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The extracts on pp.91 and 110 from Appian's Roman History, vols. 2 and 3, translated by Horace White, are reprin ted by kind permission of Harvard University Press.
Contents
IX
List of Illustrations
xv
List of Maps
xvi
Preface
List of Abbreviations Part I 1
XVlll
The Search for Illyrians
1
Rediscovery of Illyrians
3 3 13
IIIyrian studies IIIyrian
2
landscapes
Prehistoric JIIyrians IIlyrian origin s : Stone and .
Iron Age Illyrians
3
Naming Illyrians Illyrian language IIlyrian
Part 11
4
Bronze Ages
67
67 74
names .
89
Greek Illyrians
91
Neighbours of the Greeks
91 104
Adriatic IIIyrians Greeks among
5
IIlyrians
Enemies of Macedonia kings: Philip, Alexander
Conquering
Celts, Autariatae and Dardanians
6
Kingdom of Illyrians
A new power on the Adriatic Roman alliance and conquest
28 28 40
and Pyrrhus
117 117 137 156 156 170
VIII
( :lI/llt·I/I.�
Part III
7
Roman IlIyrians
IIIyricum
Dalmatian amI Pannonian IIIyrians Pax Romana
among Illyrians
IXl ISJ 183
207
8
Life and Death Ways of life Burial and belief
9
Imperial IIIyrians Emperors from Illyricum Medieval and modern lIIyrians
254
Bibliography
281
Index
327
219 2 19 24 1 254 267
Illustrations
Arthur John Evans in 1878 (from Joan Evans,
7
2
Reconstruction of Vucedol Eneolithic settlement (Alexander 1972, 58; after Schmidt 1945, 19)
30
.3
Remains of Neolithic pile-dwellings at Maliq, Albania (reproduced by permission of Verlag Philipp von Zabern, Mainz)
36
4
Tumulus burial with central grave at Pa zho k , Albania (from Shqiperia Arkeologjike, Tirana, 1971)
37
5
(a) Pial) of settlements on the Glasinac plateau (after Covic 1975a) (b) Chieftain bu rial at Glasinac (Ilijak, Tumulus 1I) (after Alexander 1972) (c) Bronze greaves from Glasinac burial (a fte r Fiala 1893) (d) Design of ship incised on bronze greav e s from Glasinac (after Stipcevic 1977a, 1 80)
42
Time and Chance, London, 1943)
43 43 44
6
Tumulus graves at Kenete, A lb an ia (from Shqiperia Arkeolog;;ke, Tirana, 1971)
46
7
Plan of hill-settlement at Pod, Bugoino (later phas e) (after Covic 1975b)
50
8
(a) Plans and sections of houses at Donja Dolina (Alexander 1972) (b) Woman's grave at Donja Dolina, with
52 53
X
"'/IS tl', Ifillll.'
objccts cnlarged (AIl'xander
9
1(72)
(a) Burial tumulus at Sti�na in Slovenia,
exca v ati ons ( Ph oto : Habic Srecko)
1%4
(b) Scenes on Vace situla (Situla Art, B elgra d e, 1965 , pI. 1) (c) Bronze situla-cover from Sticna (Grife), 7th centur y BC ( N ar odn i M u z ej , Ljubljana. Photo: Habic Srecko)
60
61 62
10
Rock-cut tomb at Selce e Po sh tm e, Albania (repr oduced by permission of Verlag Ph ilipp von Zabern, M ainz)
123
11
Silver coin of King Monounius minted at Dyrrhachium; diameter 2 1 mm ( re p rod u ce d by cou rtesy of the Trustees of the British Museum, London)
129
12
(a) Pl an of Gajtan fortr ess, Albania (after Popovic 1 98 4) (b) Gate of Gajtan fortress (from Shqipe"ria Arkeologjike, Tiran a , 197 1)
131
13
(a) Plan of Byllis, Gradesht, Albania ( after Koch
1989, 250) (b) Plan of Byllis, central
14
area (Koch 1989, 251)
(a) Plan of Zgcrdhesh fortress, Albania ( Koch
1989, 135) (b) Zgerdhesh we s t perim eter wall and towers ( fr o m Shqiperia Arkeo/ogjike, Tirana , 1971 ) 15
(a) Plan of Lissus, Lezha, Albania ( Koch 1989,
141) (b) Pl an of southwest gate at Lissus (Koch 1989, 1 42-3) (c) M ain gate in w all of middle town, Lissus (repr o d u ced by permission of Verlag Ph il i pp von Zaber n , Mainz) 16
(a) Plan of burial tumuli at Atenica, Serbia ( D j u k ni c and J ovan ov ic ·1966a, pI. 28) (b) Sto n e tomb in Tu m ulu s I at Atenica
131 132
132 134 134
135 135
135
142 143
If/mlr,IIIII/1,,
(I )jllkllil alld .Iovallovil: Il)(,lla, pI. 1.) (l") Plall of s;Krificial areas ill Tl I llllll l l s 1 1 at Atl'nica (L>jllkllic and .Jovanovi�" 1 Y66a,
17 18 19
20
21
22
pis, 37-H) Bronze helmet inscribed 'Of King Monounios' (Preussische Staatsmuseum, Berlin) Plan of b urials in cemetery at Gostilj, M on renegro (after Basler 19 72) (a) Bronze coin of Lissus: head of Artemis ( obv . ) , thunderbolt and legend LIS SI-TAN ( rev.), 2nd cent u ry BC; diameter 12 mm (Ashmolean Museum, Oxford) (b) Bronze coi n of IIIyrian king Genthios (Genrius): Illyrian deity wea ri ng b road hat ( obv.) , Illyrian ship and legend GENTH (rev.), 180--168nc; di am eter 20 mm (reproduced by courtesy of the Trustees of the Briti s h Museum, London) (c) Bronze coins of Scodra: head of Zeus (obv.), Ill y rian ship with legend SKODRI-NON (rev. ) , 2nd century BC; di a m eter 1 7 m m (E. Thiem/A Peik ( Lotus Film), Kaufbeuren} (d) Bronze coin of King Ballaios; diameter 16 mm ( re prod u ced by courtesy of the Trustees of the British Museum, London) (e) Bronze coin of Labeates : TIIyrian deity wearing broad hat (obv.), IIIyrian ship with dolphin an d legend LABIATAN ( rev.) , 2nd ce n tu ry RC; di ameter 20 mm (E, Thiem/A Peik (Lotus film ), Kaufbeuren) .Fortified places around the poljes of Duvno, Livno and Glamoc with line s of intervisibility (after Benac 1985) (a) Wall m a s onry at OsaniCi, Her cegovina (Maric 19 79b) (b) Gate at OsaniCi (Maric 1979b) Bronze-casting mo ul d from Osanici (Marie 19 78, pI. 13)
XI
143
14 7 169
178
178
1 78
1 79
1 79
19 1
193 193 1 95
XII
23
24
25
26 27
28
fllmlr,/III II/S
Incised scene s of w a r ri o r s drinking and fUl1cral
dancers on a Japodian hurial-l"hcst from Rihi�, Bosnia (after Vasic 1967) Figured tom bstones in the Roman colony at Dyrrhachium, 1 st century AD (Durres Museu m ) : ( a ) Ex-slave Caecilius Laetus ('Happy') (b) Domitius Sarcinator ('Clothes-mender') and his wife Titia The prehistoric v i llage and castelliere in Istria restored by R. F. Burton (Burton 1874, pt. 7) four male figures on a tombstone from Zenica, Bosnia, 4th century AD (Stipcevic 1966) (a) Bronze pectoral from Zaton, near Nin, Lihurnia ( S ime Batovic, 150 Godina Arheoloskoga Muzeia u Zadru, 1982) (b) Jewellery and ornaments worn by IIlyrian women (reproduced by permission of Verlag Philipp von Zabern, Mainz) (a) Anthropomorphic bronze pendant from Loz, Slovenia, 5th century BC (Vida Satre, Pra-
ll)lJ
214 214 226
228 232
232
234
zgodovina S/oveniie, 1971)
29
30
(b) Bronze pendant from Kompolje, Lika, 25 cm long (Archaeological Museum, Zagreb) (c) Bronze temple-band from Gorica, Slovcnia ( Stipcevic 1966, fig. 7) (d) Japodian metal h eadgear from Kompol je, Lika (Archaeological Museum, Zagrcb) (c) Japodian leather helmets with metal studs and mail from Kompolj.e, Lika (after DrechslerBizic 1968) ( f ) Bronze and amber jewellery from burial tumulus at Sticna, 6th century BC (Narodni Muzej , Ljubljana. Photo: Habic Srecko) Silvered bronze belt-plate with scene of combat between warriors and horsemen, from Selce e Poshtme, Albania, 3 rd century BC (Historical Museum, Tirana) Altars with Latin text dedicated by chief of the
234 2 34 234 235
235
236
239
1IIIISIr"'/tllI'
x III
JapOlks al I'rivilicl srrill�, lIl'ar I\iha�\ I\osnia, 1 sI lTIII my All (StipCl'vil: 19(6)
Novo Ml's\o, SJovenia, 7th Muzej, Ljubljana. Photo :
31
Bronzl' cuirass fwm Cl'ntury He (Narodni Hahic Srccko)
32
Bronze helmet from a warrior-burial, Kaptol, Slavonia (Archaeological Museum, Zagreb)
240
33
Decorated clay hearth from Donia Dolina, Bosnia (Stipcevict 966)
242
34
Relief of Diana and other deities at OpaCiCi, near Glamoc, Bosn ia (Stipcevic 1966)
246
35
(a) Tombstone of mother and daughter in native style with Greek epitaph, from near Apollonia (Koch 1 989, pI. 22) (b) fam i l y tombstone with relief portraits, from Kolovrat, near Prijepolje, Serbia, late 2nd century AD (photo: A. Cermanovic-Kuzmanovic) (c) Portrait reliefs on family tombstones from near Glamoc, Bosnia, 2nd century AD (Bojanovski 1978a) (d) Tombstone, with depictions of jewellery (above) and textile motifs (helow), with Latin epitaph from near Sinj, Dalmati a (Gabricevic 198 3 , pI . 1; Archaeological Museum, Split)
248
240
249 25 0 25 1
36
Early medieval stone relief with traditional native ci rcles and Christian cross from near Sinj, Dalmatia (Stipcevic 1 966)
272
37
( a ) Plan o f Sarda fortress, Al bania (after V. Popovic 1984) (b) Gate of Sarda fortress (from Shqiperia Arkeologjikif, Tirana, 1971 )
274
(a) Early medieval cemetery at Komani, near Shkoder, Albania, 7th-9th century Ai) (reproduced by permission of Verlag Phi l ipp von Zabern, Mainz) (b) Ornaments and jewellery from KomaniKruja burials, 7th-8th century AD (reproduced
275
38
274
276
XIV
Illustrations by permission of Verlag Philipp von Zabcrn,
Mainz) (c) Gold jewellery from Komani burials, 6th-9th century AD (from Shqiperia Arkeologjike, Tirana 1971)
Maps
1
Illyrian Lands
2
Prehistoric Illyrians: Sites and Cultures
3
The Kingdom of the Illyrians
4
Roman Illyricum
xx XXI XXll xxii i
Preface
The purpose of this book is to present the current state of knowledge regarding peoples known to the Ancient World as IIIyrians. During the past two decades a l a rge amount of work has taken place on known prehistoric and historic sites in Albani a and Yugoslavia, while many new finds h ave been reported. Here annotation of the text and the accompanying bibliography are intended as a guide only to recent publications. In this respect I acknowledge my debt to the IIIyrian biblio graphies compiled by Aleksandar Stipcevic and his colleagues. Research on the origins and identity of lllyri ans continues to be infected by the politics of today. That is no novel ty for this region of Europe but in recent years m uch has been gained through the open debates in symposia organized by Alojz Benac of Sarajevo and in the IlIyrian congresses in Albania. Moreover, at a time when the political future of the Yugoslav and Albanian peoples seems so uncertain, it is right for the outsider to pay tribute to the scholarly integrity of many col leagues in these lands as they confront the m�ths and falsehoods relating to the remote past which are deployed in modern political contests. I am grateful to the Editors and to the Publishers for their invitation to contribute to this series, and no less for their patience and forbearance in the face of delay and procrasti nation. I am gr ateful also for the help and support of my London colleagues, Mark Hassall and Richard Recce, which allowed me to enjoy the hospitality of the British School at Athens and the use of its excellent library for two months early in 1990. Colleagues in Yugoslavia and Al bania have responded
"/'('/"1 "
XVII
gelll'rollsl y to lily rl'lllll'sts tor illllsl rat ions, ShepparJ herl' kindly rl'ad a part of the tl'xt and oflt-red many h elp ful criti cisms and suggestions, as have also the editorial and production staff a t Blackwcll Publishers. I a m also i n deb ted to my col league
Judith Higgcns for help and advice at the proof-reading stage. My greatest debt, signal led in the dedication, is to my family, for their unfailing encouragement and support.
J ..ist
of Abbreviations
AAnt. Hung. AArch. Hung. AI Al A
Acta Antiqua Academiae Scientiarum Hungaricae, Budapest Acta Archaeologica Academiae Scientiarum HUllgaricae, Budapest Archaeologia Tugoslavica, Bcograd American Journal of Archaeology, New York
BRGK
Bericht der Romisch-Germanischen Kommission des Deutschen Archii% gischen lnstituts, Mainz Buletin i Universiteit Shteteror te Tiranes (Bulletin of the State University Tirana), Tirana Beitrage zur Namenforschung, Heidelberg
Akademija Nauka j Um jetnosti Bosne i Hercegovinc (Academie des Sciences et des Arts de Bosnie-Herzegovine), Sarajevo Arch. Anz. Archaologischer Anzeiger, berlin Arheoloski Vestnik, Ljubljana AV British Archaeological Reports, Oxford BAR ANUBiH
BUST BzN
CBI CRAI FGrHist FHG GCBI GGM
Centar za Balka noloska Ispitivanj a (Centre d' Etudes Balkaniques), Sarajev()
Comptes rendus de I'Academie des inscriptions et Belles Lettres, Paris Fragmente der griechischen Historiker, ed. f.
]acoby, Berl in 1923
Fragmenta Historicorum Graecorum, ed. C.
Miiller, Paris 1841-70
Godisn;ak (Annuaire) CBI, Sarajevo Geographi Graeci Minores, ed. C. Miiller, Paris,
I HSS-6 1 (;ZMS 1111'. ArdJ.
JFA
JHS j()Al jRGZM jRS
LCL LF
MAA MGH PZ Rev. Arch. SA
SAZU Sf SH VAHD VAMZ WMBH WMBHL ZA ZPE
(;I'/�lIik Zt'mtll�k()g MI ( � ( I I I( S,Irtlj('/!o, Sarajevo 11Il't'lIitlri,[ ArdJtI('()I()gictl ( ( ;orplIs des Ensembles A n.:hcologiqucs) "
journal of held Archaeolugy, Boston journal of Hellenic Studies, London jahreshefte des Dsterreichischen Archaeologischen lnstituts, Wien Jahrbuch des R6misch-Germanischen Zentralmuseums Mainz, Bonn journal of Roman Studies, London
Loeb Classical Library Listy filologicke, Praha
Macedoniae Acta Archaeologica, PriJep Monumenta Germaniae Historica, Berlin Prahistorische Zeitschrift, Berlin
Revue Archeologique, Paris
Studia Albanica, Tirana
Slovenska Akadcmija Znanosti in Umetnosti (Slovcne Academy of Sciences and Arts), Ljubljana Studime Filologjike (Philological Studies), Tirana Stuaime Historike (Historical Studies), Tirana Vjesnik za Arheologiju i Historiju Dalmatinsku (Bulletin d'Archeologie et d'Histoire Dalmate),
Split
Vjesnik Arheoloskog Muzeja u Zagrebu (Bulletin of the Archaeological Museum in Zagreb),
Zagrcb
Wissenschaftliche Mitteilungen aus Bosnien und der Hercegovina, Wicn Wissenschaftliche Mitteilungen des Bosnisch herzegowinischen Landesmuseums, Sarajevo Ziva Antika (Antiquite Vivante), Skopje Zeitschrift fur Papyrologie und Epigraphik,
Bonn
Map 1
Illyrian Lands
I K.,b.rid
2 Tolmin
1011 km '-------',
3
51.
Luoa
4 St.n;'1
5 Smihd 6 Skocjan
7 Soc..-b
8 Krif.n. Gola 9 NCS3,'lium
10 Vace
I I M.gda!ensk. Gor. 12 Sti",. 13 Novo Mesto
14 Krapin. IS Ncgov. (Ncgau) 16 Gomj. R,dgon, 17 Krk, i•. 18 er... is. 190"", 20 M.li LoSinj 21 Kompolje 22 Mali Oblj'j 23 Prozor
24 Vn:ba, 25 Nin
26 Zadar 27 Radovin 28 Srnilac 29 Bribir
i? fic� 32
J..erinc 33 Galuhie 34 SansIt.i Most 35 Donj. DoIin. 36 Kaptol 37 Gr.bovei brdo 38 Visoko brdo 39 Duboj
40 Luioo
41 Usav.
42 Kamen
43 Kakanj 44 Pod
45 PrtroviCi·Rakitno 46 Gru'"
47 Posuije 48 Postranje 49 Gorica 50Drinovei
Map 2 Prehistoric Illvrians: Sites and Cultures
n=-, n Danilo
54 Vicj.
Luk.
ss Br.c, is. 56 Hvar, i!ii_ 57 Vis, is. 58 KOrCula
5� Mljct 60 Slon 61 R,dimlj.
62 (}ld) to the southeast. Drainage of this area i s entirely to the Danube, which exi ts from the plain by the Tron Gates �orge throu gh the Carpathians cast of Belgrade. Europe's great l's t ri ver, navigable from Ulm in southern Germany, flows for I 72S miles from its source in the Black Forest to its delta on thl' Black Sea. Its major tributaries drain most o f the TI lyrian hl nds, from the Julian Alps in the northwest to the Alps of northern Al bania. From this quarter heavy winter rains contri b ute to a sustained £low, partly cancelling out the sum mer m a x i m um from the melting snow of the Alps and the summer ra i n fa ll of the plains. Compared wi th th is vast system the rivers which flow into the Mediterranean arc insignificant. Along the Adriatic onl y the Drin and the Neretva are permanent rivers, Il
Accounts of
TUl"I1ock 1 9 !! !! .
h i stori cal
geography a rc fu rnished by Pounds 1969 and
14 the res t hl' i n g l i t t k m o re t h a n sl'a son a l t o r n: n l'i , a l l d l' V l' 1 l t h osl'
are navigable for l igh t na ft oll l y i n t ll l' i r lowest m llrses . A t t he same time these lesser Ad r i a t i � r i vers are i m po rt a l l t lw� a l l se they offer a means of passage through i n tra�table co u n t r y , a n d the most notable in this regard is the Vardar o f Ma�l'don i a for passage between the Aegean and the Danube basin . The route along the Neretva between the Adriatic and central Bosnia is not easy but was evidently used al ready in preh i storic times. In Albania the Mediterranean rivers are al together more sign i fi cant. Flowing mainly in a northwesterly direction between paral lel ranges, some of the larger streams, including the Drin , Mat and Shkumbin, cut through some hills to reach the sea by meandering courses across the coastal plain. The largest system is that of the Drin, which as the Black Drin (Drin i Zi ) fl ows through a deep vall ey northwards to Kukcs, where it is joined by the White Drin (Beli Drin) from the Metohij a basi n. The united stream flows west through the mountai n s for 25 m i l es in a deep gorge but at the edge of the plain divides between a westward course into the Lake o f Sh kodcr a n d a tortuous southern course t o the sea a t the ancient and m odern port of Lezha . With in the bend of the Drin the river Mat flows northwestwards through l ower hills before turning west to cut through the last range of hills bordering the plain. In central Albania the Shkumbin rises close to Lake Ohrid and then turns wcst towards the sea, while the Devoll, which once draincd Lake Prespa and the Oh rid basin, takes a zig-zag course following and crossing several mountain ranges. In contrast the more southerly Osum and Vijose flow northwestwards in their main courses parallel with the ranges. Throughout this area there occur abrupt changes in rivcr character at the meeting of moun tain and plain. The flows become slower and great q uantities of alluvium bring braided streams, flood plains and frequent changes of course among the malarial marshlands th at dry out in the hot summers. The Cretaceous limestones of the Dinaric ranges arc not acutely folded and present a uniquely dry surface devoi d of vegetation over large areas; they comprise the most cxtensive and spectacular example of the karst land-formation. Threc regions can be distingui shed : the J ul ian Alps and Karawanken in the northwest; the western Dinara 40 to 70 milcs broad,
I� t 't ft."
1 1 / ', " \'
"/ 1 1 / \' 1 / , " "
l' X I l' l l d i l l g f ro l l l I s I I" ! ; 1 1 0 C n'l'll' , l l l d
l a l l l l lg s l n'p l y
l 'i
i l l I l Ll n y
1 0 1 1 l l' A d r i a l i l' w l l l'rl' 1 1 I ' Sl' I"l'l' I l l'l1 h y I O l l g a l l d I l a r ro w I s l . u l l l ... I w l o l l g i l l g 1 0 I h l' fol d l i l i es o f I h l' D i n a r i l' s y s t c ll l ; and I h l' l';l s t l' !' 1 l D i n ar a , lowl'!' a n d d i s se ct ed h y v a l l cy s of rivers
pl;ln's
flow l I l g
t h e S a v a a l l d D a l l ll hl" where the h ills fal l Pa n no n i a n p l a i n , S O ll t h of this plain and to 1 1 1 1' C;l s I o f t h e D i n a ril' s y stc lll l ies an area dissected by two I l l , q o r r i v e rs a n d thci r tri butaries, the !",lorava flowing north to 1 I 11 ' I >a 1 1 1 1 hc and th e Vardar (Axios) south to the Aegean . This I'l'gi o l l l'< m ta i n s many plains and basins, usually with l acustrine dl' J lO s i t s, separated by hi g,h but generally isolated mountain I l l a SSl' S , notably the great Sar planina (2702 m ) . Through the v ,l I ll'Ys ;l Ild basins of this region pass several major routes I ll'l ""'l'l' l l the Danube and the Mediterrancan, the so-called Mor ,\ V ;I - Vardar corridor. 1 1 1 A l ha n i a a coastal plain, north of the Shkumbin the Kavaje, ,o l l l h of i t the Myzeqej a, extends north from Cape Linguetta ( K l'pi Gj uhezcs) for more than 1 00 miles unti l the border with M o ntenegro, a fter which the coastline turns northwestwards OI l I d t h e Dinaric ranges approach the sea. In placcs the plain is I lVl.'r 30 m iles wide but e1sewhcre is interrupted as the hill s rOl11 e within a few miles of the sea. Flat and only a few metres a hove sea-level, the surface consists mainly of layers of sand i l l l d a l l uvium deposited by the rivers in the manncr descri bed Il hove. As a whole the l i ne of thc coast is advancing and has moved more th an th ree miles since classical times. The area has always provided excellent winter grazing but is now extensively l'xploitcd for the irrigated cultivation of rice and cotton. Major set tlements have developed either as coastal ports (Durres and Vlor a ) or important towns on thc inland margins (Shkoder, Ti rana, El basan and Berat) but rarely in betwcen. I n Yugoslavia the karst is everywhere dose to the coast, most dramatically in the Vclebit range in the north which falls al most sheer into the sea. Except for the central stretch between Zadar and Split there are no significant areas of l owland adjoining the sea north of the plain of the Bojana which drains the Lake of Sh koder. From here to the Neretva some small and isolated a reas of flat land h ave supported the settlemen ts of Dubrovnik, Herl'cg-Novi, Kotor, Budva and Uicinj . Beh i n d the last l i es the hasin of the Lake of Shkoder, into which the Montenegrin a l' ross it
to
,I W ,I Y ge l l t l y 1 0 l h c
16
ri vers Leta a n d !\1 o ra �',1 I l o w I h ro l l gh a n a l l l l v l , d p l a i n . T h l' coastal ranges arc n e x t i nt e r r l l pll'd hy I I l l' hasi n o f I I l l' N l' I"l'1 v a , the only ri ver to cross t h e karsl from a so u r ce w h ich l i l's to the north of i t. After fl owing t h ro u gh several ba s i n s l i n ked by narrows the stream reaches the sea th rough a s m a l l del ta. At Makarska south of Split the high ranges retreat i nland and the high ly i ndented coast as far as the Zrmanja estuary beyond Zadar has always been i n tensively settled, notably a round the Bay of Castles ( Kastelanski zali) on which l ay Salona, the largest ancient settlement of the area and prccursor of medieval and modern Split (Spalato). North of the Krka estuary at S i bellik the limestonc plateau rises towards the interior but contains several bands of alluvial basins which h ave long been settlcd and cul tivated. B etwcen the Zrmanja and the h ead of the Qu arnero ( Kvarner) gulf the coast is barred by the Velebit range, and cven the great port of Rijeka at i ts northern extremity is con fincd to a narrow shel f bctween mountains and sea . The Istrian pen insula i s formcd of a low limestone platform linked to thc higher J ulia n karst along a l inc roughl y bctween Tricste and Rijcka. On thc west and a part of the east coast areas of lowland border the sca . Though karst features pre domi nate, and there arc few rivcrs, the l owcr altitudc and a higher watcr-ta ble has inhibited thc more sevcre conditions of thc Dinaric rcgion. Bchind the coastal plain of Alba n i a lics a bel t of hills formcd for the most part by the fol ding of sedimcntary sandstone, shale and limestone. Thc greater rcsistance of the l ast to surface crosion has rcsulted i n steep ridges separated by softer, more eroded hil ls. In the north this zone confines the river Mat but furthcr south thc Shkumbin cuts thro u gh several ridge s in gorges. Further south again this zone o f h i l ls broadens to more than 5 0 miles to reach thc coast and contains u p to eight stccp sidcd ridges running parallel with thc coast, most rising to arou nd 1 5 00 metrcs, although the Nemcrcke rangc beh'Veen the Vijose and the Drino attains 2486 metrcs. On the north the valleys open to the coastal plain and thei r courses al ternatc between narrows and wide basins containing the major settle mcnts such as Gjirokastra, Tepeleni and Berat. These valleys offer several rOlltes to thc south, in m arked contrast with northern Albania whcre the mountains risc steeply from the
/� " . t/" , 1 1 / " ' / I' "l //11' ' '0/'' \
p L 1 I 1 l I I I h ; l r P; I " ,l ge I I I I h l' i l l l n i m . TI l l '. d i q i l l ll i o l l h a s rl'S l I i t ed 1 1 1 1 1 1 , 1 1 0 1' d i Hl' !'l' l l l'es 0 1 h i s l o r i l ,d d n' l' l l I p I I H' 1 l 1 he l w l'l' l l I l o rt h e rn , \ l i d Sl I l I l h l' l' l l A l ha l l i a , a d i v i dl' w h i d l , a s w e s h a l l sce l at e r l l I a r k ed a i so a s O l l l h e rn l i m i t 0 1 I l I y r i a l l p e op l e s
,
.
highlands steep-si ded and narrow p , I ., S , I !!.l'S of t i l l' D r i n S h k ll m b i ll , l kvol l and Osu m . In the north , I grea l a rc of A l h a n i a n A l ps rises to around 25 0 0 metres, .l I l 1 l l 1 l g .,... h i d1 a rc a reas of summer pasture and near inaccess t h l t-, I h o u gh i n h a bi ted v a l l eys, To the east of the upper Drin t i l l' I l I g h I l l a ss o f Korab (2764 m) is no less rugged, Between I I l l'sl' l I l a SSl'S t h e altern ating gorges and small basins of the B l . l l- k I h i l l ] , ;l v e never been a route in modern times. South of I h e S h k u l l l h i n the h i l l s a re l ess rugged and there occur several I I p l a n d p l a i n s w h e re cultivation is possible. Here the existence 0 1 I h e I ra nSVl'rsc valleys has allowed the passage between e a s t , l l l d wesl a n d fo r that reason has al w a ys been the h i ghly .. I L l I l'gic a rea of the southern Balkans. The l ake region which .. l l'add l es the A l ba n i all- Yugosl a v border consists of several .I l I l I v i a l h a s i n s formed by north-south fa ulti n g, containing l ,a kL's ( ) h ri d , Prespa and Li ttle Prespa, all once much l arger t h a n t h ey a rc today. South of Ohrid the extensive Korcc basin i s dOl t l'd ...... i th m a rshes and rdict lakes, and a si milar, smaller hasi n L'x ists a round Bilisht south o f Lake Prespa . E a s l a n d northeast of the Al banian highlands there lies a 111i1 Zl' of river v a l l e y s and alluvial basins, drained by rivers l I o w i n g in a l l di rections, Th i s region , comprising sOll thern Ser hl,I a n d Y u gosl a v Macedonia, i ncludes in the valleys of the Mor;l va, Y a r d a r and I bar some of the major rOlltes between t i lt' M ed i terranean and central Europe used since Neolithic l i l l ll'S. To the west there is no way across the Dinaric region u ll t i l t h l' .I u l i a n karst plateau at the head of the Adriatic. The Mca hl' l ongs to the Pcl agonian m assif that remained unaffected hy t ill' l a te r A l pine folding which produced the high mountain dw i n s t o the cast and west, a l though it is extens ively faulted 11 IId h a s Iwl'll a ffected by volcanic activity, The lakes which C I I I (t' fi l kd t h l' h a s i n s h a v e l o n g s i n ce d ra i n e d away a nd narrow " h a l l n d s t h a t O I I lT j o i ned l a k e w i t h l a k e form the modern pil l l L' m of d ra i n age. Thl' Tnl i a rv hasi ns of t i l l' V . m ! .l r v a l le v a ro u n d Ti ro\' Yeles I k l l l l l d t h i s i l l l l' rn l l'd i ;l t l' LI I I !!.l' o f m o u n t a i ns, the
I I I l'; I S I l' l' n A l h;l ll i a a rc d i v i d ed hy t h e ,
IX
and
'/ I,, ,. S" < I " " /"1' II/ \'n< lll., S k o p j c a re I h t, l a rge s l a n d m os l i n l po rl a n l o f r i l l' reg i o n .
The former is m o re h i l l y ;ln d l:oll1 p r i ses t reekss r i d gl's w h i dl
ri se to around 700 metres, sett l e m e n ts a n d I:u l t i v ;u i o l l hei n g for the most part confined to the river val ley. Between t h e t wo basins the river flows i n a gorge that is fol lowed by the rai l way but not by the modern road. Above this the tri angu lar Skopje basin is bounded by steep-sided faulted mountains but is a ccess ible by routes from th ree directions, from the northwest by the Vardar flowing from the Tetovo basin (sce below), from the north where a route enters from Kosovo via the Kacanik gorge and the tributary Lepenac between the massifs of th e S ar and the Skopska Crna Gora and from the northeast along the river PCinj a and the Kumanovo b a si n to the Morava system, The upper course of the Vardar forms an arc that encl oses the Jakupnica massif (2540 m), from wh ich the ridges of Nidze and Kozuf extend southwards to enclose the Bitola-Prilep basin . Th is extends from north to south more than 6 0 m i les and i s drained by the C rn a Reka (Black River) which , after exiting from the southern limi t of the plain, doubles back to a north ea stward course th ro u gh an area of mountains to join the Vardar bel O\.... Titov Veles near the ancient P aeonia n capital of Stobi (Gradsko) . Though marshy in some areas th is plain - the ancien t Pel a gonia - has supported a l a rge popu l ation from preh i storic ti mes and contains two of the major cities of Yugos lav Macedonia, Pri l ep and Bitola (formerly Monastir). West and northwest of this area th e di stricts of Ohrid and Tetovo arc dominated by the n o rth-sou th ranges of the Pindus system, nota bly the S ar planina and i ts s o u thward contin uation formed by the Korab, Bistra (2 1 63 m) and Karaorman (2242 m). Togcther they form a barrier t I l o l ogies, nor o l l l y to r i n d i v i d u a l sites but also rela t i v e to m a n y others, from t hese h a s been deduced a 'spread' or 'ad vance' of fa r m i ng methods, in the form of a slow north ward movement towards the Middle Danube, that brought an i n Cl'l';l Se i n popu lation and which either eliminated or integrated o l d e r co m m unities of hunters and gatherers.5 The econom y of th ese Neolithic farm ing 'tef l '-si tes was a m i x of cereal farm ing, animal domestication and hunting a n d fishing. C rops included wheat, barley, m i l let and bea n s ; I i v cs tock incl uded cattle, pigs, sheep a n d goats. Implements i ncl uded ground stone tool s, axes and adzes, w i th large flaked tools a s scrapers and sickle blades. Obsidian, a n atural vol ca nic form of glass obtained from Hungary, was a l so used for tools. Bone p rovided the material for needles, spoons and spatulas, and clay was baked for loom-weigh ts and spindle whorls. Huma n and an i mal figurines made of clay resemble those found i n G reece and Asia M inor. They have a cylindri cal shape, with no l imbs and the head indi cated only by i ncisions for the detail o f features. The principal evidence for recogni zing the successive phases and associations of these early farm i ng communities consists of hand-made pottery of fi red clay in a variety of forms, decorated with finger i m p ressions, appl ied cordon s and inci sed l i nes. South of the watershed farm i ng m ethods had reached the southern Adri a t i c coast by the mi ddle of the sixth mifleniu m . Pottery with i ncised and i mpressed ornament associated with ground stone i m plements has been found in many sites on the Dalma tian coast and islands. The large di tched enclosure at SmilCic near Zadar prod uced impressed pottery vessels si m i lar to those of southern Italy, and the same pottery has been found on the llt' h r i s ;1l'l' l I l l l l l l a l l'd 1 0 to r l l l a l l a rl i l i l' i ; 1 1 I l l O U I Il. 1 l l I a l l Y s t ra t i fi e d l a y e rs ha ve l' l l a h l e d ;Hl' h a l'( ) l og i s t s
' Serbian
Srcjovic 1 98 8 ; Cornja Tuzl a : Covic 1 97 1 a ; Ohre: Varos: Bcnae 1 971 e ; Vucedol : Schmidt 1 945 ; a lso Di vosti n : and S rejovic 1 9 8 8 . Albanian sites: Korkuti 1 9 8 7.
Ncol ithic:
B e n ;} c 1973 ;
McPh erron
1 h/, '\/ '. 1 / . /' I. " 1111'11, 111.\ n o r t h e r n A d r i a l i �' i s la l l d ... ( : !"l' s . I\. r k a l l d 1\1 . 1 1 1 1 .l l s l I l 1 I I I t i l l' K v a rn c r G u l f a l l d 0 1 1 I h l' 1 1 I ;l i n l a l l d i n �' a V l'" I I I t h l' V d c h i t m ou n ta i n s . 1> Th e next p h as e of the N col ith i e fa rm i n g e ra i n t h e J\t i d d k Dan ube is n a m e d fro m the s i t e o f V i n Ca , ",· h i eh i s a l so o n th e Danube below Bel grade. T h e V i n C a Cul tu re (£:.45 00-4000 BC) a ro u n d the southern edge o f the Dan ube bas i n m a r k s th e s prea d o f far m i ng i nt o th e h i l l s and va l l eys on th e sou th and \vest towards the mountains a n d the Adri atic. The m i xed eco n o m y ba s ed on cere a l s and li v e s to c k of th i s culture was similar to Starcevo b u t it is di s t i n gu ished b y its pottery which exh i b i ts a grea te r va r i e ty of for m and ornamen t. The s h a pe s i nclude carinated and straight-sided bowls w i th th ree - o r fo u r foo t e d p e d e s tal s , 'altars', o r ta bles, -
with hollow feet and pots decorated with animal features. The decoration cons i sts o f burnishing in patterns and incised ri bbon and maean der d e s i g n s For all t h e impression o f i n no v a ti o n which this material conveys there is n o evi dence that th e Vin c a settlements represent any l a rge-sca l e i m m i gr a t i on i n to the l a n d s west and sou th of the M i ddle D a n u b e . Along the Adri atic coast the newer fa rmi n g commu nities are dis tingu i shed by thei r painte d pottery. This shows simil ariti es wi th the p o tte r y of Greece a n d I t al y and also w i t h the T r i e s te reg i o n (Vl a sko Culture ) . I t is n a m e d Danilo Cul tu re from the l o n g occupied hill scttl ement o f D a n i lo Gornje near S i b e n i k , wherc the rema i n s incl ude 24 huts with floors partly paved with stone. There w a s a n a cti v e stone-working t ra di t i o n , wh ile the pottery falls into h.... O types, a p a i n ted ware wi th Ita l ian connections and a burnished w a re with s p i ra l a n d ma cander patterns. D a n i l n settlements a rc numerous al o ng the co a s t and on the islands, in p a rt ic u lar Hvar, but di d not spread i n l a n d . There arc no traces of earl y fa r min g in the mountains and h igh val leys of Bosnia or Montenegro. In Albania the m i ddle Neolithic has been identified at the s e ttle m ents of Cak ran on thc lower Vijose and at Dunarec i n the K orcc basin. .
, \ Adriatic Keolithic: Batovic 1 971 a ( SmiICic) , (eres), Rapan i c 1 984 (Cetina v a lley ) ,
1 9 76a, Mirosa vljcvic 1 9 7 1
\ \
T I l l' d osl' s t t i e ... a p lw;H t o I ll' w l I l l t i l l' I > .l I l i l o ( : u l t u rl' o t t h e l > a l l l l a t i ;l n i\ d r i ;l I i �' a l l d t i l l' l'. l r l y p h .I Sl' o t " a ka n j ( O h re ) i l l I\m n i a , a n d a l so w i t h SO I l l l' g ro u p ., i l l so u t h e rn I ! a l y , � o h j cc t s do ; I P Pl'; t r s p or a d i ca l l y among N col i t h i c fa r l l l i l l g 1.:O l l l l l l ll l l i t i es, especially in I\os l l i a a n d o n the A d r i a t i c, I h e k n o w l ed ge of metal -working a nd t h l' use o f i m plements of mcta l ca m e late to the western I \a l ka n s , Thl' spread of copper and b ro n z e was a slow p r o ce s s : i t w a s ba rel y complete by around 2000 BC and even then for l'l' l l I u r i es a fter the use of metal ,..'as confined to a few si mple fo r l l l s o f i mplement. Tho ug h it continues much debated, it Sl'e I l l S to bc still the view of some archaeol ogi sts that the spread of l l I e t a l i n the Danube lands was marked by a l a rge - scale I l l i wa t i on o f new people into the area from steppes o f western A s i a and the Black Sea region . Moreover, many believe that t h i s was the on l y major movement o f population in the area, t ill' l a ter Aegean m igrati on s that marked the end of the Bronze A gl' ( 1 200 HC) be i ng merely a southward sh i ft of Balkan and l o w e r Danube communitics towards the Aegean and the Nea r East , The th ree phases of the Bron ze Age in the western Balkans, Early Bronze 1 9 0 01 1 8 00- 1 6 00n 5 0 0 BC, Middle Bronze 1 6001t 5 00-c. 13 00 HC and Late Bronze to c. 1 2 0 0 BC, appear to be later and less sophisticated versions of those in the Danube ha s i n , the eastcrn Balkans and thc Carpath i an s, all of which fl'ached full development by th e end of the third m i l l en i u lll . A rchaeologi sts currently bel i eve that a grad ual formation of loca l cultures and the e th n ic groups thcy are j u dged to represcnt took place du ring the l atest phase of the Stone Age (Eneolithic), .lnd that thcse were consolidated rather th an curtailcd by th e arrival of newcomers from the east. It is also suggested, though not unco ntested, that these newcomers were Indo-European sp e a ker s . A symbiosis between these and the existi ng communi t i es resulted in the for m ati o n of the pr i n cipal tribal groups of what a re now cal led the Palaeo-Balkan peoples. On this, it is suggested, the r e is warrant to base the hypo thes is of an unbroken continuity in popu l ation from the Early Bronze Age T h o l lgh
1 1 1 l' 1 ;1 1
I l I I p i l' n H .' I I t S o f
7
Vlasko: Barficld l 971 , . 53- 4 ; Danilo: K o rosec l 9S 8 ; Hvar: I"ovak Cakran : Korkuti a n d And rca l 9 7 S ; D unavec: Kork u ti 1 9 75.
I l.I 7 1 ;
1 95 5 ,
I hl ' SI '. I / I " Il l / 1 11 "' / . 1 1/, d O W I l to t h e f i r s t h i s t o r i Ld l"l'u I l"l l s 0 1 Ib l k ,1 1 l p l'o p k s , 1 1 1 t h i s e q u a ti o l l t h e p r ilK i pa l regi o l l a l gro l l ps d d i l l l'd h y d u r a l" t l' J" i s t i l"s
of their m a te r i a l cu l t u r e a re t h l' l l i d l'll t i l i ed \v i I h h i s to ri l"a I groups th u s : East Bal k a n B ro n ze A ge n:p resl' l l ts Thral"i a n s, t h e Balkano-Danubian the 'proto D"Ko-�loesi a n s ' , a n d t h e West Balkan the III yrians. x In the western Bal kans there arc few remains to connect with these bronze-using 'proto-Illyrians', except in western Serbia and eastern Bosnia. Moreover, w i th the notable exception of Pod near Bugoj no in the upper valley of the Vrbas, noth ing i s known o f their settlements. Some hill settlements h ave been i dentified in western Serbia but the main evidence comes from cemeteries, consisting usually of a small number of burial mounds (tumu l i ) . In eastern Bosnia at th e cemeteries of BcIotic and Bela Crkva the rites of inhumation and cremation are found, with skeletons in stone cists and cremations in urns. Metal implements appear here side by side with those of stone. Most of the remai ns belong to the fully developed Middle Bronze Age. Similar burials have been discovercd on the Glas i n a c plateau east of Sarajevo ; several mounds arc known to have remaincd in u se from the beginning of the Bronzc Age. Here i nhumation is the dominant rite. The metal obj ects found at thcse sites tend to be of Ccntral European origin and rcmain in use down to Iron Age times. It is these Bronzc Age comm un i ties which havc been identified as anccstors of the historical IIIyrians.9 Outside western Serbia and eastern Bosnia not a lot is known of early metal-using communities. Objects of metal occur i n the established Neol i th ic settlements a t Butmir and LisiciCi and in some of the caves on Hvar (Grabak and Zelena Petina) , where bronzc axc-picks, axe-hammers, chisels and A a t axes were in use by around 2000 BC. Thc impress i o n o f continuity from the age of stonc to that of metal comes also from the cave dwelling at Hrustovaea Petina in thc Sana val ley and the Dcbclo Brdo h i l l-settlemcnt overlooki ng Sarajevo, which acquired defences around this time. The pottery in u se here �
M, G a rasa n i n 1 9 82a, 1 9 !! !! a , Bugoj no: Covic 1 9 71 b, 1 975b ;
.. Pod,
Belotic and Bcl a
Crkva: D , a n d
c, arasan in 1 9 7 1 b ; G l a s l nae: Benae and Covic 1 95 6 , Covi': 1 9!W- 1 .
M,
1 '''''''i�/l I lI ( 1 11"",/11,\ N h o w s si m i l a l' i t i l's w i t h t h a t o l n l l't a l - l I s l n g l'on l l 1 1 l l n i t i es i n t h l' Sa va ;l n d I > l'a " ;1 v a l l e y s ( V l Il\' d o l a n d S Ll V o n i a n n d t l l res) a n d a l so, t h ol l gh i n n l l l l' h s m a l l e r q l l a nt i t ies, w i t h p o t t e r y i n the Hvar CWt' S , A d i s t i n g l l i s h i n g k,l I l1 re o f the Bronze Age i s the p r a t, t i l'e o f ra i s i n g m O ll nd s of so i l o r stone a bove the burials of i n d i v i d u a l s . T h i s was acco m p a n ied by an elaborate ritual, i n d i ca ted by enci rcl ing r i n gs of stones and the deposition of prel'iolls objects as grave goods, i ncluding battle axes and
daggers. I n Albania the first metal-using culture (Chalcolithic, 2600-2 1 00 KC) is represen ted in the first and second levels at M a l i q in the Korce basin (see figure 3). The early houses were (' rn"tcd on oak p i l es , then l ater ones directly on the ground w i t h walls of bundled reeds. Implcmcnts were of flint, polished stone, bone, horn and day (weigh ts for fishing nets) and i n d u dcd also copper axes, spearheads, necdles and fish-hooks. There are links with other Balkan sitcs of th is p eriod , notably I�u hanj in southern Serbia and Krivodol in Bulgaria, as well as somc correspondenccs wi th Macedonian s i te s . Albanian i Hchaeologists stress the essentially local character o f this cul l U rc, wherc the earl ier traditions have heen detcctcd as per s i sti ng cven i n newer phases that have been associated with a new i mmigrant ruling class. I Cl This rather tidy portrayal of a succcssion of early farming (ultures using ground and flaked stone tools and thcn some largely importcd metal implements comes to an end with the m iddle phasc of the Bronze Age ( 1 6001 1 5 00-c. 1300 BC) . The (hange is sign i fied by thc m an i fest a bility of the people some identify as 'proto-IIIyrians' to exploit the rich mineral deposits ()f Bosni a and Slovenia, notably copper, tin and gold. The techniques of u sing two- and threc-piece moulds, casting-on, hammering and annealing bccome commonplace. The hoards o f working tools and ingots testify to the speci al ist smith, and those of finished metal goods to thc activity of the travclling merchant. Hithcrto the Adriatic coast and hinterland were remotc from the main centres of stone-using farmers and the first spread of metal. The balance now shifts i n the sense that III Butmir: Munro 1 900, 1 8 9-2 1 7 ; Li siciCi : 1 976a, 1 9 8 1 ; Maliq: Prendi 1 9 77-8 .
Benac 1 971 ol1 j a Dol i n a on the Sava near Bosanska Gradiska, and by S a n ski Most amid the rich iron-ore deposits around the lower Sa n a . Donj a Dol ina began as a settlement of pile-dwellings on the ri ver, but by thc Late I ron Age the river deposits and occupation debris had raised the site above water level and the p i l e-dwel l i ngs were replaced. The settlement was enclosed with a wooden palisade plastered with mud. The rectangular houses generally contained three rooms, onc with a hearth of fired day (sce figure 8 a ) . The houses were linked by raised wooden walkways in a regular arrangemcnt so as to form narrow streets. The flat cemetery alongside the pile-dwellings contained skeletons laid in wooden coffins or directly on the earth (see figure 8b). The occupation of Donja Dolina lasted from the seventh to ! 4 We stc r n Bosni a : Covic 1 971 h (Pod , Bugojno), Bellae 1 97 1 cl (Zecovi, Prij edor), Covic 1 9 6 1-2 (Crveniea, Duvno) ; Goriea group: Covic 1 975 e ( Vi ti n a ) , Marovic I 96 t -2, 1 963-5 (Brac), 1 979 (Ccti n a valley), 1 9 8 1 (Brat), Protic 1 9 8 5 (Vis), Radmilli l 970 (Lastovo).
1 '/ 1/ , S/ ', /I , /, // 1 / 1 11\'1 /0 111 '
• •
•
.
: :�
.
!\
::
'l.': : : : :;i,.": =,,,.-.-.;,:: .::: . .::;: ,,",,,�-"--"" , .... o,
.-. .. : : "
. : :- :- -..._.
.
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Figure 8 a) Plans alld
6,
8,
10 '
. ..
:r.:4t· ·
+-I...._....�...3E ��---�-........ . ��: .. -· : !:·-·· ,�---·..
:
.
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m
sectiolls of houses
at
[)on;a Dolinll
the first century fl C , and indeed longer i f it was a di rect continu ation of the c10seby Gorn j a Dolina of the Pa nnonian Urnfield Culture occupied from the twel fth century, Climatic ch ange may have caused the abandon ment of th i s settlement and some of the inhabitants may have moved to occupy a pi le-settlement at the river's edge. But it was only towards the end of the seventh century that this fairly i nsignificant riverside settlement was transformed into a major centre of exchange for the northwest Bal kans, signal led by the appearance of exotic objects from cultures as remote as Greece and northern Italy , Dou btless its position on a major naviga ble river contributed to th is advance but the rise to com mercial prominence is prob ably to be explained by the emergence of greatly enriched ruling groups on the west in Slovenia and to the east and southeast in the Glasin ac complex. Whether or not Donja Dolina was itsel f the centre for one of these new powers is hard to tell, if only because of its relative isolation. On the other h and, the presence of well-armed warriors in its com m unity may indicate some degree of local independence. Though not deserted u n til Roman times the commercia l prominence of Donja Dolina
(7 �u !� ()J O· 0"
@
�/
Figure R Continued b) Woman 's grave at Donja Dolina, with
objects
enlarged
I ", ' .\, ', 1 1 , 1 , /' "
1 111'11 . 1 " \
a p pca rs 1 0 I L I Vl' v ;l I l i s l H'd . I '> r.l p i d l �' ;l s i l h a d ;l IT i v l' l l , d ur i l l � t h e fo urth Cl' l l l l l ry w h c l l l l l a l l Y d l ;\ l l �l'S . i l l d l l d i l l � I h l' C C l t i l' m igrations, d i s r u ptcd l o ng-d i s l a lKc t ra d c p a t tcrns w h i ch h a d been estab l ish e d fo r a ro u n d two cCllt u rics . .! \ At Sanski Most houses \vith h ea rt h s ",'ere fO ll n d a l ongsi d e t h e ri ver San a . Th ere were also round forging-furnaces togeth er with implements for s m e l t i n g a n d fo rg i n g iron, which was evidently the principal activity carried on i n the settl e m e n t . N o t fa r away a ' fl at' cemetery contained skeleton buri a l s a n d c remati o n urns, the latter probably of l ater date, with a few g rave s l i ned and covered with sto nes. Pottery similar to that o f Donja Dolina includes single- or dou bl e-handled c up s and bowls, but the later crcmation urns, large a n d b i co n i cal , arc s i m i l ar to those in th e ce m e te ries further to the west around Bihac i n the Una val l ey. Jewel l ery in the graves at Sanski Most appcars to bc a mixture of Sl ove n i a n ( hrooch es, b el t- b u ckl cs and b ra c el e ts ) and western Bosnian Uapodian) types (pi n s, bronze di scs , temple bands and d eco rated bronze buttons ) . Weapons foun d a t San ski Most i n cl u d e iron spears an d sing l e edged short swo rds . A dou bl e-edged G reek sword and two pairs of greavcs, also imports, were recovered. Most of the graves date to the fifth and fourth ccnturies and, taken as a wh ole, th e m a terial culture a pp e ars to rcflect a group of local origin, though i m i tating some Sl oven ian forms. What appcars to ha v e been a shift in burial ri te fro m i n h um a ti on to cre mation, similar to th at o bs e r v ed at Gla s inac and elsewhere h a s been ta ken as evi den ce for th e arrival of new p eo ple from the northY' In the regi o n of Sl avon i a l y i n g between the middle and lowcr courses of the Drava and Sava a sign i ficant d isc ov e ry has been th e cemetery near the hill-fort at Kaptol near Pozega, in a val l ey enclosed hy low h i l l s . Tu mul i of th e Early Iron Agc wcrc fo un d to inco rp o ra tc a stone-built cham her con taining u p to five cremations, b o th with and without urns. The pol ished bl ack pottery, m a i n ly in bicon i cal forms, has incised geo metri c decor ation and moulded additions such as ani m a l s ' heads. In addi ti on to i ron spears and b a ttl e - a xe s there wcre i mp o rtc d helmets, a
2..
V rr t i l l' ' I X 1 1 1 ;1 1 1 1 p h a ses o t dl' v l' l o p I I I l' l I t t h l' re a p p eal's t o Iw a (ol l t i l l l l l t y f ro l l l t h l' n i n t h (l' l l t ll ry down to t h e R O l 1 l a n e ra , '' '' Beh i n d t ill' Vl'kh i t m o u n t a i l l s a l o n g t h e (O;) st hetween Li bur n i a a n d I s t ri a t h e h i gh pl a i n o f Li b h a s p ro v ed exceptionally r i d 1 i n I ro n A g e fi n ds that m a y h e taken to represent the m a t l' ri a l l'l1 l turc of th c h istorical J a podcs. Several major cem l't n i cs, notably Prozor and Kompolje, have yieldcd many arte la dS, w h i l e several settlements (Vrcbac and Mal i Oblj aj ), i n d u d i ng cavc-si tes, h ave been idcntified and partly invcsti ga t l'd . Thc hill-forts were protccted by ramparts of stone blocks and earth and contained rectangular houses. Both 'flat' and t u m u l us cemeteri es occur, thc former being more common with s k eleto n s laid in stonc-lined graves. Crcmation was already s p reading into thc area in the eighth century and by the fourth h a d become the dominant ritc, both with and without urns. As i n thc case of that of their Li burnian neighbours on the south, t h e chronology of Japodian materi al culture is based upon jewellery rather than pottery. Contacts of the Lika communities
wi th the Adriatic appcar to h ave passed via the Li burnians but the power of the latter declined contact with northcrn Italy may have become closcr. By th is time the Lika J apodes had evidcntly moved across the Velebit to control the coast betwecn the Zrmanja and Istria. In the fourth century they also evidently expandcd northwards to dominate the Vin ica area of Lower Carniola. To the east the Una valley around Bihac appears to have come under japodian control by the fi fth century. Some early graves of the eighth and seven th centuries arc seen to exhibit closer parallels with groups further east in Bosnia and Hcrccgovina but by thc end of the fifth ccntury graves in the major cemeterics at Jezerine, Golubic and Ri bic, in use continuously down to the Roman period, exhibit a cultural unity with the Lika. By thc middle of the fourth ccntury what can bc identified with rcasonable certainty as thc material culture of the historical japodes had becomc one of the major when
l�
Libu rnians: Batovic 1 965, 1 976b, 1 970 (Nin), 1 968, 1 97 1 b (Radovin),
1 980b (Bribir), 1 9 76c (Adriatic connections), Cus-Rukonic 1 9 8 0- 1 (Oso r) ,
nil' St', I /"( I, /1 1 1 111"1'10 111.\ g ro u p s i l l t h e wes t e rn I b l k a l l s , n';Kh i l l g f ro l l l t h e r i v l' l" I. r l l l a l l j a
i n t h l' south to t h t, I\. U P;l i l l t he l I o rt h a l l d f ro l l l t h t' A d ri a t i ( t o In th e U n a v a l l e y . A n area where the m a te r i a l ( u l t u r e o f t h e Ea rl y I ro n A ge h a s an exceptional richness a n d d i stincti ve c h a ra ctl' r i s t h e v a l l e y of t h e Krka around Novo Mesto, the a rea of S l ovenia known a s Dol ensko ( fo r m erly Lower Carn iola ) . Later the Dolensko a pp e a r to have expanded westwards into the a rea of Upper Carniola a r o u n d Lj ubljana. A m a j o r settlement of t h i s region, the o n l y one so far exca va t e d , l ay at Sticna in the hill s between Novo M cs to and Lj u b l j ana and was occu pied continuously from the end of th e ci ght h century to the Roman period, An area of around 800 by 400 metres i s encl o s e d by a wall of several ph a s e s built of l arge undressed l i m esto n e blocks ( u p to 3 by 1 . 5 m) and with e a r th and s mall stones p a c k e d between, which was backed with an earth rampart. A fter the original constru ction the defen ces of S ti cn a were remode l l ed in the fifth and sixth centu ries , Aroun d the ti me that the Sticna settlement was bccoming established thcre appear in thc area tumul i buri a l s that rep la c e the cemeterics of the Urnfidd Culture d a ti n g from the tenth to eighth centuries. What this changc rep resents is to d a y much debate d , By the late sevcnth and sixth ccnturies l a r ge tumuli appcar w i th skel eton burial s in a radial a rra ngeme nt around a n un o c cu p i ed ccntre, enclosed by stonc slabs or wooden coffins or si mply laid in the earth. The sim i l ar i tie s betwcen these bur i a l s a n d those of Bosn i a a n d M acc don i a has suppo rted a hy p oth e s i s of a m i g r a tion into C a r n i o l a fro m the south east that was a s s o ci a t ed with an expl o i tati on of the m i nerals i n which th e region is rich. The skelcton bu rials are for th e most part co n fi n ed to th e D o l en sko a rea. Certa i n l y the case for these bei n g i m migra n ts from Bo sni a appears to be strong, bu t unfortunately there are too m a ny gaps in the archaeological record of the i n tervening areas for there to be any certainty i n thc m atter:H 10 J apodes : Drechsler-Biiic 1 9 75 b, 1 95 8 ( V rebac) , 1 96 1 , 1 966, 1 9 7 1 (Kompo lje), 1 972-3 (Prozor), 1 9 75 a ( Osi k, Gospic), M a ric 1 97 1 a (Una �'a l ley) , 1 975 a (eastern frontier), Radimsky 1 8 95 Uezeri ne) , Radi msky et at . 1 8 97 (R ipac), Rau nig 1 97 t a (Golubic), 1 9 8 0- 1 ( Ripac) . .H Dolensko (Lower Ca rnio la) group: Archeoloska Naj disca Sl oven i j e
I '/'I 'h,stu/'/, 111" "",,,\
TIll' l'a rly pOl tl'ry o f t l1l' Do I l' I 1 S k o �"O I l P soon hre;l k s away from t ill' U rn /ield t ra d i t ions a s Ill'W pl'dl'st a l forms hegi n to a ppea r. Nl' x t t hl' rl' fol l m.... s a fa ... h ion ( I f i l1 \ i t a t i n� nll'ta l vessels, wit h vl' rt i cl l ;\ I \ d hori zoll tal r i h h i l l �. I m ported pottery from Vl'Ill'l i l' Ilorthcast I t a l y a l so rca dll'd t h c a n.'a, a long with wares frol1\ A p ll l i a a n d ( ; n:ece (Attica ) . From the late seventh century t ill' I ) o k l l s k o l'u ItUrl.' is distinguished by an abundance of metal vessc l s, i ncl u d i ng buckets, situ lac (water-buckets for the ritual of w i n c-dri n k i ng), cau ldrons, tankards, etc. Much of this metal work w a s l'v i d e ntl y produced locally, satisfying a great demand Oil t he pa rt o f the ru ling elite, The decoration of metal vessels a nd ot her objects evolved into the remarkable collection of st y les k nown today as Situla Art, which reached its fullest dl'Vl'lopment in Dolcnsko only in the fifth century, when numer OilS l'x a m ples of situlae with figural decoration occur in tombs. Thl' origins of the crafts m an sh ip and of the style of Situla Art wou l d a ppear to lie further west among the Veneti, where the ('a rl i l'st examples arc dated to the late seventh century. Possibly t ll l' rl' was a transfer of workshops from that area to Dolensko hrough t a bout by cha n ges u nderway in northeast Italy. Here t h (' a ppetite for traditional fashions in metal ornament was �iving way to a taste for the finer and more elegant productio n s of the Greeks and Etruscans. The old style may have suited t hl' ru lers in Dol ensko, direct, uncomplicated and explicit in rdlecting their own ways of l i fe. If the w o rkshops identified in s lll: h p l aces as Vace, Magdalenska Gora and Novo Mesto were those of craftsmen trained among the Veneti then what may havl' been a speculative venture turned out to be a great success. ( )I\ a la rge variety of metal ware, including a l so belt-buckles, sca bbards, b rooches and pendants , the Situla style becomes the disti ngu i shing feature of the Dolensko Culture (see figure 9 ) . La rge q u anti ties of weapons and some armour are also a feature o f the Dolensko Culture. The most common arc spears and sockt'hl xes and there are some bows and a rrows. Helmets (IIlVl'lItory and Ill a p of s i tes), hey 1 966, Gabrovec 1 964-5, 1 96 6 a , Dular I 'J H l (pottl'ry ) , 1 9 !U (Crnomei j ) , Frey and Gabrovcc 1 969, Gabrovec, hey ;lI1d Fl I l t i n y I ':I 7 D , Ga hrovrc 1 ':175 ( Sticn a ) , Wel l s 1 978 ( Sticna), 1 9 8 0 ( M "�lb kmka �ora ) , Kncz 1 ':I7 H , I ':I HOb ( Novo Mcsto), Pus 1 911 l-3 ( Ll l l h l j a n a ) , I'" h il: 1 ':1 7.' ( S lovl'n i a n D ra v a ) .
Figure 9a) Burial tumulus at Sticna, 1 964 excavations
occur i n tombs over the period from the eigh th to the fourth
centuries. In the seventh century there appears a local variety of helmet, bowl-shaped and made of l eathe r stre n gth en ed with bronze studs. This was re pla ce d later by a n Italic d esign made o f b ron z e piec es fo rged toge th er, rep la c e d in turn by a d o u b le crested type. In the fifth century there appears a much more durable type of Italic he lm e t named a fter the find at Negau ( n o w Negov a ) , on the river Mur near Gornja Radgona in north-cast Slovenia, whi ch had a lo n g p eri o d of use over a wide area. The examples of bronze body-armour found in tom bs a t Sticna a n d Novo Mesto we re i m po rted and have been dated to the late seventh century. The trapp ings for horse harness are also common in D o len sko , with ex amples of spurs appearing in the fifth century.-u .1 2
Situ l a art: Knez 1 976, 1 9 ! Wa, 1 98 3 .
I'rl'/Jistori, I /lv,." ilK
61
Figure 9b) Scenes on Vale situia The cu r ren t chronology and analy s i s of the Dolensko Cu l turel and i t s outliers is based largely on the work of Gabrovec. According to th is scheme t he fi rst ph as e , wh ich la sts from the m id - e igh th to the mid-seventh century, is m arked by the co incid ence of iron- w orki n g and tumuli burials with pottery and j ewell ery made in local sh apes . From the seventh to the
Figu re 9c) Bronze situ/a-cover from Sticna
fourth centuries Italic influences increase and the l ocal warrior eli te di splays a steadily increasing material pro s p e ri ty , reflecti n g an expan sion of th eir power over neigh bouring com m u n ities. At the height of their prosperity in the fifth century the m i l i ta ry role b ec o m e s less p ro m i n e n t in favour of i ma ge s of a n elite ta king the i r pl easu res aga i nst the background of a sta b l e pol iti cal ascendancy. This has been inferred specifically from the changing repertoire of Situla An, where the b attle themes a n d warriors appea r to give way to the pleasures of the h u n t, and s u ch agreeable pastimes as banqueting and m usical and athletic festiva l s . The gol den age soon pa ss ed a n d du ring the e arly
fo u r t h lT l l I u r y t l l l' rl' hl'g i n l a r gl ' n' I 1 I l' t l' l' I l'" o t w a r r i o r w a v l'S, hilt it has IWl' 1 l co n d l l d l'd t h ;1 I h}, t i l l' l' nd ot t h l' fo u r t h cl' n t l l ry t h i s a rl' a h a d hl'l'n t a h'n o v er a n d 'il' t 1 kd h y Cl' l t S . 1 1 TIll' t ra c t o f h i l l y (oll n t ry e x t e n d i ng sOll t h w e s t from Lower ( :a rn i o l a tow a rd s I s t r i a , knowll a s N o t ra n j s k a ( I n ner Carn iola),
h a s p ro d l l cl'd seve ra l i m porta n t Sitl'S o f the I ron Age, notably t h e ca v e sh ri ne o f S k o cjan (St Kanzi a n ) , though no single place
has yet fu rnished evidence for a continuous occupation from H a l l s ta tt (Early I ron Age) to La Tcne J Late Iron Age) ti mes The meta l hoard and flat cemetery at Skocjan have produced h rooches, bowls, helmets and spears that in some respects resem b l e those from the Dolensko area and from St Lucia. Si m i l a r material has also been found in the cemeteries at Socerb a n d S tanjel. The hill-top settlement at S mihel has th ree associ ated flat cemeteries, one of the eighth-seventh centuries, the others contai ning mainly fourth-century graves. The material from the cemetery at Kriina gora of the eighth-sixth centuries is di fferent from that in the rest of Notranjska and has similarit ies with the Lika group, while the fact that a thi rd of the graves contain skeletons seems another indication of links with communities further south . It has been suggested that th e inter ruption of cemeteries i n this area after the seventh century was caused by the dom ination of the Dolensko group. Similarly a recovery of local independence, following decl ine of the latter's power, may be signified by the reappearance of major cem eteries in the fourth century.>4 The Iron Age communities of the lstrian peninsula at the head of the Adriatic are known from several sites, where the finds suggest that a si ngle cultural group had formed by the eighth century. Their typical forti fied settlements on hill-tops had begun to be occupied al ready in Bronze Age times. These castellieri, as they arc known in Istria, often enclose two or th ree crests, with single or multiple ramparts on the naturally unprotected sides. They vary greatly in situation and in physical character, from just above sea-level to around 700 metres, and from an area of a few hundred square metres to vast complexes .
hi�tory:
11
Dolensko
l4
Notranj ska group: Gustin 1 973
Frey
and
Gahrovec 1 97 1 (ch ronology ) ,
Petru 1 973, Mason 1 98 8 , Terian 1 9 8 5 ,
(chronology),
Urleh
Gabrovec l 973 ,
1 973 (Krizna
gora ) .
/'I". .'\/',m " /"/' I lIvri'lII� o f sl'v e ra l sq u a re k i l o l l l t't res . Tht'y l'o l l t a i l l e d rt'ct a ll gl l / ;n l i ll1 h e r
and clay housl's. B u r i a l w a s i ll fl a t lTt'll 1 a t i ol l l't'Ill l' t l' r i l' s , S O I l 1 l' times without but m a i n l y with u rn s , i n a stone- l i nl'd gravl' that was sometimes covered. Bou n d a ry walls of a d ry - s to n e construction defined family burial plots. The dead were crem ated wearing their clothes and their jewel lery. Skeleton burials arc rare. A particular feature of the lstrian material culture a rc the carved stones from Nesactiu m on the cast coast. Here a princely tom b suggests that predecessors of the kings who reigned there in the third and second centuries were already wielding power in the fi fth. There is much yet to be understood about the Istrian culture of the Iron Age, and publication of some o f the major collections of evidence will assist in thi s regard. There seems little doubt that what was basically the prod uct of local evolution over several centuries was from the sixth to fou rth centuries much altered by Italic influences. The origins of some elements may lie in the i mpact of the Pannonian Urnfield Culture on local Bronze Age groups, from which several traits, including grave-construction, pottery ornament and the lack of brooches, continued down to the fi rst appear ance of Ita l i c influences. As a result of these, lstria became part of a more uni form, Italic-dominated complex around the Adriatic, which included Liburnia and the Lika:!5 In the Alpine valley of the river Soca or lsonzo several large cemeteries, including 5t Lucia containing more than 7000 graves, together form a distinct group. They belong to the inhabitants of hill-fort settlements of which as yet l i ttle is known. The graves were lined and covered with stone slabs and contained the cremated remains of the deceased wearing clothes and jewellery. The graves contain pottery, metal vessels and jewellery but are devoid of weapons. The Soca group seems to have consisted of a local culture, somewhat isolated in the southeast Alps, which was radically altered by Italic influences in the course of the seventh century. Thi s development appears to have been connected with the establishment of long-distance trade routes between the Mediterranean and the Balkans. 5t 35 Istri a : BaCic 1 9 70 (fortifications), Kucar 1 979 (Beram cemetery ) , Mladin 1 974 ( b ronze vessels and helmets) .
I 'rl,h,,,lonc
I I I V I I' /II \
I .l I l' i a l a y a l .1 I l l a l o r lTos s ro a d s o f t l l l'st' ro l l l l'S, a ll d i t i s I h l' n' I h .1 I OlU l rs hy fa r t il l' gn'a l l'sl l'C ) l I ll' l l I ra l i o l l of h u r i a l s . I ta l i c w a n's Wl' re l I o t o l l l y fo r w a rded e a s l w a rds h u t Wl're a l so very I i k l' l y m a ll u fa c t u red I h e re . A I l l' W el'Ilomy grew u p with a n (' I l l ph a s i s Oil co m m e rce a n d ua fts a s t h e pop u l a t i o n appears to h a v e con centra ted more and m o re i n a few large centres such as St Lucia and Kobarid, while other places, such as Tolm i n w h e re recta n g u l a r houses o n stone foundations have been fo u n d , we r e a bandoned. D u ring the l ate sixth and fifth centur ies, the p e r iod to which the richest graves in the region belong, I h l' role of St Luci a a pp ears to have increased as a cent re for
p rosperous traders. At the same time the wide range of objects fo u n d in graves of a similar period in the cemetery suggests perhaps an i ncreasing economic stratification with i n the popu l a t i o n , with a wealthy minority among a multitude of the poor. Pol itical changes in the fourth century evidently dis rupted the pattern of commerce on which the settlement had depended and its prosperity dwindled rapidly.36 This section has described in outline the 20 or so g ro ups defined by material remains who o c cupied the IIIyrian territor i es du ring the Early Iron Age (eighth to fo u rth centuries) . horn this there e merges no supp ort for dear-cut definitions of I l I y r ians, either through a compact unity in the archaeological e vidence or through any apparent consistency in habit s of ritual or daily life across the different cultural gro u p s. At the same t i me some conclusions rega rding origins and development can be drawn. Several groups, notably those in lstria, Lihurnia, northern and southern Serbia, central Bosnia and Dal matia, had already been fo r m ed before the start of th is peri o d, but an Early Iron Age prosperity brought i ns t abi li ty to their traditional pattern of social relations and a decline had already set in before the cnd of the seventh century. New groups emerged, notably those of Glasinac and Dolensko (Lower Carniola), through ex p l oiting the qualities of i ron to amass a wealth of cattle and create fortified settlements. Their el ites are dis tinguished by gra ves that arc rich in weapons and jewellery .lh
Soca (lsonw) group : Gabrovcc and Svolsjak 1 983, Tedan, Lo Schiavo and Trampuz-Orel 1 984-5 ( St Lucia), Svolsj ak 1 976 (Most n a Soci ) , 1 973 (Tolmin), Ba rtosiwicz 1 9 85 (faunal cvidcnce).
hh
a n d �o n l ;\ i n i l l l po r t s t ro l l l I t a l y a n d C rn'n' , T h l' m'w r u i n s s u p po rted l o n g-d i s t a lKl' �( ) Il l l l l l' r�l' n' n t rcd on s lJl: h p l a n's ;\ s Donja Dol ina and St Lu� i a . I n t h e b ur i a l m o u n d s w c GI ll 1 1 0 \\'
recognizc the increasing dominance of powerfu l c h i e fs w i t h their armed followers, such as th o s c a t G l a s i nac ( I 1 i j a k and Osovo) and Dolcnsko (Sticna and Novo M e s t o ) . By thc fi fth century the p o wer of these chiefs, based in tri bal alliances, h a d reached a peak, but in the foll o w i n g century thcrc was a decl ine as the tribal structures began to b e challcngcd by new forms of central authority developing in a d j a c ent lands.
J
Naming Illyrians
Illyrian l anguage !
Though almost nothing of it survives, except for names, the I l lyrian language has figured promi nently in several theories regarding the spread of Indo-European languages into Europe. In the late nineteenth century the names of persons and places recorded by a ncient written sources and on inscriptions con vi nced some schol ars that Illyrian-speakers had once been wide spread across Central and Eastern Europe, the Balkan penin sula, Asia M i nor and southeast Italy. In the early twentieth century there was a confident identification of IIIyrian as a pri mary sub-stratum of Indo-European from w hich whole families of European l anguages later developed. Theories of this kind flourished in a time when there was also a greater confidence on the part of archaeologists. Most were willing to accept that the appearance of a new language was somehow connected with the movement of whole com munities, best illustrated by the h istoricall y documented migrations of the Celts between the fifth and third centuries BC and also by the barbarian invasions of the Roman Empire between the third and the sixth centuries AD. Many still hold to the view that it is possible to detect traces of invasions by Indo-Europeans in the material culture of this or that region. I On
I l Iyrian
langua.se,
names
and etymology : Crossland 1 982, Rendic-M ioccvic 1 9 5 6 , Katicic
1 9 82, Russu 1 969, Sasd 1 9 77a, 1 9 76b, 1 9 8 0, 1 9 8 4 .
Pol ome 1 976a,
' h, ' .\, ',1/, /, t",. 'I/\'n. III.\ As rega rds t h e Ba l k ;I l l s , t h c r c h " ... h c c l l I I I l' X I S l c l l l l' t o r sl' v l' I'a l del:a des a theory t h a t I I l O V l' l I 1 l' l \ I S o f I l l' W p l' o p k ... i l l t o E u ro pe from the d i rection o f A s i a a ro u l l d t h e hegi n n i n g o f the B ro n ze Age ( before 2 000 IIc) m a rked t h e a r ri v a l a n d d is persa l o f I n do European speakcrs. Serious pro blems arise w i th this and s i m i la r .
theories when onc comes to exa mine thc p rocesses of evol u tion and fragmentation that produced the historically attested langu ages of the Balkans within barely a thousand years. This ques tion has most recently been taken up i n a stimulating a n d provocative book by Colin Renfrew (1 987) . While it is hard to avoid notions of invasions and m igrations in a discussion of the Illyrian language and its origins, there arc clear signs th at the old famil i ar landscape of European l inguistic and arch aeol ogical cvolution is becoming a desol ation of vanished certainties in both disciplines. At th i s stage it may be useful to outline the limits of IlIyrian territory as indicated in the onomastic evidence, that is, names of persons, peoples and pl aces recorded in the Greek and Roman sources, as set out by I. I. Russu ( 1 969). The southern limit starts on the coast of central Albania and passes i nland to Yugoslavia to include the Lakcland, the Skopje basin and the Kosovo-Metoh ija region. Then it turns north to follow a line west of the river Morava to the vicinity of Belgrade on the Danube. On the north the Sava and Drava valleys are included along with an area north of the latter extending i n the direction of Lakc Balaton in western Hungary. From there the limit passcs southwestwards, skirting the southeast Alps, to meet the Adriatic in Istria. Finally the ancien t districts of Calabria and Apulia in southeast Italy arc included. In addition to a distri bution of lI Iyrian personal and place-names the Messapian language recorded on more than 300 inscriptions is i n some respects similar to Balkan II Iyrian. This link is also reflected in the materia l culture of both shores of the southern Adriatic. Archaeologists have conclu ded that there was a phase of II Iyrian migration into Italy early i n the first millennium B C , not only in the south but also further north from Li burnia to Picenum. A more cautious view suggests that while Messapian may have developed as a branch of Illyrian, or rather 'pre-Illyrian', a substantial di fference between the two had developed by h is torical times. For this reason the problem of Messapian is better
N,IIII1/Ig 111 ,,", 1 1 1 .\
CI I l I s i d lTl'd ;1 '.. ,I d i s t l l l d l' l l I i t y w l I l l I l l t i l l' ('.I d y l a l l �l l a �l'S I I I I t a l y
ra t h lT t l U I l a s a l l l' x t l' n s i l l l l I I I t i l l' I b l k a l l I I l y r i a l l p ro v i ncl' , ' T h l' ( ; rl'l' k s h a d a w l lrd lor t h l' ' I)('a k i l l � I I f I l I y r i a n ( iJltlrjzeill)
a n d rl'cI I�n i l.l'l1 a l a n � L l a �l' d i s t i l l d tro l l l ( ; rl'l'k . As p rese rved
in S t ra h o ' s ( ; ('ogr,l/,hy t h e G rcl' k t ra d i t i o n i d e n t i fied
I 1 l yrians
a s a p e o p l e (l'tlJllos) d i ffl' rl'nt fro m M a ccdon i a n s and Thracians a -.. wdl a s fro m the Greeks. On th e other hand, Greek sources ;I lT fa r fro m clea r over any distinction between IIIyrian and the
i n h a h i ta n t s of Epirus: 'Epirote' as a political or ethnic term w a s evi den t l y not cu rrent before the fourth century BC, and the ph rase 'epirote peoples' means no more than 'peoples of the m a i n l a n d ' , th at is, seen from the island of Corcyra where the ( ; rl'e k s first settled in the region. It cannot yet be establ ished
that there were peoples in the northwest of mainland Greece who spoke a language that was neither IIlyrian nor Greek. When Strabo refers to 'bi l ingual' people beyond the mountains west of Macedonia, the presumption is that the languages spoken were Greek and Illyrian. Ancient writers tell us almost noth i ng of the IIIyrian language, although there is no doubt th at it continued to be spoken wel l into the Roman period. They furnish a h andful of authentic Illyri an words, including ' rh inos' for 'fog', 'sabaius' or 'sabaia', a local variety of beer, and 'sybina' for a lance or hunting-spear. Studies of the llIyri an language must continue to depend on the large n u m ber of attri butable names, tribal, personal and geographical, p reserved in a ncien t literary and epigraphic sources.] Modern study of Illyrian names began with the catal ogues of geographi cal ( 1 925 ) and person al ( 1 92 9 ) names compiled by H. Krahe, modelled on the dictio nary of Cel tic names co m piled by Alfred Holder ( 1 8 9 6-1 9 1 4 ) . These were followed by studies of the II Iyrian language by Krahe ( 1 955-8 ) , Anton Mayer ( 1 95 7-59) and I. I. Russu ( 1 969). A new era began with jiirgen Untermann's analysis of Venetic names ( 1 9 6 1 ) which defined the separate l inguistic identity of the Venetic peoples. l
On
limits of IlIyrians: Maric 1 964b, Degmedzic 1 967 (archeological and
l i tera ry evidence ) , Katicic 1 977a (Paeonians), I1ievski 1 967a (Istria), Si mone 1 972, 1 976 (Messapian), 1 986,
1 977 (JIIyrians .1
in Italy) . Crossland 1 982.
1 975
(Greece), Suic
Pisani 1 976, Ma rin
I I'i'
St', l/t " /"1' 111"1'/0 / 1 1 .\
Th i 'i p i O l l l'lT i l 1 g w o r k o t l o( , d d d i l 1 i l l O I 1 h a \ h(,(, 1 1 i l 1 l i l a l l'll , t o r t h e l 1 l os t p a rt s l l �n's s fl l l l y , i ll l a t e r s t l l d i e s 0 1 t h e l 1 a l l 1 (,S o t oth e r I1 l y r i a n grou ps. C l- z a A l fi i l d y 's ca l a l ( )gll�' a n d a n a l y ses o f
per s o n a l n a m es from t h e R o m a n p ro v i n cc o f Da l m a t i a ( 1 964, 1 965 a n d 1 96 9 ) rema i n fu ndamental a n d a rc m a tched b y t h e works of And ras M6csy o n Pannonia ( 1 95 9 ) and M oes i a Superior ( 1 9 70 ) . Duj e Rendic-Miocevic h a s p u b l ished severa l studies of names from the territory of th e Dcl matae, on t h e m i d d l e Adriatic arou n d Split, notably from th e n a t i v e centre a t Rider ( Danilo) n e a r S i benik, and we owe t o fanoula Papa zogl u ( 1 978) a valuable examination of the eth ni c affin iti es of th e Darda n ians from the evidence of n a mes. Perhaps the most significant contribution has been the work o f Radoslav Katicic. Following the lines of Untermann's study of Ven eti c names, KatiCic ( 1 962, 1 963 ) has defined two 'onomastic provinces' among the Illyrians. The southern provi nce i ncludes the ancient regi on of Ulyris in central and southern Alban ia, the h eart of the IlIyrian k i ngdom around th e Lake of Scodra, and the Adri atic coast and h i ntcrland up to and beyon d the Neretva v alley . The Middle Dal mati an-Pa nnon ian province l i cs fu rther north and is con siderably greater in area . In the northwest l ies the Venetic province, including the Liburn i , th e lstrian pen in sula and the region o f Lj u b l j ana in Slovenia beyond the Julian A lps. These two IIlyrian onomastic provinccs are dcfined by th c near excl usive distri bution of some personal n ames. Among the southern ' real ' Illyrians these include Epicadus, Tem us (a female name), Genti us (in Grcek Gen th ios), Pinnes (or Pinnius), Mon ounios ( recorded on coins) , Gra baei (a tri bal name), Vcrzo and Zanatis. The mid dle Dal matian -Pannon ian provin ce exh ibits a l a rger variety of names, o f which those cha racteristic of th e a rea in clude Andes ( m . )/Andia (f. ) , Baezus/Baezo, Bubant-, Iettus, Paio, Panes, Pan to (m. }/Pantia ( f. ) , Pinsus, Plares, Sinus, Stataria , Stennas, Suttis and Vendo . The province defined by these includes the Adriatic coast between the rivers Titus (Krka) and Hippius ( Cetina) , western, central and southern Bosnia, the middle and upper Una va l ley and the Li ka plain . On the cast the district (Sanj a k ) of Novi Pazar and western Serbia a rc also i ncluded. There is a measure of overlap between the three p rovinces (Venetic and the two I llyri an ) . Thus Bato occurs both among
N,II/III/,I; 1 1/ 1'1 /, 1/1 ,
1 Ill' sO l l l h c l' l l I I l y r i a l l s .1 I I d .t l so 0 1 1 t i l l' l >;t l l I l a l i a l l I.'oasl , i ll Wl'sl l' l' I I a l l d l'l' l I l ra l Bos l l i a .1 I I d I l I rl h n l I o r t h i ll Pa n ll o n i a , Vl'r/,o Ol'I'I I rS i l l S a l o l l a a n d a l so i l l W l's l lT l l Bos l l i a . A n e l e m en t o f I h l' I l I y r i a l l roy a l 1 1 a I I l l' S k nd i l a i d a s a p pca rs i n eastern B o s n i a . I S 1 l i d l l s a n d ;I I l l O l l g t h c I k l l l l a t ;1e a t R i d e r as Laedica l i us and I , ( a ) nl i l' l i s . S i l l l i l a r l y t he m i d d l e p ro v i n ce i n c l u d e s na mes w i th ;1 w i d l 'r d i s pe rsa l : t h c root of A p l i s/A p l o occ u rs a l so i n Liburn i a , l I 1 d I S l r i a , w h e re i t i s a n element in M a ga p lin us. Th e name I k u S ; 1 S , ge n i t i v e Beusamis, which is found among th e Delm a tae, h a s hecn w m p a re d with the Messapic Bosat, with Bu zetius a m o n g t h c J a po des and with the Pan non ian Busio. The n ames l >a l.;1 , D a s i u s a n d Dazomenus have been connected with Das I I l l' l l l l S in Pa n n on i a and D azos in southern Italy. The meaning o f I h esl' p l a u s i b l e correspondences is hard to determine: neither 1 I l l' i n t ern a l l i n k s between the three pri ncipal lllyrian onomastic p rov i n Cl's n o r those between them and other a reas indicate more t h a n th a t the l a ngu ages spoken by peoples in the Illyrian I l' rr i l o rics were som ehow rel a ted i f not altogether common, T h o u g h they are separatel y iden tified i n the h istorical sources t h l' rl' was u n d o u btedly a close associ ati on between Liburni and Vl' n l,t i , fro m the distr i b u ti on of disti nctive names with the S l l' I l l S hosti in Hostiducis (gen itive), or vols-Ivolt- in Vol setis (�l'n, ) , Volso, Volsonus, Voltimesis (gen . ) and Voltis( s )a. Place-n a mes fro m the IlIyrian territories add l i ttle to our k n ow l edge o f the ll1yrian l anguage. The recurrent e lement -Ulla, fo r example, Aenona (Ni n ) , B l a ndona (south Li burnia), E m o n a ( L j u b l j a l1a), Narol1a ( Vid) , Sca rdona (Skradin near � i hl' n i k ) , Salona (Solil1 near Split) , does n o more than i ndicate t h a t I 1 l yrian place n a mes followed a basic Indo-European (o n ti gu ra tion . Indo-European characteristics i n the formation of pl' rson a l n a mes i nclude the der i vatio n of fem i n i nes in -Oil, for e x a m ple, the masculine Apl is/Aplinis with feminine A p l o/A p l o n i s , or thc use of the prefix epi- in Epicadus, the d i fferent deri va tion s i n -nt- and -menos in Dasan t-, Dasmenos, a n d the use of numbers as personal na mes, Tritonusffritano, Sl's t u S/Scxtus/Sesto. Finally the i mpact of Celtic on I l lyrian n o m c n c l a t u rc has been m u ch discussed but attributions of indi v i d u a l n a mcs a rc fa r from certa i n . A mo ng the japodes the n a llll'S J a ri tlls, M a tcra, N o n nt i o a n d S i n lls, a re ascri bed to Cl'i t i c i n fl u en ce, as a r c Sa rn u s, S i n u s a n d V e p u s a m ong t h e ..
71.
' 1 1'1' .'11 ,, ,,.t /., fO,. 1 11)'1';. 111.,
Dc l m a ta e . P l a ce n a ml'S con t a i n i n g t il l' l' k m l' 1 l I -d'f11 UI1I
,
fo r
example, Nov i o d u l 1 U Ill o n t h e Sa v a , C a r ro tl u l1 l1 l ll O i l t h e Dra v a a n d Singidunum (Belgrade) on t h e Da n u he re p resen t e v i del1 ce for Cel tic penetration of the a rea.4 A notable addition to the repertory of IIIyrian names has come from the cemeteries in the vicini ty of the Greek colony Dyrrhachium (Durres) . Many hundreds of graves had their inscribed tombstones still in place, simple cylindrical stelai, decorated, if at all , with a simple band of l au rel and inscri bed, mostly in Greek, with the single name and patronymic of the deceased. The names so far reported include Andena (f.), Antis (f., two examples), Batina, Batouna, Boiken, Breigos, Brykos, Gen th ios, DazaiosfDazos ( two examples) , Epe(n)tinus (from the place Epetium, Stobrec on the coast south of Split), Epicadus (ten examples) , Epidamnos, Zaimina, Isnthena, Koreta, Lydra, Mallika, Monounios, Pladomenus, Plator (five examples), I'la toura, Scodrina, Strabainos, Syrmas, Syra, Sychos, Tadus, Tata, Teutaia (four examples)ffemiteuta. New additions to the list of south-II Iyrian names include Andena (Andia), Plaios/Plai anus/Plaia, and also Scodrina from the myrian capital Scodra, an adjectival form that appears on local coins. Known south JIIyrian names include Genthios, Cillanus, Epicadus, Laidas, Laidon, and Teutaia, and those new to the list include Billena, Isnthena, Mallika and Strabainos.s With such a large repertoire of myrian names it is possible to consider etymologies and links with other Indo-European languages of wh ich a fuller record survives. Thus it seems generally agreed that the name of the IIlyrian queen Teuta of the third century BC derives from teutana, which means 'queen'. Si milarly, Gentius, the last o f the lllyrian kings, defeated by the Rom ans in 168 BC, has been connected with a noun, in its Latin form gens, gentis, meaning 'class' or 'kin' and appropriate for the leader of such a group. These are exceptions and no satisfactory etymologies have yet been produced even for some of the most distinctive myrian names. A more difficult question is how myrian fits within the family 4 s
Polomc 1 982. To a s i l l l i ll s , l > a S t h e p ro b
lem of what is t e r llled the ' ( ; rel:o - I l l y r i a l l nd t u re ' . Severa l t y pes of object which occur i n si m i l a r wlltexts to t h ose o f t h l' G reek imports listed above have been classi fied e i th e r as Greek p ro d ucts created specifically for an IIlyrian taste or a s t h e p rod ucts of Illyrian workshops working in close imitation of Greek model s. Perhaps the most ·discussed example is the open -faced bronze 'Greco-Illyrian' h elmet. Dated to the late sixth and fifth centuries, these have been found down the Adriatic coast as far as Al bania and i n the Ohrid region. Their origin has been sought in an early Peloponnesian, probably Corinthian, type recorded at Olympia and dated to 700-640 BC. A hel met from Canosa in southern Italy has suggested to some that the traffic in these helmets may have been l i n ked with th is area. It seems unlikely this very distinctive helmet was a l ocal prod uct of scattered workshops but, as seems to be i ndicated by its distri bution, was a type produced specifically for the northern war riors and possibly may be related to somc form of merccnary service by Illyrians. The same uncertainty persists regarding the few isolatcd finds of early Greek objects from the western Balkans, such as bronze running figures from Prizren and from Albania, a macnad from Tetovo on the upper Vardar and the finc bronze-working smith, probably Peloponnesian work, from Vran iste near Bela Palanka in Serbia, all of which arc dated to the same era of prestigious i mports, the late sixth and early fifth centuries. t 9 Several other varieties of jewell ery and ornament are thought likely to be local production in imitation of Grcck models, notably double 'omega'-pins, arched brooches and silver brace lets with snake's head terminals. These were pl aced alongside Greek imports in princely burials and are generally identified from an i n feriority in production technique, notably in thc large variety of obj ects at Trebeniste; but they are also found rou tes in S. lIIyria), Parovic-Pesikan 1 98 5-6 (pottery i mports in Bosnia), Vuckovic-Todorovic 1973 (E. Yugoslavia), Bousquet 1974 (Tetovo epitaph), Parovi c-PeSi kan 1 978 (sixth century inscription at Liplj an). l � Greco-lIlyrian hel mets : Marovic 1 9 76b, Vasic 1 9 8 2-1 , Andreou 1 9 8 5 , Os mani 1 98 8 ; weapons: Vasic 1 9 82a, Parovic-PeSikan 1 98 2 (Greek mach ai ra), Vasic 1 98 3 (bronze vessels), Vasi liev 1 9 8 3 (transport of bronzes).
Nt '/gh/Jo/l /'.- "I ,h,' ( ; " " ,h
1 0 l)
l a t l' r i l l t he l a rge l'l' l l l l' t lT Y a t I \ l Id v , l 0 1 1 1 I l l' A d r i ;l I i l' a ll d a m o l l g t h l' .I a pmks a t K O l l l po l j e i l l t i ll' I . i k .t , I t l I I a y wl' l I hl' t h a t thl' go l d lII a s k s , ga l l l 1 l il' t a n d sa n d a l s i l l Trl'lK' n i s t l', a n d t h e gold and s il ver a nd s il ver belt a ppl ilJ lIl's w i th repo ussc o r n a m e n t i n d l l d i ng G reek moti fs s u c h a s p a l m et tes, a rc loca l , i f Greek i nsp i red crea tions for 1I 1yrian t aste, What appears to have been a s llccess fu l s y m hiosis in material culture between Greeks and the III y r i a n rulers can be comparcd with a similar relationship a l ready i dentified for thc same period in other areas of Europe, n o ta bly thc Celtic northwest, which bordered the highly pro ducti vc Mediterranean cul tures of Greece and south Italy. Dis p l a y of exotic ornamcnt and gorgeous apparel will have served
to undt:rwritc the status of a n ative el i te, who controlled the sou rces of wealth, exportable raw materials including metal ores, t i m b er , hides and cereals along with slaves and mercenar i es, t hat brought such prestigious goods to a chief's stronghold and i n d u e course to his family burials in rcmote lIlyria. The pr eci o u s imports includcd fine dress ornaments and the utensils fo r banq uets and wine-drinking in the grand manner, m a n y o f wh i ch were desti ned for the oblivion of the tomb. How mu ch the IIIyrian princcs had in common with their co n temp o rarie s i n wcstern Europe is hard to j udge but their common taste for objects garishly ornamen ted i n the Greek style appears beyond doubt.·w Greeks were generally reluctant to risk life among lIIyrians and, with two notable exceptions, their settlements ca me late and never amounted to much . North of the Gulf of Corinth they appear to have made l i ttle i mp act on territories west of t h e Pindus. As one travels westwards across the mountainous spine of mainland Greece there arc marked changes in cl imate and vegetation : temperatures are generally lower and the winter rainfall is heavy and prolonged, forming real rivers with a permanent flow. Forests are more widespread and there is excellent pasturage . The movement of flocks revolves around the great seasonal festivals of St George (23 April) and St. Demetrius (23 October) . In this world meat and milk arc
20
Parovic-Pesikan
hinterla nd ) ,
1983
(Apulian
and
Etru scan
imports
to
Adriatic
1 10
( ; ,/,/,k 1 11 ",.,. 111 ...
i m po rtant for t h e d i e t . W O I l 1 l' 1 l h a v e ;\ l l 1 0 re s i gn i t i Gl I l t ro l l' than i n the w o r l d o f t h e d a ss i G1 1 lw/is fl l r t l l l' r ca s t , a l l d t h e extended family rema i n s t h e ba s i l: u n i t o f sOl:i l' t y . A t t h e pol i t i cal level there i s nothing t o (o l l l pare w i t h t h e d o sed all d integrated po/is but a looser and more di spersed federati o n o f groups belonging t o a si ngle tri be. Confron ted with th is s()(iety and its different ways Greek writers soon resort to l a bels such as 'brigan ds' or 'pi rates'. Even a fter centuries of relatively stable contact the Greeks took l i ttle account of changes which had occurred among these peoples, where even the urban settl e men ts that had grown up under their i n fluence still retai ned the character of mountain strongholds.21 If we omit such tales as the settl emen t of Oricu s on the Bay of Valon a by Euboeans fol low i ng the Trojan War, the first recorded advance by Greeks i n the direction of the I1 Iyria n s was m ade by Corinthian s. I n 733 BC Chersi crates, a member of the Ba cch i a d clan rul i ng a t Corinth, esta blished a settlemen t on Corcyra (Corfu ) that served as the principal staging-po i n t on the voyage between Greece and the west. Having ejected some Eretri ans fro m Euboea and some Libur nian s from the northern Adri a tic, the Corinthians soon pro spered . The next expansion of the Corinthian empire came a ro u n d a century later when a joi nt expedition from Corinth and Corcyra founded on th e I1 lyria n ma inlan d the colony Epi d a m n us on the headl a n d D yrrh ach i u m , the name by which the c i ty was l a ter known.22 A long with Apollon i a further south, the new settl e ment brought the short sea crossing to southern Italy under Greek control and was for centu ries a terminus of th e principal highway across the southern Balk ans, l a ter engineered by th e Romans as th e Vi a Egna ti a . These settlements will a l so h a v e secured con t rol of th at rou te to the interior and access to th e sil ver deposits of the region . The foundation myth of the col ony is offered by the historian Appian as a digression from the Roman civil war between Pompey and Caesar in 48 BC
21 12
Cabanes 1 9 8 8 a .
Hamll10nd 1 982b,
(currency ) .
Myrto
1 98 6 , N . Ceka 1972, ]976, Petrova
1980
I I I
I > y rr h a dl l l l l l l s O l l l e Iwhl' v l' 1 0 Ill' r l u' S , I I I I I ' , 1 \ I -'. p l d ,I I 1 1 I 1l I S , O i l a �'(O I l I I l of I h l' f o l l o w i l l g n r o r . i\ ha r h , l I ' I ; 1 1 I k l l l g 0 1 r ill' reg i o l l , h y l l a l l l C I :. p i d a ll l l l l l s , h u i l l a ( i l y 0 1 1 I hl'
(O,lsl
, l I ld 1 l .1 I 1 1 �·d 1 1 a fr n h i l l l se l f.
I >y rr h a d l l l s , r ill' S O i l o f h i s d a u g h l n ,l I l d , ;I S i l w a s b d i l'\'' l' d , o f I 'os c i d o l l , a d ded a h a r b o u r to I h l' c i l Y w h i c h Ill' I l a med lJyrrhach i u m , W h l' l l D y r r h ;l l' h w. w a s attackl'll b y h i s h ro t h c rs, Heracies, retu rn ing
fmlll E ry t h ral' ( w h l'nu' he had ca rried o ff the oxen of k i n g Geryon) l I I a d l' an a l l i a n cl' w i t h h i m in return fo r a share o f his territory. From
I h i s t h e citi zl'llS of Dy rrh a ch i u m
cl a i m
Herades as onc of the ir
fOll lldns beca u se he had a s ha re of their l and, n ot dishonou ring I >y rrhach u s b u t because th ey took even greater pride in Heracles as
m i st a k e n ly killed l on i us , the son of Dyrrhachus, and, hav i n g r ai se d a burial mound,
bl'ing a god . They say tha t in a battle Hera d es
t h rew the body i n to the sea s o that i t wo u l d be named a fte r him, In J a tl'r period t he Bryges, retu rning from Ph rygi a, se i zed the ci t y a n d
a
s u r rou n d i ng t e rri t o r y , th en th e Ta ulantii, an JI I y r i a n peop le , took i t from them a n d th e Liburni, another JII y ria n people, took i t from the la u l.1 nti i . They w e re in the h abit of ma ki ng plundering exped itions a ga i n st th eir ne i gh bo u rs i n v e r y fast s h i p s . And beca use th ese were I he fi rs t the Rom ans c ame up against they bestow the name L i b u r nae Oil very fast ships. Tho s e expell ed from D y rrh ac h iu m by the Lib u rn i
a n s obtai ned help from the C orcy ra e a ns then masters of the sea a n d d rove o u t the Li burn i . The Corc yra e ans mix e d in t h ei r own settlers with them and for this reason it came to be regard ed as a Greek port. But bel ieving it s name to be ill-sta rred , the Corcyraeans c h a nged the name an d called i t Epidamnus from the upper city, and Th ucydi dl's a l so c al ls it by that name, b u t in the en d the old n a me t r i u m p hed and it is now ca ll ed Dyrrhachium. ( Civil War 2 3 9 )
The Illyrian el ement in the Greek colony appears to b e borne out by the con tents of early cemeteries, in wh ich Corinthian grave-pottery of the seventh and sixth centuries is found along s i de cremation urns of the local type. The successive rule of Taulantii and Liburni in the historical tradition may represent the southward movement of Illyrian peoples during the early I ron Age from around 1 000 BC into the area known as IIlyris. The presence of Bryges at Epidamnus in the account of Appian seems to be confirmed by other sources, including the Coastal Voyage attributed to Scymnus of Chios and Strabo's Geogra phy. No l ater record of their presence in th e area survives and nor can any link be established with the Bryges of Thrace, supposedly descended from the soldiers of Xerxes' army, who
I II
a ppea r fo ur n' n t l l r i l's l a t l' !" I n t h l' a r m y o t M , B r t l t l l s d ur i n g
the P h i l i p p i
ca m p a i gn , T h l' sl' t t l l' l I l l' n t a t E p i d a m n l l s hl'C\ m l' a flo u ri sh i ng cen trc fo r COJ\ l I \ W rt.T a n d rcm a i n s tod a y t he p r i n c i pal port (Durres) for the reg i o n , We l ea rn t h a t i t s con sti t u t i o n was o l i garchic and th at many of the inh a b i t a n t s w e r e n o t citize n s , By the sixth cen tury the city h ad erected i ts o w n treasury for dedications at Olymp i a . Thucydides' a cco u n t of
the internal conflicts (stasis) d u ring th e 43 0s BC makes clea r that this was not the first trouble of thi s kind in the col ony. In the st r uggle for power betwee n democrats and aristocrats, the latter supported by Corcyra , the Taulantii con tinued to play a major role in t h e affairs of the city. Wh e n the dem ocra ts gained the upper hand their opponents turned for h elp to the IIIyr i ans, They app eared in strength to besiege the city in 435, in the proccss cau si ng m uch damagc to the city' s econ o my thro u gh their occupat i o n of the surrounding cou n try. H The se cond Greek settlement on thc lIlyrian mainland was Apollonia, traditional ly found ed in 5 8 8 BC on a headland over looking the mo u th of the river Ao u s (Vijose) , ten st ade s from the r i ve r and 5 0 from the sea, It lay d ose to the frontier b etwc e n lllyr i s and Epirus and may have been established to make secure the form e r' s control o f that area, Around 600 RC Corin th is sai d to h ave re s ponded to an lllyrian invitation and contributed 200 settl ers to an alre ady e x i s tin g trading post. Others, especially from Corcyra, fol l owed these. The colony w a s said to have been named Gyl aceia aftcr its founder the Corinthian Gylax, but l ater took thc name from A poll o . For severa l ccnturies Greek and IlIyrian communities appear to have m ainta i ned a separate existence. That is the impre ss ion from cemete r ie s with contents that are quite differcnt, one with imported pottery, the other e x h ibiting the older tradi tion of b u r i al mounds and the rite of i n h umation. Apollonia's pros per i ty during the sixth and fifth centurie s BC was based on herds, well nourished i n the surro u n d ing pastures. The excepl.l Anamali 1 970, Bakhuizen 1 9 8 6 ; cemeteries : Dhima 1 985a, Myrto 1 98 4, Ta tari 1 9 8 7, Hidri 1 9 83 ; pottery production : H idri 1 986, 1 9 8 8 , Tatari 1 9 77-8 (local), D'Andrea 1 98 6 (export ) ; also Ta tari 1 98 5 (building construction), 1 98 8 (Hellenistic house), Zeqo 1 98 6 (stone and terracotta
figures).
I I I l i o n a l r i c h n l'ss o f A po l l o n i a n I n l'l I or y s l I sl a i l 1 l'd a n ot a h l y n a r row o l iga rch i c H'gi m e , deslTi hl'l1 h y A r i s l o t k, w h o cou l d d i s COVl'r n o t ra ce o f d e m ocracy i n a c i t y w h l' re a m i nori ty o f freemcn cont ro l l ed a m a j o r i t y t h a t were n o t free born , The p ri v i l eged w e re e v i d en tl y descend a n t s of the original coloni st s w h i l e t h e i r s u b j ects w ere not c ap t u red or purchased slaves but r a t h e r the native population of the a rea with the sta tu s of serfs i nt egrated i n to the h i ghl y successful e conomy of thc city.24 Epidamnus and Apol l onia were for centuries the principal ports for tra ffic between G reece , the w estern Balkans and thc m i d d l e Danube. In thc H ellenistic period they were first stra tegi c bases fo r the military am bitions of kings of Epirus and M ace d onia and then, especially Apollonia , the principal ports of d isemba rca tion for Roman armies, Apollonia also acquired
a mong Romans the reputation of a centre of higher l earning, a nd may h ave been the ori ginal terminus of the V ia Egnatia. ny the s e co nd and carly first centuries BC the coins of thc two cities were circ u lating w idely in the middle Danube basin, e v idently servi ng as a conven ien t silver currency for merchants and s l ave-traders. Most of the rema i ns of Epida m nus/Dyrrhach ium lie beneath the modern city Durres, Albania ' s prin cipal port, testi fyi ng to i ts continued prosperi ty. Apollonia, by way of con trast, had lost i ts harbour as the course o f th e river altered , and thc ruins of the Hcl lenistic and Roman city sta nd forlo rn on the h i l l of Pojan i . N o Greek settlements are known to have becn established on the mainland north of Epidamnus/Dyrrhachi um. North of the river Drin neither coast nor hinterland invited perm anent settlement and, although Grccks un d o ubted l y lived and tr a ded in several pl aces, the th ree formally constituted colon ies were all on islands, Black Coreyra (Korcula) , Issa (Vis) an d Pharos (Hvar). On the oppositc coast the Po vallcy scttlcmcnts of Spi na and Adri a , wh i ch fl ourished during the fi fth and fourth centuries as the destinations of l ong - di s ta nc e sea trade from Phocaea and Aegina, acquired somet h in g of the ch aracter of 24
Bcau mont 1 952, Bl avatsky 1 966 (fou ndation ), °1 97 1 , Anamali 1 970, Bak 1 9 8 6 ; cemeteries: Mano l 976a, 1 977-8 , Korkuti 1 98 1 (pre-colonial tumul i ) , Nemeskeri a nd Dhima 1 9 8 8 (racial mixture in cemetery), Bereti 1 977-8 , 1 9 8 8 (Triport occupation), Vreka 1 9 8 8 (Hellen istic black-glaze) , huizen
1 14
i.:o l o n i a l Sl' t t k l l l l' l l t s . I I I I l l a l l' r i ;l l I l' r l l l S t h e l"O I l l I l l l' IU' IWI WCl' I l
Greei.:e a n d t h e u pp e r A d r i a t i l" w a s t h e p ro l: u r l' l l l l' l I t o t sa l t , corn a n d cattle, fo r w h i dl t h e ( ; rl'l' k s o ffl'red "v i ne, pottery a n d metal wares.25 Early in the sixth cen tury settlers from Cn i d us i n A s i a M i nor settled on the Dal m atian islan d. Black Corcyra ( Korcul a ) , so named from its dense vegetation to disti nguish it from its la rger namesake further sou th . Thc citizens of thc latter assistcd th e venture after the Cn idians had rescucd 300 boys from thc hosti l e Periander, tyrant of Corinth . The settlers n a med thcir colony after the land of thcir benefactors. The sitc of th e settlcment has not been located but lay either in the west or in the n orthcast at the narrow passage with the pcninsula Pcljdac, wherc the modcrn city Korcula enjoys two excellent harbours. Somc coi n s with a Corcyraean legend may b el o ng to the settlc men t but the venturc appears to have failcd, and the island i s known to ha vc received at least onc other ncw settlement, pro b ab l y in the th ird ccntury BC. Native IIIyrians do not figu re in the story of thc colony on Bl ack Corcyra but they are certainly promincnt i n the carly h istory of the colony settl ed in 3 8 5 BC on thc island Pha ros (Hvar) from the Aegean island Paros, famcd for its marble. In tradition a l fashion they acccpted the guidancc of an oracle, but thc settlers reccived more tangible assistance from Dionysius, thc a m b i ti ous ruler o f Syracuse, who had around thc same timc cngineered an Illyrian attack on thc Molossians in Epirus. The account of Diodorus says that h e h a d a l ready sent a colony to the Adri atic a n d fou n ded 'the city na med Lissus' . The Pari a n s on Ph aros were soon in d ifficul ties with the n atives and needed help from the tyrant. Th i s year the Pari ans who had settled on Pha ros allowed the prev i ous b a rb a r i a n i n h a biLants to remain u n h a rmed in a wdl fortified place,
wh ile they themsel ves b u il t th ci r city by thc sea and encl osed it with
a
w a l l . Later the earlier i nha bitants took offence at the presence of the Greeks and called in the l I I y rians dwel l i ng on the mainland opposite. These crossed to Pha ros in a l a rge n umber of small boats and, m ore than ten thousand strong, killed many G reeks and did
2S
Nikolam.:i 1 97601, Braccesi of Syracllse).
(Oion y s i ll s
1 977,
Bakhu izcn
1 9 87,
Woodhead
1 970
N" lg/'/'"II I ' 1 1/ I I I l I d l d . " " ; I gl' , I l o w l' V l' I' I > I O l l �' � I I ' "
'''I' ( " I'I'�"
I I�
l C l l l l l I l . 1 l 1 d l'l .1 1 1 1 " 1 , , , . " led l i p
w i l h a I . I l'gl' 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 11(' 1' o f t l' l IT l l ll'� . l g. I I I I ' t t h l' I I l y n .1 1 l I l g h l ( r a i l ;l l l d ,
h ;l V l l lg ' 1 1 I l k " l l l l l' ;l l l d Cl p l l l rl'd o l h l T � , k d l n l l l Hl l'l' I h a l l f i v l' I h o l l s a l l d o f I hl' ha rh;I I'I ;II1S .l I I d l o o k ;l ro l l l l l l t w o t l lO l I '; J l l d p r i s o l l l' r . ( l >iotiol'lls 1 ), 1 4)
The t h i rd G reek colony k n O \\' n i n th i s central sector of the I h l l1 l a ti a n coa st was Issa on the north si de o f the island Vis. N o t h i n g is recorded o f its found ation , but coins and internal
orga n i za tion ( recorded on inscripti ons) suggest that it was a Sy raclI s a n settl ement. It has been p roposed th at it was this p l a ce and not L issus far to the south at the mouth of the Drin from ..vhich help came to the Greeks on Pharos, since Issa l ies on l y 25 miles away. The voyage from Lissus was more than t e n ti mes as long, but a garrison at the latter would fit better with Dionysius' schemes involving Illyrians and Molossians. A more sta ble relation sh i p with native l I Iyrians is implied by the decree recordi ng the details of a settlement from Issa on Black Corcyra. On the document, wh ich has been dated to the third century BC, arc named the Illyrians Pul l us and Dazus, w h i l e most of the text specifies the allotment of lands t o individual fa milies, both within and without the walls of the settlement, grouped by the tradi tion al Dorian 'tribes' of Dymanes, Hylleis and Pamphylo i . 2(, A handful of inscriptions and some locally struck coins with a l i m i ted circulation testify to a survival of the Greek settle ments on Pharos a n d Issa, though only the latter appears to have maintained its independence until the Romans appeared i n 229 B C . Pharos was subject to the IIIyrian dynasty of Agron, albeit under the rule of the native Demetrius of Pharos. The site of the colony was Starigrad, a sheltered harbour in the northeast of the island. The near square enclosure of the wal ls lies beneath the modern town, close to the fertile plain of Jelsa . 26 D . Rendic-Mioccvic
1980
(Corcyra Nigra ) , Cambi, Kirigi n and M arin
1 9 8 1 , Kirigin and M a rin 1 98 5 ( Issa necropolis), Zaninovic l 97 8 , 1 9 84b
(hill -forts o n Hvar), 1 98 0- 1 ( l a n d division o n Hvar), Sl apsak 1 9 8 8 , S t anC i c and Sl apsak 1 98 8 , Bintl i ff and Gaffncy 1 98 8 ( l a n d division and su rvey on Hvar), K irigin and Popovic 1 9 8 8 ( G reek '.... atchtowcr), Migotti 1 9 8 6 ( Hellenistic pottery in Hvar), Margetic 1 9 7 1 , D . Rendic-Miocevic 1 970a
(col ony of Issa on Korcu l a ) ,
I 1 (' Th i s h a d hel'll on:up i cd d i v i ded i n t o a rec t a ngu l a r gr i d o f roa d s and p ath s a t t h e t i m e o f t h e ori g i lu l col o n i z a t i o n , a n d i t m a y h ave been th i s w h i c h ca u sed t h e i n i t i a l ;Kco m lllod a t i o n w i t h the II Iyrians to decline in t o h osti l i ty . Thc nca r rectangu l a r walled area o f Issa containe d a p l a n n ed city with p a ra l l el stre ets . Recent di s coveries here i nc l u d e a rem a rk able series o f burials da ti ng to the Hellenistic period, containing Greek p o t tery a nd with some of the inscribed tombstones still in th ei r
original positions. A round thi s period, the first h a l f of the second century BC, Issa appears to have pro sp ered under Roman influence an d posses s ed at l east two settlements o n the nearby mainland, at Tra guri um ( Tr ogir ) and Epetium (Stobrec) , both of wh ich have produced Greek re m ains. When these place s were th reatened by the l oca l Delmatae it was Issa's app ea l to R o me which brough t the first con frontation between the l a tte r and this p o werfu l p e o p l e. The s urv iv al of Issa and Ph aros was owed to their own resources. Perha p s Issa may h ave gained some p ro fi t from l ong-distance commerce, th ough more as a port of call than a s a centre for trad in g with the natives of the m a i nl and.27 Tho u gh far fr om their Greek o ri gin s the two col onies maintained links with their homeland, Ph ar o s on o n e o cca s i on a p p eal i n g to its metro p o lis for ' rep ai r a n d s u pport' . Nevertheless, an i mpression of i s ol ati on a n d gr ad u a l decline is suggested by Pl i n y's reference to 'the fading memory of many Greek town s a nd strong cities' (N H 3 . 1 44) in IIlyria.
27 Nikolanci 1 968-9 (Corinthian pottery on lssa) , 1 9 76a, 1 976b (Asia Minor imports), 1 9 8 0 (inscription ), D. Rendic-Mioccvic 1 970b, 1 976 b (coinage).
5
Enemies of Macedonia
Conquering kings: Philip, Alexander and Pyrrhus 1
I l I yrians first appear in the record of Greek a ffai rs not long hefore the Peace of Nicias ended the first phase of the Pelopon ncsi an War in 42 1 BC. Before Athens suffered defeat at Delium in 424 BC, Sparta had sent an expedition under Brasidas to assist King Perdiccas of Macedonia and other opponents of Athens. At first the Spartans avoided involvement in Macedon's war with Arrha baeus the son of Bromerus, rul er of Lyncus ( Lyncestis), but in 423 they joined an expedition which ended with ignominious retreat by the Macedonians and a bri l l iantly contrived escape of the Spartans. After an i nitial success against Arrh abaeus, Perdiccas persuaded his all ies to await thc arrival of IIIyrian mercenaries. The latter opted instead to join the army of Arrhabaeus and, as the historian Th ucydides observes, 'the fear inspired by their warl ike character made both parties now think it best to retreat.' When the Spartans fina l l y reached safety they proceeded to loot suppl ies from the Macedonian army, causing a rupture of the pact between the king and the Spartans. The historian attributes to the Spartan commander a morale-raising h arangue to his men, clearly shaken by the fea rsome appearance of a new enemy:
1
For accounts
of the fourth and
1 9 8 8 a , Hammond Ham mond and Wal bank 1 98 8 .
th i rd centuries, Cabanes
1 96 6 , Hammond and Gri ffith 1 979,
I IX t h e y Ill a y t n n f y d l l '''l' w l l h ;1 1 1 ; l l I I V l' 1 1 1 I ; l g l l I .1 I 10 1 l . d ll' )' . . .. l' f O l' l l l l d a h k i n o u t w a rd h u l k . dll'i r l o u d y cl i l l l � I .. l l l l hl'.l r.l h k .l l I d t i ll' b r; \ l I d i , h i l l �
o f thei r we a p o n s i n t h e ;\ i r h a s ; \ t h rea t e n i n g a p pea ra n c e . B u t w h e n i t comes to rea l figh t i n g w i t h a n oppone n t w h o s t a n d " h i" gro u n d they are not wh at th ey se(.'med ; thl'y h ave n o rl'gu tl r ord e r I h a t w o u l d m ake t h em ashamed of deserting their positions w h e n h a rd p ressed ; wit h them fligh t and attack a re equ ally h o n ourahle, and afford no test of cou rage; thci r i n d e p e nd e nt mode of fighting never leaving an y one who wants t o r u n a w a y withou t a fa i r excu se fo r so doi n g. (4 . 1 26)l
In the troubled reign of A m yn ta s III ( 3 93-3 70/3 6 9 BC) , father of Philip 11, a powerfu l and appa rently stable regime among the southern I ll y ri a n s first emerges. This marks the begi n n i n g of a succession o f w a r s which were t q end on l y wi th Rom a n in te r vention and the end of the Macedonian monarchy two centu ries l ater. The surviving a cco u n t s are both incomplete and in pl aces contra dictory, although the general cou rse of events seems clear. Diodorus the Sici l i an (c.30 nc) , who probably followed the fourth-century Greek writer Ephorus, d e s cri bes a catastrophic attack by IIIyrians in 3 93/2 BC A m y ntas the father of Philip was driven fro m h i s coun try hy l II yrians who a ttacked M acedo n i a . G ivi n g up hop(.' for his crown, he made a prcsen t to the people of O lyn th us of his terri to r y which bordered on theirs. For a time he lost his k i ngdom hut hc wa s soon rcsto red by thc Thessal ians, regaining his crown and ruling for twenty-four years , Some say th a t after the expu lsion of A m y n tas th e M acedon ians \.... ere r u led fo r two years by Arga c u s and that it was a fter this interval tha t Amyntas recovered the kingship. ( 1 4. 92, 3 )
D i odorus' a ccount of a near identical Illyrian raid ten years l ater is ge ne ra l l y taken to be an erroneous duplication but this i s fa r fro m defi nite. Ce rta inly it would not have been at all u ntypical of the Illyrians to repeat a raid and expl oit thei r victory in the same manner after an interval of a few years. Between the two i nva s i ons of M a ce do n i a , Illyri ans arc said to have l aunched an attack on Epirus in 3 84/5 BC. The instigator is said t o have been Dionysius of Syracuse, eager to interfere 1
Hammond
1 972, 1 04 -7.
"'/1/'/111/ ',\ 1 1/ " , , /, " . /"1110 1
I I 'J
i l l t h l' A d r i a l i l' , O i l I h i s ( l l' l' a S I O I I I I I ' 1 I l ' l 'orl 0 1 A kl' l i a s I h l' k i l l � o t I h l' M o l os s i a l l s . T I l l' S i l i I i , l I l I Y r,l I l 1 (.:0 1 1 1 ri hll l nl .woo l roops ,l I l d S OO Sl'ts o f a rl l 1 O l l f' , i l l w h i l..' h I h l' I I l y r i a l l s set a ho l l l t h l' J\t o l os s i a l l s i l l ha l t l l' .l l l d , il is d a i l l l l' d , k i l l ed more I h a l l I S , O( ) O , w i t h d r a w i ng o n l y w h c l l a S p a r t a n a rm y came to I h l' rl'SClIl' o f t h e Epi rotes. T h e e p i sode m a de plain the rise of I l I y r i a l l power 0 1 1 the n or t h w e s t fri nges of the Greek world, I h O l l gh w h e n they l a u nched a similar attack 25 years l ater t h e M o l oss i a n king H a rr ybas evacuated his non -combatant pop ll l a tion to Aeto l i a and gave the Iilyrians to understand that
t' " i kd
were open to them. The strategy worked and th e M o lossians fel l upon the Iilyrians l aden with booty, and robbed a l l d e x p e l l ed them. l In 3 70 BC t h e worthy Amyntas died fu l l o f years, h aving res to red the fortunes of his kingdom after lllyrian disasters. I l i s marriage to Eurydice of the Lyncestae had produced three SO i l S and a daughter. His eldest son su cceeded through el ection hut t h e rei gn of Alexan der, who was said to have bought off I he l I I yrians and del ivered his brother Philip to them as a hostage, was brief. During a ca mpaign in 3 6 8 or 3 6 7 he was m urdered by h i s kinsman Ptolemy who was h i mself suppressed i n 3 65 by the king's younger brother Perdiccas. The latter died early in 3 5 9 in a shattering defeat at the h ands of the IIIyri ans, not th e first occasion he had fought against them . More than 4000 Macedon ians were killed 'and the remai nder, panic stricken, havi ng become exceedingly afraid of Illyrian arm ies, had lost heart for con ti nui ng the war' ( D iod o ru s 1 6 . 2 , 8-9 ) . The scale o f this disaster may later h ave been exaggerated in order to magnify the achievement of Philip, b u t it seems that once again IIIyrians had brought Macedoni a close to collapse, when the kingdom was also threatened by Paeonians, Th raci ans, Chalcidi ans a n d Athenians.4 The Illyrian victory of Philip early in his reign was to prove decisive for the security of Macedonia in that quarter. Having struck a treaty with Athens late in 359 and dealt with the h i s l a nds
\ Hammond and G ri ffi th 1 979 , 1 7 2-5 (no dupl i cation), Di odo rus SiClllus 1 4 . 92 (3 93/2 tic) , 1 5 . 2 (3 8312 lie), 1 6 .2 (3 60/3 5 9 lIC) . 4 Justinus 7.5 (Alexa n der), Diodorus S iculus 1 6 .2, H a m m o n d and G riffith
1 9 79, 1 8 8 .
I.W
( ,' r," '/': III)'r",/s
Paeo n i a ns l';l r l y i l l t i l l' t o l l o W l l l g Y l';1 1' t h l' n l' W k i n g l'OI H :l' l l t ra t l,d
all h is pOWl' r a ga i l l s t t h l' I l l y r i a n s . W i t h 600 ca v a l r y a n d 1 0 ,000 i n fant r y h e a d v a n cl'd i nt o t h ei r tl' r r i to ry a n d n' j l'ctnl an offe r by the I I I y ri a n r u l e r Ba rd y l i s o f a treaty on till' b a s i s of the status quo, dem a n di ng instead su rrend e r o f a l l the M a ce donian towns they held. Bardyl i s gave battle with a force wh ich matched that of Philip. The Illyrians formed a defensive s q u are and there was a long fight with heavy casualties until the Macedon ian caval ry broke through , and II Iyrian l osses were said to be 7,000. Macedonia now controlled all t h e terri tory as far as Lake Lychn iti s (Oh rid) and was now as wel l pl aced to attack the lllyrians as they had once been to raid Macedonia. It was a famous victory. Though some information abo u t Bardylis is provided by the contemporary historian Theo pompus and by other writers, none i dentifies his regime with any people or tribe other than Illyrian s In the great battle with Philip he is said to have fought on horseback at the age of 90, and there is no suggestion that he did not s urvive the encounter. He was, it is said, by origin a charcoal-burner who amassed a fortune and founded a dynasty by sharing out the booty gained in raids he h ad directed. Nothing stan ds on the record to locate the centre of his power, save for the fact that Ph il ip's victory in 35 8 BC gained control of Lyncestis. A later victory by Ph i l ip over Cleitus the son of Bardylis a pparently reduced the latter to the status of a client, and this may have been ach ieved by operations against Dardanians. In th at case the power of Bard ylis may have been centred among the southern Dardanians of Kosovo and Metohija, from which it expanded to the southwest as far as th e Molossians, south to Lyncestis and, for short periods, southeast to include Macedonia.s Ph ilip 11 w a s soon again at war with IIIyrians, though evi dently not those ruled by Bardylis. Diodorus i n forms us that i n 356 BC k i ngs of the Thracians, Paeonians an d JI Iyrians combi ned to resist th e rising power of Macedonia, by whom each had already been defeated. Ph i l i p moved before the allies .
' Papa7.0glu 1 96 1 Griffith 1 979 ,
and
(Hcraclca Lyncestis) , Diouorus 2 1 3- 1 4 .
Siculus
1 6 .4, Ha mmond
hll'I1l/t"
01
M , 'I I '' /Ol/l, '
III
(m i l d I I n i t l' t l l l' i r fo r-n's, a n d ' s t n l l' k 1 1' 1' 1' 0 1' i n t o t h l' l l ! a n d (Oll l pl' l l ed t h l' l l I t o j o i n t l l l' i r for n's w i t h t i l l' M a n·d o n i a n s ' , The l,'o;l l i t i o n had e v i d e n t l y hl'l' ll (o l l l l' i V l'd hy t il l' A t h e n i a n s , and t h l' n a llll'S o f the rll l ers i n v o l v e d , ( ; ra h l l s o f the I I l y r i a n s , Ly ppe i l l S of t h e Pal'on i a n s a n d Cl't r i p o r i s o f Th ra(e, a rc preserved in a n A t h en i a n dcaee r a t i fy in g t h e a l l i a lKe. The victory ovcr the I I l y r i a n s i n 356 HC, ach ieved by Pannen i o in a major battle, a l ong w i t h th e victory of the royal chariot at the Olympic
Ga mes, were l ater recalled as propitious coi nci dences with the d a y on which Alexander the Great was born. The IlIyrians of Grabus are unli kely to have been the subjects of Bardylis defeated only two years earl ier, though some have suggested ( ; rabus was his son and successor. His name suggests some l'onnection with the Grabaei, a mi nor people of the II Iyrians who l i ved on the southern Adriati c near the Lake of Shkodcr. In 344/3 BC, according to D i odorus: 'Ph i l ip had inherited from his father a q uarrel with the lllyrians and found no means o f reconci ling his disagreement. He therefore invaded Il lyria w i th a large force, devastated th e countryside, captured many towns and returned to Macedonia laden with booty ' ( 1 6.69, 7 ) . Some detai l is furnished by Didym us, an Alcxandrian com mentator on the Phil ippics of Demosthenes of thc fi rst century HC, who records th at among the many wounds sustained by Ph ilip, one came from the Tri balli (in 3 3 9 R c) and another during an earl ier campaign against lllyri ans. On this occasion the king was pu rsu ing the lllyrian Pleuratus, whcn Hippostratus the son of Amyntas and 150 of the elitc corps of the Com panions were casualties. Next the historian Justinus compresses into a single sentence the reference to an Illyria n war wh i ch he p l a ces between 3 4 6 and the end of 343 B C . The enemy are named as 'the Dardani and other neigh bouring peoples', whom Philip defeatcd and took prisoner 'by a deceit'. Finally, under the year 3 3 6/5 RC, in the context of incidents leading up to the murder of Philip by Pausan i as, Diodorus records that, 'as Ph i lip was engagcd in battle with Pleurias, king of the IIIyrians, Pau s anias, one of the royal bodyguard, stepped in front of h i m and, receiving on his body all the blows directed at the king, so met his death' ( 1 6 . 9 3 , 6). From these scraps of evidence onc may reconstruct a series of cal culated forays i ntended to secure the
( ; II 'I '�' 111" 110/11.\
I I l y r i a l l rc a r ot �b l'l'd o l l i . l , p r i or to t i l l' p Ll I l I I l'd l' x pl'd i t i o ll
a ga i n s t t h e Pers i a n k i n � t h a t wou l d rC I I 1 O V l' I h l' hl'sl o f t h e a r m y to A s i a . h The fi rst de monstration of t h e e x cc pt i on a l m i l i ta ry tail- n t of Alexander, son o f Ph i l ip 1 1 , took the form o f a spectleuratus arc listed among the parties to the peace of 205 BC, but by 200 BC the latter was ruling alone in II Iyria, when he appearcd at the Roman hcad quarters i n Dassaretis offeri ng to assist the expedition against Macedonia. Thc Roman consul Galba decl ined thc offer but promised to scek II Iyrian help when his army was in Macedonia. Although Pleuratus is rcported to have i nvaded the territories of Philip V at least once, his contribution to Roman victory in 1 9 7 BC would appear to have been mini m a l . Nonetheless the king was rewarded with possession of thc strategic region Lychnitis, which had been in Macedonian hands for nea rly two 16
Basler 1 972, also Ylli 1 9 76 (Lesh nie, S k rapar), Korkuti 1. 972 ( Gajtan near
Shkodcr) . 1 7 Livy 29.12,
Hammond
1 968.
/\ l II g . t1 l1ll "I //1" / /, 1 11 '
171
l'l'n l l l r i l' s , il l l d il l .,o l'C l I l I rol C l V l' I' 1 I1 1' 1 ',l I'l h l l l i , IO l' l l l er R O l l l a n a l l i n. i n t i l l' S h k l l l l l h i l l v a l k y . T h i , p l . l n'd I I n d er I l I y r i a n cont rol I h l' rO I l I l' to 1\1a n'd o l l i a fro lll I Ill' \-V l' s l , h l l l l h l' R O I 1 1 ;l I l i nt e n t i o n wa s J';l I h n to d e n y l'I l il t ro l to !vLl n'd o l l i a tha n to signal their rl'),�a rd fo r P l l' u r a t l l s . B c t h i s a s i t In a y , t h e l l I y r i an k i ng became Ll I l l O l l S fo r \\-' h a t h e
had gai ned fro m loya l ty to the Romans :
' i l l r d l l m fo r doing noth i ng he was made the greatest of the r l l k rs of I I I y r i s ' ( Po l y b i u s 2 1 .23), Pleu ratus was permitted to
the coast of Aetolia with 60 lembi during the next roll n d of wa rfa re in 1 8 9 ne, but received no gains of t e rri tory at t h e concl u sion of hosti l i ties. Nevertheless, for around 20 y e a rs a k i n g of IIJyria p ro fite d from the hostility between Rome il l l d M acedonia, but matters were to turn out very di fferently fo r h i s s uccessor, I II B y 1 8 1 B C the loyal Pleu ratus h a d been succeeded by his son ( ;t,ntius. Th e coast and h i n terland south of the Drin remained l l n d e r Roman control, and noth i ng is known of h ow the IIJyrian k i n gdom ex p l o i te d , if it really ever did, the territories awa rded 10 it in 1 97 BC, notably the area of Lych n i tis a round Ohrid, I n stead the lllyrians moved to increase their power o v e r kindred peoples living to the north and west, Among the islands the Greek ci ty of Issa ha d retained some form of independence p l l l llder
u n der Roman protection but Pharos rem ained an II Jyrian pos session. On the mainlan d th e Del matae and the Daorsi were at onc time subjects, but the former were reporte d to have defected soon a fter the accession of Gentius. IlIyri an strength l ay in thei r ships and it \vas their interference with Adriatic shipping which once more aroused Roman interest in the area . In 1 80 BC a Roman p raetor res p onsi ble for coastal protection a rrived i n Brundisium with some sh ips of Gentius said to have been caught in the act of pi racy. An embassy to IIlyria failed to locate the king; but the praetor discovered that Romans and Italians were being held for ransom at Corcyra ( Korcula in Dal ma tia rather th an Corfu ) . No o u tco me of the affair is reported and it may well be that the Senate accepted a cla i m b y Gentius' envoys that the charges were false. Ten years later,
IN
l)leuratll s a n d Rome: L i v y 3 1 .28, 3 3 ,34, 3 8 .7; Polybius 1 7.47, 2 1 . 1 1 and Dd l 1 977 ( Roman-Illyri a n relations 200- 1 6 8 IIC) .
21.
1 72
( ; ,." " k IlIv,.i, III.\
w h e n R O l l l e w a s gri p ped w i t h w a r - fl'ver a ga i n s t 1 \' rsl' l I s o t M acedon i a , I ssa acclI sl·d aorsi, neighbours of the Delmatae on th e south, who h a d hl'en r ewarded in t h e settlement of Illyria ten ycars before. A Roman ex - consul , C. F a n nius Strabo, was sent to i nv estig ate and report on affairs in Illyria and in p arti cular on the acti v ities of the Delmatae. Accordin g to Polybius (32. 1 3) the embassy rt.'ported that the latter h ad not only refused t h em a h ear i n g hut made no p rov i s i on for th eir accommodation and even stoic the h orses th ey had borrowcd for the j our n ey. In fear for the i r safety t hey ha d dep arted as discreetly as p oss i bl e . The Senate was in di gnant , but , observes thc hi s tor i an, the decision to send an exp e d i t i on across the Adriatic was a matter of considered policy. IIlyria had been n eglected since the defeat of D emetri u s in 219 BC and i t was h igh ti m e Illyrians werc reminded of Roman a uthority . Moreover, t h e Senate felt that as 12 years of peace h a d elapsed since the war against Perseus of Macedon it was ti mc to rekindle the mil i tary ardour of th e Romans. These were t h e true causes for the war, but for publ i c consu mp ti o n it
was thc insult to Roman ambassadors. Th i s was not to be the only occas i on a Roman army was sent across the Adriatic for battle practice. Thc e xp ed ition in 156 BC led b y the consul C. Marcius Figulus was cau ght off guard while p i tc hin g camp and driven back to the river Na renta, h av i n g per h ap s advanced from the territory of the Daorsi. Next thc Romans ev ide n tl y marched via the Trebizat v al l e y to D elmin ium , but fa i l ed to catch thei r enemy unawares a n d could only set up a blockade before winter set in, thou gh some lesser strongholds were take n . H
Zaninovic 1 966,
1967.
IlJO
N / 'Ill"" 111",.,,111 ...
[n the tollowing Yl';lI' the co ns u[ 1'. Corm'lius Scipio torn'd ;1 surrender, The fortifications were destroyed, the place W;I� turned i nto a sheep-pasture ;1I1d the consul returned hOllle to celebrate his triumph o v e r 'the Dellllatae'." The Delm ata e were fa mous for their hill-forts, many (It which were oc cupie d from prehistoric to late medieval times. A riversi de settlement of the Del matae on the Cetina near Sinj sim ila r to the Japod ian and Pannonian examples may be excep tional. The ir hill-forts, or grad ina , tend to be locate d on ridges ove rloo king the plains not on the hei ghts but on projecting spurs. The neck of the spur was usually wel l defended but often the rest of the perime te r relied on steep sl o pes and ravines.
Some figure prom i nentl y in accounts of Roman campaigns a nd tend to be descr i bed as castella or oppida, including Andetrillm (Muc), Bariduum (in the upper Cetina vall e y) , Burnum (on the river Krka), S y nodi ll m , Ninia (Knin), Osinium (Sinj ) , Salvia, Setovia (in the Cikol a v alley) , Tilurium (Gardun), Neraste, Pitumiu m , Promona (Tepl j u) , Rider (Danilo), Oneum (Omis) and Salona. 10 So mething of th e nature and distribution of these places has been l earned from recent fieldwork in the plain o f Duvno, wh ich lies at an a l titude of 890 to 900 metres and is an oval of a roun d 20 by 9 kilometres. The s ubter ranean river S uica crosses the plain, of wh i ch the c entral area is marshy except in s u mm er, and the fringe s are suitable for cul tivation. M ost settl ements still fol l ow an a n ci en t pattern of distribution at the ma rgins of the pl a i n . The l ater Roman city, the m unicip i u m Del m i nium, l ay near Duvno, which rema in s t h e modern admin i s tr ative centre. Around the edges of the pla i n a ring of fortifi cations occupied the lower hills and promontories (see figu re 20). Most were enclo sed with a ra m p art of h ea ped - up stones surmounted with a wooden palisade. Out of a total of 37, the majority lie along the southwest and no r th ea s t sides of the pl ain , a n d com bine an easil y defended location with a go od Appian l/Iyrike 11, S tra bo 7.5, 5 (Dclminium), Zaninovic 1961-2. Hill-forts of Delmatae: Cace and Juric (Met k ovic area), Marovic 1975 (Salona), Oreel987 (Posusje), Petric 1978 (Peljdac), Za n i no v ic 1968 (Burnum), 1982 (hill-forts on islands), 1971 (continuing occupation in Roman pe riod ). 9
10
I II"m
1
Figure 20
1/11/
I'll
si tt'
• •
•
Lines of intervisihility
Fortified places
around the /Jol;es of Duvno, Livno and G lamoc with lines of intervisibility
view over the surrounding terrain. A few h ave yielded evidence for occupation in the Bronze Age but the finds tend to be concentrated in the third and second centuries BC. By this period there had been created a scheme of defence for the communities
in the l>lI v n o a rl';\ that inl:llI lkd ,It least l'igh t fo r t itil'd obser vation posts lK'yo n d the im lll ediate vic i n ity of the pla i n, Till' ma i n points of cntry wcre guarded by pai rs of fo rtiflcatio n!'> which can ncver have functioncd as independent strongholds.
The fo rt re ss on the Lib hill n i ne kilometres from Duvno W,t:-, e xcep tion al in serving as an acropolis for the l arge r settlement on the terr a c es below. Here was evidently the central p l a ce that had reached a stage of proto-urban development and which remains the most likely location for Delmin ium. In some hill forts mounds of stones si milar to burial tumul i were raised at a point on the defen siv e peri meter often, though not always, most exposed to attack. Whatever their defensive function , the discovery of human bones suggests that their pr i ma ry purpose may h a v e been to serve as burial mounds. The peri meter defences of the Duvno plain ceased to function after the Roman conquest, although some were occu p ie d piecemeal as refug es i n late Roman times, I I While the Romans were l au n ch i n g their first attacks on the Delmatae, wc hear little of the southern Illyri ans fol l owing the defeat of Gentius. In 13 5 BC Ardiaei and Pleraei are reported to have made an attack on 'Roman Illyri a' and, on refusing to make a m ends, were the target of an expedition by the consul Servius Fulvius Flaccus (Appian IlIyrike 1 0), Something is known of the Daorsi, once subject to Gentius but whose ti mely desertion was rewarded by the Romans. They dwelt on the left (south ) bank of the Neretva and their pr i ncip al settlement was OsaniCi, on a steep hill a b ove Stol ac in the Bregava valley, where coins bearing the Greek l egen d DAORS have been found. Excavations from the 1960s have revealed a complex succession of defensive constructions and a s soci ate d buildings. The earliest was a straight wall across the most exposed side of the hill around 60 metres long and b uilt of cou rs e d masonry with blocks around 2 by 1 m etre (see figure 21a), Later this was stren g then ed by two square towers (c,10 m), involving demo l ition of part of the wall and the constru ct i on of a covered entrance passage 4.5 metres wide (see figure 21b). The main 1 1 Benac 1975a, 1985, Govedarica 1 980 1 (Veliki Gradac), 1982, Bojanov ski 1975 (Dclminium), Marijan 1985-6 (communal grave near Livno), Milo -
sevic 1986 (2nd century
He
hoards of iron tools from Delmatac),
IIIVIII I/lII
�' .a-�{ Jf:������ U
J
�
)
\
�
-I
,
.......
11\
(n)
figure 21 a) Wall masonry at OsaniCi, Hercegovilla b) Gate at OsaniCi
path leading to the inner acropolis ran al on g the so u t h side of the hill and wa s terr a ce d an d s te pp ed into the rock at several places. Inside there was a cistern 11 by 7 metres cut 2.70 m e t r es into the ro ck and lined wi th fine plaster. The final elabo ration consisted of an outer defence on the east in the form of a 'zig zag ' wall and several short lengths of curved wall in a similar 'zig-zag' arrangement. The central area is dominated by a mound of stones, in whi ch traces of re tai n in g wal l s have been dated to the fift h cen tu ry BC and may represent the earliest phase construction on the site. The wall, to wer s and entrance
194
on the cast arc assigned to the fourth Cl'ntury
1\(,
partly from
a co m p a riso n with fortifications in Alb.lnia. The settlement a ppea r s to have been d e st r oy e d in the first century I\e and was not reoccupie d . 1 2 The fi nd s from OsaniCi, which include i m po rted pottery, an.' dated from th e fourth to s e co nd c enturie s BC. In s pite o f ex ten si ve inve s tigation almost no trace was discovered of i n t ernal arrangements or d ome s ti c b ui l d ings. Some evidence for the economy of the settle m e n t came to l i gh t in 1977 wi th the discovery of a remarka b le hoard of 245 metal ob j ect s of b r on ze and iron weighi n g in all 345 k i lograms, hidden in the crevice of a n ea rb y cliff. The in v entory i n cl u des moul d s for b ron z e o rna m e n ts, for me tal re l i ef plate s and for reliefs in silvered tin; there are a l so moulds for m a king bronze pails an d dishe s , an iron anvil, cutters, chi s els , hammer s and punche s , compasses and some unused bronze plates (see figure 22). For making fine jewellery there are si l ve r wire for so l d ering, a small a nv il , a so ld ering tool and j ewel l ery scales , along with s everal un w o rke d o r half- fi n ished pie c es of gl ass . The b lac k s m i th ' s tools include tongs, h am m er s , wide metal cutters, clamps, adzes and pick axes. Fo r wire-making there are iron plates with ho l es of d iffer ent d ia m eter for draw i n g wire along and clamps for use in the process. Carpentry i s re presented by chi s els, knives and calipe rs . This cache of tools, which must have come from wo rk s hops in or n ear OsaniCi, i ndicates the ra n ge of sp ecialist skills carried on at the chief settlement of the Daorsi. The d e po s it has been d ated to the second century BC and was likely made in the face of some danger, altho u gh a few obj ects date from an earlier per i od , notably the bronze moulds of around 300 and 200 BC, a j e w e l box of around 300 BC and a bronze pai l of the fourth or th ird century. The key ev idence for the date of deposition are the silver-wire brooches that match those in the warrior burials at Go stilj near the Lake of Shkoder of the first half of the s econd century BC. 13 Nearly 40 years passed before the next Roman attack on the Dclmatae, but the motives, accord ing to Appian, were no less
12 OsaniCi: Maric 1976, 1979a-c, Marijanovic 1984, Maric 1975b (fortified settlements). 1.1 Maric 1978, 1979d ( belt-plates), 197ge (bronze moulds).
lIIyrimll/
Figure
22 Bronze-casting mould
19.,
from OsaniCi
dubious. In 118 BC the consul of the previous year, L. Caecilius, Metellus, led an expedition against them for which he was awarded a triumph and the title Delmaticus. War was declared, we learn, not because the Delmatae had done anything wrongl but merely in order to procure another triumph for the Metelli fa mil y. In the event 'they received him as a friend and he, wintered among them in the town of Salona, following which he returned to Rome and was awarded a triumph' (Appian IlIyrike 7), although other versions suggest that this may nor be the whole story. The next reported campaign was altogether
� f 1/1/,111 IlIv,.,,,l/s
a Illor� s�riol l s hllsin�ss, although l i l tk is known of it t"Xl:t"pt
Coswnius, proba hl y in tht" y�ars 7H to of t h e Ddmatae in a two - y � a r l:ampaign which concluded with the capture of Salona. from Sf! to 50 BC th e Delmatae were i n the cha r ge of J u l i us Caesar, proconsul of Gaul and also of IIIyricum , th o ugh the commander was abk
th a t tht" proo>nslIl C. 76 BC, ov e r c a m e most
to give little attenti on to his Adri atic responsibilities. During th e su b s e q uent civil war between Caesar and Pompey the Dclmatat" supported the latter, in opp ositio n to the communities of Roman settlers at Salona, Narona and elsewhere, who remained loyal to the party of Caesar. Late in 48 RC the Delmatae ambushed a Caesarian army of 1 5 i n fa ntry cohorts and 3000 cavalry under the ex-consul A. Gabinius at Synodi on, pro b a b l y somewhere in th e C i kola val ley. Five cohorts were ov er whelm e d a n d thei r sta nd a r ds c aptu r ed . Gabinius reached Salona but was so short of s upplies that he had to pl u n der them from the Del m atae, leading to further l oss es . Ro m an p roco n sul s con tinued to e ngage the D e lm at a e a fter Ca e sa r ' s vi ctory over Pom pey. In 45-44 BC P. Vatinius wrote from Narona more th an once to Cicero pleading the great ma n ' s h e lp in securing his tri umph . He complain s that there were not merely 20 oppida as was generally believed but nearer 60. In the end Vatinius ob tai ne d his tri um p h , celebrated on 31 Jul y 42 BC. The Delma tae w er e still proving tr oub les o me and it m a y be that C. Asinius Pollio, leading poli ti cia n and patron of the poet Virgil, achieved som e success against them when, durin g h i s co nsuls h i p in 40 BC, h e moved his forces down the Adriatic from northern Italy
to Macedonia.'4 After eli m ina ting the di sruptiv e power of Sex. Pompeius in Sicily in 36 BC, Cae s a r ' s heir Octavian d ev oted the foll o win g years to ope rations across the A d r iatic, first in 35 RC aga i n s t the Ja pode s and Pannonians then, in 34-33 BC, against the D elm atae . N o t o nly had th ey remained in arms since the depar tu re of Vatinius ten ye ars befo re, but th ey still held the five Roman standards sei ze d from Ga bin ius ' army in 48 BC. We can follow the course of th e campaign from the com mander's own report, pres e rved by App i a n . First the army moved aga i n st 14
Morgan 1971 (Metellus), Wilkes 1969.
IIl)'rlf 1/111
197
Promon a, w h ere thl' war-kadl'l' Vl'l'/,O h a d statiollcd most ot his army ot 1 2,000 n1l'n, Aftl'l' SOl Ill' lighting t he � i t a de l was taken, Vl' rzo kilkd and t h l' Iklmalal' ordered to disperse by his Sll�l'cssor Testimlls, whik t he Romans atta�ked against strongholds, The army advanced up the Cikola valley, where Ga b i n i us had lost the standards at Synodion . In a battle at Setovia (p rob a b ly the Sutina gorge) Octavian was wounded
and left the scene, handing over command to Stati l ius Taurus, who organized a winter blockade that brought some of the Dcl matae to capitulate, Early in 33 BC Octavian returned to receive their surrender, along with the standards of Gabini us, some booty and a p romise to pay the arrears of tribute unpa id since Caesar's ti me. Though other peoples of the region were i nvolved in the surrender it was the victory over the Delmatae that j ustified onc of the three triumphs celebrated by Octavian, on 13 August 29 BC, followed on successive days by those granted for the Actium campaign of 31 BC and the Egyptian campaign of 30 BC. This happens to be the last explici t record of Delmatae at war with the Romans, though the victory of Octavian in 33 BC is unlikely to have embraced the whole people. In what became known as the Dalmatian war of AD 9 Bato, leader of the Pannon ian Illyri ans, was trapped in the fortrcss of Andetrium (Muc) barely 20 milcs in l and from Split. By then, however, the name of the Delmatae had begun to be applied to the area between the Adriatic and thc Sava valley, as the Rom an province Dalmatia was established. IS Thc japodes, who dwelt north of the Dclmatae and beh ind the Libu rn i, arc generally described as IIIyrians. Hecataeus in the sixth century BC knew of them and they retai ned a separate identity into Roman times. On the north an d west they bor dered the Carni and Histri and on thc north the Cel tic Taurisci beyond th e upper Sava. In the west they were later confined by the Velebit range, and their southern boundary was the river Tcdan ius (Zrmanj a), where they bordered the Liburni . Within these limits the japodes inhabited thc Lika plain and the Una valley around Bihac in western Bosnia. Before the second cen-
15
Schmitthenner 1958, Wilkes 1969, Mirkovic 1 969.
1{1I11/"" 111"""".\
tury lIt
they Illay also havl' held the (oast hl'tWl'l'lI Istria alld
the Tcdanius, latlT on:upied hy the I.ihlll"lli, Str;lho h;IS SOIlH' interesting observations on the Japodes: Next in order comes the voyage of onl� thousand stadcs I Co 125 mi!cs I along the coast of the land of the Japodes. They arc situated 011 Mo unt Albion [probably the Vdebit range], the last mountain of thl' Alps, which is very high and rea ches down to the interior on OIlC side and to the Adriatic on the other. They arc indeed a war-crazy pe op le but have been u tterly worn do wn by Augustus. Their citie� are Metulum, Arupium, Monetium and IAlvendo. Their lands arc poor, the people living for the most part on spelt and millet. Their armour is Celtic but they are tattooed like the rest of the JIIyrians and Thracians. (7.5, 4)
Strabo's 'Celtic element' has proved hard to detect in the rich m a t eri al culture of the japodes, while Celtic names on inscrip tion s need not, it appears, be connected with their 'Celti c Illyrian' character. Some major settlements and associated cem eteries of the japodes have been examined in the northern Lika, at Crkvina, Kompolje near Otocac and Vi tal near Prozor, wh ich have been identified respectively as Avendo of the Avendeata e and Arupiu m of the Arupini, both of which were a ttacked by Octavian i n 35 BC. Acro ss the Kapel a mountains the japodes are known from riverside settlements and cemeteries in the Una valley around Bihac, but not those in the San a val ley, which belonged to the Pannonian Maezaei.16 The most intrigui ng relics of th e japodes are the 15 or so engraved stone cremation chests whose figured decoration and date arc still a matter of debate. The first to he found was the fragm ent from jesenice in 1890, on which the engraving of a helmeted warrior holding a drinking horn i n his right hand and a spear in th e other was dated to the period of transition from the Early to Late Iron Ages (c.450-400 BC). Later finds of japodian burial urns, as they arc gene ra ll y known , include several in tact examples with engraved scenes on the inner and
I '; Rapanic 197$ (Lika i n general), Orechsler-Bizic 1966, 1971 (Kompolje), 1970 (Trosmarija), 1975c (fortified settlements), 1986 (houses), 1988 (Prozor cemetery), Kur7. 1967a (economy), 1967h (ethnic identity).
1//" "1 1111/
1 '1'1
! l 1 I 1 l' !" , ur l a l'l's ( see l i g l l l"l' 2 \ ) , ! 'I \ l' i"l' pn l l l l l"l' 01 l i g l l rl'd SlT l \ l'S
. (' l .l I l'S 10 l u n l'Lt ! r i l l l a l a n d t h e l' 1 I 1 t 0 1 t l H' dl'l"l'a sed a n d i n c l l l des prol"l'ss i o n s , sOll1e of I l l o u n t l'd w a rr i o rs, a n d d a n l'cs. The dl' p a r t nl sO l l l s ;l rl' rcp rcscn ted h y serpcn t s in Sl'cncs where l i ha I i o n s a re po u r ed to thc m c m o r y of the departed, s o m e of w h o l11 ;l rl' p o r t ra yed in the m a n n e r of a classical hero, Some .
Figure 23 I n cis ed scenes of warriors drink ing and funeral dancers on a 1apodian IJUrial-chest from Ribic, BOSl1ia
2.01 1 have o h Sl' r v l'l1 a l"o r respo l l d l' l l l'l' hl' t W l'l' 1 l t h l' i m a gl' r y o f t h l'
J apodia n u rns and that of t h e ' S i t u l a CU l t url" i ll t h l' nort h w est , for cxamplc, the scene of a h i rd pe rched on t h e hack of a bullock . Most are agree d tha t thc d ecora tion of the ur n s helongs to a time when the Japodes of th e Una val ley were i n dose contact with the cultures of nor th east Italy, and the majori ty should th us be date d to the fifth or fourth century BC. C o mp l i cations arose when the Saraj e v o archaeologist Dimitri Sergejev ski sugges ted that one of the u rns (from Ribic) bel o nged to thc Roman period , while another (from Jeser i ne) had a sec o n d cen t ury L a tin epi t ap h inscribed on one surface. The Rihic example can be explained as a secondary us e and a Roman date for the collection as a whole m ust be ruled out, if only beca usc of the generally Greek - and at that tending to a rchaic Greek - rende ri ng of the s cenes . 'There have been a t temp t s to di s t ingui s h an early group of urn s , whose ornament echoes Situ la art, from a second, sl i gh tly later group, in which Greek i n fl uence i s st ro nge r . A th i r d group bel ieved to ex hibi t minimal influence from either of the a bove sources is viewed as a later degen e ration of Japodian art. In thi s group a re those with Latin epi taph s of the Roman period (first to secon d century AO). Con ti nuity in a loc a l tradition of e n g raved ornament is to bc seen on o ther monuments of the Rom a n period, incl u d i ng altars dedicated by chiefs of the Japodes at the sh rine of B i nd u s Neptunus at a spring near Bihac (see figure 30).17 The first reported contact between j apo des and Romans occurred i n 1 7 1 BC, when the Senate apologi z ed to them and other peoples for the scandalous conduct of th e consul Cassius Longinus. In 129 BC they were attacked by the consul G. Scmpronius Tu d i t anus who, in the course of a hastil y prep a red campaign , was saved from di s aster only by the experienced general D. Junius Brutus; howe v er, he was safely back in Rome to celebrate a triu m p h ov er th e J apo de s on 1 October . Situated south of the main ro ute betw een Italy and the Danube, the Japodes figu r e little in the Roman conquest of Illyricu m . There w as an attack on them in the seven ties BC by a certain P.
17 Rau nig 1971 b, 1 972, 1 975 , Vasic 1967, 1 977-8 (Japodian urns),. RendicMiocevic 1 982, Sari, 1 975 b, 1983-4 (Lib urns ) .
11/)1/'11 /1111
2() 1
I . i c i l l i u s , ;1 n i n c i d l' n t rl'ca l l l'd tor I w. Iw i n g d l'Cl' i vl'd hy t h l' i r p n' l l' l l Cl' o f a n t n',I t . Thl' hl' s t rqlo r l nl e p i sode i s t h l' m a rch of ( k ta v i a n t h ro u gh t h e i r cou n t r y i l l Vi 1 \ ( , S t a rt i n g p roba bly trom S el l i a (Sl'n j ) O l l the coast, t h e a r m y crossed th e Velebit by t ill' Vratn i k pass a n d attacked the 'Cisa l pine' japodes o f the I .i b p l a i n . The i n h a bitants of Moneti um (Brinje) and Avendo ( n ea r Otocac) s u r ren d e re d at their approach , but the Ar u p i n i of Aru p i u m ( o n t h e V i ta l h ill n ear Prozor) held out for a wh i le, t h e n scattered in to the forests. A fter surrender they were a l l o wed to retain thei r s t ro n gh o l ds intact. Next a crossing of the Al bius ( K a p e l a ) b r ough t the invaders up against the 'T r a n s a lpine j apodes. The fortress of Te rp o n u s (Gornje Modrus) was s oo n captured, b ut Metu l um ( p erhap s VinCica Ilear Ogu l i n ) was a different proposition . Here the de fe n de rs made ef fect i ve use of Roman siege e q u i p m ent captured from a Roman army which had a tte m p ted an impossible overl and m a rch from Italy to M a cedo n ia during the civil war in 43 BC. When eve n tu a l l y captured, Metulum, th e greatest s ettl e m en t of the area, was destroyed by fire. This was the first occasion when t h e s e japodes surrendered to the Romans: it is also th e end of the reco rded history of the ]apodes. 1 H B y th e second century B C t h e eastern Alps and the plains between th e river Drava and the Danube were populated by Celtic-speaking p eo pl e s , repre s en te d by names on epi t a ph s of the Roman era. South of th e river Drava, i n the Sava val ley and its Bosnian tributaries as far south as the Ardiaei and Delmatae, dwelt the Pannonians, Strabo tells us (7.5 , 3 ) . Their names have mu ch in common with the southe rn lI Iyrians, the Delmatae and the ]apodes to th e i r south and west. East of the Pannonians the S co rdi s ci h av e an II ly ri an n a m e pe rh ap s connected with the m ons Scordus or Scardus (Sar planina west of Skopje) . Th e i r recorded histo ry begins in 279 BC when, according to Appian (Illyrike 5 ) , the survivors from the Celti c bands defeated at Delphi returned north to settle around the lower Sava and Drava and a dop ted the n a m e S cord i s c i . N oth i n g further is reported of them u ntil 1 79 BC, when th ey are cited '
'
18 Livy Epitome 59 Uunius Brutus), Julius Frontin us, Strategemata 2.5, 2S (Licinius), Appian ll/yrike 1 6-20 (Octavianus), Schmitthcnncr 1 958.
a s p O l l' l l I i a l a l l i es o f I h l' Ih... t .l l' l l a l' i n a p r o j l'l' I n l i n v a s i o n o t I ta l y , B y till' m i d d l e o t I h l' sl'cOI lll cl' l lI u r}, t h e Scor d i sl: i posed a serious t h rca t to R o m a n M a l.'l.'doll i a , c u l m i n a t i n g in t h e i r inv asion of G reece a n d sack of De l p h i s h o r t l y h e fore SO 11(, Their power appears to h ave ended a fter defe a t by a Roman arm y sent to pun ish th ei r sacrilege, and l a ter they were su hject
to the Dacians, I 9 Stra ho tells us that there were really two groups o f the Scordisci, a 'Greater' dwelling on the Danube between the con fluence of the river Noa rus ( ?Drava or Sav a) and the Margus (Morav a), and a 'Lesser' between the Margus and the Tri balli and Mysi, who in habited the Timok valley (7.5, 1 2). The material cultu re and eth nic affinities of these people are sti l l much debated. Several wel l-fortified oppida and some open settlemen ts along the Serbian Danube below Belgrade have been connected with the Scordisci. Yet the matter is further compl icated by a 'Geto-Dacian' element i n the 'Cel tic' m aterial culture, and there is contin uing debate wheth er the oppidum at Z idovar across the Danube from the mouth of the Morav a was a Celtic or Dacian settlement. In later phases stone defences strengthened with cross-timbers enclosed smal l huts with sun ken floors, thatched roofs and doors with lock and key. A circular enclosure containing small pits has been identi fied as a form of shri ne. The wheel-made pottery has both grooved and painted decoration and metalwork i ncl udes bronze and si lver hracel ets with serpent-head terminals. Singidunum on the Kalmegdan hill, Belgrade, overlooks the con fluence of Danube and Sava and was later the base of a Roman legion ; it may h a ve been a settlement of the Scordisci, to whom belonged a nearby p re-Roman cremation cemetery at Rospi C uprija.2() The Romans first came into contact with Pan nonians from
19 111
Papazogl u 1 9 78. Todorovic °1 966 ( mater ial culture) ; Zi do v a r : Gavela 1 9 5 2 , 1 969, 1 975 ; Bdgra de: Rozic 1 98 1 a, M. Popovic 1 982, Todowvic 1 96.� , 1 9 67 ( R o spi C u p r i j a ) , 1 97 1 (Karaburma), £ r ce govic 1 96 1 (Zemun), Todorovic 1 973-4 (Ritopek warrior-grave) ; Gomo/ava: Petrovic 1 9 8 4, Jovanovic l 9 77-8 (Dacian pottery), Jovanovic and Jovanovic 1 9 8 8 (settl ement) ; coinage : Crnobrnja 198 3 (minimi), P. Popovic 1 987, Jovauovic 1973-4 (art) , Bozic 1 98 1 b (astragalus helts).
11/\'1/ 1 11111
2. 0 . 1
t i l l' W l'st rat her I h ,l I 1 f rolll t h e d l l'l'l l l O Il o f M 'Kl'llollia, although w h c lI alld under what ci rn l l l l S Ll I 1 n'," t il l S too k pla cc rcmaills tar from d ear, ( ) IlC ITcollstr u C l ioll of t h e sourccs dcd u (('s all attac k hy t hl' cOl1sul of 1 5 6 1\( O i l I h l' P a l l lloll i a n set tl em e n t Scgcstica, t h c lalc r S i sci a ( S i sa k ) , i n t h e s a m e y e a r t h a t the R o m a n s fi rst a t t a cked the Dcl m atae. The gene ra l scarcity of rdl' fcll ccs to P a n l1 0 n i a n s may be a refl ec t i on of thei r su bjection to t h e Scord i sci . P a n n o ni a ns do not figure in the m igration of t hl' GlTl11 a n Ci m bri in 1 1 3 BC across the middle Danube basin as fa r as the Scordisci and then west to th e Taurisci of the eastern A l ps , where, at Noreia in Carinth ia, they re p ul sed a t reach eroll s attack by the Roman consul Cn. Papirius Carbo. St ra ho (7.5, 3 ) identifies th e Pannoni a n peoples as Breuci, A Il J i zetes, Ditiones, Pirustae, Maezaei and Daesiti ates. This is sign i fica n t for a correct identification of the Pannon ians before t h e Rom a n p r ovi n ce s Dalmatia a n d Pannon i a bega n to ca use con fu sion, s i n ce among the peoples named by Strabo only the Brell c i and An dizetes were i ncl uded in Pan nonia.2 1 The Pannonians of Bosnia and western Serbi a exhibit no h o m ogeneous or distinctive m a terial culture. The gen era l i m pression i s of long-established comm unities gradually adopt
i ng new ways o f li fe fro m more advanced societies o f th e p l a i n s t o the north and east, but receiving few i mports from Green' v i a th e Neretva or from Italy via the Sava valley . Their l a n d s w e r e proli fic in timber and rich i n m ineral deposits, especi a l l y a l o n g the m a i n river v a l le y s , the Sana, Vrba s , Bosn a rda l l l a l l ' \\l CH' e x c l u d ed frO I l 1 I l I y r icu m a n d \\lere t o beco l l l c ;1 pa rt o f t h e p ro v i n ce of I\1 0es i a org an i z e d i n the reign o f C l a u d i u s ( A l l 4 1 -5 4 ) . A ftcr t h e d e fc a t o f th e Scordisci e a rly in the fi rst cen t u ry He the D a r d a n i a n s appear a s trouhlesome neighbours o f Rom an Macedon i a , and in the seventies the Roman army waged war aga i n s t them w ith exceptional cruelty. Their final subm i ssion to the Romans m a y h a v e occurred w h e n Macedonia wa s in th e ch a r ge of Antony (40-3 1 BC), though any record of that achievement is likely to have been suppressed by his rival Octavian. When established under Cl a u d i u s, the province of Moesia extended from the Skopje basin in the upper Vardar on the south to th e Danube above and below the Iron Gate i n the north.29 Al th o ugh II Iyricum continued to be employed as a geographi cal and l a ter a pol itical r egio na l expression, it did not reappear as an ad ministrative term u n til Diocletian's reorganization at th e end of the third century AD. Then the Il Iyrian areas of Pan n o n i a were incl uded in the n ew p r ov in c e s o f Savia, in the southwest, and Pa n no ni a Secunda, i n the southeast. Dal matia was unaltered, excep t for the interesting separation of the a rea around the Lake of Sh koder - corresponding to the old lllyrian k i n g do m - to form the new provi nce Praev alitana based on the II l y r i a n towns of Sco dra , Lissus and Dodea. While Dal matia and the Pa n n on ian provinces were grouped in a Diocese of th e Pannonias, later IlIyricu m , Praevalitana was pl aced in the D i oce s e of the Moesias on the east. Here the old name of Dardania appears as a new province formed out of Moes i a, along with Moesia Pri m a , Dacia (not Traj a n ' s old province but a n ew formation by A u rel i an ) , Epirus Nova, Epi rus Vetus, Macedonia, Th essalia and Achaea. Th e ' New Epirus', formed o u t of the earlier Macedonia, corresp o n ded to the old IIlyris, centered on Dyrrhachium and Apollonia. One m ay even sce in these a rrangements s o m e th i ng of the l asting ti c s of places and p eople s which had o n ce held together the monarchies of Mace d o n i a and Illy ria being understood in the changes made by that
2"
Cass i u s Dio 54.34, Pliny NH :� . 1 3 9 ( I ta l i a n status) , NU)csy 1 974 ( J I l yriclI m
and
N-iot:sia ) .
21 1
1 11),1 /1 //111
l I l o � t pl' r n' p l i v e o f R O l l l a l l l' l I q ll'l'O " � , ( ) l I ll' p i l I h a l k O i l t h e
i l i a I' I l l y r i u l I l l IWlO I I H .'S a Ll I l l i l i ;l l' 1 I ,l l l l l' i l l t h l' h i st o r y o f t h e f o u rt h n' l l I l I r y /\ 1 > , TIll' �n'a t f i e l d a r l l l i e � w h i ch l' l l l l' r�cd i ll thc I O I l � rl' i � 1 I o f Con s t a n t i n c I ( ,\ 1 ) 3 0(1-3 3 7 ) "'lorC s o o n csta bl ished
rl � i o n a l forccs com m a nded b y cou n ts (comites) and marshals (1IJIlgistri) , Thc Practorian Prefects, now the perma nent secretar ies o f thc i m pcria l a d m i nistration, were similarly iden tified. l J n d e r Con sta n ti n e the Dioceses of the the Pannonias, the M ocs i a s and Dacias werc united under the Prefecture of lIlyr i U l Ill , a n a rrangement which continued with few changes until t h c d i v ision of thc Empi re between the sons of Theodosius I in
as
'
AI)
3 9 5 . \Cl
By the end of the first century A D the attention of Roman a rm i cs in II Iyricum had turned away from the Pannonians to wa tch the free peoples beyond the river Danube, now defined a s the northern frontier of the Empire. Until th i s change came ;l bout the ex-consuls appointcd to admi nister the llIyrian prov i nces were experienced commanders who were often retaincd i n thcir posts for several years. Taxation was always one o f t h e harshest features of Roman r u l e and w a s the responsi bil ity of an imperi al agent (procurator Augusti) who, until the Flavian period, remained responsible for Dalmati a and Pannon ia tog ether. Indirect taxes, customs, sales, slave-manumiss ions, ete., were the responsibility of various tax bureaux staffed by i mperial sl aves and freedmen. Most of the Danube lands belonged to the tax di strict of llI yricum ( Publicum portorii JIlyrici) controlled from Poetovio ( Ptuj on the Drava ) in Pan nonia. l J The legions that conquered the IIIyrians bel onged to a new professional Roman army created by Augustus during the ycars following Actium, each recruit serving for a fixed term later standardized a t 25 yea rs with an assured reward on co mpletion of service. Each l egion consisted of more than 5 000 infan trymen, all h eav i ly armed and h ighly trained Roman citizens. Seven were based in th e IIIyrian prov inces, three in Pannoni a and tw o each i n Dal m atia and Moesia. These formidable troops
{It v, Popovic 1 984
11
Sasel 198 9.
(Praevalitana and Epirus
Nov a ) .
.l l .l w e re a l'co l l l p a n i e d h y a u x i l i a r y r;I v ;I l r y a n d i n fa n t r y , o r i gi n a l l y eth n i c u n i ts fro lll v a r i o u s p ro v i n l'l's o f t h e E m p i re, fo r w h o m a similar term o f se r v i ce w a s rewa nkd w i t h t h e Rom a n c i t i ze n ship. These were more m o b i l e a n d fle x i b l e th a n t h e legions a n d
were oftcn de p loyed at major ro a d j u nctions with t h e job o f keeping watch on n at i ves in the area.l..! Effective control over I I I yrians in th e ir forests and glens was achiev e d by that most distinctive of Roman dev i ce s , thc great military roa d . The first was the fa mous Via Egnatia constructed across the new p rovincc of Macedon i a from Dyrrhach i u m to Thessalonica in the late 1 40s BC under thc proconsul Gn. Egnatius. This was marked with milestones for a distance of 535 miles as far as the border between Macedonia and Thrace at the river Hebrus (Maritza) . Until thc more northerly route across Il l yr icu m was op e ned unde r Au g u s tus the Vi a Egnatia was Rome's princi pal link w ith her empire in the east, and alon g i t were fo u ght the civi l wars which destroyed the Repu bl ic and brought the rule of emperors. After the defeat of the Pannonians in AD 9 se vera l roads were constructed across the Dinaric ranges, an enormous achievement of engineering, not yet matched in modern times, thou gh dou btless carr i e d through with the labour of ensla v ed n atives . Five were completed, two in AD 1 7 and th ree in AD 20, and all commencing at Salona, from which the new p r ovince Dalmatia was administered. At the same time the Pannonian legions were at work on the Pannonian hi ghway between Ita ly and the middle Danube, although under conditions which caused them to mu tiny in AD 1 4. The second instrument used by th e Romans for consolidat ing their conquered territories was the colonial settlement of Romans on lands con fiscated from the n atives. Refined in the Ital ian peninsula, the institution was soon being employed successfully in overseas territories such as Gaul, Spain and Africa . In th e l ate Republic, co l oni es , in Italy and overseas, became a d e v ice used by leading commanders to reward their ve te ra n s , a system later p er fected by Au gustus and his s uc ccssors . In I II y r i an Macedonia, colonies were se ttl ed at Byllis
12
Mocsy
1 974
(Pannonia and tl.1oesia),
Wilkcs 1 969 (Dalmati a ) .
/lty,.,(
1/111
2 11
a n d I > y r r h a dl i u l I l ( S l'l' figures ! 4 a a n d 2 4 h ) d ur i n g t hl' ( i v i I w a rs. ( ) n t h e D a l m a t i a n (oa s t sl' v l' I"a l e x i s t i n g R o m a n Sl't t l c I I l l' I l l S a p pl'a r t o h a ve hccn s t rcngl h cll l'l1 and o r g a n i zed as l'o l o n i cs, i n d ll d i n g S a l o n a , N a ro n a and Epid a ll ru m , J ader and SCll i a . 0 1 1 the (oa st o f Istria col on i es were settled at Pola, Tl'I"gcstl' a n d Pa ren t i u m . The l ist o f Roman settlements incl udes SO I 1 1 C o f the old centres o f the IIIyrian kingdom, Risinium ( R h i zo n ) , Acru v i u m , Butua (Bouthoe) , Olcinium, Scodra and
I .i ss u s . At first most of these p l aces were dominated by famil ies o f s e t t l e r origin, but with i n two or three generations there are signs of native Ill yri a n s a mong the municipal aristocracies. A l a t e r generation of Roman colonies, often established at or
Ilcar the sites of vacated legionary bases, were intended to aCl:ommodate the veterans discharged from legionary service. S u ch new cities included Emona, Savaria and Poetovio on the Pannonian h i ghroad, Siscia and Sirmium at either cnd of the Sava valley, Aequ u m among the Delmatae in Dal matia and Scupi (Skopje) a mong the Dardani in Moesi a . :u Though its beginnings were marked by atrocity, Roman rule i n the longer term turned out to be no more harsh than that experienced by other communities of a similar character else where in the Empire. There was no deep source of spiritual resistance such as that which led to the defeat and subsequent dispersal of th e Jews two generations later. Yet there was l i ttle prospect of the Romans being able to welcome a reconciled native aristocracy into the ruling order of their empire, as appeared to be the case in Gaul and Sp ai n . Here, when some of the tribal leaders had been seduced into joining an abortive rising, a Roman commander put before them the case for Roman rule: 'Stability between nations cannot be maintained without armies, nor armies without pay, nor pay without tax ation. Everything is shared equally between us. You often command our legions in person, and in person govern these and other provinces. There is no question of segregation or 11 Sasel 1 9 7 7c (military roads); Vi a Egnatia: Hammond 1 9 72 , 1 974b, Wal ban k 1 977, Ccka and Papajani 1 971 (Shkumbin valley), J anakievski 1 976 (west of Heracle a ) , Boj anovski 1 974, 1 978 (Dal matia ) , Nikic 1 9 83 (LivIlO, Glamoc, Duvllo l ; colonies: Wilkes 1 969 (Dalmatia), M6csy 1 974 (pan non ia and Mocsia ) .
(a)
(b) Figu re 24 figured tombstones in the Roman colmlY at Dyrrhachium. 1 st cen tu ry AD: a) Ex-slave Caecilius Laetus (Happy) b) Domitius Sa rcina to r (Clothes-mender) and h is wife Titia
111,,1 /( 1111/
l' x d I I s i o n ' C LKi t l i S , 1 1 ;s/or;cs "' . 7 "' ) . ' I 'h . 1 \ 1 1 1 l i s t hc sct a l ongs i d l' a n o l h er a n a l y s i s o f R o m a n r l l k . W h l' n a s k l'll hy Ti lw ri l l s w h y h i s IK'Op k h a d rche l led, B a l o, I c a d c r o t t ill' P a n n o n i a n s , i s sa i d 1 0 h a v c rL'sp o n dcd : ' Y ou R om a n s .l re 1 0 b la m c fo r t h i s ; fo r Y O I l s c n d as gua rd i a n s of your tl ocks, n ot d ogs or shepherds, hut wolves' ( C a ssi u s Din 5 6 . 1 6 ) . 14 The R o m a n s were p repared t o allow th e m a x i m u m possi ble lk-gree of a u tonomy to ha rmless ex-enem ies. In prep a r i ng the co l l s t i t u t i o n of a new province the Roma n s would usually d i s m a nt l e any exi sting pol itical association, federation, l eague or a l l i a n ce which existed above the basic unit of city or tribe. In the case of the fo rmer, institutions would be left i ntact with s u i t a b l e s a fegu a rds again st mob rule, as these were best s u i tcd for col lecti ng taxes and for m a i n tain i ng order at the l ocal level. Except in Li burnia there were no cxi sting II lyri an city-statcs to wh ich th i s policy co uld be app l i cd, and the native lllyrian communities (civitates) were grou ped i nto j udicial assi zes (conventus) based on somc of the major coastal towns, where they would be required to attend for official and legal busi ness. Such an organization had already existed in the time of Caesa r, when 89 civitates were requi red to a ttend at Narona. The Roman organi zation of IIIyricum bro ught many ch anges a mong the native com munities : some were combi ned to form l arger units more su itable for admini stration, while othcrs, i n cluding somc wcIl -known Pannonian peoples, were di vi ded . The Eldcr Pliny's Natural History (3 . 1 42-3) , completed in the 70s A [l, furnishes lists o f th e peop les in Dalmatia based on the official registers, as they were groupcd into three conventus and with a n u merical total of decu riae for each civ i tas as an i ndication of size. Th i s Rom a n tcrm may have been equated by the Roman officials w i th some subdivision within a peoplc, either kinship group or v i l lage com mun ity. The two conventus centred on Salona and Narona incl uded the names of several well -known peoples, but m any are quite ncw, derivi ng fro m amalgamations or di visions determ i ned by a gents, most l i kely army officers, of the provi nci al governor.35 .14 Though s o m e Pa nnonians knew Roman 'di scipline, l a ngu age a nd writi ng', Vclleills Pa terclIlus, Compendium of Roman History 2. 1 1 0, i\MlCSy 1 9 1 0 . 15
M6csy 1 974, 6 9-70 ( m i l i ta ry administrat i on ) .
2 16
I� t 11/1,111 1 11)'11 , 111,';
The Sca rd o n a CO n V l"l1 l l l s , s l 1 l a l l l"st o f t h l' t h ree, i n d l l lkd t h e j a podes a n d 1 4 civ itates o f t h e l . i hu rn i . [ n t h e S a l o n ;! co n V l'n t ll s the l a rgest gro u p w e r e Od m a t a e , w i th 3 4 2 decu r i a e . [ n the Narona conven tus the 1 3 civ i ta tes incl ude scveral gro u p s for med by amalgam ation of the m uch l a rgcr tota l in thc c a r l i e r Narona convcntus . The Ardiaci, or Vardaei as they were k n o w n t o the Romans, 'once t h e ravagcrs o f Italy' and n o w reduced to a mere 20 decuriae, and the Daorsi or Daversi, with 1 7 decuriae, still reta ined their id entities sou th of the Neretv a . On th e other h and , the Derae m estac (30) were formcd from several smaller groups in thc vici n i ty of the ncw Roman colony estab l ished at Epidaurum ( Cavtat near Dubrovnik) . Several peoplcs who h a d formed the nucleus of the IlIyrian k i ngdom, includi ng, as Pliny (NH 3.144) makes a point of observi ng, the IIly rii 'properly so-called' (proprie dieti) , were joincd to form thc civitas of th e Doclcatae with 33 dccuriae, whose ccntral pl ace at the confluence of the rivers Zeta and Moraea becamc a Roma n city in Flavian times. Beyond the D i n aric mounta i n s the Panno n i a n s of the Bosnian valleys wcre treated i n similar fash ion. Hcre the civi tates were larger th an those near th e coast. In th e Salona conven tus were the Ditiones (239 dccuriae) of southwest Bosn ia, thc Maezaei (269) of the Sana and Vrbas valleys, and the Sardcates (52) around jajce an d t h e Dcuri (25 ) around Bugoj no, both in the Vrbas vallcy. Further east the formidable Dacsitiates of ccntral Bos n i a retained their name. Thc great rebellion of A D 6 had been led by their chief Bato, and thcir relati vely low total of 1 03 decuriae l i kely rcflccts the i r heavy losses at th at time. One of their fortresses, the castellum Hedum, was the destination o f one of the military roads constructed from Salon a a fter the end of the war in AD 9. The Narensi ( 1 02) of th e samc conventus arc likely to be named from the river NaronlNa renta (Ncretva) and wcrc perhaps a grouping of communities along its middle and uppcr course. Th e reason why the Pirustae do n ot appear among the l ists of Pliny seems to bc explained by a com m ent of Velleius Patercu l us, -officer in the Roman army and an eye witness of the Pannonian uprising: ' for thc Perustae and the Des i d i a tes, Dalmatian tri bes who were al most unconquerable on account o f the position o f their strongh o l d s in the moun ta i ns, their warlike temper, their won derful knowledge of fight-
1 11\1/,/, 11/1/
217
i n �, ;l n d , a ho v l' a l l , I h l' n a rrow p a s se., i l l w h i l'h t ll l' Y l i v l'l l , WlTl' I h cll al last p ;l l" i f i c d , 1 1 0 1 1 I O W U l l d lT I h l' I l l erl' �l' n l'r a l s h i p h u t h y t h c s l rl' n �t h i l l a r lll s o f (Ti hni u s ) ( :al'sa r h i lllsd f, a n d then on l y w h c n t h c y wnl' all h u t l' x t l' rlll i n a tnl ' ( 2 . 1 1 5) , The P i r u s tac, w h o i n h a h i ted t h e h i gh v a l l e y s of southeast Bosn i a a n d northern M o n tellegro , seem to h a v e been div ided between the Cera u n i i (24 decuri a c ) , w h ose n a m e deri ving from the Greek for ' th u n derbo l t ' l i n ks them with high mou n tains, Siculotae (24 ) , G l i n ti d i oncs (44) and Sci rtari, who dwelt a l ong the bord er w i th Macedo n i a . In northeast Bosnia th e D i n d a ri are located by the record of one of their chiefs (principes) in the Drina v a l l ey. Whether or not th ey, along with the Celcgeri of Moesi a, were created from the oncc-powerful S cordisci rem a i n s uncer tai n . .1 6 Less is known of the Illyrians i n the province of Pannonia, and Pliny does n ot furnish any details of conventus orga n ization or of rel a tive strcngth according to num bers of decuriac. He names the following civitates : along the river Sava, down stream, the Catari, Latobici, Varcian i , Col apiani, Osseri ates, Breuci , Amantini and Scordisci ; down the Dra v a , the Serretes, Serapilli, Jasi a n d Andizetes ; and down thc Danu be, the Boii, Azali, Eravisci, Hercuniates, An dizetes, Cornacates, A m a n tini and Scordisci . Between the SerapiHi and Boii dwel t the Arabi ates . Some of these names bel ong to pcoplcs k n own before the conquest, i n cl uding Boii, Breuci , Andizetes, Amanti n i , Scordisci and Latobici . Others a re derived from pl ace n amcs, Cornacates from Cornacum ( S atin on the Dan u be a bove Belgrade ) , Va rci ani from Varceia and Osseriatcs from somewhcrc on the m i ddle Sava, or from rivers, Colapiani from Cola pis (Kulpa) and Arabi ates from the Arabo (Raab ) . In the Sa v a v alley the strength of thc once-bel l igerent Breuci and Amantini was broken up into smaller groups such as th e Cornacates on the lower Sava a n d the Osseriates and Colap i a n i wcst of t h e Breuci . The Illyri an Azali may have been deported northwards from thc Sava val l ey to dwell between th e Celtic Boii a n d E ravisci on th e Danube. Given these locations the eviden ce of personal names helps to i denti fy the IlIyri an com m u n i ties i n southern Pan n onia. The
.16
Wilkes 1 969"
� 1 1 1 1 / , 1 1 / I lIvII""s Ca t a r i a ro u n d h l l o n a h ; l v l' I l a n l l" 01 V l' I l l' t i l' o r i gi n a n d n l ;l Y b c a gro u p o f t h l' Ca rn i . F x n' p t 1 0 1' t i l l' L a t o h i l' i ;l I l d V a rr i a n i , whosc na nll�S a n: CCi t i l', t h e r i v i t a tcs o f Co l a p i a n i , .I a s i , B rc u r i , Amantin i and Scordisci wcrc I I l y r i a n . There is l i tt l e k n o w l l o f thc civi tates i n Moes i a . I n t h e sO llth the D a rd a n i rem a i n ed a single gro up, while the c i v i tas o f the Ccl egeri in the north w est may be newl y formed out of the Scordisci . p Th u s the IlIyrians disappeared i n to th e Roman Em pire. Wh en we next hear of them they are Roman II Iyri ans, army com manders a n d em perors repelling invade rs and reconstructi ng the Empire. Before we come to those re m a rkable events we may pause to take a cl oser look at Illyrians duri ng the period when they were assi m i l at i n g the richer and more varied m ateria l culture of t h c Grcco-Rom a n worl d. Thc more durable remains from Roman times tel l us much about thc way of l i fe a m ong JIl yrians and, taken along with evi dencc from the p re-Roman era, provide our clearest v iew of IlIyri ans at a period when they were begi n n i n g to Jose much of thei r own i de ntity within th at of Universal Rome.
17
M6csy 1 974, Dusanic 1977 3 6 4 -3 7 8 ) , who came from a Pannonian fam i l y of peasa nt origin, was so fond of his native brew that he gained the nickname 'sabaiarius'.4 Sheep and goats were the commonest l ivestock among IlIyri ans. Some of the riverside sitcs (Donja Dolina, etc.) havc yielded significant quantities of pig bones, but these seem to diminish towards the Adriatic. It is hard [0 assess the importance of hunting in the economy of scttlcd commun ities. In thc fcw large deposits so far recorded the quantities of bones from wild animals are no more than a smal l fraction, and some of these were deer antlers that were useful as i mplements. The wild boar was hunted with the spear but many smaller ani mals were hunted for their skins with bow and arrow. We learn from thc late Greek medical writcr Paul of Aegina ( De Re Medica 6 . 8 8 ) that some of the inhabitants o f Roman Dalmatia applied to their arrows a poison called ninum. This was a non-botanical variety which, though lethal to animals, did not contaminatc the Aesh and was obtained from snake-vcnom. Fishing was no doubt practised by thosc who had the opportunity but there i s n o evidence for fish tanks ( vivaria) before the Roman period. In rivcrside settlements such as Donja Dol ina fishing was a major activity, indicated by the hugc dumps of fish-bones and discarded tackle, including hooks, tridents, harpoons, wooden floats and weights, along with remains of d ugout canoes from which the nets were cast. In the small Liburnian coastal town of Argyruntum (Starigrad Paklenica) a cemetery of the carly Roman period yielded a variety of fish hooks deposited in thc graves. The salt that was essential for communities dependent on their l ivestock was obtained mainly from the coast but also from a fcw sources inland. Salt produced by evaporation along the coast was conveyed i nland over thc many 'salt roads' which 4 Mead: Priscus FHG 4, 83, J erome C()mmentary on Isaiah 7. 1 9 , I I Iyri a n dri nk: Grmek 1 950, Zan inovic l 976a ( wine among Adriatic lllyrians ) , Da ut ova-Rusevljan 1 975 (wine amphorae in wreck near Rab),
22.\ ( O l l t i l l lll'd i l l I I Sl' d o w l l 1 0 I l I l H I l' t" 1 l U l l l l· ... . T h e sa l t sou rn' I h a t w a s a �:a U Sl' o l co l l f l i d hl'l w l'l' l I t h e I l I y r i a l l A rd i a l' i a l l d A u t a ri a t a l' l I I a y I w t h a t a t ( ha h ov i ca i l l t h e I I pper N l· n· t v .l v a l l e y Ilea r K O l l j i l' . A p p.He l l t l y w h e l l t h e s.l I t sol l l t i o l l w a s drawn fi v e days s u fficed fo r t h e e v a po ra t i o l l . Fo r a period the two peoples had agreed t o e x t ract i t i n a l ternate years . ' A l though there i s evidence fo r glass manu facture among the
.I apodes, meta l -worki ng was the foremost industry practiscd by l I Iyrians. Some have l i nked its sprcad with the arrival of Celts i ll the fourth century RC, Until thcn most weapons, implements, utensils and ornaments wcrc produced in bronzc, a tradition wh ich continued into the Roman period. During the late Iron Agc most IIIyrian communities had acquired the techniques for working the abundant and varicd mineral deposits in their lands. Many Illyri an sites have produced mctal-working i mplements, i n cl uding picks and mallets for cxtracti ng and crush ing the orc. Smelting-furnaccs, someti mes resembling bread-ovens, occu r w i thin hill-forts. Stone and clay moulds for bronze-casting are common in Bosnia, while ingots suggest the existence of itinerant craftsmen . Burials of metal-workers at San ski Most in northwest Bosnia have yielded a pouring scoop and thc rcmains of a bellows.6 Thc appearance of silvcr objects in graves of the Late Iron Age indicates thc working of l ocal silvcr deposits. Among the southern lllyrians the deposits which provided Damastion (Strabo 7.7, 8 ) , somewhcrc in the Oh rid region, w ith a silver coinage may be the same ones that attractcd Corinth ian i nterest in the area. In the Roman period the main centre of silvcr mining was the aptly namcd Argentaria district in castern Bosnia on the middle Drina. Th e large settlement u ndcr i m perial control at Domavia (Gradina) was latcr an important sourcc of silver for thc imperial mint. Though poets refer to thc gold of Dal matia, and an exceptional strike of 50 pounds in the course of onc day was reported in the reign of Nero (AD 54-6 8 ) , the location of workings rcmains a mystery (Pliny, Ni l 3 3 .67). , Animal bones: Woldrich 1897 ( Ripac), 1 904 (Donja Dolin a ) , Boessneck and Stork 1 9 72 ( Duvno area ) , Abram ic and Coin ago 1 909 (Argvruntum). ' 6 Fiala 1 8 99, 302 (San ski Most) . sprea d of meta l -working: Co vie 1 98 0b, 1 984a, also 5ripcevic 1 977 with thc tit l e l: h i c f (princeps) a n d even l:om m a nder (praeJJOsitus) . A t least one o f
the leading fam i l i es of the Del matae ba s ed at Rider recei ved Roman citi zenship from the emperor Claudius ( A D 4 1 -54) . Further south in the old Illyrian kingdom we meet a chief (princeps) of the Docleatae and a relative who was chief of the local fortress Salthua (p robably R i j e ca n i near Niksic), though neither of these was yet a Roman citizen. The title of princeps sti ll persisted after some of the large native settlements had been organized as Roman cities. Among the ] ap ode s around Bihac, altars we re dedicated by leaders of the tri b e to Bindus Neptunus , deity of the local spring (see figu re 30) . In add ition to the (presumably) hereditary title of chief (princeps) one has the title commander (praepositus) and a reference to his receiv ing Roman c i t i ze n ship from Vespasian (AD 69-79) . This appears to i mply that by the Flavian era the native chiefs were replacing the senior centurions and regimental commanders appointed to control the civitates after the conquest. Little is k n own of the status of women among the I II yri ans save fo r two intere s tin g comm ents by a n cient writers. The Coastal Passage (Periplus) attributed to Scylax of Caryanda reports that the Liburnians were subj ect to the rule of women, who were free to have sexual relations with slaves or foreigners. On a sim ilar note the Roman Varro, writing in the first cen tu ry BC, obse rv es that Liburnian women could, if they chose, cohabit before marriage with a nyone they pleased. These passages have been used to support the belief that the Liburnians represent some survival of non- Indo - Eu ropeans among the I II yria n s, a l tho ugh the r ol e of Qu een Teuta among the southern II ly rians suggests that, in politics at least, women played a leading role among other Illyrians. 2 1 The p romi n e nce of warfare in ancient accounts of the II ly r i ans is matched by the large and various quantities of arms recovered from th eir graves. Their principal offensive weapon was the single- edged curved sword, simil a r to the Greek machaira, a form of weapon that can be traced back to Bronze Age times. Although a short curved sword was used by several
21 Wilkes 1 969.
Ult'
am I J
I 'o tll ,'/III IIt� I fI vrJ, / I/$
Figure 3 0 Altars with Latin text dedicated by chief of the Japodes Pri//ilica spring, near Bihac, Bosnia, 1 st century A D peoples around the Mediterranean the Romans regarded the sica as a distinctive IlIyrian weapon, used by the assassin (sicarius) . Equally well represented in the evidence is the long heavy spear (sibyna) which is described a an Illyrian weapon by the Roman poet Ennius (Annals 5 .540 Apart from these distinctive types Illyrian graves contai n variety of knives, battle-axes, swords and bows and i ;l l l a . Sl' V l'r a l I .a t i l l i l l SlT i p t i o l l 'i reco rd l l l a g i s t r;l \ l'S a ll d bl' l l l' fa c to rs o f t h e c i t y 's ea r l y y e a rs . T h e b a s i l i ca w a s a gi ft fro m Flavi us " ' ro l l t o a l l d h i s w i fe H a v i a Tt' r u l l a , d l' d i ca t l'd to the m e m o r y o f t h l' i r 1 5 - Y l' a r - o l d SOil Hav i u s Bal b i l l ll s , a fter he had held 'all t h e offi ces p l' r m i tte d to h i m by l a w ' . Beh ind th e Roman fajfade of Ilew n a m e s a n d a rch i tecture wc can re c ogni z e th e h e i rs to t h l' ol d I I I y rian k i n gs still pre-em i n en t i n their kingdo m . The i nscribed base of Fronto's statue records that he had undertaken l' x pensive o ffi ces not only in his na tive Doclea b ut also i n several o th e r Roman cities of th e area, including tw o p l ac e s w h i ch h a d once been c o lonies of Rom a n settlers.4 I n the co ur s e o f th e second century AD m ost I I I y rians belonged to a city of the Roman Empire, in the majority of cases based on the l ocal unit (civitas) defined by the Ro m ans following the conq uest. Cities were o rg ani zed for the plains (polje) i n h abited by the inland Del m a tae, incl ud i n g D clmin i u m ( near D ll v no ) , Pel va (near L i v n o ) , Salvium (Glamoc) , N ovae ( n e a r Imotsk i ) a n d Magn u m ( i n the C ikola valley). I n Popovo pol j c the Derae mestae may h ave been incorporated within the new municip i u m at Diluntum (Lj u binje) . Several cities were created i n the m ore r e mote regions of northeast Dalmatia , i ncl udi n g the mining centre at Domav i a (Gradina) , M al v e sa (Skel a n i on the Dri n a ) and th e m unicipium S. (thc name survives only i n th i s a b brev i ated form) a t Pljevlja i n northern Montenegro . Anoth er fortress of the J a podes a ttacked by Octa vian in 35 BC, Metu l u m , wh ich probably lay in the area of J os i pdo l , also b eca m e a city probably before th e end of the second century. In Pannon i a , Bassiana (Petrovci) was orga nized out of the Scordi sci and Cibalae (Vi nkovci) from thc Corn acates, both p l aces situ ated o n the major roads of the Danube arca . Other Hadriani c cities among the Pannonian Illyri ans include that of thc Jasi at the spa centre Aquae Bal i ssae (Daruvar) in thc Papuk h ills . In Moes i a Hadrian's on l y known foundation w a s Ulpi a num ( Gracan ica ncar Pri5ti n a ) , likely to have been cl osely linkcd with the m ines (meta l l a Ulpiana) on mount Z e go v ac . Cities were also
4 Wilkes 1 969, S uic 1 976a, Cermanovic-Kuzmanovic, Srejovic and Velimir ovic·7.i fic 1 9 75 (cemetery).
I� / 111/"" I II"noms orga n i zed at t h e s t ra t e g i l' lTos s ro ;lds N a i s s l I s ( N i s ) and at t wo pl aces i n the M or a v a v ;� l ky , M a rgl l ll l ( O r a s j l' ) , nea r the m o u t h , a n d Horreum M a rgi ( C u p r i j a ) , ;I n i m porta n t r i v e r (ross i llg. I I I th e south the n ew city a t Soca n i c;l i n the I ba r v a l l e y , p ro h a b l y named munici pium Dardan i cu m , w a s another ' m i n i n g tOW II ' connected with the local work i n gs (metalla Dardanica) . ' Most o f these new cities were a means of con cen trating loca l a u thority and resources along the major roads, with i n easy reach o f central auth ority . When compared with oth er p rov i n cia l s t h e I 1 I yrians were 'late developers' i n t h e spread a n d reception of urbanization . T h e second century AD s a w i n creas ing interference i n local a ffairs b y the cen tral authorities . The co mpul sion to u n dertake magistracies and other expensive civic offices was now i n tensi fied and 'office-dodgers' were pu rsued, as more and more of the wea l th y strove to gai n the precious exemptions from the burdens of local m un icipal office. It is hard to see any of th ese n ew cities, in which the natives were forced to concentrate thei r wea l th , amou nting to much m o re than a nother element in what was becom i n g regarded by the state as the essential fabric of government. Th ose local worthies who a ppear as magistrates w i l l h ave become l ocked into a system of imperia l req uisitions and burdens for which they and the i r fam i ly property would be held accounta ble, especially when there was a war on, as there o ften was somewh ere on the D a nube frontier. Descendants of these Illyrians could only improve their condition by advancing h igher within the system, and for most Illyrians the only real prospects l ay with a career in the army. 6 Th e n ew ci ties will h ave affected not only the upper cl asses who a ppear on Lati n i n scriptions holding municipal office but also the mass of the people whose l i fe was still based on tribal relationships, a process of change wh ich may have already begu n among the sou thern lllyrians in the Hel l e n i stic perio d . In th e previous chapter we h a v e seen h o w i n scri pti ons a n d sculptures of the Rom a n period furnish val uable evidence for ' Wilkes 1 9 69, M6csy 1 974. Also Pasa l i c 1 9 67, Bojanov ski 1 98 8 (Bosnia Hercegovina), Mirkovic 1 968 ( Moesia ) , Cvetkovic· Tomasevic 1 98 3 ( Ulpiana), Ba 1 1 1 S i r l l l i l l l l l a l l d l 1 1 a dl' l i l l k rl'spO I l Sl' 1 0 pl' l i l i o l l s fro l l l h i , d i s l l'l'ssl'd k l l o w -n l l l l l t rY l l l l' n d u ri l lg h i s v i s i t i l l A l l .PS, t h e y l'a r o f h i s (ka t h , S i rm i u ll l w a s no l o n glT t l u : v i t a l h i n gl' o f t h l' E m p i rl' b u t m l' re l y a peri pheral rl'gi o n Iwtwl'l'll l'a s t and wes t as t h e two h a l ves began to move a p a rt towa rds the end of the fo u rth century , I 4 R o m a n I 1 l y ri c u 111 ended on 9 August A D 3 7 8 , when the l'm peror Va l e n s and his a rmies were wiped out by the Goths i n :1 battl e at A d r ianople in southeast Thrace. These, a long w i th A l a n s and Huns, had been permitted to enter the Emp i re a few years earl ier. Within a year a large numbe r of the invaders Ill oved west a nd took possession of a good deal of Roman Pannonia. They could not, l i ke earl ier settlers, be incorporated in the structure of Roman T Ilyricu m , There were too many of t hem and they had no intention of being settled on marg i n a l l a n d a s farmers and taxpa yers, The Rom a n a d m inistration col l apsed and th e barbarian s took to raiding other a reas for th e s u pplies they needed. The poet Cl a u d i a n depicts Pannon i a i n these years as being i n a state o f perm anent s iege. St Jeromc, an I l Iyrian who cam e from a town cal led S tridon near the border of Dalmatia and Pannonia, presen ts a d istressing accoun t of h i s native land. In AD 3 8 0 he writes that h i s home town was i n ru i n s (Famous Men 6S) and th en a few years l ater that 'everyth i ng h as peri shed' ( Commentary 011 Ze{Jhaniah 1 .676 ) . Other writers of the period also refer to a devastated IlIyricu m . Early in the fi fth ce ntu ry what rem a i ned of the overland route across I I Iyricu m l i n king east and west w a s severed by further invasions. The roads w e r e packed w i t h refugees fleeing south t o Italy and the Adriatic. O n th e Dal m a tian coast the i r n u m bers a n d di strcssed con dition became a p roblem for thc author i ties. The sense of final i ty fel t at th e time i s rcflected by the removal of martyrs' bon es from shri nes that wou l d soon have to be a ban doned to the most feared of all i nvaders, th e Huns. 1 5 Th e pcrsistence o f Roman place-names i n several a reas o f Illyricum suggests the survival of Latin-speaking com munities, 14
Miles}" 1 974.
Claudi an, On Stilicho's Consulship 2, 1 9 1 -207 (I .C.L vol. 2 p. 1 9 74 (translation of martyrs) , 15
1 6), Maesy
U " 1 / 1 , 1 1 1 I II"II, IIIS
n o t a h l y in t h ;1 I reg i o l l I l ea r t i l l' Da l l u he w h lTl' A ur d i a l l h a d
settled t h e peo p k 1 l 1O V l·d O l l t 0 1 J ) ;ll'i a . I t ,... a s from t ll l'se a n d
sim i l ar com m u n i t i es i n t h e so u t h e rn B a l k a l l s t h a t e l l l l Tged t i ll'
Vl a ch s and the Roma n i a ns, ",,· h ose v a rieties
o f R o m a lKe l a n g u
a ge are descended from Latin-spea king pastora l i sts. I n D a rd an i a t h e o l d Roman ci t y of Scupi (Skopje), destroyed by a n ea rth q u a k e in A D 5 1 8, was a ba n do n ed as i t s Roman ized popu l a t ion chose to remain i n the s u r r ou n d i n g h i l ls, n e a r to the s a fcty of h ill - top refuges. The n e e d for local security was upper most in the great p rogra mme of fortress b u i l di n g and rc co n struction throughout I I Iyricum dcscribed in the sixth ccntury by P ro co p i us . In the southern Bal ka n s it was the d i sp e rsal of thc L ati n - s pea k i n g popu l ati o n fr o m t he m a j o r centres which lcd to a su rv i v a l of Roman t ra di t ions in several re mo te areas. In s o m e p laces these cha n ges involved the reoccupation of t h c a n ci e n t l lly ri a n hill-forts. Whcn the emperor J u stinian s o u gh t to re-establish Ro m an II I y ric um in t h e sixth ce n t u r y AD, that essential foun d ation of strategically placed citics in thc valleys c rea ted in the firs t and second centuries AD, linked by po l i ced roads and b ri dgcs, no lo n ger existed. Alo n g si de Lati n the native Illyrian s u rv i ved in the country areas, and St J cr o m e claimed to speak his 'sermo gc n ti l is' ( Commentary on lsaiah 7. 1 9). In Dalmatia many lll yri a n names survived into th e M i ddl e A ges but for Illyricum as a whole the i nvasions at the end of the fourth century des t royed n o t o n l y t h e structure of t h e Roman p r ov i n c e but p oss i b l y a good deal of thc oldcr native ll Iyri a n cultu res which had survivcd within it. In the words of M6csy ( 1 974, p. 3 5 8 ) , the 1 l l yri a n s , like the Celts and Th r a ci a n s, 'dissolved in thc sca of later conquerors, simply for the reason that d urin g the long period of Roman rule they had lost their native cultu re a n d were unable to u t i l i ze their language a s a means to a pol i tical l i fe of their own. ' The q uestion of Illyrian su rvival and that of a continuity b c tw een thcm and the Albani ans during the e a rl y Middle Ages will be considered i n the second part of this chapter. 1 6 16
Winnifrith 1 9 8 7 (Vlachs ) ; Scupi :
Chronicle of COUllt Marcellinus
AD
518
('\1GH Chronica Minora 2, p. 1 00) , Late Roman refugia: Boj anovski 1 979 (Kliue, Bosn ia), Cerova 1 98 7 (Alba n i a ) , Pahic 1 9 8 1 , Ciglcnceki 1 98 7 (Slovenia ) .
11II1't·/ ,.I1 1 111'11,/11"
!. h 7
M l' d i c v a l a n d modern l I I y r i a n s W h l' n I .l'( ) w a s l' l l 1 pl'ror in Consta n t i n op h : ( ;\ 1 > 45 7- 474) t h ree y o u n g I l I y r i a n pea s a n t s escl ped ru ra l poverty by wal k i ng to t h l' c a p i ta l from t h e i r v i l l age of Bcd e r i a n a in Da rd a n ia to j o in t h l' a r m y . Wh cll they arri ved w i th n o th i n g but some bis cu it
w r;l pped i l l their cloaks, th eir fi n e ph y s iq u e gained them admis s i o n to the gua rd. One of them, J ustin , rose to co m man d the Pa l a ce G u a r d and became emperor on the death of the aged A n ast asi u s in AI) 5 1 8 . Justin (AD 5 1 8-527) and h i s nephew .J ustinian (AI) 527-5 6 5 ) were the l ast IIIy rian emperors a n d, l i ke their predeces sors of the th i rd and fourth centuries, applied themsel ves to th e tas k of ru li n g with energy and determination. l i mi e r J u st i n i an t h e E m pi r e recovered te r ritori es lost in the p r e v i o u s cen tury, Africa from the Vandals and Italy from the O s t ro go th s . The sixth-century I I I y ri a n s were, a l so like their p r e d eces s o rs, mocked for their l ack of e duc ati o n , notably b y Procopius who m akes Justin a ne a r illiterate. Justinian, who c a m e from the neigh bouring v i l l a ge of Taure s i u m, had been ca l l ed by his un c l e to the capita l for his education and was soon m a n a gi ng affairs of statc on the l atter ' s behal f. The o ri gi n of t h e family in northern Dar d a n ia was l ater m a rked by the ne w city J u s ti n i a n a Pri ma, on a r i dge above the village o f Ca riCin G ra d i n sou t h er n Serbia, 20 miles west of Les ko v a c . The walls enclo s e an area 500 by 2 1 5 m e tr es , wi th an i nne r a c r o poli s at the northwest. Intern al arrangements were based on two streets fl a n k e d with col onnades, with a circular forum at the i n terse cti on . Most of the interior appears to have been taken up with se v era l churches, some of wh ich h a d mosaic decoration. Jus ti n i a n a Pri ma was m ade the seat of th e a rch bi s hop of Dardania and w a s g ra nt e d many privileges by a l aw
issued i n AI) 535 . 1 7 The no rth ern regions of Roman Illyricum, the o l d provi nce Pannonia, were occu p i e d b y Avars a n d Lombards, but s o u thern Illyricum re m a i n ed an i m portant s o u r ce of manpower for the 17 Procopius Secret History 6.2 ( j ustiniana Prima ) .
( j ustin ) ,
Kondic and Popovic 1 977
N 1 111/1111 I II \'f /IIllS
i m pe r i a l a r l l l y . M o s t ot t h l" rl"l"I l I l l l l l l"S I S i l l t h l" Wl'S t lT l I M l"d i t lT r a ne a n w e re a c h i evcd hy t roops f ro l l l t h e so u t h e m B a I k a n s . Th e security o f these h o m e l a n d s w a s n o w h:l sed O i l l oca l s t ro ng h o lds , either new or refurbi s h e d , many of w h i c h a rc l i s ted h y Pro copi u s in his work Buildings. Al though the h i stori a n (red i t s J u sti nian with the new fortifications, they we re the re s u l t o f a recon s truct i on begu n p ro b a b ly by A na s tasiu s . The network o f small forts, whose construction will have been a b u rden on l oca l communities, represented a passive defence from a basis of l im i ted control over the countryside . Be l ow S i n g i d u n u m (Belgrade) the Danu b e wa s i n te n s ively fortified. A new c i ty Justi no p oli s was created in Dardania and the defences of Ulpi anum, N a iss u s and Serdica were repaired. In the southern Balkans 43 new forts were bui l t a n d 50 exi sti ng ones re pa i r e d i n the provinces of Old and New Epirus, 46 in Macedonia a n d a sim i l ar number in Thessaly. In spite of a ll these effo rts , accordi ng to P rocop i us in his hostile Secret History ( 1 8 .20) , Il Iyr i cum w as ra v a g ed almost every year of Justinian's rei gn b y
Huns and Slavs, causing many Roman casualties and so much d es t ruc ti on that the place became ano th e r ' S c y thian desert ' . l � The migrations of the Sl avs from the regi o n of Poland began ea rl y in th e Christian era. By the fourth ce n tury th ey had reached the old p ro v ince of Dacia, wh ere th ey we re overrun by the Hu n s . Early in t h e si x th ce n tury th ey moved across the Danube in the direction of Epirus and Macedonia. By 5 3 6 they had reached the Ad ria ti c , in 548 D yrrhach iu m , and in the foll o win g years there are several repo rts of S lavs on the move in l llyri c u m. Though hardl y we lco m e , th e n ewco m e r s we r e not e v eryw here destructive raiders and made no c h allenge to imperi al authority. Some, it is true, were feared for their c r uelty and were said to leave behind a trail of corpses. Their weapons were spears and the bow , someti mes u sing po i soned arrows. They co u l d cross maj o r rivers but learned only later how to take towns with l adders and machines. In the e n d it was the dominance of th e Turkic Avars in the Pannonian p la i n that made the Slav raids such a threat to I l l y ricu m d uring the later decades of the sixth ce nt u ry , esp ecia lly when the Avar kha gan lK
Procopi us Buildings 4. 1-4, V. Popovic 1 98 8 (Epiru s Nova ) .
na i a n cl p l u rl'll S i r m i l l l l l i l l S X2 l o l l o w l I l g a l o n g s i l'gl' . A ft l'r
Y l'a rs o t S U l"u'ss l u l l"l's i ., l a n l"l' R o m a n I l I y r i n l l1l fi n a l l y d i s i l l l eg ra l ed d u ri ng t h e � h a ( ) l i c r e i g n o f Ph oG.l s ( 6 0 2-6 1 0 ) , w h e n l a rgl' n u m he r s o f S l a v s l 1 l o v l,d to o��lI p y M acedon i a a n d Thessa l y . M o s t o f m a i n l a n d G reeCl' w a s a l so overru n , and i n 6 2 6 A v a rs a n d S l a v s com b i n cd w i th Persia i n a n attack on C o n s t a n t i n o p l e . In the Wes t we l earn from the I-etters of Pope ( ; rl'go r y th at S l a v s were th reatening Roman towns in Dalmatia, a n d in 6 1 1 they raided Istria . In or soon after 6 1 2 thc Dalmatian c i t i es o f Salona, Naron a , Dodea , Scardona, Risinium and Epi d a u rll m were a bandoned i n favour of more protected pl aces o n the main l a n d or islands. By n ow the Slays were free of Avar d o m i nation and began to form the groups from which thc Slav s t a tes of the Middle Ages bega n to cmerge. l ,) Thc earl iest account o f the Slays who occupied Roman IIlyr i l"u m was written by the em peror Constan tine VII Porph yrogen i tus, who died i n 959. In his 'On Administering the Roman E m p ire ', composed for his son Romanus, eigh t chapters describe the Slavs of IIlyricu m , with digress i o n s on the earl y history of Croats and Serbs . Hc lists the surviving Rom a n com munities a l o n g t h e coast, incl udi n g Decatera (ancien t Acru v i um, modern Kotor) , Ragusa (Dubrovnik) , to which the i nhabitants of Epidaurum had fled , Split (Aspal a thos, Spalato), Diocl eti an's villa on th e coast occupied by re fugees from Salona, Tetrangourin (Tragurium, modern Trogir) and D iadora Uader, mod cm Zadar) , and on several islands in the Quarnero, Arbc ( Rab), Vekla (Curictae, Krk) and Opsara (Osor ) . Constantine asserts tha t the settlement of Croats an d Serbs had taken p lace with the acquiescence of thc cmperor Heraclius in th e seventh century, as part of a scheme to expel the Avars, th ough most likely th is was a latcr fabrication intcnded to bolster thc claim of imperial authority over them . One modern theory holds that the two groups were not actually Slavs but perhaps a rul i ng minority of Iranian Sarmatian origin , similar to the Turki c S O I I l l'
1 9 Dvorn i k 1 956, Toynbee 1 973, 6 1 9-5 1 , V , Popovic 1 978 (invasi ons), Ku)iiiic 1 9 7 9 ( Slav paganism). During ( h e si ege a citizen of Sirmium wrote on a brick a prayer in Greek begging for God's deliverance from the Avars, Brunsmi d 1 8 93 . Miletic 1 9 8 9 (early Slav cemeteries in Bosnia-Hercegovi na), Pasi c 1 975 ( Vardar val l ey).
DO
N OII/, '" 1 1I\'1'Io "'.�
B u l ga rs , a n a l i l' n l' l i l l' l a l l'!" a hsur hl'd i n l o 1 Ill' l: l I h l l rl' o t t lll' i r
Slav s u b j ects. Consta l l t i l l l' ' s an:ol l l l l o t I h l' C ro a l s i s a v a l u a h l e primary sou rce, l i s t i n g e l e v e n 'co u n t i es ' ( z u p a n i as ) a n d n i n e towns, of which three had been R o m a n cent res, m a i n l y i n t h e south and near thc Adriatic but, s i n ce i t p ro b a b l y deri ves from a local Roma n source, omits those communities of i n l a n d Dalmatia or Pannonia. The Scrbs cvi d ently arrived later a n d never reached thc Ad riati c , but are con fined in thei r hi storic heartland of the upper Drina and its tri b uta ri es, Piv a , Tara , Lim an d Uvac, the upper Morava, Raska and lbar. Between there and the Adriatic were thc Zachlumi ('in beh ind the h i l l s ' ) who held the coast between Ragusa and the N e retv a . Next to these on thc south were the Terbuniotes of Treb inje in Popovo poljc and the Kanalites of Konavle (near Dubrovnik ) . All three were connected with th e Serbs and also are said to h ave settled there with the ap p ro v al of Hcraclius. Between these and the imperial territory arou nd Dyrrhachi u m were Diodetiani, named from the then deserted city Diodea (Dodea near Ti togra d ) . A rep u tatio n for piracy atta ched to the pagan Naren tani, who con trolled the coast north of thc Neretva and most of the major islands.20 The new s e ttlers d i d not strive to eradicate the existing Illyrian and Roman cultures, and several of their major settlc ments grew up on the sites of Roman citie s. Aftcr more than three cen t u ries of sile n ce Latin-speaking comm u n it ies begin to emerge, such as thc 'road-travelling' Vlachs at the end of the tenth ccntury, and several others are identified in medieval sources, Koutzovl achs, Morlachs, Cincars an d Aroumani. Archaeologica l evidence has so far been unable to fill the gap between th e end of R o m a n Illyricum and the tenth century. Few ca rl y Slav villages , with their hand-made pottery and cre m ation burials, have been identifie d in thc Illyrian lan d s. Some Sl avic material has becn found on the sites of Roman cities and therc arc traces of an early settlement near C apljina Porphyrugenitus De Administrando Imperio, ed . G . 2 0 Consta" tine Moravcsik, trans. R. J . H . Jenkins, 2 n d edn, Wa shington D C , 1 967, and Commentary by R. J . H. Jenkins and others, London, 1962. T h e rel evant ch a p t ers are 29-30 (Dalmati a), 31 ( Croats), 3 2 (Serbs), 3 3 (Zachumli), 34 (Terbun i otes and Kanalites), 35 (Diocletiani) an d 3 6 (Paga n i or (N) a rentani).
17 1 i l l I h t' N t' rl' l v a v a l k y , I t Sl'l' I l l S n' a s o l l a h k to a S S I I I l l l' I h a l S O l 1 l l' of I h t' loca l l.· h a r a c t er i s l i cs l'x h i h i l t'd l a l l'r by Slavs i n t h e I l I y ri a n l a l l d s w e re a (O n sl' q l l e l Kl' o f a s s i m i l a t i n g e x i s t i n g l o c a l culture ( Sl'l' figu re 3 6 ) , The I 1 l y ri a n h e r i tage o f t h e Adriatic Slavs is l'V l' n today regu l a r l y i n voked by S l o ve n e s and eroats, wh ile t h e A l b a ni a n clai ms to an IIIy r i a n ancestry have e n co ur aged Slavs to sear c h for tr a ces of th e ir own IIlyrian herita ge . These i ncl u de similarities in burial rites, stone-lined graves and the s m a s h i ng of pottery; perio d i c redivision of l and on the island
similar to that reported for the pre-Roman DcImatae; u se mould known i n the Illyrian Iron Age; the tasselled Lika cap of the J a po d e s and the taste fo r tattooing wh ich still survive in that area; and the possible descent of 'Mother Jana', forest goddess of the Balkan S lavs , from th e l I I yrian ver s i on of Silvanus. Medieval documen ts i ndicate the s urv i va l of IIlyrian p er son a l names, Ucca from Licca/Licco, Batoia from Bato, Pletto from Plator, etc. In the mountai nous areas the two medieval sources, the twelfth - ce n tu ry priest of Duk l j a (Diodea) and Thomas the Archdeacon of Split, refer t o the Svacics ( S n a c i cs ) , who were evide n tly of pre-Slav o r i gi n . The Il ly r i a n contribution to Slav popular culture incl uded sev eral less easily documented examples : the ' c i rc l e ' (kolo) dances of the southern S lavs which seem to resemble those on fu neral mo n uments of the Roman era ; the shepherd's panpi pes, fi ve pipes of une q ua l length cl am ped toge th e r, which a ppea r on situlae and on some Roman reliefs of S i l v a n u s ; and some polyph o n ic musical patterns, confined to the Slavs of the I I I y r ian lands, which may be of ancient origi n . Taken together, a n d there are p roba bl y several more examples which cou ld be cited, they i ndicate a signific a nt cultural inheritance but not necessarily an ethnic descent from IIIyrians. In con t ra s t a direct continu i ty from ancient 1I 1yrians has been claimed, and con tested, for the modern Albanians.2 1 Today's Albania occupies the ancient provinces of PraevalitPag,
of a bread-making
21
Slav fortresses: Bu ric 1 9 8 7 (Bribir), Boskovic, Mijovic and Kovacevic 1 98 1 s u rv i v a l : surveys in B�nac 1 9 69, Batovic and Ostric 1 969, Brozovic 1 969 ( l a nguage), I .j u bi n kovic 1 96 9 (social organization and material culture), Stipccvic 1 977a, 72-6, 24 1-3 ( m usic and dance ) , 2 6 1 note 1 1 0 (Svacics), Suic 1 967b, 1 03- 4 (Pag), Rendic-Miocevic 1 949 (name survivals),
(Ulcini ) . IIIyri an
Figure 36 Early medieval stone relief with traditional native circle: and Christian cross from near Sinj. Dalmatia
17.l (in part) a n d Old a n d New E p i r u s . Th e �on d i tion o f t h i s a t t h e end of the Rom a n e r a i s h a rd to assess, but there see ms to h a ve been a col l a p s e of t h e i n l and towns which arose in t h e Hel len istic pe riod, w h i l e t h e more secure coastal cities ;1 1 1 to h l I \' d l � ,1 I 1 1 1 1 1 h ,l l I l l' I I l l'd l l' V ;d l' . d h . I I I .I I Sl" , I I I " o r k l l l i
1 9 7 1 , I l) . � - l) .
lIirioil'lI,k,1 (IJllll'l'kralll) - Ilall'lall',
ill Novak l'l al. Ilnl, 191-2IX.
(;ahriccvil.:, cnvirons
B.,
19S.1.
' Dcux
tOllllllllllaUll'S
dt' Vrlika', VA liD 55,
illynl'llllt's
dans
ks
103-llJ.
llJXO. 'The beginnings of Rom.lll p rovincial art in I.iburnia', Dimiora 9, 251-71.
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19IU. 'Neeropok antique de Sinj : contribu tions aux reeherches sur les eroyanccs primitives', VAHD 76, 5-101. Ga brovec, S., 1 964-5. 'Die Hallstattkultur Sloweniens', A V 15-16, 11-6.3 . 1 966a. 'Zur Hallsta ttzeit i n Slowenien', Germania 44, 1-48. 1966b, 'Zur Mittellatcnczeit in Slowenicn', AV 17, 169-242. 1 966c. 'Die Latenezeit in Obcrkrain', AV 17, 243-70. --1 970. 'Die Zweischleifigen Bogenfibel: ein Beitrag zum Begi nn der Hallstattzei t am Balkan und dem Siidostalpen ', GCBI 6, 5-65. 1973. 'Der Beginn der Hallstattzeit in Slowenien', A V 14,338-87. --1 975a. ' Oberblick iiber eisenzeitliche Bcfestigllngen in Slowenien', in Benae 1 975a, 5 9 - 70. 1984. 'Die Kunst der IIIyrier im vorgeschichtli ehen Zeitrau m ' , i n Benae 1984a, 4 1-64. Gabrovec, 5., and Svolsjak, D., 1 983. Most na soa (S. Lucia) I: storia delle richerche e topogra1Jhia, Ljubljana ( Katalogi in MOllO graphia 21). Gabrovec, 5., Frey, O.-H., and Foltiny, 5., 1 970. 'Erster Bcricht iiber die Ausgrahungen im Ri ngwall von Sticna', Germania 48, 12-33. Garasanin, D., 1960. 'IIIyrischer Silberschmuck aus Umcari', Starinar 1 1 , 8 6-92. --1 976 ( 1 973). 'Les tombes tumulaires prchistoriques de la penin sule balkanique et leur attri bution ethn ique et ehronologique', /liri(/ 4,249-51 [= SA 10: 1,179-84]. --1 976. 'Consideration sur la chronologie de I'age du fer II en Macedoine a la lumiere des decouvertes de Radanje', MAA 1, --
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135-41.
Garasanin, D., and Daicovieiu, H., et al. (eds. ) 1 971 . The Illyrians and Dacians, Beograd (National Museum), Garasanin, D. and Garasanin, M.,1971a. 'Radanje- K rivi Dol pres de Stip, necropole de l'Age du Fer', in Novak et al. 1 9 7 1 , 144. --1 9 7 1b. 'Belotic-Bela Crkva, necropole tumulaire de I' Age du Bronze', in Novak et al. 1971, 1 68-70.
--1979, Supska 'Stublina ': vorgeschichtliche Ansiedlung der Vinca Groupe, Beograd (National Museum). Garasanin, M., 1954. 'Zur Zei tbcstimmllng des Beginns der Vi nca
Kultur', All, 1-6.
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1 96 6 . ' Moen i a Aeal:i a ' , Stt/rIIl, ' " 1 7, 2 7-.\6.
1 970. 'Ad Arrian 1 4. 6 . ' , in i'vt i ros;J v l jevil.' et al. 1970, .\ 9.\-7. 1 973 a . La prehistoire sur le territoire dc la R l;/Jubliqu£' socialist£' de Serbie, vols 1 -2. Belgrade. 1 973 b. ' Ethnographic problems of the Bronze Age in the central Balkan peninsula and neighbouring regions', in Crossland and Birchall 1 973, 1 15-28 . 1 9 73c. 'Les pri ncipa ux problemes de la pn�histoire du sud-est curopeen', Balkan Studies 14: 1, 3-1 '1 . 1 975a. 'Zu den Problem en Makedonischer Vorgeschichte', MAA 1, 9-24. 1 975b. 'Agglomerations fortifiees dans la region frontiere de I'est du territoire i l lyrien', in Benac l 975a, 1 1 3-20. --1 976. ' Les Illyriens au Montenegro a la lum ierc des decouvertes a rcheologiques', lliria 4, 3 1 9-25. 1 980. 'L'historiographie yugoslavc sur I'etat illyrien (a propos de la communication de Ali Hadri dans Iliria IV, Ti rana 1 976) ', G CBI XVIIII1 6, 207-1 0. 1 98 2a. 'The Eneolithic period in the Central Bal kan area', i n Boardman, Edwards, Hammond and Sollberger 1 982, 1 3 6-62. 1 98 2 b . 'The Early Iron Age in th e Central Balkan Area 1 000-75 0 BC', in Boardman, Edwards, Hammond and Sollberger 1 982, 582-6 1 8 . --1 984. 'Rites funeraires illyriens a l'epoque romaine', i n Benac 1 9 84a, 1 53-64. 1 98 8 a . ' Formations et origi nes des Illyriens', in Garasanin, M., 1 9 8 8 b, 8 1-1 44. -- (ed.) 1 9 8 8b. I.es llIyr iens et les A lbanais: serie de conferences tenues liu 2 1 mai au 4 ;u;n 1 986, Beograd (Serbian Academy of Arts and Sciences) . Gavela, B., 1952. L 'oppidum celtique l.idovar, Beograd ( University of Beograd) . -- 1 969. 'Sur les problcmon ethniques de la culture celtiq ue a Zidovar', Starinar 20, 1 1 9-27. 1 975 a. ' E tudes methodologiques sur la stratification archco\o gique, chronologique et ethnique de Zidovar', Al 1 3 , 39-44. 1 975 b. ' Rois et etats cc1tiqncs dans les Balkans (essai critiq ue sur I'historiographie a ntique et moderne se rapportant aux Celtes balkaniques)', GCBI XIV/ 1 2, 6 1 -8. Georgiev, Z., 1 9 78. 'A new Hallstatt find in the vicinity o f Kum ano vo', MAA 4, 69-70. -- 1 9 8 8 . 'Handmade vessels from the neeropoles at the lower course of the Vardar river', MAA 9, 65-8 1 . --
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( ; i l' r �i i , A. . , 1 a o r � ' , ( ; /. ,\1.'1
3 3 , 23- 1 U . -- 1 979a. 'Archiiologisl:hc Fo rsdl l l l lgl' 1 l a u f d c r C ; ra d i n a ohcrh a l h d e s Dorfes OsaniCi b e i StotK i lll .I a h re 1 % 3 ' , WM H H I . 6 , 5-5 9 . -- I 9 7 9 h . 'A rehaologisehe Erforsehung d e r Akropolis d e r illyr isehen Stadt Dams. auf der Gradi na in Osall i Ci bei $tol ac VOIl 1 967- 1 972', WMBHL 6, 6 1- 1 8 1 . -- 1 979c. 'Miinzell aus dem dritten und zweiten Jahrhunden v . u . Z. von G radina in Osanici bei Stolac', WM B H I , 6, 1 8 3-204. -- 1 979d. 'Neu entdeckter Bclag einer Giirtclplattc auf der Gradi na von Osanici bei Stolac', WMBHL 6, 205-1 0 . -- 1 97ge. 'BrOIl7.ene Gussformen aus der Stadt Daors . oherhalb des Dorfes Osanici bei Stolac', WMH H L 6, 2 1 1 -42. Marijan, B., 1 985-6. 'Iron Age Communal Grave from Vasarovine near Livno', CZMS 4 0- 1 , 23-3 8. Marijanovic, B . , 1 984. ' Les recherches finales de I' Acropole sur G radina a Osanici ', eLMS 3 9 , 1 1 -22 . Marin, E., 1 9 77. 'Zur Forsch ung des il lyrischen Namenguts auf der Apenninischen Halbinsel', .lA, 4 1 1-4 1 . Markovic, c., 1 9 8 4 . 'Schmuckgegenstande aus dem fiirstengrab in Lisijevo polje bei Ivangrad', in Benae 1 9 84a, 8 1 -7. --1 9 8 5 . The Neolithic of Montenegro, Beograd (University Cen tre for Archaeological Research vol. 5 ) . Marovic, I., 1 9 6 1 -2 . 'Einige Funde a us . der Hallstattperiode i n Dal m atien', VA HD 63- 4, 5-23 . -- 1 963-5 . 'Eisenzeitl iche Graber i n Zaganj hei Su marti n a u f der Insel BraC', VA HD 65-7, 5-26. -- 1 9 70. 'Ein ige unveroffentlichte silberne gegenstande aus dem liburnischen Gebiet im archaeologischen Museum in Split', in Miro savljevic et al . 1 9 70, 265-8 4 . -- 1 9 75. 'Salone dans l a prchisroi rc', in Rapa n i c 1 975, 9-22. -- 1 9 76 a. 'Les rcsul tats des fduilles dans les tu muli autou rs de la sou rce du fleuve Ceti n a en 1 9 5 3 , 1 954, 1 95 8 , 1 966, et 1 96 8 " in Batovic 1 9 7 6d , 55-75 . -- 1 976h. 'L'elmo greco-iIIirico', in Suic 1 9 76b, 2 8 7-3 00. -- 1 979. ' Resultats du sondage archcologique de Gospodska pl'tina, proche de l a source de l a Cetina', VA HD 72-3 , 1 3 -50. -- 1 9 8 1 . 'Contri butions a la con naissance de l' A ge du Bronze en Dalmatia', VAHD 7 5 , 7- 6 1 . -- 1 9 8 5 . 'Excavation at Stone Barrows at Bogomolje (the island of Hvar)', VA HD 78, 5-35. Ma ro vic , I . , and Nikolanci, M., 1 968-9. 'Four tombs of Vica Luka cemetery, Brat (found 1 9(8 ) ', VA HD 70- 1 , 5-5 5 .
Hl 7
M arl llloV l l' .I . , I <J h h . ' NOIl Vl',IlI X e klll l" l ll\ d ,lll\ 1 ' l l l l np r l' I ,l I iOI l dl'\ •
rhap illT� 24 cl 2� dll "ni pll- de ",ell do-Sq,I ,l x . . Stil' K c/It'll ill sud-(}sl furo/"" lkograo ( Disscrtations of
t h e C i t y M ll Sl'll lll o f
Lklgradc l . 1 1)70. ' Les 1ll011 V Clllcnts migratoires des Scordisques a p rcs 279 ay. n . c', A l i I , 1 5-22 . 1 97 1 . Karaburma a B c ograd : sitcs p rt!hi storiques de differentes epoques ' , in Novak et al. 1 9 7 1 , 1 79-80. 1 973-4. 'Une tombe dou ble de guerriers scordisques it Ritop ck ' , Starinar 24-5, 79-8 3 . Torr, c . , 1 895 . Ancient Ships , Cambridge I repr. C h i cago 1 964, ed. with intro . by A. j. Podle c ki] . Toyn bee, A., 1 973 . Constantine Porphyrogenitus and his World, London . Trbuhovic, V., 1 97 1 . 'Die IIIyrier al s protoh istorischcr Vo l k', in Filip 1 9 7 1 , 86 1-4. Trbuhovic, V. and Trbu hovic, L., 1 970. Donja Toponica: Dardanian and Slavic necropolis, Be o gra d . Tronson, A., 1 984. '$atyrus the Peripatetic and the ma rriagcs of Ph ilip 1 /', jHS 1 04, 1 1 6-26 . T ru h cl k a, C, 1 904 and 1 909. 'Der vorgeschich tlicher pfahlbau im Savebette bei Donja Dolina', WM B H 9, 3-156, and 1 1 , 3-27. Truh lar, F., 1 98 1 . 'Burgwalle: befestigte Siedlungen in Slowenien ', A V 32, 5 3 0-8. Turnock, David, 1 98 8 . The Making of Eastern Europe: from the earliest times to 1 8 1 5, London and New York. Untermann, j., 1 96 1 . Die venetischen Personennamen, Wiesbaden . 1 970. 'Venetischcs in D a l m a ti e n , GelH 5 , 5 -22. --1 978. 'Veneti ', Realencyc/opiidie der classischen A ltertumswissenschaft, ed. Pa uly-Wissowa, Suppl. vol . XV, col . 855-9 8 . Urleb, M., 1 97 3 . 'Die hallstattzeitliche Nekropole auf der Krizna Gora bei Loz', AV 24, 507-20. Valic, A., 1 98 3 . 'Vorgcschichtliche Grab- und Siedlungsfunde in Kranj : archaeologische Schutzgrabungen urn die p farrk i rch c hcrum im J. 1 972', A V 34, 1 29-3 9. Vasic, R . , 1 967. 'The da te of the Japod urns', AI 8 , 47-5 7. 1 969. 'A contribution to the study of Iapod art', Starinar 20, 383-90. 1 9 72. 'Notes on the Autariatae and Triballi', Balcanica 3 , 1 1 7-33 . 1 9 73 . The Early Iron-Age cultural groups in Yugo slav ia , Beograd (Archaeological I n s ti t ute Monographs 1 2). -- 1 9 74a. 'The decorated style of the sixth century B C in the north Balkans', A ctes du VI/le congres international des sciences prehisto riques et protohistoriques, Beograd 9- 1 5 septembre 1 9 71 , Beograd, vol. 3, 1 74 -9 . --
--
•
--
--
--
--
--
'
122 I aeonia, 1 44
Armatus, war god , 247 Armenian, language, 73
armou r, l OS, 239; supplied to Iilyrians, 1 1 9 A roumani, 270 Arrhabaeus, son of Bromecus, 1 1 7.. Arrian, histori an, on Alex ander i n
Augustan History, on Probus, 263 Augustlls, emperor, 1 2, 8 2 ; Danube conqu est, '1 5 1 ; controls llIyricum, 1 8 3 , 209; Pan nonia, 209; victory at Acti um, 255 Aulona, bishop of, 273 Aul u s Geilius, writer, on evil eye, 243 Aurelianus, Dom iti us, emperor, 2 62-3 ; and lllyrician i , 263 ; evacuation of Daci a , 266 Aurelius Victor, historian, on Tetrarchs, 263 Aureolus, army commander, 262 Austria, 6, 1 9, 25 Autariatae, 75 , 92-.\ 96, 99, 1 22,
205 ; an d Celts and Ardiaei, 1 3 9 ; expansion, 1 4 0 ; a n d Antigonus, 1 44 ; decline of, 1 45 ; pl ague of frogs, 1 4 1 ; sa lt, 223 ; killed
wounded, 243 auxilia, Roman in I l I yricuOl, 2 1 2 Avars, i n Pannonia , 267-8 ; and
IIl yria, 1 23-4, 1 3 5 , 1 3 9-40 Arsia ( Rasa), r., 1 85 , 209 a rt, lllyrian, 247 arti l l ery, siege-warfare, 1 3 0 A rupin i , Acupium (Prozor) , Japodian settlement, 1 9 8 ; attacked, 20 1 , 256
Slavs, 269 Avendo (Orocac), J apodian settl ement, 1 98 , 20 1 , 256 axes, 105; Skodran, 3 8 ; II lyrian, 2.� 0 ; battle, 2 3 9 ; dou ble
Asia Minor, 3 1 , 33, 3 9-40; m igrations from, 6 7 ; imports,
sym bolic, 245 Axi upo l i s, 49
1 07
Axius (Vardar),
r., 148
'Ild" x AI..l " , X I ; Ba h l l l l a ,
,', v I L I ' ,
r.,
hel l o w s , sm i t h 's, 2 2 . \ Ikl ori(, ,\4 h d t s , 1 05 ; M ramorac, l Oo ; h d t p l a tes, 1 08 , 247; go l d , 1 4 1 ; s l, i ve r, 1 69 ; b u ck l es , 2.1 3 , 27 Benac, Alojz, 9, 3 9- 40 Bera t, 1 5- 1 6 ; defences, LB Ber l i n , Congress of, 5"": 8 , 26 Beroea , wife of G l aucias B i h ac, 79, 1 9 7;
217
1 49
Ban: h i a d s of Co r i nt h , 1 10
6
Backa pl a i n , 23
Bagrd a n defile, 20 B a i a n , khagan of A v r s , 26 8-9 Bakony hills, 1 3 Balan us, chief o f Ga u l s , 1 54 Balaton, Lake, 68
a
S4, S7,
Bal laios, k i n g, coins, t 77
1 9 8 ; shrine, 2 3 8 Bilisht, 1 7, 47
Ba l ta Verde, 4H
Baltic Sea, 3 7 ; languages, 73 Banat plain, bandits, in south B al ka ns, 26 1 Banjal Llka, 22 ba n q u e t i ng u te n s i l s , I 09 Bara j evo, 48
bill -hook, i ron, 22 1
23, 30, SS
�
e e
1 90
Barizan i , 237
Basarabi, 48, 58
Bassania, Illyrian
,
Bla lo, Korcula, 5 'I Blaz, Mat v a l l e y , ,� o
to wn , 1 Tl Bassiana ( Pe t ro v ci ) city 2 5 7
l V:
Ba s t�rnae , a n d Ph i ip 1 5 1 -2 ; allies o f Scordisci, 202, 2 06 Batinci, 1 06 Baw, Pannonian l e a d e r, 1 97, 207 ' 2 15-16 Sato, son of Longarus, 149 Batoia, (�ato), llIyrian n a m e' 2 7 1 B a tov ic, Si me, S 6 B a y of Ca tl e (Kastelanski Zal i ) ' 16 beads, t 05 ; g las paste, 1 06 ; amber, 1 1 8 , 225 ; bico n i ca l , 277 beans, grown by l I 1 y rians, 220 Bederiana, village in Darda n i a, B la Crkva , 34, 1 06
s s
s
Bc1 acevac, 4 H Belgrade, ,� O , 4 8 , 6 8 , 83 ; 9 Bel lovode, 4 7
Bilvane�ti-Vint, 48 , Bindus Neptu nus, s h ri ne ' 200 , 246 B r k en n a , d a u ghte r of B a rd y l i s 1 25 Bt stra mountains, 1 8 Bistue, 'New' and ' Old', Roman cities, 256 Birola ( Monasti r ) , ! H , 4 9 Bj elasnica 111 t S. , 2 1 Bl ack Drin (Drin i Zi), L , 1 7- 1 9, .� O, 45, 4 8 Black Sea, .13 , 5 5 , 1 0 2, 1 07, 1 5 2 B l a n do n a , 71
238
Barakovac, 4 1 Bar�, 3 7, 46 Ba r d y l i s , 120, 1 26, 1 4 9 ; of Dardani, 1 5 6 Barguliu lll ( ? B er a t) , 0 3 Bariduum, s ettl m n t of Dclmatae'
e
1 24 �emeteries'
267
museu m,
boar, wild, 222 ' Boa s, serpent cult, 245 B oeo t ia 1 04 Boii, 82; civitas, 2 1 7 b o i ls , healed, 22 1 B oj ana , r., 1 5 Bologna, 4 0 bone, d agg r handle, 1 4 1 Bononia, 8 3 Boria, lstrian deity, 245 Bosanska Gradiska, 5 1 Bosna, r . , 22, 5 1 , 203 Bosn ia , 22, 24 32-5 3 9 4 1
,
e
5 0- I , .'14,
S7-8, 6.S , 7(l-I:74 '
140 B o s u t r., 5 5 Bouthoe (Budva), 9 6 , 9 9 , 1 6 8 bows and arrows, llIyrian, 239 B r a c (Brattia), is., 5 , 5 0, 1 0 0
,
/". 11 '_\' h r,l(l' ll' t s , l O S - h . I O S • .!. \ \
1 1 1 1 rn'l . ..J I
Brasidas, Spa rt,l I l , 1 1 7
1 1 1 1 1' 1 0 1 1 , R l dl Md , (,
bread, hearths and ovell S , 23 I ; bread wheat, 220 breastplates, IIIyrian, 2 3 9 breeches, worn by lIlyri ans, 22S Breuci, 81 , 203 , 2S6; defeated, 207; civitas, 2 1 7- 1 8 Bri bir, 5 6 brick, construction, 1 28 brigands, 1 09 Brigetio, 8 1 Brindisi (Brundusium): Roman colony, 1 28 , 1 5 9, 1 7 1 ; pact of
2 1.1
Bylazora (Titov Vclez), Macedonian stronghold, 1 4 9-50, 1 54 Bylliones, 9 7 ; koinon, 1 3 3 Byllis ( Gradisht), 97, 1 2 7, 1 3 0 ; ti le production, "1 28; coins, 1 29 ; Roman colony, 2 13 ; bishop, 273
Caeak, 20 cacal ia, plant, 85 Cadmus the Phoenician, 96, 98, 99, 245 Caecilius Metel l us, Roman commander against Del matae, 1 94 -5
Cakran, 32 Cal abria, 6S Calafat, 55 candelabrum, bronze, I 06 Cannae, battIe, 1 63 canoes, d ugout, 222 Canosa, helmet, 1 0 8 Cape Linguetta ( Kep i Gj uhezes), 15
..
27 1 Bur i m , 3 0
Burn u m : fortrcss of Delmatac, legionary base, 256
..J 'i
H l l t h rot l l l l l , 1 27 Blltlll i r, Ilcol i th il- sitl" 8, ,�4 l:I utrint, lTI useu m, 1 0 buttons, hemispherica l, 277 Butna (Budva ) , Ro m a n settlrll1enr,
40 BC, 209
Brod near Bitolj, 1 0 6 Bronze Age, imports, 3 7-8 bronze crater, 1 06 ; vessels, 1 0 5 ; hydria, 1 0 6 ; brooches, 1 05-6 ; figu rines, 1 08 ; G reek imported, 1 4 1 ; pendants, 252 bronze-working, smith, figurine, 1 0 8 ; OSanici, 1 94, 204, 223 brooches, gold, silver and bronze: i mported, 169; spc{.1: acle, 203 ; with amber, 225 ; Libu rnian, n l ; Cerrosa, 5trpci, 23 3 ; disc, 276 Brutu s, conspirator, I I I Bryges, at Epidamnus, 1 1 1 , 1 4 5 Bubanj, 35 bu ckets and cauldrons, 23 0 Budva, 1 5, 1 0S Bugojno plain, 22 Bulgars, Bulgarian empire, 1 1 , 1 9, 4S ; origin, 270 Bulic, frane, 6 Bulini, B u l i nia, 95-7, 1 00 bunje, shepherd's hut, 227 bura (bora ) , 24 Rurgenae, 83 burials: princely, 1 06 ; A ten ica, 1 4 0 ; practice, 24 1 -2 ; early Slav,
•
190;
caps, II1yrian, 229; tasse l led, of Li b, 271 Capljina, Slav settlement, 27 1 Cara ntanus, mons, 77 Carantu m, 77-8 Caravantius, h a l f-brother of Gentius, 1 73-4 Caricin Grad Oustiniana Pri ma), 267 Carinth ia, 77, 8 1 ; Carni in, 1 84 Carni, 77, 1 53, 1 83-6, 1 97, 21 8 Carniola, Lower and Upper, 4 1 , 5 7-8, 63, 77 Carnuntum, 78 Carpath ians, mts., B, .B carpentry, tools, 1 94
U I ( . . 1 1' 1 . . . 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 , 7 2
1 1 1 .1 1'101 : I I I hl l l' l a l . 1 4 0 ; 0 1
( , I rl h a �:I' , W , I! w l l h R O I I H' , 1 4 '1 , I 'i '1 C ; I I " 1 " , 1' 1 1 1 1 '1'1'01" , 2 ('\
d l . I C I I I S , 1 0,'i
C a , s a l l dlT, k i , , � 0 1 :-o. b Cl'll 0 I I I a , 1 24, 1 44
Cass i u s Di o , h i s l O r i ;l ll : O i l ROlllilll lIliSt:O llcilll:t, 2 1 S; on I 1 l y rians in Rome, 260 Cass ius Longi n u s, R om a n con sul, 153; attac k s J apodes, 2 0 0 Ca ssop can s, 1 04 caste l l a ( fons), of Dcl m atae, 1 90 castell ieri, T s trian , 63 cat, T I Iyrian s y mb ol , 245 Carali, 77 Ca tarbates (Krka ) , r., 95-6, 100-1 Carari, 7 7, 8 1 ; civitas o f, 2 1 7- 1 8 cattle : t rade i n , 1 1 ,� ; bn:eding, 127; tri bute, 1 8 9 C a u l i ci , 1 00 causea, broad cap, 2 1 9 Cav i , attacked by Caravan ti us, 1 7.1 Celegeri, ci vitas, 2 1 7-1 8 Cel tic: na mes, 7 1 , 75-7, 79, !l 1 , 83_4; l anguages, 73-4 ; dress, 75 Cel ts, 1 2 , 63, 82, 8 7, 92, 94; m i grati o ns, 67, l ll 8 , 20 1 ; and Alexander, 1 2 2 , 1 37; a n d I l l yri a n s, 135; i n vasions, 1 3 7, 1 4 0 , 1 44, 1 46-7; on A driati c, 1 3 8 ; in Po val ley, 1 62 , oppidum, 2 2 6 ; oppi d um in K. l ta l y, I !l6 ; in Roman Empi re, 201l cemeteries : Hel l enistic, issa, 1 1 5 ; prehistori c, 2 1. 9 centum l anguages, 73 Ceraunian mts., 96 Ceraunii, ci vi t a s, 2 1 7 cereals: exports, 1 09 , 224; production, 1 2 7 , 168 c,:ermcnikc, 9 7 C ct i n a , r . , l 11 ll , 1 90 Cetriporis, ru ler of Th ra ce, 1 2 1 Ch.licid ians, 1 1 9 C h a on i a, ChilOl1 i il llS, 47, 9 1 -2 ,
95-6 , 9 H , 103- 4 ; u rban centres, 130
I ' h ' I l' l hOI l , 2 4 4 ( :h .l l l .: h i r s a , 4a nnonia, 265 Cl a u di u s , Appius, Roman t:ommander a t Lych n i dus, 1 73 Claudius, empero r , and tvloesia, 210 Claudius, Marcus Aurc1 ius, emperor, deieats Go t h s , 262 Clei t us, king o f lIIyrians, 1 20, 1 22-,� , 1 45
Cleopatra, q ueen, navy o f, 1 8 7 clima te, western G reece, 1 09 cl oaks , m i l i ta ry, 1 .) 4, 12ll-9 Clondicus, leader of Basta rnae, 1 5 2-3 doth, T I 1 yrian, 1 2 1l Cnidus, settlers, 1 1 3 Coa stal Navigation ( Per ip l u s ) of Scy lax, 97, 23 1l Coastal Voyage ( Periegesi s ) of Scymnus, 97, 1 02
H!
/11' /" ,\
Ul lt i l l - h ur i ;\ I �, 2 4 1 - 2 l'o i ns : ( ; rcck l ' O lOll ics, 10(" 1 1'1 , 1 75 ; o i Apol l oll i a a l l d Dyrrhach i ll lll, 1 U ; Co rcy r a t';\ n ,
1 1 4;
silver, 1 2 9 ; Illyrian, on Roman
1 29-:�0, 1 75-6 ; m i nes, 224
Col apiani, 8 1 ; ci \'i tas of, 2 1 7- 1 8 Col apis (Kulpa), r., 8 1 , 206, 2 1 7 Colchians, 1 02 ; an d Olcinium, 244 colonies: Rom a n in lIIyricum, 2 1 2 ; veteran, 2 1 3 Commodus, emperor, 259 Con cordia, Roman colony, 1 8 4 Constantine I, emperor, 264; field armies, 2 1 1 Constantine VII Porphyrogenitus, emperor: on Slavs i n Illyricum, 269-70 ; on Roman survival, 278 Consta ntinople, attacked by Avars, Slavs and Persians, 269 Constan ti us, Ca esar, 263 conventus, j udici al assize, 2 "1 5 copper: deposi ts, 1 2 8 ; mining, 224 Corcyra (Corfu ), is., Corcyracans, 69, 95, 1 0 1 , 1 03 , 1 1 0- 1 2, 1 25 ; attacked by Illyrians, 1 5 6, 1 60, 1 62 ; rewarded, 1 75 ; u n der Liburn i , 1 8 8 Co rcyra (Koreui a), Black, is., 9 5 , 1 0 0 , 1 03 , 1 1 3-1 S ; Roman, 1 7 1 ; coins, 1 76 Cori nth, Corinth ians, 1 0 1 , 1 03 , 1 1 0, 1 1 2 ; Gu l f, 1 60 corn ; trade, 1 1 3 ; on coins, 1 76 ; tri bute, 1 89 ; and silver, 223 .. Cornacum (Soti n), 8 3 , 2 1 7 ; Cornacates, civitas, 2 1 7; city, 257
Cornelius Scipio Nasica, against Delmatac, 1 90 Coruncani i , L and (;n., Roman envoys, 1 5 9 Cosconius, against Delmatae, 1 96 cosmolot,'Y, lIIyrian, 244 (:ovi c, B . , 3 9 Crateia (Brae), i s . , 9 5 , 1 00
, 1 ,' 1 1 1 .1 1 " ,1 1 d l l'�l s : h l l l' l . 1 1
nI ,' ,
.I .I ", .de\,
I 'I ){ - 'I ,
2 4 2-3
( : rl'l >l 1 i o l l , lJ){ ( 'rcs, i s . , 3 2 , 1 0 1
pira tes, 1 6 8 ; mercena ries a t Uscana, 1 72 Crna Gora, S kopsb , mts . , 1 8 Crna Reka (Black River) , r., 1 8 C rn oljeva, mt., 1 9 Cmatia, 4 1 , 5 6 ; Croa ts, 2 6 9-70 ; Illyrian heritage, 2 7 1 Crvena Stijena, cave, 2 8-9 Crvenica, .5 0 Cuccillm, 8 :� ClIrk-tae (Krk), is., 1 8 8 CUSUIll, 8 3 Cycl ades, plundered , 1 6.3 Cynoscephalae, battle, 1 5 0 C rete;
Dacia, 7 5 ; late Roman province, 2 1 0 ; Diocese of, 2 11 ; gol d mi nes, 224; evacuated, 2 6 2 ; occupied b y Slavs, 268 Dacians, 8 :� , 8 7 , 206 Daco-Moesians, 1 2, 3 4 Daesitiates, 8 0 , 2 0 3 , 205 ; defeat of, 207; civitas, 2 1 6 Dalj, .55 Dalmatia, .50, 65, 70, 74, 1 0 1 ; Roman province, 92, 1 97, 20.3 ; legiuns in, 2 1 1 ; roads, 2 1 2 ; colonies, 2 B ; gold mines, 224 ; sailors from, 226; th reatened by Slavs, 269-70 Dalmatian coast, 26, 35, 71 dalmatic, tu nic, 228 Damasti un: location, 1 2 8 ; coins of, 1 76, 223
dances, lllyrian, ' kola', 2 7 1 Dando, aged lllyrian , 1 67 Dan ilo Gornje, culture, ,B Danuoe, r., 1 3 , 20, 23-4, 3 1 , 3 3 , S S , 68, 7 2 , 77-8, 82, 8 .�-4, 20 1 ;
branch o f, 9 1 , 1 02, 1 1 2, 1 22 ; Roman frontier, 2 1 1 ; fortified, 268
Danubians, Roman disdai n , 260 Daorsi, 92, 1 8 9 ; su bj ects of
I"d, ',\
I I I
( '1' 1 1 1 1 1 " . 1 '/ 1 ; 1' ' '' 1 1 1 1 1 1 I ... ' 1 1 1
2. . J . I ; "'1' 1 I 1 . I I I I I I I , h ," h . 2. ' 1 ;
I I d l l l l l' , 1 7, 1 ; , 0 1 1 1 ' . I ' � . 1 7 7 ; 1 1 1 1 1
d (' I I I Il" ' ,1 . ('1' 1 ' ' ' 2. ,.J.! ; R O I I I . I I I
l o . . h . 1 '1 2. ; , I V I I .I ' . 2. 1 h
, i l ll" , 2 'i 6- 7
1 >.101'1 1 . 0 . '1 2.
i >.-l l I I i l l i u l I l
D.l n L l I l l ' l l l" . d ll l a t a l' , I H H-l) ; si te, I YO, I Y2,
Dcl i a ns, 1 02
a ttacked hy
Delphi,
Celts, 1 44,
20 1 -2
1 4 8 ; and Bastarnac, 1 5 2 ; a n d
Demetrius 1, son of A n ti gonus, 1 2 5 DCllletri u s 1 1 , k i n g of ,Macedonia,
TCllta, 1 5 8 ; attack Macedonia, 1 62, 1 70; Roman al lies, 1 71,
Demetrius of Ph aro s ,
1 55;
slaves o f,
1 27; and
205 ; Roman province, 2 10 ; wars
1 4 8 , 1 5 0, 1 5 7
1 1 5 ; controls Corcyra, 1 60 ; succeeds Teuta, 1 6 1 -3 ; defea ted , 1 64 ; and Phi l i p
with ROllle, 2 1 0 ; Roman colony, 2 1 3 ; civitas of, 2 1 8 ; d i rt" hahits, , 220 ; serpent deity, 245 ; a r ch bis h o p , 26 7 Da rdanus, 9 2 ; fo und er of Troy, 145 dardhe, 'pear', 244
Demir Kapija : go rge , 49; settl ement, 1 06 Demosthenes, Ph i l i ppics, 1 2 1 Deraemestae, ci v itas, 2 1 6, 2 5 7
Da rius, K. of Persia , 94
D e u ri, ci vitas, 2 1 6
Da ssarenses, tri hutary
to Rom e,
Dassaret i i , Dassaretis, 92, 9 8 ,
frolll
Illyri a n s ,
1 62 ; occupied by Mace d onia,
( Dassa retae),
dia d em , lllyri a n , 2,B Diadora
U a d er ) , late
98
Roman
Diana: deity, 229, 247; temple of,
Dassaro, 92 Da7.us, on Black Corcyra, 1 t 5
Roma, temple, 257
Dehelo brdo, near
D i dym u s, com mentator on
Sarajevo,
34, 4 1 ,
204 1.50
Decatera (Acruv ium), 2 6 9 Deci us, Messius,
decuri ae, R.o man
257; and N y mp h s, 25 9
Dibica k near Suva Reka , 45
De bar, 1 8, 2 5 , 45
Debrdte, pass,
Dexari
settlement, 269
'1 6 5 ; Roman ba se, 1 70
Dea
Devoll, r., 1 7, 1 9, 1 23
Dev oll i an ware, .1 S , 46
1 74
1 23- 4, 1 49 ; taken
V, 1 6 5 ; marriage, 1 6 7; and
Histri, 1 85
emperor, 2 6 1 division o f native
stamped bricks, 1 3 3 ; held hy Demetrius, 1 63
peoples, 2 1 5, 237 Odi u m , hattl e, 1 1 7
Dillaric, mts., 13- 1 4 , 1 7, 20- 1 ,
Ddmatae : names, 70-2, 74-6, 79-8 1 , 84, 8 7 ; and I ssa ,
Demosthenes, 12 'I Diluntum, cit)" 2 5 7 DIM on IIIyrian coins, 1 76 Di m a le, Dimal l u m ( Krotine), 13 3- 4; t i l e p roduction, 128 ;
99,
1 1 6 ; s u b j ects of l l l y ria, 1 7 1 ; settl ements, R o m a n wars, 1 8 8- 1 97, 20 1 ; Roman co lo nies,
188
Dindari, civitas, 21 7 Diodetian, emperor: reorgan ization of J I I y ricllm, 2 1 0; from Salon a, 263- 4
2 1.1 ; civitas, 2 1 6 ; m i ners, 224;
D iodorus
name,
1 1 8-2 1
land redistribution, 237;
Siculus, h ist o ri a n, 1 J 4,
U4
I "d, ' ,
l >i O I l 1 l'dl', 9 4 , 1 00
1 ) i Ol I )' s i ll s I of
Sy raul sl" 1 1 4 -- I 'i ,
I IX
Di oscucides, Pedanills, dol'tor, X 'i Ditiones, Pannonians, 203 ; civ itas, 216 Dium, i n Macedon ia, 1 73 Doboj, 29 Doclea, (Own, 2 1 0; Docleatae, civitas, 2 1 6 ; princeps, 23 8 ; Roman ci ty, 256; bishop, 273 Dodona, o rac l e, 96, 1 03-4 d o es, on llIyrian coi ns, 1 76 D o lens k o, 5 8-6 1 , 6." 6 6 ; helmets, 240 ; warrior elite, 247 Domavia ( Gcadin a) : sil ver mines, 223 ; city, 257 Domesticus, epithet of Silvanlls, 25 9
Donja B rn j i ca , 48 Donja Dolina: site, 8, 5 1-2, S S , 6 6 , 2m ; needles, crops, 220 ; fishing, 222 ; settl ement, 227; burials, hearths, 242 Donja Toponica, 48 D onje Ocizace, 49 Donuca ( Rila), mt., 152 Do ri a n tribes, I t S doves, Illy cia n s ym b ols , 245 D racon, Dcacen a, serpent deities, 245
Drau (Dcava ) , r., 22-3 Draudacum, 8 6 D rava , c . , 35, S4-5, 6 8 , 77, 79, 8 1 , 8 3 , 8 7, 20 1 , 207, 2 1 7 dress, JIlyria n , 227-9; imported, .. 1 09 ; orna ments, 1 4 1 Drin (Dcilon), r., 1 3, 1 7, 1 9, 45 , 74, 93, 9 8-9, 1 1 3, 1 15 , 1 33 , 1 3 9 ; l i m i t of JIl y r i a , 1 6 1-2, 2 7 3 , 278 Drina, r., 2 1 , 8 2-3 , 203, 205 , 209,
2 1 7; and Secbs, 270 Drino, c., 1 6 Dcinovci, 5 0 Drzhanica, 48 Dub, 4R
1 ) l I k l l . 1 ( 1 )I l Idl';I ) , p m'sl 0 1 , IlIst orr;I Il, 2 7 1
.\2 - d 1 I 1 1 1 1 I l l , i l l n a m l'S , 7 2 Du rrcs, Ill u seu m , 1 0, 1 5 I ) l I l l .l rl·"
Du vno, pl a i n , 1 8 8 ; hill-ions, 1 ')0-2 Dvorovi near Bjelina, 4 1 Dymanes, Dorian tribe, 1 1 5 Dyrrh achiulll (Durres) : Greek co l ony, 72, 1 1 0- 1 1 , 1 2 4 ; and Pyrrhus, 1 25 ; civil war campa ign, 1 2 8 ; pottery , 'l 28 ; coi n s 1 29, 225 ; Monu nills and Mytilus, 1 46 ; control o f plain, 1 6 8 ; rewa rded, 1 75 ; coin circul ation, 1 76; Roman, 2 1 0, 2 1 2 ; colony, 2 13 ; attacked by Slavs, 268, 270; later city, 273 ; and Komani cemeteries, 274; Theme o f, 2 74 Dyy rta, 95 ea rrings : imported, 1 06; gold, 1 4 1 ; Byzantin e, 276 Egeta, 8 3 Eggebrecht, A . , 1 1 Egnati us, proconsul, and Via Egnati a, 2 1 2 Egypt, 95 Eia, Istrian dei ty, 245 El bas(s)an, 1 5, 97, 280 Elektrides, is., 95, 1 0 1 elektron (amber), 1 0 1 His, attacked, 1 5 8 Emona (Ljubljana), 22, 71 , 76; Roman colony, 2 1 3 , 2 1 8 Enchclei, 1 9, 92-3 , 96, 9 8-9 ; 'eel-men', 244 Ennills, poet, on lllyrian weapons, 239 Eordaea, 49
epei ros (main land), 1 03 Epetiu m (Stobrec), 72, 1 00, 11 6, 1 89 Ephorus, historian, 103, 1 1 8 Epicadus, chief of Pa rth i n i , 1 74 F.pidamnos/Dyrchachillm, 72, 93,
I "d, ',\ '/h , 'I X , 1 1 0 III
1 1 I y 1" 1 01 1 1
I f , . . It-,
1 1 ; , I . I V ('
W ; I I" ,
F p i d 'l l I f l l l l l : R O I I I , I I I (01 0 1 1 )-"
2 1 6 ; Sl'I'Pl' 1 I 1
1 17;
l 'i h , I h O, · l , 1 7 \
1 1 ,\,
n l l l , 14 � ;
6 lJ, Y 2-. l , w " of, 1 1 2 ;
invaded : hy lII y r i a l l s , I I ll , 1 25 ; b y Cassander, 1 24 ; coi ns, 1 l 'J ; deciine, 1 46 ; contro l o f Da rdania, 1 4S ; m a so nry defences, 1 :n ; urba n i zation, 1 3 6 ; and llIyrians, 1 S ll ' Epi rus N ova a m I Vews: Roman pro v i n ces , 2 1 0, 2 73 ; Byz a nti n e fo rtresses, 268 Eratosthenes, 97 Eravisci, 82; civitas, 2 1 7
r.,
1 23 , 1 5 0,
154 Erythrae, 1 1 0 Este, 40; cu l t u re , 1 8 4 Etleva, queen of G ent i u s ,
1 74
Etruscans, .5 9
Etuta, 8.5 ; married to Gentius, 1 72 Euboea, 1 1 0 E u ryd i ce, queen of M acedonia, 1 1 9 Evans, Arthur, 6, R evi l eye, in IIlyria, 243 exports, raw ma ter i al s , 1 09 exten ded fa mily, 1 0 9
face-masks, gold, '1 06 278 Fannius Stra bo, envoy to JII}'ria, 1 89 Fav eri a , lstcian settlement, 1 8 S-6 fieri, m useum, 1 0 finger-rings, 276 fish, ornament, 252 ; fishing, 220-2 ; hooks and harpoons, 222; tanks, 222 Fiume (Rijeka), 25 Flavian cities, 256 Flav ius honto, of Dodea, 25 7 fleets, i m pe ria l, recruitment, 2SS Fan, c., 45 ,
di Frill l i ) , I X4 i m peri a l , 2 1 1
h ml ll1 .I l 1 l i i ( C i v i d a it'
1 04, 1 5 6-7; k i llgs
E retrians, 1 1 0 Eridanus, r., 94 Erigon (Crna Rek a ) ,
l 'O I' l I I io, r . , I X � l o n i l i , .l t i o l l s , I l I y ri a l l , I . W
frl'l'dmcn, Roman
a l>;l l 1 d ol l t'l I , 2 6 9
E p i rtlS, 1 2, .l X , 4 7 ,
1 001 W ( " ; 1 1' , 1 1 1 ), 1"1 .1 1 1 , L ! '/
Fri ll l i , 2 2
frogs, pl ague of, 1 4 1 , 1 44 huska Gora, 23 FlIlvius, Roman comm ander, Fu lvius Fla ccus, Roman commander, 1 92 funeral : ritual, 1 99 ; Roman m o n um e n t s , 271
1 6 '1
Ga binius, attacked by Delmatae, 1 9 6-7 Gabrovec, Stane, 6 1 G a i l, r" 76 Gaj , Ljudevit, S Gaj ta n , 1 27, 1 3 0, 1 .1 3 Ga la s , 9 2 Galatea, wife of Polyph emus, 92 G al at i a n s , 9 2 Galerius, Caesar, 263 Ga l ic i ca, mts., 1 9
gal ley, o n I I I yri a n coins, 1 79 Gallienus, emperor, 26'1 Ganjolle, Gajtan, 1 JO G auls, 1 53 ; and Ro m a n s , l X 5 gauntlet, gold, 1 0 8 gcns, gen tis , 72-J gentiana, plant, llS ; hea l i ng, 21 1 Gent i us (Genthios), son of Pleuratus, king, 70, 72-3 , 8 5 , 1 54 ; coins, 1 2 9, 1 77 ; su c ceeds t o power, 1 71 ; accused, 1 72 ; a n d Macedonia, 1 73 ; defeated, 1 74, 1 92 ; imprisoned, 1 75 ; and Delmatae, 1 8 9 ; and medici nal p l a n ts , 2 2 ] Genusus, r . , 9 3 , 9 8 Germanic languages, 73 Germans, wars against, 26 1 GertouslGerous, 9 8 Geryol1, k i ng, 1 1 0 Getae, defeated by Alexander, 1 22 Gev ghel i , 49
girdles, 1 05
'lId" x ( ; i ssa
( I';lg), i s . , 1 '1 '1
G j i rokastra, I h
Glamoc, pl a i n o f, I H S Gl asinac: burial s, S, 1 07 ; p l a teau, 2 1 , 3 4, 4 1 , 44-8 , 5 0, 52, 54, 66,
1 05 , 205 ; and Au rariatae, 140; needles, 220; body armour, 240; warrior elite, 247 gla ss: paste beads, 1 05, 223 ; maki ng, 22 3 Glaucias, ruler of Ta ulantii, 1 22-4,
Gregory I, pope, Letters, 269 C rude, 50 Gu bavica, 4 1 Gura Padinei, 4 S G u rina-Alpe, 76 Gurzeze: strongh old, 133 ;
tile production, 1 2 8 Gylaceia, n a m e of Apollonia, 1 '1 2 Gyl ax, fo u u de r of Apol lonia, 1 1 2
126, 156
Glinditiones, civitas, 2 1 7 Glogovi k, 4 1 Gnjiljane, 20 goats, 222; on I l l y ri a n coins, 1 76 Godljevo, 4 1 gold: sheet attachments, 1 4 1 ; necklaces, 1 5 4 ; o f Gentius, 1 75 ; deposits, 203 ; i n Dalm atia,
Hadrian, emperor, 254, 25 6 Haemus (Stara plan i n a ) , mt. , 1 22, 152
Hahn, J . G. \'on, 5 hairpi ns, 1 05 Haliacmon, r., 49 H a l i ccc l i l l a t al', 1 in, 270 Pa n n on i a Secu nda, prov ince, 2 1 0 Pann onian, plain, 2 0 , 2 2 ; Urnficld, 52, 6 4 ; Wa r, 1 4 - 1 8 RC, 207; highway, construction, 2 1 2 Pannonians, 74 -5 , 8 7 ; n a mes, 79-8 1 ; defeated by Cel ts, 1 3 8 , 1 8 8 , 20 1 , 206 ; Roman con q u e s t , 209; ch acacter, 2 1 9 ; i mport wine, 22 1 ; drink mead, 222 Papazoglll , F., 70 Pap u k , h i l l s, 23 Papirius Cacbo, a ttacks Ci m b r i , 203 Pacentiu lIl (poree), 1 8 5 P a ri ns , on P h a ros, 1 '1 4
a
a l l il's,
llat a v i um (Pa d u a ) , 76, 1 03 ; foundation, 1 8 4
Pausanias,
Pacati anus, usurp�r, 2 6 1
p l
ROlll a n
pastora l eCOl oIllY, 126
Ostrogoths, in h a l y , 267 Os u m , C . , 1 4, 1 7 Otok, s�ttl ement, 22 1 , 227
Pa m hy oi, Docian Pannonia, Roman,
under
at ta c ke d by
Osovo, G l a s i n 'K, 6 6
�.,
sl,tt l l'llll'nts, I .B ;
1 66 ;
I 'JI )
Osseriates, civitas, 2 1 7
Pal aeolithic,
l '.m lll'II i , I'.m h i l l i , " 2- , \ ; " H ;
1 6 1 -2, 1 74 ; Macl'doll i a n a l l ies,
Oso r, i s . , 3 6
Paj a k o".'ski,
1 '. 1 1 ' " "' " 1 0 , g'· I I .... . r I , 1 2 1
276 Pedetae ( O rtopu l etae), 95 Pelagonia, 49, 1 4 9-50
Pclion, Illyrian fo rtress, 1 23 , 1 3 6 Pe l i n , mt_, 9R
o
Pelister, m., 1 8 P l es a c pe ni n s u l a, 5 1 , 99- 1 00, 1 1 4 Pel l a, c api ta l of Macedonia, 1 4 9 ;
cj
tcea Sllrv, 1 73
�
Pel oponn se, 95 ; Pclopollllesian War, 1 07, 1 1 7 ; attacked by I l l v ri a ns , 1 6 3
�
Pelv , ci ty, 257 penda n ts, 1 05 ; a m ber, 22S, LB Penestae, 1 3 6 ; under 1 72-3
Perdiccas,
PcrsclI s,
king of Macedonia,
defeated by Illyrians, 1 1 7, 1 1 9 Peria nder t)' ra n t of rin t , 1 1 4 Periegesis �f Scymnus, 1 00 Pe ri plus, of Scyl ax, 94, 9 9 - 1 0 1 ,
:
Co
h
1 04, I l l , 1 3 8 Perch a ebi, 9 2 Perseis, f u n atio n , IS 1 ,
o d
1 S4 Perscus, king of Macedonia, 1 5 0-2, 1 54; a n d Rome, 1 1 - 2, 1 8 9
7
1 " . 1" ,\, I 'ns l ; l , A d l ; l l' l 1 ll'l l I I l , 4 I ; k l l l l-\ 0 1 , 1 2 2 ; R o m a l l C l 1 1 1 1) ; 1 1 1-\ 1 1 ' , lld Pctrov i c i - R a k itllo, S O- I Pe ut i ngc r �1 ap, 1 00 ph allus, s ym bo l a mong Il l y ri a n s , 245 Pharos (Hva r ) , is" Gceek col ony, 95, 1 00, 1 1 3- 1 6, 1 5 6 ; under lIIycians, 1 60, 1 63, 1 7 1 ; coins, 1 76 Philip 1 1 , k i n g of Macedonia, 1 1 8- 1 9, 1 49, 1 5 6 ; I I I y ria n victories, 1 20- 1 , 1 3 8 l'hilip V, king o f M acedo n i a, 1 48 , 1 54 ; peace with Rome, 1 49 ; Balkan expedition, 1 5 0-2 ; d eath, 1 5 2 ; and IIlycians, 1 64 ; Lychnidus, 1 6 5 ; inva d es Adriatic, 1 65 ; an d H an ni b al , 1 65 , 1 67 ; capture of Lissus, 1 66-7 Ph i l i p, emperor, 26 1 Phil ippi, 1 1 1 P h oc a e a , trade, 1 1 3 Ph oca s, emperor, 269 P h o e n i ce, E p i ro te capi t al : atta cked by I l ly ci an s, 1 5 7-8 ; recoveced, 159 Ph rygia, 1 1 1 ; Ph c ygi a n s (Bcyges), 145 Piave (Piavis), r" 76, 1 8 3 Picenum, 6 8 , 1 0 1 ; H a nn i ba l i n , 1 64 pig, bones, 222 Pil atoviCi, 4 1 pi le-dwellings, 227 Pincum (Vd i ka Gcadiste), 83 .. P i n d u s , mts., 1 3 , 1 8-'1 9, 1 09
P i n nes, king of l l I y ria , succession, 1 62, 1 64, 1 67 pins: i mported Greek, 1 06 ; d ouble omega, 1 08
pirates, 1 09 ; p ira cy of T I ly ri a ns, 1 6 8 , 22S ; alleged, 1 7 1
Pirustae, 8 0 ; of D assaret ii , 9 8 ; exempt from t r ib u te , 1 74; Pa nnonian, 203, 205 , 2 1 6- 1 7; miners in Dacia, 224
1 ' 1 ,,1 , '} .j 1 ' 1 " ,ll' l I m , i l l I 'l' LII-\Oll i .l , l oolnl, 1 ("
Pi l l l l l t i l l l l l , fort of I k l l l l a t ;IL', 1 90 ; I ' i t u l l t i l l i , 2-3 7 Piva, r . , 270 place- n a m e s : survival of Roman, 265 ; Lati n in A l b a n i a , 279-8 0 Plakenska, m ts . , 1 8 Plana, 4 1 p l a nt names, Slav i n Albania, 2 7 9 Pl ator, brother of Gentius, ki l l e d, 1 72 Pla utus, d ra matist, on llly rians, 2 1 9 Pl etto ( Plator), l l I y ri a n name, 2 7 1 Pleraei, attacked, 1 92 Pletva r pass, 1 4 9 Pleurarus, I I I yrian exile, 1 72-3 P leu ratu s , son of Gen ti us , captured, 1 74 Pleurarus, son of Scerdi l aidas, Iilyrian ruler, 1 2 1 ; all i a n ce with Rome, 1 67, 1 70- 1 ; and Dd matae, 1 8 9 Pleurias, king of Illyria, 1 2 1
Pliny the Elder, 92, 1 1 6 ; on D a l mati a , 2 1 5 ; on l l I y rii , 2 1 6 ; o n Il l y r i a n spells, 243 Pljevl ja, 80, 84; tombston es, 253 Pliicken pass, 76 pl ough, co u l ter, 22 1 Pl utarch of Ch aeronea, 1 0 4 ; on Dardan ians, 1 5 5 Po, c . , 1 02, 1 1 3 Pod, Bugoj no, 34, 50, 204 Podravina plain, 23 Poetovio (Ptuj ) , R o m a n co lony, 21 1 , 213 Po h o rjc pl a teau, 22 Pola ( Pu l a ) : harbour an d cape, 1 85 ; colony, street-plan, 227 Po l y ae n us , Stra t agem s , 1 3 8 Pol y a n u s, mt., 208 Polybius, historian, 98, 1 04, 1 48 ,
o n I I I yrians, I S 6, 1 5 9-6 1 , 1 6 5 , 1 6 7; on Veneti , 1 83 ; on Ddmatae, 1 8 9 1 54 ;
polydyn astae, proprietors, 1 27
H 'i l 'o l Y I ' hl'l l l l l S , ( : y d l l l '" I/o! 1 '1 I 1 1 1 1 '1'I I I S, '>I' '' ' I I � , ill '> I l' i l y , 1 '1 (, 1 '0 1 l l l'1' I I I S Trogl l s ,
h , , ' or i .I I I ,
I .\ X
1 '0 l l l Pl'Y , I >y rr h a c h i l l l l l ca ll1 p a i g l l , 1 2X
I'ontus ElIxinus, �5 popu l a t i u n growt h , I I l y r i a n , 1 2 6 porti cos, Byllis a n d Dimale, po r t ra i t s , I I I yrians, 2 2 0
133
Posa v i n a, 2 3 Poseidon, 1 1 0 Postranje, 5 0
Po st umi u s , Ro ma n com ma n de r , 161 Po s u sj e, 5 0 pottery, 1 05, 1 1 3 ; Hva r , 3 6 ; Daun i a n , .'1 6 ; G rt:ek, 56, 1 06, 1 40 ; South Italian, 5 6 ; Apulian, 59, 1 8 8 ; Attic, 59; Cori n th ian, 1 1 1 ; lI I y r i a n , I 28, H O ; on coins,
1 76
Pozega, 2 0 Pozega, Sl avon i a n , 23 , 54 praepositus (commander ) , of civitates, 2 3 8 P r aeto ri a n g ua rd : P re fe cts , 2 1 1 ; dismissed, 259 Praevalitana, provi nce, 2 10, 271 Praschni ker, Ca m i l l o, 1 0 Prekom urj e, 22 Prendi, Fr., 1 1 Prespa, La ke, 1 7-1 8 Pr i b o j , 20 Pri j epo l je, 84 Prilep, 1 8 , 4 9 , 1 4 9 pri n ceps (chief), of Dd m atae , 23 8 prisoners, mutila tion of, 243 Pristi na, 1 9, 8 6 Privilica, Bihac, spring, 246 Prizren, 48, 86; i mport , 1 08 Probus: emperor, 263- 4 ; plant s vines, 22 1 P ro cop i u s , h i s tori a n, Secr et H i s tory : on lllyricll m, 266, 2 6 8 ; on I I I y rian emperors, 2 67 ; B ui ld ings, 268 procurator Augusti : D a l m a ti a and Pannonia, 2 1 1 ; o f mines, 224
I 'ro . l l ' . V le' lw, I 'ro k l , ; 1 I 1 ,
LI ke,
1 00
I ' ro k u p l W h a s i l l , 20 I 'rol llo l l a
(Tcpl jll),
fort
of
Ikl m Vrtiste, 4 8 Vucedol, 3 0 , 3 5 Vu kovar, 23
Wallachia, 48 warfare, J I I y rian, 2 3 8 wa rrior elites, 1 05 , 2 3 7
10 1