The Armies of French Revolution

The Armies ofFrenchRevolution Fandango

Herbert Knötel (1893-1963) Herbert Knötel was the mid-twentieth century's acknowledged master painter of military costume. His father, the celebrated Richard Knötel (1857-1914), was both a successful military artist and the world's -greatest authority on military dress and equipment, being the first to carry through a scientific study of the entire history of that subject. His working library contained over 9,000 books and endless files of methodically screened and arranged reference material. Trained as his successor, young Herbert Knötel assisted him in the preparation of his famous Grosse Uniformkunde" a series of 1,060 colored plates with accompanying texts, covering the armies of most of the civilized world from the seventeenth century until 1914. In 1914 Herbert Knötel came to full manhood, serving as a squad leader and being wounded during the Tannenberg campaign. Subsequently commissioned, he fought through World War I as a cavalry officer on the eastern front, learning the true aspect of fighting men of many nations. Ever afterwards he could give his paintings a realistic edge of dust, sweat, mud, sun glare, and danger, and depict horses and horsemen with a skill few other military artists have possessed. Through the years between the two world wars he carried forward and expanded his father's work, updating and enlarging his 1896 Handbuch der Uniformkunde, extending the Grosse Uniformkunde series, producing the well-known DeutscheUniformen cigarette card books, and taking an important part in the management of the Berlin Zeughaus Museum. His reference library survived British and American bombing raids on Berlin, only to be destroyed by Russian artillery fire durina the Battle of Berlin. Cramming his most valuable books into suitcases, he and his wife managed to escape. Afterward, his publishing career shattered, he slowly built up a new career as an artist. Knötel's work has certain noticeable characteristics. A watercolorist must have a sure hand and work quickly. His paper must be kept moist; he cannot paint over any portion of his work without blurring its colours. Essential details, such as buttons, must be added later with acrylic paint. Knötel's method was to make a pencil sketch of the figure he was about to paint (traces of such preliminary outlines show on several of these plates) and then paint over it. He had two distinct stylesone a careful documentary presentation, the other almost impressionistic - and he often used both in one of my monthly "contingents." With both, however, there practically always is evidence of his mastery : look at his figures- especially their faces - through a magnifying glass. Though increasing age and failing health gradually restricted his activity, his hand and mind remained steady. Watercolors he painted less than a month before his death are among his finest, and his eagerness for new knowledge never slackened. Soldiers of every nation, in every age, took shape under his skilled fingers. They were not elegant fashion plates, drawn merely to illustrate some uniform regulation of years gone by. Instead, they were a soldier's soldiers: infantrymen who knew the dragging weight of heavy packs and empty bellies; fussy, officious administrative officers; cavalrymen with eyes alert for the first flicker of hostile movement; gay, gaudy, galloping aides-de-camp. Herbert Knötel has left his armies - of which this is not the least-behind him.

Part One Royal Army

Royal Army Index Plate 1: 2nd Battalion of Light Infantry, Private, 1791. Plate 2: Infantry Regiment Picardy (2nd Infantry Regiment), Colonel, 1791. Plate 3: Infantry Regiment Navarre (5th Infantry Regiment), Chasseur, 1790. Plate 4: Infantry Regiment Bourbon, Fusilier, 1790. Plate 5: King's (du Roi) Infantry Regiment, Fusilier, 1790. Plate 6: German Infantry Regiment Salm-Salm, Grenadier, 1791. Plate 7: Infantry Regiment Royal-Italian, Chasseur, 1788. Plate 8: Irish Infantry Regiment Dillon, Grenadier, 1786. Plate 9: Hussar Regiment de Saxe, Private, 1790. Plate 10: The King's Cuirassier Regiment, Private, 1790. Plate 11: The Royal German Regiment, Private, 1790. Plate 12: 1st Carabinier Regiment, Private, 1790. Plate 13: Royal Artillery Corps, Captain, 1791. Plate 14: Guard of the Vice-Legate of Avignon, Fusilier, 1789. Plate 15: French Guard, Grenadier, 1786. Plate 16: Swiss Guard, Grenadier, 1791. Plate 17: Guard of the Count d'Artois, 1786. Plate 18: Guides du Corps, 1st (Scots) Company, Full Dress, 1786.

Part One Royal Army The Royal Army of 1791 consisted of 102 regiments of infantry (79 French, 11 Swiss, and 12 of Germans, Irish, and miscellancous foreigners); 12 battalions of chasseurs а pied (light infantry); 62 regiments of cavalry (2 carabiniers а cheval, 24 heavy cavalry, 18 dragoons, 12 chasseurs а cheval, and 6 hussars); and 7 artillery regiments. The period between 1 October 1786, when the last general regulation covering the uniforms and equipment of the Royal Army was published, and 21 September 1792, when the French monarchy was abolished, was a stew of constant changes and reorganizations as the new National Assembly gradually wrenched control of the Army from King Louis XVI. While cavalry and artillery uniforms remained largely unchanged, on 1 November 1789 the French infantry regiments were divided into 7 "series" of 12 regiments each (the last series had only 7); each series was assigned a distinctive facing color - black, violet, rose, sky blue, crimson, scarlet, and royal blue. The 1st, 2nd, 3rd, 7th, 8th, and 9th regiments of each series had yellow buttons; the rest had white ones; the first 6 had their coat pockets cut horizontally; those of the last 6 were vertical, all were to have revers (lapels) of their distinctive color, and white retroussis (the turned-back coat skirts). In each group of 3, the 1st regiment would have collars, cuffs, and cuff flaps of the distinctive color; the 2nd cuffs only; the 3rd collars and cuff flaps. Foreign regiments retained their traditional uniforms, madder red for Swiss and Irish; deep sky blue for the rest. Probably this regulation was never completely implemented because of the lack of time and the need to wear out existing uniforms-not to mention the complete nonchalance with which Frenchmen, especially nobly born colonels, regarded all uniform regulations. French regiments had gone in an assortment of colors until 1762, when the all-white uniform became official; their officers had seldom worn any sort of uniforms before 1729-30 and still were likely to have theirs tailored according to the current court fashion rather than official specifications!

Emigrant Troops Index Plate 1: Loyal Emigrant Infantry Regiment, Grenadier, 1798. Plate 2: Legion of Mirabeau, Fusilier, 1792. Plate 3: De Broglie' s Infantry Regiment, Grenadier, 1795. Plate 4: York Fusiliers, Rifleman, 1795. Plate 5: British Uhlan Regiment, Uhlan, 1795. Plate 6: Salm-Kirburg Hussar Regiment, Hussar, 1795. Plate 7: Salm-Kirburg Hussar Regiment. Artilleryman. 1795.

Part Two Emigrant Troops The Revolution's increasing, savagery caused many of the French nobility and gentry, including between half and two thirds of the Army's officers, to flee France. Some officers attempted to carry their troops with them, but with little success. Once across the frontier, these emigrйs, as they termed themselves, soon began forming military units, intending to restore the French monarchy by force of arms. Two of their three small "armies" organized in 1792 were soon ruined - almost without seeing combat - by hardships, disease, and the incompetence of the French princes who pretended to command them. The third, the "Army of Condй" after its devoted and pretentious commander, Louis de Bourbon, Prince of Condй, endured until 1801. A disorderly, almost medieval collection of roughly 6,000 gentlemen-at-arms and mercenaries, it had a headquarters large enough for an army of 100,000 (Condй's personal entourage included 20 aides-de-camp, 3 chaplains, and 6 cooks) and an accompanying horde of families, servants, and camp followers. Eventually most of its units passed into the English, Russian, or Austrian service. Other emigrй formations were organized in Holland, Spain, the Kingdom of Sardinia, and especially England. Almost all of them suffered from an oversupply of officers and a shortage of acceptable enlisted men. For lack of French recruits, they filled their ranks with deserters and prisoners of war from the French revolutionary armies and available foreigners of any nationality: The first proved dangerously unreliable; the second often were little better. The uniforms of these lost legions, were amazingly varied, often fantastic, and sometimes bizarre. Their confusing variety occasionally caused "unfortunate incidents as on 19 October 1794 in Holland when the British 37th Foot was surprised and ridden under by the French 9th Hussars, whom they had mistaken for the йmigrй Rohan Hussars who also wore sky blue.

Revolutionary Armies Index Plate 1: General of Division, 1798. Plate 2: Hussar-Guides of the Army of Italy, Guide, 1796. Plate 3: Hussar-Guides of the Army of Germany, Guide, 1797. Plate 4: Hussar-Guides of the Army of Germany, Trumpeter, 1797. Plate 5: Guides of General Bonaparte, Artilleryman, 1797. Plate 6: Guides of the Army of Switzerland, Guide, 1799. Plate 7: Representative of the People "On Mission," 1794. Plate 8: Light Infantry, Chasseur Private, 1796. Plate 9: 57th Demi-Brigade of Line Infantry, Bandsman, 1798. Plate 10: National Volunteers, Private, 1792. Plate 11: Santerre's Volunteers, Fusilier, 1793. Plate 12: The Black Legion, Carabinier Company Drummer, 1798. Plate 13: The German Legion, Infantryman, 1792. Plate 14: Legion of Paris, Chasseur Private, 1793. Plate 15: Paris Volunteers, Officer, 1793. Plate 16: Westermann's Legion, Infantry Private, 1792. Plate 17: Allobrogian Legion, Infantry Private, 1792. Plate 18: The Irish Legion, Private, 1796. Plate 19: 1st Hussar Regiment, Hussar, 1798. Plate 20: 7th Hussar Regiment, Hussar, 1792-93. Plate 21: 13th Hussar Regiment, Hussar, 1796. Plate 22: 2nd Regiment of Chasseurs а Cheval, Chasseur, 1791. Plate 23: 5th Regiment of Chasseurs а Cheval, Trumpeter, 1797. Plate 24: 6th Regiment of Chasseurs а Cheval, Colonel, 1795. Plate 25: 2nd Cavalerie Regiment, Trooper, 1792. Plate 26: Volunteer Hussars of Death, Corporal, 1793. Plate 27: Lorient National Dragoon Regiment, Dragoon, 1791. Plate 28: Polish Legions of Italy, Grenadier Private, 1797. Plate 29: Cisalpine Republic, Aide-de-Camp, 1800. Plate 30: Cisalpine Republic, National Guard, Artilleryman, 1797. Plate 31: Ligurian Republic, Chasseur, 1797-99. Plate 32: Piedmontese Republic, Color Bearer, 1800. Plate 33: Lombard Legion, Infantry Private, 1796. Plate 34: Lombard Legion, Artilleryman, 1796. Plate 35: Horse Artillery, Private, Field Uniform, 1793. Plate 36: Balloon Service, 1794. Plate 37: School of Mars, Cadet, 1794. Plate 38: Guard of the National Assembly, Guardsman, 1791. Plate 39: Guard of the National Assembly. Grenadier-Gendarme, 1792.

Part Three Revolutionary Armies In late 1793 the French Army had -on paper- 196 demi-brigades (regiments) of infantry, 25 regiments of heavy cavalry (cavalerie), 2 of carabiniers, 21 of dragoons, 25 of chasseurs а cheval. 13 of hussars, and 9 of artillery. Actually, throughout the Revolution, the French government was increasingly uncertain as to how many men and units it really had and frequently as to just where some of them might be. The Army had been strengthened by recruiting, new regular units of light infantry and cavalry, by calling out battalions of "national volunteers," putting units of the national guard on active duty, and encouraging the formation of "free corps" by localities and patriotic citizens. (Many of the latter were organized as "legions' consisting of both infantry and cavalry and sometimes artillery.) On 23 August 1793 national conscription was introduced; during that year and the next regulars, volunteers, and free corps infantry were combined into standard demi-brigades. Free corps cavalry were put into regular regiments. By 1796 things were again in complete confusion. Authorized units had not been activated; unauthorized ones had been formed; existing units had dwindled away through casualties, sickness, and desertion. Some of the 251 demi-brigades existing in 1795 had less than 100 men. They therefore were "amalgamated" in 1796 to produce 110 demi-briades of line infantry and 30 of light, but the situation continued to worsen until Napoleon's seizure of power in late 1799. The uniforms of the Revolutionary armies are a fascinating confusion. Their wars began with regular line infantry in white, light infantry in green, volunteers and national guardsmen in blue. The free corps appeared in uniforms of every color and description, often deliberately gaudy or bizarre to attract recruits. Each hussar regiment tried to have its own distinctive outfit. But as these first uniforms - often cheaply and hurriedly made- wore out, resupply grew more and more corrupt and inefficient and finally collapsed. Soldiers patched their old uniforms, pieced out their rags with items of civilian clothing or enemy uniforms, and made up new uniforms or parts of uniforms from whatever cloth of whatever color they might find. Sabots were

issued in place of shoes, but many soldiers had to march barefoot. By 1799 most of the Army was uniformed only in the sense that a profusion of tricolor cockades, plumes, ribbons, and sashes gave a certain sameness to its tatters. Uniform research is helped chiefly by contemporary artists, especially the primitive local painters and engravers of the Rhineland towns who reproduced what they saw. The unknown German who left the realistic "French Infantry Assembling for the Changing of the Guard" at Mannheim, October 1795, shows two sorts of helmets, hats of all shapes and forage caps: smart new uniforms (of several different colors) and utter rags, officers carrying packs; bayonets garnished with a loaf of bread, a slab of meat, or a mess tin; and a showy drum major with a spoon tucked carefully under his baldric. Other artists like the Hessian painter and engraver Nicolaus Hoffmann who worked in Paris from 1775 to 1808 produced pictures of how the soldiers were supposed to look. A thrifty man, he corrected and then reused the same engraving plate for different units. Unfortunately he sometimes failed to make all the necessary corrections - which may be why the colonel of the 6th Chasseurs а Cheval has a squadron commander' s insignia.

Army of Egypt Index Plate 1: General Bonaparte's Guides, Cavalry Officer, 1799. Plate 2: General Bonaparte' s Guides. Cavalryman, Field Uniform, 1798. Plate 3: General Bonaparte's Guides, Infantryman, Full-Dress Uniform, 1799. Plate 4: General Bonaparte's Guides, Infantryman, Field Uniform, 1799. Plate 5: General Bonaparte's Guides, Infantry Drummer, 1799. Plate 6: General Bonaparte's Guides, Native Company, 1799. Plate 7: 2nd Light Infantry Demi-Brigade, Chasseur Private, 1799. Plate 8: 4th Light Infantry Demi-Brigade, Chasseur Company 1st Sergeant, 1799. Plate 9: 21st Light Infantry Demi-Brigade, Lieutenant, 1800. Plate 10: 22nd Light Infantry Demi-Brigade, Chasseur Private, 1800. Plate 11: 9th Line Infantry Demi-Brigade, Colonel, Field Uniform, 1800. Plate 12: 9th Line Infantry Demi-Brigade, Drum Major, Full Dress, 1800. Plate 13: 9th Line Infantry Demi-Brigade, Sergeant Major, 1800. Plate 14: 9th Line Infantry Demi-Brigade. Bandsman, 1800. Plate 15: 9th Line Inftntry Demi-Brigade, Lieutenant, 1800. Plate 16: 9th Line Infantry Demi-Brigade, Grenadier 1st Sergeant, 1799. Plate 17: 9th Line Infantry Demi-Brigade, Grenadier, 1799. Plate 18: 9th Line Infantry Demi-Brigade, Fusilier, 1800. Plate 19: 9th Line Infantry Demi-Brigade. Fusilier Company Drummer, 1800. Plate 20: 13th Line Infantry Demi-Brigade, Fusilier, 1800. Plate 21: 18th Line Infantry Demi-Brigade, Fusilier, 1800. Plate 22: 25th Line Infantry Demi-Brigade, Fusilier Company Drummer, 1800. Plate 23: 32nd Line Infantry Demi-Brigade, Fusilier, 1800. Plate 24: 61st Line Infantry Demi-Brigade, Bandsman, 1800. Plate 25: 61st Line Infantry Demi-Brigade, Fusilier. 1800. Plate 26: 69th Line Infantry Demi-Brigade, Fusilier, 1800. Plate 27: 75th Line Infantry Demi-Brigade, Fusilier, 1799. Plate 28: 85th Line Infantry Demi-Brigade, Fusilier, 1800. Plate 29: 88th Line Infantry Demi-Brigade, Grenadier, 1800. Plate 30: 88th Line Infantry Demi-Brigade, Fusilier, 1800. Plate 31: The Coptic Legion, Grenadier, 1799. Plate 32: The Maltese Legion, Fusilier, 1800. Plate 33: The Greek Legion, 1800. Plate 34: Garrison of Malta, Grenadier, 1799. Plate 35: 7th (bis) Hussar Regiment, Officer, 1800. Plate 36: 7th (bis) Hussar Regiment, Hussar, 1799. Plate 37: 22nd Regiment of Chasseurs а Cheval. Squadron Commander, 1799. Plate 38: 22nd Regiment of Chasseurs а Cheval, Chasseur, 1800. Plate 39: 3rd Dragoon Regiment, Dragoon, 1800. Plate 40: 15th Dragoon Regiment, Captain, 1800. Plate 41: Dromedary Regiment, Officer, 1800. Plate 42: Dromedary Regiment, Private, 1799. Plate 43: Artillery Artificer, 1799. Plate 44: Miner, 1800-1801. Plate 45: Balloon Company, 1799. Plate 46: Naval Legion, Fusilier Private, 1799.

Part Four Army of Egypt Officially L’Armйe de l’Orient (Army of the East), this small force, which probably never mustered more than 35,000 effective men, conquered Egypt and maintained itself there for three years. Shortly after its landing on 1 July 1798, it was cut off from any large-scale reinforcement or resupply from France by the destruction of most of the French Mediterranean fleet by Admiral Horatio Nelson at Aboukir Bay. The French then organized and modernized Egypt's resources to provide themselves with weapons, ammunition, and clothing. The uniforms of L’Armйe de 1'0rient went through three phases. It landed in regulation French uniforms, probably already considerably worn. Soldiers found them unbearably hot during the first desert marches; a good many discarded their woolen coats and then shivered in the chill desert nights. By August it was evident that the army would have to be reclothed. After considering and rejecting a semi-oriental style, a board of officers adopted a short blue single-breasted coat of cotton cloth with

red cuffs and collar and white cotton lining. Issued with this were two pairs of white cotton trousers, short white leggins, and a white cotton waistcoat. Shortly thereafter the infantry's battered hats were replaced by leather helmets, each regiment helm assigned its own distinctive colored crest (pouffe). New overcoats of linen cloth, usually white, sometimes blue, followed. This uniform lasted for approximately one year's campaigning. Apparently it lacked warmth; a sensible compromise seemed to be a wool coat and a linen or cotton waistcoat. Napoleon returned to France in August 1799 before much had been done to develop new uniforms, but his successor, General Jean Klйber, pushed the work. Klйber's clothing service requisitioned most of the woolen cloth in Egypt, demanding more than was actually required to make the army appear larger than it was. It then found itself confronted by an amazing jigsaw puzzle of excellent, bad, or acceptable cloths in every imaginable color, weave, and size. Distributing them among the regiments was a long. frustrating, problem, especially since some colonels had definite color preferences. Eventually it was accomplished through late 1799-carly 1800, producing one of the most unusual-appearing armies in western military history. Unfortunately Herbert Knцtel died before he was able to paint either the cotton uniform or the army's command and staff, artillery, and medical services. General officers appear to have continued to wear their regulation uniforms : possibly with extra gold embroidery; one adopted a helmet somewhat like the infantry's, but circled with a laurel wreath in gold embroidery and crowned with a mass of red" white, and blue plumage. Surgeons may have worn scarlet breeches as a means of quick identification. These plates are based on surviving records. Many details however must remain obscure. Different regiments favored different styles of coats, and there probably was considerable variation in the size and shapes of the regimental pouffes.