the concept of 'critique' and the 'critique of political economy'

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The concept of 'critique' and the 'critique of political economy' (from the 1844 Manuscript to Capital) Jacques Rancière

To cite this Article Rancière, Jacques(1976) 'The concept of 'critique' and the 'critique of political economy' (from the 1844

Manuscript to Capital)', Economy and Society, 5: 3, 352 — 376 To link to this Article: DOI: 10.1080/03085147600000016 URL: http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/03085147600000016

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The concept of 'critique'and the 'critique of political economy' ( fro m t he 7844Manuscript to Capital )* Jacques Rancihre

Critique and science in Capital: Verausserlichung and the constitution of Fetishism

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Preliminaries

The concept of fetishism in Capital poses a problem which can be initially formulated in the naive form: What is involved in fetishism? We know that this is the conception which acts as a foothold for those who interpret Capital on the basis of the anthropology of the Young Marx. For them fetishism is only a new name for alienation. In fetishism relations between men become relations between things. Thus the activity of men passes into an alien being; it becomes a determination of things and men are dominated by these relations between things. Fetishism is therefore an anthropological process analogous to that of alienation. An opposite interpretation denies fetishism any of the character of a real process and says that it is only a conception of economic relations, an ideology. In fact we shall only understand fetishism if we think it in continuity with what I have said about the structure of the process and the development of its forms. We have seen that as we passed to more and more concrete forms of the process of capitalist production the inner determination that governs their motion disappeared, that the nuclear form disappeared in the completed form. It is this movement that is constitutive of fetishism. A certain connection presents itself on the surface of the process that we can call a fetishistic structure. The fetishistic discourse is the elaboration of this connection of concrete forms presented on the surface of the capitalist process and reflected in the consciousness of the agents of production. This fetishistic discourse is summed up by Marx in what he calls the trinity formula. The latter is constituted by three couples: CapitalIProfit LandIRent LabourlWages The three elements, capital, land and labour, appear as three sources each of which produces a revenue. Capital naturally produces profit,

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labour wages, land rent. This trinity represents the systematization of what the agents of production perceive of the forms in which their activity is inscribed. Comment Marx notes that it would be better t o replace the first couple (CapitalIProfit) with what it in fact subsumes, namely the CapitalIInterest couple. Profit is indeed a phenomenal form-that is to say, a form of concealment-of surplus value. But it is still not the most concrete or the most mediated form of surplus value. It is still related t o the sphere of production. Interest, which is itself a phenomenal form or form of concealment of profit-i.e., a phenomenal form or form of concealment in the second degree-represents the most concrete and most mediated form of surplus value. It is manifested outside the sphere of production. Its mechanism is as follows: a sum of money M advanced returns to its , that by virtue of a contract. owner in the form M ' (M + d ~ )and There is no longer any question here of a process of production but only of a contract between two persons and of a mysterious power which money possesses of increasing itself. It is in this form that capital appears on the surface of the capitalist process. Thus it is the CapitalIInterest formula that really constitutes the first couple of the trinity formula. In order t o study the constitution of fetishism I shall examine the conditions of possibility of one of the three couples, the CapitalIProfit (i.e., CapitalIInterest) couple. This condition of possibility is what Marx calls the Veraz~sserlichungof the relations of capital. In order not t o anticipate my elucidation of the meaning of this concept, I shall translate it directly as externalization. The problem of the Verausserlichung of the relations of capital-by which should be understood capital as a relation of production-is thematized by Marx particularly in Chapter 24 of Volume Three (pp.383ff.), 'Externalization of the Relations of Capital in the Form of Interest-Bearing Capital'. In this text the form of interest-bearing capital is characterized as the most externalized (;lusserlichste) form of the relations of capital. On the basis of this text and other texts in Volumes Three and Four I can give a certain number of synonyms for this superlative-they define interest-bearing capital as the most concrete, the most mediated, the most fetishized and the most alienated (entfremdetste) form. This leads me to two interesting comments: on the one hand, the movement of fetishization seems to be identical to the movement of externalization, on the other, we find the key concept of the anthropological critique, Eutfremdung (alienation), appearing as equivalent t o the concept of Verausserlichung. In

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Volumes Three and Four we are concerned with an Entfremdung/Verausserlichung couple strangely reminiscent of the dominant couple of the Manuscripts: Entfremdung/Entausserung. Hence the necessity t o specify the meaning of the couple we are concerned with here so as t o see whether it refers to the same thing as the one in theManuscripts. What, therefore, is Verausserlichung? Let me pose the concepts by which we can account for the structure of the process, in order t o define the structure of this movement which makes the constitution of fetishism possible. These are the concepts of: - relation-by which of course should be understood relation of production-insofar as it is these relations that underly the whole process, -form, insofar as the form is that by which the relation is manifested, by which it is represented in Wirklichkeit, - origin and limit of the process, - motion or development of the forms - result I propose t o study the transformation of these elements which make possible the fetishized form (figure) of the process. A. The Begriffslosigkeit of the form

The externalization of the relations of capital depends first of all on the fact that the form of interest-bearing capital is a begriffslose Form, an a-conceptual form or, if you prefer, a form deprived of a concept. This is the form M - M ' where M ' = M + m (or M + d ~ ) . The Begriffslosigkeit lies in the fact that, in this form, the process that makes it possible disappears. In fact the movement M - M ' which is posited here as a spontaneous movement of M is only possible if the money-capital M enters into a process of production in which it is expanded in value. It is this expansion of value within the process of p reproduction of industrial capital that makes possible the increase & . For the true circuit undergone by this M , it is necessary to posit, in the interval between M and M ', the whole circuit of money-capital, which is one of the three circuits, one of the three functional forms of industrial capital studied by Marx at the beginning of Volume Two. We shall then have: L M-M-CMp

r M' . . . . . . . . . P . . . . . . . . . (C C' + c ) r M -(M + m )

This process alone permits the transition from an initial value M t o a value M ' equal t o M + d~ .'

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The question which interests us here is t o know what are the relations between M and M ' in this circuit. Let us ask first what is the L p. specific form of M in the stage M - cM Here is Marx's answer: In this first stage, M circulates as money. It assumes the functions of money-capital, because only in its money state can it perform a money-function, can it transform itself into the elements of P , into L and M P ,which stand opposed to it as commodities. In this circulation act it functions only as money (Vol.11, ~ . 4 5 ) . ~

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This means that M is not in itself capital. By itself it does not possess any power of increase. It only fulfills a money-function (a purchasing function) and not a capital-function (a function of self-expanding value). What is it that transforms this pure money-function into a capital-function? It is the nature of its link with the other stages of the process. But as this act3 is the first stage of capital-value in process, it is simultaneously a function of money-capital, by virtue of the specific use-form of the commodities L and M P which are bought (Vol.11, p.45). This last hrase means two things: 1. M i s a function of money-capital, it plays a part in the capitalist process of reproduction insofar as it makes possible, by virtue of the special character of L and M P ,stage P , which is that of the expansion of value. 2. More particularly, the decisive thing here is the nature of the commodity L (labour power). The process of the expansion of the value of M is made possible by the presence on the market of this absolutely unique commodity, labour power. The form we are concerned with thus conceals the opposition between capital and wage labour; its study reveals capitalist relations of production as the motor of the circuit.

tip

In the first place, this entire circuit is premised on the capitalist character of the process of production, and therefore considers this process together with the specific social conditions brought about by it as the basis. M - C = M - cLp;but M - L assumes the existence of the wage-labourer, and hence the means of production as part of productive capital. It assumes therefore that the process of labour and selfexpansion of value, the process of production, is a function of capital (Vol.11, p.61). Now let us consider M ' . It can neither be said to be the product of M nor even that of P (except in certain special cases such as the production of gold). It is the converted form of c' . The return t o the

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money-form is a function not of money-capital but of commodity-capital C' . The difference m, the money-form of the difference c produced by stage P, does not represent a movement which is attributable to M itself.

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Money-capital within the circuit of industrial capital performs no other functions than those of money and . . . these moneyfunctions assume the significance of capital-functions only by virtue of their interconnections with the other stages of this circuit. The representation (Darstellung) of M ' as a relation of m to M ,as a capital-relation, is not directly a function of money-capital but of commodity-capital c ', which in its turn, as a relation of c and C , expresses but the result of the process of production, of the selfexpansion of capital-value which took place in it (Vol.11, p.77). It follows that in the formula M ' = M + d~ which expresses the result of the circuit, there is no relation between M and M ' . The equation is an impossible one. This positing of an impossible relation is, as we know, expressed by Marx in the concept of the imaginary or zrratzonal . Naturally a reason for this irrational or imaginary is found in the conceptual formula which expresses the totality of the circuit of money-capital and its link with the other circuits. The imaginary and a-conceptual formula M ' = M + d~ is explained by the complete formula: L . . . . . . . . . P . . . . . . . . . C I -M I M-CMp This formula expresses the conceptual relation, i.e.: 1. it grasps the set of permutations and changes of form which constitute the circuit and unite it t o the other circuits in the ensemble of the process of reproduction of capital; 2. it indicates the determinant character of the relation of production which underlies the whole process of the self-expansion of value. The impossible relation of M ' to M can only be sustained by what governs the whole circuit: capital as arelation ofproduction, with its complement, wage-labour. Thus the circuit of money-capital is the one which best expresses the capitalist process. In fact it is a peculiarity of this process that it has as its principle the selfexpansion of value, as the circuit from M to M ' clearly expresses. But this determinate form of the process of reproduction of capital, the process of self-expansion of value made possible by the relations of production of capital and wage-labour, tends to disappear in its result.

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Thus M ' appears as a sum of values differentiated within itself, functionally (conceptually) distinguished within itself, expressing the capital-relation. But this is expressed only as a result, without the intervention of the process of which it is the result (Vol. 11, p.43). This circuit is therefore characterized by the disappearance of the process in its result. It thus lends itself, should it happen t o be autonomized, t o the misrecognition of the capitalist process. In the ensemble of the process of reproduction studied by Marx in Volume Two, there is no risk of this autonomization occurring. The autonomy of the circuit of money-capital disappears in the circuit of commodity-capital.

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The semblance of independence which the money-form of capital-value possesses in the first form of its circuit (the form of money-capital) disappears in this second form, which thus is a criticism of Form I and reduces it t o merely a special form (Vol. 11, p.73). The criticism of this form (fgure) is performed by the development of the whole process of reproduction. But this development only appears in science. In reality this autonomization, this loss of concept (Begriffslosigkeit) and imaginariness, will in fact manifest themselves the closer one gets t o the more concrete and more mediated forms of the capitalist process. This sequence reaches its extreme in the form of interest-bearing capital. This form is indeed the most concrete and mediated form of capital. It not only presupposes the transformation of surplus value into profit, but the division of profit into profit of enterprise and interest. The finance capitalist who advances the sum of money M remains outside the whole process of production and reproduction. All he does is t o advance a sum M and withdraw a sum M ' . What happens between these two acts does not concern him. Thus the whole capitalist process has disappeared in the form M 'M ' . The Begriffslosigkezt expresses the disappearance of all the intermediary terms whose connection makes the relation of M t o M ' possible. It thereby expresses the disappearance of what underlies this connection and makes it possible, the capitalist relations of production. This disappearance of the relations of production in the Begriffslosigkeit of the form is the basis for the externalization (Verausserlichung) of what Marx calls the relations of capital. We know that this disappearance is made possible by the development of forms which leads t o the most concrete, most mediated form, that of interest-bearing capital. This development of

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forms and this concatenation of mediations themselves disappear in the resultant form. This form which is the most mediated form of the capitalist process presents itself as pure immediacy, as a pure relation of money-capital itself t o itself. Starting from here we can understand the concept of Verausserlichung. We know in fact that it marks a relation between relation df production and form of the process. Moreover, we have already recognized the general mechanism of the link relation/form and characterized it as a link of metonymic causality. In the begriffslose Form which has lost all the characteristics which located it in a definite place in the development and articulation of the forms of the process, this metonymic causality produces its most radical effects. Before going into the details of these effects 1 can already note that the terms of the problem exclude a certain type of interpretation of Verausserlichung (and of Entfremdung). The terms present are not subject, predicate and things, but relation and form. The becoming alien in question here does not mark the externalization of the predicates of a subject in an alien entity, but designates what becomes of the relations of capital in' the most mediated form of the process. B. The Verausserlichung of the re1a t ion

The concept of Verausserlichung is almost ritually accompanied by three other concepts: those of Verriicktheit (absurdity), Versachlichung (materialization) and Verkehrung (reversal). I shall leave the first term on one side; it has no conceptual significance of its own. The concept of Verkehrung, though, does pose a problem. On the one hand it designates the inversion of the inner determination of the process in its completed forms, which has already been studied. But here it takes on a new meaning which I shall examine later on. The concept of Versachlichung must be understood on the basis of what I have already said about the constitution of Gegenstandlichkeit and the mechanism of Darstellung. In the analysis of the commodity form we saw that the thing, the object, was the support of a relation and that the misrecognition of this support function, of the sensuous-supersensuous character of the thing, transformed what was the expression of a social relation into a natural property of the thing. More precisely, everything turned on the function of the form. The latter was simultaneously the form (guise) of the thing and the phenomenal form of the relations of production. We rediscover the mechanism of Darstellung brought t o light by

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Marx in the relation between capital as a thing (a sum of money or a mass of material elements: raw materials, machines, etc . . .) and capital as a relation of production for which the former serves as a support.

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Capital is not a thing, but rather a definite social production relation, belongingto a definite historical formation of society, which is manifested (sich darstellt) in a thing and lends this thing a specific social character (Vol. 111, p.794). We rediscover the Verhaltnzs-Ding opposition, an opposition which has its mode of existence in Darstellung. Misrecognition of the Darstellung cancels the opposition and transforms capital into a mere thing. The three terms here are: - capital as a relation of production - the capital form, which here is the a-conceptual form of interest-bearing capital - the thing (the material elements of capital) which acts as a support to the capital-relation by adopting the guise of the form of interest-bearing capital. Now the form of interest-bearing capital has lost all memory of what made it a special and determinate form of capital. Its formal determinations will thus be confused with the material determinations of the thing. The form ceases t o perform its function as a form because of its Begriffslosigkeit. The social determinations of the relations of production will thus find themselves reduced t o the material determinations of the thing. Hence the confusion between what Marx calls material foundations (things which perform the function of supports) and social determinations. The latter become natural properties of the material elements of production. Thus the capital-relation has become a thing. But this thing has some very special properties. Its mysterious character can be expressed in two ways: -If M is considered as a sum of value, the relation M - M ' will take the form of the incomprehensible (unbegreiflich)relation 4 = 5. The issue here is the mystery of the increase. - The solution t o this mystery can be sought in the use-value of the material elements of the thing M . An incommensurable relation is then substituted for an incomprehensible relation; the thing M produces surplus value, that is, a social relation. I shall state this mystery adequately by giving this incommensurable relation its true name: it is an imaginary or irrational relation. We can thus understand the possibility of this mystery and its solution. The elucidation of the concept of Verkehrung will provide

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us with the solution. This concept designates the following motion: the transformation of the social relation into a thing is equally a transformation of the thing into a social relation. The thing in which the social relation has disappeared has inherited the motion that the social relation determines. This motion is present in the thing as a natural fzculty or occult quality. Here we have the precise and complete meaning of the concealment by which Marx characterizes the mode of action of the relations of production. The effect of this mode of action is first manifest in the fact that the thing appears to be an automaton endowed with a determinate motion. The transition from 4 t o 5 is possible because the thing possesses in itself a reason for its increase. And it possesses this reason because, as Marx said, it finds itself pregnant through the presence inside it of the social relation. It is therefore the imaginary or irrational that is the reason for the increase of the thing5 The imaginary or irrational is thus confirmed in every sense of the word as the reason for and of Wirklichkeit. The mode of presence of the social relation in the thing enables the two mysteries t o be explained: the mystery of the increase and the mystery of the production of a social relation by a mere thing. The thing-capital can thus produce interest naturally and in a determinate fashion (as land produces rent). We can summarize this motion by saying that the thing has become an autonomous subject, something that Marx expresses in the concept of Versubjektivierung (subjectification). We are therefore dealing with a double motion: the materialization of the social determinations of production and the subjectification of its material bases, of the things in which these social determinations are represented and concealed. Marx explains that this double motion was already perceptible in the simplest determination of the capitalist mode of production: the commodity-form of the labour product. Already implicit in the commodity, and even more so in the commodity as a product of capital, is the materialization (Verdinglichung) of the social determinations of production and the personification (Versubjektivierung) of the material foundations of production, which characterize the entire capitalist mode of production (Vol. 111, p.858). It is this double motion that constitutes the second meaning, evoked above, of the concept of Verkehrung, which I shall translate here as reversal (renversement). The result of this reversal is 'the enchanted, perverted, topsy-turvy world' (Vol. 111, p.809). I believe that it is essential t o distinguish between these two functions of the concept of Verkehrung, because only the first (inversion as a function determined by the development of forms,

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by the transition from the Kerngestalt to the fertige Gestalt) is capable of receiving a rigorous conceptual determination. The second function fulfilled by the Verkehrung (double motion of materialization of social relations and subjectification of material supports) is the one surrounded by a whole anthropological halo, marked by an unreflected and uncriticized reference t o an earlier conceptual domain. We must here examine closely the relation between this image of reversal as a characteristic of the Verausserlichung of the relations of capital and the classical image of alienation as it is expressed in the Manuscripts. All the terms of the motion described here by Marx seem t o find their equivalents in the Manuscripts. The structure here constituted by the pair of synonyms Entfremdung/Verausserlichung and the concept of Verkehrung corresponds in the Manuscripts t o the structure constituted by the couple Entfremdung/Entausserung and the same concept of Verkehrung (this reversal designates, in the anthropological critique, the ne plus ultra of the process of alienation by which the subject becomes the object of its object and at the same time the speculative procedure that confirms the separation and the reversal). On the other hand, here, as in the Manuscripts, the reversal is situated on the terrain of a personlthing relation. Hence the necessity t o specify the significance of the concepts in play here. Let us first consider the motion of materialization (Versachlichung or Verdinglichung). What passes into the thing is not the essence of a subjectivity but a relation. In the Verausserlichung it is not a subject which is separated from itself, whose predicates pass into an alien entity. It is a form which becomes alien t o the relation that it supports and, in becoming alien to it, becomes a thing and leads t o the materialization of the relation. This definition of Verausserlichung applies equally to Entfremdung. What is lost in fetishism is the structural implication that founds the distance of the thing from itself, a distance which is precisely the site at which the economic relations are in play. This distance is suppressed in fetishism, but it is arguable that it was suppressed just as much in the 1844 Manuscripts, where the thing was seen directly as the object of a subjectivity. It was the suppression of this distance, of this special dimension of the thing manifesting the grip of the structure, that made possible the amphibology of object and product. Thus the Versachlichung of the relations of capital cannot be understood as an objectification of the predicates of a subject, except by suppressing the specific dimension in which capital determines economic relations. As for subjectification, we can see that it is no more the reversal

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of the predicate of a substantial subject into a subject. What Marx designates as the subjectification of the thing is the acquisition by the thing of the function of motor of the process. In the process, this function does not belong t o a subject or t o the reciprocal action of a subject and an object, but t o the relations of production which are radically removed from the space of subject and object in which they can only find supports. The properties received by the thing are not the attributes of a subject but the motive power of the relations of production. It is insofar as the thing inherits the motion that it presents itself as a subject. The concept of a subject designates a function which has its place in an illusory motion. I can conclude from this that if, in a theoretical field like that of the Manuscripts, the concepts of subjectification, materialization and reversal adequately express a certain conceptual content, in the theoretical field of Capital, they only designate a different conceptual content. In Capital their register is no longer that of a conceptual adequation to their objects, but rather that of analogy. That is how the terms materialization, subjectification and reversal mask what everything hinges on: the function of motor of the process and the peculiar effectivity of the relations of prod~ction.~ Let me briefly express the difference between the two motions. In the Manuscripts the subject (the worker) invests an object with his essence. This object increases the power of the alien entity (Capital), which poses itself as subject in the movement of reversal and reduces the worker t o being the object of his object. In Capital the Verausserlichung lies in the fact that through the, Begriffslosigkeit of the form, the relation sees its determinations reduced to material properties of the thing (materialization); the thing in which the relation has disappeared then presents itself as an automaton-subject (subjectification). The worker and the capitalist d o not intervene in this motion. Thus the worker appears here as a support of the wage-labour relation of production and not as the primordial subject of the process. The mechanism of Entfremdung does not concern him. We can therefore easily define two different structures. But Marx tends constantly t o confuse them, to think the Entfremdung of the relations of capital according t o the model of the alienation of the substantial subject, t o think the Verkehmng-inversion as a Verkehrung-reversal. I should like t o take an example of this slide from Chapter 2 of Volume Three which deals with the question of the transformation of surplus value into profit. We have seen that profit is a phenomenal formlform of concealment of surplus value in which

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the determination of value by labour time and of surplus value by surplus labour has disappeared, a form characterized by the inversion of the real motion of capitalist production. Now in this text we shall see how this inversion reverts to the anthropological image of the reversal and likewise how the first and second models of Entfremdung are confused in that indeterminacy which is characteristic of anthropological discourse. The way in which surplus value is transformed into the form of profit by way of the rate of profit is, however, a further development of the inversion of subject and object that takes place already in the process of production. In the latter, we have seen, the subjective productive forces of labour appear as productive forces of capital. On the one hand, the value, or the past labour, which dominates living labour, is personified in the capitalist. On the other hand, the labourer appears as bare material labour-power, as a commodity (Vol.111, p.45).

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We are confronted with the following motion: dead labour

living labour

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4,

personification in bare material of the capitalist labour power: commodity The scheme used here is the classical anthropological scheme: thing (object) person (subject)

\1

person (subject)

L.

thing (object)

The development of the forms of the process of capitalist production, with the inversion which is characteristic of it, is the development of this initial subjectlobject reversal. If this scheme is consistent, my whole proof has been destroyed. But in reality it is not consistent. In fact what corresponds t o the transformation of living labour into a commodity is the transformation of past labour into capital and not into the capitalist. Personification, in the strict sense that this concept receives in Capital, is something quite different. It designates the function of the subject as a support for the relation of production. As we have seen, the relation of production determines on the one hand a subject function and on the other an object function. It is this relation of production which carries out the Darstellung of the object and equally what I shall call, borrowing a term from Jacques Lacan, the staging or mise en sckne of the ~ u b j e c t .We ~ know that this excludes the subjectlobject couple functioning as the motor of the process, or the motion of the process being the motion of the reciprocity of this couple. The rigorous function of

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personification as it is at work in Capital completely invalidates Marx's use of this concept here. If we reconsider our scheme, we shall have: past labour living labour

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\1

\1

capital

labour power

4

L

capitalist worker (support of the relation (support of the relation of production wage labour) of production capital) Labour power is now confronted by capital and not by a person (the capitalist). And in the same way the capitalist is confronted with another subject, the worker and not by a thing. The subjectlobject inversion no longer has any place here. That is, anthropology has no place in Capital except the one kept for it by relapses in Marx's discourse. Where Marx fails t o locate his concepts the latter arrange themselves around anthropological reference points. Where the rigour of his discourse slackens we see an anthropological model emerge. Such slides necessarily occur insofar as Marx does not rigorously criticize his vocabulary. The words which express the new concepts introduced by Capital are in many cases the same as those which expressed the anthropological concepts of the young Marx. It is necessary to insist on this distinction: we really are concerned with different concepts. For example, in Capital we find a concept of Verkehrung and a concept of Entfremdung which are new concepts in relation to the Manuscripts, concepts which have a different content. But the same words express the anthropological concepts (which I shall call concepts I) and the concepts of Capital (concepts 11). It is interesting to emphasize that in both cases the concepts of Verkehrung and Entfremdung have a relational function. They designate the relations between terms within a certain theoretical space. In theoretical space I the terms brought into relation by the concepts of Verkehrung and Entfremdung are those of subject, predicate, object, person, thing, empirie, speculation, etc. . . . In theoretical space I1 these terms are simple form and complex form, relation and form, etc. . . . The two theoretical spaces have different properties. It follows that relations of type I cannot be homologous with those of type 11. Rigour therefore requires that the words in which these relational concepts are expressed should likewise be different. As Marx does not meet this demand for rigour, the first form (figure) always threatens to insinuate itself where it no longer has any place. The slide takes place in two stages: establishment of a

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homology between relations of type I and relation of type 11, and reconstitution thereby of theoretical space I in which an attempt is made t o insert theoretical space 11. Now in this attempt a distortion is revealed which bears witness t o the resistance of space 11. I t is this distortion that produces for instance the inconsistency of the scheme we have just studied. We find distortions of the same kind almost every time Marx uses schemata borrowed from the anthropological critique. The texts which take up the old scheme of the critique of religious alienation are particularly significant here. Whenever Marx emphasizes an analogy between the process he is studying and that of religious alienation (e.g., in the first chapter of Capital), analysis shows that the analogy is not absolutely rigorous. Another notable distortion is presented by the formula often used by Marx to characterize fetishism: relations between men become relations between things, a formula in which the two complements surreptitiously take the place of subjects. The deeper reason for these slides remains t o be seen. I have argued that Marx did not carry out a critique of his vocabulary. This absence of a critique is not simply negligence. If Marx did not deem it necessary t o establish terminological differences it is because he never rigorously thought the difference between his discourse and the anthropological discourse of the Young Marx. We can determine in Marx's theoretical practice the break that Marx only affirmed, we can formulate the radical difference between the two problematics, but Marx himself never really grasped and conceptualized this difference.

C. Displacement of the origin and transgression of the limit An examination of what happens t o the origin (Ursprung), the limit (Grenz) and the result of this process will show us the completion of its fetishized form. The origin in question is not a temporal origin but the origin of the capitalist process as such. As the process of capitalist production is the process of the self-expansion of the value of capital, the origin that concerns us is the origin of surplus value: surplus labour. This origin is not revealed in the concrete forms of the capitalist process. What is given are the results of this process, that is the fractions into which the total surplus value is broken down: profit, interest and rent. A study of the grounds for compensating has shown us that these fractions expressing the distribution of surplus value present themselves as its constitutive elements. It is this appearance that constitutes the basis for vulgar

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economics, which finds its systematic origin in the theory of the three sources of the exoteric Adam Smith. Adam Smith's project is to make wages, profit and rent, elements resulting from the break-down of the value produced in a determinate period, the constitutive elements of this value.8 Adam Smith's operation can be divided into two stages. First, wages, profit and rent are detached from their origin (total social labour time realised in the value whose break-down they represent). They are then autonomized and present thesmelves as forms indifferent to one another. It is therefore necessary t o find an origin of its own for each one of these elements which have lost the formal determination conferred on them by their place in the process. The theory of the three sources does this when it makes labour the origin of wages, land the origin of rent and capital the origin of profit. The three sources thus take the place of the misrecognized origin. The opposition Ursprung/Quelle is not found in Marx by accident. It marks the transition from a process of socially determined production t o a sort of natural process. The displacement from the origin t o the source is complementary to the Versachlichung, t o the transformation of the social relations of production into things defined by material properties. It completes the naturalization of the process. This disappearance of the origin is simultaneously a disappearance of the limit. We know that this limit is determined by the origin of value (labour time) and of surplus value (surplus labour). It is the total quantity of exploited surplus labour which determines the limits of surplus value. In this way the law of value acts as a regulatory law which specifies the limits within which the distribution of surplus value into profit, interest and rent can take place. All the illusions engendered by a theory of three sources, each naturally producing a revenue, are thus shattered. A qualitative conceptual limit determines the total quantity of value and surplus value produced. On the contrary, if capital naturally produces profit, if it functions as an automaton, every qualitative limit is suppressed and the production of profit appears to follow the pure laws of a geometric progression. Hence the ingenious discovery by which Price thought he was able to resolve all the problems of state treasuries: Money bearing compound interest increases at first slowly. But the rate of increase being continually accelerated, it becomes in some time so rapid, as t o mock all the powers of the imagination . . .A shilling put out t o 6% compound interest at our Saviour's birth . . . would . . . have increased t o a greater sum than the whole solar system could hold, supposing it a sphere equal in

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diameter to the diameter of Saturn's orbit . . .A state need never therefore be under any difficulties; for with the smallest savings it may in as little time as its interest can require pay off the largest debts (cit. Vol.111, pp.386-7). Here we see the form (figure) of the capitalist automaton at its most extreme. The illusion of geometric increase is possible because the qualitative limits on the expansion of the value of capital have been misrecognized.

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The identity of surplus value and surplus labour imposes a qualitative limit upon the accumulation of capital. This consists of the total working day, and the prevailing development of the productive forces and of the population, which limits the number of simultaneously exploitable working-days. But if one conceives of surplus value in the a-conceptual form of interest, the limit is merely quantitative and defies all fantasy (Vol.111, p.390). The obliteration of origin and limit thus put the cap on the fetishized form (figure) of the process, the form (figure) behind which the economic relations are given t o the perception of the agents of production: The concept of capital as a fetish reaches its height in interest-bearing capital, being a conception which attributes t o the accumulated product of labour, and at that in the fixed form of money, the inherent secret power (Kraft), as an automaton, of creating surplus value in geometrical progression (Vol.111, p.390).

4. The Enchanted World

I have described the constitution of one of the three couples of the trinity formula. I can draw two important conclusions from this analysis : 1) The process of this constitution introduces quite a different structure from the subject/predicate/object structure of the Manuscripts. 2) The forms that fetishism presents are not forms deformed by speculation. They are the very forms in which the capitalist process exists for the agents of production. In the same measure as the form of profit hides its inner core, capital more and more acquires a material form, is transformed more and more from a relationship into a thing, but a thing which embodies, which has absorbed, the social relationship, a thing

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which has acquired a fictitious life and independent existence in relation t o itself, a sensuous-supersensuous entity ;in this form of capital and profit it appears superficially as a ready-made precondition. I t is the form of its reality, or rather its real form of existence. And it is the form in which it exists in the consciousness and is reflected in the conceptions of its supports, the capitalists (TSV Pt . 3 , p.483-my emphasis) Here we return t o our starting-point, namely, the fact that the relations which determine the capitalist system can only exist in the form of their concealment. The form of their reality is the form in which their real motion disappears. The analysis of fetishism confirms that the mystification is a mystification of the structure, that it is its very existence. The 'enchanted world' of fetishism 'in which Monsieur le Capital and Madame la Terre do their ghost-walking as social characters and at the same time directly as mere things' (Vol.111, p.809), is thus the perfect form of this connection of effects determined by the absence of the cause. This absence of the cause is reflected by Marx as a mere distance. It is linked t o the disappearance of mediations, obliviousness t o the inner determinations of the process. But this obliviousness is also constitutive since we are no longer concerned with the development of a consciousness endowed with the Hegelian faculty of Erinnerung. Therefore, beyond the inadequate images of distance and obliviousness, we are led back to the foundation, that is t o the fact that the phenomenal forms of the process are determined by something which absolutely cannot be represented in the field of Wirklichkeit without being concealed there, namely the relations of production, relations which bear-that is, do not bear-witness t o the process of formation, the Entstehungsprozess of a determinate mode of production: the capitalist mode of production. Fetishism thus represents not an anthropological process but the specific dislocation according t o which the structure of the capitalist mode of production presents itself in the field of Wirklichkeit, of Alltagsleben (everyday life), and offers itself t o the consciousness and action of the agents of production, the supports of capitalist relations of production. It is on this basis that the forms of fetishism are elaborated and systematized in a special discourse, that of vulgar economics. 'Vulgar economy actually does no more than interpret, systematize and defend in doctrinaire fashion the conceptions of the agents of bourgeois production who are entrapped in bourgeois production relations' (Vol.111, p.797). Starting from the forms of Wirklichkeit, of Alltaglseben, vulgar

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economics systematizes them in the three couples of the trinity formula, the alienated and irrational forms in which mere things (the material elements of capital, land) engender social relations (surplus value, rent). These incommensurable relations represent the rational kernel of the system for vulgar economics.

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As soon as the vulgar economist arrives at this incommensurable relation, everything becomes clear to him, and he no longer feels the need for further thought. For he has arrived precisely at the 'rational' in bourgeois conception (Vol.111, pp.797-8). From the point we have now reached I can try t o characterize all the types of discourse that we have encountered. The starting-point which is given t o perception is the 'fixed forms of wealth', the forms of Wirklichkeit which are the business of the agents of production. The vulgar economist is content t o systematize these forms, t o give their rational kernel, i.e., precisely the imaginary or irrational. His discourse is a reflection of the apparent motion and a negation of the inner essence and real motion of the process. Classical economics proposes to dissolve these fixed forms, t o restore them their essential inner unity. Thus for example, it reduces rent t o surplus profit. But it cannot carry out its project because it does not understand these forms as phenomenal forms of the inner essence of the process. It thus affirms the inner essence by the dogmatic negation of appearances and can only exorcize the forms of fetishism without understanding them. Marx's theory, on the contrary, understands these alienated and imaginary forms as the phenomenal forms of the inner essence of the process. It can constitute simultaneously the theory of the process and the theory of its misrecognition. Here we can return t o a fourth discourse: that of the 1844 Manuscripts. This discourse also has as its starting-point the 'alienated and imaginary forms' that I have just examined. The First Manuscript starts from the three sources; and the Young Marx rejects the Ricardian breakdown as abstract. Thus, he writes in his notes on Ricardo: Political economy, in order t o give its laws a greater consistency and determinacy, has t o posit reality (Wirklichkeit) as accidental and abstraction as real.9 The discourse of the Manuscripts is therefore a discourse which starts from the alienated and irrational forms and attempts t o confine itself t o the level of Wirklichkeit. This means that for it these

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irrational forms will be forms of unreason, of reason estranged, forms of man become foreign t o himself. In other words, these alienated forms-and we have seen what meaning this term should be given here-are for this discourse forms of alienation in the anthropological sense of the term. Thus the reduction of the forms of wealth t o the determination of alienated labour does not constitute a true critique of the forms of economic Gegenstandlichkeit, but maintains the mere form of a reversal in which determinations of the human subject and of intersubjectivity are introduced everywhere in place of material determinations and relations between things (the most remarkable example of this occuring in the amphibologies of wealth and of commerce). This discourse thus still remains captive t o the illustions of Wirklichkeit,

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III Remarks by way of conclusion

I should like t o close by raising a problem, the problem of the possibility of the discourse of classical economics. There is in fact one discourse whose conditions of possibility are clearly defined: that of vulgar economics. The problem is different where classical economics is concerned. The latter is not basically dependent on the conceptions of the agents of production. It is only dependent on them in its weaknesses (e.g., in the exoteric Adam Smith). How are we t o explain both the relative autonomy of the discourse of classical economics, an autonomy that enables it t o dissipate the appearances of fetishism, and its essential limitedness, its inability t o arrive at an understanding of the real motion of capitalist production? After praising the dissolution carried out by classical economics, Marx states: Even the best spokesmen of classical economy remain more or less in the grip of the world of illusion which their criticism had dissolved, as cannot be otherwise from a bourgeois standpoint (Vol.111, p.809). How is this impossibility revealed? I can try t o reflect on the existence of two privileged points at which the misrecognition of the structure contained in the discourse of classical economics is affirmed. There are two things that classical economics does not see. We have examined a t length the first point, which concerns the misrecognition of the value form. Here is how Marx poses the

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necessity of this misrecognition in classical economics: It is one of the chief failings of classical economy that it has never succeeded, by means of its analysis of commodities, and, in particular, of their value, in discovering that form under which value becomes excklange-value. Even Adam Smith and Ricardo, the best representatives of the school, treat the form of value as a thing of no importance, as having no connection with the inherent nature of commodities. The reason for this is not solely because their attention is entirely absorbed in the analysis of the magnitude of value. It lies deeper. The value-form of the product of labour is not only the most abstract, but is also the most universal form, taken by the product in bourgeois production, and stamps that production as a particular species of social production, and thereby gives it its special historical character. If then we treat this mode of production as one eternally fixed by Nature for every state of society, we necessarily overlook that which is the differentia specifica of the value form, and consequently of the commodity-form, and of its further developments, money-form, capital-form, etc. (Vol.1, p80n; T.1, p.83). What classical economics misrecognizes by allowing the value-form t o be classified as inessential is the special historical character of the capitalist mode of production. The same is true in the analysis of the second point, which concerns the origin of surplus value. Practically all the errors of Smith and Ricardo, all the false formulations that they give t o different problems have this same consequence: t o obscure the formation of surplus value. There is a distinction absent from the whole discourse of classical economics, the distinction between variable capital and constant capital. Now positing this distinction dissipates the mystery of surplus value. It reveals the motor of this process of capitalist production: the opposition between capital and wage labour. It reveals capitalist production as determined by determinate historical relations of production. Thus all the omissions and contradictions of the discourse of classical economics which turn on these two points, tend t o conceal this fact: the existence of a historically determinate mode of production. In classical political economy's game of hunt-the-thimble, this is a point at which it must always get warm. There is something that it cannot see and this something that it cannot see is also what it has not to see. The concept of this having not to see is not in fact formulated by

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Marx.lo He does not reflect conceptually the specific conditions of possibility of the discourse of classical economics. The way he thinks the intrinsic limitedness of classical economies is analogical. This will emerge from a study of a text in Volume Three commenting on Ricardo's position on the problem of the falling rate of profit. The rate of profit is the motive power of capitalist production. Things are produced only so long as they can be produced with a profit. Hence the concern of the English economists over the decline of the rate of profit. The fact that the bare possibility of this happening should worry Ricardo, shows his profound understanding of the conditions of capitalist production. It is that which is held against him, it is his unconcern about 'human beings', and his having an eye solely for the development of the productive forces, whatever the cost in human beings and capital-values-it is precisely that which is the important thing about him. Development of the productive forces of social labour is the historical task and justification of capital. This is just the way in which it unconsciously creates the material requirements of a higher mode of production. What worries Ricardo is the fact that the rate of profit, the stimulating principle of capitalist production, the fundamental premise and driving force of accumulation, should be endangered by the development of production itself. And here the quantitive proportion means everything. There is, indeed, something deeper behind it, of which he is only vaguely aware. It comes to the surface here in a purely economic way-i.e., from the bourgeois point of view, within the limitations of capitalist understanding, from the standpoint of capitalist production itself-that it has a barrier, that it is relative, that it is not an absolute, but only a historical mode of production corresponding t o a definite limited epoch in the development of the material requirements of production (Vol. 111, p.2 54). Let us note the concepts in play here. First we have Ricardo's 'vague awareness' (Ahnung). The presence of this concept is not neutral. Marx uses it precisely every time he wishes to point out Ricardo's forebodings, his intuitions about the intrinsic nature of the capitalist mode of production which go beyond his limited 'standpoint'. This necessary limitedness is marked here by three expressions: in rein okonomischer Weise, im bourgeois Standpunkt, innerhalb der Grenzen des kapitalistischen Verstandes. We can compare these expressions with a text from Volume One t o be found at the end of the chapter on wages. 'Classical Political Economy nearly touches the true relation of things, without, however, consciously formulating it. This it cannot

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so long as it sticks in its bourgeois skin' (Vol. I, p.542;T.II, p.213). A comparison of these two texts enables me t o bring out the analogical model Marx uses to think the limitedness of classical economics. We have here the definition of a capitalist understanding (kapitalistische Verstand) which must not be confused with the conceptions (Vorstellungen) of a capitalist subject. Marx thought this capitalist understanding in terms of the model of the development of modes of production. We know that in a determinate mode of production, the productive forces develop up t o a certain point where their development is fettered by the relations of production. The latter constitute the peculiar limit or barrier of a mode of production, a limit or barrier which is manifest in the phenomenon of the restriction of the productive forces. Now, the kapitalistische Verstand is thought precisely as a theoretical mode of production within which the theoretical productive forces can develop only up to a certain point, remaining subject t o the absolute barrier peculiar to this mode of production. It is in this non-explicit analogical model that Marx thinks the intrinsic possibility and limitedness of the discourse of political economy, a prisoner of its 'bourgeois skin' as the productive forces are prisoners of bourgeois relations of production. If this is so we can indeed affirm that Marx does not give us the concept of the possibility of the discourse of classical economics. In order t o be able t o formulate this concept it is necessary t o think the c o m m o n ground on which Marxist science parts with classical political economy. That is t o say, in order t o understand the possibility of classical economics it is necessary t o pose the problem of the possibility of that science itself, of its relation t o its historical conditions of possibility. Marx by no means resolves this problem by resorting t o a parallel between the development of the contradiction inherent t o the capitalist mode of production and the development of its critique. I am referring t o those famous texts where Marx explains that the scientific critique of the capitalist mode of production is possible from the moment that that system is itself in crisis. It may be asked whether this link between crisis and critique is not a leftover from the historicist ideology characteristic of The German Ideology. Moreover this conception comes into contradiction with another conception in Marx-that of the purity of science. The possibility of this science is then linked t o a sort of breathing-space in history. Ricardo can conduct a scientific discourse because he is writing at a time of stability in which history is in some sense neutralized. As soon as the crises of capitalism and class struggles worsen, this discourse ceases t o be possible and Ricardo's successors collapse into apologetics and vulgar economics.

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Generally speaking, a historicist conception, the one that accompanies the concept of critique, is opposed in Marx by a conception which founds the science in a radical rupture with the conditions of existence of historical agents. The problem is then to think the conditions of this rupture. If in Capital Marx determines the site of the science and the forms of its scientificity, it can be asked if he answers the question: how does one reach this site of the science? In vulgar economics we see that the question is resolved by the determination of the place of the capitalist subject in Wirklichkeit: one can reach the domain whence comes the discourse of vulgar economics because one is already there. On the other hand there is no answer t o the question of the access t o the scientific discourse. And I d o not think that the question is resolved by the famous passages in the 1857 Introduction t o A Contribution to the Critique of Political Economy. We know that this question has been posed in the form 'Theory and History', notably by Della Volpe's school. But the answer this school gives it in the theory of the concrete-abstract-concrete circle, or the theory of the transition from historico-material instances t o historico-rational instances, tends t o fall behind the radical distinction established by Marx between the thought process and the real process. On the one hand the determinations of the abstract and the concrete are confused with those of thought and reality (empiricist subreption). On the other hand, the epistemological model proposed here is wholly permeated by the ideological categories past, present and future, which are imposed by the fact that the given object (history) has been accepted uncritically in its vulgar ideological definition. This reflection in the epistemological statement of the ideological properties of the ideological object that Della Volpe has adopted is manifested on the one hand in the conception of concrete-abstract-concrete movement and on the other hand in the antecedents-consequents structure supposed t o define the form of scientificity. The relations between economic categories are thus thought on the model of a succession of antecedents and consequents situated in a linear continuum. We have seen from the example of Pietranera how this theory of rationality as a linear order of implications (a reflection of the properties of the ideological concept of history) misrecognized the dimension of science and the nature of the process that is its object. Thus we see that the theoretical difficulties raised by the answer lie in the very way the question has been posed. We must therefore here carry t o a conclusion a movement for which Marx provides us with the exemplary form and proceed t o examine the very terms of the question, in particular the concept of history. If we are incapable

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of resolving the problem we shall at least known on what terrain it can be resolved: that of a different concept of history. Translated by Ben Brewster Notes

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*

This is a translation of the concluding part of Jacques Rancikre's contribution t o Lire le Capital (ed. L. Althusser and E. Balibar, Paris: Maspero, 1965) that-was not included in the English edition (Reading Capital. London: New Left Books, 1970). The first three sections were published in the magazine Theoretical Practice, numbers one, two and six. 1 The money-value M permits the purchase of a commodity-value C of commodities L (labour power) and MP (means of production). These are then engaged in the productive circuit, P which results in an increased commodity value C' which is converted into M . 2 Vol. I, Vol. I1 and Vol. 111 refer t o Capital in the English translation published b y The Foreign Languages Publishing House, Moscow 1961-2; T.I. and T.11, t o Volume One of the French translation by Joseph Roy, published by Editions Sociales, Paris; TSV Pt.3 t o Theories of Surplus Value Part 3 in the English translation published by Lawrence and Wishart, London 1972. 3 Theact M-C. 4 See Theoretical Practice Number Two, April 1971, p.49, n.7. 5 Further o n we shall see the theoretical calamity that befell Price in taking this reason for ageometrical reason. 6 The precise inadequacy of this scheme t o express the mechanism of fetishization becomes readily apparent if we note that the 'subjectification' of things (autonomization of material supports) by no means corresponds t o a materialization of persons. On the contrary, it is the form (figure) of the contract between two free persons, two constitutive subjectivities that, in the form of interest-bearing capital, corresponds t o the form (fiRure) of the automaton-thing. Evidently fetishism does not concern t h e relation of a subject t o an object but t h e relation of each of these supports t o the relations of production that determine them. 7 Cf. Jacques Lacan: 'Remarque sur le rapport de Daniel Lagache,' Ecrits Editions du Seuil, Paris 1966, p.649: 'If so, when Daniel Lagache sets out from a choice he offers m e between a structure in some sense apparent (which would imply t h e critique of what the descriptive character contains that is natural), and a structure that he can call at a distance from experience (since it is a matter of the "theoretical model" he recognizes in analytical metapsychology), this antinomy neglects a mode of structure which, although a third, should not be excluded, i.e., the effects that the combinatory pure and simple of the signifier determines in the reality in which that combinatory is produced. For is structuralism what enables us t o pose our experience as the field in which It (ca) speaks o r is it not? If yes, "the distance from experience" of the structure disappears, since it acts there not as theoretical model but as the original machine which stages (met en sckne) the subject there.' 8 Let us recall that in order t o pose the theory of the three sources, Adam Smith had t o misrecognize that value produced breaks down in reality on the one hand into capital and on the other into revenue (wages, profit and rent). The part destined t o be reconverted into capital disappears in his analysis. In other words, the same thing is expressed b y saying that wages, profit (profit of enterprise + interest) and rent constitute value or that profit and rent constitute surplus value.

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9 Marx-Engels, Historisch-kritische Gesamtausgabe, Abt. l , Bd. 3, Berlin 1932, p.501. 1 0 T o say that classical economics cannot see these points because they contain inscribed in them the historical character of the capitalist mode of production and therefore its inevitable end, and t o say that capitalism cannot bear t o look its own death in the face, is obviously no substitute for the formulation of the concept of this blindness.

Notes on Authors Ira Gerstein, born 1937, USA; studied at MIT, B.Sc., Ph.D. (physics). Currently studying sociology a t Brandeis University.

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M. L. Morris is a Ph.D. student working on the political economy of South Africa at the Institute of Development Studies, Sussex. Ben Brewster, editor of Screen; formerly on the Editorial Boards of Theoretical Practice and New Left Review. Translator of L. Althusser and E. Balibar Reading Capital, L. Althusser For Marx and Lenin and Philsophy.