held. Reaction to the event underscored the seriousness of sexual harassment in both the military and workplace and was part of a national growth process.

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gative Service (NCIS), created after the NIS was dissolved for mishandling its investigation. In all, 119 Navy and 21 Marine Corps officers were cited for indecent assault, indecent exposure, and conduct unbecoming an officer. About ninety victims were identified, six of whom were officers’ wives. The Navy and Marine Corps were ordered by Secretary of the Navy H. Lawrence Garrett III to discipline seventy officers, fifty of whom were involved in the “third-floor gauntlet” and six of whom were involved in staging a cover-up. Admiral Snyder was relieved of his command for taking no action after Coughlin’s complaint. Three admirals attending the convention were censured for taking no action to stop the massive sexual harassment and assault, and thirty admirals received adverse letters to be placed in their permanent records. Forty other lower senior officers received adverse letters or fines for their actions. On the uppermost level, Naval Secretary Garrett resigned and Chief of Naval Operations Frank Kelso decided to retire. Both men were identified as near the third floor when the infamous gauntlet began. In regard to direct sexual assault, not a single person was convicted. Although Coughlin identified the main officer who assaulted her, a military pretrial hearing dismissed charges for lack of a single witness willing to corroborate her account. Coughlin and six other victims were more successful in direct legal suits against the Tailhook Association and the Las Vegas Hilton Hotel. Tailhook reached a pretrial settlement of $400,000 for Coughlin and an undisclosed six-figure amount for the other victims. The Las Vegas Hilton was charged with failing to provide the necessary security to prevent the sexual harassment and assault on Coughlin and others. After a seven-week trial, the hotel was ordered to pay Coughlin $1.3 million in compensatory damages and $3.9 million in punitive damages. Although about a dozen security guards were present in shifts during the convention, little was done to stop the raucous behavior. Punishment

Impact The Tailhook scandal was a historic turning point in the way that sexual harassment claims were handled in both the military and the broader workplace. It dramatized that tolerance of harassment could be costly not only financially but also professionally. It also showed that traditional means

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of institutional obfuscation and cover-up did not always work. Although the sexual harassment problem continued in the military, it did so in a much less virulent form. As a result of Tailhook, in 1994 women were permitted to serve on combat ships. Involvement in the scandal ended or seriously damaged many promising careers. One career that ended voluntarily was that of Lieutenant Paula Coughlin, who resigned from the Navy in February, 1995. Further Reading

McMichael, William H. The Mother of All Hooks: The Story of the U.S. Navy’s Tailhook Scandal. New York: Transaction, 1997. A graphic narrative of the event along with analysis of court proceedings and how the Navy mishandled the affair. U.S. Department of Defense. Office of the Inspector General. The Tailhook Report: The Official Inquiry into the Events of Tailhook ’91. New York: St. Martin’s Press, 1993. The detailed and shocking government report resulting from official investigations. Zimmerman, Jean. Tailspin: Women at War in the Wake of Tailhook. New York: Doubleday, 1995. A study of the effect of Tailhook on the battle for gender equality in the military. Irwin Halfond See also Defense budget cuts; Gulf War; Scandals; Women in the military; Women in the workforce.

■ Take Our Daughters to Work Day The program involves parents or guardians taking their daughters to work to encourage career development Date Instituted in 1993 as the fourth Thursday of April The Event

Several surveys in the early 1990’s, including a nationwide poll by the American Association of University Women, concluded that there was a significant drop in the self-esteem of young American girls between the ages of nine and fifteen. The Ms. Foundation for Women used this information to initiate Take Our Daughters to Work Day, an event designed to empower girls to succeed and to encourage them to pursue careers.

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Since April, 1993, the Ms. Foundation for Women has encouraged parents, grandparents, and other adults willing to act as role models to work with businesses to provide girls with firsthand knowledge of the work environment. In supporting Take Our Daughters to Work Day, the foundation inspires businesses to go beyond simply allowing girls to visit with their family members at their place of employment. Businesses are encouraged to provide events, speakers, and activities that stimulate girls to actively engage in their education and to willingly prepare for professional careers. The career education day is organized to focus attention on girls as a means of fostering confidence and boosting morale, to introduce businesses to the next generation of employees, and to celebrate the role of women in the workplace. Take Our Daughters to Work Day quickly gained popularity, but critics questioned the value of the program. Some opponents believed that girls should not miss a day of school to attend the festivities. Others concluded that not all girls had an opportunity to attend a program in a career area that would demonstrate a positive, uplifting experience. Challengers also argued that the program worked well in business offices but was less effective for children of blue-collar workers, particularly where safety might be problematic. The greatest criticism came from omitting boys from the day’s activities. As the program grew, some enterprises and adult sponsors began including sons in the event, too. Impact Throughout the 1990’s, Take Our Daughters to Work Day grew to include millions of companies that welcomed girls’ participation. The program was adopted in the United Kingdom in 1994. As the program’s popularity rose, U.S. corporations increasingly greeted more boys, but during the 1990’s, the Ms. Foundation for Women continued to officially sponsor the event for girls. In April, 2003, the foundation justified adding “and Sons” by determining that the inclusion of sons would help support a more balanced approach to work and family life. The goal of including both girls and boys is to help improve and endorse fairness and justice. The program now focuses on strengthening connections between work and school and enhancing child and parent relationships. Further Reading

American Association of University Women. Shortchanging Girls, Shortchanging America: A Nationwide

Poll to Assess Self Esteem, Educational Experiences, Interest in Math and Science, and Career Aspirations of Girls and Boys Ages Nine to Fifteen. Annapolis Junction, Md.: Author, 1994. Lewin, Tamar. “On Daughters-at-Work Day, Some Are Including the Sons.” The New York Times, April 25, 1996, pp. A1, B11. Quindlen, Anna. “Horrors! Girls with Gavels!” Newsweek, April 15, 2002, 64. Cynthia J. W. Svoboda Business and the economy in the United States; Employment in the United States; Women in the workforce.

See also

■ Talk radio A broadcast format featuring opinion on topical issues, sometimes from people calling in to a program but mostly from the program’s host

Definition

Radio talk shows proliferated in the 1990’s, with conservatives dominating the vast majority of those dealing with political issues. Talk radio in the 1990’s took many forms, from mechanical advice (Car Talk) to ethical and moral advice (The Dr. Laura Show), tips on computer fixes (The Kim Komando Show), love-life advice (Dr. Joy Browne), and sexual innuendo (The Howard Stern Show). Often when people referred to talk radio during the decade, however, they meant the growing number of right-wing commentators who sprang up in the wake of Rush Limbaugh. Limbaugh began broadcasting his politically conservative views on a Sacramento station in 1984 and then had the idea of offering his show free to other stations. The show quickly spread throughout the country. Others noted his success and did likewise, creating an army of conservative call-in shows. The number of stations broadcasting them passed a thousand by 1995. The powers that be took note of this trend. President George H. W. Bush appeared on Limbaugh’s show during his unsuccessful reelection campaign in 1992 against Democratic challenger Bill Clinton. When Clinton won, Limbaugh and his successors jumped on scan-

Conservative Talk Show Domination

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dals during Clinton’s two terms with glee. Conservative U.S. Supreme Court justice Clarence Thomas officiated at Limbaugh’s third wedding. Freshman Republicans who were part of the party’s new congressional majority in 1994 named Limbaugh an honorary member of Congress for his support. The National Association of Broadcasters recognized him four times (in 1992, 1995, 2000, and 2005) as Syndicated Radio Personality of the Year. Many other conservative personalities followed, from political strategist and consultant Mary Matalin, who hosted her own talk radio show in the 1990’s, to Sean Hannity, a Fox News Network conservative commentator. The almost-solid conservative formats prompted critics to advocate a new Fairness Doctrine. The previous one, a Federal Communications Commission (FCC) regulation requiring broadcast license holders to seek balance in presenting issues, was repealed in 1987 during Ronald Reagan’s administration. Its removal paved the way for the spread of conservative talk radio in the 1990’s. The popularity of talk radio in the United States did not catch on in neighboring Canada. Most Canadian shows are broadcast on privately owned stations and deal with local matters. One exception is Adler on Line, hosted by Charles Adler. Impact Some predictions for the future of talk radio see it expanding into new outlets, such as the Internet and other competing technologies. Many Internet blogs (Web logs) already imitate the “listener comment” part of talk radio by soliciting responses, and talk radio host Howard Stern moved to a satellite radio service in 2004. Democrats in the House of Representatives made two unsuccessful attempts in 2005 to bring back the Fairness Doctrine to bring more diversity to talk radio. The response of conservative talk radio hosts is generally that they are entertainers, not political commentators, and that the issue is one of free speech. Further Reading

Buxton, Frank, and Bill Owen. The Big Broadcast. New York: Viking Press, 1972. A survey of talk radio’s predecessors in various kinds of shows from the 1920’s to the 1950’s. Franken, Al. Lies and the Lying Liars Who Tell Them: A Fair and Balanced Look at the Right. New York: Penguin Group, 2003. A professional comic lampoons conservative talk radio icons and gives ac-

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counts of what he sees as their shortcomings. Gallerani, Donald. Everything Worth Knowing I Heard on Talk Radio. Charleston, S.C.: BookSurge, 2007. A representative of talk radio’s audience gives his views on those in the industry with whom he has talked on the air as a caller, and what he sees as the influences of each talk radio host on the events of the day. Hannity, Sean. Deliver Us from Evil: Defeating Terrorism, Despotism, and Liberalism. New York: William Morrow, 2004. Well-known radio talk show conservative, who also is part of the Fox network’s Hannity and Colmes television program, explains his beliefs. Kurtz, Howard. Media Circus: The Trouble with America’s Newspapers. New York: Times Books, 1993. Kurtz, a Washington Post press critic, delves into not only newspapers but also the role that talk radio plays in disseminating news and information to the public. Laufer, Peter. Inside Talk Radio: America’s Voice or Just Hot Air? New York: Carol, 1995. Laufer, who has participated in radio talk shows and knows or is familiar with talk-show hosts across the nation, provides insights on how they work, the pros and cons of this radio phenomenon, and chapters on key players such as Rush Limbaugh, Howard Stern, and Larry King. Limbaugh, Rush. The Way Things Ought to Be. New York: Pocket Books, 1993. An anecdotal account of the influences that shaped the conservative views of the best-known talk show commentator. Limbaugh also outlines his core views. Munson, Wayne. All Talk: The Talkshow in Media Culture. Philadelphia: Temple University Press, 1994. Insights on talk shows combining news and comedy by a Massachusetts college communications and media teacher, and how the format entices listeners with a combination of the familiar and the unpredictable. Also provides information on the format’s antecedents dating back to eighteenth century magazines. Paul Dellinger See also Bush, George H. W.; Clinton, Bill; Clinton’s impeachment; Clinton’s scandals; Conservatism in U.S. politics; Contract with America; Drudge, Matt; Lewinsky scandal; Liberalism in U.S. politics; Limbaugh, Rush; Morris, Dick; O’Reilly, Bill; Republican Revolution; Right-wing conspiracy.

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■ Tarantino, Quentin American film director, writer, and actor Born March 27, 1963; Knoxville, Tennessee Identification

Tarantino’s distinctive films helped to bring the independent film movement of the 1990’s into mainstream popular culture. Quentin Tarantino is one of the most identifiable directors of the 1990’s. Writing and directing the cult favorite Reservoir Dogs (1992) and the critically and popularly acclaimed Pulp Fiction (1994), Tarantino made two of the most distinctive and imitated movies of the decade. Tarantino’s films often employ crime story lines told in nontraditional form, punctuated with stylized violence and dialogue, and featuring extended monologues on aspects of popular culture. Tarantino’s work also shows the influence of B-movies, especially Hong Kong action movies, film noir, “blaxploitation” films, and spaghetti Westerns. Tarantino is also known for resurrecting the careers of washed-up actors like John Travolta in Pulp Fiction and Pam Grier and Robert Forster in Jackie Brown (1997). Tarantino’s films are also part of the larger postmodern movement in the arts, as they are intertextual, synthesizing scenes, themes, and other aspects of previous films. Tarantino also wrote and directed Jackie Brown and wrote either stories or screenplays for several other films, including True Romance (1993) and Natural Born Killers (1994). Tarantino wrote, directed, and acted in Reservoir Dogs, his first feature film. With its nonlinear account of a heist gone wrong, Reservoir Dogs introduced many of Tarantino’s trademarks. After showings at the Sundance and Cannes film festivals, the movie received widespread critical praise. Although it enjoyed only a short theatrical release, the film gained a cult following and made Tarantino a pop culture icon. With Pulp Fiction, Tarantino became the most recognizable independent filmmaker in the United States. More ambitious than its predecessor, Pulp Fiction followed three interwoven plotlines through the crime underworld of Los Angeles. Grossing over $100 million in the United States and over $200 million worldwide, the film was an enormous success and established Miramax as one of the premier movie studios. The film was also critically acclaimed and won numerous awards, including the Palme

Quentin Tarantino holds his Golden Globe Award at the 1995 awards ceremony. He and Roger Avary won for their Pulp Fiction screenplay. (AP/Wide World Photos)

d’Or at the Cannes Film Festival. At the 1995 Academy Awards, Pulp Fiction earned seven nominations, including Best Picture, and won the Oscar for Best Original Screenplay. Impact Following the success of Pulp Fiction, Hollywood produced a number of “Tarantino-esque” films imitating Tarantino’s plots, dialogue, and overall style. Moreover, large studios began to look for independent films that could duplicate Tarantino’s box-office success. The triumph of Pulp Fiction also helped Miramax become a powerhouse within the film industry, producing numerous commercially and critically successful movies. The lasting effect of Tarantino’s work on American cinema has also been appreciated by film scholars. In 2007, the American Film Institute ranked Pulp Fiction as ninety-fourth on its list of the one hundred best American movies of all time.

The Nineties in America Further Reading

Biskind, Peter. Down and Dirty Pictures: Miramax, Sundance, and the Rise of Independent Film. New York: Simon & Schuster, 2004. Levy, Emanuel. Cinema of Outsiders: The Rise of American Independent Film. New York: New York University Press, 1999. Waxman, Sharon. Rebels on the Backlot: Six Maverick Directors and How They Conquered the Hollywood Studio System. New York: HarperEntertainment, 2005. Jacob F. Lee Academy Awards; Film in the United States; Independent films; Pulp Fiction; Sundance Film Festival; Travolta, John.

See also

■ Tattoos and body piercings Two forms of body modification, art, or adornment

Definition

Tattoos and body piercings, once limited to the populations of prisoners, gang members, bikers, and sailors, became more mainstream activities in the 1990’s. Until the 1990’s, tattoos and body piercings were a provocative part of various societal subcultures. The 1990’s marked an increase in popularity in tattoos and body piercings and was in part encouraged by an increasing number of celebrities—from actors to alternative, grunge, punk, and hip-hop musicians to athletes—displaying these forms of body art. According to Victoria Pitts in In the Flesh (2003), both tattoos and body piercing were eventually “appropriated by MTV and the catwalk, and by the late 1990’s, these had become wholly acceptable, if alternative and hip, forms of fashion.” Body piercing enthusiasts began to pierce more than just their ears—tongue, nose, and navel piercings became popular during this time. Tattoos also became more than just emblems for bikers, gang members, and military men. Men and women from all walks of life sought to “reclaim” or beautify their bodies through this type of permanent, and stigmatized, body art. Though many teens and adults chose to become tattooed and/or pierced to express their individuality, these forms of body modification became less edgy or rebellious for others. Some believed that these body modifications lost

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their original, seditious meanings and became other forms of self-expression and decoration. According to Pitts, “Because they have pushed the envelope of body aesthetics, body modifiers have been understood as perverse, criminal, and offensive, but also as artistic, expressive, and radical.” In fact, both tattoos and body piercings have allowed people to control and manipulate visual and public projections of their own sense of individuality. Impact Although most individuals who sported tattoos and/or body piercings were young Americans, many middle-class and professional women and men began to participate in these forms of body modification. In the 1990’s, tattoos and body piercings became more widely accepted in virtually all tiers of society. While they began to cut across diverse social and class groups and became more mainstream, however, there was still a relative marginalization of the practice within society as a whole. Further Reading

DeMello, Margo. Bodies of Inscription: A Cultural History of the Modern Tattoo Community. Durham, N.C.: Duke University Press, 2000. Lloyd, J. D., ed. Body Piercing and Tattoos: Examining Pop Culture. San Diego, Calif.: Greenhaven Press, 2002. Pitts, Victoria. In the Flesh: The Cultural Politics of Body Modification. New York: Palgrave Macmillan, 2003. Desiré J. M. Anastasia Alternative rock; Fads; Fashions and clothing; Grunge fashion.

See also

■ Telecommunications Act of 1996 U.S. federal legislation deregulating the telecommunications industry Date Signed into law on February 8, 1996 Identification

With little attention from the press, Congress passed the Telecommunications Act of 1996, the stated goals of which were to produce more competition, a greater diversity of viewpoints, jobs for the economy, and lower prices for consumers. The U.S. Congress passed the Telecommunications Act with a huge majority despite a threatened veto by

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Telemarketing

President Bill Clinton. There was a notable lack of public debate about the legislation, which was a major overhaul of the Communications Act of 1934. Media scholar Robert McChesney lamented the poor press coverage and quoted one lobbyist as saying, “I have never seen anything like the Telecommunications Bill. The silence of public debate is deafening. A bill with such astonishing impact on all of us is not even being discussed.” Telecommunications spokespersons said that the act would save consumers $550 billion and add 1.5 million jobs. The promised savings never materialized. Instead, cable and local phone rates rose, while the telecommunications industry lost a half-million jobs. Some critics, such as Kansas senator Bob Dole, called the act a giveaway to the media firms. Not only did the rates go up for the public but the consolidation of the media created a monopoly threatening the diversity of information as well. Many public officials did not foresee the consolidation of the media and the devastating results that would take place. After the passage of the law, a wave of media mergers and buyouts occurred almost overnight. The Telecommunications Act of 1996 eliminated the national ownership cap on commercial radio stations, and Clear Channel began to buy up stations and reduce, if not altogether eliminate, local news and other local programming. By 2002, the changes brought by deregulation had left ten companies controlling two-thirds of the radio audience, with two companies, Viacom and Infinity Broadcasting, controlling 42 percent of the listeners. Despite promises by the major media companies to increase news programming, news staffs shrank by 44 percent and part-time staff by 71 percent. The promise to improve on the lack of minority ownership actually caused a decrease by 14 percent. Impact The Telecommunications Act of 1996 resulted in the public paying more money for services and a decrease in minority ownership. The passage of this legislation by Congress created a media monopoly that has left the public stranded amid a sea of mergers and takeovers by media giants, which was not the stated goal of the act. Further Reading

Aufderheide, Patricia. Communications Policy and Public Interest: The Telecommunications Act of 1996. New York: Guilford Press, 1999.

Cooper, Mark. Media Ownership and Democracy in the Digital Information Age. Stanford, Calif.: Center for Internet & Society, Stanford Law School, 2003. Wexler, Celia. “Channeling Influence: The Broadcast Lobby and the $70 Billion Free Ride.” Common Cause, April, 1997, 20. Denis Mueller Business and the economy in the United States; Cable television; Children’s Television Act of 1990; Internet; Television.

See also

■ Telemarketing Direct marketing practice of reaching potential customers by telephone

Definition

Telemarketing in the 1990’s was becoming an increasingly successful business tool at the same time that protective legislation, of limited effect, was being introduced to control the practice. Telemarketing was part of the burgeoning direct marketing industry of the decade. Its impact was substantial, generating hundreds of billions of dollars in sales annually. Throughout the 1990’s, U.S. businesses steadily increased the amount of sales they were obtaining through telephone marketing. In 1990, those sales amounted to $272.8 billion, according to the Direct Marketing Association (DMA). Congress, in enacting the Telephone Consumer Protection Act of 1991 (TCPA), offered a significantly contrasting figure of over $400 billion for 1990. According to the DMA, telemarketing sales increased steadily, with a 7.2 annual percent growth rate from 1990 to 1995. The rate increased to around 9.2 percent annually during the second half of the decade. Sales in 1995 were $385.6 billion; by 1999, they were nearing $600 billion. Business-to-business sales generated the most money, and a smaller percentage came from consumer telephone marketing sales. In 1990, $117.2 billion in telemarketing sales to consumers were surpassed by the $155.6 billion in business-to-business telemarketing sales. Similarly in 1995, $159.3 billion in sales to consumers were surpassed by the $226.3 billion in business-to-business sales. Of lesser importance than its effect on consumers, telemarketing provided new employment op-

The Nineties in America

portunities, although employment growth consistently lagged behind sales growth. DMA figures put employment at only 869,700 workers in 1990, a figure that grew at a rate from 2.5 to 2.8 percent per year through the decade. The TCPA, a legislative landmark in consumer protection signed by President George H. W. Bush in 1991, was intended to reduce the nuisance and invasion of privacy caused by telemarketing and prerecorded calls. It specifically limited automatic telephone-dialing systems, as well as artificial or prerecorded voice messages. Congress called on the Federal Communications Commission (FCC) to consider methods to accommodate telephone subscribers who did not wish to receive solicitations. In its resulting regulations, however, the FCC decided against a national do-not-call list as being too restrictive for companies. Instead, do-not-call lists were to be implemented on a company-specific basis. At the time, because of high international calling rates, overseas-based telemarketers did not yet pose a significant problem. Impact While of significant importance to American business, telemarketing became one of the least popular aspects of American life during the 1990’s. This sentiment would help make the national donot-call list a reality in the following decade after jurisdiction was turned over to the Federal Trade Commission. Further Reading

Schulte, Fred. Fleeced! Telemarketing Rip-Offs and How to Avoid Them. Amherst, N.Y.: Prometheus Books, 1995. Shew, Michael. Dialing for Dollars. New York: Writers Club Press, 2001. Mark Rich Advertising; Business and the economy in the United States; Employment in the United States.

See also

■ Television Programs and series produced for or broadcast on television

Definition

Television in the 1990’s was an influential medium for entertainment, information, and education. The decade

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also introduced potent new genres and offered new means of access, reflecting a progression of technologies, attitudes, and trends. By 1998, according to the U.S. Census Bureau, 98 percent of all American households owned at least one television set, with the average household owning two or more sets. The average time that these sets were on was between six and seven hours per day. Through the three major broadcasting networks— the American Broadcasting Company (ABC), the Columbia Broadcasting System (CBS), and the National Broadcasting Company (NBC)—viewers accessed a variety of genres, including newscasts, sporting events, daytime dramas (also known as soap operas or soaps), action and adventure shows, medical and crime dramas, situation comedies (known as sitcoms), variety and awards shows, game shows, and daytime and late night talk shows. Two more television output modes once reserved for viewers unable to get traditional reception became increasingly available, making choices multiply. Cable television expanded to 74 percent of American households, and direct broadcast satellite (DBS) service began reaching millions of rural and urban users. This led to the advent of new networks to compete with the mammoths and to the creation of themed broadcasting: Besides the quickly growing popularity of networks such as Fox, UPN, and the WB, tens of stations offered select genre programming to specifically identified target audiences. Genre Programming Several genres already common in the 1990’s continued to grow in popularity. The leading networks offered news magazine shows such as 20/20, 60 Minutes, and Dateline. The revolutionary MTV stayed ahead in the telecommunications industry with music videos and select shows such as the sometimes controversial Beavis and ButtHead—the latter becoming instrumental in the debate over viewer responsibility and the decision to rate programming by age-appropriateness. In addition, the major networks offered some of the most popular shows of the decade, including top-rated sitcoms such as Frasier, Friends, and Seinfeld and awardwinning medical, law, and police dramas including ER, NYPD Blue, and the detective/science-fiction anomaly The X-Files. Other popular network shows were Monday Night Football, Late Night with David Letterman, Murphy Brown, Roseanne, Boy Meets World, The Fresh Prince of Bel-Air, and Wings.

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Television

At the same time, the up-and-coming networks were offering stylized programming, each with its unique pushing of television boundaries around themes, subject matter, or technique. Fox brought viewers such shows as the innovative Ally McBeal, the distinctive and fresh variety-sketch show In Living Color, and the revolutionary animated show The Simpsons. UPN offered kids and teens—as well as a more ethnically diverse audience—a schedule rife with sitcoms such as Clueless, Moesha, and The Parkers and animated series such as Adventures of Sonic the Hedgehog. The WB, also catering to children and teens, introduced a modest lineup, one night a week to start, with shows dropped from other networks and new shows with diverse appeal, including The Wayans Bros., The Parent ’Hood, and Sister, Sister. By the end of the decade, the network would feature some of the highest-rated shows, including Buffy the Vampire Slayer, Dawson’s Creek, Beverly Hills, 90210, and Charmed. Also appealing were series both on paid stations, such as the racy Sex and the City on Home Box Office (HBO), and on noncommercial, public stations, such as the children’s program Barney and Friends on the Public Broadcasting Service (PBS). The growing networks and the newly established stations made some significant shifts in television trends in the 1990’s. First was the narrowing of focus for theme-dedicated networks, those which were created about particular passions, pastimes, or disciplines and for viewers with an affinity for them. They included a long list of stations started or continuing to gain in popularity in the 1990’s, such as ESPN (for sports), the Food Network (for cooking and all things related to food), the History Channel, the Sci-Fi Channel (for science fiction), and Lifetime (for women). Next was the birth of the riskiest of programming types—those that implicitly or explicitly conveyed themes of homosexuality. Heterosexuality and its representation had come a long way from married sitcom characters who had to be shown sleeping in separate beds to soap opera characters who were actually in bed. Likewise, only a few shows in previous decades had tried and been successful with some aspect of homosexuality, among them the 1977 comic drama Soap, which featured the gay male character Jodie Dallas, played by Billy Crystal. Homosexuality, however, as a central theme and subject was boldly and overtly introduced in 1997

Progressive Programming

when comic Ellen DeGeneres announced that she was a lesbian and allowed her character on the sitcom Ellen to do so as well. The series lasted for only a year following the event, the viewer numbers of 36.2 million not high enough to slow the accelerated plummeting of the show’s ratings. Further, the popular comedian suffered the consequences, unable to find new work in the industry for several years following. Because of this groundbreaking act, television took its cues for a progressive move toward more blatant exposure of the homosexual orientation and lifestyle. A year later, CBS introduced audiences to not only a gay male lead but a gay male supporting character with, respectively, Will Truman (played by Eric McCormack) and Jack McFarland (Sean Hayes) in Will and Grace. The sitcom enjoyed a hugely popular run for eight years. A third shift in programming in the 1990’s would contribute to the revolutionizing of television as audiences knew it: The reality television genre, which exploded as a form of entertainment by the early twenty-first century, began in the 1990’s. Reality television programming was several decades old by the 1990’s. From as early as 1948, shows such as Alan Funt’s Candid Camera, pageant programs such as Miss America, highly personalized shows such as This Is Your Life and You Asked for It, and game shows such as Match Game and The Price Is Right had kept millions of viewers watching in both daytime and nighttime. The 1990’s, however, ushered in a modified, enhanced, and amplified version of reality television. Reality television programming constituted ordinary (real) people experiencing actual events and exposing (or allowing the exposure of) their actual responses, feelings, comments, and actions. The shows were purported to be unscripted, though a good deal of editing was clearly done—especially for longer real-life situations such as living long term in a planned-for setting. The impetus for participating in reality programming was often the goal of reaching the final round where a monetary prize was waiting. Reality television in the 1990’s planted the seed for several individual formats or styles. MTV’s The Real World, which debuted in 1992, reintroduced the documentary-style reality program; it was followed in the same decade by a spin-off, Road Rules. There were science reality programs such as The Crocodile Hunter, which premiered in 1997, and dating pro-

Reality Television

The Nineties in America

grams such as Blind Date, which began airing in 1999. Several law-enforcement reality shows were popular—taking their cue from the earlier COPS and America’s Most Wanted—among them Real Stories of the Highway Patrol in 1993, LAPD: Life on the Beat in 1995, and World’s Wildest Police Videos in 1998.

Television

Program

Airdates

Network

Cheers

1982-1993

NBC

A Different World

1987-1993

NBC

Full House

1987-1995

ABC

Married . . . with Children

1987-1997

Fox

Roseanne

1988-1997

ABC

Murphy Brown

1988-1998

CBS

Coach

1989-1997

ABC

Family Matters

1989-1998

ABC

Major Dad

1989-1993

CBS

Seinfeld

1989-1998

NBC

Evening Shade

1990-1994

CBS

The Fresh Prince of Bel-Air

1990-1996

NBC

Wings

1990-1997

NBC

Home Improvement

1991-1999

ABC

Mad About You

1992-1999

NBC

Frasier

1993-2004

NBC

Grace Under Fire

1993-1998

ABC

Living Single

1993-1998

Fox

Ellen

1994-1998

ABC

Friends

1994-2004

NBC

Caroline in the City

1995-1999

NBC

Cybill

1995-1998

CBS

The Drew Carey Show

1995-2004

ABC

News Radio

1995-1999

NBC

Everybody Loves Raymond

1996-2005

CBS

Spin City

1996-2002

ABC

Advertising revenue has supported television programming (with the exception of public, noncommercial television) since the advent of commercial television in the 1940’s. By targeting specific audiences, the sponsors of select programs base their advertisements on time of day or night, cultural trends, and demographic data. According to the U.S. Census Bureau, by 1999 national advertisers were collectively spending more than $18 million targeting all demographic groups. In the 1990’s, general considerations were still made regarding viewer needs and preferences, but some trends had shifted. Far greater representations of cultures were taken into serious consideration, and far fewer food and cleaning product ads target-

Suddenly Susan

1996-2000

NBC

Third Rock from the Sun

1996-2001

NBC

Just Shoot Me

1997-2003

NBC

Will and Grace

1998-2006

NBC

Television Advertising

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Popular 1990’s Sitcoms

Another form of reality to take hold during the decade was live and actual footage of events and proceedings, especially criminal and court happenings. During the Gulf War, Americans for the first time were made privy to hours of on-location specifics. During the Rodney King case, several networks devoted a major portion to covering the incident of his beating, the trial and acquittal of the accused Los Angeles Police Department officers, and the subsequent civil uprising—the Los Angeles riots of 1992. Networks such as Court TV became some of the most-watched networks of an eight-month period in 1995 by televising O. J. Simpson’s murder trial. Both because of and by way of television, viewers were able to witness the events leading up to and the consequences of what has been labeled “ambush TV”—initiated by the infamous Jerry Springer Show starting in 1991. In 1995, Jenny Jones Show produced a “Same Sex Secret Crushes” episode: A young gay man named Scott Amedure confessed to his best friend Jonathan Schmitz that he had a crush on him; Schmitz laughed it off on national television but three days later shot and killed Amedure. Real Television Coverage

■

ing housewives were run. More technologically related products and services were shown, and more background music and lyrics of popular genres were played. Forms of advertisement included standard techniques, such as infomercials, promotionals, and political advertising spots, but new strategies for advertising evolved as well. Sponsors took a cue from

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reality television at one point in the decade, for example, by using a style of ad that involved individuals sitting in groups around the coffee table discussing a product that worked for them—and incorporating the however-stilted dialogue for the negative implications and possible side effects, especially for prescription and over-the-counter drugs. Advertising was extended to a more subtle strategy of product placement—a technique used as far back as the late 1940’s, made increasingly popular in the 1980’s, and made more obvious in the 1990’s. With shows such as Seinfeld, for instance, the technique involved not only background shots of products and characters’ usage of products (such as Heinz Ketchup and Diet Coke) but actual dialogue and interactivity with dozens of products such as Snapple, Bosco, Calvin Klein, BMW, Toyota, Junior Mints, and Pez as well. Television and Internet Technology Product placement was one answer to the audience’s ability to bypass ads, as new technologies were born that made television viewing more efficient while keeping television programming accessible (and competitive) without being displaced by the increasingly popular Internet. The launching of the digital video recording system TiVo for public use in 1998, for example, allowed users to record programming for later viewing. Viewers could consult their TiVo recording list, select a program to watch, and fast-forward through the ads. As a result, advertisers immediately turned to product placement strategy, began implementing other tactics such as an on-screen banner or “logo bug” (seen at the bottom of the television screen), and made efforts toward other compensating techniques—including placing the company’s Web site address on the banner or bug and collaborating with Internet technology online. Internet television was born in 1994 when ABC became the first to broadcast online its World News Now. ABC used CU-SeeMe videoconferencing software, but it was under the auspices of Judith Estrin and Bill Carrico of Precept Software (now run by Cisco Systems) in 1995 that Internet protocol (IP) television made it possible for users to access the next television programs online. In the 1990’s, a database, or library, of programming allowed users to choose streaming Internet television or to make selections from specified lists at select TV over IP Web sites. Legitimate sites ran syndicated and rerun

The Nineties in America

shows, rather than first-run or original-run programming, and industry and network owners ran their own first-run programs—following the new Internet television trends. Television Rating Systems With the freedom afforded by technological advancements, network growth, and increasingly liberal content and trends— in addition to the inundation of products, services, information, and increasingly violent and sexual program content—the television industry of the 1990’s made great efforts to monitor viewing habits and protect certain viewers, namely, children. Most significant were the Children’s Television Act of 1990 and, in the middle of the decade, the initiation of the TV Parental Guidelines rating system. The Children’s Television Act of 1990 was enacted by Congress primarily to enhance educational and informational quality in television programming for children. As determined by the Federal Communications Commission (FCC), such programming was necessary to further the positive cognitive development of children and to meet their social and emotional needs. It was made emphatically clear by the FCC, however, that the definition of quality programming did not make a distinction between general entertainment programming that happened to meet these needs and programming that was intentionally designed to educate and inform. With the wide-ranging availability of edgier networks such as Comedy Central (launched in 1989) and FX (launched in 1994) and with the accessibility of programs that were considered by some parents to be better suited to older audiences, the debate over “quality” television was answered. In 1996, a television ratings system was introduced that the television industry and the FCC put into effect in 1997. Three tiers of ratings were involved. The first two labeling tiers included V for violence (mild, moderate, or intense); F V for fantasy violence (such as cartoon violence); S for sexual (orientation or situation); L for language (course, foul, profane, or objectionable); and D for dialogue (suggestive discussions, themes). Over these tiers presided the categorical rating labels: TV-Y (suitable for all ages); TV-Y 7 (suitable for youth over seven years of age); TV-Y 7-FV (most likely suitable for youth over seven years of age, containing fantasy violence); TV-PG (suitable for older children); TV-14 (suitable for children fourteen years of age and older); and TV-

The Nineties in America

MA (suitable for viewers seventeen years of age and older). The WB was the first to apply the labeling system, followed by the rest of the broadcast networks, while cable television networks—not as restricted, typically—either followed suit or kept with their own devised content descriptions and labels. Important to note, too, is that the TV Parental Guidelines rating system does not take into account news, sports, or advertising. Impact Television in the 1990’s was a source with increased power for entertaining, informing, and educating viewers. By way of standard television, Internet television, and other telecommunications systems, people were made aware of large-scale natural disasters, technological disasters, and humaninitiated disasters, as well as public-service announcements, charitable relief efforts, and positive social and political campaigns. Television reflected the culture as much as it influenced culture, however, and in the fine line between reflecting and influencing were the dangers that many media theorists insisted were inherent: the nature of programming and advertising to be propagandistic, the debatable effect of television violence as a cause of social violence, and the psychological tendency toward television addiction. The reverse opinions held that television and other technology in the 1990’s made content accessible to those otherwise deprived, contributed to (some even say statistically proven) higher intelligence, fostered diversity, and enhanced global unity. Further Reading

Abramson, Albert, and Christopher H. Sterling. The History of Television, 1942 to 2000. Jefferson, N.C.: McFarland, 2000. Offers a comprehensive study of the technical history of television. Bourdieu, Pierre. On Television. New York: New Press, 1999. Two lectures closely scrutinize the power of television to shape worldviews and the political threats the medium poses. Brooks, Tim, and Earle March. The Complete Guide to Prime Time Network and Cable TV Shows. New York: Ballantine, 2007. A comprehensive, encyclopedic guide to more than five hundred prime-time shows. Postman, Neil. Amusing Ourselves to Death: Public Discourse in the Age of Show Business. New York: Penguin, 2005. A critical study of the impact of technology in general and television in particular on

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human discourse—as it deteriorates political debate, news speech, religious discussion, and literature and art. Signorielli, Nancy, and Susan Kahlenberg. “Television’s World of Work in the Nineties.” Journal of Broadcasting & Electronic Media 45 (Winter, 2001): 4-22. Offers a focused survey of the depiction of occupations on television, including an emphasis on race and gender roles at work. Smith-Shomade, Beretta E. Shaded Lives: AfricanAmerican Women and Television. Chapel Hill, N.C.: Rutgers University Press, 2002. Closely investigates television’s manipulative and contradictory approaches to “binaristic” or split depicting of African American women in the 1980’s and 1990’s. Vessey, Judith A., Paula K. Yim-Chiplis, and Nancy R. MacKenzie. “Effects of Television Viewing on Children’s Development.” Pediatric Nursing 23, no. 5 (September/October, 1998): 483-486. Provides a thorough analysis and statistics for the effects of television on viewers—including physical, cognitive, and psychosocial impact on children. Roxanne McDonald See also Advertising; Ally McBeal; Baywatch; Beavis and Butt-Head; Beverly Hills, 90210; Cable television; Carrey, Jim; Children’s television; Children’s Television Act of 1990; Clooney, George; CNN coverage of the Gulf War; Comedians; DeGeneres, Ellen; ER; Frasier; Friends; In Living Color ; Internet; Jenny Jones Show murder; Journalism; Larry Sanders Show, The; Late night television; Los Angeles riots; MTV Unplugged; Murphy Brown; Myers, Mike; Northern Exposure; NYPD Blue ; Plasma screens; Real World, The ; Rock, Chris; Seinfeld; Sex and the City ; Simpson murder case; Simpsons, The; Smith, Will; South Park ; Telecommunications Act of 1996; TV Martí; TV Parental Guidelines system; Twin Peaks; UPN television network; WB television network; Will and Grace; Winfrey, Oprah; X-Files, The ; Xena: Warrior Princess.

■ Tennis Definition

International professional sport

During the 1990’s, tennis struggled to maintain its appeal to an audience grown weary of the sport’s excesses and its diva stars. In addition, it had to adjust to innovations in racket design that had remade the sport into a power game

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The Nineties in America

that favored backline play and power serves rather than the intense volleying and improvisational net play that had, just a decade earlier, made the game among the most popular sports in the world. Early in the decade, tennis faced enormous challenges. When the introduction in the 1980’s of larger, sleeker metal and fiberglass rackets that increased the velocity (and accuracy) of first serves turned the sport into a game of aces and short rallies, fans found the new play dull. More problematic, however, the insulated world of professional tennis (the best players were selected for private training as early as twelve and privately schooled) had created a cadre of pros unable, and often unwilling, to bond with fans. Tennis pros seemed unapproachable and self-absorbed. Given the tremendous pressures, the best players emotionally and physically burned out while still teenagers. With overscheduling of dozens of tournaments during an overlong season, television ratings inevitably declined. The problems tennis faced were perhaps best summarized by the decade’s two defining rivalries: for the men, Pete Sampras and Andre Agassi; and for the women, Steffi Graf and Monica Seles. With his power and explosive forehand game, Sampras was perfectly fitted for the new era of tennis. Not surprisingly, “Pistol Pete” dominated grand-slam play in the decade (save the clay courts of the French Open). Indeed, in 2000, Sports Illustrated named him the sport’s athlete of the century. By decade’s end, Sampras had accumulated more than sixty singles titles (including twelve grand-slam titles) and had spent more weeks ranked number one than any player in the sport’s history (including 286 consecutive weeks). However, it was his decade-long rivalry with Agassi that gave Sampras, otherwise perceived to be robotic and dull, his best moments. Although he was born within a year of Sampras, Agassi had been part of the 1980’s brat era and had made his name with his rock-star persona, his long hair, his outrageous lifestyle, and his credo, taken from his commercials for Canon cameras, that “Image is everything.” By the 1990’s, however, Agassi rededicated himself to the game and emerged, against Sampras’s baseline game, as the decade’s dominant court player, directing play from midcourt with remarkable eye-hand coordination that allowed him to return even Sampras’s rocket-serves. Agassi developed into a fierce volleyer known for

The Rivalries

Pete Sampras reacts after defeating Andre Agassi in the U.S. Open on September 10, 1995. (AP/Wide World Photos)

both his stamina and his deep court shots that compelled opponents to run; he was thus perfectly suited to challenge Sampras’s power game. The rivalry made for the decade’s most compelling tennis—indeed, tennis’s highest-rated television coverage in the decade came with the 1995 U.S. Open final between Sampras and Agassi. By the numbers, Sampras dominated the rivalry (winning twenty of the thirty-four matches), but if Sampras collected the titles, Agassi captured the imagination. For the women, German Steffi Graf emerged in the mid-1980’s because, like Sampras, her style fit the new power game. Indeed in her grand-slam sweep of 1988, she relied on her forehand power, her devastating first serves, and her methodical control of the baseline. Like Sampras, during the 1990’s she dominated the world rankings (377 weeks at number one) and accumulated dozens of tournament wins (including twenty-two majors, second only to Margaret Court Smith). It was in the early 1990’s, however, that Graf was challenged by Monica

The Nineties in America

Seles, nearly five years her junior. Very quickly, Seles dominated the women’s game; in 1991 and 1992, Seles won twenty-two titles, including compiling a remarkable 55-1 record in grand-slam play. Like Agassi, her play was unconventional, often inelegant and improvisational. Against the cool calculation of Graf’s power game, Seles brought excitement to the game (as in her signature two-note grunt whenever she served); given her easy charm, her self-deprecating irreverence, and striking good looks, she quickly became (like Agassi) a fan favorite, eclipsing Graf as Agassi had Sampras. That promising rivalry, however, ended abruptly on April 30, 1993, when Seles was knifed in the back during a quarterfinal match for the Citizen Cup in Hamburg, Germany, by a demented local Graf fan who saw eliminating Seles as the only way to ensure Graf’s return to prominence. Much to Seles’s dismay, even as her game struggled to return to its championship form, her attacker never served any jail time but rather was institutionalized. Ironically, the fan accomplished his agenda: Graf went on to dominate the decade while Seles, who was only age nineteen at the time of the attack, never found her game. But if Graf collected the titles, Seles captured the imagination. Her poise and dignity during the long recovery, physical and psychological, gave her the luster of tragic grace, which made her the decade’s most inspirational figure in tennis. In the 1990’s, clearly, tennis was in a state of change, unable to decide what sort of game it would be. It seemed that fans had to choose between precision and power on one hand and passion and intensity on the other. In Graf and Sampras, the decade saw two of the greatest players in the sport’s history—yet neither manifested the charisma to become the sport’s ambassador. The next generation of rising stars—most notably Venus and Serena Williams and Roger Federer—would bring tennis both precision and passion and thus move the game into a post-1990’s boom era. Impact

Further Reading

Bauman, Paul. Agassi and Ecstasy. Santa Monica, Calif.: Bonus, 2002. Career study that offers careful analyses of the Wimbledon and U.S. Open championships against Sampras. Branham, H. A. Sampras: A Legend in the Works. Santa Monica, Calif.: Bonus, 1996. From the critical perspective of Sampras’s initial impact, this book as-

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sesses how Sampras’s uncontroversial style and methodical play affected the game positively and negatively. Fein, Paul. Tennis Confidential: Today’s Greatest Players, Matches, Controversies. Washington, D.C.: Potomac Books, 2002. Strong emphasis on the 1990’s. Includes biographies and career highlights of all the decade’s dominant players as well as the difficult relationship between the players and the fans. Jenkins, Sally. “The Sorry State of Tennis.” Sports Illustrated, May 9, 1994, 78-88. Controversial (and influential) cover story on the difficulties the game faced. Includes harsh assessments of players and the tour organization. Makes ten specific recommendations for saving the game. Seles, Monica, with Nancy Ann Richardson. Monica: From Fear to Victory. New York: HarperCollins, 1997. Powerful testimony to Seles’s recovery from the on-court attack. Includes her ideas about the new power era and about her relationship with Graf. Joseph Dewey See also Agassi, Andre; Sports; Sampras, Pete; Seles, Monica.

■ Term limits Legal restrictions on the number of terms that a member of a legislative body may serve

Definition

During the 1990’s, several states limited the number of years that a member of the legislature could serve. In addition, efforts were made to limit the number of terms that a member of Congress could serve. Advocates argued that term limits led to a more democratic political process. Opponents contened that term limits deprived legislatures of members with useful experience and increased the costs of elections. The effort to impose term limits was a major political movement of the 1990’s. California, Colorado, and Oklahoma got the ball rolling in 1990 by imposing terms limits on members of their state legislatures. Subsequently, eighteen other states adopted term limits. State supreme courts in Wyoming, Washington, Oregon, and Massachusetts threw out termlimit laws, and the state legislatures of Idaho and

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Utah repealed term-limit legislation. Some opponents of term limits also challenged the legislation in federal courts, but in 1998 the U.S. Supreme Court upheld the California law restricting the term of state legislators. By 2000, the following fifteen states had term-limit legislation in place: Arizona, Arkansas, California, Colorado, Florida, Louisiana, Maine, Missouri, Montana, Nebraska, Nevada, Ohio, Oklahoma, South Dakota, and Michigan. The first class of legislators who were “termlimited” lost their seats in California and Maine in 1996. In 1998, term limits deprived legislators in eleven states of their seats, including 49 of 100 members of the Arkansas House of Representatives and 64 of 110 members of the Michigan House. Nine states impose limits on consecutive years of service, while six impose a lifetime ban, although they allow additional years of service if a member is elected to both the house and senate. Advocates of term limits also wished to limit the terms of members of Congress. The Republican Contract with America in 1994 advocated term limits for Congress. The 104th Congress twice introduced a constitutional amendment, but it failed to receive the necessary two-thirds majority to secure passage in Congress. Some states also tried to restrict the terms of members of Congress, but the Supreme Court ruled in 1995 that such an approach was unconstitutional. As the Republicans gained a majority in Congress, talk of term limits diminished. Most of the members of Congress who had promised support for term limits and who had agreed to voluntarily limit their terms did not stick to their earlier promises, although a few did not seek reelection based on their earlier promises. Supporters of term limits had two stated goals as well as one unstated goal. Many supporters harked back to the nineteenth century and argued that few people made a career of legislative service in the past. Supporters contended that turnover in a legislative body promotes democracy as new people enter the body with new ideas. Continual turnover meant that legislators would be less likely to form alliances with special interests, better serving the needs of the voters. This argument is one essentially for an amateur legislative body composed of citizen-legislators. Some supporters of term limits also contended that legislative turnover would lead to more diverse

Pros and Cons of Term Limits

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legislative bodies. In the past, state legislatures and Congress tended to be dominated by white males. Advocates of term limits argued that limiting the tenure of these men would increase the opportunity for women and minorities to be elected, as they would not have to run against incumbents. In some cases, including that of Congress, advocates of term limits had another, partisan goal: that of changing the political composition of the legislative body. In some states, one party had dominated elections to the state legislature, as incumbents often won reelection. In spite of support for Republican presidential candidates during the 1980’s, Democrats maintained control of Congress for most of the decade, in part because of the strength of incumbent Democratic candidates. One of the goals of the Contract with America was to secure a Republican majority in Congress. Republican strategists thought that once the incumbency benefit was removed, Republican candidates could secure election to Congress more readily. Once Republicans gained control of Congress, however, the political fallacy of term limits became apparent, as they would become subject to losing their seats. Opponents of term-limit legislation had counters for the first two arguments rooted in democratic theory. Opponents contended that a citizen legislature composed of members with scant experience might not lead to good government. As soon as legislators become experienced, they would be deprived of their office. Although amateur legislators may not have time to forge alliances with special interests, they may enter office beholden to them, as openseat races tend to be expensive to run and candidates would seek funds from all sources. The opponents concluded that amateur legislators would not be able to be the effective legislators that more experienced members were. In addition, opponents contended that continual contested elections helped to drive up the cost of securing political office, thwarting a trend to a more democratic government. Term-limit opponents conceded that term limits might initially lead to the election of more women and minorities to legislative bodies. However, they pointed out that these members would themselves be the subject of term limits, with no guarantee that white males might not succeed them. Opponents also pointed out that voters can always vote an incumbent out of office. Term limits limited the choice of the voters in their view.

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Terminator 2: Judgment Day

Impact As the United States entered the twenty-first century, the enthusiasm for term limits has appeared to wane. Advocates of reform have sought other avenues for ensuring responsive government. Term limits continued to affect governance in some states, with the long-term results still to be ascertained. Further Reading

Carey, John M. Term Limits and Legislative Representation. New York: Cambridge University Press, 1996. Examines term limits in the Costa Rican and Venezuelan political systems as a basis for predicting possible effects of term limits in the United States. Kousser, Thad. Term Limits and the Dismantling of State Legislative Professionalism. New York: Cambridge University Press, 2004. Broad-based study of the impact of term limits. Sarbaugh-Thompson, Marjorie, et al. The Political and Institutional Effects of Term Limits. New York: Palgrave Macmillan, 2004. Uses Michigan as a case study to examine fully all of the implications of term limits on a state legislature. John M. Theilmann

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negger and Linda Hamilton reprised their original roles; Schwarzenegger’s reprogrammed terminator displayed more deadpan humor and humanity as he learned to value human life, while Hamilton’s radical physical transformation, in which she lost weight and gained muscle to portray the determined soldier that Sarah ultimately became, stunned audiences. Terminator 2 also introduced Edward Furlong, an unknown actor who earned positive reviews for his portrayal of the young John Connor. Terminator 2 was an immediate hit with audiences, who enjoyed the surprise twist that Schwarzenegger was a “good” instead of a bad terminator. They were also enthralled with the T-1000 model, played with understated yet effective menace by Robert Patrick. Comprised of a “liquid metal” alloy, the T-1000 could mimic any person it encountered, and the highly re-

See also Campaign finance scandal; Contract with America; Gingrich, Newt.

■ Terminator 2: Judgment Day Identification Science-fiction film Director James Cameron (1954Date Released on July 3, 1991

)

A sequel to the 1984 cult favorite, this film utilized state-ofthe-art special effects and a hip, updated story line to turn what had been a single film into a lucrative franchise spanning several decades. In Terminator 2: Judgment Day, Skynet, the artificial intelligence responsible for a planetwide nuclear catastrophe, sends an advanced terminator from the future to kill John Connor at age ten, since the original mission to kill his mother before John’s birth had failed. As in The Terminator, the human resistance sends a soldier to protect John, but this time the protector is another terminator that John himself reprogrammed in the future. At the time it was filmed, Terminator 2 was the most expensive film ever made. Both Arnold Schwarze-

Workers complete a three-dimensional billboard for a Universal Studios Florida Terminator 2 attraction in 1996. The billboard was situated along Interstate 4 in Orlando. (AP/Wide World Photos)

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alistic computer-generated effects showcasing these transformations garnered an Academy Award for Best Visual Effects. Although action-oriented, Terminator 2 had a compelling and thought-provoking story line. After quizzing the protector terminator about future history, Sarah decides to kill Miles Dyson (played by Joe Morton), the inventor of Skynet, thus preventing the nuclear holocaust. Ultimately, she finds herself unable to kill Dyson in cold blood, and instead convinces him to help destroy the technology upon which Skynet is based: the microprocessor and part of an arm left behind by the destroyed terminator from the first film. Audiences were fascinated by this time-travel paradox and, given the imminent advent of the Internet and the World Wide Web in the early 1990’s, particularly interested in the concept of computer network intelligence. Terminator 2 introduced a new crop of viewers to the Terminator universe, which has since spawned the film Terminator 3: Rise of the Machines (2003); the television series The Sarah Connor Chronicles, which began airing in 2007; and several video games and tie-in books. Terminator 2 raised the bar for special effects, driving further advances in computer-generated movie technology throughout the 1990’s. In addition, Terminator 2 helped fuel a trend toward more physical and action-oriented female heroes, and its sophisticated plot left audiences wanting even more science fiction in the movie theater.

Impact

Further Reading

Cramer, Bobby. “Terminator 2: Judgment Day.” Films in Review 42 (September/October, 1991): 336-338. Shay, Don, and Jody Duncan. The Making of T2, “Terminator 2: Judgment Day.” New York: Bantam Books, 1991. Amy Sisson Academy Awards; CGI; Computers; Film in the United States; Internet; World Wide Web.

See also

The Nineties in America

Terrorism

■ Terrorism Terrorist activity in Canada and the United States

Definition

The 1990’s saw a shift from the “old” terrorism to “new” terrorism, utilized not for political reasons but for a truly international system aimed at destruction of the Western world. Terrorism during the 1990’s was an interplay between domestic terrorists pushing a political agenda on the one hand and the rise of stateless international terrorism with the goal of committing acts of terror for terror’s sake. The prevalence of radical religious groups, animal rights activists, racist organizations, and ethnic groups that continued the struggle from their country of origin defined terrorism in the 1990’s on the North American continent. 1990-1992 In its 1991 annual public report, the Canadian Security Intelligence Service (CSIS) stated that Canadian citizens and Canada itself are not generally regarded as targets by terrorists. Therefore, the broader concern in Canada was the financial support for terrorists overseas by ethnic or religious groups living in Canada. However, in October, 1991, five members of the Pakistan-based Islamic group Jamaat ul-Fuqra were arrested while attempting to cross into Canada to bomb a Hindu temple and Indian movie theater in Toronto. The United States experienced largely domestic terrorist attacks between 1990 and 1992. In 1990, the organization Up the IRS, Inc. detonated a car bomb outside a building in Los Angeles, California, that housed Internal Revenue Service (IRS) offices. The same organization later bombed the National Treasury Employee Union and detonated pipe bombs in an IRS parking lot in Fresno, California. In 1992, the Animal Liberation Front (ALF) set fire to a research facility at Michigan State in protest of its supposed mistreatment of animals. Beyond domestic terror, most of the other attacks that occurred between 1990 and 1992 were religious elements carrying out the struggle from their native country. In 1990, Rabbi Meir Kahane was assassinated in New York City, supposedly by El Sayyid A. Nosair (who was found guilty of coercion, assault, and weapons charges but was found not guilty for murder in 1991). In 1990 and 1991, Jamaat ul-Fuqra attacked two separate Islamic cultural centers, the first in Massachusetts and the second in California.

The Nineties in America

Also, in 1992, members of the Mujahideen-e-Khalq, an organization that is against the Islamic Republic of Iran, attacked the Iranian mission to the United Nations. However, the incident ended without any casualties, and the members who took part in the attack were arrested. In Canada, the Iranian embassy in Ottawa was also occupied, but no injuries occurred. The most prevalent attacks in the United States stemmed from domestic terrorist organizations. Within Canada, immigrant communities largely played out their sectional differences on the Canadian stage. 1993-1995 The year 1993 saw a growing dichotomy between domestic terrorist attacks and so-called new terrorism in the United States. New terrorism is characterized by the shift to an international, nonstate actor that is usually not sponsored by any particular government. In January of 1993, the Serbian National Defense Council was set on fire by three Molotov cocktails. However, no organization claimed responsibility for the incident. Also in January, Mir Aimal Kasi, a Pakistani, shot five Central Intelligence Agency (CIA) employees outside the CIA headquarters during rush hour. He fled and was eventually caught in Pakistan in 1997. In February, 1993, a car bomb exploded at the World Trade Center, killing six and injuring more than one thousand people. Four individuals responsible were arrested and convicted in 1994. Other conspirators were convicted later in the decade. On the domestic side, 1993 saw the Waco, Texas, standoff at the Branch Davidian compound, which eventually was ended when the building caught fire. This incident drew widespread public condemnation because of the high casualties to women and children. Also, in June of 1993, Theodore Kaczynski, also known as the Unabomber, sent mail bombs to professors at the University of California and Yale University. The Unabomber sent numerous mail bombs to university officials and airline workers during his reign of terror. In Tacoma, Washington, members of the American Front skinhead group bombed a National Association for the Advancement of Colored People (NAACP) building and a homosexual bar called the Elite Tavern. ALF also firebombed various stores in Chicago, extending their activities in support of fair treatment of animals. In early 1994, explosives were discovered outside buildings housing Jewish American organizations in

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New York City that supported the peace process in the Middle East. Also, a Lebanese man fired at a car carrying Jewish rabbinical students in New York City, killing one individual. Both of these incidents are attributed to sectarian and religious violence carried over from the Middle East. The U.S. government also cracked down on terrorist fund-raising in the United States, convicting five individuals for violating the Racketeer Influenced and Corrupt Organizations Act because of their attempts to participate in the Abu Nidal Organization, a split from the Palestine Liberation Organization. Canada experienced a relatively quiet period in terrorist activity. However, in 1995, the Militant Direct Action Task Force, an antifascist organization, mailed four pipe bombs to various individuals, some white supremacists. Also, in 1995, letter bombs were sent to the McKenzie Institute and the Alberta Genetics Laboratory. No organization claimed responsibility for the bombs. In April, 1995, Timothy McVeigh and Terry Nichols bombed the Alfred P. Murrah Federal Building in Oklahoma City, Oklahoma, in which 168 individuals were killed. This was the deadliest terrorist attack on U.S. soil until September 11, 2001. 1996-1999 In April of 1996, Kaczynski was finally apprehended by federal agents, ending close to two decades of domestic terrorist activity. The Phineas Priesthood, a right-wing Christian Identity movement, bombed a newspaper office (The SpokesmanReview) and robbed a Spokane Valley bank. In July of 1996, a pipe bomb exploded at Planned Parenthood in Spokane, Washington. Three individuals subsequently attempted to rob the same Spokane Valley bank. In April, 1996, President Bill Clinton signed the Antiterrorism and Effective Death Penalty Act. The act attempted to halt terrorist fund-raising inside the United States and banned U.S. aid to countries that support terrorism. In Washington, Arizona, and West Virginia, members of domestic militia units were arrested in 1996 for planning the bombings of various government complexes. Also, during the 1996 Olympic Games in Atlanta, Georgia, a pipe bomb exploded in Centennial Park, killing one and injuring over one hundred people. In early 1997, letter bombs were mailed in the Washington, D.C., area, New York City, and Fort Leavenworth, Kansas. The domestic terrorist, Army

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of God, bombed an abortion clinic in Georgia and a nightclub for homosexuals. The 1997 public report by CSIS stated that while Canada and its citizens were not directly threatened, the fact that Canada is used as a safe haven and a staging ground for terrorism could result in retaliatory action against Canada and its citizens. In 1998, the Army of God also bombed an abortion clinic in Alabama, resulting in one fatality. In Canada, a Sikh editor of the Indo-Canadian Times, known for his pro-human rights stance, was shot dead in Vancouver outside his home. The police stated that it appeared to be an assassination (the individual killed, Tara Singh Hayer, had already survived one previous assassination attempt in 1988). During 1999, members of ALF were responsible for six separate instances of terrorism in which they bombed vehicles and buildings. In July, 1999, Benjamin Nathaniel Smith, a member of the World Church of the Creator, fired upon numerous religious and ethnic minorities in Illinois and Indiana. The United States and Canada, throughout much of the 1990’s, had been a haven for terrorists to acquire funds and in some cases (like the Irish Republican Army) weapons. In July, 1999, the British intercepted shipments of weapons destined for the Republic of Ireland that came from South Florida. Later that month, members of the Miami Joint Terrorism Task Force arrested three individuals in connection with the incident. In the late summer of 1999, members of the Royal Canadian Mounted Police (RCMP) apprehended Alfred Heinz Reumayr, who had planned to bomb the Trans-Alaska Pipeline System. Impact The trend in terrorist activity during the 1990’s in the United States consisted largely of two components. Domestic terrorism was ever-prevalent, often in the form of ecological terrorists and other extremists attempting to demonstrate a political agenda. The attack on the World Trade Center in 1993 exhibited the first real shift in international terrorism from attacks designed to present political positions to those designed to intimidate the population and take as many lives as possible. An examination of Canada and its relationship to terrorism provides a different picture. While domestic terrorism certainly existed in Canada during the 1990’s, it had largely been in decline since the Quebec separatist movements of the 1960’s and 1970’s.

Canada’s prime concern with terrorism was the use of Canada as a staging ground for attacks as well as a convenient place to hide. Canada also provided an arena to collect funds and support actions abroad. Canada’s other main experience with acts of terrorism within its borders had to do with the extension of foreign tensions into the country because of immigration. Further Reading

Bell, Stewart. Cold Terror: How Canada Nurtures and Exports Terrorism Around the World. Etobicoke, Ont.: John Wiley & Sons, 2004. An interesting argument maintaining that Canada provides a safe haven for terrorists and that politicians have neglected to actively address the issue. Chaliand, Gérard, and Arnaud Blin, eds. The History of Terrorism: From Antiquity to Al Qaeda. Berkeley: University of California Press, 2007. A comprehensive study of terrorism, its origins, and its evolution over time. Davies, Barry. Terrorism: Inside a World Phenomenon. London: Virgin Books, 2003. A look at modern terrorism, terrorist organizations and attacks, and counterterrorism. Hewitt, Christopher. Understanding Terrorism in America: From the Klan to Al Qaeda. New York: Routledge, 2003. A detailed study examining the politics of terrorists in the United States, the organization of terrorist groups, and the impact of terrorist acts on American life. Kushner, Harvey W. Terrorism in America: A Structured Approach to Understanding the Terrorist Threat. Springfield, Ill.: Charles C Thomas, 1998. An examination of “new” terrorism in America, the threat from international organizations as well as domestic terrorists. Provides an examination of what terrorism is. McCann, Joseph T. Terrorism on American Soil: A Concise History of Plots and Perpetrators from the Famous to the Forgotten. Boulder, Colo.: Sentient, 2006. An examination of specific terrorist incidents, from the 1865 assassination of President Abraham Lincoln to the anthrax letter attacks after September 11, 2001. Maxwell, Bruce. Terrorism: A Documentary History. Washington, D.C.: CQ Press, 2003. A compilation of reports and papers discussing various terrorist incidents and issues from the early 1970’s to 2002. Michael W. Cheek

The Nineties in America See also McVeigh, Timothy; Middle East and North America; Oklahoma City bombing; Olympic Park bombing; Unabomber capture; U.S. embassy bombings in Africa; Waco siege; World Trade Center bombing.

■ Texas A&M bonfire collapse A structure consisting of thousands of logs falls, killing twelve students and seriously injuring twenty-seven Date November 18, 1999 Place College Station, Texas The Event

The deadly disaster that befell students at Texas A&M University informed the world about a tradition of almost a century’s standing in the Lone Star State—and all but ensured that the tradition would end, at least in its previous form.

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numbers of Aggies acquired timber by chopping down trees from nearby woods. Over the years, whatever worries authorities or students had about the event involved fire, the effect of requisite timber-harvesting on the environment, and alcohol consumption on bonfire night, not the danger of untrained students amassing thousands of logs and building the elaborate, tiered bonfire structure that had become part of the tradition. In 1994, the enormous pile of wood that was being assembled for the bonfire collapsed after torrential rains, an omen of what was to come: On November 18, 1999, while students were working on construction of the bonfire, it gave in, crushing to death twelve students and seriously injuring twenty-seven more. Rescuing people trapped beneath the debris was a painstaking and drawn-out process because the least misstep could result in further collapsing. The event later resumed as an off-campus, unofficial event on a less elaborate scale.

The rivalry between the Texas A&M Aggies and the Impact The death and disaster at Texas A&M in University of Texas (UT) Longhorns has long been November of 1999 seemed especially shocking beone of the most intense and colorful rivalries in colcause of the innocent, traditional activities in which lege football history. For over a century, the two the students were involved. Throughout the twentischools had posited themselves as something of the Sparta and Athens of the Southwest collegiate world, with A&M famous for military discipline and conservative values and curricula and UT renowned as a progressive academic community that was home to freethinking intellectuals. The schools’ football match every November was the culmination of this rivalry—an athletic embodiment of their contrasting campus cultures. Beginning in 1909, building an enormous bonfire and igniting it during a raucous pep rally became a part of the traditional festivities on the A&M campus just before the game. In the beginning, fuel for the fire usually consisted of whatever rubbish the A&M students could find, but as the tradition evolved, it became customary to consign to the flames such anti-UT items as an outdoor toilet painted white and burnt orange (UT’s school colors). Eventually, Students and rescue workers search for victims of the Texas A&M bonfire collapse on the bonfire became bigger as large November 18, 1999. (AP/Wide World Photos)

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eth century, much of the folklore of university life centered on such things as pep rallies, athletic rivalries, student pranks—the focus over the years of hundreds of lighthearted films as diverse as Good News (1947) and Animal House (1978). Coming as it did so near the end of the millennium, the A&M bonfire disaster seemed to signal an end of innocence for such activities—an end of an era in campus life. Further Reading

Elliott, Janet, and Kevin Moran. “Three New Lawsuits Filed Against A&M; Students Build Bonfire Off-Campus.” Houston Chronicle, November 17, 2001, p. 33. Tang, Irwin A. The Texas Aggie Bonfire: Tradition and Tragedy at Texas A&M. Austin: It Works, 2000. Thomas Du Bose See also Columbine massacre; Football; Natural disasters; Scandals; Sports.

■ Theater in Canada Definition

Significant stage presentations across

Canada The state of Canadian theater during the 1990’s was greatly influenced by the country’s economic shifts: from dire in the early 1990’s to robust, following an injection of funds by the Minister of Canadian Heritage amounting to $25 million for 1997-1998 and each of the following four years. The search for national identity influenced the development of theater in Canada during the 1990’s. A variety of theatrical forms and multicultural works characterized the decade’s theater. Compelling voices from the Canadian indigenous community concentrated on First Nations identity during the 1990’s. Marie Clements, of Metis heritage, produced many works during the decade—such as Age of Iron (pr. 1993), Now Look What You Made Me Do (pr. 1995)—as did Yvette Nolan, with Blade (pr. 1990), Job’s Wife (pr. 1992), Child (pr. 1996), and Annie Mae’s Movement (pr. 1998). Ian Ross, a Metis-Ojibwa playwright, received both the John Hirsch Award for Most Promising Manitoba Writer in 1996 and the James Buller Award in 1999. His play fareWel (pr. 1996) won the

First Nations Theater

Governor General’s Award. Drew Hayden Taylor’s Toronto at Dreamer’s Rock (pr. 1989) won the Chalmers Award, and Only Drunks and Children Tell the Truth (pr. 1996) won the Dora Mavor Moore Award. Tomson Highway received an induction into the Order of Canada in 1994, and his play The Rez Sisters (pr. 1986), which was premiered by Théâtre Populaire du Québec in 1993, earned for him the Dora Mavor Moore Award. The concern with national identity also permeated black initiatives, which had been traditionally ignored during the 1990’s unless managed by white francophones. The dramatic works of individual dramatists contributed significantly to furthering black theater development. In 1990, Djanet Sears’s Afrika Solo (pr. 1987) was the first play published in Canada by a person of African descent. Sears also received the Governor General’s Award for Harlem Duet (pr. 1997) in 1998 and achieved further acclaim by receiving four Dora Mavor Moore Awards. Another important work, Andrew Moodie’s Riot (pr. 1995)—a play that responded to the 1992 riots in Los Angeles that followed the acquittal of four police officers charged with the beating of black motorist Rodney King—premiered at the Factory Theatre and won the Chalmers Award.

Black Theater

The 1990’s heralded greater recognition for women in Canadian theater. Sharon Pollock founded the Garry Theatre in Calgary (1992-1997) to produce populist plays for the community. Many female dramatists also received public commendation for their contribution to Canada dramaturgy during the decade—Ann-Marie MacDonald, Joan MacLeod, and Judith Thomson among them. Notable women involved in theater production included scenographers such as Teresa Przybylski, lighting designers such as Jennifer Tipton, and production and costume designers such as Mary Kerr, who designed the 1994 opening and closing ceremonies for the Commonwealth Games in Victoria. Actresses such as Frances Hyland and Clare Coulter performed in Canadian premieres. Hyland starred in the premiere of George F. Walker’s Escape from Happiness in 1992 and was honored in 1994 with a Toronto Arts Award for Lifetime Achievement. Coulter headlined in the Canadian premiere of Wallace Shawn’s The Designated Mourner at the Tarragon Theatre in 1997.

Women and Theater

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Playwrights of Chinese, Japanese, Indian, and Korean background brought issues of Asian Canadian identity and nation to the fore. Chinese Canadian Marty Chan’s The Chopstick Kid (pr. 1992) premiered in Canada, as did Mom, Dad, I’m Living with a White Girl (pr. 1995) at Theatre Passe Muraille. Mom, Dad, I’m Living with a White Girl earned for Chan (born Marty Jack Woon Chan) the Sterling Award for Best New Play in 1999. Japanese Canadian poet and playwright Terry Watada won the William P. Hubbard Award for race relations in 1991. Dilara Ally’s Mango Chutney premiered in 1996 at Toronto’s Music Gallery. The same year, Rahul Varma’s Counter Offence premiered in English at the Teesri Duniya Theatre in Montreal. Counter Offence represented a rare example of an English-language play being translated into French and succeeding again in that language. In 1999, Varma received the Montreal English Critics Circle Award for his work. Korean-born M. J. Kang won a Canadian Council for the Arts grant in theater in 1995-1996. When Kang was nineteen years old, her play Noran Bang: The Yellow Room (pr. 1997) premiered at Theatre Passe Muraille with Cahoots Theatre Projects and was nominated for the Dora Mavor Moore Award. At the age of twenty-one, Kang was the youngest playwright to be produced when the Tarragon Theatre presented her play Blessings on the main stage in 1996.

Asian Canadian Theater

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du Nouvel-Ontario and the Prix Le Droit. Carole Fréchette continued the tradition of FrancoCanadian drama with The Four Lives of Marie, which won the Governor General’s Literary Award for French Drama in 1995. Impact The 1990’s witnessed an explosion in Canadian-based theater forms that had a global impact. Autoperformance—a distinctive phenomenon that displaced the conventional distance between writer and speaker, creator and performer—attracted mainstream appreciation in 1993, when Argentineborn Guillermo Verdecchia’s Fronteras Americanas won the Governor General’s Award for Drama and a Chalmers Canadian Play Award. The circus troupe Cirque du Soleil (founded in 1984) launched successful international shows, such as the highly scripted Quidam (pr. 1996), a production developed for Disney World called La Nouba (pr. 1998), and O (pr. 1998), presented in a purpose-built theater in Las Vegas. In 1992, Robert Lepage became the first North American to direct a William Shakespeare play at London’s Royal National Theatre (A Midsummer Night’s Dream, pb. 1600). Theatresports—a form of improvisational theater founded by Keith Johnstone in 1978—developed an international following on May 23, 1998, when the government of Alberta recognized the International Theatresports Institute as an official nonprofit organization. Further Reading

While Montreal’s Centaur Theatre successfully produced English translations of French plays, such as Michel Tremblay’s Encore une fois, si vous le permettez (pr. 1998; For the Pleasure of Seeing Her Again, pr. 1998), the company was openly criticized for, among other things, not adequately participating in francophone culture. This reflected prevailing theater audience sensibilities in Quebec, which remained predominantly anglophone. The Centaur Theatre reviewed its directive to include an emphasis on presenting works by Montreal and Canadian playwrights, featuring 1998 playwright-in-residence Kit Brennan’s Having (pr. 1999) and local playwright Ann Lambert’s Very Heaven (pr. 1999). JeanMarc Dalpé remained an influential figure in Franco-Ontarian drama throughout the 1990’s, with plays such as Eddy (pr. 1994), which won the Prix French Drama

Brockett, Oscar G., and Franklin J. Hildy. History of the Theatre. 9th ed. Boston: Allyn & Bacon, 2003. A comprehensive survey of theater history. Lavallée-Farah, Marie. “Facing the Challenge: Performing Arts in the 1990’s.” Focus on Culture 14, no. 1 (October, 2002): 1-7. Examination of trends and expenses for Canada’s nonprofit performing arts. Pollock, Sharon. “Dead or Alive? Feeling the Pulse of Canadian Theatre.” Theatrum 23 (April/May, 1991): 12-13. Article elaborating Pollock’s concerns about the state of dramatic art in Canada. Nicole Anae Ballet; Cirque du Soleil; Comedians; Literature in Canada; Literature in the United States; Los Angeles riots; Theater in the United States.

See also

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Theater in the United States

■ Theater in the United States Significant stage presentations on Broadway and throughout the United States

Definition

Major trends in theater, which had matured in the 1980’s, continued to be the focus of theatrical art throughout the 1990’s. These trends included the introduction of African American, feminist, and gay and lesbian issues to Broadway, the strengthening of Off-Broadway, Off-Off-Broadway, and regional theaters, and the growing interest in alternative theatrical production. Throughout the 1990’s, theatrical activity had greatly increased in Off-Broadway and Off-OffBroadway venues, and, indeed, theater had emerged from the confines of New York City and grown greatly across the United States. Moreover, issues such as gay rights and the African American experience, which had been confined to specialized venues, were now being presented in major American theater houses on Broadway and across the country. Alternative New York theaters such as Women’s One World (WOW) were offering intensely specialized productions. Broadway To begin the decade, A Chorus Line (pr. 1975) closed on Broadway to a record 6,137 performances. Also in 1990, Craig Lucas opened his play, Prelude to a Kiss, which deals with the issue of AIDS, an unusual subject for Broadway at that time. August Wilson, America’s talented African American playwright, won the 1990 Pulitzer Prize for The Piano Lesson (pr. 1987). In 1991, Neil Simon won both a Tony Award for Best Play and the Pulitzer Prize in drama for his traditional comedy Lost in Yonkers, and Edward Albee, the leading American playwright of the decade, was awarded the William Inge Award for Lifetime Achievement in the American Theatre. Broadway was enlivened by a new musical, The Secret Garden (pr. 1991), written by Marsha Norman and Lucy Simon. The production won three Tony Awards that year and ran for 709 performances. Tony Kushner’s Angels in America: A Gay Fantasia on National Themes, a play in two parts, created a major stir for its frank portrayal of the gay experience in America. Part one, Millennium Approaches, debuted in 1991, and part two, Perestroika, in 1992. That year, a major influx of Hollywood stars appeared on Broadway, including Alan Alda, Gene Hackman, Judd Hirsch, Glenn Close, and Jessica

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Lange. Broadway celebrated its one hundredth birthday in 1993 with Simon’s Laughter on the Twentythird Floor and Wendy Wasserstein’s The Sisters Rosensweig, starring Jane Alexander. Broadway’s weakest year of the decade was 1995, for there were only twenty-nine productions running. A positive note was that Terrence McNally transferred his hit play Love! Valour! Compassion! (pr. 1994) from Off-Broadway to a Broadway venue in 1995. McNally’s play, which received rave reviews and a positive audience response, deals with the issue of homosexuality and AIDS, now considered acceptable subject matter for commercial theater. By 1996, Broadway had regained its vigor, and there were thirty-nine shows in all, providing the highest income year in history: $430 million. The feature of the 1996 season was Rent, Jonathan Larson’s remaking of Giacomo Puccini’s La Bohème (pr. 1896) into a modern rock opera, which won four Tony Awards (including Best Musical) and the Pulitzer Prize in drama. Another extremely popular musical, Chicago (pr. 1975), originally created by famed directorchoreographer Bob Fosse, was revived in 1996 and won six Tony Awards. In 1997, Andrew Lloyd Webber’s Cats (pr. 1981)— based on a collection of children’s verse, T. S. Eliot’s Old Possum’s Book of Practical Cats (1939)—became the longest-running show on Broadway. Cats represented what had earlier come to be known as Broadway’s British invasion. The Englishman who led this invasion was Lloyd Webber, who had been a prolific presence in American theater ever since the success of his 1971 rock opera Jesus Christ Superstar. Nevertheless, American creators of musicals were not to be overwhelmed by the British. Maury Yeston and Peter Stone’s Titanic (pr. 1997), about the sinking of the RMS Titanic in 1912, featured powerful songs and lyrics and a stunning scenic innovation in which an ocean liner sank on stage. The musical won five Tony Awards. James Cameron’s film Titanic was released later that year. Also in 1997, a positive uproar was created by a new face on Broadway, Julie Taymor, the directorchoreographer who fashioned in The Lion King a production fascinating for children as well as adults. Produced in Disney’s newly refurbished New Amsterdam Theatre, The Lion King used the whole theater space in which to perform, and the production featured elaborate, innovative, and larger-than-life puppets as lions, tigers, and elephants. The musical

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garnered six 1998 Tony Awards, including Best Musical. Ann Reinking directed Fosse (pr. 1999), showcasing the brilliant theatrical innovations of Bob Fosse. When the musical won the 1999 Tony Award for Best Musical, the revival of Fosse’s Chicago was still playing to large and very enthusiastic houses. Off-Broadway and Off-Off-Broadway The term “OffBroadway” refers both to a locale and to a special type of contract with theatrical labor unions such as the Actors’ Equity Association (AEA). Most OffBroadway theaters are in Greenwich Village and in East Village and have a small seating capacity ranging from one hundred to five hundred seats, which obviously restricts income and therefore allows for reduced salary levels with the AEA. In recognition of the importance of Off-Broadway theaters, the Village Voice newspaper created the Obie Awards, which include the same categories as the Tony Awards but are given to recognize Off-Broadway productions. There are over 150 theaters in the New York City area that are defined as Off-Broadway, including the American Place Theatre, the Astor Place Theater (at which the Blue Man Group has performed for years), the Cherry Lane Theatre, the Manhattan Theatre Club, the Joseph Papp Public Theatre, the Signature Theatre, and the Vineyard Theatre. It was at the Vineyard Theatre that Edward Albee presented his Three Tall Women (pr. 1991) in 1994, which won the Pulitzer Prize in drama. The Signature Theatre Company, founded in 1991, hosts a single playwright for an entire year, doing both revivals and new work. During the year, the theater hosted Horton Foote, who received the 1995 Pulitzer Prize for The Young Man from Atlanta. The Joseph Papp Public Theatre features both modern experimental works and productions of William Shakespeare’s plays, which are offered free to the public. George Wolf’s Bring in ’da Noise, Bring in ’da Funk (pr. 1995) and Arthur Miller’s Ride Down Mt. Morgan (pr. 1991) both premiered in the United States at the Public Theatre before transferring to Broadway. “Off-Off-Broadway” and “Off-Broadway” are not distinct in terms of geography but in financial organization. Off-Off-Broadway theaters are nonprofit organizations and thus have entirely different and less demanding contracts with AEA and other theatrical unions. Most of the major new playwrights of the latter half of the twentieth century commenced Off-Broadway or Off-Off-Broadway. These include

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Edward Albee, John Guare, David Henry Hwang, David Mamet, Terrence McNally, Sam Shepard, and Wendy Wasserstein. Among the star actors who began Off-Broadway and Off-Off-Broadway are Colleen Dewhurst, Robert De Niro, Dustin Hoffman, Kevin Klein, and Meryl Streep. There are more than fifty Off-Off-Broadway theaters, among the more important of which are La MaMa Experimental Theatre Club (E.T.C.), the Ontological-Hysteric Theatre, and Theater for the New City. La MaMa E.T.C., whose director, Ellen Stewart, might be called the originator of Off-OffBroadway, produces new playwrights and highly experimental works such as Ping Chong’s play Deshima (pr. 1990), which premiered at La MaMa in 1993. The Ontological-Hysteric Theatre was founded by Richard Foreman to present works of fundamental human relations in static and unadorned space. Since 1968, Foreman has produced over fifty of his own plays and has received a National Endowment for the Arts Lifetime Achievement Award and a MacArthur Fellowship. Each year, the Theater for the New City produces thirty to forty new American plays, which have included works by Sam Shepard, Moises Kaufman, and Marie Irene Fornes. The Theater for the New City has also presented productions by the Bread and Puppet Theater and the Mabou Mimes. In 1996, the Ma-Yi Theatre Company won an Obie Award for its production of Ralph Peña’s Flipzoids at the Theater for the New City, and the New City’s 1997 production of Gao Xingjian’s Between Life and Death was the playwright’s only American production before he won the Nobel Prize in Literature in 2000. In addition to the more traditional Off-OffBroadway theaters, there are alternative theaters such as Women’s One World, devoted to feminist works such as Deb Margolin’s Lesbians Who Kill (pr. 1992) and Oh Wholly Night (pr. 1996), and Here Arts Center, which produced Eve Ensler’s The Vagina Monologues (pr. 1996), a controversial play that presented frank monologues about female sexuality and violence against women. Other alternative theaters include the Wooster Group, which produces plays in the Performing Garage on Wooster Street. Founded by Jill Clayburgh and Spalding Gray, the Wooster Group is famous for Gray’s autobiographical monologues, but it also does special full performances such as House/Lights (pr. 1998), which won the 1999 Obie Award for Best Production. En Garde

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Arts presents site-specific productions such as the 1993 presentation of Charles L. Mee’s Orestes, staged on the ruins of two giant piers in the Hudson River. Regional Theater By 1990, professional theaters were located in almost every major city in the United States. Many of these theaters are as important to theatrical art as those in New York. For example, Robert Schenkkan’s Pulitzer Prize-winning work The Kentucky Cycle debuted in 1991 at the Intiman Theatre in Seattle. The Actors Theatre of Louisville (Kentucky), founded by Jon Jory, is famous for its annual Humana Festival of New American Plays, which has included five plays by Pulitzer Prize-winner Marsha Norman and Jane Martin’s 1993 play, Keely and Du. The Alliance Theatre in Atlanta is another significant southern professional theater. It was here in 1998 that the Tony Award-winning Elton John and Tim Rice musical Aida debuted. Other important regional theaters are Chicago’s Goodman Theatre, the Pasadena Playhouse, and San Diego’s Old Globe Theatre. Perhaps the most well-known regional theater is the Arena Stage in Washington, D.C., founded by Zelda Fichandler. In Minneapolis, the Guthrie Theater, founded by Sir Tyrone Guthrie, features classics as well as such modern works as Joyce Carol Oates’s Tone Clusters (pr. 1990), Sam Shepard’s Simpatico (pr. 1993), and Moises Kaufman’s Gross Indecency (pr. 1997). Impact The 1990’s led the American theater into the twenty-first century with the Broadway presentations of works about women’s experiences, gay and lesbian issues, and the problems of the AIDS epidemic. Off-Broadway and Off-Off-Broadway theaters grew in number and importance, not infrequently offering the premieres of works that would win the Pulitzer Prize or transfer to Broadway and garner Tony Awards. The same may be said of regional theaters, several of which became influential on the national scene, such as the Actors Theatre of Louisville, where the renowned Humana Festival of New American Plays is presented on a yearly basis. Further Reading

Brockett, Oscar G., with Franklin J. Hildy. History of the Theatre. 9th ed. New York: Allyn & Bacon, 2002. A basic work on the history of theater that contains a thorough presentation of theatrical activity in the last half of the twentieth century, including considerable information on theater in the 1990’s.

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Elam, Harry J., Jr. Taking It to the Streets: The Social Protest Theater of Luis Valdez and Amiri Baraka. Ann Arbor: University of Michigan Press, 1997. Protest theater was common in the 1990’s, and this is a presentation of some of the important protest productions. Gussow, Mel. Theatre on the Edge: New Visions, New Voices. New York: Applause Books, 1998. A collection of essays and reviews about the new and powerful voices in contemporary American theater by one of the staff theater critics of The New York Times. Wilmeth, Don B., and Christopher Bigsby, eds. The Cambridge History of American Theatre, Volume III: Post-World War II to the 1990’s. New York: Cambridge University Press, 2000. A thorough presentation of American theater history since 1945. All aspects of theater are covered, from actors and directors to playwrights, from alternate theater advocates to performance artists. The information on the 1990’s is presented in detail by various specialists in the field. August W. Staub See also AIDS epidemic; Albee, Edward; Angels in America; Broadway musicals; Literature in Canada; Literature in the United States; McNally, Terrence; Rent; Spoken word movement; Theater in Canada; Titanic; Vagina Monologues, The.

■ Thelma and Louise Identification Academy Award-winning film Director Ridley Scott (1937) Date Released on May 24, 1991

Despite its use of exaggerated character stereotypes, the release and subsequent popularity of this film resulted in serious debates over gender and women’s desires. Thelma and Louise, starring Susan Sarandon as Louise and Geena Davis as Thelma, is far more than a simple road adventure film. It is a commentary about life’s relationships gone sour, betrayal, weakness and strength, and self-discovery during a journey that ends with a kiss and then death. Two bored women living in Arkansas, one a housewife and the other a waitress, pack their things, take a photo before departure, and then set out for what is to be a weekend getaway from routine (Louise) and spousal

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neglect and abuse (Thelma). Before long, the trip snowballs into an adventure far beyond what was initially envisioned, as an attempted rape by a man whom Thelma met in a bar ends when Louise kills him, the trigger pulled not so much because of the intended violence but because of the words uttered by the would-be perpetrator. It is a 1966 Thunderbird convertible that brings the two temporary freedom. It is also in the automobile that the pair forms a bond of intimate friendship so tight that at the end of the film the two would rather die holding hands than live in confinement. The men in this film are portrayed in a simplistic manner, but there is a kernel of truth in the characterization of each of the types portrayed. Jimmy (Michael Madsen), Louise’s boyfriend, can be both sensitive and loyal, but also violent when the least bit confused. Thelma’s husband, Darryl (Christopher McDonald), is the self-centered insensitive spouse, certainly reflective of a large group of men within American society. Male authority, as reflected in a traffic cop, is bold when he has access to his gun, but cowering when one is pointed at him. The hitchhiker lover, played by Brad Pitt, has the appearance of being sensitive and understanding, but behind the veneer he is deceitful and egotistical. Only detective Hal Slocum (Harvey Keitel) has an understanding of the pair’s true situation and motives, and he turns out to be powerless. Thelma and Louise won the Academy Award for Best Original Screenplay. The film legitimized the notion that women could be at the center of a first-rank outlaw road film, in a way no different than Midnight Run (1988) or Rain Man (1988). Autonomous women were now behind the wheel, not simply in the passenger’s seat. The backdrop of this rather unlikely story—the roadhouses, gin mills, gas stations, motels, oil fields, and wild horses—provide the viewer with a realistic context to raise serious questions concerning the dilemmas of life and the roads taken, the consequences of both personal choices and chance that inevitably confront individuals. Impact

Further Reading

Greenberg, Harvey R., et al. “The Many Faces of Thelma and Louise.” Film Quarterly 45, no. 2 (Winter, 1991-1992): 20-31. Griggers, Cathy. “Thelma and Louise and the Cultural Generation of the New Butch-Femme.” In Film

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Theory Goes to the Movies, edited by Jim Collins, Hilary Radner, and Ava Preacher Collins. New York: Routledge, 1993. Mills, Katie. The Road Story and the Rebel Moving Through Film, Fiction, and Television. Carbondale: Southern Illinois University Press, 2006. John A. Heitmann Academy Awards; Film in the United States; Pitt, Brad.

See also

■ Thomas, Clarence Associate justice of the United States since 1991 Born June 23, 1948; Pin Point, Georgia Identification

Controversy surrounded Thomas’s nomination to the Supreme Court. He became the second African American to serve on the Court. On July 1, 1991, Clarence Thomas was nominated by President George H. W. Bush to fill a Supreme Court vacancy following the resignation of Thurgood Marshall, the first African American justice of the United States. There were significant differences between Thomas and his predecessor. First, Marshall reached the bench after a distinguished legal career; Thomas’s achievements at the time of his nomination, while significant, were not as distinguished. Second, while Marshall had been one of the most liberal members of the Court, Thomas had a conservative reputation. Supreme Court nominees must be confirmed by the U.S. Senate after they go through a hearing conducted by the Senate Judiciary Committee. At the time of Thomas’s nomination, the majority of senators on the committee and in the Senate were Democrats. A number of the committee members were skeptical as to whether Thomas was qualified to serve on the nation’s highest court. Some were also concerned about how he would vote on cases involving such issues as affirmative action and abortion. Thomas was grilled for five days about his views. He tended to be vague in many of his responses. After questioning him and others, the committee deadlocked 7 to 7 on his nomination. Shortly after that vote was announced, Professor Anita Hill made public allegations that Thomas had

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sexually harassed her while she worked for him in Washington. The all-male committee was reconvened to hold hearings on these charges. Both Hill and Thomas testified, giving very different views about their work relationships. The televised hearings were filled with charges and countercharges, and many felt that the hearings were a discredit to a number of the participants, including some senators on the committee. Thomas was ultimately confirmed by the Senate by a 52-48 vote, the closest vote for a Supreme Court nominee in the twentieth century. Thomas was sworn in as associate justice on October 18, 1991. For the most part, his votes on issues before the Court were of a conservative nature. Indeed, he was considered one of the most conservative jus-

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tices on the Court. Thomas generally voted to limit women’s access to abortions, against the position of civil rights activists, and in favor of the government in criminal cases. Impact Thomas’s nomination, hearing, and confirmation motivated many women to become more politically active. The defeat of at least one senator who voted for Thomas, who lost to a female challenger in a primary election, was attributed to this reaction. The issue of workplace sexual harassment also gained greater prominence because of the charges. Thomas enhanced the conservative direction the Court took in the 1990’s, a trend that continued in the next decade.

Justice Byron White, right, swears in Clarence Thomas as associate justice of the United States during a ceremony at the White House on October 18, 1991. (AP/Wide World Photos)

The Nineties in America Further Reading

Foskett, Ken. Judging Thomas: The Life and Times of Clarence Thomas. New York: HarperCollins, 2004. Phelps, Timothy M., and Helen Winternitz. Capitol Games: Clarence Thomas, Anita Hill, and the Story of a Supreme Court Nomination. New York: Hyperion, 1992. Thomas, Andrew Peyton. Clarence Thomas: A Biography. San Francisco: Encounter Books, 2001. David M. Jones See also Abortion; African Americans; Bush, George H. W.; Conservatism in U.S. politics; Elections in the United States, 1992; Ginsburg, Ruth Bader; Hill, Anita; Planned Parenthood v. Casey; Republican Revolution; Romer v. Evans; Shaw v. Reno; Supreme Court decisions; Women in the workforce; Women’s rights.

■ Three strikes laws Laws that require mandatory sentences for offenders convicted of three or more felonies

Definition

During the 1990’s, state governments passed “three strikes laws” that require mandatory sentences for repeat or habitual offenders. The impacts of such laws have been controversial. Reflecting a growing “tough on crime” movement, the 1990’s saw the passage of state laws designed to give repeat or habitual offenders tougher and longer sentences than first-time offenders. As per the rules of baseball, where a batter is allowed two failed attempts to hit the ball (strikes) before striking out (failing again) on the third attempt, three strikes laws require courts to hand down mandatory and extended prison sentences to a person convicted of a crime for the third time. The state of Washington passed the first three strikes law in 1993. California followed in 1994. By 1999, three strikes sentencing laws had been passed in twenty-four states. While the specifics of three strikes laws and their application vary from state to state, generally under such laws a third felony conviction requires a sentence of life imprisonment without eligibility for parole for a long period of time, most commonly twenty-five years. While some state laws require all three felony convictions to be for serious or violent

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crimes, California law does not. California’s law was, according to Newsweek, “the toughest law in the nation,” as it was the harshest, most sweeping, and most controversial. While it did put murderers, rapists, and child molesters behind bars, it also put thousands of nonviolent repeat offenders in prison for twenty-five years to life, when their third strikes were less serious crimes such as shoplifting, check forgery, or purchase/possession of drugs. Proposition 66, which attempted to reform and limit California’s law to violent and/or serious felonies, was rejected by California voters in 2004. Despite disagreements over effectiveness and impacts, and numerous efforts to repeal, reform, or revise them, three strikes laws have survived in one form or another and continue to inspire controversy into the twenty-first century. Impact Proponents argue that three strikes laws protect law-abiding citizens by removing dangerous repeat offenders from the street and that such laws prevent crime and reduce the incidence of crime, the number of criminals, the prison population, and the cost of law enforcement and prison maintenance. Critics argue that three strikes laws are inefficient, costly, and implemented unfairly or disproportionately on minorities. They point to increasing numbers of people being incarcerated and the related problems of prison overcrowding and cost. Three strikes laws appear to have disproportionately affected African Americans, Latinos, and women. As many men and women who are incarcerated are parents, their children are also affected negatively by long separations resulting from the harsh sentences of three strikes laws. Further Reading

Domanick, Joe. Cruel Justice: Three Strikes and the Politics of Crime in America’s Golden State. Berkeley: University of California Press, 2004. Reynolds, Mike, Bill Jones, and Dan Evans. Three Strikes and You’re Out: A Promise to Kimber—The Chronicle of America’s Toughest Anti-Crime Law. Fresno, Calif.: Quill Driver Books, 1996. Walsh, Jennifer. Three Strikes Laws. Historical Guides to Controversial Issues in America. Westport, Conn.: Greenwood Press, 2007. John W. Engel See also

use.

Conservatism in U.S. politics; Crime; Drug

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Tibetan Freedom Concerts

■ Tibetan Freedom Concerts Musicians from multiple genres join together to support justice for Tibet Date June 15-16, 1996; June 7-8, 1997; June 1314, 1998; and June 13, 1999 Place Golden Gate Park, San Francisco, California; Downing Stadium, New York, New York; R.F.K. Stadium, Washington, D.C.; and Alpine Valley Music Theatre, East Troy, Wisconsin (respectively) The Event

The Tibetan Freedom Concerts, occurring from 1996 to 1999 across the United States, led to an increased awareness of the sufferings of the Tibetan people at the hands of the Chinese government. The concerts brought together a young hip-hop and alternative generation with the ancient practices of Tibet and increased a demand to see justice restored. It was 1992 when Adam Yauch, lead singer of the Beastie Boys, first met the refugees. He was hiking in the Himalayas as they recounted to him the plight of the Tibetans, whose country had been invaded in 1950. They have suffered from countless human rights abuses under the Chinese government, and thousands have been displaced and imprisoned. It is estimated that more than one million Tibetans have died as a direct result of the invasion. Yauch returned to the United States and in 1994, with activist Erin Potts, started the Milarepa Fund. The organization worked to promote awareness and encourage justice for Tibet. In 1996, the organization garnered support with the first Tibetan Freedom Concert. It was held in San Francisco and gathered a young generation to see alternative and hip-hop bands, while educating them on the atrocities occurring on the other side of the world. Performances by Rage Against the Machine, the Smashing Pumpkins, Red Hot Chili Peppers, as well as the Beastie Boys were mixed with testimonies from refugees and prayer chants led by Buddhist monks. Over 100,000 attended the event, a strange gathering of young punk rockers and older Tibetan holy men. In 1997, the second annual concert was held in New York and drew twenty-seven acts to the stage. Yauch brought Tibetan musicians to join headliners such as U2, Alanis Morissette, the Foo Fighters, and A Tribe Called Quest. While fewer than 50,000 attended the concert, there was an increased call to protest Chinese products.

The 1998 concert was held in Washington, D.C., and saw the largest crowd at 112,000. $3.3 million was raised for the Milarepa Fund. President Bill Clinton was soon to travel to China, and organizers pressed him to speak with Chinese president Jiang Zemin about the issue of Tibet. During his visit, Clinton did urge Zemin to seek peaceful negotiations with the occupied nation. The final Tibetan Freedom Concert was held in 1999 in four locations around the world, including Amsterdam, Sydney, Tokyo, and East Troy, Wisconsin, where 32,000 came to the soggy event. The final concert did not have the draw of the previous year, and there was an increase in the division between the youth and the Tibetan cause. Impact Though interest in the benefit concerts had dwindled by the end of the 1990’s, they brought to light the cultural genocide suffered by the Tibetan people. Further Reading

Avedon, John F. In Exile from the Land of Snows. New York: HarperPerennial, 1997. Stolder, Steven. “We Are Tibet.” Rolling Stone, August 8, 1996, 20. Tessa Li Powell Alternative rock; Grunge music; Hip-hop and rap music; Lollapalooza; Morissette, Alanis; Music; Woodstock concerts.

See also

■ Titanic Identification Award-winning film Director James Cameron (1954) Date Released on December 19, 1997

Titanic was the most expensive and most successful film made in the twentieth century. A work of historical fiction, the film harnessed the romance and tragedy of the real Titanic disaster of 1912 and brought it alive for a new generation. The film Titanic enjoyed intense popularity despite mixed critical reviews. Running three hours and fourteen minutes, the film combines historical events with a fictional love story between the main characters, Jack Dawson (Leonardo DiCaprio) and Rose DeWitt Bukater (played as a young woman by Kate Winslet and as an older woman by Gloria Stuart).

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James Cameron wins the Oscar for Best Director for the film Titanic on March 23, 1998. (Gary Hershorn/Reuters/Landov)

The original Titanic was a luxury ocean liner sailing from England to New York that struck and iceberg in the Atlantic Ocean and sank on April 14, 1912. Thought to be unsinkable, the ship was not equipped with enough lifeboats, and many passengers, some famous, were lost in the freezing waters. The few survivors were rescued by a passing ship. Subsequently, the exact location of the sunken Titanic could not be found, and the wreck was assumed to be lost. The discovery of the Titanic in 1985 captured the imagination of director James Cameron. By the early 1990’s, Cameron had visited the site of the wreck in a small three-person submarine and filmed it. He went on to make twelve descents to film the remains of the Titanic, and some of these clips are included in the film, lending authenticity to the project. Cameron is known for his ability to generate both box-office smashes, such as the Terminator films, and films noted for special effects, such as those in his science-fiction film The Abyss (1989). Titanic is a

melding of both box-office appeal and historically accurate special effects. Cameron’s passion and interest in the story of the Titanic, as well as the actual shipwreck, drove him to make this film. Film Overview and Accolades The film opens with the elderly Rose on a ship in the present day, telling her granddaughter the story of her journey on the Titanic as they travel to the site of the wreck. Soon the story flashes back to Rose as a young woman of privilege traveling on the Titanic with her mother and fiancé, Cal Hockley (Billy Zane). She meets an artistic, free-spirited young man named Jack Dawson and falls in love with him as they explore the ship. Historical luminaries on board, such as Molly Brown (Kathy Bates) and John Jacob Astor IV (Eric Braeden), make appearances, and the scope of the ship in its re-creation is impressive. Rose survives the shipwreck and in her old age still possesses a necklace she keeps to remind her of Jack. The film ends back in the present day, with Rose watching the foot-

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age of the remnants of the Titanic, which the audience also sees. The film is also enhanced by a moving score, written by James Horner, a theme song by the popular singer Celine Dion, and elegant period costumes designed by Deborah L. Scott. The interiors of the sets were designed by the companies that had originally outfitted the Titanic in 1912. Cameron worked hard to create an authentic feel in all aspects of the film, going so far as to hire an etiquette expert to work with the cast on the manners and culture of 1912 England and North America. Titanic was nominated for fourteen Academy Awards and won eleven. Winslet was nominated for Best Actress, and Stuart for Best Supporting Actress. Cameron won for Best Director. Other Oscars won by Titanic include Best Picture, Best Original Score, Best Song (“My Heart Will Go On,” by Dion), Best Cinematography, Best Art Direction, Best Costume Design, Best Film Editing, Best Visual Effects, Best Sound Effects Editing, and Best Sound. At the Golden Globes, the film won Best Director, Best Motion Picture-Drama, Best Original Score, and Best Original Song (“My Heart Will Go On”).

made before, as did its box-office earnings. Its special effects and dedication to historical accuracy, combined with the sheer spectacle and scope of the film, captivated the imagination of the filmgoing public.

Special Effects Technicians re-created an almost life-sized version of the exterior of the Titanic, located in the Pacific Ocean in Baja Mexico. The exterior was actually sunk in the final scenes of the film, destroying the model and allowing only one take of some scenes. Some interior scenes of the sinking ship, mostly those involving actors, were shot in tilting tanks located in sound stages. Cameron and his crew often came up with creative solutions to problems that cropped up during filming and blazed new trails in the areas of filming water-related disaster scenes.

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Further Reading

Frakes, Randall. “Titanic”: James Cameron’s Illustrated Screenplay. New York: HarperCollins, 1998. A useful reference that includes the shooting script. Parisi, Paula. Titanic and the Making of James Cameron: The Inside Story of the Three-Year Adventure That Rewrote Motion Picture History. New York: Orion, 1998. Details the immense filming project with fascinating stories. Shapiro, Marc. James Cameron: An Unauthorized Biography of the Filmmaker. Los Angeles: Renaissance Books, 2000. A look at the renowned filmmaker by a veteran entertainment journalist. Kris Bigalk Academy Awards; CGI; Film in the United States; Terminator 2: Judgment Day.

See also

The largest civil settlement in U.S. history is signed by major tobacco companies and states’ attorneys general Date Signed in 1998 The Event

The successful series of lawsuits against large tobacco companies for reimbursement of Medicaid claims became a highly successful method of enabling government to be more accountable to citizens and of providing much-needed funds for individual states.

Titanic was the first film to cost $200 million to make and was the highest-budget film of the twentieth century. It is also the highest-grossing box-office hit of all time in the United States, bringing in over $600 million. The film was costly to make for many reasons, including the cost of expeditions to the real Titanic, the cost of re-creating most parts of the ship, and the cost of constructing tanks and other specialeffects materials. The large cast of actors and extras also contributed to the film’s large budget.

In the late 1990’s, major tobacco companies were faced with billion-dollar lawsuits. By 1998, nearly all of the U.S. states’ attorneys general had filed lawsuits against these companies to recover state Medicaid costs associated with smoking-related diseases. Soon, all of the states followed suit and came eventually to settle their cases with the tobacco industry. Ultimately, this resulted in the huge financial settlements guaranteed by the Master Settlement Agreement (MSA) and restricted tobacco marketing and advertising.

Impact Titanic pushed the limits of filmmaking in many ways. Its budget exceeded any motion picture

The Master Settlement Agreement At first, the individual state lawsuits were considered to be long shots

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because they had to prove that smoking actually was the root cause of all the illnesses involved in the Medicaid claims and that smokers did not know that smoking was dangerous to their health. Besides, tobacco companies claimed that Medicaid costs were offset by individual states’ cigarette taxes. This all changed, however, in 1994, when Florida passed the Medicaid Third-Party Liability Act forbidding tobacco companies from claiming these defenses. In effect, the new statute enabled the state of Florida to easily sue cigarette manufacturers. Simultaneously, in Mississippi it became illegal for tobacco companies to argue that cigarette taxes offset Medicaid costs. Thus, in 1997, the tobacco industry decided to settle the state lawsuits to avoid further financial losses. While Florida, Minnesota, Mississippi, and Texas settled separately, in November of 1998 the nation’s leading cigarette manufacturers, Philip Morris USA, R. J. Reynolds Tobacco Company, Brown and Williamson Tobacco Corporation, Lorillard Tobacco Company, and forty other original participating manufacturers (OPMs) signed the MSA with the attorneys general of forty-six states, five U.S. territories, and the District of Columbia. The settlement was estimated to be $246 billion paid out over twenty-five years and did not include the estimated $13 billion awarded to the trial lawyers. The MSA ultimately exempted the major tobacco companies (known as “big tobacco”) from tort liability from state governments. Initial payments to the various states totaled more than $10 billion. The tobacco industry settlement was the largest settlement in history; indeed, it has been called the largest privately handled rearrangement of capital in world history. In addition, despite First Amendment considerations, the MSA imposed restrictions on tobacco marketing and advertising, whose methods had been harshly criticized for enticing teenagers to smoke. Tobacco companies were to pay for advertisements that discouraged adolescents from smoking. The agreement also created, and currently funds, the American Legacy Foundation, an antismoking program designed to help reduce smoking in the United States. Ultimately, to get their share of the large tobacco financial windfall, all the states, even those who were opposed to the tobacco lawsuits, were forced to sign the MSA. The settlement also allowed for the rise of

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small tobacco manufacturers who were placed in a position to undersell the big tobacco giants. In addition, to ensure that tobacco companies continued to make payments to the states, a small number of states’ attorneys general fought to regulate this newfound wealth by imposing additional taxes on emerging smaller tobacco companies that were not named in the MSA. In addition, individual states agreed not to bring lawsuits on any grounds against tobacco manufacturers in the future. Impact What has come to be known as the “tobacco model” has had far-reaching consequences on all U.S. industries, not just those concerned with tobacco manufacturing. Legal scholars claim that the series of successful tobacco industry lawsuits simply enabled government to become more accountable to the people. In addition, the 1998 tobacco settlement led to a trend in multistate lawsuits that successfully targeted various industries. For instance, investigations into the banking industry have led to billion-dollar settlements; the pharmaceutical industry has been sued to rectify the disparity between prices charged to Medicaid and Medicare, while various utilities have been sued to reduce carbon dioxide emissions. The National Association of Attorneys General continues to coordinate enforcement of the tobacco settlement. Although state officials banded together against tobacco companies, problems sprang up in individual states regarding how the settlement funds were to be spent. While some states used the money to prevent smoking among teenagers and to help establish smoking bans, others used settlement money to balance state budgets and lower income taxes. The majority of states have not continued to utilize the tobacco settlement funds for smoking cessation programs. Also, although the national rate of smoking has declined, it remains unclear whether the multistate tobacco settlement had a direct impact on smoking or whether higher cigarette taxes and changing public attitudes toward smoking contributed to the decreasing numbers of smokers. Further Reading

Derthick, Martha A. Up in Smoke: From Legislation to Litigation in Tobacco Politics. Washington D.C.: CQ Press, 2004. Attempts to demonstrate how states were more interested in raising tax revenue than in controlling tobacco, how the tobacco lawsuits produced flawed public policy, and how little has

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been done to improve overall health. Rabin, Robert L., ed. Regulating Tobacco. New York: Oxford University Press, 2001. A collection of wide-ranging essays written by law, political, and public health scholars concerning the regulation of tobacco through politics, taxes, marketing, and litigation. Snell, Clete. Peddling Poison: The Tobacco Industry and Kids. Westport, Conn.: Praeger, 2005. Overview of the tobacco industry’s efforts to attract young consumers and the government’s efforts to curtail them. Focuses on the tobacco settlements of the 1990’s, various individual and class-action lawsuits, and antismoking programs. M. Casey Diana See also Demographics of the United States; Drug use; Health care; Health care reform; Joe Camel campaign; Nicotine patch; Wigand, Jeffrey.

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ures based on the film Teenage Mutant Ninja Turtles (1990) were best sellers that year. The most popular toys of 1993 included Hasbro’s action figures and dinosaurs from Jurassic Park (1993), Star Trek: Deep Space Nine figures, Pleasant Company’s American Girl line of dolls, and Hasbro’s Street Fighter action figures, based on the popular video game. The global toy craze of 1994 was the Mighty Morphin Power Rangers action toys, based on characters in a children’s television show produced in Japan in 1975 and later airing in the United States from 1993 to 1996. By 1995, sales in the United States were more than $400 million, and they became the bestselling action figures of the decade. The other best sellers of 1995 were Hasbro’s action figures based on the Star Wars films, Mattel’s dolls and action figures from the Disney film Pocahontas (1995), and action figures based on Pixar’s Toy Story (1995),

■ Toys and games Objects used in play, especially by children, and structured recreational activities with goals, rules, interactivity, and often a rivalry or contest

Definition

During the 1990’s, there were must-have toys and fads every year, as the toy and game industry grew. Many classics remained popular, and traditional kinds of toys and games were reinvented, often based on popular films, television shows, or the new technology. In the video game industry, generations of hardware and software development occurred, and video games became an established and lucrative part of mainstream America. The 1990’s were a productive and important decade for toy manufacturers and consumers. Mattel (Tyco, Fisher-Price, Pleasant Company), Hasbro (Tonka, Kenner, Tiger Electronics, Milton Bradley, Parker Brothers, Galoob, OddzOn), Nintendo, Sega, Sony, and other companies created thousands of different products to meet consumer demand. Toy and game development was impacted by the new technology, television, films, advertising, and e-commerce. During the decade, traditional kinds of toys such as action figures, dolls, and stuffed animals continued to be popular, though often with a new twist or style. Action fig-

Traditional Toys and Games

Tickle Me Elmo was the must-have toy of the 1996 Christmas season. (AP/Wide World Photos)

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considered one of the greatest animated films ever. In 1997, the yo-yo, one of the earliest toys, had a revival. The simple classic yo-yos reappeared, but now there were also new aircraft aluminum yoyos with centrifugal clutches and light-emitting diodes. First appearing in 1959, Barbie dolls thrived during the decade. In 1990, the award-winning Bob Mackie Gold Barbie, with over five thousand golden sequins and beads, was introduced. The Dolls of the World series expanded to include Nigerian, Brazilian, Native American, Kenyan, and Chinese Barbies, among others. Many Barbie dolls made their debut, including Air Force, Navy, 1920’s Flapper, Gibson Girl, Rapunzel, Harley-Davidson, and Marilyn Monroe Barbies. In 1999, Collector Edition and Gala Edition Fortieth Anniversary Barbie dolls were released. A notable variation on the traditional stuffed animal was Ty, Inc.’s Beanie Babies, which were first released in 1993 and sold only in small stores for approximately $5 each. These understuffed animals, which had tags with their names and birth dates, started a collecting frenzy. As certain designs were discontinued, they were sold at increasingly inflated prices. By 1996, over 100 million had been sold, and in 1997, McDonald’s issued over 100 million miniature Teenie Beanies with its Happy Meals. Originally a game played with juice or milk bottle caps in Hawaii, Pogs was a popular game of schoolchildren during the first half of the 1990’s. This simple game required only laminated disks (milk caps) called Pogs and a slammer to turn the disks. Produced in hundreds of designs, such as favorite cartoon characters, Pogs were the leading toy collectible of 1995. Many classic board games continued to sell well and new editions were published during the decade. They included Monopoly (1933), Scrabble (1938), Risk (1959), Life (1960), and Trivial Pursuit (1979). Virtual or digital pets were introduced during the 1990’s. These artificial animal companions were digital simulations of real animals or fantasy animals that existed only in the hardware. They required the owners to feed, groom, train, and nurture them. In 1995, video game developer PF Magic released the first virtual pet, Dogz, followed by the appearance of Katz in 1996. Meanwhile in Japan in 1996, the Bandai com-

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pany released its Tamagotchi digital pet, housed in a small egg-shaped computer with an attached key chain and three buttons for selecting or performing activities such as feeding or playing with the pet. The pet was displayed on a tiny liquid-crystal screen, and the egg would beep when the pet needed attention. The owner would then push a button to provide food or medicine, to play, or to clean. If uncared for, the pet would die. Introduced in the United States in 1998, the Tamagotchi was an immediate success. In 1997, Tiger Electronics introduced Giga Pets, a series of pets including Digital Doggie, Compu Kitty, Micro Chimp, Baby T-Rex, and Virtual Alien. Tyco’s Tickle Me Elmo was the must-have children’s toy of the 1996 holiday season. Based on the Sesame Street character, this bright red, interactive stuffed toy giggled, wiggled, vibrated, talked, or laughed hysterically when squeezed or tickled. Although about a million units had been shipped, stores sold out of them immediately. Demand was so high that they were often sold to the highest bidder on online auctions, where the original retail price of $30 was inflated to as much as $1,500. The must-have toy of the 1998 holiday season was Tiger Electronics’ Furby, an interactive, furry robot with six built-in sensors and its own spoken language. In response to being tickled or petted, turned right-side up or inverted, and changes in light and darkness, Furby could respond by wiggling its ears, opening and closing its eyes, and speaking with a vocabulary of 200 words and sounds in English or “Furbish.” After its debut in October, supplies could not keep up with demand, and the $30 suggested retail price was inflated to $200 and higher at online auctions. In 1998, the Teletubbies from Playskool and Eden were best sellers. These toys were based on characters from the television show Teletubbies, which was first released in Great Britain on the British Broadcasting Corporation (BBC) in 1997, and then aired on the Public Broadcasting Service (PBS) in the United States beginning in 1998. Intended for toddlers, the show also became popular with college students. The four Teletubbies were cuddly aliens named Tinky Winky, Dipsy, Laa-Laa, and Po. Each Teletubby had an antenna, and television clips of real children appeared on their tummies. The plush Teletubby toys could play songs, talk, and respond to touch.

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Educational Toys The 1990’s saw the increasing popularity of a new generation of electronic learning aids (ELAs). These interactive, age-specific educational toys were designed to help children learn academic skills, such as reading, math, music, and science. Founded in 1995 by Michael Wood, LeapFrog became the leader in the educational category with its first product, Phonics Desk. Unlike the computer software products available at the time, Phonics Desk was a plastic toy designed for preschool children. In 1999, the SchoolHouse division opened, marketing directly to schools with its Leap into Literacy line. The key product was LeapPad, a toy containing interactive electronic books.

During the 1990’s, video games became established in American popular culture. As technological advances enabled more realistic graphics, faster action, and more complex environments, new kinds of games and themes appeared. Released in 1991, Street Fighter II, a one-on-one fighting game for arcades, introduced advanced controls and ultrasmooth animations. The violent Mortal Kombat (1992) created a new realism with its digitizing of actual actors. In 1993, Rand and Robyn Miller released the CD-ROM game Myst, which generated a new genre of nonviolent adventure games for a single player. In 1993, the “first-person shooter” subgenre was popularized with Id Software’s violent Doom, which used immersive, side-scrolling 3-D graphics to give the player the impression of actually moving in an environment. Will Wright’s SimCity series popularized the “God game” genre, in which the player directs the game from an omnipotent perspective. Role-playing games (RPGs) became popular again with Diablo (1996), Baldur’s Gate (1998), and Pokémon (1998), Nintendo’s RPG series for its Game Boy. Finally, video games could be played on the Internet. The first commercially successful massive multiplayer online game was Ultima Online (1997), followed by Asheron’s Call and EverQuest in 1999.

Video or Electronic Games

Impact In the 1990’s, toys and games became a multibillion-dollar industry in which hundreds of new toys were introduced annually. There were must-have toys every year, with collectibles and fads wildly inflating prices. The advances in technology revolutionized entertainment, education, marketing, and communica-

tions. Advances in gaming hardware and software, CD-ROM technology, the Internet, and the personal computer enabled new kinds of toys and games, such as massive multiplayer games on the Internet. A new toy category was born with the creation of the world’s first virtual pets. The gaming industry became increasingly lucrative, with sales reaching $6.9 billion in the United States in 1999. With the maturation of the Internet, online stores proliferated, and in 1999 online toy sales reached $425 million. Subsequent Events In the twenty-first century, corporate wars and phenomenal economic growth continued in the video game industry. Sony introduced PlayStation 2 (2000) and PlayStation 3 (2006). Microsoft entered the gaming hardware business with Xbox (2001) and Xbox 360 (2005). Nintendo introduced GameCube (2001) and the Wii console (2006) with a unique wireless remote controller permitting players’ physical gestures to control a game. New titles, as well as subsequent editions of video games developed in the 1990’s, were steadily created for the new systems. LeapFrog Technologies continued to expand and develop new technology-enhanced educational products. By 2003, their products were sold in over twenty-five countries, and LeapFrog had become the fourth largest toy company in the United States, after Mattel, Hasbro, and Lego. In 2007, LeapFrog had net sales of $442.3 million. Tamagotchi virtual pets remained popular, and new characters and games were developed. In 2005, Nintendo released Nintendogs, a real-time pet simulation video game for the Nintendo DS handheld video game console. The Teletubbies celebrated their tenth anniversary in 2007, and books, DVDs, toys, and other products continued to sell. Beanie Babies continued to be collectibles. In 2007, almost all of the remaining Beanie Babies were retired, and a second generation or line called Beanie Babies 2 was introduced in 2008. In 2007, video game industry revenues approached $40 billion worldwide, and total U.S. retail sales of toys reached $22.1 billion. Further Reading

Biddle, Julian. What Was Hot! A Rollercoaster Ride Through Six Decades of Pop Culture in America. New York: Citadel Press, 2001. This history includes the major fads each year throughout the 1990’s. Illustrated.

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Cross, Gary S. Kid’s Stuff: Toys and the Changing World of American Childhood. Cambridge, Mass.: Harvard University Press, 1997. A critical analysis of how advertising and consumerism have changed the concept of toys and children’s attitudes toward the world. Illustrated. Bibliography and index. Jaffé, Deborah. The History of Toys: From Spinning Tops to Robots. Stroud, England: Sutton, 2006. Beautifully illustrated exploration of toys through the ages, including the influences of technology, marketing, education, religion, and new materials. Bibliography and index. Kent, Steven. The Ultimate History of Video Games: From Pong to Pokémon—The Story Behind the Craze That Touched Our Lives and Changed the World. New York: Three Rivers Press, 2001. A fascinating chronicle, including hundreds of interviews and fun facts. Illustrated. Miller, G. Wayne. Toy Wars: The Epic Struggle Between G.I. Joe, Barbie, and the Companies That Make Them. New York: Times Books, 1998. A behind-thescenes look at the toy industry, including the chief executive officers, movie moguls, and toy inventors. Illustrated. Bibliography and index. Oxoby, Marc. The 1990’s. Westport, Conn.: Greenwood Press, 2003. This history of popular culture includes a chapter on “Fads, Games, Toys, Hobbies and Sports.” Illustrated. Bibliography and index. Walsh, Tim. Timeless Toys: Classic Toys and the Playmakers Who Created Them. Kansas City, Mo.: Andrews McMeel, 2005. Written by a toy inventor, this fascinating study contains interviews with industry leaders, insider stories, and over four hundred color photographs. Alice Myers Apple Computer; Beanie Babies; Fads; Hobbies and recreation; Internet; Inventions; Jurassic Park; Pixar; Pogs; Pokémon franchise; Video games. See also

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■ Transgender community A group of persons who define and present themselves as a different gender identity from that of their biological birth by dress and behavior, by surgically altering their body, or a combination

Definition

For the American transgender population, the 1990’s was a time of coalescence and increased organization, visibility, and activism. A highly visible mark of the emerging status of the transgender community in the 1990’s was the addition of the letter T to the established and widely used alphabetic designation for gay men, lesbians, and bisexuals, resulting in an new acronym, GLBT/ LGBT, which was quickly adopted and put into general use by both researchers and activists, giving the transgender community equal status with the other populations historically associated with the struggle for civil rights for persons with nonheterosexual orientations. Controversies attached to this expansion were often rooted in the degree to which the organization or study involved addressed transgender needs adequately (if at all) or portrayed their characteristics in a realistic and accurate fashion. The debate over the exact limits of how to define “transgender” begun in the 1980’s continued, with many transgender people rejecting the term “transsexual,” as they had no intention or desire to utilize surgery in any way. The term in its current sense of designating all gender-variant people was first used in Leslie Feinberg’s 1992 pamphlet Transgender Liberation: A Movement Whose Time Has Come. New Organizations The decade opened with the foundation in Atlanta of the American Educational Gender Information Service (AEGIS) in 1990, whose mission was to serve as a transgender information and educational body, a goal served from 1991 to 1998 by its publication Chrysalis Quarterly. The year 1991 saw the creation of the International Conference on Transgender Law and Employment Policy by Houston attorney Phyllis Randolph Frye. It’s Time, America! a grassroots organization focusing on civil rights, was formed after the Transgender Law Conference in 1994, taking as its purpose the monitoring of legislation that might affect transgender people and educating lawmakers on issues of

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concern. (The two bodies merged in 1998, becoming Gender Education and Advocacy, or GEA.) The year 1994 also saw the formation of a directaction group, Transsexual Menace, a name chosen in memory of the lesbian activists in the women’s movement, who formed the organization Lesbian Menace in the 1970’s. Initially formed on the occasion of the twenty-fifth anniversary of the Stonewall riots in New York City to challenge the gay and lesbian movement to address transgender concerns, Transsexual Menace mirrored in some ways the national AIDS protests of ACT UP, using direct political actions as a vehicle for public dialogue. Anti-transgender prejudice and violence were also addressed through the GEA’s taking on the sponsorship of the annual Day of Remembrance for those killed and the associated Remembering Our Dead project. One of the GEA’s efforts was focused on the brutal murder of twenty-one-year-old Brandon Teena in the winter of 1993. Born a biological female, by her late teens she had decided to present as a male, adopting suitable clothing and manners of speech and body language. After a series of relationships with women, Teena’s identity was exposed in the town of Falls City in southern Nebraska, where he was murdered by two outraged men who were friends of the woman he was then dating, who supported him after the revelation. The case was the subject of two films of the 1990’s—a documentary, The Brandon Teena Story (1998), and Boys Don’t Cry, a 1999 feature film that brought transgender concerns to a national audience for the first time. That year also saw the creation of the first nonprofit lobbying organization devoted primarily to the promotion and protection of the needs of transgender persons within the American legal system at all levels of jurisdiction. The National Transgender Advocacy Coalition monitors legislative activities related to transgender persons at the federal, state, and local levels and works for “the advancement of understanding and the attainment of full civil rights for all transgender and gender variant people in every aspect of society.” Increased Visibility A notable contribution to transgender visibility in the 1990’s was the expansion of the number of transgender autobiographies and the appearance of openly transgender characters in works of fiction, such as Feinberg’s ground-

breaking 1993 novel Stone Butch Blues, awarded the 1994 Stonewall Book Award for literature (sponsored by the American Library Association’s Gay, Lesbian, Bisexual, and Transgendered Round Table). Paralleling the increased transgender political and literary presence was a sharp increase in the 1990’s of research in several of the social sciences specifically addressing transgender populations. Common themes were advice for counselors and practitioners in the medical and mental health fields on effectively serving transgender people, and explorations of gender identity in contexts as varied as family studies, anthropology, public policy, and history, with oral histories and personal paper collections of transgender people identified as such for the first time. Documentary films devoted exclusively to transgender subjects also began to appear, the earliest being the 1996 Transsexual Menace from Rosa von Praunheim, recording the actions and philosophy of this group over the first years of its existence. A more generic treatment of transgender emergence and liberation work, Transgender Revolution, appeared in 1998, followed in 1999 by Gendernauts, which examined the online community created by female-to-male (FTM) transgender people in San Francisco. The Bay Area also saw the founding in 1996 of FTM International, which hosted the first FTM Conference of the Americas in San Francisco that year. The separate populations of femaleto-male and male-to-female transgender people gave further input to research during the closing years of the 1990’s in works such as FTM: Female-toMale Transsexuals in Society (1997), S/he: Changing Sex and Changing Clothes (1998), and Transmen and FTMs (1999). Impact The emergence and vigorous public presence of transgender individuals during the last decade of the twentieth century laid the foundations for publications on more specific aspects of the community in the early twenty-first century. Transgender people became more visible as subjects of research and activism, in fields as varied as biology, politics, civil rights law and legislation, history, psychology, and medicine, challenging established categories and forcing a reevaluation and redefinition of gender and how it was created and maintained. Further Reading

Devor, Holly. FTM: Female-to-Male Transsexuals in Society. Bloomington: Indiana University Press, 1997.

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Perhaps the most lengthy summary work on the FTM population yet created, the results of a detailed study done in North America between 1987 and 1991. Ekins, Richard, and Dave King. The Transgender Phenomenon. Thousand Oaks, Calif.: Sage, 2006. A useful summary of the wide range of transgender culture and contexts as they existed in the early years of the twenty-first century. Feinberg, Leslie. Stone Butch Blues. Ithaca, N.Y.: Firebrand Books, 1993. The groundbreaking work of fiction that sparked a literary flowering of transgender writing. _______. Trans Liberation: Beyond Pink or Blue. Boston: Beacon Press, 1998. Written by the author of the basic manifesto of the transgender movement, this volume presents an expanded discussion of what it means to be a transgender person and the challenges established gender categories pose. _______. Transgender Liberation: A Movement Whose Time Has Come. New York: World View Forum, 1992. The basic publication of the transgender civil rights and social liberation movement. Griggs, Claudine. S/he: Changing Sex and Changing Clothes. New York: Berg, 1998. The results of a survey of a group of transgender persons, evenly balanced between male-to-female and female-tomale, presents a varied picture of self- and social recognition and passages to acceptance. Meyerowitz, Joanne J. How Sex Changed: A History of Transsexuality in the United States. Cambridge, Mass.: Harvard University Press, 2002. The first historical account of the beginnings of transsexual surgery in Europe and the spread of the idea to the United States, as well as its development and application during the twentieth century. Rosser, B. R. Simon, J. Michael Oakes, Walter O. Bockting, and Michael Miner. “Capturing the Social Demographics of Hidden Sexual Minorities: An Internet Study of the Transgender Population in the United States.” Sexuality Research & Social Policy 4, no. 2 (2007): 50-64. A valuable discussion of the problems facing researchers who wish to locate and engage the transgender community. Rudacille, Deborah. The Riddle of Gender: Science, Activism, and Transgender Rights. New York: Anchor Books, 2006. A general work on the transgender community that intersperses interviews with transgender people with a discussion of the his-

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tory and legal status of this population across the centuries. Stryker, Susan, ed. The Transgender Issue. Durham, N.C.: Duke University Press, 1998. A collection of nine essays touching on subjects as varied as transgender history in the United States, questions of the intersection of FTM and butch identities, and where transgender people fit in thencurrent political and bioethical structures. Robert B. Ridinger Baker v. Vermont; Egan v. Canada ; Hate crimes; Homosexuality and gay rights; Queer Nation; Romer v. Evans.

See also

■ Travolta, John Identification American film actor Born February 18, 1954; Englewood, New Jersey

In the 1990’s, Travolta demonstrated a successful transition from adolescent roles to mature parts across a wide range of American film genres. John Travolta began his performing career as a teenager, first appearing in stage musicals and then becoming a teen heartthrob as the swaggering Vinnie Barbarino in the popular television series Welcome Back, Kotter (1975-1979). He starred in two of the most financially successful and influential films of the 1970’s—Saturday Night Fever (1977) and Grease (1978)—but his career floundered in the 1980’s. It was revived by Travolta’s transformative performance as a disheveled but endearing hitman in Quentin Tarantino’s startling crime film Pulp Fiction (1994), which won the Palme d’Or (Golden Palm) at the Cannes Film Festival and took the American Independent Spirit Awards by storm. The complex, darkly comic thriller boosted Tarantino’s international status and earned Travolta an Academy Award nomination and new respect as an actor. In the 1990’s, Travolta became a frequent— perhaps too frequent—screen presence, featured in eighteen theatrical films under the direction of some of the best talent in international filmmaking (including Costa-Gavras, Terrence Malick, Mike Nichols, and John Woo). Moving into early middle age, Travolta convincingly played an impressive range of characters, among them a confused parent in the 1989 hit comedy Look Who’s Talking and its two

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A Parisian woman asks John Travolta for his autograph in 1991. (AP/Wide World Photos)

sequels; a suave loan shark in the crime comedy Get Shorty (1995), for which he won a Golden Globe Award; a Federal Bureau of Investigation (FBI) agent in the action film Face/Off (1997); a crusading attorney in the docudrama A Civil Action (1998); and an army general in the World War II film The Thin Red Line (1998). In the political satire Primary Colors (1998), as a southern governor running for president (clearly based on Bill Clinton), Travolta delivered a witty performance, exploiting his genial charm and natural screen warmth for its tendency toward sentimentality and superficiality. Although a dedicated member of the Church of Scientology since the mid-1970’s, Travolta avoids the proselytizing on behalf of the church common among other Hollywood members. An accomplished pilot, he illustrated and wrote a book for

children, Propeller One-Way Night Coach (1992), to celebrate his cherished avocation and the birth of his son, Jett. Impact Travolta’s comeback in the 1990’s, propelled by his striking performance in the indie sensation Pulp Fiction, underscored the potential of independent film as the site of professional reinvention, in addition to its crucial role in showcasing new talent. Further Reading

Clarkson, Wensley. John Travolta: Back in Character. Woodstock, N.Y.: Overlook Press, 1997. Hoberman, J. The Magic Hour: Film at Fin de Siècle. Philadelphia: Temple University Press, 2003. Carolyn Anderson

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Academy Awards; Clinton, Bill; Film in the United States; Independent films; Pulp Fiction; Tarantino, Quentin.

See also

■ Troopergate An investigation and scandal based on allegations, ultimately proved false, that Bill Clinton, while governor of Arkansas, asked Arkansas state troopers to arrange sexual liaisons for him

Identification

This scandalous attack on U.S. president Bill Clinton had wide repercussions for the Clinton presidency and U.S. politics throughout the 1990’s. “Troopergate” is a media-generated term for a set of allegations made by two former Arkansas state troopers, Larry Patterson and Roger Perry, that Bill Clinton had asked them to arrange sexual liaisons for him while he was Arkansas’s governor and that they had complied. David Brock reported these allegations in the conservative journal American Spectator in 1993. Included in Brock’s account was the name of a woman, Paula, who was the subject of one alleged incident. Subsequently, this woman was identified as Paula Jones, who brought a sexual harassment lawsuit against President Clinton. Clinton claimed that such a suit could not be brought against him during his tenure as president. On appeal, the U.S. Supreme Court ruled in 1997 that Jones could pursue her case against Clinton while he was still in office. During subsequent depositions, Clinton denied sexually harassing Jones and also denied having sexual relations (within the meaning of a controversial and arguably ambiguous definition) with former White house intern Monica Lewinsky. Federal judge Susan Webber Wright ruled that the Paula Jones lawsuit should be summarily dismissed on the grounds that Jones could not show that she had suffered any damages as the result of the alleged harassment. Jones threatened to appeal, but Clinton settled with Jones in November, 1998, for $850,000 in exchange for her not pursuing her appeal. Clinton refused to give a public apology. However, Kenneth Starr, who had been pursuing a separate investigation into allegations of financial improprieties in a real estate deal known as Whitewater, convinced Attorney General Janet Reno that

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the Paula Jones lawsuit and the Monica Lewinsky allegations were relevant to his Whitewater investigation. Based on this additional authorization, Starr pursued perjury and obstruction of justice charges against Clinton for falsely denying that he had had sexual relations with Lewinsky, which ultimately resulted in Clinton’s impeachment by Republicans, who had a majority in the House of Representatives and passed impeachment charges along essentially a party-line vote. However, in the subsequent trial in the Senate, Clinton was not convicted even by a majority of the senators (conviction required a twothirds majority), and he was not removed from office. The allegations by Patterson and Perry contributed to a lengthy investigation with far-reaching consequences. Initially, the belief was that these two former state troopers had related their story entirely because of their interest in good government. Later, a conservative activist reported that he had paid Patterson and Perry $6,700 apiece for their stories after they were published. Part of this money was alleged to have come out of $200,000 that conservative evangelical religious leader Jerry Falwell had paid to a group called Citizens for Honest Government. While these payments were made without David Brock’s knowledge, Brock subsequently publicly apologized to the Clintons for his role in publishing the initial Troopergate story, which he admitted was based on an “anti-Clinton crusade” rather than an effort at serious journalism. These politically motivated allegations consumed a great deal of media attention and White House effort before they were determined to be false. They were often confused with other allegations made before and after Clinton’s impeachment trial.

Impact

Further Reading

Brock, David. Blinded by the Right: The Conscience of an Ex-Conservative. New York: Crown, 2002. Brock, a reporter for the American Spectator, triggered the events that led to Clinton’s impeachment trial. Brock was a crucial actor in the “Arkansas project” that attempted to find any allegation, true or not, with which to smear the Clintons, until he became convinced that the cause he was espousing was essentially based on lies. Clinton, Bill. My Life. New York: Alfred A. Knopf, 2004. Clinton’s skill as a communicator comes

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through clearly in his autobiography. Contains valuable insights despite being a self-serving document. Clinton, Hillary Rodham. Living History. New York: Simon & Schuster, 2003. Hillary Clinton’s autobiography, while not quite as engaging as her husband’s, is still filled with valuable insights into the scandals that rocked the Clinton administration. Gergen, David. Eyewitness to Power: The Essence of Leadership: Nixon to Clinton. New York: Simon & Schuster, 2000. A political adviser to a number of U.S. presidents, Gergen combines his personal access with penetrating analysis of Bill Clinton and the politics and scandals of his era. Maraniss, David. First in His Class: A Biography of Bill Clinton. New York: Simon & Schuster, 1995. Maraniss is a Pulitzer Prize-winning Washington Post reporter who has written a biography analyzing Clinton’s talents and flaws. Morris, Dick. Behind the Oval Office: Winning the Presidency in Nineties. New York: Random House, 1997. As a pollster and political analyst for Clinton as governor and as president, Morris was in Clinton’s inner circle and acutely aware of many of the details of the Clinton scandals, which he shares in his critical but useful book. Stephanopoulos, George. All Too Human: A Political Education. Boston: Little, Brown, 1999. As a former White House aide, Stephanopoulos had access to the Clinton inner circle, which he used to paint a sincere but sometimes unflattering portrait of both Bill and Hillary Clinton. Toobin, Jeffrey. A Vast Conspiracy: The Real Story of the Sex Scandal That Nearly Brought Down a President. New York: Random House, 1999. Toobin’s book is well researched, analytical, ably written, and offers fresh insights to the scandals associated with the Clinton presidency. Richard L. Wilson Clinton, Bill; Clinton, Hillary Rodham; Clinton’s impeachment; Clinton’s scandals; Culture wars; Elections in the United States, 1996; Falwell, Jerry; Gore, Al; Lewinsky scandal; Morris, Dick; Reno, Janet; Right-wing conspiracy; Scandals; Starr Report; Whitewater investigation.

See also

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Trump, Donald

■ Trump, Donald American entrepreneur and media personality Born June 14, 1946; New York, New York Identification

Known for his flamboyant personality and accomplishments, Trump survived the economic turmoil of the early 1990’s, becoming a major real estate developer and casino operator. The 1990’s were turbulent times for Donald Trump, both economically and personally. Despite his swagger and cunning at what he called “the art of the deal,” his enterprises hovered constantly on the edge of bankruptcy. Before the decade was over, both his first and second marriages would collapse, and he would lose his father, a mainstay of his life. Yet he would make the Trump name a valuable trademark and himself the most recognizable businessman in the United States. His first wife, the glamorous Czech-born Ivana, had referred to him in her precarious English as “The Donald.” The moniker caught on and was particularly appropriate to an individual who would become as much an institution as a human being. Trump’s business deals during the 1990’s included his opening of the near-bankrupt Taj Mahal casino in Atlantic City, New Jersey, and unprofitable purchases of New York’s Plaza Hotel and a Dutch shipyard. In the last years of the decade, he secured capital to convert the Gulf and Western office building in New York into Trump International Hotel and a tower condo-hotel. His last major project of the period was his controversial design for a residential skyscraper near the United Nations building. Unlike his father, whose fortune derived from middle-class housing, Trump sought to provide luxury residences. Starting the decade near bankruptcy, he ended with a proclaimed worth of over one billion dollars and had even acquired the Miss Universe Organization. Trump, with his genius at self-promotion, fully emerged as a personality of popular culture. The calculated glitz of his lifestyle helped, along with his publicized interests in sports, beauty pageants, airlines, and gilded residences. It also did not hurt his reputation when second wife, Marla Maples, publicly commended his sexual prowess. Despite his frenetic schedule, Trump also managed to become a best-selling author. The titles pub-

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Further Reading

Blair, Gwenda. The Trumps: Three Generations That Built an Empire. New York: Simon & Schuster, 2000. Slater, Robert. No Such Thing as Over-Exposure: Inside the Life and Celebrity of Donald Trump. Upper Saddle River, N.J.: Pearson Education, 2005. Trump, Donald. Trump: The Art of the Comeback. New York: Times Books, 1997. Allene Phy-Olsen See also Buffett, Warren; Business and the economy in the United States.

■ TV Martí A television station created by the U.S. government to provide news and current affairs programming to Cuba Date Began broadcasting on March 27, 1990 Place Miami, Florida Identification

The Office of Cuba Broadcasting, which operates Radio Martí and Television Martí (named for Cuban independence leader José Martí), was created by the Radio Broadcasting to Cuba Act of 1983 to focus on Cuban domestic and international news and information that is not reported by the government-controlled media in Cuba. Donald Trump poses with Marla Maples in 1992. (AP/Wide World Photos)

lished during the 1990’s reflect his preoccupations: Trump: Surviving at the Top (1990), Trump: The Art of Survival (1991), and Trump: The Art of the Comeback (1997). Sharing his winning tactics with readers, he advocated golf to clear the mind, a trust in intuition, and a willingness to “swim against the tide” when luck beckoned. Trump further expressed his agreement with the ancient precept “An eye for an eye, a tooth for a tooth”: Always get even, he counseled, but try to be surrounded by likable people. Impact Even in the often anonymous realm of high finance, Trump demonstrated the magic of personality and name. He established himself internationally as a true American original, the hero as entrepreneur and business mogul, a figure of both amusement and envy.

Prior to the 1980’s, the U.S. government tried its hand unsuccessfully at broadcasting to Cuba but, in 1981, President Ronald Reagan declared that it was his administration’s intention to establish a Radio Free Cuba that was modeled on Radio Free Europe/ Radio Liberty. With the success of Radio Martí, which began broadcasting in 1985, Congress requested that the feasibility of a television service be explored. TV Martí began broadcasting in the spring of 1990. Almost since its first broadcast, the Cuban government has continuously jammed its signals, especially those on medium wave, but that government’s most effective interference has been to transmit alternate programs on the same AM frequency used by Radio Martí. With the International Broadcasting Act, signed on April 30, 1994, Bill Clinton’s administration consolidated U.S. international broadcasting operations under an International Broadcasting Bureau (IBB) and created a new Broadcasting Board of Governors (BBG) with oversight authority over all civil-

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ian U.S. government international broadcasting, including the Voice of America (VOA) and Radio and TV Martí. The IBB and the BBG are independent federal entities spun off from the now defunct U.S. Information Agency when it was abolished in 1999 and several of its functions, excluding radio broadcasting, were absorbed by the U.S. Department of State. National Public Radio’s On the Media noted that while the United States “has spent close to a half billion dollars on TV and Radio Marti, the Cuban government has managed to effectively block the transmission signal,” at least for television, and that “viewership on the island is estimated to be a third of one percent.” TV Martí broadcasts daily programs in Spanish via two aerostats located ten miles above Cudjoe Key, Florida. It airs half-hour early and late evening newscasts, but the channel is also carried on DirecTV, which is pirated by many Cuban civilians, and on the Internet. A low-power Miami television channel, WPMF-TV, carries TV Martí’s half-hourlong early and late evening newscasts. During the 1990’s, both Radio and TV Martí reported on the harassment, detention, arrest, and incarceration of independent Cuban journalists. Impact TV Martí remains a threat to the Cuban government, which continues to insist that American penetration of its airwaves violates international law. In 1999, the inspector general of the U.S. Department of State told Congress that the Radio and TV Martí stations had “problems with balance, fairness, objectivity and adequate sourcing that impacted credibility.” Further Reading

U.S. Congress. House. Committee on International Relations. Subcommittee on the Western Hemisphere. Overview of Radio and Television Martí. Washington, D.C.: Government Printing Office, 2003. Youm, Kyu Ho. “The Radio and TV Martí Controversy: A Re-Examination.” International Communication Gazette 48, no. 2 (1991): 95-103. Martin J. Manning Foreign policy of the United States; Latin America; Latinos; Television.

See also

The Nineties in America

TV Parental Guidelines system

■ TV Parental Guidelines system Ratings designed to help parents decide which television shows are appropriate for their children Date Established in 1996 Identification

Established by the National Association of Broadcasters, the National Cable Television Association, and the Motion Picture Association of America, this ratings system provided a way for parents to supervise their children’s television viewing and demonstrated change in television programming from a single-audience medium to a multiple-audience mode of entertainment and information. The traditional view of television since its inception had been that it was like a guest in the home, and should, therefore, offend no one. As more adultoriented programming began to appear in the 1970’s and 1980’s, such fare was typically prefaced by a warning, “This program contains mature subject matter. Parental discretion is advised.” By the 1990’s, more shows on basic cable and even network television appealed to an adult audience, or allowed content many people considered unsuitable for children: sex on soap operas, language on nighttime dramas, or violence on crime dramas and series such as The X-Files and Twin Peaks. To forestall controversy and the threat of legislative action, the Federal Communications Commission (FCC) persuaded the broadcast industry to develop a ratings system similar to the one for motion pictures. The rating system is as follows: TV-Y, suitable for all ages, with content especially designed for children ages two to six; TV-Y7, for children age seven and older; TV-Y7-FV, directed to older children, contains fantasy violence; TV-G, for general audiences, all ages; TV-PG, parental guidance suggested because of mature themes, some violence, sexual situations, rough language, or suggestive dialogue; TV-14, parents strongly cautioned—may be unsuitable for those under fourteen years of age because of strong violence, mature sexual situations, strong language, and/or extremely suggestive dialogue (corresponds roughly to a PG-13 film); and TV-MA, mature audience only—may be inappropriate for those under seventeen because of graphic violence, explicit sex, or very strong language (equivalent to a theatrical R). The descriptors D (dialogue), S (sex), L (language), and V (violence) accompany the ratings.

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The new ratings system opened the airwaves for shows like NYPD Blue, which broke many former taboos with partial nudity and previously forbidden profanity. A slightly edited version of the realistic Holocaust film Schindler’s List (1993) was broadcast with a TV-MA rating. However, it is important to realize that while the ratings system both acknowledged and helped to further change in television, restrictions remained in place. Impact The TV Parental Guidelines system gave parents ratings they could use to decide which television shows their children should view; moreover, it acknowledged that television was meant for different audiences of varying ages, tastes, and degrees of maturity and sophistication. Further Reading

Kaplan, Peter. “Parents Using Ratings to Watch Suitable TV, Research Group Says.” The Washington Times, May 28, 1998, p. B9. “TV Ratings Accepted by Parents, If Not Quite Understood, Study Says.” Warren’s Cable Regulation Monitor, June 1, 1998. Charles Lewis Avinger, Jr. Censorship; NC-17 rating; NYPD Blue; Schindler’s List; Television; Twin Peaks; X-Files, The.

See also

A piece of debris from TWA Flight 800 floats in the Atlantic Ocean near Long Island, New York, one day after the airplane exploded. (AP/Wide World Photos)

■ TWA Flight 800 crash A flight en route from New York to Paris crashes shortly after takeoff, killing all 230 people on board Date July 17, 1996 Place Off the coast of Long Island, New York The Event

Following several terrorist attacks on American targets at home and abroad, the crash of Trans World Airlines (TWA) Flight 800 was initially thought to be the result of terrorism as well. The National Transportation Safety Board and the Federal Bureau of Investigation launched a massive joint investigation to determine the cause of the crash. Despite the agencies’ final ruling that the crash was the result of a mechanical malfunction, many Americans continued to believe that the crash was either the result of a missile strike or a bomb onboard the aircraft. TWA Flight 800 took off from New York’s John F. Kennedy International Airport at approximately 8:19 p.m. eastern standard time. Shortly after take-

off, at roughly 13,000 feet above the ground, the plane exploded and broke apart over the Atlantic Ocean. The plane’s wreckage covered an area approximately twelve square miles off the coast of Long Island. The explosion was so spectacular that it was seen by hundreds of witnesses on the ground and several other airline pilots flying in the vicinity. Following the crash, both the cockpit voice recorder and the flight data recorder were recovered in the rescue effort. Each abruptly stopped recording at the time of the explosion at approximately 8:31 p.m., only twelve minutes after takeoff. Only hours after the crash, many speculated that the crash had been the result of criminal activity. One popular theory at the time was that the plane was brought down by a missile, possibly even a U.S. Navy missile accidentally fired during a training exercise. This theory stemmed from the

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fact that nearly one-third of people who had witnessed the crash claimed to have seen a bright light headed toward the plane seconds before it exploded. Amateur video footage of the explosion, aired repeatedly on the cable news networks covering the story around-the-clock, seemed to corroborate and further this viewpoint. Another theory was that an onboard bomb had caused the catastrophic explosion. Only hours after the crash, James Kallstrom, the Federal Bureau of Investigation’s (FBI) assistant director in New York, claimed that only a bomb could have caused such a disastrous explosion. In addition, sound evidence from the cockpit voice recorder seconds before the explosion was also consistent with that of a bomb. Following the crash, search and recovery efforts by federal, state, and local officials began immediately. Underwater robots called remotely operated underwater vehicles were used to locate wreckage, which was then recovered by scuba divers. The remains of all 230 passengers were eventually found and nearly 95 percent of the plane’s wreckage recovered. During the recovery efforts, the remains of the passengers were sent initially to the U.S. Coast Guard station in East Moriches, New York, before being sent to the Suffolk County medical examiner’s office in Hauppauge, New York. In the meantime, the plane’s wreckage was sent to an aircraft hangar in Calverton, New York, where they were stored and eventually reconstructed. This hangar, the Grumman Aircraft facility, would become the headquarters for the crash investigation. After ten months of recovery efforts, investigators were able to piece together a ninety-foot section of the plane’s fuselage. Sixteen months after the crash, despite initial fears of terrorism, the FBI concluded its portion of the investigation after it found no credible evidence of any criminal activity. This left the rest of the investigation to the National Transportation Safety Board (NTSB) to find evidence of mechanical failure, the only other possible explanation for the crash. For the next two years, the NTSB continued investigating and, on August 23, 2000, released a report detailing its findings. The agency concluded that the probable cause of the crash was an explosion in the center wing fuel tank and also acknowledged that the source of ignition for the explosion was most likely the result of the mixture of flammable fuel and air in the fuel tank, although this could not be determined with absolute certainty.

Impact Despite the findings by the FBI and NTSB that the disaster was not caused by criminal activity, rumors continued to persist throughout the late 1990’s that the crash of Flight 800 had to be the result of terrorism. Many people continued to believe that a bomb or missile caused the explosion. These rumors persisted because many people viewed the NTSB’s investigation as either insufficient or as a cover-up to hide the fact that the plane was brought down by a missile fired by the U.S. military. Nevertheless, the publication of the report effectively concluded the investigation into the mysterious crash. Further Reading

Hosenball, Mark. “Piecing It All Together.” Newsweek, May 19, 1997, 56-57. Describes the investigation by the NTSB that concluded that TWA Flight 800 crashed as a result of a fuel tank explosion and not a criminal act. Milton, Pat. In the Blink of an Eye: The FBI Investigation of TWA Flight 800. New York: Random House, 1999. Details the FBI’s investigation into the cause of the crash. Milton was an Associated Press reporter who covered the crash from the day it occurred. Negroni, Christine. Deadly Departure: Why the Experts Failed to Prevent the TWA Flight 800 Disaster and How It Could Happen Again. New York: Cliff Street Books, 2000. Chronicles the investigation into the crash and provides personal stories of the passengers, crew, and their families. Lindsay Schmitz See also Airline industry; EgyptAir Flight 990 crash; ValuJet Flight 592 crash.

■ Twenty-seventh Amendment A constitutional amendment limiting when members of Congress can receive pay raises Date Ratification completed on May 7, 1992 Identification

One of the original constitutional amendments passed by the first Congress in 1789, the Twenty-seventh Amendment required two centuries before it was ratified. On May 7, 1992, the Michigan legislature became the thirty-eighth legislature to ratify the Twentyseventh Amendment, giving the amendment the

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necessary approval of three-fourths of the states. The amendment became a source of controversy because of the long period between congressional approval and state ratification. The Twenty-seventh Amendment was one of twelve original amendments passed by Congress in 1789, ten of which would become the Bill of Rights. The amendment delayed payment of congressional pay raises until the next congressional election, allowing voters to consider the pay raise as an election issue. The amendment was long forgotten until a University of Texas political science student, Gregory Watson, composed a paper arguing that the amendment could be ratified. Throughout the 1980’s, state legislatures ratified the amendment, moving it closer to becoming part of the Constitution. The amendment became a major political issue during the early 1990’s as a series of congressional scandals raised anger against the institution. State legislatures expressed their disgust with Congress by ratifying the amendment. The amendment was given another boost starting in 1990, the first congressional session in which members received automatic cost-of-living pay increases, saving members the political pain of voting for annual pay raises. The automatic raises were unpopular with voters and placed congressional pay on the political front burner. The 1992 House of Representatives checkkiting scandal, in which congresspersons wrote bad checks to the House bank, provided the final impetus for the amendment’s passage. By the spring of 1992, state legislatures were in a race to see which could become the thirty-eighth state to ratify the amendment and make it part of the Constitution. The Michigan legislature won the race, followed by New Jersey on the same day, Illinois on May 12, and California on June 26. Questions were raised as to whether the amendment was properly ratified after two hundred years of constitutional limbo. Some members of Congress argued that the period of time between congressional approval and final ratification made it unacceptable, but these arguments were drowned out as both houses voted overwhelmingly in favor of the amendment. The Twenty-seventh Amendment was immediately used by groups challenging the 1989 automatic pay raise law. In Boehner v. Anderson (1992), a federal judge upheld the 1989 law as abiding by the terms of the amendment.

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Impact While the Twenty-seventh Amendment served mostly as a protest tool for state legislatures unhappy with Congress, its long-term impact was minimal, only delaying when members of Congress could receive pay raises rather than changing the method of increasing their pay. Further Reading

Palmer, Kris E., ed. Constitutional Amendments:1789 to the Present. Detroit: Gale Research, 1999. Vile, John. A Companion to the United States Constitution and Its Amendments. 4th ed. Westport, Conn.: Praeger, 2006. Douglas Clouatre Conservatism in U.S. politics; Elections in the United States, 1992; Liberalism in U.S. politics; Scandals.

See also

■ Twin Peaks Identification Cult television series Creators David Lynch (1946) and Mark

Frost (1953) Aired from April 8, 1990, to June 10, 1991

Date

Combining elements of soap opera, mystery/detective drama, quirky humor, and supernatural horror, this series drew fans of David Lynch’s idiosyncratic films to the television format and developed an intense cult following while appealing strongly to a broad general audience. “She’s dead . . . wrapped in plastic”—this dialogue from Twin Peaks’ premiere episode became one of the most famous and oft-cited quotes in television history. Its two-hour opening episode filmed in Washington State, the remainder filmed on duplicate soundstages, Twin Peaks created a genuine sense of place, if not time, much like Lynch’s Blue Velvet (1986). When it was announced that Lynch would create a television soap opera, enthusiasts of Eraserhead (1977), The Elephant Man (1980), and Dune (1984) wondered how Lynch could possibly work his bizarre creativity within the confines of network television. The series defied expectations to become a highly rated cult phenomenon. “Who killed Laura Palmer?” replaced “Who shot J.R.?” (Dallas) as the biggest question on television viewers’ minds. The magic of the series was Lynch’s ability to bring a cinematic sensibility to the small screen.

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secret affair with biker James Hurley (James Marshall)—among other secrets. The overall effect is that of a quaint, quiet small town whose economy is based on the local lumber mill and whose diner serves comforting coffee and cherry pie, but which hides murder plots, incest, spouse abuse, brothels, insanity, and supernatural entities able to possess innocent souls—quite a change from Dynasty or Dallas. Surprisingly, Lynch encountered few censorship problems. “Don’t take any oink-oink off that pretty pig” was a felicitous substitute Lynch devised for a more profane line of dialogue the censors at the American Broadcasting Company (ABC) would not allow. More surprising was the extremely violent murder of Laura’s cousin Madeleine Ferguson (also Sheryl Lee), unprecedented at the time on network TV for its graphic viciousness. A more explicit film, Twin Peaks: Fire Walk with Me, followed in 1992. Impact Twin Peaks surpassed its cult following and high ratings to become a genuine cultural phenomenon, forever changing the rules and expectations for television series. Further Reading

David Lynch, one of the creators of the television series Twin Peaks. (AP/Wide World Photos)

Kaleta, Kenneth C. David Lynch. New York: Twayne, 1993. Rodley, Chris, ed. Lynch on Lynch. New York: Faber & Faber, 1997. Charles Lewis Avinger, Jr. See also

Thus, the location filming of the pilot episode, panoramic shots, Angelo Badalamenti’s haunting music, an unprecedentedly large cast of characters, and numerous unresolved story lines defied television’s conventions, contributing to the show’s fascination. The main plot centers on the investigation into the murder of prom queen Laura Palmer (Sheryl Lee) by Federal Bureau of Investigation (FBI) agent Dale Cooper (Kyle MacLachlan). Quickly the focus shifts to the quirky inhabitants of the town itself, who all seem connected in some way to Laura and have a dark, or at least a strange, side. As the investigation deepens, viewers learn that saintly Laura, who worked for Meals on Wheels, tutored a developmentally challenged boy (Robert Bauer), and dated football star Bobby Briggs (Dana Ashbrook), also dabbled in cocaine and prostitution and was having a

Film in the United States; Television;

X-Files, The.

■ Tyson, Mike World heavyweight boxing champion Born June 30, 1966; Brooklyn, New York Identification

Tyson began the 1990’s as the undisputed and undefeated world heavyweight champion. He would soon lose that vaunted status and become an increasingly controversial figure as the decade progressed. Mike Tyson had unified the splintered heavyweight championship in a series of high-profile bouts in 1986 and in 1987 and had then gone on to defeat most of the top fighters in the division by the end of

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the decade. Although often controversial in his personal life, he seemed invincible in the ring and was at his fighting prime, at age twenty-three, as the 1990’s began. This invincibility was shattered when he fought what was to be a routine title defense against James “Buster” Douglas in Tokyo on February 11, 1990. In one of the great upsets in boxing history, Douglas knocked out a poorly trained Tyson in the tenth round. Following the surprising defeat by Douglas, Tyson returned to the ring in June of 1990. He scored two quick, first-round knockouts over fringe contenders Henry Tillman and Alex Stewart in bouts held in June and December. In March and June of the following year, he fought a memorable two-bout series against highly ranked Donovan “Razor” Ruddock. Although both of these latter bouts involved controversy, especially in connection with Tyson’s often vulgar prefight trash talk toward his opponent, his victories—first by a seventh-round knockout and then by a unanimous decision in a fight in which he broke Ruddock’s jaw—were decisive enough to convince many ring observers that he was regaining his old form. At this point, however, his personal life intervened to derail his comeback. Rape Trial, Prison, and Second Comeback In July of 1991, Tyson was arrested in Indianapolis for the rape of eighteen-year-old Desiree Washington, the reigning Miss Black Rhode Island. Tyson claimed that their intercourse in an Indianapolis hotel room was consensual, while she insisted that he had sexually attacked her. Following a highly publicized trial in 1992, Tyson was found guilty and sentenced to six years in prison, of which he served three years. During his time in prison, he was said to have educated himself by reading classic works of literature, philosophy, and history and to have brought order to his life through conversion to Islam. Following his release from prison in May of 1995, he resumed his boxing career. After tune-up fights in August and December of 1995 in which he scored quick knockouts, Tyson faced Frank Bruno of Great Britain for the World Boxing Council (WBC) heavyweight title on March 3, 1996. He defeated Bruno by a third-round knockout to regain the title and followed that with a firstround knockout of Bruce Seldon to win the World Boxing Association (WBA) title in September. The

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victories over Bruno and Seldon then set up a bigmoney bout with former champion Evander Holyfield in November of 1996. The fight with Holyfield, which took place on November 9, 1996, in Las Vegas, Nevada, was for the WBA title only, since Tyson had been stripped of the WBC title for failing to defend it against top contender Lennox Lewis. Tyson was heavily favored to defeat Holyfield, but in a major upset Holyfield prevailed by a technical knockout (TKO) in the eleventh round, inflicting upon Tyson his second professional loss. A rematch was scheduled for June of 1997. In the second fight, Tyson suffered a severe cut over his right eye from a headbutt in the second round. In the next round, apparently believing that Holyfield had butted him intentionally, Tyson retaliated by biting off a piece of Holyfield’s right ear. Referee Mills Lane stopped the fight temporarily, at which point Tyson ran across the ring and pushed Holyfield. When order was finally restored, the ringside physician examined Holyfield’s ear and determined that the fight could continue. Lane penalized Tyson two points, and the fight resumed. When Tyson bit Holyfield’s left ear in the next round, the fight was eventually stopped and Holyfield was declared the winner by disqualification. On the way back to his dressing room, Tyson attempted to attack a spectator who had thrown a water bottle at him and had to be physically restrained. Following the fight, he was suspended and his boxing license revoked. Tyson returned to the ring in January, 1999, but never again regained his earlier form. Controversy continued to surround him both inside and outside the ring. In his first comeback fight, against Francois Botha of South Africa, he tried to break Botha’s arm during a clinch before eventually knocking him out, and in a fight against Orlin Norris in October of 1999, he hit Norris after the bell following the first round. The bout was ruled no contest when Norris was unable to continue because of a knee injury suffered in the knockdown. Tyson’s problems outside of the ring also continued when he was arrested in August of 1998 for assaulting two people following a car accident in Maryland. He was eventually found guilty in the incident and served four months in jail the following year.

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Impact The 1990’s saw the decline of an athlete who had stood at the very pinnacle of success as the decade began. Although his activities both inside and outside the boxing ring kept him a well-known and controversial celebrity for the remainder of the decade, the story of his decline offers a sad example of self-destructive behavior and financial exploitation. After earning an estimated $400-500 million during his boxing career, Tyson filed for bankruptcy in 2003, citing debts totaling some $23 million. Further Reading

Cashmore, Ellis. Tyson: Nurture of the Beast. Malden, Mass.: Polity Press, 2005. An episodic biography that seeks to place Tyson’s life and career in their larger social and historical context.

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Dershowitz, Alan M. America on Trial: Inside the Legal Battles That Transformed Our Nation. New York: Warner Books, 2004. The chapter entitled “The Trial of Mike Tyson” by a well-known criminal defense attorney and Harvard Law School professor argues that Tyson’s conviction in his 1992 rape trial was a gross miscarriage of justice. O’Connor, Daniel, ed. Iron Mike: A Mike Tyson Reader. New York: Thunder’s Mouth Press, 2002. A collection of articles on Tyson by a wide range of authors covering many aspects of his career during the 1990’s. Scott Wright See also African Americans; Boxing; Crime; Holyfield, Evander; Scandals; Sports.

U ■ Unabomber capture Apprehension of the perpetrator of a series of mail bomb attacks in the United States between 1978 and 1996 Date April 3, 1996 Place A cabin outside Lincoln, Montana The Event

Until he was identified and arrested in 1996, the Unabomber was responsible for a series of high-profile terrorist bombings, most often targeting researchers in hightechnology fields, including engineering, genetics, and computer science. Though he first gained notoriety many years earlier, the most active period for the Unabomber, eventually identified as Theodore Kaczynski, was during the 1990’s. In his early life, Kaczynski showed great promise as a mathematician, but in 1969 he left a budding academic career to begin living as a semirecluse. Nearly a decade later, he began the terrorist campaign that would make him infamous and culminate in the discovery of his identity and his subsequent arrest. In 1978, Kaczynski sent the first in a series of mail bombs targeting specific but highly idiosyncratic recipients. By 1980, four bombs had detonated in academic institutions and airlines, earning the unidentified terrorist the name Unabomber, based on the Federal Bureau of Investigation’s (FBI) handle for its case: UNABOMB, for “University and Airline Bomber.” These early explosives were fairly crude, cobbled together from wood and bits of metal, and they caused only relatively minor damages and injuries.

Sporadic bombings continued for the next several years, and by the middle of the 1980’s, employees of computer stores had also become targets, confirming investigators’ suspicions that the perpetrator was engaged in a campaign against technology. Also by this point, the bombs had become more sophisticated and begun to inflict serious injuries and even one death. For several years after 1987, it appeared that the Unabomber had ceased his activities, but in 1993 he resurfaced with broader aims, more frequent bombings, and deadlier results. While he continued to target and injure university employees, particularly in high-tech fields, his bombs also killed a public relations executive in 1994 and a forestry official in 1995. Many of the bombs bore false clues, designed to keep the authorities off-kilter in their investiga-

Terrorist Bombings

The mug shot of the Unabomber, Theodore Kaczynski, taken in 1996. (AP/Wide World Photos)

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tions, and nearly all of them were branded with an inscription reading “FC.” By the mid-1990’s, the Unabomber had also begun to send letters to media outlets, former victims, and potential future victims, expressing fragments of his anarchist, antitechnology, and radical environmentalist philosophy and making threats about future attacks. These letters were also signed “FC.” The Unabomber’s communications with the public reached their peak when his lengthy manifesto, Industrial Society and Its Future, was published simultaneously by The New York Times and The Washington Post in September of 1995, with both papers citing public safety as the reason they agreed to publish. The manifesto was supposed to have been written by a group calling itself the Freedom Club—explaining, finally, the mysterious “FC” inscription found on many bombs and letters—and throughout it uses the plural “we,” though few now dispute that Kaczynski always worked alone. The rambling, 35,000-word document laid out the objections of the “group” to many forms of modern authority and to various technological advances dating back to the Industrial Revolution and called for social revolution in the name of the environment. The manifesto explains the bombings by claiming that “they” had to kill people in order to get the public to pay attention to their philosophy and demands. Upon the manifesto’s publication, Theodore Kaczynski’s brother David recognized both the prose style and the philosophy in Industrial Society and Its Future and began to suspect that his reclusive brother might, in fact, be the mysterious Unabomber. David contacted the FBI, samples of correspondence between the brothers were analyzed, and a likely match was found. Theodore Kaczynski was arrested on April 3, 1996, in the remote shack in Montana where he had been living in isolation since the early 1970’s. Bomb-making materials and an original copy of the manifesto, taken from the cabin at the time, were among the voluminous evidence collected for use in his trial. Though he had claimed he would end his bombing campaign if his manifesto was published in a major newspaper, it appeared that he was still engaged in bomb making at the time of his arrest. Manifesto, Arrest, and Incarceration

In preparation for a trial, jury selection took place and a psychological examination was performed to determine Kaczynski’s mental fitness. The trial, however, never got past the initial stages, as Kaczynski eventually agreed to change his plea to guilty in order to avoid the possibility of the death penalty. In 1998, he began serving four consecutive life sentences without possibility of parole in federal supermax prison in Colorado. Impact Over a period of eighteen years, the Unabomber was responsible for at least sixteen bombs, resulting in twenty-three injuries and three deaths. It was in the early and mid-1990’s, however, that he became a household name, partly because his attacks increased dramatically in number and deadliness, and partly because they targeted the privileged and usually sheltered worlds of high technology and academia. Though Kaczynski has continued to write sporadically while incarcerated, his notoriety was not enough to keep him or his ideas in the spotlight; his name faded from prominence fairly soon after he began serving his sentence. Further Reading

Chase, Alston. Harvard and the Unabomber: The Education of an American Terrorist. New York: W. W. Norton, 2003. Explores the development of Kaczynski’s anti-industrialist philosophy, focusing on the role his Harvard education played in that development. F. C. The Unabomber Manifesto: Industrial Society and Its Future. Berkeley, Calif.: Jolly Roger Press, 1995. The full text of Kaczynski’s manifesto, explaining his philosophy and the need for violent action to overturn the system. Mello, Michael. The United States of America Versus Theodore John Kaczynski: Ethics, Power, and the Invention of the Unabomber. New York: Context Books, 1999. Mello focuses on the legal proceedings in the Unabomber case and, more than most authors, gives credence to Kaczynski’s position as a social critic. Janet E. Gardner See also Crime; McVeigh, Timothy; Militia movement; Montana Freemen standoff; Oklahoma City bombing; Olympic Park bombing; Ruby Ridge shoot-out; Terrorism.

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Unforgiven

■ Unforgiven Identification Western film Director Clint Eastwood (1930Date Released on August 7, 1992

)

Directed by and starring Clint Eastwood, this Oscarwinning film is widely considered one of the greatest Westerns of all time and is critically acclaimed for its character development, ambivalent play on morality, and epic story line. Written by David Webb Peoples and originally titled “The William Munny Killings,” Unforgiven follows the story of William Munny (Clint Eastwood), an Old West gunfighter and criminal who has given up his unlawful ways to settle down. A young upstart calling himself the “Schofield Kid” (Jaimz Woolvett) shows up at William’s farm, asking him to partner up for a reward being offered by a group of prostitutes. The reward is on behalf of a fellow prostitute who was badly cut up by cowboys and goes to anyone who kills the men responsible. William declines the offer at first, crediting his deceased wife with “curing” him of whiskey and other bad habits. He changes his mind, however, and decides to take up the Schofield Kid on his offer, picking up his old cohort Ned Logan (Morgan Freeman) on the way. As the movie progresses, the lines between justice, revenge, and morality become increasingly blurred. The antagonist of the film, “Little Bill” Daggett (Gene Hackman), is a sheriff who believes his methods are just. Although he is on the side of the law, his use of violence against reward collectors coming to his town is seemingly excessive. When the armed William is found in the local saloon in violation of the town ordinance against firearms, Little Bill beats him savagely to within an inch of his life. William barely escapes and is nursed back to health by the prostitutes. During William’s recovery, Ned is captured by Little Bill and killed under interrogation. Upon hearing this news, William returns to town and kills Little Bill and several other men. The concept of justice and redemption in Unforgiven is left uncertain. Was Little Bill right in defending his town with such violence? Was William redeemed of his past crimes by giving up his ways? The finale of Unforgiven has William defending his friend’s honor, yet in doing so he also kills an unarmed innkeeper. Little Bill says, “I don’t deserve this,” to which William replies, “Deserve’s got nothing to do with it.”

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Impact Unforgiven won four Oscars, including Best Picture, Best Director (Clint Eastwood), Best Editing (Joel Cox), and Best Actor in a Supporting Role (Hackman). The film was further nominated for five Oscars, including Best Art Direction-Set Decoration, Best Actor, Best Cinematography, Best Sound, and Best Original Screenplay. In 2007, it was ranked number sixty-eight on the American Film Institute’s list of one hundred greatest movies of all time. Further Reading

Keesey, Douglas. Eastwood. London: Taschen, 2006. Schickel, Richard. Clint Eastwood: A Biography. New York: Alfred A. Knopf, 1996. Jarod P. Kearney See also

Academy Awards; Film in the United

States.

Clint Eastwood wins the Oscar for Best Director for Unforgiven at the 1993 Academy Awards. (AP/Wide World Photos)

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■ United Nations International organization that seeks to be a forum for solving disputes of global or major regional significance Date Established in 1945 Place Headquartered in New York City Identification

The United Nations is the strongest international organization dedicated to the peaceful resolution of conflicts and international cooperation. It does this through both peaceful methods and the use of force. During the 1990’s, it played a key role in the Middle East, the Balkans, and other regions. During the 1990’s, the United Nations celebrated its fiftieth anniversary and grew from 159 to 188 members. As the decade opened, there was great optimism that with the end of the Cold War the organization could carry out its mission more efficiently. This was not always the case. Javier Pérez de Cuéllar served as secretary-general from 1982 through 1991. Boutros Boutros-Ghali served from 1992 through 1996, but a second term was vetoed by the United States. Kofi Annan served two terms, from 1997 through 2006. The Gulf War Iraq’s invasion of Kuwait on August 2, 1990, brought the United Nations to center stage as, on the same day, it passed Resolution 660 demanding the removal of Iraqi troops from Kuwait. In November, the U.N. Security Council passed Resolution 678, which gave Iraq until January 15, 1991, to comply with Resolution 660. If this was not done, the Security Council authorized “all necessary means” to enforce the resolution. On January 17, 1991, Operation Desert Storm was started under U.S. leadership, with the United States supplying about threefourths of the military force. On February 24, the actual full-scale ground campaign started, and the Iraqi army was quickly routed. Within a few days, President George H. W. Bush ordered an end to the military campaign, declaring success. After the war, to keep Iraqi president Saddam Hussein in check, no-fly zones were created over much of Iraq, prohibiting the Iraqi air force from flying over those areas. While the United States asserted that the zones were in line with U.N. Resolution 688, Secretary-General Boutros Boutros-Ghali said they were illegal and not supported by any resolution. This was one reason why the United States ve-

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toed a second term for him. However, the United States and the United Nations cooperated in Iraqi relief programs such as the oil-for-food program. A series of wars took place during the breakup of the Federal Republic of Yugoslavia. During the early 1990’s, four of the constituent republics sought independence from the federation, which had been dominated by the Serbians. Slovenia, Croatia, and Macedonia declared independence in 1991, and Bosnia and Herzegovina in 1992. In November, 1991, Resolution 721 was passed, which authorized U.N. peacekeeping activities in the region. The peacekeeping operations continued throughout the decade, although they changed in scope after the Dayton Accords peace agreement was signed in 1995. After this accord was signed, ethnic Albanian leaders in the Serbian province of Kosovo began to agitate for independence. During the conflict, two resolutions were passed by the United Nations regarding Kosovo and refugees. In response to the situation, U.S. forces, as part of a North Atlantic Treaty Organization (NATO) contingent, began bombing Serbian targets. In June, 1999, a peace agreement was signed, resulting in Resolution 1244, which established a U.N. interim government for the province and an ongoing peacekeeping force from NATO. In other parts of the world, the United States also supported U.N. initiatives. In 1994, the United States prepared to invade Haiti to remove a military junta. Haitian military repression increased that year, and the United Nations passed Resolution 940 authorizing the use of “all necessary force” to end it. Fortunately, U.S. president Bill Clinton sent former president Jimmy Carter to Haiti, and Carter successfully negotiated a peaceful settlement. Similarly, early in the decade, Somalia was ruled by a repressive regime. In 1991, part of the country declared independence, which resulted in a civil war and numerous political divisions based on the power of local military leaders. In December, 1992, the United Nations passed Resolution 794, which offered humanitarian aid. The aid began in 1993, with the United States supplying the strongest component of soldiers to support the effort. Their presence was rejected by some local leaders, and intense fighting occurred. After two years, the United

Former Yugoslavia, Haiti, and Somalia

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Nations authorized the withdrawal of aid workers and security forces from what had become a failed mission. In addition to these military activities, there were many other major accomplishments by the United Nations during the 1990’s. In 1991, the organization helped end a sixteen-year civil war in Angola. Later that year, the United Nations moved peace forward by mediating between warring factions in El Salvador. The U.N. Conference on Environment and Development, also known as the Earth Summit, was held in Rio de Janeiro in June, 1992, although the United States did not accept the outcome. In 1993, the United Nations supervised an independence referendum in Eritrea that resulted in that country’s independence. In 1994, the organization ensured free and fair elections in South Africa as that country moved from minority white rule to majority rule. The same year, it also monitored elections in Mozambique. Also in 1994, the first International Conference on Population and Development was held in Cairo. In 1996, the Comprehensive Nuclear-Test-Ban Treaty was put forward by the General Assembly. In 1997, the Mine Ban Treaty (Ottawa Treaty) was created and went into effect in 1999, although the United States refused to sign the treaty. Negotiations regarding East Timor allowed the United Nations to organize a referendum on independence in 1999.

Other Accomplishments

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Ryan, Stephen. The United Nations and International Politics. New York: St. Martin’s Press, 2000. Includes material on the United Nations’ role in Rwanda, Somalia, and Bosnia and Herzegovina. Donald A. Watt See also Bosnia conflict; Bush, George H. W.; Clinton, Bill; Cold War, end of; Dayton Accords; Foreign policy of Canada; Foreign policy of the United States; Gulf War; Haiti intervention; Kosovo conflict; Kyoto Protocol; Schwarzkopf, Norman; Somalia conflict; Terrorism.

■ Updike, John Identification American writer Born March 18, 1932; Shillington, Pennsylvania

With the publication of eleven major books in the 1990’s, including the final novel in the Rabbit tetralogy focusing on the life and death of Harry “Rabbit” Angstrom, Updike

The United Nations continued to contribute to world peace and cooperation during the 1990’s. Its decisive action in the lead-up to the Gulf War was one of the high points of U.S.-U.N. cooperation. Also, the growth of membership by more than 15 percent made the United Nations much more inclusive. Resolution to long-standing disputes such as those in South Africa and East Timor was made easier through its efforts.

Impact

Further Reading

Gorman, Robert F. Great Debates at the United Nation: An Encyclopedia of Fifty Key Issues, 1945-2000. Westport, Conn.: Greenwood Press, 2001. Included among the debates are those on seven critical events of the 1990’s, including the Persian Gulf War. O’Sullivan, Christopher D. The United Nations: A Concise History. Huntington, N.Y.: Krieger, 2005. Covers the first sixty years of the United Nations.

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John Updike. (©Davis Freeman)

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UPN television network

demonstrated that he is not only one of the most important American writers of the twentieth century but also one of the giants of modern literature. In 1990, John Updike published Rabbit at Rest, the sequel to his three previous novels on his most famous fictional character, American everyman Harry “Rabbit” Angstrom. This novel, which portrays the end of Rabbit’s life, won the Pulitzer Prize and other prestigious awards. The four “Rabbit” novels, which in 1995 were published in one volume as Rabbit Angstrom, can be considered one “mega-novel” that vividly portrays the changes that occur in American society over four decades. After publishing Odd Jobs (1991), a collection of essays and criticism, Updike published Memories of the Ford Administration (1992), a novel with a protagonist writing a book on U.S. president James Buchanan. In 1993, Updike’s Collected Poems, 1953-1993 appeared. Although Updike is widely admired as a stylist with a love of metaphor and eloquent language, his poetry, like his prose, is accessible to the general reader. In 1994, he published The Afterlife, and Other Stories as well as a novel, Brazil, which recounts a contemporary love story inspired by the medieval story of Tristan and Isolde. Two years later, he published In the Beauty of the Lilies, a novel that chronicles the saga of an American family over four generations and focuses on religion, sex, money, and the cinema. In 1997, his futuristic fantasy Toward the End of Time appeared. The next year, he published Bech at Bay: A Quasi-Novel, which includes comic episodes in the life of the Jewish American novelist Henry Bech, a composite of several famous Jewish American novelists. In 1999, his More Matter: Essays and Criticism was published; the volume includes more than nine hundred pages of nonfiction essays, reviews, and introductions written during the 1990’s. Impact Recognized as a brilliant stylist with his magisterial command of exquisite prose that ranges from meticulous realism to exuberant fantasy, Updike captured the essence of the culture of each decade in post-World War II America. His work has not only described and interpreted American culture but also helped to shape it. Although his subject matter and writing style demonstrate great versatility, he is especially admired for his ability to reveal with scrupulous precision the interior lives of people struggling with problems involving marriage, adultery, divorce, and family.

Further Reading

Olster, Stacey, ed. The Cambridge Companion to John Updike. New York: Cambridge University Press, 2006. Pritchard, William. Updike: America’s Man of Letters. Hanover, N.H.: Steerforth Press, 2000. Schiff, James A. John Updike Revisited. Boston: Twayne, 1998. Allan Chavkin See also

Literature in the United States; Poetry.

■ UPN television network Identification Network television station Date Aired 1995-2006

The UPN was the fifth major television network, competing with ABC, NBC, CBS, and Fox. The United Paramount Network (UPN) formed when Paramount partnered with Chris-Craft Industries. In 1994, Columbia Broadcasting System’s (CBS) Evan Thompson and Chris-Craft’s Herbert Siegel became 50/50 partners; hoping to re-create the recent success of the Fox network, they decided to begin a fifth television network. Paramount was interested in starting what it hoped would be “the first network for the first century.” Because Paramount owned some established first-run syndicated shows—Entertainment Tonight, The Arsenio Hall Show, Friday the 13th: The Series, Moesha, and two Star Trek shows, The Next Generation and Deep Space Nine —the premiere season was expected to be successful. The plan was to run these syndicated shows and others developed in-house. On January 16, 1995, the UPN launched with the two-hour broadcast of Star Trek: Voyager, achieving what would be the highest ratings in the network’s history, outperforming the other four networks. Following Fox’s lead, Paramount purchased a group of unaffiliated stations and contracted with other independent networks to become part of the UPN family. Paramount began filming original shows, such as Nowhere Man, The Sentinel, Legend, and The Marker, and also produced made-for-TV movies, mostly science fiction. However, UPN never again achieved the ratings success of its first telecast, and none of its first-season shows made it to a second season. Many of the network’s problems stemmed from

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being available to only about 60 percent of American homes and having a difficult time deciding which demographic to target. UPN began with familyoriented material, then tried to appeal to young males with science-fiction programming, moved to African American shows, and ended up with no clear identity. There were also problems in the relationship between Paramount and Chris-Craft. Their differing management styles resulted in budget problems, contract errors, programming conflicts, and general confusion at the network. By 1999, UPN was operating at a deficit of about $500 million and was finally restructured. In 2000, Viacom/Paramount bought out Chris-Craft and purchased CBS, becoming Paramount Network. The UPN/CBS network continued until September 15, 2006, when it merged with its major competitor, the WB, to become the CW. Impact Although it did not live up to its original promise, UPN proved that there was room for more than just the original major networks. The network successfully marketed TV wrestling, African American shows, science fiction, and niche demographic programming. Although UPN stopped broadcasting in 2006, its merger with the WB resulted in the very successful CW, a station partially targeted to teenage girls, a new and lucrative market segment. Further Reading

Daniels, Susanne, and Cynthia Littleton. Season Finale: The Unexpected Rise and Fall of the WB and UPN. New York: HarperCollins, 2007. Kimmel, Daniel M. The Fourth Network: How FOX Broke the Rules and Reinvented Television. Chicago: Ivan R. Dee, 2004. Leslie Neilan Cable television; Television; TV Parental Guidelines system; WB television network. See also

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■ U.S. Capitol shooting A man storms into the Capitol, killing two on-duty police officers Date July 24, 1998 Place Washington, D.C. The Event

The first shooting at the Capitol in forty-four years, the attack raised questions about the medical treatment of the mentally ill and reaffirmed the importance of strict security measures. On July 24, 1998, Russell Eugene Weston, Jr. stormed into the U.S. Capitol wielding a handgun and shot two Capitol police officers before being shot himself. Officer Jacob Chestnut was shot in the back of the head as Weston ran toward the offices of Tom DeLay, House majority whip. Detective John Gibson, an agent guarding DeLay, was shot but was able to return fire on the gunman, ending the violent attack. Both officers died, and Weston and a tourist, Angela Dickerson, were injured. Weston had a distrust of the federal government and had previously been investigated by the U.S. Secret Service for threatening the life of President Bill Clinton. After interviews and a medical examination, Weston was not considered a high threat. He suffered from paranoid schizophrenia and was not on his medications on the day of the attack. While he was charged with the murder of two federal law-enforcement agents, Judge Emmet G. Sullivan of the federal district court found him incompetent to stand trial. Weston underwent mandatory treatment for his mental illness. He currently resides in the Butner Federal Correctional Institution in North Carolina and is still required by the government to take antipsychotic medication. Impact The July attack was the deadliest in the history of the Capitol and brought to public attention the importance of understanding and treating mental illness. Weston’s illness was manageable, but with limited treatment opportunities available for monitoring his condition, he stopped taking his medications and became violent. The shooting brought about criticism of both state and federal mental health programs and facilities. The incident also led to a reevaluation of security measures taken on Capitol grounds and recognition of federal law-enforcement agents who risk their

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The coffins of officers John Gibson and Jacob Chestnut lie in the rotunda of the Capitol on the morning of July 28, 1998. (AP/Wide World Photos)

lives for the protection of both political officials and the general public. Following the shooting, Chestnut and Gibson were laid in state in the rotunda of the Capitol and were later buried in Arlington National Cemetery. On August 7, 1998, Congress enacted Public Law 105-223, creating a Capitol Police Memorial Fund in memory of the officers.

See also Clinton, Bill; McVeigh, Timothy; Oklahoma City bombing; Terrorism; Unabomber capture; White House attacks.

Further Reading

The Event

Butterfield, Fox. “Capitol Hill Slayings: The Illness; Treatment Can Be Illusion for Violent Mentally Ill.” The New York Times, July 28, 1998, p. A1. “Trial Is Ruled Out in Two Capitol Slayings.” The New York Times, April 23, 1999, p. A18. Weil, Martin. “Gunman Shoots His Way into Capitol; Two Officers Killed, Suspect Captured.” The Washington Post, July 25, 1998, p. A1. Tessa Li Powell

■ U.S. embassy bombings in Africa Al-Qaeda orchestrates two bombings at U.S. embassies in Africa, killing hundreds of people Date August 7, 1998 Place Dar es Salaam, Tanzania; Nairobi, Kenya Two car bombs strategically placed at U.S. embassies in East Africa devastated the area, injuring and killing thousands of Africans. The bombings brought global attention to the new threat of terrorism aimed at Western governments, in particular the United States.

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On the morning of August 7, 1998, two car bombs exploded outside the U.S. embassies in Dar es Salaam, Tanzania, and Nairobi, Kenya. The bombs were detonated at nearly the same time, utterly destroying the buildings targeted and killing hundreds. Nairobi was hit hardest, as the embassy was lo-

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cated in a busy downtown area. Twelve Americans and more than two hundred Kenyans were killed in that attack; about four thousand were injured. In Dar es Salaam, the attack killed twelve people and injured at least eighty-five. Rescue workers in the region and U.S. Marines who were assigned to the em-

Clinton on the Nairobi and Dar es Salaam Bombings On August 8, 1998, President Bill Clinton spoke about the American embassy bombings that killed 235 people, and he reaffirmed the U.S. government’s commitment to bringing terrorists to justice: Most of you have seen the horrible pictures of destruction on television. The bomb attack in Nairobi killed at least eleven Americans. In Dar es Salaam, no Americans lost their lives, but at least one was gravely wounded. In both places, many Africans were killed or wounded, and devastating damage was done to our Embassies and surrounding buildings. . . . Late yesterday, emergency response teams, led by our Departments of State and Defense, arrived in Africa. The teams include doctors to tend to the injured, disaster relief experts to get our Embassies up and running again, a military unit to protect our personnel, and counterterrorism specialists to determine what happened and who was responsible. Americans are targets of terrorism, in part, because we have unique leadership responsibilities in the world, because we act to advance peace and democracy, and because we stand united against terrorism. To change any of that—to pull back our diplomats and troops from the world’s trouble spots, to turn our backs on those taking risks for peace, to weaken our opposition to terrorism—that would give terrorism a victory it must not and will not have. Instead, we will continue to take the fight to terrorists. Over the past several years, I have intensified our effort on all fronts in this battle: apprehending terrorists wherever they are and bringing them to justice; disrupting terrorist operations; deepening counterterrorism cooperation with our allies and isolating nations that support terrorism; protecting our computer networks; im-

proving transportation security; combating the threat of nuclear, chemical, and biological weapons; giving law enforcement the best counterterrorism tools available. . . . The most powerful weapon in our counterterrorism arsenal is our determination to never give up. In recent years, we have captured major terrorists in the far corners of the world and brought them to America to answer for their crimes, sometimes years after they were committed. They include the man who murdered two CIA employees outside its headquarters. Four years later we apprehended him halfway around the world, and a Virginia jury sentenced him to death. The mastermind of the World Trade Center bombing, who fled far from America— two years later, we brought him back for trial in New York. And the terrorist responsible for bombing a Pan Am jet bound for Hawaii from Japan in 1982, we pursued him for sixteen years. This June we caught him. Some serious acts of terror remain unresolved, including the attack on our military personnel at Khobar Towers in Saudi Arabia; the bombing of Pan Am 103 over Lockerbie, Scotland; and now, these horrible bombings in Africa. No matter how long it takes or where it takes us, we will pursue terrorists until the cases are solved and justice is done. The bombs that kill innocent Americans are aimed not only at them but at the very spirit of our country and the spirit of freedom. For terrorists are the enemies of everything we believe in and fight for: peace and democracy, tolerance and security.

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bassies began working quickly in both places to begin rescue efforts. Injuries ranged from mild to serious, and many people were hospitalized in intensive care units. As more people were pulled from the rubble and death and injury tolls rose, the United States began shipping in medical supplies such as antibiotics and blood for transfusions, as well teams of doctors and nurses to help the overwhelmed African authorities. Initially, no one assumed responsibility for the horrific acts, while investigations by the Federal Bureau of Investigation (FBI) and authorities from both Tanzania and Kenya were underway. There was some question as to whether the United States had received a warning about possible attacks on the African embassies and had simply ignored them. Presi-

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dent Bill Clinton’s administration insisted that the attack came with relatively little warning. Officials at the time stated that although all perceived threats were taken seriously, there was no evidence to believe that the attacks on the embassies would in fact take place. The Perpetrators The attacks on the embassies were reportedly orchestrated by the Islamic terrorist organization al-Qaeda. Led by Osama Bin Laden and founded in Afghanistan, the organization has openly stated its anti-U.S. position and has threatened U.S. interests since its inception in the late 1980’s. Saudi-born Bin Laden got his start in the mujahideen, a Muslim military group comprising thousands of volunteers from the Middle East that

The ruins of the U.S. embassy in Nairobi on August 7, 1998, after a car bomb exploded. The Nairobi and Dar es Salaam attacks brought global attention to the terrorist mastermind Osama bin Laden and his organization, al-Qaeda. (AP/Wide World Photos)

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was organized with the purpose of driving the Soviet Union out of Afghanistan during the Soviet occupation, which lasted from 1979 to 1989. After the Soviets withdrew from the region, Bin Laden began studying radical Islamic thought and grew more disillusioned with what he considered to be immoral and anti-Muslim practices of the United States. Eventually, he came to run al-Qaeda. Bin Laden would eventually declare war on the United States and would orchestrate several attacks on U.S. interests, including the bombings in East Africa. President Clinton responded to the bombings by firing cruise missiles at alleged al-Qaeda sites in both Afghanistan and Sudan and by declaring war on the terrorist organization. Impact Al-Qaeda meant for the bombings of the U.S. embassies in Africa to send a message to the government of the United States, opposing both its domestic and foreign policies. However, the bombings ultimately resulted in more African civilian casualties than American ones. The tragedies at Dar es Salaam and Nairobi brought the al-Qaeda organization fully into the global spotlight, making the organization one of the most wanted terrorist groups in the world. Subsequent Events The tragedy of the embassy bombings brought new attention to possible terrorist attacks on the United States and other parts of the world that had previously not been seen as seriously threatened. The FBI, Tanzanian, and Kenyan authorities that had investigated the bombings would subsequently charge a slew of individuals with varying levels of involvement in the bombings. Al-Qaeda

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continued to grow in strength, however, and launched an even larger attack on the United States that resulted in the destruction of the World Trade Center on September 11, 2001. Further Reading

Akhahenda, Elijah F. When Blood and Tears United a Country: The Bombing of the American Embassy in Kenya. Lanham, Md.: University Press of America, 2002. Chronicles the experiences of the author, who was present on the day that the U.S. embassy in Nairobi was bombed, using interviews from others present at the time. Ferguson, Amanda. The Attack Against the U.S. Embassies in Kenya and Tanzania. New York: Rosen, 2003. Details the bombings in both Kenya and Tanzania, as well as the recovery efforts. The author takes the time to define Islamic fundamentalism and the role Osama Bin Laden played in the attacks. Hirsch, Susan F. In the Moment of Greatest Calamity: Terrorism, Grief, and a Victim’s Quest for Justice. Princeton, N.J.: Princeton University Press, 2006. Hirsch, a victim in the U.S. embassy bombing in Dar es Salaam, explores the effects that terrorist acts have on victims and argues convincingly for a justice based on peace and understanding, not violence. Jennifer L. Titanski See also Africa and the United States; Foreign policy of the United States; Israel and the United States; Khobar Towers bombing; Middle East and North America; Terrorism; United Nations; World Trade Center bombing.

V ■ Vagina Monologues, The Identification

Controversial Off-Off-Broadway

play Author Eve Ensler (1953) Date First produced in 1996 Place Here Arts Center, New York City

Although initially outrageous, the continuing performances of this play not only served to reconnect women with their bodies but also generated a powerful social movement condemning violence against women.

several monologues by different voices (all played by Ensler), but soon other actors were involved. Each performance was different, tailored to the specific audience. Any awkwardness was allayed by her impish humor, and audiences, including men, generally responded with enthusiasm. After seeing a Newsweek photograph of Bosnian girls rescued from a Serbian rape camp, Ensler traveled to Croatia to interview Bosnian refugees. Her outrage at rape as a deliberate tactic of war resulted in the powerful monologue of a Bosnian survivor. Other characters included an elderly Jewish woman recalling a humiliating date, a six-year-old girl, a corporate lawyer turned lesbian dominatrix, and Ensler’s own poetic recollection of her granddaughter’s birth. Later monologues featured an irate woman complaining about a gynecological examination and an Afghan woman living under Taliban rule.

During a conversation with a feminist friend in 1994, playwright Eve Ensler was shocked to realize that the woman seemed alienated from her own body. Ensler, who had been raped and abused in childhood, recognized that she too had become emotionally detached and began to talk with other women about their attitudes toward their bodies. As she interviewed more than two hundred women of all ages and backgrounds, she discovered that many shared her disconnection. She based The Vagina Monologues on their stories. Mindful of a tradition of silence about women’s bodies and of widespread violence against them, Ensler argued that women needed to tell their intimate stories and reclaim their own words. Because “vagina,” a medical term, generated controversy, at first she had difficulty placing advertisements for her play. In her introduction to the book version, published in 1998, she explained: “I say it [vagina] because I’m not supposed to say it. . . . I say it because I believe that what we don’t say we don’t see, acknowlActors assemble for a performance of The Vagina Monologues in 1999 at London’s edge, or remember.” Old Vic theater, including Melanie Griffith (seated front), Cate Blanchett (second from Originally, the play consisted of left), and Gillian Anderson (far right). (©Neville Elder/Corbis Sygma)

The Nineties in America Impact The Vagina Monologues won a 1997 Obie Award and was widely produced in many cities and on college campuses. It inspired the V-Day movement, which began with a celebrity-studded performance on Valentine’s Day, 1998, generating $150,000 for local charities seeking to end violence against women. Annual V-Day fund-raising celebrations continued to spread worldwide, with performances in more than eighty-one countries. By 2006, more than $35 million had been raised for specific programs that called for increased awareness to combat not only rape and physical abuse of women but also genital mutilation, sex trafficking, forced marriage, and public executions for adultery—hard truths Ensler brought home to the consciousness of America. Further Reading

Baumgardner, Jennifer. “When in Rome . . .” The Nation 273, no. 19 (December 2, 2002): 22-24. Ensler, Eve. Insecure at Last: Losing It in Our SecurityObsessed World. New York: Villard, 2006. Smith, Dinitia. “Today the Anatomy, Tomorrow the World.” The New York Times, September 26, 1999, p. 2.7. Joanne McCarthy See also Bosnia conflict; Homosexuality and gay rights; Theater in the United States; Women’s rights.

■ ValuJet Flight 592 crash Atlanta-bound flight crashes near Miami, killing 110 Date May 11, 1996 Place Some twenty miles west of Miami International Airport in the Florida Everglades The Event

When the DC-9-32 twin-engine aircraft hit the water and mud of the swamp, a lengthy investigation was begun to determine the cause of death of all aboard—two pilots, three flight attendants, and 105 passengers. Additionally, contributing factors were acknowledged, new safety regulations issued, and a few people in the private and public sectors lost their jobs. Suspended for a while, ValuJet returned to the air, eventually under a new identity. ValuJet was one of the discount airlines created during the reconfiguration of the airline industry following the bankruptcy of such major carriers as Pan American World Airways (Pan Am) and Eastern Air

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Lines. Candalyn Kubeck, the first female chief pilot to die in an air crash, had Richard Hazen as her flight officer. Within minutes after takeoff, at eleven thousand feet, the copilot requested clearance from the control tower to return to Miami given the fire and smoke conditions in the passenger cabin and cockpit. As the plane was turning around, it plunged into the swamp, breaking up as it hit the surface. The Miami-Dade County Police Department began its search and rescue operations in the dangerous alligator- and snake-infested terrain, now covered with flammable aviation fuel and debris, only to determine that there were no survivors. The crash was described as a “systems accident” born of the confusion that lies within the complex organizations through which an airline system is managed. Once in a while, several bad, minor choices, none of them lethal by itself, come together in synergistic fashion and cause a tragedy such as that of Flight 592. The plane’s flight data recorder, which measured eleven types of aircraft movement and control settings, was recovered on May 13. The cockpit voice recorder was retrieved on May 15. Its tape had included a brief, unidentified sound some six minutes after takeoff and indicated that the crew had been informed of smoke and fire conditions in the passenger cabin. Eleven seconds thereafter, the plane requested clearance to return to the airport but crashed four minutes later. The search for human remains and wreckage ended on June 10. By then, 36 of the 110 crash victims had been identified. The wreckage confirmed the smoke and fire on board. The investigation focused on the nature of the cargo stored in the plane’s forward hold, just below and behind the cockpit. Indeed, 119 chemical oxygen generators had been loaded there. Ironically, these small firebombs are in fact safety devices to provide passengers with the vital gas when an aircraft loses pressurization. The investigators concluded that a chemical reaction inside one or more of these generators had ignited and in turn set fire to at least one of three aircraft tires also stored in the hold. It was not clear, however, whether these conditions had compromised the plane’s controls first or whether the conflagration had disabled the crew, now unable to fly the plane. The investigation also discovered that ValuJet,

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during its spectacular expansion from two to fiftytwo aircraft over two and a half years, in the interest of keeping expenses low to make such growth possible, had farmed out loading and maintenance operations to a subcontractor, SabreTech, owned by Sabreliner of St. Louis and licensed by the Federal Aviation Administration (FAA). Both ValuJet and the FAA, as it turned out, had exercised very little supervision over SabreTech, which hired many underpaid casual workers in order to be competitive. The oxygen generators had not been properly packed, lacked the mandatory plastic safety caps over their firing pins, and were mislabeled as being empty rather than as hazardous cargo since the chemical reaction that creates oxygen can also generate heat well over 500, even 1,000 degrees Fahrenheit— which is what had happened. The investigation uncovered “serious deficiencies” in the airline’s operations—inappropriate repairs, improper documentation, and ignoring FAA safety directives. ValuJet resumed flights several months later, eventually changing its designation to AirTran. In December, 2001, SabreTech faced 220 charges of murder and manslaughter involving the 110 crash victims. It was allowed to donate to charity by way of compensation. The final report of the National Transportation Safety Board (NTSB) of August 19, 1997, criticized the FAA for failing to enforce its tenyear-old recommendation that smoke detectors and fire suppression systems be installed in all cargo holds. Underlying it all was the cozy relationship between the airline on one hand and those at the FAA and its supervisory U.S. Department of Transportation (DOT) responsible for the public’s safety on the other. This is a general problem because often the government regulators themselves come from the industry that they are also supposed to control. Then there is politics. The airline industry is a significant financial contributor to the campaigns of various congressional representatives and senators who sit on key civil aviation committees. Accordingly, here, too, there is considerable reciprocal back-scratching. Thus, even crusaders among the regulators (such as federal whistle-blower Mary Schiavo, former inspector general of the DOT) were voices crying in the wilderness when charging that crucial negative reports on ValuJet’s earlier violations had been suppressed.

Final NTSB Report

Impact On May 23, 1996, all passenger planes were forbidden to carry the kind of oxygen generators suspected of causing the crash (empty generators were exempted from the ban). After Schiavo resigned her job in July, 1996, and went public with her complaints, Congress reworded the dual mandate with which the FAA had been entrusted. It now called for safety first and foremost. Further Reading

Cobb, Roger W., and David M. Primo. The Plane Truth: Airline Crashes, the Media, and Transportation Policy. Washington, D.C.: The Brookings Institution, 2003. Includes a good account of ValuJet Flight 592. Langewiesche, William. “The Lessons of ValuJet 592.” The Atlantic Monthly, March, 1998, 81-98. A former working pilot tries to demonstrate that this was a case of “systems failure” lying beyond the reach of conventional solutions. Matthews, Rick A., and David Kauzlarich. “The Crash of ValuJet Flight 592.” In State-Corporate Crime: Wrongdoing at the Intersection of Business and Government, edited by Raymond J. Michalowski and Ronald C. Kramer. New Brunswick, N.J.: Rutgers University Press, 2006. Stresses the mutually reinforcing interaction between the private sector (ValuJet and SabreTech) and the benign tolerance of government (the FAA) in the accident. Peter B. Heller See also Airline industry; EgyptAir Flight 990 crash; TWA Flight 800 crash.

■ Ventura, Jesse Identification Governor of Minnesota, 1999-2003 Born July 15, 1951; Minneapolis, Minnesota

Ventura parlayed his earlier careers as a professional wrestler, actor, and radio talk show host into a major political upset when he defeated both of the major-party candidates to win the 1998 Minnesota governor’s race. The victory gained him instant fame and extensive media coverage during the final years of the decade. James George Janos, a former Navy SEAL, achieved success as a professional wrestler under the name Jesse “The Body” Ventura during the 1970’s and

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Ventura’s growing popularity as a political outsider seriously. During the latter part of the campaign, he used the slogan: “Don’t waste your vote on politics-as-usual. Vote Reform Party Jesse Ventura for governor!” On election night, Ventura won a surprising victory, receiving 37 percent of the vote against 34 percent for Coleman and 28 percent for Humphrey. Following his election, Ventura attained instant national celebrity. Both Time and Newsweek contained major stories on him, and he appeared on the National Broadcasting Company’s (NBC) The Tonight Show hosted by Jay Leno. As in the campaign itself, Ventura continued to demonstrate the ability to atMinnesota governor-elect Jesse Ventura holds copies of Time magazine following his success at the polls in the 1998 election. (AP/Wide World Photos) tract attention with outrageous comments and behavior. After he took office, although receiving approval early 1980’s. After leaving the sport for health rearatings as high as 73 percent during parts of 1999, sons in 1984, he continued to use the name Jesse Ventura’s popularity gradually waned. He develVentura, and in the years following his wrestling caoped an adversarial relationship with both the local reer, he appeared in several Hollywood action and media and the state legislature and was satirized in a science-fiction movies and hosted or provided com1999 book by well-known Minnesota author Garrimentary for televised and pay-per-view wrestling proson Keillor. He did not run for reelection in 2002, algrams. though his notoriety and celebrity status continued His first venture into politics occurred in 1990, into the new decade. when he was elected mayor of Brooklyn Park, MinImpact Jesse Ventura’s political success at the end nesota, an office he held until 1995. In the latter of the 1990’s reflected the growing dissatisfaction of year, he began a talk radio show on KFAN 1130 in voters with the major political parties and with caMinneapolis-St. Paul that added to his local followreer politicians. His surprise victory in the 1998 Mining. In 1998, he entered the Minnesota governor’s nesota governor’s race thus provides a dramatic and race on the Reform Party ticket. His principal oppobizarre example of late 1990’s political disillusionnents were Minnesota attorney general Hubert H. ment and discontent. Humphrey III, son of former vice president Hubert Humphrey, running as the candidate of the DemoFurther Reading cratic-Farmer-Labor (DFL) Party, and St. Paul mayor Hauser, Tom. Inside the Ropes with Jesse Ventura. MinNorm Coleman, who had switched from the DFL neapolis: University of Minnesota Press, 2002. Party to the Republican Party in 1996. During the Keillor, Garrison. Me: By Jimmy (Big Boy) Valente. New campaign, Ventura attracted attention with his outYork: Viking Press, 1999. spoken opinions and frequently outrageous behavScott Wright ior. The televised debates preceding the election also contributed to his success as Humphrey and See also Elections in the United States, midterm; Coleman battled with each other and failed to take Reform Party; Talk radio.

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■ Versace murder A disturbed man shoots and kills the famous couturier Date July 15, 1997 Place Miami, Florida Identification

Andrew Cunanan’s killing spree ended with his fifth and final murder in three months, that of Italian fashion designer Gianni Versace, whose celebrity, in Cunanan’s eyes, would assure his own place in history.

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boat for its absentee owner, noticed that a lock had been broken. The handyman, brandishing a handgun, entered the houseboat. Cunanan went upstairs to the master bedroom, lay down on the bed, and shot himself in the head. He died immediately. Impact Versace’s senseless murder demonstrates the vulnerability of public figures whose celebrity attracts disturbed people seeking to enhance their own sense of power and bolster their own self-image. It remained a mystery whether the two men knew one another. In retrospect, one can see the direction that Cunanan’s perverse obsessions were driving him, but the recognition of such obsessions usually occurs after a violent act rather than before it.

Famed couturier and entrepreneur Gianni Versace left his South Beach villa in Miami around 8:00 a.m. on the morning of July 15, 1997, walking to the News Café, a short distance from his house, to buy magaFurther Reading zines. He returned home just before 8:45 a.m. Clarkson, Wensley. Death at Every Stop. New York: St. Holding the keys to his front door, he was apMartin’s Press, 1997. proached by Andrew Cunanan. Indiana, Gary. Three Month Fever: The Andrew Cunanan Cunanan advanced, pointed a gun at Versace, Story. New York: Cliff Street Books, 1999. and fired twice, hitting him once in the face and Orth, Maureen. Vulgar Favors: Andrew Cunanan, once in the neck. Versace collapsed. People who Gianni Versace, and the Largest Failed Manhunt in heard the shots gathered, and some tried to pursue U.S. History. New York: Delacorte Press, 1999. Cunanan. However, he escaped down an alley. Schmid, David. Natural Born Celebrities: Serial Killers in Versace’s chef, Charles Podesta, called the police. American Culture. Chicago: University of Chicago An ambulance rushed the victim to Mount Sinai Press, 2005. Medical Center, but he died shortly after arriving R. Baird Shuman there. It would take eight days to track Versace’s assailant down, but soon after the murder, Cunanan was identified as a former male escort from California who had begun a multistate killing spree late in April. On April 27, Cunanan murdered his former lover, Jeffrey Trail, in Minnesota, where he also killed architect David Madson. Cunanan then went to Chicago, where he killed Lee Miglin, whom he scarcely knew. His next stop was in Pennsville, New Jersey, where, on May 9, he killed cemetery caretaker William Reese and stole his truck. Cunanan drove to Miami, where he set in motion his plan to gain enduring fame by murdering his fifth victim in ten weeks. Cunanan was tracked down to a houseboat he broke into at 5250 Collins Avenue, where he hid out following Versace’s murder. On July 23, a Italian fashion designer Gianni Versace after a 1996 Paris show. (AP/Wide handyman, checking on the houseWorld Photos)

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Columbine massacre; Crime; Homosexuality and gay rights; Menendez brothers murder case.

See also

■ Viagra Identification

A drug used to treat erectile

dysfunction Manufacturer Patented and marketed by Pfizer Date Approved for use in the United States on

March 27, 1998 Widely popular because previous treatments were unpleasant, Viagra opened discussion of an underreported and previously stigmatized topic. Before Viagra, medical treatments of impotence were few and unpleasant: surgical implants, injections into the penis just before intercourse, or a suppository in the urethra. Between this and the widespread view that impotence was largely psychological, few men even reported it to their doctors. The drug, sildenafil citrate, relaxes blood vessels and increases blood flow; it does not cause erections without stimulation, as the injected beta blockers do. The dose is 25 milligrams to 100 milligrams, not more than once per day, taken between thirty minutes and four hours before sexual intercourse. The pill is a distinctive blue diamond. Andrew Bell, Dr. David Brown, and Dr. Nicholas Terrett, employees of Pfizer in England, developed the drug for heart problems, for which it was patented in 1991. During overall-disappointing Welsh trials in 1992, some users reported better erections. Products and research of the 1980’s showed that chemical treatments could be effective and helped Pfizer understand why sildenafil citrate had that effect, and the company developed it to treat impotence. Patients enthusiastically volunteered for trials and even lied to keep extra pills rather than turning them in. The drug was approved by the Food and Drug Administration (FDA) for erectile dysfunction on March 27, 1998. In its first year, Viagra made over one billion dollars in sales. Though it requires a prescription, Viagra was advertised on television, including endorsements by former senator Bob Dole. A number of comedians made Viagra jokes, and the drug became widely available on the Internet. The popular press also covered Viagra, and 1998 and

Viagra pills. (AP/Wide World Photos)

1999 saw multiple books, with titles such as Viagra: The Virility Breakthrough (1998) and Viagra: The Potency Promise (1998). Viagra has almost become a generic term: over-the-counter supplements and even placebos are marketed as “herbal Viagra.” Overwhelmingly, the drug is used responsibly and with few side effects, though some do abuse the drug, sometimes with the psychedelic drug Ecstasy (methylenedioxymethamphetamine, or MDMA), which increases affection but decreases sexual performance. One characteristic Viagra side effect is blue-tinted vision, and Joseph Moran of New Jersey sued Pfizer because he claimed visual effects from Viagra caused him to crash his car. Impact Although other treatments existed, the convenience of Viagra began a new era in treating impotence. Advertisements for Viagra opened discussion of the problem and helped to reframe it as a casual medical issue instead of an embarrassment or sign of mental issues. Competition came five years after

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Viagra hit the market, with the introduction of Cialis (tadalafil) from Eli Lilly and Levitra (vardenafil) from Bayer and GlaxoSmithKline. Further Reading

Baglia, Jay. Viagra Ad Venture: Masculinity, Marketing, and the Performance of Sexual Health. New York: Peter Lang, 2005. Li, Jie Jack. Laughing Gas, Viagra, and Lipitor: The Human Stories Behind the Drugs We Use. New York: Oxford University Press, 2006. Loe, Meika. Rise of Viagra: How the Little Blue Pill Changed Sex in America. New York: New York University Press, 2006. Bernadette Lynn Bosky Drug advertising; Ecstasy; Health care; Medicine; Pharmaceutical industry.

See also

■ Victoria’s Secret Speciality megaretailer of women’s intimate apparel and related products

Identification

Victoria’s Secret is an innovative producer and marketer of intimate apparel and related products. Numerous products were first brought to the mass market by the firm, and its brand appeal is global in scope. During the 1990’s, the firm expanded to become one of the most well-known retailers of women’s intimate apparel. The first Victoria’s Secret store was opened by Roy Raymond in San Francisco, California, in 1977. Raymond established the store believing that it was embarrassing for men to purchase lingerie within the typical department store. A hallmark of the store was the arrangement of bras and panties together by styles and mounted on the wall in frames for ease of browsing within the upscale decor. After opening a number of stores, Raymond sold the company in 1982 to The Limited. The Limited grew the brand by expanding into shopping malls in the 1980’s. The 1990’s became formative years for the company as it massively expanded, created a multitude of innovations, and became a well-known brand name. The Limited (now Limited Brands) evolved Victoria’s Secret into a mail-order business. In 1995, the publicly traded Intimate Brands, Inc., was created, composed of Victoria’s Secret, Victoria’s Secret Catalogue, Cacique,

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Penhaligon’s, and Bath and Body Works. That year, there were 671 Victoria’s Secret stores and 324 million catalogs shipped to customers, with sales totaling $1.9 billion. Over 12 million sales calls were handled by store associates. Throughout the 1990’s, stores were added at a steady pace, with a total of 896 stores across the nation by 1999 taking in a total of $2.1 billion in sales. Victoria’s Secret continued to mail out its catalog and combined it with an online store, which was consolidated into Victoria’s Secret Direct in 1998, with total sales in 1999 of $956 million. Throughout the decade, chairman and chief executive officer of Limited Brands, Leslie H. Wexner, pushed for innovation in both products and processes, many executed under the able supervision of Edward G. Razek. Victoria’s Secret became the dominant lingerie brand in the world during the decade, with its lingerie, swimwear, bath and fragrances, and hosiery products finding wide appeal in the United States, Europe, and Asia. In 1996, Victoria’s Secret launched the first seamless bra, Perfect Silhouette, one of the fastest-selling products in the company’s history. The following year, Razek supervised the launch of Angels, a set of sheer bras and panties whose advertisements featured gorgeous women in the company of the English singer Tom Jones for comic effect. This year also witnessed the introduction of the Million Dollar Miracle Bra and the launch of the highly popular English Lace series of bras and panties. Victoria’s Secret, contrary to many of its competitors throughout the decade, refused to use Hollywood celebrities to market its products. The company employed supermodels or people it plucked from obscurity from around the globe, including Alessandra Ambrosio, Tyra Banks, Laetitia Casta, Helena Christensen, Yasmeen Ghauri, Jill Goodacre, Eva Herzigova, Adriana Karembeu, Heidi Klum, Elle Macpherson, Daniela Pestova, Rebecca Romijn, Claudia Schiffer, Stephanie Seymour, Molly Sims, and Frederique van der Wal. By 1997, Victoria’s Secret consistently began to place within the top ten brands in the Most Recognized Brands survey. The president of Victoria’s Secret Stores, Grace A. Nichols, and Cynthia D. Fields, president of Victoria’s Secret Direct, capably managed operations in what had become a very large and profitable company. The subsequent year, Body by Victoria appeared, the first integrated product launch in the lingerie business that used a brand

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process from start to finish. Victoria’s Secret unitper-store sales jumped 20 percent. Impact At the close of the decade, Victoria’s Secret continued its innovation streak, with the first fashion show running live in Times Square, New York, and simultaneously over the Internet. A total of over 1.5 million people viewed it, and another 500 million hits occurred during the week following. The Victoria’s Secret Web site became the most visited site on the Internet for the month, and the show was the biggest Web event up to that time. That same year, Victoria’s Secret expanded weekly television advertising, sponsored over one hundred pages of national magazine coverage, and placed over 36 billion catalog pages before customers’ eyes. The banner year of 1999 would prove a harbinger of further growth in the coming decade. Further Reading

Chenoune, Farid. Hidden Underneath: A History of Lingerie. New York: Assouline, 2005. Victoria’s Secret. Sexy. 3 vols. Columbus, Ohio: Limited Brands, 2005. Dennis W. Cheek See also

Advertising; Fashions and clothing; In-

ternet.

■ Video games Software-based entertainment systems played on an arcade machine, game console, or home computer, with a video display and input devices

Definition

During the 1990’s, video games became firmly established in mainstream America. With increasingly sophisticated hardware and software and a presence on the World Wide Web, video games became a lucrative global phenomenon. As the decade began, the video game industry was growing, and corporate rivalries continued. To rival Sega’s Genesis (1989), the first 16-bit color graphics home console system, Nintendo introduced the Super Nintendo Entertainment System (Super NES) in 1991. The Nintendo Game Boy (1989) continued to outsell other handheld products. Company rivalries were even manifested in game characters: Sega launched a new mascot, Sonic the Hedgehog, in 1991 to counter Nintendo’s beloved

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Mario. Released in 1990, Nintendo’s Super Mario Bros. 3 became the most popular nonbundled game cartridge ever sold. In 1995, Sega released its expensive Saturn system, the first 32-bit CD-based console, but the less expensive Sony PlayStation (1994) sold better. In 1996, Nintendo launched Nintendo 64, the first 64-bit system. Finally, in 1999, Sega introduced its 128-bit Dreamcast system, complete with a built-in modem to allow online play. Dreamcast was the top-selling game console until Sony launched its PlayStation 2 in 2000. Video Game Software As personal computers became more powerful and available, many games were developed specifically for this environment, as well as adaptations of arcade or home console games. CD-ROM technology enabled more personal computer games, but popular games were often developed for multiple platforms. Software also became more sophisticated as the hardware improved. While sports simulation, shooting, and maze games continued to be popular, additional themes appeared. Along with action and strategy, role playing became an important genre. In 1991, Street Fighter II, a one-on-one fighting game for arcades, introduced speedy, advanced controls and ultrasmooth animations. The violent Mortal Kombat (1992) created a new realism with its digitizing of actual actors. In 1993, Rand and Robyn Miller released the CD-ROM game Myst, which set a new standard for game graphics and generated a new genre of nonviolent adventure games for a single player. Myst and its sequels eventually sold over twelve million copies. The shooting game genre was reinvigorated with Id Software’s Doom in 1993. This extremely violent game utilized immersive, side-scrolling 3-D graphics to give the player the impression of actually running through tunnels, looking around corners, jumping, and so forth. This first-person shooter spawned many imitations. Another popular genre was the “God game,” invented by Peter Molyneux. In these games, the player directs the fate of characters from an omnipotent perspective. Will Wright’s SimCity (1989) was followed by SimCity 2000 (1993), and SimCity 3000 (1999). In SimCity, the player builds an entire urban environment and manages its evolution over time. A series of Sim games became best sellers.

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Role-playing games (RPGs) became popular again with the 1996 release of Diablo, an action RPG. The player guides a lone hero through sixteen dungeon levels to face the demon Diablo. In 1998, Baldur’s Gate, one of the greatest single-player RPG games ever, was released. This game revolves around a child who makes moral choices in battle and misfortune. First released in 1996 in Japan, Pokémon was Nintendo’s RPG series for the Game Boy. This game of capturing and training Pokémon (short for “pocket monsters”) creatures started a craze upon arrival in the United States in 1998. Finally, the maturation of the World Wide Web brought video games to the Internet. Although media elements were limited by bandwidth, game designers could distribute their work more freely than ever before. Variations of the early arcade games often reappeared in this new setting. In addition to downloadable games, some games could be played on the Web by utilizing plug-ins for Web

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browsers. The first commercially successful massive multiplayer online game was Ultima Online (1997), followed by Asheron’s Call and EverQuest in 1999. Impact In the 1990’s, video game hardware and software became more sophisticated, and video games became firmly established as a lucrative industry, with best sellers in various genres. The fifth generation (32- and 64-bit era) of game systems occurred and the sixth generation (128-bit) began. Nintendo’s Game Boy sold millions of units. In 1999, video game industry sales reached $6.9 billion in the United States. Although ubiquitous and profitable, video games caused concerns about their social and psychological effects. In 1993, in response to the ultraviolent Mortal Kombat and Night Trap (1992), the Senate launched an investigation. Consequently, the Entertainment Software Rating Board was established in

Players compete in a video game World Series at the Nintendo headquarters in Redmond, Washington, in 1994. (AP/Wide World Photos)

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1994 to provide ratings for games and warning labels for parents. Although there were questions concerning carpal tunnel syndrome, eye strain, social withdrawal, and the psychological impact of simulated violence, video game advocates pointed to the benefits of video gaming, including intellectual stimulation, reflex improvement, and cognitive development. Video games were also new venues of creative expression for visual artists, writers, and others. Subsequent Events The corporate wars and economic growth continued in the twenty-first century. In 2000, Sony’s PlayStation 2 was the first console to accommodate the newer DVD format and have better graphics than personal computers. Unable to compete with the Nintendo 64 and PlayStation 2, Sega discontinued selling hardware. In 2005, Microsoft released Xbox 360. In 2006, Sony released PlayStation 3, and Nintendo launched its Wii console, with a unique wireless remote controller permitting players’ physical gestures to control a game. In 2007, video game industry revenues approached $40 billion globally.

Video games

Chaplin, Heather, and Aaron Ruby. Smartbomb: The Quest for Art, Entertainment, and Big Bucks in the

899

Videogame Revolution. Chapel Hill, N.C.: Algonquin Books of Chapel Hill, 2005. An entertaining look inside the video game industry. Illustrated. Bibliography and index. DeMaria, Rusel, and Johnny Wilson. High Score! The Illustrated History of Electronic Games. New York: McGraw-Hill/Osborne, 2004. A comprehensive chronicle including behind-the-scenes photos and stories. Illustrated. Index. Kent, Steven. The Ultimate History of Video Games. New York: Three Rivers Press, 2001. A fascinating study, including hundreds of interviews and fun facts. Illustrated. King, Lucien, ed. Game On: The History and Culture of Videogames. New York: Universe, 2002. Essays on the social and psychological aspects of video games. Illustrated. Wolf, Mark J. P., ed. The Video Game Explosion: A History from Pong to PlayStation and Beyond. Westport, Conn.: Greenwood Press, 2008. A well-researched, thorough history. Illustrated. Bibliography and index. Alice Myers Apple Computer; Carpal tunnel syndrome; Computers; Digital audio; DVDs; Internet; Inventions; Jobs, Steve; Pokéman franchise; Toys and games; World Wide Web.

See also Further Reading

■

W ■ Waco siege Federal agents attempt to raid the Branch Davidian compound, and a fifty-one-day standoff ensues Date February 28-April 19, 1993 Place Waco, Texas The Event

The siege ended when the compound burned to the ground, resulting in seventy-six deaths. Subsequent congressional hearings were held questioning the motives, responsibility, and accountability of the federal agencies involved. The incident, along with events that occurred at Ruby Ridge, Idaho, was also intricately linked with the Oklahoma City bombing perpetrated by Timothy McVeigh on April 19, 1995. The Branch Davidians were a religious sect led by David Koresh that resided at a large compound in Waco, Texas. Koresh believed that he was the final disciple of Jesus Christ and was sent to Earth to spread the religious teachings of God. He also believed that it was his responsibility to prepare a group of armed individuals who represented a good and pure segment of society to do battle with an armed apostate. In order to accomplish this objective, Koresh and his followers stockpiled weapons that would be used in this “epic battle” between good and evil; there was also evidence that the Davidians had stockpiled weapons because they were involved in the sale of firearms as a method of keeping the compound operational. Koresh also believed that it was his responsibility to create this army of religious soldiers. Koresh taught his followers that he would need to have multiple sexual partners and bear multiple children with the women in the compound while the other men in the compound remained celibate. The Siege The Bureau of Alcohol, Tobacco, and Firearms (ATF) had long been investigating Koresh and the activities that were occurring at the Davidian compound. On February 28, 1993, the ATF attempted to implement a surprise raid of the compound to serve arrest and search warrants for vari-

ous offenses, including child abuse, statutory rape, and weapons charges. However, the Davidians were tipped off that a raid was coming and refused to allow ATF agents to enter the compound. A shoot-out ensued that resulted in the deaths of four federal agents and sixteen injuries. The Federal Bureau of Investigation (FBI) subsequently took over the investigation and negotiations at the compound. A fifty-one-day standoff between the Davidians and the federal government eventually ended when the compound burned to the ground on April 19, killing seventy-six Davidians, twenty-one of whom were children. The fire was started shortly after the federal government began pumping tear gas into the compound in an attempt to end the standoff. In July of 1995, the U.S. House of Representatives held congressional hearings on the events at Waco to determine what started and escalated the standoff. Testimony and evidence were presented suggesting that both the Davidians and federal agents shared responsibility for the eventual outcome. Evidence was presented suggesting that the Davidians were stockpiling weapons and that Koresh was having sexual relations with underage female occupants of the compound. Psychologist Bruce Duncan Perry studied twenty-one children who were released from the compound during the standoff and testified that the children had also been subjected to harsh corporal punishment and emotional abuse. However, evidence also emerged that implied that the federal government was, at worst, complicit in the events that started and escalated the standoff. At best, federal agents grossly mishandled the initial raid and the ensuing negotiations. Testimonial evidence was entered that the ATF was motivated to conduct the raid as a way of attaining positive press coverage of the agency after the Ruby Ridge debacle in 1992. In addition, testimony suggested that the ATF was informed by embedded undercover agents

The Aftermath

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within the compound that the Davidians had been tipped off about the raid, thus eliminating the element of surprise, but ordered the raid to proceed regardless. Testimonial and video evidence also suggested that the FBI unnecessarily engaged in behavior that served to agitate an already volatile situation and group of people in the compound, had been firing artillery into the compound despite official statements that this was not happening, and ignored expert psychological profiles and expert recommendations on how to best handle the situation. Allegations also surfaced suggesting that the FBI had been (either intentionally or negligently) responsible for starting the fire. Waco and the Oklahoma City Bombing On April 19, 1995, exactly two years after the Davidian compound burned to the ground, Timothy McVeigh, a decorated Army veteran who served in the Gulf War, detonated a car bomb at the Alfred P. Murrah Federal Building in Oklahoma City, Oklahoma. The explosion killed 168 people and injured hundreds of others in and around the building. The attack has re-

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mained the most deadly domestic terrorist attack perpetrated against Americans on American soil. McVeigh repeatedly claimed the bombing to be retaliation against the government for what he viewed as complicit actions by the ATF and FBI during the Ruby Ridge and Waco standoffs. Evidence of this motivation eventually surfaced when it was revealed that McVeigh had shown up in Waco during the standoff and made comments that were critical of the government’s actions. Impact The siege at Waco was a part of a domino effect that raised poignant questions about the behavior of federal law-enforcement agencies during the 1990’s. The decade was a time when the use of military tactics and techniques in domestic law enforcement was increasing exponentially. American society was faced with questions about how to balance the civil rights and liberties of fringe social groups against the right of law-enforcement agencies to proactively protect society from perceived threats. The events at Ruby Ridge and Waco also created an impetus for the federal government to revisit its pol-

Fire consumes the Branch Davidian compound in Waco, Texas, on April 19, 1993. (AP/Wide World Photos)

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Waco siege

The White House Backs Janet Reno On April 20, 1993, President Bill Clinton held a press conference to address the events that took place in Waco the day before. Before taking questions, he made a statement: On February the 28th, four federal agents were killed in the line of duty trying to enforce the law against the Branch Davidian compound, which had illegally stockpiled weaponry and ammunition, and placed innocent children at risk. Because the BATF operation had failed to meet its objective, a fifty-one-day standoff ensued. The Federal Bureau of Investigation then made every reasonable effort to bring this perilous situation to an end without bloodshed and further loss of life. The Bureau’s efforts were ultimately unavailing because the individual with whom they were dealing, David Koresh, was dangerous, irrational, and probably insane. He engaged in numerous activities which violated both federal law and common standards of decency. He was, moreover, responsible for the deaths and injuries which occurred during the action against the compound in February. Given his inclination towards violence and in an effort to protect his young hostages, no provocative actions were taken for more than seven weeks by federal agents against the compound. This weekend I was briefed by Attorney General Reno on an operation prepared by the FBI, designed to increase pressure on Koresh and persuade those in the compound to surrender peacefully. The plan included a decision to withhold the use of ammunition, even in the face of fire, and instead to use tear gas that would not cause permanent harm to health, but would, it was hoped, force the people in the compound to come outside and to surrender. I was informed of the plan to end the siege. I discussed it with Attorney General Reno. I asked the questions I thought it was appropriate for me to ask. I then told her to do what she thought was right, and I take full responsibility for the implementation of the decision. Yesterday’s action ended in a horrible human tragedy. Mr. Koresh’s response to the demands for his surrender by federal agents was to destroy himself and murder the children who were his captives, as well as all the other people who were there who did not survive. He killed those he controlled, and he bears ultimate responsibility for the carnage that ensued.

icy directives on how to best handle fringe social groups who operated under standards of belief that differed from mainstream society. Further Reading

Kraska, P. B., and V. E. Kappeler. “Militarizing American Police: The Rise and Normalization of Paramilitary Units.” Social Problems 44, no. 1 (February, 1997): 1-18. Traces the development of police paramilitary units (PPUs) and provides data from a survey of police departments about the use of PPUs. Reavis, Dick J. The Ashes of Waco: An Investigation. Syracuse, N.Y.: Syracuse University Press, 1998. An investigative journalist recounts the events at Waco, arguing that the federal government had little

reason to raid the compound, misled the public about the threat the Davidians presented and about events that transpired during the standoff, and was negligent in the fire that ultimately killed many members of the group. Thibodeau, David, and Leon Whiteson. A Place Called Waco: A Survivor’s Story. New York: PublicAffairs, 1999. Thibodeau, one of the few Branch Davidian survivors of the attack, offers a firstperson account of the siege. Kevin Buckler McVeigh, Timothy; Montana Freemen standoff; Oklahoma City bombing; Religion and spirituality in the United States; Reno, Janet; Ruby Ridge shoot-out; Terrorism.

See also

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■ Wallace, David Foster Identification American author Born February 21, 1962; Ithaca, New York Died September 12, 2008; Claremont, California

Wallace is best known for the critically acclaimed publication of his 1996 epic Infinite Jest, a complicated, layered parody of a future North America. David Foster Wallace defined postmodern writing for the 1990’s as he crafted difficult, hyperliterate, sprawling, multicharacter novels and short stories full of absurd and extreme situations. Characteristic elements seen in Wallace’s writing include juxtapositions of linguistic styles, such as colloquialisms and polysyllabic, esoteric language; textual elements more common to other “nonliterary” modes of writing, such as acronyms and extensive footnotes; and pervasive irony and satire. However, in all of Wallace’s work, there lurks hope of redemption, obscured as it may be. Infinite Jest, published in 1996, uses all these elements to tell a story that intertwines a family, the Incandenzas; a film titled Infinite Jest, which is so engrossing that viewers lose interest in everything except repeatedly watching the film; a tennis academy; and a halfway house, among other things. In a statement against corporatism and globalization, the novel’s future world depicts North America as a single state, the Organization of North American Nations (O.N.A.N.). Corporations purchase naming rights to each calendar year, with such years as “Year of the Trial-Size Dove Bar.” By way of a criticism of industrialization, the northeastern United States and southeastern Canada have become a massive hazardous-wastedumping site known as “The Great Concavity”/“The Great Convexity.” In the midst of all this, Infinite Jest explores the desires that unite all humanity. Wallace next published the short-story collection Brief Interviews with Hideous Men (1999), a challenging, fragmented text with such diverse subject matter as a young boy perched atop the diving board at a local pool; middle-aged men in uncomfortable sexual situations; and a certain desperate woman who narrates her pathologies in the discourse of therapy-speak. Wallace was born in Ithaca, New York, to two academics, Sally Foster Wallace and James Donald Wallace. James became tenured in 1968 at the University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign and Sally be-

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came a professor of English at Parkland College in Champaign. Wallace ranked as a junior tennis player as an adolescent, a theme that surfaces in Infinite Jest and others of his works. He attended Amherst College, as his father did, where he double-majored in English and philosophy and graduated in 1985, summa cum laude; he then earned a master of fine arts degree in creative writing from the University of Arizona, which he finished in 1987, and secured a position in the English Department at Illinois State University in 1992. He was awarded a MacArthur Foundation “genius grant” in 1997. Wallace relocated to Claremont, California, in 2002 to become the first Roy E. Disney Endowed Professor of Creative Writing and Professor of English at Pomona College. He committed suicide on September 12, 2008, at the age of forty-six.

David Foster Wallace reads his work at the 2002 New Yorker Magazine Festival. (Hulton Archive/Getty Images)

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Impact David Foster Wallace challenged conventions of fiction, mixing genres and modes to capture the essence of modern America through philosophy, science, humor, irony, and the absurd. Further Reading

Boswell, Marshall. Understanding David Foster Wallace. Columbia: University of South Carolina Press, 2003. Wallace, David Foster. Brief Interviews with Hideous Men. Boston: Little, Brown, 1999. _______. Infinite Jest. Boston: Little, Brown, 1996. Alan Haslam Literature in Canada; Literature in the United States; Tennis.

See also

■ Wal-Mart Identification Superstore chain Founder Sam Walton (1918-1992) Date Founded in 1962

Wal-Mart’s steady growth over the decades exploded in the 1990’s as it moved to become the world’s largest retail sales business. Walton’s “everyday low price” philosophy revolutionized the world of retail through his initially rurally-based chain of superstores that specialized in inexpensive commodities, in the process reshaping consumer behavior, transforming employment patterns, and producing America’s largest family fortune. In the 1990’s, Wal-Mart faced major challenges, which included dealing with founder Sam Walton’s death (in 1992, from bone cancer), financial problems, and the difficulties of expanding into international markets. Through the course of the decade, Wal-Mart with varying degrees of success brought the image of America—along with products from the developing world—to many other nations: Mexico (1991), Japan (1992), China, Brazil, and Canada (1994), Argentina (1995), Indonesia (1996), Germany (1997), and South Korea and the United

Kingdom (1999). It emerged by the end of the 1990’s as the world’s leading retailer. As it ambitiously expanded its goods and services, Wal-Mart became dominant and a model even for its competitors. Its economic power enabled it to reshape local communities, but critics accused it of “devouring” or even “destroying” America and saw the globalization of its practices as a threat to the world. Wal-Mart continued to keep its products comparatively cheap by aggressively controlling costs, but its ways of keeping its overhead down led to criticism of its labor and supply practices as exploitative, deceptive, and coercive, and this became part of the decade’s debate about the reasonableness of organizational restructuring and overseas outsourcing. Impact Detractors view Walton’s company as having led the trend of giant chain stores squeezing small businesses out of markets, imposing standardized consumer choices on the public, and making the American labor market more insecure. Supporters view Walton as a realist who understood the fundamental nature of business as constantly changing competition and who grasped earlier than others that consumers ultimately care most about convenience and low price: According to Michael

A protester in North Bennington, Vermont, holds a sign before the grand opening of the first Wal-Mart store in the state on September 19, 1995. To many critics of the retail chain, Wal-Mart is a threat to local businesses. (AP/Wide World Photos)

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Bergdahl in What I Learned from Sam Walton (2004), “If consumers were choosing Ye Olde Corner Bookshoppe over Wal-Mart, that bookshop would not be closing its doors.” To Walton’s admirers, such as Bergdahl, he was “the world’s greatest merchant” and possibly “the most influential business leader of the twentieth century.” To critics such as Bob Ortega, author of In Sam We Trust (1998), “Walton created a company and a corporate culture that mirrored his own nature, building an implacable, driven, and manipulative business that uses cutthroat tactics while operating behind a disarmingly folksy facade.” Both critics and admirers recognize “the Wal-Martization of the world” as a major legacy of the 1990’s to the new century. Further Reading

Bergdahl, Michael. What I Learned from Sam Walton: How to Compete and Thrive in a Wal-Mart World. Hoboken, N.J.: John Wiley & Sons, 2004. Govindarajan, Vijay, and Anil K. Gupta. The Quest for Global Dominance: Transforming Global Presence into Global Competitive Advantage. San Francisco: Jossey-Bass, 2001. Ortega, Bob. In Sam We Trust: The Untold Story of Sam Walton and How Wal-Mart Is Devouring America. New York: Times Books/Random House, 1998. Edward Johnson Business and the economy in the United States; China and the United States; Downsizing and restructuring; Employment in the United States; Income and wages in the United States; Minimum wage increases; North American Free Trade Agreement (NAFTA); Outsourcing.

See also

■ Washington, Denzel Identification American actor Born December 28, 1954; Mount Vernon, New

York During the 1990’s, Washington established himself as a versatile and skilled film star in roles not always defined by race. Trained at Fordham University and the American Conservatory Theater, Denzel Washington began his career as a stage actor. In the 1980’s, he devel-

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oped a broad fan base over six seasons (1982-1988) on the popular television hospital series St. Elsewhere. After receiving an Oscar for Best Supporting Actor for his memorable performance as a defiant slave in Glory (1989), Washington quickly moved into leading parts in independent films, then big-budget movies; by the mid-1990’s, he had become a Hollywood star. Over the decade, he appeared in eighteen films, demonstrating tremendous versatility in productions ranging from Shakespearean comedy, with Much Ado About Nothing (1993), to science fiction, with Virtuosity (1995). He was equally successful as a homophobic lawyer in the celebrated drama Philadelphia (1993), a playful angel in the comedy remake The Preacher’s Wife (1996), and a quadriplegic homicide detective in the mystery The Pelican Brief (1999). He frequently appeared (often in military or police uniform) in male-dominated thrillers, appealingly balancing his natural grace with a virile intensity. In three films—Mississippi Masala (1991), Devil in a Blue Dress (1995), and He Got Game (1998), each directed by a person of color (Mira Nair, Carl Franklin, and Spike Lee) on a relatively small budget—an overt sexuality was often withheld (following Washington’s wishes). Among many outstanding performances, two were exceptional: as Malcolm X (1992) and as the boxer Rubin Carter in The Hurricane (1999). The sense of justified rage that Washington often exudes found particular expression in his reenactments of the lives of these two famously mistreated men. Always meticulous in preparation, the actor brought a special dedication to the complex role of Malcolm X, with a resulting performance that stands as one of the great acting achievements of the decade. Impact The most honored African American actor of his generation, Denzel Washington is widely respected for the dignity and depth of his on-screen performances and the stability and generosity of his off-screen life. Subsequent Events In 2001, Washington became the second African American (following Sidney Poitier) to win an Oscar for Best Actor for his electrifying performance as a rogue cop in Training Day. He added producing and directing to his accomplishments with Antwone Fisher (2002) and The Great Debaters (2007), both based on real-life, unexpected achievements of African Americans. In 2006, the ac-

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pearing. Water quality continued to be a major environmental issue as the twentieth century drew to a close, with little progress since the late 1980’s. The Federal Water Pollution Control Act Amendments of 1972 (FWPCAA) were the basis for federal regulation of water quality in the 1990’s. Under the legislation, the Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) monitored six forms of pollution in surface water such as pH or suspended solids. The emphasis was on surface water, not groundwater, so the potential pollution of underground aquifers often received scant attention. The United States had made substantial progress in Denzel Washington holds his Oscar for Best Supporting Actor for his role in Glory at the previous decade in dealing with the 1990 Academy Awards. At his side is actor Geena Davis, who presented the award. what is known as point pollution— (AP/Wide World Photos) that is, pollution that comes from an identifiable source such as an outlet pipe. Nonpoint pollution—pollution with no identitor published A Hand to Guide Me, recollections of fiable source—remained a continuing problem. By the influence of mentoring in the lives of seventy 2000, nitrogen pollution in most watersheds was people, including himself. nonpoint pollution, primarily agricultural runoff Further Reading from fertilizers. Brode, Douglas. Denzel Washington: His Films and CaIndustrial pollution also remained a major probreer. Secaucus, N.J.: Carol, 1997. lem. The lower Mississippi River is the most polluted Guerrero, Ed. Framing Blackness: The African Amerimajor river in the United States. The 150-mile stretch can Image in Film. Philadelphia: Temple University of the river from Baton Rouge to New Orleans is Press, 1993. known as “Cancer Alley” because of the high inciCarolyn Anderson dence of several forms of cancer. Many industrial sites such as oil refineries and chemical plants are found See also Academy Awards; African Americans; along this stretch of the river, along with five hundred Farrakhan, Louis; Film in the United States; Indehazardous-waste sites. Although regulations had pendent films; Lee, Spike; Philadelphia; Race relatightened discharges from these plants, some chemitions. cal residue from petroleum, pesticides, plastics, synthetic fibers, and organic chemicals continued to enter water courses leading into the Mississippi. Nationwide, it was difficult to ascertain the level ■ Water pollution of water pollution in the 1990’s. The EPA monitored Definition Degradation of water quality by water quality in only 43 percent of lakes, 19 percent chemical, biological, or thermal agents of river mileage, and 36 percent of estuaries. State agencies provided some additional coverage, but The United States had made substantial progress in dealthe water quality of much of America’s surface water ing with traditional forms of water pollution by the 1990’s. remained unmonitored. No monitoring was done of However, the magnitude of this progress was difficult to underground aquifers, although many cities relied measure, as water quality was monitored much less than air on them for water, as did farmers for irrigation. quality. In addition, new forms of water pollution were ap-

The Nineties in America Sources of Water Pollution In spite of notorious industrial pollution along the Mississippi, the U.S. military was the major source of water pollution. The military was responsible for approximately onethird of all of the toxic waste in the United States, much of which affected water quality. Almost 10 percent of all military bases had contaminated areas on the Superfund list of highly toxic waste sites. The EPA, however, was forbidden to investigate or sue the military, so little was done about this source of pollution. Pollution included chemical residue, petroleum, explosives, organics, as well as rusting hardware. The chemical industry was second on the list of water polluters. Inorganic and organic compounds often leached into surface and subsurface water near chemical plants. In many cases, the toxicity of various synthetic compounds continued to be unknown. No one wanted to abandon the use of chemicals, but the standards for disposal of chemical waste remained hard to enforce in the 1990’s. The oil industry added to the impact of the chemical industry, from both drilling sites and refineries. Municipal waste, at least, had become less of a source of water pollution in the 1990’s, as most towns and cities had adequate wastewater disposal facilities, although some were overwhelmed at times by chemical waste streams from local industries. Approximately three-quarters of all municipal facilities provided at least secondary treatment for their wastewater by the 1990’s. Unfortunately, some small towns still did not have adequate facilities, and the facilities of some major cities continued to exceed capacity. Agriculture was becoming an increasingly important source of water pollution in the 1990’s. Runoff from fertilizer and insecticides and herbicides had always been a problem and continued to be a major source for nonpoint pollution for some pollutants such as nitrogen and dissolved solids. Factory farming became an important aspect of American agriculture in the 1990’s, as farm animal production increased by 25 percent from 1980 to 1997. Cattle feedlots and hog and poultry farms produced a large amount of organic waste from very small spaces. In 1997, the waste treatment pond for one corporate hog farm in eastern North Carolina over-

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flowed because of heavy rains. The runoff from the eight-acre lagoon flooded nearby cotton and tobacco fields and entered the New River, causing a ten million fish kill along a seventeen-mile stretch of the river. The contaminated water flowed into nearby wetlands, resulting in the closing of 364,000 acres to shell fishing for months. The EPA found it difficult to regulate these factory farms under existing legislation, and state regulations varied widely, but most states provided little regulation concerning water quality of these large animal facilities. Impact Issues of water pollution increasingly came to be connected to issues of water usage in the 1990’s. Americans were becoming aware that in spite of its apparent abundance in the United States, water was a commodity that could be exhausted in some areas. Environmental groups began to couple water usage and water pollution, indicating that water pollution decreased the availability of a finite resource. Water pollution remained a health and recreation issue during the decade, but it began to take on a larger significance as some Americans began to look toward the future. Further Reading

Blatt, Harvey. America’s Environmental Report Card: Are We Making the Grade? Cambridge, Mass.: MIT Press, 2005. Good coverage of water pollution issues in a broad context. Clean Water Network and Natural Resources Defense Council. America’s Animal Factories: How States Fail to Prevent Pollution from Livestock Waste. Washington, D.C.: Author, 1998. Impact of factory farming on water quality. Rogers, Peter. America’s Water: Federal Roles and Responsibilities. Cambridge, Mass.: MIT Press, 1999. Good analysis of the role of the federal government in ensuring water quality. Rosenbaum, Walter A. Environmental Politics and Policy. 7th ed. Washington, D.C.: CQ Press, 2008. Provides a broad political context for analysis of water pollution issues. John M. Theilmann See also Agriculture in the United States; Air pollution; Earth Day 1990; Earth in the Balance; Science and technology.

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■ WB television network Identification Network television station Date Aired 1995-2006

The WB competed with UPN to be the fifth television network during the 1990’s. The WB, founded by Time Warner, Tribune, and Jamie Kellner, capitalized on changing Federal Communications Commission (FCC) regulations concerning television ownership. Kellner, hoping to launch a network aimed at underrepresented audiences, encouraged station owners to join the WB by offering profit-sharing schemes, a television first. Originally designed to compete with UPN, the WB actually premiered earlier, on January 11, 1995, only offering programming on Wednesday nights. However, being available to 83 percent of American households made the WB network more accessible than UPN. Of the first six shows, all sitcoms, four were aimed at African Americans; three of these and one other were renewed. About nine months into the season, Sunday programming was added, but none of these shows survived. Also in 1995, the lucrative children’s programming block Kids’ WB was started, with Tiny Toon Adventures and Animaniacs. For the 1996-1997 season, Monday nights were included and the first major success, 7th Heaven, which would become the longest-running family drama, premiered, as did The Steve Harvey Show and The Jamie Foxx Show. The WB’s greatest success began on March 10, 1997, with Buffy the Vampire Slayer. An instant critical hit, it was also responsible for a 32 percent increase in teen viewers, male and female, leading to higher advertising revenues. This success was re-created beginning January 20, 1998, with the launch of Dawson’s Creek, which earned the highest ratings in WB history. Kellner’s ingenious marketing strategy worked once again in a deal that allowed Dawson’s Creek to use popular music in return for a commercial spot at the end of the show in lieu of paying full royalties. The show’s theme song, “I Don’t Want to Wait,” was a Warner Bros. property, increasing revenues for the parent company. Also in 1998, 7th Heaven achieved an 81 percent increase in viewership and Pokémon was added to Kid’s WB. Trying to appeal to the teenage girl audience who loved the strong Buffy character, Kellner ordered two new shows featuring powerful young

women as the leads, Felicity and Charmed, and began Thursday night broadcasting. In 1999-2000, adding Friday nights to its lineup with Roswell and Angel, the WB was the only network to gain viewers that year. In 2001, Gilmore Girls; Sabrina, the Teenage Witch; Smallville; and Everwood continued the WB’s success, which continued through 2003, when its slump began. It quit broadcasting on September 17, 2006, merging with UPN to become the CW. Impact The WB successfully targeted African American and teenage viewers. It also produced quality, well-written shows for the teenage demographic. Between 1995 and 2003 it syndicated more shows than any other network and jump-started the careers of many young Hollywood stars. In 2008, it created the first Internet network Web site, allowing free viewing of all WB shows. Further Reading

Daniels, Susanne, and Cynthia Littleton. Season Finale: The Unexpected Rise and Fall of the WB and UPN. New York: HarperCollins, 2007. Stepakoff, Jeffrey. Billion-Dollar Kiss: The Kiss That Saved “Dawson’s Creek” and Other Adventures in TV Writing. New York: Gotham Books, 2007. Leslie Neilan Ally McBeal ; Beverly Hills, 90210 ; Cable television; Children’s television; Pokémon franchise; Television; UPN television network.

See also

■ Wegman, William American painter, photographer, and video artist Born December 2, 1943; Holyoke, Massachusetts Identification

Although Wegman began his art career in the 1970’s painting and creating experimental, minimalist installation art, he later turned to photography and video art, and the public has since been drawn to his subsequent droll depictions of costumed dogs. William Wegman graduated from the Massachusetts College of Art in 1965 and earned his master of fine arts degree at the University of Illinois in 1967. For three years, he taught conceptual art and photography at the University of Wisconsin, and there he had an epiphany about graphic beauty during a photo

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shoot of some salami. At that point, he walked away from complicated installation art philosophy, moving to Los Angeles to “draw” by video camera. By pure chance, his Weimaraner dog Man Ray wandered into this pursuit, and that fortunate event was to focus much of Wegman’s career. Wegman took off with Man Ray to New York and began capturing the public’s attention with his work. Having earned him a Guggenheim Fellowship and a grant from the National Endowment for the Arts, Wegman’s vision picked up steam. Photographer William Wegman, flanked by his two Weimaraners in Portland, Maine, in 1996. (AP/Wide World Photos) By the mid-1970’s, galleries were offering him shows, and the comedy program Saturday Night Live played his video shorts. By the end of 1982, Wegman had Further Reading suffered the loss of both the dog and most of his Kunz, Martin, ed. William Wegman: Paintings, Drawwork in a fire, but he had also become beloved as a ings, Photographs, Videotapes. New York: Harry N. photographer. Unafraid of technology, he mastered Abrams, 1994. Polaroid’s large and complex 20" × 24" camera, the Wegman, William. 20 x 24. New York: Harry N. hallmark of his crisp work with future generations of Abrams, 2002. Weimaraners. Jan Hall During the 1980’s and 1990’s, detailed dog photos formed the basis for books (and spin-off calenSee also Art movements; Children’s television; Indars and such) for both children and adults, and dependent films; National Endowment for the Arts Wegman worked considerably with video during the (NEA); Photography. 1990’s. His art has been shown at museums around the world, including the Kunstmuseum, Centre Pompidou, Whitney Museum of American Art, ■ Weil, Andrew Hammer Museum, Smithsonian American Art Museum, Brooklyn Museum, and Addison Gallery of Identification American author, doctor, and American Art. Television programs such as The Toethnobotanist night Show Starring Johnny Carson and Sesame Street as Born June 8, 1942; Philadelphia, Pennsylvania well as the cable channel Nickelodeon have featured During the 1990’s, Weil became a leader and major spokesperhis videos—indicative of his appeal to both the son of the alternative medicine movement. His concept of inteyoung and grown-ups. grative medicine, explained in popular books written for genWegman has been married to Gayle Lewis (until eral audiences, became very influential during this period. 1978) and Laurie Jewell (until 1982), and he resides in Maine and New York, married to Christine BurAndrew Weil, known and respected in the alternagin. He has two children, Lola and Atlas. tive medicine community for his work on natural medicine and drugs in the 1970’s and 1980’s, began Impact Wegman’s sardonic portraits of Weimato reach much larger audiences in the 1990’s. After raners have delighted viewers while at the same time years of researching traditional medicines, he advoslipped in an ironic but gentle statement about cated the use of traditional and holistic approaches American culture. as complementary rather than oppositional to Western medicine, a field in which he has also qualified,

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having earned his medical degree from Harvard University in 1968. In Natural Health, Natural Medicine: A Comprehensive Manual for Wellness and Self-Care (1990), Weil combined practical general information with advice on specific remedies. He also invited readers to take responsibility for their own health rather than to rely on pills. Weil’s study of global medical traditions informed his approach. While continuing to write popular books for the general public, Weil continued to be active as a physician and researcher, publishing articles in scholarly journals such as the Journal of Ethnopharmacology and Ancient Mesoamerica. Although some doctors did not share his inclusiveness of certain non-Western and folk medical practices, he continued to earn the respect of his colleagues in the field as well as that of an expanding and enthusiastic group of readers. In 1996, Weil became the director of the Program in Integrative Medicine at the University of Arizona in Tucson. It trained physicians in the methods and applications of his philosophy of preventive medicine. In the second half of the decade, Weil became one of the early adopters of the World Wide Web for the dissemination of medical advice and also started a monthly publication, Dr. Andrew Weil’s Self-Healing. In 1997, Time magazine included Weil in its list of twenty-five most influential people in the United States, and he appeared on the covers of the May 12, 1997, and October 17, 2005, issues. Impact Weil’s philosophy of integrative medicine was the first truly global approach to the field, embracing the essential scientific value of the world’s medical traditions. Essentially, this approach utilizes holistic methods to preserve and maintain health over long periods of time and Western medicine for other functions, including situations when rapid intervention is required. Further Reading

Skow, John. My First Two Weeks on Dr. Weil’s Health Regimen. Time, May 12, 1997, 70. Weil, Andrew. Eight Weeks to Optimum Health: A Proven Program for Taking Full Advantage of Your Body’s Natural Healing Power. New York: Alfred A. Knopf, 1997. _______. Natural Health, Natural Medicine: A Comprehensive Manual for Wellness and Self-Care. 3d ed. Boston: Houghton Mifflin, 1998. Alice Myers

See also Antidepressants; Cancer research; Chopra, Deepak; Drug use; Food trends; Health care; Health care reform; Medicine.

■ Welfare reform U.S. president Bill Clinton signs the Personal Responsibility and Work Opportunity Reconciliation Act of 1996 Date August 22, 1996 The Event

The new welfare law embodied practical and philosophical shifts in the nation’s approach to economic assistance. The Personal Responsibility and Work Opportunity Reconciliation Act of 1996 (PRWORA) stopped open-ended federal funding of Aid to Families with Dependent Children (AFDC) and created Temporary Assistance for Needy Families (TANF), a timelimited program whose provisions also addressed teenage pregnancy, out-of-wedlock births and child rearing, and immigration. Title I: Block Grants, Mandatory Work States received a fixed amount of federal money each year in the form of block grants giving states discretion in how they spent it. In addition to job training, child care, and cash assistance, block grants were also to be used for promoting healthy marriages and responsible fatherhood. Charitable choice provisions allowed faith-based organizations to compete for public funding to provide social services. Families receiving federally funded assistance for five cumulative years (or less at state option) were no longer eligible for federally funded cash aid. States had to move increasing percentages of cash recipients into work, with penalties for not meeting specified rates. They could penalize participants for failure to comply with work-related requirements, which included subsidized or unsubsidized employment, on-the-job training, community service, up to six weeks of job search, and job skills training or education directly related to employment. To receive federal assistance, unmarried minor parents had to live with an adult or in an adultsupervised setting and to participate in educational and training activities. States could deny eligibility for medical assistance under the Medicaid program for adults terminated from TANF for failure to work.

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Children were deemed disabled and therefore eligible for Supplemental Security Income (SSI) if they had a medically determinable physical or mental impairment resulting in marked and severe functional limitations, expected to result in death or having lasted or being expected to last for at least twelve months. Maladaptive behavior was removed from the list of medical impairment criteria.

Title II: Supplemental Security Income

States were required to operate a Child Support Enforcement Program. TANF recipients were required to assign rights to child support and cooperate with paternity establishment records. A Federal Case Registry and National Directory of New Hires were established to track delinquent parents across state lines. Employers had to report all new hires to state agencies, and new hire information was to be transmitted to the National Directory.

Title III: Child Support

Most current and future legal immigrants were ineligible for SSI until citizenship. States were permitted to retain legal immigrants already enrolled in Medicaid, TANF block grants, Title XX social services, and state-funded assistance.

Title IV: Immigrants

Title V: Child Protection PRWORA authorized states to make foster care maintenance payments on behalf of children in for-profit institutions and required states to consider giving preference for kinship placements if relatives met state child protection standards.

The law authorized $13.6 billion in mandatory funding for child care for fiscal years 1997 to 2002. Single parents with children under six years old who could not find child care were not to be penalized for failure to engage in work activities.

Title VI: Child Care

Title VII: Child Nutrition Programs Individuals eligible for free public education benefits under state or local law were also eligible for school meal benefits under the National School Lunch Act and the Child Nutrition Act of 1966, regardless of citizenship or immigrant status. Title VIII: Food Stamps Most current and future legal immigrants were ineligible for food stamps until citizenship, except refugees and asylees for their first five years in the United States, veterans, and

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people with forty qualifying quarters of work. Nonexempt eighteen- to fifty-year-olds without responsibility for dependent children were ineligible to continue to receive food stamps after three months in a thirty-six-month period unless they were working or participating in workfare, work, or employment and training programs. Title IX: Miscellaneous Nothing in the law prohibited states from performing drug tests on recipients or from sanctioning recipients who test positive for controlled substances. Allocated funds enabled states to provide abstinence education with the option of targeting funds to high-risk groups such as those most likely to bear children out of wedlock. Impact Public assistance caseloads dramatically dropped after the law was passed. From an average of 4.1 million families per month in 1990 (7.9 million children, 11.7 million total recipients), the AFDC monthly caseload climbed to 4.8 million in 1995 (9.1 million children, 13.4 million total recipients). In 1999, the TANF average monthly caseload was 2.6 million families (5.1 million children, 7.2 million total recipients), a 45.8 percent decline in the number of families (a 44 percent decline in the number of children, and a 46.3 percent decline in the number of total recipients). Such percentage declines dwarfed the accompanying 5.4 percent (0.8 million people) decline in the percent of people in female-headed families whose pre-welfare incomes were below poverty between 1995 and 1997. Further, the average disposable income of the poorest 20 percent of single mothers fell by 7.6 percent between 1995 and 1997, while that of the poorest 10 percent fell by 15.2 percent. The employment rates of unmarried single mothers increased from 58.5 percent in March, 1994, to 62.9 percent in March, 1998, and economic wellbeing increased with the extent of work involvement, especially when other factors such as food stamps and the earned-income tax credit are taken into account. Child care and other work-related expenses such as transportation and clothes offset part of the economic gains associated with increased work effort among low-income single mothers. There were no immediate increases in homelessness or foster-care placement among recipients and their children.

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On February 8, 2006, President George W. Bush signed the Deficit Reduction Act of 2005 reauthorizing TANF through September, 2010.

Subsequent Events

Further Reading

Caputo, Richard K. “Working and Poor: A Study of Maturing Adults in the U.S.” Families in Society 88, no. 3 (July-September, 2007): 351-359. Shows that a majority of poor persons work and discusses the merits of poverty-reduction efforts aimed at enhancing the income of the working poor. Danziger, Sandra, Mary Corcoran, Sheldon Danziger, and Colleen Heflin. “Work, Income, and Marital Hardship After Welfare Reform.” Journal of Consumer Affairs 34, no. 1 (Summer, 2000): 6-30. Shows that increased work effort resulted in increased income but also that many TANF recipients nonetheless remained poor and faced other hardships. Mead, Lawrence M., and Christopher Beem, eds. Welfare Reform and Political Theory. New York: Russell Sage Foundation, 2005. Contributors discuss need, citizenship, virtue, responsibility, and exploitation in the light of welfare reform. Mink, Gwendolyn, and Rickie Solinger, eds. Welfare: A Documentary History of U.S. Policy and Politics. New York: New York University Press, 2003. Excerpts from key documents marking the development of U.S. welfare policy in the twentieth century. Richard K. Caputo See also Balanced Budget Act of 1997; Clinton, Bill; Employment in the United States; Health care reform; Illegal immigration; Income and wages in the United States; Marriage and divorce; Minimum wage increases; Poverty; Race relations; Social Security reform.

■ West Nile virus outbreak The first known cases of West Nile virus in North America are diagnosed Date August, 1999 Place New York City The Event

First identified in 1937 in Uganda, West Nile virus was unknown in the Western Hemisphere until 1999. Since then, the virus has spread across North America, Central

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America, and the Caribbean. West Nile virus is transmitted by the bite of infected mosquitoes and may result in encephalitis or meningitis. There is no specific treatment for the virus. West Nile virus was identified in North America in August, 1999. Previously, the disease was known only in North Africa, the Middle East, and portions of central Europe. During August, 1999, veterinarians at the Bronx Zoo in New York became worried when two dozen domestic and exotic birds began exhibiting erratic behaviors. At the same time in Queens, New York, several elderly patients contracted high fevers, headaches, muscle fatigue, and neurological symptoms that progressed into comas. Within days, neighboring hospitals admitted several more patients with similar symptoms. All the patients lived in the areas of Flushing Meadows-Corona Park, mosquito-infested marshy wetlands adjacent to Long Island Sound. Initial diagnoses suggested that the patients were suffering from St. Louis encephalitis, a mosquito-borne disease associated with the Ohio and Mississippi rivers. The city of New York immediately began a largescale aerial and ground mosquito-abatement campaign using the pesticide malathion and distributed 300,000 containers of DEET insect repellant to city employees. When the Bronx Zoo birds died, tissue samples were sent to the U.S. Department of Agriculture, the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC), and the U.S. Army germ laboratory at Fort Detrick, Maryland. The Army laboratory determined that the virus from the dead birds and infected humans was West Nile virus. During the same week, a mysterious disease infected eighteen horses on thirteen different farms around North Fork, Long Island. Ten horses died from the disease. When tests were performed on surviving horses in the area, 25 percent tested positive for West Nile virus. During late 1999, 270,000 equines were tested for West Nile virus in New York, Connecticut, and Maryland; none tested positive but those around North Fork: the bird and human outbreak of the virus occurred seventy-five miles farther west in New York City. There is no consensus on how West Nile virus found its way to North America. Theories about the virus’s arrival to New York include an infected mosquito, smuggled bird, or infected passenger arriving by airplane from the Middle East; a bird carrying the

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virus blown across the Atlantic Ocean by high storm winds; an accidental exposure from a U.S. government animal disease center and germ laboratory on Plum Island twenty miles east of North Fork; or an undetected bioterrorism attack. Facts About the Virus West Nile virus belongs to a group of disease-causing viruses known as flaviviruses. Flaviviruses are spread by insects, usually mosquitoes. Other diseases caused by flaviviruses include yellow fever, dengue fever, and St. Louis encephalitis. In most cases, humans infected with West Nile virus are asymptomatic. In a small percentage of cases, symptoms are more severe, including fever, body aches, swollen lymph glands, headaches, and skin rash. If West Nile virus crosses the bloodbrain barrier, the disease becomes life-threatening. A West Nile virus infection of the brain may result in encephalitis—inflammation of the brain—or meningitis—inflammation of the brain’s lining and the spinal cord. Severe symptoms usually occur in the elderly, young children, and those with compromised immune systems. Of the fifty-nine patients in New York City who suffered from encephalitis or meningitis caused by the virus, seven (12 percent) died. There are no antiviral drugs to treat West Nile virus and no vaccines to prevent infection. The first stage in the West Nile transmission cycle occurs when a female mosquito bites an infected bird. The virus circulates in the mosquito’s salivary glands and is transmitted to humans and other animals when the mosquito bites to take a blood meal. West Nile virus may also be spread via organ transplants, blood transfusions, and infected breast milk. More than one hundred species of birds in North America have been identified as being infected with West Nile virus, and while the vast majority of infections are in birds, the virus also maintains high infection rates in horses and has been isolated in bats, cats, chipmunks, squirrels, rabbits, and skunks. Impact The initial outbreak of West Nile virus in New York City resulted in hysteria. Chemical spraying for mosquitoes began on a massive scale despite health worries regarding pesticides. Eventually, more individuals would be admitted to area hospitals suffering from symptoms of pesticide poisoning than from West Nile virus. Towns instituted evening curfews on outdoor activities. Parents were warned to keep children indoors to avoid the chance of a mosquito bite. Safety warnings were issued regard-

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ing mosquito avoidance to people working outdoors, campers, hunters, and anyone living near areas of standing water. Alerts were issued for people who found dead birds to report the finds to local health agencies for removal and testing. When it was found that West Nile virus could spread via blood transfusion, the American Red Cross initiated new standards for blood testing. As the vector for West Nile virus arriving in North America is unknown, worries regarding threats of bioterrorism increased. The spread of West Nile virus began to be constantly monitored along routes of migrating birds. In addition, warmer climatic conditions resulting from global climate change are expanding the range of mosquito populations, bringing the threat of West Nile virus to new environments. As the virus appears in environments harboring year-round mosquito populations, conditions for a potential severe epidemic increase. By 2003, all but a handful of states had reported human cases of the virus. In 2007, there were 3,623 cases and 124 West Nilerelated deaths reported to the CDC, a significant drop from 2002, when 4,156 cases and 284 fatalities were reported.

Subsequent Events

Further Reading

Lashley, Felissa R., and Jerry D. Durham, eds. Emerging Infectious Diseases: Trends and Issues. New York: Springer, 2002. An engaging account of the 1999 outbreak of West Nile virus in New York City. Lee, M. C. West Nile Virus: Overview and Abstracts. New York: Nova Science, 2003. An extensive collection of abstracts and references on West Nile virus research. Levy, Elinor, and Mark Fischetti. The New Killer Diseases: How the Alarming Evolution of Mutant Germs Threatens Us All. New York: Crown, 2003. Contains a detailed account of the original investigations into the 1999 outbreak of West Nile virus. White, Dennis J., and Dale L. Morse, eds. West Nile Virus: Detection, Surveillance, and Control. Annals of The New York Academy of Sciences. New York: New York Academy of Sciences, 2001. A good resource book covering the disease’s history and epidemiology. Randall L. Milstein See also Earth in the Balance ; Global warming debate; Health care; Medicine; Terrorism.

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■ Where’s Waldo? franchise Children’s hide-and-find book series based on a character known as Waldo Author Martin Handford (1956) Date First published in 1987 Identification

Where’s Waldo? began a fad in children’s literature for hide-and-find-type literature and expanded throughout the 1990’s to become a popular culture phenomenon.

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able resource for children who have problems focusing on details. The series has assisted children with autism, attention-deficit disorder, and other illnesses that cause attention and concentration problems in children. The American Library Association listed Where’s Waldo? among the one hundred most frequently banned books between 1990 and 2000. One image in Where’s Waldo? showed a woman sunbathing without a top, exposing her breasts. Parents and school administrators objected to this portrayal of nudity and banned the book.

First published in Britain as Where’s Wally?, the series was renamed Where’s Waldo? for publication in the United States and Canada. Featuring Waldo, a charImpact Where’s Waldo? influenced many children acter with a red-and-white striped shirt and bobble growing up in the 1990’s, teaching attention to dehat and accessorized with a walking stick and glasses, tail as well as some historical and geographic inforthe book placed Waldo in a large picture and chalmation in the guise of a hide-and-seek book. lenged children to attempt to find Waldo in the picture; in some cases, finding Waldo was more difficult, especially in one notable picture where Waldo Further Reading was only identifiable by a missing shoe. Waldo also American Library Association. Www. ala.org. loses a number of his possessions throughout the Handford, Martin. Where’s Waldo? Boston: Little, books, and children are encouraged to find those Brown, 1987. items in the pictures as well. Emily Carroll Shearer Waldo was accompanied in later books by other characters; Martin Handford added Waldo’s friend See also Children’s literature; Children’s televiWenda, nemesis Odlaw, and dog Woof. The series sion; Literature in the United States. expanded throughout the 1990’s to include a number of books, one with poster prints of former pictures, and one with other activities. In 1991, thirteen episodes of a television show based on Where’s Waldo? were produced and aired by the Columbia Broadcasting System (CBS). The show was half an hour long and sent Waldo on adventures that often caused him to come into contact with Odlaw, who regularly attempted to steal Waldo’s magic stick. In an effort to also connect the television series with the books, each episode featured two snapshots that lasted a minute long and allowed children to hunt for Waldo in the still frame. This animated series lasted only one season. The Where’s Waldo? series has had Waldo travel across the world, through Hollywood, through history, as well as through a number of fantastic locations. The Where’s Waldo? books have been Martin Handford, author of the Where’s Waldo? book series, searches for Waldo at a bus stop in London. (Hulton Archive/Getty Images) widely regarded by educators as a valu-

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■ White House attacks A man crashes a plane into the White House, and another fires a gun at the White House Date September 12 and October 29, 1994 Place Washington, D.C. The Event

These were the first attacks against a president since 1981, when Ronald Reagan was shot by John Hinckley, Jr. The attacks also raised significant questions regarding White House security measures. On Monday, September 12, 1994, a Cessna P150 crashed into the lawn of the White House, just south of the building. The previous evening, the pilot, Frank Eugene Corder, spent time with his brother smoking crack cocaine and drinking. Corder’s brother then dropped him off near Aldino Airport in Maryland. Corder proceeded to steal the Cessna P150, in which he had previously taken a few flying lessons, though he was not a licensed pilot. He first flew north into Pennsylvania but was later picked up by the National Airport tower heading south. Corder entered the prohibited airspace that surrounds the White House at approximately 1:48 a.m. He then began a sharp descent toward the White House. Corder crashed into the lawn at 1:49 a.m. The airplane slid across the ground and struck the southwest corner of the White House. Corder was killed, but no one else was injured. The First Family was not present in the White House at the time. There is no evidence that Corder was attempting to assassinate President Bill Clinton. Instead, it seems likely that he wanted to kill himself. On Saturday, October 29, 1994, Francisco Martin Duran stood on Pennsylvania Avenue in front of the White House in a trench coat. At approximately 2:55 p.m., he pulled an SKS semiautomatic rifle from underneath his coat. He put the barrel of the rifle through the fence and fired multiple rounds at the White House. Duran then withdrew the rifle and began to run east, firing his SKS through the fence as he ran. When Duran paused to reload his weapon, a tourist, Harry Michael Rakosky, tackled him. Two other tourists then helped Rakosky subdue Duran until the Secret Service took him into custody. President Clinton was watching television at the time, and the Secret Service took immediate steps to protect him. At no point was the president in danger of being hit by any of the rounds fired. At least twenty-

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nine rounds were fired at the White House, but no one was injured. Impact Immediately following the Cessna crash, the Treasury was told to conduct an in-depth study and submit recommendations to enhance security. Once Duran’s attack occurred, that was also added to the inquiry. A few other instances of attacks committed by unknown perpetrators were also investigated. Ultimately, both of these attacks contributed to the closing of Pennsylvania Avenue to tourists. Further Reading

Clarke, James W., and Seth Lucente. “Getting Even: Some Observations on President Clinton’s WouldBe Assassin, Francisco Martin Duran.” British Journal of Political Science 33, no. 1 (January, 2003): 129-162. Hoffman, Bruce, Peter Chalk, with Timothy E. Liston and David W. Brannan. Security in the Nation’s Capital and the Closure of Pennsylvania Avenue: An Assessment. Santa Monica, Calif.: RAND, 2002. Michael W. Cheek See also

Clinton, Bill; Crime; Gun control; Ter-

rorism.

■ Whitewater investigation An alleged real estate and financial scandal against President Bill Clinton and his wife, Hillary

Identification

The Whitewater investigation is sometimes used as a broad phrase to summarize all of the scandals that dogged the Clinton presidency, and it is perhaps the best known of the Clinton scandals except for the Lewinsky affair. While it is true that the entire investigation lasted throughout Clinton’s presidency, it is really a number of smaller interlocking investigations, nearly all of which turned out to be without any foundation in fact. The Whitewater investigation was a U.S. political controversy based initially on a real estate investment Bill and Hillary Rodham Clinton made during the 1970’s with James and Susan McDougal in the Whitewater Development Corporation while Bill Clinton was governor of Arkansas. Jim McDougal approached the Clintons with a proposal to join he and his wife to buy 230 acres of undeveloped land along the south bank of the White River in Arkan-

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Whitewater independent counsel Kenneth Starr speaks at a news conference on February 21, 1997, in Washington, D.C. His investigation began with Whitewater and expanded to the Monica Lewinsky scandal. (AP/Wide World Photos)

sas’s Ozark Mountains. The four borrowed about $200,000 to buy the land and transferred ownership to the Whitewater Development Corporation. By the time the lots were prepared for sale in late 1979, interest rates had reached 20 percent and most prospective buyers could not afford to buy such lots. Rather than take an immediate loss, the owners decided to build a model home and wait for more favorable market conditions. Over the next few years, James McDougal asked the Clintons for various payments for interest and other expenses that the Clintons did not question as passive partners. In the end, it is incontrovertible that the Clintons lost tens of thousands of dollars on their Whitewater investment. Subsequently, McDougal bought Madison Guaranty Savings and Loan and engaged in some questionable transactions, which resulted in the collapse of the institution and McDougal’s subsequent conviction on federal charges associated with those

transactions. The Resolution Trust Corporation’s law firm’s federal investigation into the Madison institution’s collapse found no wrongdoing on the part of the Clintons. Nonetheless, Attorney General Janet Reno appointed special prosecutor Robert Fiske to investigation the Whitewater matter. During his tenure, he was unable to find any wrongdoing during his investigation. In August, 1994, a panel of three federal judges appointed Kenneth Starr as an independent counsel under the Independent Counsel Reauthorization Act of 1994. Charges of hostile partisanship on the part of the panel and the independent counsel abounded but did not deter the aggressive prosecution by Starr, who carried the so-called Whitewater investigations into a wide variety of alleged wrongdoing on the part of the Clintons that were labeled Travelgate, Filegate, Vince Fostergate, Troopergate, and finally the Monica Lewinsky scandal. None of these investigations produced any evidence of wrongdoing on the part of the Clintons except for the Lewinsky matter, which was featured prominently in the Starr Report to Congress on the Whitewater investigation and resulted in the perjury and obstruction of justice charges that were the subject of the Clinton impeachment effort. After the impeachment effort failed to produce a conviction, Starr resigned as independent counsel. His replacement issued a final report stating that there was no evidence suitable for indictment in any aspect of the Whitewater investigation. Impact The Whitewater investigation and the other politically motivated allegations consumed a great deal of media attention during the Clinton years. Nearly all allegations were determined to be false. The politically charged atmosphere of the Clinton years undoubtedly limited the time President Clinton could devote to national problems and may have significantly limited his ability to make needed changes in national policy. Further Reading

Brock, David. Blinded By the Right: The Conscience of an Ex-Conservative. New York: Three Rivers Press, 2003. Brock, as a reporter for the American Spectator, triggered the events that led to Bill Clinton’s impeachment trial. Brock was a crucial actor in the “Arkansas Project” that attempted to find any allegation, true or not, with which to smear the Clintons until he became convinced that the

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cause he was espousing was essentially based on That Nearly Brought Down a President. New York: Silies. In this book, Brock exposes effectively the mon & Schuster, 2000. Toobin’s book is well repoisonous political climate that Republican politsearched, analytical, ably written, and offers fresh ical activists, the right-wing press, and wellinsights to the scandals associated with the endowed “think tanks” created, giving support to Clinton presidency. Hillary Clinton’s assertion that she and her husRichard L. Wilson band were targeted by a right-wing conspiracy. Clinton, Bill. My Life. New York: Alfred A. Knopf, See also Clinton, Bill; Clinton, Hillary Rodham; 2004. Clinton’s skill as a communicator comes Clinton’s impeachment; Clinton’s scandals; Culture through clearly in making his autobiography one wars; Elections in the United States, 1996; Gore, Al; of the all-time great presidential autobiographies Lewinsky scandal; Morris, Dick; Reno, Janet; Rightcontaining many valuable insights, despite being wing conspiracy; Scandals; Starr Report; Troopera self-serving document. gate. Clinton, Hillary Rodham. Living History. New York: Simon & Schuster, 2003. Clinton’s autobiography, while not quite as engaging as her husband’s, ■ Whitman, Christine Todd is still filled with valuable insights into the scandals that rocked the Clinton administration. Identification Governor of New Jersey, 1994-2001 Gergen, Michael. Eyewitness to Power: The Essence of Born September 26, 1946; New York, New York Leadership: Nixon to Clinton. New York: Simon & A pioneer female politician, Whitman was a forerunner of Schuster, 2000. A sometime adviser to a number the Republican congressional victories of 1994 and a major of recent U.S. presidents, Gergen combines his figure in her wing of the party. personal access with penetrating analysis of Bill Clinton and the politics and scandals of his era. Christine Todd Whitman came from a wealthy ReMaraniss, David. First in His Class: A Biography of Bill publican family and had been a minor New Jersey ofClinton. New York: Simon & Schuster, 1995. ficial when she ran against incumbent senator Bill Maraniss is a Pulitzer-prize winning Washington Bradley in 1990. Aided by a popular revolt against Post reporter who has written a biography analyztax hikes by Governor James Florio, she nearly won ing Clinton’s talents and flaws. (one of the surprises of election night that year), Morris, Dick. Behind the Oval Office: Winning the Presiand Republicans took complete control of the state dency in the Nineties. New York: Random House, 1997. As a pollster and political analyst for Clinton as governor and as president, Morris was in Clinton’s inner circle and acutely aware of many of the details of the Clinton scandals, which he shares in his critical but useful book. Stephanopoulos, George. All Too Human: A Political Education. Boston: Little, Brown, 1999. As a former White House aide, Stephanopoulos had access to the Clinton inner circle, which he used to paint a sincere, but sometimes unflattering, portrait of both Bill and Hillary Clinton. Toobin, Jeffrey. A Vast Conspiracy: Christine Todd Whitman raises arms in victory after defeating Jim Florio in the goverThe Real Story of the Sex Scandal nor’s race, 1993. (Hulton Archive/Getty Images)

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legislature a year later. In 1993, Whitman won a seriously contested primary for governor. In the general election, Florio led early with a very negative, classbased campaign, but Whitman regained momentum by emphasizing a 30 percent tax cut and eventually won narrowly. Her victory was marred by a small scandal when campaign consultant Ed Rollins claimed he paid black preachers not to urge their members to vote. He soon retracted the statement, and nothing ultimately came of it because of a total lack of supporting evidence. In office, Whitman promptly put through her tax cuts. On crime, she set up boot camps for juvenile offenders, signed the first Megan’s Law requiring that local officials be informed of released sex criminals in their cities and counties, and signed a bill mandating life sentences for violent criminals convicted a third time, but also acted against racial profiling. She put through welfare reforms, increased environmental protection, and privatized prison medical care. She supported charter schools and stricter school curriculum standards, but also had to deal with a state court mandate to increase education spending for poor districts. She vetoed a ban on partial-birth abortions on the grounds that it allowed no exception for protecting the mother’s life, but the state legislature overturned it. She delivered the Republican answer to President Bill Clinton’s state of the union address in 1995. In 1997, she faced Jim McGreevey, her eventual 2001 successor, who ran against high auto insurance bills, high property taxes, and excessive borrowing (blaming the latter two on the tax cuts). The Libertarian Party ran a pro-life campaign, appealing to many social conservatives, and ultimately drew 5 percent of the vote as Whitman narrowly defeated McGreevey. Her support fell in a number of Republican counties that had seen high property tax hikes. She responded by pushing property-tax rebates and auto insurance rate cuts, as well as electricity deregulation. Her appointees helped tilt the state Supreme Court leftward on the issue of homosexuality, where it ruled in favor of lesbian visitation rights and against the Boy Scouts regarding the organization’s ban on gay scoutmasters. Impact Whitman’s election as the first female governor of New Jersey was an early indicator of the Republican victories in 1994. She also was a major figure in the economically conservative but socially

and environmentally liberal wing of the Republican Party, which eventually (in 2001) led her to national office as head of the Environmental Protection Agency. Further Reading

Barone, Michael, and Grant Ujifusa. “New Jersey.” In The Almanac of American Politics 1996. Washington, D.C.: National Journal, 1995. Whitman, Christine Todd. It’s My Party Too. New York: Penguin Press, 2005. Timothy Lane Abortion; Crime; Elections in the United States, midterm; Homosexuality and gay rights; Race relations; Republican Revolution; Welfare reform.

See also

■ Wigand, Jeffrey Identification Tobacco industry whistle-blower Born December 17, 1942; New York, New York

Wigand, a tobacco industry executive, exposed wrongdoing by his employer, tobacco giant Brown and Williamson. His deposition against major American tobacco companies led to a massive settlement between the industry and attorneys general in the United States. Jeffrey Wigand, a Ph.D biochemist, was at the height of his career in 1989 as the research chief at Brown and Williamson, a multibillion-dollar tobacco company owned by British American Tobacco Industries (BAT). Wigand’s troubles at Brown and Williamson began in 1991 after he received his job evaluation, which stated that he “had difficulty in communicating.” This so-called communication difficulty was in reality connected to questions he had raised with Brown and Williamson’s chief executive officer about research studies that pointed to the dangers of smoking. In late 1992, Wigand learned that there was a causal relationship between coumarin, a toxic chemical, and cancer in lab animals. He had difficulty accepting the use of coumarin as an additive in cigarettes. When he registered his complaint, he was told by management that removing coumarin from cigarettes would result in the loss of revenue for the company. In March, 1993, Brown and Williamson terminated Wigand’s employment but provided medical benefits as part of a severance package. A

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few months later, the tobacco firm sued Wigand for “breach of contract” for discussing the terms of his severance with a colleague. Threatening to withdraw Wigand’s family medical benefits, the company pressured him to sign a more restrictive confidentiality agreement. In early 1994, Wigand served as a consultant to Columbia Broadcasting System’s (CBS) 60 Minutes analyzing documents about Philip Morris’s “firesafe” cigarette program. The relationship that developed between CBS and Wigand would lead to a 60 Minutes segment in February, 1996, about the tobacco industry and its alleged manipulation of nicotine levels in cigarettes as well as its research into nicotine addiction. In 1995, Wigand accepted a position at duPont Manual High School in Louisville, Kentucky, teaching chemistry and Japanese. Brown and Williamson filed a lawsuit against Wigand in 1996, and the company attempted a smear campaign against him with the publication of a five-hundred-page dossier about his personal life. The Wall Street Journal reviewed the dossier and refuted many of the allegations, listing them as providing only “scant or contradictory evidence.” In June, 1997, Brown and Williamson’s lawsuit against Wigand was dismissed as a result of more than $360 billion in settlements between the tobacco industry and attorneys general in forty states. In 1999, Hollywood released the motion picture The Insider, starring Russell Crowe and Al Pacino and based on Wigand’s exposé of the tobacco industry during his appearance on 60 Minutes.

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Page Dossier Attacking Chief Critic.” The Wall Street Journal, February 1, 1996, p. A1. Joseph C. Santora See also

Nicotine patch; Tobacco industry settle-

ment.

■ Wilder, L. Douglas Identification Governor of Virginia, 1990-1994 Born January 17, 1931; Richmond, Virginia

Wilder, inaugurated in Richmond, Virginia, on January 13, 1990, as the nation’s first elected African American state governor, was to preside over a controversial administration, make abortive bids for the presidency and the U.S. Senate, and go on to be an enigmatic and often unsettling factor on the Virginia political scene. L. Douglas Wilder, who had been born and reared in Richmond during an era of racial segregation, was sworn in as Virginia’s governor on the basis of a narrow electoral victory on November 7, 1989. Though much was made of Wilder’s African American heritage, he had in fact run as a moderate Democrat with a strong anticrime focus. He proceeded to navigate this course during his administration, often angering liberal elements within his own party. Wilder’s gubernatorial term was marked by a budget shortfall, followed by state employee layoffs

Impact Wigand’s courage to blow the whistle on the tobacco industry cost him his job and led to death threats against him and his family. As a result of his courageous testimony, he helped the public become keenly aware of the hazards of smoking and helped win a historic lawsuit against the tobacco industry. Further Reading

Brenner, Marie. “The Man Who Knew Too Much.” Vanity Fair, May, 1996, 170-192. Hwang, Suein L., and Milo Geyelin. “Getting Personal: Brown and Williamson Has Five-Hundred-

L. Douglas Wilder is sworn in as the governor of Virginia on January 13, 1990, becoming the first elected black governor of the United States. (AP/Wide World Photos)

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and monetary cutbacks, including drastic curtailing of expenditures in higher education. The most significant piece of legislation passed during his administration was a more stringent gun control law, which Wilder credited with having reduced the crime rate. The governor was at times a combative individual. His most serious feud was with Democratic senator Chuck Robb. Wilder made a run for the Democratic nomination for president in 1992—a move that led to widespread criticism that he was neglecting public affairs in Virginia. Presenting himself as the “grandson of slaves” and pushing an anti-tax-increase agenda, Wilder failed to ignite the enthusiasm that he had banked on and was projected to finish close to last in the New Hampshire primary. He accordingly withdrew in January, 1992. After leaving office in 1994, he again quarreled with Robb, entering the 1994 Senate race as an Independent against his rival. In September, 1994, Wilder withdrew from the race and in October conferred with President Bill Clinton—a meeting that some believe motivated Wilder to endorse Robb over Republican Party candidate Oliver North. In 1995, Wilder took a position as distinguished adjunct professor at Virginia Commonwealth University’s Center for Public Policy (later renamed the L. Douglas Wilder School of Government and Public Affairs). In 1998, Wilder was selected by the board of trustees of his alma mater, Virginia Union University, as its president. However, four days before he was to take office, he abruptly withdrew his acceptance of the position when a dispute suddenly erupted between him and board members over the retention of administrative personnel. From 1996 and throughout the rest of the decade, Wilder proactively fostered his own pet project of establishing a national slavery museum. Impact As a trailblazer, Wilder was regarded as a possible model for aspiring African American politicians. However, the ineffectiveness of his presidential campaign and his prickly relationship to certain colleagues hindered any further ambitions he might have had. Further Reading

Germond, Jack W., and Jules Witcover. Mad as Hell: Revolt at the Ballot Box, 1992. New York: Warner Books, 1993.

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Jeffries, J. L. Virginia’s Native Son: The Election and Administration of Governor L. Douglas Wilder. West Lafayette, Ind.: Purdue University Press, 2000. Raymond Pierre Hylton See also African Americans; Barry, Marion; Conservatism in U.S. politics; Crime; Dinkins, David; Elections in the United States, 1992; Liberalism in U.S. politics; Race relations.

■ Will and Grace Identification Television comedy series Creators David Kohan (1964) and Max

Mutchnick (1965) Aired from September 21, 1998 to May 18, 2006

Date

This series was one of the first to feature homosexual lead characters. It used quick wit and a sharp sense of humor to depict the lives of gay men as well as the platonic relationship between a man and a woman. Although the National Broadcasting Company (NBC) was initially hesitant to air a television show in which the title characters included a gay male lawyer, Will Truman (Eric McCormack), and a straight Jewish female interior designer, Grace Adler (Debra Messing), the network took that risk, and a groundbreaking sitcom was born. The show was popular from the beginning and was one of television’s highest-rated comedies throughout its eight seasons. Over those eight years, the series was nominated for eighty-three Emmys and won sixteen. For its first four years, it was the second-highest-rated sitcom, never quite reaching the popularity of Friends. Furthermore, Will and Grace was popular within the gay community and won numerous Gay and Lesbian Alliance Against Defamation (GLAAD) Media Awards. Nevertheless, some critics of the series claimed that the show reinforced, rather than subverted, stereotypes of homosexuals. Based in New York City, Will and Grace explores the daily lives of the title characters in their work, recreation, and relationships. From the moment when Will first realizes he is gay and comes out of the closet to the moment that Grace gets married, the bond between the two never falters. Also included in many of their adventures are Will’s flamboyantly gay friend Jack McFarland (Sean Hayes), who loves the-

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ater, cabaret, singing, dancing, and short-term relationships, and Grace’s personal assistant at her interior design studio, Karen Walker (Megan Mullally), a wealthy socialite who is fond of alcohol, prescription medication, and marrying rich men. Will and Grace featured appearances by a number of famous guest stars, including Cher, Elton John, Matt Damon, Woody Harrelson, Harry Connick, Jr., Rosie O’Donnell, Glenn Close, Gene Wilder, Kevin Bacon, Ellen DeGeneres, Patrick Dempsey, Sydney Pollack, Debbie Reynolds, Barry Manilow, and Michael Douglas. Impact Will and Grace demonstrated the acceptability of homosexuality and paved the way for other gay-themed shows. Its sharp writing and superb cast helped to make it one of the most successful sitcoms of the 1990’s. Further Reading

Colucci, Jim. Will and Grace: Fabulously Uncensored. New York: Time Home Entertainment, 2004. Tropiano, Stephen. The Prime Time Closet: A History of Gays and Lesbians on TV. New York: Applause Theatre and Cinema Books, 2002. Kathryn A. Cochran See also Friends; DeGeneres, Ellen; Homosexuality and gay rights; Television; Transgender community.

■ Winfrey, Oprah Television talk-show host and philanthropist Born January 29, 1954; Kosciusko, Mississippi Identification

Winfrey has inspired her fans through her talk show, magazine, cable network, and philanthropy. Oprah Winfrey was born in rural Mississippi and raised by her grandmother. Winfrey moved to Milwaukee to be with her mother but soon ran away from her abusive and dysfunctional home life. Her mother sent Winfrey to live with her father in Nashville, where she earned a scholarship to Tennessee State University. During college, Winfrey worked at radio and television stations and, after graduating, became Nashville’s WLAC-TV’s youngest and first African American news anchor. She cohosted the news in Baltimore and later in Chicago, where she

Oprah Winfrey in 1996. (AP/Wide World Photos)

also cohosted the morning talk show AM Chicago, transforming it to a top-rated show within six months and overtaking Donahue. Her show was renamed The Oprah Winfrey Show in 1984 and nationally syndicated in 1986. The popularity of The Oprah Winfrey Show continued to grow into the 1990’s. Its triumph was due to Winfrey’s ability to connect with her audience on a personal level. She could discuss sensitive topics such as sexual preference, AIDS, and other personal subjects deemed taboo. At the same time, she offered reassurance to her audience and both dignity and a voice to her guests. She showed genuine concern and interest in her guests as she questioned them tenderly and often cried alongside them, sharing her history of sexual abuse, weight battles, and other personal struggles. Her ability to highlight ordinary people who had done or survived extraordinary acts, coupled with her compassion and willingness to share her own stories, set The Oprah Winfrey Show apart from other talk shows.

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By the 1990’s, Winfrey owned her own production company, Harpo Productions, which produced a talk show that aired in more than one hundred countries. During the decade, Winfrey was also noted for her charity and ability to inspire generous acts from others. In 1998, she began the Angel Network, encouraging average people and organizations to make a difference in the lives of the underprivileged. She personally paid all of the administrative costs to ensure that all donations went to those in need. Impact Oprah Winfrey’s influence on her audience has been termed the “Oprah effect.” Appearing on the show can launch a person’s career, and Oprah’s Book Club, which premiered in 1996, consistently placed its authors on the best-seller lists. In 2000, Winfrey began publishing O, The Oprah Magazine. Further Reading

Garson, Helen S. Oprah Winfrey: A Biography. Westport, Conn.: Greenwood Press, 2004. An exploration of the life and celebrity of Oprah Winfrey. Harris, Jennifer, and Elwood Watson, eds. The Oprah Phenomenon. Lexington: University Press of Kentucky, 2007. A look into Oprah’s influence on society. Nelson, Marcia Z. The Gospel According to Oprah. Louisville, Ky.: Westminster John Knox Press, 2005. An examination of Oprah’s belief system. Sara Vidar

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In the early 1990’s, Paul Wolfowitz worked as the U.S. undersecretary of defense for policy under U.S. secretary of defense Dick Cheney in the administration of President George H. W. Bush (1989-1993). In his role as the undersecretary, Wolfowitz focused his attention on arms control, the Middle East, and the Persian Gulf. He played a key role as one of the major strategists of the Persian Gulf War. In late 1992, Wolfowitz left government service. In January, 1993, Wolfowitz joined the faculty at National Defense University (NDU) in Washington, D.C., as the George F. Kennan Professor of National Security Strategy. Through his academic perch, Wolfowitz articulated that the United States, as the lone superpower following the end of the Cold War, should shape world order. In January, 1994, Wolfowitz left NDU and assumed the deanship of the Paul H. Nitze School of Advanced International Studies at The Johns Hopkins University in Baltimore, Maryland. In addition to performing his administrative duties as the dean of the school, Wolfowitz continued to be a vocal con-

See also Angelou, Maya; Book clubs; Cable television; Chopra, Deepak; Gifford, Kathie Lee; Homosexuality and gay rights; Jenny Jones Show murder; Literature in Canada; Literature in the United States; Men Are from Mars, Women Are from Venus; Schlessinger, Dr. Laura; Television.

■ Wolfowitz, Paul University professor and dean, neoconservative, and U.S. government official Born December 22, 1943; Brooklyn, New York Identification

Wolfowitz promoted the leadership role of the United States in world affairs. He articulated his position as a neoconservative, academic, foreign affairs adviser to presidential candidates, and senior U.S. governmental official.

Paul Wolfowitz. (U.S. Department of Defense)

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tributor to the debate on foreign affairs through a variety of activities. In 1996, Wolfowitz served as the chief foreign policy adviser to U.S. senator Bob Dole, a Republican from Kansas who campaigned for the presidency that year. In early 1997, Wolfowitz was involved in the Project for the New American Century (PNAC), which called for U.S. global leadership in shaping the world, and signed its Statement of Principles in June, 1997. In January, 1998, Wolfowitz signed an open letter to President Bill Clinton urging him to oust Iraqi president Saddam Hussein from office through diplomacy, politics, and force if necessary. From early 1998 through September, 1998, Wolfowitz held membership on several commissions and advisory boards, including the Commission to Assess the Ballistic Missile Threat to the United States and the Defense Policy Board, an advisory board to the U.S. secretary of defense. In the fall of 1998, Wolfowitz, with an eye toward returning to government service, became one of the major foreign policy advisers to Republican Texas governor George W. Bush, who was flirting with the idea of announcing his candidacy for the 2000 presidential election. Wolfowitz continued assisting Governor Bush as one of his chief foreign policy advisers through the 2000 presidential election. In late 1999, Wolfowitz signed a document calling for specific language on U.S. policy about China and the role the United States would play if China resorted to possible military actions “to resolve the Taiwan issue.” Impact Wolfowitz, a neoconservative, spent most of the 1990’s as a university professor and dean, a senior U.S. government official, and a foreign affairs adviser to government and presidential candidates. He advocated that the United States should play a leading role in world affairs. He played a prominent political role in the following decade, serving as deputy secretary of defense under Secretary of Defense Donald Rumsfeld from 2001 to 2005. Further Reading

Solomon, Lewis D. Paul D. Wolfowitz: Visionary Intellectual, Policymaker, and Strategist. Westport, Conn.: Praeger Security International, 2007. Tyler, Patrick E. “U.S. Strategy Plan Calls for Insuring No Rivals Develop.” The New York Times, March 8, 1992, p. A1. Joseph C. Santora

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See also Bush, George H. W.; Cheney, Dick; China and the United States; Clinton, Bill; Cold War, end of; Conservatism in U.S. politics; Gulf War; Jewish Americans; Middle East and North America.

■ Women in the military Definition

Women serving in the U.S. armed

forces The armed forces contained 229,000 women at the beginning of the 1990’s, 10.8 percent of the total number of troops, the majority of whom were in a racial minority. The 1980’s saw a number of firsts for women in the military, including the first female Air Force test pilots, the first female company commanders in Army combat operations, and the first female captain of the West Point Corps of Cadets. Women’s involvement in missions to Grenada (1983) and Panama (1989-1990) was highly publicized. The 1990’s saw an increasing number of U.S. female military personnel playing key roles in operations throughout the decade, beginning with the Gulf War. The Early 1990’s: Changing Roles In the early part of the decade, the National Aeronautics and Space Administration (NASA) sent the first U.S. female soldier into space, the first women landed fighter jets on Navy ships, and President George H. W. Bush signed the National Defense Authorization Act overturning a forty-three-year-old law denying women the opportunity to serve in combat missions. This act established the Presidential Commission on the Assignment of Women in the Armed Forces, whose function is to monitor the impact of military gender integration. The Marines responded by changing their motto from “We’re looking for a few good men” to “The Few. The Proud. The Marines.” In September, 1991, during what came to be known as the Tailhook scandal, over eighty women accused some four thousand attendees of the Thirty-fifth Annual Tailhook Symposium of sexual misconduct. The scandal’s news coverage increased worldwide awareness of gender inequality and sexual harassment in the military. In 1992, Commander Linda V. Hutton became the first woman to control a naval Atlantic fleet aircraft squadron. In November, the Presidential Commission on the Assignment of Women in the Armed

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the Combat Exclusion Policy. In 1995 and 1996, several all-female military schools opened, including a training program at the Virginia Military Institute and one at The Citadel military college in South Carolina—historically all-male institutions. In March, 1996, President Bill Clinton nominated the Marine’s Carol Mutter to be a lieutenant general in charge of manpower and policy planning. She was the first woman to achieve a threestar rank in the history of the military. In 1997, the long-awaited Women Nancy Mace, right, receives her Citadel diploma from her father, James Mace, during in Military Service for America Mecommencement on May 8, 1999. She became the first woman to graduate from The morial was completed. It is located Citadel. (AP/Wide World Photos) at the entrance to Arlington National Cemetery. Around this time, Forces suggested that women not fly combat misfemale basic training recruits filed a growing numsions but still serve on some combat ships. In 1993, ber of sexual harassment reports against drill inamid the press’s diligent attention to gender in U.S. structors, and women fought for equal eligibility in armed forces academies, Secretary of Defense Les all military jobs as more journalists turned a critical Aspin authorized nearly 260,000 military posieye toward men’s role in keeping women at the bottions open to women (67.2 percent of all the militom of the military hierarchy. tary’s authorized positions), single-handedly changThe Late 1990’s: Ending Strong In 1998, the Army, ing women’s accepted roles in the military. While Navy, and Air Force continued to train men and the nation publicly celebrated, the Air Force Acadwomen together; only the Marines maintained genemy’s female students attended mandatory briefder division throughout training. That year, female ings to learn proper make-up application and simiAir Force fighter pilots participated in air strikes lar strategies helpful in addressing professional against Baghdad. Flight uniforms were redesigned issues. Against this backdrop, journalists drew paralto fit women’s bodies. In May, 1999, Nancy Mace belels between the battles for women’s rights in the came the first woman to graduate from the prestiarmed forces and homosexuals’ struggle for fair gious Citadel, a school with only forty-two women of treatment in the military. Some newspapers at the seventeen hundred total cadets. That year, the press time estimated that as many as 25 percent of all milirecognized the perpetual struggle for gender equaltary women were gay. ity, but the major newspapers focused on the positive changes at the end of century, not the decade’s negThe Mid-1990’s: The Struggle Continues By 1994, atives. 13 percent of military personnel were women. Support groups for battered military women began apImpact In 1998, a U.S. Government Accountabilpearing across the United States, most adopting ity Office (GAO) report claimed that neither the the name “Women Active in our Nation’s Defense, general public nor Congress was prepared to see their Advocates and Supporters,” or Wandas. A numwomen in combat. Because of publicity surrounding ber of women graduated from military academies; women’s roles during the Gulf War, the Bosnia conin July, two female Navy lieutenants became fully flict, and the Iraq War, the American public began to qualified female F-14 Tomcat pilots. Jobs such as view women’s roles in combat more objectively. The infantry, artillery, and arms-related positions refight for combat inclusion during the 1990’s paved mained off-limits to women, a regulation known as the way for the battle between female military per-

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sonnel and the U.S. military as women pushed for gender integration to reflect the reality of their roles in combat. The 1990’s equal rights platform in the armed forces has been the stage of triumph and loss. Further Reading

De Groot, Gerard J., and Corinna Peniston-Bird, eds. A Soldier and a Woman: Sexual Integration in the Military. New York: Longman, 2000. Surveys women’s roles in the military worldwide from the late medieval period to the 1990’s. Grossnick, Roy A., ed. “The First Half of the Nineties: 1991-1995.” United States Naval Aviation, 1910-1995. 4th ed. Washington, D.C.: Department of the Navy, 1997. Provides month-bymonth naval history from 1990 to 1995, including the role of women in the Navy. Gutmann, Stephanie. The Kinder, Gentler Military: Can America’s Gender-Neutral Fighting Force Still Win Wars? New York: Scribner, 2000. Journalist’s analysis of the way the military changed its gender outlook during the 1990’s. Herbert, Melissa S. Camouflage Isn’t Only for Combat: Gender, Sexuality, and Women in the Military. New York: New York University Press, 1998. A personal interview-driven assessment of women in the military. Weinstein, Laurie, and Christie C. White, eds. Wives and Warriors: Women and the Military in the United States and Canada. Westport, Conn.: Bergin & Garvey, 1997. Examines the lives of female military personnel and military wives to show the prevailing sexism in U.S. and Canadian armed forces. Zeigler, Sara L., and Gregory G. Gunderson. Moving Beyond G.I. Jane: Women and the U.S. Military. Lanham, Md.: University Press of America, 2005. Useful for its presentation of solutions to 1990’s gender and military issues, this collection covers a range of relevant topics. Ami R. Blue See also Bosnia conflict; Bush, George H. W.; Clinton, Bill; Don’t ask, don’t tell; Flinn, Kelly; Gulf War; Homosexuality and gay rights; Kosovo conflict; Liberalism in U.S. politics; Space exploration; Tailhook incident; Women in the workforce; Women’s rights.

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■ Women in the workforce Women employed in a specific activity or enterprise during a specific period

Definition

Women made considerable progress in their careers in the 1990’s, consolidating the trends that preceded the decade but still faced a glass ceiling. Women have always worked, but in an agricultural society, the work was done at home. With the industrial age, women in greater numbers began to work outside the home, but it was normally out of necessity. At the beginning of the twentieth century, only 20 percent of American women worked for pay. By the end of the century, 60 percent worked for pay. As women became better educated, they sought to use their knowledge both in the workplace and in the upbringing of their children. In the 1930’s and 1940’s, women were employed in a variety of occupations, especially during World War II, when women stepped up to replace men who had departed for war. After World War II, women were encouraged to return to the home to make way for men who were returning from war and needed jobs. Education for women continued to expand, and beginning with the 1960’s, women expressed their dissatisfaction with the “back to the home” movement that prevailed after World War II. Women made slow and steady progress in the workforce during the 1960’s and 1970’s, and that progress continued into the 1980’s and 1990’s. The number of women in the workforce is an important indicator. In 1950, only 33.9 percent of women were in the workforce. By 1998, the percentage had grown to 59.8 percent; between the ages of twentyfive and fifty-four, over 76 percent of women were in the workforce at the end of the century. The progress was steady but gradual, with an occasional plateau at times of economic recession or corporate cutbacks. Despite these impressive statistics, the highest positions have eluded women. A Catalyst study in 1998 revealed that women constituted only 3.8 percent of individuals holding titles such as chief executive officer, chairman, executive vice president, or chief operating officer. Women often found that they were respected for their work but often invisible when promotions and bonuses were rewarded.

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Women in the workforce

Participation in Selected Professions Selected examples of women’s participation in the workforce help to document trends. Statistics such as the increased number of women graduating from medical school and law school reflect the general trend. For example, in medicine, women constituted 7.9 percent of doctors who graduated in 1966 and 42.4 percent of doctors graduating in 1999. In 1990, approximately 17 percent of physicians were women, but by 2000 the percentage had risen to 24 percent. The master of business administration (MBA) degree is often seen as the gateway to advancement in the business world. Although the number of women who received MBA degrees rose in recent decades, women constituted only about 30 percent of students in MBA programs. In the computer field, the gender gap was also significant. In 1998, only 14 percent of those who completed their Ph.D. in computer science and engineering were women. In the legal profession, the number of female graduates from law schools increased significantly in the late twentieth century; by the late 1990’s, women constituted about 50 percent of the students in law school. As of 1999, 28.9 percent of all lawyers were women. Although more women were lawyers, it did not result in a significant increase in the number of women partners in law firms over the same period. As of 1998, only 15 percent of the partners in private law firms were women. Men in law firms also earned more than their female counterparts. The hours required for younger lawyers to advance in the firm were often cited as a reason why women did not advance in a firm. Although consciousness was raised about obstacles affecting female lawyers, including the need to produce many billable hours as well as workplace culture, little changed. Younger female attorneys were more likely to opt for part-time status, in order to juggle family and career, which in turn adversely affected their chances for advancement within a firm.

Although women’s presence improved considerably in the workplace, an earnings gap remained. In 1979, women earned 59.6 percent as much as men; in 1998, women earned 76 percent as much as men, but the gaps were smaller or larger depending on occupation, age, and other variables. The problem of the salary gap is a long trend and affects overall lifetime earnings of men and women and the amount of money they have upon retirement.

The Earnings Gap

Studies in the 1990’s reveal various subtle obstacles to women’s progress in the workplace. Female managers, for example, cited the lack of encouragement by their supervisors. Sexual harassment was another problem often cited. Others reported that they were not taken seriously by their coworkers. Women often indicated that it was necessary to develop a working style with which men felt comfortable. It was harder for women to find a mentor or to network among influential people within the organization since there were relatively few women in positions of influence in the organization. In the 1990’s, there was growing discussion about women’s choices between the “fast track” and the “mommy track.” The former referred to women whose primary emphasis was their career and the latter to women who chose to have children or to take time out to raise their children. Some women on the “fast track” had children but usually had childcare support. The “mommy track” women were likely to advance more slowly and to take a leave of absence from work.

Subtle Obstacles to Progress

Women of Color All women face some obstacles, but women of color had an even more difficult time than white women. Their salaries were lower and their paths to promotion were slower than those of white women. In the late 1990’s, women of color made up 22.6 percent of all women in the workforce but only 14.6 percent of managers and administrators. Asian American women, especially those of Chinese and Japanese ethnicity, were the most successful among women of color. African American and Latino women were more heavily represented in the sales and service industries than white women. Family and Work-Life Balance Finding work-life balance was usually cited as one of the major issues for working women with family responsibilities. Women’s responsibilities in the home and with their children did not substantially change with their increased participation in the workforce. Although younger men played a larger role than their fathers in the upbringing of their children, the primary burden for childcare remained with women. Numerous studies also indicated that women spent more time on housework than their male partners. By the end of the 1990’s, society had not solved the problem of childcare for all working women. The responsibility lay with the family to find and pay for childcare in

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most instances. Quality childcare became increasingly costly, and abuses of children by caregivers revealed that childcare could be risky. Women often mentioned trying to find work-life balance, which usually meant trying to juggle work and family responsibilities. For most men, work-life balance has historically not been a pivotal career issue. Men have had growing family responsibilities, but the brunt of the responsibility for home and family has remained women’s domain. Over time, specific measures have assisted somewhat with work-life balance, including products that made home care easier and more prepared foods available to working women. Significant among legal measures in the 1990’s was the Family and Medical Leave Act of 1993 (FMLA), which gave an employee up to twelve weeks of unpaid leave to care for a personal or family health condition or for the birth or adoption of a child. There are many studies of women lawyers, doctors, and executives. Relatively few study women in support jobs, from sales clerk to administrative support staff, from custodian to service worker. Women in support jobs play a valuable and necessary role in society but are often invisible in studies of women. By the 1990’s, women in jobs paid at an hourly rate greatly outnumbered women in executive positions and prestigious occupations. The median wage of women in jobs paid on an hourly basis was $8.24 in 1998. Women in hourly jobs have not usually earned as much as women in salaried positions, but the gender gap was less in hourly-rate jobs than in salaried positions. On the other hand, women constituted 59 percent of workers holding low-wage jobs, defined as jobs that average 2,082 hours a year (52 weeks, 40-hour weeks), which could not sustain a family of four at a minimal level. In 1998, 16 million women (39 percent of all working women) worked in low-wage jobs.

Women in Jobs with Hourly Wages

Occupational Segregation Despite women’s progress in a number of fields, there was still de facto segregation in many occupations. Construction workers and electricians were usually men. Nurses and secretaries were usually women. Occupations in which women were a majority were likely to be less well paid. Teachers and social workers were less well paid than businessmen. Nurses were less well paid than doctors. Secretaries were less well paid than construction workers.

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The 1990’s were marked by a number of firsts for women. Madeleine Albright was the first woman to become secretary of state (1997-2001) and thus the highest-ranking woman in the history of U.S. politics at that time. Janet Reno was the first female attorney general (1993-2001) and served for the entire administration of Bill Clinton. Oprah Winfrey was one of the highest-paid television personalities in the United States and perennially one of the most influential women. A number of women achieved high positions in large U.S. business firms, including Meg Whitman, president of eBay (1998-2008) and Carly Fiorina, chief executive officer of Hewlett-Packard (1999-2005).

Special Achievements

Impact By the end of the 1990’s, women had penetrated many areas in the workplace that had previously rarely seen women. There was progress but relatively few gained positions in the highest strata of the corporate and public sectors. Women’s participation in the workforce by the 1990’s had become a permanent part of American life. The United States had come a long way from Rosie the Riveter, who was recruited to replace men during World War II and then told to return home. Women had not yet achieved full equality in the workforce but had made considerable gains. Further Reading

Hesse-Biber, Sharlene Nagy, and Gregg Lee Carter. Working Women in America: Split Dreams. New York: Oxford University Press, 2005. Presents the history of women in the workforce and their family and work roles and responsibilities. Moen, Phyllis, and Patricia Roehling. The Career Mystique: Cracks in the American Dream. Lanham, Md.: Rowman & Littlefield, 2005. Examines how the myth of the American Dream is not in line with twenty-first century realities. Rhode, Deborah L., ed. The Difference “Difference” Makes: Women and Leadership. Stanford, Calif.: Stanford University Press, 2003. Diverse accounts about women in leadership positions, the obstacles they faced as well as their influence. Smith, Dayle M. Women at Work: Leadership for the Next Century. Upper Saddle River, N.J.: Prentice Hall, 2000. Examines the barriers that women face in the workplace. Steiner, Leslie Morgan, ed. Mommy Wars: Stay-atHome and Career Moms Face Off on Their Choices, Their Lives, Their Families. New York: Random

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Women’s National Basketball Association (WNBA)

House, 2006. Essays by twenty-six contributors address the choices and contributions of mothers from both sides of the “mommy wars.” Norma C. Noonan African Americans; Albright, Madeleine; Asian Americans; Employment in the United States; Reno, Janet; Winfrey, Oprah; Women in the military; Women’s rights; Year of the Woman.

See also

■ Women’s National Basketball Association (WNBA) Professional U.S. women’s basketball league Date Established in 1996; league play began in 1997 Identification

Although it was not the first professional women’s basketball league in the United States, the WNBA was the first such league to be formally backed by the men’s National Basketball Association (NBA) and the first to receive significant, ongoing television and news coverage. In April, 1996, the National Basketball Association announced the formation of a new Women’s National Basketball Association, which would initially consist of eight teams in two conferences, playing in cities with existing NBA “partner” teams. The new league hoped to capitalize on the U.S. women’s basketball team’s undefeated gold medal run during the 1996 Summer Olympics in Atlanta, Georgia. Several of the star Olympians, including Sheryl Swoopes and Rebecca Lobo, signed on to the WNBA immediately, and the league’s first president, Val Ackerman, was named. The regular season ran from June to August, and in September, 1997, the Houston Comets won the first of what would become four consecutive WNBA championships. Shortly thereafter, WNBA officials announced that four new teams would be added for the 1998 season, bringing the league total to twelve teams. The WNBA was not the only women’s professional basketball league in the late 1990’s. The rival American Basketball League (ABL) was also formed in 1996 and had attracted several of the sport’s most talented women players in part because of its higher salaries. Ultimately, however, the ABL could not compete with the WNBA in the limited market for professional women’s sports, and it folded in 1998,

at which time many of its players moved over to the WNBA. By the end of the 1990’s, the WNBA had doubled in size, adding two teams in 1998 and another two in 1999. Another milestone was the institution of a collective-bargaining agreement, or players’ union, at the start of the 1999 season; this was the first such agreement for any American professional women’s sport. The league was not profitable, however, and could not have survived without the financial and marketing support of the men’s league, including an official logo that mirrors that used by the NBA. Impact Although the WNBA has struggled financially and its players do not receive salaries or lucrative product endorsements equivalent to those of professional male athletes, it cannot be denied that the WNBA has significantly increased the visibility of professional women’s sports. Its players have become role models for many American girls, and the league has helped to increase the popularity of basketball as a high school and college sport for female athletes. In addition, in 2006, the WNBA became the first professional women’s team sport league to exist for an entire decade. Further Reading

Ponti, James. WNBA: Stars of Women’s Basketball. New York: Pocket Books, 1999. Terzieff, Juliette. Women of the Court: Inside the WNBA. New York: Alyson, 2008. Amy Sisson See also

Basketball; Olympic Games of 1996;

Sports.

■ Women’s rights The movement to attain equal rights for women in Canada and the United States

Definition

The rights gained by women during the 1990’s resulted in important changes in the lives of individual women and in the structure and function of the social order in Canada and the United States. The issue of women’s rights addresses the position and treatment of women in all aspects of life. By the end of the nineteenth century, women in both Canada and the United States were actively seeking a voice in the political life of their respective coun-

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tries. During the twentieth century, the women’s movement gained force, and by the 1960’s and 1970’s women were demanding an end to many of the traditional discriminatory practices, in labor in government and in attitudes toward them. In 1982, Canadian women made significant gains in eliminating discriminatory laws with the passage of the Canadian Charter of Rights and Freedoms. Still, many issues remained unresolved, including those of abortion, pornography, and equal treatment in the workforce. In contrast, in the United States in 1982, the Equal Rights Amendment (ERA), which would have guaranteed equal rights regardless of sex, failed to become part of the Constitution, since it was not ratified within the period allowed. The 1990’s was a period in which Canadian women exercised their right to participate in the governing processes of their country. In 1991, Rita Margaret Johnston became the first woman to serve as a premier in Canada. She had been appointed deputy premier by British Columbia’s premier William Vander Zalm in 1990. Vander Zalm’s administration was fraught with scandals, which resulted in his resignation on April 2, 1991, and in Johnston’s move into the office of premier. Canada chose Louise Fréchette as its ambassador to the United Nations in 1991; she was the first woman to serve as Canadian ambassador to the organization. In 1993, Catherine Callbeck was elected premier of Prince Edward Island, making her the first woman elected to the office. That same year, Canada saw the election of its first female prime minister, Kim Campbell, and its first female deputy prime minister, Shelia Copps. By 1996, however, women still accounted for only a small percentage of the members of the House of Commons and for only 23 percent of the Senate. The 1990’s also witnessed the first important appointments of women in the court systems of Canada. In 1991, Catherine Anne Fraser was the first woman to be named chief justice of a provincial court with her appointment in Alberta. In 1999, Canada appointed Beverley McLachlin as its first female chief justice of the Supreme Court of Canada.

Women in Canadian Government

The Canadian Workforce and Poverty In the 1990’s, Canadian women as a group did not see a major overall change in their situation in the workplace or in their fight against poverty. Poverty remained a

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serious concern for women since a majority of women were still employed in low-paying service jobs and subsidized licensed day care was not readily available. Women’s poverty was further exacerbated when family allowance, a government subsidy paid to families with children to help cover the costs of rearing children, was eliminated in 1992. In 1995, women led by the Fédération des Femmes du Québec marched to the Quebec legislature in a Women’s March Against Poverty to demand economic justice. Regarding equality in the workplace, women made significant gains during the decade. In 1995, the Canadian government published Setting the Stage for the Next Century: The Federal Plan for Gender Equality to improve equality for women. Christine Silverberg became the first female police chief in a major Canadian city when she became chief of the Calgary Police Services. In 1999, the Supreme Court of Canada found that an aerobics fitness test for firefighters discriminated against women because of their physiology and did not assess ability to perform the job. The court further ruled that job standards cannot be solely determined by capabilities that favor men. Women in Canada made some of the greatest gains during the 1990’s in the right to be protected from violence and to have nondiscriminatory remedies in the courts. In 1992, Canada, in amending its Criminal Code, legally defined consent in regard to sexual assault for the first time. In 1995, the Criminal Code was further modified by Bill C-72, stating that intoxication could no longer be used as a defense in cases of sexual assault and/or battery. In 1999, the Supreme Court of Canada ruled that “implied consent” to sexual assault does not exist in Canadian law. The Family Violence Initiative in 1997 and the Iqaluit Declaration in 1998 further confirmed Canada’s commitment to eliminating violence against women. In addition, in 1993, Canada changed its guidelines in regard to refugees to include women who faced genderassociated persecution. Canada also played a significant international role in the efforts to alleviate violence against women. From 1993 to 1995, Canada successfully introduced a number of resolutions in the United Nations to include women’s rights as a part of human rights in all considerations dealing with the issue

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and to implement measures to eliminate violence against women. The issues of pornography and its definition were also addressed in Canada as topics closely related to violence against and dehumanization of women. In 1992, the entire inventory of a store in Winnipeg that sold pornographic materials was seized and the merchant brought to trial. In a reconsideration of what constituted obscenity and consequently pornography, the Supreme Court of Canada stated that it was not a question of offense to a certain concept of sexual morality but rather that obscenity and pornography were undue exploitation of sex in combination with horror, cruelty, violence, or crime. The court further classified such materials as pornographic because they subordinate, degrade, and dehumanize women and thus encourage violence against them. In 1988, the Supreme Court of Canada had ruled that, under the 1982 Canadian Charter of Rights and Freedoms, the provisions in the Criminal Code making abortion a punishable crime were unconstitutional. The court had stated that a woman’s right to abortion was guaranteed as part of her right to the security of her person. In May, 1990, under the leadership of Conservative Brian Mulroney, Bill C-43 was introduced into the House of Commons in an attempt once again to make abortion a criminal offense. It passed in the House of Commons, but in the Senate, after a tie vote, the bill simply died. Abortion remained a legal medical procedure. The funding of abortion costs, however, was inconsistent. While the cost of an abortion performed in the hospital was funded, the cost of an abortion in a private clinic sometimes remained the financial responsibility of the woman. From 1992 to 1997, a number of shootings and attacks on abortion clinics were carried out by those opposing the procedure.

Abortion in Canada

Women’s Rights in the United States In the United States, in 1982, the U.S. Supreme Court declared the ERA dead because it had not received ratification by its extended deadline. Therefore, one of the major issues of women’s rights in the United States was centered on the continuing argument over the need and justification of such an amendment. Other issues of concern included women in government, the right to an abortion, equal opportunity and pay

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in the workplace, and violence against women. In the 1990’s, the women’s rights movement was led by the National Organization for Women (NOW) and the Feminist Majority Foundation (FMF), a feminist organization founded in 1987 by former NOW president Eleanor Smeal. Both NOW and FMF lobbied for women’s rights legislation and organized marches for recognition of women’s rights and protests against discriminatory practices. From 1989 to 1992, FMF recruited female candidates through its Feminization of Power campaign. In 1990, NOW launched its Freedom Caravan for Women’s Lives to recruit female candidates. In 1992, NOW again encouraged women to run for public offices with its Elect Women for a Change campaign. In that year, labeled the Year of the Woman, twenty-four new women joined the House of Representatives and four new women joined the Senate, the largest increase in the number of women ever elected to Congress. In 1991, FMF, in conjunction with the music group L7, organized a series of concerts called Rock for Choice. In 1992, both NOW and FMF were key organizers of the March for Women’s Lives, which drew 750,000 participants to Washington, D.C. The event also included an illegal speakout in front of the White House in protest of the U.S. Supreme Court’s decision in Planned Parenthood v. Casey. During the early years of the 1990’s, both NOW and FMF worked for passage of the Equal Rights Amendment. In 1995, however, the NOW membership voted to withdraw its active support from the ERA in favor of its own amendment, the Constitutional Equality Amendment (CEA). This amendment, an expanded version of ERA, was not introduced in Congress, however, while the ERA continued to be presented at every session. In 1989, the U.S. Supreme Court severely weakened the Civil Rights Act with its decision in the Wards Cove Packing Co. v. Atonio case. This decision all but eliminated the possibility of a successful suit for sex discrimination or sexual harassment. NOW was instrumental in the drafting of a new Civil Rights Act passed in 1991. The new act gave women the right to jury trials and monetary damages for sex discrimination and sexual harassment. The 1990’s was also the period in which American women made another major gain in the workplace. The U.S. Workforce and Poverty

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In 1993, Congress passed the Family and Medical Leave Act giving employees the right to be absent without pay from work for a twelve-week period in the case of their own serious illness or to take care of a seriously ill family member or a new child. In 1996, NOW implemented a seventeen-day hunger strike in front of the White House demanding that President Bill Clinton veto a welfare reform bill that NOW believed would increase the poverty of women and children. Abortion and Violence in the U.S. Although the Supreme Court decision in the Roe v. Wade case of 1973 had recognized a woman’s legal right to an abortion, Americans remained divided in their opinions about abortion as a moral choice. In 1991, under President George H. W. Bush, a gag law went into effect. Federally funded family-planning clinics were prohibited from providing women with information about abortion. NOW organized a protest rally and march as part of its National Conference in New York City. In 1992 and 1993, antiabortion activists perpetrated attacks upon abortion clinics and threatened the lives of doctors who performed abortions. NOW and other pro-choice organizations and individuals waged a campaign to prosecute those responsible for the attacks and insisted upon priority being given to their investigation. In 1994, the Freedom of Access to Clinic Entrances Act was passed, prohibiting interference with a woman entering a clinic. In 1998, a nationwide injunction against violence at abortion clinics went into effect. The Violence Against Women Act was passed in 1994 with a budget of $1.6 billion to provide funds for victims of rape and domestic violence and for special training for police officers. It also strengthened the federal penalties against sex offenders. The passage of the bill was the result of four years of intensive lobbying by women’s rights organizations. Impact In the 1990’s, Canadian and American women made important contributions to their country’s political life, both as officeholders and as voices capable of influencing legislation. Rights gained in the workplace through legislation increased women’s role as a vital and stable part of the economies of both Canada and the United States. Legislation to fight violence against women improved their status in both countries.

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Further Reading

Barakso, Maryann. Governing NOW: Grassroots Activism in the National Organization for Women. Ithaca, N.Y.: Cornell University Press, 2004. Chapter 6 discusses the recruitment of female candidates, while chapter 7 discusses women’s rights and Clinton’s presidency. Hodgson, James F., and Debra Kelley, eds. Sexual Violence: Policies, Practices and Challenges in the United States and Canada. Westport, Conn.: Praeger, 2001. Discusses the Violence Against Women Act and reviews court cases. Langley, Winston E., and Vivian Fox. Women’s Rights in the United States. Westport, Conn.: Praeger, 1998. Documents pertaining to women’s rights, including the Family and Medical Leave Act. Addresses the role of women in science and in the military. Includes a glossary, a list of women’s organizations, and a bibliography. Shawncey Webb See also Abortion; Faludi, Susan; Family and Medical Leave Act of 1993; Hill, Anita; Kennedy rape case; Marriage and divorce; Planned Parenthood v. Casey; Supreme Court decisions; Take Our Daughters to Work Day; Thelma and Louise; Women in the military; Women in the workforce; Year of the Woman.

■ Woods, Tiger African American professional golfer Born December 30, 1975; Cypress, California Identification

Woods became the world’s most dominant professional golfer after turning professional in 1996. Eldrick “Tiger” Woods is the only son of Earl and Kultida Woods. His nickname came from a Vietnamese officer who served alongside his father during the Vietnam War. Tiger was a golf prodigy and attended Stanford University, winning three U.S. amateur championships and a National Collegiate Athletic Association (NCAA) golf championship while he was a student there. After persistent clashes with the NCAA and United States Golf Association (USGA) over his amateur status, Tiger turned professional in August, 1996. His performance that year was impressive, but

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Tiger Woods in 1995. (AP/Wide World Photos)

his celebrity status resulted from the unprecedented endorsement contracts he signed with Nike Golf and Titleist before he had won his first professional tournament. This was not viewed favorably by many of his fellow PGA Tour pros. Golf is a game where players usually spend years honing their skills before their victories result in lucrative endorsements. In addition, golf is viewed by many as a genteel game. By contrast, Woods was very animated and vocal on the course, behavior that seemed to challenge many unwritten traditions. When Woods won the Masters Tournament in 1997, the scrutiny of his actions intensified. Nike created an advertising campaign that took on squarely the issue of Woods’s ethnicity and had him state that there were still golf courses in America that he was not allowed to play. Critics pointed out that the USGA had stepped up to that issue in 1990 and that

it was hypocritical for Woods to take an endorsement from a company that profited from sweatshop conditions maintained in its Asian factories. Woods was also criticized for refusing to attend a ceremony commemorating the fiftieth anniversary of the integration of baseball by Jackie Robinson, declining to provide an autographed ball for a charity auction organized by his friend and tour pro Billy Andrade, and for telling gay-bashing jokes in a March, 1997, interview in GQ magazine. As the controversies continued, Woods used his prodigious powers of concentration and intense work ethic to achieve victories and top-ten finishes on the tour at an outstanding pace. He was the top money winner on the tour in 1997 and more than doubled his winnings in 1998. He won eight tournaments in 1999 and took home over $6 million in prize money. Tournament organizers became anxious, since having Woods in the field assured a soldout tournament, while tournaments that he skipped saw attendance lag. The overall impact on the tour was impressive, as larger purses meant that a single top-ten finish would allow a golfer to cover all his expenses for a season. By the age of twenty-four, Woods had won the U.S. Open, Masters, PGA, and British Open, a feat that put him in the company of an elite group of golfers composed of only Gene Sarazen, Ben Hogan, Arnold Palmer, Gary Player, and Jack Nicklaus. Awards poured in from golf organizations and media outlets like ESPN and Sports Illustrated. Woods had transcended the place occupied by top golfers and successful athletes and acquired the status of a cultural icon. Impact Tiger Woods achieved success at a very young age and did so while paying tribute to the great African American golfers who proceeded him. His impact on golf and on sports marketing has been immense. Further Reading

Callahan, Tom. In Search of Tiger Woods. New York: Crown, 2003. Londino, Lawrence. Tiger Woods. Westport, Conn.: Greenwood Press, 2006. Michael Polley See also

African Americans; Sports.

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■ Woodstock concerts Re-creations of the original 1969 Woodstock Festival Date August 12-14, 1994; July 23-25, 1999 Place Saugerties, New York; Rome, New York The Event

The twenty-fifth and thirtieth anniversary celebrations were planned as reincarnations of the landmark Woodstock concert of 1969, but the corporate-sponsored 1994 sequel, dubbed “Mudstock,” and the 1999 festival, which was tarnished by violence, were significantly different from the original. Woodstock ’94 was held on the weekend of August 12-14 on the 840-acre Winston Farm in Saugerties, New York. This twenty-fifth anniversary celebration was intended to re-create the idealism and social harmony of the original 1969 “Woodstock Nation”

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in Bethel, New York. Both events took place on farms and suffered from bad weather. After torrential rains started pouring on August 13, 1994, people slamdanced in muddy mosh pits, and the “mud people” became the symbol of this concert. At both concerts, a large number of people got in without paying. Tickets to the first Woodstock were $18 in advance (about $72 in 1994 dollars) for the three days, and 150,000 to 200,000 people were expected, but when thousands more came, it became a free event, with nearly half a million people attending. In 1994, tickets cost $135; about 190,000 people bought tickets, but another 100,000 or so snuck in without paying. From the beginning, there were major differences. Woodstock Ventures’ Michael Lang, a coproducer of the original festival, joined with John Scher of Metropolitan Talent to produce Woodstock ’94, with huge corporate sponsorship from coproducer

“Godfather of Soul” James Brown opens Woodstock 1999 on July 23, 1999, in Rome, New York. The weekend festival ended in violence and disorder. (AP/Wide World Photos)

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PolyGram Diversified Entertainment and $3 million from Pepsi. The event cost over $30 million to produce. In short, the original Woodstock was countercultural, but Woodstock ’94 was mainstream. The latter festival’s plans included a movie and a book, like the 1969 event, but now there would also be a sound recording, “I Survived Woodstock ’94” T-shirts, and television coverage. Syndicated television provided real-time viewing for 290,000 pay-per-view customers. Recorded tapes went to twenty-six foreign networks serving ninety-eight countries. Numerous musicians boycotted the 1994 event because they felt that the heavy corporate sponsorship was contrary to the ideals of the original festival. However, some anticommercial or alternative bands, such as Candlebox, Red Hot Chili Peppers, and Porno for Pyros, performed. Approximately fifty bands participated. Musicians from the first Woodstock included Santana, Joe Cocker, Country Joe McDonald, and Crosby, Stills, & Nash. Peter Gabriel headlined and closed on a calm note with “Biko,” a song about South African antiapartheid martyr Steve Biko. Violence in 1999 Woodstock 1999 was a far cry from its 1969 counterpart, as it was marred by violence and accusations of economic exploitation. With the addition of a third coproducer, Ossie Kilkenny, Lang and Scher planned a third concert festival to celebrate the thirtieth anniversary of the original. This time, the location was Griffiss Technology Park in Rome, New York. Unfortunately, the festival’s dates, July 23-25, coincided with a deadly heat wave that affected the entire region. These extreme conditions—with temperatures in the nineties; the high beverage and food prices, which might have been accepted for indoor rock concerts and sports events; and unsanitary conditions—provoked outrage among the concertgoers. Tension mounted among the audience of about 200,000 people. To make matters worse, the programming grouped a series of loud, aggressive heavy metal bands in sequence. While the earlier Woodstock festivals had their own loud bands, including some of the same groups that later appeared in 1999, popular culture had fragmented, and specific cultural practices, such as dancers deliberately slamming into each other, were associated with the aggressive groups. Another problem was connected with conflicting attitudes about nudity. The 1969 Woodstock

was associated with a kind of communal approach to nudity, with connections to the social experiments of that period. However, that spirit was missing from the 1999 festival: Along with other kinds of violence, there were four instances of alleged rape. There was also widespread looting, and several fires were set. Impact The second and third Woodstock festivals may have been an attempt to recreate the iconic, almost mythic status of the original event, but conditions and societal changes led to far different results than the peace, love, and music of the original. If anything, the contrast between the 1990’s incarnations and the 1969 template shows the pervasive dominance of large corporations, as the entrepreneurial, tribal spirit of the first event had gone elsewhere. Although people who were nostalgic for the 1960’s youth culture may have been disappointed by the overtly exploitative atmosphere and violence, the promoters’ clever use of media pointed toward such twenty-first century phenomena as reality television shows, in which the viewer is entertained by the spectacle of everyday people (with a few professional actors included) immersing themselves in mud, taking off most of their clothes, and projecting an uninhibited environment. The 1999 event also saw the creative use of the Internet as a promotional tool. The official 1999 Web site had sponsors such as Sony Playstation, Columbia House, and Amazon.com, as well as ticket information and artist profiles. Woodstock 1994 and 1999 signified the appropriation of counterculture by marketing and the evolution of large live-music festivals into global media events through television, films, sound recordings, and the Internet. Further Reading

Bennet, Andy, ed. Remembering Woodstock. Burlington, Vt.: Ashgate, 2004. The first essay focuses on the three Woodstock concerts and the live-music scene. Other essays cover themes such as the cultural impact of popular music and the aesthetics of Woodstock. Illustrated. Bibliography and index. Maglitta, Joseph E. “Woodstock ’99: Think E-Commerce, Dude—Companies Are Using Live Events Such as the Thirtieth Anniversary Bash to Leverage the Web and IT in Ever More Creative Ways.” Computerworld, August 16, 1999, 43. Presents a technological perspective on the violent 1999 festival.

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Sheffield, Rob. “Rage Against the Latrines.” Rolling Stone 820 (September 2, 1999): 52-55. This cover story gives a detailed account of the three days of turmoil and problems with fires, nudity, and violence at Woodstock 1999. Watson, Albert. Woodstock 94: Three More Days of Peace and Music. New York: St. Martin’s Press, 1994. Beautiful pictorial record, including portraits of performers, audience, and other scenes from the festival. Afterword by the concert producers. Alice Myers Alternative rock; Burning Man festivals; Grunge music; Hip-hop and rap music; Internet; Lollapalooza; Marilyn Manson; Metallica; Morissette, Alanis; Music; Nine Inch Nails; Tibetan Freedom Concerts.

See also

■ World Cup of 1994 FIFA conquers a new frontier with World Cup USA 1994 Date June 17-July 17, 1994 Place Chicago; Dallas; East Rutherford, New Jersey; Foxboro, Massachusetts; Orlando, Florida; Palo Alto and Pasadena, California; Pontiac, Michigan; Washington, D.C. The Event

In July of 1988, the Fédération Internationale de Football Association (FIFA) shocked the soccer world when it chose the United States to host the fifteenth World Cup in the summer of 1994. Despite the lengthy distances between match sites and the perceived general apathy of the American public in regard to international soccer, an initially skeptical global community was eventually converted by the overall success of the tournament. World Cup USA 1994 set a total attendance record— 3.6 million spectators gathered to see fifty-two matches in nine different cities—and the groundswell of excitement generated by FIFA’s expansion into untapped soccer territory overshadowed the tepidity of the final match between Italy and Brazil, considered one of the weakest in the tournament’s history. Though the 1994 event was not the first World Cup final played in North America— that distinction belongs to Mexico in 1970—it did

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feature a number of other first-time occurrences. The 1994 tournament was the first to award three points to winners of group play matches, ostensibly to avoid the general malaise of the 1990 tournament in which teams often played for ties. Also, the first indoor World Cup game, in which Team USA faced Switzerland, was played at the Pontiac Silverdome, outside of Detroit, Michigan. Greece, Nigeria, and Saudi Arabia were first-time qualifiers, and, with the fall of the Iron Curtain, the Russian team supplanted the Soviet Union team. Perhaps the most important “first” signaled the conclusion of the tournament: Brazil met Italy in the final match and the winner was crowned the first four-time World Cup champion. Each of the twenty-four qualifying teams had reason to celebrate its inclusion in the World Cup final. Bolivia resurfaced after a forty-year absence, Mexico fielded perhaps its finest squad in Cup history, and defending-champion West Germany reunited with its East German counterparts to form Germany’s first post-Cold War national team. However, the United States and Colombia—teams scheduled to meet in the second match of group play—piqued the interest of spectators because of each team’s recent surge in international visibility. The U.S. team, one of the thirteen teams to play in the original World Cup in 1930, was neither traditionally strong nor elite. However, in 1994, the team, buoyed by home-field advantage and headed by Tab Ramos and Marcelo Balboa, hoped to surprise the soccer community. Colombia entered the tournament as a favorite to win the Cup—Pelé predicting as much. The team had finished first in its South American qualifying group, ahead of Argentina, whom they crushed 5-0. Led by Carlos Valderrama, as famed for his creativity with the soccer ball as for his moppish, tightly curled blond-orange hair, Colombia lost 3-1 in its first game to Romania and hoped to redeem its World Cup chances against the Americans. Andrés Escobar, a veteran Colombian defender, made a mistake that cost the Colombians the game: He deflected a pass from American John Harkes but inadvertently struck it past his own goalie. The team was devastated, eventually losing 2-0, and eliminated. Unfortunately, the devastation caused by Escobar’s mistake was inconsequential to the event that it triggered: As he left a restaurant in Medellín

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The Brazilian team parades around the Rose Bowl after defeating Italy 3-2 in the 1994 World Cup. (AP/Wide World Photos)

days after the game, Escobar was shot and killed, perhaps by a mentally disturbed soccer fanatic. Though the tragedy did not overshadow the celebratory nature of the tournament as a whole, Escobar’s murder was a reminder of the tenuous boundary between on-field dramatics and real-life tragedy. Romário Versus Baggio Brazil and Italy, arguably the two most storied national soccer teams, first met in a World Cup championship game in 1970. The Pelé-led Brazilian squad outplayed the Italians and won 4-1. In 1994, the two teams took different paths through the tournament. The Brazilians, led by “Romário” (Romário de Souza Faria) and “Bebeto” (José Roberto Gama de Oliveira) charged through group play, defeating Russia and Cameroon and tying Sweden. In the second round, the team defeated the upstart Americans 1-0 on Independence Day, a match notorious for Leonardo Araújo’s errant elbow that nearly killed Ramos. In the quarterfinals, Brazil defeated the Netherlands in one of the finer

games of the tournament. Down 2-0, the Dutch fought back and tied the game with fourteen minutes left in regulation. However, a shot by “Branco” (Cláudio Ibrahim Vaz Leal), with less than ten minutes to play, kicked Brazil into the semifinals where, in a hard-fought rematch with Sweden, Romário headed in the gamewinner—his fifth goal of the tournament. Italy stumbled to the final match—though it played in arguably the toughest group with Ireland, Mexico, and Norway. Roberto Baggio’s brilliance provided moments of high drama. Other than Romário—the winner of the Golden Ball, awarded to the tournament’s best player—Baggio was perhaps the most outstanding player of the 1994 World Cup. Though he did not score in the first round, Baggio, FIFA’s World Footballer of the Year in 1993, provided some of the most electrifying goals of the elimination rounds. In the second round, he scored twice to overcome the “Super Eagles” of Nigeria; in the quarterfinal match against Spain, with the game

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deadlocked 1-1 and approaching the end of regulation, Baggio scored the winner; and in the semifinal against an exciting Bulgarian team led by Hristo Stoichkov, Baggio scored two goals within a fiveminute span midway through the first half to send Italy into the finals. Even his opponents praised him in defeat: Bulgarian coach Dimitar Penev said, “We really can’t be upset with our defense for allowing . . . Baggio those two wonderful goals.” On July 17, 1994, on a clear, hot summer day, in front of 94,194 spectators at Pasadena’s historic Rose Bowl Stadium, Brazil and Italy met on a field better known for college football clashes and Super Bowls. What was to be the premier event of the month-long tournament and a showcase of the “beautiful game” to an American audience became what FIFA most feared: a 120-minute stalemate. The drama and excitement that Romário and Baggio had provided for their respective teams throughout the tournament was absent. One of the more exciting moments was a missed shot—the Brazilian Márcio Santos’s kick went through the arms of the Italian goaltender Gianluca Pagliuca, but it hit the goalpost and ricocheted back into his arms. Pagliuca, relieved, turned around to kiss the goalpost. The game ended in a scoreless tie, forcing a penalty shoot-out for the first time in World Cup history. With Brazil leading 3-2 in penalty shots, Baggio stepped up to the ball in an attempt to tie the game. Baggio—who had been so magical throughout, who had carried his Italian team into the final—shot high, his ball just clearing the top of the goalpost. The Brazilian team erupted in celebration as the first four-time World Cup champions.

World Cup indirectly enabled the success of the 1999 Women’s World Cup, hosted by the United States and won by the home team. FIFA understood the challenge of swaying a society devoted to three major sports other than soccer. However, both FIFA and the U.S. populace benefited from the 1994 World Cup, the former with its successful infiltration of a dormant marketplace and the latter with a heightened awareness of soccer and the international community.

Impact The 1994 World Cup is remembered for its exhilarating on-field occurrences—Russian player Oleg Salenko’s five goals against Cameroon, Gheorghe Hagi’s inspired play for Romania, Martin Dahlin’s four goals for Sweden. The tournament also had its controversial moments, specifically the disgraceful exit of Argentine soccer-god Diego Maradona, who tested positive for ephedrine following the team’s victory over Nigeria. The lasting legacy of the 1994 World Cup is the surge in popularity that soccer experienced in the aftermath. The success of Major League Soccer (MLS), established immediately following the World Cup, proved that soccer had its place in mainstream American sports society. Furthermore, the 1994

See also Hamm, Mia; Olympic Games of 1992; Olympic Games of 1996; Soccer; Sports.

Further Reading

Arnold, Peter. World Cup USA 94: The Official FIFA Book. San Francisco: Collins, 1994. Filled with colorful pictures, this book highlights the history, venues, teams, and players associated with the 1994 World Cup. Crouch, Terry. The World Cup: The Complete History. Rev. ed. London: Aurum, 2006. A comprehensive look at each World Cup tournament from 1930 to 2006. An integral text to any serious study of the World Cup. Fiore, Fernando. The World Cup: Ultimate Guide to the Greatest Sports Spectacle in the World. Translated by Ezra E. Fitz. New York: HarperCollins, 2006. With his signature wit, Fiore outlines the important and interesting aspects of each World Cup, adding analysis of the event. Lewis, Michael. World Cup Soccer. Wakefield, R.I.: Moyer Bell, 1994. Looks at the historical aspects of the tournament, but also features biographical sketches of players from each of the twenty-four World Cup teams. Christopher Rager

■ World Trade Center bombing A powerful bomb explodes below Tower One of the World Trade Center, killing six people Date February 26, 1993 Place New York, New York The Event

This violent incident of terrorism shocked the American public, who had not considered the possibility of international terrorism occurring within the United States.

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nanced by an al-Qaeda member, Khalid Sheikh Mohammed, the uncle of Ramzi Yousef, a Kuwaiti who was thought to be the mastermind behind the plot. In fact, Yousef was a passenger in the bomb-laden rental van, driven by Jordanian Eyad Ismail on the day of the explosion. Omar Abdel Rahman, El Sayyid A. Nosair, Mohammed A. Salameh, Nidal A. Ayyad, Ahmad M. Ajaj, Abdul Rahman Yasin, and Mahmoud Abouhalima were also involved with the planning. The plot involved having Tower One fall on the other tower, maximizing the damage, although that is not what happened. Four days after the bombing, The New York Times received a letter from a group calling itself the Liberation Army Fifth Battalion that called for the United States to end diplomatic relations with Israel and to stop interfering with Middle Eastern affairs. The group also threatened that the World Trade Center bombing would not be the end of the attacks if the United States did not comply. The Federal Bureau of Investigation (FBI) later determined that the letter came from Ayyad, a West Bank Palestinian. Members of a variety of agencies, including the Bureau of Alcohol, Tobacco, and Firearms (ATF) and the FBI, responded to the scene of the bombing. The FBI, the first of the agencies to arrive, brought in examiners from its explosives unit. During the seven days following the bombing, over three hundred law-enforcement officers examined over twenty-five hundred cubic yards of debris. An ATF bomb technician found part of the van that contained the explosives and that had the vehicle identification number on it. The vehicle was traced back to a rental by Salameh, the first suspect arrested. Lawenforcement officers began an investigation to determine what happened, who was responsible, and why Tower One did not fall. Samples from the crime scene were chemically analyzed, and a detailed forensic accounting investigation traced papers that ultimately ended in the apprehension of suspects Ayyad, Abouhalima, and Ajaj. Law-enforcement officers learned that planning began in 1991 between Yousef and his uncle. The two discussed plans over the phone, and Khalid Sheikh Mohammed wired money to Yousef. Yasin made the bomb containing urea pellets, sulfuric acid, aluminum azide, nitroglycerin, magnesium azide, and bottled hydrogen. When Salameh was arrested one week after the bombing, Yasin was looked

The Investigation

Emergency vehicles fill the street near the World Trade Center in New York on February 26, 1993, following the explosion in the underground parking garage. (AP/Wide World Photos)

At 12:17 p.m., on February 26, 1993, a truck bomb containing twelve hundred pounds of urea nitrate exploded in the privately run underground parking garage below Tower One, the North Tower of the World Trade Center, killing six people and injuring over one thousand. The damage was extensive, creating a thirty-meter-wide hole that extended four sublevels of concrete, rupturing sewer and water mains and requiring the evacuation of thousands of people. The blast cut off telephone service to a good portion of Lower Manhattan and affected power lines as well, leading to the majority of radio and television stations losing their signal for about a week. Special cleanup crews from the Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) and the Occupational Safety and Health Administration (OSHA) arrived to clean up the sewage, acid, fumes, and asbestos. The attack was planned by a group of militant Islamist individuals and was believed to have been fi-

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into as a suspect, taken to FBI headquarters, then released. The next day, he fled the country to Iraq and was later indicted for the bombing and placed on the FBI’s most wanted list. After talking with both Salameh and Yasin, authorities were led to the apartment where the bomb was built. One year after his arrest, on March 4, 1994, Salameh was convicted along with coconspirators Ayyad, Abouhalima, and Ajaj, who each received a 240-year sentence for his respective role in the bombing. In 1995, Yousef was arrested in Pakistan and returned to New York, and Ismail was traced to Jordan and also extradited. In 1998, the two men were also sentenced to 240 years in prison. Blind Egyptian cleric Sheikh Omar Abdel Rahman was sentenced to life imprisonment in 1996 for planning the bombing.

Prosecutions

Impact The bombing shocked the American public greatly, as the United States had seemed immune to international terrorism. There were discussions about how such an attack could have happened. In 2008, the Port Authority was found liable for the damages caused by the bombing, having ignored evidence that the garage was a security risk. The 1993 bombing has been eclipsed by the September 11, 2001, attacks on the World Trade Center in which hijackers crashed two commercial jets into the Twin Towers, killing nearly three thousand people. Further Reading

Caram, Peter. The 1993 World Trade Center Bombing: Foresight and Warning. London: Janus, 2001. Written by a former antiterrorist officer at the World Trade Center, this book documents the security lapses that allowed the incident to occur. Dwyer, Jim, et al. Two Seconds Under the World: Terror Comes to America—The Conspiracy Behind the World Trade Center Bombing. New York: Crown, 1994. Discusses some conspiracy theories surrounding the bombing. Includes interviews with confidential sources. Pellowski, Michael J. The Terrorist Trial of the 1993 Bombing of the World Trade Center: A Headline Court Case. Berkeley Heights, N.J.: Enslow, 2003. Details the events leading up to the bombing as well as the capture and the trial of the accused. Reeve, Simon. The New Jackals: Ramzi Yousef, Osama Bin Laden, and the Future of Terrorism. Boston:

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Northeastern University Press, 1999. Explains how these two men have used terrorism for religious and political goals. Sheryl L. Van Horne Crime; Foreign policy of the United States; Israel and the United States; Middle East and North America; Oklahoma City bombing; Terrorism; U.S. embassy bombings in Africa.

See also

■ World Trade Organization protests The first significant antiglobalization rally in the contemporary world and the largest mass protests in the United States since the Vietnam War Date November 30, 1999 Place Seattle, Washington The Event

The Seattle demonstrations against the World Trade Organization closed the city of Seattle, resulted in multiple injuries and the arrest of hundreds, and heralded a new era of aggressive opposition to the globalization process in the industrialized democracies of the Northern Hemisphere. The process of globalization—conventionally defined as the steady growth in economic, social, cultural, and political ties and activities across state boundaries—began approximately a century before the Seattle protests with the late nineteenth century growth of reliable intercontinental transportation and communication systems. It was not until the late twentieth century, however, that its negative effects began to touch the peoples of the economically developed democratic world. Prior to that time, the opposition to the globalization process was overwhelmingly confined to the developing world, where first its place in the empires of Europe and then its neocolonial exploitation by Western corporations long disenfranchised its citizens from participating in the decision-making processes that affected their lives. In the 1990’s, a trio of factors moved the frontline of opposition to globalization from the third world to the developed states of North America and Western Europe. First and foremost, for the first time the costs of the globalization process began to be seriously significantly felt in the latter as the globally organized enterprises incorporated inside their bor-

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ders continued to the retrenchment operations that they had begun during the global recession of the 1980’s and began to outsource jobs from the developed world to lower-labor-cost, third-world areas. Second, as concern with the pace and direction of globalization grew in the economically developed, democratic world, a new, nonelected institutional voice for promoting free trade was created in 1995, the World Trade Organization (WTO). Unlike the post-World War II, pro-free trade General Agreement on Tariffs and Trade (1947-1995) that it replaced, the WTO possessed the ability to enforce open trade agreements, and it almost immediately began aggressively to pursue its free trade agenda. Coming on the heels of the recent ratification of the North American Free Trade Agreement (NAFTA), the WTO’s activities seemed to confirm the worst fears of environmentalists that the world’s resources will be sacrificed in the name of corporate profits, of unions that their members’ jobs will be lost through outsourcing to Mexico and other developing areas,

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and of grassroots advocates of democracy that yet another area of decision-making affecting local conditions had been given to remote, popularly unaccountable bureaucrats. In short order the third piece in the mobilization of antiglobalization forces fell into place when these diverse groups began to join up with one another in common protests during the late 1990’s—first in limited numbers in Geneva, where crowds gathered in 1997 to protest at GATT’s fiftieth anniversary, and then in tens of thousands in Seattle, where the protesters so shut down the city that the five thousand WTO delegates who had gathered there could not make it to their meeting. Indeed, before the two days of demonstrations ended there, the attorney general of the United States, Janet Reno, had urged the governor of Washington to activate the state’s National Guard to reestablish order, and President Bill Clinton’s aides had canceled his scheduled address at the conference on the grounds of safety considerations.

A protester holds a sign as he walks past Seattle police officers outside the World Trade Organization meetings in November, 1999. (AP/ Wide World Photos)

The Nineties in America Impact The demonstrations in Seattle did not halt the globalization process or WTO lobbying for additional free trade agreements, although the latter did abate in the early years of the twenty-first century as a result of the absence of consensus among WTO member states on the topic of agricultural policy reform. Nor did the injuries suffered by Seattle’s antiglobalization protesters from the pepper spray and the club-wielding law-enforcement agents cause demonstrators to reconsider their methods. Quite to the contrary, the protests in Seattle drew headlines throughout the world, and publicity is the life blood of those seeking to get their cause before a wide audience. However, Seattle did have two important consequences for the future scheduling of WTO meetings, as well as those of the World Bank and International Monetary Fund (IMF)—who are perceived by antiglobalization activists as the WTO’s partners in the “unholy trinity” of the contemporary global order—and (G8) summits involving the leaders of the world’s major economic powers. First, local lawenforcement agencies (excluding Czech authorities at the time of the 2000 World Bank and IMF summit in Prague) appear to have learned to be better prepared for such protests and to handle them, insofar as possible, less provocatively. Thus, in anticipation of the coming protests by the 10,000 who had gathered in Washington, D.C., in 2000 to protest at a World Bank meeting, District of Columbia police sealed off the major routes leading to the bank’s headquarters, and with access to the bank itself denied, the protests unfolded in a largely orderly manner. Second, WTO, IMF, World Bank, European Union, and others affecting the contemporary global economic order have increasingly scheduled their meetings in hard- or expensive-to-access areas (like Hong Kong, or Qatar, the host of the 2001 WTO summit). Still, rarely have their meetings passed unnoticed, and if the past is any indicator of the near future, as the pace of globalization again increases, so too will the number of well-organized and sometimes violent antiglobalization protests. Further Reading

Bhagwati, Jagdish. In Defense of Globalization. Rev. ed. New York: Oxford University Press, 2007. A useful discussion of globalization for the lay reader. Broad, Robin. Global Backlash: Citizen Initiatives for a Just World Economy. Lanham, Md.: Roman &

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Littlefield, 2002. An in-depth look at globalization protests. Friedman, Thomas. The Lexus and the Olive Tree: Understanding Globalization. New York: Farrar, Straus and Giroux, 1999. The author of the best-selling book The World Is Flat: A Brief History of the Twentyfirst Century (2005) examines the benefits of and resistance to globalization. Legrain, Philippe. Open World: the Truth About Globalization. Chicago: Ivan R. Dee, 2004. A positive view of globalization by a former correspondent for The Economist. Podobnik, Bruce, and Thomas Ehrlich Reifer. “Global Social Movements Before and After 9/11.” Journal of World-Systems Research 10, no. 1 (Winter, 2004). Special issue. Joseph R. Rudolph, Jr. See also Air pollution; Automobile industry; Business and the economy in the United States; Downsizing and restructuring; Employment in the United States; Global warming debate; North American Free Trade Agreement (NAFTA).

■ World Wide Web A system of interlinked hypertext documents and media files that can be accessed over the Internet and viewed in a Web browser

Definition

As the World Wide Web became a reality, information on the Web was more accessible to individuals, businesses, and organizations. As the Web improved over the 1990’s, individuals were able to make more informed personal decisions; businesses developed more agile management structures, and organizations expanded their scope. In 1990, Tim Berners-Lee used the term “the World Wide Web” to describe how all the information on the Internet could be treated as a connected whole. At that time he also recognized that, with the right technology, all of this information could be viewed in a Web browser by anyone, anywhere in the world. During this period, he developed the first browser and a primitive Web server. In 1994, he founded the World Wide Web Consortium (W3C), which became the principal standards body for Web development. Berners-Lee continued his work on the Web throughout the 1990’s and today is a leader in developing the Semantic Web, an attempt to de-

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Netscape Navigator’s home page in August, 1995. Though Netscape surpassed Mosaic as the most popular Web browser, Microsoft’s Internet Explorer would become the preferred browser by 1999. (AP/Wide World Photos)

scribe the meaning of the knowledge on the Internet. In 1993, Marc Andreessen developed the Mosaic browser at the University of Illinois supercomputer center. This became the most popular browser of the early 1990’s. In 1994, he and Jim Clark founded Netscape Communications Corporation to develop a commercial browser that would capture much of the flavor of Mosaic. The Netscape Navigator browser replaced Mosaic as the most popular browser in the later 1990’s. Microsoft jumped into the browser business in 1994 by modifying the Spyglass Mosaic browser. In 1995, Microsoft bundled its browser, then called Internet Explorer (IE), with Windows 95, and by 1999 IE had become the world’s most popular browser.

In 1995, CompuServe and other Internet service providers (ISPs) started to provide access to the Web. While these ISPs had their own browsers, most customers were able to use Netscape Navigator or IE to access the Web. When individuals got access to the Web at home, as well as at their businesses and organizations, its popularity exploded and it became an information superhighway. The Animated Web One of the major improvements to the Web in the 1990’s was the introduction of animation. CompuServe introduced the graphics interchange format (GIF) file in 1987 to put color images on its message boards. In 1989, the company introduced the GIF89 file, which stored multiple im-

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ages and control data in a GIF and displayed animated color pictures. The animated GIF was quickly imported for use on the Web. In 1995, Bill Joy introduced Java while working at Sun Microsystems. Java applets placed a programmable animated picture in a portion of a browser window. Programmable Java provided even more animated effects than GIFs. Microsoft introduced ActiveX controls in 1996, which allowed a Windows program to execute in a portion of a browser window. In 1995, Netscape decided to add programmability to hypertext markup language (HTML) with a language called LiveScript. With LiveScript, one could change images and text properties, providing some animation in a browser page. In 1996, Netscape changed the name of LiveScript to JavaScript and added support in its browser for Java as well. Microsoft introduced its version of JavaScript, called Jscript, to IE in 1996. JavaScript continued to improve throughout the 1990’s. In 1992, the multipurpose Internet mail extensions (MIME) were introduced, and these added support for more pictures, sound, and video on the Web. Portals and E-Businesses In the early days of Web development, many people recognized the importance of developing Web portals. These were Web sites that allowed a user to access a wide variety of information from one site. The White House opened its portal in 1993, as did many other government agencies. In 1994, Yahoo! was founded by Stanford University graduate students Jerry Yang and David Filo. Yahoo! became an instant success and was one of the most-visited Web sites of the 1990’s. The Microsoft Network (MSN) debuted as an ISP in 1995. Like Yahoo!, it provided a variety of information services. Microsoft’s bundling of MSN with IE helped to make it one of the most popular Web portals in the early twenty-first century. While America Online (AOL) was popular as an online provider, it was slow to provide general Internet service and never gained a large share of the browser market. In 1998, AOL acquired Netscape, but the merger did not really help either company. AOL eliminated development of Netscape in 2003. The Google search engine was developed by Sergey Brin and Larry Page as a research project at Stanford University in 1996.

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Google was incorporated in 1998 and from that time on has added functionality to its home Web site, becoming a complete portal. In addition to the development of portals, a number of important e-businesses developed in the 1990’s. One of the best-known e-businesses established in this decade was Amazon.com, founded in 1994 by Jeff Bezos as an online bookstore and which later sold a wide variety of products. eBay, an online auction Web site, was founded in 1995 by Pierre Omidyar and became a premier e-business. Many of the e-businesses of the 1990’s were based on providing a service. A good example of this was Hotmail, started as a free online e-mail service by Jack Smith and Sabeer Bhatia in 1995 and acquired by Microsoft in 1997. Hotmail was one of the most popular free e-mail services of the 1990’s, with over 100 million users in 2001. In 2000, the dot-com crash resulted in many dot-coms going out of business. The Web industry immediately began rebuilding with a greater emphasis on good business practices and fully recovered from the 2000 meltdown. Impact The World Wide Web transformed the way individuals, businesses, and organizations shared information, which was more accessible and easier to use. A number of important e-businesses developed during the 1990’s, and almost all businesses and organizations adapted to use the Web by 2000. Further Reading

Berners-Lee, Tim, Mark Fischetti, and Michael Dertouzos. Weaving the Web. New York: HarperCollins, 2000. An interesting history of the World Wide Web by its inventor. Hofstetter, Fred. Internet Literacy. New York: McGrawHill, 2005. Provides a comprehensive introduction to the Internet and the World Wide Web. Mika, Peter. Social Networks and the Semantic Web. New York: Springer. 2007. A good introduction to the new interactive Web sites that began to appear at the end of the 1990’s. George M. Whitson III See also Apple Computer; CGI; Computers; DVDs; E-mail; Hackers; Internet; Instant messaging; Internet; Microsoft; MP3 format; PDAs; Silicon Valley; Spam; Y 2K problem.

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■ Wuornos, Aileen Carol Identification American serial killer Born February 29, 1956; Rochester, Michigan Died October 9, 2002; Starke, Florida

Wuornos’s tortured background, mental state, and status as a rare female serial killer escalated the debate over capital punishment in America and the impact of traumatic childhood experiences on subsequent behavior. Aileen Carol Wuornos, a victim of emotional, physical, and sexual abuse from adolescence through adulthood, and a drifter and prostitute, murdered seven men in a Florida crime spree in 1989-1990. The first man to fall victim to Wuornos was Richard Mallory, a fifty-one-year-old owner of an electronics business who Wuornos later claimed had raped her before she killed him. In June, 1990, near Tampa, Florida, the nude body of forty-three-year-old David Spears was discovered. He had been shot several times with a low-caliber handgun. A few days later, another dead male was discovered, not far from the location of the first body. This victim was a forty-year-old rodeo employee, Charles Carskaddon. Wuornos and her companion, Tyria Moore, were soon thereafter in an auto accident while in a car belonging to yet another male victim. A witness observed the two women leaving the scene of the accident and reported the incident to the police. Their descriptions were consequently spread throughout Florida. The car belonged to sixtyfive-year-old Peter Siems, a retired sailor merchant. Also murdered were Troy Burress, a fifty-year-old truck driver; Dick Humphreys, a fifty-six-year-old retired policeman; and, finally, sixty-year-old Walter Antonio, a truck driver. Wuornos proved to be a clever killer. She carried what she called her “kill bag,” with items necessary for both the murder and the cover-up. She also stole credit cards and other forms of identification from other women, using this material to pawn the stolen belongings of her victims. Pawnshops required fingerprints, and it was through this Florida law that Wuornos was put under investigation. Aileen Wuornos was arrested for murder on January 9, 1991. Moore, her lover, was tracked down by police, who pried evidence from her that was incriminating to Wuornos. Moore said that Wuornos had confessed the murder of Richard Mallory to her. Moore cooperated with police to provide informa-

Aileen Carol Wuornos, held in connection with the homicides of seven men in Florida, appears before a judge in Daytona Beach, Florida, in January, 1991. (AP/Wide World Photos)

tion that would seal the fate of Wuornos. During a series of monitored phone calls, Moore told Wuornos that if she did not confess, Moore would also be implicated and possibly charged with murder. This prompted Wuornos to confess to the murders, claiming self-defense. The trial delighted the media. Wuornos basked in the attention, eventually accepting one of many offers to write her autobiography. She was found guilty and sentenced to death. After a decade on death row, Wuornos asked to fire her attorneys and make her own decisions. Granted her request, she immediately volunteered to be executed, forfeiting all attempts at stays of execution. She died by lethal injection on October 9, 2002. Impact Wuornos was the tenth woman in the United States to be executed for capital crimes. The traumatic nature of her childhood, and the crimes

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against her own person, touched off a firestorm of debate about the validity of capital punishment. Her life was the subject of the documentaries Aileen: The Selling of a Serial Killer (1992), Aileen: Life and Death of a Serial Killer (2003), and the film Monster (2003), starring Charlize Theron and Christina Ricci. Further Reading

Russell, Sue. Lethal Intent. New York: Kensington, 2002. Wuornos, Aileen, with Christopher Berry-Dee. Monster: My True Story. London: John Blake, 2004. Twyla R. Wells See also Crime; Gun control; Hate crimes; Simpson murder case; Smith, Susan; Versace murder.

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■ WWJD bracelets Inexpensive woven nylon wristbands whose initials stand for “What would Jesus do?”

Definition

WWJD bracelets gained widespread popularity among Christian youth, who used them as a tool for sharing their faith and as a visual reminder for appropriate behavior and decision-making. The origin of the wristbands with the enigmatic WWJD initials can be traced to Holland, Michigan, in 1989. There, Calvary Reformed Church youth pastor Janie Tinklenberg was looking for a way to help the teens in her group apply their faith when faced with decisions and actions having potentially significant consequences. It was then that Tinklenberg recalled

A Baptist youth holds WWJD bracelets that he and his Christian friends wear to remind themselves, “What would Jesus do?” (AP/ Wide World Photos)

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from her childhood a favorite book titled In His Steps, written by Christian novelist Charles Sheldon in 1896. In the novel, Sheldon introduces the story of a church congregation whose faith is challenged by a sickly and destitute stranger. The vagabond addresses and transfixes the congregants with a speech that includes the probing question, “But what would Jesus do?” In response to the dying man’s query, several members of that fictional church pledge to live their lives for a year by weighing significant actions with the question, “What would Jesus do?” Reverend Tinklenberg, intrigued by the novel’s central question, enlisted the assistance of a fellow church member with merchandising experience to design an inexpensive product that would bear the WWJD initials. In assessing the type of product that would best suit her purpose, Tinklenberg opted to use wristbands to draw upon the high interest in selfmade braided friendship bracelets popular with youth at that time. Tinklenberg’s initial trepidation about how the wristbands would be received by her youth group was soon allayed when the teens began asking for more wristbands to replace those they were giving away. To keep up with the demand for this novelty item that was being promoted by word of mouth, the local manufacturer was soon producing several hundred bracelets per week. Some years later, that production soared to about twenty thousand per week after the bracelets were afforded broader exposure at a Christian bookshop convention.

Impact Despite its low-key beginning, the WWJD bracelet would become a fashionable adornment for Christian youth of the 1990’s, particularly those with evangelical ties. While originally conceived to be a tool to encourage responsible personal conduct and for introducing others to one’s faith, the bracelets evolved into an entrepreneurial bonanza, spurring the development and marketing of a host of ancillary products. By opting not to be a party to these commercial ventures, inventor and trademark holder Tinklenberg did not receive the financial gains that resulted from the success of the WWJD products. In recent years, a number of secular and irreligious takeoffs on the WWJD initialism have surfaced, promoting everything from distilled spirits to presidential candidates. Further Reading

Graff, Vincent. “Four Letters That Shook the World.” The Independent, August 1, 2003, p. 2-3. Jenkinson, Michael. “Put on Your Wristband and Follow Me.” Alberta Report 24, no. 27 (June 16, 1997): 36. “WWJD Products Inspire Thousands.” Christianity Today 41, no. 13 (November 17, 1997): 75. David L. DeHart See also Fads; Fashions and clothing; Inventions; Religion and spirituality in Canada; Religion and spirituality in the United States.

X ■ X-Files, The Identification Science-fiction television series Creator Chris Carter (1956) Date Aired from September 10, 1993, to May 19,

2002 This science-fiction series won a Peabody and various other awards during its nine-year run. It solidified the Fox network’s reputation for edgy, avant-garde programming and became one of the network’s first and longest-lasting major hits. Launched in October, 1986, the Fox network initially struggled to lure a significant number of viewers away from the Big Three—the National Broadcasting Company (NBC), the Columbia Broadcasting System (CBS), and the American Broadcasting Company (ABC). In the early 1990’s, Chris Carter, a marginally successful television writer, was contracted to produce pilot shows for Fox. Carter blended popular beliefs in government conspiracy theory with alien abduction, added horror elements from older science-fiction programs such as The Twilight Zone in the 1950’s and Kolchak: The Night Stalker in the 1970’s, and wrote the pilot episode for The X-Files in 1992. In the first episode—called simply “The Pilot”— Federal Bureau of Investigation (FBI) agents Dana Scully (Gillian Anderson) and Fox Mulder (David Duchovny) investigate the unsolved deaths of several high school classmates in Oregon. After their first meeting in his basement office (when she knocks on the door, he replies, “Sorry, nobody down here but the FBI’s most unwanted”), their investigation revealed that alien abduction was involved, that some government group knew but covered it up, and that nothing could be proved—or disproved. These premises established the basic template for the two hundred episodes that followed. The show’s success hinged upon the intellectual (and sexual) tension between the two agents and myriad characters. Mulder was an Oxford-educated

psychologist and criminal profiler whose core beliefs stemmed from his conviction that he had witnessed his sister’s abduction by aliens. Scully, a scientist and pathologist yet a devout Roman Catholic, is assigned to keep an eye on “Spooky Mulder.” Deep Throat, one of Mulder’s sources, tells him, “Always keep your friends close. But keep your enemies closer.” It is clear that he wants Mulder, who is obviously on to something, kept under scrutiny, or else Mulder would just be fired. From this beginning, The X-Files (including feature films in 1998 and 2008) continued the government-alien mythology, but added stand-alone episodes, ranging from “monster

David Duchovny and Gillian Anderson in the 1998 film The X-Files. (Hulton Archive/Getty Images)

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of the week” to simply bizarre to comedy. When Duchovny opted out of his recurring role in the final two seasons, Scully became the featured believer. Impact With slogans such as “The Truth Is Out There” and “Trust No One” and with a cultlike following by self-styled “X-Philers,” The X-Files was a popular culture icon of the 1990’s. It reflected, yet often parodied, the viewing public’s beliefs and concerns over the trustworthiness of government, the likelihood of extraterrestrial contact and its meaning for humankind, and the desire for and enjoyment of good television entertainment. Further Reading

Cavelos, Jeanne. The Science of “The X-Files.” New York: Berkley Boulevard Books, 1998. Kowalski, Dean A., ed. The Philosophy of “The X-Files.” Lexington: University Press of Kentucky, 2007. Shapiro, Marc. All Things. The Official Guide to The X-Files. Vol. 6. New York: HarperCollins, 2001. William S. Brockington, Jr.

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roles usually reserved for men. The series included several male recurring characters, including the Greek god Ares (Kevin Smith); Joxer the Mighty (Ted Raimi), a bumbling would-be warrior; and Autolycus (Bruce Campbell), the “King of Thieves”; but there were no male regulars, at the time a sharp departure from the norm. Lucy Lawless, who played Xena, and Renée O’Connor, as Gabrielle, provided an image of empowered, self-defined women that dovetailed with the growing social and economic power of women in the media, politics, and the workplace. Because of the strong subtext indicating a romantic relationship between the two, the series also appealed strongly to the lesbian subculture, which was becoming more visible and outspoken during the 1990’s. After only one year, Xena became the most popular series in syndication, and following its success, many other series with strong female lead characters

Cable television; Film in Canada; Literature in the United States; Matrix, The ; Northern Exposure ; Television; TV Parental Guidelines system; Twin Peaks. See also

■ Xena: Warrior Princess Identification Television action-adventure series Creators Robert Tapert (1955) and John

Schulian Aired from September, 1995, to May, 2001

Date

As one of the first—and the most popular—major syndicated action-adventure television series with a female lead character, Xena proved that women could be viable as stars in the action genre. Debuting in 1995, Xena: Warrior Princess was a spinoff from Hercules: The Legendary Journeys, another syndicated action-adventure series from the same producers. Featuring a lead character who was introduced as a villain in Hercules, the series was one of many entries in the “swords and sandals” subgenre of the 1990’s, which featured broadly interpreted historical settings, exotic locales, and elaborate fight sequences styled after Asian feature films. Though Xena included all these elements, it also featured two females as the main characters, filling the “buddy”

Lucy Lawless as Xena. (AP/Wide World Photos)

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sprang up, including Buffy the Vampire Slayer, La Femme Nikita, Dark Angel, and Alias. Xena was also somewhat unique among television shows in that the heroine was once an evil character, and her struggle to overcome her dark past informed much of the continuing story line of the series. Nevertheless, though the series dealt with extreme violence (though not graphically shown), the quest for spiritual fulfillment, and the question of how one can atone for evil actions—or if one can do so—Xena also featured many comedic episodes. This mixture of moods was typical of many television shows of the 1990’s, as traditional concepts of drama and situational comedy as distinct genres began to break down. Xena even dealt with a potent social issue of the 1990’s when she was magically impregnated and had a baby, thus becoming a “working mother,” leading to concerns about how she could function in her “job” as an avenger of evil and still care for her infant. Xena’s distinct leather costume

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and “yi yi yi” shout became emblematic of the growing confidence and authority of women in the 1990’s. Impact Through its mix of genres and story lines, and especially its two female lead characters, Xena: Warrior Princess symbolized the growing power of women in the wider culture. Further Reading

Mainon, Dominique, and James Ursini. The Modern Amazons: Warrior Women On-Screen. Pompton Plains, N.J.: Limelight Editions, 2006. Weisbrot, Robert. “Xena: Warrior Princess”—The Official Guide to the Xenaverse. New York: Doubleday, 1998. Vicki A. Sanders Homosexuality and gay rights; Television; Women in the workforce; Women’s rights.

See also

Y ■ Y2K problem An abbreviation for “year 2000 problem”; also called the millennium bug Date Expected to occur just after midnight on December 31, 1999 Definition

This problem was a result of traditional computer programming design, which often caused computers to malfunction in terms of date processing when certain dates occurred. Specifically, many prognosticators predicted massive computer problems when computers rolled over to 2000. In the expression Y2K, Y stands for “year” and k represents the Greek kilo, for “thousand”; thus, 2K represents 2,000. The gist of the anticipated problem was a realization that computer programs could stop working or produce errors because they stored years with only two digits, so the year 2000 would be represented by “00” and would be interpreted by software as the year 1900. This would cause date comparisons to produce incorrect results. It was also thought that related systems might fail and cause utilities and other crucial infrastructure to malfunction. Computer programmers and analysts spent much of the late 1990’s debugging and testing systems to ensure that they would work when December 31, 1999, rolled to January 1, 2000. Authors and writers on Usenet groups had begun to call attention to the potential crisis in the mid-1980’s. A typical software company listed the following types of programs and systems as likely candidates for failure: computer networks and software, all workstation software, engineering and design systems, accounting, payroll and banking, inventory control and purchasing, order entry and control, vendors, shipping and receiving, internal processes and procedures, testing and manufacturing equipment, telephone systems, time clocks, e-mail and Internet access, facsimile (fax) systems, security systems, and HVAC systems. These are major components of almost any business, and thus the worries about Y 2K were many.

In 1998, the U.S. government passed the Year 2000 Information and Readiness Disclosure Act. The White House spearheaded much of the effort, led by the President’s Council on Year 2000 Conversion. The Federal Emergency Management Agency (FEMA) was also involved. The government promoted Information Sharing and Analysis Centers for companies to share information on Y 2K readiness. The U.S. government felt that outreach to the public was very important, as well as monitoring, assessment, and contingency planning. This outreach included Y 2K Web sites, including Y 2K.gov. A publication called Y2K and You was prepared for the general public and contained accessible information about the problem and what people needed to know prior to January 1, 2000. Many industries had plans that depended on the Internet for backup communication. Since no federal agency had clear authority with regard to the Internet at this time, no agency was assessing the readiness of the Internet itself. Rather close to the deadline, on July 30, 1999, the White House held the White House Internet Y2K Roundtable, recognizing the Internet’s indispensability in case of a major communication failure. In the private sector, insurance companies sold insurance policies covering failure of businesses due to Y 2K problems. Survivalist-related businesses— gun dealers, surplus and sporting goods, Mormon bookstores selling freeze-dried food—anticipated increased business in the final months of 1999. The Year 2000 Information and Readiness Disclosure Act limited the liability of businesses that had properly disclosed their Y 2K readiness. The travel and hotel industry (as well as travelers) was concerned about reservation systems, cancellations, and widespread shutdowns while people were away from home. There were many concerns about safe travel outside of the United States. It was felt that overseas public transit systems were vulnerable because many did not have a suitable response plan in place for problems.

Prevention Strategies

The Nineties in America The Event Itself Very few computer failures occurred when the year 2000 arrived. Problems that occurred were minor, and some of these may not have been connected to Y 2K programming, as technological glitches occur often and randomly. Countries that spent very little on preparation reportedly managed as well as those that spent much more, such as the United States. For this reason, much debate since January, 2000, has centered on whether Y 2K was not a problem because of significant preparation or whether it would not have been a problem in any case and had been blown far out of proportion.

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John Koskinen, chairman of the President’s Council on Year 2000 Conversion, briefs reporters on December 31, 1999, on how the rest of the world is transitioning into the new year. (AP/Wide World Photos)

Impact Just as some hurricane preparations “batten down the hatches” of an area only to be followed by a minor storm, the Y2K issue seemed to involve overpreparation for a minor event. However, Y2K might have the risk of making individuals complacent when the next prediction of doom occurs. Once January 1, 2000, came and people awoke to find no problem, the entire issue quickly subsided. Still, there are analysts who would suggest that the preparation did in fact have an impact—especially in the case of subsequent events. Subsequent Events It has been suggested that following the terrorist attacks on the United States on September 11, 2001, New York City’s infrastructure—including subways, phone service, and financial transactions—were able to continue operation because of the redundant networks established in the event of Y2K and contingency plans devised by companies. Global banking systems were not as disrupted by 9/11 as they might have been because backup systems were activated, many of which had been established to deal with a possible complete failure of networks in the financial district on January 1, 2000. Some say that the Y 2K preparations had an impact on the August, 2003, blackout in the Northeast. Previous activities in preparation for Y 2K had included the installation of new electrical generation

equipment and systems, which allowed power to be restored relatively rapidly in some areas. Further Reading

De Jager, Peter, and Richard Bergeon. Managing 00: Surviving the Year 2000 Computing Crisis. Hoboken, N.J.: John Wiley & Sons, 1997. Contains advice to business owners about how to prepare for the Y 2K bug. Describes the issue more as a management challenge than a technical problem. Murray, Jerome T., and Marilyn J. Murray. The Year 2000 Computing Crisis: A Millennium Date Conversion Plan. New York: McGraw-Hill, 1996. This was the first book to predict the Y 2K crisis, published under another title in the mid-1980’s and reissued in 1996. President’s Council on Year 2000 Conversion, Federal Emergency Management Agency, Federal Trade Commission. Y2K and You. Washington, D.C.: Author, 1999. An excellent document designed for the general public. Answers questions, provides suggestions, and is easy to read. Mary C. Ware Airline industry; Business and the economy in the United States; Computers; Internet; Science and technology.

See also

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■ Yahoo! Identification Internet services company Date Founded in 1994

The company’s founders created one of the first successful Internet directories and one of the leading Web sites on the Internet during the 1990’s. Yahoo started in January of 1994 at Stanford University as a project by Jerry Yang and David Filo and was hosted on the university’s servers. Its original name was Jerry and David’s Guide to the World Wide Web and was intended to help people locate Web sites on the Internet according to categories such as sports, entertainment, computers. The site was designed to help people to explore the Internet rather than to direct them to specifically searched sites. The site was renamed Yahoo!, and the inclusion of the exclamation point in the name was to avoid copyright infringement.

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One of the advantages of using the name Yahoo! was that it was memorable. It was necessarily hierarchical in nature, which eventually led to the backronym “Yet Another Hierarchical Officious Oracle.” The founders designed the Web site so that it could be maintained with a minimum of effort by keeping the descriptions of the sites short, with little revision as the referenced sites grew and changed. The number of visitors to the site had doubled every month since its inception, and, as a result, the founders were asked by the university to move the site off campus since the traffic was crashing the system. The partners found a venture capitalist who saw the potential of the site, which already was attracting one million visitors per week. The site was moved, and the founders dropped out of Stanford to run their venture. Yahoo! was incorporated in March, 1995, and is based in Sunnyvale, California. It diversified into a Web portal and rushed to acquire companies to expand its range of services so that it

Yahoo! founders David Filo, left, and Jerry Yang display a fish prop at the company’s headquarters in Santa Clara, California, in 1997. The Internet services company sold 2.6 million shares at $13 each in its initial public offering in April, 1996. (AP/Wide World Photos)

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could extend the length of time a user stayed at the site. This allowed Yahoo! to create more revenue from advertising. In 1997, it acquired the online communications company Four11 and its mail service, Rocketmail, which became Yahoo! Mail. By the end of the 1990’s, Yahoo! had also acquired ClassicGames.com, Yoyodyne Entertainment, Inc., GeoCities, and eGroups to expand its range of services. It also released Yahoo! Messenger in July of 1999. Netscape Communications and America Online both offered to buy Yahoo!, but the founders held on to the company and saw the company’s stock rise to over $100 per share by the end of the 1990’s. Impact Yahoo! quickly became popular by helping people to navigate the new and expanding technology of the World Wide Web. The company was successful enough to weather the dot-com bubble, and the site remains one of the Internet’s most visited, with the number of visits numbering in the billions per day. Further Reading

Angel, Karen. Inside Yahoo! Reinvention and the Road Ahead. New York: John Wiley & Sons, 2002. Livingston, Jessica. Founders at Work: Stories of Startups’ Early Days. Berkeley, Calif.: Apress, 2007. James J. Heiney See also Amazon.com; America Online; Apple Computer; Blogs; Computers; Dot-coms; E-mail; Instant messaging; Internet; Microsoft; Project Gutenberg; Search engines; Silicon Valley; World Wide Web.

■ Yamaguchi, Kristi Identification American figure skater Born July 12, 1971; Hayward, California

In 1992, Yamaguchi became the first Asian American woman to win the Olympic gold medal for the United States. She was also the amateur world figure skating champion in 1991 and 1992 and a four-time professional figure skating champion, in 1992, 1994, 1996, and 1997. Despite being born with a clubfoot condition, Kristi Yamaguchi won distinction for the United States with her figure skating. Her successes in the 1990’s began with a first-place win at the Goodwill Games in Tacoma, Washington. At the 1990 Skate America Competition in Buffalo, New York, she earned first

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place. Yamaguchi and her partner Rudy Galindo won gold for the second straight year at the nationals in Salt Lake City. However, Yamaguchi’s fourth-place finish in singles at the 1990 World Figure Skating Championships in Halifax, Nova Scotia, Canada, and her fifth-place finish in pairs with Galindo made the nineteen-year-old rethink competing in two events. Yamaguchi’s singles instructor Christy KjarsgaardNess had married and moved to Edmonton, Alberta, Canada. Yamaguchi commuted across the border for training until she decided to concentrate solely on singles and move in with Kjarsgaard-Ness and her husband in 1990. In 1991, Yamaguchi won her second silver at the nationals in Minneapolis; Tanya Harding won first place. At the 1991 world championships in Munich, Germany, Yamaguchi placed first in singles, Harding took second, and Nancy Kerrigan took third—a clean sweep for the United States. By early 1992, Yamaguchi was the reigning U.S. and world female figure skater. She was eligible for competition in the Olympics. On February 21, 1992, at the Winter Olympics in Albertville, France, Yamaguchi earned the gold medal in singles figure skating. She was now the greatest skater in the world— only the fifth American woman to achieve the gold; the last had been Dorothy Hamill in 1976. In 1993, Yamaguchi turned professional. She joined the Stars on Ice show and earned the largest salary in tour history at that time. The following year, she appeared as herself in Disney’s D2: Mighty Ducks 2. Yamaguchi won her fourth world professional title in 1997. Wanting to inspire and encourage children, Yamaguchi established the Always Dream Foundation in 1996. The foundation assisted with afterschool programs, summer camps, and projects to aid disabled and disadvantaged children, and paired girls with positive mentors. Her Holiday Wishes Christmas Program enabled selected children to receive gifts and to skate with professionals. Her philanthropy, her endorsements, and her work continued into the twenty-first century. Impact Kristi Yamaguchi became the first Asian American woman both to win the Olympic gold for the United States and to receive induction into World Figure Skating Hall of Fame, in 1998. Although as Japanese Americans her family members had been forced into internment camps during

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Following the unprecedented results of the 1992 elections, the number of female candidates holding federal office increased from thirty to forty-eight in the House of Representatives and from two to six in the Senate. Political pundits widely heralded 1992 as the “Year of the Woman.” Americans elected the largest number of female candidates to Congress ever in a single election. Because of factors like women’s underrepresentation in Congress historically, retirements, the banking scandal, and congressional redistricting, the House had ninety-three open seats in the 1992 Kristi Yamaguchi listens to her coach during practice for the 1992 Winter Olympics in Albertville, France. (AP/Wide World Photos) elections, which partially explains female candidates’ congressional successes. Following the election, World War II, she proudly represented her nation women accounted for more than 10 percent of the in competition and as President George H. W. total congressional membership for the first time in Bush’s special presidential delegate to the Summer American history. The election was also notable beOlympics in 1992, flying on Air Force One. cause Illinois state legislator Carol Moseley-Braun became the first African American woman elected to the Senate. Further Reading Since the passage of the Nineteenth Amendment Franks, Joel S. Crossing Sidelines, Crossing Cultures: in 1920 granting woman suffrage, various political Sport and Asian Pacific American Cultural Citizenobservers had predicted the establishment of a ship. Lanham, Md.: University Press of America, women’s voting bloc. Political analysts had in fact 2000. prematurely labeled 1984 as the Year of the Woman, Hasday, Judy L. Kristi Yamaguchi. New York: Chelsea expecting a breakthrough year for women in politics House, 2007. when Congresswoman Geraldine Ferraro, a DemoSmith, Pohla. Superstars of Women’s Figure Skating. crat from New York, was chosen as the Democratic Philadelphia: Chelsea House, 1999. candidate for vice president. After Ferraro and her Anita Price Davis running mate, presidential candidate Walter Mondale, lost in a landslide to the incumbent president, See also Asian Americans; Kerrigan, Nancy; OlymRonald Reagan, a women’s voting bloc failed to depic Games of 1992; Sports. velop as predicted. The 1992 elections revealed a clear female voting bloc with women gravitating to the Democratic ■ Year of the Woman Party. For instance, the presidential election exposed an electoral gender gap, with more women Definition Popular political expression attached supporting Democrat Bill Clinton than Republican to congressional elections president George H. W. Bush, although only by a few Date 1992 percentage points. Clinton’s appeal among female The 1992 congressional elections brought twenty-four new voters grew during his first term, in part due to First women into the House of Representatives and four new Lady Hillary Rodham Clinton, who, unlike her predecessors, worked full-time outside the home. With women to the Senate, the largest increase in the number of the Anita Hill-Clarence Thomas hearings, congreswomen elected to Congress.

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sional consideration of the Family Medical Leave Act, and the debate over abortion in the background, female politicians also ran “as women,” with some explicitly highlighting their differences from male Washington “insiders.”

in the political realm. Throughout the twentieth century, female legislators had made significant inroads into many state legislatures, so that the 1992 federal elections followed already-established statelevel voting and election trends.

Impact The strides women made in the 1992 elections came under scrutiny from all sides. Discrimination against women was not eradicated despite high expectations, while fears as well as optimistic predictions that women would change the political culture in Washington, D.C., failed to materialize. Despite female candidates’ gains in 1992, women remained a clear minority in Congress, while their election rates grew at a slower rate in subsequent congressional races. As Senator Barbara Mikulski, a Democrat from Maryland, noted, “Calling 1992 the ‘Year of the Woman’ makes it sound like the Year of the Caribou or the Year of the Asparagus. We’re not a fad, a fancy, or a year.” Actually, the 1992 elections were not the consequence of a single precipitous event, but rather reflected women’s long-term, historical gains

Further Reading

Cook, Elizabeth Adell, Sue Thomas, and Clyde Wilcox. The Year of the Woman: Myths and Realities. Boulder, Colo.: Westview Press, 1994. Dolan, Kathleen. “Voting for Women in the ‘Year of the Woman.’” American Journal of Political Science 42, no. 1 (January, 1998): 272-293. Witt, Linda, Karen M. Paget, and Glenna Matthews. Running as a Woman: Gender and Power in American Politics. New York: Free Press, 1994. Brooke Speer Orr See also Abortion; Bush, George H. W.; Clinton, Bill; Clinton, Hillary Rodham; Elections in the United States, 1992; Family and Medical Leave Act of 1993; Hill, Anita; Thomas, Clarence.

After the 1992 congressional elections, the number of women in the Senate increased from two to six, including (from left) Senators Patty Murray, Carol Moseley-Braun, Barbara Mikulski, Dianne Feinstein, and Barbara Boxer. (U.S. Senate)

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■ Year-round schools Institutions that use a calendar in which students attend school approximately the same number of days as in traditional schools but buildings are utilized all year, with teams of students and teachers attending throughout the year in various configurations

Definition

Year-round education became a major factor during the 1990’s as schools attempted to maximize space and improve performance. Reports for the 1998-1999 school year indicated that approximately 2,925 year-round schools existed throughout the United States, a 500 percent increase from ten years earlier, when only 494 public schools in the United States were on a year-round calendar. In addition, the number of students enrolled in year-round schools increased almost 400 percent, from 428,961 in the previous decade to more than 2 million. Year-round schools developed for two reasons. First, they provide for efficient use of school buildings throughout the calendar year. Second, it has long been noted that students lose ground academically during the traditional extended summer break. Advocates of year-round education argue that it helps students retain information from grade to grade. The long summer vacation is often not conducive to learning, and review time in the fall cuts into the school’s teaching schedule. It is reported that especially with students who have learning difficulties, year-round school seems to help with retention. Critics counter that a traditional summer vacation is crucial to development and that children who participate in an alternate calendar miss out on that aspect of childhood. They also point out the many scheduling problems that year-round calendars can produce for families. Typical Calendars The most popular calendar is often called the 45-15 plan. The year is divided into four nine-week terms, separated by four three-week vacations. Four of these cycles yields 180 days of school. Four additional weeks each year may be allocated to winter holidays, spring vacation, and national, state, or local holidays. In a 45-15 multitrack plan, students are divided into four groups. While groups A, B, and C are in school, group D is on vacation. When group D returns, then group A is on vaca-

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tion. This rotation system gives the school additional teaching space (as one of the four groups is always “not in school”). Each track has its own 45-15 schedule of nine weeks in school and three weeks on vacation. Another plan is a 60-20 plan, in which students attend school for 60 days and are on vacation for 20 days. Students rotate through the year until they have had three 60-day terms and three 20-day vacations. Other plans include a 60-15 plan (60 days of instruction with 15 days of vacation) and a 90-30 plan (two 90-day semesters separated by a 30-day vacation period twice a year). A final plan could be called a quarter plan. The calendar is divided into four twelve-week periods: fall, winter, spring, and summer. Students may select, or be assigned to, any combination of three of the four quarters. Benefits and Problems In the 1990’s, year-round scheduling was promoted as a way to combat overcrowding as an alternative to the capital construction of new buildings, which can cost taxpayers millions of dollars. Some districts chose year-round calendars because of the potential benefits for students and teachers: for students, a more continuous learning time line, a reduced need for review, and the opportunity to utilize optional remediation programs offered during intercessions; for teachers, less absenteeism and less time reviewing material that they have already taught. Proponents claimed that year-round education could result in a marked improvement in overall school performance, especially if students come from a home environment that does not reinforce school learning, and that both students and teachers would feel more enthusiastic and motivated about school. On the other hand, critics argued that implementing a year-round calendar was a complicated process requiring the commitment not only from school staff and students but from parents and the community as well. The initial cost of setting up a year-round program was sometimes high. Renovations, such as extra storage and air conditioning, were often required for the program to run smoothly. Some of the savings resulting from yearround programs were offset by increased costs to the district, such as additional office or teaching staff. Other problems included less time for large-scale cleaning and maintenance; greater wear and tear on buildings; a complex scheduling process, causing

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frustration for parents if their children did not have common vacation times; extensive packing between sessions, as classrooms were often shared; and obstacles for teachers in pursuing continuing education coursework, as their breaks were not as long. Supporters of year-round schools claimed that they improved student learning and retention and made more efficient use of school buildings. Research during the 1990’s showed benefits and disadvantages, and the debate continued about whether this change was revolutionizing educational delivery and was doing so in a positive or negative way. A major advocate of year-round schools has been the National Association for Year-Round Education (NAYRE), a nonprofit organization founded in 1972 that provides in-service education, conferences, and other forums. One of the most vocal groups to oppose year-round schools was SummerMatters!!, which launched its Web site, http://summermatters.com, in 2001 based on research compiled since 1992. Impact

Subsequent Events Year-round education continued to grow, with more than 2.1 million children in forty-seven states enrolled in year-round schools in 2006. California, Arizona, North Carolina, Texas,

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and Kentucky had the most districts using this structure. Year-round education has begun to create interest in areas of the United States where it had not been a factor prior to the 1990’s. Further Reading

Gismondi, Haser Shelly. Year-Round Education: Change and Choice for Schools and Teachers. Lanham, Md.: Scarecrow Press, 2005. Examines three Title I year-round schools that switched from a traditional schedule in order to meet the academic needs of students. Kneese, Carolyn, and Charles Ballinger. School Calendar Reform: Learning in All Seasons. Lanham, Md.: Rowman & Littlefield, 2006. A thorough review of issues surrounding school calendar reform. Ruggiero, Adriane. Year Round Schools. Farmington Hills, Mich.: Greenhaven Press, 2007. A volume of the At Issue series that examines both sides of controversial issues. Mary C. Ware See also Educate America Act of 1994; Education in Canada; Education in the United States; Homeschooling.

Z ■ Zone diet A mixed carbohydrate, protein, and lower-fat diet designed to help a person’s body function more efficiently and possibly aid in weight loss Inventor Dr. Barry Sears (1947) Date Introduced in 1995 Definition

The Zone diet has generated much controversy. Barry Sears has insisted that his diet is healthy and balanced and helps people’s bodies burn rather than store fat. Critics, including the American Heart Association, do not endorse the Zone diet as heart-healthy. The “zone” in the Zone diet is the term coined by the diet’s inventor, biochemist Barry Sears, to describe the optimal combination of carbohydrate, protein, and fat intake that causes the body to release chemicals called eicosanoids. These chemicals tell the body to burn rather than store fat. The Zone diet recommends that 40 percent of daily calorie intake derive from carbohydrates, 30 percent from proteins, and 30 percent from monounsaturated fats. At these proportions, Sears states the body is in the proper hormone balance. Insulin levels are neither too low nor too high, the body does not receive any chemical messages to store excess calories as fat, and the body can operate with a high degree of chemical efficiency. The Zone diet is not a low-fat diet, as are many diet programs; it is a lower-fat diet. According to Sears, low-fat diets are actually counterproductive because they confuse the body into storing fat. The body thinks it will not receive sufficient amounts of calories from fats and must therefore store the fat calories it possesses. Sears developed the Zone diet to be lower in monounsaturated fats, which de-

creases the rate at which carbohydrates are absorbed by the body and converted into insulin. Moderate production levels of insulin cause the body to store less fat. Less fat storage translates into moderate weight loss over time. Sears makes distinctions among types of fat in the Zone diet, with particular emphasis on the beneficial intake of omega-3 fatty acids in proportion to omega-6 fatty acids. The Zone diet does not stress amounts of daily food consumption, though Sears does recommend that people moderate their total daily calorie intake. His diet is based on the premise that people should consume moderate amounts of carbohydrates, proteins, and fats, in proper 40:30:30 proportion in order to feel better mentally and physically, and to lose weight. The Zone diet is not a vegetarian diet, which Sears criticizes as being too low in protein. The American Heart Association has cited a lack of information on the long-term effects of the Zone diet as the reason for not endorsing it as heart-healthy. Impact The Zone diet is easy to follow and has attracted a number of Hollywood celebrities among its followers. Sears has continued to study the effects of his Zone diet and has created a vegetarian-friendly Zone diet based on soy protein. He continues to publish Zone diet guides. Further Reading

Sears, Barry. The Anti-Inflammation Zone: Reversing the Silent Epidemic That’s Destroying Our Health. New York. ReganBooks, 2005. _______. The Zone: A Dietary Road Map. New York: HarperCollins, 1995. Victoria Erhart See also

Fads; Food trends; Health care.

■ Entertainment: Major Films of the 1990’s The one hundred titles listed here are a representative sampling of 1990’s films regarded as significant because of their box-office success, their Academy Award honors, their influence, or their critical reputations. Entries that include “See also main entry” have a full essay in The Nineties in America. All references to awards refer to the Academy Awards given by the Academy of Motion Picture Arts and Sciences.

1990 Dances with Wolves (Orion/TIG Productions; dir. Kevin Costner) A white man (Costner) becomes involved with Lakota Sioux in this surprise hit that briefly resurrected the Western and won Oscars for Best Picture, Director, Adapted Screenplay, Cinematography, Editing, Score, and Sound. See also main entry. Edward Scissorhands (Twentieth Century-Fox; dir. Tim Burton) Whimsical fantasy about a scientist (Vincent Price) who makes a boy (Johnny Depp), with scissors for hands, who tries to fit in with a suburban community. Features some of the decade’s best production design. Ghost (Howard W. Koch/Paramount; dir. Jerry Zucker) The spirit of a murdered man (Patrick Swayze) plots with a psychic (Whoopi Goldberg) to find his killer and protect his wife (Demi Moore). Goldberg earned the Best Supporting Actress Oscar for adding comedy to romantic fantasy. The Godfather: Part III (Zoetrope/Paramount; dir. Francis Ford Coppola) This long-awaited conclusion to the Michael Corleone saga was a critical and commercial disappointment but still had flashes of Coppola brilliance. GoodFellas (Warner Bros.; dir. Martin Scorsese) One of the most popular Scorsese crime dramas tells the true story of a Brooklyn gangster (Ray Liotta). Joe Pesci won the Best Supporting Actor Oscar as an especially violent hoodlum. See also main entry. Home Alone (Twentieth Century-Fox; dir. Chris Columbus) Hugely popular slapstick comedy about an encounter of a young boy (Macaulay Culkin) with two bumbling burglars (Joe Pesci and Daniel Stern). See also main entry. Longtime Companion (American Playhouse/Samuel Goldwyn; dir. Norman René) One of the first films to address the AIDS crisis looks at its evolution from the perspective of seven gay men. Metropolitan (Westerly Films/New Line Cinema; dir. Whit Stillman) The burgeoning American in-

dependent film movement made its presence known through Stillman’s affectionate yet satirical portrait of New York debutante society in the 1980’s. Pretty Woman (Buena Vista/Silver Screen Partners IV/Touchstone; dir. Garry Marshall) Unlikely fairy tale in which a lawyer (Richard Gere) performs a makeover on a prostitute (Julia Roberts). The romantic comedy made Roberts a star. Reversal of Fortune (Warner Bros.; dir. Barbet Schroeder) Jeremy Irons won the Best Actor Oscar as Claus von Bulow, accused of the attempted murder of his socialite wife, Sunny (Glenn Close). Adapted from the book by von Bulow’s attorney, Alan Dershowitz (Ron Silver).

1991 Barton Fink (Twentieth Century-Fox; dir. Joel Coen) Joel and Ethan Coen’s cynical look at the so-called golden age of Hollywood depicts an idealistic screenwriter (John Turturro) who spirals into a nightmare world. Also features John Mahoney as an alcoholic writer inspired by William Faulkner. Beauty and the Beast (Buena Vista/Silver Screen Partners IV/Walt Disney; dir. Gary Trousdale) Disney launched its quality comeback with this animated musical version of the classic French fairy tale. The first animated film to be nominated for a Best Picture Academy Award, it won Oscars for Alan Menken’s score and the title song by Menken and Howard Ashman. See also main entry. Boyz ’N the Hood (Columbia; dir. John Singleton) One of the decade’s best-received films about African Americans shows the struggles of three young men (Morris Chestnut, Cuba Gooding, Jr., and Ice Cube) in South Central Los Angeles. City Slickers (Castle Rock/Columbia; dir. Ron Underwood) Three middle-class men (Billy Crystal, Daniel Stern, and Bruno Kirby) spend their vacation on a New Mexico-to-Colorado cattle drive. Jack Palance won a Best Supporting Actor

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Oscar as the no-nonsense cowboy in charge of the greenhorns. The Fisher King (TriStar; dir. Terry Gilliam) A cynical radio talk show host (Jeff Bridges) becomes a depressed alcoholic after one of his comments incites a listener to murder. He discovers he can save himself by helping a homeless man (Robin Williams). Mercedes Ruehl won a Best Supporting Actress Oscar as the hero’s understanding girlfriend. JFK (Alcor Films/Canal Plus/Ixtlan Corporation/ Regency Enterprises/Warner Bros.; dir. Oliver Stone) New Orleans district attorney Jim Garrison (Kevin Costner) prosecutes wealthy gay businessman Clay Shaw (Tommy Lee Jones) for conspiring to assassinate President John F. Kennedy. Highly controversial because of Stone’s insistence that Lee Harvey Oswald (Gary Oldman) did not act alone. My Own Private Idaho (New Line Cinema; dir. Gus Van Sant) William Shakespeare’s Henry IV is updated to late twentieth century Portland, Oregon, and the story of two young male hustlers, Mike (River Phoenix) and Scott (Keanu Reeves). Mike and the boys’ Falstaff-like leader (William Richert) hope they will benefit from Scott’s forthcoming inheritance. The Silence of the Lambs (Strong Heart/Orion; dir. Jonathan Demme) FBI agent Clarice Starling (Jodie Foster) tracks a serial killer (Ted Levine) with the help of terrifying murderer Hannibal Lecter (Anthony Hopkins). Winner of Oscars for Best Picture, Director, Actress, Actor, and Ted Talley’s adaptation of the Thomas Harris novel. See also main entry. Terminator 2: Judgment Day (Studio Canal/Pacific Western/Lightstorm Entertainment/Carolco Pictures; dir. James Cameron) Android (Arnold Schwarzenegger) from The Terminator (1984) returns as a good robot trying to protect Earth from a more advanced, evil creation (Robert Patrick). This rare sequel to equal the original in quality won Oscars for Best Visual Effects, Sound, Sound Effects Editing, and Makeup. See also main entry. Thelma and Louise (Percy Main Productions/Pathé Films/MGM; dir. Ridley Scott) A road trip in the American West turns violent for two friends (Geena Davis and Susan Sarandon). Callie Khouri’s original screenplay won an Oscar. See also main entry.

1992 Basic Instinct (Canal Plus/Carolco Pictures/TriStar; dir. Paul Verhoeven) A San Francisco policeman (Michael Douglas), suspecting a mystery novelist (Sharon Stone) of murder, begins an affair with her. Controversial for its depiction of gays and women, the film made Stone a superstar. See also main entry. A Few Good Men (David Brown/Castle Rock/Columbia; dir. Rob Reiner) In this courtroom drama from Aaron Sorkin’s Broadway play, a U.S. Navy lawyer (Tom Cruise) prosecutes two Marines (James Marshall and Wolfgang Bodison) for murder. Famous for Jack Nicholson’s flamboyant performance as a Marine colonel and the line “You can’t handle the truth.” Glengarry Glen Ross (Zupnik-Curtis Enterprises/ New Line Cinema; dir. James Foley) This adaptation of David Mamet’s Broadway play about real estate agents desperate to save their jobs is most notable for the performances of its powerful cast: Al Pacino, Alec Baldwin, Alan Arkin, Ed Harris, Kevin Spacey, and Jack Lemmon. The Last of the Mohicans (Twentieth Century-Fox; dir. Michael Mann) Based more on the 1936 film than James Fenimore Cooper’s classic novel, Mann’s exuberant film balances action, romance, and spectacle with outstanding performances by Daniel Day Lewis as the hero and Wes Studi as the villain. Won the Oscar for Best Sound. A League of Their Own (Columbia; dir. Penny Marshall) Atmospheric account of the short-lived women’s professional baseball league of the 1940’s, with Geena Davis and Lori Petty as the star players and Tom Hanks as the manager. Memorable for Hanks’s delivery of the line “There’s no crying in baseball.” Malcolm X (40 Acres and a Mule Filmworks/Largo International/Warner Bros.; dir. Spike Lee) Lee’s vivid biopic traces the rise of the civil rights leader (Denzel Washington) from criminal to spokesman for the Nation of Islam. With a notable performance by Al Freeman, Jr., as Elijah Mohammed. The Player (Fine Line Features; dir. Robert Altman) Acclaimed director Altman rebounded from a long slump with this invigorating Hollywood satire from Michael Tolkin’s novel. His job threatened, a studio executive (Tim Robbins) resorts to murder as the era’s business practices are tar-

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geted. With cameos by Julia Roberts, Bruce Willis, and other stars as themselves. Reservoir Dogs (Live Entertainment/Miramax; dir. Quentin Tarantino) Tarantino’s first film as a director tells the violent story of a robbery gone wrong. With Harvey Keitel, Tim Roth, Steve Buscemi, and Michael Madsen, it created the template for the era’s crime films. Unforgiven (Malpaso/Warner Bros.; dir. Clint Eastwood) The decade’s second big Western examines how legends are made as an outlaw turned farmer (Eastwood) and his friend (Morgan Freeman) seek revenge against a corrupt lawman (Gene Hackman). Won Oscars for Best Picture, Director, Supporting Actor (Hackman), and Editing. See also main entry. Wayne’s World (Paramount; dir. Penelope Spheeris) One of the few successful Saturday Night Live spinoffs presents two intellectually challenged young men (Mike Meyers and Dana Carvey) whose publicaccess television show is threatened by an evil network executive (Rob Lowe).

1993 The Age of Innocence (Columbia; dir. Martin Scorsese) Taking a marked departure from crime, Scorsese looks at New York high society of the nineteenth century. The meticulous reproduction of the inflexible culture examined in Edith Wharton’s 1920 novel features excellent performances by Daniel Day Lewis, Michelle Pfeiffer, and Wynona Ryder. Gabriella Pescucci’s costumes won an Oscar. The Fugitive (Warner Bros.; dir. Andrew Davis) One of the most successful transfers of a classic television series to the big screen presents the efforts of Dr. Richard Kimble (Harrison Ford), wrongly convicted of murdering his wife, to prove his innocence. Tommy Lee Jones won a Best Supporting Actor Oscar as the lawman tracking down Kimble after his escape. Groundhog Day (Columbia; dir. Harold Ramis) A cynical Pittsburgh television weatherman (Bill Murray) goes to Punxsutawney, Pennsylvania, for Groundhog Day only to relive the same day over and over. Changing his sour personality, he begins wooing his producer (Andie MacDowell). The romantic comedy’s reputation has increased over the years.

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Jurassic Park (Amblin Entertainment/Universal; dir. Steven Spielberg) The year’s top-grossing film is most notable for the creation of realistic dinosaurs. Won Oscars for Best Visual Effects, Sound, and Sound Effects Editing. See also main entry. Philadelphia (TriStar; dir. Jonathan Demme) The decade’s most prominent treatment of AIDS features Tom Hanks as a Philadelphia lawyer fired for contracting the disease and Denzel Washington as his homophobic attorney. Hanks won his first Best Actor Oscar, and Bruce Springsteen’s title song also took an Academy Award. See also main entry. Schindler’s List (Universal; dir. Steven Spielberg) In the same year as Jurassic Park, Spielberg showed his versatility with this heartfelt Holocaust drama featuring Liam Neeson as the German industrialist trying to protect his Jewish laborers. The director won his first Oscar, with other Academy Awards for Best Picture, Adapted Screenplay, Cinematography, Editing, Art Direction, and Score. See also main entry. Sleepless in Seattle (TriStar; dir. Nora Ephron) Inspired by the classic romance An Affair to Remember (1957), this lighter treatment finds a Baltimore woman (Meg Ryan) falling in love with a Seattle widower (Tom Hanks) after hearing him talk about his late wife on a call-in radio program. True Romance (Warner Bros.; dir. Tony Scott) This ironically titled, bloody action film written by Quentin Tarantino finds a meek young man (Christian Slater) and a prostitute (Patricia Arquette) on the run with a suitcase of cocaine. Famous for profane confrontation between a gangster (Christopher Walken) and the hero’s father (Dennis Hopper). Impressive cast includes James Gandolfini, Samuel L. Jackson, Gary Oldman, Brad Pitt, and Val Kilmer as the ghost of Elvis Presley. The War Room (Pennebaker Associates; dir. D. A. Pennebaker and Chris Hegedus) Documentary about the 1992 presidential race focuses on the day-to-day operation of Bill Clinton’s campaign staff. What’s Love Got to Do with It? (Buena Vista; dir. Brian Gibson) The true story of the rise of singer Tina Turner (Angela Basset) and her abusive relationship with jealous husband Ike Turner (Laurence Fishburne).

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1994 Crumb (Crumb Partners I/Superior Pictures; dir. Terry Zwigoff) Acclaimed documentary about eccentric underground comic-book artist Robert Crumb. Notorious for being named the year’s best documentary by several critics groups only to be ignored by Oscars. Dumb and Dumber (New Line Cinema; dir. Peter Farrelly) One of the most popular of the comedies by Bobby and Peter Farrelly finds two dimwits (Jim Carrey and Jeff Daniels) trying to return a suitcase of money to a woman (Lauren Holly) who left it as ransom for her kidnapped husband. Forrest Gump (Paramount; dir. Robert Zemeckis) The title character (Tom Hanks) becomes involved in several historical events of the second half of the twentieth century. Hugely popular but vilified by some for its reactionary politics, the film won Oscars for Best Picture, Director, Actor, Adapted Screenplay, Editing, and Visual Effects. See also main entry. Hoop Dreams (Kartemquin Films/KCTA-TV; dir. Steve James) This documentary about inner-city basketball players in Chicago was nominated for an Oscar for Best Editing, but the failure of it and Crumb to be nominated for Best Documentary led to changes in the way documentaries are evaluated by the Academy of Motion Picture Arts and Sciences. Interview with the Vampire (Warner Bros.; dir. Neil Jordan) Story of two vampires (Tom Cruise and Brad Pitt) from eighteenth century New Orleans to the San Francisco of the 1990’s. Anne Rice notoriously opposed the casting of Cruise in this adaptation of her best seller but recanted after seeing his performance. The Lion King (Buena Vista; dir. Roger Allers and Rob Minkoff)This journey of a lion cub (voices of Jonathan Taylor Thomas and Matthew Broderick) to adulthood has been one of Disney’s most popular animated films. With excellent vocal performances by Jeremy Irons and James Earl Jones. Won Oscars for Hans Zimmer’s score and the song “Can You Feel the Love Tonight” by Elton John and Tim Rice. Source of the longrunning Broadway musical. Pulp Fiction (Miramax; dir. Quentin Tarantino) Tarantino solidified his reputation with his highly original tribute to crime films and fiction. Intertwining three stories, it won a Best Original Screen-

play Oscar for Tarantino and Roger Avery. Easily the decade’s most influential film. See also main entry. Quiz Show (Buena Vista; dir. Robert Redford) True story of how college professor Charles Van Doren (Ralph Fiennes) came to cheat on a popular television program. Examines how the medium began transforming American society during the 1950’s. The Shawshank Redemption (Columbia; dir. Frank Darabont) Stephen King’s story of how a banker (Tim Robbins), wrongly convicted of murder, deals with prison life was a modest hit but has become one of the most popular films of all time. With the aid of another convict (Morgan Freeman), the banker works to improve prison conditions. Speed (Twentieth Century-Fox; dir. Jan de Bont) An extortionist (Dennis Hopper) rigs a Los Angeles bus to explode if its speed drops below fifty miles per hour. With Keanu Reeves as a bomb specialist and Sandra Bullock, who became a star as a result, as the driver. Won the Oscar for Best Sound.

1995 Apollo 13 (Universal; dir. Ron Howard) Astronauts (Tom Hanks, Kevin Bacon, and Bill Paxton) heading to the moon face a life-or-death crisis when their oxygen and power supplies are threatened. Won Oscars for Best Editing and Sound. The Bridges of Madison County (Warner Bros.; dir. Clint Eastwood) A photographer (Eastwood) has an affair with an Iowa housewife (Meryl Streep). Eastwood won acclaim for transforming Robert James Waller’s sappy best seller into a respectable drama. Clueless (Paramount; dir. Amy Heckerling) Jane Austen’s Emma (1816) updated to a Beverly Hills high school. One of the decade’s most popular teen comedies. Get Shorty (MGM/United Artists; dir. Barry Sonnenfeld) A Miami loan collector (John Travolta) goes to Los Angeles to collect from a producer (Gene Hackman) of low-budget films and begins trying to develop a screenplay based on his experiences. With Rene Russo as a failed actress and Danny DeVito as an egotistical star. Heat (Warner Bros.; dir. Michael Mann) Los Angeles cop Vincent Hanna (Al Pacino) tries to trap Neil McCauley (Robert De Niro), a thief who plans elaborate heists. While critics at the time

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emphasized the first pairing of De Niro and Pacino, the film has gained stature as one of the greatest crime films and as Mann’s masterpiece. Nixon (Buena Vista; dir. Oliver Stone) Stone’s interpretation of the Watergate scandal, with Anthony Hopkins as Richard Nixon, Joan Allen as his wife, Paul Sorvino as Henry Kissinger, and Bob Hoskins as J. Edgar Hoover. Seven (New Line Cinema; dir. David Fincher) Fincher established himself as a major talent with this dark, violent tale of the search for a gruesome serial killer (Kevin Spacey) by policemen Brad Pitt and Morgan Freeman, with Gwyneth Paltrow as Pitt’s wife. One of the decade’s most influential films has a shockingly memorable ending. Showgirls (MGM/United Artists; dir. Paul Verhoeven) Account of a sexy Las Vegas dancer (Elizabeth Berkley) was lambasted by critics but has gained cult status as a camp classic. See also main entry. Toy Story (Buena Vista; dir. John Lasseter) A toy cowboy (voice of Tom Hanks) and a space ranger (Tim Allen) compete to be their owner’s favorite toy. This first feature animated by computer set the standard for such films. Lasseter received a Special Achievement Award from the Academy of Motion Picture Arts and Sciences. The Usual Suspects (Gramercy Pictures; dir. Bryan Singer) After meeting in jail, five criminals (Gabriel Byrne, Benicio Del Toro, Kevin Pollak, Stephen Baldwin, and Kevin Spacey) begin planning robberies together only to draw the attention of the mythical master criminal Keyser Soze. Won Oscars for Best Original Screenplay, by Christopher McQuarrie and Singer, and Best Supporting Actor (Spacey).

1996 Big Night (Rysher Entertainment/Timpano/Electric Pictures; dir. Campbell Scott and Stanley Tucci) Brothers Primo (Tony Shalhoub) and Secondo (Tucci) operate an authentic Italian restaurant in 1950’s New Jersey but cannot compete with a neighboring enterprise run by the boorish Pascal (Ian Holm). Though ostensibly about food, the film is one of the best about what it means to be an artist. Bottle Rocket (Sony; dir. Wes Anderson) Young Texans desperate to be criminals become involved

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with a con man (James Caan). Charming lowbudget comedy launched the careers of Anderson, cowriter and costar Owen Wilson, and costar Luke Wilson. Bound (Gramercy Pictures; dir. Andy and Larry Wachowski) Before hitting the big time with The Matrix, the Wachowskis paid homage to film noir with this tale of ex-convict Corky (Gina Gershon) and gangster moll Violet (Jennifer Tilly). After beginning an affair, they plot to rob Caesar (Joe Pantoliano), Violet’s psychotic boyfriend. Fargo (Gramercy Pictures; dir. Joel Coen) A Minnesota car salesman (William H. Macy) hires two bumblers (Steve Buscemi and Peter Stormare) to kidnap his wife (Kristin Rudrüd), only to run into the unexpected interference of a pregnant police chief (Frances McDormand). Joel and Ethan Coen’s affectionate satire of the mores of their native state won Oscars for Best Original Screenplay and Best Actress (McDormand). Flirting with Disaster (Miramax; dir. David O. Russell) Mel (Ben Stiller), his wife, Nancy (Patricia Arquette), and a psychology student (Tea Leoni) track down Mel’s biological parents (Alan Alda and Lily Tomlin), with unexpected results. Sparkling satire includes Mary Tyler Moore and George Segal as Mel’s adoptive parents and Josh Brolin as a bisexual lawman. Jerry Maguire (Gracie Films; dir. Cameron Crowe) A sports agent (Tom Cruise), down to one client (Cuba Gooding, Jr.), is adored by a single mother (Renee Zellwegger). A notable examination of self-absorption, the film earned Gooding a Best Supporting Actor Oscar and introduced the phrase “Show me the money.” The Nutty Professor (Imagine Entertainment/Universal; dir. Tom Shadyac) Remake of the 1963 Jerry Lewis comedy stars Eddie Murphy as six characters, in the tradition of Lewis, as well as Alec Guinness and Peter Sellers. Murphy’s remarkable makeup won Oscars for Rick Baker and David Leroy Anderson. Scream (Dimension Films/Miramax; dir. Wes Craven) This popular parody of teen slasher films led to two sequels. See also main entry. Sling Blade (Shooting Gallery/Miramax; dir. Billy Bob Thornton) Years after murdering his mother and her boyfriend, a mentally handicapped man (Thornton) tries to reenter society. Thornton’s adapted screenplay won an Oscar.

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Tin Cup (Gary Foster/Monarchy Enterprises/Regency Enterprises/Warner Bros.; dir. Ron Shelton) An ambitionless golf pro (Kevin Costner) decides to try for the big time after falling for a psychologist (Renee Russo) and discovering she is involved with his longtime hated rival (Don Johnson). Widely considered the most accomplished golf film.

1997 As Good as It Gets (Gracie Films/Sony/TriStar; dir. James L. Brooks) A neurotic, misanthropic writer (Jack Nicholson) begins to change while taking care of a Brussels Griffon after a gay neighbor (Greg Kinnear) is brutally beaten. Won Oscars for Nicholson and Helen Hunt, as his waitress girlfriend. Austin Powers: International Man of Mystery (Capella International/KC Medien/Moving Picture Company/New Line Cinema; dir. Jay Roach) Mike Myers wrote this affectionate send-up of James Bond films and the swinging London of the 1960’s and stars as the title character and his nemesis, Dr. Evil. Boogie Nights (Lawrence Gordon/New Line Cinema; dir. Paul Thomas Anderson) Mark Wahlberg, Julianne Moore, and Heather Graham play performers in late 1970’s pornographic films directed by Burt Reynolds. Anderson finds considerable pathos in the unusual surrogate family formed by people in the porn industry. One of the decade’s most original films. Donnie Brasco (Mandalay Pictures/Sony/TriStar; dir. Mike Newell) True story of an FBI agent (Johnny Depp) who infiltrates the Mafia and befriends a low-level mobster (Al Pacino). As a failure whose life is falling apart, a surprisingly subdued Pacino gives one of his greatest performances. Good Will Hunting (Miramax; dir. Gus Van Sant) A Boston janitor (Matt Damon) who wants nothing more than to hang out with his buddy (Ben Affleck) is discovered to be a mathematical genius. He begins visiting a sad psychologist (Robin Williams) to learn to deal with his past. Damon and Affleck won the Best Original Screenplay Oscar, and Williams won for Best Supporting Actor. In the Company of Men (Fair and Square Productions/Atlantis Films; dir. Neil LaBute) Two former college friends (Aaron Eckhart and Matt

Malloy) bond over their resentment toward women and plot to humiliate a hearing-impaired woman (Stacey Edwards). LaBute went on to other controversial explorations of American maleness. L.A. Confidential (Regency Enterprises; Warner Bros.; dir. Curtis Hanson) A straight-arrow police detective (Guy Pearce), his flashy colleague (Kevin Spacey), and a brutally impulsive cop (Russell Crowe) explore corruption within their department in 1950’s Los Angeles. Won Oscars for Best Supporting Actress, Kim Basinger as a prostitute, and for the brilliant adaptation of James Ellroy’s novel by Brian Helgeland and Hanson. Men in Black (Amblin Entertainment/Columbia/ Sony; dir. Barry Sonnenfeld) A New York cop (Will Smith) and a federal agent (Tommy Lee Jones) track down aliens from other planets in this special-effects-laden comic adventure yarn. The Best Makeup Oscar went to Rick Baker and David Leroy Anderson. Titanic (Lightstorm Entertainment/Paramount/ Twentieth Century-Fox; dir. James Cameron) Cameron’s balance of romance, between Leonardo DiCaprio and Kate Winslet, and special effects set box-office records around the world and won Oscars for Best Picture, Director, Cinematography, Editing, Art Direction, Costume Design, Visual Effects, Sound, Sound Effects Editing, Score, and Song. See also main entry. Wag the Dog (Baltimore Pictures/Punch Productions/Tribeca/New Line Cinema; dir. Barry Levinson) To cover up a presidential scandal, a political consultant (Robert De Niro) hires an egotistical film producer (Dustin Hoffman) to create a fake war to divert attention. The screenplay by David Mamet and Hilary Henkin is cynical yet hilarious.

1998 American History X (Turman-Morrissey Company; dir. Tony Kaye) A neo-Nazi (Edward Norton) goes to prison after shooting young African Americans breaking into his car. In prison, his racial views begin to change, only for his younger brother (Edward Furlong) to follow in his white supremacist tracks. Gods and Monsters (Regent Entertainment; dir. Bill Condon) Sensitive portrayal of retired film direc-

The Nineties in America

tor James Whale (Ian McKellen), best known for Frankenstein (1931), and his relationship with a young gardener (Brendan Fraser) who does not realize his employer is gay. Condon won a Best Adapted Screenplay Oscar. Out of Sight (Jersey Films; dir. Steven Soderbergh) A Florida federal marshal (Jennifer Lopez) struggles not to let her attraction to an escaped convict (George Clooney) interfere with her duties. This outstanding adaptation of Elmore Leonard’s novel features Don Cheadle as a violent convict and Albert Brooks as a billionaire criminal. Pleasantville (New Line Cinema; dir. Gary Ross) Charming satire of American values finds two teenagers (Tobey Maguire and Reese Witherspoon) transported into a 1950’s situation comedy, where they transform the lives of the innocent black-and-white characters. Primary Colors (Mutual Film Company/Universal; dir. Mike Nichols) A philandering presidential candidate (John Travolta), his supportive wife (Emma Thompson), and his wily adviser (Billy Bob Thornton) are the focus of Elaine May’s adaptation of Joe Klein’s fictionalized view of Bill and Hillary Clinton and James Carville. Rush Hour (New Line Cinema; dir. Brett Ratner) A Hong Kong policeman (Jackie Chan) goes to Los Angeles after a diplomat’s daughter is kidnapped and teams with an unorthodox police detective (Chris Tucker). Highly successful kickoff to popular comedy series. Rushmore (American Empirical/Touchstone; dir. Wes Anderson) A precocious student (Jason Schwartzman) at a Houston private school falls for a teacher (Olivia Williams), who also attracts the attention of a tycoon (Bill Murray). The second film written by Owen Wilson and Anderson is one of the best treatments ever of the pains of adolescence. Saving Private Ryan (Amblin Entertainment/Mutual Film Company/DreamWorks/Paramount; dir. Steven Spielberg) Spielberg won his second Oscar for this World War II drama depicting the D-Day invasion, with Tom Hanks, Matt Damon, and unusually realistic violence in the opening scene. Also won Oscars for Best Cinematography, Editing, Sound, and Sound Effects Editing. See also main entry. There’s Something About Mary (Twentieth CenturyFox; dir. Bobby and Peter Farrelly) Ted (Ben

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Stiller) hires private detective Pat (Matt Dillon) to find Mary (Cameron Diaz), the girl he loved in high school, only for Pat to fall for her, too. Featuring such distinctive Farrelly moments as Ted’s getting his penis caught in a zipper. The Truman Show (Paramount; dir. Peter Weir) Truman (Jim Carrey) is unaware that his life is a real-time television program and that his friends and family are merely actors. When Truman decides to leave his hometown, actually a set, the program’s director (Ed Harris) must prevent him. Many have seen the film as a profound religious allegory.

1999 American Beauty (Cohen Productions/DreamWorks; dir. Sam Mendes) A middle-aged man (Kevin Spacey) is having a midlife crisis, his wife (Annette Bening) is restless, his daughter (Thora Birch) is depressed, and a neighbor (Chris Cooper) is intolerant. This dark look at the American family won Oscars for Best Picture, Director, Actor (Spacey), Original Screenplay (Alan Ball), and Cinematography (Conrad L. Hall). American Pie (Universal; dir. Chris and Paul Weitz) This bawdy look at the efforts of four Michigan high school seniors to lose their virginity was the decade’s most popular teen comedy. Being John Malkovich (Single Cell Pictures/Propaganda Films/Gramercy Pictures; dir. Spike Jonze) A down-on-his-luck puppeteer (John Cusack) takes a job as a file clerk and enters a door taking him into the brain of actor John Malkovich. The decade’s most offbeat film. The Blair Witch Project (Haxan Films; dir. Daniel Myrick and Eduardo Sánchez) This low-budget horror film presented as documentary was a surprise box-office hit. See also main entry. Fight Club (Linson Films/Regency Enterprises/Fox 2000 Pictures/Twentieth Century-Fox; dir. David Fincher) A depressed young man (Edward Norton) becomes friends with his exact opposite (Brad Pitt), and the two form a club whose members beat up one another. A violent satire of conformity and materialism. The Insider (Forward Pass/Touchstone; dir. Michael Mann) True story of Jeffrey Wigand (Russell Crowe), a research scientist for a powerful tobacco company. After Wigand is fired, he contacts 60 Minutes producer Lowell Bergman (Al

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Pacino), who arranges for him to be interviewed by Mike Wallace (Christopher Plummer) about how the cigarette industry works. One of the best films ever about corporate America features a great performance by Crowe, playing a character much older than himself. The Matrix (Warner Bros.; dir. Andy and Larry Wachowski) Wildly popular science-fiction film with incredible special effects and a philosophical underpinning. Won Oscars for Editing, Visual Effects, Sound, and Sound Effects Editing. See also main entry. The Sixth Sense (Spyglass Entertainment/Hollywood Pictures; dir. M. Night Shyamalan) A young boy (Haley Joel Osment) who claims to see the spirits of the dead is sent to a child psychologist (Bruce Willis). Noted for its surprise ending and the line “I see dead people.” Star Wars: Episode I—The Phantom Menace (Twentieth Century-Fox; dir. George Lucas) Lucas restarts the Star Wars franchise after a sixteen-year absence. See also main entry. Three Kings (Atlas Entertainment/Coast Ridge Films/Village Roadshow Pictures/Village-A.M. Partnership/Warner Bros.; dir. David O. Russell) One of the decade’s few films about the Gulf War presents George Clooney, Mark Wahlberg, and Ice Cube as soldiers seeking gold ostensibly hidden by Saddam Hussein. Famous for offscreen conflicts between Russell and Clooney.

Further Reading

Biskind, Peter. Down and Dirty Pictures: Miramax, Sundance, and the Rise of Independent Film. New York: Simon & Schuster, 2004. Informative look at the increasing importance of independent American films. Greene, Richard, and K. Silem Mohammad, eds. Quentin Tarantino and Philosophy. Chicago: Open Court, 2007. Examination of the ideas expressed in Reservoir Dogs and Pulp Fiction. King, Geoff. American Independent Cinema. Bloomington: Indiana University Press, 2005. Consideration of film aesthetics as well as the political and social issues addressed by independent films since the 1980’s. Lewis, Jon, ed. The End of Cinema as We Know It: American Film in the Nineties. New York: New York University Press, 2001. Thirty-four brief essays look at individual films as well as such topics as independent films, censorship, and the nature of celebrity. Müller, Jürgen, ed. Movies of the 90’s. Köln, Germany: Taschen, 2001. Essays on 141 films. Heavily illustrated. Rybin, Steven. The Cinema of Michael Mann. Lanham, Md.: Lexington Books, 2007. Analysis of the director who made three of the best films of the 1990’s, The Last of the Mohicans, Heat, and The Insider. Tzioumakis, Yannis. American Independent Cinema: An Introduction. New Brunswick, N.J.: Rutgers University Press, 2006. Examines how independent films became institutionalized during the 1990’s. Michael Adams

■ Entertainment: Academy Awards A title or name followed by an asterisk (*) indicates the presence of a full-length essay within The Nineties in America.

1990

1993

Best Picture: Dances with Wolves* Best Actor: Jeremy Irons, Reversal of Fortune Best Actress: Kathy Bates, Misery Best Supporting Actor: Joe Pesci, GoodFellas* Best Supporting Actress: Whoopi Goldberg, Ghost Best Director: Kevin Costner, Dances with Wolves* Best Original Screenplay: Bruce Joel Rubin, Ghost Best Adapted Screenplay: Michael Blake, Dances with Wolves* Best Cinematography: Dean Semler, Dances with Wolves*

Best Picture: Schindler’s List* Best Actor: Tom Hanks*, Philadelphia* Best Actress: Holly Hunter, The Piano Best Supporting Actor: Tommy Lee Jones, The Fugitive Best Supporting Actress: Anna Paquin, The Piano Best Director: Steven Spielberg, Schindler’s List* Best Original Screenplay: Jane Campion, The Piano Best Adapted Screenplay: Steven Zaillian, Schindler’s List* Best Cinematography: Janusz Kaminski, Schindler’s List*

1991 Best Picture: The Silence of the Lambs* Best Actor: Anthony Hopkins, The Silence of the Lambs* Best Actress: Jodie Foster, The Silence of the Lambs* Best Supporting Actor: Jack Palance, City Slickers Best Supporting Actress: Mercedes Ruehl, The Fisher King Best Director: Jonathan Demme, The Silence of the Lambs* Best Original Screenplay: Callie Khouri, Thelma and Louise* Best Adapted Screenplay: Ted Tally, The Silence of the Lambs* Best Cinematography: Robert Richardson, JFK

1992 Best Picture: Unforgiven* Best Actor: Al Pacino, Scent of a Woman Best Actress: Emma Thompson, Howards End Best Supporting Actor: Gene Hackman, Unforgiven* Best Supporting Actress: Marisa Tomei, My Cousin Vinny Best Director: Clint Eastwood, Unforgiven* Best Original Screenplay: Neil Jordan, The Crying Game Best Adapted Screenplay: Ruth Prawer Jhabvala, Howards End Best Cinematography: Philippe Rousselot, A River Runs Through It

1994 Best Picture: Forrest Gump* Best Actor: Tom Hanks*, Forrest Gump* Best Actress: Jessica Lange, Blue Sky Best Supporting Actor: Martin Landau, Ed Wood Best Supporting Actress: Dianne Wiest, Bullets over Broadway Best Director: Robert Zemeckis, Forrest Gump* Best Original Screenplay: Quentin Tarantino* and Roger Avary, Pulp Fiction* Best Adapted Screenplay: Eric Roth, Forrest Gump* Best Cinematography: John Toll, Legends of the Fall

1995 Best Picture: Braveheart Best Actor: Nicholas Cage, Leaving Las Vegas Best Actress: Susan Sarandon, Dead Man Walking Best Supporting Actor: Kevin Spacey, The Usual Suspects Best Supporting Actress: Mira Sorvino, Mighty Aphrodite Best Director: Mel Gibson, Braveheart Best Original Screenplay: Christopher McQuarrie, The Usual Suspects Best Adapted Screenplay: Emma Thompson, Sense and Sensibility Best Cinematography: John Toll, Braveheart

1996 Best Picture: The English Patient Best Actor: Geoffrey Rush, Shine

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Best Actress: Frances McDormand, Fargo Best Supporting Actor: Cuba Gooding, Jr., Jerry Maguire Best Supporting Actress: Juliette Binoche, The English Patient Best Director: Anthony Minghella, The English Patient Best Original Screenplay: Ethan Coen* and Joel Coen*, Fargo Best Adapted Screenplay: Billy Bob Thornton, Sling Blade Best Cinematography: John Seale, The English Patient

1998

1997

1999

Best Picture: Titanic* Best Actor: Jack Nicholson, As Good as It Gets Best Actress: Helen Hunt, As Good as It Gets Best Supporting Actor: Robin Williams, Good Will Hunting Best Supporting Actress: Kim Basinger, L.A. Confidential Best Director: James Cameron, Titanic* Best Original Screenplay: Ben Affleck and Matt Damon*, Good Will Hunting Best Adapted Screenplay: Brian Helgeland and Curtis Hanson, L.A. Confidential Best Cinematography: Russell Carpenter, Titanic*

Best Picture: American Beauty Best Actor: Kevin Spacey, American Beauty Best Actress: Hilary Swank, Boys Don’t Cry Best Supporting Actor: Michael Caine, The Cider House Rules Best Supporting Actress: Angelina Jolie, Girl, Interrupted Best Director: Sam Mendes, American Beauty Best Original Screenplay: Alan Ball, American Beauty Best Adapted Screenplay: John Irving, The Cider House Rules Best Cinematography: Conrad L. Hall, American Beauty

Best Picture: Shakespeare in Love Best Actor: Roberto Benigni, Life Is Beautiful Best Actress: Gwyneth Paltrow*, Shakespeare in Love Best Supporting Actor: James Coburn, Affliction Best Supporting Actress: Judi Dench, Shakespeare in Love Best Director: Steven Spielberg, Saving Private Ryan* Best Original Screenplay: Marc Norman and Tom Stoppard, Shakespeare in Love Best Adapted Screenplay: Bill Condon, Gods and Monsters Best Cinematography: Janusz Kaminski, Saving Private Ryan*

■ Entertainment: Major Broadway Plays and Awards This list contains all Broadway plays that ran for at least one full month between January 1, 1990, and December 31, 1999, and that had total runs of at least two hundred performances. It also includes plays with shorter runs that received major awards. An asterisk (*) next to a title or personage indicates that a full essay exists on the topic within The Nineties in America.

Plays Opening in 1989

Plays Opening in 1990

Meet Me in St. Louis (opened November 2, 1989) 253 performances

Cat on a Hot Tin Roof (opened March 21, 1990) 149 performances (revival) 1990 Tony Award: Best Featured Actor in a Play, Charles Durning

Grand Hotel (opened November 12, 1989) 1,018 performances 1990 Tony Awards: Best Featured Actor in a Musical, Michael Jeter; Best Director of a Musical, Tommy Tune; Best Choreographer, Tommy Tune A Few Good Men (opened November 15, 1989) 497 performances Gypsy (opened November 16, 1989) 476 performances (revival) 1990 Tony Award: Best Actress in a Musical, Tyne Daly The Circle (opened November 20, 1989) 208 performances (revival) City of Angels (opened December 12, 1989) 878 performances 1990 Tony Awards: Best Musical, Nick Vanoff, Roger Berlind, Jujamcyn Theaters, Suntory International Corporation, and the Shubert Organization (producers); Best Book of a Musical, Larry Gelbart; Best Original Musical Score, Cy Coleman (music) and David Zippel (lyrics); Best Actor in a Musical, James Naughton; Best Featured Actress in a Musical, Randy Graff 1990 New York Drama Critics’ Circle Award: Best Musical, Cy Coleman, David Zippel, and Larry Gelbart Tru (opened December 19, 1989) 295 performances (revival) 1990 Tony Award: Best Actor in a Play, Robert Morse

The Grapes of Wrath (opened March 22, 1990) 188 performances 1990 Tony Awards: Best Play, Frank Galati (adapter) and the Shubert Organization, Steppenwolf Theater Company, Suntory International Corporation, and Jujamcyn Theaters (producers); Best Director of a Play, Frank Galati 1990 New York Drama Critics’ Circle Award: Best Play Runner-Up, Frank Galati Lettice and Lovage (opened March 25, 1990) 284 performances 1990 Tony Awards: Best Actress in a Play, Maggie Smith; Best Featured Actress in a Play, Margaret Tyzack Aspects of Love (opened April 8, 1990) 377 performances The Piano Lesson (opened April 16, 1990) 320 performances 1990 Pulitzer Prize: August Wilson (playwright) 1990 New York Drama Critics’ Circle Award: Best Play, August Wilson Prelude to a Kiss (opened May 1, 1990) 440 performances 1990 New York Drama Critics’ Circle Award: Best Play Runner-Up, Craig Lucas (playwright) Jackie Mason: Brand New (opened October 17, 1990) 237 performances Once on This Island (opened October 18, 1990) 469 performances Buddy: The Buddy Holly Story (opened November 4, 1990) 225 performances

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Entertainment: Major Broadway Plays and Awards

Six Degrees of Separation (opened November 8, 1990) 485 performances 1991 Tony Award: Best Director of a Play, Jerry Zaks 1991 New York Drama Critics’ Circle Award: Best Play, John Guare (playwright) Shadowlands (opened November 11, 1990) 169 performances 1991 Tony Award: Best Actor in a Play, Nigel Hawthorne Fiddler on the Roof (opened November 18, 1990) 241 performances (revival) 1991 Tony Award: Best Revival, Barry Weissler, Fran Weissler, and Pace Theatrical Group (producers)

Plays Opening in 1991 Lost in Yonkers (opened February 21, 1991) 780 performances 1991 Tony Awards: Best Play, Neil Simon (playwright) and Emanuel Azenberg (producer); Best Actress in a Play, Mercedes Ruehl; Best Featured Actor in a Play, Kevin Spacey; Best Featured Actress in a Play, Irene Worth 1991 Pulitzer Prize: Neil Simon Miss Saigon (opened April 11, 1991) 4,097 performances 1991 Tony Awards: Best Actor in a Musical, Jonathan Pryce; Best Actress in a Musical, Lea Salonga; Best Featured Actor in a Musical, Hinton Battle The Secret Garden (opened April 25, 1991) 706 performances 1991 Tony Awards: Best Book of a Musical, Marsha Norman; Best Featured Actress in a Musical, Daisy Eagan 1991 New York Drama Critics’ Circle Award: Best Musical Runner-Up, Lucy Simon (music) and Marsha Norman (book and lyrics) Our Country’s Good (opened April 29, 1991) 48 performances 1991 New York Drama Critics’ Circle Award: Best Foreign Play, Timberlake Wertenbaker (playwright)

The Will Rogers Follies (May 1, 1991) 983 performances 1991 Tony Awards: Best Musical, Pierre Cossette, Martin Richards, Sam Crothers, James M. Nederlander, Stewart F. Lane, Max Weitzenhoffer, and Japan Satellite Broadcasting, Inc. (producers); Best Director of a Musical, Tommy Tune; Best Choreographer, Tommy Tune; Best Original Musical Score, Cy Coleman (music) and Betty Comden and Adolph Green (lyrics) 1991 New York Drama Critics’ Circle Award: Best Musical, Cy Coleman, Betty Comden, Adolph Green, and Peter Stone (book) Dancing at Lughnasa (opened October 24, 1991) 421 performances 1992 Tony Awards: Best Play, Brian Friel (playwright) and Noel Pearson, Bill Kenwright, and Joseph Harris (producers); Best Featured Actress in a Play, Brid Brennan; Best Director of a Play, Patrick Mason 1992 New York Drama Critics’ Circle Award: Best Play, Brian Friel Marvin’s Room (opened November 15, 1991) 92 performances 1992 New York Drama Critics’ Circle Award: Best American Play Runner-Up, Scott McPherson (playwright) Catskills on Broadway (opened December 5, 1991) 452 performances

Plays Opening in 1992 Crazy for You (opened February 13, 1992) 1,622 performances 1992 Tony Awards: Best Musical, Roger Horchow and Elizabeth Williams (producers); Best Choreographer, Susan Stroman The Most Happy Fella (opened February 13, 1992) 229 performances (revival) 1992 Tony Award: Best Featured Actor in a Musical, Scott Waara Death and the Maiden (opened March 17, 1992) 159 performances 1992 Tony Award: Best Actress in a Play, Glenn Close

The Nineties in America

Jake’s Women (opened March 24, 1992) 245 performances Conversations with My Father (opened March 29, 1992) 402 performances 1992 Tony Award: Best Actor in a Play, Judd Hirsch Five Guys Named Moe (opened April 8, 1992) 445 performances Two Trains Running (opened April 13, 1992) 160 performances 1992 Tony Award: Best Featured Actor in a Play, Larry Fishburne 1992 New York Drama Critics’ Circle Award: Best American Play, August Wilson (playwright) Guys and Dolls (opened April 14, 1992) 1,143 performances (revival) 1992 Tony Awards: Best Revival, Dodger Productions, Roger Berlind, Jujamcyn Theaters/TV Asahi, Kardana Productions, and the John F. Kennedy Center for the Performing Arts (producers); Best Actress in a Musical, Faith Prince; Best Director of a Musical, Jerry Zaks Jelly’s Last Jam (opened April 26, 1992) 569 performance 1992 Tony Awards: Best Actor in a Musical, Gregory Hines; Best Featured Actress in a Musical, Tonya Pinkins Falsettos (opened April 29, 1992) 487 performances 1992 Tony Awards: Best Book of a Musical, William Finn and James Lapine; Best Original Musical Score, William Finn (music and lyrics) Someone Who’ll Watch over Me (opened November 23, 1992) 232 performances 1993 New York Drama Critics’ Circle Award: Best Foreign Play, Frank McGuiness (playwright) My Favorite Year (opened December 10, 1992) 37 performances 1993 Tony Award: Best Featured Actress in a Musical, Andrea Martin

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Plays Opening in 1993 Fool Moon (opened February 25, 1993) 207 performances The Sisters Rosensweig (opened March 18, 1993) 556 performances 1993 Tony Award: Best Actress in a Play, Madeline Kahn Redwood Curtain (opened March 30, 1993) 40 performances 1993 Tony Award: Best Featured Actress in a Play, Debra Monk The Who’s Tommy (opened April 22, 1993) 899 performances 1993 Tony Awards: Best Director of Musical, Des McAnuff; Best Choreographer, Wayne Cilento; Best Original Musical Score, Pete Townshend (music and lyrics) Blood Brothers (opened April 25, 1993) 839 performances Shakespeare for My Father (opened April 26, 1993) 266 performances Kiss of the Spider Woman (opened May 3, 1993) 906 performances 1993 Tony Awards: Best Musical, Live Entertainment Corpopration of Canada/Garth Drabinsky (producers); Best Book of a Musical, Terrence McNally*; Best Original Musical Score, John Kander (music) and Fred Ebb (lyrics); Best Actor in a Musical, Brent Carver; Best Actress in a Musical, Chita Rivera; Best Featured Actor in a Musical, Anthony Crivello 1993 New York Drama Critics’ Circle Award: Best Musical, John Kander, Fred Ebb, and Terrence McNally* Angels in America*: Millennium Approaches (opened May 4, 1993) 367 performances 1993 Tony Awards: Best Play, Tony Kushner (playwright) and Jujamcyn Theaters, Mark Taper Forum/Gordon Davidson, Margo Lion, Susan Quint Gallin, Jon B. Platt, the Baruch-FrankelViertel Group, Frederick Zollo, and Herb Alpert (producers); Best Actor in a Play, Ron Leibman; Best Featured Actor in a Play, Stephen Spinella;

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Best Director of a Play, George C. Wolfe 1993 Pulitzer Prize: Tony Kushner 1993 New York Drama Critics’ Circle Award: Best Play, Tony Kushner She Loves Me (opened June 10, 1993) 355 performances 1994 Tony Award: Best Actor in a Musical, Boyd Gaines Joseph and the Amazing Technicolor Dreamcoat (opened November 10, 1993) 223 performances (revival) The Kentucky Cycle (opened November 14, 1993) 34 performances 1992 Pulitzer Prize: Robert Schenkkan (playwright) Laughter on the Twenty-third Floor (opened November 22, 1993) 320 performances Angels in America*: Perestroika (opened November 23, 1993) 216 performances 1994 Tony Awards: Best Play, Tony Kushner (playwright) and Jujamcyn Theaters, Mark Taper Forum/Gordon Davidson, Margo Lion, Susan Quint Gallin, Jon B. Platt, the Baruch-FrankelViertel Group, and Frederick Zollo, in association with the New York Shakespeare Festival, Mordecai/Cole Productions, and Herb Alpert (producers); Best Actor in a Play, Stephen Spinella; Best Featured Actor in a Play, Jeffrey Wright 1994 New York Drama Critics’ Circle Award: Best Play Runner-Up, Tony Kushner

Plays Opening in 1994 Damn Yankees (opened May 3, 1994) 510 performances (revival) 1994 Tony Award: Best Featured Actor in a Musical, Jarrod Emick Carousel (opened May 24, 1994) 322 performances (revival) 1994 Tony Awards: Best Revival of a Musical, Lincoln Center Theater, André Bishop, Bernard Gersten, the Royal National Theatre, Cameron Mackintosh, and the Rodgers and Hammerstein Organization (producers); Best Featured Actress in a Musical, Audra McDonald; Best Choreographer, Sir Kenneth MacMillan; Best Director of a Musical, Nicholas Hytner

The Nineties in America

Jackie Mason: Politically Incorrect (opened April 5, 1994) 347 performances Medea (opened April 7, 1994) 82 performances (revival) 1994 Tony Award: Best Actress in a Play: Diana Rigg Beauty and the Beast* (opened April 18, 1994) 3,817 performances An Inspector Calls (opened April 27, 1994) 454 performances (revival) 1994 Tony Awards: Best Revival of a Play, Noel Pearson, Shubert Organization, Capital Cities/ ABC, and Joseph Harris (producers); Best Featured Actress in a Play, Jane Adams; Best Director of a Play, Stephen Daldry Passion (opened May 9, 1994) 280 performances 1994 Tony Awards: Best Musical, Shubert Organization, Capital Cities/ABC, Roger Berlind, and Scott Rudin (producers); Best Actress in a Musical, Donna Murphy; Best Book of a Musical, James Lapine; Best Original Musical Score, Stephen Sondheim (music and lyrics) Grease (opened May 11, 1994) 1,503 performances (revival) Show Boat (opened October 2, 1994) 946 performances (revival) 1995 Tony Awards: Best Revival of a Musical, Livent Inc. (producer, U.S.); Best Featured Actress in a Musical, Gretha Boston; Best Director of a Musical, Harold Prince; Best Choreographer, Susan Stroman Sunset Boulevard (opened November 17, 1994) 977 performances 1995 Tony Awards: Best Musical, The Really Useful Company (producer); Best Actress in a Musical, Glenn Close; Best Featured Actor in a Musical, George Hearn; Best Book of a Musical, Don Black and Christopher Hampton; Best Original Musical Score, Andrew Lloyd Webber (music) and Don Black and Christopher Hampton (lyrics)

The Nineties in America

Plays Opening in 1995 Love! Valour! Compassion! (February 14, 1995) 249 performances 1995 Tony Awards: Best Play: Terrence McNally* (playwright) and Manhattan Theatre Club, Lynne Meadow, Barry Grove, and Jujamcyn Theatres (producers): Best Featured Actor in a Play: John Glover 1995 New York Drama Critics’ Circle Award: Best American Play, Terrence McNally* Smokey Joe’s Cafe (opened March 2, 1995) 2,036 performances The Heiress (opened March 9, 1995) 340 performances (revival) 1995 Tony Awards: Best Revival of a Play, Lincoln Center Theater, Andre Bishop, and Bernard Gersten (producers); Best Actress in a Play, Cherry Jones; Best Featured Actress in a Play, Frances Sternhagen; Best Director of a Play, Gerald Gutierrez How to Succeed in Business Without Really Trying (opened March 23, 1995) 548 performances 1995 Tony Award: Best Actor in a Musical, Matthew Broderick Defending the Caveman (opened March 26, 1995) 671 performances Arcadia (opened March 30, 1995) 173 performances 1995 New York Drama Critics’ Circle Award: Best Play, Tom Stoppard (playwright) Having Our Say (opened April 6, 1995) 308 performances Indiscretions (opened April 27, 1995) 220 performances (revival) Hamlet (opened May 2, 1995) 91 performances (revival) 1995 Tony Award: Best Actor in a Play, Ralph Fiennes Moon over Buffalo (opened October 1, 1995) 308 performances Victor/Victoria (opened October 25, 1995) 734 performances

Entertainment: Major Broadway Plays and Awards

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Master Class (opened November 5, 1995) 601 performances 1996 Tony Awards: Best Play, Terrence McNally* (playwright) and Robert Whitehead, Lewis Allen, and Spring Sirkin (producers); Best Actress in a Play, Zoe Caldwell; Best Featured Actress in a Play, Audra McDonald

Plays Opening in 1996 Love Thy Neighbor (opened March 24, 1996) 236 performances Seven Guitars (opened March 28, 1996) 187 performances 1996 Tony Award: Best Featured Actor in a Play, Ruben Santiago-Hudson 1996 New York Drama Critics’ Circle Award: Best Play, August Wilson (playwright) The King and I (opened April 11, 1996) 807 performances (revival) 1996 Tony Awards: Best Revival of a Musical, Dodger Productions, John F. Kennedy Center for the Performing Arts, James M. Nederlander, Perseus Productions, John Frost, Adelaide Festival Centre, and Rodgers and Hammerstein Organization (producers); Best Actress in a Musical, Donna Murphy A Funny Thing Happened on the Way to the Forum (opened April 18, 1996) 715 performances (revival) 1996 Tony Award: Best Actor in a Musical, Nathan Lane A Delicate Balance (opened April 21, 1996) 186 performances (revival) 1996 Tony Awards: Best Revival of a Play, Lincoln Center Theater, Andre Bishop, and Bernard Gersten (producers); Best Actor in a Play, George Grizzard; Best Director of a Play, Gerald Gutierrez Bring in ’da Noise, Bring in ’da Funk (April 25, 1996) 1,130 performances 1996 Tony Awards: Best Featured Actress in a Musical, Ann Duquesnay; Best Director of a Musical, George C. Wolfe; Best Choreographer, Savion Glover

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Entertainment: Major Broadway Plays and Awards

Rent* (opened April 29, 1996) 3,066 performances 1996 Tony Awards: Best Musical, Jeffrey Seller, Kevin McCollum, Allan S. Gordon, and the New York Theatre Workshop (producers); Best Featured Actor in a Musical, Wilson Jermaine Heredia; Best Book of a Musical, Jonathan Larson; Best Original Musical Score, Jonathan Larson (music and lyrics) 1996 Pulitzer Prize: Jonathan Larson 1996 New York Drama Critics’ Circle Award: Best Musical, Jonathan Larson An Ideal Husband (opened May 1, 1996) 309 performances (revival) Skylight (opened September 19, 1996) 116 performances 1997 New York Drama Critics’ Circle Award: Best Foreign Play, David Hare (playwright) Chicago (opened November 14, 1996) 2,827 performances (revival) 1997 Tony Awards: Best Revival of a Musical, Barry Weissler, Fran Weissler, and Kardana Productions (producers); Best Actor in a Musical, James Naughton; Best Actress in a Musical, Bebe Neuwirth; Best Director of a Musical, Walter Bobbie; Best Choreographer, Ann Reinking 1997 New York Drama Critics’ Award: Special Citation

Plays Opening in 1997 The Last Night of Ballyhoo (opened February 27, 1997) 557 performances 1997 Tony Award: Best Play, Alfred Uhry (playwright) and Jane Harmon, Nina Keneally, and Liz Oliver (producers) Barrymore (opened March 25, 1997) 240 performances 1997 Tony Award: Best Actor in a Play, Christopher Plummer Annie (opened March 26, 1997) 238 performances (revival) The Young Man from Atlanta (March 27, 1997) 85 performances 1995 Pulitzer Prize: Horton Foote (playwright)

The Nineties in America

A Doll’s House (opened April 2, 1997) 150 performances (revival) 1997 Tony Awards: Best Revival of a Play, Bill Kenwright and Thelma Holt (producers); Best Actress in a Play, Janet McTeer; Best Featured Actor in a Play, Owen Teale; Best Director of a Play, Anthony Page An American Daughter (opened April 13, 1997) 88 performances 1997 Tony Award: Best Featured Actress in a Play, Lynne Thigpen Titanic (opened April 23, 1997) 804 performances 1997 Tony Awards: Best Musical, Dodger Endemol Theatricals, Richard S. Pechter, and the John F. Kennedy Center for the Performing Arts (producers); Best Book of a Musical, Peter Stone; Best Original Musical Score, Maury Yeston (music and lyrics) The Life (opened April 26, 1997) 465 performances 1997 Tony Awards: Best Featured Actor in a Musical, Chuck Cooper; Best Featured Actress in a Musical, Lillias White 1997 New York Drama Critics’ Circle Award: Best Musical Runner-Up, Cy Coleman (music and book), Ira Gasman (lyrics and book), and David Newman (book) Jekyll and Hyde (opened April 28, 1997) 1,543 performances Forever Tango! (opened June 19, 1997) 453 performances 1776 (opened August 14, 1997) 333 performances (revival) The Lion King (opened November 13, 1997) 2,406 performances 1998 Tony Awards: Best Musical, Disney (producer); Best Director of a Musical, Julie Taymor; Best Choreographer, Garth Fagan 1998 New York Drama Critics’ Circle Award: Best Musical, Elton John (music), Tim Rice (lyrics), and Roger Allers and Irene Mecchi (book) The Diary of Anne Frank (opened December 4, 1997) 221 performances (revival)

The Nineties in America

Entertainment: Major Broadway Plays and Awards

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The Sunshine Boys (opened December 8, 1997) 230 performances (revival)

1998 New York Drama Critics’ Circle Award: Best Play Runner-Up, Martin McDonagh (playwright)

A View from the Bridge (opened December 14, 1997) 239 performances (revival) 1998 Tony Awards: Best Revival of a Play, Roundabout Theatre Company, Todd Haimes, Ellen Richard, Roger Berlind, James M. Nederlander, Nathaniel Kramer, Elizabeth Ireland McCann, Roy Gabay, and Old Ivy Productions (producers); Best Actor in a Play, Anthony LaPaglia

Side Man (opened June 25, 1998) 517 performances 1999 Tony Awards: Best Play, Warren Leight (playwright) and Weissberger Theater Group, Jay Harris, Peter Manning, Roundabout Theatre Company, Todd Haimes, Ellen Richard, Ron Kastner, James Cushing, and Joan Stein (producers); Best Featured Actor in a Play, Frank Wood

Plays Opening in 1998 Ragtime (opened January 18, 1998) 861 performances 1998 Tony Awards: Best Featured Actress in a Musical, Audra McDonald; Best Book of a Musical, Terrence McNally*; Best Original Musical Score, Stephen Flaherty (music) and Lynn Ahrens (lyrics) 1998 New York Drama Critics’ Circle Award: Best Musical Runner-Up, Stephen Flaherty, Lynn Ahrens, and Terrence McNally* Art (opened March 1, 1998) 600 performances 1998 Tony Award: Best Play, Yasmina Reza (playwright) and David Pugh, Sean Connery, and Joan Cullman (producers) 1998 New York Drama Critics’ Circle Award: Best Play, Yasmina Reza The Sound of Music (opened March 12, 1998) 532 performances (revival) Cabaret (opened March 15, 1998) 2,227 performances (revival) 1998 Tony Awards: Best Revival of a Musical, Roundabout Theatre Company, Todd Haimes, and Ellen Richard (producers); Best Actor in a Musical, Alan Cumming; Best Actress in a Musical, Natasha Richardson; Best Featured Actor in a Musical, Ron Rifkin 1998 New York Drama Critics’ Circle Award: Special Citation The Beauty Queen of Leenane (opened April 22, 1998) 372 performances 1998 Tony Awards: Best Actress in a Play, Marie Mullen; Best Featured Actor in a Play, Tom Murphy; Best Featured Actress in a Play, Anna Manahan; Best Director of a Play, Garry Hynes

Swan Lake (opened October 8, 1998) 124 performances 1999 Tony Awards: Best Director of a Musical, Matthew Bourne; Best Choreographer, Matthew Bourne Footloose (opened October 22, 1998) 737 performances Little Me (opened November 12, 1998) 101 performances (revival) 1999 Tony Award: Best Actor in a Musical, Martin Short Peter Pan (opened November 23, 1998) 215 performances (revival) Parade (opened December 17, 1998) 84 performances 1999 Tony Awards: Best Book of a Musical, Alfred Uhry; Best Original Musical Score, Jason Robert Brown (music and lyrics) 1999 New York Drama Critics’ Circle Award: Best Musical, Jason Robert Brown and Alfred Uhry

Plays Opening in 1999 Fosse (opened January 14, 1999) 1,101 performances 1999 Tony Award: Best Musical, Livent Inc. (producer, U.S.) You’re a Good Man, Charlie Brown (opened February 4, 1999) 150 performances (revival) 1999 Tony Awards: Best Featured Actor in a Musical, Roger Bart; Best Featured Actress in a Musical, Kristin Chenoweth Death of a Salesman (opened February 10, 1999) 275 performances (revival) 1999 Tony Awards: Best Revival of a Play, David

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Richenthal, Jujamcyn Theaters, Allan S, Gordon, Fox Theatricals, Jerry Frankel, and the Goodman Theatre (producers); Best Actor in a Play, Brian Dennehy; Best Featured Actress in a Play, Elizabeth Franz; Best Director of a Play, Robert Falls Annie Get Your Gun (opened March 4, 1999) 1,045 (revival) 1999 Tony Awards: Best Revival of a Musical, Barry Weissler, Fran Weissler, Kardana Productions, Michael Watt, Irving Welzer, and Hal Luftig (producers); Best Actress in a Musical, Bernadette Peters Closer (opened March 25, 1999) 172 performances 1999 New York Drama Critics’ Circle Award: Best Foreign Play, Patrick Marber (playwright)

The Nineties in America

The Weir (opened April 1, 1999) 276 performances Amy’s View (opened April 15, 1999) 109 performances 1999 Tony Award: Best Actress in a Play, Judi Dench It Ain’t Nothin’ but the Blues (opened April 26, 1999) 276 performances Dame Edna: The Royal Tour (opened October 17, 1999) 289 performances Saturday Night Fever (opened October 21, 1999) 500 performances

■ Entertainment: Most-Watched U.S. Television Shows This list shows the top ten U.S. television programs of each September-April or September-May season, as ranked by the Nielsen Media Company. The ratings in the right column indicate the average percentage of American homes with televisions watching each show. For example, during the 1990-1991 season, 21.3 percent of all American homes with a television watched Cheers on the evenings that it was broadcast. Titles followed by an asterisk (*) indicate that the program has its own full-length essay within The Nineties in America.

1990-1991 1. Cheers 2. 60 Minutes 3. Roseanne 4. A Different World 5. The Cosby Show 6. Murphy Brown* 7. Empty Nest America’s Funniest Home Videos 9. Monday Night Football 10. The Golden Girls

NBC CBS ABC NBC NBC CBS NBC ABC ABC NBC

21.3 20.6 18.1 17.5 17.1 16.9 16.7 16.7 16.6 16.5

CBS ABC CBS NBC ABC CBS ABC CBS CBS ABC ABC

21.9 19.9 18.6 17.5 17.5 17.3 17.0 16.9 16.8 16.7 16.7

CBS ABC ABC CBS CBS ABC ABC CBS NBC ABC

21.9 20.7 19.4 17.9 17.7 17.5 16.7 16.1 16.1 15.8

CBS ABC NBC ABC

20.9 20.4 19.4 19.1

1991-1992 1. 60 Minutes 2. Roseanne 3. Murphy Brown* 4. Cheers Home Improvement 6. Designing Women 7. Full House 8. Murder, She Wrote 9. Major Dad 10. Coach Room for Two

1992-1993 1. 60 Minutes 2. Roseanne 3. Home Improvement 4. Murphy Brown* 5. Murder, She Wrote 6. Coach 7. Monday Night Football 8. CBS Sunday Movie Cheers 10. Full House

1993-1994 1. 60 Minutes 2. Home Improvement 3. Seinfeld* 4. Roseanne

5. Grace Under Fire 6. Coach 7. Frasier* 8. Monday Night Football 9. Murphy Brown* 10. CBS Sunday Movie

ABC ABC NBC ABC CBS CBS

17.7 17.4 16.8 16.5 16.3 16.2

NBC NBC ABC ABC ABC CBS ABC CBS NBC ABC

20.6 20.0 19.5 18.6 17.7 17.2 16.5 15.6 15.6 15.5

NBC NBC NBC NBC ABC NBC ABC NBC CBS ABC

22.0 21.2 18.7 18.0 17.1 16.7 16.1 15.6 14.2 14.1

NBC NBC NBC NBC NBC NBC ABC NBC ABC CBS

21.2 20.5 17.0 16.8 16.8 16.5 16.0 14.1 14.0 13.6

1994-1995 1. Seinfeld* 2. ER* 3. Home Improvement 4. Grace Under Fire 5. Monday Night Football 6. 60 Minutes 7. NYPD Blue* 8. Murder, She Wrote Friends* 10. Roseanne

1995-1996 1. ER* 2. Seinfeld* 3. Friends* 4. Caroline in the City 5. Monday Night Football 6. The Single Guy 7. Home Improvement 8. Boston Common 9. 60 Minutes 10. NYPD Blue*

1996-1997 1. ER* 2. Seinfeld* 3. Suddenly Susan 4. Friends* The Naked Truth 6. Fired Up 7. Monday Night Football 8. The Single Guy 9. Home Improvement 10. Touched by an Angel

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Entertainment: Most-Watched U.S. Television Shows

1997-1998 1. Seinfeld* 2. ER* 3. Veronica’s Closet 4. Friends* 5. Monday Night Football 6. Touched by an Angel 7. 60 Minutes 8. Union Square 9. CBS Sunday Movie 10. Frasier* Home Improvement

NBC NBC NBC NBC ABC CBS CBS NBC CBS NBC ABC

21.7 20.4 16.6 16.1 15.0 14.2 13.8 13.6 13.1 12.0 12.0

1998-1999 1. ER* 2. Friends* 3. Frasier* 4. Monday Night Football 5. Veronica’s Closet Jesse

NBC NBC NBC ABC NBC NBC

17.8 15.7 15.6 14.0 13.7 13.7

The Nineties in America

7. 60 Minutes 8. Touched by an Angel 9. CBS Sunday Movie 10. Home Improvement

CBS CBS CBS ABC

13.2 13.1 12.0 11.0

ABC

18.6

ABC

17.5

ABC NBC NBC NBC ABC CBS ABC CBS

17.1 16.9 14.0 13.6 13.5 12.0 11.8 11.6

1999-2000 1. Who Wants to Be a Millionaire? (Tuesday) 2. Who Wants to Be a Millionaire? (Thursday) 3. Who Wants to Be a Millionaire? (Sunday) 4. ER* 5. Friends* 6. Frasier* 7. Monday Night Football 8. 60 Minutes 9. The Practice 10. Touched by an Angel

■ Entertainment: Emmy Awards The categories and titles of the Emmy Awards changed almost every year. This list contains a selection of the television awards generally considered to be the most important. Programs followed by an asterisk (*) are the subject of their own full-length essay within The Nineties in America.

1990-1991 Outstanding Drama Series: L.A. Law (NBC) Outstanding Comedy Series: Cheers (NBC) Outstanding Drama/Comedy Special and Miniseries: Separate but Equal (ABC) Outstanding Variety, Music, or Comedy Program: The Sixty-third Annual Academy Awards (ABC) Outstanding Lead Actor in a Drama Series: James Earl Jones, Gabriel’s Fire (ABC) Outstanding Lead Actress in a Drama Series: Patricia Wettig, thirtysomething (ABC) Outstanding Lead Actor in a Comedy Series: Burt Reynolds, Evening Shade (CBS) Outstanding Lead Actress in a Comedy Series: Kirstie Alley, Cheers (NBC) Outstanding Supporting Actor in a Drama Series: Timothy Busfield, thirtysomething (ABC) Outstanding Supporting Actress in a Drama Series: Madge Sinclair, Gabriel’s Fire (ABC) Outstanding Supporting Actor in a Comedy Series: Jonathan Winters, Davis Rules (ABC) Outstanding Supporting Actress in a Comedy Series: Bebe Neuwirth, Cheers (NBC) Outstanding Directing in a Drama Series: Thomas Carter, Equal Justice (ABC) Outstanding Directing in a Comedy Series: James Burrows, Cheers (NBC) Outstanding Directing in a Variety or Music Program: Hal Gurnee, Late Night with David Letterman (NBC)

1991-1992 Outstanding Drama Series: Northern Exposure* (CBS) Outstanding Comedy Series: Murphy Brown* (CBS) Outstanding Miniseries: A Woman Named Jackie (NBC) Outstanding Drama/Comedy Special: Cirque du Soleil II: A New Experience (HBO) Outstanding Variety, Music, or Comedy Series: Tonight Show Starring Johnny Carson (NBC) Outstanding Lead Actor in a Drama Series: Christopher Lloyd, Avonlea (Disney)

Outstanding Lead Actress in a Drama Series: Dana Delany, China Beach (ABC) Outstanding Lead Actor in a Comedy Series: Craig T. Nelson, Coach (ABC) Outstanding Lead Actress in a Comedy Series: Candice Bergen, Murphy Brown* (CBS) Outstanding Supporting Actor in a Drama Series: Richard Dysart, L.A. Law (NBC) Outstanding Supporting Actress in a Drama Series: Valerie Mahaffey, Northern Exposure* (CBS) Outstanding Supporting Actor in a Comedy Series: Michael Jeter, Evening Shade (CBS) Outstanding Supporting Actress in a Comedy Series: Laurie Metcalf, Roseanne (ABC) Outstanding Individual Achievement in Directing in a Drama Series: Eric Laneuville, I’ll Fly Away (NBC) Outstanding Individual Achievement in Directing in a Comedy Series: Barnet Kellman, Murphy Brown* (CBS) Outstanding Individual Achievement in Directing in a Variety or Music Program: Patricia Birch, Unforgettable, with Love: Natalie Cole Sings the Songs of Nat King Cole (PBS)

1992-1993 Outstanding Drama Series: Picket Fences (CBS) Outstanding Comedy Series: Seinfeld* (NBC) Outstanding Miniseries: Prime Suspect 2: Mystery (PBS) Outstanding Drama/Comedy Special: Bob Hope: The First Ninety Years (NBC) Outstanding Variety, Music, or Comedy Series: Saturday Night Live (NBC) Outstanding Lead Actor in a Drama Series: Tom Skerritt, Picket Fences (CBS) Outstanding Lead Actress in a Drama Series: Kathy Baker, Picket Fences (CBS) Outstanding Lead Actor in a Comedy Series: Ted Danson, Cheers (NBC) Outstanding Lead Actress in a Comedy Series: Roseanne Arnold, Roseanne (ABC) Outstanding Supporting Actor in a Drama Series: Chad Lowe, Life Goes On (ABC)

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Entertainment: Emmy Awards

Outstanding Supporting Actress in a Drama Series: Mary Alice, I’ll Fly Away (NBC) Outstanding Supporting Actor in a Comedy Series: Michael Richards, Seinfeld* (NBC) Outstanding Supporting Actress in a Comedy Series: Laurie Metcalf, Roseanne (ABC) Outstanding Individual Achievement in Directing in a Drama Series: Barry Levinson, Homicide: Life on the Street (NBC) Outstanding Individual Achievement in Directing in a Comedy Series: Betty Thomas, Dream On (HBO) Outstanding Individual Achievement in Directing in a Variety or Music Program: Walter C. Miller, The 1992 Tony Awards (CBS)

1993-1994 Outstanding Drama Series: Picket Fences (CBS) Outstanding Comedy Series: Frasier* (NBC) Outstanding Miniseries: Prime Suspect 3: Mystery (PBS) Outstanding Drama/Comedy Special: The Kennedy Center Honors (CBS) Outstanding Variety, Music, or Comedy Series: Late Show with David Letterman (CBS) Outstanding Lead Actor in a Drama Series: Dennis Frantz, NYPD Blue* (ABC) Outstanding Lead Actress in a Drama Series: Sela Ward, Sisters (NBC) Outstanding Lead Actor in a Comedy Series: Kelsey Grammer, Frasier* (NBC) Outstanding Lead Actress in a Comedy Series: Candice Bergen, Murphy Brown* (CBS) Outstanding Supporting Actor in a Drama Series: Fyvush Finkel, Picket Fences (CBS) Outstanding Supporting Actress in a Drama Series: Leigh Taylor-Young, Picket Fences (CBS) Outstanding Supporting Actor in a Comedy Series: Michael Richards, Seinfeld* (NBC) Outstanding Supporting Actress in a Comedy Series: Laurie Metcalf, Roseanne (ABC) Outstanding Individual Achievement in Directing in a Drama Series: Daniel Sackheim, NYPD Blue* (ABC) Outstanding Individual Achievement in Directing in a Comedy Series: James Burrows, Frasier* (NBC) Outstanding Individual Achievement in Directing in a Variety or Music Program: Walter C. Miller, The Tony Awards (CBS)

1994-1995 Outstanding Drama Series: NYPD Blue* (ABC) Outstanding Comedy Series: Frasier* (NBC) Outstanding Miniseries: Joseph (TNT) Outstanding Drama/Comedy Special: Barbra Streisand: The Concert (HBO) Outstanding Variety, Music, or Comedy Series: Tonight Show with Jay Leno (NBC) Outstanding Lead Actor in a Drama Series: Mandy Patinkin, Chicago Hope (CBS) Outstanding Lead Actress in a Drama Series: Kathy Baker, Picket Fences (CBS) Outstanding Lead Actor in a Comedy Series: Kelsey Grammer, Frasier* (NBC) Outstanding Lead Actress in a Comedy Series: Candice Bergen, Murphy Brown* (CBS) Outstanding Supporting Actor in a Drama Series: Ray Walston, Picket Fences (CBS) Outstanding Supporting Actress in a Drama Series: Julianna Margulies, ER* (NBC) Outstanding Supporting Actor in a Comedy Series: David Hyde Pierce, Frasier* (NBC) Outstanding Supporting Actress in a Comedy Series: Christine Baranski, Cybill (CBS) Outstanding Individual Achievement in Directing in a Drama Series: Mimi Leder, ER* (NBC) Outstanding Individual Achievement in Directing in a Comedy Series: David Lee, Frasier* (NBC) Outstanding Individual Achievement in Directing in a Variety or Music Program: Jeff Margolis, The Sixty-seventh Annual Academy Awards (ABC)

1995-1996 Outstanding Drama Series: ER* (NBC) Outstanding Comedy Series: Frasier* (NBC) Outstanding Miniseries: Gulliver’s Travels (NBC) Outstanding Drama/Comedy Special: The Kennedy Center Honors (CBS) Outstanding Variety, Music, or Comedy Series: Dennis Miller Live (HBO) Outstanding Lead Actor in a Drama Series: Dennis Franz, NYPD Blue* (ABC) Outstanding Lead Actress in a Drama Series: Kathy Baker, Picket Fences (CBS) Outstanding Lead Actor in a Comedy Series: John Lithgow, Third Rock from the Sun (NBC) Outstanding Lead Actress in a Comedy Series: Helen Hunt, Mad About You (NBC) Outstanding Supporting Actor in a Drama Series: Ray Walston, Picket Fences (CBS)

The Nineties in America

Outstanding Supporting Actress in a Drama Series: Tyne Daly, Christy (CBS) Outstanding Supporting Actor in a Comedy Series: Rip Torn, The Larry Sanders Show* (HBO) Outstanding Supporting Actress in a Comedy Series: Julia Louis-Dreyfus, Seinfeld* (NBC) Outstanding Directing for a Drama Series: Jeremy Kagan, Chicago Hope (CBS) Outstanding Directing for a Comedy Series: Michael Lembeck, Friends* (NBC) Outstanding Directing for a Variety or Music Program: Louis J. Horvitz, The Kennedy Center Honors (CBS)

1996-1997 Outstanding Drama Series: Law and Order (NBC) Outstanding Comedy Series: Frasier* (NBC) Outstanding Miniseries: Prime Suspect 5: Errors of Judgment (PBS) Outstanding Drama/Comedy Special: Chris Rock: Bring the Pain (HBO) Outstanding Variety, Music, or Comedy Series: Tracey Takes On . . . (HBO) Outstanding Lead Actor in a Drama Series: Dennis Franz, NYPD Blue* (ABC) Outstanding Lead Actress in a Drama Series: Gillian Anderson, The X-Files* (Fox) Outstanding Lead Actor in a Comedy Series: John Lithgow, Third Rock from the Sun (NBC) Outstanding Lead Actress in a Comedy Series: Helen Hunt, Mad About You (NBC) Outstanding Supporting Actor in a Drama Series: Hector Elizondo, Chicago Hope (CBS) Outstanding Supporting Actress in a Drama Series: Kim Delaney, NYPD Blue* (ABC) Outstanding Supporting Actor in a Comedy Series: Michael Richards, Seinfeld* (NBC) Outstanding Supporting Actress in a Comedy Series: Kristen Johnston, Third Rock from the Sun (NBC) Outstanding Directing for a Drama Series: Mark Tinker, NYPD Blue* (ABC) Outstanding Directing for a Comedy Series: David Lee, Frasier* (NBC) Outstanding Directing for a Variety or Music Program: Don Mischer, Centennial Olympic Games: Opening Ceremonies (NBC)

1997-1998 Outstanding Drama Series: The Practice (ABC) Outstanding Comedy Series: Frasier* (NBC)

Entertainment: Emmy Awards

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Outstanding Miniseries: From the Earth to the Moon (HBO) Outstanding Drama/Comedy Special: The 1997 Tony Awards (CBS) Outstanding Variety, Music, or Comedy Series: Late Show with David Letterman (CBS) Outstanding Lead Actor in a Drama Series: Andre Braugher, Homicide: Life on the Street (NBC) Outstanding Lead Actress in a Drama Series: Christine Lahti, Chicago Hope (CBS) Outstanding Lead Actor in a Comedy Series: Kelsey Grammer, Frasier* (NBC) Outstanding Lead Actress in a Comedy Series: Helen Hunt, Mad About You (NBC) Outstanding Supporting Actor in a Drama Series: Gordon Clapp, NYPD Blue* (ABC) Outstanding Supporting Actress in a Drama Series: Camryn Manheim, The Practice (ABC) Outstanding Supporting Actor in a Comedy Series: David Hyde Pierce, Frasier* (NBC) Outstanding Supporting Actress in a Comedy Series: Lisa Kudrow, Friends* (NBC) Outstanding Directing for a Drama Series (tie): Mark Tinker, Brooklyn South (CBS) and Paris Barclay, NYPD Blue* (ABC) Outstanding Directing for a Comedy Series: Todd Holland, The Larry Sanders Show* (HBO) Outstanding Directing for a Variety or Music Program: Louis J. Horvitz, The Seventieth Annual Academy Awards (ABC)

1998-1999 Outstanding Drama Series: The Practice (ABC) Outstanding Comedy Series: Ally McBeal* (Fox) Outstanding Miniseries: Horatio Hornblower (A&E) Outstanding Drama/Comedy Special: The 1998 Tony Awards (CBS) Outstanding Variety, Music, or Comedy Series: Late Show with David Letterman (CBS) Outstanding Lead Actor in a Drama Series: Dennis Franz, NYPD Blue* (ABC) Outstanding Lead Actress in a Drama Series: Edie Falco, The Sopranos (HBO) Outstanding Lead Actor in a Comedy Series: John Lithgow, Third Rock from the Sun (NBC) Outstanding Lead Actress in a Comedy Series: Helen Hunt, Mad About You (NBC) Outstanding Supporting Actor in a Drama Series: Michael Badalucco, The Practice (ABC)

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Entertainment: Emmy Awards

Outstanding Supporting Actress in a Drama Series: Holland Taylor, The Practice (ABC) Outstanding Supporting Actor in a Comedy Series: David Hyde Pierce, Frasier* (NBC) Outstanding Supporting Actress in a Comedy Series: Kristen Johnston, Third Rock from the Sun (NBC) Outstanding Directing for a Drama Series: Paris Barclay, NYPD Blue* (ABC) Outstanding Directing for a Comedy Series: Thomas Schlamme, Sports Night (ABC) Outstanding Directing for a Variety or Music Program: Paul Miller, The 1998 Tony Awards (CBS)

1999-2000 Outstanding Drama Series: The West Wing (NBC) Outstanding Comedy Series: Will and Grace* (NBC) Outstanding Miniseries: The Corner (HBO) Outstanding Drama/Comedy Special: Saturday Night Live: The Twenty-fifth Anniversary Special (NBC) Outstanding Variety, Music, or Comedy Series: Late Show with David Letterman (CBS)

The Nineties in America

Outstanding Lead Actor in a Drama Series: James Gandolfini, The Sopranos (HBO) Outstanding Lead Actress in a Drama Series: Sela Ward, Once and Again (ABC) Outstanding Lead Actor in a Comedy Series: Michael J. Fox, Spin City (ABC) Outstanding Lead Actress in a Comedy Series: Patricia Heaton, Everybody Loves Raymond (CBS) Outstanding Supporting Actor in a Drama Series: Richard Schiff, The West Wing (NBC) Outstanding Supporting Actress in a Drama Series: Allison Janney, The West Wing (NBC) Outstanding Supporting Actor in a Comedy Series: Sean Hayes, Will and Grace* (NBC) Outstanding Supporting Actress in a Comedy Series: Megan Mullally, Will and Grace* (NBC) Outstanding Directing for a Drama Series: Thomas Schlamme, The West Wing (NBC) Outstanding Directing for a Comedy Series: Todd Holland, Malcolm in the Middle (Fox) Outstanding Directing for a Variety or Music Program: Louis J. Horvitz, The Seventy-second Annual Academy Awards (ABC)

■ Legislation: Major U.S. Legislation Year Legislation

Significance

1990

Securities Market Reform Act

Gave Securities and Exchange Commission the authority to close the nation’s stock exchanges in an emergency; restricted program trading.

1990

Airport Noise and Capacity Act

Required the secretary of transportation to issue regulations establishing a national aviation noise policy and to submit plans for changes in federal aircraft noise standards.

1990

Clean Air Act

Strengthened 1977 standards by imposing stricter federal controls on smog and toxic emissions; mandated development of cleaner automobiles and gasoline; placed limits on utility plant emissions that caused acid rain.

1990

Americans with Disabilities Act

Taking effect in stages between 1992 and 1996, the law required places of business, public transportation, and public accommodations to be made accessible to those with wheelchairs; prohibited discrimination against the disabled.

1990

Iraq Sanctions Act

Condemned Iraq’s invasion of Kuwait on August 2, 1990; granted the president authority to cut off trade with any nation not complying with the global embargo against Iraq.

1990

National Affordable Housing Act

Authorized $57.4 billion over two years for programs, partnerships, and grants related to housing; supported initiatives to promote home ownership.

1990

Nutrition Labeling and Education Act

Prohibited food manufacturers from making certain health and nutrition claims about products not fully tested by the Food and Drug Administration; required detailing of nutritional information on most packaged food items.

1990

Omnibus Budget Reconciliation Act Called for $236 billion in spending reductions over five years through tax increases, user fees, and savings in entitlement and other mandatory programs.

1990

Food, Agriculture, Conservation, and Trade Act

Reduced the amount of cropland eligible for income support payments by 15 percent; maintained farm price support and income support programs for five years.

1990

Immigration Act

Made it harder to deny entry to foreigners on the basis of their political beliefs and sexual orientation; increased immigration quotas to 700,000 for the first three years of the act; set quotas at 675,000 annually thereafter.

1990

Judicial Improvements Act

Created seventy-four federal district court judgeships and eleven federal circuit court of appeals judgeships.

1991

Resolution Trust Corporation Funding Act

Approved $30 billion for the Resolution Trust Corporation to cover losses on insured depositors at failed savings and loan associations.

1991

Civil Rights Act

Countered the effect of nine U.S. Supreme Court rulings by making it easier for workers to win job-discrimination lawsuits.

1991

Emergency Unemployment Compensation Act Amendments

Furnished up to seven additional weeks of unemployment benefits to eligible persons.

984

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The Nineties in America

Legislation: Major U.S. Legislation

Year Legislation

Significance

1991

Agent Orange Act

Approved compensation for veterans suffering from diseases linked to dioxin used as a defoliant during the Vietnam War; established process to determine if other ailments were caused by Agent Orange.

1991

Persian Gulf Resolution

Authorized the president to use U.S. armed forces to remove Iraq from Kuwait.

1991

Operation Desert Shield/Desert Storm Appropriation Act

Approved $42.6 billion to cover the cost of the Persian Gulf War, to be spent from an account composed of money pledged by foreign governments; granted $25 million in emergency loans to small businesses in communities adversely affected by the deployment of troops to the Persian Gulf.

1991

Persian Gulf War Veterans’ Benefits Act

Increased combat pay and educational benefits for those military personnel serving in the Persian Gulf War; increased the death gratuity and life insurance benefits for the families of those killed in that conflict.

1991

Assignment of Women in the Armed Repealed the law that barred assignment of women to combat aircraft Forces in the U.S. Air Force, Navy, and Marine Corps; created a commission to study the issue of assigning women to other combat roles.

1991

Intermodal Surface Transportation Efficiency Act

Authorized $119.5 billion for highway programs and $31.5 billion for mass-transit programs over six years; consolidated several federal highway programs into the Surface Transportation Program, from which states could draw money for highway projects.

1991

Federal Deposit Insurance Corporation Improvement Act

Augmented the Federal Deposit Insurance Corporation borrowing limit from $5 to $30 billion to cover depositor losses in failed banks; approved $45 billion to acquire failed banks’ assets for later sale.

1992

Freedom Support Act

Provided $410 billion in assistance to twelve independent states that were part of the former Soviet Union beginning in fiscal year 1993.

1992

Cable Television Consumer Protection and Competition Act

Enacted over President George H. W. Bush’s veto, this law required the Federal Communications Commission to create customer service standards for cable operators and ensure fair rates for viewing and equipment rentals.

1992

Defense Waste Disposal Act

Transferred targeted public lands near Carlsbad, New Mexico, to the Department of Energy for storage of nuclear waste at the Waste Isolation Pilot Plant.

1992

Land Remote Sensing Policy Act

Management of the Landsat Remote-Sensing Satellite Program was transferred from the Department of Commerce to the Department of Defense and the National Aeronautics and Space Administration.

1992

Housing and Community Development Act

Approved a $66.5 billion, two-year reauthorization of federal housing programs; established provisions affecting mortgages and housing for the elderly and disabled.

1992

Energy Policy Act

Streamlined the licensing process for building nuclear power plants; required greater energy efficiency for appliances, buildings, and plumbing parts; furnished tax incentives for conservation and use of renewable energy sources.

1992

Child Support Recovery Act

Established a federal criminal penalty for avoiding child support obligations ordered by a court while living in a different state.

The Nineties in America

Legislation: Major U.S. Legislation

■

985

Year Legislation

Significance

1992

Alcohol, Drug Abuse, and Mental Health Administration Reorganization Act

Disbanded the Alcohol, Drug Abuse, and Mental Health Administration and placed its three research branches in the National Institutes of Health.

1992

Nuclear Test Explosions Ban

Banned underground nuclear weapons tests for a year and permitted a limited number of tests for three years thereafter.

1993

Brady Handgun Violence Prevention Act

Mandated a five-day waiting period before purchase of a handgun; required gun dealers to notify policy of multiple gun purchases by the same individual.

1993

Resolution Trust Corporation Competition Act

Set the end of 1995 as the termination date for the Resolution Trust Corporation (RTC); appropriated $18.3 billion for the RTC to cover depositor losses at savings and loan institutions under its control.

1993

North American Free Trade Agreement Implementation Act

Enacted the North American Free Trade Agreement (NAFTA) between the United States, Canada, and Mexico; revised previous trade agreements to adhere to NAFTA.

1993

Religious Freedom Restoration Act

Passed in response to the U.S. Supreme Court’s 1990 ruling in Oregon v. Smith, this law renewed stringent standards for limiting freedom of religion.

1993

Homosexuals in the Armed Forces

Referred to as the “don’t ask, don’t tell” policy, this law maintained the prohibition against homosexuality in the military but forbade recruiters from asking about the sexual preference of enlistees.

1993

Assignment of Women in the Armed Repealed the combat exclusion law barring assignment of women to Forces combat ships.

1993

Family and Medical Leave Act

Required large businesses to permit three months of unpaid leave to employees to deal with childbirth or care for an ill relative.

1993

National Voter Registration Reform Act

Required states to permit citizens to register to vote when applying for or renewing a driver’s license.

1993

National and Community Service Trust Act

Established a Corporation for National and Community Service to administer an educational award program for individuals who performed community service; authorized $1.5 billion over three years to fund the program.

1993

Omnibus Budget Reconciliation Act Furnished a plan for a five-year, $500 billion reduction in the federal deficit through a combination of tax increases and spending cuts.

1993

Communications Licensing and Spectrum Allocation Improvement Act

This law required the chair of the Federal Communications Commission and the assistant secretary of commerce to plan to meet biannually to plan for management of radio spectrum licenses.

1993

Assistance to New Independent States of the Former Soviet Union

Approved $2.5 billion in technical and economic aid to former states of the Soviet Union that had recently become independent.

1994

General Agreement on Tariffs and Trade Implementation Act

Implemented the General Agreement on Tariffs and Trade (GATT), which was designed to reduce tariffs globally; revised U.S. laws to adhere to GATT’s terms.

1994

Bankruptcy Reform Act

Revised three main sections of the federal bankruptcy code; created a federal National Bankruptcy Review Commission to recommend changes in the aforementioned code.

986

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The Nineties in America

Legislation: Major U.S. Legislation

Year Legislation

Significance

1994

Interstate Banking and Branching Efficiency Act

Allowed banks to establish branch offices throughout the country and removed barriers to interstate bank ownership.

1994

Federal Work Force Restructuring Act

Set a target of a 252,000-person reduction in the federal workforce over six years.

1994

Educate America Act

Established eight national education goals for elementary and secondary schools to meet by 2000.

1994

Violent Crime Control and Law Enforcement Act

Authorized $30.2 billion over six years to fight crime in the United States; created a trust fund to pay for programs.

1994

Dietary Supplemental Health and Education Act

Created the Office of Dietary Supplements with the National Institutes of Health; established a commission to recommend standards for settling labeling claims; revised procedures for Food and Drug Administration approval of new products.

1995

Private Securities Litigation Reform Act

Passed over President Bill Clinton’s veto, this law made significant changes to securities fraud litigation and created new responsibilities for auditors to report illegal activities.

1995

Lobbying Disclosure Act

As a result of this law, lobbyists receiving more that $5,000 during a sixmonth period from a single client had to register with the clerk of the House and secretary of the Senate; required lobbyists to disclose the congressional chambers and federal agencies they contacted.

1995

Paperwork Reduction Act

Set a target of a 10 percent reduction in federal paperwork for first two years of law and 5 percent reduction for four years thereafter; reauthorized the Office of Information and Regulatory Affairs, which was responsible for implementing the law.

1995

Congressional Accountability Act

Forced congressional compliance with eleven federal labor and antidiscrimination laws.

1995

National Highway System Designation Act

Eliminated federal maximum speed limits; eliminated penalties for states that did not mandate motorcycle helmets; added 160,000 miles of regional roadways to the national highway system.

1995

Interstate Commerce Commission Termination Act

Terminated the Interstate Commerce Commission and transferred many of its responsibilities to the Surface Transportation Board within the Department of Transportation.

1995

Unfunded Mandates Reform Act

Restricted both Congress and the executive branch from imposing mandates on state and local governments without adequate funding.

1996

Line Item Veto Act

Later ruled unconstitutional by the U.S. Supreme Court, this law permitted the president to veto items within appropriations bills rather than having to veto the entire bill.

1996

Sustainable Fisheries Act

Amended the 1976 Magnuson Fishery Conservation Act in order to strengthen long-term protection of essential fish habitats and require management plans for same.

1996

National Markets Improvement Act

Limited the authority of states to regulate securities listed on national exchanges but allowed states to retain regulations affecting smaller investment advisers; reduced registration fees charged by the Securities and Exchange Commission.

The Nineties in America

Legislation: Major U.S. Legislation

■

987

Year Legislation

Significance

1996

Food Quality Protection Act

Expedited government approval of pesticides used on fruits and vegetables but mandated that the Environmental Protection Agency consider special protections for children when setting pesticide tolerance levels; repealed provisions that forbade any trace of pesticides in processed foods.

1996

Telecommunications Act

Permitted the seven regional Bell telephone companies to enter into the long-distance market and eased price controls on long-distance telephone companies; part of the law was ruled unconstitutional by the U.S. Supreme Court a year later.

1996

Cuban Liberty and Democratic Solidarity Act

Codified existing economic sanctions against Cuba and authorized U.S. assistance for democracy-building efforts in Cuba.

1996

Federal Agriculture Improvement and Reform Act

Replaced the existing federal farm subsidy policy; provided $300 million for a new rural development fund and $2.5 billion to help reduce soil erosion and manure runoff.

1996

Safe Drinking Water Act Amendments

Gave the Environmental Protection Agency greater flexibility in revising drinking water standards; required water providers to publish reports about contaminants in water system; authorized $7.6 billion over seven years for federal grants to states.

1996

Health Insurance Portability and Accountability Act

Allowed portability of health insurance for individuals who changed jobs, lost their jobs, or became self-employed; increased penalties for defrauding the government through federal health care programs.

1996

Illegal Immigration Reform and Immigrant Responsibility Act

Provided for an additional five thousand border patrol agents over the next five years; made it more difficult for illegal immigrants to gain access to benefit programs such as housing assistance, welfare, Social Security, and student aid.

1996

Personal Responsibility and Work Opportunity Reconciliation Act

Ended the federal guarantee of cash welfare payments; granted states broad authority in designating and running their own welfare programs; modified laws dealing with food stamps, immigration, supplement security income benefits, and child-care programs.

1996

Economic Growth and Regulatory Paperwork Reduction Act

Eased regulation of the banking industry; simplified disclosure requirements; strengthened the rights of consumers to correct errors in credit reports or to request credit information; lessened requirements on foreign banks seeking to open U.S. branches.

1997

Military Construction Appropriations Act

Enacted over President Bill Clinton’s veto, this law restored funding to military construction legislation.

1997

State Children’s Health Insurance Program

Furnished $20 billion in federal matching funds over a four-year period for health care coverage for low-income children; allowed states flexibility in determining benefits; offset costs of this program with a 15-cents-per-pack increase in cigarette taxes.

1997

Taxpayer Relief Act

Provided an estimated $401 billion in tax cuts and $126 billion in offsetting tax increases over ten years.

1997

Balanced Budget Act

Mandated $263 billion in deficit reduction over five years, including entitlement program savings and limits on discretionary spending.

988

■

The Nineties in America

Legislation: Major U.S. Legislation

Year Legislation

Significance

1997

Individuals with Disabilities Education Act Amendments

Reauthorized and revised the Education for All Handicapped Children Act of 1975; created a new funding formula to permit states to reduce local spending once federal appropriations for the program reached $9 billion.

1997

Food and Drug Administration Modernization Act

Enacted Food and Drug Administration procedures for evaluating medical devices; allowed food manufacturers to use health and nutrient claims made by federal agencies on packaging.

1997

Adoption and Safe Families Act

Furnished states with financial incentives and greater flexibility in finding permanent homes for foster children.

1997

National Capital Revitalization and Self-Government Improvement Act

Transferred financial responsibility for District of Columbia’s prisons, courts, and employee pension system to the federal government; transferred control of nine District governmental departments to the federal Financial Control Board.

1998

Workforce Investment Act

Repealed the Job Training Partnership Act of 1982 and the Adult Education Act of 1966; amended the Wagner-Peyser Act of 1933 and the Rehabilitation Act of 1973.

1998

Internal Revenue Service Restructuring Act

Directed the commissioner of the Internal Revenue Service (IRS) to develop and implement a plan to restructure management of the agency; granted taxpayers new rights and protections in dealings with the IRS.

1998

Quality Housing and Work Responsibility Act

Replaced federal public housing and low-income rental assistance programs with block grants to local housing authorities for operating costs and capital improvements; gave local housing authorities more latitude in setting rents, selecting tenants, and evicting residents.

1998

Ocean Shipping Reform Act

Required ship operators to make rates known to customers; permitted land-based labor unions to obtain certain information for use in monitoring collective bargaining agreements with ship operators.

1998

Credit Union Membership Access Act

Established membership standards for multi-group credit unions in response to a U.S. Supreme Court ruling the same year; required the National Credit Union Administration to issue guidelines to ensure credit union soundness.

1998

American Competitiveness and Workforce Improvement Act

Increased the number of temporary visas issued to highly skilled foreign workers to 115,000 in fiscal years 1999 and 2000 and 107,500 in fiscal year 2001.

1998

Child Online Protection Act

Prohibited commercial distribution of material considered harmful over the Internet to children under the age of seventeen; created a Commission on Online Child Protection to conduct a study of ways to reduce access by children to harmful material on the Internet.

1998

Children’s Online Privacy Protection Act

Required operators of World Wide Web sites to obtain verifiable parental consent before collecting information from children under thirteen; required operators of Web sites to disclose usage plans with information acquired.

1998

Transportation Equity Act for the 21st Century

Authorized $217.9 billion for six years to cover surface transportation projects, mass -transit programs, and highway safety initiatives.

The Nineties in America

Legislation: Major U.S. Legislation

■

989

Year Legislation

Significance

1998

Foreign Affairs Reform and Restructuring Act

Gave the president the authority to draft and submit a foreign affairs reorganization plan to Congress by December 20, 1998, which would include the abolishment or merger of several agencies.

1999

American Inventors Protection Act

Required invention promoters to disclose specific information to customers; reduced certain patent fees; provided for adjustment of trademark fees.

1999

Ticket to Work and Work Incentives Improvement Act

Extended Medicare coverage to employed persons with disabilities and created new optional categories of Medicaid eligibility for same.

1999

Gramm-Leach-Bliley Act

Repealed provisions of the Banking Act of 1933 and the Bank Holding Act of 1956; encouraged states to enact more stringent consumer privacy statutes than those provided by federal law; extended Securities and Exchange Commission regulation of securities to those activities involving banks.

1999

Presidential Primary Matching Payment Account Act Amendments

Set guidelines for matching fund disbursement to presidential candidates during the 2000 nomination season.

Samuel B. Hoff

■ Legislation: U.S. Supreme Court Decisions Year Case

Significance

1990

Alabama v. White

The Court ruled that a reliable anonymous tip provided police with sufficient “reasonable suspicion” to stop a vehicle.

1990

California v. Acevedo

Police were allowed to conduct warrantless searches of automobiles and any containers in them if they had probable cause to believe that there was contraband or evidence of a crime.

1990

Employment Division, Department of Human Resources of the State of Oregon v. Smith

The Supreme Court restricted the ability of the Native American Church to use peyote in its ceremonies by upholding a drug conviction against a claim that the use of the drug was protected by the free exercise clause. The Court also held that neutral laws with an adverse impact on the free exercise clause need not be subjected to the strict scrutiny test.

1990

Maryland v. Craig

When a trial judge made a finding that a potential victim of child abuse would be traumatized by proceedings in front of the defendant, a oneway closed-circuit television with a defense lawyer in the room who was able to cross-examine the child was admissible hearsay because it sufficiently tested the validity of the child’s testimony.

1991

Arizona v. Fulminante

The Court found that an FBI informant’s promise of protection in prison in exchange for a confession was coercive because there existed a real threat of physical harm for the defendant if he did not confess. The Court also stated that the conviction would not be automatically overturned, but would be retried without the use of the illegally obtained confession.

1991

Barnes v. Glen Theatre, Inc.

A 5-4 Court upheld a statute prohibiting nude dancing performed as entertainment. A state, under its general police power for the public health, safety, and morals of its citizens had a substantial governmental interest in protecting societal order, so this law that limited only some expressive activity did not violate freedom of speech.

1991

Gregory v. Ashcroft

A state’s mandatory judicial retirement at age seventy was constitutional because voters rarely observe judicial action and the state had a legitimate need to ensure the competency of their judiciary.

1991

Hafer v. Melo

State officers were not immune from personal liability just because their actions were carried out in an official capacity.

1991

Harmelin v. Michigan

It was not cruel and unusual punishment under the Eighth Amendment to impose a mandatory life sentence without the possibility of parole upon a first-time offender for selling drugs.

1992

Lee v. Weisman

In a 5-4 decision, the Court struck down the state-sponsored practice of having clergy-led prayer as part of official public school ceremonies because it violated the establishment of religion clause.

1992

Lucas v. South Carolina Coastal Council

A regulatory taking that requires compensation occurred only when all reasonable economic use was denied to a landowner, but no compensation was due if a state prohibited a proposed use because it would be detrimental to the public health, safety, or welfare under nuisance or property law. If a regulation unfairly singled out a property owner to bear an economic burden that should have been borne by the public, then just compensation was due.

The Nineties in America

Legislation: U.S. Supreme Court Decisions

■

991

Year Case

Significance

1992

New York v. United States

This Supreme Court 6-3 decision concluded that Congress cannot promote waste disposal by instructing state governments to “take title” to waste because under the Tenth Amendment it impermissibly commandeered state legislative choice.

1992

Planned Parenthood v. Casey

By a narrow majority (5-4), a plurality joint opinion of the Court reaffirmed the Roe v. Wade (1973) abortion decision emphasizing a woman’s right to make autonomous decisions before viability of the fetus without undue interference from the state. However, the justices made significant changes in the Court’s jurisprudence regarding abortions. They eliminated the trimester and viability structure because advancements in neonatal medicine had enabled a fetus to exist outside the mother’s body as young as twenty-three weeks old. Further, they replaced the state’s job of showing it had a compelling state interest for its regulation with an “undue burden” test. This allowed states greater leeway to regulate access to abortion pre-viability so long as no undue burden was placed on the mother. If a regulation had the purpose or effect of imposing a substantial obstacle in a woman’s right to choose before the fetus attains viability, the law failed the undue burden test.

1992

Quill Corporation v. North Dakota by and Through Heitkamp

Where the only contact a business has with a state is by mail or common carrier, it is unconstitutional under the commerce clause’s “substantial nexus” requirement for a state to impose a use tax because it would burden interstate commerce and the national economy.

1992

R. A. V. v. City of St. Paul

A unanimous Court struck down a hate-crime ordinance that prohibited cross or swastika burning on public or private property because the ordinance violated the doctrine of neutral content in that it regulated speech based on “hostility—or favoritism—towards the underlying message expressed.”

1992

United States v. Fordice

A 6-3 Court held that even though state higher education school policies may be race-neutral on their face regarding admissions, if they substantially restricted a person’s choice of which institution to enter and perpetuated the school’s former segregation, the policies violated the equal protection clause.

1992

White v. Illinois

The Court added two hearsay exceptions to the right of a defendant to confront a witness because the statements were not likely to be fabricated: (1) statements made for the purpose of medical treatment and (2) excited utterances because there was no time for reflection.

1993

Church of the Lukumi Babalu Aye v. Hialeah

A local ordinance that attempted to ban animal sacrifices in religious ceremonies was held to violate the free exercise of religion clause.

1993

Daubert v. Merrell Dow Pharmaceuticals A unanimous Court changed the test of admissibility for expert opinions from the question of whether a consensus existed among a community of experts to a “reliability” standard. This required federal judges to make a preliminary assessment of whether the testimony was valid because it was scientifically well grounded and relevantly connected to the facts at issue.

992

■

Legislation: U.S. Supreme Court Decisions

The Nineties in America

Year Case

Significance

1993

Heller v. Doe

In a 6-3 decision, the Court ruled that the involuntary commitment of mentally retarded persons based upon clear and convincing evidence as compared to the higher standard of beyond a reasonable doubt for mentally ill persons did not violate the equal protection clause under the Fourteenth Amendment. Family observations were important evidence with retarded youths, whereas the sudden mental illness of an adult necessitates far more intrusive medical treatment and justified the higher standard.

1993

Helling v. McKinney

A 7-2 decision held there was no constitutional right to a smokefree prison facility unless the prison was in fact “deliberately indifferent” to a prisoner’s health and the exposure led to actual serious injury.

1993

Herrera v. Collins

The Court denied a habeas corpus claim for relief from execution based on new evidence that had emerged that would prove the defendant not guilty of the crime. The Court explained that a governor’s right to assert executive clemency did not implicate the U.S. Constitution.

1993

Johnson v. Texas

The Court’s 5-4 decision allowed a youth’s age to be considered as a mitigating factor in death penalty cases.

1993

Wisconsin v. Mitchell

The Court unanimously upheld a state hate-crime law that provided for an enhanced sentence of up to five additional years for a defendant who intentionally selected a victim because of the person’s race, religion, color, disability, sexual orientation, national origin, or ancestry.

1993

Zobrest vs. Catalina Foothills School District

Individual disabled children could be provided government-based assistance even if attending a sectarian school without violating the First Amendment’s establishment clause.

1994

Dolan v. City of Tigard

When government effectively took land without having paid for it by means of an “impact fee,” the owner of the land could bring an action for inverse condemnation to obtain compensation for the taking if the public facility was extrinsic to the development. Thus, a city must show a “roughly proportional” nexus between the effect a proposed development would have on the community and the requirement of a dedication for a new public facility because it was necessitated by the proposed land development.

1994

J. E. B. vs. Alabama

The equal protection clause made it unconstitutional for lawyers to assert peremptory challenges to exclude jurors based on gender or race factors. This was controversial, as it placed the right to be on a jury ahead of the rights of a defendant.

1994

Madsen v. Women’s Health Center, Inc.

In a complex case involving antiabortion protesters at a clinic, the Court endorsed narrowly tailored restrictions on non-viewpoint speech if the restrictions burdened no more speech than was necessary to protect access to the facility, ensured orderly traffic flow, and reasonably limited threats and noise to occupants undergoing surgery.

The Nineties in America

Legislation: U.S. Supreme Court Decisions

■

993

Year Case

Significance

1995

Adarand Constructors, Inc. v. Peña

A five-member majority of the Court limited the extent to which government could require building contractors to establish affirmative action programs. The Court concluded that all governmental race-conscious criteria must be analyzed under strict scrutiny. The government must show that the affirmative action program served a “compelling national interest” in that it was needed to overcome specific past episodes of discrimination, the program was “narrowly tailored” because it terminated once the redress had been delivered, and nondiscriminatory alternatives were not available.

1995

American Airlines, Inc. v. Wolens

If the terms and conditions of a frequent flyer program changed after a contract had been established, the agreement was enforceable based upon the originally quoted terms.

1995

Arizona v. Evans

The Supreme Court held that erroneous entries into a computer by law enforcement that resulted in a mistaken arrest were not punishable if the errors were made in good faith by the police.

1995

Missouri v. Jenkins

A 5-4 decision held that a district court order requiring the state school to continue to fund quality education programs and increase teacher salaries exceeded the lower court’s authority.

1995

United States v. Lopez

The federal Gun-Free School Zones Act of 1990 was held to be unconstitutional by a 5-4 Court as exceeding Congress’s commerce clause power in that it regulated intrastate activity that did not “substantially affect” interstate commerce.

1995

Vernonia School District 47J v. Acton

The Supreme Court decided that voluntary submission to random drug testing in public schools as a condition of participating in athletic programs was valid as a “special need” search to preserve discipline.

1996

Bennis v. Michigan

In a 5-4 decision, the majority held that property used for criminal activity was entirely forfeited to the state even though there was an innocent joint ownership interest in the property. The due process clause was inapplicable because the state had already lawfully acquired the property used in the commission of the crime by virtue of its forfeiture proceeding, so an eminent domain takings claim was not at issue. The dissent argued that the Eighth Amendment prohibition against excessive fines made it unfair to seize property of a blameless spouse who had no knowledge of the other spouse’s illicit behavior and no ability to prevent the act.

1996

BMW of North America, Inc. v. Gore

The Court struck down a punitive damage judgment that was 500 times greater than the compensatory damage award given by the jury, stating that due process prohibited excessive damages, especially when a defendant had shown no evil intent and the plaintiff had not been physically injured, but had merely suffered an economic loss. The justices declared three guideposts when considering the proper amount for punitive damages: reprehensibility of defendant’s conduct, ratio between punitive damages and compensatory damages, and previous awards in similar cases.

994

■

Legislation: U.S. Supreme Court Decisions

The Nineties in America

Year Case

Significance

1996

44 Liquormart, Inc. v. Rhode Island

A Rhode Island statute violated the First Amendment by banning advertisements containing liquor prices. A government’s regulation of commercial speech must be narrowly tailored to achieve a substantial state interest. If other means were available to achieve the state’s temperance goal that did not restrict speech, then the regulation was not narrowly tailored. Further, the state must show that its goal was advanced to a material degree by the statute.

1996

Romer v. Evans

The Court overrode a popular state initiative that discriminated against a sexual minority. The amendment forbade local communities from enacting any ordinance that conferred an entitlement to homosexuals or lesbians. By a 6-3 vote, the Court upheld the equal protection challenge by the sexual minorities, stating the initiative lacked a rational relationship to a legitimate state interest in that it was “inexplicable by anything but animus toward the class that it affects,” thus signifying that some government action failed even this minimal “rational basis” test.

1996

Seminole Tribe of Florida v. Florida

A 5-4 Court held that Congress cannot authorize suits by Indian tribes against a state to enforce federal gaming legislation because the Eleventh Amendment protected state sovereign immunity.

1996

Shaw v. Hunt

A 5-4 decision held that a congressional redistricting plan designed to achieve a majority race-based district to correct past discrimination violates the equal protection clause because the government did not show that the plan was narrowly tailored to serve a compelling state interest.

1996

United States v. Virginia

Citing the equal protection clause, the Court struck down the malesonly admissions policy of the Virginia Military Institute (VMI), stating gender-based classifications could not be upheld unless they are based on “an exceedingly persuasive justification.” The Court ruled that government could not perpetuate the inferiority of women. Unless a rational, scientific basis of “real” difference existed between the genders, states must treat women and men equally.

1996

Whren v. United States

The Fourth Amendment allowed an officer, upon observing a minor traffic offense, the discretion to decide whether to make a full arrest and search of the vehicle, or to issue a citation.

1997

Abrams v. Johnson

Congressional district boundaries must reflect the population in the area and cannot not be drawn to maximize voting power for minority groups.

1997

City of Boerne v. Flores

The Court ruled that Congress exceeded its Fourteenth Amendment enforcement powers by enacting the Religious Freedom Restoration Act (RFRA) that created a test to protect the free exercise of religion from generally applicable law boundaries that had been established by the Court.

1997

Clinton v. Jones

A president’s executive privilege to keep certain documents confidential did not apply in grand jury proceedings when the papers were relevant to guilt or innocence.

The Nineties in America

Legislation: U.S. Supreme Court Decisions

■

995

Year Case

Significance

1997

Printz v. United States

A 5-4 decision limited congressional power by holding that a federal gun registration law that compelled state officers to enforce the law was unconstitutional under the Eleventh Amendment in that the federal government cannot commandeer a state’s police forces.

1997

Reno v. ACLU

The Communications Decency Act, which prohibited obscene or indecent e-mail sent to individuals under eighteen years of age, was held unconstitutional because the act was overly broad in its restriction on freedom of speech.

1997

Turner Broadcasting System, Inc. v. FCC Cable programming was not subject to the Federal Communications Commission indecency regulation because it had security pay-per-view coding transmitters and did not use broadcast signals that were easily accessible to children.

1997

Vacco v. Quill

A unanimous Court decision with five concurring opinions that evinced much disagreement ruled that a state’s ban on physician-assisted suicide was rationally related to the state’s legitimate governmental interests. The Court found that the states’ interest in protecting life and in protecting medical ethics extended to deciding whether a doctor may aid a patient in committing suicide, so there was no constitutional equal protection clause right to assisted suicide.

1997

Washington v. Glucksberg

In another unanimous decision, the Court ruled that there was no due process clause fundamental right under the Fourteenth Amendment to physician-assisted suicide for terminally ill patients. Concerned about possible abuses in determining who makes the decision to end life, the Court reaffirmed that state laws banning physician-assisted suicide were constitutional, but the justices indicated that they might reconsider a specific case where “an interest in hastening death is legitimate.”

1998

Bragdon v. Abbott

Persons with human immunodeficiency virus (HIV) were protected from discrimination under the Americans with Disabilities Act and must be provided “reasonable accommodation” at work since irrational discrimination may actually hinder efforts to minimize the epidemic.

1998

County of Sacramento v. Lewis Estate

A high-speed chase by the police that resulted in death, with neither intent nor reckless indifference by the officer to physically harm the suspect, did not violate the offender’s substantive due process right to life.

1998

Faragher v. City of Boca Raton

An employer’s liability was absolute when a supervisor’s sexual harassment of an employee led to a tangible employment action, such as demotion, decreased compensation, significantly different work assignments, or termination. When there has been no tangible employment action, the employer may still have been liable unless it could prove that it had taken reasonable care to prevent and promptly correct any sexually harassing behavior (such as widely disseminating an effective policy and complaint procedure) and the employee “unreasonably failed to take advantage of any preventive or corrective opportunities provided by the employer or to avoid harm otherwise.”

1998

Gebser v. Lago Vista Independent School District

The Court decided that a school could be held liable under Title IX for a teacher’s sexual relationship with a student if a school official with authority to take corrective action had actual knowledge of the harassment and the school’s response to that knowledge amounted to deliberate indifference to the teacher’s misconduct.

996

■

Legislation: U.S. Supreme Court Decisions

The Nineties in America

Year Case

Significance

1998

Oncale v. Sundowner Offshore Services

Title VII of the Civil Rights Act also provided a cause of action against an employer for sexual harassment for parties of the same sex if the offensive conduct was committed “because of sex” by a coworker.

1998

United States v. Ramirez

A unanimous Court held that a “reasonable suspicion” of exigent circumstances such as a dangerous felon, likely destruction of evidence, or futility in announcing the officer’s presence with the warrant would justify a no-knock entry that resulted in property damage from the urgent entry and did not violate the Fourth Amendment.

1999

Alden v. Maine

Nonconsenting states are not liable to private suits in their own courts without sufficient involvement of the national government.

1999

Apprendi v. New Jersey

A judge may not increase a criminal sentence beyond its statutory minimum based upon the judge’s own finding of aggravating facts. All aggravating facts must have been submitted to a jury and proved beyond a reasonable doubt before a penalty may be increased in a hate crime.

1999

Davis v. Monroe County Board of Education

A 6-3 Court found that, when a school has the ability to control student conduct, a private Title IX damages action may lie against the school for student-to-student sexual harassment if the school had actual notice of the severe and pervasive harassment and was deliberately indifferent to requests for intervention.

1999

Kolstad v. American Dental Association

A 5-4 decision held that held that employers who in good faith implement antiharassment policies and training for their employees cannot be made to pay punitive damages if an employee does not comply.

1999

Lilly v. Virginia

An accomplice’s out-of-court statements against a codefendant, even if they are mildly self-incriminating, were inadmissible hearsay if the accomplice was unavailable for cross-examination because the accomplice had a strong motivation to exculpate himself at the codefendant’s expense.

1999

Saenz v. Roe

The Supreme Court protected the rights of out-of-state residents when California tried to limit the level of welfare benefits it provided new residents to whatever they would have been receiving in their state of origin by placing durational requirements on the right to receive benefits. The justices declared this governmental action unconstitutional on privileges and immunities grounds under Article IV of the Constitution.

John R. Elliott

■ Literature: Best-Selling U.S. Books 1990 Fiction

1991 Nonfiction

1. The Plains of Passage, Jean M. Auel 2. Four Past Midnight, Stephen King 3. The Burden of Proof, Scott Turow 4. Memories of Midnight, Sidney Sheldon 5. Message from Nam, Danielle Steel 6. The Bourne Ultimatum, Robert Ludlum 7. The Stand: The Complete and Uncut Edition, Stephen King 8. Lady Boss, Jackie Collins 9. The Witching Hour, Anne Rice 10. September, Rosamunde Pilcher

1. Me: Stories of My Life, Katharine Hepburn 2. Nancy Reagan: The Unauthorized Biography, Kitty Kelley 3. Uh-Oh: Some Observations from Both Sides of the Refrigerator Door, Robert Fulghum 4. Under Fire: An American Story, Oliver North with William Novak 5. Final Exit: The Practicalities of Self-Deliverance and Assisted Suicide for the Dying, Derek Humphry 6. When You Look Like Your Passport Photo, It’s Time to Go Home, Erma Bombeck 7. More Wealth Without Risk, Charles J. Givens 8. Den of Thieves, James B. Stewart 9. Childhood, Bill Cosby 10. Financial Self-Defense, Charles J. Givens

1990 Nonfiction 1. A Life on the Road, Charles Kuralt 2. The Civil War, Geoffrey C. Ward with Ric Burns and Ken Burns 3. The Frugal Gourmet on Our Immigrant Heritage: Recipes You Should Have Gotten from Your Grandmother, Jeff Smith 4. Better Homes and Gardens New Cook Book 5. Financial Self-Defense: How to Win the Fight for Financial Freedom, Charles J. Givens 6. Homecoming: Reclaiming and Championing Your Inner Child, John Bradshaw 7. Wealth Without Risk: How to Develop a Personal Fortune Without Going out on a Limb, Charles J. Givens 8. Bo Knows Bo, Bo Jackson and Dick Schaap 9. An American Life: An Autobiography, Ronald Reagan 10. Megatrends 2000: Ten New Directions for the 1990s, John Naisbitt and Patricia Aburdene

1991 Fiction 1. Scarlett: The Sequel to Margaret Mitchell’s “Gone with the Wind,” Alexandra Ripley 2. The Sum of All Fears, Tom Clancy 3. Needful Things, Stephen King 4. No Greater Love, Danielle Steel 5. Heartbeat, Danielle Steel 6. The Doomsday Conspiracy, Sidney Sheldon 7. The Firm, John Grisham 8. Night over Water, Ken Follett 9. Remember, Barbara Taylor Bradford 10. Loves Music, Loves to Dance, Mary Higgins Clark

1992 Fiction 1. Dolores Claiborne, Stephen King 2. The Pelican Brief, John Grisham 3. Gerald’s Game, Stephen King 4. Mixed Blessings, Danielle Steel 5. Jewels, Danielle Steel 6. The Stars Shine Down, Sidney Sheldon 7. Tale of the Body Thief, Anne Rice 8. Mexico, James A. Michener 9. Waiting to Exhale, Terry McMillan 10. All Around the Town, Mary Higgins Clark

1992 Nonfiction 1. The Way Things Ought to Be, Rush Limbaugh 2. It Doesn’t Take a Hero: The Autobiography, Norman Schwarzkopf 3. How to Satisfy a Woman Every Time, Naura Hayden 4. Every Living Thing, James Herriot 5. A Return to Love, Marianne Williamson 6. Sam Walton: Made in America, Sam Walton 7. Diana: Her True Story, Andrew Morton 8. Truman, David McCullough 9. The Silent Passage, Gail Sheehy 10. Sex, Madonna

1993 Fiction 1. The Bridges of Madison County, Robert James Waller 2. The Client, John Grisham

998

■

The Nineties in America

Literature: Best-Selling U.S. Books

3. Slow Waltz at Cedar Bend, Robert James Waller 4. Without Remorse, Tom Clancy 5. Nightmares and Dreamscapes, Stephen King 6. Vanished, Danielle Steel 7. Lasher, Anne Rice 8. Pleading Guilty, Scott Turow 9. Like Water for Chocolate, Laura Esquivel 10. The Scorpio Illusion, Robert Ludlum

1993 Nonfiction 1. See, I Told You So, Rush Limbaugh 2. Private Parts, Howard Stern 3. Seinlanguage, Jerry Seinfeld 4. Embraced by the Light, Betty J. Eadie with Curtis Taylor 5. Ageless Body, Timeless Mind, Deepak Chopra 6. Stop the Insanity, Susan Powter 7. Women Who Run with the Wolves, Clarissa Pinkola Estes 8. Men Are from Mars, Women Are from Venus, John Gray 9. The Hidden Life of Dogs, Elizabeth Marshall Thomas 10. And If You Play Golf, You’re My Friend, Harvey Penick with Bud Shrake

1994 Fiction 1. The Chamber, John Grisham 2. Debt of Honor, Tom Clancy 3. The Celestine Prophecy, James Redfield 4. The Gift, Danielle Steel 5. Insomnia, Steven King 6. Politically Correct Bedtime Stories, James Finn Garner 7. Wings, Danielle Steel 8. Accident, Danielle Steel 9. The Bridges of Madison County, Robert James Waller 10. Disclosure, Michael Crichton

1994 Nonfiction 1. In the Kitchen with Rosie, Rosie Daley 2. Men Are from Mars, Women Are from Venus, John Gray 3. Crossing the Threshold of Hope, John Paul II 4. Magic Eye I, N. E. Thing Enterprises 5. The Book of Virtues, William J. Bennett 6. Magic Eye II, N. E. Thing Enterprises 7. Embraced by the Light, Betty J. Eadie with Curtis Taylor

8. Don’t Stand Too Close to a Naked Man, Tim Allen 9. Couplehood, Paul Reiser 10. Magic Eye III, N. E. Thing Enterprises

1995 Fiction 1. The Rainmaker, John Grisham 2. The Lost World, Michael Crichton 3. Five Days in Paris, Danielle Steel 4. The Christmas Box, Richard Paul Evans 5. Lightning, Danielle Steel 6. The Celestine Prophecy, James Redfield 7. Rose Madder, Stephen King 8. Silent Night, Mary Higgins Clark 9. Politically Correct Holiday Stories, James Finn Garner 10. The Horse Whisperer, Nicholas Evans

1995 Nonfiction 1. Men Are from Mars, Women Are from Venus, John Gray 2. My American Journey, Colin Powell 3. Miss America, Howard Stern 4. The Seven Spiritual Laws of Success, Deepak Chopra 5. The Road Ahead, Bill Gates 6. Charles Kuralt’s America, Charles Kuralt 7. Mars and Venus in the Bedroom, John Gray 8. To Renew America, Newt Gingrich 9. My Point . . . and I Do Have One, Ellen DeGeneres 10. The Moral Compass, William J. Bennett

1996 Fiction 1. The Runaway Jury, John Grisham 2. Executive Orders, Tom Clancy 3. Desperation, Stephen King 4. Airframe, Michael Crichton 5. The Regulators, Richard Bachman 6. Malice, Danielle Steele 7. Silent Honor, Danielle Steel 8. Primary Colors, Anonymous 9. Cause of Death, Patricia Cornwell 10. The Tenth Insight, James Redfield

1996 Nonfiction 1. Make the Connection, Oprah Winfrey and Bob Greene 2. Men Are from Mars, Women Are from Venus, John Gray 3. The Dilbert Principle, Scott Adams

The Nineties in America

4. Simple Abundance, Sarah Ban Breathnach 5. The Zone, Barry Sears with Bill Lawren 6. Bad as I Wanna Be, Dennis Rodman 7. In Contempt, Christopher Darden 8. A Reporter’s Life, Walter Cronkite 9. Dogbert’s Top Secret Management Handbook, Scott Adams 10. My Sergei: A Love Story, Ekaterina Gordeeva with E. M. Swift

1997 Fiction 1. The Partner, John Grisham 2. Cold Mountain, Charles Frazier 3. The Ghost, Danielle Steel 4. The Ranch, Danielle Steel 5. Special Delivery, Danielle Steel 6. Unnatural Exposure, Patricia Cornwell 7. The Best Laid Plans, Sidney Sheldon 8. Pretend You Don’t See Her, Mary Higgins Clark 9. Cat and Mouse, James Patterson 10. Hornet’s Nest, Patricia Cornwell

1997 Nonfiction 1. Angela’s Ashes, Frank McCourt 2. Simple Abundance, Sarah Ban Breathnach 3. Midnight in the Garden of Good and Evil, John Berendt 4. The Royals, Kitty Kelley 5. Joy of Cooking, Irma S. Rombauer, Marion Rombauer Becker, and Ethan Becker 6. Diana: Her True Story, Andrew Morton 7. Into Thin Air, Jon Krakauer 8. Conversations with God: Book I, Neale Donald Walsch 9. Men Are from Mars, Women Are from Venus, John Gray 10. Eight Weeks to Optimum Health, Andrew Weil

1998 Fiction 1. The Street Lawyer, John Grisham 2. Rainbow Six, Tom Clancy 3. Bag of Bones, Stephen King 4. A Man in Full, Tom Wolfe 5. Mirror Image, Danielle Steel 6. The Long Road Home, Danielle Steel 7. The Klone and I, Danielle Steel

Literature: Best-Selling U.S. Books

■

999

8. Point of Origin, Patricia Cornwell 9. Paradise, Toni Morrison 10. All Through the Night, Mary Higgins Clark

1998 Nonfiction 1. The Nine Steps to Financial Freedom, Suze Orman 2. The Greatest Generation, Tom Brokaw 3. Sugar Busters!, H. Leighton Steward, Morrison C. Bethea, Sam S. Andrews, and Luis A. Balart 4. Tuesdays with Morrie, Mitch Albom 5. The Guinness Book of Records 1999 6. Talking to Heaven, James Van Praagh 7. Something More: Excavating Your Authentic Self, Sarah Ban Breathnach 8. In the Meantime, Iyanla Vanzant 9. A Pirate Looks at Fifty, Jimmy Buffett 10. If Life Is a Game These Are the Rules, Cherie Carter-Scott

1999 Fiction 1. The Testament, John Grisham 2. Hannibal, Thomas Harris 3. Assassins, Jerry B. Jenkins and Tim LaHaye 4. Star Wars: Episode I—The Phantom Menace, Terry Brooks 5. Timeline, Michael Crichton 6. Hearts in Atlantis, Stephen King 7. Apollyon, Jerry B. Jenkins and Tim LaHaye 8. The Girl Who Loved Tom Gordon, Stephen King 9. Irresistible Forces, Danielle Steel 10. Tara Road, Maeve Binchy

1999 Nonfiction 1. Tuesdays with Morrie, Mitch Albom 2. The Greatest Generation, Tom Brokaw 3. Guinness World Records 2000 4. ’Tis, Frank McCourt 5. Who Moved My Cheese?, Spencer Johnson 6. The Courage to Be Rich, Suze Orman 7. The Greatest Generation Speaks, Tom Brokaw 8. Sugar Busters!, H. Leighton Steward, Morrison C. Bethea, Sam S. Andrews, and Luis A. Balart 9. The Art of Happiness, Dalai Lama and Howard C. Cutler 10. The Century, Peter Jennings and Todd Brewster

■ Literature: Major Literary Awards Nobel Prizes in Literature 1990: Octavio Paz, Mexico 1991: Nadine Gordimer, South Africa 1992: Derek Walcott, Saint Lucia 1993: Toni Morrison, United States 1994: Kenzaburf be, Japan 1995: Seamus Heaney, Ireland 1996: Wisuawa Szymborska, Poland 1997: Dario Fo, Italy 1998: José Saramago, Portugal 1999: Günter Grass, West Germany

Pulitzer Prizes 1990 Fiction: The Mambo Kings Play Songs of Love by Oscar Hijuelos Drama: The Piano Lesson by August Wilson History: In Our Image: America’s Empire in the Philippines by Stanley Karnow Biography or Autobiography: Machiavelli in Hell by Sebastian de Grazia Poetry: The World Doesn’t End by Charles Simic

1991 Fiction: Rabbit at Rest by John Updike Drama: Lost in Yonkers by Neil Simon History: A Midwife’s Tale by Laurel Thatcher Ulrich Biography or Autobiography: Jackson Pollock by Steven Naifeh and Gregory White Smith Poetry: Near Changes by Mona Van Duyn

1992 Fiction: A Thousand Acres by Jane Smiley Drama: The Kentucky Cycle by Robert Schenkkan History: The Fate of Liberty: Abraham Lincoln and Civil Liberties by Mark E. Neely, Jr. Biography or Autobiography: Fortunate Son: The Healing of a Vietnam Vet by Lewis B. Puller, Jr. Poetry: Selected Poems by James Tate

1993 Fiction: A Good Scent from a Strange Mountain by Robert Olen Butler Drama: Angels in America: Millennium Approaches by Tony Kushner

History: The Radicalism of the American Revolution by Gordon S. Wood Biography or Autobiography: Truman by David McCullough Poetry: The Wild Iris by Louise Glück

1994 Fiction: The Shipping News by E. Annie Proulx Drama: Three Tall Women by Edward Albee History: No award Biography or Autobiography: W. E. B. Du Bois: Biography of a Race, 1868-1919 by David Levering Lewis Poetry: Neon Vernacular: New and Selected Poems by Yusef Komunyakaa

1995 Fiction: The Stone Diaries by Carol Shields Drama: The Young Man from Atlanta by Horton Foote History: No Ordinary Time: Franklin and Eleanor Roosevelt, the Home Front in World War II by Doris Kearns Goodwin Biography or Autobiography: Harriet Beecher Stowe: A Life by Joan D. Hedrick Poetry: The Simple Truth by Philip Levine

1996 Fiction: Independence Day by Richard Ford Drama: Rent by Jonathan Larson History: William Cooper’s Town: Power and Persuasion on the Frontier of the Early American Republic by Alan Taylor Biography or Autobiography: God: A Biography by Jack Miles Poetry: The Dream of the Unified Field by Jorie Graham

1997 Fiction: Martin Dressler: The Tale of an American Dreamer by Steven Millhauser Drama: No award History: Original Meanings: Politics and Ideas in the Making of the Constitution by Jack N. Rakove Biography or Autobiography: Angela’s Ashes: A Memoir by Frank McCourt Poetry: Alive Together: New and Selected Poems by Lisel Mueller

The Nineties in America

Literature: Major Literary Awards

■

1001

1998

1995

Fiction: American Pastoral by Philip Roth Drama: How I Learned to Drive by Paula Vogel History: Summer for the Gods: The Scopes Trial and America’s Continuing Debate over Science and Religion by Edward J. Larson Biography or Autobiography: Personal History by Katharine Graham Poetry: Black Zodiac by Charles Wright

Fiction: Sabbath’s Theater by Philip Roth Nonfiction: The Haunted Land: Facing Europe’s Ghosts After Communism by Tina Rosenberg Poetry: Passing Through: The Later Poems by Stanley Kunitz

1999 Fiction: The Hours by Michael Cunningham Drama: Wit by Margaret Edson History: Gotham: A History of New York City to 1898 by Edwin G. Burrows and Mike Wallace Biography or Autobiography: Lindbergh by A. Scott Berg Poetry: Blizzard of One by Mark Strand

1996 Fiction: Ship Fever, and Other Stories by Andrea Barrett Nonfiction: An American Requiem: God, My Father, and the War That Came Between Us by James Carroll Poetry: Scrambled Eggs and Whiskey: Poems, 19911995 by Hayden Carruth Young People’s Literature: Parrott in the Oven: Mi Vida by Victor Martinez

1997 National Book Awards Fiction: Middle Passage by Charles Johnson Nonfiction: The House of Morgan: An American Banking Dynasty and the Rise of Modern Finance by Ron Chernow

Fiction: Cold Mountain by Charles Frazier Nonfiction: American Sphinx: The Character of Thomas Jefferson by Joseph J. Ellis Poetry: Effort at Speech: New and Selected Poems by William Meredith Young People’s Literature: Dancing on the Edge by Han Nolan

1991

1998

Fiction: Mating by Norman Rush Nonfiction: Freedom by Orlando Patterson Poetry: What Work Is by Philip Levine

Fiction: Charming Billy by Alice McDermott Nonfiction: Slaves in the Family by Edward Ball Poetry: This Time: New and Selected Poems by Gerald Stern Young People’s Literature: Holes by Louis Sachar

1990

1992 Fiction: All the Pretty Horses by Cormac McCarthy Nonfiction: Becoming a Man: Half a Life Story by Paul Monette Poetry: New and Selected Poems by Mary Oliver

1993 Fiction: The Shipping News by E. Annie Proulx Nonfiction: United States: Essays, 1952-1992 by Gore Vidal Poetry: Garbage by A. R. Ammons

1994 Fiction: A Frolic of His Own by William Gaddis Nonfiction: How We Die: Reflections on Life’s Final Chapter by Sherwin B. Nuland Poetry: A Worshipful Company of Fletchers by James Tate

1999 Fiction: Waiting by Ha Jin Nonfiction: Embracing Defeat: Japan in the Wake of World War II by John W. Dower Poetry: Vice: New and Selected Poems by Ai Young People’s Literature: When Zachary Beaver Came to Town by Kimberly Willis Holt

Newbery Medal for Best Children’s Book of the Year 1990: Number the Stars by Lois Lowry 1991: Maniac Magee by Jerry Spinelli 1992: Shiloh by Phyllis Reynolds Naylor 1993: Missing May by Cynthia Rylant 1994: The Giver by Lois Lowry 1995: Walk Two Moons by Sharon Creech

1002

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Literature: Major Literary Awards

1996: The Midwife’s Apprentice by Karen Cushman 1997: The View from Saturday by E. L. Konigsburg 1998: Out of the Dust by Karen Hesse 1999: Holes by Louis Sachar

Canadian Library Association Book of the Year for Children 1990: The Sky Is Falling by Kit Pearson 1991: Redwork by Michael Bedard

The Nineties in America

1992: Eating Between the Lines by Kevin Major 1993: Ticket to Curlew by Celia Barker Lottridge 1994: Some of the Kinder Planets by Tim Wynne-Jones 1995: Summer of the Mad Monk by Cora Taylor 1996: The Tiny Kite of Eddie Wing by Maxine Trottier 1997: Uncle Ronald by Brian Doyle 1998: Silverwing by Kenneth Oppel 1999: Stephen Fair by Tim Wynne-Jones

■ Music: Popular Musicians Groups and performers followed by an asterisk (*) are subjects of their own entries in The Nineties in America. Act

Members

Aaliyah

Notable 1990’s Songs

Notable Facts

“At Your Best (You Are Love),” “Back and Forth,” “The One I Gave My Heart To”

Born Aaliyah Haughton, Aaliyah starred in the films Romeo Must Die (2000) and Queen of the Damned (2002) before dying in a plane crash in 2001.

“All That She Wants,” “Don’t The 1995 and 1997 editions of Turn Around,” “The Sign” The Guinness Book of World Records identify Ace of Base’s album The Sign as pop music’s “Best-Selling Debut Album.”

Ace of Base

Jenny Berggren, Jonas Berggren, Linn Berggren, Ulf Ekberg

Aerosmith

Tom Hamilton, Joey Kramer, “Cryin’,” “Falling in Love (Is Formed in 1970, Aerosmith has been performing in its Joe Perry, Steven Tyler, Brad Hard on the Knees),” “I Don’t Want to Miss a Thing” original lineup longer than Whitford any other active rock band.

After 7

Kevon Edmonds, Melvin Edmonds, Keith Mitchell

All-4-One

Tony Borowiak, Jamie Jones, “I Can Love You like That,” In 1994, All-4-One was “I Swear,” “So Much in Love” nominated for three Grammy Delious Kennedy, Alfred Awards and won two (Best Nevarez Pop Performance by a Duo or Group with Vocal, Favorite New Artist Soul/Rhythm and Blues).

Arrested Development

Tim Barnwell, Rasa Don, Montsho Eshe, Dionne Farris, Baba Oje, Aerle Taree, Todd “Speech” Thomas

Babyface

“Can’t Stop,” “Heat of the Moment,” “Ready or Not”

“Mr. Wendal,” “People Everyday,” “Tennessee”

Kevon and Melvin Edmonds are the brothers of the R&B superstar Babyface.

Arrested Development’s debut album (3 Years, 5 Months, and 2 Days in the Life of . . . ) was voted the best album of 1991 in the Village Voice’s “Pazz & Jop” critics poll.

Born Kenneth Edmonds, “This Is for the Lover in You,” “When Can I See You,” Babyface received his nickname from the legendary “Whip Appeal” funk bassist Bootsy Collins.

Backstreet Boys

The Backstreet Boys are the “As Long As You Love Me,” Nick Carter, Howie highest-selling boy band of all Dorough, Brian Littrell, A. J. “Everybody (Backstreet’s Back),” “I Want It That Way” time. McLean, Kevin Richardson

BLACKstreet

“Before I Let You Go,” “I Get Chauncey Hannibal, David Lonely,” “No Diggity” Hollister, Levi Little, Mark Middleton, Teddy Riley, Eric Williams

Teddy Riley produced songs for numerous performers, including Bobby Brown, Michael Jackson, and Keith Sweat.

1004

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The Nineties in America

Music: Popular Musicians

Act

Members

Notable 1990’s Songs

Notable Facts

Mary J. Blige

“Not Gon’ Cry,” “Real Love,” Blige was the featured vocalist “You Remind Me” on Method Man’s 1995 topten hit “I’ll Be There for You/ You’re All I Need to Get By.”

Michael Bolton

“How Am I Supposed to Live Without You,” “Said I Loved You . . . but I Lied,” “When a Man Loves a Woman”

Bone Thugs-N-Harmony Anthony Henderson, Stanley “1st of tha Month,” “Look Howse, Steven Howse, Byron into My Eyes,” “Tha Crossroads” McCane, Charles Scrugs

Born Michael Bolotin, Bolton has sold over 50 million albums and is active in many charitable organizations. Bone Thugs-N-Harmony won the Best Rap Performance by a Duo or Group Grammy Award in 1997 and 2007.

“End of the Road,” “I’ll Make Love to You,” “It’s So Hard to Say Goodbye to Yesterday”

Boyz II Men’s five number one hits spent a total of fifty weeks atop Billboard’s pop singles chart.

Brandy

“Baby,” “Have You Ever?,” “Sittin’ Up in My Room”

Born Brandy Norwood, Brandy was the star of the TV series Moesha.

Toni Braxton

“Breathe Again,” “Un-Break My Heart,” “You’re Makin’ Me High”

In 2006, Braxton replaced Wayne Newton as the headline act of the Flamingo Hotel and Casino in Las Vegas.

Garth Brooks*

“Friends in Low Places,” “If Tomorrow Never Comes,” “The Thunder Rolls”

In 1994, Brooks recorded “Hard Luck Woman” backed by Kiss, for whom the song had been a hit in 1976.

Bobby Brown

“Get Away,” “Good Enough,” In 2005, Brown starred in his “Humpin’ Around” own “reality TV” series, Being Bobby Brown, on the Bravo network.

Busta Rhymes

“Dangerous,” “What’s It Gonna Be?!,” “Woo-Hah!! Got You All in Check”

Busta Rhymes was born Trevor Smith.

Tevin Campbell

“Can We Talk,” “I’m Ready,” “Tell Me What You Want Me to Do”

Campbell was only twelve when his first hit, “Round and Round,” reached Billboard’s top twenty.

Mariah Carey*

“Dreamlover,” “Fantasy,” “Vision of Love”

Among her fourteen number one hits, Carey spent a total of ixty weeks atop Billboard’s pop charts.

Boyz II Men

C+C Music Factory

Michael McCary, Nathan Morris, Wanya Morris, Shawn Stockman

Robert Clivillés, David Cole, Deborah Cooper, Zelma Davis, Martha Wash, Freedom Williams

Martha Wash was previously “Gonna Make You Sweat half of the duo the Weather (Everybody Dance Now),” “Here We Go,” “Things That Girls. Make You Go Hmmmm . . .”

The Nineties in America Act

Music: Popular Musicians Members

Notable 1990’s Songs

■

1005

Notable Facts

Eric Clapton

“Change the World,” “Layla,” “Tears in Heaven” was “Tears in Heaven” inspired by the death of Clapton’s four-year-old son Conor in 1991.

Coolio

Born Artis Ivey, Coolio “Fantastic Voyage,” “Gangsta’s Paradise,” “1, 2, 3, debuted in 1994 with a hiphop version of the R&B band 4 (Sumpin’ New)” Lakeside’s 1980 hit “Fantastic Voyage.”

Deborah Cox

“Nobody’s Supposed to Be Here,” “We Can’t Be Friends,” “Who Do U Love”

Cox’s fourth album, Destination Moon, was a tribute to the late jazz singer Dinah Washington.

“Dreams,” “Linger,” “Zombie”

The Cranberries were originally named The Cranberry Saw Us.

Sheryl Crow

“All I Wanna Do,” “A Change Would Do You Good,” “Strong Enough”

From 2003 to 2006, Crow was the fiancé of the champion bicyclist Lance Armstrong.

Taylor Dayne

“Heart of Stone,” “I’ll Be Your Shelter,” “Love Will Lead You Back”

Dayne was born Leslie Wundermann.

The Cranberries

Mike Hogan, Noel Hogan, Fergal Lawler, Dolores O’Riordan

Depeche Mode

Andy Fletcher, David Gahan, “Enjoy the Silence,” Martin Gore, Alan Wilder “Personal Jesus,” “Policy of Truth”

Destiny’s Child

Beyoncé Knowles, LeToya Luckett, LaTavia Robertson, Kelly Rowland

Celine Dion

Dixie Chicks

Natalie Maines, Emily Robison, Martie Seidel

Dr. Dre

“Depeche mode” is a French term meaning “fast fashion.”

“Bills, Bills, Bills,” “Bug a Boo,” “No, No, No Part 2”

Beyoncé Knowles would go on to enjoy a highly successful solo career in the twenty-first century.

“Because You Loved Me,” “My Heart Will Go On,” “ The Power of Love”

Dion’s Caesar’s Palace show A New Day . . . was one of Las Vegas’s top attractions from 2003 to 2008.

“Cowboy Take Me Away,” “I Can Love You Better,” “You Were Mine”

The Dixie Chicks are the highest-selling female band in history.

“Dre Day,” “Keep Their Heads Ringin’,” “Nuthin’ but a ‘G’ Thang”

Dr. Dre was born Andre Young.

Dru Hill

Mark “Sisqo” Andrews, Larry “How Deep Is Your Love,” “In My Bed,” “Never Make a Anthony, James Green, Promise” Tamir Ruffin

En Vogue

Terry Ellis, Cindy Herron, Maxine Jones, Dawn Robinson

“Free Your Mind,” “Giving Him Something He Can Feel,” “My Lovin’ (You’re Never Gonna Get It)”

Dru Hill took its name from Druid Hill Park in Baltimore, Maryland. En Vogue appeared in the Sesame Street specials Sesame Street’s 25th Birthday: A Musical Celebration and Elmopalooza.

1006

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The Nineties in America

Music: Popular Musicians

Act

Members

Faith Evans

Notable 1990’s Songs

Notable Facts

“All Night Long,” “Love Like This,” “Soon as I Get Home”

Evans is the widow of the rapper the Notorious B.I.G. Firehouse took its name from the title of a 1974 song by Kiss.

Firehouse

Michael Foster, Bill Leverty, Perry Richardson, C. J. Snare

“Don’t Treat Me Bad,” “Love of a Lifetime,” “When I Look into Your Eyes”

Fugees

Lauryn Hill, Wyclef Jean, Pras Michel

“Fu-Gee-La,” “Killing Me The term “fugee” is a Softly,” “No Woman, No Cry” contraction of “refugee.”

Goo Goo Dolls

Mike Malinin, Johnny Rzeznik, Robby Takac, George Tutuska

“Iris,” “Name,” “Slide”

Rzeznik, Takac, and Tutuska first called their band Sex Maggots.

“Baby Baby,” “Every Heartbeat,” “That’s What Love Is For”

Grant’s album Age to Age was ranked number one in the book CCM Presents: The 100 Greatest Albums in Christian Music.

Amy Grant

Green Day

Billie Joe Armstrong, Tré Cool, Mike Dirnt

“Basket Case,” “Long View,” “When I Come Around”

In 2006, Green Day teamed with U2 to record “The Saints Are Coming,” a fund-raiser benefiting victims of Hurricane Katrina.

Guns n’ Roses

Steven Adler, Gilby Clarke, Saul “Slash” Hudson, Duff McKagan, Dizzy Reed, Axl Rose, Matt Sorum, Izzy Stradlin

“Don’t Cry,” “Live and Let Die,” “November Rain”

Guns n’ Roses’ 1993 album The Spaghetti Incident? contains an unlisted version of “Look at Your Game, Girl,” written by Charles Manson.

Hanson

Isaac Hanson, Taylor Hanson, Zac Hanson

“I Will Come to You,” “MMMBop,” “Where’s the Love”

“MMMBop” was a number one hit in seven countries in 1997.

Heavy D & the Boyz

Dwight “Heavy D” Meyers, Troy Dixon, Edward Ferrell, Glen Parrish

“Big Daddy,” “Got Me Waiting,” “Now That We Found Love”

Heavy D played the role of “Peaches” in the 2000 film The Cider House Rules.

Hi-Five

Roderick Clark, Toriano Easley, Treston Irby, Russell Neal, Marcus Sanders, Tony Thompson

Lead vocalist Thompson died “I Can’t Wait Another of a heroin overdose in 2007. Minute,” “I Like the Way (The Kissing Game),” “She’s Playing Hard to Get”

Hootie and the Blowfish Mark Bryan, Dean Felber, Darius Rucker, Jim Sonefeld

“Hold My Hand,” “Let Her Cry,” “Only Wanna Be with You”

The group’s debut album, 1994’s Cracked Rear View, has sold over 16 million copies.

Whitney Houston

“Exhale (Shoop Shoop),” “I’m Your Baby Tonight,” “I Will Always Love You”

Houston earned a gold record in 1991 for her performance of “The Star Spangled Banner” at Super Bowl XXV.

The Nineties in America Act

Music: Popular Musicians Members

Ice Cube

INXS

Garry Beers, Michael Hutchence, Andy Farris, Jon Farris, Tim Farris, Kirk Pengilly

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Notable 1990’s Songs

Notable Facts

“Bop Gun (One Nation),” “Check Yo Self,” “It Was a Good Day”

Born O’Shea Jackson, Ice Cube has appeared in more than a dozen films, including Boyz ’N the Hood (1991), The Players Club (1998), and Barbershop (2002).

“Beautiful Girl,” “Disappear,” Lead singer Hutchence “Suicide Blonde” hanged himself in November, 1997.

Janet Jackson

“Again,” “Escapade,” “That’s In 1991, Jackson signed a the Way Love Goes” multimillion-dollar recording contract with Virgin Records, making her one of the most highly paid artists in the industry.

Michael Jackson

In 2005, Jackson was tried “Black or White,” “Remember the Time,” “You on and acquitted of charges of child molestation. Are Not Alone”

Jewel

“Foolish Games,” “You Were Meant for Me,” “Who Will Save Your Soul”

Jodeci

Dalvin DeGrate, Jr., Donald DeGrate, Cedric “K-Ci” Hailey, Joel “JoJo” Hailey

Surnamed Kilcher, Jewel acted in the 1999 Civil War film Ride with the Devil.

“Cry for You,” “Freek’n You,” The Hailey brothers went “Lately” on to success as the duo K-Ci & JoJo.

Elton John

“Candle in the Wind 1997,” “Can You Feel the Love Tonight,” “The One”

In 1998, John was knighted by Queen Elizabeth II for his charitable work.

Montell Jordan

“I Can Do That,” “Let’s Ride,” “This Is How We Do It”

Jordan has a bachelor’s degree in communication from Pepperdine University.

“All My Life,” “Tell Me It’s Real,” “You Bring Me Up”

K-Ci & JoJo appeared as featured vocalists on hits by Tupac Shakur, E-40, and Will Smith.

“Bump n’ Grind,” “I Believe I Can Fly,” “Sex Me (Parts I & II)”

Kelly’s secret marriage to the singer Aaliyah in 1995 was annulled after several months when it was revealed that Aaliyah was a minor.

“Tonight’s tha Night,” “Jump,” “Warm It Up”

Kelly and Smith were famous for wearing their clothes backward.

K-Ci & JoJo

Cedric “K-Ci” Hailey, Joel “JoJo” Hailey

R. Kelly

Kris Kross

LL Cool J

Chris “Mack Daddy” Kelly, Chris “Daddy Mack” Smith

“Doin It,” “Hey Lover,” Born James Todd Smith, LL “Mama Said Knock You Out” Cool James’s pseudonym stands for “Ladies Love Cool James.”

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Act

Notable 1990’s Songs

Notable Facts

Reba McEntire*

“If You See Him, If You See Her,” “Rumor Has It,” “The Heart Is a Lonely Hunter”

Four of McEntire’s 1990’s albums reached the top ten of Billboard’s country and pop album charts.

Tim McGraw

“Don’t Take the Girl,” “Indian Outlaw,” “Please Remember Me”

McGraw is the husband of the country superstar Faith Hill and the son of the late majorleague pitcher Tug McGraw.

Brian McKnight

“Anytime,” “Back at One,” “One Last Cry”

Despite being nominated sixteen times between 1994 and 2005, McKnight has never won a Grammy Award.

Sarah McLachlan

“Adia,” “Angel,” “I Will Remember You”

McLachlan sang the song “When She Loved Me” in the film Toy Story 2 (1999).

Madonna*

“Justify My Love,” “Take a Bow,” “This Used to Be My Playground”

Madonna was the third-bestselling female singles artist of the 1990’s, with twenty topforty hits, fifteen of which reached the top ten and four of which reached number one.

Mase

“Feel So Good,” “Lookin’ at Me,” “What You Want”

Born Mason Betha, Mase was a featured vocalist on hits by Puff Daddy, the Notorious B.I.G., and Brian McKnight.

Master P

“I Got the Hook Up,” “I Miss Born Percy Miller, Master P My Homies,” “Make ’Em Say was arrested in 2003 and 2005 for firearms violations. Uhh!”

MC Hammer

“Pray,” “2 Legit 2 Quit,” “U Can’t Touch This”

Born Stanley Kirk Burrell, MC Hammer became a preacher in 1997 and hosted a TV show on the Trinity Broadcasting Network.

MC Lyte

“Cold Rock a Party,” “Keep On, Keepin’ On,” “Ruffneck”

Born Lana Moorer, MC Lyte donated her diary to the Smithsonian Institution’s hiphop collection.

Meat Loaf

“I’d Do Anything for Love (But I Won’t Do That),” “I’d Lie for You (And That’s the Truth),” “Rock and Roll Dreams Come Through”

Born Marvin Lee Aday, Meat Loaf played “Eddie” in the 1975 cult film The Rocky Horror Picture Show.

“Enter Sandman,” “Nothing Else Matters,” “Until It Sleeps”

Because of its all-black cover, Metallica’s eponymous 1991 album is often referred to as the “Black Album.”

Metallica*

Members

Kirk Hammett, James Hetfield, Jason Newsted, Lars Ulrich

The Nineties in America Act

Music: Popular Musicians Members

Notable 1990’s Songs

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Notable Facts

George Michael

“Don’t Let the Sun Go Down Born Georgios Panayiotou, Michael urged a boycott on Me,” “Jesus to a Child,” of Cliff Richard’s 1999 “Praying for Time” Christmas single “The Millennium Prayer,” considering it a “vile” exploitation of Richard’s Christian faith.

Monica

“Angel of Mine,” “Don’t Take It Personal (Just One of Dem Days),” “The First Night”

Born Monica Arnold, Monica is related by marriage to the rapper Ludacris.

Alanis Morissette*

“Ironic,” “You Learn,” “You Oughta Know”

In 2005, Morissette released an acoustic version of her album Jagged Little Pill that was available exclusively at Starbucks coffeeshops.

Naughty by Nature

“Hip Hop Hooray,” Vincent “Vin Rock” Brown, Anthony “Treach” Criss, Kier “Jamboree,” “O.P.P.” “DJ Kay Gee” Gist

Brown is a cousin of the heavyweight boxer Mike Tyson.

98 Degrees

Justin Jeffre, Drew Lachey, Nick Lachey, Jeff Timmons

“Because of You,” “The Hardest Thing,” “Invisible Man”

Nick Lachey was married to the pop singer and actress Jessica Simpson from 2003 to 2006.

Nirvana*

Kurt Cobain, Dave Grohl, Krist Novoselic

“About a Girl,” “Come as You Are,” “Smells Like Teen Spirit”

Cobain wrote “Smells Like Teen Spirit” unaware that Teen Spirit was the name of a popular deodorant.

“Hypnotize,” “Mo Money Mo Born Christopher Wallace, the Notorious B.I.G. (also Problems,” “One More known as Biggie Smalls) Chance/Stay with Me” was shot to death in 1997.

The Notorious B.I.G.

Pearl Jam

Dave Abbruzzese, Jeff Ament, Stone Gossard, Jack Irons, Mike McCready, Eddie Vedder

“Alive,” “Better Man,” “Even Flow,” “Jeremy,” “Last Kiss”

Pearl Jam’s song “Jeremy” is based on two real-life instances of teenage suicide.

P.M. Dawn

Attrell “Prince Be” Cordes, Jarrett Cordes

“I’d Die Without You,” “Looking Through Patient Eyes,” “Set Adrift on Memory Bliss”

“Set Adrift on Memory Bliss” samples Spandau Ballet’s 1983 hit “True.”

“Cream,” “Diamonds and Pearls,” “The Most Beautiful Girl in the World”

After he changed his name to a logo-like symbol in 1993, Prince (born Prince Roger Nelson) was commonly referred to as “The Artist Formerly Known as Prince.”

Prince

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Act

Members

Puff Daddy

Notable 1990’s Songs

Notable Facts

“Can’t Nobody Hold Me Down,” “I’ll Be Missing You,” “It’s All About the Benjamins”

Born Sean Combs, Puff Daddy featured Led Zeppelin’s Jimmy Page on his contribution to the 1998 Godzilla soundtrack, “Come with Me.”

Red Hot Chili Peppers

Michael “Flea” Balzary, John “Scar Tissue,” “Soul to Frusciante, Anthony Kiedis, Squeeze,” “Under the Arik Marshall, Dave Navarro, Bridge” Zander Schloss, Chad Smith

The Red Hot Chili Peppers’ Freaky Styley album was produced by the funk pioneer George Clinton.

R.E.M.

Bill Berry, Peter Buck, Mike Mills, Michael Stipe

“Everybody Hurts,” “Losing My Religion,” “Man on the Moon”

“Man on the Moon” is based on the life of the late comedian Andy Kaufman.

“Blue,” “How Do I Live,” “Looking Through Your Eyes”

Rimes was thirteen years old when her debut single “Blue” reached the top ten of Billboard’s country chart.

LeAnn Rimes

Roxette

Marie Fredriksson, Per Gessle

“It Must Have Been Love,” “Joyride,” “Listen to Your Heart”

With Abba and Ace of Base, Roxette is one of the most popular musical acts to emerge from Sweden.

Salt-n-Pepa

Sandra “Pepa” Denton, Cheryl “Salt” James, Dee Dee “Spinderella” Roper

“Push It,” “Shoop,” “Whatta Man”

Denton was married to Naughty by Nature’s Anthony “Treach” Criss from 1999 to 2001.

Savage Garden

Darren Hayes, Daniel Jones

“I Knew I Loved You,” “I Want You,” “Truly Madly Deeply”

Savage Garden won a recordsetting ten Australian Recording Industry Association Music Awards in 1997.

Shai

Garfield Bright, Marc Gay, Carl Martin, Darnell Van Rensalier

“Baby I’m Yours,” “Comforter,” “If I Ever Fall in Love”

Gay, Martin, and Van Rensalier were members of the Alpha Phi Alpha fraternity at Howard University.

Tupac Shakur* Smashing Pumpkins

Will Smith*

“California Love,” “Dear Shakur died in 1996 from Mama,” “How Do U Want It” multiple gunshot wounds. Jimmy Chamberlin, Billy Corgan, James Iha, D’arcy Wretzky

Corgan credited the debut “Bullet with Butterfly Wings,” “Landslide,” “1979,” album by the English heavymetal band Black Sabbath with “Today” inspiring his interest in music. “Gettin’ Jiggy wit It,” “Men in Black,” “Wild Wild West”

Half of the rap duo DJ Jazzy Jeff and the Fresh Prince, Smith went on to star in numerous films, including Independence Day (1996), Men in Black (1997), and Ali (2001).

The Nineties in America Act

Music: Popular Musicians Members

Snoop Doggy Dogg

Spice Girls

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Notable 1990’s Songs

Notable Facts

“Gin and Juice,” “Nuthin’ but a ‘G’ Thang,” “Who Am I (What’s My Name)?”

Born Cordozar Calvin Broadus, Snoop Doggy Dogg has been denied entrance to Australia and the United Kingdom because of his multiple arrests and convictions.

Victoria “Posh Spice” Adams, “Say You’ll Be There,” “2 Become 1,” “Wannabe” Melanie “Scary Spice” Brown, Emma “Baby Spice” Bunton, Melanie “Sporty Spice” Chisholm, Geri “Ginger Spice” Halliwell

Keith Sweat

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In 1999, Adams married the soccer superstar David Beckham.

“I Want Her,” “Nobody,” “Twisted”

Born Keith Crier, Sweat has produced songs for Dru Hill, the Isley Brothers, and the O’Jays.

SW V

Cheryl Gamble, Tamara Johnson, Leanne Lyons

“Right Here/Human Nature,” “You’re the One,” “Weak”

“SW V” stands for “Sisters with Voices.”

TLC

Lisa “Left Eye” Lopes, Rozonda “Chilli” Thomas, Tionne “T-Boz” Watkins

“Creep,” “No Scrubs,” “Waterfalls”

Lopes, an ex-girlfriend of the NFL superstar Andre Rison, died in a car accident in 2002.

Shania Twain

Twain’s album Come On Over is “From This Moment On,” the highest-selling album in “That Don’t Impress Me Much,” “You’re Still the One” the history of country music.

Usher

“Nice and Slow,” “My Way,” “You Make Me Wanna . . .”

Usher (born Usher Raymond) performed on the television talent show Star Search at age thirteen.

“Hold Me, Thrill Me, Kiss Me, Kill Me,” “Mysterious Ways,” “One”

Under the pseudonym Passengers, U2 recorded the song “Miss Sarajevo” with Luciano Pavarotti in 1995.

Luther Vandross

“Don’t Want to Be a Fool,” “Here and Now,” “Power of Love/Love Power”

Vandross toured as a backup singer with David Bowie in 1974.

Vanessa Williams

“Colors of the Wind,” “Save the Best for Last,” “The Sweetest Days”

A former Miss America, Williams earned the role of Wilhelmina Slater in the television series Ugly Betty in 2006.

U2

Xscape

Adam Clayton, Dave “The Edge” Evans, Paul “Bono” Hewson, Larry Mullen, Jr.

Kandi Burruss, Tameka Cottle, LaTocha Scott, Tamika Scott

Burruss has written songs for “Just Kickin’ It,” “Understanding,” “Who Can Boyz II Men, Mariah Carey, Destiny’s Child, Faith Evans, I Run To?” and Alicia Keys.

Arsenio Orteza

■ Music: Grammy Awards This list includes winners of Grammy Awards in major categories. “Album of the Year” awards the artist who performed the album, and “Record of the Year” awards the producer and artist, while “Song of the Year” awards the songwriter. An asterisk (*) following a name or group indicates the presence of a full-length entry in The Nineties in America.

1990 Album of the Year: Back on the Block, Quincy Jones Record of the Year: “Another Day in Paradise,” Hugh Padgham and Phil Collins (producers), Phil Collins (artist) Song of the Year: “From a Distance,” Julie Gold (songwriter), Bette Midler (artist) Best New Artist: Mariah Carey* Best Pop Vocal Performance, Female: “Vision of Love,” Mariah Carey* Best Pop Vocal Performance, Male: “Oh, Pretty Woman,” Roy Orbison Best Pop Performance by a Duo or Group with Vocal: “All My Life,” Linda Ronstadt and Aaron Neville Best Rock Vocal Performance, Female: “Black Velvet,” Alannah Myles Best Rock Vocal Performance, Male: “Bad Love,” Eric Clapton Best Rock Performance by a Duo or Group with Vocal: “Janie’s Got a Gun,” Aerosmith Best Hard Rock Performance: Time’s Up, Living Colour Best Metal Performance: “Stone Cold Crazy,” Metallica* Best R&B Vocal Performance, Female: Compositions, Anita Baker Best R&B Vocal Performance, Male: “Here and Now,” Luther Vandross Best R&B Performance by a Duo or Group with Vocal: “I’ll Be Good to You,” Ray Charles and Chaka Khan Best R&B Song: “U Can’t Touch This,” Alonzo Miller, MC Hammer, and Rick James (songwriters), MC Hammer (artist) Best Rap Solo Performance: “U Can’t Touch This,” MC Hammer Best Rap Performance by a Duo or Group: “Back on the Block,” Melle Mel, Ice T, Big Daddy Kane, Kool Moe Dee, Quincy Jones, and Quincy D. III Best Country Vocal Performance, Female: “Where’ve You Been,” Kathy Mattea

Best Country Vocal Performance, Male: “When I Call Your Name,” Vince Gill Best Country Performance, Duo or Group: Pickin’ on Nashville, The Kentucky Headhunters Best Country Vocal Collaboration: “Poor Boy Blues,” Chet Atkins and Mark Knopfler Best Country Song: “Where’ve You Been,” Don Henry and Jon Vesner (songwriters), Kathy Mattea (artist) Best Jazz Fusion Performance: “Birdland,” Quincy Jones Best Jazz Vocal Performance, Female: All That Jazz, Ella Fitzgerald Best Jazz Vocal Performance, Male: We Are in Love, Harry Connick, Jr. Best Jazz Instrumental Performance, Solo: The Legendary Oscar Peterson Trio Live at the Blue Note, Oscar Peterson Best Jazz Instrumental Performance, Group: The Legendary Oscar Peterson Trio Live at the Blue Note, Oscar Peterson Best Jazz Instrumental Performance, Big Band: “Basie’s Bag,” Frank Foster Best Music Video, Short Form: Opposites Attract, Candice Reckinger and Michael Patterson (directors), Sharon Oreck (producer), Paula Abdul (artist) Best Music Video, Long Form: Please Hammer Don’t Hurt ’Em: The Movie, Rupert Wainwright (director), John Oetjen (producer), MC Hammer (artist)

1991 Album of the Year: Unforgettable, Andre Fischer, David Foster, and Tommy LiPuma (producers). Natalie Cole (artist) Record of the Year: “Unforgettable,” David Foster (producer), Natalie Cole with Nat King Cole (artists) Song of the Year: “Unforgettable,” Irving Gordon (writer), Natalie Cole with Nat King Cole (artists)

The Nineties in America

Best New Artist: Marc Cohn Best Pop Vocal Performance, Female: “Something to Talk About,” Bonnie Raitt Best Pop Vocal Performance, Male: “When a Man Loves a Woman,” Michael Bolton Best Pop Performance by a Duo or Group with Vocal: “Losing My Religion,” R.E.M. Best Rock Vocal Performance, Solo: Luck of the Draw, Bonnie Raitt Best Rock Performance by a Duo or Group with Vocal: “Good Man, Good Woman,” Bonnie Raitt and Delbert McClinton Best Rock Song: “Soul Cages,” Sting (songwriter and artist) Best Hard Rock Performance with Vocal: For Unlawful Carnal Knowledge, Van Halen Best Metal Performance: Metallica, Metallica* Best R&B Vocal Performance, Female: Burnin’, Patti LaBelle and “How Can I Ease the Pain?” Lisa Fischer Best R&B Vocal Performance, Male: Power of Love, Luther Vandross Best R&B Performance by a Duo or Group with Vocal: Cooleyhighharmony, Boyz II Men Best R&B Song: “Power of Love/Love Power,” Luther Vandross, Marcus Miller, and Teddy Vann (songwriters), Luther Vandross (artist) Best Rap Solo Performance: “Mama Said Knock You Out,” LL Cool J Best Rap Performance by a Duo or Group: “Summertime,” DJ Jazzy Jeff and the Fresh Prince Best Country Vocal Performance, Female: “Down at the Twist and Shout,” Mary Chapin Carpenter Best Country Vocal Performance, Male: Ropin’ the Wind, Garth Brooks* Best Country Performance, Duo or Group with Vocal: “Love Can Build a Bridge,” The Judds Best Country Vocal Collaboration: “Restless,” Ricky Skaggs, Steve Wariner, and Vince Gill Best Country Song: “Love Can Build a Bridge,” John Jarvis, Naomi Judd, and Paul Overstreet (songwriters), The Judds (artist) Best Contemporary Jazz Performance: “Sassy,” The Manhattan Transfer Best Jazz Performance, Vocal: He Is Christmas, Take 6 Best Jazz Instrumental Performance, Solo: “I Remember You,” Stan Getz

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Best Jazz Instrumental Performance, Group: Saturday Night at the Blue Note, Oscar Peterson Trio Best Large Jazz Ensemble Performance: Live at the Royal Festival Hall, Dizzy Gillespie Best Music Video, Short Form: Losing My Religion, Tarsem (director), Dave Ramser (producer), R.E.M. (artist) Best Music Video, Long Form: Madonna: Blond Ambition World Tour Live, David Mallet and Mark “Aldo” Miceli (directors), Anthony Eaton (producer), Madonna* (artist)

1992 Album of the Year: Unplugged, Russ Titelman (producer), Eric Clapton (artist) Record of the Year: “Tears in Heaven,” Russ Titelman (producer), Eric Clapton (artist) Song of the Year: “ Tears in Heaven,” Eric Clapton and Will Jennings (songwriters), Eric Clapton (artist) Best New Artist: Arrested Development Best Pop Vocal Performance, Female: “Constant Craving,” K. D. Lang* Best Pop Vocal Performance, Male: “Tears in Heaven,” Eric Clapton Best Pop Performance by a Duo or Group with Vocal: “Beauty and the Beast,” Celine Dion and Peabo Bryson Best Rock Vocal Performance, Female: “Ain’t It Heavy,” Melissa Etheridge* Best Rock Vocal Performance, Male: Unplugged, Eric Clapton Best Rock Song: “Layla,” Eric Clapton and Jim Gordon (songwriters), Eric Clapton (artist) Best Rock Performance by a Duo or Group with Vocal: Achtung Baby, U2 Best Hard Rock Performance with Vocal: “Give It Away,” Red Hot Chili Peppers Best Metal Performance: “Wish,” Nine Inch Nails* Best R&B Vocal Performance, Female: The Woman I Am, Chaka Khan Best R&B Vocal Performance, Male: Heaven and Earth, Al Jarreau Best R&B Performance by a Duo or Group with Vocal: “End of the Road,” Boyz II Men Best R&B Song: “End of the Road,” Babyface, Daryl Simmons, L. A. Reid (songwriters) and Boyz II Men (artist) Best Rap Solo Performance: “Baby Got Back,” Sir Mix-A-Lot

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Best Rap Performance by a Duo or Group: “Tennessee,” Arrested Development Best Country Vocal Performance, Female: “I Feel Lucky,” Mary Chapin Carpenter Best Country Vocal Performance, Male: I Still Believe in You, Vince Gill Best Country Performance, Duo or Group with Vocal: Emmylou Harris and the Nash Ramblers at the Ryman, Emmylou Harris and the Nash Ramblers Best Country Vocal Collaboration: “The Whiskey Ain’t Workin’,” Travis Tritt and Marty Stuart Best Country Song: “I Still Believe in You,” John Jarvis and Vince Gill (songwriters), Vince Gill (artist) Best Contemporary Jazz Performance, Instrumental: Secret Story, Pat Metheny Best Jazz Vocal Performance: “’Round Midnight,” Bobby McFerrin Best Jazz Instrumental Performance, Solo: “Lush Life,” Joe Henderson Best Jazz Instrumental Performance, Individual or Group: I Heard You Twice the First Time, Branford Marsalis Best Large Jazz Ensemble Performance: The Turning Point, McCoy Tyner Big Band Best Music Video, Short Form: Digging in the Dirt, John Downer (director and producer), Peter Gabriel (artist) Best Music Video, Long Form: Diva, Sophie Muller (director), Rob Small (producer), Annie Lennox (artist)

1993 Album of the Year: The Bodyguard: Original Soundtrack Album, Babyface, BeBe Winans, David Cole, David Foster, L. A. Reid, Narada Michael Walden, and Robert Clivilles (producers), Whitney Houston (artist) Record of the Year: “I Will Always Love You,” David Foster (producer), Whitney Houston (artist) Song of the Year: “A Whole New World (Aladdin’s Theme),” Alan Menken and Tim Rice (songwriters), Peabo Bryson and Regina Belle (artists) Best New Artist: Toni Braxton Best Pop Vocal Performance, Female: “I Will Always Love You,” Whitney Houston Best Pop Vocal Performance, Male: “If I Ever Lose My Faith in You,” Sting

The Nineties in America

Best Pop Performance by a Duo or Group with Vocal: “A Whole New World (Aladdin’s Theme),” Peabo Bryson and Regina Belle Best Rock Vocal Performance, Solo: “I’d Do Anything for Love (But I Won’t Do That),” Meat Loaf Best Rock Performance by a Duo or Group with Vocal: “Livin’ on the Edge,” Aerosmith Best Hard Rock Performance with Vocal: “Plush,” Stone Temple Pilots Best Metal Performance with Vocal: “I Don’t Want to Change the World,” Ozzy Osbourne Best Rock Song: “Runaway Train,” David Pirner (songwriter), Soul Asylum (artist) Best R&B Vocal Performance, Female: “Another Sad Love Song,” Toni Braxton Best R&B Vocal Performance, Male: “A Song for You,” Ray Charles Best R&B Performance by a Duo or Group with Vocal: “No Ordinary Love,” Sade Best R&B Song: “That’s the Way Love Goes,” Janet Jackson, Jimmy Jam, and Terry Lewis (songwriters), Janet Jackson (artist) Best Rap Solo Performance: “Let Me Ride,” Dr. Dre Best Rap Performance by a Duo or Group: “Rebirth of Slick (Cool Like Dat),” Digable Planets Best Country Vocal Performance, Female: “Passionate Kisses,” Mary Chapin Carpenter Best Country Vocal Performance, Male: “Ain’t That Lonely Yet,” Dwight Yoakam Best Country Performance, Duo or Group with Vocal: “Hard Workin’ Man,” Brooks and Dunn Best Country Vocal Collaboration: “Does He Love You,” Reba McEntire* and Linda Davis Best Country Song: “Passionate Kisses,” Lucinda Williams (songwriter), Mary Chapin Carpenter (artist) Best Contemporary Jazz Performance, Instrumental: The Road to You, Pat Metheny Group Best Jazz Vocal Performance: Take a Look, Natalie Cole Best Jazz Instrumental Performance, Solo: “Miles Ahead,” Joe Henderson Best Jazz Instrumental Performance, Individual or Group: So Near, So Far (Musings for Miles), Joe Henderson Best Large Jazz Ensemble Performance: Miles and Quincy Live at Montreux, Miles Davis and Quincy Jones

The Nineties in America

Best Music Video, Short Form: Steam, Stephen Johnson (director), Prudence Fenton (producer), Peter Gabriel (artist) Best Music Video, Long Form: Ten Summoner’s Tales, Doug Nichol (director), Julie Fong (producer), Sting (artist)

1994 Album of the Year: MTV Unplugged, David Kahne (producer), Tony Bennett (artist) Record of the Year: “All I Wanna Do,” Bill Bottrell (producer), Sheryl Crow (artist) Song of the Year: “Streets of Philadelphia,” Bruce Springsteen (songwriter and artist) Best New Artist: Sheryl Crow Best Pop Vocal Performance, Female: “All I Wanna Do,” Sheryl Crow Best Pop Vocal Performance, Male: “Can You Feel the Love Tonight,” Elton John Best Pop Performance by a Duo or Group with Vocal: “I Swear,” All-4-One Best Pop Album: Longing in Their Hearts, Bonnie Raitt Best Rock Vocal Performance, Female: “Come to My Window,” Melissa Etheridge* Best Rock Vocal Performance, Male: “Streets of Philadelphia,” Bruce Springsteen Best Rock Performance by a Duo or Group with Vocal: “Crazy,” Aerosmith Best Hard Rock Performance: “Black Hole Sun,” Soundgarden Best Metal Performance: “Spoonman,” Soundgarden Best Rock Song: “Streets of Philadelphia,” Bruce Springsteen (songwriter and artist) Best Rock Album: Voodoo Lounge, The Rolling Stones Best R&B Vocal Performance, Female: “Breathe Again,” Toni Braxton Best R&B Vocal Performance, Male: “When Can I See You,” Babyface Best R&B Performance by a Duo or Group with Vocal: “I’ll Make Love to You,” Boyz II Men Best R&B Song: “I’ll Make Love to You,” Babyface (songwriter), Boyz II Men (artist) Best R&B Album: II, Boyz II Men Best Rap Solo Performance: “U.N.I.T.Y.,” Queen Latifah

Music: Grammy Awards

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Best Rap Performance by a Duo or Group: “None of Your Business,” Salt-n-Pepa Best Country Vocal Performance, Female: “Shut up and Kiss Me,” Mary Chapin Carpenter Best Country Vocal Performance, Male: “When Love Finds You,” Vince Gill Best Country Performance, Duo or Group with Vocal: “Blues for Dixie,” Asleep at the Wheel and Lyle Lovett Best Country Vocal Collaboration: “I Fall to Pieces,” Aaron Neville and Trisha Yearwood Best Country Song: “I Swear,” Frank J. Myers and Gary Baker (songwriters), John Michael Montgomery (artist) Best Country Album: Stones in the Road, Mary Chapin Carpenter Best Contemporary Jazz Performance: Out of the Loop, The Brecker Brothers Best Jazz Vocal Performance: Mystery Lady: Songs of Billie Holiday, Etta James Best Jazz Instrumental Performance, Solo: “Prelude to a Kiss,” Benny Carter Best Jazz Instrumental Performance, Individual or Group: A Tribute to Miles, Ron Carter, Herbie Hancock, Wallace Roney, Wayne Shorter, and Tony Williams Best Large Jazz Instrumental Ensemble Performance: Journey, McCoy Tyner Big Band Best Music Video, Short Form: Love Is Strong, David Fincher (director), Cean Chaffin (producer), The Rolling Stones (artist) Best Music Video, Long Form: Zoo TV: Live from Sydney, David Mallet (director), Ned O’Hanlon and Rocky Oldham (producers), U2 (artist)

1995 Album of the Year: Jagged Little Pill, Glen Ballard (producer), Alanis Morissette* (artist) Record of the Year: “Kiss from a Rose,” Trevor Horn (producer), Seal (artist) Song of the Year: “Kiss from a Rose,” Seal (songwriter and artist) Best New Artist: Hootie and the Blowfish Best Pop Vocal Performance, Female: “No More ‘I Love You’s,’” Annie Lennox Best Pop Vocal Performance, Male: “Kiss from a Rose,” Seal Best Pop Performance by a Duo or Group with Vocal: “Let Her Cry,” Hootie and the Blowfish

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The Nineties in America

Music: Grammy Awards

Best Pop Album: Turbulent Indigo, Joni Mitchell Best Rock Vocal Performance, Female: “You Oughta Know,” Alanis Morissette* Best Rock Vocal Performance, Male: “You Don’t Know How It Feels,” Tom Petty Best Rock Performance by a Duo or Group with Vocal: “Run-Around,” Blues Traveler Best Hard Rock Performance: “Spin the Black Circle,” Pearl Jam Best Metal Performance: “Happiness in Slavery,” Nine Inch Nails* Best Rock Song: “You Oughta Know,” Glen Ballard and Alanis Morissette* (songwriters), Alanis Morissette* (artist) Best Rock Album: Jagged Little Pill, Glen Ballard (producer), Alanis Morissette* (artist) Best R&B Vocal Performance, Female: “I Apologize,” Anita Baker Best R&B Vocal Performance, Male: “For Your Love,” Stevie Wonder Best R&B Performance by a Duo or Group with Vocal: “Creep,” TLC Best R&B Song: “For Your Love,” Stevie Wonder (songwriter and artist) Best R&B Album: Crazysexycool, TLC Best Rap Solo Performance: “Gangsta’s Paradise,” Coolio Best Rap Performance by a Duo or Group: “I’ll Be There for You/You’re All I Need to Get By,” Method Man featuring Mary J. Blige Best Rap Album: Poverty’s Paradise, Naughty by Nature Best Country Vocal Performance, Female: “Baby, Now That I’ve Found You,” Alison Krauss Best Country Vocal Performance, Male: “Go Rest High on That Mountain,” Vince Gill Best Country Performance, Duo or Group with Vocal: “Here Comes the Rain,” The Mavericks Best Country Collaboration with Vocals: “Somewhere in the Vicinity of the Heart,” Shenandoah and Alison Krauss Best Country Song: “Go Rest High on That Mountain,” Vince Gill (songwriter and artist) Best Country Album: The Woman in Me, Shania Twain Best Contemporary Jazz Performance: We Live Here, Pat Metheny Group Best Jazz Vocal Performance: An Evening with Lena Horne, Lena Horne Best Jazz Instrumental Performance, Solo: “Impressions,” Michael Brecker

Best Jazz Instrumental Performance, Individual or Group: Infinity, McCoy Tyner Trio and Michael Brecker Best Large Jazz Ensemble Performance: All Blues, Tom Scott and the GRP All-Star Big Band Best Music Video, Short Form: Scream, Mark Romanek (director), Cean Chaffin (producer), Michael Jackson and Janet Jackson (artists) Best Music Video, Long Form: Secret World Live, Francois Girard (director), Robert Warr (producer), Peter Gabriel (artist)

1996 Album of the Year: Falling into You, Aldo Nova, Billy Steinberg, Dan Hill, David Foster, Humberto Gatica, Jean-Jacques Goldman, Jeff Bova, Jim Steinman, John Jones, Ric Wake, Rick Hahn, Rick Nowels, Roy Bittan, and Steven Rinkoff (producers), Celine Dion (artist) Record of the Year: “Change the World,” Babyface (producer), Eric Clapton (artist) Song of the Year: “Change the World,” Gordon Kennedy, Tommy Sims, and Wayne Kirkpatrick (songwriters), Eric Clapton and Wynonna (artists) Best New Artist: LeAnn Rimes Best Pop Vocal Performance, Female: “Un-Break My Heart,” Toni Braxton Best Pop Vocal Performance, Male: “Change the World,” Eric Clapton Best Pop Performance by a Duo or Group with Vocal: “Free as a Bird,” The Beatles Best Pop Album: Falling into You, Celine Dion Best Rock Vocal Performance, Female: “If It Makes You Happy,” Sheryl Crow Best Rock Vocal Performance, Male: “Where It’s At,” Beck Best Rock Performance by a Duo or Group with Vocal: “So Much to Say,” Dave Matthews Band Best Hard Rock Performance: “Bullet with Butterfly Wings,” The Smashing Pumpkins Best Metal Performance: “Tire Me,” Rage Against the Machine Best Rock Song: “Give Me One Reason,” Tracy Chapman (songwriter and artist) Best Rock Album: Sheryl Crow, Sheryl Crow Best R&B Vocal Performance, Female: “You’re Makin’ Me High,” Toni Braxton

The Nineties in America

Best R&B Vocal Performance, Male: “Your Secret Love,” Luther Vandross Best R&B Performance by a Duo or Group with Vocal: “Killing Me Softly with His Song,” Fugees Best R&B Song: “Exhale (Shoop Shoop),” Babyface (songwriter), Whitney Houston (artist) Best R&B Album: Words, The Tony Rich Project Best Rap Solo Performance: “Hey Lover,” LL Cool J Best Rap Performance by a Duo or Group: “Tha Crossroads,” Bone Thugs-N-Harmony Best Rap Album: The Score, Fugees and Prakazrel “Pras” Michel (producers), Fugees (artist) Best Country Vocal Performance, Female: “Blue,” LeAnn Rimes Best Country Vocal Performance, Male: “Worlds Apart,” Vince Gill Best Country Performance, Duo or Group with Vocal: “My Maria,” Brooks and Dunn Best Country Collaboration with Vocals: “High Lonesome Sound,” Vince Gill featuring Alison Krauss and Union Station Best Country Song: “Blue,” Bill Mack (songwriter), LeAnn Rimes (artist) Best Country Album: The Road to Ensenada, Lyle Lovett and Billy Williams (producers), Lyle Lovett (artist) Best Contemporary Jazz Performance: High Life, Wayne Shorter Best Jazz Vocal Performance: New Moon Daughter, Cassandra Wilson Best Jazz Instrumental Performance, Solo: “Cabin Fever,” Michael Brecker Best Jazz Instrumental Performance, Individual or Group: Tales from the Hudson, Michael Brecker Best Large Jazz Ensemble Performance: Live at Manchester Craftsmen’s Guild, Grover Mitchell Best Music Video, Short Form: Free as a Bird, Joe Pytka (director), Vincent Joliet (producer), The Beatles (artist) Best Music Video, Long Form: The Beatles Anthology, Bob Smeaton and Geoff Wonfor (directors), Chips Chipperfield and Neil Aspinall (producers), The Beatles (artist)

Music: Grammy Awards

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1997 Album of the Year: Time out of Mind, Daniel Lanois (producer), Bob Dylan (artist) Record of the Year: “Sunny Came Home,” John Leventhal (producer), Shawn Colvin (artist) Song of the Year: “Sunny Came Home,” John Leventhal and Shawn Colvin (songwriters), Shawn Colvin (artist) Best New Artist: Paula Cole Best Pop Vocal Performance, Female: “Building a Mystery,” Sarah McLachlan Best Pop Vocal Performance, Male: “Candle in the Wind 1997,” Elton John Best Pop Performance by a Duo or Group with Vocal: “Virtual Insanity,” Jamiroquai Best Pop Album: Hourglass, James Taylor Best Rock Vocal Performance, Female: “Criminal,” Fiona Apple Best Rock Vocal Performance, Male: “Cold Irons Bound,” Bob Dylan Best Rock Performance by a Duo or Group with Vocal: “One Headlight,” The Wallflowers Best Hard Rock Performance: “The End Is the Beginning Is the End,” The Smashing Pumpkins Best Metal Performance: “Ænema,” Tool Best Rock Song: “One Headlight,” Jakob Dylan (songwriter), The Wallflowers (artist) Best Rock Album: Blue Moon Swamp, John Fogerty (producer and artist) Best R&B Vocal Performance, Female: “On and On,” Erykah Badu Best R&B Vocal Performance, Male: “I Believe I Can Fly,” R. Kelly Best R&B Performance by a Duo or Group with Vocal: “No Diggity,” BLACKstreet Best R&B Song: “I Believe I Can Fly,” R. Kelly (songwriter and artist) Best R&B Album: Baduizm, Erykah Badu Best Rap Solo Performance: “Men in Black,” Will Smith* Best Rap Performance by a Duo or Group: “I’ll Be Missing You,” Sean “Puffy” Combs and Faith Evans featuring 112 Best Rap Album: No Way Out, Puff Daddy (Sean “Puffy” Combs) and the Family and Stevie J. (producers), Puff Daddy (Sean “Puffy” Combs) and the Family (artist) Best Country Vocal Per