Stop the Bullying: A Handbook for Schools

Stop the Bullying A handbook for schools Stop the Bullying A handbook for schools KEN RIGBY University o...

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Stop the Bullying A handbook for schools

Stop the Bullying A handbook for schools

KEN RIGBY University of South Australia

First published 2001 This revised edition first published 2003 by Australian Council for Educational Research Ltd 19 Prospect Hill Road, Camberwell, Melbourne, Victoria, 3124 Copyright © 2003 Ken Rigby All rights reserved. Except under the conditions described in the Copyright Act 1968 of Australia and subsequent amendments, no part of this publication may be reproduced, stored in a retrieval system or transmitted in any form or by any means, electronic, mechanical, photocopying, recording or otherwise, without the written permission of the publishers. The material in the photocopy masters may be reproduced by individuals in quantities sufficient for non-commercial application. Edited by Mignon Turpin Cover design by Chris Payne, CPT Design Printed by Shannon Books National Library of Australia Cataloguing-in-Publication data: Rigby, Ken. Stop the bullying: a handbook for schools. Rev. ed. Bibliography. ISBN 0 86431 568 6. 1. Bullying – Australia. 2. Bullying – Australia – Prevention – Handbooks, manuals, etc. 3. School discipline - Australia. I. Australian Council for Educational Research. II. Title 371.580994 Visit our web site: www.acerpress.com.au

CONTENTS Preface to the second edition Acknowledgments 1 The purpose of the handbook 2 Using the handbook 3 Why bother?

vii viii 1 3 4

UNDERSTANDING BULLYING 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16

What is bullying? Gender, race, disability and social class Power inequalities When forcefulness is not bullying The means of bullying Sexual harassment Bullying as a dynamic process The passive victim The resistant victim Bullying between staff and students Bullying between adults in the school community Why some people bully Why some people do not bully

6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18

ACTION TO COUNTER BULLYING 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 30 31 32 33 34 35 36 37 38 39 40

Setting goals Making a plan Educating the school community Supportive training resources What it is useful to know about your school How to get the facts Finding out about bullying among young children Developing an anti-bullying policy What goes into the policy What teachers can do about bullying Talking with students in class about bullying Telling Classroom activities that can help to reduce bullying Working with students on rules and policies Focus on bystanders Roles for empowered students What students can do about bullying Bully/victim cases Assessing severity Alternative treatments Helping the victims Helping the bullies Working constructively with parents Types of schools

20 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 30 31 32 33 34 35 36 37 38 39 40 41 42 43 v

41 Advice for parents 42 A check list

44 45

Notes References

46 59

APPENDICES: SHEETS FOR PHOTOCOPYING 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12

vi

Defining bullying The means of bullying (examples) The bully/victim cycle – Bullying and the passive victim The bully/victim cycle – Bullying and the resistant victim What goes into the policy Alternative approaches to dealing with bullies Bystander exercise Warning signs that a child is being bullied at school Quiz about bullying for students (questions) Quiz about bullying for students (answers) Handling bullying: A staff questionnaire Twenty questions to ask yourself

66 67 68 69 70 71 72 73 74 75 76 82

PREFACE TO THE SECOND EDITION What to do about bullying in schools is an ever-expanding field, requiring constant monitoring as new ideas appear and new resources become available. With the publication of this second edition of Stop the Bullying I have been able to take recent developments into account in revising some of the contents of the earlier edition and adding further material of a practical nature. The issue of whether schools in Australia should take action against bullying is now well and truly over. The question has become: How can schools best deal with the problem? There remains a need for schools to work out what, among many, are the best courses of action for them to take and what resources are available for them to carry out agreed plans as effectively as possible. In revising this handbook I have kept in mind that ant i-bullying initiatives are unlikely to be effective without widespread support from the school community, that is from staff, students and parents. I have therefore further emphasised the need for informed and thorough discussion of the issues, in the first instance by members of each school’s staff. I know that individual teachers, like members of the community at large, are apt to have different opinions about what to do. These differences are healthy but need to be brought out into the open and discussed in a non-judgemental manner. To this end, in this edition I have provided a series of questions in a questionnaire to help teachers discover where they and their colleagues stand, as a prerequisite to reaching a joint decision on what to do. I am also aware that bullying is not only an issue among children. It can also involve adults, as workplace research is now showing. Accordingly, I have provided a section in this edition that I hope will assist in taking a more comprehensive look at the problem. A major contribution of this handbook lies in informing schools about resources for addressing bullying. Teachers are no longer alone in their endeavours to counter bullying, as an increasing volume of resources is now available. As well as resources providing knowledge about bullying in schools, there are also, and more importantly, resources that help to develop the kinds of skills that are needed to deal with the practical issues of the day. These include how to mediate in conflict situations, how to use drama and role-play to help students handle conflict more constructively, how to deal with students who bully and students who are often victimised by peers, and how to work with parents to resolve bully/victim problems. Teachers who want to include lessons about conflict and bullying as part of the school curriculum no longer have to make it all up themselves. The task now is to access, appraise and adapt what is available. This handbook has been written to make this possible. Ken Rigby July 2002

vii

ACKNOWLEDGMENTS I am enormously indebted to the thousands of children, teachers and parents who, over the last 12 years, have shared with me their concerns about school bullying, their ideas about what can be done about it, and their heartfelt hope that there will come a day when bullying simply doesn’t happen. Then there are people who have kindly read through the text of this handbook and offered me good advice and encouragement. Especially I would like to thank Ms Karen Kitchen, Student Attendance Counsellor – Special Projects, Education Department of South Australia; Ms Alison Soutter, Senior Education Officer, NSW Department of Education and Training; and Ms Jenny Blake, Acting Senior Education Officer, Student Se rvices Branch, Education Ser vices Directorate Education, Queensland, for their perceptive comments. Their expertise and working knowledge of the needs of school personnel in addressing the problem has been much appreciated. They have helped me to write a better book. However, they must not be held in any way accountable for any errors, misjudgements or personal opinions that may disturb or challenge the reader. These are mine and mine alone. Acknowledgments are also due to Mr Baden Smith, Visual Productions, University of South Australia, for the drawing in Section 23, and to Mr Simon Kneebone for the illustration of a bystander scene in Appendix 7. I am also indebted t o Ms Mignon Turpin for her most helpful assistance in editing both this and the earlier edition.

Ken Rigby

viii

Stop the Bullying: A handbook for schools

1

THE PURPOSE OF THE HANDBOOK This handbook is to help us deal more e ffectively with the pro blem of bullying in schools. Those who educate about bullying include both teachers and parents. It is only through mutual understanding of each other’s role and a joint resolve to work collaboratively with each other that the problem of bullying will ever be solved. Hence, although this handbook is directed primarily at informing educators in schools, I hope that it will be read also by parents who care about bullying in schools, who want to know what can be done about it, and who want to work closely with schools to help stop the bullying. Since the 1970s there has been increasing attention paid to the problem throughout the world. In a major book on the subject published in 1999 titled The Nature of Bullying (edited by Peter Smith and others) there are accounts by researchers in 34 countries and from every continent of bullying in schools. Research on issues in school bu llying con ti nues to be publ i s h ed in refereed journals at an increasing rate. International and national conferences are now examining bullying as a central theme. It is not easy to keep up with this flow of information. At the same time the issue of school bullying is a growing community concern. This is reflected in the importance that is being attached to the issue in the media. It is also evident in encouragement that is sometimes given to parents to take legal action against a school when they believe there has been a breach in the duty of care that schools have in protecting children from severe forms of peer bullying 1. This may sometimes create a doomsday illusion that bullying is becoming ever more prevalent in an increasingly dysfunctional society. This is not the case. What is happening is that we are becoming more sensitive to the harm bullying can do, less into denial that it is happening, and generally more optimistic that bullying can be greatly reduced. For several years now some progressive schools have been taking the matter very seriously and putting in place excellent policies and programs against bullying. Quite recently some Education Departments have begun to respond, as they should, by insisting that all schools have policies and procedures for dealing with bullying. Resources are becoming available to help schools with the task of educating and training school staff to respond effectively. The purpose of this handbook is to provide for educators a set of basic facts, ideas and suggested procedures in a convenient format to help eliminate the manifest evil of bullying in schools. I am encouraged to try my hand at this because over the last 12 years I have kept abreast of bullying research and contributed substantially to it through more than 30 books and papers in international academic research journals. Such research is not very accessible to the general reader, and indeed has needed to be translated, as it were, from the academic jargon into sound practical advice. Although running a school and getting the best out of everyone is a skill that normally dev elops through personal experience and is honed by practice, we can, I believe, learn from research and benefit from the experience of those who have wrestled with the persistent problem of bullying in schools. While the main focus of this handbook is on bullying among students, we need to spread the net wider to include the whole school community. It is obvious that bullying and harassment often occur between adults in the workplace. In fact the second wave of research into bullying has centred exclusively on workplace issues. In some 1


schools, teachers have claimed that they are being bullied by their peers, sometimes by students, and occasionally by the parents of students. For their part, students sometimes claim that they are bullied by their teachers. Parents may also believe that teachers have bullied them when they have sought help for their children. Not only are such encounters distressing but also they provide models of inappropriate behaviour that can positively encourage bullying behaviour among students. It is therefore important that in addressing the problem of bullying in schools we should be concerned with the quality of relationships that exist in the whole school community. We need to take this wider perspective. For the growing number of school educators who want to know what is the research evidence for the judgements that writers make and also wish to go into more detail about specific methods of intervention, I have provided a set of instructive notes and references at the end of this handbook.

2


2

USING THE HANDBOOK This handbook is designed primarily for people concerned with the social education of young people, whether as teachers or as parents. The following are suggestions as to how the handbook may be used. For school educators 1. First appoint a coordinator for the development of an Anti-bullying Policy for the school. This person would work with a small number of other staff members to form the Coordinating Committee. 2. Each committee member would then meet with a group of staff to discuss the content of the Handbook. All staff members thus become involved. There can be, if required, several meetings at which the content of the Handbook is discussed. Information from the Appendices can be used to provide overhead transparencies or handouts. 3. At group meetings members should identify ideas and suggestions useful and applicable to their school. 4. At the end of the series of meetings, group leaders should share views expressed by their groups and decide upon what recommedations to make to the School. At this stage the Committee may decide to coopt parent and/or student representation. 5. The Coordinating Committee should then prepare a document for distribution to each staff member outlining proposed actions to counter and reduce bullying. 6. This document may then be discussed at a general Staff Meeting and provide a basis for the school’s Anti-bullying Policy. For parents 1. Read the Handbook with a view to understanding what ideas and suggestions are now being made by educators to reduce bullying. 2. After appraising what is suggested, you will be aware of options that are now available to schools. You will find this useful in understanding what schools and families can do to stop bullying and ensure that any approaches you might make to the school are informed. 3. The Handbook can help parents who are considering educational alternatives and wish to choose the school that best provides for the safety of their children.

3


3

WHY BOTHER? Occasionally – less and less often I am glad to say – you meet somebody who does not see, or does not want to see, what the fuss is about. You may hear these things said: ‘There may be a few schools around where nasty things like bullying and violence occur, but I’m glad to say that nothing like that happens at my school.’ ‘Sure kids do bully each other. So what! It helps to toughen them up. Shouldn’t wrap them in cotton wool, anyway. No real harm is done.’ ‘There has always been bullying. There will always be bullying. Just human nature. No point in wasting your time trying to stop it.’ We now know that none of these statements is true. Hundreds of independent studies have been conducted in many countries including Australia to assess the incidence of bullying in all manner of schools1 and there has never been a study in any school that has reported that bullying was not taking place. Again, many studies have examined the question of whether children are affected adversely by being bullied and the answer is a unanimous ‘yes’. We can list the areas: 1. Lowered mental health2: damaged self-esteem; increased anxiety; deepened depression; increased likelihood of suicidal thinking; lowered level of happiness; 2. Induced social maladjustment3: fear of other children ; absenteeism from school4; and 3. Physical un-wellness: rise in medical ill-health symptoms5. What is of particular concern is that serious and sustained bullying in schools can have devastating long-term effects on the health and well-being of people when they reach adult years6. We should recognise too that although most victims are subdued, some become alienated and bitter, plot revenge and can be extremely dangerous to others7. Finally there are grounds for optimism. Studies show that there are large variations between schools in the prevalence of peer victimisation8, and these cannot be accounted for in terms of background characteristics of students and their families. More crucially, interventions to reduce bullying have been shown to work9, 10.

4

Understanding Bullying


4

WHAT IS BULLYING? How you define and describe bullying is of great practical importance because it determines what you focus upon and ultimately what you do about it. You need to be clear what it is and what it is not. To do justice to what bullying is, you need to recognise that: 1. It begins when somebody (or a group of persons) wants to hurt someone or put that person under pressure. Such a desire is a necessary but not sufficient condition for bullying to occur. Remember that a desire to hurt or pressure somebody may not be expressed in hurtful action, in which case bullying may not take place1. 2. Bullying involves a desire to hurt + hurtful action. There may be actions of different kinds: physical or verbal or gestural, direct or indirect, or commonly a combination of these. But, in addition, there is an imbalance of power2, at least in the situation in which the bullying takes place. 3. Bullying involves a desire to hurt + hurtful action + a power imbalance. Although you may reasonably want to stop it, fighting or quarrelling between people of equal strength or power is not bullying. But, in addition, bullying is conceived as behaviour that is not just 3. 4. Bullying involves a desire to hurt + hurtful action + a power imbalance + an unjust use of power. Hence we must always ask whether the hurtful use of superior power is justified or not (see Section 7). In addition, bullying actions are typically repeated. 5. Bullying involves a desire to hurt + hurtful action + a power imbalance + an unjust use of power + (typically) repetition4. It is characteristic of bullying that the perpetrator enjoys the domination5 that is being demonstrated and the victim feels oppressed6. Bullying involves a desire to hurt + hurtful action + a power imbalance + an unjust use of power + (typically) repetition + evident enjoyment by the aggressor + a sense of being oppressed on the part of the victim.

6


5

GENDER, RACE, DISABILITY AND SOCIAL CLASS Over the last 10 years or so there has been a lot said and written about bullying and harassment occurring as a consequence of prejudiced thinking and discrimination, more especially on the basis of gender, race and disability. Education Departments have understandably emphasised the importance of these factors1. 1. Gender: How individuals construct ‘masculinity’ and ‘femininity’ can have a significant effect on how they treat others. For example, when a boy sees himself as very tough, aggressive or macho, he is prone to despise and harass other boys who are gentle and artistic. Similarly, a girl who sees herself as ‘feminine’ in the conventional sense may look down on other girls who are rough, ‘unladylike’ or ‘butch’. This line of thinking does indeed explain some bullying behaviour, for instance that of boys who deride and seek to upset those they see as ‘gay’. Sexbased harassment has been identified as occurring frequently among Australian schoolchildren2. Most bu llying goes on within gen der groups. Gen era lly, physical bu llying goe s on mainly between boys and rel a ti onal bu llying goes on mainly bet ween gi rl s . Verbal bu llyi n g, however, is not uncommon bet ween gen ders , with gi rls bei n g su bj ected much more to dispara ging and hurtful rem a rks from boys than vi ceversa3. The problem of ch a n ging the atti tu des and verbal beh aviour of boys tow a rds gi rls in sch ools – and its con ti nu a ti on in later years – is a parti c u l a rly pressing one. 2. Race: Although the term is now seen as having little scientific credibility and is consequently avoided in favour of ‘ethnicity’, there can be no doubt that feelings of superiority because one belongs to a particular ethnic group, usually a socially dominant group, can give rise to bullying and harassment4. At the same time, research has shown that racial or ethnic group differences need not render one group more susceptible to being bullied than another5. 3. Disability: Bullying is sometimes directed towards children who do not have the same physical or mental capabilities as others, for example children who are diagnosed as ADD or have speech defects6. 4. Social class: Wh ere there is a mix of children from families of h i gh and low s oc i oecon omic statu s , s ome being ri ch and others poor or unem p l oyed , the po ssibility of bu llyi n g, e s pec i a lly thro u gh social exclusion, must always be present. However, research does not consisten t ly su pport the vi ew that, in a sch oo l , ch i ldren from families of low soc i oecon omic status are vi cti m i s edmore than others7. Explanations that relate to the above factors can account for a good deal of bullying and harassment, and useful instructive material has beco me available to schools in recent years. But not all bullying can be explained in this way. And we should bear in mind that there are many examples of schools in which differences in social class and ethnicity do not inevitably give rise to children bullying each other.

7


6

POWER INEQUALITIES Differences in power between individuals and between groups make bullying possible. Power may be defined generally as the capacity to produce an intended effect. It may be used or abused. In schools there are large differences in power that can be employed to bully others This is partly due to the fact that schools cater for children of different ages, different levels of maturity and different personal and social characteristics. Further, the element of compulsion in school education implies that the staff in a school must have the power to act authoritatively in dealing with students. Added to this, hierarchical structure in school organisations results in some staff members having a higher degree of institutional or legitimate power than others. We can identify a number of specific sources of power that some members of a school community enjoy: 1. The capacity to dominate others physically: This may be related to size, strength1 and fighting skills. This is likely to be more important among boys, especially in primary school when physical encounters are more common. 2. Sharpness of tongue: Related to verbal skills, especially quickness of wit. As child ren become older, these qu a l i ties become more po tent means of bullying others. 3. Ability to call on others for support: Related to popularity, social skills and the capacity to manipulate others. This applies especially to so-called relational bullying2. 4. Status in a group: Related to having valued accomplishments, such as sporting ability, being personally attractive, being a member of a majority, mainstream group as opposed, for example, to being in an ethnic minority, disabled or not heterosexual. 5. Institutionalised or ascribed authority: Related to position in an organisation, for example principal, teacher or student, prefect and, in some schools, senior as opposed to junior. Bear in mind that power is not fixed. A person may acquire or lose power. For example, a child may learn to become more assertive; a teacher may lose the capacity to control a class. Power is fluid. Secondly, note that power is often situation-bound; for example, the capacity to dominate physically may be a means of bullying in the schoolyard but not in a well-run classroom.

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7

WHEN FORCEFULNESS IS NOT BULLYING It should not be assu m edthat wh en a more powerful person acts forcef u lly in a given situ a ti onand places som eone under some pressure that he or she is nece s s a ri lyen ga ging in bu llyi n g. It is ack n owl ed ged that pers ons in authori ty should have some powers to insist on appropri a te beh aviour within certain defin ed areas. The use of teacher authority with students Cu rren t ly te ach ers are, u n der some circumstances, em powered to em p l oy verbal reprimands, exclu de ch i l d ren from classes or sel ected activities, and order deten ti ons. On the other hand, the use of physical force (hitting or caning), the continual use of sarcasm at a child’s expense, repeatedly shouting at or threatening children are regarded as unjustified and can be described as ‘bullying’. The line between the forceful use of teacher authority and bullying is sometimes not easy to draw. Indeed, in recent years the ‘correct’ line has repeatedly shifted1. The use of authority consistent with assigned non-teaching role The role may fit into a school hierarchy, as in Principal, Deputy Principal, other staff, and entail power to direct others. In addition, some roles may have a specialised nonhierarchical function, as in the case of Year Coordinator, Librarian and School Secretary. Each has a degree of authority that may be appropriately applied. For example, a principal may allocate staff duties; a librarian may insist on quiet in the library. Bullying occurs when such authority is misapplied or used excessively. Roles may also be assigned among students, as occurs when prefects or school captains are elected or appointed. Again, bullying can occur when such leaders act in ways that are not consistent with role requirements. This is evident in schools where senior students are empowered to discipline junior students and sometimes engage in victimisation. This can happen to a greater degree in boarding schools. Degree of provocation Sometimes when force is used by a more powerful person, it is in response to provocation by an individual or group; for example, when junior students set out to tease older students or when teachers are targeted and class work disrupted by mischievous students. Although the circumstances may not fully justify a forceful reaction, they may reduce the culpability of the actions and should be judged accordingly. We may conclude that although in most cases it is not difficult to recognise what is bullying, there are certainly grey areas. What should be done in these circumstances must be continually debated.

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8

THE MEANS OF BULLYING The ways people bully can be classified (with examples) as follows.

Verbal abuse

DIRECT

INDIRECT

Verbal insults

Persuading another person to criticise or insult someone Spreading malicious rumours Anonymous phone calls and emails

Unfair criticism Name calling

Gestural abuse

Threatening or obscene gestures

Deliberate turning away or averting one’s gaze to ignore someone

Menacing stares Physical means

Striking Throwing things Using a weapon

Relational bullying

Forming coalitions against someone

Getting another person to assault someone Removing and hiding belongings Persuading people to exclude someone

For all groups of persons – students, teachers and parents – verbal bullying is the most common form of bullying. The means may vary in sophistication or subtlety, from crude name-calling and up-front insults, more common among children, to the use of cruel sarcasm, innuendo and rational-sounding (but knowingly unfair) criticism employed by older students and adults. Indirect verbal bullying may occur when the perpetrator seeks to hurt someone without revealing his or her identity. Gestural bullying again may vary in subtlety from finger signs and tongue poking to rolling of the eyes and a deliberately inappropriate poker face. In most school communities physical means are the least commonly practised, but occur more frequently among boys and among younger students. Although not physically hurtful, the continual removing of belongings is common in many schools. Relational bullying depends for its effec tiveness on deliberately reducing the enjoyment a victim may have through satisfying personal relationships, and appears to be practised more among girls. A furt h er disti n cti on is bet ween bu llying perpetra ted by ind i v i d u a l s and bu llying by gro u p s . The distincti on is som etimes difficult to make because indivi dual bullies are often su s t a i n edby groups or associates. But some bu llying is exclu s ively one to on e , and some e s s en ti a lly a group against an indivi dual who may be a stu den t , a te ach er or a paren t . In practice, bullying may involve several or all of these means, but remember that it is not just the actions themselves that constitute bullying. One must also take into account the power imbalance and whether the actions were justified or not.

10


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SEXUAL HARASSMENT Sexual harassment is akin to bullying and should be included when a school considers what it can do to stop bullying 1. It may be defin ed as unwelcome con du ct targeting the gen der of a n o t h er pers on that m ay re a s on a bly be ju d ged as offen s ive, hu m i l i a ting or inti m i d a ti n g. Thus while the first and essential criterion is whether the conduct of the perpetrator is unwelcome, a further consideration is the judgement of a fully informed and reasonable person. Broadly, sexual harassment implies that a person is being put under unacceptable pressure in the area of their sexuality and accordingly feels oppressed. The perpetrator or perpetrators, as in bullying, are abusing their power. We should bear in mind that sexual harassment can and does take place from time to time between people of the same gender as well as between males and females2. It can happen between schoolchildren of all ages, between staff members and between staff and students. As in bullying, we recognise different means by which sexual harassment is carried out. These can include: 1. Physical means: as in unwanted contact of a sexual nature, for example touching breasts or genitalia. 2. Verbal: as in unwanted comments, which may be spoken or written, drawing attention to a person’s actual or alleged sexual characteristics or sexual orientation, such as having big, small or ‘no’ breasts; being heterosexual, homosexual or ‘non-sexual’. Comments or written messages, for example by email, may suggest that a person lacks an acceptable sexual identity, being, for example, ‘cold’, ‘frigid’ or ‘butch’. 3. Gestural: as in offensive finger gestures, cynically thrown ‘kisses’ or deliberate staring intended to embarrass. 4. Indirect: as in spreading rumours orally or through graffiti about someone’s sexual activities or orientation and seeking to have others treat that person deprecatingly because of their sexuality. The motivation behind sexual harassment is commonly to hurt in some way, which is invariably the case with bullying. But one must bear in mind that in some cases what is experienced by the victim as sexual harassment is a crude and socially unacceptable attempt to gain sexual satisfaction or even to initiate or advance a sexual relationship with someone. Hence, there is sometimes a need to distinguish between sexual harassment and bullying.

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10

BULLYING AS A DYNAMIC PROCESS It’s useful to see bullying as a process that typically persists over time with outcomes depending on a number of definable factors. To understand how bullying begins, start with a scenario in which someone is seen as a potential victim of systematic aggressive behaviour. Anybody may fit this category, but it is more likely that the potential victim will display characteristics that suggest weakness and vulnerability1. Bullying is deliberate. Plans are made to put the targeted person under pressure, typically to hurt, undermine and humiliate. Action of different kinds follows and the cycle begins, sometimes with other people joining in to maintain the bullying.

BULLYING CYCLE BEGINS

Perception of weakness and vulnerability

Plan to hurt, undermine, humiliate

Action – physical, verbal, social, manipulative

12

Potential victim(s)

Physically weak Introverted Anxious Isolated Objects of prejudice


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THE PASSIVE VICTIM Some victims may be called passive victims. They do not resist. The following diagram shows what typically happens.

BULLYING AND THE PASSIVE VICTIM

Approval of others

Bully

Victim

Bully’s sense of dominance and pleasure

Disturbed behaviour

Suppression of empathy

Continuation, intensification and elaboration of bullying behaviour

Strong emotional reaction

Sense of threat

Action by bully The reaction of the passive victim is typically one of fear, either because the threat is overwhelming or because of a fearful disposition, or both. The victim may be petrified. He or she may see no way of responding effectively. During the bullying, the victim may appear zombie-like or alternatively wildly emotional. Subsequently, the victim is likely to appear upset and depressed. The victim’s reaction may reinforce the bully’s or bullies’ behaviour. They have achieved the intended effect. If there is approval from others – especially fr om bystanders when the bullying occurs – the sense of dominance and pleasure may increase 1. The chances of an empathic reaction to the victim’s distress are lessened. The bullying is likely to continue. It may become more elaborate as new ways of bullying the victim are discovered. It may become more intense. As long as the bullying gives satsfaction and there is no intervention the cycle continues. We know that such cycles can continue unabated for many weeks, months, even years 2.

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12

THE RESISTANT VICTIM With the resistant victim a different story may unfold. In this case the victim may see the bullying behaviour as a challenge rather than a foregone conclusion and make plans to counter it in some way. The diagram suggests different possibilities.

BULLYING AND THE RESISTANT VICTIM Bully

Victim

Challenge to bully’s dominance Bully reappraises plan Bully desists

Bully Devises continues new ways

Plan to counter the bullying Perceived challenge Sense of threat

Bullying stops

Bullying continues

The victim may seek to employ one or more of these ways of coping: 1. Escapes: The victim may find ways of escaping from the bullying situation and may minimise chances of encountering the bully/bullies on future occasions. 2. Fights back: Fighting back, physically or verbally, may be an option. In some circumstances a student may overcome the problem by taking appropriate physical training or (less dangerously) learning how to react more assertively. 3. Acts cool: Appearing unperturbed, acting nonchalant, may sometimes be the best way to respond, especially with low level teasing or name-calling. 4. Seeks help: Help may be sought from various quarters; from other students, parents, and school authorities. Many students are unwilling to seek help because ‘dobbing’ is unacceptable by peers or because it may make matters worse 1. 5. Distracts2: Distracting, amusing or placating a bully so that he or she begins to behave more positively is a possible strategy. Un der some circ u m s t a n ceseach of these stra tegies may be ef fective in lessening or co u ntering the bu llyi n g. But of ten these stra tegies are unsu ccssful and the bu llying con ti nues. 14


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BULLYING BETWEEN STAFF AND STUDENTS Bullying in schools sometimes occurs between staff and students1. The bullying of students by staff. This may sometimes happen under these circumstances: 1. When unrealistic goals are set and insisted upon for individual or group performance of students. 2. When methods of putting pressure on students to perform are unacceptable, for example through the use of threats and excessive punishment for failure and especially the use of sarcasm and public humiliation for non-achievement. 3. When an attempt to gain or maintain ‘control’ over a class involves singling out individuals repeatedly for disciplinary action without clear justification. 4. When a teacher is motivated by personal prejudice to discriminate against students with characteristics over which they have little or no control, for example, personal appearance, way of speaking, social background, gender identification. As a teacher, one has an obligation to motivate children to reach high standards and also to maintain order in classrooms. Students sometimes see a teacher’s behaviour as bullying when it is in fact an appropriate use of discipline; but real cases of teacher bullying do sometimes happen, are damaging to students, and provide a model for students who might subsequently bully others. The bullying of teachers by students. This may and does sometimes happen, especially under these circumstances: 1. Inadequate classroom management skills – which teachers need to improve. 2. Teaching an inappropriate curriculum or using an inappropriate teaching style, resulting in students becoming frustrated and/or bored. 3. When a group of students deliberately sets out to torment or upset a teacher. 4. When staff are not adequately supported by a school system that effectively handles malicious and disruptive student behaviour2. Teachers who are being consistently bullied by students may need to improve their teaching and managing skills and should receive help and support from colleagues to do so. At the same time, when students do bully staff decisive action must be taken by school authorities to stop it.

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BULLYING BETWEEN ADULTS IN THE SCHOOL COMMUNITY Bullying between staff members1. This may occur when: 1. People in authority in a school seek to exercise control outside their role requirements or make unreasonable demands upon less senior people. (The roles of staff members should continually be clarified.) 2. Personal antagonisms result in one person systematically seeking to dominate and/or humiliate another. (Mediation is sometimes needed in these cases. This may require the professional services of a trained mediator.) Not only is bullying between staff members distressing to those targeted but it also contributes to low morale in a school and undermines attempts by staff members to work together effectively to tackle bullying among students. Bullying between teachers and parents Conflict between teachers and parents can arise over many matters, including the nature and quality of the education being provided by the school, how the child is being treated by the school (by the staff and/or other students) and what actions the school is taking – or not taking – to overcome learning or social difficulties being experienced by the child. Because the school operates ‘in loco parentis’ and has a ‘duty of care’, parents naturally assume a right to express their concerns to the school if they think the school could do better or is acting improperly2. Disagreements do not, of course, imply that bullying is taking place. Bullying becomes evident when one or both of the parties feels seriously threatened and there is a perception that power is somehow being abused to one’s disadvantage. Thus a parent may feel that a complaint made about how his or her child is being treated by a teacher may lead to the parent being branded as a ‘trouble maker’ and his or her concerns being disregarded. Alternatively, the teacher or principal may be subjected to verbal abuse or even physical abuse by an angry parent and the reputation of the school maligned. Individual staff members have been known to suffer mental breakdowns as a consequence. When teachers are repeatedly bullied in this way by parents, the morale of the staff can seriously deteriorate. Steps that may be taken to prevent the escalation of conflicts with parents that could lead to bullying behaviour are discussed in Section 39. (See also Note 2.) Here it may be noted that the risk of being bullied by parents can often be assessed on the basis of previous interactions with them and any emotional outbursts or hostility expressed prior to a meeting. Under some circumstances it is sensible to ensure that there is another person or persons present when the meeting takes place. That person or persons may act as witness or restrain anyone who becomes aggressive. Violent behaviour on the part of parents is rare but it is best to take precautions.

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WHY SOME PEOPLE BULLY As we have seen, the existence of power imbalances in a school community makes bullying possible. Of course, not all people make use of their greater power to bully someone. Here are suggestions as to why some do. 1. They think that bullying pays; in some schools they are admired by others; they are able to get what they want; and they are less likely than others to be victimised1. 2. They are aggressive and impulsive, which makes them constitutionally more inclined to engage in bullying. 3. They enjoy the submission of others2. 4. Bullying others is consistent with a macho or imposing image a person may have, especially if one is male3 but increasingly so for females. 5. It seems like fun4, especially when one is part of a group engaged in teasing someone. 6. They have relatively low levels of empathy, which results in a bully being unaffected by the evident distress of others5. 7. Prejudice leads them to believe that some kinds of people deserve to be bullied; for example, people of a different ethnic group or of a different sexual orientation. 8. A generalised hostility towards others has been engendered by negative experiences with parents and families, especially feeling unloved and/or over-controlled6. 9. They have been influenced by aggressive ‘models’, in real life and/or by viewing violent videos7. 10. The victim is perceived as having provoked the negative treatment; commonly bullies see their bullying behaviour as ‘pay-backs’8. 11. Chronic boredom at school may result in bullying as a means of making life more interesting. 12. The achievement of desired goals is seen as more important than the insensitive means employed to attain them. This applies particularly to some people in management positions9. 13. They are slaves to authority prepared unquestioningly to do their bosses’ ‘dirty work’ by imposing on others10. 14. They see it as part of their role; for example, as a prefect or teacher 11. Some of these proposed explanations for bullying behaviour relate to personality, others to the social context or to social and societal influences. Each may contribute.

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WHY SOME PEOPLE DO NOT BULLY Since a primary aim in countering bullying is to prevent it from happening at all, it is sensible to ask the question: Why is it that some students do not bully, or do so very rarely? The most obvious reason might be because in general they can’t, being less powerful than other students. This is true of some. However, there are numerous cases of students who believe they are more able than others to bully their peers if they wanted to, but do not do so1. They do not bully because: 1. They feel that bullying is wrong. Substantial numbers of students report that they ‘would feel ashamed of themselves’ if they bullied someone2. 2. They have a high level of empathy and dislike to see people suffer. 3. They have social skills3 that enable them to get what they want without resorting to bullying. 4. They are generally so occupied and enjoying what they are doing that bullying someone doesn’t occur to them or is uninteresting. 5. They feel they are successful in what they do at school and not inclined to displace anger or frustration by bullying others. 6. They see the role they fill as being inconsistent with undermining others; for example, as a prefect, football captain, peer support member or even a ‘good student’. 7. They have been exposed repeatedly to positive modelling by influential peers or adults. 8. They believe that bullying others doesn’t pay. This may be because they believe that negative consequences will follow if they do engage in acts of bullying (for instance, they believe that school authorities will find out and impose sanctions); and their bullying will be deplored (not admired) by those who matter to them (friends, parents, possibly teachers). 9. They have enjoyed positive experiences in the home and generally feel positive towards others. 10. They have internalised moralp rinciples that are incompatible with bu llyi n g. 11. They feel obliged to accept the rules of the school which indicate that bullying behaviour is not acceptable.

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Action to Counter Bullying


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SETTING GOALS It is sensible to begin by setting out what you hope to achieve through an anti-bullying program for your school. Here are my suggestions: The general aim of the program is to make the school a safer, happier place for everyone. Progress to this goal is indicated by: 1. A reduction in the number of persons who are victimised by others. 2. A reduction in the severity of victimisation. 3. A reduction in the number of people who engage in bullying others. 4. An increase in the support that is provided to those who are victimised in any way. You need to consider ways in which progress towards these goals can be assessed. The following are some suggestions: 1. Make use of anonymous questionnaires from which reliable and re levant self-report data can be obtaine d. (Sections 22 and 23 describe available questionnaire resources.) 2. Make assessments before the anti-bullying program is put into effect and again some time afterwards. Allow at least a one-year interval be tween testing 1. Remember that a program may actually raise awareness of what constitutes bullying, and that if there is a significant reduction in reported victimisation, this probably underestimates the actual reduction. 3. In your analysis of the data, identify precisely where and in what ways changes have occurred, for example according to year and gender and in relation to both behaviour and attitudes. You may also wish to assess whether there have been changes in behaviour and att itudes towards specific groups, such as ethnic minorities. 4. Gauge whether the help provided to victimised students has really been effective in helping them to cope. 5. One focus should be on how students who have engaged in repeated bullying have changed (if at all) as a result of school disciplinary activities and/or counselling. 6. Gather supplementary data based on judgements from students and teachers who were present at school before and after the intervention. 7. Because a program may have many elements, it is useful to seek to identify which elements were responsible for any change.

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MAKING A PLAN Here is a plan that may be adopted (or adapted) to reduce bullying in one’s school. 1. Educate the school community about bullying. This is a necessary first step and implies both an understanding of the phenomena of bullying and a knowledge of what can be done to reduce its occurrence. The educational process should include in different ways and to a different extent the school staff, students and parents. 2. Find out what is happening between members of the school community that is relevant to bullying. You need to understand the nature and scope of the problem before it can be effectively addressed. 3. Develop an appropriate and well-supported anti-bullying policy. This should be based upon the school’s understanding of bullying and especially what has been discovered about bullying at your school. It should provide a guide as to what is to be done. 4. Establishwh ats taffca ndo int heir everydaywo rkto re duce bullyinga nds upport studentswh oa re being victimised at school. What can be done should be communicated to all staff m em bers and serve as a guide and rem i n der of how they can help ease the problem. 5. Ensure that teachers talk with students about bullying. Provide guidance to teachers on how this can be done in such a way as to discourage bullying and gain student cooperation in countering peer victimisation. 6. Empower students. Create opportunities and provide necessary support or training for students to play a positive role in countering bullying and improving peer relations in the school. 7. Devise procedures for dealing appropriately with incidents of bullying. Alternative approaches need to be considered and evaluated, and distinctions made according to the nature and severity of the bullying. 8. Provide support for those who are victimised. Guidelines are needed on the role staff may play in helping students involved in bully/victim problems and how help can best be provided. 9. Work cooperatively with parents.This includes setting out how parents can be included in plans to reduce bullying, and how the school can work most effec tively with parents whose children become involved in problems at school as victims or as bullies.

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EDUCATING THE SCHOOL COMMUNITY Before an effective response to the problem can be made, a good knowledge base is needed on the part of those who devise plans to stop bullying and all those whose cooperation is needed to carry it out – students and parents as well as staff. Teacher education about bullying has increased markedly in rec ent years, largely through in-service seminars and workshops, and also through the growing availability of helpful resources on the subject. Nevertheless, schools need to keep up to date on relevant information and methods. Finding out about and discussing what is happening in relations between students is a vital part of the process (see Sections 22 and 23). But, in addition, it is desirable for schools to acquire or access the best resources now available in the form of books and articles1, relevant Internet sites2 and videos3. Staff seminars and study groups. These are valuable for staff members to share and discuss what has been learned. In particular, a Queensland Education Department video3 can be used to focus staff discussion on different kinds of bullying encountered in schools. It is important for staff in a school to speak frankly about what they think is needed – or not needed – and to evaluate alternative courses of action to counter bullying, as a step towards reaching a consensus. (The questionnaire in Appendix 11 may be useful for this purpose.) A range of supportive resources has become available in recent years. These resources are described and discussed in Section 20. Knowledge of the legal liabilities of schools in addressing bullying is becoming increasingly important to schools4. Education for students. This can be provided by teachers in classrooms and, where possible, be part of curriculum content (see Section 29). Senior students can also provide helpful guidance and support for younger students (see Section 30). Good advice on coping with bullying is now available for students through books and through the Internet5. Ensure that there are relevant books on bully ing in the school library. Students can be told about the services offered by Safety Houses6 and Kids Help Line7. Education for parents about bullying. Schools may seek to involve parents in the plans they make to counter bullying and may hold meetings with parents to discuss the issue. They may also keep parents informed through newsletters, for example, about school policies on bullying, their rights as parents if their child is bullied, and how they can collaborate with the school on bullying issues (see Sections 39 and 41). Advice for parents is available through books and the Internet8. Further information about bullying. The Australian Council for Educational Research (ACER) is an important source of information about bullying in schools. ACER carries many resources on this subject and continually updates both books and videos9.

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SUPPORTIVE TRAINING RESOURCES There are now abundant resources available aimed at reducing conflict in schools. These are relevant to addressing bullying because they help to create a school environment in which people enjoy more constructive relationships and are able to settle disputes that may otherwise end up in one person bullying another. Schools may decide to access or acquire some of these resources as a means of producing a happier, more peaceable school in which bullying is much less likely to happen. Peer helping. Some resources are available to enable students to become more skilled at helping their peers who are experiencing problems. These include the Peer Support Organisation1 and Kids Help Line2, both of which provide training through participation in workshops. Conflict resolution skills are the means by which disputes may be resolved without the use of force or through the compliance of the less powerful party. Several useful publications provide detailed descriptions of them and explain their value3. More recently, drama and role-play have been used to develop insights and teach methods relevant to resolving conflicts at school4,5. If these skills are well taught, bullying resulting from unresolved disputes will become less likely. Also, students acquiring these skills become more adept at handling difficult interpersonal relations, including attempts by others to bully them. Mediation. This focuses on how a third party can help people engaged in a dispute or conflict that they are unable to resolve. Teachers who wish to acquire relevant skills can do so by enrolling in centres of tertiary education 6. In some States and Territories, training is now available from professionals who provide workshops and seminars for students and also for teachers who subsequently oversee and monitor the students’ work7. Generally peer mediation practised by students does not extend to cases where serious cases of bullying occur (these normally require adult intervention), but mediation by students in other cases may help to promote a school ethos in which bullying cannot flourish. Whether senior students should be trained to deal with bully/victim cases is controversial. Schools may, however, wish to investigate the feasibility of students engaging in this work8. Workshops and seminars on bullying and harassment. Some organisations9 and individuals10 are currently providing training for staff designed to improve the capacity of school personnel to counter bullying more effectively. Schools deciding to employ resources and methods described above should first count the cost (in time and expense) and also understand that a strong, sustained commitment to the practices is needed if their use is to be effective.

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WHAT IT IS USEFUL TO KNOW ABOUT YOUR SCHOOL It is useful to know the nature, extent and consequences of bullying in your school in order to: 1. Raise everyone’s awareness of the problem to a common level; 2. Motivate everyone to do something to stop the bad things that are happening; 3. Establish a base-line for subsequent evaluations. In addition, I think it is useful to know what people (staff, students and parents) would like to see done to counter bullying. This can provide a basis for discussion and drawing up acceptable and well-supported plans and procedures. Answers to these questions have been found to be of particular interest to schools: ◆

What kinds of bullying occur, and how common is each kind?

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Where at school does bullying happen most frequently?

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What proportion of children are being bullied?

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To what extent are different forms of bullying occurring, for example physical, verbal or relational?

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In which years or classes is bullying experienced most often?

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Are boys and girls bullied in similar or different ways?

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What evidence is there of sexual harassment?

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Are some groups (for instance, ethnic minority groups) being victimised more than others?

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How do students react to being bullied? Do they fight back? Do they tell?

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How do students say they have been affected by bullying?

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What proportion of children have stayed away from school because of bullying?

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How effectively are victimised children being helped?

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Do students want to talk about bullying in a classroom discussion?

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Are stu dents interested in helping to stop bullying? If so, what might they do?

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Do teachers and parents want the school to have an anti-bullying policy?

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How do teachers and parents think that cases of bullying should be dealt with?

In addition to these, consider other questions you may want to see answered – questions that may be of particular interest to your school.

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HOW TO GET THE FACTS Direct observations Much can be gleaned from everyday observations of how students interact with each other in classrooms and playgrounds. But it is useful to supplement knowledge gained from direct observation with what can be learned by talking with students and with parents about what they have noticed going on at the school. More precise information can often be gained by making use of a carefully conducted survey. Surveys Anonymously answered questionnaires1 can provide a valuable source of information, especially if they enable the school to gather data from students, parents and school staff. Schools sometimes develop their own questionnaires or adapt existing ones. There are some reliable, widely employed instruments available for schools. Instruments In Australia the most commonly used set of instruments are the Peer Relations Assessment Questionnaires (PRAQs) There are four versions: ◆

The PRAQ for older students – 8 years and over

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The PRAQ for younger children – under 8 years (see also Section 23)

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The PRAQ for parents of schoolchildren

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The PRAQ for school staff.

These are short questionnaires that can be answered in less than 15 minutes. Tally and summarising sheets are provided to enable the school to summarise the results2. In addition, there is a longer questionnaire know n as the Peer Relations Questionnaire (the PRQ). This questionnaire devised by Rigby and Slee (1993) is suitable for secondary school students and takes approximately 30 minutes to answer. Unlike the PRAQs, wh i ch can be scored by hand, the PRQ requ i res analysis by computer. Purposes of the assessment instruments The survey results can serve several purposes: ◆

They can provide a reliable picture of the nature, extent and reported consequences of bullying and harassment in a school.

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They can inform school communities of what its members – students, parents and school staff – would like to see done about it.

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They can be used to monitor changes in the level and nature of bullying over time.

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Above all, they can raise awareness of the problem, stimulate informed discussion and help the school to move towards a consensus on what is to be done to counter bullying.

Note:T he best outcomes occur wh en each te ach er in a sch ool takes indivi dual re s pons ibility for carefully examining, collating and summarising results provided by students in a particular class, before passing them for inclu s i onin a wh o l e - s ch ool report .

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FINDING OUT ABOUT BULLYING AMONG YOUNG CHILDREN Bullying among young children, even in kindergarten, certainly occurs1. However, with many young school children (under 8 years) and children in kindergarten, it is difficult to obtain reliable information about bullying with a written questionnaire. Other methods are needed. Direct observation is one way of getting some useful information about bullying. In this way it is usually possible to identify children who often bully others directly in the playground by physical and (to a lesser extent) by verbal means. This of course takes time and observers need to be p repared to spend some breaks and lunchtimes carefully monitoring what is happening. One can usually notice that some children are much more likely to be pushed around and called names than are others and some children are more likely to engage in harassing others. Indirect bullying, for example deliberately excluding individuals, is often less easy to observe, although one may notice that some children are more often on their own during the breaks and seem to be unwanted. These children may well be the targets of bullying. Another method is to talk to children individually and ask them about their friends and how the other children treat them. Some teachers have found it useful (and acceptable) to ask children to tell them who they often see being picked on or who they see as seeking to hurt others. There is usually a high consensus among children about who are seen as the bullies and who as the victims. Recently a questionnaire has become available that is appropriate for young, largely pre-literate students. It consists mainly of drawings that children can look at in a questionnaire and indicate which person is most like them in encounters at school with other children. Of course, young children still need help to answer it and the teacher should go through the questions carefully and read them out to the children (see example below).

Which is most like you at playtime? Circle a letter. This illustration and many others are contained in a questionnaire for young children available from Dr Barrington Thomas 2. The questionnaire can form the basis for an assessment of the nature and incidence of bullying among young children in a school and can be used to introduce discussions with children about what bullying is, the harm it does to people and how victimised children can be helped.

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DEVELOPING AN ANTI-BULLYING POLICY Most schools now agree that they should have a specific anti-bullying policy. This is not the same thing as a school discipline policy or a behaviour management policy. It may relate to these, but it needs to take into account the unique features of school bullying as defined earlier and also the perceptions and judgements of members of the school community. Its purpose is to articulate where the school stands on the issue of bullying and, in general terms, what the school intends to do about it. These steps are suggested: 1. Hold a meeting with the school staff at which there is a presentation of what has been discovered about bullying at the school from the results of the questionnaires that have been administered. Make sure that the results are succinctly presented and clearly pertinent. It is useful to have a summary of the most relevant results available to every staff member. As well as quantitative information, it is useful to make use of selected quotations from what respondents have written. 2. Make appropriate use of information provided by staff members and parents as well as from students. 3. Discuss the implications from the findings and highlight the need to have a whole-school, well-coordinated response to the problem. 4. Have the task of formulating a draft anti-bullying policy for the school delegated to a selected group. (See Section 2, Using the Handbook, for suggestions on how the committee might proceed.) This group should be empowered to coopt student and parent representatives. 5. Ensure that the draft policy is critically examined by all interested parties and, if necessary, revised accordingly. To be most effective, the policy must be widely supported by students, teachers and parents. Bear in mind that an anti-bullying policy should be a response to a situation identified as occurring at a particular school and should reflect the views of that school community. At the same time, it can be helpful to examine and discuss policies that have been produced at other schools and consider how relevant (or irrelevant) they are to one’s own school. Examples of school policies to counter bullying are available1.

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WHAT GOES INTO THE POLICY An anti-bullying policy is a generalised response to bullying. It should provide principles and guidelines, not detailed procedures to deal with every conceivable case. The school will, on occasions, need flexibility. Here are some suggestions about what such a policy may contain: 1. A strong statement of the school’s stand against bullying. 2. A succinct definition of bullying (see Sections 4 and 7). 3. A declaration of the rights of individuals in the school community – students, teachers, other workers and parents – to be free of bullying and (if bullied) to be provided with help and support. 4. A statement of the responsibilities of members of the school community: to abstain personally from bullying others in any way; to actively discourage bullying when it occurs; and to give support to those who are victimised. 5. A general description of what the school will do to deal with incidents of bullying. For example, the severity and seriousness of the bullying will be assessed and appropriate action taken. This may include the use of counselling practices, the imposition of sanctions, interviews with parents and, in extreme cases, suspension from school. 6. An undertaking to evaluate the policy in the near and specified future. If there are concerns about anything contained in the document, make sure that these are thoroughly examined and resolved. The policy should eventually be widely disseminated, so that everyone in the school community knows what it contains. If necessary, there should be versions for parents of non-English speaking background. Different versions of the policy may be seen as appropriate, for example: (i)

A general policy document consisting of a series of short statements on how the school is responding to the issue of bullying;

(ii) A document for parents explaining what they can do if their child becomes involved in a victim/bully problem at school (see Section 39); (iii) A document for students on their rights and responsibilities and what they can do if they are victimised or if they see someone else being victimised; (iv) A document for school staff detailing practical steps they can take when cases of bullying come to their attention. Also, what they can do if they are bullied by anyone at school. This document can include agreed, relevant administrative procedures for dealing with problems and the names of individual staff members who may have been assigned specialised roles for dealing with cases of bullying.

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WHAT TEACHERS CAN DO ABOUT BULLYING 1. HELPING TO CREATE A SOCIAL ETHOS IN WHICH BULLYING IS LESS LIKELY TO HAPPEN (i) Personally modelling pro-social, respectful behaviour in interactions with students, parents and other staff. (ii) Developing and maintaining good classroom management1. Avoiding unduly pressuring or bullying students. (Sometimes teachers under stress go beyond being appropriately authoritative and descend into sarcasm and intimidation.) (iii) Ensuring as far as possible that the educational tasks and the way they are presented engage the interests of all students. (Sometimes students bully out of boredom.) (iv) Where practicable, include tasks that require cooperation between class members for successful completion2. (v) Minimise situations in which students are unoccupied, unsupervised, and in close proximity to others whom they may not wish to be near, especially over extended periods. This can and often does occur when teachers are late for a class or called away from a class, or when students are waiting for long periods for a canteen to open or for public transport to arrive, or are in transit on long journeys by bus. 2. ACTIVELY DISCOURAGING BULLYING (i) By being observant and responding appropriately when bullying occurs in classrooms or at recess, according to the nature and severity of the bullying (see Sections 35 and 36). (ii) Where appropriate, informing other staff members of incidents and initiating procedures agreed upon by the school to deal with perpetrators. 3. PROVIDING SUPPORT AND ADVICE (i) By being open to listen to students who believe that they are being victimised (and to their parents) if they wish to talk about it. (ii) By offering advice or suggestions, when asked, or by providing access to specialised counselling help if needed (see Section 37). 4. EDUCATING ABOUT BULLYING (i) By facilitating class discussions on bullying at school. (ii) Where practicable, developing in students relevant skills in assertiveness, conflict resolution and peer mediation (see Sections 20 and 33).

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TALKING WITH STUDENTS IN CLASS ABOUT BULLYING Getting the active cooperation of students is a vital part of countering bullying. This necessarily involves talking with students individually and in groups about bullying and how they can help to stop it. It is more easily done with primary school children and late secondary school students. But in all years of schooling, many students are keen to talk about it and comparatively few are against doing so. Students nearly always dislike and despise bullies and can, with your help, assist greatly in developing and implementing school policy. Formulating goals for the meeting(s) In planning how to talk to students about bullying, it is best to be clear about what you want to achieve with the group. For example: ◆

recognise what bullying is;

◆

experience feelings of concern and empathy for victims;

◆

make constructive suggestions about what can be done to stop bullying;

◆

undertake to act in ways to discourage bullying.

Work with the class using methods that are suitable for the age group and with which you are comfortable. One needs to be careful to avoid a threatening, authoritarian approach which will antagonise some students and polarise attitudes in the group. It is better to begin by discussing what constitutes bullying and the harm it does to people. This can lead to an invitation for students to suggest how bullying can be countered in the school and what they may be prepared to do to discourage bullying from happening. It is certainly not always easy to accomplish the goals that have been set. That is why it can be very useful to discuss together ways in which other teachers go about it and talk frankly about outcomes, both positive and negative. Longer-term planning involving students You will need to decide whether talking to a class about bullying is to be a one-off occasion or part of a series of meetings that address ways to improve interpersonal relations in the school. Much work has already been done in some schools in making this area a vital part of the curriculum, such as part of Pastoral Care or Health Education. In Section 29 we examine in some detail the kinds of instruction and activities that can help in addressing the issue of bullying over an extended time period. In Section 31 we examine the question of how bystanders can help in preventing or stopping bullying. Inviting student participation in countering bullying In the course of discussing what can be done to address bullying in a school, students may be encouraged to take on particular roles in assisting in the process. These are discussed in Section 32.

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TELLING Most schools encourage students to tell someone if they are being bullied at school. Hence the common slogan: ‘Make ours a telling school’. This is certainly desirable; otherwise many cases of bullying cannot be dealt with. However, we know that telling someone does not always help to overcome the problem and in some cases ‘telling’ makes matters worse for the victim1. If students are to be encouraged to inform on those who bully them, it is suggested that teachers should consider the following matters: 1. Many students disapprove of those who complain to someone about being bullied2. They are often described with contempt and as ‘dobbers’ who are trying to get somebody into trouble. Would-be informants are often aware of this and do not want to be despised by their peers. 2. Those perpetrators that have been informed about may seek to further bully their victims – as a punishment for telling – and may be able to do so more subtly, less detectably but equally hurtfully. 3. Protecting those who have informed may be difficult and time-consuming. Teachers may therefore like to consider ways in which the outcome for telling can be more positive. 1. Help students to make a distinction between telling to get somebody in trouble and telling because help is needed. In the first instance – and where practicable – it is often better for a child to act assertively3. If this approach is unsuccessful, then intervention involving perpetrators is more justified. 2. Advise students to be careful whom they tell. Although telling another student or other students may sometimes help, telling the ‘wrong people’ – for instance, those who are friends with the bully or are generally untrustworthy – can make matters worse. 3. If, as a teacher, one is told about an incident, choose an appropriate method of responding (see Section 36) that minimises subsequent risk to the informant. The method used will naturally depend in part on the severity of the bullying and the range of options open to the helper. 4. Bear in mind that if one can help victims of school bullying solve their problems through their own efforts – with your good advice – there will be no need to bring the matter ‘out into the open’, with the accompanying danger of recriminations. 5. Consider whether a non-punitive means of dealing with the problem is appropriate. A solution brought about through the method of Shared Concern or mediation will result in perpetrators being disinclined to punish the informant4. 6. Where sanctions or consequences need to be applied in response to severe or continued anti-social behaviour by bullies, ensure as far as possible that the person who has been bullied is protected from further attacks.

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CLASSROOM ACTIVITIES THAT CAN HELP TO REDUCE BULLYING In recent years increasing attention has been paid to engaging students in classroom activities that can help to reduce bully ing, especially among young children. These include the following: 1. Promoting cooperative learning. Many children who bully others have not experienced the joy of contributing to a task and achieving a successful outcome. By introducing group projects that require student cooperation for their completion, it is possible to increase the readiness of children to help others and reduce the level of individual indifference to the well-being of others that can lead to bullying1. 2. Developing empathy. Although children often differ in their level of empathy, there are ways in which empathy can be raised. Reading stories or viewing videos in which one readily identifies with a character experiencing loss or misfortune can be a powerful way, especially if the children are encouraged to reflect upon what they have read or seen2. Role-playing situations in which someone has been hurt or maltreated can also help children appreciate the difficulties others may have. 3. Improving social skills. Children can learn social skills that make bullying less likely to occur. These include skills that help in preventing one from being bullied through behaving assertively3 and how to make friends4. These can be practised in role-play situations. Sometimes it is possible to invite professional acting companies to assist in this way5. It can be helpful to rehearse with children how as bystanders they can he lp others who are being v ictimised by discouraging aggressive behaviour (see Section 31). 4. Handling negative emotions. Bullying sometimes occurs when people are feeling very frustrated and are unable to control their anger. They are then more likely to seek to bully someone. Exercises to help children to manage their feelings of rage can be helpful. Teachers can examine with children situations in which they tend to feel angry and hurt others, and teach techniques of anger management6. 5. Countering prejudice. Prejudice underlies a good deal of bullying. Hence classroom activities that enable children to recognise the injustice and hurt that results from prejudiced thinking and behaviour can he lp to reduce b ullying. Encouraging students to share their feelings about others whom they feel are the victims of prejudiced behaviour can be very useful. Role-plays – if carefully debriefed afterwards – can enable participants to experience what it is like to be a victim of prejudice7. 6. Knowledge of bullying. Among older students it is sometimes use ful to examine what is known about bullying from research into its nature, prevalence, and consequences and the motivations underlying bullying behaviour. This can include a discussion of the results from school surveys. The quiz provided in Appendix 9 could be employed as a step towards a discussion of what is known about bullying behaviour. Finally, it is now possible to download very useful information from web sites. These can provide the basis for good classroom activities with students8.

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WORKING WITH STUDENTS ON RULES AND POLICIES Although one cannot realistically devise rules relating to every possible behaviour that could be construed as bullying, it is useful to set forth principles or guidelines that can help students recognise and actively oppose bullying. It is much better if rules relating to bullying come from the students themselves. This is not as difficult or as improbable as it may seem. Once a thoughtful discussion about bullying is underway, students are often ready and willing to propose rules that they believe everyone should follow in relating to others. Here, for example, are three rules that primary school children in a Scandinavian school proposed1 and agreed upon: 1. We shall not bully other students. 2. We shall try to help students who are bullied. 3. We shall make a point of including students who become easily left out. When rules or principles like these come from students themselves, they have much greater influ en ce than rules impo s ed upon stu dents by te ach ers . These rules are prominently displayed in classrooms. With older students it is useful to involve them in some way in the task of formulating a school anti-bullying policy, for example, by making suggestions about content or through participation in relevant school committees. Again the principle is that if students can make a significant contribution to the policy – and the rules that support it – there will be greater support for the policy. It has been found that when students are actively involved in he lping to devise policy, they draw attention to bullying that goes on from time to time between students and staff. It is generally wise to acknowledge that teachers do sometimes bully students – and vice-versa (see Section 13). This can lead to a useful discussion of when ‘forcefulness’ is justified – or not justified – in an educational context (see Section 7). The effect of involving students in this way is to broaden the range of application of the policy and to gain student support for its operation. Some schools have taken student involvement in applying rules to identify bullying to the point of enabling schools to run so-called ‘Bully Courts’2 in which students play a major role in ‘trying’ students who are suspected of bullying others and imposing penalties on those found guilty. However, most schools have serious misgivings about this procedure and believe that any investigation of bullying incidents and the application of sanctions should be the responsibility of the school staff. Once a school anti-bullying policy has been developed with some input from students, publicising and discussing the policy with students is considered necessary. Some schools ensure that the policy or central features of the policy are displayed in all classrooms and/or included in student diaries.

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FOCUS ON BYSTANDERS We now know that bystanders can play a very big part in determining whether bullying continues or stops. Most bullying goes on in the presence of other students who react in different ways1. ◆

Some support the bully by encouraging them;

◆

Some support the target of the bullying;

◆

Some simply stand and watch.

As we saw in the diagram in Section 11, the bully or bullies thrive on support and feel that others admire what they are doing. If nobody objects to what they are doing, they feel quite justified and even proud of themselves. They are then unlikely to feel any sympathy for the person they are bullying. The bullying is therefore likely to be repeated whenever they meet their ‘victim’ again, especially if there is an audience. The victim may become increasingly upset by what is happening, as indeed may some observers. Many children who are watching would like to see the bullying stopped. Sometimes they are simply afraid of what might happen to them if they do object. Sometimes they feel that they are not sure what to do to stop it – and think that others in the group are more able to act. It is therefore useful to explore with children how they feel when they see bullying going on and what they can do to help to stop it – without being harmed themselves. Appendix 7 contains an exercise that teachers may like to try with students in a classroom situation. Afterwards it may be possible to engage them in constructive discussion and perhaps role-play situations in which bystanders react in different ways to the situations they observe.

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ROLES FOR EMPOWERED STUDENTS In recent years there has been much attention given to the part that students can actively play in reducing bullying. There are some clear advantages in gaining their assistance. We should bear in mind: 1. Students are much more likely to go to other students for help than to go to teachers when they are bullied. 2. Students usually have a much better, more realistic understanding of the nature of the relationships students have with each other. 3. Students are usually around when bullying takes place, especially during school breaks and to and from school; teachers are rarely present at these times. 4. Some students are strongly motivated to help resolve interpersonal conflicts and can demonstrate high level skills in mediation and conflict resolution. 5. Students can often provide much needed information on bully/victim problems. They can coordinate their activities with those of staff members to discourage bullying. THE ANTI-BULLYING COMMITTEE This concept has been successfully employed in a number of schools in Australia1. 1. It is composed of students who have volunteered to work together under the leadership of a staff member to help reduce bullying in a school. 2. Ideally it has students from every year of school and – in coeducational schools – has an appropriate gender balance. 3. It may include students who in the past have engaged in bullying, provided they have clearly committed themselves to helping to stop bullying. 4. The role of the staff member leading the group is to provide a sounding board for student ideas on how bullying at school can be countered, to encourage constructive plans and to provide the link between school policies and student initiatives. Some of the things students may do are given on the next page. Note: If students are to take on special roles, these should be defined clearly and unambiguously so that students know the limits of their responsibilities. They must also be provided with suitable training and support (see Sections 20 and 33).

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WHAT STUDENTS CAN DO ABOUT BULLYING These are suggestions as to what students can do: 1. Participate in the development of the school policy against bullying. Student representatives can make useful contributions and help to evaluate suggestions. 2. Speak up at school assemblies against bullying. Students speaking up against bullying is often far more influential than speeches made by staff members. 3. Form a welcoming committee for new students when they start school. 4. Help in the development of an orientation package for new students. 5. Visit feeder schools to reassure students who will be coming to their school that they can count on being helped if they encounter any troublesome students. 6. Help in publicising anti-bullying policies by designing posters and writing about bullying in school magazines. 7. Make it known that they will help fellow students who have problems related to bullying. Students may be informed about how particular student-helpers can be contacted. 8. Give advice to students on how they might handle conflict constructively, avoid being bullied and get help if needed. 9. Look out for students who are having problems in their relations with others and offer them support. 10. Provide staff with information about ongoing bully/victim problems, for example, where problems may be arising, and which students are involved. 11. Help directly in the resolution of bully/victim problems1. Depending on the readiness of the school to approve the involvement of students in counselling or dispute resolution roles, selected students may act to resolve bully/victim problems under the general supervision of a staff member. For such work the school may decide to provide special training and access appropriate resources (see Section 20). 12. Helpmonitor changes in student behaviour as a con s equen ce of anti-bu llying initi a tives.

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BULLY/VICTIM CASES No two cases are exactly the same but we can identify broad types of cases and these can have implications for how you go about trying to solve them. THE INDIVIDUAL BULLY 1 1. The bullying is occurring in an ongoing relationship or derives from a past relationship. It is sustained by an unresolved dispute between two people. You may decide that mediation could work. 2. The bully is picking on one victim after another. This is the serial bully 2. Action generally needs to be taken by the school authorities to ensure that such behaviour is monitored and negatively reinforced, and alternative pro-social behaviours encouraged. 3. A very dominant person in authority may seriously bully an entire group3. Work is needed with such a person to examine alternative means of influencing others and, in extreme cases, removal from the situation where people are being harmed. BULLYING BY GROUPS 1. The group may consist of a duo who strongly reinforce each other in their acts of bullying 4. They seek victims. Sometimes one is clearly the leader and the other the accomplice. The duo can sometimes be extremely dangerous and their activities must be taken very seriously. 2. The group may be composed of members of roughly equal power and have relatively high cohesiveness; sometimes they have a ringleader. They may enjoy tormenting individuals with little or no justification because of a shared pleasure in doing so5. Sometimes the target of bullying by the class is the teacher 6. 3. The group may be non-cohesive and include virtually everyone in an organisation. The bullying behaviour is directed towards an ‘outsider’ and may become automatic for everyone7. 4. Sometimes dominant groups bully other groups. This can occur when groups differ in power and status, the more powerful ‘in-group’ acting abusively towards another group or groups 8. It is often best in cases of group bullying to work with group members individually (as in the Method of Shared Concern, see Section 36). However, if the group is brought together to confront the problem, it is best to include a number of pro-social students who can influence the outcome (see the so-called ‘No Blame Approach’, Section 36).

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ASSESSING SEVERITY As well as the type of case, you need to take into account the severity of the bullying. It is unreasonable to treat thoughtless (though hurtful) teasing in the same way as continual physical assault. The following diagram suggests how bullying is generally distributed in a school.

SEVERITY OF BULLYING BEHAVIOUR 20 15 10 5 0

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 Low Int e r m e d i a t e Hig h

The figure shows the approximate distribution of bullying behaviour according to severity. To estimate severity one would need to take into account: (i) then ature of theaction, for example mild teasing wh i ch is gen era lly not ex peri en ced as very hu rtful, versus physical assault wh i ch is norm a lly much more deva s t a ti n g ; (ii) the frequency of bullying acts, for example whether daily, weekly or less often; (iii) the duration of the bullying, whether over a short or long time period. For some purposes, for example in providing protection or support to victims, one may wish to take into account the vulnerability of the individual being targeted. Low severity commonly involves thoughtless periodic teasing, name-calling and occasional exclusion. This can be annoying and unpleasant and can escalate and then involve more serious forms of bullying. Most bullying is at this level. An intermediate level of bullying occurs when a child is subjected for a time to forms of harassment that are both systematic and hurtful. These may include cruel teasing, continual exclusion and some threats or some relatively mild physical abuse, for example pushing or tripping. Severe bullying occurs when the harassment is cruel and intense, especially if it occurs over an extended period and is very distressing to the victim. It often involves serious physical assaults, but can still be severe when it is non-physical if the methods used are unremitting, occur over an extended period and are psychologically damaging.

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ALTERNATIVE TREATMENTS To some ex tent the appropri a te treatment of bully / vi ctim probl ems can be linked to t h eir degree of s everi ty. But you should also bear in mind that different types of cases m ay requ i re different approaches (see Secti on 15). These are guidelines on ly. LOW SEVERITY These cases should never be ignored. Talk with the bully or bullies, pointing out the evident distress felt by the victim; explain the unacceptability to the school of the teasing or name-calling; and encourage and reinforce pro-social ways of responding on the part of the bully. Talk with the victim to discover whether he or she has in any way provoked the bullying behaviour. Suggest ways in which the victim may be able to deal with the situation and access resources, for example friends who might help. Undertake to monitor carefully what happens next and be prepared to intervene (see Intermediate level) if the situation deteriorates. INTERMEDIATE LEVEL Alternative approaches have been suggested. In developing its school policy, the school must decide which approaches it will endorse. These include: The No Blame Approach 1: This can apply when a group of students is involved. Once identified, the victim is interviewed and asked to describe what has been happening and how he or she has been feeling about it. A group of students is convened, including the bullies, as well as other children expected to propose constructive solutions. The problem and the victim’s reactions to the ill-treatment are described to them. They are left to come up with and implement an agreed solution. This approach has been used effectively in primary schools and in some secondary schools. The Method of Shared Concern 2: With this method the bullies are seen individually. The interviewer shares his or her concern for what has been happening to the victim, and invites the bully to take responsible action to remedy the situation. Group work with the victim and the bullies follows so as to effect a t rue reconciliation. Importantly, developments are carefully monitored. In a large majority of cases the method is effective. The application of appropriate sanctions3: This is a more traditional approach wh i ch seeks to ascertain the degree of blame attri butable to the bu llies and then to provi de ‘consequ ences’; that is, non-physical sancti ons to deter furt h er bullyi n g. HIGH SEVERITY This typically requires a careful inquiry into precisely what has happened, conducting interviews with the bullies, victims and observers. Serious talks are conducted with the parents of the bullies. Sanctions may be applied, including possible suspension of the perpetrators. In extreme cases there may be police involvement, possibly charges laid. In some States there is the possibility of a resolution of the problem through the use of Community Conferencing4. Note: The met h ods of interven ti on de s c ri bed above should be examined in more detail and thoro u gh ly discussed before they are app l i ed (see notes 1–4 for this Secti on). Sch ools need to devel op clear procedu res, and may assign special roles for staff carrying out su ch interven ti ons in accordance with sch ool policy (see Secti on 25). 39


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HELPING THE VICTIMS One of the responsibilities of members of a school community is that they should do what they can to help the victims of bullying. Here are some considerations that may affect how and what help might be given. 1. If a person has voluntarily come to you for help, it is most likely that you can help, if only by listening sympathetically. This is often all that the victim wants. We know that such help can be effective in reducing the negative impact bullying can have on a victim’s physical or psychological well-being 1. 2. Be aware that on occasions the victim may be unwittingly provoking others and bringing on the bullying. This needs to be tactfully explored. Sometimes what the child needs is to develop skills of fitting in and making good friends. 3. When appropriate, offer practical advice on how the victim can learn to cope more effectively 2. Remember that if victims can solve the problem unaided the rise in self-esteem is phenomenal. Assertiveness training is useful. But encouraging a victimised child to devise and deliver telling insults (a way of responding recommended by some anti-bullying gurus) can, in many cases, be to a child’s disadvantage, especially if the child is being bullied by a stronger, physically aggressive person or by a group. In addition, such responding will certainly contribute to the general level of verbal abuse going on in a school. 4. It may be that the victim needs specialised help; for instance, he or she may be suffering from chronic anxiety, acute depression or from a post-traumatic stress disorder, in which case an appropriate referral should be made 3. 5. Upon close examination, it may be that intervention on the victim’s behalf with the bully or bullies is needed. This is likely to be the case if the bullying is particularly severe or hurtful and action on the part of the victim is extremely unlikely to be effective; for instance, if a group of bullies is involved. In such cases, the victim’s permission should normally be sought to initiate intervention with the bully or bullies in accordance with agreed school procedures. 6. In extreme cases – for example when very serious and health threatening bullying occurs – it may be decided that action must be taken without the victim’s approval. 7. Make sure that records are kept of what has been done to help victimised children, and that the actions and outcomes are communicated, where appropriate, to interested parties, especially parents.

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HELPING THE BULLIES Bullies need ‘help’, not only because their behaviour is damaging to others but also because of the harm that may be done to them as a consequence of them engaging in delinquent behaviour that brings them into conflict with the law1. Not all people who bully do so for the same reasons (see Section 15). Hence, individual bullies may be helped in different ways as described below: 1. Some individuals engage in bullying because they want somebody to do something for them and lack the necessary social skills to acquire what they want. They do not know how to act in such a way as to elicit positive reactions towards them or to gain another’s cooperation. For a minority of students who bully, social skills programs are useful (see Notes, Section 16, note 3). 2. Often students who bully have had little or no experience of enjoying cooperating with others and sharing in the achievement of a common goal2. So the provision of opportunities to engage in cooperative learning is important for them3. 3. Students who bully sometimes have a strong need to lead or control others and they may be enabled to occupy roles which give them the opportunity to exercise power in a socially desirable way, for example in training or supervising other students in sporting activities. Students who have had a reputation for bullying others have sometimes reformed and taken a leading role in school anti-bullying committees. Care must be taken, however, that such power is not abused but exercised responsibly. 4. Where bullying is largely a result of inadequate impulse control, students can sometimes be helped through exercises promoting more thoughtful delayed responses 4. Socially desirable impulse control can be increased by systematic reinforcement of children’s behaviour that is responsible and controlled. 5. Where bullying is a conforming response, seen as enjoyable because one is part of a group, change may sometimes be brought about through sessions with individual bullies who can be brought to act responsibly and discontinue bullying. The Method of Shared Concern is one way in which this may be achieved 5. 6. Family life sometimes engenders a tendency to bully others, either because family members model such behaviour or because home life is so frustrating that children wish to take it out on others 6. Through interactions with parents, school staff may have some (albeit limited) influence on how a parent can best bring up their children. 7. Students who bully may change if they identify with powerful and – to them – attractive individuals who consistently act pro-socially. Hence by your drawing attention to such pro-social models, a ‘bully’ may come to act more like the person he or she admires. Often these are sporting heroes.

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WORKING CONSTRUCTIVELY WITH PARENTS

1

School staff and parents may get together on bullying issues as a result of (i) parents participating in the development of school policy; (ii) parents expressing concern about their child’s involvement in bully/victim problems, usually as a victim; (iii) the sch ool requ e s ting a meeting with parents of children who are bu llyi n g. A basic right of parents is to speak with school staff if they believe their child is being bullied at school. When thep arents of victimised children meetw ith school staff, the following points are relevant 1. Recognise that the parent is generally under a good deal of stress. 2. If a parent expresses anger directed at the school, remain understanding. 3. Make it clear that you do care and will do what you can. 4. Try to get the facts provided by the parent as clear as you can, but don’t crossexamine or unduly emphasise inconsistencies in the parent’s version of events. 5. Point out that you will need a little time (try to be specific) to investigate the matter yourself, but that you will certainly make contact again soon. There may, however, be some circumstances, when a child’s personal safety is severely threatened when action needs to be taken immediately. 6. As su re the parent of the ex i s tence of a sch ool policy on bu llying – if necessary, explain what it is – and the re adiness of the sch ool to take acti on against bu llyi n g. 7. Try to avoid getting into any argument, and above all don’t set out to blame the parent, even if you suspect that the parent contributed to the problem. 8. Make it clear that you would be happy to see the parent again, if required. With the parents of bullies 1. Make sure that you already have as much reliable information about what has happened as you can. 2. Share your concern about what has been happening to the victim. 3. Avoid suggesting that it is the character of their child that is at fault. Rather emphasise that it is aspects of the behaviour of the perpetrator that must change. Try to refer to positive aspects of the child as well. 4. If it is decided that serious consequences for the perpetrator are to follow, for example suspension, point out that if there are no further episodes, the offence will no longer be part of his or her school record. 5. Be understanding, but firm. Note: Except under special and justified circumstances, it is generally not helpful for the parents of bullies and victims to meet to solve the problem.

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TYPES OF SCHOOLS The suggestions for countering bullying in this handbook apply to all schools in a general way whether they are primary or secondary, coeducational or single sex, private or public, boarding or non-boarding. All kinds of schools should engage in educating their community about bullying, and especially in discovering what is hap pening among their own members; developing an anti-bullying policy with widespread community support; ensuring that teachers talk with students, encouraging and empowering them to help eliminate bullying; providing support for members who are victimised; intervening, as appropriate, when bullying behaviour is identified; and working sensitively with parents. However, in applying these practices, it is necessary to recognise differences due to context, as outlined below: 1. Reliable information about bullying from very young children is best obtained through direct observational methods rather than by questionnaires. 2. Generally children at primary level are more interested in discussing the issue of bullying in class1. Different approaches are neede d when working with secondary school classes. 3. In primary schools, responsibility for dealing with bully/victim problems is apt to fall more upon a particular teacher who has continual class contact with a group of children and knows each one of them well. Hence, in secondary schools there is a stronger need for teachers to share information about students with each other. 4. Large schools can pose a tough challenge in getting everyone behind an agreed school policy to counter bullying. Greater planning may also be needed to implement the policy. 5. Although bullying is reported as happening more often in primary schools, students there are more likely to go to staff for help and also receive more effective help in solving their problem2. Secondary schools face a greater challenge in providing appropriate help for victimised students, especially for students in their first two years, when bullying is experienced most often. 6. Bullying tends to be somewhat lower among girls in single sex schools3. However, the bullying is often ‘relational’, subtle, hurtful and psychologically damaging. It more frequently involves bullying conducted by groups. Talking through serious forms of bullying with groups of girls should be a strong priority. 7. Boarding schools provide more opportunities for sustained bullying to occur without respite. If senior students are given responsibilities for supervising the activities of younger children, clear limits must be placed on any disciplinary powers they have, and careful monitoring of abuses in relationships is essential. 8. Although sexual harassment is found among junior students, even in kindergartens, problems of sexual harassment become more common with advancing physiological maturity, and must continually be addressed.

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ADVICE FOR PARENTS When parents discover that their child has been involved in bullying at school, either as a victim or as a bully, it can be very upsetting for them. They may feel at a loss. The school can provide advice to such parents along these lines: 1. If you suspect that your child is being bullied at school, encourage him or her to talk to you about it 1. Recognise that it may be hard for the child to speak out. 2. Never dismiss the matter by saying that it’s the child’s problem and he or she must simply stand up to the bully or bullies. Sometimes this course of action is impractical, especially if a group of bullies is involved. 3. Don’t be too overprotective either, for example by saying: ‘Never mind. I will look after you. You don’t have to go to school. Stay home with us.’ 4. Listen carefully and sympathetically. Try to get the relevant facts without interrogating the child. 5. Explore alternative courses of action with the child; for example, acting more assertively, making friends who can help, speaking with a teacher or counsellor about it. 6. Decide whether it is best to discuss the problem with the school. This will normally depend upon: (i) the severity of the victimisation, including its duration, (ii) whether it is thought that the child can learn to cope, and (iii) the wishes of the child regarding whether the issue should be raised with the school. On occasions, if the bullying is particularly severe, you may reasonably ask the school for advice despite the reluctance of the child to seek such help. 7. If it is decided that the issue should be raised at school, be prepared to describe as accurately as possible what has been happening to your child. 8. Remember that the school needs to know what has been happening to your child for the good of all other children at the school. Also remember that the school has a ‘duty of care’ and is obliged to act ‘in loco parentis’ 2. 9. You should be assured that the case of bullying you describe will be carefully investigated and dealt with in accordance with the school’s anti-bullying policy. 10. If you discover that your child is bullying others at school, take the matter very seriously and exercise whatever influence you can to stop this behaviour. 11. If the school informs you that your child has been bullying others and requests an interview, be prepared to work out a plan with the school to bring about a change in your child’s bullying behaviour.

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A CHECK LIST This check list enables you to make an assessment of how adequately your school has responded to the issue of bullying. You can check how well it has done against each of the items below. This list may also be useful when a centre is planning a response to bullying. Inadequately

Adequately

Outstandingly

1. Acquired useful resources for educating the school or community centre about bullying 2. Gathered facts about bullying at your school or centre 3. Developed school policy by involving: Staff Children Parents 4. Produced an Anti-bullying Policy which: (i) Describes what bullying is (ii) Recognises the rights of individuals to be safe from being bullied (iii) Stresses the responsibility of everyone to help counter bullying (iv) Indicates how bullying incidents will, in general terms, be dealt with (v) Has the support of the school or centre and the community 5. Discussed bullying with children 6. Included work in the curriculum designed to counter bullying 7. Supported victimised children 8. Handled incidents of bullying 9. Empowered children to take part in action to counter bullying 10. Held constructive meetings with parents on issues of bullying 11. Gauged the overall response of the school or centre to bullying 12. Made plans to review the anti-bullying work

Readers are permitted to photocopy this blackline master in conjunction with Stop the Bullying: A handbook for schools.

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NOTES SECTION 1 THE PURPOSE OF THE HANDBOOK 1. An examination of the legal responsibilities of schools in relation to bullying has been provided in an article by Slee and Ford (1999), ‘Bullying is a serious issue – It is a crime’, in the Australia and New Zealand Journal of Law and Education. SECTION 3 WHY BOTHER ? 1. See Ri g by(1 9 9 6, 1 9 9 7a, 2001) for su rvey re sults of bullying in Australian schools. Smith et al. (1 9 9 9)have provided accounts of su rveys con du cted through o ut the worl d . 2. Studies of the effects of bullying on children’s mental health may be found in Olweus (1993), Rigby and Slee (1993) and Rigby (1998a, 1998b, 1998c, 1999a). 3. Social maladjustment has been found to be a consequence, not simply a cause, of peer victimisation among young children (Kochenderfer & Ladd, 1996). 4. Absenteeism due to bullying at school in Australia is reported by approximately 6% of boys and 9% of girls (Rigby, 1997b). 5. A significant increase in physical health complaints as a consequence of being bullied in the first two years of high school was reported as occurr ing in an Australian coeducational school (Rigby, 1999a). 6. An en du ring loss of s el f - e s teem and pron eness to depre s s i on was reported among young adults who had been seri o u s ly bu ll i edas sch oo l children (Olweus, 1992). 7. The po ten tial for violen ce by alien a ted vi cti m s , rej ected by mainstream peers , was tra gi c a lly actu a l i s ed in the shootings at Co lu m bine Hi gh Sch oo l , USA in 1 9 9 9. 8. Schools vary hugely in the extent to which they experience peer victimisation, with some schools reporting more than three times as much as others (see Rigby, 1996, 1997d). 9. Successful interventions to reduce bullying in schools are described in Olweus (1994), Smith and Sharp (1994) and Petersen and Rigby (1999). 10. It should not, however, be assumed that reducing the incidence of bullying is easily achieved. A recent meta-evaluation of interventions to reduce bullying commissioned by the Commonwealth Attorney-General’s Department (Rigby, 2002b) showed that not all interventions around the world that have been carefully researched have resulted in significant reductions, and in most cases the reductions have been modest in size. This report is freely available on request: phone 1800 703 777. The reductions tend to be greater in some schools than others, especially so where there is a strong commitment in the school community for members to work together on the problem. Research indicates that interventions have produced some significant improvements in peer relations in both secondary and primary schools, but to date the improvements have been greater among younger children, including children attending kindergartens. It is important that anti-bullying programs start early.

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UNDERSTANDING BULLYING SECTION 4 WHAT IS BULLYING ? 1. One well-known definition of bullying is ‘the wilful, conscious desire to hurt another and put him/her under stress’ (Tattum & Tattum, 1992). However, this is not adequate as it supposes that such a desire is perfectly c orrelated with action. In fact, most schoolchildren who admit to wanting to hurt others do not engage in bullying (Rigby, 1997b). 2. The notion that bullying involves a power imbalance has been accepted by most researchers e.g. Olweus (1993) and Farrington (1993). 3. Recognising that bullying is unjust is evident in a useful definition of bullying offered by Smith and Sharp (1994): ‘Bullying is the systematic abuse of power’. 4. Whether to recognise as bullying only those actions that are repeated is controversial. Olweus (1993) has argued that we should only include as bullying negative actions that are repeated, and thereby exclude relatively trivial ‘one-off ’ experiences. However, a single occurrence of bullying can sometimes be severe and even traumatising. While bullying typically involves repeated behaviour, common usage allows us to speak of bullying occurring on a single occasion. 5. Enjoyment of the effects of bullying is commonly regarded as characteristic of bullies. This is true particularly of what has been described as the ‘malign’ bully with whom we are generally most concerned. But bear in mind that what is seen as bullying behaviour by outsiders is sometimes not intentionally hurtful and not enjoyed. This can be described as non-malign bullying (Rigby, 1996). 6. The notion that ‘oppression’ is an essential component of bullying was introduced by the British criminologist, Farrington (1993) who defined bullying as ‘repeated oppression, psychological or physical, of a less powerful person by a more powerful person’. He neglected to add ‘or group of persons’. SECTION 5 GENDER, RACE, DISABILITY AND SOCIAL CLASS 1. As an example, see the anti-discrimination and anti-hara s s m ent policy doc u m ent provi ded for sch ools by the Edu c a ti on Dep a rtm ent of Tasmania (April 2000). See Gilbert and Gilbert (1998) for a good discussion of the construction of masculinty among schoolchildren and how it can lead to bullying. 2. A comprehensive report on sex-based harassment in Australia is included in Gender and School Education by Collins, Batten, Ainley and Getty (1996). 3. An analysis of data from a recent study by Rigby and Bagshaw of Year 9 students (190 boys and 217 girls) attending coeducational schools in South Australia indicates that 53.1% of girls reported having been verbally abused or ‘called names’ by boys during the school year compared with 25.9% of boys who report similar treatment from girls. Thus verbal abuse runs both ways, but is predominantly from boys to girls. 4. Fazal Rizvi (1998) has provided a useful analysis of racism in Australia, especially in relation to Aboriginal and Torres Strait Island Australians and Asian Australians. 5. Some studies have reported a greater inciden ce of verbal abuse directed towards s tu dents of non-mainstream ethnic background. For example, Bo u l ton (1 9 9 5)in one stu dy found that Asian stu dents in England were su bj ected to more rac i a l name-calling than were other stu den t s . However, a n o t h er stu dy, con du cted in 47


G ermany by Lo s el and Bl i e s en er (1 9 9 9) , reported that stu dents of n on - G erman extracti on were tre a ted by their peers the same as others. Furt h erm ore, su rvey results from Au s tralia using the PRQ (Rigby, unpubl i s h ed)with children aged 8 to 11 ye a rs did not reveal differen ces in reported peer vi cti m i s a ti onbet ween children iden ti fied as from non - E n glish speaking back grounds and others. The re sults for Abori ginal boys in this latter stu dy nevert h eless did indicate for them a significantly high level of peer vi ctimisation com p a red with other boys . Cl e a rly, the co u n try and the spec i fic ethnic groups invo lved may make a crucial differen ce. 6. Mooney and Smith (1995) reported that the bullying of children who stammer sometimes affected them for many years, even into adult years. 7. As in studies of ethnic differen ces and bu llyi n g, s tudies of the rel a ti on s h i p bet ween social class and bullying are inconsisten t . For example, in the Un i ted Kingdom Wh i tn ey and Smith (1 9 9 3) and Mell or (1 9 9 9) have provi ded evi dence that ch i l d ren in sch ools in low soc i oecon omic areas are more likely than others to be vi ctimised; s tudies from Norway (Olweu s , 1 9 9 9) and Spain (Ortega & MoraMech a n , 1 9 9 9) su ggest that soc i oecon omic status is unrel a ted to bu llyi n g. It has been su gge s ted, however, that the natu re of the bu llying may differ according to social class, with ch i l d ren from lower soc i oecon omic class families being more prone to bu lly others phys i c a lly, but curren t ly evi den ce is lacking on this poi n t . SECTION 6 POWER INEQUALITIES 1. The importance of sheer physical size and strength as a factor in bullying behaviour has been researched by Olweus (1993). 2. Rel a ti onal aggression is a term coi n ed by American psychologists Cri ck and Gro tpeter (1 9 9 5) to de s c ri be acts of a ggression de s i gn edto manipulate and dama geanother ’s rel a ti onship with peers, and is bel i eved to be practi s ed more by gi rl s . SECTION 7 WHEN FORCEFULNESS IS NOT BULLYING 1. What is seen as acceptable treatment in one generation may be unacceptable in the next. For thousands of years slavery, now seen as a systematic and unacceptable abuse of power, was practised in many societies. In the 19th century the use of ‘fags’ by senior schoolboys was practised in British public schools (see Rigby, 1997c), and remnants of this system are still to be found in some schools where senior students are given, and sometimes abuse, privileges. SECTION 9 SEXUAL HARASSMENT 1. For detailed examination of sexual harassment in schools see the New South Wales Department of School Education (1996). Herbert (1992) discusses ways of countering such harassment in schools. 2. Although cro s s - gender hara s s m ent is ex peri en ced som ewhat more of ten by gi rl s , boys are not uncommonly harassed sexually by other boys. Both sexes appear equally upset by it. In an unpublished study of 613 Year 9 secondary school students in South Australia (Rigby & Bagshaw, 1999) some 33% of girls and 19% of boys reported that they had been the target of unwanted sexual remarks during the school year. Of these, approximately 85% of each sex said they had been upset by it. Some 20% of girls and 18% of boys claimed to have been sexually harassed by the opposite sex. Boy–boy harassment was reported by 13% of boys; girl–girl by only 2% of girls. Unwanted sexual touching was reported by 12% of boys and 12% of girls. 48


SECTION 10 BULLYING AS A DYNAMIC PROCESS 1. For a discussion of the characteristics of victims see Rigby (1996, pp. 72–3). SECTION 11 THE PASSIVE VICTIM 1. Typically when bullying occurs there is an audience of bystanders. According to feedback from Australian students, most bystanders encourage the bullies either actively (verbally encouraging) or passively by being interested watchers. Relatively few support the victim. Similar results were found using direct behavioural observations in Canada by O’Connell, Pepler and Craig (1999). 2. Surveys of senior students (16–18 years) in Australia indicate that some 8% of boys and 6% of girls were bullied continually by another person or group for a year or more (Rigby, 1997b). SECTION 12 THE RESISTANT VICTIM 1. According to a large-scale Australian su rvey, approximately 10% of s tu den t s ac ross all age groups cl a i m edthat ‘tell i n g’ s om eone made matters wors e . The su ccess ra te for ‘tell i n g’, however, is mu ch greater for younger pri m a ry sch ool studen t s . Only a minori ty of s econ d a ry stu dents appear to be hel ped by telling: typ i c a lly for older stu dents it makes no differen ce to what happens (Ri g by, 1 9 9 7b). 2. It has been claimed that some well-known entertainers, such as Robin Williams, Dudley Moore and Clive James, developed their talent to amuse and distract as a defence against bullies. But how many must have failed to do so! SECTION 13 BULLYING BETWEEN STAFF AND STUDENTS 1. The nature and prevalence of bullying between teachers and students has been examined in a study conducted in schools in England by Terry (1998). 2. The systematic and effective handling by a school of disruptive student behaviour not only reduces the chances of a teacher being bullied by students, but also contributes greatly towards providing a school ethos in which teachers feel confident and secure enough to give their sustained attention to issues of bullying among students. One useful system employed successfully in some Queensland schools has been developed by Ed Ford (see http://responsiblethinking.com/). It is strongly recommended by teachers who have adopted this approach. SECTION 14 BULLYING BETWEEN ADULTS IN THE SCHOOL COMMUNITY 1. For a comprehensive discussion of bullying involving Australian teachers see: www.bulliesdownunder.com/WORKPLACE%20BULLYING%20IN%20DETE 2. Problems associated with conflicts between teachers and parents over children allegedly being bullied or bullying others are examined in detail in Rigby (1996, 2002a). SECTION 15 WHY SOME PEOPLE BULLY 1. Bullies typically believe that they are admired for what they do, often on good evidence (Rigby, 1997d). 2. According to the beh avi o u rist Sk i n n er (1 9 5 3) , the su bm i s s i on of o t h ers is high ly reinforcing for humans as well as for animals. 3. It is sometimes pointed out that in our society boys typically construct and conform to a ‘macho’ image of masculinity which leads them to engage in acts of aggression and bullying (see Gilbert & Gilbert, 1998). Unfortunately, increasing 49


4. 5.

6.

7.

8. 9.

10.

11.

numbers of girls also construct an image of toughness that can have the same effect. Approximately 30% of boys and 20% of girls in high schools report that for them bullying others would be fun (Rigby, 1997b). Bullies tend to score higher than average on Eysenck’s measure of Psychoticism, which reflects a low level of concern for the pain experienced by others (Slee & Rigby, 1993). They also score low on measures of Empathy (Farley, 1999). Reliable links have been found repeatedly between bullying others at school and unsatisfactory home life where students have felt badly treated (see Olweus, 1980; Rigby, 1994). Many studies have linked viewing violence on television with subsequent aggression. For instance, an American study (Singer et al., 1999) of elementary and middle school students found that children who were frequently exposed to violence on television were more likely to engage in violent behaviour. This was so especially when there was a lack of parental monitoring. When asked why they might bully someone, a majority of children say that they do so ‘to get even’ (Rigby, 1997b). Researchers in the area of stress claim that some people are ‘aggressively involved in a chronic, incessant struggle to achieve more and more in less and less time, and, if required to do so, against the opposing efforts of other things and persons’ (Friedman & Rosenman, 1974). Such so-called Type A personalities are prone to engage in bullying behaviours to get things done at all costs. Much bullying is carried out by people who are obediently following orders, even when the orders appear inhumane and unjustified. See Milgram (1974) for the classic study of obedience to authority. People may define their role so as to include bullying behaviour. See the famous experiment by Zimbardo (1972) in which American college students simulated the roles of prison officers and behaved automatically as sadistic bullies. We need continually to clarify and reflect on our role behaviours.

SECTION 16 WHY SOME PEOPLE DO NOT BULLY 1. Some 80% of boys and 70% of girls in Australian schools believe that they are in fact no less able than other students to bully (Rigby, 1997b). We know from various studies that most students do not engage in bullying others. This clearly suggests that a large proportion of those who can bully, simply do not do so. 2. Approximately 50% of Australian secondary school children indicated that they would feel ashamed of themselves if they bullied someone (Rigby, 1997d). 3. Social skills programs can be helpful in cases where conflict arises because of a lack of knowledge of alternative, more appropriate ways of behaving. See Macmullin (1999) for an account of how a social skills program can be developed for use in schools. But bear in mind that well-honed social skills can sometimes be employed effectively in bullying others, especially in relational bullying.

ACTION TO COUNTER BULLYING SECTION 17 SETTING GOALS 1. As an example of how the effects of bullying can be assessed in a school, see Petersen and Rigby (1999).

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SECTION 19 EDUCATING THE SCHOOL COMMUNITY 1. These are among the most useful books for a school to acquire to provide a background of practical knowledge about bullying: Elliott, Michelle (1998). Bullying. London: Hodder Children’s Books. Garrity, C., Jens K., Porter W., Sager, N. & Short-Camilli, C. (1994). Bully proofing your schools. Longmont, Colorado: Opris West. Mu rphy, E. & Lewers, R. (2000). The hidden hurt. Ba ll a ra t : Wizard Boo k s . Olweus, D. (1993). Bullying at school. Cambridge: Blackwell. Rigby, K. (1996). Bullying in schools – and what to do about it. Melbourne: Australian Council for Educational Research. Sharp, S. & Smith, P.K. (eds). (1994). Tackling bullying in your school: A practical handbook for teachers. London: Routledge. Suckling, A. & Temple, C. (2001). Bullying: A whole-school approach. Melbourne: Australian Council for Educational Research. Tattum, D.P. (1993). (ed). Understanding and managing bullying. London: Heinemann. 2. Internet sites relevant t o bullying can be acc essed through www.education. unisa.edu.au/bullying/ See also: http://www.eduweb.vic.gov.au/bullying/geninfo/ index.htm and www.bullyingnoway.com.au 3. The most useful training video is: Education Queensland. (1998). Bullying – no way! A professional developmental resource for school communities. This consists of 21 vignettes enacting bullying incidents about which viewers are invited to comment using questions provided in an accompanying book of the same title. These are suitable for teachers and also for senior students. Available from Open Access Unit, Education Services Directorate, Education Queensland. P.O. Box 220, Ashgrove, Queensland 4006. Tel: (07) 3377 1000; Fax: (07) 3366 3849. The following is a useful video in stimulating discussion among staff regarding what students can do to counter bullying as trained counsellors. Jane Ba l four. (1994). B u llyi n g. Mel bo u rn e : Au s tralian Council for Educational Research. (This is a useful 55-minute vi deo de s c ri bing how stu dents can assist in mediating in cases of bu llying.) 4. A useful discussion of the legal responsibilities of schools in relation to bullying between students is reviewed in Slee and Ford (1999). More recently, parents have taken legal action against schools that have not taken adequate steps to prevent or deal effectively with bullying. 5. Stones (1993) Don’t pick on me and Romain (1997) Bullies are a pain in the brain. These publications are helpful to students involved in bully/victim problems. Advice fo r students can b e accessed through www.education.unisa. edu.au/bullying/students.html 6. Safety Houses: There are some 90 000 Safety Houses in Australia. See http://www.nhwatch.asn.au/child1.htm#bully for useful Internet information. Contact the Saf ety House Association in your State or Territory for detailed information. Locate Safety Houses in the vicinity of the school and inform students where they are and how they can help. 7. Kids Help Line: This resource is staffed with experienced counsellors who frequently deal with problems of bullying among children. Toll free number: 1800 551 800. All children should know about this service. For further details, see: http://www.kidshelp.com.au/ 51


8. The following is a useful book for parents: Mellor, Andrew (1997). Advice for families. Scottish Council for Research in Education. (Contact ACER for further details.) See also www.education.unisa.edu.au/bullying/parents.html 9. ACER is the Australian Council for Educational Research. They hold a range of books and videos on bully ing and can be consulted on the availability of resources on bullying, including the provision of workshops and seminars. Their contact details are: Private Bag 55, Camberwell, Victoria, Australia. Tel: 61 3 9277 5656; Fax 91 3 9277 5678; email: [email protected]. SECTION 20 SUPPORTIVE TRAINING RESOURCES 1. A Peer Support organisation first trains the teachers in the required methodology, then teachers train the students. Sessions are timetabled for senior students to work with groups of junior students, addressing relevant issues and suggesting solutions to problems. Anti-bullying is one of the issues that receives attention. Further information about Peer Support can be obtained from: http://www.peersupport.edu.au and http://www.peersupport.com.au/peace_schools.htm . 2. Kids Help Line also offers workshops designed to help students in secondary schools to give more effective support to other children with problems. Contact: David Goad (Head Office), Tel: (02) 4749 3202; email [email protected] or Felicity Sloman (Vic/Tas), Tel: (03) 9532 4344 [email protected] Further information is available on the web site: www.peerskills.com.au 3. Two outstanding publications on conflict resolution in schools are by Johnson and Johnson (1991) and Bodine, Crawford and Schrumpf (1994). 4. See Bagshaw and Halliday (2000) on teaching adolescents to handle conflict through drama. 5. Interactive dramatic workshops focusing on helping children and teachers to address bullying are provided by ‘Fair Go’, a team of actors that goes out to schools to work with students in classrooms. Contact Karyn Healy (07) 3208 3555; Fax: 3808 5375. ‘Brainstorm Productions’ offers to schools a theatrical performance that explores the reasons for children perpetrating violence, bullying and harassment toward others and proposes fundamental changes in behaviour and attitudes, which can be adopted in sc hools to reduce violence and encourage cooperation and harmony (see http://www.brainstormproductions. com.au/ Freecall 1800 676 224). 6. A full description of where training in dispute resolution can be obtained can be accessed through: http://www.ausdispute.unisa.edu.au/education.htm 7. The NSW Department of School Education has produced an excellent introductory video: Peer mediation for primary school children. We can work it out. The Department also provides training in peer mediation for interested schools. 8. Schools exploring the feasibility of training students to act as peer counsellors in dealing with bully/victim cases would find it useful to view Bullying, the documentary on the subject, by Jane Balfour (available through ACER). 9. Workshops addressing bullying for secondary school students in the context of a mental health issue are provided for schools in each state by Mind Matters. Information is provided on the following site: http://www.apapdc.edu.au/current_projects/content/MindMatters.htm Contact Tracy Zilm, National Professional Development C oordinator, Education Development Centre, Milner

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Street, Hindmarsh, SA 5007. Tel: (08) 8340 2282; Fax: (08) 8346 6732; email: pdoffi[email protected] 10. Individuals in the following States and Territories offer workshops specifically on countering bullying in schools: Australian Capital Territory ◆ Brenda Morrison Centre for Restorative Justice and Regulatory Institutions Network, Research School of Social Sciences, Australian National University, ACT, 0200, Australia. Tel: 61 2 6125 3800; Fax: 61 2 6125 8503. New South Wales ◆ Jean Healy, School of Education, University of Western Sydney, NSW. Tel: (02) 9772 6437. ◆ Sandra Nicholls, Faculty of Education, Unversity of Sydney, NSW, 2006. Tel: (02) 9351 6272; Fax: (02) 9351 4580; email: [email protected]. ◆ Libby Petersen, Jamisson High School, Kingswood, NSW 2747. Tel: (02) 4731 6144; email: [email protected] Queensland ◆ Margaret Thorsborne, Transformative Justice – Queensland, [email protected] Tel: (07) 5445 3520 or Mobile: 0412 135015 South Australia ◆ Kerry Jarvis, Learning Curve: training and developmental consultant. P.O. Box 1123, Stirling, South Australia, 5152. Tel and Fax: (08) 8339 3494; email: [email protected] ◆ Ken Rigby, University of South Australia, Underdale Campus, Holbrooks Road, Underdale, SA, 5032. Tel: (08) 8302 6945 or (08) 8443 8708; Fax: (08) 8302 6648; email: [email protected]. web site: www.education.unisa.edu.au/bullying/ ◆ Phillip Slee, School of Education, Flinders University of South Australia. G.P.O. Box 2100, Adelaide, SA, 5001. Tel: (08) 82013; Fax (08) 8210 3184; email: edpts@flinders.edu.au web site http://www.caper.com.au ◆ Barbara Spears (Leckie), School of Education, University of South Australia (Magill Campus). Tel: (08) 8302 4500, Mobile: 0403 168300; email: [email protected] Victoria ◆ Michael Carr-Gregg, Tel: (03) 9851 6719; Mobile: 0418 532128; Fax: (03) 9851671; Email: [email protected] ◆ Evelyn Field, P.O. Box 625, Kew, Vic, 3101; Tel: (03) 9853 8089; email: efi[email protected] ◆ Andrew Fuller, 99 Cook Street, Flinders, Vic, 3929: Tel and Fax: (03) 5989 0307; email: [email protected] ◆ Amelia Suckling and Carla Temple, P.O. Box 204, Chelsea, Vic, 3196; Amelia Suckling, Tel: (03) 9776 2096; email: [email protected] Carla Temple, Tel: (03) 9776 1114; web site: www.insideouted.com.au Western Australia ◆ Coosje Griffiths, Swan Education District, 18 Blackboy Way, Beechboro, WA, 6063. Tel: (08) 9442 6637; Fax: (08) 9442 6633; email: coosje.griffiths @eddept.wa.edu.au web site: www.dotu.wa.gov.au/know/bully.html 53


SECTION 22 HOW TO GET THE FACTS 1. It is important to make use of reliable, valid and anonymously administered questionnaires. Otherwise the information may be of dubious value and misleading. Also, with non-anonymous questionnaires, as in so-called Bully Audits, there is a real danger that a child may be inappropriately and unfairly labelled as a bully with serious consequences for that child’s future. 2. More information on the q uestionnaires can be found at www.education. unisa.edu.au/bullying/ Copies of the questionnaires and associated resources are available from Dr Barrington Thomas, P.O. Box 104, Point Lonsdale, Victoria, 3225, Austra l i a ; Tel : 03 5258 2340 or Fax: 08 5258 3878; email: prof read@pipel i n e . com.au SECTION 23 FINDING OUT ABOUT BULLYING AMONG YOUNG CHILDREN 1. Recently a number of studies have focused on bullying in young children. The work of Alsaker and Valkanover (2001) in Switzerland with kindergarten children has shown that physical, verbal and relational aggression all take place from time to time and steps are neede d to prevent s uch harmful behaviour. In Australia, Linke (1998) has proposed ways in which this may be done. 2. Contact Dr Barrington Thomas, P.O. Box 104, Point Lonsdale, Victoria, 3225, Australia; Tel: 03 5258 2340 or Fax: 08 5258 3878; email: profread@pipeline. com.au SECTION 24 DEVELOPING AN ANTI-BULLYING POLICY 1. Examples of sch ool policies in Australia can be found in Rigby (1 9 9 6, pp. 1 3 6 – 4 0) and see Tattum and Herbert (1 9 9 3) for examples of s ch ool policies in Engl a n d . SECTION 26 WHAT TEACHERS CAN DO ABOUT BULLYING 1. Good classroom management skills are essential in countering the tendency of some students to bully others. Where there is disrespectful and disorderly behaviour in a classroom, there is abundant opportunity for some students to engage in bullying without necessarily being detected by the teacher. While many teachers learn ‘on the job’ and become more efficient with pract ice, some teachers need help, for some time, from more experienced teachers who can act as observers. Some excellent texts on classroom management are available, for example Rogers (1997) and Latham (1997). 2. The leading authors on cooperative learning are the brothers, David and Roger Johnson. Their work has been applied in many schools and validated by high quality research. Good practical a dvice on cooperative learning is available in Johnson and Johnson (1992). SECTION 28 TELLING 1. Based on a large survey of over 38 000 Australian students, it was found that approximately 10% of students believe that their situation got worse after they told someone about being bullied. Among younger children, the help that informants receive is much more effective. Among 8-year-olds, for example, telling was reported as leading to an improvement in over 60% of cases. Among 16-year-olds, over 50% reported that telling ma de no difference (see Rigby, 2002a, pp. 68–69). 2. In a survey of 162 Australian students aged 12–15 years, 29% of students 54


expressed disapproval of children who complained about being bullied. A further 21% were unsure how they felt. Only 50% thought it proper to complain (Rigby & Slee, 1993, p. 130). 3. Children are advised in some schools to employ a sequence of five steps, each corresponding to the fingers of a hand – making up a ‘Hi Five’ – as follows: (1) ignore (2) walk away (3) polite talk (4) firm talk (5) tell a teacher. 4. Bear in mind that one must balance the claims of what many see as ‘justice’ for the victim against what may be in the best interest of both the bully and the victim. SECTION 29 CLASS ACTIVITIES THAT CAN HELP TO REDUCE BULLYING 1. D.W. Johnson and R.T. Johnson (1991, 1992) have described how cooperative learning has been successfully applied in some schools in the USA. Cowie et al. (1994) have provided a detailed account of how cooperative learning was introduced in some schools in England. In Australia, the Friendly Schools Project (2000) in Western Australia has produced a manual that provides relevant class exercises. Contact Professor Donna C ross, Centre for Health Promotion Research, Curtin University, WA. 2. For younger children, exercises to encourage empathy are to be found in a text by Murphy and Lewers (2000). The novel Charlotte’s Web by E.B. White (1952), and the video based on the novel, have the effect of raising empathic feelings in primary school children. Ideas for a lesson plan may be found at www.teachnet.com/lesson/langarts/charlotte061799.html CTE UK. (1995). Keith: A story of a bully, is a thought-provoking video on bullying centring on a school bully. This video is available through Video Education Australasia, Bendigo, Victoria, Tel: (03) 5442 2433. For older, adolescent students the video produced by the Neti-Netti Theatre Company (1990) called ‘Only playing, Miss’ can be highly effective in developing feelings of empathy with victims of school bullying. (This is available from ACER.) For some students, especially older girls, Cat’s Eye by Margaret Attwood (1990) is a moving account of the hurtfulness of relational bullying among schoolgirls. 3. A US video called No More Teasing, produced by Sunburst Communications, advises students on how they can act assertively in situations in which they are being teased. This v ideo is av ailable through Video Education Australasia, Bendigo, Victoria, Tel: (03) 5442 2433. Relevant exercises on assertiveness and related themes can also be found in Australian texts by Suckling and Temple (2001) and Field (1999). 4. Garrity et al. (1997) describe activities designed to help primary school children to make friends more readily. 5. The drama groups, ‘Fair Go’ and ‘Sticks and Stones’ (see Notes 20:5) could be contacted to work with students at your school. 6. In Australia, Lindy Petersen (1994) has developed methods of overcoming impulsiveness in children, an important aspect of anger control, by training students to think before they act. 7. Exercises along the lines suggested by Jane Elliott’s work on prejudice, known as ‘Brown-eyed/Blue-eyed’, may be employed, but careful debriefing afterwards is needed to prevent any subsequent distress. A training package is available: ‘The Blue-eyed Training Kit’, containing manual and videos for use in Australia – see

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www.techniworks.com.au/bluevid.htm#be_vid An examination of the effectiveness of this approach to reducing prejudice in students has been provided by D.A. Byrnes and G. Kiger (1990). 8. The web site provided by the Victorian Education Department is an excellent source of information about classroom activ ities that can be used to address bullying. See: www.eduweb.vic.gov.au/bullying/geninfo/index/htm SECTION 30 WORKING WITH STUDENTS ON RULES AND POLICY 1. The process and usefulness of deriving rules about bullying is discussed in Olweus (1993). 2. The use of ‘Bully Courts’ has been suggested by Michelle Elliott (1991) as one way of dealing with cases of bullying. The court is to deal only with cases that occur at school. They should not be trivial ones, that is, easily resolved by teachers. They should not be very serious ones either, such as may require the police. Finally, the court may deal with only those cases for which approval has been given by a complainant. The process can begin when, and only when, a student makes a formal complaint against another student. For this complaint an official form is provided on which the details are written. The bully or bullies are invited to attend the next meeting of the Bully Court. The complainant is also to be present, together with any witnesses of the event(s). There is to be no audience (it is not theatre). Each person attending the proceedings is asked to give evidence and then is questioned by the panel of students and staff. The panel members then discuss each case in private and make their judgement. Penalties or sanctions may be prescribed and steps are taken to see that they are administered, unless there is a successful appeal to the Principal who may apply a veto. Finally, as in a system of law, a record is kept of all proceedings and verdicts and these become precedents for other cases. There is a discussion of the pros and cons of this approach in Rigby (1996). SECTION 31 FOCUS ON BYSTANDERS 1. See Rigby (1996, 2002a) for a close examination of bystander behaviour among schoolchildren. SECTION 32 ROLES FOR EMPOWERED STUDENTS 1. The concept of an anti-bullying committee of students led by a staff member has been developed and employed effectively at Jamisson High School in New South Wales, Australia by Libby Petersen. Tel: (02) 4731 6144. For a description of this work, see Petersen and Rigby (1999). SECTION 33 WHAT STUDENTS CAN DO ABOUT BULLYING 1. Wh et h er su i t a bly tra i n edstu dents should perform the role of mediator in re s o lving bu lly / vi ctim problems is a con troversial issu e . In terested edu c a tors should cert a i n lyvi ew the vi deo B u llying by Jane Ba l four (1 9 9 4) – obtainable from ACER – wh i ch de s c ri bes in detail how sen i or stu dents at an English sch ool su ccessfully undertook this task. Also re ad Peer cou n selling in sch ools by Cowie and Sharp (1996).

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SECTION 34 BULLY/VICTIM CASES 1. Whether more bullying is done by individuals acting alone or by groups is controversial. From survey data from 38 000 Australian schoolchildren, aged 7 to 17 years (Rigby, 1997b), it was found that victims tended to report being bullied more often by individuals, while bullies claimed that they more often bullied others when they were part of a group. 2. For a case study of the serial bully, see Tony Parker’s (1990) vivid account of Big Bully Billy (Life after life), an aggressive bully who, as an adult, was imprisoned for murder. 3. For accounts of teachers as bullies, see autobiographical accounts of their schooldays by C.S. Lewis (1975) and Roald Dahl (1991). 4. For a dramatisation of bullying by a leader and accomplice, see the vi deo On ly Pl aying, Mi s s! (1 9 9 0) (see Secti on 29:2). Such bullying can som etimes have tra gi c consequ ences, as in the case of the duo of children, Robert Thompson and Jon Venables, who bullied and murdered the two-year-old James Bulger in England in 1993. 5. This is a quite common scenario. See Pikas (1999) for a description of the dynamics of such groups. 6. According to British researcher Andrew Terry (1998), over 50% of teachers report that they have been bullied by a student or students at least once, with 10% reporting that it happens to them several times a week. 7. Fraser Harrison’s (1989) autobiography includes a moving account of the inane and thoughtless bullying of an ‘outsider’ at an English boarding school. 8. One group bullying another group is the theme of Reven ge of the nerds (1984), a cult movie directed by Jef f Kanew. This is a light-hearted but od dly perceptive film a bo ut the ‘war’ bet ween American Geeks and their torm entors , the Jocks. SECTION 36 ALTERNATIVE TREATMENTS 1. The so-called No Blame Approach was devised by Maines and Robinson (1992) and is described in their video. An extension of this approach called the Support Group Approach was developed more recently by Sue Young. Descriptions of each can be accessed through http://www.education.unisa.edu.au/bullying/ 2. The Method of Shared Concern was developed by Professor Anatol Pikas at Uppsala University, Sweden. For descriptions see Rigby (1996) and the above web sit e. Successful applications of this method have bee n conducted at Jamisson High School in NSW by Libby Petersen. 3. An application of a ‘consequences-based’ approach in elementar y schools is described by Garrity, Jens, Porter, Sager and Short-Camilli (1994). 4. Com mu n i ty Con ferencing is a met h od ori gi n a lly devel oped in New Zealand for resolving rel a tively serious of fen ces thro u gh a con feren ce to wh i ch vi ctims, of fenders , and family were invi ted in lieu of a co u rt procedu re. A de s c ri ption of how it opera te s , su pp l i edby an ex peri en ced practi ti on er of the met h od , Dr Davi d Moore, can be acce s s ed thro u gh my web site . In New So uth Wales, Sch oo l Com mu n i ty Forums have been introdu ced as a po s s i ble altern a tive to su s pension.

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SECTION 37 HELPING THE VICTIMS 1. The buffering effect of social support in diminishing the damage that bullying can produce on the mental health of children has been examined in Rigby and Slee (1999) and Rigby (2000). 2. Some practical advice for children who can learn to be assertive may be found in Field (1999), Berne (1996) and Stones (1993). One needs to be careful, however, to make suggestions appropriate to the child and the situation the child is in. 3. Some specialised help can be obtained through Kids Help Line, which is staffed with experienced counsellors who frequently deal with problems of bullying among children. Toll free number: 1800 551 800. All children should know about this service. SECTION 38 HELPING THE BULLIES 1. From Scandinavian research (Olweus, 1993) we learn that children identified as bullies at school are up to four times more likely than others to come before the courts subsequently on charges of delinquency. 2. We know from the research of Ri g by, Cox and Bl ack (1 9 9 7) that many ch i l d ren who bu lly have had few, if any, po s i tive ex peri en ces of working coopera tively with others and need to be caref u lly persu aded to do so in rew a rding circumstances. 3. An account of how cooperative learning was introduced in schools in England in an attempt to reduce bullying is given in a book by Cowie, Smith, Boulton and Laver (1994). 4. See in particular the ‘Stop, Think, Do’ program pioneered successfully by Lindy Petersen (1994) in Australia. 5. The Method of Shared Concern of Anatol Pikas is described fully in the web site http://www.education.unisa.edu.au/bullying. 6. The relationship between dysfunctional family lif e and the engagement of Australian adolescents bullying in schools is examined in Rigby (1993). SECTION 39 WORKING CONSTRUCTIVELY WITH PARENTS 1. A further discussion of working with parents is in Rigby (1996), pp. 240–50. SECTION 40 TYPES OF SCHOOLS 1. In primary schools approximately 50% of students are positively in favour of class discussions about bullying. In secondary schools the percentage drops to about 27% in Year 9, but rises to 35% in Year 11. Note that many children are ‘on the fence’. Notably for every Year group, girls are more interested in such discussions (Rigby, 1997b). 2. Children who are bullied in primary school are much more likely to report that the help they receive is more effective in solving their problem (Rigby, 1997b). 3. See Rigby (1998d) for a discussion of gender and bullying in schools. SECTION 41 ADVICE FOR PARENTS 1. A list of warning signs that a child is being bullied at school is given in Rigby (1996) p. 240. 2. ‘In loco parentis’ means that the school is acting (or should be acting) in place of you ‘as a parent’ and has a duty to take reasonable care of your child. For the legal implications see Slee and Ford (1999).

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Jenkin, J. (1996). Resolving violence: An anti-bullying curriculum for senior students. Melbourne: Australian Council for Educational Research. Johnson, D.W. & Johnson, R.T. (1991). Teaching students to be peacemakers. Edina, Minnesota: Interaction Book Company. Johnson, D.W. & Johnson, R.T. (1992). Creative controversy: Intellectual challenge in the classroom. Edina, Minnesota: Interaction Book Company. Kochenderfer, B.J. & Ladd, G.W. (1996). Peer victimisation: Cause or consequence of school maladjustment. Child Development, 67, 1305–13. Latham, G.I. (1997). Behind the sch ool h ouse doo r: Eight skills every te a ch er should have. Loga n , Utah: Mountain Plain Regi onal Resource Cen ter, Utah State Un ivers i ty. Lewis, C.S. (1975). Surprised by joy: The shape of my early life. London: Harcourt Brace. Linke, P. (1998). Let’s stop bully ing. Watson, ACT: Australian Early Childhood Association. Losel, F. & Bliesener, T. (1999). Germany. In P.K. Smith et al. (eds), The Nature of School Bullying (pp. 224–49). London: Routledge. Mac mullin, C. (1 9 9 9) . Devel oping a social skills programme for use in school. In P.T. Sl ee & K. Ri g by (ed s ) , Children’s pe er relations ( pp. 242–353). Lon don : Ro ut l ed ge . Mellor, A. (1999). Scotland. In P.K. Smith et al. (eds), The nature of school bullying (91–111). London: Routledge. Milgram, S. (1974). Obedience to authority. New York: Harper and Rowe. Mooney, S. & Smith, P.K. (1995). Bullying and the child who stammers. British Journal of Special Education, 22, 24–7. Murphy, E. & Lewers, R. (eds) (2 0 0 0). The hidden hurt. Ba ll a ra t : Wizard Publicati on . O’Connell, P., Pepler, D. & Craig, W. (1999). Peer involvement in bullying: Insights and challenges for intervention. Journal of Adolescence, 22, 437–52. Olweus, D (1980). Familial and temperamental determinants of aggressive behaviour in adolescent boys: A causal analysis. Developmental Psychology, 16, 644–60. Olweus, D. (1992). Victimisation by peers: Antecedents and long term outcomes. In K.H. Rubin & J.B. Asendorf (eds). Social withdrawal, inhibition and shyness in children (pp. 315–42). Hillsdale, N.J.:Erlbaum. Olweus, D. (1993). Bullying at school: What we know and what we can do. Cambridge, MA: Blackwell. Olweus, D. (1994). Bullying at school: Basic facts and effects of a school based intervention program. Journal of Child Psychology and Psychiatry, 35, 1171–90. Olweus, D. (1999). Norway. In P.K. Smith et al. (eds), The nature of school bullying (28–48). London: Routledge. Ortega, R. & Mora-Mechan, J.A. (1999). Spain. In P.K. Smith et al. (eds), The nature of school bullying (pp. 157–73). London: Routledge. Parker, T. (1990). Life after Life. London: Harper Collins. Petersen, L. (Lindy) (1994). Stop and think learning: Motivating learning in social groups and individuals. In Mark Tainsh & John Izard (eds), Widening Horizons: New Challenges, Directions and Achievements (pp. 70–83). Melbourne: The Australian Council for Educational Research Limited. Petersen, L. (Libby) & Rigby, K. (1999). Countering bullying at an Australian secondary school. Journal of Adolescence, 22(4), 481–92.

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Pikas, A. (1999). New developments of shared concern method. School Psychology International, 1–19. Queensland Department of Education. (1998). Bullying – no way! A professional developmental resource for sc hool communities. Brisbane: Queensland Department of Education. Rigby, K. (1993). School children’s perceptions of their families and parents as a function of peer relations. Journal of Genetic Psychology, 154(4), 501–14. Rigby, K. (1994). Psycho-social functioning in families of Australian adolescent schoolchildren involved in bully/victim problems, Journal of Family Therapy, 16(2) 173–89. Rigby, K. (1996). Bullying in schools – and what to do about it. Melbourne: Australian Council for Ed ucational Research. (British Edition, 1997, London: Jessica Kingsley). Rigby, K. (1997a). What children tell us about bul lying in schools. Children Australia, 22(2), 28–34. Rigby, K. (1997b). Manual for the peer relations questionnaire (PRQ). Point Lonsdale, Victoria, Australia: The Professional Reading Guide. Rigby, K. (1997c). Reflections on Tom Brown’s Schooldays and the problem of bullying today. Australian Journal of Social Science 4(1), 85–96. Rigby, K. (1997d). Attitudes and beliefs about bullying among Australian school children. Irish Journal of Psychology, 18(2), 202–20. Rigby, K. (1998a). The relationship between reported health and involvement in bully/victim problems among male and female secondary school students. Journal of Health Psychology, 3(4), 465–76. Rigby, K. (1998b). Peer relations at school and the health of children. Youth Studies Australia, 17(1), 13–17. Ri g by, K. (1 9 9 8c) . Suicidal ide a ti on and bu llying among Au s tralian secon d a ry sch oo l children . Au s tralian Edu c a tional and Devel opm ental Ps ychologist, 15(1) , 4 5 – 6 1. Rigby, K. (1998d). Gender and bullying in schools. In P.T. Slee & K. Rigby (eds), Children’s peer relations (pp. 47–59). London: Routledge. Rigby, K. (1999a). Peer victimisation at school and the health of secondary students. British Journal of Educational Psychology, 22(2), 28–34. Rigby, K. (1999b). Bullying in schools: Guidelines to effective action. Professional reading guide for educational administrators, 21(1, Feb/March). Rigby, K. (2000). Effects of peer victimisation in schools and perceived social support on adolescent well-being. Journal of Adolescence, 23(1), 57–68. Rigby, K. (2001). Health consequences of bullying and its prevention in schools. In J. Juvonen & S. Graham (eds), Peer harassment in school (pp. 310–331). New York: Guilford Press. Rigby, K. (2002a). New perspectives on bullying. London: Jessica Kingsley (Available in Australia through Astam books). Rigby, K. (2002b). A meta-evaluation of methods and approaches to reducing bullying in pre-schools and in early primary school in Australia. Canberra: Commonwealth Attorney-General’s Department. Rigby, K., Cox, I. K. & Black, G. (1997). Cooperativeness and bully/victim problems among Australian schoolchildren. Journal of Social Psychology, 137,(3), 357–68. Rigby, K. & Slee, P.T. (1993). Dimensions of interpersonal relating among Australian school children and their implications for psychological well-being. Journal of Social Psychology, 133(1), 33–42. 61


Rigby, K. & Slee, P.T. (1999). Suicidal ideation among adolescent school children, involvement in bully/victim problems and perceived low social support. Suicide and Life-threatening Behaviour, 29, 119–30. Rizvi, F. (1998). Thinking about racism. In Department of Education, Queensland, Bullying – no way! (pp. 42–52). Brisbane: Queensland Department of Education. Rogers, B. (1997). ‘You know the fair rule’ and much more (2nd edn). Melbourne: Australian Council for Educational Research. Romain, T. (1997). Bullies are a pain in the brain. Minneapolis: Free Spirit Publishing Co. Smith, P.K. & Sharp, S. (eds). (1994). School bullying: Insights and perspectives, London: Routledge. Singer, M.I., Miller, D.B., Guo, S., Flannery, D.J., Frierson, T. & Slovak, K. (1999). Contributors to violent behavior among elementary and middle School. Pediatrics, 104(4), 878. Skinner, B.F. (1953). Science and human behaviour. New York: Macmillan. Slee, P.T. & Ford, D.C. (1999). Bullying is a serious issue – It is a crime. Australia and New Zealand Journal of Law and Education 4(1), 23–39. Slee, P.T. & Rigby, K. (1993). The relationship of Eysenck’s personality factors and self-esteem to bully/victim behaviour in Australian schoolboys. Personality and Individual Differences, 14, 371–73. Smith, P.K. & Sharp, S. (eds). (1994). School bullying: Insights and perspectives. London: Routledge. Smith, P.K. Morita, J., Junger-Tas, Olweus, D., Catalona, R. & Slee, P.T. (eds). (1999). The nature of school bullying. London: Routledge. Stones, R. (1993 ). Don’t pick on me. Markham, ON: Pembroke. Suckling, A. & Temple, C. (2001). Bullying: A whole-school approach. Melbourne: Australian Council for Educational Research. Tattum, D. & Herbert, G. (1993). Countering bullying: Initiatives by schools and local authorities. Stoke-on-Trent: Trentham. Tattum, D. & Tattum, E. (1992). Social education and personal development. London: David Fulton. Terry, A.A. (1998). Teachers as targets of bullying by their pupils: A study to investigate incidence. British Journal of Educational Psychology. 68, 255–68. White, E.B. (1952). Charlotte’s web. New York: Harper & Row. Whitney, I. & Smith, P.K. (1993). A survey of the nature and extent of bullying in junior/middle and secondary schools. Educational Research, 35, 3–25 Zimbardo, P.G. (1972). Pathology of imprisonment. Society, 4–8.

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VIDEOS Balfour, J. (1994). Bullying. Melbourne: Australian Council for Educational Research. CTE (UK). (1995). Keith: A story of a bully. Bendigo, Victoria: Video Education Australia. Education Department of New South Wales. (1998). Peer mediation for primary school children. We can work it out. Sydney: New South Wales Department of Education and Training. Maines, B. & Robinson, G. (1992). The no blame approach. Bristol: Lame Duck Publishing. Neti-Neti Theatre Company. (1990). Only playing, Miss! Melbourne: Australian Council for Educational Research. Queensland Department of Education. (1998). Bullying – no way! A professional developmental resource for school communities. (Available from Open Access Unit, Education Services Directorate, Education Queensland. P.O. Box 220, Ashgrove, Queensland, 4006) Sunburst Communications, USA. (1994). No more teasing. Bendigo, Victoria: Video Education Australia. Victorian Employers Chamber of Commerce and Job Watch Inc. (1999). No bull. Hawthorn, Victoria: Open Channel Productions.

WEB SITES http://www.bullyingnoway.com.au/ This is the national web site and contains information and ideas about bullying in schools and how it can be countered, as agreed upon by Australian educational jurisdictions. www.education.unisa.edu.au/bullying This site provides links with a large number of sites providing advice to schools, children and parents throughout the world. www.nobully.org.nz/ A New Zealand site of particular interest to primary school children. www.eduweb.vic.gov.au/bullying/geninfo/index.htm A useful and pract ical site provided by the Education Department of Victoria. www.doe.tased.edu.au/equitystandards/discrimination/support/intro.htm This Tasmanian site provides anti-discrimination and anti-harassment policy support materials. www.kidshelp.com.au/NEWS/nov99/Bullying.htm Information provided for young people on bullying by Kids Help Line. www.peersupport.edu.au/faqs.asp Provides information on the work of the Peer Support Foundation in relation to bullying.

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Appendices: Sheets for photocopying


1. DEFINING BULLYING BULLYING INVOLVES: a desire to hurt + hurtful action + a power imbalance + an unjust use of power + (typically) repetition + evident enjoyment by the aggressor + a sense of being oppressed on the part of the victim

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2. THE MEANS OF BULLYING (EXAMPLES)

VERBAL ABUSE

GESTURAL ABUSE

DIRECT

INDIRECT

Verbal insults

Persuading another person to criticise or insult someone

Unfair criticism

Spreading malicious rumours

Name calling

Anonymous phone calls, emails

Threatening or obscene gestures

Deliberate turning away or averting one’s gaze to ignore someone

Menacing stares PHYSICAL MEANS

Striking

Getting another person to assault someone

Throwing things

Removing and hiding belongings

Using a weapon RELATIONAL BULLYING

Forming coalitions against someone

Persuading people to exclude someone


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3. THE BULLY/VICTIM CYCLE – BULLYING AND THE PASSIVE VICTIM

Approval of others

Bully

Victim

Bully’s sense of dominance and pleasure

Disturbed behaviour

Suppression of empathy

Strong emotional reaction

Continuation, intensification and elaboration of bullying behaviour

Action by bully

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Sense of threat


4. THE BULLY/VICTIM CYCLE (continued) – BULLYING AND THE RESISTANT VICTIM

Bully

Victim

Challenge to bully’s dominance Bully reappraises plan Bully Bully Devises desists continues new ways

Plan to counter the bullying Perceived challenge Sense of threat

Bullying stops

Bullying continues

This diagram shows what victims often do to resist being bullied – sometimes successfully, often not successfully.


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5. WHAT GOES INTO THE POLICY 1.

A strong statement of the school’s stand against bullying.

2.

A succinct definition of bullying, with illustrations.

3.

A declaration of the rights of individuals in the school community – students, teachers, other workers and parents – to be free of bullying and (if bullied) to be provided with help and support.

4.

A statement of the responsibilities of members of the school community: to abstain personally from bullying others in any way, and to actively discourage bullying when it occurs.

5.

A general description of what the school will do to deal with incidents of bullying. For example, the severity and seriousness of the bullying will be assessed and appropriate action taken. This may include the use of counselling practices, the imposition of sanctions, interviews with parents and, in extreme cases, suspension from school.

6.

An undertaking to evaluate the policy in the near and specified future.

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6. ALTERNATIVE APPROACHES TO DEALING WITH BULLIES 1. Providing and implementing clearly defined rules to apply appropriate ‘ consequences’ (or punishment) for those identified as having bullied someone. These may range from loss of ‘privileges’ or imposition of ‘chores’, to detentions and suspension or exclusion from school. 2.

Counselling. This may include informal talks with the bully seeking to change his or her behaviour. Or it could involve a more structured approach of which two have been suggested: i) The No Blame Approach. This requires groups of children containing the supposed bullies to be convened. Normally there would be a number of influential pro-social children involved. The plight of the victim is described and the group left to come up with a responsible solution. The outcome is then carefully monitored. ii)The Method of Shared Concern. This requires the counsellor to share his or her concern for the ‘victim’ with individual members of the group and to elicit ap romise toac t in a specified and positive way in future interactions with the victim. This is done in a non-threatening manner along lines suggested by Professor Anatol Pikas.

3.

School conferencing. Bullies and victims are brought together at a meeting which their parents and friends also attend. Victims are strongly supported in expressing their objection to how they have been treated. The bully is induced to feel a sense of shame and is expected to make appropriate reparations before a reconciliation can be effected. Note that what you do should depend upon i) the sort of bully/victim problem you have – e.g. its seriousness, ii) the school philosophy on how change can best be produced, and iii) a thorough understanding of how each method works.


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7. BYSTANDER EXERCISE Here is a picture of a person being bullied with a number of people watching. The person being threatened is the victim. The person threatening him is the bully.

1.

How often does this kind of thing happen at your school? Place a tick under your answer. Every day ❑

2.

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Once or twice Less than a week once a week ❑ ❑

Hardly ever ❑

Now please place a tick against what you think you would do if you were watching what was happening. Tick only one: ❑ ❑ ❑ ❑

3.

Most days of the week ❑

I would ignore it I would support the person being threatened I would support the person who is threatening the other person I would get a teacher

Write a sentence saying why you ticked the one you did.



8. WARNING SIGNS THAT A CHILD IS BEING BULLIED AT SCHOOL There are some signs that suggest that a child may be being bullied at school. Parents should inquire as to whether the child is being bullied if these signs are present: Physical

Unexplained bruises, scratches or cuts Torn or damaged clothes or belongings

Psychosomatic

Non-specific pains, headaches, abdominal pains

Behavioural

Fear of walking to or from school Change of route to school Asking to be driven to school Unwilling to go to school Deterioration in school work Coming home starving (because lunch money was taken) ‘Loss’ of possessions/pocket money Asking for or stealing money (to pay the bully) Having few friends Rarely being invited to parties

Change in behaviour

Become withdrawn Stammer Unexpected mood change Irritability and temper outbursts Appear upset, unhappy, tearful, distressed Stop eating Attempt suicide Appear anxious: may wet bed, bite nails, seem afraid, develop tic, sleep poorly, cry out in sleep Refuse to say what is wrong Give improbable excuses or explanations for any of the above

From: Rigby, K. (1996). Bullying in schools – and what to do about it. Melbourne: ACER. (Adapted from Dr Judith Dawkins) Readers are permitted to photocopy this blackline master in conjunction with Stop the Bullying: A handbook for schools.

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9. QUIZ ABOUT BULLYING FOR STUDENTS (QUESTIONS) Answer by circling ‘agree’ or ‘unsure’ or ‘disagree’ in each case. Bullying is the same thing as fighting Boys usually bully more than girls Kids who are not physically strong always get bullied Telling someone you have been bullied usually makes things worse for you Bullying mostly happens when there is no one else around Most bullying by boys is physical Being bullied repeatedly can make a person depressed Some children who have been severely bullied have taken their own lives Calling people names can be bullying Girls are more likely than boys to bully people by deliberately excluding them You can always stop a person from bullying you by hitting back Sometimes when you are being teased it will stop if you ignore it When students at school see bullying going on they usually try to stop it Bullies generally think badly of themselves Some children get bullied because of their race Some children are bullied because of some disability that they have such as stammering Schools can never reduce bullying Some children are more inclined to bully than others Children who are bullied a lot tend to have few friends Once a bully, always a bully

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Agree Unsure Disagree Agree Unsure Disagree Agree Unsure Disagree Agree Unsure Disagree Agree Unsure Disagree Agree Unsure Disagree Agree Unsure Disagree Agree Unsure Disagree Agree Unsure Disagree Agree Unsure Disagree Agree Unsure Disagree Agree Unsure Disagree Agree Unsure Disagree Agree Unsure Disagree Agree Unsure Disagree Agree Agree Agree Agree Agree

Unsure Unsure Unsure Unsure Unsure


Disagree Disagree Disagree Disagree Disagree


10. QUIZ ABOUT BULLYING FOR STUDENTS (ANSWERS) This quiz was devised to help teachers open up a discussion about bullying in classes. The answers given below are based upon the views of most researchers who have studied bullying in schools. They may nevertheless be questioned. Future research may lead to different viewpoints. Bullying is the same thing as fighting Boys usually bully more than girls Kids who are not physically strong always get bullied Telling someone you have been bullied usually makes things worse for you Calling people names can be bullying Bullying mostly happens when there is no one else around Most bullying by boys is physical Being bullied repeatedly can make a person depressed Some children who have been severely bullied have taken their own lives Girls are more likely than boys to bully people by deliberately excluding them You can always stop a person from bullying you by hitting back Sometimes when you are being teased it will stop if you ignore it When students at school see bullying going on they usually try to stop it Bullies generally think badly of themselves Some children get bullied because of their race Some children are bullied because of some disability that they have, such as stammering Schools can never reduce bullying Some children are more inclined to bully than others Children who are bullied a lot tend to have few friends Once a bully, always a bully

Agree Unsure Disagree Agree Unsure Disagree Agree Unsure Disagree Agree Unsure Disagree Agree Unsure Disagree Agree Unsure Disagree Agree Unsure Disagree Agree Unsure Disagree Agree Unsure Disagree Agree Unsure Disagree Agree Unsure Disagree Agree Unsure Disagree Agree Unsure Disagree Agree Unsure Disagree Agree Unsure Disagree Agree Unsure Disagree Agree Unsure Disagree Agree Unsure Disagree Agree Unsure Disagree Agree Unsure Disagree


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11. HANDLING BULLYING: A STAFF QUESTIONNAIRE Teachers commonly have alternative ways of dealing with incidents of bullying in a school. To some extent, what is done depends upon the circumstances in which the bullying takes place and also the severity of the bullying. In answering the questions below, think of an incident of medium-level intensity bullying that might come to your attention. A student is being repeatedly teased and called unpleasant names by another, more powerful, student who has successfully persuaded other students to avoid the targeted person as much as possible. As a result, the victim of this behaviour is feeling angry, miserable and often isolated. If you are at a primary school, think of the students involved being about 9 years of age. If you are at a secondary school, imagine the students are around 14 years. What would you probably do if the students were in your class and you had noticed what was going on? There are no right or wrong answers. Afterwards you might like to discuss your answers among yourselves. Circle the answer closest to what you think. 1.

I would advise the victim to act assertively and stand up to the bully I definitely would

2.

I’m unsure

I probably would not

I definitely would not

I’m unsure



I would tell the bully to cut it out I definitely would

76

I probably would

I probably would



3.

I would turn a blind eye to it I definitely would

4.

I probably would

I’m unsure



I probably would

I’m unsure



I probably would

I’m unsure



I would make sure that the bully was suitably punished I definitely would

8.


I would advise the victim to stay away from the bully as much as possible I definitely would

7.


I would treat the matter lightly I definitely would

6.

I’m unsure

I would help the bully and the victim resolve their differences I definitely would

5.

I probably would

I probably would

I’m unsure



I’m unsure



I would not interfere I definitely would

I probably would


77


9. I would convene a meeting of students, including the bully, tell them what was happening, and ask them to suggest ways in which they could help improve the situation I definitely would

I probably would

I’m unsure



10. I would seek to help the bully to achieve greater self-esteem so that he or she would no longer want to bully anyone I definitely would

I probably would

I’m unsure



11. I would encourage the victim to make more friends so that he or she would not be picked on so much I definitely would

I probably would

I’m unsure



12. I would make it clear to the bully that his or her behaviour would not be tolerated any longer I definitely would

I probably would

I’m unsure





13. I would leave it for somebody else to sort out I definitely would

78

I probably would

I’m unsure



14. I would share my concern with the bully about what had happened to the victim and seek to get the bully to behave in a more caring and responsible manner I definitely would

I probably would

I’m unsure



15. I would separate the bully from the victim so that there was less chance of bullying taking place I definitely would

I probably would

I’m unsure



16. I would suggest that the victim not show that he/she was bothered by what was happening I definitely would

I probably would

I’m unsure



17. I would contact the parent(s) of the bully and insist that their child’s bullying behaviour must stop I definitely would

I probably would

I’m unsure





18. I would let them sort it out themselves I definitely would

I probably would

I’m unsure


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19. I would discuss with the bully options from which he or she could choose to remedy the situation I definitely would

I probably would

I’m unsure



20. I would find the bully something more interesting to do I definitely would

I probably would

I’m unsure



Handling bullying questionnaire scoring key Score your responses as follows and enter the scores against the 20 question numbers Definitely would Probably would I’m unsure Probably would not Definitely would not

5 4 3 2 1

Enter results below for each of the twenty questions and add: Approaches A

B

C

D

E

1 6 11 16

2 7 12 17

3 8 13 18

4 9 14 19

5 10 15 20

Totals 80



In discussing the scores, establish the range of scores for each sub-test, between 5 and 20. Then discuss why some of you score relatively high and some relatively low on the measures. Scores on the sub-test are intended to reflect different approaches to addressing (or not addressing) bullying issues. A.

Ascribing responsibility to the victim. High scorers tend to see the remedy to bullying as lying principally with the victim who needs to develop the capacity to resist being bullied or in some way prevent it from happening.

B.

Ascribing responsibility to the bully. High scorers want to blame the bullies and treat them in an uncompromising and tough manner so as to deter their behaviour.

C.

Ignoring bullying. High scorers tend to ignore or belittle the issue of bullying and feel that it is generally not their responsibility.

D.

Problem solving. High scorers are not interested in blame, but rather in reaching a constructive outcome for both the bully and the victim.

E.

Smoothing approach. High scorers generally feel that bullying need not be taken very seriously and that children can be best prevented from bullying others by reducing their opportunities and/or their motivation to do so.


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12. TWENTY QUESTIONS TO ASK YOURSELF Here are some questions you may like to address in discussions and in the course of providing a summary of how you think the problem of bullying should be addressed. 1. What consequences of bullying concern you most? 2. How satisfactory is the proposed definition of bullying? Can you improve on it? 3. What power inequalities does one have to accept in a school? What power differences at your school might be reduced and thereby minimise bullying? 4. What, if any, expressions of ‘forcefulness’ in a school should be accepted or at least tolerated? 5. What means of bullying in your school would you most like to stop being exercised? How would you prioritise them? 6. At your school what seem to be the main reasons why children bully? 7. What specific goals would you like to set for your school regarding bullying? 8. What components of the plan suggested in Section 18 would you mark as important for your school? Are there others you would add? 9. What steps do you think your school should take to get the facts about bullying at your school? 10. Is a school policy against bullying justified? If so, what should go into it? Who (staff, parents, students) should be included in helping to develop it? 11. How can teachers be guided and helped to raise the issue of bullying with their classes most effectively? 12. How can curriculum and lesson content help to raise awareness about bullying and help develop skills to counter it? 13. How can students become involved in initiating and taking positive action against bullying? Is forming a School Anti-bullying Committee a good idea? What might it do? Should training in mediation and conflict resolution skills be provided? If so, how and by whom? 14. What kinds of resources (books and videos) for the school to counter bullying would you recommend?

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15. How appealing are the alternative ways of dealing with cases of bullying? Under what circumstances, if any, would you see each of the ones suggested being employed? Is additional understanding and training in particular methods needed? If so, how can it be obtained? 16. Should the severity of the bullying and the reasons for the bullying behaviour be taken into account when dealing with the perpetrators? 17. How can children who bully be helped to lead more pro-social lives? 18. How can one ensure that children who are repeatedly victimised receive appropriate help, without matters being made worse? 19. How can one make sure that parents are included in the development of a policy to counter bullying? 20. How can school and parents best work together constructively, when cases of bullying occur, and assure the safety of children?


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ALSO AVAILABLE FROM ACER PRESS

B U L LY I N G I N S C H O O L S and what to do about it KEN R I G BY Bullying in schools is a widespread problem. It has now reached the attention of policy makers, and none too soon. Bullying can take many forms. Whether it be verbal or physical harassment, or exclusion from certain activities, continuous bullying on children can cause long-term damage. Children may find it difficult to form normal intimate relationships. They may become mistrustful of others. Their self-confidence may be at risk. However, even though this type of abuse will affect 20 per cent of our schoolchildren, Ken Rigby believes that we have grounds for optimism. His important and passionate book shows that there are ways to tackle the problem. It offers strategies to identify both bullies and victims. It presents ways to diffuse potentially troublesome situations. It shows that there are methods of dealing with bullies that are not punitive and damaging but can help to make the abuser more aware of how the victim feels. It offers ways to enhance the self-esteem of the victims. The key to reducing bullying lies in schools embracing an ethos in which it is impossible for this sort of abuse to flourish. Using Australian and overseas studies, Ken Rigby demonstrates that positive steps can be taken and the incidence of this form of harassment can be reduced significantly. This is a passionate and motivating book that policy makers, school administrators, teachers, doctors and parents will find invaluable. Both empowering and positive, it is a book that offers hope to all our children.

THE AUTHOR: Dr Rigby is an Adjunct Associate Professor of Psychology in the School of Education at the University of South Australia. He is well-known in Australia as a consultant with schools, and internationally as a leading researcher into school bullying, having published widely in books and refereed journals: see www.education.unisa.edu.au/bullying/

ALSO AVAILABLE FROM ACER PRESS

B U L LY I N G : A whole-school approach AMELIA SUCKLING AND CARLA TEMPLE ‘There are dozens of bright ideas in this book on how to work with children in classrooms. They are creative, practical and can be fun. Teachers will be grateful for the help they provide. Children will be happier in the knowledge that they understand themselves and others better, and are on the way to developing skills that will improve their relations with others. This without doubt is the best way to make bullying a thing of the past.’ Ken Rigby Associate Professor, School of Education University of South Australia

Bullying: A Whole-school Approach is a practical and accessible anti-bullying resource for use in the classroom. With 15 lesson plans, photocopy masters and posters, this invaluable program aims to empower students and teachers with appropriate strategies for building a safe and supportive learning environment for all. Combining theory with hands-on activities, this is a comprehensive resource for creating an effective long-term and positive influence upon the school environment. The program is divided into two sections. Part One covers the development of a whole-school approach to tackle the issue of bullying and discusses the following: ◆ ◆ ◆ ◆ ◆ ◆ ◆

the importance of a whole-school approach; curriculum; school structure; playground supervision; dealing with a bullying incident; developing an anti-bullying policy; the role of parents.

Part Two discusses how to put the theory into practice. Some lesson plans included are: ◆ ◆ ◆ ◆ ◆ ◆ ◆

what is bullying?; why children bully; the bystander; strategies for assertiveness; responsible reporting of bullying; self-talk – my winning voice; using relaxation and creative visualisation.

THE AUTHORS: With a wealth of experience in teaching and Special Education, Carla Temple and Amelia Suckling research, develop and present learning programs for teachers, students and parents through their business, Inside Out Educational Programs. Bullying: A Whole-school Approach is based upon these highly successful in-service programs: see www.insideouted.com.au

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