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Six Sigma Project Man'agernent:
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A Pocket Guide I
Jeffrey N. Lowenthal, Ph...
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Also Available from ASQ Quality Press:
Six Sigma Project Man'agernent:
I
A Pocket Guide I
Jeffrey N. Lowenthal, Ph.D.
'.1
ASQ Quality Press Milwaukee, Wisconsin
Six Sigma Project Management: A Pocket Guide Jeffrey N. Lowenthal, Ph.D Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data Lowenthal, Jeffrey N., 1958Six sigma project management: a pocket guide I Jeffrey N. Lowenthal. p. em. Includes bibliographical "references and index. ISBN "0'87389"519,3' (alk.paper) 1. Process control. I. Title. TS156.8 .L69 2001 658.5'62-dc21
2001041229
©2002 by ASQ All rights reserved. No part of this book may be reproduced in any form or by any means, electronic, mechanical, photocopying, recording, or otherwise, without the prior wrillen permission of the publisher. 10 9 8 7 6 5 4 3 2 ISBN 0-87389-519-3 Acquisitions Editor: Annemieke Koudstaal Project Editor: Craig S. Powell Production Administrator: Gretchen Trautman Special Marketing Representative: Denise M. Cawley
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To Erika Gerri and Gabrielle Nomi, my youngest daughters, for your unconditional love, playfulness, and hugs and kisses when they are needed most.
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:in making the transition from discovery to ap~li~atiOri;:";G The second historical example is the pnntmg'pr~ss'; Although the Arabs were aware of the technolog¥:~of printing from the books of Jewish scholars and those-of other religious communities under Arabrule,·they made no use of the printing press until three centuries after Gutenberg's invention. Closer to the .present, the:!acsimile machine, an indispensable tool in most organlza'tions today, is another example of an invention whose widespread application was slow to happen. Though fax machines were invented in the 1950s, it was not until the 1980s that they became widely accepted. . In the past, change took place occasionally and irregularly. It might occur in respect to some activity in a few locations while leaving other locations untouched for long periods. Change might affect a few people in various places or large numbers in one place, but never everyone everywhere. Further, often the. changes .that occurred were so slow as to be virtually Imperceptible. When change occurred at a faster pace, typically it was due to massive social upheavals such as foreign invasions or the overthrow of a regime. This pattern was profoundly altered with the cOl~ing of the Industrial Revolution. The rate of change qUickened in countries that became industrialized, and as
11
time passed, more and more countries became industrialized. In the United States today, as in much of the world, the former slow pace of change has accelerated ~o the point where, in business, very significant changes In products and the way business is transacted can occur within a few years or even months. Many changes are due to the rapid application of 'such . recent inventions as global communications , the microprocessor, new plastics, and other synthetic materials. Word of new technologies and products travels quickly via professional meetings, the proliferation of scientific journals, or through the Worldwide reach of teleVisi~n, all of which speed up the rate of change. We are getting closer and 'closer to the day when we will have ·thecapability of communicating simultaneously with virtuallyevery person on the planet Earth, and in the meantime, the rate of change continues to accelerate. . To understand change, we need to know first that there are two basic kinds of change: structural and cyclical.
Structural Change Structural change is a fundamental transformation of an activity or institution from a previous state. After struc.2".· ;,.'. tural change, the new state is considerably different _._- (:ither a rise or a decline, in some respect, from the pre. ~L ..... VIOUS state). Structural change is not reversible, and it ---.. -, .requires permanent adjustment. • .... j . Structural change often implies radical change. For __ ". ,;:;.,;, ,(;... i:; .. _e~ample, the speed of communications increased only _. • shghtlyas messengers on horseback replaced human .l ..... -runners. However, the telegraph and telephone caused """.,-."'._-_.' ... qr:'dramatic change in the speed of communications . ..••K
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Section I-Setting a Foundation
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Today, we have instantaneous future, communications will continue. to chang.e"j@;:~~~ as well as amount and format. , Again, structural change is irrevefsibl13:J;:r:t;Il3}~in" that changes undergoes a permanenttrallsf9,FQ:tC\~i~,W and attains a new state. There may bestabilltyd,o!2~~'~ new state, or there may be a continuing evolutipnj:~.p::Y~YM another new state. But there is no goingba . •.•,I
The four elements of an integrated flow diagram.
83
l1ipelines AI,pipeline moves a single package of information or material between the activities, files, and external entifIesshownon the IFD. It is symbolized by a named vecto[:OTiarrowto show the interface. The following is a LiseflJl'set of conventions for dealing with pipelines: ;'~'~rL
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b'- ;"N()two pipelines have the same name. • Names are chosen to represent not only the package that moves over the pipeline but also what is known about the package.
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, • Pipelines that move into and out of files do not require names; the file name will suffice to describe " thiilpipeline. All other pipelines must be named. . ,
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"".Thih; thick, and broken lines can be used to distingUish between types of pipelines, but the IFD's creator mayapply'a variety of conventions to these. The thickline .vector often represents a flow of physical materials from point to point, such as the movement of tape from a;storagefacility to a tape silo. The thin-line vector often ilie:lised to represent the flow of information-'such as reports:;or telephone calls-between activities. Some IIFD ':creators use the thick line to show the principal flow, 'or'main manufacturing pipelines, while using thin lines to >represent support pipelines (for example, schedulingand production control). Two other points are worth noting here. First, you should be careful not to attempt to represent pipeline control points on the IFD, as such items shouldbe'repre"sehtedidn the flowchart. Second, if a pipeline cannot l)ec:rrame'd easily, it is probably not defined adequately.
84
Section III-The Critical Six
Either several packages are being transmitted along the pipeline, or an incomplete package is being transmitted. Activities Activities represent some amount of work performed on a package. A COmmon convention is to represent activities by circles on the IFD, though ovals sometimes are used. Either way, make sure to give the represented activity a name that clearly and accurately describes the activity. Each activity should be numbered, with the numbering convention depending on how the various diagrams interrelate.
Step 2: Establish a Foundation
more us~f.ul,when the process is sho'v\(n in t8e larger context of external entities. An external entity is aper~ ,son or organization outside the boundary of the process !~atis. a n~t originator" or receiver of the process being 'R1?pped. The key qualifier here isthe phrase "outside the b,bLindary of the p'rocess."A person or Organization inside I'ri, me"boundaries is characterized byan activity on the IFD. i,;,BX,fon~ention, external, entitie~ are represented by ra:med boxes, with pipelines flowing, into and/or out of a ~si,n'gle·box. BoxeS should be used sparingly on the IFD, !apt! they ,should' notrepresent major concerns. External 'e~titybo*~s exist to provide commentary about the ,.,.,"" ""-', .. , . . . ' .. R,tocess Sconnection to the outside world. lfa box rep" resents a: major concern inan IFD, the boundaries of the 'p1'\S'Cess are probably riot defined correctly. ' A,n example of an IFD appears in Figure 8.' ' ,
::~ 'evaluatethe stUdy that will prove or disprove the hypothesis that was the culmination of the team's efforts in step 4. This effort will consist of three phases: design, verification, and implementation. The all-important design phase includes defini[lg ·andseUing specifications for critical-to-process char,qcteristics and determining verification, measurement, :andcontrol procedures. It is also where methods for .Sommunicating the study's results are determined. i.;' ;,Jhe verification phase is the point at which the study Jp;actuallyconducted. Data are gathered and analyzed to determine whether the target indicators of process ;iJ:ttwovemenLthat came out of the design phase are 16l'iing:satisfied. If not, then. the design may need to be mnqdifiedand the study redone until targets are achieved. "'t~dn.thl'iJinal phase,implementation, the results of the ~!1~udy'are transferred to a larger context. This includes training;employl'iesin new skills as necessary, installing ~a}me?surement system,and monitoring results.
110 Section III-The Critical Six
Step 5: Design the Six Sigma Project 111
PHASE ONE: DESIGN THE STUDY Step S.1-Determine and Set Specifications for Critical-to-Process Characteristics Refer to Figure 13 for a chart of steps 5.1 through 5.6. Critical-to-process (CtP) characteristics are those factors, aside from the study's control variables, that could have a significant impact on the process itself or the validity of the study and that must themselves be controlled so 5S to fall within certain parameters. For example, the team might determine that only assembly line A should be used for the study since line B is too often down. Once the CtP characteristics are determined, their specifications must be set.
Step S.2-Create a Verification Plan The verification plan will identify specific, measurable indicators of process improvement. It is through the measurement of such indicators that the process will find its voice during the study. The team must again address, and give detailed answers to, the questions of what is to be measured during the study, including how, when, and by whom. In answering these questions, the process aspects that act as a substitute for the demands of the customers will be identified. During previous steps, care should have been taken to determine the voice of the customer. Customers often make only general demands, and it is at this point that generalities are translated into specifics of process output that can be monitored during the pilot. These specific measures will comprise the current voice of the process.
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Figure 13 Step 5: Design the study-phase one.
112 Section III-The Critical Six
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. In defining the measures, it is crucial that the team is clear about its objectives. They should be stated using operational definitions. This will help ensure a complete understanding of the purpose of the study. The overall objective should address the question "What is the team trying to accomplish?" The answer should match the improvement opportunity identified in step 1.
,tq!l]grs,. Tl]is step requires the team to establish a plan . 'qX:'b9)\'. and y,then implementation information will be li~~$Jj,ariix Sigma were identified. The purpose was to ,~XCimlne operational Six Sigma, design for Six Sigma, '''~ntry and operational skill sets of practitioners, and "~epl()yment characterl3tics. Within these 40 companies, 270;projects were identified. Key personnel at the com,p~l'1ies were asked to define, what made the project ;:~Jther a 'success o~ a failure. Along with attempting to
128 Section III-The Critical Six
achieve a Six Sigma level of defect rate, meeting or exceeding project targets within bUdget and with a minimum of organizational conflict were identified as success onfai!ure factors: " }. " Key leadership identified those projects they considered to be SLJccsssesor failures (based on the criteria outlined above). Documentation of these projects was reviewed and the data categorized. In addition, approximately 195 individuals within these companies were interviewed. Interviewees included the project leader (that is, blackbelt or greenbelt), team members, and customers. With the project and interview data categorized, the information was .analyzed using three methodologies: front-end analysis,(Ron Zemke); performance technology (Joe Harless); and instructional systems design (Ron Mager,.Walter Dick,..andJames Carrie). When that analysis had been completed, an overview methodology emerged; Further reviews andanC\lysis by various professionals from a variety of professions (l>uch as, quality, business, finance, organizational development,. opera, tions management) helped solidify the final approach outlined in the prior sections.
Index
satisfaction, 14, 66 voice of, 22-24 cyclical change, 12-13 decision making, 32-33 dependability, 21 design failure mode and effects analysiS(DFMEA)~ 112 empowerment, 88 factors, on organizations, 5-9 feedback, 63, 65, 88-89 . customer, 55-57 flowchart, 79-82 focus, 34 foundation, Step 2, 46-47, 77-92
government, 8 high-level methodology, 49 identification, Step 1, 46, 51-77 of problems, 55-60 scope of project, 69-74
130 Index
team member selection, 75-76 integrated flow diagram (IFO), 82-85 internal processes, 14 interpersonal interaction, 34 issue tree, 96, 97
quality, definitions of, 17-20 quality, reliability, and Six Sigma, 3-27 definition of reliability, 20-22 'definitions of quality, 17-20 Six Sigma and reliability, 24-27 voice of customer, 22-24
leadership, 32, 76
reliability, 25 definition of, 20-22 research, 79-82 root causes, 91-92
management, 32 role of, 6-7 methodology, of Six Sigma, 45-49 mutually exclusive and collectively exhaustive (MECE), Step 3, 47, 93-103 issue tree, 96, 97 negotiation, 33 organization, definition of, 3-5 organizations, and change, 3-15 continuous improvement, 13-15 definition of organization, 3-5 influential factors on organizations, 5-9 understanding change, 9-13 perception, of quality, 20 planning, 34 prioritization process, criteria for, 59 problem identification, 55-60 process constraint analysis, 86-87 process mapping, 62,,-66 process, voice of, 24-25 ,. project design, Step 5, 47-48, 109-19
sell the solution, Step 4, 47, 105-108 Six Sigma champion, 37-39 Six Sigma, defined, xii Six Sigma methodology, 45-49 critical six steps, 46-48 development of; 127-28 specifications, 23, 24 sponsor, 67 stakeholders, 70, 72 steering committee, 53-55,59 structural change, 11-12 tasks of Blackbelt, 35 of champion, 38'-39 of steering committee, 54-55 team building, 33 team members, selection of, 75-76 total defects per unit (lOU), 25-26 traits, of Blackbelt, 36 variables, 101-2 voice· of customer, 22-24 of the process, 24-25
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