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One may see history as only only a succession succession of of chances chances or con;unctures or conjunctures may easily easily see history as -but, so, there is nothing to study, there are no correlations to there is are to there no to be correlations be but, if if so, nothing study, made between events, fact there there is rope of of sand, sand, aa series series in fact a rope is only events, and in only a of one can can do nothing but which one do nothing but narrate narrate.• ••. of non sequiturs sequiturs which .
. .
optical illusion disease of it is is the the optical But it the occupational illusion or or the the research research of the occupational disease student to that only details matter, are to imagine student the details that the the details details are matter, and that only the imagine that all statesman has has no purpose but but is value that the all of the statesman no cohesive is cohesive purpose of equal equal value--that merely a a bundle of contradictions contradictions--and that everything everything is the rule rule bundle of and that is under under the merely of chance, play of little chances chances-history reducing the play chance, under the of of absurdly absurdly little history reducing
itself at the finish to of circumstance. circumstance. the finish to an irony irony of Herbert Butterfield, Herbert Butterfield, 1959 1959
itself at
1 I
have always thought that basic division division among among human beings have that a a basic is always thought beings is between preoccupied with question "How" and those prebetween those those preoccupied the question those prewith the with the is a a great great "How" age. But occupied with the question This is "Why" This age. "But occupied question "Why." "Why" will doubtless doubtless in course again again remains unanswered, in due course unanswered, and will "Why" remains claim attention. Muggeridge, 1958 claim attention. Malcolm Muggeridge, 1958
•
THE CONTOURS OF AMERICAN HISTORY
•
•
William Appleman Appleman Williams Williams was born born in in William and studied studied at United the United at the and
Adantic, Iowa, Atlantic, Iowa,
States and the University of of the University States Naval Naval Academy Academy and Wisconsin. His His books books include include AmericanWisconsin. Russian Relations, Relations, 1781-1947; Russian 1781-1 947; The Tragedy Tragedy of American Diplomacy; Diplomacy; and and The Great EvaGreat Evaof American is at present Professor Professor of History at sion. He is sion. of History at present at the University University of of Wisconsin. Wisconsin. the
•
The The Contours Contours of American History of American History
*** WILLIAM APPLEMAN WILLIAMS
With Foreword by by the the Author Author With aa New Foreword
Q QUADRANGLE PAPERBACKS QUADRANGLE Quadrangle Books // Chicago Quadrangle Books Chicago
In meOlory for Oly of m.y father, and for mother; my m.other; memory of my father,
parents me by by example example the wisdom and parents who gave gave Ole the in both meanings the life life inherent in meanings of of Napoleon's neglected axiom: Napoleon's neglected You comm# yourself, and then zhen-you see. commit yourself, you see.
THE CONTOURS OF AMERICAN HISTORY. © 1961, 1966 by by William Appleman Williams. WilliaDls. This originally published published in 1961 by by the World book was originally Publishing Company, Cleveland, is reprinted and is here Publishing Company, Cleveland, reprinted arrangement. by arrangement. edition published published QUADRANGLE PAPERBACK edition 1966 by by Quadrangle Quadrangle Books, Books, Inc., Inc., 12 East Delaware Place, Chicago Chicago 6O611. 60611. Manufactured in 'the the United Place, States of America. States First First
Concerning Matters Concerning Such Matters as Authors, Authors, Reviewers, Reviewers, Readers, Readers, as and the Book Itself and Even the Itself Foreword: Foreword:
R
AYMOND CHANDLER
and William Faulkner of the the and William shared some of Faulkner shared
RAYMOND same insights insights into the nature nature of being an historian and and aa of being an historian into the writer, and they warned against reading the the reviews reviews oof one's one's own writer, they warned against reading books. Both men understood understood that a writer's writer's creativity, books. that a creativity, integrity, integrity, to defend defend are perpetually perpetually threatened threatened by and performance the urge performance are by the urge to or himself, and to be praised by by his his peers and superiors. or assert assert himself, and to be praised superiors. peers they realized realized that that the natural And they these natural the more an author fulfilled these author fulfilled more an and healthy healthy needs needs by by satisfying satisfying his his reviewers, reviewers, the the more he he would would write to and for for his his reviewers. reviewers. The writer writer would thus warp his his to and write thus warp own insights perceptions, and away from his true and turn true audience. audience. turn away from his insights and perceptions, The writer and the the reviewer reviewer are are engaged engaged in writer and in separate dialogues separate dialogues protagonist-the reader. The writer's writer's responsibility responsibility with the the same protagonist with the reader. is directly and honestly, the highest is to to offer offer himself himself directly at the level highest level honestly, and at reviewer's of he can the reading reading public. of performance can reach, to the reach, to performance he public. The reviewer's is to do the the same it. order to guide the the obligation is in order to inform to do inform and guide obligation reader's dialogue with with the the author and the the rerereader's dialogue the writer. writer. When the author and viewer substitute each other other for reading public, public, they deny their their for the viewer the reading substitute each they deny separate purposes and responsibilities. responsibilities. separate purposes II was was impressed with the of this this insight by the validity offered by insight offered impressed with validity of Chandler and Faulkner Faulkner long before I began to write books. I found I write books. found before I to Chandler long began the vast vast majority majority of formal and public public exchanges between authors authors the of formal exchanges between and reviewers reviewers to to be be dull, dull, childish, petty, or irrelevant. A good and or irrelevant. childish, petty, good were aa few few many managed qualities. There were to display all those those qualities. managed to display all many neither the the bluster bluster nor nor the the blood blood conexciting personal personal duels, conbut neither duels, but exciting I1
2 2
The American History History Contours of The Contours of American
tributed to to any any fundamental of the the reader's dialogue reader's dialogue enrichment of fundamental enrichment tributed with the author. The tiny number of such confrontations that did did with the author. The tiny number of such confrontations that help the reader involved an investment of time and energy by the help the reader involved an investment of time and energy by the author he could could have have used used far more creatively creatively in way that that in a a way far more that he author that I will will describe I later. describe later. verified The from Chandler Chandler and Faulkner was further further verified and Faulkner The warning warning from when II disregarded disregarded it. it. II doubt any man has has either either the the conconif any doubt if when fidence or the discipline to ignore the reviews of his first book. of reviews his first the book. to fidence or the discipline ignore Certainly did not. not. But But in them II gained a fuller underfuller underin reading gained a reading them Certainly II did standing of what Chandler Faulkner were were talking about. Some and Faulkner of what Chandler and talking about. standing reviewers mistake mistake the the public public or professional for personal arena. arena. the personal or professional for the reviewers There purpose, and potentially great value, in aa and in a legitimate There is is a value, potentially great legitimate purpose, serious between professionals. professionals. Ted Williams Williams could could confrontation between serious confrontation and teach other to raise their batting batting averages. averages. The raise their and did other men how to did teach tough, candid, private exchanges between Maxwell Perkins between Maxwell Perkins and and tough, candid, private exchanges and between F. Scott Fitzgerald and Ernest HemingF. Ernest Tom Wolfe, and between Scott Fitzgerald Wolfe, Hemingway, were I have read personal personal correspondence have read were fruitful. fruitful. And I correspondence way, between historians historians that that engaged and enlarged enlarged the of both both the minds minds of between engaged and improved their their subsequent work. men and and improved subsequent work. But personal relationships relationships have have nothing nothing to to do do with with such direct direct personal But such reviewing, and the attempt to promote that kind of a dialogue in a to that of and the kind reviewing, attempt promote dialogue in do a good thing aa review review has provided many many examples of trying to to has provided of do a examples trying good thing in the wrong place. place. The reviewer has the the the wrong in the wrong in the reviewer has way and in wrong way extremely difficult task of helping the reader to initiate and sustain of difficult task the reader to and initiate sustain helping extremely his own creative relationship with are very very few his creative relationship with .the author. There few There are the author. serious writers writers from from whom we cannot learn something, even if if it serious cannot learn it something, even is sometimes is negative, and and the reviewer fails fails unless engage the reviewer sometimes negative, unless he he helps helps engage the reader reader in in that process. the that educational educational process. Any book, book, however however excellent, be ostensibly destroyed by by can be excellent, can Any ostensibly destroyed using one of two simple techniques. The reviewer can list the one two of reviewer the can list using simple techniques. author's or incidental judgments which which are are eccentric eccentric author's secondary incidental judgments secondary or or otherwise or at odds with received received truth, truth, combine these with with aa otherwise at odds with combine these compilation that inevitably during of the the slips errors that occur during compilation of slips and errors inevitably occur the the process of publication, publication, and present present the the sum total total as as substansubstanprocess of tive other proceprocetive failures which demolish the author's author's work. work. The other failures which demolish the a fulcrum involves finding dure involves outside the the author's conceptual fulcrum outside author's conceptual finding a system and applying the lever offers lever of of routine routine intelligence. This offers system applying the intelligence. This the reader the the reader the illusion illusion of destruction. of professional destruction. professional
Foreword Foreword
33
Such wrecking may meet psychological needs needs exercises may meet certain certain psychological wrecking exercises of the men who undertake them, and may even provide temporary the of undertake them, and may even provide temporary distractions they should not be be confused helpdistractions for for others, but they should not confused with with helpothers, but ing the the reader reader understand, understand, evaluate, what the the and benefit benefit from from what evaluate, and ing has created. they are particularly indefensible when author author has created. Hence Hence they are particularly indefensible when by professionals professionals before before an professionals. pedormed by audience of of professionals. an audience performed as either an excuse Other use aa book Other reviewers reviewers use or an an opporbook as excuse or either an opportunity to begin their dialogue with the reader about issues to own their about the reader issues with tunity begin dialogue and subjects that are largely-if not totally-divorced from the and that are if divorced from the not totally subjects largely be author's work. The reviewer has the right, and should author's work. enreviewer has the right, and should be encouraged, to to initiate independent relationship initiate and and sustain sustain his his own independent couraged, relationship confuses, and hence mismiswith the the reading reading public. public. But with and hence But he he only only confuses, leads, public when he he does the guise of reviewing. the public does so so in of in the leads, the reviewing. guise with their their own labors they Such reviewers reviewers are are so so involved labors that that they involved with are unable to establish any significant rapport are particularly unable or to establish particularly any significant rapport or his work. Yet such simpatico empathy with the author and the with author and his such is work. Yet empathy simpdtico is essential reviewing. This does not mean that the reviewer essential to to creative reviewer creative reviewing. This does not that the even accept accept all must praise praise or or even must a is a all that the author author says. that the (There is says. (There great misconception, misconception, somehow, to underunderorder to that to in order to identify, somehow, that great identify, in is of of necessity necessity to to agree or acquiesce. neither stand, is But neither or approve stand, agree or acquiesce. But approve or a acts. One a secular nor a moral imperative unites the two secular logic a two acts. nor moral the unites logic imperative can still disagree.) Yet the reviewer has to undercan understand understand and has and still reviewer to underYet the disagree.) of simpdtico simpatico if he is stand the author in the the fundamental is to stand the author in if he to fundamental sense sense of speak creatively and helpfully about the author's work to the to the and author's work about the speak creatively helpfully reading public. public. Opposition praise that that are based on on no no more more or praise are based reading Opposition or than personal projection, preference, preference, or pique do help third third than not help do not or pique personal projection, parties reach reach their their own conclusions. conclusions. parties reading the the reviews reviews of book, AmeriAmeriThe experience of my of reading first book, experience of my first can-Russian Relations, Relations, 1781-1947, and considering them seriously, can-Russian 1781-1947, and seriously, considering also suggested to me that that authors are probably probably capable of writing writing authors are also capable of suggested to some most critical critical and reviews of their own work. work. of their useful reviews some of of the the most and useful This may may not not be be true true of produce nothing beyond the of those This those who produce nothing beyond the is proverbially said to be in every man, but it is one book that it is in but one book that is proverbially said to be every man, most likely the case case with with aa good many writers writers who are engaged are engaged most good many likely the of learning an act and in creative effort. is an act of effort. Writing a sustained in a sustained creative learning and Writing is I and know as aa display of insight and ego, and I maturation as of as well well as maturation ego, insight display with an exciting many writers have discussed past work with exciting discussed their their past writers who have many combination candor, affection, ruthlessness, and imagination. of candor, combination of affection, ruthlessness, imagination.
44
The of American American History History Contours of The Contours
Those who doubt this proposition profitably read read the the corcorThose doubt this might profitably proposition might respondence of Malcolm Lowry, and particularly his essay replying respondence of Malcolm Lowry, and particularly his essay replying to the negative commentary commentary prepared prepared for for aa publishing that to the negative house that publishing house was considering his manuscript.* was his manuscript.* considering by way of saying saying why decline to provide aa running All this by All this to provide way of why II decline running commentary on the reviews that were printed response and in response were that on the reviews and commentary printed in reply, in hope and disappointment, and in fear and anger when and in in and fear and when reply, anger disappointment, hope Contours published in in· 1961. Contours was was first insistence of first published 1961. The gentle of an an gentle insistence unusual editor, Ivan Dee, who is also a rare human being, peris also a rare unusual editor, Ivan Dee, being, persuaded me to all those those documents. the experience verified suaded documents. And the to read read all experience verified the remark remark once once made made by by Merrill Jensen, aa colleague whose mind mind the Merrill Jensen, colleague whose and heart warmed my my life, the temptation temptation and and warmed that the heart have informed and have informed life, that to review review the reviewers is irresistible. to is almost almost irresistible. the reviewers correct, and and II am not But and Faulkner Faulkner are not concerned But Chandler are correct, concerned Chandler and to and for the reviewers. I have been, and I remain, remain, with writing the reviewers. I and to and for have I with been, writing on a dialogue with the reading public about concerned to to carry a with the on concerned reading public about dialogue carry the way we Americans have lived our individual and collective the way Americans have lived our individual and collective lives, about thinking and as we have, have, of thinking and acting the consequences about the lives, acting as consequences of and about can use use that that knowledge knowledge to and deepen and to extend extend and about how we can deepen our the present present 'and the future. *and the future. our humanity in the humanity in of the reviewers made stimulating stimulating and helpful II think think that that aa few of the reviewers and helpful that dialogue, even though they disagreed in varycontributions to even contributions to that in though they disagreed dialogue, varying degrees, and ways, with what I offered the reader. The trench and I offered with the reader. trench ways, ing degrees, by other whose posture posture and was warfare initiated initiated by warfare other critics, and thought critics, whose thought was almost negative, contributed little either to the the dialogue almost wholly contributed little either to wholly negative, dialogue to their their own conversation with between myself the reader between reader or or to conversation with myself and the the reader. reader. The mistakes mistakes they discovered did did not not destroy destroy my my subsubthe they discovered stantive argument. Most of their criticisms of my analyses and of stantive their criticisms of argument. my analyses and sloppy reading of my actual interpretations were based upon were based of actual upon sloppy reading interpretations my to carry weight presentation, upon upon insufficient insufficient factual evidence to factual evidence the weight presentation, carry the or of sufficient simpatico to grasp of their rebuttal, or upon the lack of their the lack of sufficient to rebuttal, upon simpdtico grasp fully the nature of the alternate explanations I offered. the of nature the alternate I offered. fully explanations Nothing II can will transform transform them into attentive write will can write into close and attentive close and Nothing my research notes into readers. Transcribing all my readers. research notes into supplementary Transcribing all supplementary *M. 1946: Selected • M. Lowry Lowry to to J. Cape, January Selected Letters Letters of of Malcolm Malcolm J. 2, 1946: Cape, January 2, edited by Lowry, edited by Harvey Margerie Bonner Bonner Lowry Lowry (New York: Breit and and Margerie Lowry, Harvey Breit (New York:
57-88. Lippincott, Lippincott, 1965), 1965), 57-88.
Foreword Foreword
55
text and commentary commentary for for them them would would fill at least volume text fill at least another another volume as large as this. The willingness to be simpatico is a challenge that as this. as large willingness to be simpdtico is a challenge that he is each must meet meet for for himself. each man must himself. If If he is psychologically strong psychologically strong enough to do so, so, then then the the only issue is whether he musters the issue is whether he musters the enough to only courage to face a idea that might change his mind and thereby to a face new idea that his and mind courage might change thereby his life. life. his My reply to the the reviewers, reviewers, finally, is simply to invite the reader My reply to finally, is simply to invite the reader (old and new) to give this book his close and attention; and to this book his close and sustained sustained attention; new) (old give to engage me in dialogue about what we Americans have and and to engage in dialogue about what Americans have been and done, done, what what the the consequences have been, been, and been and what what we consequences have can learn that experience experience that will help help us us go beyond our learn from that can that will go beyond our present limitations and use our creative powers more effectively and limitations and use our and creative more present effectively powers more morally. morally. more The book book would be somewhat I had had just just written would be somewhat different written it, different if if I it, six months months to to revise factual or if I I had taken taken six or if revise it The factual it extensively. extensively. slips would be would be be longer longer in in order order be corrected. It would corrected. It oversights would slips and oversights to provide more detailed expositions of some points that to provide detailed expositions of some points that are are to offer examples in probably cryptically presented, and and to in further examples offer further cryptically presented, probably support of and judgments. judgments. And the of some interpretations events the events support interpretations and since would be be integrated the analysis. But none these 1960 would since 1960 into the none of of these integrated into analysis. But are primary, substantive matters. II have have not not changed my are primary, substantive matters. mind changed my about the validity validity of of my my broad broad conceptual framework or periodizaabout the or periodizaconceptual framework tion of or about the relevance and usefulness of my my tion our history, or of our and of about the relevance usefulness history, interpretation of central events, ideas, and institutions. I think that of think and that central events, ideas, institutions. I interpretation the book, carefully read read and our the and seriously extends our considered, extends book, carefully seriously considered, knowledge of of ourselves. ourselves. knowledge There is some point, however, however, in responding directly directly to to one one some point, There is in responding was put to me by the great majority of the several question that of the several was the to that question put by great majority hundred readers wrote personal personal letters letters after after they they had had finished finished hundred readers who wrote the book, book, and by aa similar with whom II have have .talked .talked and by similar number with the and wealth Some of these men and enjoyed wealth and directly. women of and these enjoyed directly. in low incomes and the pain of living in aa power; others endured of the endured incomes others low and living pain power; of of world largely shaped and controlled by others. Most of them, of Most world largely shaped and controlled by others. them, class. course, were members members of of that area we call the middle middle class. call the vast area that vast course, were felt the the book Yet all were troubled troubled by book the questions them were Yet all of of them they felt by the questions they should we do now, had raised raised but but had had not not answered: now, and answered: What should had here? go from here? where do do we go where of way of wrote this this book book II argued that History History was aa way When II wrote argued that
66
The of American American History History The Contours Contours of learning, aa way way of mustering knowledge, and will will to to of mustering courage, and knowledge, courage, learning, break free of the past. I see no reason to change that view. I see break free of the past. I see no reason to change that view. I see only more pressing pressing need need to to break urgency, that that a more free a greater break free-a greater urgency, only a is, those of values, and practices and practices to honor of our traditional ideals, honor those our traditional ideals, values, is, to to create create new that remain more insistent necessity to insistent necessity that and a a more remain creative; creative; and visions, virtues, and procedures to replace those that have reached that have to those reached and visions, virtues, replace procedures their potential and survive only as conventions and rationalizations as and rationalizations and survive conventions their only potential that impede the building building of an American American community. of an that community. impede the We already have a Great Society. Indeed, this is aa good good part part of this is of already have a Great Society. Indeed, our trouble. trouble. We are role-players in a huge huge and powerful system in a and powerful are role-players our system that is creating the actors it needs out of that is increasingly capable of increasingly capable of creating the actors it needs out of serve. But But acting the part part the human human beings beings it it is is supposed to the acting the supposed to serve. written by by the destroys both our essential humanness and essential both our the system humanness and written system destroys our our essential essential Americanness. Americanness. The nature the pervasive pervasive strength of contemporary and the nature and indusstrength of contemporary induslie at the heart of the problem. Critics such as Walter trial society trial lie at the of the Critics such as heart Walter problem. society hence Lippmann this power, power, and its consequences, consequences, and and hence and its Lippmann recognize recognize this see that it beyond the to the the Good Good see that it is is necessary to the Great Great Society Society to necessary to go go beyond Society. But it it is is not not enough high as a Good Society. aim only as a to aim as high Society. But only as enough to Society. For the the Good Society is also predicated upon upon the the existing also predicated For Society is system, existing system, and for nothing more more than greater material material it can and can offer offer nothing than greater for that that reason reason it ease, aa more our limited of our relaxed acceptance limited scope and significance more relaxed ease, acceptance of scope and significance and hence a further hedonizing, privatizing, in the system, a in the hence further and and system, hedonizing, privatizing, and Good Society can give us greater narrowing of our existence. The of our existence. can us narrowing Society greater give fulfillment, but only only in role. It It is beguiling but but in a a more limited a beguiling limited role. is a fulfillment, but tranquilizing objective. tranquilizing objective. be an American community. comOur true true goal should be an American goal should community. Now coma process munity is process as achievement, and the the process process is is a as well as an well as an achievement, is munity more important. Community as process is the ever-deepening undermore as is the underimportant. Community ever-deepening process the standing nature and potential potential as of our our nature as human beings, and the standing of beings, and sustained creation ways of living together together that appropriate sustained of ways creation of of living that are are appropriate to that potential. to and potential. that nature nature and conflicts within within and between human beings beings The fundamental fundamental conflicts and between in society in out of propensities that that are to arise out of contending are common to society arise contending propensities all all men and women. These can be described described and in can be and discussed discussed in several several ways, but in in thinking thinking about community it it seems useful about community seems useful ways, but to so by to do by defining defining two two sets paired opposites. opposites. One of these do so sets of of paired of these involves the polarities involves the tension between power and love-between tension between and love between polarities power
Foreword Foreword
71
the exercise will over and the of oneone~ of one's exercise of one's will the over another, the confluence confluence of another, and self with another. Power is a mine~his relationship. Love is an self with another. Power is a mine-his relationship. Love is an I~Thou relationship. relationship. The other polarity involves involves the between other polarity I-Thou the tension tension between acquiescence (or passivity) and participation (or involvement). and participation (or passivity) acquiescence (or involvement). between the two sets sets Clearly there is is an an interrelationship the two Clearly enough, enough, there interrelationship between of opposites. True love is predicated upon full mutual involve~ True love is of full mutual involveopposites. predicated upon ment, and pure power power for acquiescence by by another. and pure for one one requires another. ment, requires acquiescence love, and and passivity and involve~ These polarities of power and These polarities of power and love, and involvepassivity ment, operate within a broader context. All living organisms need ment, operate within a broader context. All living organisms need and seek their environment. an integrated seek an and Hence with their environment. Hence integrated relationship relationship with between human beings beings can established-at least for an an ecology can be at least for be established ecology between basis of of power and passivity, as well as through aa time-on the basis time on the and as well as power passivity, through basic involved, participating, participating, and reciprocal love. and reciprocal love. Those Those are are the the basic involved, patterns, and hence the two irreducible forms of functioning and hence two the of irreducible forms patterns, functioning government are benevolent benevolent despotism There are are and democracy. government are democracy. There despotism and of course between these primary modes, and pathologi~ of course gradations gradations between these primary modes, and pathological each, but but such patterns are are derivative not extensions of of each, cal extensions such patterns and not derivative and independent. independent. Thus there two kinds kinds of community. One is is the there are are two of community. the community community established through through the the practice practice of benevolent despotism. established of benevolent is It is despotism. It predicated upon power for the few and acquiescence by the many; for the few and the predicated upon power many; acquiescence by is sustained by an understanding on on the the part part of the few few and it sustained by and it is an understanding of the that they can hold their power only by resolving the tension can hold that their the tension they power only by resolving of the many. Such action between power power and and love, between care of the many. Such action love, by by taking taking care creates aa reciprocal reciprocal bond bond between between the many and the few. Stratifica~ creates the many and the few. Stratification, limitations, exclusions are tolerable, and even creacrea~ and exclusions and even are made tolerable, limitations, and tion, tive in respects, by by the the spirit and practice; of noblesse oblige. in some some respects, and tive of noblesse oblige. spirit practice pay for for their their power power (and wealth) with adulterated The few pay an adulterated with an (and wealth) love. accept the responsibility for meeting the fundamental fundamental the for the love. They meeting They accept responsibility as an economic and political requirements requirements of of living living together and political economic together as organized society. they also grant the many a rudimentary a the And also rudimentary grant many organized society. they and within within certain limits, the the few few respect: within certain limits, within specified areas, and specified areas, respect: leave the many alone alone to to their their own devices. passivity their passivity the many devices. For their leave are rewarded rewarded with with an an opporoppor~ about power, therefore, the many are the many about power, therefore, tunity, restricted though it is, to create a limited community of a limited it is, to create restricted community of though tunity, their own based based on on participation participation and resulting culture culture and love. love. The resulting their vital and has often been vital of the the many under benevolent benevolent despotisms despotisms has often been of many under also crude and circumscribed. warm, if if crude and also circumscribed. warm,
8 8
The of American American History History Contours of The Contours
Many benevolent despotisms despotisms have existed in well the West have existed in the West as as well Many benevolent as in the East, and a good number of them have generated impor~ as in the East, and a good number of them have generated important material, material, intellectual, problem tant and cultural cultural improvements. intellectual, and improvements. The problem the) with benevolent benevolent despotisms has never been whether or not with whether or never been not has the) despotisms could or did function. They can and they have. The difficulties are are or did have. difficulties could function. They can and they practical and moral: can the form sustain itself as one kind of kind form itself as one of and can the sustain moral: practical community, and does it offer the resolution of the tensions between of the tensions between it the resolution and does offer community, between passivity passivity and participation, that that is power and is and participation, and love, and between love, and power most appropriate to our nature as human beings? So far, at any most appropriate to our nature as beings? So far, at any rate, the to both both these is no. no. They break down answer to the answer these questions rate, They break questions is because they they fail fail to to satisfy satisfy the the demands demands for for love participation. and participation. love and because This judgment should should not not keep us from from recognizing that aa sizsiz~ This judgment recognizing that keep us able part part of of American American history history (from the establishment of the of the establishment the able (from colonies through the the election election of Jackson) can in many many can in of Andrew Jackson) colonies through be considered part of of the fundamental the general fundamental respects considered part of general history history of respects be benevolent despotisms. despotisms. Nor should blind us us to achieve~ to the the great should it it blind achievebenevolent great ments of that period. period. But But we do do have have to to confront confront the the truth truth that, that, ments of that despite the framework government, power of the the of representative framework of power of representative government, despite the real, operational, and consequential consequential kind kind was was divided-at divided at the the local local real, operational, and and the national level level-on basis between the many many on a a highly skewed basis and the national between the highly skewed but the the most the masters and and the most obvious obvious examples, the the few. few. To cite cite but masters examples, ruled the the slaves, metropolis ruled the territories, territories, and the the metropolis ruled the and even ruled even the slaves, the by an aristocratic hierarchy. Jeffersonians were dominated dominated an aristocratic were Jeffersonians by hierarchy. were largely responsible and and benevolent well as Yet the Yet few were benevolent as as well the few as largely responsible powerful, intelligent, and competent; and they did create what powerful, intelligent, and competent; and they did create what can be called called an American community can fairly an American of the the aristocratic aristocratic fairly be community of generated economic variety. They also .generated and cultural economic and cultural development. variety. They also development. Indeed, American American mercantilism mercantilism may may be be the the highest highest achievement achievement in in Indeed, the entire of benevolent despotisms: its creators and rulers of the entire history benevolent its and creators rulers history despotisms: the paradox paradox inherent inherent in the very actually resolved resolved the in the of combination of actually very combination by accepting peacefully the transition benevolence and and despotism benevolence the transition despotism by accepting peacefully to aa closer of democracy. to closer approximation democracy. approximation of But these these aristocrats based on not create But aristocrats did did not create a a community love on love community based and participation. participation. Neither Neither did successors, whose and did their their successors, whose approach approach was was largely to competing competing for power and wealth. wealth. That is why why for power That is keyed to largely keyed of creating a community today we still still confront the challenge of confront the a as today challenge creating community as ideas aa democracy. The ideas and the ideals that compose the related ideals the that the related democracy. compose conception the Great no more more of the Great and Good Societies Societies are are really conception of really no
Foreword Foreword
99
than an to adapt adapt the the mercantilism of the an attempt mercantilism of than the Founding Fathers attempt to Founding Fathers to contemporary circumstances. They are thus simply variations circumstances. are thus of contemporary They simply variations of benevolent despotism. despotism. If realized, therefore, therefore, they they would offer us us no no If realized, benevolent would offer more than than an an affluent of power power and affluent version version of more and acquiescence. acquiescence. The second kind of community, both process and and achieveachieve~ second kind of community, both as as process ment, is neither aristocratic nor stratified, skewed nor paradoxical. ment, is neither aristocratic nor stratified, skewed nor paradoxical. It is equitable, straightforward democratic and is democratic and equitable, It and loving. This loving. This straightforward and essence kind of nature per per se of community kind in its its nature se and and as as the the essence involves, in community involves, of the method realizing it, different hierarchy hierarchy of Love of realizing method of of the a different of values. values. Love it, a comes before power and and participation participation before before passivity. Equity and before power and comes Equity passivity. equality come before before efficiency efficiency and and ease. ease. equality for great great adventures he is is made for Man is adventures and is and great achievements; he great achievements; not made for mammoth, centralized organizations. He creates creates best best for mammoth, not centralized organizations. in not under under direction by. And he most nearly nearly in conjunction he most direction by. with, not conjunction with, approaches love in evolving relationships with other beings, in love with other human beings, evolving relationships approaches rather than than in associations with with other other in organized rather and structured structured associations organized and role-players. It is easy to say, of course, that these are verities imposIt is to of are verities that these course, easy say, role-players. impossible to to realize. answer is is that never before before have been able able realize. The answer sible have we been that never to realize realize them. them. to real choices. But we now confront can But confront these these possibilities as real choices. We can possibilities as provide ourselves with the material basis for a truly human life life ourselves a with the material basis for truly provide and also produce enough to help other beings achieve the the also produce to other human achieve and beings enough help same position. can do so, moreover, while simultaneously We do while same so, moreover, simultaneously position. decentralizing our economic political institutions, as to to so as and political economic and institutions, so decentralizing our enable us to live at the scale, and in the kinds of relationships with with the kinds of enable us to live at scale, and in the relationships ourselves and to our our nature. nature. each other, and each ourselves other, appropriate appropriate to We can longer take take refuge, refuge, or or seek escape, in in the the question question can no no longer seek escape, of whether whether or or not not we can truly human. human. can become truly of We can. can. The question not we will. will. whether or or not is whether question now is to
W.A.W. w. A. w.
Madison, Wisconsin, 1966 Wisconsin, 1966 Madison,
•
Contents Contents
History as a as a PREFACE: History INTRODUCTION:
Way Learning of Learning Way of Britt'sh Mercantilism Mercantilism as as the the Political Political Economy Economy of of British English Backwardness English Backwardness
17 17 27 27
NEW MEN AND OLD PROBLEMS
28 28
THE ROOTS OF THE ENGLISH POLITICAL ECONOMY
32 32
RELIGION AND THE RISE OF MERCANTILISM
36 36
THE MATURATION OF THE ENGLISH WELTANSCHAUUNG
40 40
SHAFTESBURY AND THE CRISIS CRISIS OF ENGLISH MERCANTILISM
50 50
THE IDEOLOGY AND POLITICS OF THE CORPORATE WELFARE
53 53
JOHN JOHN LOCKE AND THE DECLINE OF CORPORATE RESPONSIBILITY
61 6l
THE DILEMMAS OF SUCCESSFUL MERCANTILISM
65 65
THE DECLINE OF MERCANTILISM AND THE AMERICAN REVOLUTION
69 69
The Age Age of of Mercantilism: Mercantilism: 1740-1828 1740-1828
75 75
I. the Rising Rising Order I. The Triumph of Order Triumph of the
77 77 78 78
THE SOUTH AND THE RISE OF AN AMERICAN GENTRY
NEW YORK AND
PENNSYLVANIA: FINISHING SCHOOLS FOR THE
AMERICAN NABOB NEW ENGLAND AND THE IDEOLOGY OF
85
CALVIN'S CALVIN*S
CORPORATE
SOCIETY
93 93
COLONIAL MATURITY: THE ACHIEVEMENT OF BRITISH MERCANTILISM
102
Contents Contents IDEOLOGY AND INDEBTEDNESS: INDEBTEDNESS! THE LEVER AND FULCRUM OF
INDEPENDENCE
105
THE TRIUMPH OF AMERICAN MERCANTILISM
114
II. A New Reality for Existing Ideas Reality for Existing Ideas
II.
lIS 118
THE DREAM AND THE REALITY OF INDEPENDENCE
119
PANDORA*S BOX THE WEST AS AMERICA'S PANDORA'S
125
THE GENTRY AND "THE ABSOLUTE NECESSITY OF SOME GENERAL SYSTEM"
III. of the the Existing Existing Order Order III. The Adaptation Adaptation of
138
149 149
CONFLICTING PHILOSOPHIES AND POLICIES OF THE CONSTITUTION )'{OVEMENT MOVEMENT
150
THE CONSTITU'I'ION CONSTITUTION AS A FEUDAL AND MERCANTILIST INSTRUMENT OF GOVERNMENT
157 157
THE DOMESTIC WAR FOR INDEPENDENCE
162. 162
WASHINGTON'S STRATEGY OF EMPIRE
171 171
JOHN ADAMS THE STATESMANSHIP OF JOHN
174 174
IV. Transformation of Reality and and the the Inception Inception of of New IV. The Transformation of Reality Ideas 180 Ideas i 80 THE FOUNDING FATHERS AND THE FRONTIER THESIS
lSI l8l
THE ACHIEVEMENTS AND DILEMMAS OF JEFFERSONIAN JEFFERSONIAN MERCAN-
TILISM
185 185
A CLASSIC WAR FOR TRADE AND TERRITORY
192. 192
VICTORY DISGUISED AS STALEMATE
196 196
THE SPROUTING SEEDS OF LAISSEZ FAIRE
200 2OO
V. V. The Fulfillment the Passing Fulfillment of of the Order Passing Order CRISIS AND COMPROMISE IN A RENEWED STRUGGLE FOR THE WEST CllISIS
ADAMS, MONROE, MARSHALL, MARSHALL, AND CLAY CLAY-PROTAGONISTS PROTAGONISTS OF AN ADAMS, MONROE, AMERICAN SYSTEM
204 204 205 205
20 7 207
Contents Contents DOCTRINE AS AS THE MANIFESTO OF THE AMERICAN THE MONROE DOCTRINE EMPIltE EMPIRE
~I5 215
THE UNRESOLVED DILEMMA OF AMERICAN AMERICAN MERCANTILISM
219 219
The Age Age of of Laissez Laissez Nous Faire: Faire: 1819-1896 1819-1896 The I. The The Triumph Triumph of of the the Rising Rising Order Order
227 227
I.
JOHN TAYLOR AND THE VICTORY OF JOHN
225 225
LAISSEZ FAIRE LAISSEZ
227 227
POLITICS MARTIN VAN BUREN AND THE NEW POLITICS
235 235
LIBERTY AND BONDAGE IN THE SPIRIT SPIRIT OF JACKSONIAN JACKSONIAN DEMOCRACY
239 239
II. A New Reality Reality for for Existing Existing Ideas Ideas
II.
246
THE THEORY AND THE REALITY OF THE MARKET PLACE
246
RELIGIOUS HERESY AND THE ASSAULT ON SLAVERY
250
THE EVOLUTION OF THE SOUTHERN PREDICAMENT
255
THE EARLY STRUGGLE OVER DEFINING FREEDOM UNDER LAISSEZ LAISSEZ FAIRE
259 259
III. Adaptation of of the the Existing Order III. The Adaptation Existing Order
264
HENRY CLAY AND THE ATTEMPT TO REVIVE AND ADAPT MERCANTILISM
265
LAISSEZ FAIRE AND THE FRONTIER THESIS
270
PRESIDENT POLK AND A WAR FOR LAND AND COMMERCE
276
EASTERN LABOR ACCEPTS THE FRONTIER THESIS AND THEREBY INTENSIFIES THE SECTIONAL CONFLICT
279 279
IV. of New the Inception and the IV. The Transformation Transformation of of Reality Inception of Reality and Ideas 284 Ideas 284 THE WELTANSCHAUUNG OF LAISSEZ FAIRE ENGENDERS A CIVIL WAR
285
SENATOR DOUGLAS AND THE ATTEMPT TO RECONCILE LAISSEZ FAIRE AND THE CONSTITUTION
290 290
Contents Contents AS TIlE THE PHILOSOPHER AND POLITICIAN OF ABRAHAM LINCOLN AS 'l'R.IUMPHANT LAISSEZ FAIRE TRIUMPHANT LAISSEZ
295 295
THE SOUTH REFUSES REFUSES TO ACQUIESCE ACQUIESCE IN LINCOLN'S POLICY OF
CONTAINMENT
297 297
RECONSTRUCTION AS AS A A NATIONAL PHENOMENON
3iscovery and Exploration was hindered by several France was hindered by several difficulties. difficulties. Spain, Portugal, and France Spain, Portugal, were more more firmly established throughout throughout the the new imperial world. were imperial world. firmly established in America America Their control the gold gold and or mined in Their control of of the and silver silver stolen stolen or by the the English discomplicated the brought on Crown's disthe troubles troubles brought on by English Crown's complicated tressing habit of financing its by debasing the currency. the The of its needs habit needs currency. by debasing financing tressing in Dutch, for part, were were approaching a position position of of dominance in for their their part, Dutch, approaching a this the realms shipping, and trade. Confronted by this reality, and trade. Confronted of fishing, the realms of by reality, fishing, shipping, articulated aa cardinal cardinal tenet tenet of of mercantilist mercantilist thought: thought: the English the soon articulated English soon to was to welfare The best-if only-way to get wealth and welfare wealth the only to best if not not the way get take them them away from somebody. take somebody. away Even this this was was not not an productive approach, for EngEngan immediately Even approach, for immediately productive run services to run an empire land had to to develop develop the the goods and to and services land had empire and goods
36 36
The of American American History History The Contours Contours of
to take the markets conquered or by colonizacreated by or created colonizaof the markets conquered take advantage to advantage of tion. Seemingly suspended in limbo between the old world of Chrisworld of Christhe old between tion. Seemingly suspended in limbo tian feudalism manorialism and and the the new age of commerce, and manorialism tian feudalism and commerce, age of England's domestic affairs and institutions were confused and inwere confused inEngland's domestic affairs and institutions efficient. And any effort to grapple with these difficulties was comdifficulties was comefficient. any effort to grapple with these Catholicism. plicated by Henry VIII's break with Catholicism. plicated by Henry VIIFs break with Roman
RELIGION AND THE RISE RISE OF MERCANTILISM RELIGION
Prior to to his his break break with with Prior
Rome, VIII seemed o>llcceedtr seemed t,..' oiicceedRome, Henry Henry VIII ing with the staggering task of carrying through an English Reforof Refortask the with English through carrying staggering ing mation within within the the universal universal Catholic But the the fundamental Church. But fundamental Catholic Church. mation was much broader. broader. Whether Whether viewed from within within or without issue was or without viewed from issue the framework the Papacy-that is, considered by Luther and considered that Luther and of the the framework of is, by Papacy Calvin by the the Jesuits-the central religious, intellectual, and central and the or by Calvin or intellectual, Jesuits religious, practical problem was to cope with the general breakdown of with the breakdown how to of was general cope practical problem the old old church explanation of of man and the the world. Henry's world. Henry's its explanation the church and and its his subjects subjects rupture with with Rome dramatically dramatically confronted confronted him and his rupture with the need to to decide decide what what to put at the center center of their individual to put at the of their the need with individual and collective place of universal church. church. Salvation having of the the universal in place collective lives Salvation having lives in been taken out of the hands hands of of the Papacy, the the issue became that that of issue became of the the Papacy, taken out been of was to to be be dropped dropped-in the lap lap of of the the state in the the hands hands where it it was in the where state or or in of the the individual? this was was only only half half the the difficulty; for if the of individual? But But this difficulty; for if the with such responsibility, then the state were be charged state were to to be with such was the charged responsibility, then was be discharged according to social (that is, inclusive responsibility to to to be discharged according social (that is, inclusive responsibility values or by the principles of arbitrary and corporate) or by the principles of personal, corporate) values personal, arbitrary monarchy? monarchy ? Henry's answer, he had been moving toward which he had been answer, toward Henry's moving throughout throughout his that the his reign, reign, was was that the state the form God's monarchy monarchy assumed state in in the form of of God's assumed the role role and the the functions the old universal church. Henry the of the functions of old universal church. What Henry his own blunt blunt way was to the processes processes of this had done had done in in his to sanctify of this way was sanctify the world. Small wonder that that his his earlier polemics against Luther were were world. Small wonder earlier polemics against Luther withdrawn from the the royal royal stationer replaced by discourse withdrawn stationer and and replaced a new discourse by a on the the divine right of kings. God was not wholly excluded from divine right of kings. was not excluded from wholly this seen to to be be operating operating at one this modified but now He was seen modified outlook, at one outlook, but further removed. stage further removed. special religious institution no longer A no institution stage special religious longer it had been been first first blended ultimately integrated integrated with with aa existed; blended and ultimately existed; it secular secular organization. laws might might be passed, the the only only whatever laws be passed, organization. And whatever effective means by by which which the and the the state could again again be be dIective the church church and state could was by denying God's direct will in secular affairs. This separated God's direct will in secular This affairs. separated by denying '
Introduction: British British Mercantilism Mercantilism Introduction:
37 37 assault organized and and carried, even though though Henry Henry was was assault was finally carried, even finally organized neither the the victim. victim. the conscious neither conscious instigator nor the instigator nor He nevertheless opened the gate to to the the conflict by dealing dealing nevertheless opened the main gate conflict by out to his his supporters. As in in earlier the confiscated confiscated church out the church properties earlier supporters. As properties to years on the this act act raised raised the whole question the European the whole continent, this European continent, years question of private property property in in its to the the state and to to religious religious of private its relationship to state and relationship values. Originally church leaders property no no more more values. leaders had had considered considered property Originally church than aa necessary necessary evil. Aquinas modified modified this this tradition tradition than evil. St. St. Thomas Aquinas in he asserted was aa positive positive asset, both natural natural in two respects: it was asserted it first, he asset, both respects: first, and good; he promptly promptly declared that the the state to regulate regulate then he state had declared that had to good; then property for doctrine was accepted for the the common good. This doctrine property accepted and good. This generally honored, if also evaded, for many centuries. if also for centuries. honored, evaded, generally many But confiscation revived, as among the the Anabaptists and the the confiscation revived, But as among Anabaptists and Levellers, the earlier stress on common property. property. In In England, England, this this earlier stress Levellers, the outlook ultimately ultimately won literary treatment and presentation in Sir outlook literary treatment and presentation in Sir Others considered this aa dangerously retroThomas More's More's Utopia. considered this Others Utopia. dangerously retrogressive theory and set out to sanctify private property per se. Those Those se. set to out gressive theory sanctify private property per undertook that that effort themselves, and the the rerewho undertook effort differed differed among among themselves, sult was was aa long period of confused and contradictory competition. sult confused and of long period contradictory competition. Both Luther Luther and Calvin Calvin exemplified In his his notorinotoriBoth the ambivalence. ambivalence. In exemplified the of the peasants for revolting against their masters, ous castigation ous of the their for masters, castigation revolting against peasants for also attacked rulers for to honor honor for example, Luther also for their their failure failure to attacked the the rulers example, Luther the corporate values responsibilities of their religion. no At the of their and values corporate religion. responsibilities time, furthermore, did Luther construct aa hierarchy hierarchy of of labor labor which Luther construct furthermore, did time, implied that that godliness godliness came with worldly success. success. with worldly implied Calvin was even firmer in that any any calling calling offered offered even firmer Calvin was in his his emphasis emphasis that aa satisfactory place in which to exercise one's discipline in the Lord's in the Lord's in one's which to exercise satisfactory place discipline two with way. Even more significantly, he insisted that a with a he insisted that man way. significantly, callings was by the true principles of Christ to choose the one Christ to choose the bound of the true callings by principles which contributed most to to the the common good. for many years And for which contributed most many years good. those who took took Calvin's to honor honor the injunction. the injunction. those Calvin's name struggled struggled to Later this stress on corporate values in in this stress Later Protestants Protestants de-emphasized corporate values de-emphasized never himself favor goods, but Calvin himself never but Calvin individualism and worldly favor of of individualism worldly goods, did did so. so. it reached climax in after Henry's Henry's a climax When it reached a in England century after England aa century took three death, this confusion and conflict over private property took three over conflict this confusion death, private property divided principal forms. Oliver Cromwell's revolutionary army divided Oliver Cromwell's forms. revolutionary army principal sharply over conservatives charged charged the the over the the issue. issue. Some upper-class upper-class conservatives sharply Anabaptists and Levellers with subverting the rights of property. the with Levellers property. rights subverting Anabaptists
38 38
The of American American History History The Contours Contours of
The Levellers replied that that property property was was being being protected at the the cost cost Levellers replied The protected at of political rights, social welfare, and human beings themselves. But of political rights, social welfare, and beings themselves. But of the Levellers' program, program, while opposing opposing the the thoroughgoing thoroughgoing nature nature of the Levellers' while other leaders accepted limits on the rights of private of the on limits leaders other upperury Without "our laws, warned, "our laws, liberties, Shaftesbury warned, and estates become in time at at the the will the prince." prince." estates should should become and in a a short short time will of of the Shaftesbury also pushed pushed many reforms; perhaps the most Shaftesbury also many specific specific reforms; perhaps the most important was his parliaments at his demand for for regular at short intervals. short intervals. important was parliaments regular He also bribery and practice of of rigging rigging elections through also fought and the the practice elections through fought bribery a uniform uniform election system the rotten borough. He likewise rotten borough. the likewise demanded a election system By 1681 he was ready to to have have Parliament and secret voting. By and secret voting. 1681 he sit in in was ready Parliament sit defiance of dissolution the King. Thoroughly frightened (and defiance of the dissolution by by King. Thoroughly frightened (and properly so), back by by raising raising the of another another the Crown struck struck back the specter properly so), the specter of civil issuing warrants warrants for the arrest It thus thus civil war and and issuing arrest of for the of Shaftesbury. Shaftesbury. It to adopt the frightened and divided his followers and forced and divided his followers and forced him to adopt the frightened ill, Shafteslife of hunted animal. of a a hunted life animal. Beaten and desperately ShaftesBeaten down and desperately ill, November, 1682. months later later bury fled in November, fled across across the the Channel Channel in 1682. Two months bury he died exhaustion and of exhaustion died of a sense he of failure. failure. and a sense of his ideas, ideas, He was was in in fact fact triumphant. individual acts, acts, his triumphant. Shaftesbury's Shaftesbury's individual sense of corporate welfare. and his his party party saved for England a crucial and crucial welfare. saved for a sense of England corporate To Americans Americans he he bequeathed bequeathed two legacies: aa concept responsiof responsitwo legacies: concept of bility and self-discipline for the common good, and his influence on for the influence his bility self-discipline good, John Locke. Shaftesbury was one of the most liberal of his men of his one of the most liberal John Locke. Shaftesbury time, and he he fortunately transmitted some of his attitude attitude and ideas of his ideas time, fortunately transmitted In the beginning Locke was aa vigorous, to the young Locke. even to the young Locke. In the beginning Locke vigorous, even dedicated Royalist; unquestionably unquestionably Shaftesbury modified those those dedicated Royalist; Shaftesbury modified views. Unhappily, Unhappily, the was limited. whatever reason, the influence views. influence was limited. For For whatever reason, Locke grasp or or act that central insight act on Shaftesbury's failed to Locke failed to grasp insight that Shaftesbury's central well as a6 a a wealthy wealthy corporate responsibility is key to to aa meaningful meaningful as as well the key is the corporate responsibility life; the polarities conformity and unrestrained unrestrained of conformity he offered instead the offered instead life; he polarities of individualism. individualism. politics into existence.
free transportation transportation to to the polls, the polls, free
JOHN LOCKE AND THE DECLINE OF CORPORATE RESPONSIBILITY JOHN Developing his his own thoughts on government as Shaftesbury's Shaftesbury's thoughts on government as Developing career came Locke significantly significantly modified modified his his a dramatic to a dramatic end, career came to end, John John Locke two significant respects, both revisions being patron's tradition in both revisions in two tradition being significant respects, patron's concerned with the central of resolving resolving the tension between between the tension concerned with the central dilemma of in so so eminently so, moreover, moreover, in eminently the individual and the the state. did so, state. He did the individual and simple persuasive aa manner that he convinced convinced a great great many many that he simple and persuasive
62 62
The of American American History History Contours of The Contours
people that the problem no longer existed. The result the reward reward result and the people that the problem no longer existed. were momentous: Locke's philosophy eclipsed the more rigorous the were momentous: Locke's philosophy eclipsed rigorous by Shaftesbury, in the the process process and evolved by and substantial outlook evolved substantial outlook Shaftesbury, and in became the central theme of a later American Weltanschauung. But American became the central theme of a later Weltanschauung. But in fact, Locke begged the whole issue. in fact, Locke begged the whole issue. Both and practically, Locke's individualism was deBoth theoretically theoretically and practically, Locke's individualism was dependent upon expansion and empire. And only by setting the aside the and empire. setting aside only by upon expansion pendent entire question the relationship relationship between between the the mother country of the entire country and question of for citizens citizens of the Metropolis the colonies could he he define of the freedom for the define freedom colonies could Metropolis as the the crucial As aa result, result, the tension between the the individual individual the tension issue. As as crucial issue. access to and division the rewards rewards and centered upon upon the the access of the to and division of state centered and the the state of Fundamental questions concerning the nature and allocathe nature and allocaof empire. Fundamental concerning questions empire. tion of in society were discounted by Locke because discounted were because tion of responsibility in by society responsibility he assumed the existence existence of profitable empire. Pointed a stable stable and profitable of a he assumed the empire. Pointed toward aa hedonism his followers became followers soon soon became hedonism of that character, toward of that character, his utilitarians and and ultimately ultimately embraced pragmatism. embraced pragmatism. utilitarians At the the same time, Locke Locke undercut undercut the the very very individualism individualism he he proprosame time, defined the relationship between the state and claimed between the the He and so loudly. defined state claimed so relationship loudly. the individual in such such aa way way that that the was in charged individual was in reality the the individual individual in reality charged with justifying justifying his his resistance resistance to the state instead of the state being to the state instead of the with state being held strictly accountable to the individual according to a corporate a to the individual to held accountable strictly according corporate was nothing for Hobbes Hobbes and others had had value system. and others This was value new, for system. This nothing new, susadvanced similar arguments before before the Revolution, but but Locke the Revolution, advanced Locke sussimilar arguments tained the tradition while while clothing it in liberal rhetoric. tained the tradition liberal it in rhetoric. clothing Going even further in this this direction, direction, Locke defined defined the the natural natural further in Going even did not not cause by asserting and acting upon one who did man as as one cause trouble trouble by and asserting acting upon different standards. This axiom extensively reinforced the authoristandards. different This axiom extensively reinforced the authoritarian bias bias of philosophy. For For by by this this reasoning reasoning it it became became ununof his his philosophy. tarian to exercise one's individuality manner or or for for aa purpose purpose natural to natural exercise one's in a a manner individuality in true that these which conflicted with the the accepted norms. While While it it is which conflicted with is true that these accepted norms. be broad, broad, and may may even be extended under the the circumlimits may limits extended under even be circummay be that they they stances of empire, it it is stances of an expanding or secure secure empire, is also true that also true expanding or become progressively narrower under under less less permissive conditions. become progressively narrower permissive conditions. that point, point, unfortunately, unfortunately, conformity within at that And at becomes, within conformity becomes, Locke's Locke's philosophy, the only acceptable form that responsibility can the that form philosophy, only acceptable responsibility can assume. assume. of stout stout Puritan Born of within that Born Puritan ancestors ancestors and and educated educated within that outlook, outlook, to maturity as a a talented Locke came to maturity as talented if orthodox conservative. if orthodox conservative. He feared disorder hardly feared disorder hardly less Hobbes, and and in less than than Hobbes, in 1656 his disgust 1656 his disgust
Introduction: British British Mercantilism Mercantilism Introduction:
63 63 ~rupted in a description of the nation as this "great Bedlam Enga in of the this nation as Bedlam erupted description "great England." By 1660 he was was "a monarchist," "a of the the "a wholehearted 1660 he land." By wholehearted monarchist," "a man of always a sophisticated trimmer, Right, an extreme authoritarian." But an extreme authoritarian." But a Right, always sophisticated trimmer, and constantly fretting about his reputation, to the the and about his Locke adjusted constantly fretting reputation, Locke adjusted to circumstances the Restoration Restoration without without risking risking his his career supof the circumstances of career in in supAs port of political commitments. of Shaftesbury's intellectual and and political commitments. As Shaftesbury's intellectual port Locke himself himself remarked: are not so easily got out of their Locke remarked: "People are not out their so easily got of "People old forms as some some are are apt to suggest." old forms as apt to suggest." was gone, Locke's mercantilOnce Shaftesbury's restraining hand hand was mercantilShaftesbury's restraining gone, Locke's ism became became much narrower narrower in in outlook outlook and and oriented more ism oriented ever ever more class. His policy paper closely to the property interests of the upper to the closely property interests of the upper class. His policy paper in problem of unemployment and and pauperism pauperism was harsh harsh the problem in 1697 of unemployment 1697 on the by any His and severe: appalling document, judged by severe: an an appalling standards. His document, judged any standards. monetary proposals proposals had had the of extracting extracting sizable the effect sizable sums sums from from effect of monetary the citizenry the benefit benefit of the Crown and and aa few of the the for the few special citizenry for special groups. groups. his foreign policy reveals reveals even more the the extent to which which his his And his even more extent to foreign policy individualism and democracy relied on the principle principle of of imperial imperial individualism and on the democracy relied expansion. expansion. Locke's totally relative relative definition wealth was was based based on on an everLocke's totally definition of of wealth an everexpanding not "do not he explained "Riches,*' he empire. "Riches," expanding empire. repeatedly, "do explained repeatedly, proporconsist having more more gold but in having more more in and silver, in proporconsist in in having in having silver, but gold and tion than than the the rest the world, or than our neighbors." neighbors." Hence Hence "our of the tion rest of than our "our world, or which is greater or or less, growing rich rich or poor depends depends ... only or poor is greater less, only on which growing our importations of consumable consumable commodities." or exportations our commodities." Locke Locke importations or exportations of completed the the argument that agriculture would decay argument by by explaining completed agriculture would decay explaining that if to sustain By Locke's Locke's arguif trade an indefinite indefinite expansion. trade failed failed to sustain an expansion. By argument, the way to to achieve welfare was was to to take take enough achieve welfare the only from ment, enough away only way away from others to to raise the national national average. raise the others average. Given this analysis of wealth wealth and welfare welfare and how to attain to attain Given this analysis of them, Locke understandably emphasized property rights, a labor a labor Locke understandably them, emphasized property rights, of theory of value, the sanctity of natural (i.e. normal) behavior, and natural of the and value, behavior, sanctity normal) (i.e. theory right to wealth imthe power of the state itself. to itself. An individual's wealth individual's imof the state the right power plied that he controlled his labor and his property without qualificahis labor without his controlled that he qualificaproperty plied tion. Men were justified, said Locke, in in criticizing the existing said Locke, state were justified, tion. criticizing the existing state of this individualism, they did did so so but when they of this in the of affairs affairs in the name of individualism, but from other point of view they became unnatural men and hence of became unnatural hence other from any they point any beyond the pale. Thus all their loyalty loyalty to the state which to the state which all men owed their the pale. beyond and extended the protected these rights and standards and extended the national and standards national emthese rights protected in dire and unique circumstances, such individualism pire. When, such and in individualism dire circumstances, unique pire. When, .
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was threatened, threatened, men men could their loyalty loyalty-but only after a but only after a revoke their was could revoke majority had reached that conclusion. conclusion. majority had reached that Locke with Harrington's thesis that an extension no doubt doubt agreed Locke no agreed with Harrington's thesis that an extension of voting rights need not position of property-holders: o property-holders: the position subvert the o voting rights need not subvert weighted representation, a division of government powers, and and of government powers, weighted representation, a division imperial expansion would prevent such an outcome. Most EnglishMost outcome. Englishimperial expansion would prevent such an as philosophers philosophers of men read and Locke Locke as a once of a once dangerous read Harrington dangerous Harrington and revolution which which had had become become aa reassuring reassuring status American status quo. revolution quo. American colonists, on on the the other other hand, ultimately found writers the the those writers in those found in hand, ultimately colonists, logic and justification for a conservative revolution. logic and justification for a conservative revolution. as contradictory contradictory as as it it might might appear. This Considered in in not as This is is not appear. Considered England, or in any other country that was the metropolis of a going the of a that was or in other metropolis going any England, country empire in revolution had had been been stopped stopped and and stabilized stabilized short short which aa revolution in which empire of the radical objectives proposed by a sizable group of its supa sizable of of its radical the truly group objectives proposed by suptruly porters, Locke's system could offer no justification for continuedno for offer continued could Locke's justification system porters, or new-revolution. For by by definition he advanced advanced no no objective objective bebeor definition he new revolution. For yond hedonistic pleasure and avoidance of pain; and the citizens of of the avoidance hedonistic and citizens of yond pleasure pain; the mother mother country enjoyed such rewards. Only the colonial subjects the such rewards. colonial the Only subjects country enjoyed of the empire for revolution revolution in in Locke. of the could find find a a sanction sanction for Locke. Even Even empire could was invalid as long as their position for them, them, however, the appeal for was invalid as as their the however, appeal long position improved, least held held its own. Locke authorized revolution revolution only only at least its own. Locke authorized or at improved, or in terms and under the most extreme circumstances; inin negative terms and the most extreme under circumstances; innegative is taken deed, over half the American Declaration of Independence half the over of American Declaration is taken deed, Independence up in in satisfying criteria. those criteria. up satisfying those "God gave gave the world to Locke admitted, admitted, in common ... ," the world to men in ," Locke "[but] gave it to the use of the industrious and rational (and He it the use of the to industrious rational gave "[but] (and labor was to be his title to to it), not to the fancy or covetousness of kbor was to be his tide it), not to the fancy or covetousness of the the quarrelsome and contentious." From this premise he argued that contentious." this premise he argued that quarrelsome is present present enjoyment enjoyment of of what what this this while "the civil society while "the end of of civil society is world was equally equally true that "the world affords," it was first and and fundamental "the first fundamental true that affords," it ... is the preservation preservation of as will law ... is the the society, far as consist of the and (as will consist (as far society, and with with the the public public good) person in it." Otherwise Otherwise there there would of every in it." good) of every person be be "no peace, with all no enjoyment, all men and and peace, no security, security, no enmity with enjoyment, enmity safe possession safe of nothing, nothing, and those stinging swarms of misery and those of possession of misery stinging which attend attend anarchy anarchy and and rebellion." rebellion." Locke Locke could could hardly hardly have been have been in his his emphasis: of civil civil society being to avoid stronger in emphasis: "".... the the end end of to avoid stronger society being and remedy those inconveniences of the the state state of nature ... by setting remedy those inconveniences of of nature ... by setting known up a authority which every one of the society ought to obey." obey." which the one of up authority society ought to every thus asserted asserted that any society had to be considered just until Locke thus that any had to be considered society just until .
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aa majority majority of of men exercised their senses reason to reach aa exercised their and their their reason senses and to reach man who differed prematurely, he pointed different conclusion. A differed prematurely, he pointed different conclusion. the principles out, degenerate, and himself to and declares "becomes degenerate, to quit declares himself out, "becomes quit the principles nature, and be aa noxious noxious creature." creature." Under Under those those circirof human nature, and to to be of cumstances "the execution of law of of nature nature is that state put of the "the execution the law is in state put cumstances in that into hand, whereby whereby everyone everyone has has aa right right to punish the the into every man's hand, to punish every man's to such a degree as may hinder its violatransgressors of that law kw as of that to a its violasuch hinder may transgressors degree For Locke, Locke, therefore, therefore, individualism was aa right right and a liberty liberty tion." For and a individualism was tion." reserved to a status quo defined by a certain set to those those who accepted a a set reserved status defined certain by accepted quo of natural truths upon by a majority. Within such a framea a of natural truths agreed such Within frameagreed upon by majority. is aa far narrower set of limits than it work, and and it it is far narrower set of limits than it appears at first first work, appears at glance, the natural laws of property and labor were deemed sufficient the of were deemed natural laws sufficient and labor glance, property to guide pursuit of of happiness. men's pursuit to guide men's happiness. elements be seen, Locke's individualism As can can be the elements contained all all the individualism contained seen, Locke's perof the the kind kind of of laissez laissez faire later with such of faire advocated later with such advocated a a century percentury suasiveness by Adam Smith famous essay The Wealth of Wealth suasiveness by Smith in in his his famous of essay Nations. Both Both men are are often of as advocates of weak or Nations. of of as advocates weak or often thought thought less than than half minimal government, government, but but this impression is true. Given Given this impression half true. minimal is less a national national system capable of obtaining riches, Locke and Smith adadof and a Locke system capable obtaining riches, vocated aa modification authority and regulations vocated of government modification of regulations government authority within part of the system. system. Even in that sense, however, both both one fart within one in that sense, however, of the men made it quite clear that the state had very definite duties toward duties toward it quite clear that the state had very definite property and and the the maintenance maintenance of order. Neither Neither of proposed of them proposed of order. property that the the government abandon its its responsibility responsibility for for sustaining that should abandon sustaining government should was not not and extending such an an imperial and basic question question was extending such imperial system. system. The basic relaxation, for upon that point whether there there should be an for upon that point whether should be an internal internal relaxation, they were were agreed; the issue was whether the system was large large and issue was whether the system was they agreed; the strong enough and sufficiently developed to to permit permit such liberality such liberality enough and strong sufficiently developed without provoking provoking another another general crisis. without crisis. general THE DILEMMAS OF SUCCESSFUL MERCANTILISM
Just such an early campaign for domestic laissez coincided laissez faire faire coincided such an for domestic Just early campaign I~S. A with the reception given given to to Locke's in the the 16905. ideas in with the favorable favorable reception Locke's ideas
A
in EngEngcombination of events had had produced produced aa striking striking improvement combination of events improvement in
Restoration. The thirty years years after the Restoration. economy after the the thirty economy during during the been efforts of men like like Shaftesbury and Downing had been compleand compleDowning Shaftesbury men and money money more general factors. Internal peace freed mented by freed Internal more factors. by general peace new of and the expansion of for the the rehabilitation rehabilitation of the for of old old enterprises expansion enterprises trade. wars in manufacturing and the re-export trade. The war& undertakings in the re-export undertakings manufacturing
land's land's
efforts of
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The American History History The Contours Contours of of American
against the Dutch brought concrete gains (if only psychological against the Dutch brought concrete gains (if only psychological ones) buttressed the of the the mercantile mercantile system, enforcement of and buttressed the enforcement system, ones) and which in itself was was systematized rationalized. Finally, the Engand rationalized. in itself which Finally, the Engsystematized and lish had developed developed far enough beyond beyond the initial stage the initial of far enough colonies had lish colonies stage of survival to play aa positive positive and contributing part in the empire. the empire. and contributing to play survival part in As aa result, result, Englishmen Englishmen began began to agitate more more vigorously for freer freer to agitate As vigorously for trade. Monopolies Monopolies and confined trade again came under trade under confined trade. and severely again severely attack. But include the the cry cry for international for international not include did not the demands attack. But the demands did free trade trade as came to to be be defined in later "It is necessary," "It later years. is defined in as this free this came years. necessary," explained Nehemiah Grew, "so far as it may promote the Interest, the as it "so far Interest, may promote explained Nehemiah Grew, not of any Company but of England, that every English merchant not of any Company but of England, that every English merchant should it is that all English plantations plantations should be bound, bound, should be be free, all English so it should be is that free, so bound II mean mean to to trade England alone." alone." bound trade with with England Supporting trade within the system, within the freer trade an English this drive for freer drive for system, an English Supporting this court that "all people are at liberty to live in this this at to live are in "all court ruled ruled in in 1705 that liberty 1705 people place, and their skill and industry are the means they have to get the means have are and their skill and to they place, industry get their bread; bread; . • . consequently consequently it it is is unreasonable unreasonable to restrain them them to restrain their from trades within place." Six later, in an Six years their trades within this from exercising this place." in an years later, exercising their even more important decision, Lord Chief Justice Parker sustained even important decision, Lord Chief Justice Parker sustained be robbed of his his own that argument: free man ... should that should be robbed of "no free argument: "no property or or his his liberties customary rights rights ... [and these] free customary or his his free liberties or property [and these] have always been taken taken to the have to freedom extend to freedom of of trade." trade." As the to extend always been no doubt knew, he was exaggerating; America is not the only judge he is not no doubt America the was knew, judge exaggerating; only society which the the courts courts follow the economy in which and the follow the the elections. elections. society in economy and mercantilists, such Brewster, were were bebeEven some mercantilists, Francis Brewster, as Sir Sir Francis such as ginning to favor modifications of the old regulations though they to favor of the old modifications ginning regulations though they were not abandon their their basic basic ideas. will find find were to abandon not ready ideas. "Trade indeed will "Trade indeed ready to its own Channels," its Brewster admitted, "but it may be to the ruin Brewster it to the ruin Channels," admitted, "but may be of of the the Nation Nation if not Regulated." These difficulties dilemmas were were if not difficulties and and dilemmas Regulated." These produced by by the very success success of for the very as true true for of the the system. This was as produced system. This as for colonial as for domestic aDairs. As the empire prospered, so did the colonial domestic affairs. the the empire so did prospered, Americans. Given extremely access to to the market, favorable access the English Americans. English market, extremely favorable full share share in aa full the shipping business, increasing manufactures and in the manufactures business, shipping increasing services services from England, as well as the protection afforded by the as well the as afforded England, protection by the Royal Navy (and the King's Army), the colonies enjoyed their the the colonies their Royal Navy (and King's Army), enjoyed own accelerated accelerated improvement. It is is misleading misleading to to think them as of them think of as improvement. It but a nothing but a conglomeration of log cabins, possum caps, and handof and handnothing conglomeration log cabins, possum caps, corn cakes. cakes. They They had produced produced cities, and leaders leaders grown grown corn fortunes, and cities, fortunes, .
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of their own, and and the the stratification an established was their own, of an stratification of of established society society was visible to all. visible to all. This prompted steadily increasing concern This progress in England. concern in progress prompted steadily increasing England. American industry was feared particularly ominous, and called called feared as American as particularly ominous, and industry was forth aa series of laws laws designed to strangle the rival posthaste. The series of to the forth rival designed strangle posthaste. The Woolen Act Act of was prefaced by the explanation that such of 1699 was Woolen the that such 1699 prefaced by explanation products of of America were "exported from thence to Foreigne Foreigne America were thence to "exported from products Markets heretofore from England which will inevitably heretofore supplied from Markets will which supplied England inevitably sink the the value value of Lands and to the the mine ruine of the Trade and tend sink of Lands tend to of the Trade and and Woolen Manufactures this realm." year later the Board Woolen Manufactures of of this realm.'* A year of later the Board of Trade explicitly that America ruled explicitly that all Trade ruled all manufactured items in manufactured items in America "ought be imported imported from this kingdom." kingdom." Perhaps Perhaps the greatest to be from this the greatest "ought to testimony to the progress of the American colonial economy to of the the came American colonial testimony economy came progress in 1751 and 1764, England sought to stop the colonials from in when to the colonials from 1751 1764, England sought stop as a sign of printing their money. Sometimes interpreted their as a own Sometimes money. interpreted sign of printing weakness, the need of more money was in fact an indication that the the need of more that the was in fact an indication weakness, money colonies bursting the bonds. They They were on the the verge verge colonies were were bursting the imperial were on imperial bonds. of creating their own system within the British Empire. of creating their system within the British Empire. Americans thus benefited in in their fashion from same Americans thus benefited the same their own fashion from the wars that that gave the English economy an extra boost. For just as they wars as the extra For an boost. they English gave economy just had gained at the expense of the Dutch in r654 and 1663, so the at had the of the so the Dutch and in gained expense 1654 1663, English "substantial and permanent gains ... at the expense won and at the ... "substantial expense English permanent gains of France, France, the the greatest greatest industrial nation of of industrial nation of eighteellth-century eighteenth-century Europe." often is is the the case wars, and and particularly in nations case during Europe." As often during wars, particularly in nations which escape physical damage (as did England between 1660 and and did which between England escape physical damage (as 1763), increased demand opened opened the way for ideas. Quickly the increased for new ideas. the way Quickly 1763), the adapted and applied to to industrial undertakings, these these innovations innovations and applied industrial undertakings, adapted created jobs and and aa greater market. Opportunities for created new jobs domestic market. Opportunities for greater domestic for employment multiplied and the competition among capitalists for and the capitalists competition among employment multiplied a share labor force force increased. a share of the labor increased. of the As far hack as the 1630s, had sensed what the the concon~ sensed what far back as the 1630$, Thomas Mun had be for would sequences of such a pressure on the labor market he for labor market a the of on such pressure sequences a nation," traditional mercantilist mercantilist thought. thought. "The riches riches of nation," ran ran an of a traditional its people exargument typical typical of of the the era, out of of the the lahar labor of "arise out of its era, "arise people ex~ argument of ported to foreign markets." The logical, and practical, outcome of and practical, logical, ported to foreign markets." subsistence wages. that thesis policy favoring and bare hare subsistence wages. a policy that thesis was was a slavery and favoring slavery the effective effective demand generated But low wages also also put put aa ceiling But low wages generated ceiling on the to among the workers. persistent emphasis emphasis on exports a persistent workers. And a exports tended to among the
68 68
produce a produce a
The American History History The Contours Contours oj of American
rise in (because of of delays in domestic rise domestic prices delays and shortages) shortages) prices (because in turn decreased domestic demand even that further and thereby that in turn decreased domestic demand even further thereby created conditions radical agitation. unrest and and radical to unrest created conditions favorable favorable to agitation. Such theoretical possibilities were were becoming practical realities realities by the 1740s. theoretical possibilities 17405. by the becoming practical It was becoming apparent that, despite its general success, the its the It was success, that, general despite becoming apparent system was producing a domestic imbalance. On the one hand, the one the the imbalance. domestic was a hand, system producing of purpose purpose manifested by earlier mercantilist leaders drive and earlier mercantilist leaders manifested by drive and sense sense of was giving way to the spirit of irresponsibility and the ethics of the the ethics of the to of the was irresponsibility spirit giving way On the other, greater incentives had to be offered in order scramble. to be offered in incentives had order the scramble. other, greater disto sustain demand and or social social disto avoid "large-scale sustain demand and avoid emigration or "large-scale emigration _turbances." turbances." Whether systematic treatises or "contributed systematic treatises or Whether they they "contributed ephemeral pamphlets," concludes Professor A. W. Coats, "many A. Professor concludes Coats, "many pamphlets," -ephemeral contemporary authors were, consciously unconsciously, groping groping or unconsciously, authors were, consciously or contemporary level-one which their way way towards the concept of an optimum wage level one of an which towards the their optimum wage concept would reconcile reconcile the the interest the agricultural agricultural producers, producers, the the exexof the interest of would porters of manufactures, and the wage earners themselves." earners of and themselves." the manufactures, wage porters In these respects, therefore, the the mercantilists mercantilists were were no longer longer united united In these respects, therefore, basic policies which they were confident led to opulence and on a few confident led to on a few basic policies which they were opulence and power. Their growing concern the optimum optimum kind kind and and degree over the concern over Their growing power. degree of regulation necessary to to sustain of the the country of sustain the the improvement improvement of regulation necessary country was extended and intensified of being being other factors. several other Instead of was extended and intensified by factors. Instead by several characterized by by competing ideas about the objectives of national about the of characterized ideas national objectives competing and individual individual life, and the the means means appropriate reaching those those and for reaching life, and appropriate for goals, English politics came to be typified more and more by shifting more to be typified goals, English politics by shifting coalitions organized organized (and the basis personal and and coalitions basis of of personal disrupted) on the (and disrupted) The very success of mercantilism prompted men to group interest. to group interest. very success of mercantilism prompted -overlook that it was aa man-made system, overlook the the fact fact that to assume it was assume system, and to was aa natural natural order would operate indefinitely instead that it it was instead that which would order which operate indefinitely with little or no attention. attention. little or with The result result was was aa progressive progressive intensification intensification of of bureaucratic bureaucratic infightinfighting, corruption, and legislation for interest rather than and for than for interest rather for corporate ing, corruption, legislation corporate welfare. Along Along with the rising rising advocates laissez faire, growing welfare. with the advocates of of laissez a growing faire, a of mercantilists number of policy than became less mercantilists became less interested interested in in policy in exexthan in ploiting existing opportunities. As aa result, result, problems problems of of empire empire were were ploiting existing opportunities. or handled in aa negative negative and and unimaginative unimaginative way. way. Such an slighted handled in Such an slighted or it almost approach made it that any any later almost certain certain that to compensate later effort effort to approach compensate the neglect for the for neglect would take take on the character of of an ali-encompassing the character all-encompassing to reassert .campaign the power Metropolis over over the the colonies. colonies. reassert the of the the Metropolis campaign to power of
,
Introduction: British British Mercantilism Mercantilism Introduction:
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THE DECLINE OF MERCANTILISM AND THE AMERICAN REVOLUTION
This of the the standards standards and and performance performance of mercantilism This decay of mercantilism decay of served to to strengthen the continuing battle for laissez and invigorate served the battle for laissez strengthen and invigorate continuing faire. concluded that that mercantilism mercantilism had had served its Its advocates advocates concluded faire. Its served its purpose and be abandoned. But they they also that the the and should should be abandoned. But also insisted insisted that purpose empire was the foundation of this ability to have more freedom at was the foundation of this at to have freedom more empire ability home; hence they were not opposed to a tightening up of the empire hence were not a the to of home; they opposed empire tightening up itself. were to to become become less free in that the mother itself. The colonies colonies were less free in order order that the mother country might enjoy enjoy more more liberty. country might liberty. This shift from the the mercantilist mercantilist conception conception of toward an shift from This of empire an empire toward imperialistic outlook became increasingly apparent after 1715. English outlook became after imperialistic increasingly apparent 1715. English investments were protected protected by by strict currency investments were strict controls controls over over colonial colonial currency established in and through a law of 1731 which colonial in 1751 established a colonial law of which made 1751 through 1731 as copper, furs, property legally forfeit for debts. Articles such for forfeit as and debts. Articles such property legally copper, furs, and special forest products were added to the list of goods reserved for forest were added to the list of reserved for products special goods England. And the principle itself became law in 1742 with an official the principle itself became law in 1742 with an official England. proclamation emphasizing emphasizing the duties of of the the colonies toward the the the duties colonies toward proclamation mother country. mother country. by the the This imperialism of the laissez-faire outlook was This imperialism of the laissez-faire outlook reinforced by was reinforced problem of governing and controlling events in the vast areas taken of and in the vast events areas taken problem governing controlling from France France directly, directly, such such as and was was from as Nova Scotia Scotia and Canada, Canada, and accentuated by the the difficulties and directing the westward accentuated by difficulties of of limiting and the westward limiting directing the colonists the French French began began their their retreat. retreat. of the once the colonists once movement of Many Englishmen argued that these issues could not be handled in Many Englishmen argued that these issues could not be handled in the way way that the mercantilists mercantilists had had dealt with commerce and the the the that the dealt with original colonies. Territorial administration with the the colonies. Territorial administration and relations relations with original Indians the exercise exercise of from London. called for from London. Indians called for the of extensive extensive authority authority the colonies colonies themselves themselves had had reached the point where they they had nad And the reached the point where the begun to think of themselves as having the ability, the need, and the the as the to think of themselves need, ability, begun having right to conduct many of their own affairs. to of affairs. conduct their right many All those perplexing issues merged in two debates to in two issues merged debates which came to All those perplexing the a climax in England after the final victory over France in 1763. One final France in a after over in climax 1763. victory England was aa vigorous argument between between mercantilists advocates of of and advocates mercantilists and was vigorous argument laissez best way way for England to to retain retain its its supremacy for England over the the best faire over laissez faire supremacy time among the world empires and at the same time keep from being the at the world being keep empires among a struggle between overtaken by by the poor countries. countries. The second between second was a the poor overtaken struggle the question of leadership George III and his opponents over over the in his opponents leadership in question of George III
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England. way, these these two concon~ an extremely Interwoven in in an complex way, extremely complex England. Interwoven f1icts promoted promoted an attempted tightening up of the British empire. the British of an attempted empire. tightening up And that ultimately provoked provoked and and encouraged encouraged the the colonists colonists in turn turn ultimately that in to initiate creation of American empire. empire. of an an American the creation to initiate the by David Hume's assertion that England Touched off that find assertion Hume's Touched off by David England would find to maintain the world supremacy it enjoyed at the it impossible it at the it enjoyed impossible to maintain the world supremacy moment, the intellectual and theoretical argument soon settled settled soon down moment, the intellectual and theoretical argument to aa debate between Adam Smith Steuart. Taking Sir James Smith and Sir debate between to James Steuart. Taking place during I7505 and discussion determined the determined the this discussion the 1760s, the 17505 and the 17605, this place during the climate of many years years before before the the publication the of the of opinion for many climate publication of opinion for big books books which which summarized the conflicting views. Smith's Smith's Wealth summarized the conflicting views. big of Nations appeared appeared in in 1776, nine years after Steuart's Inquiry into into Steuart's Inquiry of Nations years after 1776, nine the Principles of of Political Political Oeconomy; but the the publication dates are are the Principles publication dates Oeconomy; but of if taken as signifying the beginning of the disagree~ very misleading the the as if taken beginning disagreevery misleading signifying ment. The books books were were the in an argument lasting statements in the final final statements ment. argument lasting nearly twenty years. nearly twenty years. The basic basic significance the differences between Smith and Steuart differences between Steuart of the significance of is reopened the central issue posed by Shaftesbury issue central the is clear: clear: they posed by Shaftesbury and they reopened rec~ similar mercantilists and offered different conclusions different conclusions and recoffered mercantilists similar early early ommendations. mercantilism originated as the articulate the as mercantilism articulate ommendations. Though originated Though statement needs and of the the commercial commercial interest, three desires of of the and desires statement of the needs interest, three of its mature Weltanschauung are nevertheless of para~ other aspects of are nevertheless of other its mature Weltanschauung paraaspects First, trade was the dynamic element in the the element the mount importance. in trade dynamic importance. First, as~ nation's early development. Second, the mercantilists correctly the mercantilists nation's early development. Second, correctly asserted that was an interrelated system composed of conflict~ of serted an that society interrelated conflictwas system composed society ing, competing, and co-operating co~perating interests; and for that reason reason men for that interests; and ing, competing, and to accommodate and balance had consciously to manage their affairs had to their affairs to and balance accommodate consciously manage to advance the general welfare. Finlly, the the various parts and to the various parts welfare. advance the general Finlly, the mercantilists generalized their ideas beyond their own interests to mercantilists their interests to generalized their ideas beyond include the entire partly because because of include the entire nation. nation. This This was partly of their their conception conception of society of as an an integrated organic) unit unit and partly because because of of and partly society as integrated (even (even organic) parts were were interrelated. their personal personal awareness awareness that their that all all the the parts interrelated. At the the crucial crucial juncture juncture of the Restoration, Restoration, Shaftesbury realized of the Shaftesbury realized that in one one of two ways. could sustain that mercantilism mercantilism could could develop It could of two sustain develop in ways. It the the image the ideal of society or it could ideal of the general it could welfare, or image and the society and the general welfare, slide back into a slide back into a narrower ultimately extreme on group narrower and ultimately extreme emphasis on emphasis group and personal personal interest. to the broader ideal. interest. Shaftesbury held fast the broader His fast to ideal. His Shaftesbury held protege Locke turned turned toward toward aa hedonistic hedonistic individualism. individualism. A century protege century later, when Shaftesbury's had materialized materialized as theoretical alternatives alternatives had as later, Shaftesbury's theoretical flicts
Introduction: British British Mercantilism Mercantilism Introduction:
71 71
the two to England, England, Smith while roads open two roads Smith argued the for individualism individualism while open to argued for Steuart the broader vision of purposeful action for the the broader Steuart upheld vision of upheld purposeful action for the general welfare. welfare. general As with with Shaftesbury Locke, Steuart and Locke, Steuart and and Smith Smith shared shared one one Shaftesbury and crucial assumption: whatever the local or domestic means crucial assumption whatever the local or domestic means of of achievachieving welfare, could not not be without an an empire. empire. The The it could be accomplished welfare, it ing accomplished without key difference lay in the view view shared by Shaftesbury that in the difference lay shared by and Steuart Steuart that key Shaftesbury and conscious, positive positive policies policies were necessary to to sustain were necessary sustain the the reality of conscious, reality of corporate, mutual responsibility within to improve the mutual responsibility within society and to the corporate, society and improve general welfare. also agreed, that welfare. The four four protagonists however, that protagonists also general agreed, however, self-interest was the main engine of human action. This did not mean the main self-interest was not of action. This did mean engine that they pocketbook determinists; were quite that were pocketbook that aware that determinists; they they were they were quite aware ideas an important part in defining self-interest. Steuart was an ideas played in was self-interest. Steuart important part played defining willing to grant, moreover, that it was often "the combination of to that it was often "the combination of grant, moreover, willing every private interest which forms the public good." interest which the forms every private public good." Beyond that point, point, however, however, Steuart's views diverged Steuart's views Beyond that dramatically diverged dramatically from those of Smith. from observation those of Smith. He was from was convinced convinced from and analysis observation and analysis that the economy of the capitalist system suffered from an the exchange of that the suffered from an exchange economy capitalist system As it did so, it produced inherent tendency to get out of balance. inherent to out balance. it it of As did so, get tendency produced social unemployment, political political unrest, unrest, and and the the probability of social unemployment, probability of revolution. Denying Denying that that the between contradictory self· revolution. the competition between contradictory selfcompetition interests provided an corrective for inevitable ininan automatic interests provided for this automatic corrective this inevitable to act consciously and rationally to stability, he insisted that men had he insisted that had to act consciously and rationally to stability, keep the system functioning satisfactorily. keep the system functioning satisfactorily. food, other Steuart's responsibility "to provide food, "to provide other Steuart's acceptance of the the responsibility acceptance of exist, necessities and employment, not for those those who actually actually exist, and employment, not only necessities only for but also those who are to be be brought brought into for those dramatized but are to into existence" existence" dramatized also for moral imhis reassertion-contrary Locke and and Smith-of the moral imreassertion contrary to to Locke Smith of the his perative that had been been so early mercantilism that in early mercantilism and that that had so strong strong in perative hard to Shaftesbury labored so Steuart's. sustain. Steuart's. to reinvigorate had labored so hard reinvigorate and sustain. Shaftesbury had in theoretical theoretical thought signified the high high point point of mercantilism in of British British mercantilism thought signified the sophistication in its the national national well-being over the the concern for and in its ~oncern for the well-being over sophistication and long run. Entertaining no thought of total regulation and quite of total and no run. quite regulation thought long Entertaining willing to to give give individuals area for for independent a broad broad area individuals a action, independent action, willing was the the product product of of policy, policy. Steuart nevertheless insisted insisted that that welfare welfare was Steuart nevertheless not of nor of workings of Newton's Great Great of Newton's automatic workings the automatic of the of Providence Providence nor not Smith's "hidden Clock nor even even of the mysterious mysterious powers powers of of Adam Smith's Clock nor of the hand." hand." Though it came came out in curious ways, Adam Smith had had considerconsidercurious ways, out in Though it :
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The American History History The Contours Contours of of American
able for the power of Steuart's argument. In In his his public public rereable respect respect for the power of Steuart's argument. marks, Smith almost never admitted the existence, let alone the let alone the the never admitted existence, marks, Smith almost of Steuart. Yet his correspondence makes makes clear clear that that intelligence, intelligence, of Steuart. Yet his correspondence was the antagonist. In particular, he implicitly acknowledged Steuart he Steuart was the antagonist. In particular, implicitly acknowledged the strength of Steuart's argument about the inherent instability of the strength of Steuart's argument about the inherent instability of He also also refused refused to to attack an important important capitalism. as such, action as state action attack state such, an capitalism. point often overlooked by the more careless or enthusiastic advocates point often overlooked by the more careless or enthusiastic advocates At several points, indeed, he emof laissez-faire free enterprise. of laissez-faire free enterprise. At several points, indeed, he phasizes that the state is responsible for key key actions. others, his his actions. In In others, for state that the is responsible phasizes remarks suggest that he was attacking the corruption of the ideal the of ideal the that he was remarks corruption attacking suggest of mercantilism mercantilism as as much as per se. se. as the the outlook outlook per of This is certainly certainly true true in that Smith predicated predicated the crucial sense that in the crucial sense This is his entire on the existence of an empire. Along with many with of an the existence his on entire system empire. Along system many Scotsmen, Smith was at once a nationalist and a British imperialist. a and British a nationalist at once Smith was Scotsmen, imperialist. In prepared aa special for Lord Lord of Roman colonies In 1766 even prepared colonies for he even special study 1766 he study of to further the efficiency Shelburne, an undertaking designed the to further and an Shelburne, efficiency and undertaking designed productivity of the empire. Smith's basic argument was that "Britain that Smith's was the basic of "Britain argument empire. productivity was already rich country there really really was no no need need for was a rich and hence hence there for country and already a the government to safeguard advantages which we were not in which the were to not in government safeguard advantages danger of losing." He nevertheless stressed the constant need to the of nevertheless constant stressed need to losing." danger extend the market; accepting accepting the of the mercantilists, the extend the market; the assumptions of mercantilists, assumptions entire argument argument on existence of he hinged hinged his he his entire of an the existence an expanding on the expanding "vent "vent for for surpluses." surpluses." By Smith's emphasis, the key to Nations is Wealth of to The Wealth Smith's own emphasis, the key is of Nations By the axiom that "the surpluses must be sent abroad." Thus, he the axiom that "the surpluses must be sent abroad." Thus, as as he the existence existence of the empire empire which which made it it possible possible explained, it was was the of the explained, it to rely upon the the division of labor labor than than upon mercantilist to rather upon division of rely rather upon mercantilist policy to and increase the wealth wealth of the rich rich country. to sustain sustain and increase the of the policy country. "A rich nation," always in competition of of rich he concluded, "must always in every nation/' he concluded, "must every competition commerce and and manufactures, manufactures, have have an advantage an equal, or superior equal, or superior advantage over aa poor within which which Smith was one." This over This is is the the context context within Smith was poor one." to ultimately willing to acquiesce in the political independence of the in the the of ultimately willing acquiesce political independence American colonies; a large part of the empire remained undisturbed, American of the remained colonies; a undisturbed, large part empire was confident, would retain retain its economic and, he he was its vital vital economic and, confident, England England would supremacy over America. America. supremacy over the simplest In the that is to say, upon which which is to the "hidden "hidden hand" hand" upon sense, that simplest sense, say, the to sustain sustain laissez nothing more nor less less than than Smith relied relied to faire was laissez faire was nothing more nor an empire which the an a priori advantage in dewhich gave the Metropolis a an dein empire gave Metropolis priori advantage over other velopment over other countries. Under those circumstances, the countries. those the velopment circumstances,
Introduction: British British Mercantilism Mercantilism Introduction:
73 73
balance of trade was was "very to England. Men could o trade balance could "very advantageous" advantageous" to England. Men "in the way that they judge most proceed to indulge themselves to themselves "in the way that they judge most indulge proceed As with John Locke, Smith based his advantageous to themselves." to themselves." with John Locke, Smith based his advantageous individualism on empire and the absence of factions in the body individualism empire and the absence of factions in the body politic; faction, according to Smith, "obstructs all public business" politic; faction, according to Smith, "obstructs all public business" easy workings workings of a natural natural order. thereand disturbs the easy disturbs the and of a order. Ironically, Ironically, therefore, Smith was in in this this at the French physiocrats who at one one with with the French physiocrats fore, wanted aa strong government to protect aa predominantly predominantly agrarian to protect wanted strong government agrarian society, Englishmen such as Viscount Viscount Bolingbroke Bolingbroke who with Englishmen such as society, and with argued the the necessity King to clamp down on on a strong of a Patriot King to clamp necessity of argued strong Patriot factions that were threatening threatening to to tear tear society asunder. that were factions asunder. society Clearly George III III took cue from Bolingbroke rather rather took his his cue from Bolingbroke Clearly enough, enough, George than from but in in his his insistence on an an end and on on from Smith; than insistence on end to to faction faction and Smith; but the retention retention of of the he was acting on the cardinal axioms of the empire the he was the cardinal axioms on of empire acting As a firm believer in divine right, George III Smith's a believer Smith's own argument. firm in divine III argument. right, George was also to reassert reassert the the prerogative prerogative of assert also anxious anxious to the Crown and was of the and assert his own personality. personality. Emphasizing the virtues of laissez faire, many his the of laissez virtues faire, many Emphasizing of the King's critics (both (both then then and found it an easy matter to of the and later) King's critics later) found it an easy matter to mer~ present him in an unfavorable unfavorable light. light. But the breakdown in an But the of merbreakdown of present cantilism did did involve involve corruption and the loss of purpose and cantilism and of the loss corruption purpose and responsibility. Hence, while it is easy to argue that George Ill's is to Ill's while that it George argue responsibility. Hence, easy was worse the disease, disease, cure unrestrained individualism for such such unrestrained cure for individualism was worse than than the the issue is not that simple-the disease was very real and very the issue is not that simple the disease was very real and very dangerous. dangerous. Even the the Americans were ultimately to discover discover that that the the assumpEven Americans were assumpultimately to in its its longtion that that empire empire solves all problems proves less tion solves all longsatisfying in problems proves less satisfying run results its momentary momentary profits profits and and pleasures. pleasures. As the the last last run results than than in in its of Ameriunderstood very of the the great Steuart understood mercantilists, Steuart early what Amerivery early great mercantilists, canil of to learn only after they had had used used aa after they cans of a later century were to learn only a later century were wea,pon of that threatened threatened the the individual individual and destruction that mass destruction of mass weapon corporate welfare welfare of of unborn unborn generations. the living bear, in in For the living do bear, generations. For corporate those "of Steuart's phrase, a responsibility for the welfare "of those for welfare the a Steuart's moving responsibility phrase, moving to be be brought brought into into existence." existence." who are are to of the James Madison, the commanding the American gentry Madison, the gentry James commanding mind of then and the of the Founding Fathers, ultimately adopted and then and the sage of the Fathers, ultimately adopted Founding sage the adaptell the mercantilism of Steuart as the morality and the policy the as of Steuart the mercantilism policy morality adapte/1 by whu whit hh to the feeble confederation into into aa mighty mighty colonial confederation feeble colonial to transform transform the by with republican empire. Before the final break wi:th London, moreover, break the final Before moreover, London, republican empire. great reluctance that Madison's Madison's predecessors predecessors it was 0nly reluctance that it was with great only with
'74
'74
abandoned abandoned
The Contours Contours of of American American History History The
their desire and and effort effort to to re-establish re-establish the the outlook outlook and and
their desire
the
policies of of Shaftesbury Shaftesbury and and Steuart Steuart in in the the councils councils of of the the British British the policies Government. And even even the the determined determined rebel rebel minority minority who conconGovernment. ceived, sustained, sustained, ceived,
and finally finally realized realized the the idea idea of of independence independence and shared the same basic image of America as a mercantilist empire. shared the same basic image of America as a mercantilist empire. Through its its defeat defeat in in Britain, Britain, mercantilism mercantilism was was reborn reborn in in America. America. Through
•
THE AGE OF
MERCANTILISM 1740-1818
Private Vices, Management of Politician, may maY' dextrous Management the dextrous a skillful Private Vices, by by the of a skillful Politician, be turned into Public Benefits. Bernard Mandeville, 1714 into Public turned Bernard Mandeville, 1714 be Benefits. Mercantilism thus meant primarily primarily that, that, under pressure of thus meant under the the pressure Mercantilism of new intellectual enlightenment in various spheres, spheres, people people were, were, for for the first in various the first intellectual enlightenment to aims which they had long time, directing their deliberate attention their deliberate to had attention aims which time, directing they long cherished unreflectingly. August Heckscher, cherished Heckscher, I93> unreflectingly. August 1935
•
•
I. the Rising of the L The Triumph Order Triumph of Rising Order
Shall Shall
we whine and cry cry for for relief, relief, when we have have all'eady tried it it in vain? in vain? already tried George Washington, I774 George Washington, 1774
We do do not to be be independent, not want to want no no revolution. revolution. independent, we want Joseph I775 Hewes, 1775 Joseph Hewes, We have it power to the world world over over again. it in in our power to begin again, begin the Thomas Paine, Paine, I776 1776 We must must rebel rebel some time othe,., and and we had had better better rebel than time or or other, rebel now than at time to come,' if put off for ten or twenty years, ant! let them at any to we time ten or let and come; if any put off for twenty years, go on as as they have begun, begun, they will get get aa strong strong party party among among us, us, and go they have they will plague us us aa great great deal deal more than they can can now. than they now. plague Joseph Hawley to Adams, I776 to Samuel Adams, 1776 Joseph Hawlcy
T THOUGH
ShaftesHOUGH it far-fetched in it might have the I6705, in the 16705, Shaftesmight have seemed far-fetched bury's strategy to subvert Spain's American empire by capturing to subvert American bury's strategy Spain's empire by capturing its trade bullion) had proved its validity validity within within two generations. its trade (and (and bullion) generations. proved its His similar that the the commercial commercial colonies develop His colonies would develop similar expectation expectation that also being verified. closer closer economic and social verified. was also to England social ties ties to England being South Carolina neighbors were redirecting the Carolina and its its southern southern neighbors redirecting the rivers trade down the Ashley and Cooper rivers Indian and Spanish Indian trade the Ashley Cooper Spanish Pennsylvanians and New Engtoward the the wharves wharves of toward of Charleston; Charleston; Pennsylvanians Engin payment payment landers pieces of of eight eight to landers were carrying to London in Spanish pieces carrying Spanish British ships of the the home marine were makfor manufactures; for manufactures; and British ships of ing regular trading voyages along the coast of of South America. coast the ing regular trading voyages along 77
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The American History History The Contours Contours of of American
Working within the the framework framework of attitudes and and policies established of attitudes policies established Working within during the Restoration, the American colonies and England had colonies American the the Restoration, England had during Far more relaxed in tone and constructed a complementary empire. in tone relaxed more and Far constructed a complementary empire. later observers observers-and certainly not not routine than and certainly it appeared to routine than it many later appeared to many aa rightly tighdy ruled imperialism-this mercantilism had produced a sura had surruled imperialismthis mercantilism produced prisingly close approximation to the idea, and even the ideal, of a prisingly close approximation to the idea, and even the ideal, of a commonwealth. Though himself to to independence independence he committed committed himself commonwealth. Though he sooner than than most most colonists, colonists, Samuel began with nothing more more with nothing sooner Samuel Adams began than aa determination to reform reform the Massachusetts. And affairs of of Massachusetts. the affairs than determination to to include colonial even when he broadened broadened his his attack attack to include England's even when he England's colonial policy, his initial objective was no more than to re-establish the to re-establish than the old more old no his initial was policy, objective mercantilist system with the kind of liberal rule that Massachusetts rule that liberal Massachusetts the of kind with mercantilist system had enjoyed Governor Thomas PownalL Pownall. had under Governor enjoyed under Pownall's outlook, like like that and his friend friend and of Benjamin PownalTs outlook, that of Franklin, his Benjamin Franklin, fellow speculator in Ohio lands, was that of the nabob. Such rising nabob. the was that of in fellow Ohio lands, rising speculator upper-class colonials assumed they ultimately inherit the inherit the would ultimately colonials assumed they would upper-class to further their economic and empire; in the meantime they sought their economic further and the to in meantime they sought empire; social welfare by making making alliances with various various groups English in English alliances with social welfare by groups in society and in the British government. Though they did not verbalize did not verbalize and in the British society government. Though they or as formally, and lacked the power to act on it it it as as explicidy explicitly or as formally, and lacked the power to act on it overtly, the great majority majority of the basic assumptions basic assumptions shared the the great of colonists colonists shared overtly, of the the nabob nabob and and aspired aspired to him. Like leaders, most most emulate him. Like their their leaders, of to emulate of them were hesitant or until the of were hesitant toward independence until or indifferent the indifferent toward independence of them never morning of the break with England. many of of the with And break never morning England. many to fight the war began. for Franklin Franklin and his his fellow fellow bothered to bothered after the fight after began. As for was only only with with great that they they joined joined Adams nabobs, it it was reluctance that nabobs, great reluctance a bid bid for for an and his his revolutionary revolutionary allies Virginia in in making allies in in Virginia an making a independent independent empire. empire. THE SOUTH AND THE RISE RISE OF AN AMERICAN GENTRY
Further developed than any of its its neighbors, neighbors, Virginia was the the Further developed than any of Virginia was leader of symbol and the the leader the colonies Negro of the of Pennsylvania. south of colonies south symbol Pennsylvania. Negro the mainspring was the mainspring of handled the the great slavery was of that that society. Slaves handled slavery society. Slaves great tobacco, rice, rice, and indigo that provided provided the the security the crops 'of of tobacco, for the crops indigo that security for indebtedness of the region, wealthy indebtedness region, and and their their masters of the contributed masters contributed wealthy in social, political, and economic a practice practice and leadership in affairs. As a economic affairs. and social, political, leadership as an institution, as Negro slavery in the American colonies developed in the American colonies institution, Negro slavery developed within of English within the the logic logic and politics politics of English mercantilism. mercantilism. Slavery was the the Slavery was gravest weakness of that system: the frayed and raveled end of the weakness of that the the and end of raveled gravest system: frayed
The Age Age of Mercantilism of Mercantilism
79 79
strand of mercantile economic theory which the importance importance of mercantile economic theory strand which stressed stressed the of aa large, cheap, and controlled labor force that could produce aa and controlled o labor force that could produce large, cheap, this instance, theory was eminendy staple export. And in for export. in this was eminently surplus for instance, theory staple surplus as well as persuasive. African chiefs proved only ready practical as well as too ready persuasive. African chiefs proved only too practical to supply such exports. They had been doing it for centuries. such human to supply exports. They had been doing it for centuries. Scrambling for empire empire along circle route the globe, globe, route on on the Scrambling for along every every great great circle English traders traders entered the dirty business in organized fashion fashion entered the in an an organized English dirty business the Royal After Charles II II chartered when Charles chartered the African Company in 1672. Royal African Company in 1672. After broken in in 1697 laissez faire put its foot in that monopoly that in laissez faire its foot monopoly was broken 1697 (as (as put the English door), the the industry became even more extensive and dethe became even more deextensive and English door), industry graded as other Englishmen joined colonists colonists from Rhode as other and Rhode from Salem Salem and Englishmen joined graded Island to parlay parlay the the normally normally narrow narrow margin margin of profit into into aa Island to of profit lucrative and lamentable lucrative and lamentable commerce. commerce. Most 17th-century Englishmen harsh and about Most were harsh and offhand offhand about 17th-century Englishmen were The vigorous nationalism and anti-foreignism of mercanslavery. nationalism and of mercanslavery. vigorous anti-foreignism tilism reinforced Negro bebethe existing reinforced the tilism discrimination against the Negro existing discrimination against the cause of different color, religion, and culture. Yet at no time did his different cause of his did and culture. Yet at no time color, religion, the planters Virginia or or other manage to to conconthe of Virginia other southern southern colonies colonies manage planters of vince themselves themselves that that slavery was beyond morality. For that matter, vince was that For matter, beyond morality. slavery by questions its economic economic southerners were were periodically periodically assailed southerners assailed by about its questions about slaves (the advantages. Many thought that that the the cost of slaves "Profits arising cost of Many thought advantages. arising (the "Profits so very great") explained the persistently unfavorable thereon [are] so thereon the very great") explained [are] persistently unfavorable balance of the region. region. Others Others hence indebtedness, of the balance of trade, and hence trade, and indebtedness, of was efficient, adding that the southern questioned whether slavery questioned whether slavery was efficient, adding that the southern economy diversified skills, needed more men with with diversified and skills, industry, industry, and economy needed initiative. initiative. by the of social Such were reinforced the sense sense of economic doubts doubts were reinforced by social and Such economic in the philosophy corporate responsibility which which was the secular secular philosophy was strong corporate responsibility strong in consciously modeled on that that of the English English gentry, and in the in the of the modeled on consciously gentry, and religious doctrines of the Anglican church. George church. George established Anglican doctrines of the established religious Washington and and other other planters planters of colonial era the era anticipated the late late colonial of the anticipated the Washington of the Declarademise long before before the the inspiring inspiring rhetoric rhetoric of the Declaraof slavery demise of slavery long tion of Independence reminded reminded the the colonists their responsibilities responsibilities of their colonists of tion of Independence as free a leader who saw the need to diversify the the to the need a leader As free Englishmen. as diversify Englishmen. both his region, Washington combined both an economic and economy of economic his of region, Washington economy of slavery. a moral moral argument his candid slavery. candid critique in his a critique of argument in institution. the Yet many many influences to sustain the dreadful to sustain dreadful institution. influences converged Yet converged as straightforward as Patrick Henry, many planters Though not Patrick as as not Henry, many planters straightforward Though the hard else else do the hard work; shared his preference for for having someone shared his preference work; having
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The of American American History History The Contours Contours of
he spoke bluntly about about "the general inconvenience inconvenience of without of living "the general he living without spoke bluntly them." Others Others had had frenzied which transformed legitiwhich transformed them." frenzied imaginations legitiimaginations mate (and intelligent) concern about the difficulties incident to the difficulties incident about to concern mate (and intelligent) scenes of orgiastic violence, biological decay, and emancipation into and emancipation into scenes of orgiastic violence, biological decay, Yet-during rate-it was wholesale poverty. poverty. Yet at any it was colonial era, the colonial wholesale era, at any rate during the to have been the most powerful. the economic arguments that seem the most been have the economic arguments that seem to powerful. Washington's program program for a diversified diversified agriculture and for developing agriculture and developing a Washington's local industry made a great deal of sense, but the majority the of the local industry made a great deal of sense, but the majority of planters could not translate Their debts to London into reality. it into could not translate it reality. Their debts to planters being inmiddle-men, which Jefferson later as being later spoke of as inwhich Thomas Jefferson middle-men, spoke of value of their tobacco tobacco deherited for of their the value increased as as the defor generations, herited generations, increased clined. These These economic away their their freedom of of scissors snipped economic scissors clined. snipped away Washington admitted admitted (and he was an maneuver. As an exceptioneven Washington maneuver. As even exception(and he ally efficient and wealthy planter), "goods [were] for the most exally efficient and wealthy planter), "goods [were] for the most exceedingly dear bought." Probably Probably most planters tried raise more more tried to to raise dear bought." most planters ceedingly of their own food, and some with a few acres planted a with acres of their some experimented food, and planted experimented to abuse their for the West West Indies Indies market, market, but but the majority continued continued to abuse their for the the majority land crops. with the the same same old land with old commodity commodity crops. As tobacco declined in in value value on on the European market, market, the the planters planters the European tobacco declined sought a solution within the traditional framework of mercantilism. of solution framework a within the traditional mercantilism. sought to limit limit production production and improve quality. virgin They proposed to and improve They proposed quality. With virgin land open to the west, however, not many of them could comof not could land lying to the comwest, however, many lying open the discipline discipline to to restrict restrict their But they did combine mand the their output. did combine they output. to raise raise more more of with the the idea quality their efforts efforts to idea of their of quality the staple of the staple with syscontrols and inspections, and with with the the traditional traditional mercantilist mercantilist sysand inspections, controls tem of depots. Together with the steady exhaustion of tem of centralized centralized depots. with the exhaustion of Together steady the soil, this campaign to expand production reinforced the existing the soil, this campaign to expand production reinforced the existing to the they did elbow drive drive to the west west for for more land. land. When they did 110t not simply simply elbow onward, the the planters over them out out and and onward, and speculators planters and speculators leapfrogged leapfrogged over the yeomen yeomen and and frontiersmen, frontiersmen, and and thus different the thus southerners of different southerners of classes classes came into into common conflict with British regulations limiting limiting conflict with British regulations expansion beyond beyond the the mountains. mountains. expansion Such an emphasis production steadily emphasis on expanding steadily strengthened expanding production strengthened the conclusion drawn from earlier the conclusion that gang proearlier experience that labor proexperience gang labor the only vided to make a Though it was vided the way to profit on on staple crops. a profit it was only way staple crops. Though to to raise tobacco, and later cotton, on smaller units of cultipossible raise later cultion smaller units of tobacco, cotton, possible vation, this this profitableness profitableness of labor became became one the chief chief of gang one of of the vation, gang labor or It should arguments-or excuses-for maintaining the slave system. excuses for the slave It should arguments maintaining system. not be imagined, however, that that the the planters planters were were unique not be defendin defendimagined, however, unique in
The Age Age of of Mercantilism Mercantilism
81 81 ing slavery. Southern yeomen aspired to own their own slaves Southern their slaves yeomen aspired to ing slavery. the ambition), (many realized the and white white workers workers in in such cities as such cities as (many realized ambition), and Charleston organized organized against Negro labor labor (as in the shipbuildCharleston free Negro against free (as in the shipbuilding yards) at early date. at an an early date. ing yards) In later years, after coming coming under under militant militant attack from the the critics critics In later attack from years, after by emphasizing emphasizing the the achieveachieveof southerners often of slavery, often replied slavery, southerners replied by culture. Though justifying Negro Negro slavery in ments of their culture. of their ments not justifying Though not slavery in America and often exaggerated, the the argument had aa certain validity. often exaggerated, America certain validity. argument had For the the best was exceptionally exceptionally good; it was was mature, mature, best of of the the south south was good; it responsible, respectful respectful of learning, civilized, and urbane. urbane. Moral withof learning, Moral withcivilized, and responsible, out priggish, the the planter planter aristocracy probably comprehended out being being priggish, aristocracy probably comprehended as well as most most of England the verity verity of of original the sin at at least least as well as the New England of the original sin by theocracy. though their reforms may have been weakened And their have been reforms weakened theocracy. though may by an overly developed propensity to compromise, such men did avoid an to did such avoid overly developed propensity compromise, the arrogance of self-righteous Long before tradition the before the the tradition arrogance of self-righteous crusading. crusading. Long 1660, southof the Cavalier belatedly imported after Cavalier was of the was somewhat somewhat belatedly after 1660, southimported erners had begun begun to to advance advance their version of the life of the the erners their own version of the life of it evolved rapidly through the 18th century. English gentry, and it evolved the i8th English gentry, century. rapidly through Like many many other that of William Byrd other Southern at Like Southern mansions, of William mansions, that Byrd at less elegant but nevertheless comparable to Westover, Virginia, was to was less but nevertheless Westover, Virginia, elegant comparable those of many English vista of of the the of many fine vista those estates. Commanding English estates. Commanding aa fine James River, its bold and imposing structure featured a mahogany its bold featured a structure and James River, mahogany imposing volumes. And in in stairway housed aa magnificent magnificent library of 4,000 library of 4,000 volumes. stairway and housed as Annapolis to the north, great homes like the the ports, such the like homes the ports, such as Annapolis to the north, great by William typified aa Hammon-Harwood house house designed William Buckland Buckland typified designed by similar pattern of living. Though this southern architecture might similar pattern of living. Though this southern architecture might be described as aa solidly rendered in in good be described rather rather as good solidly appropriate style rendered appropriate style was justly justly admired. admired. taste than than as as great it was taste art, it great art, was likewise St. Michael's church an impressive likewise an in Charleston Charleston was St. Michael's church in impressive as aa group they symbol gentry's culture. culture. Presumably Presumably because because as the gentry's of the group they symbol of prone than than some to discuss every issue issue were far discuss every colonials to other colonials were far less less prone some other in vocabulary, because because they they separated state church and state a theological in a separated church theological vocabulary, the considered to by law, and because Jefferson came to be considered the and because Thomas law, Jefferson by that the symbol it has been assumed that the has often often been entire society, of the the entire society, it symbol of for whom or men for southern were Deists in all all but but name or aristocrats were Deists in southern aristocrats class. Bu~ James of their their class. James sitting in church church was was one the chores chores of one of of the sitting in Bu^: were Madison others among the southern gentry were' deeply, southern the and many others Madison and 'deeply, gentry among many tradition of although not ostentatiously, in the the Anglican Anglican tradition religious in ostentatiously, religious although not to the corporate church. While vigorously opposed to bishops running the church. While running bishops vigorously opposed corporate
82 82
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The of American American History History The Contours Contours of
state, and increasingly tolerant of dissent, they retained a strong state, and increasingly tolerant of dissent, they retained a strong sense of inclusive Washington's Farewell Farewell social morality. Christian social sense of inclusive Christian morality. Washington's Address, for example, emphasized that such an ethic ethic was essential such an essential for example, Address, emphasized that to sustaining the ideal and the practice of the general welfare. welfare. of the the and the ideal to general practice sustaining was typical typical of the many many planters planters Samuel Matthews of Virginia was of the of Virginia Samuel Matthews whose names names do not get into every history book, but neverbut who into neverdo not whose book, every history get social responsibility. responsibility. He managed managed theless exhibited a strong strong sense of social sense of theless exhibited a took an part in his own own affairs affairs with with care care and active part in local an active local and success, his success, took government, and tried to anticipate and prepare for the development for the and development prepare government, and tried to anticipate of the the region. Although they may have sent their sons to England of region. Although they may have sent their sons to England Byrd and William Fitzhugh for and William also as Byrd such as an education, for an education, men such Fitzhugh also worked to and lower In all these schools. In lower schools. all these colonial colleges to establish establish colonial worked colleges and respects, they labored to improve life in the the present present as well as as well as to to respects, they labored to improve life in coatdevelop a tradition and found a family dynasty with its own with its a found coatand a tradition family dynasty develop of-arms. as for the tradition, tradition, they they proved proved so that so successful successful that for the o-arms. And as some back..country southerners ultimately rebelled against those those rebelled who southerners some against ultimately back-country ignored abused it. or abused it. ignored or This several contrasting This southern southern aristocracy developed several contrasting though aristocracy developed though complementary extreme, some of merchants of its its merchants life. At one of life. one extreme, styles of complementary styles and professional represented an an almost almost exclusively urban and and and exclusively urban professional men represented North commercial influence, influence. Joseph Joseph Hewes and and James Iredel of of North commercial James Iredel Carolina typified typified that that pattern. pattern. Further Further south, the Charleston merCarolina Charleston mersouth, the chants Henry Laurens revealed an even greater greater like Henry an even chants and and factors factors like Laurens revealed similarity them came came their British British counterparts. of them to their Indeed, many many of similarity to counterparts. Indeed, so much in common with their trans-Atlantic to feel that they had so with to feel that they had in their trans-Atlantic to break break the the conprototypes that they were were extremely disinclined to that they conextremely disinclined prototypes nection. Christopher Gadsden in in Charleston Charleston was notable excepa notable nection. was a Christopher Gadsden exception, becoming becoming aa vigorous vigorous advocate of independence. independence. advocate of tion, On the hand, many many planters planters were were practically practically pure pure agrarians. the other other hand, agrarians. of the patroons along the Hudson Similar in their their outlook outlook to to some of the patroons Similar in along the in in upper upper New Yark, these men stayed close to to the land in thought the land in thought York, these stayed close as in routine. routine. This view of of life and its as well well as as in This mode of of life associated view its associated the world world ultimately prompted to take up and adapt the the them to take the ultimately prompted up adapt basically feudal philosophy of the French physiocrats. Though placfeudal philosophy of the French physiocrats. basically Though placindividual freedom ing great and local freedom and local self-government, ing emphasis on individual great emphasis self-government, the economic, of their counthey dominated the political, and and social social life life of their couneconomic, political, they ties ties and regions regions in in an an aristocratic that was often benevolent aristocratic style that often benevolent style almost always always effective. effective. In In later later years, years, the the leaders of this and almost this group leaders of group
The Age Age of oj Mercantilism Mercantilism
83 83
in the south were Virginians Virginians like like John John Taylor Taylor of of Caroline and south were in the Caroline and John Randolph Randolph of Roanoke; in in the the north, north, New York's York's George Clin~ of Roanoke; John George Clinton was the outstanding was the ton figure. outstanding figure. in doing so, aa significant number of planters Despite the difficulties the difficulties in of planters Despite significant number doing so, were by 1740 developing still another pattern of life which resembled still another of life were which resembled by 1740 developing pattern that of English gentry. gentry. Whether Whether in Virginia, or the English of the in Maryland, or other that other Maryland, Virginia, southern this group maintained city houses, were governed this southern colonies, maintained were colonies, group city houses, governed as to to their their clothes clothes and and lace, an~ and coaches, silver and and anas manners and coaches, silver lace, manners ecdotes and similarly similarly extended extended their their the latest latest London fashions, ecdotes by fashions, and by the other and tastes. tastes. Charleston was perhaps perhaps the the exemplar exemplar of interests and other interests Charleston was of this more cosmopolitan existence; yet as the center of government as this more the center of existence; cosmopolitan yet government and society as as well well as of trade trade fairs, and boasting boasting the the College College of as of and society of fairs, and William and founded in 1693, Williamsburg was also a focus in William and Mary founded was a also focus Mary 1693, Williamsburg of the the urban-commercial-agrarian urban~ommercial~agrarian life; and Annapolis, Annapolis, in in those days of those days life; and aa far more important important port than Baltimore or Norfolk, developed far more than Baltimore or Norfolk, developed port along similar similar lines. lines. along Like its English predecessor, this colonial gentry diversified Like its this colonial also diversified English predecessor, gentry also its activities. Virginia Virginia began began offering offering bounties on cotton economic activities. its economic bounties on cotton (and on linen cloth) in 1730, and within a few years some entre~ linen in and a few entrewithin cloth) 1730, years (and preneurs were beginning to experiment with wheat and other crops to were other with wheat experiment crops preneurs beginning as to their staples of tobacco, rice, and indigo. Local a supplement their as a to of and Local tobacco, rice, supplement staples indigo. manufacturing emerged emerged alongside this extended extended agriculture. Robert alongside this agriculture. Robert manufacturing in aa Baltimore Baltimore ironworks, ironworks, Colonel proCarter invested invested in Colonel Scarburgh Carter Scarburgh produced shoes and malt, and George Washington loomed woolens shoes and woolens and malt, duced George Washington loomed as part of of his his plantation plantation enterprises as well well as as drawing as an an integral drawing integral part enterprises as up plans plans for the future Virginia's iron industry. Such as Such men as of Virginia's iron industry. for the future of up Johnson of of Maryland Maryland and Virginia of Virginia and Robert Robert Beverley Thomas Johnson Beverley of thought along the same same lines and brought brought forward idea~, lines and forward specific specific ideas, along the thought as Johnson aa plan plan for Potomac Canal Beverley aa proproa Potomac Canal and Beverley as with for a with Johnson gram for a Virginia mercantilism. Washington rapidly assumed assumed for mercantilism. a Washington rapidly gram Virginia the leadership of this It was by by no no means means all talk; by by 1775 all talk; the this group. 1775 leadership of group. It iron. Maryland and Virginia had 82 blast furnaces producing iron. blast and 82 furnaces producing Maryland Virginia Washington made it it evident that the the image the Men such of the evident that as Washington such as image of that was gentry and balanced society and balanced a diversified diversified and ideal of of a the ideal and the society that gentry associated with with it it was was steadily steadily gaining gaining strength translated associated strength and being being translated the into during the 18th century. In another way, the founding another the In into reality i8th founding way, century. reality during that the mercantilism of Georgia in 1732 revealed the persistence of the mercantilism that of of revealed the in persistence Georgia 1732 three almost Shaftesbury had done so to consolidate almost three generato so consolidate done much had generaShaftesbury
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The American History History Contours of The Contours of American
tions tions
earlier. with the the idea idea of planned economy, economy, a planned of a earlier. Beginning Beginning with Georgia's leaders emphasized the importance of corporate developof the leaders corporate developimportance Georgia's emphasized ment. Undertaken for "the more direct and better convenience of convenience better of direct and more ment. Undertaken for "the the inhabitants," the colony's road-and-ferry legislation specified that that the inhabitants/' the colony's road-and-ferry legislation specified to work on on such projects. the citizens their responsibility responsibility to such projects. the citizens recognize recognize their And commodity-inspection laws were instituted on the ground that the ground that commodity-inspection laws were instituted it was "in the interest of the colony that all lumber exported be it was "in the interest of the colony that all lumber exported be honestly and slavery was legalized legalized in in 1750, and faithfully After slavery made." After 1750, faithfully made." honestly the Georgia aristocracy moved moved even rapidly toward toward their their own even more more rapidly the Georgia aristocracy version of attitudes and which had been maturing in of the version the attitudes and policies policies which had been maturing in the older the older colonies. colonies. Virginia Carolina had work laws laws underwriting had similar similar work South Carolina and South Virginia and underwriting labor on roads, canals, canals, and public buildings. buildings. South South Carolina's Carolina's legislabor and public on roads, legisfor "regulating the price price and and assize of bread" bread" was was an lation of assize of an of 1749 lation 1749 for "regulating the avowed manifestation responsibility to control to of the the corporate avowed manifestation of control corporate responsibility "covetous evil-disposed persons" persons" who acted their own "for their acted only "covetous and and evil-disposed only "for gain and lucre" and thus "deceived and depressed . . . especially and and lucre" and thus "deceived depressed gain especially the poorer sort of people." Virginia's law "to prevent the exporta"to the of law the sort prevent poorer exportapeople." Virginia's tion of bad and and trash trash tobacco" tobacco" emerged emerged from from the basic tion of bad the mercantilist's mercantilist's basic .conception of political economy; such conduct contributed directly contributed of such conduct conception political economy; directly "to the great great decay decay of of trade" trade" and thereby weakened weakened the "to the entire colony. and thereby the entire colony. laws on on price-fixing its limitation rate And Georgia's limitation on and its on the the rate Georgia's laws price-fixing and of interest were likewise "to encourage trade." interest were of "to trade." likewise designed encourage designed Intellectual policy responses Intellectual and to this this increasing and policy colonial maturmaturincreasing colonial responses to ity took two principal forms. Those who wholeheartedly accepted took two Those ity wholeheartedly accepted principal forms. the framework of the the British British Empire Empire maintained the of the the outlook outlook of of the maintained the nabob nabob who ruled through aa combination his local wealth ruled at at home through local wealth of his combination of and his his connections the Metropolis. view exhibited exhibited and connections in in the of that that view Metropolis. Men of no particular particular impatience impatience for the independence they assumed for the that they assumed independence that would come in in the future. Largely Largely because because of in the the the future. of opponents opponents in colonies ready to his supremacy once indepenindepencolonies who stood stood ready to challenge challenge his supremacy once dence arrived, the nabob nabob was against a break break with counthe mother with the mother counarrived, the against a all but try under all but the most extreme circumstances. As aa classic the most extreme circumstances. classic figure try figure of of this this group, of South once asserted he "felt South Carolina asserted that that he "felt Laurens of Carolina once group, Laurens much more pain" it finally arrived than pain" over over independence it when arrived than independence finally over the death of over the death a son. reflected the political of a son. This This attitude attitude reflected the normal normal political evolution of the the upper upper class colonial system and occurred in evolution of class in in a a colonial occurred in system India as well as in America. Most India and other other British British possessions as as in well America. possessions southern as well well as majority of in southern planters, planters, as as the the majority colonial leaders leaders in of colonial .
.
.
The Age Age of of Mercantilism Mercantilism
Pennsylvania and Pennsylvania of the the world. world. of
8S 85
held and and acted acted upon upon this this conception New York, York, held conception
On the the other other hand, hand, some some southern Gadsden and southern mercantilists mercantilists like like Gadsden and Washington infused the attitude and role of the nabob with aa vigorvigorinfused the attitude and role of the nabob with Washington ous that moved rapidly toward independence. Ultiself-consciousness that ous self-consciousness rapidly toward independence. Ultimately they were joined by planters like George Mason of Virginia were joined by planters like George Mason of Virginia mately they North Carolina entertained aa more more narnarand of North Willie Jones Carolina who entertained and Willie Jones of rowly agrarian view of of the the world. world. The age, and exexrowly agrarian view age, intelligence, intelligence, and panded interests these native native mercantilists the interests of of these all help to explain mercantilists all panded help to explain the outlook. It was not not only only that that many of them them were were difference in their outlook. in their It was difference many of their society young, but that they they came to also that but also to maturity and young, maturity when their society and had established and aa style of their own. their class class had a tradition established a their tradition and style of their own. typical of younger generageneraRichard Henry Lee, for for example, Richard was typical a younger of a Henry Lee, example, was . tion tion impatient for leadership in a vigorous society. for in a impatient leadership vigorous society. the decline the tobacco tobacco market, market, such and decline of With the of the intensified and such men intensified western lands lands and and invested in nonagrinonagriextended their their interest interest in extended in western invested in reasons, they an cultural cultural enterprises. for similar similar reasons, manifested an also manifested enterprises. And for they also increasing desire to enter the general world market with their surdesire to enter their surthe market with world increasing general pluses. Acutely Acutely aware aware of possibilities of the possibilities contiof the of an an undeveloped undeveloped contipluses. to be surmounted and faced up nent, they recognized the problems the and faced to be surmounted nent, they recognized up problems to them persistently persistently and and astutely. Both Johnson and Washington to Both and Johnson Washington astutely. concluded the diversified the Potomac Potomac that the diversified economic of the concluded that economic development development of waterway to the west would help to weaken the institution of slavery of the the to weaken institution west to would slavery waterway help as well well as to sustain the position and the power of the coastal gentry of the coastal as to sustain the and the as gentry power position as expanded inland. that argument argument implies, implies, they they had had as the colonies expanded inland. As that the colonies a vision vision of an American American empire from an early date. a of an an date. early empire .
NEW YORK AND PENNSYLVANIA:
FINISHING SCHOOLS
FOR THE AMERICAN NABOB deIn no similar of leaders in the the middle middle colonies leaders in colonies deIn contrast, similar group contrast, no group of veloped and committed itself to this emerging American mercanmercanto this and committed itself emerging veloped in 1776. tilism until just before before the Declaration of of Independence until just the Declaration tilism 1776. Independence in Even then then they were exceedingly reluctant revolutionaries. Many key revolutionaries. reluctant were Even key Many they exceedingly for a figures in Pennsylvania and York fought hard for a comprohard New in comprofought Pennsylvania figures many of of them, them, reconciliation reconciliation must have have mise with England. To many mise with England. of relentless sea a to safety from a rising sea of relentless seemed aa Jacob's ladder from to seemed ladder Jacob's rising safety that the is not not surprising the competitors it is critics. Thus it and lashing surprising that competitors and lashing critics. mixed terms in in terms of expansionists among thought primarily them thought primarily expansionists among English companies, nor nor that that aa significant of and colonial colonial companies, significant number of English and
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The of American American History History The Contours Contours of
these nabobs nabobs ultimately ultimately left America to become important to become left America leaders in in these important leaders England and other parts parts of their inception, inception, these these of the the empire. and other empire. From their England middle colonies were the the middle colonies were
home and hearth of of the nabob. the loyal and hearth loyal nabob. depot in the 1620S, Established by the the Dutch Dutch as in the a fur-trading as a Established by 16205, New depot fur-trading York remained a comparatively small colony for many years. Exfor small York Exremained a many years. colony comparatively tensive commitments commitments in in men, men, money, and interest were not forthand interest were not forthtensive money, coming; both the government and and the the Dutch Dutch West India India Company the government coming; both Company an empire empire in Asia, Africa, were initially initially more more interested in an in Asia, and were interested in Africa, and to salvage some of its investment by capturBrazil. Moving belatedly of investment to its Brazil. Moving belatedly by captursalvage some ing more English and French French trade America, the the Dutch governgovernin America, trade in ing more English and ment in free port port in in all all but but name. a free ment name. The in 1638 1638 made New York a strategy worked brilliandy but not immediately and not for the not but not for the worked immediately brilliantly strategy York began to expand Dutch. Always a center of the fur trade, York to a the fur New of center Dutch. trade, began Always expand and diversify its commerce. comcould accurately farmers could and Tenant farmers commerce. Tenant diversify its accurately comfields "lie fallow and waste," but agricultural plain that many but fields "lie fallow and that surwaste," agricultural surmany plain pluses and shipping services provided enough capital to launch the to and services launch the provided enough capital pluses shipping In a short time the port attracted, city's booming economic growth. a time the In short economic growth. port attracted, city's booming and an increasing of sailors, merchants, and and produced, and sailors, merchants, increasing population produced, an population of laborers. wild ethnic mixture with with aa speculative oudook ethnic mixture a wild were a laborers. They speculative outlook They were on vulgar and unfocused unfocused cosmopolitanism that life and a sometimes on life and a sometimes vulgar cosmopolitanism that further weakened the colony's loyalty to the Dutch. Dutch. further weakened the to the colony's loyalty Had the the French acted vigorously, vigorously, pushing pushing down the valleys the river river valleys French acted from Canada, the history of the world might have become a different the have a from of world the become different Canada, history might story. But But however however poor poor an English English king king he he became became as as James II, James II, story. York the Duke of performed magnificently magnificendy in the in seizing of York performed New York seizing in 1664. sorry preview what was in his in a sorry of what in store store for for his 1664. Providing preview of Providing a his at home, subjects the Duke then then mismanaged mismanaged the job of ruling his the job of ruling home, the subjects at conquest. was no no match match either the entrenched entrenched landed landed aristocaristoceither for for the conquest. He was racy, the the rising rising merchant merchant interest, the restive restive and aggressive or the lower interest, or racy, aggressive lower class. Giving up in frustration and failure, he sold off great chunks class. in frustration sold he off chunks failure, Giving up great of the original fail again. again. of the grant and went went home to to fail original grant York Having defeated defeated their their second the New York second "mother "mother country," Having country," the so, patroons proceeded to consolidate their local control. they did to consolidate their local control. As did so, patroons proceeded they created an integrated they created integrated gentry typical of the age of mercantilism. mercantilism. of the they gentry typical age of economic investments investments in in commerce and and shipThus, as they Thus, as they made economic shipping, they they married into the the rising elite of of merchants merchants and and lawyers in married into ping, rising elite lawyers in New York. astride one of York. Sitting the most most extensive rapidly extensive and rapidly of the Sitting astride York gentry beexpanding trade centers centers in the colonies, this New York in the colonies, this expanding trade gentry be-
The Age Age of of Mercantilism Mercantilism
87 87
came highly highly prone prone to to take take its was not not that that its well~being for came It was granted. It well-being for granted. they were lazy lacked initiative; it was was simply their fortunes or lacked that their fortunes initiative; it lazy or they simply that seemed to to billow as naturally naturally as of their their ships in aa fresh fresh billow as as the the sails seemed sails of in ships trade wind. wind. trade
Handling everything everything from luxury furs to beeswax, from luxury furs to dried Handling beeswax, dried and porkers porkers on on the the run, their exports of agricultural com~ their of run, exports agricultural commodities and semi-finished semi~finished raw raw materials materials provided provided the the basis basis of modities of a a commerce with Europe and West Indies dramatized the the with Europe commerce and the the West Indies that that dramatized general the colonies. by the the I740S of them them of the colonies. And by some of development of general development 17405 some had begun manufacturing while while others to invest invest in had in banking and manufacturing others begun to banking and turned their attention to to speculative opportunities in west. their attention turned the west. in the speculative opportunities Since at least least acknowledged cor~ Since they the same same tradition tradition of of the the corpothey at acknowledged the rate Anglican religion that guided many southerners, it might be that rate it Anglican religion guided many southerners, might be assumed that that the the New York York gentry evolved a similar conception assumed evolved a similar of gentry conception of social responsibility. This This was the case. the impact impact of social responsibility. was not not the of Under the case. Under disorganized and shifting outside authority, extensive and mixed and mixed outside extensive and disorganized shifting authority, immigration, and and almost almost unchallenged power, the the New Yorkers Yorkers local power, immigration, unchallenged local created aa caricature of the the gentry. Politics became a treacherous and caricature of created gentry. Politics became a treacherous and generally pointless pointless scramble within the the aristocracy. aristocracy. James James De Lancey scramble within generally Lancey commanded one keeping the upstart lawyers one faction faction dedicated to keeping the upstart dedicated to lawyers and merchants merchants in in their their place. place. He was was opposed William LivingLiving~ and by William opposed by ston to rally support among the smaller merchants to the merchants ston who attempted smaller attempted rally support among and the laboring class. The primary primary result result of was even the and even of his his strategy laboring class. strategy was to create sense of solidarity and organization among his a growing of create a to sense and organization among his growing solidarity ultimate opponents; led by such popular figures as Isaac Sears and Isaac Sears as and ultimate led such opponents; by popular figures Alexander McDougall. the upstate upstate yeomen yeomen and tenant tenant for the Alexander McDougall. As for farmers, they generally ignored by both both factions factions and only were generally farmers, only ignored by they were slowly to organize organize their philosophical and practical practical their own philosophical began to slowly began opposition. opposition. Though De Lancey Lancey played played an important part part in King's in founding an important founding King's Though College, and a few others indicated some awareness of the responsi~ the indicated awareness of some a few others and responsiCollege, bilities of the gentry, most New York York aristocrats aristocrats continued continued to to devote devote bilities of the gentry, most De son most of their energies to trade and the gay life. Lancey's the life, trade to and most of their Lancey's son gay energies was something of an extreme, but nevertheless typical, example. was something of an extreme, but nevertheless typical, example. and women," Principally concerned concerned with with "cock~fighting, horseracing, and women," "cock-fighting, horseracing, Principally to frighten as to he once carousing invasion of Philadelphia frighten a carousing invasion of he once led led such such a Philadelphia as the fathers city-as mothers (and doubt even even as well well as as its its mothers the fathers of of that that city (and no doubt such side to some of There was a more favorable side to such favorable a was There more some its daughters). o its daughters). revelry, however, because, in conjunction with the great (albeit un~ with the in because, conjunction great (albeit unrevelry, however, venison, venison,
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The American History History Contours of The Contours of American
nerving) tradition tradition oof the the sailor on shore York to it helped shore leave, to sailor on leave, it helped New York nerving) establish a pattern of entertainment that was broader in every sense in broader was that sense a of entertainment establish every pattern of word than than any any to to be in the the other cities. other colonial colonial cities. be found found in the word of the As might be expected expected in York also a commercial commercial center, also in such such a As center, New York might be supported the evolution of the daily newspaper and the tradition the tradition of of supported the evolution of the daily newspaper aa free slandering and scandalous) press. Beyond that, the the city free (if city (if slandering and scandalous) press. Beyond that, was culturally backward. Cadwallader Coldein's Hz"story of the was culturally backward. Cadwallader Coldein's History of the Five N atz"ons, aa review review of of the the Indians the wars incident to to taking taking wars incident and the Indians and Five Nations, was the the only book produced the colony that was worthy their land, land, was in the was worthy their colony that produced in only book painters as Kilburn of as Lawrence Kilburn such painters of serious while such attention. And while serious attention. and John provided many portraits for the elite, for the their subsuband Wollaston provided elite, their John Wollaston many portraits jects were seemingly averse even to the kind of tension that helps of tension the kind to that even were averse helps jects seemingly create aa great graphic image. Yet, in in aa way way that that was revealing, revealing, create great graphic image. Yet, in most most of of their their likenesses was the the wide wide expanse the focus likenesses was of shimshimthe focus in expanse of mering light ricocheting off the satin waistcoats that covered the full the that off satin waistcoats covered the full mering light ricocheting sense, at any rate, the artist did transmit a hint of bellies; in this did the artist transmit in a hint this at of rate, sense, bellies; any New York gentry opthe deeper reality, for many members of the the of York members the for many gentry opdeeper reality, posed independence even after began. after the the fighting independence even fighting began. posed Though many of of them them reacted reacted similarly, the Pennsylvania Pennsylvania leaders leaders similarly, the Though many with a far broader image included men of of aa vastly vastly different a broader included different style with far of style image of the good life. For despite the fact that Benjamin Franklin's amatory life. For the fact that the Franklin's good Benjamin despite amatory abilities and adventures might opposite, William and adventures abilities indicate the the opposite, William Penn Perm might indicate as what he he always always referred referred to to as as "The Holy Holy founded Pennsylvania as founded Pennsylvania Experiment." Under more appropriate circumstances, Penn might more Perm appropriate circumstances, Experiment." might of the the great benevolent despots. despots. Governing that have been been one one of have in that great benevolent Governing in style, and guided by his Quaker faith in the goodness of men and and faith in the goodness of and style, guided by his Quaker geo~ his sophisticated mercantilism, he made the very best of the his sophisticated mercantilism, he the very best of the geographical resources at his disposal. at his graphical and human resources disposal. overEstablished between between 1680 Established 1680 and and 1682, 1682, Pennsylvania rapidly overPennsylvania rapidly took older by 1740 them for for political political colonies and by took older colonies was challenging 1740 was challenging them and economic leadership. England's England's post-Restoration post-Restoration economic economic leadership. economic boom the colony helped the off to to aa quick within two years and within two years start, and helped colony get get off quick start, Political and religious religious Philadelphia boasted boasted more than than 350 Philadelphia dwellings. Political 350 dwellings. in England controversies in the Continent Continent helped maintain controversies on the to maintain England and on helped to flow of of immigrants, immigrants, and the settlers encouraged aa steady steady flow the early settlers others early encouraged others to share the to share the bonanza. bonanza. Penn exploited these favorable circumstances these favorable circumstances exploited As aa through judicious judicious mercantile mercantile policies astute propaganda. propaganda. As through policies and astute pioneering master of what later public-relations experts were to call master of later what to call were pioneering public-relations experts the "soft sell," his advertising advertising campaigns campaigns in in Europe Europe combined the "soft a combined a sell," his
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promise of a candid candid and psychologically of wealth wealth and and grandeur with a and psychologically grandeur with promise clever that the lazy and untalented might better where that the and clever warning untalented might better stay warning lazy stay where by they were. Western Europeans responded eagerly. Encouraged were. Western they Europeans responded eagerly. Encouraged by leaders of their own such as Francis Daniel Pastorius, Germans such as Francis Daniel Pastorius, Germans leaders of their (and some Dutch) arrived arrived with outlook sympathetic the estabsome Dutch) with an an outlook to the estabsympathetic to (and lished Quaker religion. Unusually content with with their their own company company lished Quaker religion. Unusually content own skill skill and capable building thriving of building and their own communities by capable of by their thriving communities in carpentry, farming, weaving, pottery, and and shoein shoecarpentry, farming, weaving, wood-working, wood-working, pottery, making, these and women were willing to to accept political these men and were willing the political making, accept the and leadership of aristocracy on coast. social leadership and social of the the Quaker on the the eastern eastern coast. Quaker aristocracy This involved no great sacrifice, for they had their society and involved no This had their for own sacrifice, great they society and culture, and those those who became became particularly particularly successful managed to to successful managed culture, and into the inner councils of government. into the move quietly inner councils of quietly government. These were so generally satisfying, and accounts of These experiences so generally experiences were satisfying, and accounts of that in Europe some Germans worried lest their their them so so persuasive, them that in some Germans worried lest persuasive, Europe sons abandon promising futures the opportunities abandon promising for the in sons futures at at home for opportunities in America. Perhaps nothing is as revealing of the evolution of life in is as of evolution of life in America. the Perhaps nothing revealing as aa sharp of complaint complaint written written by by aa German the colonies the letter of colonies as sharp letter to shame him into abandoning family to a son in England. Trying to a in son shame into to family England. Trying abandoning a plan plan to emigrate to to Philadelphia, a brother disparaged the amto emigrate a brother a Philadelphia, disparaged the bition. "From appearances," he wrote snidely, "you wish perhaps wish bition. he wrote perhaps appearances," snidely, "you by just that to become nabob." Apparently attracted an English to become an attracted English nabob." Apparently by just that prospect, the errant brother sailed for Pennsylvania. prospect, the errant brother sailed for Pennsylvania. Other immigrants from adaptable; less adaptable; Other immigrants and Ireland Ireland were were less from Scotland Scotland and they were more driven by religion, more harried by memories of they were more driven by religion, more harried by memories of less sophisticated their image earlier troubles, and less in of success success in in their earlier troubles, and image of sophisticated in America. Finding seacoast and its immediate settled, immediate hinterland hinterland settled, the seacoast and its America. Finding the to the them spilling they tramped through to of them some of on through the frontier, frontier, some spilling down tramped on they across the the Appalachians uplands on the the way. the southern across into the southern uplands way. HardAppalachians into were, many reserves of they working as of energy had reserves as they energy which they many had they were, working than the turned toward politics and more aggressive the Far more and expansion. toward politics turned aggressive than expansion. Far Germans whom, ironically, they got their deadly long rifles), Germans (from (from whom, ironically, they got their deadly long rifles), ecothese predominantly predominantly Presbyterian Presbyterian settlers mixed religion and ecothese settlers mixed religion and nomic grievances into a back-country brew that finally fermented that brew a into nomic finally back-country grievances into opposition to to Quaker rule. into overt overt opposition Quaker rule. Anything but radicals, they wanted little than aa greater little more than wanted but radicals, greater they Anything their was share in the existing government. More representation their share in the representation existing government. taxes on general cry, and their specific complaints converged taxes and and their specific complaints converged general cry, the excises (such as those on the liquor they Indians. Opposing some those as excises some Indians. they liquor (such Opposing
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made), they concentrated on more help against the Indians on getting made), they concentrated getting more help against the Indians who checked their freebooting into the the Ohio valley. advance into checked their valley. And freebooting advance as they began began to to produce produce surpluses from the the rich they added added rich land, as they land, they surpluses from farm~to-market roads and canals would serve to the argument that and would canals roads serve that farm-to-market to the argument speed up the war against the red men. the red men. the war against speed up as well well as Many of the shopkeepers shopkeepers and workers in Philadelphia, as in Philadelphia, of the and workers as Many the seaboard gentry, resisted resisted such pofor economic demands for such demands economic and and pothe seaboard gentry, litical reasons. engaged in and developing in enjoying reasons. Busily litical enjoying and developing existing Busily engaged existing opportunities, or organizing to win a greater share of them, them, they they share of win a to greater opportunities, or organizing had little inclination to weaken their position. But one group own But one group of had little inclination to weaken their of position. Quaker opposed aggressive rewestern expansion the releaders opposed Quaker leaders expansion (and (and the aggressive western sulting violence against the Indians) for reasons of religious prin~ sulting violence against the Indians) for reasons of religious principle. One can quarrel with their assumptions assumptions but but not not with with their their with their can quarrel ciple. logic or motivation. Their hospitals, secondary and higher schools, or Their motivation. higher schools, hospitals, secondary logic and philanthropic philanthropic projects projects revealed a commitment commitment to to the spirit of the spirit and revealed a of noblesse oblige unsurpassed unsurpassed in confronted America. When finally noblesse oblige in America. confronted finally with the the ultimate ultimate choice premise of of nonnoncentral premise of abandoning their central choice of with abandoning their violence or giving up political power, they chose the latter. Easy or violence as giving up political power, they chose the latter. Easy as it to call such men impractical, as conveniently conveniently persuasive persuasive as it is is to and as call such as impractical, and the label may be he after the Indians Indians are no longer problem, aa little a problem, the label may are no after the little longer a reflection suggests that those Quakers bequeathed America one of reflection those America that one of Quakers bequeathed suggests its great moments of philosophic insight and moral courage. For the its of and moral For the great courage. philosophic insight Indians were, all, human beings, beings, and they did society Indians and they after all, have a did have a society were, after which the the colonists colonists and sons destroyed. their sons which and their destroyed. of their their leaders Had the the expansionists as Benjamin such of leaders as expansionists and such Benjamin Franklin and Robert Morris tried the Quaker program Franklin Robert Morris tried the Quaker program of of gradual, gradual, equitable, and peaceful dealings dealings with latter~ and peaceful with the the Indians, and the the latterIndians, they equitable, they and day of the the Quakers Quakers would more persuasive. recent would seem critics of seem more day critics persuasive. A recent that Americans assertion Americans enjoyed free security well as as free assertion that as well free land land enjoyed free security as throughout most of their history, and that these factors explain the of most their and that these factors throughout history, explain the nation's development development is hardly half the story. What is missing nation's half the is is hardly is story. missing is the pattern pattern of of total total war war developed and put into operation against the and into developed put operation against the Indians Indians and then by the the the then transferred to later transferred to later opponents. Initiated by opponents. Initiated a colonists in colonists in a mood of of gluttony of self-righteous out of for arrogance out self-righteous arrogance gluttony for land they land they often never even let alone alone cultivated, total often never even cleared, such total cultivated, such cleared, let war extracted extracted a a terrible terrible physical physical and price for also and moral It also moral price for security. security. It planted in in the the American American mind an an assumption assumption of that that of omnipotence planted omnipotence was to to prove out against this policy policy and and stood out Quakers stood costly. The Quakers prove $:osdy. against this
The Age Age of of Mercantilism Mercantilism
ethic at time at a a time ethic
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and in way that that does does credit to their and in a a way credit to their intelligence, intelligence, their values, and their courage. their values, and their courage. Poor Richard's Richard's aphorisms that morality. For Poor were faint faint echoes of that echoes of aphorisms were morality. For this very very reason, reason, no no doubt, appealed to many men were this to who were doubt, they they appealed many rising to top in Pennsylvania's bubbling bubbling pot of opportunity opportunity and and the top in Pennsylvania's to the rising pot of success. But in other the issue in political economy was But as as in other colonies, success. the issue in was colonies, political economy not should there be be any but rather what kind. Pennsylvania should there not rather what kind. Pennsylvania controls, but any controls, regulated various phases of the market system, established governvarious of the market phases regulated system, established government loan offices and land banks, and also encouraged local wagement loan offices and land banks, and also encouraged local wageand price-controls affecting affecting butchers, butchers, innkeepers, bakers, and other and price-controls innkeepers, bakers, and other revealed the spirit spirit concentrated or monopoly trades. trades. A law or monopoly concentrated the of 1725 law of revealed 1725 that was was so prevalent in was passed passed to to prepreso prevalent in the that the southern southern colonies; it was colonies; it vent the the export of inferior flour which would threaten "the credit of inferior "the vent flour which would threaten credit export of and the benefits thence thence arising." the benefits our trade of our trade and arising." Combining (and controlling) natural resources resources and and the colony's Combining (and controlling) the colony's natural its skilled labor force, Pennsylvania's seaboard gentry skilled its ambitious, labor ambitious, force, Pennsylvania's seaboard gentry developed diversified economy based on food proproa highly on surplus highly diversified developed a economy based surplus food duction processed flour), rough manuduction (including manulivestock breeding, breeding, rough (including processed flour), livestock facturing, phases of international trade. trade. Guided all phases and all of domestic and international Guided domestic and facturing, and by aa generally Philadelphia's leaders gained mercantilist outlook, leaders gained outlook, Philadelphia's by generally mercantilist rapidly on their rivals in Boston and York. This intracolonial in on their rivals Boston and New York. This intracolonial rapidly competition played played an important role ultimately determining atan important in ultimately role in determining atcompetition titudes toward toward British after 1763. As the old leader falling the old leader British policy after As titudes falling policy 1763. behind, Boston Boston proved proved to the most militant and aggressive op· to be be the most militant behind, aggressive opponent of the Crown's decision to tighten up the empire. In the the empire. In the ponent of the Crown's decision to tighten up meantime, Pennsylvania's Pennsylvania's rapid rapid progress progress provided provided context context and and meantime, springboard Franklin's fabulous fabulous career. career. for Benjimin Benjamin Franklin's springboard for of laissez advocate of Though respects he to· be an laissez an advocate he appeared in some respects appeared to-be Though in actually aa nabob wanted free trade in in the the faire, Franklin was free trade nabob who wanted was actually faire, Franklin same that the the English English gentry demanded greater access to the access to the demanded sense that same sense greater gentry to living opportunities of the came so by close to so close the empire. living by empire. A man who came opportunities of the rule the what-is-is-right what-is-is-right credo, that on major issues he broke the rule broke on issues the that credo, major exout to but once, accepted the the empire to sustain, set out but Franklin accepted sustain, exonce, Franklin empire and set His pand, and exploit its opportunities. succeeded. His twenty-five He succeeded. twenty-five pand, and exploit its opportunities. years as printer, culminating in his his becoming becoming publisher publisher of of The as a a printer, years culminating in established his Pennsylvania Gazette and Poor Poor Richard's Richatd's Almanac, Almanac, established his Gazette and Pennsylvania found four to learn fortune. the way he had time to learn four languages, found he had time the fortune. Along languages, way Along the Philadelphia Philadelphia Library, Library, the the American Philosophical Philosophical Society, the Society, and
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The American History History Contours of The Contours of American
an academy, organize the the Junto, Junto, aa private private intellectual an intellectual club and organize club in in academy, and which many many rising rising leaders their economic and political economic and their which leaders developed developed political ideas. He retired an age most men at an business at ideas. retired from active business from active age when most were just just reaching for the the top and turned turned to to sophisticated scientific were sophisticated scientific reaching for top and tinkering, empire politics, and majestic schemes of land speculation. of land schemes speculation. tinkering, empire politics, and majestic as well as his more Franklin's famous famous experiments experiments with with electricity, Franklin's electricity, as well as his more to prosaic modifications of existing and gadgets, were a a tribute ideas and tribute to modifications of prosaic gadgets, were existing ideas his learning to his his speculative, almost childlike curiosity. There his and to learning and speculative, almost childlike curiosity. There is nothing inherently wrong with an attitude, attitude, but but it not it should should not with such such an is nothing inherently wrong
be with that that of a scientist scientist the the design design of the be confused of the science. To a confused with of science. the essence essence of the discipline, criterion experiment is this criterion and by is the of the by this discipline, and experiment Franklin was was only only aa lucky, clever, amateur. amateur. albeit clever, Franklin lucky, albeit This once-in-an-epoch combination of the dedicated the of dedicated amateur's This combination amateur's once-in-an-epoch expertise with the casual flair and style of the dilettante is what what of the the dilettante flair and with casual is expertise style so irresistible. The frontiersman needing a better fireplace proved a better frontiersman so irresistible. The needing proved fireplace as did made Franklin Franklin into into the the same kind of of hero hero as did the the member of same kind made of a a was searching for proof that the scientist was European salon the for that salon who was scientist was proof European searching aa good himself. But But praiseworthy praiseworthy though interest like himself. it is, an interest fellow like is, an though it good fellow different from an understanding in the results results of in the an different from of science science is is vastly of vastly understanding of the method method and willingness to its discipline. Because of his a willingness the to accept its Because and a of his accept discipline. role in this vital vital distinction, it may may very very well that AmerAmerin blurring role well be be that distinction, it blurring this to think think that that playing playing with with nature, or technoica's later propensity to ica's later propensity or technonature, the same thing as the scientific goes back back to logical facility, is the as the scientific spirit same thing to facility, is spirit goes logical Franklin. Franklin. In it is think of Franklin as only is difficult a scientist In any of Franklin as a if only difficult to to think scientist if event, it any event, because he invested so much time and intelligence in land speculation. time because he invested so intelligence in land speculation. Along with with his his British British allies, regular associates in those those one of of his his regular associates in allies, one Along enterprises was whose name, name, appropriately ~ppropriately was Thomas Wharton, Wharton, whose enterprises enough, business at at the the University of PennPenna school of business school of enough, now graces graces a University of Academy. As the the leader sylvania which which originated originated as as Franklin Franklin Academy. of leader of sylvania such ventures, Franklin delicate-albeit such ventures, Franklin carried carried on an intricate intricate and and delicate albeit on an militant-struggle control of the Ohio frontier hence the the militant of the frontier and for control and hence struggle for continent. continent. of Franklin's was the the British The essence essence of Franklin's outlook outlook was British mercantilism mercantilism he borrowed borrowed from from Sir William Petty. a who thought Enghe a Sir William As man Petty. thought England's radical radical John John Wilkes Wilkes an and who maintained maintained for for land's an "outlaw," "outlaw," and many years that George III was "the best king any nation was ever that III was "the best nation ever was many years George king any blessed with," in no sense a revolutionary. revolutionary. Working Working blessed Franklin was in sense a with," Franklin within the framework and in close association with Engwithin the existing and in close framework association with existing Eng-
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lish leaders, he hoped to to outflank rivals like Virginians he hoped outflank domestic domestic rivals like the the Virginians by George Washington and place Pennsylvania in the direct direct and by George Washington place Pennsylvania in the as the the center of a mammoth British Empire. line of of succession succession as line center of a British Empire. In In his view, sustained expansion would keep the people busy farming his view, sustained expansion would keep the people busy farming way turn them from domestic manufacturing manufacturing while while crecre~ and in in that that way and turn them from domestic acing aa limitless market for British manufactures. It would would also also "con"con~ limitless market for British manufactures. It ating tinuously draw off" the unemployed unemployed in cities and thus off" the in eastern eastern cities and thus tinuously decrease the chances of of urban urban unrest. the chances decrease unrest. Franklin abandoned this truly truly magnificent very late and Franklin abandoned this magnificent strategy strategy very late and with great reluctance. Only his broad mercantilist vision and his with reluctance. his broad and his mercantilist vision Only great so opportunism kept him from becoming a Loyalist along with him from a with so opportunism kept becoming Loyalist along many other in Pennsylvania, York, and England other men in New and New York, many Pennsylvania, England their careers ideas within within the the assumpassump~ also developed who had had also and ideas careers and developed their tions of Franklin later later admitted, the strength of the the nabob. tions nabob. And as of as Franklin the admitted, strength of those precepts it difficult, even for a with his perception made those with his it even for a man difficult, precepts perception chance, to to adapt political economy economy to to the the circumcircumof the the main chance, of his political adapt his stances of independence. independence. This offers an important clue to the the clue stances of This insight an offers to insight important at. reason why the leaders of the revolution were younger men, or the reason of the or leaders revolution were at. why younger men, any rate with a clearer conception of a self~efined corporate rate men with a a clearer of self-defined any corporate conception society. society. lish leaders,
led led
NEW ENGLAND AND THE IDEOLOGY
OF CALVIN*S CALVIN'S CORPORATE SOCIETY
Though they they had had insisted insisted on self-contained their separateness on their Though separateness and self Baptiste Say, is
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The Contours Contours of oj American American History History The
the philosophy philosophy of of laissez laissez faire faire promised promised wealth, wealth, welfare, welfare, and and happihappithe ness through through the the freedom freedom to to do do what what one one wanted. wanted. Men were were thus thus ness to hear: hear: by by following following their their bellies, bellies, their their told what what they they hankered hankered to told egos, and and their their pocketbook pocketbook nerve nerve they they could could become become moral moral agents, agents, profits, contribute their share to the general welfare, and the to their share contribute general welfare, and profits, at the the same same time time extend extend and and strengthen strengthen the the area area of of liberty liberty and and freefreeat as with with mercantilism, mercantilism, laissez laissez faire faire clearly clearly originated originated as as the the dom. Just Just as dom. short-run rationalization rationalization and and long-range long-range Utopia utopia of of various various rising rising and and short-run special interests. But similarly integrating those elements into a special interests. But similarly integrating those elements into a hierarchy of values, values, the the W eltanschauun g of of laissez laissez faire faire was was no no more more Weltanschauung hierarchy of a narrow narrow philosophy philosophy of of the the bank bank account account than than its its predecessor predecessor had had a been. been. by aa rich rich and and voluptuous voluptuous continent, continent, it it But teased teased and and tempted tempted by But was all all too too easy easy for for men to to emphasize emphasize economic economic liberty, liberty, particularly particularly was since Calvin's Calvin's successors successors-to say nothing nothing of of his his heretical heretical followers followersto say since to read read worldly worldly success success as as had already already revealed revealed aa strong strong propensity propensity to had a sign sign of to God's God's favor. favor. According According to to the the Scriptures Scriptures as as well well a election to of election as to to Adam Smith's oj Nations, Nations, therefore, therefore, it it was was moral moral to to Wealth of Smith's Wealth as pursue one's self-interest because the Hidden would reconcile Hand would Hidden reconcile because the one's self-interest pursue conflicts into into the the general general welfare. welfare. Competitive Competitive free enterprise all conflicts free enterprise all thus become become the the master master carpenter carpenter of of aa moral moral community. thus community. This outlook became became prominent prominent in in the the debates over AmeriAmeriThis new outlook debates over policy toward toward the the Greek Greek Revolution Revolution of Daniel can policy can of 1822-1823. Daniel Web1822-1823. ster's resolution send an Ameri~an agent agent to to encourage the revolt to send the resolution to an American ster's revolt encourage met with with little little enthusiasm enthusiasm from President Monroe or or Secretary met from President Secretary Adams, but a good many congressmen responded to his argument a but to his Adams, good many congressmen responded argument the MediterMediterfor behalf of America's "diverse for action action in in behalf of America's "diverse interests in the interests in ranean." northerners agreed that the move "contemplate d] ranean." Other Other northerners that the agreed "contemplate [[d] opening new commercial relations." Aid for Greece would help commercial relations." for Aid Greece would help opening "form aa powerful the check upon the barbarous barbarous dependencies of the powerful check upon the dependencies of J in those seas, and give facility to that com[non-Christian Turks in those seas, and give facility to that com[non-Christian Turks] mercial enterprise mercial which now finds way only finds its its way to one one port of enterprise which only to port of European Asiatic Turkey." Thus was the heathen also defined was the heathen also defined as as European Asiatic Turkey." an econonuc a good economic despot. like David P. David P. westerners, like despot. And a good many many westerners, of Illinois, Cook of added their their support a crusade to a crusade for for Christian Christian liblibIllinois, added support to also erty which also promised foreign markets. Arm in arm, in arm, religion and erty promised foreign markets. religion and laissez faire faire had mustered laissez mustered for for their their first first campaign for freedom. freedom. campaign for But southerners like like George But southerners of Georgia and Joel Poinsette Joel Poinsette George Cary Gary of Georgia and of South Carolina Carolina were skeptical of of the the alliance as well alliance as well as as opposed skeptical of opposed egos,
accumulate accumulate
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to any action. Poinsette Poinsette in particular warned warned that that the the abstract direct action. in particular to abstract any direct discussion of other people's freedom native tendency tendency to to unbase unbase other people's discussion of a native "has a freedom "has the mind; to throw it completely off balance; and its discussion to throw it completely off balance; and its discussion is the mind; is therefore to to be be approached approached and with the utmost caution." caution." and conducted therefore conducted with the utmost They stressed the connection between a crusading religious and They stressed the connection between a crusading religious and political attitude and the interests of commerce and manufacturing political attitude and the interests of commerce and manufacturing even in later later years, years, when northerners turned their attack on even more more in northerners turned their attack on tyrants. Poinsette's about the desirability of planters as as evil evil tyrants. Poinsette's thesis the desirability thesis about of planters proceeding with with some some care care and humility when when entering entering upon upon an an and humility proceeding examination of the freedom freedom of not invalidated, however, of the examination of others is not others is invalidated, however, by such between the the private private interest interest and a connection such a connection between and the the general by general idea. idea. Yet ironies of American history, it was in one of the Yet in one of the most most striking striking ironies of American history, it was qua southerner, southerner, who became became John Taylor of Caroline, the southerner of the southerner Caroline, John Taylor qua Weltanschauung. Though he the philosopher-king of the new the of the Weltanschauung. Though he philosopher-king to aa feudal feudal world his inspiration inspiration (and his utopia), looked looked back back to for his his world for Utopia), (and his basic program offered offered convenient convenient and and powerful powerful his basic ideas ideas and and program weapons for advocates of laissez faire. faire. "Abolish privifor the the advocates of laissez exclusive privi"Abolish exclusive weapons ... ," he thundered in 1822, "and vindicate the inviolability lege he thundered in the "and vindicate ," 1822, lege inviolability of property, property, even even against against legislatures." policy of leaving indiindiof "The policy of leaving legislatures." "The as much as possible to secure their viduals, partnerships, and States, secure their to and as as viduals, partnerships, States, possible the only only good own interest, in their he added added in their own way," "is the in 1824> interest, in 1824, "is good way," he is founded in reason and justice, evidence that the the government evidence that justice, and government is founded in reason not in fraud." not in error error or or fraud.*' Along with a high percentage percentage of of southerners, Taylor's views views atatsoutherners, Taylor's Along with a high tracted V an Buren Buren and and many other northerners. northerners. William William M. Gouge, tracted Van Gouge, many other was aa southern patronage appointee President Jackfor example, for southern patronage of President Jackexample, was appointee of was consulted consulted on many issues. Like Taylor, he he son who was son economic issues. Like Taylor, many economic flatly asserted that "corporations are unfavorable to the progress of flatly asserted that "corporations are unfavorable to the progress of national wealth." wealth." Ogden Ogden Edwards, Edwards, aa delegate delegate to to the the New York national was another thesis constitutional convention of of 1821, His thesis constitutional convention another supporter. 1821, was supporter. His was simple: have too too much legislation." legislation." Edwards Edwards defined defined the the was simple: "we have watchful sentinel sentinel to to guard guard us us from governor, for "a watchful for example, as "a governor, example, as evil." again following Taylor, men like Edwards and Van like Edwards evil." And again following Taylor, by Buren combined combined their their individualism with aa system controlled by individualism with Buren system controlled well-organized and powerful political machines and headed by headed and machines by well-organized powerful political reconstrong leaders. to reconleaders. As John discovered when trying John Locke had discovered trying to strong cile aa strong with the right of revolution, this this was obviously cile the right of revolution, obviously strong king king with faire. in the philosophy laissez faire. a dilemma, even a contradiction, a a in the of laissez even dilemma, contradiction, philosophy of .
.
.
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But Edwards provided aa typical typical resolution. resolution. He advocated a situation advocated a situation But Edwards provided in which "the people may lie down and rest in security." While an rest in an and lie in which "the people may security." the apt image in connection with governmental action in the affairs of in affairs action o apt image in connection with governmental the political economy, it did not apply to the individual's enterprises. individual's the political economy, it did not apply to the enterprises. be able able to to forget poli~ Edwards bespoke bespoke the the popular popular desire desire to about polito be Edwards forget about tics in to concentrate business. on business. in order concentrate on order to tics Taylor had aa powerful powerful protege protege in the west likewise west who was likewise in the also had Taylor also fond kind of secular morality in Edwards's use of of the the Edwards's use of secular the kind fond of of the morality typified typified in politics. "1 can hardly hardly figure to mymy~ term "evil" "I can with politics. "evil" in in connection connection with term figure to self," Hart Benton Benton of of Missouri, "the Senator Thomas Thomas Hart concluded Senator Missouri, "the self," concluded ideal statesman more perfect and complete [than more statesman ideal of of a a republican perfect complete [than republican Taylor ]." A vigorous vigorous businessman businessman and and probably probably the the best best constituconstitu~ Taylor]." tionallawyer in the nation, Benton was a classic figure of the Age of a the Age classic Benton was tional in the nation, figure lawyer NOllS Faire. understood that the govern~ of Laissez Laissez Nous that the understood of Faire. He thoroughly governthoroughly ment continued have three important responsibilities responsibilities under under the the to have three important ment continued to had to to maintain maintain the basic framework framework of a system o a new outlook: it had the basic outlook: it system of money money and the rule rule of law); it to preserve preserve the the (such it had to of law) that of as that and the (such as by acting against monopolies and by helping competitive situation situation by helping competitive by acting against monopolies new'or into the the scramble; and it to be agent it had had to the agent new' or weak be the weak entrants entrants into scramble; and of and protecting the market place, which was the key which of expanding the and the market place, expanding protecting key to the producing the general welfare. to the individual the welfare. individual competition general competition producing a politician politician of Highly responsible and his outlook, and effective as a of his effective as outlook, Highly responsible Benton pushed pushed through through some of attacks in in earliest successful successful attacks Benton of the the earliest government operation operation of of lead lead mines mines behalf of laissez faire. faire. He ended of laissez behalf ended government in in favor private companies. calmly explaining explaining in Missouri favor of of private Missouri in companies. And calmly that the had been worth "all the blood and that the War of of I8I2 1812 had been worth "all the blood and treasure" treasure" that the west had contributed because removed British influence the that west had contributed because it it removed British influence in the in the fur Benton demanded that the governmental governmental system of fur trade, that the trade, Benton system of by George George Washington, be trading initiated by trading posts, posts, designed designed and initiated Washington, be discarded in favor favor of wide~pen competition discarded in of wide-open and all all competition among among any any and with Astor's Astor's American Americans. Benton's Benton's close Americans. close association association with Fur American Fur Company no doubt influenced his his campaign, campaign, but but it not modify modify doubt influenced it did did not Company his commitment to to free his free competition. competition. His constant constant efforts efforts in behalf of western farmer su~ in behalf the western of the farmer included included supfor the of pre-emption, port for the right pre~mption, relief relief acts acts for had for those those who had port right of their land difficulty in in meeting their land payments, and for lowering the price and for the difficulty meeting payments, lowering price of land that not purchased purchased within specified time time after being of that was not within a a specified after being market. He also also agitated put on the the market. the Indians, put Indians, agitated militantly militantly against against the and vigorously pushed commercial and territorial expansion. commercial territorial vigorously pushed expansion. And ;
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convinced that that "the monarch and and the republican can no longer "the monarch the republican convinced can no longer was willing willing to when breathe the the same atmosphere," Benton same atmosphere," breathe Benton was to use use force force when to carry carry out such an the and if necessary to if it it became became necessary and out such an enlargement of the enlargement of market place of capitalism and freedom. of market place capitalism and freedom. MARTIN VAN BUREN AND THE NEW POLITICS POLITICS
Benton the vast vast majority supBenton was was symbolic westerners who supof the of westerners symbolic of majority of ported the from the the Hermitage Hermitage for for President. President. Beginning well the Hero from ported Beginning well Jackson's western western followers before the the election of 1824, before election of followers organized organized 1824, Jackson's by stressing achievements and his success such such support and his success his military support by stressing his military achievements in from aa log cabin to planter's mansion. mansion. He was winningly in rising was winningly to a a planter's rising from log cabin vague on everything which were were undistinguished his hates, hates, which undistinguished vague except his everything except by anything except their violence. But he was a hero of he a hero of economic economic their But was violence. by anything except as one of his lieutenants remarked, "one cup independence and, of as "one one of lieutenants his and, remarked, independence cup of generous whiskey produces more military ardor, than can be allayed can be more than allayed generous whiskey produces military ardor, by aa month of reflection and reason." of reflection and sober sober reason/* by In one important respect, respect, however, more aristocratic Cal~ one important In the far far more aristocratic Calhowever, the houn did to democratize presidential politics politics than than either either did more houn more to democratize presidential the narnar~ Jackson Buren. For he was or Van Buren. For he the one one who destroyed was the Jackson or destroyed the rowly based and tightly controlled caucus system through which based which controlled caucus rowly system through tightly candidates were were selected. it is Buren is misleading to view Van Buren candidates selected. Thus it misleading to view as the man who engineered engineered Jackson's election. Directly and indiindias the election. Jackson's Directly as if not more, though, as with rectly, others contributed with others if as contributed as much not more, though, rectly, Calhoun, that had not been the 'original intention. VanBuren's more that had Van Buren's more not been the original intention. Calhoun, is his grasp of the viable and and more considerable considerable warrant of the viable his grasp for fame fame is warrant for age of laissez faire. Charging Monroe new role of the politician in an role of the politician in an age of laissez faire. Charging with "heretical" for having embraced mercantilism, and dede~ "heretical" sins with sins for mercantilism, and having embraced scribing Adams's views on by quality as "pernicious," Adams's views on appointment "pernicious," scribing appointment by quality as groundwork of his philosophy philosophy from Taylor Van Buren took the groundwork of his took the Taylor and Jefferson and out to to organize a working working consensus consensus of various of the tie various and set set out Jefferson organize a interests accepting accepting that that outlook. interests outlook. York and and Washington Washington reveal reveal in New York Van Buren's Buren's operations operations in busi~ and clarify the regional regional and national coalition coalition between between rising and national rising busiclarify the nessmen, yeoman farmers, southern planters, and northern northern mechanmechan~ southern planters, nessmen, yeoman farmers, ics that that is is generally generally labeled Democracy." It It was an ics labeled "Jacksonian "Jacksonian Democracy." unstable alliance between aa rising rising bourgeoisie bourgeoisie on the the make and a unstable alliance between har~ quasi-feudal landed landed aristocracy the established established hardirected against quasi-feudal against the aristocracy directed the the bingers of an industrial order. Jackson personified the ambition, the of industrial order. ambition, Jackson personified bingers name his attitude, and the objectives of those groups and justly gave his the those of attitude, justly gave groups objectives
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to the But Van Van Buren in many many essential respects the the essential respects Buren was was in the movement. to movement. But man who who managed to consolidate and sustain a combination that a combination sustain that and to consolidate managed persistently threatened to, and ultimately did, disintegrate in in violent violent persistently threatened to, and ultimately did, disintegrate antagonisms. antagonisms* Van Buren's Buren's personal personal career provided aa miniature miniature of triumph the triumph of the career provided Van of laissez faire. Beginning as the son of a tavern keeper, he entered he entered of laissez faire. Beginning as the son of a tavern keeper, law at ultimately became a "very rich man" with the with all all the became a law at 14 and ultimately 'Very rich 14 and upper-class graces; "as polished and captivating aa person person in the in the upper-class graces; "as polished and captivating SOj:ial as America America has known," remarked remarked aa contemporary. contemporary. ever known," has ever social circle circle as As aa confirmed worshiper at the shrine of Jefferson he shrine of at the As confirmed worshiper Jefferson and Taylor, Taylor, he was unencumbered with philosophical philosophical second thoughts. "It is only "It is second thoughts. was unencumbered with only that the wages of of when the the wages disturbed . . . that of society is disturbed when order of the natural natural order society is inadequate." To avoid any misunderstanding, misunderstanding, let labor become it avoid any let it labor become inadequate." be emphasized that Buren's definition of labor the same labor was of the same Van Buren's definition be that emphasized as Robert Rantoul's, which included bankers and and similar businessmen similar businessmen included bankers as Robert RantouTs, which in the category of those "who do something for a living" living." a do of those in the approved for something approved category VanBuren himself had had intimate with the the financial After all, ties with intimate ties financial After aU Van Buren himself community. community. Gifted with aa fine fine sense timing and tactical understanding, of timing and tactical sense of Gifted with understanding, Van the strategic axioms of laissez-faire politics. Buren axioms of laissez-faire also understood Buren also understood the politics. strategic his most notable victory was the building of an effective Perhaps the an notable of effective was his most victory building Perhaps alliance between New York York business the state's interests and the state's aspirbusiness interests alliance between aspirsome ways, of course, that was not too difficult in ing mechanics. In of In that too not difficult in some mechanics. course, ways, ing view of labor's commitment property rights rights and laissez faire. faire. "The to property and laissez view commitment to of labor's great of the William the struggles of the the Democracy," struggles of great object object of Democracy," explained explained William was one of the most militant spokesmen of the amamLeggett, who the one of was most militant of the Leggett, spokesmen bitious mechanics and smaller businessmen, "has been to confine the and bitious mechanics smaller businessmen, "has been to confine the action of the General Government within the limits marked out in action of the General Government within the limits out in the Constitution." that the of rational depends the Sure that the "prosperity Constitution." Sure rational men depends "prosperity of on themselves," themselves," he he wanted wanted little more than than "a of legislation little more "a system system of legislation which all to the free their talents which leaves leaves all to the free exercise of their exercise of talents and industry industry within the the limits of the law." Freedom Freedom of and the the general within limits of action and of action the general law." "protection property" were key axioms axioms of that outlook. of property" the key were the of that outlook. "protection of Van Buren Buren integrated the mechanics the aristocrats and the aristocrats in mechanics and in a a integrated the as autocratic and political machine (The Albany Regency) that was was that as autocratic and political (The Albany Regency) as any centralized as any the the mercantilists mercantilists ever ever organized. organized. Mavericks were centralized Mavericks were not tolerated. simply not tolerated. contemporary the rules and A who the knew and rules simply contemporary methods first hand methods of of The Regency Regency at hand left left aa very very candid description at first candid description of its its procedures: of procedures: "Except the powers powers he would swear to the swear allegiance "Except he allegiance to .
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that be, it was was useless useless for to look look for for an Unlike that for him to an appointment." be, it appointment." Unlike the mercantilists, however, Regency wanted to establish The wanted the mercantilists, however, to establish free free Regency competition. "Equal rights for all," demanded an articulate mechanic, competition. "Equal rights for all," demanded an articulate mechanic, "and privileges for Identical standards standards of law for none." "and special none." Identical of natural natural law special privileges to political affairs. As William Marcy of The Regency's were applied were applied to political affairs. William Marcy of Regency's all was was fair politics as as well well board of bluntly, all directors explained of directors fair in board in politics explained bluntly, as war: "To the victors go go the the spoils in love love and and war: the victors as in the enemy." of the spoils of enemy." Buren's tie tie with with eastern became even impor~ Van Buren's eastern mechanics even more more impormechanics became tant as manufacturing and to institutionalize as manufacturing tant and commerce commerce continued continued to institutionalize themselves in in the the factory systems centered in urban urban and wholesaling centered in themselves factory and wholesaling systems society, for union movement slowly gained strength as aa rerethe union for the as society, slowly gained strength success of the employers. Boasting I6 sponse to the continued to the continued the memof 16 success sponse employers. Boasting ber units, units, the General T rade Union Union of Boston had had counterparts counterparts in in the General ber Trade of Boston York, Baltimore, Carpenters, leather workand Philadelphia. New York, leather workBaltimore, and Philadelphia. Carpenters, coopers joined joined hands with ers, sailpump-makers, bakers, bakers, and and coopers sail- and pump-makers, hands with ers, as Workingmen's weavers, tailors, and ironworkers. Organizing as ironworkers. weavers, tailors, Workingmen's Organizing to guarantee Parties, they lien laws, and monetary Parties, laws, and standards, to sought lien they sought monetary standards, guarantee wages under all circumthemselves some minimum amount of of wages themselves under all circumstances, longer credit arrangements (six months was not too unusual credit unusual too months was not stances, longer arrangements (six as practice) for purchases, tax revisions, antias existing for consumer antitax revisions, consumer purchases, existing practice) monopoly laws, an end to imprisonment for debt, the ten-hour day, an end to the ten-hour for debt, monopoly laws, day, imprisonment more equitable arrangements for militia duty, and freedom from freedom more for militia and from equitable arrangements duty, competition prison labor. with prison labor. competition with it as by which which They education, viewing viewing it also stressed stressed education, as the the lever lever by They also reB.ec~ they could become successful entrepreneurs: education for they could become successful entrepreneurs: education for reflection's sake was not not their their objective. It would would be be unfair unfair and tion's sake was and inaccurate inaccurate objective. It to describe their approach their definition of to describe their as anti-intellectual; definition of anti-intellectual; their approach as be nonintellectual. nonintellectual. They They were were concerned concerned with with education tended to be tended to education more than than rudimentary vocational training; allowing for differmore the differfor the training; allowing rudimentary vocational ences of time and and the the nature nature of of the the economy economy their might of time ences their approach approach might of commerce and and busibusibe compared of our be that of to that our modern schools schools of compared to ness. Concerned to train train infantry for the battle against the "arisness. for battle the "arisConcerned to the against infantry for public public tocracy of talent and and place," place," labor labor spokesmen of talent tocracy spokesmen agitated agitated for just disposition, disposition, virtuous habits, and schools that would inculcate inculcate "a "a just virtuous habits, schools that this standard, a rational rational self-governing standard, a to this character"; disciplined disciplined to self-governing character"; in open be able able to of themselves open competitheir sons would be to take their take care care of themselves in sons would competition. tion. of the the upper upper classes, apof Massachusetts Massachusetts apleader of As aa leader classes, Horace Mann of proached education as an effective means of social control as well of social control as means as well effective education an proached
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as aa philosophical ideal. Warning his peers that that social unrest would would social unrest as philosophical ideal. Warning his peers become a serious danger unless the lower orders were given a share become a serious danger unless the lower orders given share of the the increasing wealth, he argued that education solve the solve the of increasing wealth, he argued that education would problem. While the rich would remain rich, the lower classes would classes lower the would remain rich the would While rich, problem. respond to training of their minds by improving their fortunes fortunes minds by to the the training of their improving their respond of and away from the "wanton destruction of the property the of destruction the from "wanton and turning property of turning away others." Thus the the order would be be saved and improved. saved and others." Thus order would improved. "What the capitalist capitalist find find for the security for the of surer guaranty can the "What surer security of guaranty can his investments," Mann asked rhetorically, "than is to be found in is be "than to in asked rhetorically, his investments," the sense intellectually enlightened?" enlightened?" a community the sense of of a morally and intellectually community morally Such Lawrence Stevens and Abbot Lawrence as Thaddeus Thaddeus Stevens leaders as Such economic economic leaders an early date date saw the logic and accepted the responsibility, and from an the saw the and early responsibility, logic accepted helped to spread Mann's ideas. Putting his principles into action as into his action as to ideas. Mann's Putting principles helped spread to the official of education education in Massachusetts from 1827 to 1837, in Massachusetts the official leader leader of 1827 1837, the school pushed the the construction construction of of 50 50 and pushed Mann lengthened school year year and lengthened the public (and free) high schools. new public schools. (and free) high Other as Yale-graduate Yale-graduate Josiah extended adult adult Other men such such as Josiah Holbrook extended education the lyceum This may been more more education through movement. This may have been lyceum movement. through the actively like Ralph offered lecturers lecturers like since it it offered intellectual, since Ralph Waldo Emeractively intellectual, son in the early years, years, emphasized natural science. the other other science. On the son and, the early and, in emphasized natural hand, its tended to become ceremonial and social affairs to social its meetings ceremonial affairs tended become hand, meetings as forums practical and immediate immediate which served of practical which served as the discussion for the discussion of forums for issues. Whatever Whatever the balance between production of of heat the heat and the the production issues. the balance between the stimulation and discipline of thought, the had a wide the a stimulation wide of movement had thought, discipline following. Established basis by by 1831, it claimed some a national claimed some national basis Established on a 1831, it following. 3,000 units in 15 IS states within four years. units in states within four years. 3,000 Even the radical wing wing of of the labor movement based based its prothe more radical the labor its program on Mann's equation equation of property rights. rights. Thomas of education education and and property gram Skidmore's plan, Rights of Property (1829), Skidmore's plan, presented presented in to Property in his his Rights of Man to (1829), proposed to sustain true laissez faire by outlawing practice of of to sustain true faire laissez the practice proposed by outlawing the inheritance. A similar spirit permeated permeated Stephen Simpson's statement inheritance. similar spirit statement Stephen Simpson's of an individualistic of theory of value in the Workingman's individualistic labor labor theory in the of value Wor\ingman's ManHe ual (1831). indignantly explained that it was "a perversion" to to "a perversion" that it (1831). indignantly explained accuse labor of of "contending accuse labor for an equality of wealth or a community for "contending equality of wealth or a community of property." of the slogan the Workingman's of the property." Hence the slogan of Party "equal Workingman's Party-"equal education education ... equal equal property property ... equal privileges"-should not be be should not equal privileges" as a interpreted as a rallying rallying cry for early socialism. It was an exhortation for socialism. It an exhortation interpreted cry early to establish the to establish the framework framework for thoroughgoing laissez for thoroughgoing laissez faire. faire. .
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JACKSONlAN DEMOCRACY LIBERTY AND BONDAGE IN THE SPIRIT SPIRIT OF JACKSONIAN Jackson's inaugural reception reception was was aa magnificent magnificent manifestation manifestation of of Jackson's inaugural this same Swarming into the White House from all parts of same spirit. spirit. Swarming into the White House from all parts of the country, exuberant the formality the his exuberant of invitations, invitations, his country, and ignoring ignoring the formality of followers footstools, tapestries tapestries into into turned satin-covered satin-covered chairs followers turned chairs into into footstools, throw-away napkins, and windows into doors. Appropriately perand into windows doors. throw-away napkins, Appropriately permissive (and justly concerned for his personal well-being), Jackson missive for his personal well-being), Jackson (and justly concerned abandoned the market place place of in favor of more secure quarthe market of revelry abandoned revelry in favor of more secure quaralso took took the the part part of of Peggy Peggy Eaton, Eaton, ters at Tavern. Jackson Jackson also at Gadsby's ters Gadsby's Tavern. long a vivacious vivacious barmaid barmaid who had a cabinet cabinet official a after a a long had married official after married a in her difficulties in breaking the established and satisfying courtship, the established and her difficulties in in satisfying courtship, breaking patterns of Washington's social elite. But But the the inaugural reception of Washington's social elite. patterns inaugural reception a classic documented the unfettered triumph triumph of nous faire the unfettered documented faire in in a classic of laissez laissez nous manner. manner. Taking office with with aa general philosophy of "individuals of leaving Taking office leaving "individuals general philosophy as much as possible to themselves," Jackson selected his and States States as as possible to themselves," Jackson selected his key advisors by this this criterion. a group group of bankers, railrailadvisors by criterion. As a successful bankers, of successful key also road-builders, land land speculators, and general promoters which also and which road-builders, speculators, general promoters included the director director of nation's telegraph telegraph monopoly, monopoly, the the Genincluded the of the the nation's of, the the eral's friends persuasive spokesmen spokesmen for, eral's were persuasive friends were and examples for, and examples of, Age of Laissez NOllS Faire. "Things will take their course in the the of Laissez will course in Faire. take their Nous Age "Things well as as in the natural natural world," moral as as well in the of moral Kendall of world," explained explained Amos Kendall the Kitchen Kitchen Cabinet, Cabinet, and and cautioned the Congress to "be content to to the to "be content cautioned the Congress let and private private business let currency business alone." alone." currency and This triumphant philosophy became became the the editorial viewpoint of of This editorial viewpoint triumphant philosophy Democratic Review. Review. "The best best govgovthe party's party's key magazine, The Democratic the key magazine, is that which governs essay ernment ernment is that which announced the the leading least," announced leading essay governs lea.st," in the the first has been the fruitful parent of nineninefirst issue. the fruitful of in issue. "Legislation has been "Legislation parent the evil, moral and physical, physical, by by which which mankind has has tenths of all the of all tenths evil, moral been affected the creation of the the world." world." Even aa "strong and been since the affected since creation of "strong government, in term, is active is the term, the common sense sense of of the active democratic democratic government, in the not in an evil evil differing only in degree and mode of operation, and not in of operation, differing only in degree and its its nature, nature, from a strong strong despotism:' eagerly Jackson's supporters supporters eagerly despotism." Jackson's spread the gospel applied the doctrine of of good works. LowerLowerthe doctrine and applied spread the good works. gospel and the great proclaimed the great echelon Polk proclaimed leaders such as James echelon political such as James K. Polk political leaders faith of freemen" and closed ranks behind Buren's Van Buren's ranks behind faith of "enterprising and closed freemen" "enterprising leadersh~ to to control control the the Congress. leadership Congress. this
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Elsewhere a good many ordained ministers began began to to expound expound the the ordained ministers Elsewhere a good many
faire as were aa newly book doctrine of discovered book it were as though of laissez laissez faire doctrine newly discovered though it Elements of Political Economy proof the Bible. Francis Wayland's Political Elements of the Bible. Francis Wayland's of Economy progain all he can." claimed that that "every all he can." The Reverend Reverend to gain is allowed allowed to claimed "every man is John McVickar revealed that the principles of public wealth were of wealth were public John McVickar revealed that the principles as those for accumulating private riches. Gilbert Vale, the same And riches. Gilbert Vale, the same as those for accumulating private turning his education to secular purposes, became an an ininhis religious religious education to secular purposes, turning fluential economist in support of the cause. Stressing the fluential circuit-riding circuit-riding economist in support of the cause. Stressing the to take take care poor, he he proproimportance of of having enough land of the the poor, care of land to importance having enough vided aa succinct the success this secular secular missionary of this of the success of succinct summary vided missionary summary of us alone," he reflected with some pride, generally movement. "Let reflected with "Let us movement. "is, generally alone," he pride, "is, speaking, the language of the merchant, the manufacturer, and the the the and the of the merchant, manufacturer, language speaking, farmer; or, at least, no more than than remove remove impediments." do no least, do farmer; or, at impediments." Jackson himself took took charge of removing the major impediments. major impediments, Jackson himself charge of removing the were to to halt halt government subsidies to small-arms manuHis first subsidies to small-arms manufirst acts acts were His government facturers and veto aa bill bill for internal improvements in Kentucky. for internal in and veto facturers improvements Kentucky. Though a political broadside aimed at Henry Clay's fortress, clearly a political broadside aimed at Henry Clay's fortress, Though clearly Jackson's veto the Maysville Maysville Road project project was was also also an an ideological of the veto of Jackson's ideological manifesto. Bluntly Blundy proclaiming proclaiming the danger inherent whole in the the whole the danger inherent in manifesto. principle, he admitted that piecemeal grants had some justification. had that he admitted justification. piecemeal grants principle, But even those were were approved were "unsafe." Unless they But with great "unsafe." Unless even those they were approved with great to the subversion of the fedfedcaution, they "would of necessity lead of to the subversion "would lead the of caution, they necessity eral there was no warrant at all for continuing to all eral system." there no warrant at for And was system." continuing to as a business venture. Sure of his strength, Jackoperate the projects a the as business of Sure his venture. operate projects strength, Jackson poured poured salt in the the wound by by challenging engineer aa son salt in to engineer challenging Clay Clay to constitutional such vetoes. constitutional amendment outlawing such vetoes. outlawing At the time, Jackson Jackson fully understood the the same time, the role role of of the the govfully understood govexernment (and particularly of the President) in sustaining ernment of the and ex(and particularly President) in sustaining and the tending the basic basic framework framework of of aa laissez-faire economy. laissez-faire political tending political economy. While willing willing to to compromise the specific he issue of the tariff, of the tariff, he compromise on the specific issue moved vigorously, force, against South Carolina's Carolina's vigorously, openly openly threatening against South threatening force, to carry to the point of national inclination inclination to laissez faire faire to the point of nullifying carry laissez nullifying national laws. Such action, to say United laws. action, Jackson Jackson slashed back, "is slashed back, "is to that the the United say that States are are not States a nation": nation": it the existence existence of of not a it was "incompatible with "incompatible with the the in a a similar the Union." Union." Arguing vein, he he used used troops troops against strikers similar vein, strikers Arguing in against in his who, in his view, view, were were interfering government by by stopping with the the government who, interfering with stopping work on the of the construction of the construction the Chesapeake and Ohio Canal. and Canal. Chesapeake manifested a similar concern by Jackson manifested a similar the national for the concern for national system Jackson system by trade treaties with signing trade treaties with Siam and Great Britain and by demandGreat Britain demandsigning by
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ing that pay France pay that France ing
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its American overdue damages its long damages against against American long overdue shipping. And concluding that Indians "can not live in contact with with live that Indians "can not in contact shipping. concluding aa civilized community and prosper," he defied Chief Justice Marcivilized community and prosper," he defied Chief Justice Marshall's effort to retain equity in the new order and drove them effort to retain some some equity in the order and drove them shall's west where they would not interfere with the free progress and west where they would not interfere with the free progress and prosperity of democracy. Culminating in a particularly cruel forced prosperity of democracy. Culminating in a particularly cruel forced too successful march, the Indians were were forced to give up their successful the Indians their all all too forced to march, give up efforts to to adapt to the white man's the white man's system. efforts adapt to system. This between the the minimum demands demands of a national tension between This tension of a national system system and the it was was supposed to possible came to an early freedom it an and the freedom to to make early possible supposed climax in crisis over over the the national banking system. group in the the crisis One national banking climax system. group so in within the Jacksonian coalition coalition approved the bank within the Jacksonian said so in bank (and approved the (and said an able report) because it stabilized the monetary an able congressional it stabilized the because monetary congressional report) base of while at the same time providing an exof economic economic activity base activity while at the same time providing an expanding credit (or capital) However profound credit (or truths of of the truths capital) system. system. However panding profound the laissez faire, such heretics doubted that credit could regulate itself. laissez such itself. heretics credit could doubted that faire, regulate whereof they spoke, they wryly observed observed as men who knew whereof And as they wryly they spoke, that some people were were always richer than the rest. some people that richer the rest. than always Jackson galloped galloped on. the truth that had had been on. Sure Sure of of the truth that to been revealed revealed to Jackson 1819 when he and Benton had been hurt by the Panic of him during the Panic had of he and been hurt Benton during 1819 by fact tight credit, credit, he was convinced convinced that that precious precious metals would in he was in fact metals would tight provide aa natural self-enforcing money money system. natural and self-enforcing provide system. Supported Supported and constantly encouraged by several special interest groups, he thunthunconstantly encouraged by several special interest groups, he "THE MONSTER." Wall-Street bankers natdered on to destroy to destroy dered Wall-Street bankers naturally approved Philadelphia's power. power. And an attack attack on such an on Philadelphia's urally approved such class and funcpoliticians like Buren and Kendall Kendall screened screened the like Van Buren functhe class politicians mechanics tional differences between agrarians, businessmen, and mechanics tional differences between agrarians, businessmen, behind an ideological ideological dance dance of sophistries. behind of the the seven seven sophistries. laissez. nous nous In performance that that laid crippled spirit of laissez a performance laid bare In a bare the the crippled spirit of faire, Jacksonians denied that men were were the Jacksonians denied their their central central axiom that faire, the possimasters of of their their own fate. retreated before the possifate. Instead, before the masters Instead, they they retreated bility that a national bank might undermine the government a undermine that the national bank might government and bility It was a sensible and legitimate fear, but the democracy. a the surrender It sensible but surrender fear, democracy. legitimate praise said more about the men of than all lyrics in all their in praise of laissez laissez faire faire than their lyrics said about the of individual. Jackson Jackson faced the British Indians with with the free the Indians of the faced the British and and the free individual. great courage, but he quailed before the vastly more significant chalbut he the chalbefore vastly great courage, significant quailed lenge restraining one's one's own freedom of action of society's action in in favor favor of of restraining freedom of lenge of society's the as as had the the well-being. Instead of controlling and using the bank, and of had Instead bank, using well-being. controlling the to their mercantilists, the Jacksonians abandoned the field to their fears. field fears. the mercantilists, Jacksonians
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A similar became evident of the the in other other quarters; evident in similar retreat retreat became many of quarters; many articulate of the laissez-faire philosophers philosophers and withdrew and artists artists withdrew the laissez-faire articulate of on the of Boston, Boston, there to carry carry into the edge there to into their their own community edge of community on Ralph Waldo Emerson's axiom, "TRUST TO to its YOURSELF" to its Ralph Waldo Emerson's axiom, logical (and almost deadly) conclusion. Mixing the romanticism of the romanticism of logical (and almost deadly) conclusion. Mixing Samuel Taylor Coleridge with a travesty of Calvinism to produce Calvinism to produce a a Samuel Taylor Coleridge with a travesty of thempotent ideology called transcendentalism, transcendentalism, they they began to talk talk to to thembegan to ideology called potent selves to others, others, an or to God. By thus transcendtranscendto God. selves instead of to an other, instead of other, or By thus ing society itself, they abstracted into a set of principles which ing society itself, they abstracted man into a set of principles which they ultimately ultimately presented presented as absolutes. as moral moral absolutes. they This of innate justified aa self-reliance that defined defined self-reliance that innate ideas ideas justified This doctrine doctrine of as being being immoral. the poet poet William Cullen restraint as William Cullen Thus fortified, immoral. Thus restraint fortified, the Bryant could simultaneously campaign for a nationalistic assertion a for nationalistic assertion could simultaneously campaign Bryant of thoroughgoing laissez faire and trade, and free trade, laissez faire and free and of American American verse, verse, thoroughgoing the repeal repeal of all laws limiting interest interest rates. rates. Usury Usury was thus thus defined laws limiting defined of all the as never went went of free free expression. as an an essential essential ingredient expression. Emerson never ingredient of as a newspaper that far Bryant performed more intelligently as a more that far (and intelligently newspaper (and Bryant performed editor), but his his pseudo-mystical pseudo-mystiJ:al doctrine doctrine of constantly of individualism individualism, constantly editor), but teetered on of substituting personal exhilaration and impulse of exhilaration on the teetered the edge substituting personal impulse edge social morality. morality. It It liberated liberated men, but it so in for rationality and it did did so in for rationality and social men, but the name name of of an oversoul whose whose influence influence in in this was rather rather this world world was the an oversold less than even the Hidden Hand that guided the of Adam the system that guided less than even the system of Smith. Smith. "1 experiment," Emerson Emerson explained: with "I simply "an endless endless seeker seeker with explained: "an simply experiment," my back." back." He did uphold the value of calling no Past did uphold the value at my Past at of education, no it education, calling it "the mother of of national national prosperity," prosperity," but but only only to politics. to discount discount politics. "the mother to the the system loss of Any accommodation "a loss so much integrity." of so accommodation to system was "a Any integrity." While capable of being defended under several easily imaginable defended under of several While capable being easily imaginable was unrewarding its own circumstances, the view view was within its even within circumstances, the unrewarding even vision of order. Emerson framework unless matched matched by framework unless of a a new order. Emerson by some vision it had had educated educated denied need. The state state had had no no justification justification once denied the the need. once it aa man. man. At that that point point "he no library, he has has not not done think"he needs needs no for he done thinklibrary, for is aa prophet; no statute statute book, book, for he is a lawlawing; he is for he for he is a church, for prophet; no ing; no church, giver; no no money, he is value." is value." for he money, for giver; stated a theory the withering Having thus thus stated of the withering away the state of the state Having theory of away of the Age in the of Laissez in Laissez Nous Faire, Faire, Emerson had to come to terms to come to terms Age of its existence with existence and services. services. He did did so so by by making making personal personal proppropwith its the touchstone erty the touchstone of of his his compromise. ... is, in its effects ... in its effects is, erty compromise. "Money "Money and laws," he declared, beautiful as roses. Property Property keeps the "as beautiful as roses. laws," he declared, "as keeps the most most
The Laissez Nous Faire Faire The 4ge of Laissez Age of
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accounts of the the world, world, and is always moral." Men of tremenand is accounts of of such such tremenalways moral." as Emerson could survive these contradictions by dous survive as Emerson could these dous artistry contradictions artistry by living living off their reserves of imagination and powers of abstraction-and their reserves of off imagination and powers of abstraction and their property. property. Those needed more with the the realities realities Those who needed more communion their communion with of human society either changed their outlook, struggled to some of society either changed their outlook, struggled to some resolution of the dichotomies, or simply crumpled under the strain. resolution of the dichotomies, or simply crumpled under the strain. such As aa competent poet who lacked lacked the the power power to transcend such to transcend competent poet 40 troublesome details, details, Jones Jones Very Very disintegrated and spent the last last 40 troublesome disintegrated and spent the years of his life of his life expounding a doctrine doctrine of of "will-less "will-less and elucidating expounding and elucidating a years In aa terrible terrible way, he managed managed to to transcend transcend life life itself. itself. existence." In existence." way, he was Margaret Fuller, an exceptionally talented of the group, an the talented woman of Fuller, Margaret exceptionally group, was went to to Europe and was reborn in a tempestuous fortunate. She She went more fortunate. and in a was reborn Europe tempestuous affair. her husband husband and child in a disaster proaffair. Losing at sea, and child in a disaster at she prosea, she Losing her most poignant commentaries on the entire tranvided ~ne one of of the vided the most tranon the entire commentaries poignant only come ten years scendentalist movement. "Had II only scendentalist movement. earlier...•. ... So come ten So years earlier has been wasted by abstraction." much strength has been wasted abstraction." strength by Nathaniel Hawthorne Hawthorne ultimately ultimately reached reached aa similar conclusion. Nathaniel similar conclusion. The Scarlet Letter (the Perhaps grasping the implications of the of Scarlet Letter Perhaps grasping implications adultery (the adultery is an that never never became became human or he is an abstraction abstraction that or comprehensible) comprehensible) he recognized that he always stood just outside his characters and the that he his and stood outside characters the recognized always just preserve his society that he created for them live in. in. To preserve that he indecreated for his own indethem to to live society pendence, he almost destroyed them. His always verged he almost women on always verged on pendence, destroyed them. His in the end contented themselves a substisubstiaa passionate passionate act but act but in the end contented themselves with with a as having having ideas ideas about washing dishes. tute, such such as about washing Like Margaret dishes. Like tute, Margaret in her early years, Hawthorne's emancipated Fuller Fuller in her early years, Hawthorne's emancipated women had emancipated themselves from life. from life. emancipated themselves his societies institutional substance. substance. Nevertheless, Nevertheless, Even his societies lacked lacked any any institutional was great. last Hawthorne's achievement achievement as an artist artist was Hawthorne's as an in his his last great. And in works he became fully fully aware his own weakness. weakness. Comprehending works he became aware of of his Comprehending the breakdown breakdown of Christian of a a corporate the of Calvin's vision of Calvin's original corporate Christian original vision commonwealth, he he came came finally that the residue needed needed understand that the residue to understand commonwealth, finally to to be be transformed of community. Perhaps this this into a a new conception to transformed into community. Perhaps conception of insight was all that a of his experien~e could grasp; it could a it was a all that a man of his experience grasp; insight crucial truth, truth, but but he he remained remained content content with with the though the evasive, crucial evasive, though it provided. provided. pleasant, duality that it duality that pleasant, Far more more involved of men, men, and incomparably the in the the society Far involved in society of incomparably the greatest poet of laissez faire, even Whitman finally recognized even Walt of laissez faire, finally recognized greatest poet a way way that that dramatized Jackson's Jackson's the one-sidedness his outlook. In a outlook. In of his the one-sidedness of fight, Whitman was prone prone to to evasion of the real issue in real issue of the evasion in the the bank fight,
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follow the path path of of least the transcendentalists, transcendentalists, he he Like the resistance. Like follow tie least resistance. started with "a simple, separate person" only to end up with the with to the started with "a simple, separate person" only up demand that that society reform itself in his image. Whitman's politics politics demand society reform itself in his image. were typically laissez-faire. "Under the specious pretext of effecting of were typically laissez-faire. "Under the specious pretext effecting 'the of the whole community,' "" he he pontificated, 'the happiness pontificated, "nearly "nearly happiness of the whole community/ all the the wrongs and intrusions intrusions of been carried carried of government all government have been wrongs and through." Social reform thus became a matter of personal regenthrough." Social reform thus became a matter of personal regeneration: men should "not look to precedents and legislative bodies should "not look to precedents and legislative bodies eration: for concerned by by aa problem, problem, therefore, therefore, Whitman walked walked for aid." aid." When concerned as many of his heirs from Twain to William Faulkner away, to William Faulkner Mark heirs from of as his many away, became "a way farer were to the open road." farer down the "a way to do, and became were open road." do, and In this respect, and as indicated by his wild enthusiasm for nationnationenthusiasm for wild his indicated In this as and by respect, a to the Civil War, Whitman was a poet of the the alistic prior of was Civil the alistic expansion to War, poet expansion prior were process by by which which democracy and prosperity were liqked to frontier process and frontier prosperity democracy linked to was also the first poet of the an foreign policy. But he the first poet also the of But was an aggressive he aggressive foreign policy. city, which he intimately from the grinding sorrow its slums slums sorrow of of its city, which he knew intimately from the grinding to the joy of walk or or aa ride ride through through its its exhilarating exhilarating the wonderful a walk to wonderful joy of a diversity of wet grass. grass. Vastly Vastly more more aware aware of the of the of cement, and wet cement, iron, iron, and diversity realities of life than a man like Emerson, he he infused the language language infused the realities like Emerson, of life than a with aa vernacular vernacular vigor vigor and that surpassed freedom that with and inventive inventive freedom any surpassed any European achievement. despite, or perhaps because of, his his or because achievement. And of, European despite, perhaps bisexuality, he it possible to treat sex as a subject in American in he as a made to sex American it treat subject bisexuality, possible literature. literature, the degree degree that they sculpted and painted painted nudes, or infused infused To the that they nudes, or sculpted and their portraits portraits with the essence femaleness, as their with the of femaleness, as Thomas Sully did essence of Sully did be in his of actress Fanny Kemble, American artists should in his study of artists should be actress Fanny Kemble, American study credited advance. Sully was typical of the best of them, credited with with a a similar similar advance. Sully was typical of the best of them, for the not-herself-not-anyone for his his image of Kemble also also revealed revealed the image of not-herself-not-anyone character of a a great well as her awareness that she she character of stage personage personage as as well as her awareness that great stage could work at could at aa higher artistic level level than her audiences could underunderthan her audiences could higher artistic stand or or tolerate. stand few of and sparse tolerate. A few of Ralph Earl's disciplined Ralph Earl's sparse disciplined and of Jackson sketches as good. Cole carried sketches of Jackson were were almost almost as carried good. And Thomas Cole the the basic basic ambivalence his work, painting literal literal ambivalence of faire into into his of laissez laissez faire work, painting for the landscapes the entrepreneurs entrepreneurs who patronized patronized him, him, while while for for landscapes for himself scenes of religious and ethical decay himself he composed composed great of scenes ethical great religious decay sapping the the strength of empires. the wholeness similar concern for the concern for wholeness sapping strength of empires. A similar and interrelatedness interrelatedness of things typified typified the the sculpture Horatio of things of Horatio sculpture of Greenough. Asserting that "God's world has a distinct formula for that "God's a for world has distinct formula Greenough. Asserting function" every function" long before Frank Lloyd Wright designed his fame before his fame every long Lloyd Wright designed
The Age oj Lai~se:r. Nous Nous Faire Faire The Age of Laissez
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on the the same axiom, Greenough insisted that that true could same axiom, true achievement on achievement could Greenough insisted by "mastering the principles." come only come only by "mastering the principles." Yet the the Age Faire that were art triumphs of the the art of Laissez Yet Laissez NOllS Nous Faire that were triumphs of Age of were those those of as William William Sidney Mount appropriate to to it it were such men as of such appropriate Sidney Mount and Caleb Bingham. Mount's injunction to "paint and George Bingham. Honoring George Caleb injunction to Honoring Mount's "paint pictures that that will will take take with with the the public public-never the few, but never paint for the few, but pictures paint for Fur Traders Descending the Missouri gave the many," Traders Descending the Missouri the Bingham's Fur many," Bingham's gave Americans, and and any any others others who were interested, some truly magmagwere interested, some truly Americans, nificent nificent
images of the Age of Laissez Nous NOllS Fake. Faire. And no no one one the Age of Laissez images of in his drawing The POUler of Music, surpassed Mount's comment, Power Mount's in his Music, comment, of surpassed drawing on the the poignancy of race race relations relations in United States. the United States. Spiritually in the on poignancy of Spiritually so yet practically practically and physically so the white white and yet intimate and and physically so intimate so distant, distant, the the Negro Negro shared momentary relationship through a and the shared a a momentary man and relationship through a fill all of them with an awareness of the deeper song that seemed to to the that seemed fill all of an them with awareness of deeper song tragedy. tragedy. A similar laissez faire provided by by such similar sense sense of architects as as of laissez faire was such architects was provided Robert Dale Owen, Owen, who favored favored the the Gothic it allowed allowed Gothic style because it Robert Dale style because Practical aa "free of anachronism." anachronism." Books like Asher Asher Benjamin's "free play Books like Benjamin's Practical play of House Carpenter and 1857) jourenabled joureditions between between 1830 House Carpenter (14 1830 and (14 editions 1857) enabled neyman builders to combine Greek and Gothic exteriors with the with the and exteriors to Gothic builders combine Greek neyman wildest kind interior eclecticism. buildings provided provided the the kind of of interior Such buildings wildest eclecticism. Such three-dimensional footnotes footnotes for James Fenimore Fenimore Cooper's Cooper's astringent for James three-dimensional astringent in aa country in which and comment. "You are in 'Tfou are which every comment. every man swaggers swaggers and country in talks, knowledge or no knowledge; brains or no brains; taste or no or or no taste no no brains or talks, knowledge brains; knowledge; are all ex nato connoisseurs." taste. They ex nato all connoisseurs." are taste. They
II Reality for Existing Ideas Ideas for Existing IL A New Reality
[Government] was was not not intended intended to create systems of agriculture, to ..• create systems of agriculture, [Government] ..• can doubt that . ..• A system system manufacturing, or trade . can doubt men trade. that. or Few manufacturing, competition, without without the the aid aid founded on on private private interest, interest, enterprise, enterprise, and competition, -founded of legislative grants or regulations by law, rapidly prosper. or would regulations by law, rapidly prosper. of legislative grants Martin Van Buren, Buren, 1837 Martin 1837 .
.
.
We are are for for leaving leaving trade trade free; free; attribute of freedom. its freedom. attribute of its
We
.
.
.
.
.
.
and the right to to combine combine is is an indispensable the right indispensable William Leggett, Leggett, 1837 William 1837
[A corporation] mere artificial ina mere invisible and inindeed, a is, indeed, artificial being, being, invisible [A corporation] is,
it is aa person, person, for for certain purposes in contemplation of law, in contemplation certain purposes it is of law, and been recognized as such such by decisions of the decisions this court. and has has been court. of this recognized as by the Chief Justice B. Taney, Chief Justice Roger Taney, 1839 Roger B. 1839
tangible; yet yet tangible;
The Union, next to to our our liberty, most dear. May we always always remember dear. May Union, next liberty, most can only be preserved by distributing equally that be the benefits it can that it benefits and only preserved by distributing equally the John Calhoun, 1830 the Union. burdens of burdens Union. C. Calhoun, John C. of the 1830
11 the
State cannot sUf'tlive the anti-slavery agitation, the state state then let let the cannot survive the anti-slavery agitation, then William Lloyd Lloyd Garrison, William Garrison, 1836 1836
// the State
perish. perish.
THE THEORY AND THE REALITY OF THE MARKET PLACE
AAS
GENERALLY PRESENTED l!RESENTED and accepted, accepted, the the Weltanschauung Weltanschauung of laissez of presumed to to be be aa based on what was presumed laissez faire faire was based not obvious obvious truth. truth. Individualized Individualized free in an an simple if not free competition simple if competition in open and fair fair society society would produce produce specific specific happiness the open happiness and the
n
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general welfare. But But the the assumption of free free competition competition was was actually actually general welfare. assumption of predicated upon three other unspoken premises: that domestic s0three other predicated upon unspoken premises: that domestic society was sufficiently balanced and unfettered to insure that such ciety sufficiently balanced and unfettered to insure that such to exexconflict remained creative, that market place place continued remained creative, conflict the market that the continued to pand, and other nations nations accepted acted on the key key axioms. axioms. and that that other and acted on the pand, accepted and All other things being being equal, ran the would other things All the argument, argument, competition equal, ran competition would generate progress. generate progress. Yet as Madison, Monroe, Monroe, and mercantilists often pointed as Madison, Yet and other other mercantilists often pointed out, these essential essential other other things things never were equal. Various individunever were Various individuout, these equal. als and groups were were always always insisting that they they needed and groups als needed assistance, assistance, insisting that either to enter the game game as or to remain competitors. enter the either to as an an equal or to remain Often equal competitors. Often they did need it. Even under the most favorable circumstances, the did need it. Even under the most favorable circumstances, the they very process of competition led to the destruction, failure, or bare of led or bare to the destruction, failure, very process competition successful. While of life, survival of the less of the it promised a survival less successful. While it life, promised a diversity diversity of therefore, the dynamic of the system carried it toward a situation in the of it in carried toward a the situation therefore, dynamic system social which aa few triumphant elements political and few triumphant the political dominated the and social elements dominated which economy. the system system always required aa considerable considerable amount economy. Hence the always required to keep it in working condition. these of tinkering in order Since these of tinkering in order to keep it in working condition. Since realities contradicted the central premise (and (and corroded the Utopia) utopia) contradicted the corroded the realities central premise it was was not not unnatural unnatural that constantly on the of of the the system, that men were were constantly on the system, it lookout to and eradicate eradicate the the one one to find one evil-or discover the find and the one evil or to to discover lookout great equalizer-and thus establish necessary conditions unfor unthe necessary establish the conditions for great equalizer and thus inhibited progress progress toward toward perfection. inhibited perfection. diffiSuch troubled advocates still another another diffiof laissez laissez faire faire faced faced still Such troubled advocates of culty. Usually thought of as a philosophy and a system of individuala a of individualof and as system philosophy culty. Usually thought by which meant the being, the ism, the competition the single which is is meant ism, by competition and single human being, conflict of of laissez laissez faire occurred at many different levels. at levels. In In faire actually occurred different conflict many actually as addition to the individual, there were organized groups such as were such to the there addition individual, organized groups such corporations, labor unions, and reformers; political subdivisions such subdivisions labor reformers; political unions, corporations, as states; social and economic economic units units which became became as parties and the the states; social and parties and or regions; and, in the broadest sense, nations self-conscious the broadest in sections or self-conscious sections sense, nations regions; and, several in the the world world arena. These units units also also competed on several themselves in arena. These themselves competed levds: political, and intellectual-social. And given the intellectual-social. levels: economic, economic, political, given the be too not it it should not be too argument that competition produced welfare, should that competition produced welfare, argument served surprising to realize that laissez faire served subtly (though perfaire that laissez to realize subtly (though persurprising suasivdy) to condition condition men to accept armed conflict righteous conflict with righteous to accept suasively) to attitudes. attitudes. of the of Hence Van Buren's the principles principles of restatement of Hence Buren's sanguine sanguine restatement the realities laissez faire became President President did did not not match the realities he he became faire as as he laissez
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soon the faithful, not he reminded reminded the "was not encountered. Government, soon encountered. Government, he faithful, "was intended to . . • create systems of agriculture, manufacturing, of or intended to ... create systems agriculture, manufacturing, or trade." "Few men can doubt," he concluded, their own interest "that their he can doubt," trade." "Few interest concluded, "that as the general welfare of of the promoted by by be promoted the country well as as well as the country would be general welfare .•. A system founded on private interest, enterprise, and competi... system founded on private interest, enterprise, and competiby tion [which], without the the aid legislative grants grants or or regulations aid of of legislative tion regulations by [which], without law, would rapidly rapidly prosper." prosper." law, would Honoring the the identical Chief Justice Justice Roger Roger B. B. Taney, identical faith, faith, Chief Taney, who Honoring had served earlier as Jackson's attorney attorney general, militant rendered a a militant as Jackson's had served earlier general, rendered in the Charles River Bridge case. Dedecision monopolies the River in case. Charles decision against DeBridge against monopolies claring that restrictive charters delayed progress, and that the country that charters the restrictive that delayed progress, claring country to the the last last century obliged to to stand stand would be back ..• and be ... to be obliged be "thrown would "thrown back century and not destroyed, he announced the new political still" if the announced if they were he not were still" destroyed, political they all competitors. competitors. But Taney's economy and opened the the market market place place to to all But Taney's and opened economy also confirmed the corporation as a legitimate unit of compeopinion a the as unit also confirmed of legitimate opinion corporation compein the long tition. And that that aspect of the court's decision amounted of decision the court's in the tition. aspect long run to to aa death for the indefor death sentence for individualized individualized laissez laissez faire, sentence for the inderun faire, pendent businessman proved incapable holding his his own against against of holding businessman proved pendent incapable of the corporation. the corporation. In the short run, however, however, it polity which which short run, it was Jackson's economic polity In the Jackson's economic brought on many of Buren's troubles. After destroying the Van on of Buren's troubles. After brought many destroying the national bank bank with with his his veto, veto, Jackson transferred government funds national transferred Jackson government funds to selected banks. Already Already expanding expanding their their loans in competition to state banks. loans in selected state competition rewith other local and regional banks, the favored institutions the favored institutions rewith other local regional banks, sponded by by further themselves. Accentuating Accentuating his his aa priori priori further extending sponded extending themselves. commitment to hard money, money, the economic orgy led Jackson Jackson to hard the resulting resulting economic orgy led by which which he he lived up to to his his ancient to issue to issue his his specie of 1836, circular of lived up ancient 1836, by specie circular for precious preference for precious metal metal and at at the to stabilize the same time time sought stabilize preference sought to return to principles of Middle the wild boom. His return the wild boom. to the the monetary of the the Middle monetary principles Ages would no no doubt doubt have have pleased John Taylor Taylor of but it of Caroline, it Caroline, but Ages pleased John had less less happy the political effects on the happy effects political economy. economy. Unfortunately coinciding poor crop crop a drop with a in exports a poor Unfortunately drop in exports and a coinciding with the the deflationary monetary circular counterbalanced season season in in 1835, circular counterbalanced 1835, deflationary monetary from the the treasury treasury surplus the effect distributing over the of distributing effect of five millions over five millions from surplus to the states states (because to the it removed the specie from the banks), and it removed the the (because specie banks), major crisis. Jackson played a key key role the development role in in the a major of a crisis. As Jackson played development of had joyfully the specjoyfully anticipated, the maneuver toppled many of the maneuver of the anticipated, toppled many speculators ulators whom he he thought thought selfish, unprincipled, and evil. But it also evil. also But it selfish, unprincipled, bowled over a a good bowled over good number of of upright upright mechanics, mechanics, farmers, and and farmers,
The Age Age of Laissez Nous Now Faire Faire of Laissez
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small entrepreneurs. leaders such as Leggett Leggett of of New York York Labor leaders small such as entrepreneurs. Labor had urged and praised the specie circular in the belief that it would and the liad urged praised specie circular in the belief that it would an honest honest wage, undepreciated by by inflation and give the mechanics an the mechanics inflation and wage, undepreciated give them~ the discounts on the notes of weak banks. But they soon found the discounts on the notes of banks. But they soon found themselves by increasing increasing prices prices and growing numbers of unun~ confronted by selves confronted and growing numbers of employed in in northern northern cities. cities. Van Buren's cherished alliance between Buren's cherished alliance between employed began northern businessmen planters, began businessmen and and mechanics, northern and southern southern planters, mechanics, and to break break apart under the the pressure pressure of of class class consciousness consciousness and and regional regional to apart under economic conflicts* conflicts. economic as the the Equal Party even before the the Organized even before the shock shock of of the Organized as Equal Rights Rights Party politics Panic depression, the the more more radical radical wing wing of Panic and depression, of New York York politics provided an early example example of the proliferation proliferation of parties an early of the of political provided political parties that was of laissez faire. Often quick that of the was characteristic characteristic of the age of faire. to laissez Often age quick to multi~party systems, Americans criticize European countries for their criticize countries for their Americans European multi-party systems, r835 and they conducted conducted seem prone prone to to forget forget that that between and r8¢, between 1835 1896, they in aa very similar fashion. Economic and social their own politics politics in their and similar Economic fashion. social very conflict the characteristic of the age, and and it took political political form form conflict was was the characteristic of the age, it took as the r820s, a mechanics' organization held the bal~ as as early the a as when held the balmechanics* 1820$, organization early ance power in Though with steadily decreasing ance of of power in Philadelphia. with sigPhiladelphia. Though steadily decreasing significance, the phenomenon continued into the 20th 20th century. the continued into the nificance, century. phenomenon Standing thoroughgoing reform reform in the tradition laissez of laissez for thoroughgoing in the tradition of Standing for New York dissidents challenged the aristocratic governors faire, the aristocratic dissidents challenged the faire, the governors VanBuren's Regency machine machine and vigorous of Van of and demanded more vigorous Buren's Regency of direct action against local and regional financial powers, a system direct action against local and regional financial powers, a system of in Februtaxes, and election by direct popular vote. For a moment in Februtaxes, and election by direct popular vote. For a direct ary, 1837, r837, when the depression struck hard, they to direct turned to tk e depression struck hard, they turned ary, threateningaction. Urged Urged on on by by posters posters that were blunt blunt and threatening that were action. "BREAD, RENT, and prices must come Their prices and FUEL! Their "BREAD, MEAT, RENT, downl"-the response was militant. Crowds raided raided grocery stores and militant. Crowds dou/nrthe grocery stores response was for aa period period of of aa few led some conservatives a general general fear a to fear for conservatives to few days days led for property uprising. But But the the movement's movement's respect (and ambition) property ambition) for respect (and uprising. the existing existing checked critique of of the a fundamental of a fundamental critique short of well short checked them them well order. order. like of leaders Such leaders like the effectiveness effectiveness of also limited limited the conservatism also Such conservatism combined Frances Wright, aa striking and inspiring who combined woman Frances Wright, inspiring striking femininity and criticism in in an an explosive and social social criticism package. Mechanics explosive package. femininity did not but did not take take and upper-class upper-class reformers to her appeals to her reformers responded and appeals but responded basic reforms with equal enthusiasm. Indeed, they asked up her more enthusiasm. with reforms her basic more Indeed, they equal up attacks on the her more fundamental attacks the her to play down some of her to play some of her
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system. early proletarian proletarian leaders Walsh of of New as Mike Walsh such as leaders such system. And early York, argued that the shift from Monroe and Adams to Jackson and to from shift who that the Jackson York, argued and Van Buren was "nothing but a change of masters," attracted an attracted of a an but and Van Buren was "nothing masters/' change The shock of the panic passed and the labor even smaller following. and the of the labor shock even smaller following. The panic passed moyement remained an association would-be entrepreneurs association of of would-be movement remained an entrepreneurs organorganized to secure reforms that would open the way for them to to scramble for scramble ized to secure reforms that would open the way to the the top. Depressions only dramatized labor's commitment to to to top- Depressions only dramatized labor's laissez any firm of an an alternative alternative order, firm conception laissez faire; faire; lacking order, conception of lacking any by competing competing for remaining jobs jobs they responded such crises crises by the remaining for the to such they responded to rather than by seizing to change the system. the opportunity rather than by change the system. opportunity to seizing the by the the gales utopian experiments Buffeted by sank in of laissez laissez faire, Buffeted in faire, Utopian experiments sank gales of continental property. They appeared irrelevant, if not the sea if the sea of of continental not irrelevant, They appeared property. stupid dangerous, to to men who assumed assumed that that welfare, welfare, and and wealth, wealth, or dangerous, stupid or were aa matter time and labor. Albert Brisbane's image of an Albert Brisbane's were of time and labor. matter of an image of had America organized organized in in self-sufficient self-sufficient communities communities of of 1,600 souls had America 1,600 souls little whose immediate problem was was to dispose of to dispose little appeal to immediate problem of appeal to men whose cotton while John Humphrey Noyes was and wheat while cotton and wheat surpluses. And was John Humphrey Noyes surpluses. undoubtedly correct correct in jealousy provoked provoked by by proppropin arguing that the the jealousy undoubtedly arguing that erty and sex caused a good share of men's troubles, the majority a of the sex caused men's share troubles, erty good majority preferred the competition to to pre-empt rights over a disciplined the competition over a such rights preferred disciplined pre-empt such struggle their impulses in aa co-operative co-operative commonwealth. commonwealth. to sublimate sublimate their impulses in struggle to As with Whitman, most most Americans Americans evaded the challenge of Noyes's Noyes's with Whitman, evaded the As challenge of by blaming their at Oneida, York, communal community at New Oneida, York, by blaming their community troubles on property holders holders or joining the the free-for-all in joining on other other property or in troubles free-for-all for for more property. property. more RELIGIOUS HERESY AND THE ASSAULT ON SLAVERY
Having destroyed the bank, bank, that that primeval primeval monster monster in the garden in the destroyed the Having garden of Jacksonian safari the secular the Jacksonian of laissez laissez faire, safari in in search search of of the secular and inand infaire, the stitutional evil that would would explain the malfunctioning malfunctioning of the system stitutional evil that of the explain the system
began to converge with with aa moral moral crusade developing out of John to converge crusade developing out of John began Locke's definition of of the the natural natural (and unnatural) man, man, the the breakbreakLocke's definition (and unnatural) philosophical ruminations ruminations of the trantrandown of the philosophical of Calvinism, of the Calvinism, and the scendentalists. the sustained sustained vitality of the the revival revival movement of of scendentalists. As the vitality of 1799 had suggested, the age faire was was 1800 had in the of laissez laissez faire 1799 and 1800 suggested, religion religion in age of a series in essence of variations variations on on the Arminian heresy heresy that had essence a series of the Arminian in that had Calvinism plagued Calvinism (and Jonathan Edwards) in the England in the New Jonathan (and plagued Edwards) England of the of the 1730S by the the secularization secularization of of God's God's 17305 and 1740s. 1740$. Encouraged Encouraged by in the of Adam Smith and his will the philosophy will in philosophy of his followers, religious the religious followers, the
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advocates of of free free will will soon soon reduced reduced Calvin's to aa code code advocates social morality Calvin's social morality to of personal righteousness righteousness that that paralleled paralleled and and reinforced the indiof personal indithe reinforced vidualism of of Locke. became ipso facto the Locke. The free vidualism free man thereby thereby became if so facto the He was also the natural man. moral man. man. was also the natural man. moral A more portentous portentous distortion philosophy distortion of of Calvin's Calvin's corporate corporate philosophy would be difficult to imagine, particularly in a society which had would be difficult to imagine, particularly in a society which had come to define freedom liberty in in terms terms of right to to vote vote to define come freedom and and liberty of the the right and the become an independent entrepreneur. was the right and to become an independent Here was right to entrepreneur. Here to laissez American hishisthe bedrock bedrock meaning meaning of of the the transition transition to the laissez faire. faire. American and 18¢ largely the the story tentory between 1828 and between 1828 the multiple is largely of the tory 1896 is story of multiple tensions among an attempt attempt to the criteria the sions to apply of laissez criteria of laissez faire, faire, the among an apply the realities of of the recognition that the implicathe situation, and a a growing realities that the situation, and implicagrowing recognition tions of the effort were subversive very freedom freedom it it was effort were of the tions subversive of was supposed of the the very supposed is free holds proppropto create guarantee. For to a man is create and guarantee. For if if he if a he holds free only only if is a mere product of material wealth. erty, then he is a then The new mere material wealth* of erty, product Weltanschauung liberated him only to set a horrible trap. a liberated him to set horrible Weltanschauung only trap. Nothing dramatizes dramatizes the the distortion of Edwards's theology more more distortion of Edwards's theology Nothing ironically than the role of his brilliant and devoted student, Samuel than the role of Samuel and devoted brilliant his student, ironically Hopkins, in transmitting the of the Great Awakening to in transmitting the spirit Hopkins, spirit of the Great Awakening to men had abandoned the corporate ethic for the Arminianism Arminianism and and who had abandoned the for the corporate ethic secular faire of Hopof Stoddard laissez faire and Whitefield. Whitefield. For For himself, secular laissez Stoddard and himself, Hopkins did the equation equation between between morality morality and laissez-faire did not and laissez-faire kins not make the individualism. His His attacks slavery stemmed from a corporate a attacks on from individualism. stemmed on slavery corporate philosophy that held all Americans responsible for slavery philosophy that held all Americans responsible for slavery and hence mutual and and institutional institutional solution. His to devise a mutual solution. His hence obligated devise a obligated to approach pointed toward some form of emancipation compensated approach pointed toward some form of emancipation compensated by the the national gradual integralead into national government which would would lead into gradual integraby government which tion of Negro with with the the rest of the the political political and social social economy. tion of the the Negro rest of economy. This to slavery did not with not disappear This institutional institutional approach disappear with approach to slavery did Hopkins. Even Even some of the transcendentalists like like William William Ellery the transcendentalists some of EUery Hopkins. a similar analysis. And Channing, example, initially similar analysis. for example, initially (1835) Channing, for (1835) made a while quite different in being York businessmen instead of instead of businessmen while different New York in being quite Unitarian ministers, ministers, Arthur Arthur and Lewis Lewis Tappan beginning in the the beginning Unitarian Tappan in six years, also that kind kind of the short of six years, short space favored that solution. In In the also favored of solution. space of the kind however, both the Tappans and Channing had embraced the kind had embraced both the however, Channing Tappans laissez of of that typified the convergence of laissez that the of individual individual moralizing convergence moralizing typified faire, the morality of natural law, transcendentalism, and of natural the secular secular morality law, transcendentalism, faire, preacher who took took the the evangelical Arminian Protestantism. Protestantism. As aa preacher Arminian evangelical ethic fervor of Hopkins and and Edwards but but abandoned abandoned their their corporate of Hopkins fervor corporate ethic
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in Charles G. Finney was a key in favor favor of of individualized individualized religion, religion, Charles G. Finney was a key entrepreneur of that merger. Finney asserted that had aa that every of that every man had entrepreneur merger. Finney asserted responsibility for helping to erect a framework within which every within a framework which to erect every responsibility for helping other individual had a chance to save himself. Until late in life, Until in himself. late other individual had a chance to save life, moreover, Finney also believed that he and his associates had the his he and associates had the moreover, Finney also believed that truth that could save anyone. truth that could save anyone. Religion thus embraced the the task task of reforming the world the moral moral world of reforming thus embraced Religion so that faire could the political, political, social, ecoin the function in so that laissez laissez faire could function social, and economic spheres. Theology had to the the decline mercandecline of of mercanhad been been adapted nomic adapted to spheres. Theology tilism and triumph of been so faire. And having and the of laissez laissez faire. so tilism the triumph having been accommodated, it began began to as aa powerful powerful engine the function as to function accommodated, it engine driving driving the change on its logical the purification purification of of the the entire on toward toward its entire conclusion, the logical conclusion, change 1730S like Stoddard were system. While ideological pioneers of the of like the Stoddard While were 17305 system. ideological pioneers probably aware that they were changing the essence of Calvin's essence the aware were of that Calvin's changing probably they doctrine to conform conform to to their their economic interests, it it is is unlikely that economic interests, doctrine to unlikely that of the 1820S and 1830S realized that they were altermany Americans that were the realized alterAmericans of 18205 they 18303 many ing their religion. religion. They were not They were were simply not hypocrites. simply men ing their hypocrites. They They were of their their era had never never been trained or or led of era who had been trained or encouraged led to to encouraged or examine-let relationship between their interests their examine let alone alone question-the the between interests relationship question and their and their ideas. ideas. Just Jackson had had defined asserted the the essential essential supremacy as Jackson defined and asserted Just as supremacy of the national national framework framework of political economy economy against freeof the of the the political the freeagainst the element like South Carolina, so religious leaders dom of a single of a element like South Carolina, so religious leaders like like single Finney and Theodore Dwight asserted the the moral imperatives moral imperatives Finney and Dwight Weld asserted of the Only moral moral men could general welfare welfare of the order. order. Only could attain attain the the general through the indulgence of their various self-interests. Since only free through the indulgence of their various self-interests. Since only free be moral, moral, the the slaveholder was by by definition the most most men could could be slaveholder was definition the immoral. But But free free men had also into evil evil ways. ways. Having Having thus thus immoral. also slipped slipped into declared open declared whole of (or as as they they the whole of human error season on the error (or open season termed it, the moral moral reformers undertook aa good termed reformers undertook crusadit, sin), sin), the many crusadgood many ing into the the jungle jungle of of man's base camp man's fallibility. Their base ing expeditions expeditions into fallibility. Their camp was a privately recreated universe universe roughly roughly comparable comparable to to the environthe environprivately recreated of the ment of the Old Testament-once again it it was was the People Testament once again the Chosen Chosen People against all in aa fight fight for all comers for righteousness. comers in against righteousness. Some reformers reformers no no doubt doubt saw themselves as heroes in the romantic the romantic themselves as heroes in novels of Sir Sir Walter novels of that enjoyed such tremendous popularity Walter Scott Scott that such tremendous enjoyed popularity the United in the in United States, but then then many many southern did the the southern slaveholders slaveholders did States, but same. same. Each group brought more to Scott than it took away. It seems It to than Scott it took seems group brought away. more probable probable that that they they were transition either made the the transition were men who either
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from mercantilism already possessing a strong moral system, or mercantilism already from possessing a strong moral system, or emerged in the world of laissez faire and proceeded, either either by by conconin the world of laissez faire and proceeded, emerged viction or revelation, to to define in terms terms of religious morality. or revelation, viction define it it in of religious John morality. John Quincy Adams offers a good illustration of the first category which a offers Quincy good illustration of the first category which further that the the older group was strongly inclined toward an an older group further suggests inclined toward was strongly suggests that institutional resolution of the slavery issue. institutional resolution of the slavery issue. Younger men like Finney and Weld were were advocates of laissez laissez like Finney and Weld advocates of Younger faire. But conviction, they they could be But being of religious faire. could hardly being men of religious conviction, hardly be expected to to become entrepreneurs entrepreneurs in ordinary sense. in the saw the ordinary sense. They expected They saw trustees whose whose basic basic interest interest and in a themselves as trustees themselves as and responsibility responsibility in a more than laissez-faire world was was the the business of reform. reform. It laissez-faire world than business of It appears appears coincidental, for example, example, that Tappan brothers brothers also also established established the Tappan that the coincidental, for the first in the country. Their emphasis on the the first credit-rating system in the the Their credit-rating system emphasis on country. by which to play play the the need for a set of fixed well-defined rules rules by for a fixed and set of which to need and well-defined a great to explain from game does a received from deal to the support great deal game does explain the support they they received class. Men of that group wanted guarantees that their the middle the middle class. that their of that wanted guarantees group enterprise would be rewarded. the steady transformation of would be the of rewarded. transformation And enterprise steady the abolitionist campaign for free land land abolitionist crusade for free the crusade into into an an antislavery antislavery campaign suggests that the the siteven more strongly sitelement in in the the underlying suggests even strongly that underlying element was the cltanschauung of laissez faire. uation was uation the W faire. of laissez Weltanschauung secuSeen through the prisms of the secuthe prisms Seen through of religious forms and language, religious forms language, the lar principles principles of as a utopian revelation. Though a revelation. lar of laissez as laissez faire faire appeared Though Utopian appeared fears of of economic competition played an overt overt role to some extent, extent, role to fears economic competition played an most of the violent and bigoted reaction against the increasing of the violent and bigoted reaction against the increasing nummost of ber in 1824 (7,912 in in 1836, 3li9,~ in in 1850) ber of immigrants 1850) immigrants (7,912 1836, and 369,980 1824, 76,242 76,242 in was anti-Catholic in origin. It was grounded in the view of CatholiCatholiwas anti-Catholic in origin. It was grounded in the view of cism as worst of of the the old corporate and institutional religions institutional religions as the the worst old corporate cism liberty and violated freedom. headed by freedom. The and violated evil men who crushed crushed liberty headed by evil ^ie combined antiburning of a Massachusetts Massachusetts convent in 18}4, antiof a convent in 1834, the burning Catholic and actions of of men like Lyman Beecher, Beecher, and like Lyman Catholic and antislavery antislavery actions the formation of the the Native Native American American Association Association in in 1837 the formation of 1837 were similar antagthoroughly entwined entwined aspects the same outlook. outlook. A similar of the antagthoroughly aspects of of 1827-1831 onism manifested itself onism manifested the anti-Masonic anti-Masonic agitation itself in in the 1827-1831 agitation of of in New York. York. Here Here again again the the relationship relationship between between the the axioms axioms of in laissez faire and the of the the enemy enemy is is apparent. Going rapthe definition faire and definition of laissez rapGoing apparent. idly politics, the the anti-Masons became the the first third party party to to first third anti-Masons became into politics, idly into convention (1831). stage an open national nominating convention an national (1831). nominating stage open Other reformers concentrated the dangers tobacco, alcohol, alcohol, of tobacco, concentrated on the Other reformers dangers of a and and meat-eating. While the crusades for temperance a pure pure for crusades and the While temperance meat-eating. t
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race remained serious politics for for American politics in American forces in race remained serious forces dom~ nearly a century, the antislavery campaign soon became the the became soon doma century, the antislavery campaign nearly inant the general general drive to establish establish aa proper moral frameframe~ drive to theme of inant theme of the proper moral work for laissez faire. The sermon was appropriately simple: abolish abolish work for laissez faire. The sermon was appropriately simple: slavery and the free system would flourish beyond all Along all dreams. dreams. Along slavery and the free system would flourish beyond with Weld and Finney, William Lloyd Garrison completed the with Weld and Finney, William Lloyd Garrison completed the to aa wholly wholly individualized definition of the problem. problem. transition to of the individualized definition transition the evil, mitigated their Slaveholders became the their sin. sin. The and nothing Slaveholders became evil, and nothing mitigated trouble was bad mtfn, not an institution. an institution. was bad trouble men, not the State cannot sursur~ Garrison hurled the the absolute challenge. "If State cannot "If the absolute challenge. Garrison hurled vive the agitation, then let the State perish." Even though Even the State let vive then the anti-slavery perish." though anti-slavery agitation, they were slavery, the majority of Americans drew of Americans the great were uneasy over slavery, great majority they uneasy over back from the reform threatened whose reform threatened the such extreme abolitionists whose extreme abolitionists back from such it was supposed to save. Garrison and others were very system Garrison others were to save. it was supposed very system by northerners northerners in from physically attacked leaders from in several several states, attacked by states, and leaders physically all parts of country, whatever views on slavery, grew their views whatever their of the the country, all parts slavery, grew increasingly concerned to limit the impact of the agitation. But ab~ the the of to But absoconcerned limit agitation. impact increasingly lutist finally provoked the irrevocable act: in 1837 abolition~ act: in lutist language the irrevocable abolitionlanguage finally provoked 1837 ist editor Elijah Lovejoy Lovejoy was was murdered murdered by by aa mob in Illinois. in Alton, ist editor Elijah Alton, Illinois. Men like Garrison were were exhilarated. tragedy gave gave them them aa like Garrison exhilarated. The tragedy the issue directly. martyr and forced the the COUDtry issue more directly. and forced confront the to confront martyr country to It brought the the abolitionists abolitionists new converts the wealthy wealthy and and It also also brought like the converts like talented Wendell Wendell Phillips, Phillips, some of them them becoming becoming key key leaders leaders in in talented some of movelater transforming transforming abolitionism abolitionism into a more general general political political movelater into a ment. Weld further further stirred stirred the by publishing publishing his expose of of the fire fire by ment. his expose American Slavery I See It, in 1839. As an indictment the evil, the American As I See It, in 1839. an indictment evil, Slavery tract typified extreme individualist nature of the of the slaveholder, his tract the extreme individualist nature slaveholder, his typified the was of the abolitionist movement. And despite despite the the fact of the abolitionist movement. fact that that Weld was willing to the Negro Negro as capable of achievement, to accept a man capable as a of equal willing accept the equal achievement, he offered offered no no plan pIan for with the the results results of he for dealing of emancipation. dealing with emancipation. reveals the the crucial role of philo~ Perhaps nothing so so reveals of laissez-faire crucial role laissez-faire philosPerhaps nothing ophy understanding the whether they agreed with with in understanding the abolitionists: abolitionists: whether ophy in they agreed Weld about to be be an an inin~ the capabilities the Negro, Negro, or or held about the of the held him to capabilities of ferior person, as most ferior person, as most did, did, they simply assumed that he would take assumed he take that they simply his place as a his place as a competitive in the the system. Preferring to unit in to ignore competitive unit system. Preferring ignore the the moral implications of to starve, starve, the moral implications of the the freedom freedom to the abolitionists abolitionists also also escaped the need need to to think responsi~ think seriously about their their own responsiescaped the seriously about bilities as liberators bilities as liberators~r the possibility possibility that that an institutional or about about the an institutional to slavery approach to might produce effective and more moral moral and more approach slavery might produce more effective
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results. But the the abolitionists in the the mainstream mainstream of of what what is abolitionists were results. were in is It was a radicalism that degenerally called American radicalism. called American radicalism. It was a radicalism that degenerally fined individual's freedom from restraint restraint as the crucial crucial element element the individual's freedom from fined the as the of the good society. It rejected the idea of restrictions or discipline of the good society. It rejected the idea of restrictions or discipline being accepted to establish sustain the the circumstances in order order to and sustain for establish and circumstances for accepted in being individual creativity. That was dismissed conservative individual and group That was dismissed as as conservative group creativity. or reactionary. reactionary. Such aa radicalism radicalism relied on expansion expansion to to underwrite underwrite or relied on its in keeping with that pattern the the its individualized individualized freedom, and in that pattern freedom, and keeping with abolitionist soon embraced such aa program. abolitionist movement soon embraced such program. In the meantime, the crisis by Lovejoy's Lovejoy's murder marked In the crisis generated murder marked meantime, the generated by the high point of the early abolitionist movement. In little more than of the the In than abolitionist movement. little more early high point a decade the idea direct action to it had introduced decade it introduced and a and sustained sustained the idea of action to of direct resolve aa national issue and had had established established an definition of national issue resolve an absolute absolute definition of democracy many men, not an the excluded many that excluded if not an entire entire section, men, if section, on the democracy that grounds that it (or they) were evil. But it also strengthened the it that were the evil. But it also (or they) grounds strengthened less wing of of the the antislavery movement. Men who were were extremist wing less extremist antislavery movement. appalled by Garrison's vulgarity, irresponsibility, and questionable Garrison's and vulgarity, irresponsibility, appalled by questionable sincerity to political political action support of program to to end end turned to action in in support of a a program sincerity turned slavery within a Constitutional framework. Organized in 1838-1839 a Constitutional in within framework. slavery Organized 1838-1839 around James James G. Birney, Birney, an ex-Kentucky the Liberty Liberty slaveholder, the ex-Kentucky slaveholder, Party won an immediate response in York. Despite its its more immediate in New York. Party response Despite moderate tone policy, it interpreted by edgy southerners as it as a and was southerners tone moderate interpreted by edgy policy, political force that might someday turn the power of the central of central the political force that might someday turn the power government against them in of abolition. abolition. Northern purists, purists, on in favor favor of government against the other hand, slandered an agent of the the Devil. Devil. as an the other hand, slandered it it as agent of THE EVOLUTION OF THE SOUTHERN PREDICAMENT
The impact of these these early ideological, and political political attacks attacks moral, ideological, early moral, impact of by the the abolitionists because they they hit the south during increased because hit the south during abolitionists was increased by aa critical juncture in seaboard area's development. old seaboard the area's in the critical juncture development. The old south seemed have entered last stage as a its decline of its decline as to have entered the the last south seemed to stage of center of prices, for Slave prices, for example, center of commodity commodity agriculture. example, had agriculture. Slave fallen to $400 by 1828. produced in Virginia, among other in Virginia, 1828. This produced fallen to among other $400 by consequences, a generation of leaders seriously interested in interested in of leaders new seriously consequences, generation working out some program for ending slavery. Though largely for out Though largely ending slavery. working program alliance upper-class conservatives, conservatives, these negotiated aa tenuous tenuous alliance these men negotiated upper-class with western western yeomen, yeomen, aa coalition that they they hoped hoped would give give them coalition that with the power power to adjust Virginia's Virginia's economy to the the new industrial industrial and the to adjust economy to agricultural order. They were opposed by established planters who established order. planters opposed by They agricultural
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feared aa wholesale wholesale assault property rights rights as well as upon their their as upon as well assault on feared on property existing position, and were appalled by the prospect of a sizable of a the sizable who were and prospect appalled by existing position, plurality of free Negroes. In many respects, therefore, the situation plurality of free Negroes. In many respects, therefore, the situation as the the moment moment of of truth truth for for Washington's Washington's old old idea idea can be be understood understood as can in that manner end that Virginia should diversify its economy and and in that end manner that Virginia should diversify its economy slavery and maintain its position of nationalleadership. slavery and maintain its position of national leadership. The Convention Constitutional Convention in the the Virginia two groups clashed in The two Virginia Constitutional groups clashed of the crucial crucial debates in American American history. history. Erupting Erupting debates in of 1830 one of in one of the 1830 in in a depression depression in in tobacco, tobacco, cotton, prices, the the slave prices, the context context of in the of a cotton, and slave favor of of those those who proposed proposed an an conflict seemed veer in first to to veer in favor seemed at at first conflict in political institutional approach to emancipation. But entrenched in But entrenched to institutional political emancipation. approach and power, and and making making effective use of the specter of the of aboliabolieffective use and social social power, specter of by free Negroes, as well as emphasiztionism and dominated as well as free tionism and a a society dominated Negroes, emphasizsociety by defenders of of ing the the defenders the expense of compensated emancipation, the compensated emancipation, ing expense of slavery finally won. debate continued in the first sessions of the the of in first continued the sessions won. debate The slavery finally however, both because of the continuing strength new legislature, legislature, however, both because of the continuing strength of the group and to the the crisis crisis provoked the antislavery and in of in response provoked when response to antislavery group Nat Turner sparked aa slave uprising aa free Negro preacher preacher named Nat slave uprising Turner sparked free Negro in Pointing to the key role of the free Negro in all slave revolts, all the free in in 1831. of to role slave the revolts, Negro 1831. Pointing key and to to the operations of others like William Johnson others of like and the free-wheeling William Johnson free-wheeling operations (a barber barber who became became aa model model of laissez-faire enenof Natchez (a of Natchez of laissez-faire trepreneurship), the proslavery group overrode its critics. the overrode its critics. trepreneurship), proslavery group Antislavery organizations all but vanished the south within vanished from the all but south within Antislavery organizations five Slavery's victory was consolidated by the revival of comfive years. the consolidated by revival of comyears. Slavery's victory modity prices, the increasing intensity and vitriol of Garrison's atand vitriol the of Garrison's atmodity prices, increasing intensity tacks, and the developing division of the west into northern and the tacks, developing division of the west into northern and good many commentators have concluded that that southern southern sections. sections. A good have concluded many commentators the combination the Erie Erie Canal and the the cotton gin produced produced the the the of the combination of Canal and cotton gin Civil War, War, and in a highly highly generalized the observation observation has has Civil in a sense the generalized sense it overlooks cotton validity. But But it overlooks the the crucial of foreign role of crucial role for cotton markets for validity. foreign markets for the and for the food crops of farmers, and it it neglects neglects the the food crops of northern northern farmers, simultaneous expansion of the home market. market. That revival simultaneous expansion of the exrevival and and exof the pansion of the market was the key to to the the rapidly rapidly divergent developthe key pansion divergent developand 1846. the west west between between 1825 ment within within the 1825 and 1846. Little more than a a fort in 1833, Little fort in Chicago exploded exploded into a city city within within into a 1833, Chicago been wilderness became $15,000 lots along the a decade. decade. What had been wilderness became lots $15,000 along the a In such a young and booming country Illinois-Michigan Canal. In such Canal. and Illinois-Michigan young booming country visitor recalled (one recalled that neither "an old man nor nor aa that he saw neither "an old (one foreign foreign visitor a in in Illinois could almost handcraft his career by gray hair") a man Illinois could almost handcraft career his gray hair") by
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reading law law in in aa crossroads young crossroads general store. But But even even so, so, many reading many young general store. region, along with some of their fathers and grandfathers, the region, of the men of with and some o their fathers along grandfathers, were moving on to to the the bkck black earth the Iowa Iowa Territory risking were of the and risking earth of moving on Territory and across the plains the tortuous struggle through the Indian country the tortuous struggle through the Indian country across the plains and mountains to make a claim in Oregon's lush Willamette Valley. a claim in Oregon's lush Willamette Valley. and mountains to to get the appropriate appropriate agricultural tools and Already beginning beginning to and Already get the agricultural tools machinery from American manufacturers, manufacturers, the the upper upper Mississippi from American machinery Mississippi Valley was aa region region committed the principles principles and of committed to and myths to the Valley myths of laissez-faire individualism individualism with with an that was was uncritical and unreunrelaissez-faire an ardor uncritical and ardor that strained. Promising Promising freedom freedom and prosperity, the was rerestrained. and prosperity, frontier was the frontier inforced of all that was was good good and and necessary. necessary. And it it did did as the the symbol inforced as all that symbol of bring wealth, politi~ freedom, acceptance to to many and social social acceptance wealth, political freedom, and bring many men and women, and more particularly to their children. But it also also and more and women, it children. But their to particularly produced a paradoxical mystique. One half of it was as hard-souled a as of hard-souled it was half produced paradoxical mystique. as in the the world, world, with with one eye roving roving for next unclaimed unclaimed one eye as any for the the next any in watering-place or likely looking acreage and one hand on aa gun. gun. or one hand on and watering-place likely looking acreage c0Though the other half was in contrast and humane and cothe other half was in warm and and contrast Though operative, its fundamental nature was one that encouraged the its the that fundamental nature was one operative, encouraged but subtly vital problems problems of of social and evasion the less of the evasion of less obvious social and obvious but subtly vital be killed and the land was to be personal relations. Indians were to be relations. were and the land to Indians to be killed personal taken. By creating a mirage of an infinity of second chances, the the taken. a of of an second chances, By creating mirage infinity frontier propensity to to evade evade his his frontier almost almost institutionalized institutionalized everyman's everyman's propensity fundamental problems and responsibilities. fundamental problems and responsibilities. Yet in providing wealth wealth and personal personal satisfaction the in providing for many, Yet satisfaction for many, the frontier also worked its magic on easterners who never ventured west west frontier also worked its magic on easterners never ventured of King's of Baltimore Rufus King's Baltimore or or Charleston-or Charleston or Concord. Concord. Extending Extending Rufus earlier appreciation of the of controlling west, earlier the west, the importance appreciation of controlling the importance of so through easterners began began in the 1830S the means means of through to stress of doing easterners in the stress the doing so 18305 to politics (VanBuren), absentee landowners), and economics (the landowners), and politics (the absentee (Van Buren), economics education (the leader a Massachusetts Massachusetts leader education Everett, a (the abolitionists). abolitionists). Edward Everett, was "the principle of of our "the principle our institutions," who thought that expansion institutions," thought that expansion was argued that educational bring massive massive returns returns on the the control would educational control would bring argued that investment. "We can," our he exhorted investment. exhorted Boston Boston capitalists, can,*' he capitalists, "from our surplus, contribute toward the establishment and endowment of of the establishment contribute toward surplus, those seminaries, where the west shall be trained of the the west shall be trained and those the mind of seminaries, where instruof education as an instruenlightened." more candid education as candid definition definition of enlightened." A more to find. control would would be ment of be difficult find. difficult to of social social control Tidewater planters harbored harbored the the same fears of brawling southsouthof the the brawling Tidewater planters same fears the west less of a problem: that part of the west adapted west, but they had a of had less that but of west, adapted they part problem:
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the political political the
The of American American History History Contours of The Contours
economy of of the Making his his father's poverty~ father's povertythe older older south. south. Making economy
induced dream come true, true, Stephen Austin established a colony established a F. Austin in induced dream come colony in Stephen F. Texas as the first in capturing the Mexican and Pacific trade. It and Pacific Mexican trade. as the the It Texas first step in step capturing quickly attracted northern yeomen, eastern businessmen, southern southern eastern attracted northern businessmen, yeomen, quickly planters, and freebooters from every region. But that venture was planters, and freebooters from every region. But that venture was only the the most the general general process process by by which, which, of the most dramatic dramatic example example of only without any plot or or conspiracy but only only the the magnificent magnificent flowering without any plot conspiracy but flowering seIf~interest, the the southeast. southeast. of self-interest, of southwest saved saved the the southwest By 1834 the new states states along the gulf gulf coast producing more more coast were were producing By 1834 the along the com~ cotton than than the the Atlantic Atlantic seaboard. Committed to to aa capitalistic capitalistic comcotton seaboard. Committed
modity agriculture based on the southwest began to to imim~ southwest began slave labor, on slave labor, the modity agriculture based its and Virginia. Virginia. Old planters, planters, and Carolina and and its slaves from South South Carolina slaves from their sons, thus prospered prospered with Virginia slaves in in Virginia the new. new* By with the their sons, thus By 1837, 1837, slaves pound in as low as as 10 in brought $1,100; in 1820 a pound 1820 and as cents a from 17 in $1,100; from 17 cents brought 1827, the price of cotton jumped above 30 cents in the 183°5. Coupled 1827, the price of cotton jumped above 30 cents in the 18305. Coupled with the antislavery agitation, this fantastic fantastic transformation the transformation of of the with the antislavery agitation, this port port
old trans-Mississippi cotton cotton economy and the the old south south into into a a new trans-Mississippi economy and concurrent of the northwest frontier of Pittsburgh and of frontier concurrent extension extension of the old northwest and old Pittsburgh Cincinnati into into aa trans-Mississippi trans-Mississippi west west populated populated by by merchants, merchants, Cincinnati manufacturers, and farmers produced vital political consequences. vital and farmers manufacturers, political consequences. produced As an even more more agricultural the rest rest of nation (90 (90 of the the nation an area area even than the agricultural than per cent as against 'JO per cent), the south became increasingly aware as the cent south became aware per against 70 per cent), increasingly but aa third third of white populapopula~ of circumstances. It the white of its its special It had but of the special circumstances. tion and only aa tiny fraction of the country's industrial production. tion the industrial and only fraction of tiny country's production. of the the Yet through through its international cotton it earned Yet earned much of its international cotton sales sales it The paradox produced on the part of the nation's needed needed capital. nation's the the of capital. paradox produced part a steadily south increasing self Catholic in to work thereafter to 1844, and sought sought thereafter out out some programmatic programmatic approach approa~h for for such But by that time a society. that such a But time society. by entrenched expansion had entrenched itself as the popular answer to America's itself as the to America's expansion popular .
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problems. Everybody Everybody wanted wanted expansion; the argument was about about expansion; the argument was problems. expansion where and for whom. where for and whom. expansion can hardly hardly Hence Henry Henry Clay's Clay's irresolution taking Texas Texas can irresolution over over taking It was Calhoun who was, in many ways, seem anything but pathetic. seem anything but pathetic. It was Calhoun was, in many ways, the truly tragic and moving figure of the age. There may well have the truly tragic moving figure of the age. There may well have associates such as Duff been, among his close close associates such as a conspiracy Duff Green, of been, Green, a among his conspiracy of sorts to to acquire Texas, and perhaps even than Texas, Texas, but but sorts and perhaps even more more than acquire Texas, Calhoun himself was was open open about his desire desire to to annex the republic. republic. Calhoun himself about his annex the he seems to have have wanted halt vital consideration The vital consideration is is that that he call a seems to a halt wanted to to call at that that point: point: Texas would provide provide the the south south with with political political parity, parity, at Texas would com~ economic surety, economic and a a buffer buffer against and comabolitionism and surety, and against English English abolitionism mercial expansion. against the immediate future, mercial Given these these hedges the immediate future, expansion. Given hedges against to count count on constitutional revision, revision, political political comhe was willing he comon constitutional willing to promise, and the amelioration brought about by American developthe amelioration about American promise, brought developby in which he ment. But his blatant defense defense of of slavery April, 18% ment. his blatant which he in April, slavery in 1844, in vigorously asserted that the slave enjoyed a better life than the free the asserted a the free that slave life than better vigorously enjoyed Negro, only played into of his his opponents opponents in in the north. into the the hands hands of the north. Negro, only played psyJusdy emphasizing that free Negroes were physically and psythat free were Justly emphasizing Negroes physically and chologically free, and sliding over the embarrassing facts that such and that such over the facts chologically free, sliding embarrassing Negroes were only rarely rarely granted to place place were only or allowed allowed to Negroes granted citizenship citizenship or aa foot foot on the the ladder of laissez-faire many northerners and laissez-faire success, and ladder of northerners success, many as proof westerners misread misread Calhoun's Calhoun's argument against the British the as westerners British proof argument against of to extend extend slavery a general of a southern conspiracy indefinitely. general southern slavery indefinitely. conspiracy to came, Calhoun actually opposed the the war with with Mexico Mexico when it it came, Calhoun actually opposed as a danger to the Union and republican government. viewing it it a to the Union and as danger republican government. viewing And he Polk's reassertion extension of of the the Monroe he attacked and extension reassertion and attacked Folk's as aa Doctrine, which openly challenged all European influence, Doctrine, which openly challenged all European influence, as thought it it guaranteed guaranteed "broad principle, truly." "broad and and dangerous truly.'* He thought dangerous principle, an indefinite an of future future wars. wars. indefinite number of Cal~ had recognized recognized the before 1820, even before the dilemma even As one one who had 1820, Calhoun was the 18405 ever more desperately to find find houn was by desperately to 18405 struggling struggling ever by the some way preventing expansion tearing the the country from tearing some of preventing country apart apart expansion from way of that understood that empire might easily into sections. He understood sections. into antagonistic easily empire might antagonistic subvert republicanism than preserve preserve it. His opposition to it. His rather than subvert opposition to republicanism rather that of the quick annexation of Oregon, for example, was part of that for the of annexation part example, Oregon, quick than aa betrayal betrayal of of the the south's with the the west. west. concern rather than south's bargain concern rather bargain with Calhoun's argument was was quite straightforward: before any before more Calhoun's argument any quite straightforward: between expansion territory was added, the whole relationship between expansion and territory was added, the whole relationship be resolved in a way that would guarantee republicanism had to that in a resolved be to had guarantee way republicanism
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of the not his his self-government or not the country. all sections for all sections of country. Whether or self-government for by solution through a veto by each major section over legislation over section veto each solution through a major legislation by by the others would have worked in practice, the main point is that the is the others would have worked in practice, that point he cannot be understood understood as merely aa fanatic fanatic southern slaver. But But southern slaver. he as merely cannot be in their acquisitive drive to take Oregon and Texas, the expansionists in their acquisitive drive to take Oregon Texas, the expansionists clearly. discounted the out so so clearly. Calhoun saw and pointed that Calhoun discounted the dangers pointed out dangers that result was was aa bitter bitter struggle the spoils victory. of victory. over the The final final result spoils of struggle over PRESIDE}.o"T POLK AND A W AJJ. FOR LAND AND COMMERCE PRESIDENT WAR
opposed to to internal improvements Polk had office in I8.t5 opposed internal improvements in 1845 Polk had come come into into office and the the tariff tariff and and almost almost fanatic about the the acquisition most of of most and fanatic about of acquisition of Oregon and all of Texas and California. His aggressive impatience California. and His and all Texas of aggressive impatience Oregon was typical Jacksonian laissez faire, and his his intrigues, pressures, was laissez faire, of Jacksonian intrigues, pressures, typical of ultimatums, and provocations gave Mexico no chance to first settle chance to Mexico no first settle and ultimatums, provocations gave its problems and gradually accept the loss of its and then the loss then gradually of its its own internal internal problems accept northern provinces. provinces. northern
the earlier debate over the relationship over the of the earlier debate Aware of relationship
between expansion between attention calling explicit explicit attention expansion and republicanism, republicanism, and calling to it, Polk made his own position clear in his inaugural in his clear to Polk his address. it, position inaugural address. Recalling that opinion prevailed with some that that our that "the our system "the opinion . . . prevailed with system ... Recalling could not operate successfully successfully over extended territory," territory," Polk over an an extended could not operate Polk judged judged
this well founded." to further the "ex"not well further the this view view "not founded." Anxious Anxious to "exand profitable profitable commerce with with China, China, and other of other countries countries of the East," as well as to get Texas and Oregon for the agrarians and the East," as well as to get Texas and Oregon for the agrarians and businessmen, Polk would that such Polk was "confident" "confident" that such diplomacy businessmen, diplomacy would provide "additional is confidently be"It is "additional strength provide security." "It strength and security." confidently bebe safely to the the lieved," concluded, "that may be he concluded, our system "that our extended to lieved," he system may safely extended utmost bounds bounds of our territorial territorial limits, that as be exexutmost of our as it it shall shall be limits, and that tended the of our our Union, from being weakened, will will tended the bonds bonds of so far far from Union, so being weakened, become stronger." become stronger." In sending to the long the army south to the Rio Rio Grande into into territory army south sending the territory long claimed claimed by an openly openly provocative act. Polk committed committed an Mexico, Polk by Mexico, provocative act. Convinced that that the result in the loss Convinced loss of of Texas would "inevitably the loss result in the loss "inevitably of of New Mexico and and the the Californias," further Mexican officials were further officials were Californias," Mexican antagonized by the racial arrogance of Americans both north and the of racial Americans both north and antagonized by arrogance south. south. "The haughtiness of these republicans," remarked one Mexiof these remarked one Mexihaughtiness republicans," can leader leader in can well as bitterness, "will them to to in sorrow as as well as bitterness, "will not not allow allow them look us as as equals, but merely as inferiors." Finally, after look upon upon us but as inferiors." after equals, merely Finally, American forces blockaded the the river, river, Mexico attacked just as as Polk forces blockaded attacked just Polk to to start the on his initiative. was ready the war start his own initiative. ready tensive tensive
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Blossoming under the the hothouse effects of of war war hothouse effects outburst of the outburst of the Blossoming under enthusiasm easy victories, victories, aa movement movement to to take take all of Mexico and easy enthusiasm and all of Mexico swept parts of particularly New York. York. the west west and and parts the northeast, of the northeast, particularly swept the is a gorgeous prospect," judged the New York Ha-ald, "It a is "It "this gorgeous prospect," judged the Yor^ Herald, "this annexation of all Mexico .... Like the Sabine virgins, will learn learn annexation of all Mexico Like the Sabine virgins, she she will ravishers." And spokesmen the "western began to love her ravishers." love her to "western spirit" of the spokesmen of spirit" began to talk taking everything Arctic Circle to the the talk of of taking to the Arctic south to from the Circle south everything from Isthmus But less than aa week after the war started, Polk of Panama. Isthmus of Panama. But less than week after the war started, Polk with Britain Britain over Oregon. Clearly realistic move, move, compromised with a realistic over Oregon* compromised Clearly a and by some some agrarians and businessmen looking one supported for and one and businessmen supported by looking for agrarians markets in in England, antagonized many expansionists it nevertheless markets nevertheless antagonized England, it many expansionists in the the west west and the north north who concluded that the and the in the southerners southerners concluded that well as were going back on their bargain to reoccupy Oregon back on as well as were their to going bargain reoccupy Oregon as reannex Texas. Texas. Polk added to his troubles troubles by vetoing an internal Polk added an internal reannex to his by vetoing laws reprerepre~ improvements bill bill with with the remark that such laws the arrogant that such improvements arrogant remark sented aa "mischievous tendency." "mischievous tendency." sented Confronted by that time with with the the Wilmot Wilmot Proviso, Proviso, Confronted by that time of the the challenge challenge of which proposed to exclude slavery from any territory won from to from which exclude from proposed slavery any territory Mexico, and which a coalition of westerners and northerners could and could which a and northerners coalition of westerners Mexico, pass at will in in the the House House of adv~ at will other advoPolk and and other of Representatives, pass Representatives, Polk cates were knee~eep in the poisonous harvest of Mani~ cates of of expansion were of Maniharvest in the expansion knee-deep poisonous fest Destiny. Destiny. "The North North can be no no longer fest and will can and will be hoodwinked," longer hoodwinked," a' Chicago newspaper that accurately reflected western western screamed screamed a* Chicago newspaper that accurately reflected feeling. "If no measures for protection and improvement of anything feeling. "If no measures for protection and improvement of anything by our our Southern northern or or Western Western are to be masters ..• be suffered Southern masters are to suffered by northern aa signal signal revolution revolution will will inevitably in Similar anger ensue." Similar erupted in anger erupted inevitably ensue." Indiana and Indiana and Ohio. Ohio. Clearly the effort to extend extend the the market market place place of of laissez laissez effort to enough, the Clearly enough, faire resolve its tensions was was in reality intensifying the faire and and thereby its tensions in reality intensifying the thereby resolve conflicts within the the system well as producing aa war with with Mexico. Mexico. conflicts within as well as producing system as The developing nature of was revealed in aa fiery fiery revealed in of that that competition competition was developing nature speech by Joshua Giddings of Ohio, had already antagonized who had of Ohio, Joshua already antagonized speech by Giddings the south by his his speeches the evil evil slaveholders. the skveholders. "Are the the south by against the speeches against farmers of of the of Ohio, prepared to to give give and Illinois, farmers the West, Illinois, prepared Indiana, and West, of Ohio, Indiana, up the the sale beef, pork, and flour, in order to increase the increase the order to of their their beef, sale of flour, in up pork, and the in bodies deal bodies profits of those raise children for sale, and deal in the of who raise for those children sale, profits limits of women?" As an abolitionist, Giddings Giddings was was indicating the limits an abolitionist, of indicating the inhis to of that specific religious appeal by extending his arguments to inof that arguments specific religious appeal by extending the elude economic of his attack on the planters. as part his issues as of attack economic issues clude planters. part .
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This marked aa turning turning point the Age Age of of Laissez Laissez Nous Faire: in the Faire: This marked point in the separate moralities of laissez faire-political, economic, and reand rethe faire political, economic, separate moralities of laissez in a campaign to change the ligious-were beginnng to converge in a to campaign change the ligious were beginnng to converge basic rules rules of of the the game game as they were the Constitution. Constitution. in the set forth forth in were set as they basic To be sure, abolitionists such as Garrison (and, until later, until be sure, abolitionists such as Garrison (and, even later, even Phillips), whose politics might be compared to the undeviating and Phillips), whose politics might be compared to the undeviating and of the Arctic Tern, had unsleeping, self-contained, the Arctic Tern, had self-contained, migratory flights of migratory £lights unsleeping, by the connot given the struggle. They were even strengthened even the were connot the by strengthened They struggle. given up up version of David Thoreau. Thoreau. And in going to to jail jail in going version of such as Henry such men as Henry David in to the war with Mexico, Thoreau effectively dramaThoreau in opposition dramawith war to the Mexico, effectively opposition by leaving jail when when tized the the issue (though he weakened his his protest protest by he weakened tized issue (though leaving jail somebody else paid the fine). the else fine). somebody paid But philosophy which which asserted that "any right than than asserted that as a a philosophy But as "any man more right his neighbors constitutes a majority of one," Thoreau's transcendena of Thoreau's transcendenhis constitutes one," majority neighbors tal individualism shared at weakness with with Garrison's one weakness at least least one tal Garrison's individualism shared abolitionism: neither could the antislavery sustained the could have have sustained crusade abolitionism: neither antislavery crusade by itself, nor could both together have done it. important than it. done More both nor could have together important than by itself, as a catalyst Thoreau's private crusade, the Mexican served served as a the Mexican War Thoreau's in catalyst in private crusade, crystallizing three major conflicts within the general system of laissez the of within three conflicts laissez major crystallising general system faire. most general was the the antibetween the faire. The most the rising antiopposition between rising opposition general was slavery elements and the south. Methodists, Baptists, and Presbysouth. elements and the Methodists, Baptists, slavery Presbyterians, for had divided the issue. the various divided over over the But the issue. But various for example, terians, example, had each group of primary antagonists were tensions and within of tensions and clashes within each clashes group primary antagonists were of great importance in determining the outcome of that struggle. of the outcome of that struggle. great importance in determining Agrarians, laborers, and businessmen businessmen had had many with differences with Agrarians, laborers, many differences .:ach and within their own groups. each other other and within their Conflicts of of function function and and groups. Conflicts by clashes between the the interest were example, by for example, interest clashes between were supplemented, supplemented, for small and large large entrepreneurs between the the small and between the banker banker and and the entrepreneurs and upset by by Polk's Polk's opposition to inindustrialist. were so industrialist. Westerners Westerners were so upset inopposition to ternal 20,000 attended attended the the Rivers ternal improvements that nearly nearly 20,000 Elvers and improvements that were also deHarbors held in Harbors Convention in 1847. Convention held in Chicago also deChicago in 1847. They They were to keep termined to the undeveloped undeveloped western territories open for their termined western territories for their keep the open particular, if not exclusive, exclusive, benefit. they were were increasingly increasingly if not benefit. And they particular, interested in the expansion of their markets to the Pacific coast and interested in the of their to the markets coast Pacific and expansion even to Asia. Asia. Steadily increasing in population, wealth, and political even to in wealth, Steadily increasing population, political strength, the the western states wanted kinds of of help help from governwestern states wanted all all kinds from a a governstrength, ment favorable to their their interests. to the the landless and homes homes favorable to interests. "Land "Land to landless and to homeless!" was a to the the homeless!" a cry heard increasingly often and with rising heard often with cry increasingly rising insistence. Coming to view insistence. to view the southern slaveholder and eastern the southern and eastern slaveholder Coining
279 279 business interests antagonistic to their welfare, interests as as almost business almost equally their welfare, equally antagonistic to westerners were angry and prowl for were angry westerners and on the prowl on the allies. for allies. They quickly found two joined with with two important ones. Having quickly found They important ones. Having joined tax on tea and coffee many eastern laborers to oppose Polk's war eastern laborers to oppose Folk's war tax on tea and coffee many as unfair unfair "to laborers," the repaid "to all all free as free laborers," the western western farmer was soon soon repaid farmer was its campaign for with interest. mistakenly concluding interest. Rather with Rather mistakenly that its campaign for concluding that was very very the ten-hour ten-hour day day was was generally (enforcement was the successful (enforcement generally successful was turning turning to to other lax for many lax for labor was other programs. Some many years), years), labor programs. Some elements were attracted organizing co-operative enterattracted by elements the idea idea of of organizing enterby the co-operative to become become entrepreneurs the market place. Starting prises as as a a way in the market place. way to prises entrepreneurs in Starting in Cincinnati the movement had spread eastward to in 1847, Cincinnati in in tta to New movement had eastward 1847, spread by 1850. Almost from the outset, York, Philadelphia, Philadelphia, and and Boston Boston by from the Almost York, outset, 1850. however, the problems of enough capital and commanding the problems of raising and however, commanding raising enough capital enough weakened the the effort. effort. Others a campaign launched a Others launched experience weakened enough experience campaign Designed to increase wages by lowering living for for consumer consumer co-ops. to increase co-ops. Designed wages by lowering living was organized in Boston in 1845. costs, the first Protective Union the first in Protective Union in was Boston costs, 1845. organized There 40 branches branches in Massachusetts within within two two years, years, and There were were 40 in Massachusetts and people in Illinois, Wisconsin, and Michigan responded almost as in as almost and Illinois, Wisconsin, people Michigan responded fast. fast. But the the most important tie the western western agrarian and the the But most important tie between between the agrarian and free eastern laborer out of the workers' renewed interest in laborer grew free out of eastern the interest in workers* renewed grew land and that revival, the and territorial land territorial expansion. in that revival, the key figure figure in expansion. A key Advocate, George H. Evans, had been editor of editor of the the Workingman's H. had been Evans, Worfyngman's Advocate, George demanding ever since and without success. free land land ever since 1834, without much success. demanding free 1834, and But in the context of the war with Mexico and the Wilmot Proviso, the But in the context of the with Mexico and Proviso, his motto motto of Yourself aa Farm" was was picked picked up by three three groups. groups. "Vote Yourself of "Vote his up by Westerners liked the obvious reasons. So did agrarian polipolifor the did agrarian Westerners liked it it for obvious reasons. ticians. Some of of Tennessee, like Andrew Johnson of them, ticians. Tennessee, knew them, like Johnson of it meant meant to to be hard-pressed yeoman. yeoman. Others Others first-hand what it a smail, be a first-hand what small, hard-pressed among the the politicians politicians saw way to to appeal appeal to farmer and and to the the farmer it as as a a way saw it among labor to businessmen businessmen interested interested in Eastern labor to western development. in western development. Eastern (along with with its its spokesmen leaders) composed the would-be leaders) composed the spokesmen and would-be (along third group. third group. The Age Age oj Laissez Nous Faire Faire of Laissez
EASTERN LABOR ACCEPTS THE FRONTIER THESIS AND THEREBY INTENSIFIES THE SECI'IONAL SECTIONAL CONFLICT landed expansion fact about about labor's in landed was labor's interest interest in crucial fact The crucial expansion was size of of the it up up with with the of reducing reducing the the size the growidea of it the idea growfor himself ing working-force in the east. westerner wanted land for himself land wanted east. The in the westerner ing working-force
that labor that labor took took
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(or for his sons and neighbors), but the laborer wanted it primarily (or for his sons and neighbors), but the laborer wanted it primarily for his next-door next-door competitor and for the increasing for the of for his increasing number of competitor and ease immigrants. Hoping to create a labor shortage (and thereby labor a ease to create shortage (and thereby immigrants. Hoping the housing housing pressure pressure and rent levels), launched Evans the rent Evans and lower lower the the levels), they they launched on a second career. Organizing the National Reform Association, the National on a second career. Organizing Association, they petitioned Congress, cornered candidates, and generally generally upset upset they petitioned Congress, cornered candidates, the existing pattern of political affairs. the existing pattern of political affairs. And having expansionist thesis of democracy thesis of the expansionist embraced the thus embraced having thus democracy what might might fairly be called pocketand prosperity in affair of an affair of the the pocketcalled an and prosperity In what fairly be book, they to manifest noticeably stronger doubts manifest noticeably book, stronger doubts they straightway straightway began began to Negroabout the the morality of letting letting the the slaveholder-or free Negro the free slaveholder or the about morality of share in bliss. In In what what aa psychiatrist might term revealing act, term a a revealing in the share the bliss. act, psychiatrist might some of them began began calling calling the the abolitionists hypocrites who used used abolitionists hypocrites of them some morality to cover their their economic interests. But But others became antiothers became economic interests. antito cover morality slavery (though not abolitionist) in theirrhetoric and politics. theirrhetoric and not in And abolitionist) politics* slavery (though James Wilmot of of Pennsylvania, Pennsylvania, whose the symbol whose name became the of James Wilmot symbol of proscribing slavery from the land taken in the Mexican War, proin the land taken the from War, proproscribing slavery vided aa clear clear indication indication that that the the general general antislavery antislavery drive drive was was not not vided by any particular concern for the Negro. "I plead," he motivated by for "I concern the motivated any particular Negro. plead," he remarked quite bluntly, "the cause and the right of white freedom." the remarked cause of white "the freedom/* right quite bluntly, Labor's of the frontier thesis of prosperity prosperity free-land or or frontier Labor's acceptance the free-land thesis of acceptance of basic foundation for an alliance with and established the basic an and democracy established the foundation for alliance with democracy the expansionists of the west. Whig politicians Seward and Weed, the of the west. Seward Weed, expansionists Whig politicians the one wanting expansion program for and the the the one wanting as a a program for laissez laissez faire faire and expansion as other for the votes votes it it pulled pulled in, in, tried to establish and control control for the other tried hard hard to establish and such Hiring Horace Greeley, an an itinerant newspaper a coalition. such a coalition. Hiring Horace Greeley, itinerant newspaper the famous advice "Go West, Young man who had coined the coined famous advice West, Young Man!" as as 1837, as early they started New-York Tribune in 1841 the Neu/-Yor^ started the Tribune in a as a early as 1837, they 1841 as propaganda vehicle. Greeley soon became an uninhibited advocate vehicle. Greeley soon became an uninhibited advocate propaganda of would control control the of expansion, that it it would the labor labor market market and and expansion, arguing arguing that also provide also provide orders orders for for eastern businessmen. Though eastern businessmen. Seward and and Though Seward ReGreeley laid the the foundation what was was to become the the Rethus laid foundation for for what to become Greeley thus publican Party, Party, they they could could not not outmaneuver outmaneuver Van VanBuren in the the Buren in publican short run. short run. Organizing under the the leadership of Van Buren, Buren, and taking the the and taking Organizing under leadership of accurate accurate and appealing appealing name of Free Soilers, of this this perperof Free easterners of Soilers, easterners suasion entered Attracting some uppersuasion entered the the political political arena arena in in 1848. some upper1848. Attracting class conservatives conservatives who were also elass their economic, also integrating their economic, integrating political, and religious probusiness an antislavery, into an political, religious morality morality into antislavery, probusiness
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oudook, the new party party campaigned vigorously under banner of of under the the banner outlook, the campaigned vigorously "Free Free Labor, Free Soil, Free Speech, and Free Men." "Free Trade, Free Free Trade, Labor, Soil, Free Speech, and Free Men." The party party offered offered internal improvements, free internal improvements, and free homesteads, homesteads, and tariff protection along with denunciation of southern tariff protection along with denunciation of southern slave slave leaders. leaders. It thus thus defined laissez faire faire in terms that that excluded That defined laissez in terms It south. That the south. excluded the was the portentous development American history history since the most most portentous was in American since development in the 1760s had done the same thing in in excludthe Samuel Adams had excluddone the same thing 17605 when Samuel ing mercantilism. For definition colonial mercantilism. For should that definition should that England from colonial ing England by a plurality or majority that of faire be be accepted a conof laissez laissez faire that won conor by accepted majority plurality trol of the national national government, then either it might attack the trol of the the then either it attack government, might south or the south might revolt revolt of or the south might south accord. of its its own accord. Electing 13 to exercise exercise considerable considerable ininElecting 13 congressmen congressmen (enough (enough to befluence in in the and utterly disrupting the campaign the Congress) beand the fluence campaign Congress) utterly disrupting tween the Democrats and the Whigs, Whigs, the the Free Free Soilers advanced aa the Democrats and the Soilers advanced tween was at once almost almost pure pure abstract docstatement of of laissez laissez faire faire that that was at once abstract docstatement trine and yet practical practical enough to satisfy the dirt farmer. Despite and yet to the dirt trine farmer. Despite enough satisfy being often considered insignificant if not not unimportant unimportant before before the the often considered insignificant if being time of or before outbreaks of violence such as as of Samuel such Samuel Gompers, outbreaks of violence time or before Gompers, those in labor thus played a crucial role in American history in 1877, labor thus in American a crucial role those history 1877, pkyed up the expansionist oudook. Nothing dramatizes this when it it took took up the expansionist dramatizes this outlook. Nothing it took three weeks and more effectively than the realization that than weeks the that it took three more effectively realization 63 ballots to the House of of Representatives Representatives in Already to organize in 18491849. Already organize the 63 ballots antagonized by the Wilmot Proviso, the program and the effectivethe effectiveantagonized by the Wilmot Proviso, the program and ness of campaign intensified the south's concern and and south's concern of the the Free Free Soil intensified the ness Soil campaign bitterness. "The madmen of the North and Northwest," concluded bitterness. of the North and Northwest, concluded Richmond Enquirer, Enquirer, "have, the die, the editor of the the 'Richmond -cast the the editor of die, "have, we fear, fear, ast and numbered the the days this glorious Union." and of this days of glorious Union." Already embarked embarked upon upon aa program program of self-conscious reform, reform, the the of self-conscious Already south began began to to think think of itself as as aa besieged besieged society that not not only south of itself only society that could create aa balanced balanced political political economy economy including including industry, industry, but but could create survive. to survive. as have to to embrace program in order to in order that program one that embrace that as one that might might have region started to improve improve its its agricultural agricultural Beginning in the the 1840S, the region started to 18405, the Beginning in methods, liberalize state constitutions the suffrage to extend the its state constitutions and extend liberalize its methods, suffrage to educamore white build factories railroads, develop an educafactories and railroads, white men, more men, build develop an social reforms. reforms. Fully tional system, and carry carry through various social tional Fully aware through various system, and of efforts, many many southerners southerners felt felt northern northern attacks attacks were doubly of these these efforts, doubly and direct "a only was was the the antislavery antislavery campaign "a direct danunfair. Not only unfair. campaign it but in was in 1847, but it gerous attack" just as Calhoun had said it said it was had attack" as Calhoun 1847, just gerous of out of a threatened to to make "a dreary, hopeless minority" out threatened "a fixed, fixed, dreary, hopeless minority" 4'
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The Contours The Contours
0/ American History History of American
people who were trying to to improve do not not intend their society. intend were trying society. "We do improve their people of Alabama, "and have to stand still," cried Jeremiah Clemens our to stand still," cried Jeremiah Clemens of Alabama, "and have our be broken." broken." throats cut." added, "the "the Union can can be throats Calhoun added, cut." "No, "No, Sir," Sir," Calhoun Barnwell Rhett of South South Carolina, Rhett of like Robert Robert Barnwell And extremists extremists like Carolina, who had been been talking talking about about seccession since 1845, it clear that clear that ever since had seccession ever 1845, made it the south least manufacture manufacture its version of of the the Garrison its own version Garrison the south could at least could at repealer. repealer. Supposedly a power power that that adjusted myriad of of competing the myriad selfcompeting selfadjusted the Supposedly a interests into the general welfare, Adam Smith's Hidden Hand was Smith's was interests into the general welfare, instead beginning to trace trace aa vicious vicious circle. circle. "Here it is, this this black black it is, instead beginning to the Free Free Soilers revealed their their question," cried Soilers revealed in anguish as the cried Benton Benton in anguish as question," on the nuptial couch, everywhere!" strength, "forever on the table, the the on on "forever couch, table, nuptial everywhere!" strength, the energy to him him as he ceased chasing the the Sustained as he ceased chasing that came came to Sustained by by the energy that Presidency (he was 63 and physically very weak), and driven by driven was by 63 Presidency (he physically very weak), his deep concern for the nation, Clay returned to the Congress for returned to the for his the concern for nation, Clay Congress deep the last to make aa valiant effort to peaceful adaptaa peaceful to work out out a last time valiant effort time to the adaptato the the American American realities. realities. It It was was truly truly aa noble noble tion of tion of laissez faire to laissez faire In contrast, contrast, Daniel Webster's attempt attempt to to rally national feeleffort. In Daniel Webster's effort. feelrally national ing by arrogant intervention intervention in in the the Hungarian Hungarian Revolution Revolution (fire(firean arrogant ing by an to send troops) was was aa callous and eaters in Massachusetts wanted send troops) eaters in Massachusetts wanted to callous and dangerous application of the expansionist solution to domestic probto solution of the domestic dangerous application expansionist problems. Webster Webster thought but lems. territorial expansion dangerous," but thought territorial expansion "very "very dangerous," he had no qualms qualms about about whipping whipping up up public public enthusiasm he had no enthusiasm for for foreign foreign revolutions-or revolutions for overseas or for overseas economic economic expansion. expansion. By admitting leaving the a free California as as a free state, the remainder remainder of of state, leaving By admitting California the newly newly acquired west to to be be organized by the the actual and the actual settlers, settlers, and organized by acquired west abolishing the trade in District of of Columbia, Columbia, Clay in the the District the slave slave trade abolishing Clay sought sought to satisfy the north. there was was little little left to offer to north. He did-barely. did barely. But there left to offer satisfy the south except the south a stronger Fugitive Slave Act. Hence the comprothe a Slave Act. Hence the stronger Fugitive except compromise mise was accepted by the narrowest of of margins margins over over the the narrowest the oppoonly by accepted only opposition of New York's Carolina's Calhoun. Calhoun. Both sition of York's Seward and South Carolina's and South Both thought it the central issue, and each had drastically different it evaded evaded the central and each had different issue, thought drastically solutions to offer. to aa law which stood beyond solutions to offer. Seward appealed law which stood beyond appealed to the a code code which which justified justified war war or meant nothing. nothing. the Constitution, or else else meant Constitution, a Calhoun asked constitutional limits on the power of the north. asked constitutional the power limits on of the north. The of Clay's weakness weakness of Clay's compromises, compromises, which which in in the were the later later stages stages were by Senator A. Douglas of guided through the the Congress Senator Stephen guided through Congress by Stephen A. Douglas of Illinois was not not that Illinois that they they took risky course between those two course between took a a risky those two
The Age oj Laissez Nous Nous Faire Faire The Age of Lcdssez
views, but but that that they followed an even an even views, they followed
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more dangerous path around around more dangerous path
both of of them. them. both Perhaps the most remarkable remarkable aspect of the whole settlement is the the most Perhaps aspect of the whole settlement is the measure of in an Exof the the south's in result. Exsouth's acquiescence an unfavorable unfavorable result. measure acquiescence tremists failed to rally rally significant for their failed to convention at at tremists their convention significant strength strength for would abide by the terms Nashville, and Georgia announced that it and Georgia announced that it would the terms abide by Nashville, so the north north observed observed them. them. But But the the dynamic of laissez as the so long long as dynamic spirit spirit of laissez nous faire like aa phoenix phoenix from of I850 derose like faire rose from the the Compromise of and denous Compromise 1850 and manded fulfillment. fulfillment. Its Its chosen Seward chosen instruments instruments were were Senators Senators Seward manded and Douglas, and aa mystic mystic young young corporation corporation lawyer from Illinois, and Illinois, Douglas, and lawyer from named Abraham Lincoln. Lincoln. named
IIV. V. The Transformation Transformation of Reality and of Reality and the Inception Inception of of the
Ideas New Ideas
Democracies are prone to to war, war, and and war war consumes consumes them. are prone them. Democracies
Senator William H. Seward, Senator William Seward, I85! 1851 Come on, on, then, slave States. States. ••. We witt will engage engage in in the slave Gentlemen of then, Gentlemen of the competition for the virgin soil of Kansas. the Kansas. soil for of virgin competition Senator William H. Seward, Senator William Seward, 18541854 .
Fellow citizens, citizens, 'Fellow
.
.
cannot escape we cannot history. escape history. President Abraham Lincoln, President 1862 Lincoln, 1862
1/ don't don't J(now know nothin' nothin' 'hout Lincoln 'ceptin dey say say he sot us free, 'bout Abe Lincoln he sot us free, 'ceptin dey know nothin nothin' 'bout dat neither. neither. Alabama Negro, Negro, 1864 'bout dat \now 1864
an' 1I don't don't an'
Times are hard. are hard.
Agriculturist, 1869 American Agriculturist, 1869
I won't won't call caJJ employers employers despots, despots, II won't call them them tyrants, the term term wont call but the I tyrants, but of synonymous synonymous and will capitalist sort of is sort as well. will do as well. capitalist is Pittsburgh millworker, mill worker, 1877 Pittsburgh 1877 It's
a It's II
question of bread or blood, going to resist. bread or we're going to resist. blood, and we're question of Railroad Bagman Andrew Hice, Railroad flagman Hice, 1877 1877
You are are already great continental power of of America, America. But But does does that the great continental power that already the it does not. the commerce of the world. world. .••• content you? you? II trust trust it content not. You want the . . of the The nation nation that most from from the earth and fabricates fahricatu most, sells the earth that draws most most, and sells he the great power power of of the the the most to foreign nations, the most to foreign be and will the great will be nations, must he Senator Senator William H. Seward, Seward, 1853 1853
earth. earth.
284
THE WELTANSCHAUUNG WELTANSCHAL'UNG OF LAISSEZ FAIRE ENGENDERS ENGE1'I"DERS A CML WAR LAISSEZ FAIRE A CIVIL TONG AFTER
it has has ceased an effective effective weapon weapon of of personal personal ceased to be an to be
it
L recrimination political strategy, Americans remain haunted recrimination or or political ENG strategy, Americans remain haunted by the the Civil One is to conclude that never never Civil War. War. One is sometimes sometimes tempted conclude that by tempted to have so said so much about the same thing that is redundant so many have said so much the is redundant same that about many thing or irrelevant. that persistent persistent involvement involvement is the realizarealizaor irrelevant. Underlying is the Underlying that tion that the war war undercuts undercuts the the popular popular mythology mythology that America is tion that the is that America unique. Only a nation nation that a conflict make aa that avoided avoided such conflict could could make such a unique. Only a serious claim being fundamentally with claim to to being serious In accordance accordance with different. In fundamentally different. the logic and psychology of myth, therefore, it has become necessary the and of become it has logic psychology myth, therefore, necessary to turn the war war itself itself into so different, and into something different, strange, strange, and something so mystic that it could could have have happened only to to the people. that it the chosen chosen people. mystic happened only Whatever the appeals appeals and of that seems Whatever the and sublimations it seems sublimations of that approach, approach, it more pertinent to history as a way of learning to examine the Civil to more a the Civil as to examine of pertinent history way learning through the the convergence moralities of of laissez War through faire laissez faire of the the three three moralities convergence of that began in the late 18305 and reached an early climax in the Free in late that the the in Free reached climax and an began early 18305 Soil movement. As As they they merged merged in in aa consolidated the rereSoil movement. consolidated system, system, the ligious, political, and economic ethics were also distilled into a few ligious, political, and economic ethics were also distilled into a few key symbols. handholds of thought, discourse, discourse, and judgment These handholds of thought, and judgment key symbols. These exbecame the the most potent and yet inclusive inclusive words words of became most potent of the the age: and yet age: expansion, antislavcry, antislavery, freedom. freedom. As As indicated their use as early use as as indicated by early as pansion, by their Jackson's time, as well as by their more formal denotations and and as as their denotations well more formal Jackson's time, by connotations, they implied that the integrated integrated value of laissez laissez value system that the connotations, system of they implied faire was was almost wholly negative. negative. Freedom release was defined defined as as release faire almost wholly Freedom was from restriction. Expansion Expansion and were but the two sides sides two from restriction. and antislavery were the but antislavery evil of the coin that bought such liberty. But while the defining of the of the coin that bought such liberty. But while defining of evil is aa vital vital function, it is is no no more more than than half half the the responsibility responsibility of of any is function, it any philosophy. Lacking a creative vision of community, laissez faire faire a laissez creative vision of community, philosophy. Lacking was weak essential respect: basis upon upon which which it provided no weak in in an an essential was provided no basis respect: it to deal evil in nonviolent way. way. Its persistently were persistently Its solutions deal with with evil a nonviolent solutions were to in a aggressive and acquisitive. and acquisitive. aggressive For these reasons, the the northern northern critics critics of the Compromise of 1850 of the these reasons, For 1850 Compromise of were more influential than than the the southern whose first fuse first fuse extremists whose more influential southern extremists were of these sputtered out at the Nashville Convention. While many of these While at the Convention. Nashville out many sputtered northerners were ostensibly anti-expansionists, their position position was was in in were ostensibly northerners anti-expansionists, their overseas reality far more complex. They favored overseas economic expansion favored economic more far expansion complex. They reality to turn the
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and defined rest of of foreign largely in terms of the transtransin terms of the and the rest defined the foreign policy policy largely Mississippi west. Most westerners and eastern would-be capitalists would-be eastern and westerners west. Most capitalists Mississippi shared the part of on the issue all them the issue all of of them and on of this the latter latter part this outlook, shared outlook, and were vigorous expansionists. Since that region was in fact America's fact in was that were vigorous expansionists. Since America's region colonial underdeveloped) empire, their their view view was was realistic. realistic. colonial (i.e., (i.e., underdeveloped) empire, was also extremely provocative provocative because because it issue But defined the it defined the issue it was also extremely But it in very severe terms: would expansion into the trans-Mississippi in very severe terms: would expansion into the trans-Mississippi undertaken within within the the framework west be of the the Constitution, or framework of west be undertaken Constitution, or be rewritten accordance with with the the abstract abstract would that in accordance law be rewritten in would basic law that basic principles of laissez faire? The compromises compromises under under which the ConConwhich the principles of laissez faire? stitution the clauses of that document pertaining to that document the of stitution was was adopted, clauses to pertaining adopted, representation in the Congress (which counted three-fifths of each three-fifths counted of each in the (which representation Congress slave) of states, the pattern pattern of and the the of legislation, and the and the the rights states, and legislation, and slave) and rights of choi~e between two decisions the Supreme Court all pointed to a to a choice Court all pointed between two of the decisions of Supreme ways of the western western territories. territories. Either they would be Either they would be of handling ways handling the opened to slaveholders as well as nonslaveholders, or the region or the as well as slaveholders to nonslaveholders, opened region into slave were would be areas. Southerners slave and and nonslave nonslave areas. would be divided divided into Southerners were willing to accept either of these solutions. So were a good many a of these solutions. either to good many willing accept northerners. northerners. no one one But the advocates advocates of of antislavery laissez faire faire insisted that no insisted that But the antislavery laissez not accept their version of the axioms of laissez faire should faire their version the axioms of laissez who did did not of should accept be to share share the the territorial as they were as far far as territorial empire. be permitted empire. And as they were permitted to concerned, slavery was a violation of those principles. For them, a For at violation of those principles. concerned, slavery was them, at any rate, the arrival of the Age of Laissez Nous Faire meant that Faire meant that any rate, the arrival of the Age of Laissez to be interpreted-that the the Constitution had to the be interpreted that is, Constitution had rewritten in the is, rewritten-in light of this outlook. ultimately the divergence of opinion Since the of this outlook. Since light opinion ultimately divergence of the basic the Civil was the the defined the the question, defined of the Civil War was basic cause cause of question, the Weltanschauung of laissez Unwilling to within the the faire. Unwilling laissez faire. to compete Weltanschauung of compete within framework and under under the the terms terms of antiof the the Constitution, framework northern antiConstitution, northern slavery advocates of laissez finally undertook undertook to change the the advocates of laissez faire faire finally to change slavery rules in the in the middle of the continent rules in the middle the game-and middle of and in of the of the the continent middle game -by the south to the the expanding market place. place. further access south further access to by denying denying the expanding market to X861, the nation and its politicians In the meantime, from 1851 In the to its the nation meantime, from 1861, 1851 politicians fruitlessly way to to reconcile reconcile laissez laissez faire with the the Constitua way faire with Constitufruitlessly sought sought a tion. But But since hinged on expansion, they never all their their proposals tion. since all proposals hinged expansion, they never broke this broke free impasse. Seward had had the keenest insight into free of of the the impasse. the keenest this into insight factor. determining factor. "1 cannot exclude the conviction," he concluded "I cannot exclude the he concluded conviction," determining as as 1846, as early the popular passion for territorial aggrandizeaggrandize"that the for territorial 1846, "that early as popular passion ment is is irresistible." irresistible." Small wonder, therefore, that he later called he that later called wonder, therefore,
281 287 the struggle between north north and an "irrepressible conflict." Nor the and south south an struggle between "irrepressible conflict." Nor is most leaders of the decade offered little more is it it surprising that that most little more leaders of the decade offered surprising of balancing the gains between competing than Polk's than Folk's strategy of strategy balancing the gains between competing was almost expansionist Any more positive approach elements. Any dismore positive almost disexpansionist elements. approach was credited. One congressman congressman with with aa sense of history expressed the credited. sense of history expressed the attitude with with great great perceptiveness: perceptiveness: any any efforts efforts to co-ordinate and attitude to co-ordinate and disbalance the the country's development "should balance as a a disbe expunged "should be country's development expunged as grace to the the country and to the nineteenth Frankto the nineteenth century." President Frankcountry and grace to century.*' President lin the same his inaugural that he he lin Pierce Pierce vented vented the same spirit in his assertion that spirit in inaugural assertion would "not be controlled controlled by forebodings of of evil from would "not be evil from timid forebodings by any any timid expansion." President James Buchanan Buchanan put put it more bluntly. bluntly. President James it even even more expansion." "Expansion is in the future the policy policy of and only in the future the and our country, of our "Expansion is only country, cowards fear and oppose oppose it." cowards fear and it." Thus the the issue became dangerously issue became for expansion for dangerously oversimplified: oversimplified: expansion 18S0S, moreover, the debate took place the whom? Throughout the the took debate moreover, Throughout 18505, place against aa backdrop prepared by America's first primitive first female female primitive against backdrop prepared by America's artist Harnet Beech Beecher artist in in words er words and and ideas. Uncle Tom's ideas. Uncle Tom's Cabin, Cabin, Harriet Stowe's of slavery, was published in March, 1852. Though Stowe's landscape in of was March, 1852. Though landscape slavery, published the form had not really been Beadle launched the it launched it form had not really been established established (Erastus (Erastus Beadle in it might fairly be called the first dime novel. It was a crude, was a in 1860), it novel. It be dime called the first crude, 1860), might fairly based on manipulajerky, inaccurate, and violent violent morality morality play play based the manipulaon the inaccurate, and jerky, tion of in one black-and-white situation. a few tion of a few type-cast situation. characters in one black-and-white type-cast characters By populating the south exclusively with evil slaveholders and the slaveholders and with evil south By populating exclusively as evil. There was nothing Negroes, Stowe stereotyped the south of Stowe south There was the as evil. Negroes, stereotyped nothing of the anxiety and hesitance of the area, let alone its initial propensity the its initial anxiety and hesitance of the area, let alone propensity moral was provided by her her to accept the Compromise Compromise of to of 1850. provided by accept the 1850. The moral as aa man who could generamisleading picture picture of of the the Negro could in in "one "one generamisleading Negro as tion of and liberty" his place place in as a a fully in society tion take his of education education and fully liberty" take society as principles matured and of the the principles and developed individual. An application matured application of developed individual. to live ever after. of would enable of laissez live happily after. enable everyone faire would laissez faire everyone to happily ever Many southerners thought Stowe no more more than than aa typical typical emanciemanciStowe no southerners thought Many and initially pated female-"part quack and part cut-throaf'-and discut-throat*' and part female "part quack pated initially discounted importance of book. But But the the polemic became aa the book. of the counted the the importance polemic became guidebook enemy-the had already been defined the south-that defined south that had an enemy to an already been guidebook to in the by the value system of laissez faire as it emerged in the program as it faire the value of laissez program emerged by system of the Free Free Soilers and the Perhaps of the Soilers and the generalized spirit. Perhaps antislavery spirit. generalized antislavery as well as essence of laissez faire quite as well as the the nothing defines the of faire essence laissez the defines quite nothing the bank and the parallels between the Jacksonian campaign against the and the the between Jacksonian campaign against parallels the antislavery agitation. Both were negative. Both defined the enemy Both defined were Both enemy negative. antislavery agitation. The Age Age 0/ Laissez Nous Faire Faire of Laissez
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The American History History The Contours Contours of of American
in terms. Both Both were were closely tied to economic objectives. in secular secular moral moral terms. closely tied to economic objectives. Both lacked positive program for dealing with the problem. the problem. for lacked any Both dealing with any positive program name of of expansion and freedom. And both both were undertaken in and freedom. were undertaken the name in the expansion Even administration revealed revealed itself itself Even President President Millard Millard Fillmore's Fillmore's administration as merely cautious (and a bit pro-northern) instead of fundamentally of instead as merely cautious (and a bit pro-northern) fundamentally anti-expansionist. Fillmore allowed Perry to to allowed Commodore Matthew Perry anti-expansionist. Fillmore to American write his own militant instructions for opening Japan to American write his militant instructions for opening Japan commerce, indicated considerable interest interest in in Hawaii, and refused refused indicated considerable Hawaii, and commerce, to sign pledge guaranteeing guaranteeing Spanish control of of Cuba. a temperance Cuba. to Spanish control sign a temperance pledge that expansion was "the principle of of our our Having argued in I829 "the principle Having argued in expansion was 1829 that in aa more more fully institutions," Secretary Everett in of State State Edward Everett institutions," fully Secretary of developed theory features of Charles Darwin's some features of Charles Darwin's anticipated some developed theory anticipated While overrated by the the congressman congressman who called called theory of of evolution. evolution. While overrated by theory it "the most 'manifest document that ever emanated from that ever emanated document from it "the most 'manifest destiny' destiny' the State Department," Everett's despatch refusing to guarantee to the Everett's long State Department/' refusing long despatch guarantee quo in in Cuba was aa manifesto manifesto for for empire. Once out out of of the status status quo the Cuba was empire. Once office, he verbose: "The pioneers pioneers are the way; can are on the who can he was was less less verbose: office, way; tell how far fast they they will will travel?" tell far and travel?" and fast This also infused a loose association of expansionists This vigorous vigorous spirit spirit also infused a loose association of expansionists the Young Americans. Calling for for commercial, known as as the Americans. commercial, territorial, territorial, Calling Young and expansion, they wanted to the United States to make the United and ideological wanted States ideological expansion, they the hub hub of the hemisphere, hemisphere, the crossroads of of the and the the crossroads the world, of the and the the world, patriarch of global republicanism. Other expansionists followed the of Other the followed expansionists global republicanism. patriarch same general line on their initiative. Though they ultimately own same on initiative. line their Though they ultimately general failed, had significant from politicians politicians and and comsoutherners had comfailed, southerners significant support support from mercial groups in the northeast and the upper Mississippi Valley in the the mercial northeast in upper Mississippi Valley in groups their drive to acquire acquire Cuba. of New a similar drive to their Cuba. And a combination of similar combination Englanders, Yorkers, and southerners almost turned Nicaragua southerners almost turned Nicaragua Englanders, New Yorkers, into a Central American Hawaii; Buchanan even recognized a into Central American Hawaii; even recognized their their government before internal internal dissension armed attack dissension and armed attack from from other other government before isthmian ended the venture. the colonizing isthmian nations nations ended colonizing venture. Despite involvement in most such involvement in southward southward territorial territorial expansion, Despite such expansion, most northerners were were primarily primarily interested northerners interested in in overseas overseas economic economic expanexpansion, ideological empire, and control of the the trans-Mississippi trans-Mississippi west. west. control of sion, ideological empire, Their out in which Their views views won out in the the Clayton-Bulwer of 1854, which Clayton-Bulwer Treaty Treaty of 1854, facilitated in Central America while while checking checking facilitated trade trade developments Central America developments in further territorial further territorial annexations by either Great Britain or the United annexations by either Great Britain or the United States. Even so, the commercial push States. southerners supported the commercial so, some southerners supported push the Pacific. across the across Pacific. Their Their trade were reinforced reinforced by by the trade interests interests were the idea idea
The Age Age 0/ Laissez Nous Nous Falre Faire of Laissez
that such that a such a
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would help help them them hold hold their their own in in the the territorial territorial move would and as a political quid pro quo. The result was west, both directly both and a as result was west, directly political quid pro quo. so that the a China China policy policy designed for "maintaining order there" a designed for "maintaining order there" so that the nation's great economic opportunities would not become "the prey nation's great economic opportunities would not become "the prey of ambition." of European European ambition." Convinced that that they were the the "only powerful race" race" on the Pacific, Pacific, Convinced on the they were "only powerful some farsighted Perry McDonough and northerners like like Perry Collins and farsighted northerners McDonough Collins plans whereby whereby "American commercial Asa Whitney concentrated on on plans "American commercial Whitney concentrated Asia." enterprise [could] penetrate the the obscure depths of Northern Asia." obscure depths of Northern enterprise [could] penetrate Backed President Pierce Pierce and of course the Backed by and Senator Senator Seward, and of course the Seward, and by President Western Union Union Company, Company, Collins proposed aa telegraph system Western Collins proposed telegraph system west to reaching across to Siberia south to India and across to and thence Siberia and and west to thence south to India reaching was aa vision global funnel funnel Paris, Berlin, Berlin, and London. It and London. It was of a a vast, vision of Paris, vast, global ",rith (and the the profits) opening into into the Mississippi Valley. Valley. with the the spout the Mississippi spout (and profits) opening to consolidate the opWhitney stressed a transcontinental railroad stressed a the transcontinental railroad consolidate to Whitney op"Here stand forever," he exulted; "we reach out one portunity. "Here we stand reach out he one exulted; forever," portunity. to all Asia, and the all Europe, hand to all Asia, for all the other all to to other to to all Europe, willing willing for enjoy the great blessings we possess .•• but all [of them] tributary, all the but enjoy possess great blessings [of them] tributary, and at at our our will will subject us." to us." subject to Nor was this this an an irrelevant reality. Not only only were were large large irrelevant Bight from reality. flight from agricultural surpluses being exported, but by 1860, manufactured but manufactured agricultural surpluses being exported, by 1860, per cent America's goods, including iron, amounted amounted to nearly 20 per cent of of America's to nearly goods, including iron, But the south received few benefits from dedirect exports. the dedirect exports. But the south received few benefits from the of such railroads by cash appropriations and veloping subsidizing veloping subsidizing of such railroads by cash appropriations in 1850, acres in massive massive land land grants grants (approximately (approximately 3.75 3.75 million million acres rSso, 35 35 million acres additional projects between between 1852 and 1857, r857, and 174 acres additional projects 174 million 1852 and gross between connection was between 1850 Mobile-Chicago connection gross 1850 and 1871). 1871). A Mobile-Chicago that came too the most offering to late to to the to the the south, too late most significant south, and that significant offering alter pattern of routes. Land was acquired of east-west east-west routes. alter the the established established pattern acquired a gulf-coast to the but such for aa southern route to for the Pacific, such a transcontisouthern route Pacific, but gulf-coast transcontithat south. least not not for nental line never built, built, at for that south. line was at least nental was never Whatever their the north north sectional differences, internal and sectional their serious serious internal Whatever differences, the and the the west west came came to to define ever more clearly in terms in ever terms define expansion and clearly expansion based on manufactures manufactures and and food. of food. of an industrial system an interrelated interrelated industrial system based Despite Buchanan's defense of it as the policy of the "good neighbor" of the of it as the Buchanan's defense "good neighbor" policy Despite hand," they his plan off aa bit bit offering to snip a "helping snip off plan to they opposed opposed his "helping hand," offering a with more of northern Mexico while while that that country country was preoccupied with more of northern preoccupied revolutions that overseas revolutions that internal difficulties, preferring to to encourage internal difficulties, preferring encourage overseas referred such to such promised commercial advantages. Seward candidly referred to commercial candidly advantages. promised .
.
The oj American American History History The Contours Contours of
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governments as as "the outworks of o our system "the outworks of our system of governments
politics." "We have have politics." agreed a westerner, "in the benefits of comaa direct "in the of benefits a comdirect interest interest .•. ," westerner, ," agreed All we want is that that freedom have aa mercial intercourse should have freedom should want is mercial intercourse .... All fair battlefield." fair battlefield.*' .
-
.
ATI'EMPT TO RECONCILE LAISSEZ FAIRE SENATOR DOUGLAS AND THE ATTEMPT AND THE CONSTITUTION
Without too Without too much exaggeration, exaggeration,
it could be said that the key to the key said that to could be
it
understanding the the Civil Civil War lies in the the westerners' westerners' lies in of the the coming coming of understanding term "fair Viewing the undeveloped definition of of that the undeveloped "fair battlefield." that term battlefield." Viewing definition territories of colonial west west through through the the same laissez-faire spectaspectasame laissez-faire territories of the the colonial cles, rising capitalists in the the west west and northeast northeast dedea coalition of rising coalition of cles, a capitalists in manded aa favorable settlement of of this this issue domestic form. form. issue in in its its domestic favorable settlement manded market place of laissez laissez faire be defined defined faire to to be the competitive Was the place of competitive market within the which case slavery case which of the Constitution (in the Constitution the framework framework of within (in slavery it be done according to the the could enter or was it to be or to could the territories), was enter the according to territories), case it should abstract principles of laissez-faire theory (in which case which it should laissez-faire of abstract theory (in principles not)?? Taking the issue, provided aa Senator Douglas of the issue, Senator Douglas provided not) Taking command of magnificent example of the rise of the politician under laissez faire. of the under laissez of the rise faire. magnificent example politician and worked his and lawyer lawyer who had west west had gone A schoolteacher his schoolteacher and gone way up through various state offices to the Senate and a leading to Senate state offices the and a various way up through leading President. But position in the Democratic Party, he wanted to be President. to be Democratic Party, he wanted But to to in the position to resolve realize this this natural and legitimate ambition, Douglas had natural and had resolve realize to legitimate ambition, Douglas a predicament predicament of laissez-faire politics politics based based on on expansion the a at the of laissez-faire and at expansion and to a a free and local selfsame time his commitments commitments to time honor honor his free economy and local selfeconomy government. government. this dilemma because he was was Douglas insight into into this had considerable considerable insight because he Douglas had confronted in Illinois by by aa remarkably accurate microcosm what confronted in Illinois of what microcosm of remarkably accurate was was happening happening across the northern northern half the United States. across the States. Read half of of the the rest rest of the eastern eastern urban urban complex), Chicago for for New York (and of the Chicago (and the complex), and and McHenry McHenry County for the the agrarian north, and the the analogy reveals County for agrarian north, analogy reveals the political pressures and and problems problems that that Douglas Douglas faced. the faced. Farmers Farmers political pressures milk and for the who could could shift shift into into specialty the city and production for specialty production (as milk city (as poultry) benefited from the the changeover crops, but benefited from from commodity but poultry) changeover from crops, commodity the the majority majority were were growing fidgety. Neither pre-emption Neither growing increasingly increasingly fidgety. pre-emption acts had had checked checked the the rise tenant farming. laws nor nor special relief acts rise of of tenant special relief farming. Second-generation immigrants increased increased the the comcomfarmers and fresh immigrants and fresh Second-generation farmers as did the petition, as did the large operators held huge acreages. who held Land petition, huge acreages. large operators prices were were beginning beginning to to rise, required still more capital was and still rise, and prices capital was required
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to buy the new machinery machinery produced produced by by companies like Cyrus Mcto buy the companies like Cyrus McCormick's Cormick's firm firm in in Chicago. Chicago. Periodically victim of malaria, dysentery, dysentery, or or typhoid, and the victim of malaria, Periodically the typhoid, and eternally tired (one wonders how Emerson or Thoreau would have tired Emerson or Thoreau would have eternally (one wonders with the the solitude the farmer was on edge. made out out with solitude of of 160 160 acres), acres), the farmer was on edge. He was was in in no no mood for for irrelevant harangues advice irrelevant harangues or or supercilious supercilious advice He wanted help: internal improvements (including from easterners. from easterners. wanted help: internal improvements (including educational more land educational institutions), the opening colonial of more in the the colonial land in institutions), the opening of west, and vigorous vigorous action Indians. Whatever religious action against his religious the Indians. Whatever his west, against the was not not an or secular concern for for the the slave, the farmer or secular concern an farmer was therefore, the slave, therefore, was against on practical grounds: it was abolitionist. abolitionist. He was it was on against slavery slavery practical grounds: tough competition. he had had no no desire desire to check it it in in a Therefore he a to check tough competition. Therefore way that that would only only multiply multiply his Hence Free meant Soil meant his troubles. troubles. Hence Free Soil way land free well as as slaves, free homehomeaa land of liberated free of liberated Negroes and a a free as well slaves, and Negroes as stead his local local competitors. competitors. stead for for himself-or himself or his well as as in reacted in Many urban urban groups, in the the east in east as as well in Chicago, Many Chicago, reacted groups, in a similar similar way. Their morality was that of the aggressive entrepreneur a Their was that of the way. morality aggressive entrepreneur or would-be would-be businessman businessman of laissez faire. They were, the or of laissez faire. They were, indeed, indeed, the personification of the Arminian heresy that defined Man's secular of secular the Man's Arminian that defined personification heresy Viewing the the south far more free will will as free as God's chosen instrument. instrument. Viewing south far God's chosen as aa section blocked their than as to be be as section that a society that blocked their own success as a success than society to liberated, their antislavery enthusiasm resembled the attitude of of their resembled the attitude enthusiasm liberated, antislavery the farmers. farmers wanted wanted liberty liberty and and were were against southern the farmers. The farmers southern against leadership, but but mainly mainly they they were were concerned concerned with with their freedom their own freedom leadership, of action. This spirit ultimately provoked many eastern labor groups This labor of action. groups spirit ultimately provoked many eastern (if it was not to conclude that the antislavery campaign served not it to conclude that the antislavery campaign served (if the designed) distract men from primary struggle between the the primary to distract from the struggle between designed) to their oudook was but but another owners and the workers. workers. In In that that sense, another outlook was and the owners sense, their the primacy primacy of example of the abolitionist abolitionist over the of the the laissez-faire laissez-faire spirit of the spirit over example morality. morality. as a Acting at once as politician with a constituency and as with such such a as a a politician at once constituency and Acting be political philosopher, Douglas held that the Constitution should be should the Constitution held that Douglas political philosopher, Infaire. Inhonored as the framework competition under under laissez laissez faire. for competition as the framework for honored their domestic domestic left free to regulate regulate their sisting that "the people shall free to be left "the people shall be sisting that face in the concerns in and that self-restraint in the face of of self-restraint that concerns in their their own way," way," extremists was the only way way to work, he argued to make democracy the only extremists was work, argued democracy to mean anything anything at it had to to be be that if at all, if self-determination that self-determination was to all, it preserved at the local level. Slavery as well as antislavery groups well as as the local at level. antislavery groups Slavery preserved of the should equal access place of the trans-Mississippi to the the market market place access to have equal should have trans-Mississippi
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west. Exemplified in the slogan "popular sovereignty," this this approach, west. approach, Exemplified in the slogan "popular sovereignty," as the the after three months of bitter debate, was written into law as into written law was after three months of bitter debate,
Kansas-Nebraska Act of 854. of I1854. Kansas-Nebraska Act Douglas was not proslavery. He opposed broke with with slavery, and broke opposed slavery, Douglas was not proslavery. southern Democrats after they abused the principles of the Kansasof the Kansassouthern Democrats after they abused the principles Nebraska Act. But he he did did believe priority Constitution had priority the Constitution that the believe that Act. But Nebraska he was confident over the the abstract principles of laissez faire, of laissez over abstract principles confident faire, and he free labor prove superior superior in competition. that system of of free in competition. would prove labor would the system that the His critics can be those who might fairly fairly those three groups: into three divided into critics can be divided His might groups: be revolutionaries for the abstract in ranking abstract their insistence insistence in for their be called called revolutionaries ranking the principles of laissez faire above the Constitution; those lacked principles of laissez faire above the Constitution; those who lacked his faith power of free labor; and those whose those free whose of faith in in the the competitive his labor; competitive power was principally determined by political considerations. Their position considerations. Their was determined by political principally position combined opposition opposition defeated Douglas. It checked Seward and It also also checked and defeated Douglas. combined opened the way for Lincoln. Lincoln. the for opened way within its bounds, Though he preferred preferred to its existing to contain contain slavery existing bounds, slavery within Though he Seward the challenge of Douglas'S approach. key to to The Seward accepted the of Douglas's approach. key accepted challenge the contradiction between Seward's policies lies in his policies rhetoric and his lies in the Seward's rhetoric contradiction between that lived his conscious John Quincy Quincy Adams in in an an age lived his conscious emulation emulation of of John age that by different principles. Describing Adams as "this wonderful man," as "this wonderful man," by different principles. Describing surSeward movingly called called him "a father and and aa guide." "a father too surSeward movingly guide." Not too prisingly, therefore, vision was was an American empire Seward's central central vision therefore, Seward's empire prisingly, embracing the world through the the revolutionary power of its econof its econworld through revolutionary power embracing the omy and ideas. His emotional nationalism was anchored in hard hard anchored in and ideas. nationalism was His emotional omy economic analysis. analysis. Disturbed Disturbed as early as r842 by by signs of "decaying as early as 1842 economic signs of "decaying enterprise" and insisted that of and stagnation, America's economy that America's he insisted enterprise" economy of stagnation, he manufactures and commercial commercial agriculture had to have a constantly manufactures to had have a agriculture constantly expanding market. market. expanding But since he also prone to to war, war, But since he also concluded that "democracies are prone concluded that "democracies are on force and war consumes consumes them," them," Seward was reluctant reluctant to rely on to rely Seward was force for such expansion, so for such would threaten threaten an an empire empire so a civil civil war would expansion, and a formed even more directly. formed even directly. Despite Despite his his problems problems as politician in in a politician as a free-soil state, his own antislavery that a free-soil sentiments that state, therefore, therefore, and his antislavery sentiments were determinedly by his abolitionist wife, Seward played upon his abolitionist Seward wife, determinedly played upon by persistently preferred preferred aa compromise that would would allow rising allow the the rising persistently compromise that industrial as it it industrial economy economy to to subvert in a peaceful process subvert slavery slavery in a peaceful process as went on to to greater victories throughout the world. Seward's strategy greater victories throughout the world. Seward's strategy seems to to have old world world of mercantilism to to rereseems have been been to to bring bring in in the the old of mercantilism dress dress the the imbalances imbalances of the new world world of of the of laissez laissez faire. faire.
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Willing the laissez-faire that "the to assert assert the of laissez-faire axiom axiom that "the abstractions abstractions of Willing to are the only permanent foundation of human society," human rights are the rights only permanent foundation of society," he nevertheless realized that that men had those abstractions abstractions he nevertheless realized had to to control control those lest they lest he stressed stressed the the responsibilities they destroy destroy society. society. Accordingly Accordingly he responsibilities of God's trustees and stewards, and insisted that government of God's trustees and stewards, and insisted that the the government had clear care" of society. Such had clear duties duties connected connected with with the the "paternal "paternal care" of society. Such the extreme extreme advocates the to use use the the state men had to state to to restrain of the restrain the advocates of rights of private property property and moderate the the harsh of ununof private and moderate harsh results results of rights restrained competition. competition. In ways, therefore, restrained In many Seward therefore, Seward significant ways, many significant to triumph the prophet prophet of of the the corporation capitalism that was was the was to that corporation capitalism triumph combined the the axioms laissez at the end of the 19th of the at the axioms of of laisscz ipth century. century. He combined faire with an an acceptance acceptance of the large corporation and sought faire with to of the and sought to large corporation cement the the union by reasserting reasserting aa version version of corporate ethic cement union by the old old corporate ethic of the a Christian of mercantilist commonwealth. commonwealth. of a Christian mercantilist up by that vision and the confidence confidence it Buoyed that vision and the it inspired, Seward Buoyed up by inspired, Seward could accept the challenge of competition with the south even though could the of even though with the south accept challenge competition it was was not not his his ideal on, then, then, gentlemen of the slave it ideal solution. solution. "Come on, the slave of gentlemen States," he sang out in one of the great moments of the Age he in of out of the one the of moments States," sang Age of great is no no escaping Laissez Nous Faire: on, then then.... Since Laissez Faire: "Come on, Since there there is escaping will your challenge, I accept accept it of the the cause cause of it in in behalf behalf of of freedom. freedom. We will your challenge, I in competition for the virgin soil of Kansas, and God give engage in for the of and soil Kansas, competition engage virgin give is stronger numbers as it is right." the victory victory to to the the side which is the side which as it in right." in numbers is in stronger in the political political market place into But as as that a But that competition turned the into a market place competition turned frightfully accurate copy of the economic market place, Seward frightfully accurate copy of the economic market place, Seward found it it ever to confine confine the the struggle within constituconstitufound ever more difficult difficult to struggle within tional limits. limits. tional Some groups groups did support such Deeply involved in transtransdid support such efforts. efforts. Deeply involved in forming the commercial-agrarian commercial-agrarian economy economy into industrial-finanan industrial-finaninto an forming the cial system, the majority majority of established businessmen businessmen cial and established of large system, the large and opposed policies policies that that pointed pointed toward toward war. war. And, And, watching watching their their opposed but 44 per per cent the cost cost of living went up up wages increase of living increase but cent while while the wages 12 per cent during the decade of the 18505, laborers concentrated laborers of concentrated cent the decade the 18505, per during as the the on organizing national labor unions and and on strikes strikes (such labor unions on (such as organizing national 1860). But the farmers, successful shoe walk-out in of the of in New England successful shoe walk-out farmers, 1860). England as of themselves with aa vision vision of themselves as smaller entrepreneurs, mechanics with smaller entrepreneurs, and mechanics of America employers-in short, the rising bourgeoisie of America-increasingly in the short, increasingly rising bourgeoisie employers demanded protection protection in in an market place the an expanding against the place against expanding market to in mainthis order to this pressure in order to maincompetition of slavery. Responding to of pressure competition slavery. Responding abolitionists became became increasingly increasingly secular, tain their their influence, the abolitionists tain secular, and influence, the
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the two groups converged in a crusade to rewrite the the two disseparate disseparatc groups converged in a crusade to rewrite the Constitution according of laissez laissez faire. faire. to the the gospel Constitution according to gospel of Walt Whitman sang of this this new and far genfar more genessence o Walt Whitman the essence sang the in a dramatic outburst of 1856. "You young men! eralized morality of eralized morality in a dramatic outburst 1856. young American mechanics, manufacturers, and all all American boatmen, manufacturers, farmers, boatmen, mechanics, farmers, North! You are are either either to to work people of the as North! same as the same work the South, South, the people of defiabolish slavery, or it will abolish you." Whitman's either-or either-or defiabolish slavery, or it will abolish you." nition of problem was was reinforced within aa year Justice Chief Justice reinforced within of the the problem nition by Chief year by Scott decision, the south south Roger Taney's that the the Dred Scott in the decision, that reassertion, in Roger Taney's reassertion, had equal rights as a competitor, and that the market place included the market included and that had as a place competitor, equal rights counterpart of the trans--Mississippi west. This was but but a a counterpart of decision was This decision the trans-Mississippi west. his earlier judgment that that corporations were legal individuals comindividuals comwere his earlier judgment legal corporations both were were quite within the peting in market place. place. And both the limits limits the market in the quite within peting as a system resting on of of Jacksonian Democracy a as of his his conception of Jacksonian Democracy system resting on conception .. the liberties sanctity of property of private the liberties and and sanctity private property.But this time time many many congressmen were carrying and revolvers and But by carrying revolvers by this congressmen were symother weapons during working hours. their armament their hours. As other weapons symduring working bolized, politicians politicians had had been been taken taken over over by by politics politics much as admirals as admirals bolized, and taken over by aa war. war. Originally Originally responding responding to are taken over by and generals to generals are popular pressures, their proposals influenced the voters again the voters who influenced their again popular pressures, proposals by further abstracting alternatives were increased the tension alternatives that further abstracting that were increased the tension by This cycle of interaction was fully established by already extreme. interaction was of fully established by already extreme. This cycle 1854. "1 am in politics," explained one New England leader in supin politics," explained one 1854. "I England leader in supmust go porting aa policy policy of which he personally disapproved, disapproved, "and of which he personally "and 1 I must porting go "1 know and you on." Seward also understood what was happening. on," Seward also understood was happening. "I and you revolution has has begun. begun. 1 know, know," he he admitted in 1858, admitted in a revolution "that a I know, know," 1858, "that all the the world knows, and all knows, that never go that revolutions revolutions never backward." go backward." John Brown concurred his own insane insane way way with this hypothesis. hypothesis. concurred in in his with this John effort to Virginia into His attack Harper's Ferry was an attack on Harper's His an effort to turn turn Virginia into Ferry was another the slaves the nation. Dying with with another Kansas Kansas and thus thus free free all all the slaves of of the nation. Dying the all men who are of all are already already living another the easy indifference of in another easy indifference living in but did succeed in narworld, Brown failed failed to to end slavery did succeed in further further narworld, slavery but rowing the the range range of comproof debate debate about about it. it. Those who argued for for rowing argued comprothe Constitution mise within Constitution lost and men who questioned mise within the lost ground, ground, and questioned the entire outlook outlook of of laissez faire were almost the entire laissez faire almost literally literally ignored. ignored. A of literary masterpiece of the time which probed the implications the time the of literary masterpiece probed implications of this self-reliance that this self-reliance that can can ultimately become self-righteous fanaticism become fanaticism ultimately self-righteous was Herman Melville's Moby DicJ(. Dick. Yet Yet the the book book was hardly hardly noticed; noticed; Melville's Moby it it was not read and acted upon. certainly not read acted and certainly upon.
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Perhaps the natural talent the nation's nation's literary history, the greatest talent in in the Perhaps greatest natural literary history, resolu~ Melville grappled with the central issue of the need for some Melville with the central issue of the need for some resolugrappled tion of tension between between the the individual individual and and society. Though he o the the tension tion society. Though he
offered in Moby Moby Dic% Dick (that came, at the end of his offered no answer answer in (that came, at the end of his career, in Billy Budd), Budd), Melville Melville did make it indi~ in Billy did make it clear clear that the indithat the career, vidualism of to aa horrible horrible and and terrifying terrifying compulsion compulsion of Ahab led vidualism led only only to to control everything in in the of relying relying to control everything the universe. universe. Emerson's Emerson's credo credo of only on oneself oneself produced produced in an almost almost complete distortion in the the end end an distortion only complete back~ of different from Melville in of man and society. from Melville in backsociety* Though Though quite quite different ground, temperament, and ability, Richard Henry Dana's similar and similar Richard Dana's ground, temperament, ability, Henry doubts audience among doubts about about laissez laissez faire faire lost lost him his audience him his England among New England intellectuals. "The whole whole modern system," concluded intellectuals. Dana in 18:;3. concluded in system,* 1853, "seems to me to to be be grounded grounded on on aa false view of "seems to false view of man ..• as as acknowlacknowlof selfedging no God, nor the the need need of a spirit of any There is is a God, nor edging no any...•• There spirit of selfconfidence in it, it, which, which, left to its its natural natural tendencies, tendencies, will inevitably confidence in left to will inevitably bring aa deeper deeper and wider wider woe woe upon upon man than than earth has ever yet earth has ever yet bring known." known." 5
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PHll.OSOPHER AND A?"D POLITICIAN OF ABRAHAM LINCOLN AS THE PHILOSOPHER TRIUMPHANT LAISSEZ FAIBE FAIRE
Though neither the abolitionists nor the the free-soilers gave much neither the free-soilers gave abolitionists nor Though Weltanschauung, thought to such somber estimates of their to such somber estimates of their Weltanschauung, Seward Seward thought clearly tried to counter with his concept of counter them with his concept of stewardship. clearly tried to stewardship. And the philosopherphilosophereven displaced Seward and Douglas Douglas as even the the man who displaced as the Seward and king of laissez faire ultimately tried to meet meet the the criticism by ememof laissez faire ultimately criticism by tried to king hidden author author bracing aa mystic Christianity that as the the hidden that defined defined God as bracing mystic Christianity events. In his earlier years, however, however, Lincoln a~ of all Lincoln apof all forces forces and and events. In his earlier years, peared more more akin to one Friedrich Nietzsche's Nietzsche's supermen akin to one of of Friedrich supermen who peared "I believed himself himself an instrument of of the the hidden hidden forces of History. forces of believed an instrument History. "I always was remarked, and did indicate not indicate did not was superstitious," he later later remarked, always superstitious," he as that he myth which which presents Lincoln as that he had had changed. But the the myth presents Lincoln changed. But does emerging complete in from somewhat obscure origins does obscure in wisdom somewhat origins emerging complete his greatest him (and his society) disservice. It It denies greatest serious disservice. denies him his him a serious society) a (and his of virtue-the capacity to to mature mature and and transcend the limits of the limits and transcend and ripen virtue the capacity ripen the young, his outlook. For there there were were two Lincolns; aggr~ earlier outlook. his earlier Lincolns; the young, aggressive man of faire and the older, more humble humble Lincoln Lincoln who and the of laissez laissez faire sive older, more its trito lead sensed weaknesses of that philosophy philosophy and tried tried to lead its triof that the weaknesses sensed the conce~ umphant advocates toward a more and responsible humane a toward more advocates responsible concepumphant tion of tion of man and society. society.
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Lincoln's progress progress from from aa log cabin through the practice practice of of corpocorpoLincoln's through the log cabin was not particularly unration law to regional political leadership not was ration law to regional political leadership particularly unhis law partner's characterization would usual for his time. And his law partner's characterization would usual for his time. have served countless young Americans of amthat age: of that "His amfor countless have served for age: "His young Americans was a little engine that knew no rest." As with his jokes bition with his jokes and and no rest." bition was a little engine that stories, those those aspects aspects of of his have been been inflated beyond their their far beyond inflated far his career career have stories, concerns significance. (But for what it is worth, most of his humor concerns significance. (But for what it is worth, most of his the defeat of aa poor poor competitor.) Lincoln set himself apart by the the set himself the defeat of apart by competitor.) Lincoln in which he used his great native intelligence. The masterly way native he used The his in which intelligence. great masterly way combination circumunder adverse adverse circumeven under that even was so so commanding combination was commanding that stances he could, and at at one one time time or or another another did, outmaneuver any stances he did, outmaneuver could, and any not win all time. No and all of his rivals and and critics. all the the time. did not critics. He did all of his rivals and the odds But his record is are computed, odds are is amazing man can. can. But his record computed, amazing when the so when it is realized that Lincoln very probably underparticularly that is realized Lincoln it so very probably underparticularly stood tactics would would lose lose him the the famous race famous Senate Senate race that his his tactics stood that that risk as an investment in a bigger with Douglas. Douglas. He accepted in a as an investment that risk with accepted bigger prize. prize. This to abstract himself from himself and the the immediate immediate This ability ability to abstract himself from himself and situation all the while keeping himself in icy focus was probably in focus himself the situation yet all while icy keeping yet probably the determining element in his success. He could estimate, analyze, in could his success. the element estimate, analyze, determining and calculated and ruthlessness of a clinical with the the calculated and impersonal ruthlessness a and act act with of clinical impersonal performer. This persistent pattern of operating is what makes his This of what is his makes persistent pattern performer. operating early definition of himself in the context of the rising antislavery of in of tie definition the himself context rising antislavery early his career. career. and expansionist fervor so and even chilling, of his so eerie, eerie, even aspect of expansionist fervor chilling, an aspect a politician, politician, he set out to For having having defined himself as For defined himself as a he clearly clearly set out to issue of his time. Although he praised determine and exploit the the determine and exploit issue of his time. Although he praised the Founding Fathers for he denied denied that that his his generation generation the their genius, for their genius, he Founding Fathers of could find their "ruling passion" in in of Americans find "gratification" Americans could for their "gratification" for "ruling passion" by "supporting maintaining an that has has been been ere Panic of example, forced European nations. 1907, for to delay project in Northeastern Asia. Asia. Circumstances Circumstances a major to in Northeastern delay a major project changed, and whatever opportunities it were lost. it offered offered lost whatever opportunities changed, significantly, the bankers needed needed open open government the bankers Even more significantly, government support in order to attract capital from the great number of indiindiof the in attract order to great support capital vidual savers were unfamiliar with foreign foreign operations vidual savers who were unfamiliar with operations and hence rather of their economic value and security. value rather skeptical of their economic hence security. That skeptical firm guardesirous of of winning also made the bankers particularly particularly desirous also the bankers guarwinning firm in turn antagantees of repayment from the poor nations. nations. But that that in the poor antees of repayment antag-
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onized the and, as those who took took aa broad view realized, realized, broad view the foreigners onized as those foreigners and, threatened the entire strategy. strategy. Finally, some bankers like the House like the bankers some House the entire threatened Finally, to favor co-operation with of were inclined with England, of Morgan inclined to favor co-operation England, Japan, Japan, Morgan were in those countries, were and even France. They had connections and were in those and even France. They had connections countries, and more concerned with the narrow financial side of overseas expanof side overseas expanmore concerned with the narrow financial sion. Industrialists argued that such approach favored competitive favored competitive an approach such an sion. Industrialists argued that exports and thereby seriously hampered the construction of of an the construction an and thereby seriously hampered exports American system. American system. THE FURTHER DEVELOPMENT OF AMERICAN SYNDICALISM
As such another aspect of the the new As such functional functional differences differences suggest, aspect of suggest, another reality that confronted American leaders, and caused caused them great difficonfronted American leaders, and great difficulties, was the strong strong propensity propensity of of the the system a synto develop in a was the culties, system to develop in synsyndicalism is usually thought thought of connection dicalist pattern. pattern. Now syndicalism of in is usually in connection dicalist be aa violent violent with revolutionary revolutionary labor movements and assumed to be assumed to with labor movements proletarian outlook. This interpretation confuses the group in modern in the confuses modern outlook. This group interpretation proletarian industrial which has has usually, though by means always, always, industrial society usually, though by no means society which or most effectively, embraced and acted upon the idea with the idea acted the with the or even even most embraced and upon effectively, essence a philosophy derived from outlook itself. Syndicalism is in a derived is essence in from outlook itself. Syndicalism philosophy Arguing that that an an industrial two basic and efficiency. industrial basic values: two values: function function and efficiency. Arguing system operates through a division of labor organized by a labor function division of system operates through organized by function and in in groups rather than through individuals who handle many than individuals handle rather and many through groups jobs, syndicalists conclude that such a pattern should be accepted, a should such be that conclude jobs, syndicalists accepted, pattern encouraged, and rationalized. Political Political representation representation should should arise arise and rationalized. encouraged, in the national within each and be co-ordinated at the top in the and be co-ordinated at the national within each segment top segment relevant degovernment. participate in dein the the relevant Individuals would would thus thus participate government. Individuals cisions and at at the the same time purcisions time enjoy a sense sense of of community and purcommunity and enjoy a pose within within their particular group would replace replace the alienation their particular that would the alienation pose group that of an highly organized in a a highly of an individual individual lost lost in organized society. society. Europe, overt overt syndicalism appeared within within the the ranks ranks in Europe, As in first appeared syndicalism .first of under the the leadership DeLeon, of labor. in 1905 of Daniel Daniel DeLeon, labor. Founded in 1905 under leadership of William Haywood, Debs (who resigned two two years years William Haywood, and Eugene Eugene Debs (who resigned later), the the Industrial Workers of presented aa militant militant Industrial Workers of the the World presented later), the corporation challenge to to the the established established leadership of the challenge leadership of corporation system. system. in and Organizing western miners, itinerant workers western itinerant in agriculture workers miners, Organizing agriculture and practiced aa tough, violent construction, laborers, it it practiced eastern textile textile laborers, violent construction, and eastern tough, of unionism kind fear kind of unionism dedicated dedicated to to changing changing the the existing existing order. order. The fear it might penetrate the that to have that it automobile industry seems the automobile to have seems might penetrate industry played a part in Ford's the Five Five Dollar Dollar Day. Day. On aa Ford's introduction introduction of of the played part in reality that
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more general the I. as aa spur spur I. W. W. unquestionably served more level, the general level, unquestionably served as to corporation leaders and business union spokesmen to evolve some leaders and business evolve some union spokesmen to to corporation pattern of accommodation within the established system. pattern of accommodation within the established system. While they antagonistic toward toward the the scared of While of and and antagonistic they were openly openly scared I.W.W.'s kind of labor syndicalism, American leaders nevertheless LW.W.'s kind of labor syndicalism, American leaders nevertheless adapted principles of that philosophy philosophy to to their their own conservative conservative the principles of that adapted the objectives. repeatedly analyzed analyzed society within Roosevelt repeatedly objectives. Theodore Roosevelt society within that framework, did Herbert Herbert Croly and later Progressives whose whose as did that later Progressives framework, as Croly and slogans, Fair Deals, Deals, were were merely merely rather unimaginative the New and Fair rather unimaginative slogans, the variations of Even more more significantly, significantly, the the corporacorpora· the Square of the Deal. Even variations Square Deal. tion leaders to transform transform their their interest-conscious leaders who struggled outtion interest-conscious outstruggled to look into consciousness developed their thought almost wholly a class class consciousness into a look their almost wholly developed thought within the was merely merely one of the the first first the syndicalist within one of syndicalist approach. approach. Hanna was to use the tool, tool, as in his his advice the farmers farmers to trusts as in use the advice to to the trusts to to organize organize of their their own. own. of In like Bernard Bernard Baruch, Young, and later years, In later and D. Young, Baruch, Owen D. years, men like Swope developed and extended the same analysis. But Herbert extended the Herbert same But Swope developed analysis. Hoover was the crucial figure in the the evolution approach. DeDe· the crucial Hoover of the the approach. evolution of figure in scribing society as composed of three major groups-labor, capital, as of three scribing society composed major groups labor, capital, and the government government-he balance and units he struggled to balance and the the units control the and control struggled to so would not drive the system toward fascism (business that they so that not the drive toward fascism they system (business control), socialism (labor dominance), the tyranny bureausocialism (labor of bureauor the control), tyranny of dominance), or cratic government. All such men, from Theodore Roosevelt through cratic All such Theodore Roosevelt men, through government. Hoover and later later theorists, theorists, recognized recognized that that the the central problem was central problem to find ideal that that would generate generate the the self-discipline public find some ideal to self-discipline and public spirit essential to maintaining equity. to spirit essential maintaining equity. extent, the the theologian theologian Reinhold Niebuhr ultimately ultimately propra. To some extent, Reinhold Niebuhr vided aa philosophy philosophy appropriate appropriate to to the the need. need. Combining selected vided Combining selected portions of then adding of Catholicism a generous Catholicism and Calvinism, Calvinism, and then portions generous adding a leaven Freud, pragmatism, pragmatism, and the the frontier interpretation of of Freud, of leaven of frontier interpretation American history, Niebuhr constructed that exex· a Weltanschauung American constructed a history, Niebuhr Weltanschauung that plained and justified justified the the limited achievement of Progressive limited achievement of the the Progressive plained Movement on on the grounds that was impossible, that aa the grounds that utopia impossible, and that Utopia was the of outlook would in any event produce one of the more dynamic outlook in event produce dynamic any dangers outlined by Hoover. But nationalism was the main driving the nationalism outlined Hoover. But dangers driving by force of whatever unity unity and purpose the system system exhibited, it was force of whatever exhibited, and it purpose the largely the negative kind of nationalism directed against other the directed of nationalism kind against other negative largely countries and ideas. ideas. countries One such foreign challenge nature. As a in nature. itself syndicalist such foreign syndicalist in challenge was itself
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basic basic
component of both both the the fascist movement in in Italy Italy and and the the hard hard fascist movement component of Germany, syndicalism provided the Germany, syndicalism provided the leaders of both parties and countries with many of their central of their of with countries central leaders both parties and many and ideas programs. Since resorted to to terror terror in in establishing and programs. Since they ideas and establishing and they resorted essenmaintaining the approach, and distorted it in other ways, the it in other ways, the essenmaintaining the approach, and distorted tial characteristics characteristics common to and European tial to American American and European syndicalism syndicalism are generally Although there was widespread widespread there was are missed or or discounted. discounted. Although generally missed use of intrigue and violence against American labor, the foreign foreign use of intrigue and violence labor, the against American methods created a difference that in the end produced aa in the end produced of degree methods created a difference of degree that in kind. not become become difference did not kind. The Progressive difference in Progressive Movement did favorable response to Mussolini, and fascist or Nazi. The initially fascist or Naziinitially favorable response to Mussolini, and to Hitler, Hitler, manifested manifested by many corporation other even to leaders and and other even corporation leaders by many be interpreted in that light. Americans should not be in that should not Americans light. interpreted What is however, is the extent to which a syndicalist is significant, significant, however, is the extent to which a syndicalist three countries. countries. analysis underlay the the programs programs of of all all three and approach analysis and approach underlay Even American American labor, which vigorously criticized fascism from the criticized which fascism from the Even labor, vigorously so on the ground that it favored business almost excluoutset, did favored business that it almost did so the excluon outset, ground sively, not that the the syndicalist was wrong. wrong. And not not only only not that syndicalist approach sively, approach was Act, which was did it support the National Industrial Recovery the Industrial did it National which was Recovery Act, support ~ompared to Italian fascism by Deal spokesmen, but it openly Deal New to fascism Italian but it spokesmen, by openly compared continued to frame its own programs programs within within the the syndicalist outlook. outlook. continued to frame its syndicalist In the of course, course, the the particular nationalisms which which were were used used the end, In end, of particular nationalisms to co-ordinate and unite each respective system in a corporate whole a in whole and each unite co-ordinate to respective system corporate in W orId came into conflict and produced American involvement involvement in into conflict World came produced American War II. WarH. core of National Socialism in core of National Socialism in
THE CHALLENGE OF DOMESTIC RADICALISM
Though to have have disappeared by the the end of of that that conflict, conflict, it seemed to Though it disappeared by domestic radicalism radicalism had had nevertheless nevertheless posed posed aa significant domestic significant challenge challenge to the the leaders of the War!. to the corporation leaders of L corporation society society down through through World War Radicalism's international manifestations appeared about time Radicalism's international manifestations appeared about that that time in the in Revolution that in I9Io-I9II, were focused focused the Mexican Revolution that began began in 1910-1911, and were and in the (I9IJ-I9I8), and extended extended in the Bolshevik Bolshevik Revolution Revolution in in Russia Russia (1917-1918), and the renewed itself itself in the same years. the Chinese Chinese Revolution that renewed in the Revolution that same years. II and and Radicalism sustained that momentum through through World W orId War II sustained that Radicalism in Asia and the Middle East, in the revolt against white re-emerged in Asia in the Middle the revolt white East, re-emerged against in Africa, in the of I958. rule in Africa, and in the Cuban Revolution Revolution of rule 1958. the Cuban uprising Even before before the of 1895, r895, however, however, Edward BelBeluprising of lamy's vision of a neo-socialist Utopia presented in the novel Lookvision of a neo-socialist the novel in lamy's Utopia presented
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ing Backward Backward (1888) (1888) attracted thousands of attracted thousands of Americans. Americans. Bluntly ing Bluntly assaulting the waste of "mistaken undertakings" the waste o "mistaken undertakings" and and "idle "idle capital assaulting capital and mutual hostility hostility of "the competition and mutual and labor," of those those engaged labor," "the competition and engaged Belin industry," gluts and crises" of "the periodic in and crises" of capitalism, industry," and "the periodic gluts capitalism, Bellamy to the the consolidated offered socialism socialism as as an an alternative alternative to consolidated corporalamy offered corpora-
the successor successor to laissez ffaire. tion order order that he recognized recognized would that he tion would be be the aire, to laissez His novel no doubt doubt helped helped prepare prepare the way for moveHis novel the way for the the socialist socialist moveto appear the turn of the under the the ment that began to that began at the ment the century turn of appear at century under leadership of inspiration and leadership of Debs. Debs. inspiration So, too, did the writings writings of Henry Demarest Demarest Lloyd, newspaper did the of Henry a newspaper So, too, Lloyd, a the Chicago Tribune became aa reform reform writer on the the staff staff of of the writer Tribune who became Chicago publicist and ultimately a socialist. Though he offered no dramatic a socialist. he offered dramatic no ultimately publicist Though Utopia, Lloyd's was perhaps perhaps even even of corporation Lloyd's analysis analysis of Utopia, corporation capitalism capitalism was changing the minds of more influential influential in in changing the minds more in of men and and women who in the beginning beginning took took for for granted their commitment to private proptheir the to commitment granted private property. Attacking the same time commenting on Standard Oil Oil and and at at the same time Attacking Standard erty. commenting on se, Lloyd the general character and consequences of corporations per character and the of general consequences corporations per se, Lloyd was alienating alienating men from their own explained how the the new system from their explained system was labor. labor. by aa man"; man"; he he explained in Wealth "Nothing is any Wealth any longer "Nothing is longer made by explained in "parts of things are by parts Versus Versus Commonwealth (r894), are of made by parts (1894), "parts things by the luck of a good-humor which so of and wholes become so of men, wholes the a of which luck men, by good-humor far keeps men from flying asunder." And he astutely analyzed the the asunder." he far keeps astutely analyzed flying weakness of of trying to build build aa commonwealth commonwealth on on the the foundation weakness foundation of of trying to private property with the corporation as a cornerstone. possi· private property with the corporation as a cornerstone. "The possibility of regulation," he concluded, "is a dream. As long long as this conconas this bility of regulation," he concluded, "is a dream. trol of necessaries of this wealth wealth remain remain private private with with the necessaries of life trol of the life and this is they they who will regulate, not not we." we." individuals, it is will regulate, individuals, it be seen from the writings of of Bellamy Bellamy and Lloyd, the can be As can seen from the writings Lloyd, the was contained two principal principal ideas. ideas. essence of of the radical challenge challenge was in two essence the radical contained in and then then reasserted with tremendous vigor the the First, it it secularized secularized and tremendous vigor reasserted with First, be aa good world man's world positive theme theme of Christianity. To be man's world of early positive good world early Christianity. as aa commonwealth in in which which men were brothers brothers first first had to be built had to be built as second. They gained their individuality from and economic their and economic men second. individuality They gained well as proving their their association with other men as as from proving as equals as well association with other equals as that true radicals differences. simply, the radicals argued that true individuality differences. Very the individuality argued Very simply, derived far the development development of of an personality an integrated far more from from the derived integrated personality or achievements or and its its relationships relationships with with others others than external achievements than from and from external human that superiority. Indeed, they insisted that a overt insisted overt and superficial superficial superiority. Indeed, they
388 388
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individual could not develop under circumstances circumstances which which based based the the individual could not develop under competitive success in economic survival of the person upon success in economic survival of the person upon his competitive
his
affairs. affairs. Hence their thesis: private property, since it emphasized second thesis: Hence their second private property, since it emphasized the negative negative aspects acquisition and and competiand encouraged of acquisition and all the aspects of competiencouraged all would tion, could provide the basis for commonwealth. It a commonwealth* It would for such such a the basis could not not provide tion, priori basis basis for for therefore have to give way to property as as an an a priori social property have to to social therefore give way What was often misunderstood about the socialist aa humane about the was misunderstood socialist often humane society. society. that economic meaning very level subsub· position was was that economic welfare, welfare, meaning very high high level position basis for sistence achieved in aa routine routine manner, was considered the basis considered the for sistence achieved in manner, was full definition was the necessary socialism, not the the full the necessary of socialism. socialism. It It was definition of socialism, not foundation for the creation the commonwealth and and for for the the for the of the foundation creation of emergence of a creative individualism which would enable to which enable men a to individualism of creative emergence beings for the first time in their history. history. live as in their for the first time live as human beings No radical radical ever ever understood, understood, let captured in words, that that deep in words, let alone alone captured deep sense better than Eugene Debs. "When the Debs. than radical challenge better the sense of of the the radical Eugene challenge is solved," he explained in 1908, "and all bread and butter problem problem is he in "and all and butter bread solved," 1908, explained men and and children children the world around secure the world around are are rendered rendered secure and women and war and then the the mind and will from of war and fear fear of of want, and soul soul will dread of from dread want, then be free to develop as they never were before. We shall have a litershall have a literbe free to develop as they never were before. as the the troubled heart and and brain of man never never ature an art brain of art such troubled heart ature and and an such as beautiful thoughts thoughts and senti. before conceived have beautiful shall have and senticonceived.•.•• We shall before weighted down by by ments, and aa divinity divinity in as man weighted such as in religion, ments, religion, such the machine could never never have imagined." the have imagined." machine could also stressed necessity of planning and the Radicals also of planning Radicals stressed the and directing the necessity directing the in order to achieve and maintain a high level of material economy in order to maintain achieve and a level of material economy high welfare. Such would remove necessity welfare. Such self-discipline the necessity remove the self-discipline and sharing sharing would of of imperialism and it possible to end and the exploitation make it end war to and the imperialism possible exploitation of weaker weaker societies by the Hence in in of societies by the advanced advanced industrial industrial nations. nations. Hence every vital respect the radicals confronted the advocates of the vital the radicals confronted the of advocates the new every respect corporation order order with with aa fundamental challenge. And despite the fundamental challenge. corporation despite the abuses and violations abuses that were apparent in the violations of of their their own values values that were apparent in the Russian Russian and Chinese Chinese Revolutions, Revolutions, the radicals offered challenge. the radicals the challenge. offered the Their Their weaknesses notwithstanding, they they had had asserted and acted acted upon upon weaknesses notwithstanding, asserted and the ideas ideas and values that the new corporation order, both from the very values that the both from very corporation order, interest and from its interest its own concern for a society, had finally for a human concern society, had finally to assert in its own name. in its name. In end, three three centuries their to assert the end, In the after their centuries after debate great debate within within Cromwell's Cromwell's Revolutionary Revolutionary Army, Army, the liberal the liberal great heretic the radical radical fundamentalist before the the heretic and the fundamentalist stood stood face to face face to face before .
.
.
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ancient Christian corporate their a Christian altar of of a commonwealth asserting ancient altar corporate commonwealth asserting their respective rights to the grail. to the grail. respective rights Given array of such o practical an array such an confronted with with such Given such difficulties, confronted practical difficulties, it should be clear that the process of adaptation for the challengers, be clear it should the that for the of challengers, adaptation process as the corporation order was both complicated and prolonged. Just order both the was as and complicated corporation prolonged. Just corporation itself merged and consolidated the political economy, so corporation itself merged and consolidated the political economy, so were the the various phases of the development of its blurred and and of the various phases its society were development of society blurred run together. This only served to dramatize an aspect of life-and run together. This only served to dramatize an aspect of life and hence of history itself-that may have have become itself that hopefully of history become apparent hence hopefully may apparent employ the the very through the the organization organization of of this this essay. very simple simple essay. To employ through analogy of country, history history is in such the country, is made in such time zones zones across of time across the analogy different but but concordant concordant eras. more events which occur at occur at eras. Two or or more events which different easily happen in zones that are precisely the same may are moment zones that the same in may easily happen precisely that is dying, another in the the age different. be in in an an age is dying, another in different. One may age that age may be of the the dominant may be be aa harbinger harbinger of a new a third third may and a of a dominant system, of system, and order. is particularly particularly true 2oth-century American American history, history, true of of 20th-century This is order. This be kept kept constantly constandy in next and the next in mind when considering should be and should considering the two sections of this this essay. sections of two essay.
IIII. I I. The Adaptation Adaptation of of the the Existing Order Order Existing
The all caught great economic economic system system which a great in a are all which is is truth is, The truth is, we are caught in "heartless. Wilson, 1912 Woodrow Wilson, 'heartless. 1912 What everything else else is of laws is a a body laws which above everything which needs above this country What this body of country needs willlool{ after the men who who are the ma\e make rather the men who than the rather than are on on the are made. made. Wilson, 1912 Woodrow Wilson, are 1912 will loo\ after the
We shall our economic system as it is as it is and as as it it may be deal with with our modishall deal economic system may be modified, not as it might be if had a clean sheet ot paper to write upon. to a clean sheet we had as be write not it of if might fied, paper upon. Woodrow Wilson, Wilson, 1913 1913 The antagonism antagonism hetween over. is over. between business business and Government is Wilson, 1914 Woodrow Wilson, 1914
THE KEY ROLE OF THE PROGRESSIVE MOVEMENT
AS
n A
THE COMBINATION of of ideas and organizations organizations through which ideas and through which Americans adapted adapted themselves themselves to the political political economy the to the of the economy of
large corporation that system to the the realities realities of the 20th century, of the 20th century, corporation and that large system to the Progressive symbolized many of the essential charthe Movement charessential of the Progressive symbolized many acteristics provided much of the continuity of American history acteristics and provided of the American of continuity history extent, moreover, moreover, its rhetoric, images, after 1900. To some extent, its fund fund of of rhetoric, images, and ideas will play play aa role in the the transition to whatever ideas will transition to role in whatever new society emerges the present present era of flux flux and era of travail While While and travail. society emerges from the periodically overshadowed by more conservative groups, some com~ overshadowed more conservative groups, some comperiodically by after 1900.
heroes, heroes,
~Qn mon
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bination of of Progressives policy during during most most of has guided of American policy bination Progressives has guided American the century irrespective of whether Republicans or Democrats have of whether have the century irrespective Republicans or Democrats been in the national national government. in control control of of the been government. Struggles political power, power, within and between between the parties, have have for political within and the parties, Struggles for of course existed and been important. But several factors suggest of course existed and been important. But several factors suggest that it the politics politics of period, as well is more helpful to it is as well that of the the period, helpful to approach approach the as its traditional way. way. For For one one thing, thing, the the its general history, a less in a less traditional as general history, in functional-syndicalist organization organization of of the the economy led most most political political functional-syndicalist economy led groups to play play both both sides Corporations, for sides of of the the street. street. Corporations, for example, example, groups to both parties; parties; and the contributed and leaders leaders to to both and despite contributed money money and despite the file being exclusively picture of labor union leaders and the rank and of labor union leaders and file the rank and picture being exclusively Democrats, both both elements of the the labor labor movement movement have elements of have supported Democrats, supported Republicans on many occasions. In the same way, both political political on occasions. In the same Republicans many way, both basic assumptions about such parties have shared a broad range of have shared a broad of about basic such range parties assumptions as private private property property and the relationship between fundamental issues as fundamental issues and the between relationship prosperity and overseas overseas economic expansion. Finally, Finally, the the essentially essentially economic expansion. prosperity as symbolized bipartisan nature of the Progressive Movement itself, nature of the as Movement itself, bipartisan Progressive symbolized by the Roosevelts, makes makes it more accurate to view view the the major major it more the two Roosevelts, accurate to by as landmarks of the elements and ideas of that that shifting coalition ideas of the coalition landmarks of elements as shifting entire entire century. century. RISE OF AN INDUSTRIAL GENTRY THEODORE ROOSEVELT AND THE RISE
Although it numerically the the group group of of ProgresProgresit was the smallest, was numerically smallest, the Although sives that came from from the the dwindling descendants of the old feudal and feudal sives that of old descendants the dwindling nea-feudal gentry gentry supplied supplied crucial leadership for the movement. neo-feudal the movement. for crucial leadership Drawn for part from the Hudson River River Valley Valley and the the for the the most most part from the south, that class-conscious gentry also included New Englanders south, that class-conscious gentry also included Englanders less warrant, the heirs heirs with more more or who considered considered themselves, as the or less warrant, as themselves, with of honored the the political political economy economy of the mermerof Calvin of men who honored Calvin and the cantilists. Theodore and Franklin Delano Delano Roosevelt Roosevelt as as and Franklin cantilists. Supplying Supplying Theodore Presidents, Henry L. Brooks Adams L. Stimson Stimson and Brooks such men as as Henry Presidents, and such as official unofficial advisers, performed aa vital vital funcfuncas and unofficial this gentry official and advisers, this gentry performed policies of of an an tion in trying to the ideas to adapt ideas and policies tion in sustaining sustaining and trying adapt the noblesse oblige to the industrial system. agrarian industrial noblesse to the system. oblige agrarian if poor poor Fearing the that might might be be produced" the "terrible convulsion that "terrible convulsion produced" if Fearing leadership ran the country aground on "the rock of class hatred," of rock ran "the class the on hatred," leadership country aground Theodore viewed the the Presidency Presidency "as the steward of the the "as the steward of Roosevelt viewed Theodore Roosevelt of the public welfare"-"of the commonwealth." Candidly aware of the aware welfare" commonwealth.'* "of the Candidly public the "arro"arro"real evils" of the corporation corporation system, system, and of of the "real and grave of the grave evils"
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gant of some of its leaders, he nevertheless shared Stimgant stupidity" stupidity" of some o its leaders, he nevertheless shared Stimbound up up son's view that "the interest of public is son's view that the public is inextricably "the interest of the inextricably bound in welfare of of our business." Labor Labor was was thus thus bound only in the bound "not the welfare "not only our business." by self-interest, but by by every of principle to and duty" consideration of self-interest, but by every consideration principle and duty" to of most moment to the nation." stand with capital on "matters nation." to the stand with capital on "matters of most But corporation needed education constantly inand "a "a constantly education and inBut leaders needed corporation leaders lesson was was the the traditional traditional creasing and controL" control." The lesson supervision ... and creasing supervision sermon from lord of the manor manor to to his his less but less sophisticated sermon the lord from the of the sophisticated but vassals. "The realize," nevertheless powerful powerful vassals. of property must realize," "The friends friends of nevertheless property must repeating, "that the surest provoke an an Roosevelt was to provoke of repeating, surest way "that the Roosevelt was fond fond of way to is to be short-sighted, narrowexplosion of wrong and injustice be is and to narrowof short-sighted, injustice wrong explosion minded, greedy greedy and the idea idea that that private private and arrogant." minded, Fully accepting accepting the arrogant." Fully to society and individual identity, he took aa property was essential he and individual was to took essential identity, property society long-range view of preserving the property by making its human the of its view property by making preserving long-range aspects more equitable and economy more more efficient. its economy efficient. more equitable and its aspects For aa good many years, a large number of reformers and rankrankof a reformers and For large good many years, and-file property owners followed Roosevelt like lieges of the lord like followed Roosevelt the and-file owners of lord lieges property So did a number of who (like Perkins) in the of feudalism. did a of men So the days of feudalism. number in (like Perkins) days were anxious to identify with such upper-class outlook outlook even such an an upper-class anxious to were even identify with though they were not wholly legitimate heirs of the tradition. of heirs the tradition. were not Moved wholly legitimate though they by aa multiplicity of motives, motives, they they became became administrators Gifford administrators (like multiplicity of (like Gifford by B. Cortelyou) and intellectual leaders Pinchot and and George intellectual B. Pinchot leaders who George Cortelyou) labored hours in the vineyard that ultimately produced a small the in that labored long hours a small ultimately produced vineyard long termed AmerAmerbut vintage vintage crop crop of of men who could could legitimately be termed but legitimately be ica's (or modern) modern) gentry. gentry. Probably Probably the the most ica's industrial industrial (or most famous famous of of the intellectuals Herbert Croly. His estimate of The Promise of the His estimate of intellectuals was Herbert Promise of Croly. his journal of analysis and opinion, The New American Life, Life, and American his and journal of analysis opinion, Republic, brought together some of best Progressive Progressive thought. thought. of the the best Republic, brought together is often given Though by no no means means wholly wholly derivative, often given derivative, Croly Though by Croly is credit ideas that were advanced people like credit for for ideas that were advanced much earlier earlier by like by people Brooks Adams and even even Roosevelt Roosevelt himself. provided aa synBrooks himself. Croly Croly provided synthesis that to many many Progressives Progressives because because he organized and that appealed thesis he organized and appealed to stated their stated their explicit ideas with verve and power. power. Calling Calling latent ideas with verve explicit and latent for national democracy" democracy" based based upon upon an the "a new national for "a an acceptance of the acceptance of corporation and and other other "well-organized within aa interests" within corporation "well-organized special special interests" syndicalist feared aa syndicalist revolution framework, he openly syndicalist framework, openly feared syndicalist revolution staged by therefore stressed the importance of moderating labor and therefore stressed the of by labor staged importance moderating of wealth." Roose"existing in the the distribution wealth." But like Roosedistribution of But like inequalities in "existing inequalities velt other Progressives, velt and other Croly had difficulty in developing any had in Progressives, Croly difficulty developing any .
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The Age of The Age of Corporation Corporation Capitalism Capitalism
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philosophy to provide the the elan to provide the cement new philosophy and the cement and elan that that Christianity Christianity in earlier centuries. Falling back on the ideas of militant had supplied in earlier had centuries. Falling back on the ideas of militant supplied expansion, he rather lamely asserted a belief that nationalism and nationalism expansion, he rather lamely asserted a belief that "somehow and sometime" the problem would be solved. and sometime" the problem would be solved. "somehow Walter E. Weyl Weyl grappled grappled with Walter Lippmann Walter E, same the same with the Lippmann and Walter p0issues. Nobody Nobody asked asked the the basic the corporation basic questions about the questions about corporation political better than than Lippmann his essay on Drift Drift and and litical economy did in in his economy better Lippmann did essay on but having having abandoned even aa socialism of the the heart, heart, Mastery (1914), abandoned even socialism of Mastery (1914), but he matured as aa keen keen analyst the system and a sophisticated mis~ matured as of the he and a analyst of system sophisticated missionary preaching the the need corporate ethic. ethic. Though Though not not as need of of a a corporate as sionary preaching famous as or Croly, Weyl was in many respects the most as Lippmann famous was the most in Lippmann or Croly, Weyl many respects he obviously learned much rigorous thinker the group. thinker of of the While he group. While rigorous obviously learned Benevolent feudalism, Feudalism, and and from Ghent's outline of Our "Benevolent his friend friend Ghent's from his outline of from with Mitchell Mitchell of of the the miners* miners' union, he went went his association association with from his union, he beyond that the ideas ideas of of the the National National Civic Civic Federation. Federation. that analysis and the analysis and beyond as far as capital and labor were Starting from the assumption that from the labor were as and that far as Starting assumption capital concerned, "the interest of one is the interest of the other," he tried "the tried interest he of is the one interest of the concerned, other," to evolve approach whereby whereby the the syndicalist nature of the system evolve an approach of to nature the system syndicalist co~rdinated in unity that produce aa could be co-ordinated in a a corporate would produce could be that would corporate unity "new individualism." individualism." Accepting Accepting the the importance of overseas economic overseas economic importance of he also realized that the poor countries would have to to expansion, also have realized that would countries the poor expansion, be given an "integrated economic solution" of their problems if the if the be of economic their solution" "integrated problems given either efficient In aa similar way, he he empire were to to be be either or defensible. efficient or defensible. In similar way, empire were an "association of consumers" was needed to bal~ recognized that to balneeded recognized that an "association of consumers" ance units and at cut across them. other syndicalist the other the same time time cut across them. at the ance the syndicalist units He understood, understood, probably probably more clearly clearly than than any other Progressive, any other Progressive, that the the problem problem was was to to provide base for of the the heart heart a base for socialism socialism of that provide a it that it without subverting private property. property. He admitted, without admitted, finally, finally, that subverting private a socialist. could not not be be done and became became a socialist. could Reagan was was a Moving in in just just the the opposite direction, John John H. Reagan Moving opposite direction, a reformer who began began his his career politician and reformer of a as something career as something of politician as aa defender of the the corporacorpora~ socialist of the heart and and concluded it as defender of the heart socialist of concluded it of 1887, tions. As the co~author of the co-author of the the Interstate Interstate Commerce Act of tions. 1887, Reagan's intellectual and philosophical journey symbolized the and intellectual philosophical journey symbolized the Reagan's power of a second major group within the Progressive coalition. the coalition. a within second of Progressive major group power ulti~ Indeed, the role of corporation spokesmen the role of such such sophisticated Indeed, spokesmen ultisophisticated corporation the of mately provoked a good many middle 437, 43 438; ineconomy of, of, 427-29, 8; ineconomy 160; industrial industrial dividual replaced replaced by, by, 160; dividual 380; influence influence in in national national vs. financial, financial, 380; vs. 375; and and Marshall's Marshall's Supreme Supreme decisions, 375; decisions, Court decisions, decisions, 213-14; 213-14; and and New New York York Court law of of 1811, I8n, 1186; organization of, of, law 86; organization 351-52; paternalism paternalism by, by, 379, 379, 394; 394; 351-52; planned economic economic activity activity of, of, 35-5i; 350-5r; planned pragmatism's role role in in adaptation adaptation to, to, pragmatism's 402-05; radicalism's radicalism's challenge challenge to, to, 386386402-05; and railroad railroad system, system, 303; 303; results results of of 89; and 89; production of of atomic atomic bomb by, by, 477-78; 477-78; production and social social system, system, resolving resolving dichotomy dichotomy and 374; Southern Southern view of, of, prior prior between, 374; between, to Civil Civil War, War, 298; 298; and syndicalism, syndicalism, to 358,384, 385; Taney's Taney's confirmation confirmation of, of, 358, 384, 385; as unit unit of of competition, competition, 248; 248; Taylor Taylor as opposed to, to, 154 154 opposed Cortelyou, George George B., Bo, 392 392 Cortelyou, Cotton, John, John, 44, 44, 94 94, 95 95 Cotton, Cotton gin, gin, 185, 186, 256 256 Cotton 185, 186, Coughlin, Charles, Charles, 444-45 444-45 Coughlin, Court of of Equity, Equity, 59 59 Court Couzens, James, James, 394 Couzens, 394 Coxe, Tench, Tench. 124, J46, 164 124, 146, 164 Coxe, Coxey's Army, Army, 355 355 Coxey's
Cramt!l"'s Magazifl~ Almanac, Almanac, 193 Cramer's Magazine 193
Crane, Stephen, Stephen, 303 Crane, 303
Crawford, William H., Ho, 194 Crawford, 194 Crevccover, St. John 181 Crevecover, Hector St. de, 181 John de, Croly, Herbert. 385, 392, 427, -450 Herbert, 426, 427, Croly, 385, 392, 426, 450 Cromwell, Cromwell, Oliver, Oliver, 28, 28, 31, 37, 51, 31, 37, 58, 51, 58, 88 3388 Crossman Wo So, 340 W. Grossman and Brothers, Brothers, S., 340 Cuba, 288, 460; Cuba, 194, 216, 217, 217, 218, 199, 216, 218, 288, 460; 194, 199, difficulties in, Spain's 362, 366, 366, 367 Spain's difficulties in, 362, 367 Cuban Revolution, of 1895, of Revolution, of 1895, 341, 341, 386; 386; of 8, 386, 195 1958, 476 386, 476 Culbertson, Culbertson> William So, S., 456 456 Culpeper, John, 104 Culpeper, John, 104 Dalton, Dalton, Charles, Charles, 338 338 Dana, Dana, Richard Henry, Henry, quoted, quoted, 295 295 Danids, Daniels, Josephus, 460 Josephus, 460 Danish West Indies, I9 Indies, 3 319 Darwinism, Darwinism, environmental, environmental, 399, 400, 402. 402, 399, 400, 407 407 Davie, R., 150 150 Davie, William Ro, Davis, Davis, Jefferson, Jefferson, 298, 300 298, 300 Davyes, Davyes, William, William, 103 103 Charles Go, Dawes, Dawes, Charles 426 G., 425, 425, 426 Dawes Plan, Plan, 433. 433, 434 434 De Lancey, De Lancey, James, 87 James, 87 Deane, 120 Deane, Silas, Silas, II4; 114; quoted, quoted, 120 Debs, Debs, Eugene, Eugene, 384, 384, 387, 387, 396, 4i, 487; 487? 39$, 401, quoted, quoted, 388 388
Index Index Declaration of of Independence, Independence, 64, 64, 79, 79, 85, 85, Declaration Il7, 329 32 9 II2-X3, 117, 112-13, D~tmse of of the the Constitution Constitution of of GovernGOfl~Defense ment of of the the United United States, States, 156 156 ment Deism, 58, 58, 81 81 Deism,
Delano, Columbus, Columbus, quoted, quoted, 264-65 264-65 Delano, Delaware, 350 350 Delaware, DeLeon, Daniel, Daniel, 384 384 DeLeon,
Democratic Party, Party, 272, 272, 281, 281, 313, 313, 316, 316, Democratic 422 422 Democratic-Republican Societies, Societies, 167, 167,168 168 Democratic-Republican Democratic Review, Review, The, The, 239 239 Democratic Department of of Commerce Commerce and and Labor, Labor, 407 407 Department Depression, of of 1819, 1819, 20 201, 205; of of 1837, 1837, 1> 205; Depression, 249, 266; 266; of of 1873-1877, 1873-1877, 3I3-I7; 313-17; of of 249, 1893-1898, 354, 354, 372; 372; of of 1913-1914, 1913-1914, 1893-1898, 377, 411, 4II, 415; 415: of of 1921-1922, 1921-1922, 432; 432; 377, Great, see see Great Great Depression Depression Great,
Desegregation, 476 476 Desegregation,
Detroit, Detroit,
307 307 Dew, Thomas R., R., 270 270 Dew, Dewey, George, George, 367 367 Dewcy, Dewey, John, John, eclecticism eclecticism of, of, 402; 402; influinBuDewey, on Progressive Progressive Movement, Movement, 402, 402, ence on ence 404, 405; 405; pragmatism pragmatism of, of, 402-05, 402-05. 441, 441, 404, 450,472 472 450, Dickinson, John, John, no, lIO, 114 II4 Dickinson, Dismal Swamp, Great, Great, 143. 2Il Dismal Swamp, 143, 211 Divided We Stand Stand-The of aa Crisis of The Crisis Divided Frontier/esl Democracy Democracy (1937), (1937), 444 444 Frontierless Dixon, Thomas, Thomas, 324 Dixon, 324 Dollar Diplomacy, 383 Dollar Diplomacy, 383 Donne, John, 45 Donne, John, 45 Donnelly, Ignatius, 333 Ignatius, 333 Donnelly, Douglas, Stephen 283, 295, A., 282, 282, 283, 295, 296; 296; Douglas, Stephen A., in Lincoln debates, in Lincoln debates, 297; of, policies of, 297; policies 1-92 29 290, 290, 291-92 Douglas, William, quoted, 105 Douglas, William, quoted, 105 Downes, 136 Downes, Randolph, Randolph, 136 Downes, William, 197 Downes, William, 197 Downing, George, 51, Downing, George, 51, 65 65 Drayton, William Henry, 116" Henry, u6 Dray ton, William Dred Scott decision, 294 Scott Dred decision, 294 Drew, Daniel, 325 Drew, Daniel, 325 Drift and MfJftery, Drift and 393 Mastery, 393 Du Bois, William E. E. B., B., 398 398 Bois, William Du Pont Company, Pont Company, 354, 421 354, 421 "Dual Federalism," 160, 199 "Dual Federalism," 160, 199 Duane, Duane, James, James, II4 114 Duggan, Laurence, 459 459 Duggan, Laurence, Dulles, Allen, 458 Dulles, Allen, 458 Dulles, John Foster, Dulles, John Foster, 424 424 Dunmore, 6 116 Dunmore, Lord, Lord, II Dutch 101 Dutch Reformed Reformed Church, Church, 101 Dutch 86 India Co., Dutch West India Co., 86
Earl, Earl, Ralph, 244 Ralph, 244
Easley, Easley, Ralph, Ralph, 360 360 East 112 India Company, East India Company, Xl2
501 501
East East Indian Indian trade, trade, won won by by Jay, Jay, 172 172 Eaton, Peggy, Peggy, 239 239 Eaton, Edmunds, George George R, F .. 333, 333, 336 336 Edmunds,
Edward I,I, 33, 33, 39 39 Edward Edward Edward in, 33 33
m.
Edwards, Jonathan, Jonathan, 99, 99, 100, 100, 101, 101, 108, IDS, Edwards, 250, 251, 251, 483 483 250, Edwards, Ogden, 233, 234 Edwards, Ogden, 233, 234 Efliciency of of corporations, corporations, 398, 398, 405-06 405-06 Efficiency Element* Elements of of Political Political Economy, Economy, 240 2-40 Elizabeth Elizabeth I, I, 31, 31, 32, 32. 40, 40, 41, 41, 48, 48, 166, 166, 482 432 Elkins Elkins Act Act (1903), (1903), 407 407 Ely, Richard Richard T., T., 400, 400, 401, 401, 466; 466; quoted, quoted, Ely,
400-01 400-01 Emerson, Ralph Ralph Waldo, Waldo, 238, 238. 242, 242, 243, 243, Emerson,
quoted. 227, 227, 242-43 242-43 244, 295; 295; quoted, 244, Engineering Magazine, Magazine, 363 363 Engineering England, apology of, for aiding ConfederEngland, apology of, for aiding Confederacy. 319; 319; in in final tinal victory victory over over France France acy, (1763), 69, 69, 1106; and House House of of MorMor06; and (1763), gan. 384, 384, 434; 434: Jefferson's Jefferson·s analysis analysis of of gan, U.S. relations relations with with (1791), (1791), 178; 178; nanaof coal mines in, after tionalization tionalization of coal mines in, after 361; settlement settlement of of west west World War n, 361;
u.s.
n,
by (1761), trade cut cut 106; trade by (1761), 106; by colonial colonial non-importation, non-importation, no; lIO; in in by War of of 1812. 1812, 151, 151, 155, 191, 192-93, 155, 191, 192-93* 195, Washington's neutrality neutrality 195, 196; 196; and Washington's (1793). in World War n, n. 460 460 t67' & (1793), 167; English Revolution, Revolution, 29, 31, 33, 40, -47, 47, English 29, 31, 33, 40, 49, 50, 55. 182, 481 50, 55, 182, 423, 423, 481 49, Episcopalians, 58 Episcopalians, 58 Equal Party, 249 Equal Rights Rights Party, 249 Equity. of, 59 Equity, Court of, 59 Erie Canal. Erie 202. 256 Canal, 202, 256 Evans, H., 279, Evans, George George H., 279, 280 Evans, Lewis, 105 Evans, Lewis, 105 Evans, Walker, 444 Evans, Walker. 444 Everett, 288; quoted, 257 Everett, Edward, Edward, 267, 267, 288; quoted, 257 restricted restricted
in Ezamination Late Procut/ingl the Late Examination of Proceedings in of the Congress, 151 Taylor's, 151 Congress, Taylor's, Expansionism, 187, 270, 272, 275, 181-85, 187,270,272,275, Expansionism, 181-85. 2.76, on, 480; Buchanan's statement on, 276, 480; of (1828). 2.87; Clay on implications (1828), implications of 287; Clay :Z21; Hoover's views on, 429-30; Hoover's on, 429-30; 221; Marshall's Marshall's support of, 214; 214; Monroe's support of, 21 6, of (1822 reassertion and 1823). reassertion of 1823), :n6. (1822 220-21; Deal, 453, 220-21; and New Deal. 453, 454,456. 454, 45* 457; overseas, 409, 416, 429-30. 429-30, 409, 412, 412, 416. 457; overseas, Pierce's statement on, 474, on, .287; 287; 475! Pierce's 474, 475; reasof 409. 412, 4x6; of Progressives, Progressives, 409, 412, 416; realwith sertion and war with Spain, 363..,0; sertion of, 3*>3-7o; Spain, of, during reconstruction period, 317-18; period, 317-18; during reconstruction views on. and 376..,8; Seward's news and reform, on, reform, 376-78; 317, of, as inherent 318-19; statement of, 317, 318-19; Wiland Taft, in in mercantilism, Taft, Wilmercantilism, 215; 215; and and United United Nations, liam liam Howard, Nations, Howard, 109; 409; and of Young 484; weaknesses of, Young of, 476-78; 476-78; of 484; weaknesses thesis also Frontier see also Frontier thetis Americans, 288; lee Americans, 288;
Index Index
502 502 Export-Import Bank, Bank, 455, 455, 459 459 Export-Import
II3. 115 II5 Fairfax County County Resolves, Resolves, 113, Fairfax Farewell Address, Address, Washington's, Washington's, 82, 82, 173173Farewell 74, 218, :zx8, 411 4I I 74, Farmers, and and declining declining rate rate of of economic economic: Farmers, growth (i88o's), (1880'S), 335-36; 335-36; during during dedegrowth pression of of 1921-1922, 1921-1922,432-33 432-33 pression Fascism, 386, 386, 428, 428, 437, 437, 442 442 Fascism, Faulkner, William, William, 244 244 Faulkner, Federal Emergency Emergency Relief Relief Administration, Administration, Federal 441 441 Federal Farm Farm Board, Board, 436 436 Federal Federal Farm Farm Loan Loan Act, Act, 442 442 Federal Federal Reserve Reserve Act, Act, 410 410 Federal Federal Reserve Reserve System, System, 395, 395, 410, 410, 421, 421, Federal
42 5 425
Federal Trade Trade Commission, Commission, 425 425 Federal Federal Trade Trade Commission Commission Act, Act, 410 410 Federal
Federalist, The,
II6, 145, 145, Federalist, The, 116, Federalist Party, Party, 174, 267 Federalist 174, 267
159 159
Fessenden, Wifliam William Pitt, Pitt, 305 305 Fessenden, Feudalism, 56-57, 56-57, 152 Feudalism, 152
Field, Erastus Erastus Salisbury, Salisbury, 228 228 Field, Field, Stephen Stephen J., J., 328-29; 328-29; quoted, quoted,320 Field, 320
Fillmore, Millard, Millard, 288 288 Fillmore, Ymancial capitalism, capitalism, 327, 327, 380, 380, 381 38x Financial Finney, Charles Charles G., G., 252, 252, 253 253 Finney, Firestone Tire TJre and and Rubber Rubber Co., Co.. 434 434 Firestone Yuh, Hamilton Hamilton (Secretary (Secretary of of State), 338 State), 338 Fish, Fisk, James, James, 325 325 Fisk, Fiske, John, John, 364 364 Fiske,
82 Fitzhugh, William, William, 82 Fltzhugh, Fitzsimons, Thomas, Thomas, 150, Fitzsimons, 150, 177 177 Flanders, Ralph, Ralph, 466 466 Flanders, Florida, 126, 171, 173, 194; abandoned Florida, 126, 171, 173, 194; abandoned
by Spain, by Spain, X96 196 Floyd, John, John, quoted, quoted, 217 217 Floyd, Ford, Henry, Ford, Henry, 380, 384 380, 384 Ford Foundation, Ford Foundation, 465 465 Foreign Relations Committee, Committee, Sellate, Senate, 339 Foreign Relations 339 Fort Knox, 455 Fort Knox, 455
Fortrey, Samuel, quoted, Fortrey, Samuel, quoted, 53 53 Foster, Foster, John John W., W., 368 368 as ally of Americans, France, 102; as of Americans, II9, France, 102; ally 119, X20, and American American Revolution, Revolution, 120, 167; 167; and II9; co-operation with, favored by favored 119; co-operation with, by House of of Morgan, final Morgan, 384; 384; England's England's final victory over (1763), 69, 106; favored over favored victory (1763), 69, 106; by and Je1ierson, Madison and Mexico by Madison Jefferson, I74; 174; Mexico abandoned abandoned by, U.S. surpluses 318-19; U.s. by, 318-19; surpluses excluded excluded from (1880'S), (i88o*s), 365, 365, 366 366 Franklin, Franklin, Benjamin, Benjamin, 78, 78, 88, no, 88, 90, 90, 105, 105, IIO, II9, 122, 127; career of, 91-93; career as land land 122, 119, 127; of, 91-93; as speculator, 92 speculator, 92 Free Free Soilers, Soilers, 280-81, 280-81, 282, 282, 285, 285, 287, 287, 291 291 Free Free trade, trade, 54, 66, 122, 54, 66, 122, X23, 128, 144, 123, 128, 144, x68, 169, 22X . 221 168, 169, Freedman's 306 Freedman's Bureau, Bureau, 306
Frelinghuysen, Frederick Frederick T., T., 339 339 Frelinghuysen, French and and Indian Indian War, War, 102 102 French
French Revolution, Revolution, 167, 167, 195, x95, 301 301 French French West West Indies, Indies, 102 102 French Freneau, Philip, Philip, in, II I, 181 I8x Freneau, Freud, Sigmund, Sigmund, 404, 404, 472 472 Freud,
Frey, John John P., P., 383, 383, 431, 431, 432 432 Frey, Frontier, committed committed to to laissez-faire laissez-faire ininFrontier, dividualism, 257; 257; disappearance disappearance of, of, in in dividualism, second half half of of 2Oth 20th century, century, 477; 477; second
periodic shutting shutting down of, of, 376-78 376-78 periodic Frontier thesis, thesis, 181-85, 181-85, 187, 187, 222, 222, 374, 374, Frontier to industrialism, industrialism, 317317378; adaptation adaptation to 378; 19; Beard's Beard's critique critique of, of, 463-64; 463-64; labor's labor's 19; acceptance of, of, 279-83; 279-83; and and laissez laissez faire, faire, acceptance 270-76; Negro's Negro's abandonment abandonment of, of, 485485270-76; to, 406-12; 406-12; 86; Progressives* Progressives' return return to, 86; 4II; Wilson's Wilson's Turner's, 365, 365, 377, 377, 409, 409, 411; Turner's,
see acceptance of, of, 409, 409, 411-12, 4II-12, 419; 419; see acceptance also Expansionism Expansionism
also
Fugitive Slave Slave Act, Act, 282 282 Fugitive 243 Fuller, Margaret, 243
Fuller, Margaret,
for the the Republic, Republic, 465 465 Fund for
Fur Traders Traders Descending Descending the the Fur 245 245
Miuissippi,
Mississippi,
Gabriel Plot Plot (1801), (1801), 186 x86 Gabriel Gadsby's Tavern, Tavern, 239 239 Gadsby's Gadsden, Christopher, Christopher, 82, 85, 114 II4 Gadsden, 82, 85, Galbraith, John John K., K., quoted, quoted, 414 414 Galbraith, Gallatin, Albert, Albert, 174, 180, 192, 200; Gallatin, 174, 179, 179, 180, 192, 200; as expert expert on finance finance and and internal internal imimas provements, 188-90 provements, 188-90 Galloway, Joseph, Joseph, IIO, II4; quoted, quoted, 119Galloway, no, 114; 119-
20 20 Galveston, business government 359 Galveston, business of, 359 government of, Garrison, William Lloyd, 254, 255, 256, Garrison, William Lloyd, 254, 255, 256, 259, 278; quoted, 254 259i 278; quoted, 246, 246, 254 Gary, Elbert H., H., 378 Gary, Elbert 378 General General Electric Electric Co., Co., 383, 383, 431 431 General Act (1824), General Survey Act 211 Survey (1824), 2II General General Trade Union of of Boston, Boston, 237 237 Genet, 168 Genet, Citizen, Citizen, 168 Henry, 324, 333; quoted, George, George, Henry, 324, 333; quoted, 320, 320, 333-34 333-34 George m, 32, 69, 73, 92, 106 George IH, 32, 69, 73, 92, Georgia, Georgia, 83, 83, 84, 84, 220, 220, 261, 261, 283, 283, 310 310 as early Germans, Germans, as early immigrants, immigrants, 89 89 Germany, Germany, 422, 422, 423, 423, 429, 429, 437, 437, 443, 443, 457, 457, 461; to Open in World 461; challenge challenge to Open Door in 462; Dawes Plan for, 433, War II, Plan II, 462; for, 433, Socialism in, 434; neo434; National Socialism in, 386; 386; neomercantilism in mercantilism and 1880'S), in (1870'S and (1870*5 i88o's), 400; Deal's appeasement 400; New Deal's appeasement of, of, 458; 458; U.S. surpluses U.S. excluded from (1890'S), surpluses excluded (1890*5), 365, 366; Wilson's stand against, 412, Wilson's stand 365, 366; against, 412, 421 421 Gerry, Elbridge, 139, X61, 175 Gerry, Elbridge, 139, 161, 175 Gettysburg, Battle of, Gettysburg, Battle of, 300 300
Index Index Ghent, 393; Ghent, William J., J., 358, 358, 359, 359, 369, 369, 393; quoted, 345 345 quoted, Gibbons v. Ogden, 213 Gibbons v. Ogden, 213 Giddings, Joshua, quoted, 277 Giddings, Joshua, quoted, 277 Gilbert, Humphrey, 45 45 Gilbert, Humphrey, Giles, William, 194 Giles, William, 194 Gilpin, William, William, quoted, quoted, 317-18 Gilpin, 317-18 Girard, Stephen. 200 Stephen, 200 Girard, Gladden, Washington, 400 Gladden, Washington, 400 Glass, Carter, 324 Glass, Carter, 324 Glorious Revolution Revolution (1688),29,50, Glorious 60 (1688), 29, 50, 60 Goldman, Eric, 399 Goldman, Eric, 399 Gompers, Samuel, 281, 281, 316, Gompers, Samuel, 316, 334, 334, 359, 359, 360, 401, 402 402 360, 368, 368, 382, 382, 401, Neighbor Policy, 436, 459, 460 Good Neighbor Policy, 436, 459, 460 Gossett, T., quoted, quoted, 343 William T., Gossett, William 343 Gouge. William M .• 44, 44, 233 233 William M., Gouge, Gould, Jay, 325 Gould, Jay, 325 Grange movement* 309. Grange movement, 309, 336 336 319 Grant, Ulysses 5., Grant, Ulysses S., 319 Gray, William L., 177 William L., 177 Gray, Grayson, William, William, 137 Grayson, 137 251 Great Awakening, Awakening, 101, Great 101, 102, 102, 251 Great Depression, Depression, 356, 356, 376, 376, 377, Great 377, 399, 399, 414, 415, 415, 426, 437-3 8 426, 437-38 414, Great Lakes, Lakes, 196 Great 196 Greek 263 Greek Revolution, Revolution, 216, 216, 232, 232, 263 Greeley, Horace, Greeley, Horace, 280 Green, Duff, Duff, 275 Green, 275 Green Ribbon Club, Club, 60 60 Green Ribbon Greenback 315, 316, 316, 336 Greenback campaign, campaign, 315, 336 Greenough, Horatio, 244, 244, 245 245 Greenough, Horatio, Gresham, Walter, 316-17, 333, 340 Gresham, Walter, 316-17, 333, 340 Grew, Nehcmiah, Nehemiah, quoted, quoted, 28, 28, 66 66 Grew, Griswold, Jolm A., 301 A., 301 Griswold, John Mexico, 127 Gulf of Mexico, Gulf of 127 Habeas Corpus Corpus Act, Act, 29, 29, 59 Habeas 59 459 459 Hales, John, 46 Hales, John, 46 Haiti, Haiti,
Hamilton, Alexander, 120, 124, 130, 154, Hamilton, Alexander, 120, 124, 130, 154, break with 157, Adams' break with 168, 177. 157, 168, 178; Adams* 177, 178: at Anof, 155; at (1798), 175; ambition ambition of, 155; (1798), 175; of napolis Convention, Convention, 146; 146; Bank of napolis United States by, 165, established by, States established United 166; 165, 166; Federalist Party Party controlled controlled by, Federalist 174; by, 174; program of, Madison opposed to program Madison 163of, 163opposed to 64, 168, 169; Madison's program opMadison's 1 program op68, 169; 64, posed by, 164-65, 170: pro-English posed by, 164-65, 170; pro-English program of, 171-72, 170, 171-72, 166, 170, of, 163, 163, 166, program 174, Report on ManufacManufac176; Report 175, 176; 174, 175, for Useful by, 166, Society for Useful tures by, 1 66, 170: tures 170; Society Manufactures incorporated by, 167; Manufactures 167; incorporated by, by, strong central government favored by, government favored strong central 155, 155, 156 156 or Hammon-Harwood house, house, 81 Hammond, Bray, Bray, 212 Hammond, II4 Hancock, John, Hancock, John, 114 Hancock, Thomas, 98 Thomas, 98 Hancock,
503 503
Mark, 349, Hanna, Mark, Hanna, 349, 355, 355, 360, 360, 369, 370, 369, 370,
385, 394, 394, 395, 426, 450, 453; 385, 395> 408, 408, 426, 450, 453; as entrepreneur as entrepreneur of s}'&tem, of corporation corporation system, 360-62; quoted, 345 360-62; quoted, 345 Harding, Warren Warren G., G., 427 427 Harding, Harmon" of Nature, Nature, The. 261 Harmony of The, 261 Harper's Ferry, Ferry, Brown's Brown's attack attack on, 294 Harper's on, 294
Harriman, Edward HenrY, 383, 418, 418, 419 419 Harriman, Henry, 383, Harrington, James, 60, Harrington, James, 60, 64, 64, 156 156 Harris, William T., 333 Harris, William T., 333 Harrisburg Tariff (1827), (1827), Convention on on Tariff Harrisburg Convention 231 231 Harrison, William William Henry, 268, 333 Harrison, Henry, 267, 267, 268, 333 Hartford Hartford Convention Convention (1814), (1814), 196 196 Havemeyer, HenrY 0., 378 Havemcyer, Henry O., 378 Hawaii, 271, 271, 272, 272, 288, 288, 319, 319, 340, Hawaii, 340, 368 368 Hawley, Joseph, quoted, quoted,77 Hawley, Joseph, 77 243 Hawthorne, Nathaniel, Hawthorne, Nathaniel, 243 Hay, John, Hay, John, 317. 317, 355. 355, 364. 364, 368, 368, 369. 369, 383. 383, 417, 474, 474, 476, 476, 484; 484: quoted, quoted, 346 417, 346 B., 313; quoted, 338; Hayes, Rutherford Rutherford Hayes, B., 313; quoted, 338; into Pittsburgh Pittsburgh by, by, 316 316 troops ordered into troops ordered Haymarket Riot (1886), 354 Riot Haymarket (1886), 333, 333, 354 Haywood, William, William, 384 384 Haywood, William Randolph, Hearst, William Hearst, Randolph, 366 366 Helper, Hinton Hinton Rowan, 299 Helper, Rowan, 299 no, Henry, Patrick, 79, 101, Henry, Patrick, 79. 101, no, 134, 153, 134, 153, 161 161 HenrY VII, 34 Henry VII, 34 Henry VIE, VIII, 36, Henry 36, 37. 38, 39 39 37, 38, Hepburn Act Act (1906), 407. 408, 408, 409 Hepburn (1906), 407, 409 Hepburn Investigation, 310 Hepburn Investigation, 310 Hewes, Joseph, 82. 117: quoted, 77 Hcwes, Joseph, 82, 117; quoted, 77 Rice, Andrew, quoted, quoted, 284 284 Hice, Andrew, Hill, James J., J.. 350. 382 Hill, James 350, 351, 351, 382 Hill, Walker, Walker, quoted, 3.53 Hill, quoted, 353 Historical Monument of American the American Historical of the Republic, 228 228 Republic, HisJory of of the the Five Firle Nations, Nillions. 88 88 History Hoar, George Geor~ F., 336 Hoar, F., 336 Thomas, 62 62 Hobbes, Hobbcs, Thomas, Hoffman, Paul, Paul, 466, 468; quoted, quoted, 451, 451, Hoffman, 466, 468; 466 466 Holbrook, Josiah, 238 238 Holbrook, Josiah, Holmes, 405 Oliver Wendell, Wendell, 405 Holmes, Oliver Home Owners Loan Corporation, 442 Corporation, 442 Homestead Act (1862), 305 Homestead Act (1862), 305 Hooker, Richard, Richard, 41 Hooker, 41 Hoover, Herbert. 385, 425, Hoover, Herbert, 415, 424, 424, 425, 385, 415. 1• 43 436, 442, 442, 448, 44 8, 433, 434, 435 43$, 434. 435, 43i 433, by, 481; corporation economy analyzed by, economy analyzed 481; corporation of 427-29, 437, 437, 438; depression of 427-29, 438; and depression 1921-1922, 432; on expansionism, 429expansionism, 4291921-1922, 432; 30. 485; 485; and Great Depression, Depression, 437-38; 437-38; 30, of United States. as President of 436-38; as President States, 436-38; as Secretary quoted, 413, 413, 429, Secretary of 467; as 429, 467; quoted, Commerce, 427, 450; 450; smeared by by Commerce, 427, Democrats. by, from 426; support support won by, Democrats, 426;
504 504
Index Index
three groups, groups, 430; 430; as as Wilson's Wilson's advisor, advisor, three
·427 427 Hopkins, Harry, Harry, 415, 415, 441, 441, 450; 450; quoted, quoted, Hopkins, 4 14, 439, 439, 442 442 414, Hopkins, Samuel, Samud, 251 251 Hopkins, Howard University, University, 324 324 Howard
Howdls, William, William, 332 332 Howells, Hllekl~herry Finn, Finn, 332 332 Huckleberry Hughes, Charles Charles Evans, Evans, 429, 429, 434, 434, 435, 435, Hughes,
446 446
Interstate Interstate
Commerce Commission, Commission, 407, 407, Commerce
409, 431 431 409,
Iowa Territory, Territory, 257 257 Iowa Iredel, James, 82 82
Iredel, James,
Ireland, early early immigrants immigrants from, from, 89 89 Ireland, Iron Age, Age, 363 363 Iron Iron Founders Founders Association, Association, 304 304 Iron Italy, 366, 366, 437, 437, 443, 443, 461; 461; fascism fascism in, in, Italy, 386, 442 442 386,
Huhlcnberg, Frederic Frederic A. A. C, C., 174 174 Huhlenberg, Hull, CordeU, Corddl, 436, 436, 454, 454, 455, 455, 456, 456, 458, 458, Hull, 461; quoted, quoted, 414 414 461; Hume, David, David, 70 70 Hume, Hungarian Revolution Revolution (1848-1850), {I848-I850}, 263, .263, Hungarian
Jackson, Andrew, Andrew, 230, 230, 235, 235, 252, 252, 259, 259, Jackson, 260, 267, 267, 317, 317, 337, 337, 338, 338, 349; 349; Adams Adams 260, defeated by by (1828), (1828), 205; 2°5: Bank Bank of of defeated
Hutcheson, Francis, Francis, 156 156 Hutchcson, Hutchinson, Anne, Anne, 95, 95, 96 96 Hutchinson,
240, 241; 241; quoted, quoted, 180, 180, 227, 227, 240, 240, 270; 270; 240, victory at at New Orleans, Orleans, 196 196 victory James, Henry, Henry, 330, 330, 331, 331, 332; 332; quoted, quoted, James,
Idealism, Royce's, Royce's, 342 342 Idealism, Illinois, 290; 290; Protective Protective Illinois,
James, William, William, 341-42 341-42 James,
28.2 282
Union in, in, 279 279 Union Illinois-Michigan Canal, Canal, 256 256 Illinois-Michigan Illinois Steel Steel Co., Co., 353 353 Illinois Immigration, and and market market place, place, 322 322 Immigration, ImPfflaing Crisis Crisis of of the the South: South: How HoUl to to Impending M~et It, It, 299 299 Meet India, as as foreign foreign market market (1880'$), (1880'S), 399 399 India, Indiana, 185, 185, 261 261 Indiana, Indians, Benton's Benton's agitation agitation against, against, 234; 234; Indians, in era, 136-37; and exexin Confederation Confederation era, 136-37; and pansionism, 187; Jackson'S policy on, pansionism, 187; Jackson's policy on, 241, 321; Jefferson's policy on, 171, 241* 321; Jefferson's policy on, 171, policy on, 179; merlaissez faire fairc policy on, 322; 322; mer179; laissez cantilist Sheridan's cantilist policy on, 322; 322; Sheridan's policy on, 321-22; uprooted from views on, views on, 321-22; uprooted from Georgia, as PresPresand Washington 220; and Washington as Georgia, 220; ident, rout of, of, 173 ident, 171, 173 171, 173; Wayne's rout 173; Wayne's Individualism, 223; Adams, Samuel, on Individualism, 223; Adams, Samuel, on dangers of, 108; Hoover's new, 427; dangers of, 108; Hoover's new, 427; of of Locke, 62of James, Locke, 62William, 341; James, William, 341; of 65, see 65, 70, 70, 73, ioo, 152, 202, 251; 251; S~~ 152, 202, 73, 100, 111m also Laissez Laissez faire faire Industrial Workers of of the Industrial Workers the World, World, 384, 384, 385,401 385, 401 IndustIy, of, Industry, American, American, development development of, 185-86, 260-61 185-86, 260-61 Inquiry into the the Prindpl~s and Policy Policy Inquiry into Principles ana of the Governm~t the Unit~a United Government of of the of th~ Statu, 151 States, 151 Inquiry into 1M and T~m Tendenthe Prindpl~s Inquiry into Principles ana d~s cies of Certain Puhlic Public M~fJSUI'es, Measures, 151 of Certain 151 lnqttiry Political the Principl~s into the of Political Inquiry into Principles of O~C'onomy, Oeconomy, 70 70 Instrumentalism, Instrumentalism, Dewey's, Dewey's, 402 402 International International Harvester Harvester Co., Co., 354, 383 354, 383 International I International Molders Molders Union, Union, 383, 383, 43 431 Interstate Interstate Commerce Commerce Act Act (1887), (1887), 336, 336, 393 393
United States States destroyed destroyed by, by, 241, 241, 248, 248, United Indian policy policy of, of, 241, 241, 321; 321; as as 250: Indian 250; President of of United United States, States, 233, 233, 239, 239, President
479 479
James I, I, 40, 40, 43 43 James James H, n, 86 86 James James River, River, 81, 81, 143 143 James Japan, 423, 423, 443, 443, 458, 458, 461; 461; and American Japan, commercial commercial interests, intcrest!, 288, 288, 366; 366; chalchalin World War II, II, lenge to to Open Open Door in lenge 462, 463; 463; co-operation with, favored favored 462, co-operation with, by House of of Morgan, Morgan, 384; 384; Great Great by to (1907), (19°7),418; White Fleet Fleet dispatched 418; dispatched to and Manchuria, Manchuria, 435, military 435, 437; 437; military against China (1937), 457: campaign campaign against (1937), 457; and Open Policy, 417, 417, 435: Open Door Policy, 435; Russia defeated Russia defeated by, at Washingby, 417; 417; at Washington Conference (1921-1922), (1921-1922), 435 435 Jay, John, II4, 127, 134. 139, Jay, John, 114, 127, 134, 139, 141, 141, 142, 142, as 143, ISO, 170, 229; as mercantilist, mercantilist, 143, 1503 170, 229; 132, 136, 137, 140, 141; and Monroe, Monroe, 132, 136, 137, 140, 141; J35-36, I 8, 121, 126; 121, 126; 135-36, 137; 137; quotcq, quote4, I118, to London by sent to Washington, by Washington, 171, 171, in talks in talks with Spain, 126, 129-30, 172; 172; Spain, 126, 129-30, And 131, 135: and Washington, 141 131* 135; Washington, 141 Jefferson, Jefferson, Thomas, Thomas, 80, 80, 81, 81, 98, 98, II2, 112, II3, 113, 115. 115, 117, 117, 123, 123, 133, 154, 167, 133, 154, 167, 174, 174. 483; and Adams, John, 174, 175, 176, Adams, John, 174, 175, 176, 483; Constitution approved 177; 162; 177; Constitution approved by, by, 162; of national national bank, on constitutionality bank, constitutionality of ex189, 190; embargo by, 155, 192; 189, 190; embargo by, 155, 192; exIndian pansionism 182, 183, of, 182. pansionism of, 183, 184; 184; Indian on internal internal policy of, 171, policy of, 171, 179, 187; on 179, 187; improvement!, 189; Jay's improvements, 189: Jay's questions questions evaded by, and Madison, evaded Madison, 154. by, 137; 154, 137; and on mercantilism, 177, mercantilism, 178, 184, 177, 178, 184, 191; 191; on atMonroe's 141, 154, 168, 177-78; Monroe's at141, 154, 168, 177-78; tack on, on physiocracy, tack on, 134; 134; on physiocracy, 129, 129, as President President 148, 168, 181, 148, 154, 181, 207; 154, 168, 207; as of United United States, of States, 177-79, 177-79, 183-84, 183-84, 189189attitude of, 90, pro-French attitude 178; 90, 192; 192; pro-French of, 178; quoted, 118, 148, 180, 182; 182; 148, 149, 149, 178, 178, 180, quoted, u8,
Index Index Report on on Commercial Commercial Privileges Pn'v,7eges and anti Report Restrictions by, 168, 168, 169; 169; second second ininffrictions by, Re augural address address by, by, 184; 184; as as Secretary Secretary augural of State, State, 1166; on Shays' Shays' Rebellion, Rebellion, of 66; on 147-48; on on slavery, slavery, 128, 128, 154, 154, 179; 179; 147-48; Taylor's criticism criticism of, of, 169; 169; United United Taylor's States relations relations with with England England analyzed analyzed States by (1791), (1791), 178; 178; and and War War of of 1812, 1812, 191, 191, by 192; in in war war against against Mediterranean Mediterranean 192; pirates, 188; 188; on on West West Indies Indies trade, trade, 142 142 pirates, Johnson, Andrew, Andrew, 279, 279, 304; 304; quoted, quoted, 318 318 Johnson, Johnson, Hiram, Hiram, 423, 423, 436 436 Johnson, Johnson, Lyndon Lyndon B., B., 471 471 Johnson, Johnson, Thomas, Thomas, 83, 83, 85 85 Johnson, Johnson, William, William, 256 256 Johnson, Johnston, Eric, Eric, 460, 460, 469; 469; quoted, quoted, 452, 452, Johnston, 468 468 Jones, Bill, Bill, 326 326 Jones, Jones, Grosvenor, Grosvenor, 457 457 Jones, Jones, Jesse, Jesse, 455 455 Jones, Jones, Samuel Samuel M., M., 395 395 Jones, Jones, Willie, Willie, 85 8.5 Jones, Joseph, Chief, Chief, of of Nez Perec* Perce tribe, tribe, 322 322 Joseph, Junto (club), (club), 92 92 Junto
Kansas, 336 336 Kansas, Kansas-Nebraska Act Act (1854), (18.54), 292 292 Kansas-Nebraska Kearney, Laurence, Laurence, 272 272 Kearney, Keenan, Henry 317 Kecnan, F., 317 Henry F., Kelley, William William D., D., 301 301 Kelley,
Kendall, Amos, Amos, 229, 229, 239, 239, 241 241 Kendall,
Kennedy, John John P., P., 259 259 Kennedy, Kentucky, 220, 176, 184, 184, 18.5, 133, 171, 171, 176, Kentucky, 133, 185, 220, 24 0 240 Keynes, John Maynard, 401, 446 Keynes, John Maynard, 401, 446 Kilburn, 88 Kilburn, Lawrence, Lawrence, 88 King, Martin Luther, Luther, Jr., Jr., 486; 486; quoted, quoted, King, Martin 479 479 King, Rufus, 120, 130, 131, 1.50, 170, King, Rufus, 120, 130, 131, 150, 170, 171, Missouri 205, 2.57; 171* 191, 257; and Missouri 196, 205, 191* 196, Crisis, 206, 214 Crisis, 206, 214 King's King's College, 87 College, 87 King's 60 Tavern, 60 King's Head Tavern, Kipling, Rudyard, 456 Kipling, Rudyard, 456 Knights of Labor, Labor, 334 Knights of 334 Knox, Knox, Henry, Henry, 143 143 Korea, 319 Korea, 319 Ku Klux Klux Klan, Klan, 3II 311 Kuhn, of New York, Loeb of York, 3.53, 380 Kuhn, Loeb 353, 380 La Follette, Robert M., 4^4> M., 394, Follette, Robert 423* 424, 394, 423, 425,436 425 436 Labor, entry into World War II opposed H into opposed Labor, entry by, thesis accepted frontier thesis by, accepted by, by, 461; 461; frontier de279-83; and laissez faire during faire laissez and during de279-83; pression of 1813-1877,313-17; middlemiddleof 1873-1877, 313-17; pression class shorter class objectives of, 380; 380; and shorter objectives of, work work day, for, 279, 314; 279, 314; campaign for, day, campaign syndicalism ranks of, within ranks of, 384, 384, 385; 385; syndicalism within
50S 505
uprising during during New New Deal, Deal, 445; 445; see see uprising also Unions Unions also Laissez Laissez faire, faire, 65, 65, 69, 6g, 72, 72, 73, 73, 99, 99, 100, 100, 1106, and abolitionism, abolitionism, 254254187, 223; 223; and 06, 187, art works works reflecting, re:Bccting, 244-45; 244-45; bebe255; art 255; ginnings of, of, 200-03; 200-03; Civil Civil War War caused caused ginnings by, 286; 286; and and Constitution, Constitution, 290-95; 290"95; by, criticisms criticisms from from within, within, 330-33; 330-33; DarDarwinian analogy to, to, 329, 329, 330; 330; during during winian analogy 1813-1877, 313-17; 313-17; dididepression of of 1873-1877, depression lemma of, of, 265; 265; in in England, England, rise rise of, of, lemma III; and Field's Field's painting, painting, 228; 228; Free Free in; 28 I; freedom freedom dedeSoilers' statement statement of, of, 281; Soilers' fined fined under, under, 259-63; 259-63; frontier frontier comcommitted mitted to, to, 257; 257; and frontier frontier thesis, thesis, 270 -76; labor's labor's commitment to, to, 250; 250; 270-76; Lincoln's acceptance acceptance of, of, 296; 296; market market Lincoln's in, 308; 308; ministers' ministcxs' place as as key key element element in, place 240; Negro's Negro's response response exposition of, of, 240; exposition to, 323-24; 323-24; Poe's Poe's criticism criticism of, of, 272-74; 272-74; to, politics of, of, understood understood by by Van Buren, Buren, politics 236: private private property property as as cornerstone cornerstone of, of, 236; 302; reformers reformers' attempt attempt to to sustain, sustain, 302; 333-38; regulation regulation as as essential essential feature feature 333-38; of, 308-11; 308-II; and religion, religion, 250-55; 250-55; of, and transcendentalism, transcendentalism, 242-43; 242-43; Van Buren's statement statement of, of, 247-48; 247-48; victory victory Buren's of, 227-35; 227-35: Whitman as as poet poet of, of, 243243of, 244; see st:t: also also Frontier IndiFrontier thesis; thesis; Indi244; vidualism; Physiocracy vidualism; Physiocracy Lamb, John, John, 1I0 no Lamb, Lamont, Thomas, 438 Lament, Thomas, 435, 435, 438 Land policy, policy, in in expansionist expansionist program, program, 1
87 1 187
Lane, Lane, William, William, 46 46 Langdon, John, ISO Langdon, John, 150 Lansing, Robert, Lansing, Robert, quoted, quoted, 421 421 NewLatin America, 434, America, 434, 455, 461; and New 455, 461; Deal, 458, 469; poverty 456; of, Deal, 458, 469; poverty of, 456; Theodore Roosevelt's Roosevelt's policy on, 416; 416; policy on, U. S. in (1928), U. S. 435; S. S. investments investments in (1928), 435; trade 217, 221, 288 trade with, with, 217, 221, Laurens, Laurens, Henry, 82, 84 84 Henry, 82, Lawrence, Lawrence, Abbot, Abbot, 238 238 Lawrence, D. H., 182 D. H., Lawrence, of Nations, League Nations, 422, 422, 423 423 League of Lectures Lectures on Moral Philosophy, 156 Philosophy, 156 Lee, Arthur, 122 122 Lee, Arthur, Lee, Lee, Henry, 137 Henry, 137 of Boston, Lee, Boston, 353, Lee, Higginson 380 353, 380 Higginson of Lee, 359 Lee, Ivy, Ivy, 359 Lee, Richard Henry, no, II4, 114, Lee, Richard 107, IIO, Henry, 85, 85, 107, 161 lIS, Constitution opposed by, 161 opposed by, 115, 137; 137; Constitution Lee, Lee, Robert E., E., 299 299 Leggett, 246, 236, 246, William, 249; 249; quoted, quoted, 236, Leggett, William, 260 260 Leo xm, XHI, Pope, 357 Pope, 357 Famous Mm, Praise FamotlS Let Us NolU Now Praise Let Us Men, 444 444 Letters farmerf 181 Letters from from An American Farmer,
u.
506 506
Index Index
Levellers, 37, 37, 38, 38, 102, 102, 104, 104, in, III, 145* 145, 481, 487 487 481, Lewis, John John L., L., 445, 445, 461; 461; quoted, quoted, 461, 461, Lewis, 462 462 Lewis an3 ana Clark Clark Expedition, Expedition, 184 184 Lewis Liberia, 434 434 Liberia, Liberty Party, Party, 255, 255, 268 268 Liberty Lincoln, Abraham, Abraham, 283, 283, 292, 292, 295-96, 295-96, Lincoln, 300-04 pass., pass., 481; 481; in in Douglas Douglas debates, debates, 300-04 297; election eJection of, of, 297, 297, 298; 298; laissez laissez 297; faire advocated advocated by, by, 296; 296; on on Negro Negro faire slavery, 296-97; 296-97; quoted, quoted, 284, 284, 298, 298, 302 302 slavery, Lippmann, Walter, Walter, 393, 393, 449, 449, 454, 454, 464, 464, Lippmann, 480 ; quoted, quoted, 372, 372, 374, 374, 449, 449, 479 479 480; List, Francis, Francis, 400 400 List, List, Frederick, Frederick, 208-09 208-09 list, Littleton, Mark, Mark, 258 258 Littleton, Liverpool, Lord, Lord, quoted, quoted, 204 204 Liverpool, Livingston, Robert, Robert, no, lIO, 114, II4, 127, 132 127, 132 Livingston, Livingston, William, William, 87 87 Livingston, Lloyd, Henry Demarest, 333, 387; 387; Lloyd, Henry Demarest, 333, quoted, 387 387 quoted, Locke, John, John, 29, 29, 30, 30. 31, 31, 32, 32, 40, 40, 55, 55, 56, 56, Locke, individualism of, of. 61, 71, 71, 231, 231, 233; 233; individualism 61, 62-65, 70, 73, 73. 100, 202, 251; 251; 100, 152, 152, 202, 62-65, 70, labor theory of of value value accepted accepted by by labor theory Lincoln, 296; 296; natural natural man defined by, defined by, Lincoln, 250; and and physiocracy, physiocracy. 152; quoted, 28, 28. 152; quoted, 250; 63; wealth wealth defined defined by, by. 63 63 63; Lodge, Henry Henry Cabot, Cabot, 364, 364. 424; 424; quoted, quoted, Lodge, 345 345 London Daily Daily Mail, Mail, 348 348 London London Times, Tim~s, 319 London 319 Long, Huey, Huey, 443'44 443-44 Long, Looking Backward, 386-87 Looking Backward, 386-87 Louisiana, 31I. Louisiana, 311, 313 313 Louisiana Territory, Territory, 183; pUIchase of. Louisiana of, 183; purchase 184 184 Louisville Canal, 21I Louisville 211 Canal, Lovejoy, Arthur Arthur 0., O., quoted, Lovejoy, quoted, 17 17 Lovejoy, Elijah, murder of, of, 254, Lovejoy, Elijah, murder 254, 255 255 Luther. Martin, 36, 37, 49 Luther, Martin, 36, 37, 49 Levellers,
McAdoo, 421, 422; 422; quoted. William G., McAdoo, William G., 421, quoted, 41 3 4i3 McCarthy, Joseph R., 475 McCarthy, Joseph R., 475 McCook, James McCook, James J., J., 417 417 McCormick, McCormick, Cyrus, Cyrus, 291, 291, 307 307 McCullock v. Maryland, v. McCullock Maryland, 214 214 McDougall, Alexander, 87, no McDougall, Alexander, 87, lIO McGready, James, 185 McGready, James, 185 Mackenzie, Mackenzie, Fred, Fred, quoted, quoted, 348 348 McKim, McKim, Isaac, Isaac, 190 190 McKinley, William, 317, 361, William, McKinley, 317, 361, 362, 362, 363, 363, 66, 3367, 67, 368, 3366, 368, 369, 417, 469; 369, 417, 469; quoted, quoted, 363, 364 363* 364 McVickar, McVickar, John, John, 240 240 Macy R. H., Co., R. H., 354, 354, 466 466 Macy Co., Madison, Madison, James, James, 58, 81, 127, 58, 73, 73, 81, 127, 134, 134,
167, 173, 137, 150, 150, 157, 173, 174, 174, 189, 189, 157, 167, 137, Adams, 190, 200, 200, 229, 229, 481, 481, 483; 483; and Adams, 190, 174, i75 175. 176; 176; at at Annapolis Annapolis John. 174, John, Convention, 146; 146; banking banking policy policy of, of, Convention, 165, 200; 200; on on Constitutional Constitutional ConvenConven165, 214; expansionist expansionist theory theory of, of, 216; 216; tion, 214;
tion,
Federalist essays essays of, of, 159; 159; of of free free trade, trade, Federalist
144; Hamilton Hamilton opposed opposed to to program program 144; of, 164-65, 164-65, 170; 170; Hamilton's Hamilton's program program opposed by, by, 163-64, 163-64, 168, 168, 169; 169; interest interest opposed groups recognized recognized by, by, 159-60; 159-60; on on iningroups irn provements, 199; 199; and and JefJefternal improvements, ternal ferson, 154, 154, 177, 177, 178, 178, 184, 184, 191; 191; justice justice ferson, 159; as as mercantilist, mercantilist, emphasized by, by, 159; emphasized 139, 163, 164; 164; and and Missouri Missouri Crisis, Crisis, J 39 1^3, 207; national national bank bank supported supported by, by, 124; 124; 207; political views views of, of, 159-61; quoted. 18, 18, 159-61; quoted, political 128, 145, 145, 149, 180, 160, 161, 161, 169, 128, 149, 160, 169, 180, strong government government promoted promoted by, by, 203; strong 203; 144-45, I59J 159; tariff tariff supported supported by, by. 197; 197; 144-45, Taylor opposed opposed to, to, 154; 154; and and War of of Taylor 1812, 191-95 191-95 pass. pass. 1812, Mahan, Alfred Alfred Thayer, Thayer, 364, 364, 401 401 Mahan, Manchuria, 435, 435, 437 437 Manchuria, Manifest Destiny, Destiny, doctrine doctrine of, of, 17, 17. 277, 2'77, Manifest of,
4 83 483
Mann, Horace, Horace, 237; 237; quoted, quoted, 238 238 Mann,
Mann-Elkins Act Act (1910), 409 Mann-Elkins (1910), 409 Manorialism, 56, 56, 152 Manorialism, 152 Manufacturing Society of New York, York, 142 142 Society of Manufacturing Marcy, William, William, 237 237 Marcy, Market place, place, dilemmas of of expanding, expanding, Market 338-42; Field's Field's definition definition of, 328-29; of, 328-29; 338-42; and immigration, 322; as key element as key and element immigration, 322;
of laissez laissez faire, of fake, 308-09 308-09 Marshall, John, John, 167, 241, 448; 448; Marshall, 212, 241, 167, 175, 175. 212, Supreme Court decisions by. 213-14 213-14 decisions by, Court Supreme Marshall Field Field and Sons, Marshall Sons, 354 354 Marshall Plan, 455 Marshall Plan, 455
Martin, Alexander, ISO Martin, Alexander, 150 Martin, 161 Martin, Luther, Luther, 151, 151, 161 Marx, Karl, 38, 351, Marx, Karl, 38, 351, 404, 481 404, 472, 472, 481 Maryland, 122, 124, Maryland, 46, 46, 83, 103, 122, 144, 83, 103, 124, 144, 0 35 350 Mason, George, 85, 105, 107, lIO, Il3, Mason, George, 85, 105, 107, no, 113, 151, 154, 161 151, 154, Mason, Mason, Thomas, Thomas, 113 113 Massachusetts, Massachusetts, colonial, colonial, 46, 46, 78, 98, 97, 98, 78, 97, land 99, II5, II7; of, 55; 99> U5> H7; founding founding of, 55; land bank in, 104; Louisburg captured by, in, 104; Louisburg captured by, 102; of colonies colonies organized 102; meeting by meeting of organized by (1765), 107; union by union opposed (1765)* 107; by opposed (1754), 105 (1754), 105 Massachusetts, state of, 123, 187; bankstate bankMassachusetts, of, 123, 187; after Revolution, ing in, after ing in, Revolution, 124; 124; incorpoincorporated businesses in (1870'S), businesses in rated (1870*5), 303; 303; industry encoura~ed with loans, with loans, 143; industry encouraged 143; Protective in, 279; Protective Union organized organized in, 279; Rebellion Shays' Rebellion in, 147, 148; Society in, 147, 148; Society Shays'
Index Index of the Cincinnati Cincinnati denounced of the denounced by, by, 144; 144; Supreme Court of, textile workers workers of, 268: 268; textile Supreme Court in (1874), 315: union unemployment in (1874), 315; union unemployment in of 1914-1915), in (winter (winter of 1914-1915), 4II 411 Mather, Cotton, 94, Mather, Cotton, 94, 95 95 Mather, Increase, 94 Mather, Increase, 94 Matthews, Samuel, 82 Matthews, Samuel, Mayhew, Jonathan, 100 Mayhew, Jonathan, 100 Mayo, Elton, 358 358 Mayo, Elton, Maysville Road project, project, 240 240 Maysville Means, Gardiner C., C., 466 Means, Gardiner 466 Mellon, Andrew, 438 Mellon, Andrew, 438 Melville, Melville, Herman, Herman, 294, 294, 295, 295, 330 330 Mercantilism, American, Mercantilism, American, 78, 80, 83, 78, 80, 85, 83, 85, 86, 102, IU, in, 123, 86, 94, 94, 96, 96, 102, 123, I:Z4, 124, 125, 125,
131-48 achievements and diand dipass.; achievements 131-48 pass.; lemmas of, of, 185-92, 185-92, 205, 205, 207, 207, 219-23; 219-23; and Calhoun, Constitution as as Calhoun, 197-98: 197-98; Constitution instrument instrument of, of, 1580.; expansionism 158^.; expansionism implicit in, 183, 215: Indian policy of, implicit in, 183, 215; Indian policy of, Marshall's decisions, 322; decisions, 213-14; 322; and Marshall's 213-14; merging of interests ideas under under interests and ideas merging of Weltanschauung of, 177 Weltanschauung of, 177 0.; ff.; philosophy philosophy and program of, Adams' statement and program of, statement of of (1825), revival of, atof, Clay's 210-11; revival Clay's at(1825), 2IO-II: tempt triumph of, of, II4-I7, at, 265-69: 265-69; triumph tempt at, 114-17, I:Z9, unresolved dilemma of, of, 219219203; unresolved 129, 203; 223; Washington'S Farewell Address 223; Washington's Farewell Address as manifesto of, as manifesto of, 174 174 Mercantilism, British, British, 32-35 32-35 pass., pass., 38-48 38-48 Mercantilism,
pass.,
56, 58, 66, 71, 71, 73, 55, 56, 125, 54, 55, 73, 125, 58, 66, pass., 54,
American Revolution, Revolution, 202, 482; 482; and American 202, lIS: decline decline of, of, 69, 69, 74 74 115; Mercantilism, Freach, 142; German, 400 Mercantilism, French, 142; German, 400 Mercer, John, John, 151 Mercer, 151 Messersmith, George George S., 456, 468 468 S., 456, Mcsscrsmith, Methodists, 185, 278 Methodists, 185, 278 Mexican Revolution Revolution (1910-1911), (I910-19U), 386, 386, Mexican 6 420,43 436 420, Mexican War, War, 276-79, 276-79, 280, 280, 317 317 Mexico, 272, 272, 275, 275, 289, 289, 319, 319, 4^3. 423, 459459. Mexico, 460 4 60
Michigan, 185, 185, 260, 260, 261, 261, 279 279 Michigan, Mifflin, Thomas, Thomas, 150 ISO MifHin, Mill, John John Stuart, Stuart, 330 330 Mill, Millenarianism,49 Millenarianism, 49 ISS Miller, John John C., C., 155 Miller, Miller, Miller,
John John
F., 339 339 Miller, Perry, Perry, 99 99 Miller, C. Mills, C. Wright, Wright, 19 19 Mills, Mission of of the the North American Amerit:an People, Peop/~, Mission The, 318 3IS The, Mississippi, 220 :2.20 Mississippi, Mississippi basin, basin, 126, 126, 129-30, 129-30, 136, 136, 140, 140, Mississippi F.,
141, 171, 171, 173, 173, 183, 183, 257, 257, 289, 289, 141, Missouri, 205, 205, 234 234 Missouri, Missouri Missouri Crisis, Crisis, 206, 206, 209, 209, 214 214 Mitchell, John, John, 360, 360, 393 393 Mitchell, Moby Dick, Dkk, 294, 294, 295 295 Moby
306 306
507 507
Modern Modern Corporaticn and PritJate Private PropCorporation and Propmy, The, 466 erty, The, 466 Mohawk Mohawk River River route, route, IS4 184 Money Makers, The, Money Makers, The, 317 317 Monopoly, defended by American Bar Bar Monopoly, defended by American Association, decision Association, 304; 304; Taney's Taney's decision against, against, 248 248 Monroe, Monroe, James, James, 129, 129, 132, 132, 133. 133, 135, 135, 137, 137, 235; 2355 expansionism reasserted by expansionism reasserted (1822 by (1822 and and 1823), SurGeneral Sur216, 220-21; 220-21; General 1823), 216, vey Act approved on vey Act 211; on approved by by (1824), (1824), 2U; internal internal improvements, and Jay, improvements, 209; Jay, 209; and 135-36, and Jefferson, on W-S^t 137; Jefferson, 134; 137; and 134; on Madison's Madison's feudal feudal system, as mermersystem, 162; 162; as cantilist, as PresiPresicantilist, 133, 134, 135, 140; as 133, 134, 135, 140; dent of United dent of United States, States, 208, 208, 209, 210, 209, 210, 2II, 2n, :!.l6, 216, 232; 232; quoted, 197, quoted, 133, 133, 134, 134, 197, 204, sent on on LonLon220-21; sent 204, 209, 210, 220-21; 209, 210, 191; tariff supported don mission, don mission, 191; tariff supported by, by, 197, 197, 208
Monroe Monroe Doctrine, Doctrine, 215-1S, 215-18, 230, 275, 272, 275, 230, 272, 341, 341, 416 416
Montesquieu, 122, 179, 179, 198 198 Montesquieu, 122, Montgomery Association, Montgomery Improvement Improvement Association, 486 486
Montgomery and Co., Co., 309 Montgomery Ward and 309 More, More, Thomas, Thomas, 37 37 Morgan, 419, of, 381, Morgan, House of, 381, 384, 384, 394, 394, 419,
424, 425, 425, 434, 434, 436 43 6 424, J. Pierpont, Pierpont, 327, 353, 360, J. 327, 32S, 360, 328, 353, 369, 380, 408, quoted, 253, 421 417; quoted, 369, 380, 408, 417; 253, 421
Morgan, Morgan,
Morgan, John T., 338 T^ 338 Morgan, John Morgenthau, Henry, Henry, quoted, quoted, 451, 451, 457 457 Morgenthau, Moroccan Empire, Empire, 418 418 Moroccan Morris, Gouverneur, Gouverneur, 135 Morris, 135 Morris, Lewis, Lewis, 103, IIO Morris, 103, no Morris, Robert, 90, II4, 124, 131, 131, 132, 132, Morris, Robert, 90, 114, 124, 142, 150, 150, 155, 155, 166, 166, 272 272 142, Morris, Wright, Wright, 331; 331; quoted, quoted, 479 479 Morris, Morrow, Dwight, Dwight, 425, 425, 426, 426, 436 436 Morrow, Morse, Jedidiah, Jedidiah, 179 179 Morse,
Morton, Thomas, Thomas, 103 103 Morton, Mosse, George, George, 374 374 Mosse, Mount, William William Sidney, Sidney, 245 245 Mount, Muckrakers, 397 397 Muckrakers, Muller v. v. Oregon, Oregon, 406 406 Mullet
Mun, Thomas, Thomas, 47 47 Mun, Munich Pact Pact (1938), (1938). 458 45S Munich
v. Illinois, Illinois, 310, 310, 329 329 Munn v. Munsey, Frank, Frank, 394 394 Munsey, Murray, Philip, Philip, 445 445 Murray, Napoleon. 216 216 Napoleon,
Nashville Convention, Convention, 283, 283, 285 285 Nashville National Association Association for for the the AdvanceAdvanceNational ment of of Colored ColOled People, People, 398 398 ment National Association Association of of Manufacturers, Manufacturers, National 3 63, 379 379 3^3, National Banking Banking Act Act (1862), (1862), 306 306 National
508 508
Index Index
National Biscuit Co., 354 354 Biscuit Co., National National Board Board of of Trade, Trade, 304, National 304, 307 307 National Bureau Bureau of of Economic Economic Research, Research, National 432, 4^5 465 432, National Cash Cash Register National Co., 379 Register Co., 379 National City Bank, 420, 420, 434 434 National City Bank, National Civic Civic Federation, Federation, 360, 360, 369, National 369, 393, 393, 4 81 481 National Farm Bureau Federation, 433 433 Bureau Federation, National National Farm Union, Union, 433 433 National National Foreign Foreign Trade Council, 419, 419, Trade Council, National 454, 457, 460 454> 457, 460 National Industrial Industrial Recovery Recovery Act, National Act, 386, 380,
442 442
National Labor Labor Relations Board, 445 445 Relations Board, National NlItional Labor Labor Relations Relations Board Board v. v. Jones Jones National and Laughlin Laughlin Steel Stul Corporation, and Corporation, 446 446 National Labor Labor Union, 314, 315 315 National Union, 314, National Live Live Stock Exchange, 363 Stock Exchange, National 363 National Reform Association, 280 280 National Reform Association, National Road, 189 National Road, 189 National Socialism, National Socialism, 386 386 Native American American Association, Association, 253 Native 253 Naruralization Act, Hamilton's, 175 Naturalization Act, Hamilton's, 175 Naval War College, 339 Naval College, 339 Navigation Act, British (1381), 34, 97 British Navigation Act, (1381), 34, 97
Navigaton Law (1651), (1651), 52 52 Navigaton Nebraska, 336 Nebraska, 336 by, Negro, frontier outlook abandoned by, outlook abandoned frontier Negro, 485-86; Freedom, not not ininand New Freedom, 485-86; and cluded reconstruction, cluded in, in, 398; during reconstruction, 398; during 301, 302, 305, 306, 312-13; segseg301, 306, 307, 302, 305, 307, 312-13; regation of, of, 324; treatment of, within of, within regation 324; treatment Weltanschauung of laissez faire, 323of laissez faire, 323Weltanschauung 324; union union formed by by (1869), (1869), 315 324; 315 Negro slavery, abolitionists, 254-55; 254-55; Negro slavery, and abolitionists, banned in in Northwest Northwest Territory, banned Territory, 135; 135;
Calhoun's defense in colonies, Calhoun's defense of, colonies, of, 275; 275; in 78, 79, 97; 97; compromise compromise on, on, at at Con78, 79, stitutional Convention, 157-58; in Constitutional Convention, 157-58; in federation Constitutional federation era, era, 128, 128, 140; 140; Constitutional 305; Hopkins' Hopkins' Amendments ending, ending, 305; attacks on, on, 251; 251; Jefferson's Jefferson's position position attacks on, 154; attitude toward, toward, Lincoln's attitude on, 154; Lincoln's 296-97; and and Missouri Missouri Crisis, 206; Crisis, 206; 296-97; Northern opposition opposition to, to, 202; Northern 202; and price price decline 255; Taylor's position decline (1828), (1828), 255; Taylor's position on, 154 on, 154 Nelson, Donald, Donald, 466, 469 Nelson, 466, 469 Neo-mercantilism, 259 259 Neo-mercantilism, New Deal, 286, 416, 416, 438-45 438-45 pass., pass., 450, Deal, 286, 450, 453, 462, 463; and expansionism, 453, 462, 463; expansionism, 453, 453* 454, 456, 457; failure failure of, of, 449, 464; 454, 456, 457; 449, 464; Germany appeased by, 458; Good Germany appeased by, 458; Neighbor Policy of, 436, 436, 459, 460; Neighbor Policy of, 459, 460; Latin America, and Latin 458, 469; 469; struggle America, 458, struggle with with Supreme 446-47; lee also see also Court, 446-47; Supreme Court, Roo~evelt, Franklin Franklin D. Roosevelt, New England, colonial, 93-102; 93-102; indusindusEngland, colonial,
coalition with with trial interests interests of, of, in in coalition
trial
Pennsylvania entrepreneurs, 306; trade trade entrepreneurs, 306; Pennsylvania and and
textile industry of, 307 307
textile industry of,
England Workingmen's Workingmen's AssociaAssociaNew England
tion, 269 269 Freedom, 398, Freedom, 416 398, 416 Hampshire, 143 Hampshire, 143 Jersey, 164, 167, 194, 350 Jersey, 164, 167, 194, 350 Orleans, 126, 129, Orleans, 126, 129, 136, 136, 171, 171, 173, 173, 196, 200, 217, 354 200, 217, 354 196, Republic, The, 427 New Republic, The, 392, 392, 427 York, colonial, colonial, 85, 86, 88, 88, 102, New York, 85, 86, 102, 104; non-importation abandoned by, by, 104; non-importation abandoned Iin; II; patroons patroons in, 82, 86; press in, 88 in, 82, 86; press in, 88 anti-Masonic York, state of, U3; state of, New York, 123; anti-Masonic bankagitation in in (1827-1831). (1827-1831), 253; agitation 253; banking in, in, after Central after Revolution, Revolution, 124; ing 124; Central Committee of of Mechanics Mechanics in in (1785), Committee (1785), 142; 268; in (1844), defeated in 142; Clay Clay defeated (1844), 268; Constitutional Convention of (1821), (1821), Convention of Constitutional 202; on wage wage improvecourt decision decision on 202; court improvement (1809), 213; 18II 1811 law law of, ment 1 86; of, 186; (1809), 213; Erie Canal built by, 202; free banking Erie Canal built free by, 202; banking acts in, 260; 260; Liberty Party in, 255; acts in, in, 255; Liberty Party Manufacturing of, 142; Oneida Society of, Manufacturing Society 142; Oneida community 250; riots riots in, in, during during in, 250; community in, depression of unemployof 1837, 249; unemploydepression 1837, 249; ment in in (winter (winter of 4II; of 1914-1915), 1914-1915), 411; Buren's link link with with labor in, 269 269 Van Buren's labor in, York City, draft riots during New York riots in, in, during City, draft Civil War, War, 314; Civil Kuhn, Loeb of, of, 353, 314; Kuhn, 353, 315; trade trade with with 380; riot riot in in (1874), 380; (1874), 315; Latin America America (1820), 217 Latin (1820), 217 Herald, 277 277 New York Yor% Herald, Life Insurance Insurance Co., Co., 394 394 New York Life 319 New York The, 319 Times, The, Yor% Timel, Trihune, 280, 322 New York Yor!^ Tribune, 280, 322 Newton, Thomas, Newton, Thomas, 197 197 Nicaragua, 288 288 Nicaragua, Niebuhr, Reinhold, Reinhold. 385, 473 Niebuhr, 385, 472, 472, 473 Niles, Hezekiah, Hezekiah, 208 208 Niles, Nilel Weekly Regirter, 208 208 Niles Weekly Register, Non-Partisan Non-Partisan League, League, 433 433 Norris-La Guardia Act (1932), (1932), 438 438 Norris-La Guardia Act North, Simeon, Simeon, 186 186 North, North Carolina, 82, 143, 260 Carolina, 82, 143, 169, 169, 260 Northwest Ordinance (1787), (1787). 128, 128, 129, 129, 130, 130, 134 134 Northwest Territory, Territory, 135 Northwest 135 Notes on Notes on Virginia, 182 Virginia, 128, 128, 182 Scotia, 69, lIZ Nova Scotia, 112 69, Novoye Vremya, 348 Novoye Vremya, 348 Noyes, John Humphrey, 250 Noyes, John Humphrey, 250 Nuclear Nuclear war, war, 484 484 Nye, Gideon, 272 Nye, Gideon, 272 tion,
New New New New
of
m
Ode to to the the l?iring Am~rica, III Rising Glory Glory of America, O'Donnell, John, John, 132 O'Donnell, 132 Ohio, 78, Ohio, 78, 184, 184, 185 185
Index Index Ohio Indians, Indians, Wayne's Wayne's rout rout of, of, 173 173 Ohio Ohio River, River, 189, 189, 230 230 Ohio
Oligarchy, 437, 437; syndicalist syndicalist triumph triumph of, of, Oligarchy,
469-78 469-78 Olney, Richard, Richard, 364; 364; quoted, quoted, 341 341 Olney, Oneida communal communal community, community, 250 250 Oneida
Open Door Door Policy, Policy, 349, 349, 368, 368, 369, 369, 383, 383, Open
417, 418, 418, 420, 420, 422, 422, 434, 434, 435, 435, 437, 437, 417, 452, 455, 455, 456, 456, 461, 461, 475, 475, 476, 476, 484; 484; 452, fougHt for, for, 462-63, 462-63, 464 46 4 World War World fought Ordinance, of of 1784, 1784, 128, 128, 134; 134: of of 1787, 178" Ordinance, 128, 129, 129, 130, 130, 134 134 128, Oregon Territory, Territory, 196, 196, 216, :.u6, 257, 257, 270, 270, Oregon 271, 275, 275, 276, 276, 277 277 271, Otis, James, James, 102 102 Otis, OUT Benevolent Bent:1Jolent Feudalism, Feudalism, 358, 358, 369, 369, 393 393 Our Owen, Robert Robert Dale, Dale, 245 245 Owen,
n n
Paine, Paine,
77 Thomas, 116, 116, 124; 124; quoted, quoted, 77 Thomas,
Panama Canal Canal Zone, Zone, 416 416 Panama Panama Conference, Conference, 218 218 Panama
Pan-American Union, Union, 435 435 Pan-American
of 1819, 201, 205, 205, 241; 241; of of 1857, 1857, Panic, of Panic, 1819, 201, 268, 306; 306; of of 1893, 1893, 354; 354; of of 1907, 383, 268, 1907, 383, 408, 418; 418; see see also also Great Great Depression Depression 408, Parker, Lord Lord Chief Chief Justice, Justice, quoted, quoted, 66 66 Parker, Parker, Peter, Peter, 272 272 Parker, Pary, David David M., M., 379 379 Pary, Pastorius, Francis Francis Daniel, Pastorius, Daniel, 89 89 Pate, John, John, 103 Pate, 103 Paternalism, corporate, 379, Paternalism, corporate, 379, 394 394 Pearl Harbor, Harbor, 463 463 Pearl Peasants' 34 Peasants* Rebellion Rebellion (1381), (1381), 34
Peckham, George, Peckham, George, 54 54 Peckham, Rufus Rufus W., Peckham, W., 329 329 Peck, George N., 433 Peek, George N., 433 Penn, William, 46, 88 88 Penn, William, 46,
Pennsylvania, colonial, 85, 88, 89, 91, Pennsylvania, colonial, 85, 88, 89, 91, 93, 102 93, 102 Pennsylvania, state of, 122, 124, 130, state of, 122, 124, 130, Pennsylvania, 164; after after Revolution, Revolution, in, banking in, 164; banking 124; entrepreneurs in coalition coalition of, in 124; entrepreneurs of, with industrial interests, industrial with New England interests, England 306; with loans, loans, encouraged with 306; industry industry encouraged 143, steel industry iron and and steel of, industry of, 143, 187; 187; iron 0 3307 7 Pennsylvania Society for the Encouragefor the EncouragePennsylvania Society ment of and Useful Useful Arts, of Manufactures Manufactures and Arts, 2 14 -43 142-43 Pepys, Samuel, 28 28 Pepys, Samuel, Perkins, Perkins, George W., 360, 394 George W., 382-83, 394 360, 382-83, Perkins, Thomas H., H., 272 Perkins, Thomas 272 Perkins, William, 44 Perkins, William, 44 Perry, 288 Matthew, 288 Perry, Matthew, Peru, Peru, 217 217 Petty, 58, 92, 209 William, 52, 54, 58, 92* 209 Petty, William, 52, 54, Phaland, Phaland, James James D., D., 395 395 Philadelphia, colonial, 87, 88, 89, 90, 91; 91 Philadelphia, colonial, 87, 88, 89, 90, mechanics' in (1820'S), mechanics* organization (1820*5), organization in ;
509 509 249; trade trade with with Latin Latin America America (1820), (1820), 249; 21 7; workers workers employed employed in in (1793), (1793), 217;
169
169
Philadelphia Library, Library, 91 91 Philadelphia Philanthropy, 326 326 Philanthropy, 367,368, 4II Philippines, 367, Philippines, 368, 411 Phillips, David David Graham, Graham, quoted, quoted, 376 376 Phillips, Phillips, Wendell, Wendell, 254, 254, 278, 278, 302 302 Phillips, Physiocracy, American, American, 151-54; 151-54; French, French, Physiocracy, 73, 82, 82, 231; 231; Jefferson's Jefferson's position position on, on, 73 129, 148, 154; Taylor'S statement of, 129, 148, 154; Taylor's statement of, 151, 152, 152, I53> 153, I54 154, 207 207 151, ISO, 180 180 Pickering, Timothy, Timothy, 130, 130, 150, Pickering, Pierce, Franklin, Franklin, 289; 289: quoted, quoted, 287 287 Pierce, Pinchot, Gifford, Gifford, 392 392 Pinchot, Pinckney, Charles, Charles, 134, 134, 175 175 Pinckney, Pinckney, William, William,214 Pinckncy, 214 Pingree, Hazen S., S., 394 394 Pingree, Pittsburgh, 184, 184, 185, 185, 200, 200, 258, 258, 316, 316, 327 327 Pittsburgh, Planters, colonial, colonial, 82, 82, 83 83 Planters, Plumb Plan, Plan, for for railroads, railroads, 431, 431, 467 467 Plumer, William, William, 177 177 Plumer, Poe, Edgar Edgar Allan, Allan, 272-74 272-74 Poe, Poinsette, Joel, 232, 232, 233 233 Poinsette, Polk, James James K., K., 239, 239, 268, 268, 270, 270, 271, 271, 287; 287. Polk,
Joel,
and Mexican War, War, 276-79^ 276-79i Monroe Doctrine Doctrine reasserted reasserted by, by, 275; 275; quoted, quoted,
264 264 Poor Laws, English, 44 Laws, English, 44 60 Populists, Populists, 334, 335, 336, 334, 335, 336, 337, 337, 3 3&> Posdethwayt, Malachy, 42 Postlethwayt, Malachy, 42 Potomac Company, Potomac Company, 143 143 Potomac-Ohio Potomac-Ohio Canal, 211 Canal, 2n Potomac River River Valley, Valley, 140 140 Powderly, V., 334 Powderly, Terence V., 334 Pownall, Thomas, 78, 181 181 Pownall, Thomas, 78, Pragmatism, 441, Pragmatism, 385; 385; Dewey's, Dewey's, 402-05, 402-05, 44I, 450, James's, 34I-42; 450, 472; 472; James's, 341-42; of Roosevelt, F. D., 440 F. velt, D., 440 Pratt, Sereno E., Pratt, Sereno E., 395 395 Presbyterian Board of of Foreign Missions, Foreign Missions, Presbyterian Board 357 Presbyterians, 101, 278 Presbyterians, 101, 278 Preston, Preston, John, John, quoted, quoted, 27 27 radical Private Private property, 485; radical 480, 48I, 481, 485; property, 480, transformed view 388; rights view of, of, transformed of, 388; rights of, into of socia1 social property, into responsibilities property, responsibilities of true social social system, within true 477; 374 system, 374 477; within Procter Procter and Gamble, Gamble, 352 352 Progress Poverty, 333 333 Progress and Povmy,
Progressive 390-95, Movement, 385, 386, 390-95, 385, 386, Progressive Movement, 415, 452-53, 442, 452-53, 439 442, 437, 439, 425. 437, 422, 425, 415, 422, on, 454, Dewey's influence on, 470; Dewey's 462, 470; 454, 462, to Beard, 402, Beard, 463; 463; enmity to 404, 405; 405; enmity 402, 404, in failure failure of, of, 449, 464; involved in 449, 464; tramercantilist traWorld World War I, I, 42I; 421; mercantilist reformers in, dition dition in, in, 395-402; 395-402; in, 446; 446; reformers to frontier frontier thesis, in return to in return thesis, 406-12; 406-12; see syndicalist 450; see in, 448, 448, 450; approach in, syndicalist approach
Index Index
510 510 also also
Reformers Reformers
Republican Party, Party, 267, 267, 280, 280, 301, 301, 305, 305, Republican
Prohibition law, law. 424 424 Prohibition lee Private Private property property Property. private, private, see Property, Protectionist Protectionist
Act (1562), (1562), 43 43 Act
Protective Union, Union, first first (1845), (1845), 279 279 Protective
410 410
of, Republicanism, Montesquieu's Montesquieu's theory theory of, Republicanism, 198; of of 116th and i7th 17th centuries, centuries, 57 57 6th and 198;
Rerum novarum, novarum, 357 357 Rerum
366 366 Pullman Company, Company, 354, 354, 355 355 Pullman
Reston, James, James, quoted, quoted, 472 472 Reston, Restoration, in in England, England, 55, 55, 63, 63, 65, 65, 70, 70, Restoration, 78, 481 481 78, Reuther, Walter, Walter, 445, 445, 465, 465, 466, 466, 467, 467, Reuther,
Quakers, 88, 88, 89, 89, 90 90 Quakers, Quebec Act, Act, 112, lIZ, 115 II5 Quebec
Rhett, Robert Robert Barnwell, Barnwell, 282 282 Rhett, Rhode Island, Island, 98, 98, I II Rhode Richard II, II, 34, 34, 39 39 Richard Rivers and and Harbors Harbors Convention Convention (1847), (1847), Rivers
Public Public
Works Administration, Administration, 441 441 Works
Pulitzer, Joseph, Joseph, Pulitzer,
Puritanism, 33, 33. 94, 94, 95, 95, 99 99 Puritanism, Puritans, 58, 58, 94, 94. 95, 95, 96, 96, 482 482 Puritans,
451 468; quoted, quoted, 451 468;
in
Radicalism, 424; 424; challenge challenge to to corporacorporaRadicalism, tion society, society, 386-89; 386-89; difficulties difficulties tion
due to to due England England freedom freedom
278 278
Roberts, Jonathan, Jonathan, 194 194 Roberts, Robeson, Paul, Paul, 398 398 Robeson, 350, 359, 359, Rockefeller, John John D., D., 326, 326, 327, 327, 350, Rockefeller, 38o, 381; 381; quoted, quoted, 346 346 380, Rockefeller, Nelson, Nelson, 365, 365, 426, 426, 460, 46o, 468 468 Rockefeller, Rockefeller Brothers Brothers Foundation, Foundation, 465 465 Rockefeller
collapse of of Pennsylvania-New Pennsylvania-New collapse 306; individualized individualized coalition, 306; of, 255 255 of, Railroad system, system. development development of, of, 261; 261; Railroad and investment investment firms, firms, 304; 304; Morgan's Morgan's and Rockhill, William William Woodville, Woodville, 369 369 effort to to consolidate consolidate (1888-1889), (1888-1889), Rockhill, effort Catholicism, 58, 58, 385 385 310; rise rise of of Roman Catholicism, 327; regulation regulation of, of, 308, 308, 310; 327; Romantic Movement, Movement, 342 342 corporation symbolized symbolized by, by, 303; 303; strikes strikes Romantic corporation Roosevelt, Franklin Franklin Delano, Delano, 391, 391, 436, 436, on, 314, 314, 316; 316; union union Plumb Plumb Plan Plan for for Roosevelt, on, rehabilitating, 431, 431, 467 467 438, 439. 439, 442, 442, 445, 445, 450. 450, .456, 456, 457> 457, 438, rehabilitating, Randolph, Edmund, Edmund, 151, 473; expansionist expansionist outout459, 460, 46o, 463, 463, 473; 161 459, Randolph, 151, 161 look of, of, 454, 454, 455; 455; foreign foreign policy policy of, of, look :Randolph, John, 83, 83, 151, 151, 152, 152, 153, 214; 153, 214; Randolph, John, quoted, tariff opposed 455, 461, 461, 462, 469; humanitarianism humanitarianism 455, 462, 469; 180, 191-92; by, quoted, 180, opposed by, 191-92; tariff 230-31; War of by, 191, of, 440; 440; Open Open Door reasserted by, 437; 437; reasserted by, of 1812 1812 opposed of, 191, 230-31; opposed by, pragmatism of, quoted, 371, 414, 195 of, 440; 440; quoted, pragmatism 371, 414, 195 Rantoul, Robert, 236 see also also New Deal 427, 474; 474; lee Rantoul, 427, Robert, 236 Rauschenbusch, 401 Roosevelt, Roosevelt, Theodore, Theodore, 362, 362, 364, 364, 365, 365, 368, 368, Rauschenbusch, Walter, Walter, 401 Rayburn, Sam, 369, 385, 391, 370, 385, 369, 370, 391, 392, 392, 393, Sam, 471 393 394, 394* Rayburn, 471 209, 261 Raymond, Daniel, 470, 474; conservation supported by, conservation 470, 474; supported by, Raymond, Daniel, 209, 261 Latin American policy Reagan, 407; of, 416; 407; Latin 416; H., 393 policy of, Reagan, John John H., 393 and Open Recession Recession of of 1937-1938, Open Door Policy, Policy, 416, 416, 417, 417, 418; 418; 4*5 439, 440, 1937-1938, 415, 439* 440, Progressive initiated by, initiated 449, legislation Progressive legislation by, 449, 453, 456 462 453 456, 462 Reconstruction, 312-13, 396; cross-cur407-08; quoted, 371, 391-92 cross-cur407-08; quoted, 371, 391-92 Reconstruction, 312-13, 396; rents 305-08; expansionism during, Root, Elihu, 418, 424 rents of, Root, Elihu, 418, 424 of, 305-08; expansionism during, 317-18; Rosenwald, as national national phenomenon, Rosenwald, Julius, Julius, 425, 425, 426 426 317-18; as phenomenon, 300300Rowe, 305; Rowc, Leo 5., S., 435 435 305; Negro Negro during, during, 301, 302, 30;, 301, 302, 305, Rowse, A. L., 46 A. Rowse, L., 46 306, 36, 307, 3" 307* 312 Royal African Company, Reconstruction Royal African Reconstruction Finance Company, 79 79 Finance Corporation, Corporation, 438, 438, Royal Society, Royal Society, 29, 29, 52, 326 52, 326 442, 442, 455 455 Royce, Josiah, 342, 450 Royce, Josiah, 342, 450 Red Shirts, II Shirts, 3 311 Ruml, Ruml, Beardsley, Beardslcy, 466 466 Reform (environmental) Darwinism, Darwinism, (environmental) Rush, 210 Rush, Richard, Richard, 210 399, 400, 402, 407 399> 400, 402, 407 Russia, 435, 437; Russia, 435, 437; and Black Sea region, region, Reformers, Reformers, 373-74, 373~74> 375, 375* 376, 37^ 378, 378, 406, 406, in (1917319; 319; Bolshevik Revolution in (191710, 436, 4410, 466; on conservation, 406on 436, 466; conservation, 406* 1918), 1918), 386. 386, 388, 423, 424; 424; 388, 398, 398, 423, 407; differences with with conservatives, 407; differences conservatives, Japan's victory over, consequences of, Japan's victory over, consequences of, 375; as followers followers of of Theodore Theodore RooseRoose375; as U.S. excluded from U.S. surpluses excluded from 417; 417; surpluses velt, within velt, 392; 392; middle-class, middle-class, 395 #.; within 395 If.; see also (1880'S), 366; see also Soviet Union Soviet (i88o*s), 366; New Deal, in Progressive Deal, 442-43; 442*43; in Progressive Rudedge, Edward, 137 Rudedge, Edward, 137 Movement, see allO alfo ProgresMovement, 395-402; 395-402; lee ProgresRudedge, Rutledge, John, John, II4, 114, IZ7 127 sive sive Movement Movement Regionalism, Regionalism, Royce's, St. St. Clair, Arthur, 171 Royce's, 342 342 Clair, Arthur, 171 Regulator of Carolinas, Regulator movements, Salem, movements, of Carolinas, 104 104 Salem, 99, 99, 217 217 coalition,
Index Index San riots in, in, 316 3I 6 San Francisco, Francisco, riots 316 Sand Lot Party, Sand Lot Party, 316 Edwin, 48 Sandys, Edwin, 48 Sandys, Say, Jean Jean Baptiste, 201, 231, 231, 330 Baptiste, 201, 330 Say, Sayre, Francis B., 456, 462 Francis B., 456, 462 Sayre, Scalawag, 312 Scalawag, 312 Scarburgh, Colonel, 83 83 Scarburgh, Colonel, Schmoller, Gustav, Gustav, 400 400 Schmoller, Schurz, Carl, 317, 340, Schurz, Carl, 317* 34, 367 3^7 Schuyler, Philip, no Philip, IIO Schuyler, Schwab, Charles M., 382 Charles M., 382 Schwab, Scientific Management, 405, 406 Scientific Management, 405, 406 immigrants from, 89 Scotland, early Scotland, early immigrants from, 89 Sears, Isaac, 87, II 0 no Sears, Isaac, 87, Sedition Act, Hamilton's, 175, 176 Sedition Act, Hamilton's, 175, 176 Seligman, Edwin R. A., 400 400 R. A., Seligman, Seligman 380 Brothers, 380 Seligman Brothers, Sergeant, John, 214 John, 214 Sergeant, H., 269, 269, 270, 270, 280, Seward, William H., 280, :z82, 282, Scward, William 283, :z89, 292-93, 484; as as expansionist, expansionist, 283, 289, 292-93, 484; 317, 318-19; quoted, 284, :z86, :Z90, 317, 318-19; quoted, 284, 286, 290, 293, 294, 297 294, 297 293, Earl of, 23, 28-32 28-32 pass., pass., Shaftc:sbury, first Earl of, 23, Shaftcsbury, first 42, 50-58 pass., 62, 63, 70, 481, 62, 63, 310, 481, 70, 310, 42, 50-58 pass., 482, 483; 483; dismissed dismissed by by Charles Charles II, 515; II, 58; 482, flight of, of, 6x; 61; plan plan to to subvert subvert Spain's Spain's flight American empire, 57, 77; reformer, as reformer, American empire, 57, 77; as 59, 61; quoted, 27, 27, 57; 57; toleration toleration 61; quoted, 59, urged by, by, 59; Whig Party Party organized organized urged 59; Whig by, 60 60 by, Shaw, Samuel, 132 Shaw, Samuel, 132 Shays' Rebellion, 147, 147, 148 148 Shays* Rebellion, Shelburne, Lord, Lord, 72 Shelburne, 72 Shenandoah Valley, 185 Shcnandoah Valley, 185 Sheridan, quoted, 321-22 321-22 F., quoted, Sheridan, Philip Philip F., Sherman, Roger, Roger, 114 II4 Sherman, Sherman Anti-Trust Act (1890), Anti-Trust Act (1890), 336 335 Short, William, William, 178 Short, 178 Siam, U.S. trade treaty with, 240 trade Siam, U.S. treaty with, 240 Sibbes, Richard, 44 44 Sibbes, Richard, Simms, William Gilmore, 258, 259 259 William Gilmore, 258, Simms, Simpson, Stephen, 238 Stephen, 238 Simpson, Singer Co., 338 Sewing Machine Co., 338 Singer Sewing laX, 324, Single tax, 333 Single 324, 333 Skidmore, Thomas, 238 Skidmore, Thomas, 238 set! Negro NeJlI'O slavery Slavery, Negro, see slavery Slavery, Negro, Slayton, ton, H. K., K., 338 338 Slay Smith, Adam, 30, 41, 65, 73, 100, 123, 123, Smith, Adam, 30, 41, 65, 73, 100, 169, 201, 231, 250, 308; in debate 308; in 231, 250, 169, 201, with Steuart, 70, 71, 72; quoted, 72 with Steuart, 70, 71, 72; quoted, 72 Smith, William, William, 170 Smith, 170 Smyth, 219 Alexander, quoted, quoted, 219 Smyth, Alexander, Social Gospel, Social 356, 400, 401 401 357, 400, Gospel, 356, 357, Social Security Social Act, 445, 447 Security Act, 445, 447 Socialism, 377, 387, 388, 396, 428, 401, 428, Socialism, 377, 387, 388, 396, 401, 437, 481, 481, 487, 487, 488; 488; Christian, Christian, 357 357 437, the Cincinnati, Society of of the 144 Cincinnati, 143. 143, 144 Society Society for Useful Manufactures, Manufactures, 167 for Useful 167 Society Sons Liberty, 109, 112 Sons of of Liberty, 109,
511 511
South America, U.S. u.s. trade with, 217; 217; set! South America, trade with, see also Latin America America also Latin South Carolina, Carolina, colonial, colonial, 57, 77, 104; 57, 77, 104; charter of, of. 56; of, 29; 29; work work charter 56; founding founding of, laws of, 84 laws of, 84 South Carolina, Carolina, state 240, 252; 252; state of, of, 143, 143, 240, supported by, by, Madison's war Madison's war policy policy supported 193; manufactures encouraged encouraged in manufactures in 193; (1808), proclamation nullifying nullifying (1808), 187; 187; proclamation tariff of 1832, 220; 220; reconstruction govtariff of 1832, reconstruction government ernment in, slaves exported to in, 312; 312; slaves exported to southwest, 258; Taylor-Randolph pasouthwest, 258; Taylor-Randolph position accepted by, 231 sition accepted by, 231 South Sea Company, South Sea 102 Company, 102 Southern Farmers Alliance, Alliance, 336 336 Southern Farmers Soviet Union, Soviet Union, 452, 452, 455, 477; 455, 469, 469, 474, 474, 477; achievements 476; as competitor for achievements of, as competitor for of, 476; world leadership, 427; Hoover's Hoover's leadership, 399, 399, 427; views with (1921), views of of trade trade relations relations with (1921), 429; information information obtained from U.S. U.S. obtained from 429; through American communists, 443; 443; American through communists, policy of of, 475; 475; recogrecogcontainment of, of containment policy nized by nized by Roosevelt 455; see lee Roosevelt (1933), (1933), 455; also Russia also Russia
443, 469, Spain, 102, 134. 4t>g, Spain, 102, 134, 136, 136, 137, 137, 138, 138, 443, 473, 474; difficulties in Cuba, 362, difficulties of, of, in 473, 474; Cuba, 362, im366; Florida Florida abandoned by, 196; abandoned by, 366; 196; impact of colonial revolution feared by, by, of colonial revolution feared pact II9; negotiations with, with, after after American American 119; negotiations Revolution, 126, 129-30, Revolution, 126. 129-30, 131, 131, 135, 135, 173; 173; American Shaftesbury's plan to subvert subvert American Shaftesbury's plan to empire of, 57, 77; U.s. message to empire of, 57, 77; US. message to (1897), 345, 474 (1897), 345, 474 Spanish-American 349, 366, 366, 367, War, 349, Spanish-American War, 367, 368, 372 372 3^8, Robert E., 357 Speer, Speer> Robert E., 357 Spencer, Herbert, 329; quoted, 21 21 329; quoted, Spencer, Herbert, Square Deal, 408 408 Square Deal, Stamp Act, 106, III 106, in Stamp Act, Standard Distilling Co., Standard Distilling Co., 354 354 Standard Oil Company, 339, 340, 340, 353, 353, Standard Oil Company, 339, 380, 387, 4:1:7 380, 387, 417 Stanford, Leland, 3:z8 Stanford, Leland, 328 Staple Act, English, English, 54 54 Staple Act, -22 States' rights, after 121-22 after Revolution, States' rights, Revolution, 121 (:1:563), 44 Statute of Artificers Artificers (1563), Statute of 44 Stead, William Thomas, 348 Thomas, 348 Stead, William Steffens. Lincoln, quoted, quoted, 376 Stefiens, Lincoln, 376 Sterns, Isaac, 102 Sterns, Isaac, Stettler v. v. O'Hara, O'Hartl, 406 406 Stettler Steuart, James, 70-74 PtZSs., 145. 202, 209 209 Steuart, James, 70-74 pass., 145, 202, 30S, 308, 308, Stevens, 238, 301, 301, 305, Thaddeus, 238, Stevens, Thaddeus, 337 Stevenson, Adlai E., E.. 465, 465, 476; 476; quoted, quoted, Stevenson, Adlai 371, 471, 472 472 371, 471, Stiles, Ezra, 141 141 Stiles, Ezra, Stimson, Henry L., L., 391, 391, 423-24, 423-24, 437, 437. 470 470 Stimson, Henry Stoics, physiocracy derived from, from, 152 152 Stoics, physiocracy derived Stone, Barton W., W., I8S 185 Stone, Barton
512 512
Index Index
Thoreau, Henry David, David, 278 Stone, Harlan F., F., quoted, quoted, 447 441 278 Thorcau, Henry Stone, Harlan Thornton, William, 188 Stowe, Harriet Beecher, 188 Thornton, William, Stowe, Harriet 287 Beecher, 281 Tilden, Samud J., 304, 313, 316 Straight, 459; quoted, quoted,413 J., 304, Tildcn, Samuel 313, 316 Willard, 459; Straight, Willard, 413 Tocquevi1le, Alexis de, 181, Strasser, Adolph, 3316 I 6 Alexis de, 181, 331 Tocqueville, 331 Strasser, Adolph, Tory-Radicals, English, English, 38 38 Strike(s), at Cambria Iron Works, 315315- Tory-Radicals, at Cambria Iron Works, Strikc(s), E., 443 Townsend, Francis Francis 16; against Carnegie's Homestead Homestead E., Townsend, 443 16; against Carnegie's Townshend (1767), 106, III Acts (1767), plant, 354, 382; coal (1902), 408; in Townshend Acts in 106, in plant, 354, 382; coal (1902), 408; Transcendentalism, 242, 242, 243, 243, 250 250 New Orleans, Orleans, general, 354; railroad, railroad, Transcendentalism, general, 354; Transportation Act (1920), (1920), 431 431 314, copper, 354 Transportation Act 316, 354; 354; Utah copper, 354 314, 316, Trippe, Juan, Juan, 458 Strong, Josiah, 364 458 Trippe, Strong, Josiah, 364 Sugar Act Act (1164), Truman, Harry Harry S., 470, 474 414 106 S., 426, Truman, 426, 470, Sugar (1764), 106 Tucker, Josiah, Josiah, 42 42 Sullivan and and Cromwell Cromwdl (law (law firm), 458 Sullivan Tucker, firm), 458 Turner, Frederick Jackson, Jackson, II6, 377, Sully, Turner, Frederick 116, 365, Thomas, 244 365, 377, Sully, Thomas, 244 409, 'III, 412, 483, 481 Sumner, Charles, 472, 483, 487 409, 411, Charles, 305 Sumner, 305 Turner, Nat, 256 256 Sumner, William William Graham, Turner, Nat, Sumner, Graham, 330, 330, 341 341 Tuskegee Institute, 323, 323, 324 Supreme Court, United States, States, 158, Tuskcgee Institute, Court, United 286, 324 158, 286, Supreme Mark, 244, quoted, 320 320 298, 310; Unemployment Twain, Alabama Unemployment Twain, Mark, 244, 330, 330, 332; 332; quoted, 298, 310; Alabama Tyler, John, 268, 271, 272 Compensation Act uphdd by, 447-48; Act Tyler, John, 268, 271, 272 Compensation upheld by, 447-48; F"teld as of, 328, and as Justice Field Justice of, 328, 329; 329; and Underwood, Oscar Oscar W., 410 Marshall decisions, 213-14; 213-14; New Deal's Deal's Underwood, Marshall decisions, W., 410 Unions, 382; 382; conservatism conservatism of, struggle Taney's Unions, in 1920'S, of, in with, 446-47; struggle with, 1920% 446-47; and Taney's 431; see also Dred Scott Scott decision, also Labor Labor Dred decision, 294 431; see 294 465 United Auto Workers, Swados, Harvey, 412 Auto United Workers, 465 Swados, Harvey, 472 Nations, 470, 484 Swope. .. 383, 383, 385, 426, 431, 431, United United Nations, Gerald p 470, 484 P^ Swopc, Gerald 385, 426, United States Steel Steel Corp., United States 453,467 353, 369, Corp., 353, 453, 467 369, 380, 380, Syndicalism, American, 384-86, 382, 394 394 American, 356-60, 382, Syndicalism, 356-60, 384-86, Uruguay, 217 408, 431, 433, 440, 446, 447, 448, 408, 431, 433, 440, 446, 447, 448, Uruguay, 217 Utah copper copper strike, 354 467, 469-78, 480 480 strike, 354 467, 468, 4^8, 469-78, Taft, Robert A., A., quoted, 452 Taft, Robert quoted, 452 William Howard, Taft, Howard, 383, 4°8-09, 418, 418, Taft, William 383, 408-09, 419, 459 459 4i9> Tallmadge, James, 205 205 Tallmadge> James, Tammany 203 Hall, 203 Tammany Hall, Taney, Roger 246, 248, 248, 294; 294; quoted, Taney, Roger B., B., 246, quoted, 260 260 Tappan, Arthur and Lewis, 251, 253 Arthur and Tappan, Lewis, 251, 253 TarUf, Tariff, protective, protective, 124, 124, 197,208,230,231, 197, 208, 230, 231, 0 3355 Tariff U. TarUf Commission, S., 425 425 Commission, S., Taylor, Charles Charles R., R., 405 405 Taylor, Taylor, Frederick W., W., 358 Taylor, Frederick 358 Taylor, John, 83, Taylor, John, 100, 166, 83, 100, 166, 170, 170, 176, 176, 182, 190, 201, 397; Jefferson criticized 182, 190, 201, 397; Jefferson criticized by, 169; laissez faire expounded faire laissez by, 169; by, expounded by, 233; on physiocracy, physioc:racy, 151, 233; 151, 152, 152, 153, 153, 154; quoted, 227, 233; on slavery, 154; 154; quoted, 227, 233; slavery, 154; Tyler's loyalty to, of 1812 1812 Tyler's loyalty to, 268; 268; War of opposed by, 191 opposed by, 191 Tea Act (1773), II2 (1773), "* Tennessee, Tennessee, 184 184 Tennessee Coal, Coal, Iron Iron and and Railroad Railroad Co., Co., Tennessee 32 3 323 Tennessee Valley Valley Authority, 444 Tennessee Authority, 444 Texas, 216, 216, 258, 259, 269, 270, 271, 271, 212, Texas, 258, 259, 269, 270, 272, 271,336 275,216, 276, 277, 275, 336 the Leisure Theory of the Leisure Class, The, 397 Theory of Class, The, 397 Thompson, Charles, no, IIO, 115 II5 Thompson, Charles, Thompson, William Boyce, 424 William Thompson, Boyce, 424
Vail, Theodore N., 426 426 Theodore N., Vail, Vale, Gilbert, 240 Gilbert, 240 Vale, Van Buren, Buren, Martin, Martin, 229, 230, 233, 233, 235235229, 230, 37, 239, 239, 241, 241, 248, 272; and and Free Free 248, 249, 37 249, 272; Soilers, 280; 280; laissez laissez fairc faire restated restated by, by, Soilers, 247-48; New York labor's labor's tie tie with, with, 247-48; 269; President of of United United States, States, 266; 266; as President 269; as quoted, 246, 248 248 quoted, 246,
Van Dyke, Henry, 357 357 Dyke, Henry, Vanderlip, Frank, Frank, A., A., 420-21, 420-21, 424, 424, 434 434 Vanderlip, VassaIage, Vassalage, 56 56 Veblen, Thorstein, 397 Veblen, Thorstein, 397 Venezuda, 340, 341 Venezuela, 340, 341 Vergennes, Charles II9 Charles G. G. de, Vergenncs, de, 119 Very, Jones, 243 Very, Jones, 243 Virginia, colonial, colonial, 46, 98, 102, Virginia, 102, 104, 46, 83, 83, 98, 104, 105, and linen linen bounties bounties cotton and 105, 117; 117; cotton offered by, by, offered
83; iron industry 83; iron industry in, in, 83; 83;
Negro slavery slavery in, 78, 79; Negro in, 78, 79; non-impornon-importation movement headed headed by, by, lIO; work tation no; work laws 84; laws of, of, 84; Virginia, state state of, Virginia, of,
124, 124, 144, 144, 153, 153, 154, 154, 116; 255-56; 176; antislavery antislavery move in, in, 255-56; Caton v. Commonwealth case case in, in, 158; Caton v. 158; cession of of claims cession claims by 128; 127, 128; by (1783), (1783), 121, Constitutional in (1830), (1830), Constitutional Convention Convention in (I80x), 186; rail256; Gabriel in (1801), Plot in Gabriel Plot 186; rail256; road system system in, 261; slaves slaves exported to road in, 261; exported to southwest, University of, 207 southwest, 258; of, 183, 183, 207 258; University
Index Index Wade, Benjamin F., 301 Benjamin F,, 301 Wade, Wagner, Robert F., 445 Robert F., 445 Wagner, Wagner Labor Act (1935), 445, 446 446 (i935)> 445, Wagner Labor 310, 311, 311, 329 Waite, Morrison Morrison R., R., 310, Waite, 329 Walker, Robert Robert J., J., 271 211 Walker, W all Stre~t 452, 487 487 Street TourtUll, Watt Journal, 395, 395, 452, Wallace, Henry Henry A., A., 365, 365, 454, 454, 466, Wallace, 466, 410; 470; quoted, 452, 468 468 quoted, 452, Walsh, Mike, 250 Mike, 250 Walsh, Wanamaker, John, 354 Wanamaker, John, 354 War, nuclear, nuclear, 484 484 War, Hawks, 192 War Hawks, 192 Board, 433 433 War Industries Industries Board, War of of 1812, 1812, 151, 151, 155. 155, 191, 191, 192-95; 192-95; results I 6 216 results of, of, 196-99, 196-99, 2 Warburg, Paul M., 421 Paul M., 421 Warburg, Warren, James, Warren, James, 109 109 T., 320, 320,3:14 Washington, Booker Booker T., Washington, 324 Washington, George, 85, 93, 93, 107, lIO, Washington, George, 85, 107, no, J 38, 169; II3, as commander of of 11 3 131, 169; as *37> 138, Fairfax Volunteers, 112; Fairfax County at 112; at County Volunteers, Continental Congress. Il2, IJ4, 115; n5; Continental Congress, 112, 114, critique 79, 140; of slavery, .Farewell critique of slavery, 79, 140; .Farewell Address 2IS, 4IIj na^ 4 Address of, 11 naof, 82, 82, 173-14, 173-74, 2I tional bank supported supported by, by, 124; tional neutral 124; neutral policy and Potomac as President, Potomac President, 16,; 167; and policy as River project, 140-41, River Valley as 140-41, 143; 143; as Valley project, president of Constitutional Convention, of Constitutional Convention, president ISO; as President of United United States, President of 162, 150; as States, 162, 164, program for 1 68, 171-74; for 164, 167, 167, 168, 171-74; program colonial agriculture and industry, colonial agriculture 80, industry, 80, 83; 118, 149, 105, 118, 173; 83; quoted, quoted, 17, 77, 105, 149, 113; strategy empire during during Presidency, of empire Presidency, strategy of 171-74 171-74 Washington Conference Conference (1921-1 (1921-1922), Washington 922), 435, 458 435, 458 Wayland, Francis, Francis, 240 Wayland, 240 Wayne, Anthony, Anthony, 173 Wayne, 173 W~alth of of Nations, Nations, The, Th~, 65, 65, 70, Wealth 72, 169, 70, 72, 169, 23 2 232 Weaver, James B., 337 Weaver, James B., 337 Webb, Walter Walter Prescott, 444 Webb, Prescott, 444 Webster, Daniel, 232, 262, 262, 263, 267, Webster, Daniel, 232, 263, 267, 282; quoted, 282; quoted, 225 225 Webster, Noah, Noah, 143 Webster, 143 Weed, Thurlow, Thurlow, 229, 269, 280 280 Weed, 229, 269, 25:1, :153, 254 Weld, Theodore Theodore Dwight, Dwight, 252, 253, 254 Weld, Welles, Sumner. 461 Welles, Sumner, 459, 459, 461 West Indies, 106, 142, 169, 199, Indies, 102, 102, 106, 142, 169, 199, 33 1i66 Western Union Co., Western Co., :189 289 Weyl, Walter Walter E., E., 393, 427 Weyl, 393, 4^7 Wharton, Edith, 331 Wharton, Edith, 331 Wharton, Thomas, Thomas, 92 92 Wharton, Whig Party, 269, American, :166, 266, :167, 267, 269, Party, American, Whig 281; British, 281; British, :19, 29, 60 Whiskey tax, armed protests protests against armed against tax, Whiskey ?
513 513
(1794), 172 (1794), 172 Whitby, Daniel, 100 100 Whitby, Daniel, Whitefield, George, 251 Whitefield, George, 101, 101, 185, 185, 251 Whitman, Walt, 243-44, 243-44, 250, 270; Whitman, Walt, 250, 270; quoted, 294, :194, 317 quoted, 317 Whitney, Asa, 272, 272, 289 Whitney, Asa, 289 Whitney, Eli, 186 186 Whitney, Eli, Wilderness Wilderness Road, Road, 185 185 W'llkes, Charles, Charles, 272 272 Wilkes, Wilkes, John, 92, 92, no Wilkes, John, Willamettc Valley, 257 Willamette Valley, Oregon, Oregon, 257 Willard, Daniel, Daniel, 426 Willard, 426 Williams, Roger, 95, Williams, Roger, 95, 96 96 Williamson, Hugh, ISO Williamson, Hugh, 141, 141, 150 Wilmot, James, :180 Wilmot, James, 280 Proviso, 277, 277, 279, 279, 281 Wilmot Proviso, 281 Wilson, Charles Charles E., 467 Wilson, E., 467 Wilson, Woodrow, 365, 394, 398, 415, Wilson, Woodrow, 365, 394, 398, 415, 419, 42:1, 425, 425, 473; 473; as Christian Capas Christian 419, 422, Capitalist, 409-11, 409-u, 419-20, 419-:10, 423; 423; frontier frontier italist, 409, 4II-X2, 419; thesis accepted thesis by, 409, 411-12, 419; accepted by, Hoover as as advisor of, 427; peace proproHoover advisor of, 427; peace gram of, after 422-23; after World World War I, I, 422-23; gram of, program defeated by coalition, coalition, 423-24; 4:13-24; defeated by program quoted, 371, 390, 409; stand stand against against 390, 409; quoted, 371, Germany, message of of Germany, 412, 421; war message 412, 421; 474 (1917), 474 (1917), Winthrop, John, 94, 95, 95, 96, 96, 97 Winthrop, John, 94, 97 Wisconsin, Wisconsin, 219 279 Wise, 101 Wise, John, John, 101 Witchcraft trials, colonial, colonial, 96 96 Witchcraft trials, Witberspoon, John, John, 156 156 Witherspoon, Wolcott, Oliver, Oliver, 113 Il3 Wolcott, Wollaston, John, 88 88 Wollaston, John, Woodbury, Levi, quoted, quoted, 219 219 Woodbury, Levi, F. W., W., 354 Woolworth Co., Woolworth Co., F. 354 Workingman's 237 Workingman's Party, Party, 237 44 1 Works Progress Progress Administration, Administration, 441 Works 377, 378, World War I, 380, 35, 356, 356, 377, 37$, 380, I, 352, 412, 415, 415, 420, 4:1 0 , 473 473 386, 394, 394, 404, 4>4, 4, 386, 377, 399, World War II, 399, 376, 377, E, 356, 356, 361, 361, 376, 458, 416, 424, 426, 426, 447, 457, 45$, 447, 453, 453, 457, 416, 424, 466, 474; 474; as for Open 462as war for Door, 462Open Door, 466, 63,464 63, 464 Worsley, Benjamin, Benjamin, 52, 54, 55 55 Worsley, 52, 54, Worthington, Thomas, Thomas, 188 188 Worthington, Wright, Francis, Francis, 249 249 Wright, Wright, Frank. lloyd, 244 Lloyd, 244 Wright, Frank Wright, Robert, Robert, 216 216 Wright, York, of, 86 York, Duke of, 2 5, 426, 385, 4425, 42 6, 43, 43 0 , Young, D., 385, Young, Owen D., 431, 453,* 453; quoted, 430-3 1 quoted, 430-31 43i, Young Americans, Americans, 288 288 Young Zionism, 398 398 Zionism,
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