Reader's Guide to the History of Science (Reader's guide series)

Reader's Guide to the

HISTORY OF SCIENCE edited by ARNE HESSENBRUCH

FITZROY DEARBORN PUBLISHERS LOND O

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CONTENTS

Editor's Note Board of Advisers

page

VII XI

Contributors

XIII

Alphabetical List of Entries

xvii

Thematic List

Reader's Guide to the History of Science

xxiii I

BookHst Index

77~

General Index

829

ores on Advisers and Contributors

91(

Copynghted mateeial

EDITOR'S NOTE

Aims, Scope, and Selection of Entries The subject of the history of science has come of age. One can speak almost of a torrent of new books on the topic, especially if one includes the history of technology and medicine, as in this book. Among them are admirable examples of readable and authoritative treatments of large topics, addressed to a wide audience. However, a great deal of the recent work has reflected intense specialization within the subject; professional historians of science have increasingly been producing monographs addressed to a relatively restricted audience of fellow-specialists and their graduate students. However, it has become impossible to digest the literature in all subdisciplines, even for professional historians of science, while many of these debates have become confusing or even mystifying to a wider readership. One positive feature, however, is the widening range of the historiography. What used to be called internal history remains important, but it is now complemented by a great diversity of other approaches. One can say generally that the 1980s saw a clash of traditional historiography with the sociology of science. In the 1990s debates on the role of gender in the history of science arrived on the scene, and now the cultural history of science has entered the mainstream. In future, this ought to enable mutual stimulation to a greater extent than is currently the case. The aim of the Reader's Guide to the History of Science is to offer some help to those who wish to explore the riches of the writings on history of science in all its diversity. In the belief that a simple listing of books will not suffice for this purpose, the Reader's Guide takes the form of a series of essays that describe and assess books on some 500 different topics - some specialized and very specific, others much broader and more general. This approach is designed to help readers of various kinds and at various levels: students (both undergraduate and graduate) looking for assistance with their next assignment or research paper; teachers in schools, colleges and universities and particularly those who are faced with the challenge of preparing courses or classes on topics in which they are not specialists; and those non-specialist readers who simply have an interest in a particular subject, and seek advice on what to read next. Entries fall into three main categories, dealing respectively with individuals, disciplines and institutions, and broader themes. In cases where the literature on particular individuals is not substantial it has been subsumed under a broader theme. For instance, there are several entries entitled Women in Science (subdivided by discipline, for example, the physical sciences, medicine, life sciences) which collect the literature on individual women on whom too little has appeared to warrant an individual entry. The second vii

Vlll

EDITOR S NOTE

category reflects another important genre. There are many histories of disciplines such as genetics, biology, physics, and chemistry, and of institutions such as the Royal Society of London. The third, more general, category covers literature on topics such as the Enlightenment or the Scientific Revolution. This category also contains entries on analytical concepts, such as Alienation, Discovery, and Experiments. The aim overall is that this kind of "multi-layered" approach will enable the user to navigate from the particular to the general, or vice versa, as his or her needs and inclinations dictate. Even a volume with the generous proportions of this Reader's Guide cannot hope to be comprehensive in its coverage or in its treatment of each topic. Lines had to be drawn to make the project manageable within the scope of a single volume. Given that the approach had to be selective, the reader is entitled to know something of the principles underlying that selection. These are: I. The emphasis is predominantly on books (and contributions to books), as opposed to articles in journals and magazines. Articles are normally included only when they are of seminal importance, or when there is no adequate treatment of a particular aspect of a subject in a book-length study. z. The Reader's Guide is a guide to the secondary literature, and not to primary sources, or to collections of printed source material. There are two limited exceptions to this rule. An editorial introduction or editorial footnotes to a collection of source materials may justify the inclusion of the source materials. Second, translations of primary source material are included too. 3. Eor each entry, the contributor was free, within the editorial guidelines, to make his or her own choice of books to be discussed. In most cases, the emphasis is on more recently published work, but, where appropriate contributors were encouraged to include earlier books in order to sketch the historiographical development. New works appear constantly, and there has been no single cut-off point for inclusion of books in the Reader's Guide. I would like to think of the Reader's Guide as a snapshot of the history of science at the beginning of the 21st century.

Arrangement of the Entries Entries appear in alphabetical order; a complete list of them can be found in the Alphabetical List of Entries (p. xv). Where entries share the same general heading (e.g., China, Japan, Religion and Science), if there is a "general works" entry in such a group, it always precedes more specific subdivision. While the overall arrangement of entries is alphabetical, there are other aids to facilitate access to the contents of the Reader's Guide. These are: 1. Thematic List (p. xxi). This should be consulted to see the full range of entries in the Reader's Guide on a particular subject area such as Institutions or Physical Sciences. 2. Booklist Index (p. 773). This lists in alphabetical order of author all books and articles discussed in any of the entries, and can be used to locate discussion of the work of particular historians.

EDITOR S NOTE

3. General Index (p. 829). This lists individuals, themes and concepts mentioned in any of the entries. This index may be particularly useful for locating references to subject matters and individuals that do not have an entry of their own. 4. Cross references. At the end of the entries there are See also notes, which refer the reader to entries on related topics.

Format within Entries Each entry begins with a list of the books/articles to be discussed. Publication details are provided, including dates of first publication and, where appropriate, the most recent revised edition. Reprints and paperback editions are normally omitted. In the text of each essay, the first significant mention of each author appears in capital letters. In cases where more than one item by the same author is discussed in the same entry, each item is introduced by the author's name in capital letters, followed by date of publication in parentheses. In a few cases, this would still be ambiguous, and here key words from the title are used instead of the year of publication. Althougfi the list of books in each entry proceeds in alphabetical order of author, books are normally not discussed in the text in that order. It was left to the judgment of contributors to decide whether to discuss books in order of publication, or, more often, according to the subject matter and emphasis of each book.

Acknowledgements Although, in his darker moments, the editor felt that this project sucked the life-blood out of him, he wishes to acknowledge the help that he received from a great number of people. First, I should like to thank all those who have written for this volume. I am deeply impressed with the generosity and professionalism of those who offered to contribute entries, in some cases many entries, and who encouraged others to do so also. In this respect a special thanks is due to Rhodri Lloyd Hayward. I am grateful to many of my friends and colleagues who have worked long and hard to help in different ways. The Advisers, some of whom I am also happy to count as my friends, were extremely helpful, both in the selection of entries to be included in the Reader's Guide and in aiding me in the search for contributors. I would also like to thank my mother who has helped me in more ways than I could possibly articulate. The resources of many libraries but especially the Cambridge University Library and the Whipple Library of Cambridge University have been invaluable. I have also been able to make very good use of the Eureka database of the History of Science Society. It is interesting to ponder the role of the electronic media in the making of this book. When the project started, Fitzroy Dearborn did not have an email address, nor could they envisage a need for it. Contributions were received as typescript and sometimes on disk. Now, only a few years later, contributions are communicated as email attachments keeping the formatting intact. To begin with I checked all items against actual books, paper catalogues or computer catalogues in libraries, by the end of the project I received contributions and checked references without leaving my computer. Particular thanks goes to Lesley Henderson at Fitzroy Dearborn whose unfailing good spirit and calm sense of what needs to be done saw me through moments of despair.

IX

EDITOR S NOTE

Thanks are also due to the editorial and production staff at Fitzroy Dearborn, and especially to Nina Bunton, Antonella Elisabetta Collaro, Jonathon Dore, Carolyn Doree, Delia Gaze, Jill Halliday, Gillian Lindsey, Helena Lyons, and Michael Wardle. The main midwives of the book are my children, Anna and Eric, who have always been able to dispel any sense of doom. At the age of seven Anna replied to the question of what she wanted to do as a grown-up: "I want to write a book this thick", indicating with her hands the approximate dimensions of the present Reader's Guide. ARNE HESSENBRUCH

BOARD OF ADVISERS

Jim Senncn MlISeum of Iht' History

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Willem Hnckm.1n1l Elizabeth V. H~igh Lesley A. HJU

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lCS J oban nes Kepler Particle Ph)' ics lolmbert dolpbt J:lcqllCS Q uetelet David Rim'nnouse pace Science WOm(n in Scicll t: astronom)'

Chemical Sciences Or~n~

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b(l1.i_try \(Iilbelm Os(wald Louis P.I tcur

Emil Fischer Joseph Loui

BoochemiMry Chem; " I Anal)'$i, Chtm i al Revolution hc-OIi try

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Dmitrii IV;ln()\'i Francis Galton, FRS: The Legacy of His Ideas, edited by Milo Keynes, London: Macmillan, 1993 Eisenhart, Churchill, entry on Karl Pearson in Dictionary of Scientific Biography, vol. 10, edited by Charles Coulston Gillispie, New York: Scribner, 1974 Earrall, Lyndsay Andrew, The Origins and Growth of the English Eugenics Movement, 186^-192^, New York: Garland, 1985 Hilts, Victor L., Statist and Statistician, New York: Arno Press, 1981 Kendall, M.G. and R.L. Plackett (eds). Studies in the History of Statistics and Probability: A Series of Papers, vol. 2, London: Griffin, and Darien, Connecticut: Hafner, 1977 Kevles, Daniel J., In the Name of Eugenics: Genetics and the Uses of Human Heredity, New York: Knopf, 1985; Harmondsworth: Penguin, 1986; with a new preface, Cambridge, Massachusetts: Harvard University Press, 1995 MacKenzie, Donald A., Statistics in Britain, 186^-1930: The Social Construction of Scientific Knowledge, Edinburgh: Edinburgh University Press, 1981 Magnello, M. Eileen, "Karl Pearson: Evolutionary Biology and the Emergence of a Modern Theory of Statistics", DPhil dissertation. University of Oxford, 1993 Magnello, M. Eileen, "Karl Pearson's Gresham Lectures: W.ER. Weldon, Speciation and the Origins of Pearsonian Statistics", British Journal for the History of Science, 29 (1996): 43-63 Magnello, M. Eileen, "Karl Pearson's Mathematization of Inheritance: Erom Ancestral Heredity to Mendelian Genetics (1895-1909)", Annals of Science, 55 (1998): 3 5-94 Matthews, J. Rosser, Quantification and the Quest for Medical Certainty, Princeton, New Jersey: Princeton University Press, 1995 Norton, Bernard, "Karl Pearson and Statistics: The Social Origin of Scientific Innovation", Social Studies of Science, 8 (1978): 3-34

83

Pearson, E.S. and M.G. Kendal (eds). Studies in the History of Statistics and Probability: A Series of Papers, vol. i, London: Griffin, and Darien, Connecticut: Hafner, 1970 Pearson, E.S. Student: A Statistical Biography of William Sealy Gosset, edited by R.L. Plackett and G.A. Barnard, Oxford: Clarendon Press, and New York: Oxford University Press, 1990 Pearson, Karl, The Life, Letters and Labours of Francis Galton, 3 vols, Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1914-30

Porter, Theodore M., The Rise of Statistical Thinking, 1820-1900, Princeton, New Jersey: Princeton University Press, 1986 Provine, William B. (ed.). The Origins of Theoretical Population Genetics, Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1971

Provine, William B., Sewall Wright and Evolutionary Biology, Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1986 Stigler, Stephen M., The History of Statistics: The Measurement of Uncertainty before 1900, Cambridge, Massachusetts: Belknap Press of Harvard University Press, 1986 Walker, Helen, Studies in the History of Statistical Method with Special Reference to Certain Educational Problems, Baltimore: Williams and Wilkins, 1929; reprinted. New York: Arno Press, 1979 The term biometrics was coined by the biometrician and statistician, Karl Pearson, in 1893 to designate the measurement of life. Erom 1892 to 1936, he devised a series of biometrical methods (which he also referred to as mathematical statistics) that combined Cambridge Wrangler mathematics (such as matrix algebra) and the frequentist approach to probability. Pearson was instrumental in professionalizing the study of biometrics by establishing the Biometric School at University College London in 1893, the journal Biometrika in 1900 (with Erancis Galton and W.E.R. Weldon and the Drapers' Biometric Laboratory in 1903. Earlier applications of some type of statistics to problems of biology had been introduced by Galton, Weldon, and Adolphe Quetelet. Others who contributed to the development of biometrics include Erancis Ysidro Edgeworth, George Udny Yule, William Sealy Gosset, and Ronald A. Eisher, who established collectively the modern theory of mathematical statistics. Though mathematical statistics can be applied to a number of disciplines, biometrics still refers to the application of mathematical statistical methods to problems of biology. Karl Pearson, who lectured and wrote extensively on the history of statistics, provided his own account of the history of biometry. PEARSON placed Weldon at the centre of his own biometric innovations and emphasized Weldon's application of biometrical methods to problems of Darwinian evolution and natural selection. Some years later PEARSON (1914-30) examined Galton's contributions to statistics addressing, in particular, Galton's use of the normal curve, the median and quartile measures, as well as correlation and regression. Pearson also discussed developments leading up to his work on correlation and regression. PEARSON & KENDALL contains several reprinted articles in which Karl's son, Egon (an accomplished statistician in his

84

BIOMETRICS

own right), examined how his father's statistical methods and theories arose from attempting to solve real problems in evolutionary biology. Egon, who placed Weldon's influence before that of Galton in the development of his father's work, was concerned with the priority given to Galton in the historiography of Pearsonian statistics. EISENHART, who provided a technical description of Pearson's principle contributions to biometrics and mathematical statistics, also regarded Weldon's role as central to the emergence of Pearsonian biometrics. EDWARDS considered Pearson's statistical work to have been influenced by Weldon and Edgeworth. MAGNELLO (1996) argued that Pearson's earliest statistical lectures (which he delivered at Gresham College) arose from problems associated with speciation arising from Weldon's impetus. Magnello also argued that the statistical resolution of Weldon's data led to Pearson's earliest statistical innovation for curve-fitting and to his finding a goodness of fit test for asymmetrical distributions. Additionally, Weldon's interests provided the wider basis of a program that underpinned Pearson's longer-term statistical work. HILTS has argued that, for Pearson, biometry was a field primarily defined by its attempt to apply quantitative methods to demonstrate the existence of natural selection. He also argued that Pearson's work led to a divorce of mathematicalstatistical theory from a direct connection with its earlier use in vital and social statistics. One of Pearson's students, Helen WALKER, has provided an internalist account of the discipline and discussed the origins of certain technical terms used in mathematical statistics (nearly half of which were devised by Pearson). In assessing the changes that statistical theory was undergoing towards the end of the 19th century, STIGLER regarded Galton, Pearson, and Edgeworth as the three principal contributors who helped to create a statistical revolution. Using a sociological framework, FARRALL attempts to analyse the development of Pearson's biometrics. Earrall claims that Pearson's biometrics bore no relation to Pearson's mathematical statistics and that biometry became a methodology of causation for eugenics. According to Farrall, Pearson and his students "defined statistics outside the context of the discipline of mathematics", and Farrall then concludes that neither eugenics nor biometry passed into the canons of 20th-century science as recognized specialities. Farrall's ideas were later endorsed by a number of historians of science. NORTON argues that Farrall provided "an excellent account of some of the stages involved in setting up Pearson's department of Applied Statistics". He also claims that Pearson's positivism was the crucial factor in the development of his statistical work and that biometry was formulated and constructed without theory. MACKENZIE has argued subsequently that "biometry as a speciality within professional biology must be judged a failure". This historiographical tendency to link the methodological infrastructure of Pearsonian biometrics to his methodology of eugenics is deeply problematic, because it does not address the complexity and the totality of the different methodologies that Pearson devised in his laboratories. Pearson himself remarked that his "work in the eugenics laboratory was confined to a relatively narrow field, having nothing to do with statistical theory or its general application to biology". Nevertheless, BLACKER believes that Pearson's biometry was to have formed

the scientific basis of eugenics, while Farrall maintains that the bond between the Eugenics Laboratory and the Biometric Laboratory lay in techniques of research consisting of statistical analysis of large masses of observations. This view has continued to be espoused by a number of scholars. Norton states that "in Pearson's time statistics was always associated with eugenics" and Mackenzie claims that little demarcation could be made between the methods used in Pearson's Eugenics and Biometric Laboratories. KEVLES considers that Pearson's statistical techniques were developed in the Biometric Laboratory and the analysis was carried out in the Eugenics Laboratory, and that the symbiosis was so close as to make the distinction meaningless. PORTER, who espouses Mackenzie's social-constructivist analysis, asserts that Pearson's eugenic convictions provided the principal explanation for the enthusiasm with which he took up the study of statistics. MAGNELLO has, however, argued that Pearson not only had separate goals for his Biometric and Eugenics Laboratories, but that he devised and deployed different quantitative procedures and statistical methods, and also used different types of instruments for the various problems that arose in the laboratories. Pearson's work in the Biometric School from 1892 to 1903, and in the Drapers' Biometric Laboratory from 1903 to 1936 was underpinned by his goodness of fit testing, his chisquare goodness of fit test, 18 methods of correlation, the use of a higher form of algebra (i.e. matrix algebra), statistical and experimental studies of natural selection, craniometry and physical anthropology. This biometrical work led subsequently to the emergence and development of the modern theory of statistics in the zoth century. While Pearson used four of his 18 methods of correlation in the Galton Eugenics Laboratory, the dominant methodology in this laboratory from its establishment in 1907 until Pearson's retirement in 1933 involved, rather, the use of a complex interconnecting set of family pedigrees and actuarial death rates. MATTHEWS examined the debates over the use of quantitative and statistical methods for medical research during the 19th century. His interest in biometrics centred on the debates between the biometrician Major Greenwood and the bacteriologist Almroth Wright soon after Pearson devised most of his biometrical methods. Various scholars have contributed articles in KENDALL &: PLACKETT's volume, on topics including R.A. Fisher's concept of sufficiency, the discovery of the method of least squares, and the development of the notion of statistical dependence. The subsequent development of biometrical methods by Fisher has been examined by his daughter, Joan Fisher BOX, who assessed her father's contributions to statistics in relation to his work at Rothamsted Experimental Station, University College London and Cambridge. Fisher's role in the advancement of Mendelian genetics, which he achieved by determining the biometrical properties of Mendelian populations, has been discussed by PROVINE, who also examined the background to the discipline of population genetics (which synthesized biometrics, Mendelism and Darwinism) from the collaborative work of Fisher, Sewali Wright, and J.B.S. Haldane. M. EILEEN MAGNELLO

See also Eugenics; Galton; Genetics: general works; Pearson; Statistics

BIOTECHNOLOGY

Biotechnology Bauer, Martin (ed.). Resistance to New Technology: Nuclear Power, Information Technology, and Biotechnology, Cambridge and New York: Cambridge University Press, 1995 Benninga, H., A History of Lactic Acid Making: A Chapter in the History of Biotechnology, Dordrecht and Boston: Kluwer, 1990 Brock, Malcolm V., Biotechnology in Japan, London and New York: Routledge, 1989 Bud, Robert, The Uses of Life: A History of Biotechnology, Cambridge and New York: Cambridge University Press, 1993 Bull, Alan T , Geoffrey Holt and Malcolm D. Lilly, Biotechnology: International Trends and Perspectives, Paris: Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development, 1982 Cook-Deegan, Robert, The Gene Wars: Science, Politics and the Human Genome, New York: Norton, 1994 Galambos, Louis, Networks of Innovation: Vaccine Development at Merck, Sharp & Dohme, and Mulford, i85»j-i5»95, Cambridge and New York: Cambridge University Press, 1995 Hall, Stephen S., Invisible Frontiers: The Race to Synthesise a Human Gene, New York: Atlantic Monthly Press and London: Sidgwick and Jackson, 1987 Kay, Lily E., The Molecular Vision of Life: Caltech, the Rockefeller Foundation, and the Rise of the New Biology, New York : Oxford University Press, 1993 Kenney, Martin, Biotechnology: The University-Industrial Complex, New Haven, Connecticut: Yale University Press, 1986 Kloppenburg, Jack Ralph, Jr, First the Seed: The Political Economy of Plant Biotechnology 1491-1000, Cambridge and New York: Cambridge University Press, 1988 Parascandola, John (ed.). The History of Antibiotics: A Symposium, Madison, Wisconsin: American Institute of the History of Pharmacy, 1980 Rimmington, Anthony, Technology and Transition: A Survey of Biotechnology in Russia, Ukraine, and the Baltic States, Westport, Connecticut: Quorum Books, 1992 Sharp, David H., Bioprotein Manufacture: A Critical Assessment, Chichester: Ellis Horwood and New York: Halsted Press, 1989 Sharp, Margaret, The New Biotechnology: European Governments in Search of a Strategy, Brighton: Science Policy Research Unit, University of Sussex, 1985 Teitelman, Robert, Gene Dreams: Wall Street, Academia and the Rise of Biotechnology, New York: Basic Books, 1989 For all its widely discussed industrial importance, the category of biotechnology is notoriously ambiguous; two quite different concepts emerged when formal definitions were sought in order to rescue policy makers at the beginning of the 1980s. In the reports of the OECD and the European Federation of Biotechnology, biotechnology was formally defined in terms of the application of biological understanding to the production of useful products. BULL, HOLT & LILLY provide an exhaustive listing. On the other hand, in the US in particular, there

has been an alternative usage exclusively in terms of applied molecular biology, which draws on only recombinant DNA technology, with occasional use of contemporary discoveries of monoclonal antibodies. Despite the apparent divergence between these interpretations, there remains a deep-seated connection that has been explored by BUD. The word "biotechnology" itself has been in use since the beginning of the 20th century, to express the goal of using living beings in order to create a new technology. As early as World War I, such products as acetone and lactic acid made by fermentation had seemed to herald a new industrial era. This use led to formulations of an ideal for biotechnology that has lasted to the present day, having been co-opted as the new possibilities for recombinant DNA technology came to be voiced in the late 1970s. The great hopes for fermentation technology early in the 20th century have tended to be forgotten. The detailed account of the history of lactic acid manufacture by BENNINGA is exceptional. It offers a rare combination of technological detail and industrial insight into a chemical that, unlike most other products of the chemical industry, has been the product of growth in mild conditions, rather than of synthesis from coal products or oil in harsh conditions. Much better known as a triumph of fermentation technologies is the development of penicillin during World War II, which seemed to prove to the pharmaceutical industry, and even to some chemists, that a new industrial era had begun. Other antibiotics followed quickly, as did artificial steroids such as cortisone, vitamins, single-cell proteins grown on petroleum, and starch (heralded as a potential cure for the world's food problems), and for a time alcohol was seen as a possible alternative to the finite supplies of oil. The development of penicillin itself has been served by a vast literature, covering its discovery by Eleming, its isolation by Florey and Chain, and its production in wartime America. PARASCANDOLA provides an introduction to the literature on an international level. Outside the penicillin saga, however, the intense excitement over other post-war fermentation products has largely been forgotten. The development of gasohol still awaits its historian. The history of single-cell protein has been partially explored by David SHARP, who focuses on western European developments, and in particular the endeavours of BP and ICI, who during the 1960s and 1970s saw fermentationbased biotechnology as the key to their development. RIMMINGTON should be used to provide an alternative, Soviet perspective, for in the Soviet Union the dream of singlecell protein lasted longer and led to the commercial development of a major industry that ended only with the Union itself. While penicillin had been developed in Britain and America, it was in Japan during the 1950s and 1960s that fermentation technology was most extensively developed. The Japanese developed a world-leading enzyme industry and a philosophy of biomass-based industry. BROCK describes the interaction between such home-grown concepts and the inspiration provided by American developments. The essentially utilitarian, and indeed device-orientated, approach to biotechnology inherent within even apparently abstract studies has been explored by KAY, who focuses on Caltech in the 20th century. The industrial use of classical

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BIOTECHNOLOGY

genetics is another route to the development of biotechnology, and the links between the generalised exploration of living organisms and its sequel, in which recombinant DNA came to the fore, is well described by KLOPPENBURG. His study of the history of the American seed industry reveals the tension between an industrial model of agriculture, with a highly capitalised techno-science base, and an emphasis on self-sufficient communities meeting local needs. This may have been highlighted by recent issues in biotechnology, but it reaches back earlier through the 20th century. GALAMBOS also explores the boundary between traditional techniques and the new genetic technologies, showing the continuity within one company, Merck, between the era of traditional vaccine research and the era of recombinant DNA. The great period of biotechnology was undoubtedly the decade from 1975 to 1985, when the implications of recombinant DNA seemed endless. An overall account has been provided from an American perspective by KENNEY. A more journalistic account, without footnotes but with vivid, wellresearched and accurate detail, is provided by HALL in his description of the race during the 1970s to be the first with a genetically engineered source of the small, but clinically crucial, protein, insulin. The network of small companies and their search for finance from Wall Street is brilliandy rehearsed by TEITELMAN, in a work that is well-researched despite its lack of scholarly apparatus. Two kinds of response to Wall Street's enthusiasm for biotechnology have been explored. On the one hand, European governments were terrified that they would be left behind, as they had in the development of information technology. Maragaret SHARP has documented their response. On the other hand, members of the public both in Europe and in America were anxious that their safety and culture were being compromised by over-enthusiastic scientists and business interests. Many of the essays brought together by BAUER are concerned with this phenomenon of resistance. Any treatment of biotechnology today ought to include a reference to the so-called Human Genome project, which promises to present a host of commercial prospects as well as institutional and ethical challenges. The outstanding insider's view is provided by COOK-DEEGAN. He covers not just the details of American endeavours but also puts them within the context of world-wide developments. It is appropriate that his book is entitled Gene Wars; this captures not just the idea of a competition between teams to be the first to sequence certain genes, but also represents the contest over how to define the very meaning and significance of the multiple human genome projects currently in progress. ROBERT BUD

See also DNA; Human Genome Project

Birth Control Gordon, Linda, Woman's Body, Woman's Right: A Social History of Birth Control in America, New York: Grossman, 1976; revised edition as Woman's Birth, Woman's Right: Birth Control in America, New York: Penguin, 1990

Himes, Norman E., Medical History of Contraception, Baltimore: Williams and Wilkins, 1936 McLaren, Angus, Birth Control in Nineteenth-Century England, London: Croom Helm, and New York: Holmes and Meier, 1978 McLaren, Angus, A History of Contraception: From Antiquity to the Present Day, Oxford and Cambridge, Massachusetts: Blackwell, 1990 Reed, James, The Birth Control Movement and American Society: From Private Vice to Public Virtue, Princeton, New Jersey: Princeton University Press, 1978 Riddle, John M., Contraception and Abortion from the Ancient World to the Renaissance, Cambridge, Massachusetts: Harvard University Press, 1992 Soloway, Richard Allen, Birth Control and the Population Question in England, i8yy-i9jo. Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 1982 The history of birth control has been written from a number of perspectives, ranging from concern with the role that contraception has played in the decline of fertility, interest in the development of contraceptive techniques, to social and political movements that have canvassed for better education in reproductive limitation and access to contraception. Many of the earlier texts on the history of birth control were in fact written by those who were active in the struggle. Much of the literature also focuses on the impact that birth control has had on sexual attitudes and relations between men and women, as well as on the overall social, political, and economic fabric of society. Historians have shown increasingly that the issue of birth control was not just a matter of finding an appropriate and effective technology, but was intricately tied to questions about population growth, the position of women in society, social and economic resources, and concerns of nationalism, race, and class. All these factors had an important influence not only on the degree to which birth control was accepted within a society, but also on the extent to which men and women were motivated to use contraception. As several historians have demonstrated, although the decline in fertility has been most marked in the last two centuries, the desire for and practice of fertility control is not a recent phenomenon and can be traced back to ancient societies. Many have also argued that the knowledge and practice of birth control were never just a matter of access to contraceptive technology, but were intricately linked with the conflicts between personal desire, collective interest and public policy. Some of the earliest literature on the topic was written in the early 20th century by those who were heavily involved in the fight for the acceptance and promotion of birth control. One of the most influential accounts of the history of contraception from this period is that by the American sociologist, Norman HIMES. His work provides a detailed, albeit incomplete, account of different contraceptive techniques from the ancient Egyptians to the early 20th century. The book was written at a time when birth control was still considered a taboo issue, and its underlying message is to show not only the continuous desire of humans to limit their fertility through the ages, but also the ways in which the recent decline in fertility and the increasing resort to birth control might be seen as a sign of progress for civilization.

BLOWPIPE

Many of the more recent historians, such as Linda Gordon, James Reed, Richard Soloway, and Angus McLaren, accept the premise of earlier historians such as Himes that the search for a means to limit fertility and its practice is an age-old phenomenon. They emphasize, however, that the control of reproduction was shaped and guided by family forms, gender roles, and social, political, and economic attitudes. GORDON tells the history of birth control from the perspective of women in America and their fight to control their own fertility. At the heart of Gordon's book are figures such as Margaret Sanger, whose aim in providing contraception was to enable women to control their fertility and thus to empower them in other spheres of their lives. REED similarly deals with Sanger's fight for contraception, but he also shows the ways in which birth control was not only a concern of female activists, but was also demanded by many medical men, who were involved in this area as a result of their concern over population growth. While these men did not always share the same vision as the women reformers, their efforts were vital in the campaign to win acceptance for contraception. SOLOWAY also illustrates the importance of politics and economics in the fight for access to contraceptives in Britain in the late 19th and early 20th centuries. He examines the ways in which different British generations viewed the issue of birth control and the population question in relation to their expectations regarding the future of their society and empire, and by their ideas on progress and civilization. The importance of setting birth control within particular cultural, social, and political contexts is also the concern of McLAREN (1990). Like the three authors mentioned above, McLaren provides an analysis of contraception and birth control movements in the late 19th and early 20th centuries, but his work also goes back to ancient Greece. Challenging historians who have focused on the history of birth control from a demographic and economic perspective, he shows, like Gordon, Reed, and Soloway, that the history of contraception must be placed within particular social and cultural contexts that change over time. Such a history of contraception in Victorian Britain is provided by McLAREN (1978). By returning to this period, McLaren challenges much of the recent historical literature on birth control, which tends to depict the late i8th and 19th centuries as a period of revolutionary change in the practice and knowledge of fertility control. RIDDLE similarly argues that ancient societies had an extensive knowledge of plants and other devices that could be used as contraceptives. Riddle not only provides an extensive catalogue of the different types of plants that were used, but indicates the surprising disappearance of contraceptive knowledge over time. As he argues, classical and medieval sources indicate a much greater knowledge of birth control than Renaissance writers. Indeed, premodern parents could probably predict the extent of their food supply and resources, and accommodate their fertility patterns accordingly, through a diet using specific herbs, or the taking of certain drugs to induce late menstruation. Riddle concurs with McLaren that the disappearance of contraceptive knowledge had much to do with the changing attitudes of the Church and legal systems towards fertility control, but additionally he hypothesises that it was also linked to the gradual professionalization of medicine, which created an increasing division

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between orthodox medicine and "quackery", and to the gradual transference of the compounding and dispensing of drugs from the medical man to the pharmacist. LARA MARKS

Blowpipe Anderson, R.G.W., "Instruments and Apparatus", in Recent Developments in the History of Chemistry, edited by CA. Russell, London: Royal Society of Chemistry, 1985 Burchard, U., "Geschichte und Instrumentarium der Lotrohrkunde", Wissenschaftliches Jahrbuch, Deutsches Museum, 1993 Burchard, U., "The History and Apparatus of Blowpipe Analysis", Mineralogical Record, 25 (1994): 251-77 Campbell, W.A., "The Development oi^ Qualitative Analysis 1750-1850: The Use of the Blowpipe", University of Newcastle upon Tyne Philosophical Society, 2 (1971-72): 17-24 Dumas, Maurice, Scientific Instruments of the Seventeenth and Eighteenth Centuries and Their Makers, translated from the Erench by Mary Holbrook, New York: Praeger and London: Batsford, 1972 (original edition, 1953) Gonzalez, E.L., "Bochard de Saron and the Oxyhydrogen Blowpipe", Bulletin for the History of Chemistry, 4 (1989): 11-15 Greenaway, E, Chemistry, i: Chemical Laboratories and Apparatus to 1S50, London: HMSO, 1966 Jensen, W.B., "The Development of Blowpipe Analysis", in The History and Preservation of Chemical Instrumentation, edited by John T. Stock and Mary Virginia Orna, Dordrecht and Boston: Reidel, 1986, 123-49 Landauer, J., Blowpipe Analysis, London, Macmillan, 1879; reprinted, London and New York: Macmillan, 1984 Turner, Gerard L'E., Nineteenth-Century Scientific Instruments, London: Sotheby, and Berkeley: University of California Press, 1983 Although the blowpipe is an instrument widely used by practitioners from a range of scientific backgrounds - including chemists, mineralogists and geologists - and despite its being in common use for centuries, the literature on the history of the blowpipe is sparse and often sketchy. It has been mainly identified as a chemical instrument, and most references to blowpipes are found in accounts of forms of "dry analysis" and subsequent "discoveries" of elements such as nickel and titanium. Only a handful of articles suggest ways in which the history of this instrument could inform issues, such as the development of experimental skills, the consequences of alterations in the design of the instrument, and the effects the instrument had on local economies - particularly in mining districts, where blowpipes were used to identify the ore content of minerals. The most comprehensive literature is in the form of reprints or early editions of textbooks that instruct in blowpipe analysis. BURCHARD's two lengthy articles (1993 and 1994) trace the use of blowpipes by an array of individuals throughout Europe in the i8th and 19th centuries, the latter article being

BLOWPIPE

an almost complete translation of the former. The articles are organized principally geographically, with sections containing brief chronologies of the literature and references to practitioners recognized as pioneers in blowpipe analysis. Burchard also includes a brief descriptive catalogue of different blowpipe designs, and accounts of chemicals and associated apparatus used in experimental trials. Both articles are generously illustrated with contemporary book engravings as well as with modern colour photographs of extant blowpipe kits in different museums. A well-researched bibliography makes these valuable reference works. CAMPBELL contributes an account of the use of the blowpipe as part of a wider project about the history of chemical experimentation from the mid-i8th to the mid-i9th century. Here he focuses principally on the activities of Swedish chemists and mineralogists such as Cronstedt, Bergman, Gahn, and Berzelius, and offers comments about the kinds of apparatus they used. He provides a table indicating the variety of supplies included in blowpipe kits, and a table of flame coloration that was used as a reference to identify the presence of particular elements under examination. These suggest interesting avenues for research, in order to connect the apparatus with the experimental skills necessary to make reliable correlations between flame colours and traces of hidden elements. The intriguing paradox between the simplicity in the design of the blowpipe and the complexity in its use is nowhere fully explored, but JENSEN does note the importance of examining in detail communities of chemists among whom skilled techniques in the use of the blowpipe were transmitted. Burchard also alludes to the importance of skilled training in his account of the steps of preparation for conducting blowpipe experiments. Burchard, Campbell, and Jensen are all similar in the respect that they identify applied research in 18th-century Sweden, sponsored by the Board of Mines, as central to the development of blowpipe analysis. It is from here that they all begin to trace the subsequent dissemination of literature on the subject to other European sites. GREENAWAY supports this model by showing some simple changes in the design of the blowpipe that begin in Sweden and finish in England. GONZALEZ departs from this model by briefly introducing the place of blowpipe analysis in Erench chemical practices. ANDERSON mentions blowpipe analysis in a rapid discussion of the development and use of a range of chemical apparatus. Different kinds of blowpipes are discussed throughout the chapter on chemistry in TURNER, which provides information on such matters as prices, the types of kits available, and the blowpipe's relation to associated kinds of chemical instruments, although this information is particularly relevant to Britain. The information in DUMAS is very brief, but placed within a catalogue context of a number of contemporary chemical instruments. LANDAUER's book offers a historical sketch of the use of blowpipes by various practitioners (similar to the accounts by Burchard, Campbell, and Jensen), and then describes in detail the necessary apparatus and techniques. Most of the book is a compendium of experimental results. Taken together, these articles and books offer glimpses of ways in which the blowpipe can be related to geographical settings, training practices, and related experimental apparatus.

They provide a suggestive guide to initiating future research, in order to develop more theoretical views on the place of instrumentation within experimental cultures. BRIAN D O L A N

B o a s , Franz

1858-1942

German-born American cultural anthropologist Andrews, J.J. et al. Bibliography of Franz Boas, American Anthropological Association, 1943, 67-109 Codere, Helen (ed.), Kwakiutl Ethnography, by Franz Boas, Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1966 Harris, Marvin, The Rise of Anthropological Theory: A History of Theories of Culture, New York: Crowell, and London: Routledge and Kegan Paul, 1968 Hatch, Elvin, Theories of Man and Culture, New York: Columbia University Press, 1973 Helm, June (ed.). Pioneers of American Anthropology: The Uses of Biography, Seattle: University of Washington Press, 1966 Lowie, Robert H., The History of Ethnological Theory, New York: Farrar and Rinehart, 1937 Silverman, Sydel (ed.). Totems and Teachers: Perspectives on the History of Anthropology, New York: Columbia University Press, 1981 Stocking Jr, George W , Race, Culture and Evolution: Essays in the History of Anthropology, New York: Free Press, Stocking Jr, George W. (ed.). Objects and Others: Essays on Museums and Material Culture, Madison: University of Wisconsin Press, 1985 Stocking Jr, George W , The Ethnographer's Magic and Other Essays in the History of Anthropology, Madison: University of Wisconsin Press, 1992 Franz Boas's anthropological scholarship is broad and ethnological in both range and character, incorporating physical anthropology, linguistics, and archaeology. Boas's scholarship thus has relevance for the historically-informed disciplines of physical anthropology, linguistics, and archaeology. However, at the centre of Boas's conceptual apparatus is culture, and hence he is described as a cultural anthropologist. The bibliography fashioned by ANDREWS et al. functions as a general guide to the breadth of Boas's scholarly concerns. Implicitly, the bibliography informs us that at the turn of the 19th century it was legitimate and acceptable for a scholar to pursue a wide range of interests. In Boas's case, the range included anthropometry and race, general ethnology, the classification of languages, ethnography, and the collection of items of material culture for anthropological museums. HATCH has argued that Boas was very much a product of his times, a broadly based scholar who fused scientific positivism with philosophical idealism. STOCKING (1968) provides a detailed biographical and intellectual portrait of Boas's academic shift of orientation from physics, through geography, to ethnology and anthropology as part of his German education. Stocking notes the amount of overlap existent between ethnological and geographical

THE BODY

scholarship in Germany during the 19th century. Between 1883 and 1884, Boas conducted research among the "Eskimo" of Cumberland Sound, ostensibly for cartographical purposes. On his return to Germany, he took up the position of assistant at the Royal Ethnological Museum in Berlin. At the natural science end of Boas's range of scholarly concerns is his interest in aspects of physical anthropology and anthropometry - the person as species. Stocking (1968) argues that these interests can be studied within the intellectual context of evolutionary thought, and have implications concerning the late 19th-century development of eugenics and theories of race. Parmenter, in HELM, argues that, having moved to America, Boas was living in a society that was a "melting pot" for different peoples, a natural laboratory for Boas's revolutionary ideas on race. Stocking argues that Boas's critique of racial formalism, based on anthropometric and general physical anthropological research carried out on existent and incoming immigrants to the US, offered a scientific means of accounting for the differences between peoples. As STOCKING (1992) argues, in an account of science and politics in Boas's research into race, the dominant liberal individualism of American political thought was generally open to his cultural explanation of the differences between peoples. In SILVERMAN, Lesser begins with the assumption that modern (American) anthropology began with Boas and his interest in cultural arrangements. Stocking (1968) takes the position that while the development and application of culture by Boas and his students contributed significantly to the establishment of American anthropology, their collected works did not amount to a systematic theory of culture. The position HARRIS adopts is in part supportive of Stocking: characterizing Boas's works as "historical particularism", Harris suggests that the broad eclecticism of Boas and his students perpetuated the lack of any systematic orientation in the study of culture. In contrast. Lesser, in Silverman, treats Boas in a more empirical sense as the "great theorist of modern anthropology". LOWIE makes a convincing plea for Boas to be understood principally as a field worker. Rohner, in Helm, provides an account of Boas's major contributions to ethnography, in particular his collaborative researches with Hunt and others among the then rapidly declining peoples of the North West Coast. The range of publications, research directions, collections of items of material culture and museum exhibits and exhibitions that arose from this research is vast. CODERE argues that many students of Boasian scholarship find the vastness, complexity, and eclecticism inherent in the North West Coast materials impenetrable. Codere's collection of Boas's Kwakiutl ethnography is organized with the specific aim of presenting these materials in an accessible manner. Adhering to conventional anthropological, epistemologically-informed categories, Codere arranges the Kwakiutl ethnographic materials within areas that include, for example, mythology and language, material culture and art, and rituals and ceremonies. Stocking (1992) discusses the highly ambitious project Boas had for the study of the American Indian languages, including those of the North West Coast peoples, which included their classification and the production of a handbook or guide for their study. Jacknis, in STOCKING (1985), comments on another aspect of Boas's North West Coast researches - their

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significance for ethnological museums. Jacknis characterizes Boas as an anthropologist in a "museum age"; after his year at the Royal Ethnological Museum in Berlin, and after his arrival in America, Boas worked with Frederick Putnam, and in 1896 he was appointed assistant curator of ethnology and somatology at the American Museum of Natural History, a position he held until 1905. During this time. Boas pioneered styles of display for the various items of North West Coast material culture that he, his students and assistants collected. Boas joined Columbia University as a lecturer in physical anthropology in 1896, and from 1899 until his retirement in 1936 he held the post of professor of anthropology, training many of the significant American anthropologists of the 20th century. MIKE BALL

The Body Bordo, Susan, Unbearable Weight: Feminism, Western Culture, and the Body, Berkeley: University of California Press, 1993 Bynum, Caroline, "Why All the Fuss about the Body? A Medievalist's Perspective", Critical Inquiry, 22 (1995): 1-33 Foucault, Michel, Discipline and Punish: The Birth of the Prison, translated from the French by Alan Sheridan, New York: Pantheon, and London: Allen Lane, 1977 Gould, Stephen Jay, The Mismeasure of Man, New York: Norton, 1981; revised and expanded edition, 1996 Hunt, Lynn (ed.). Eroticism and the Body Politic, Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press, 1991 Laqueur, Thomas, Making Sex: Body and Gender from the Greeks to Freud, Cambridge, Massachusetts: Harvard University Press, 1990 Schiebinger, Londa, Nature's Body: Gender in the Making of Modern Science, Boston: Beacon Press, 1993 Young, Katharine (ed.), Bodylore, Knoxville: University of Tennessee Press, 1993 Since the 1980s, the study of the body has emerged as the focus of vital and important scholarship. From Aristotle's proposition that women are merely imperfect men, to recent attempts to discover neurological markers for homosexuality, the body has often been seen as a microcosm refiecting transcendent truths about the individual and nature. Scholarship in anthropology, folklore, sociology, history, and the history of science has demonstrated, however, that the body cannot be taken as a given, or universal constant. It is rather a cultural artifact, inscribed, encoded, contested, and performed. Inspired by feminism, and by a reaction to Christian and Cartesian traditions that privilege the abstract and intellectual over the physical, the body is presently being explored as a product of biological theory, as the site of individual expression and resistance to institutional control, as a politicized entity, as a complex symbol of conscious and unconscious myths, beliefs, and desires, and as metaphor, text, and icon. Treating the body as a social as well as a biological construct makes possible, among other things, a new examination of beliefs concerning identity, the self, the political, and the cultural.

9O

THE BODY

The body has also served historically to bolster scientific ideas of biological difference, justifying the identification and subsequent treatment of certain groups, such as the Hottentots and the Jews, as essentially different, even sub-human. GOULD was one of the first to document the politics of biological interpretations of the body, particularly with regard to race. He shows how the human body has been scientifically examined and found to "prove" various racist, classist, and sexist beliefs. Erom theories of polygyny, through craniology, phrenology, and the development of IQ tests, Gould offers a history of biological determinism as well as a critique of the faulty reasoning behind it. The scientific, political, and institutional power of the European male are evident in this account of who has historically (mis)measured whom. SCHIEBINGER continues Gould's historical account, focusing on how gender became one potent principle organizing the 18th-century understanding of nature - a matter of consequence in an age that looked to nature as the guiding light for social reform. Through carefully argued case studies, Schiebinger shows how body politics has extended to scientific understandings of non-human nature, illustrating how contemporary beliefs about sexual difference and characteristics influenced botanical taxonomy, zoological nomenclature, and conceptions of race. LAQUEUR focuses specifically on the ways in which sexual difference has been mapped on to the body. His compelling and controversial thesis argues that, until the i8th century, western civilization worked on a single-sex model within which all bodies were essentially the same in form and content: the female represented simply a less developed form than the male. During the i8th century, however, a two-sex model arose, which emphasized instead the profound differences between the sexes. As a result, the boundaries between the sexes became less flexible, and sex a more rigid and defining category. EOUCAULT is often credited with initiating 3 critical approach to the body as the site of institutional control of the individual. In Discipline and Punish, he proposes that modernity is marked in part by a shift in the locus of society's power, from control over the physical body to control of the abstract individual. Transgression of societal laws is no longer punished with bodily pain, but with the restriction of personal liberty; a penalty once enacted on the body is now visited on the heart and soul of the individual. According to Eoucault, the essential coercive violence of the state, once a highly physical, visible, and public spectacle, has become covert and abstract. HUNT'S edited volume explores the body as both political and erotic, demonstrating that these areas are far from mutually exclusive. In European history, the merging of the political and sexual is most evident in the person of the traditional monarch, but Hunt's collection shows that it is also evident in beliefs about the robustness of the aristocracy and/or the rising bourgeoisie. The strength of any particular social group or class. Hunt maintains, was represented especially by the bodies of its women, which could indicate either health or decay, nurturance or corruption. The book is divided into three chronological sections, each containing essays by a historian, an art historian, and a literary critic, which explore the multivalence and ambiguity of the female body in Erance during the i8th and 19th centuries.

In a more contemporary and philosophical vein, BORDO examines the meaning of the female body and feminism in contemporary American culture. She adds depth to her analysis by asking how it is that women experience their own bodies. In particular, she discusses anorexia nervosa, reproductive rights, and advertising as "crystallizations of culture". A similar anthropological/folkloric approach, with a refreshing and all-too-rare sampling of cross-cultural perspectives, is provided by YOUNG. The essays in this volume work from the assumption that the body is socially invented, "a constellation of symbolic properties", and examine topics from Moroccan body painting to a Hakka Chinese ritual of mourning. BYNUM's essay provides a concise, provocative, and readable discussion of why it is that the history of the body and the issues that surround it seem so pressing and intriguing at the close of the 20th century. She maintains that contemporary discussion of the body is haunted by a form of traditional western dualism, which wants both to glorify and escape the physical body. She also notes a schism between the issues addressed by scholarship about the body, and the anxieties surrounding it that are expressed in popular culture; for example, the ethics of organ transplantation. She proposes that academic treatments of the body have been too abstract and narrowly focused on issues of gender and sex, and calls for a scholarship that incorporates the real, physical body, which works, desires, and dies. Bynum's critique of recent scholarship is well taken. As Gould has demonstrated, historically the archetypical body has been the white European male, and scholarship critical of this tradition has focused perhaps too exclusively on the white European female as his foil. Cross-cultural studies offer models of the body that challenge not only the centrality of sexual difference to identity, but also our understanding of the individual as a social, temporal, and physically bounded entity. SARAH GOODFELLOW

Boerhaave, Herman 1668-1738 Dutch physician and professor of botany, chemistry, and medicine Cunningham, Andrew, "Medicine to Calm the Mind: Boerhaave's Medical System and Why It Was Adopted in Edinburgh", in The Medical Enlightenment of the Eighteenth Century, edited by Cunningham and Roger Erench, Cambridge and New York: Cambridge University Press, 1990 Kegel-Brinkgeve, Elze and Antonie M. Luyendijk-Elshout (eds), Boerhaave's Orations, translated from the Latin by Kegel-Brinkgeve and Luyendijk-Elshout, Leiden: E.J. Brill and Leiden University Press, 1983 Lindeboom, G.A., Herman Boerhaave: The Man and His Work, London: Methuen, 1968 Lindeboom, G.A. (ed.), Boerhaave and His Time, Leiden: E.J. Brill, 1970 Lindeboom, G.A., Boerhaave and Great Britain: Three Lectures on Boerhaave with Particular Reference to His Relations with Great Britain, Leiden: E.J. Brill, 1974

BOERHAAVE

Metzger, Helene, Newton, Stahl, Boerhaave et la doctrine chimique, Paris: Alcan, 1930 Probst, Christian, Der Weg des arztlichen Erkennens am Krankenbett: Herman Boerhaave und die dltere Wiener medizinische Schule, vol. i, Wiesbaden: Steiner, 1973 Underwood, Edgar, Boerhaave's Men at Leyden and After, Edinburgh: Edinburgh University Press, 1977 Given Herman Boerhaave's central role in early 18th-century science and medicine, surprisingly few studies have focused on him or his writings. There is a particular scarcity of works attempting to relate his many and diverse fields of study (ranging from medicine, chemistry, and botany to philology and divinity) to his central position in the academic world and to his adoption of Newtonian philosophy, or indeed to the context of the Dutch Enlightenment and Leiden University. However, the most recent works by Kegel-Brinkgeve 8c Luyendijk-Elshout and by Cunningham are important contributions in this area. The starting point for any research on Herman Boerhaave is still the biography by LINDEBOOM (1968), the only comprehensive account of Boerhaave's life. Drawing on a large amount of unpublished material, Lindeboom discusses in detail Boerhaave's life, his academic career, his personality, and his philosophical views. With regard to his scientific work, Lindeboom stresses Boerhaave's medical achievements, in both theoretical medicine and the development of clinical teaching. This approach leaves considerably less room for Boerhaave's activities in chemistry and botany, whereas his importance for the development of natural philosophy - as one of the first adherents of Newton on the Continent - is only dealt with in passing. METZGER gives a clearer view of the way in which Boerhaave adopted experimental philosophy and iatrochemistry, and Newtonian ideas of matter, and transformed them in the development of his own chemical theories. Embedded within the framework of the history of ideas, she uses the Elementa chemiae - especially the notion of fire - to emphasize the eclecticism of Boerhaave, who used doctrines from different and non-cohesive contexts to explain chemical phenomena, without transforming them into one coherent synthesis. The 13 articles in LINDEBOOM (1970) cover a broad range of subjects concerning the philosophical views of Boerhaave, his medical practice, and his relation to other scientists. The selection of the articles was obviously intended to show as many facets of his work as possible, thus giving an overall view of the diversity of Boerhaave's activities. However, as these facets remain somewhat detached from each other, and the methodological approaches vary significantly, there remains the difficulty of finding a coherent analytical concept with which to describe Boerhaave's science as a whole. One such tool is offered by KEGEL-BRINKGEVE & LUYENDIJK-ELSHOUT, in their analysis of Boerhaave's academic orations and sermons within the university context. Though in principle a text edition, the introduction and commentary occupy nearly half of the book. In a detailed account, they show how Boerhaave used the possibilities of well-defined academic rhetoric at different stages of his career in order to obtain institutional approval for himself and his

9I

views on medicine, philosophy, and religion. The particular historiographical value of this study lies in the fact that the themes of his orations differ significantly from the subjects of his ordinary lectures or his textbooks. Thus, attention is drawn to topics that played a central role in Boerhaave's activities but have generally been ignored by more discipline-oriented historiographies. The role of Boerhaave within the communications network of 18th-century academics is studied by LINDEBOOM (1974). He oudines the particularly close ties between Britain and The Netherlands, which is important for an understanding of the manner in which Boerhaave availed himself of English philosophical ideas for his teaching. Without going into much detail, Lindeboom describes Boerhaave's individual contacts with some British scholars of medicine, botany, chemistry, and the classics in an attempt to reveal his influence on British 18thcentury intellectual life. A different approach to this question is taken by UNDERWOOD, who follows the careers of 746 English-speaking students at Leiden University. The book gives an illustration of the lives of Boerhaave's students, their relations to the university, and their intellectual interests. In the second part of his book. Underwood gives their biographies after having left Leiden. Although emphasis is placed on those students who afterwards became medical teachers, especially at Edinburgh, their career patterns remain heterogeneous, making it difficult to understand what it meant to be "Boerhaave's man" after graduation. The studies by Probst and Cunningham investigate Boerhaave's role in medical innovations made elsewhere, while highlighting aspects of Boerhaave's own medical ideas. PROBST concentrates his account of the pragmatic Vienna medical school on 18th-century medical practice and its relation to teaching and theorizing. Using medical history records by Boerhaave and his Viennese followers van Swieten, de Haen, and StoU as sources, Probst tries to analyze the perceptions and actions of the physician at the sickbed, and their effects on the development of iatromechanical methodology in medicme. CUNNINGHAM, on the other hand, examines the eminent success of Boerhaave's medical system, exemplified by the adoption of Boerhaavian methods in the new Edinburgh school. Cunningham characterizes this system by linking it to Boerhaave's theological and philological studies. Just as the message of the scriptures brought him peace, his medical system had to follow the same clear, simple, and anti-sectarian principles, avoiding conflict and metaphysical speculation. In Edinburgh, where an open conflict between the professions of physician and surgeon-apothecary had erupted, the acceptance of Boerhaave's system led to conciliation and the emergence of the "general practitioner" as a new medical professional. GERHARD WIESENFELDT

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BOHR

Bohr, Niels

1885-1962

Danish physicist Aaserud, Einn, Redirecting Science: Niels Bohr, Philanthropy, and the Rise of Nuclear Physics, Cambridge and New York: Cambridge University Press, 1990

Beller, Mara, "The Birth of Bohr's Complementarity: The Context and the Dialogues", Studies in History and Philosophy of Science, 23 (1992): 147-80 Blay, Michel, et al., "Bohr et la complementarite". Revue d'Histoire des Sciences, 38/3-4 (1985) Darrigol, Olivier, From c-Numbers to q-Numbers: The Classical Analogy in the History of Quantum Theory, Berkeley: University of California Press, 1992 Eavrholdt, David, Niels Bohr's Philosophical Background, Copenhagen: Munksgaard, 1992 Eaye, Jan, Niels Bohr: His Heritage and Legacy: An AntiRealist View of Quantum Mechanics, Dordrecht: Kluwer, 1991

Eaye, Jan and Henry Eolse (eds), Niels Bohr and Contemporary Philosophy, Dordrecht: Kluwer, 1994 Eolse, Henry, The Philosophy of Niels Bohr: The Framework of Complementarity, Dordrecht: North-Holland, 1985 Erench, A.P. and P.J. Kennedy (eds), Niels Bohr: A Centenary Volume, Cambridge, Massachusetts: Harvard University Press, 1985 Heilbron, J.L. and Thomas S. Kuhn, "The Genesis of the Bohr Atom", Historical Studies in the Physical Sciences, i (1969): 210-90

Hirosige, Tetu and Sigeo Nisio, "Eormation of Bohr's Theory of Atomic Constitution", Japanese Studies in History of Science, 3 (1964): 6-28; 9 (1970): 35-47 Meyer-Abich, Klaus Michael, Korrespondenz, Individualitdt, Komplementaritdt: Eine Studie zur Geistesgeschichte der Quantentheorie in den Beitrdgen Niels Bohrs, Wiesbaden: Steiner, 1965 Moore, Ruth, Niels Bohr: The Man, His Science, and the World They Changed, New York: Knopf, 1966 Murdoch, Dugald, Niels Bohr's Philosophy of Physics, Cambridge and New York: Cambridge University Press, 1987 Pais, Abraham, Niels Bohr's Times: In Physics, Philosophy, and Polity, Oxford: Clarendon Press, and New York: Oxford University Press, 1991 Petruccioli, Sandro, Atoms, Metaphors, and Paradoxes: Niels Bohr and the Construction of a New Physics, Cambridge and New York: Cambridge University Press, 1993 Roseberg, Ulrich, Niels Bohr: Leben und Werk eines Atomphysikers 1885-1962, Stuttgart: Wissenschafdiche Verlagsgesellschaft, 1985; 3rd edition, Berlin: Spektrum, 1992

Rosenfeld, Leon, Introduction to On the Constitution of Atoms and Molecules: Papers of 191}, by Bohr, Copenhagen: Munksgaard, 1963 Rosenfeld, Leon, et al. (eds), Me/5 Bohr: Collected Works, 9 vols to date, Amsterdam: North-Holland, 1972-

Rozental, Stefan, Niels Bohr: His Life and Work as Seen by His Friends and Colleagues, Amsterdam: North-Holland and New York: Interscience, 1967 Niels Bohr, one of the central figures in the development of modern physics, is best known for his model of the atom with electrons orbiting a nucleus, and for his contributions to the development of quantum physics, especially the principles of correspondence and complementarity. His work has prompted a large secondary literature. After presenting texts for the beginner and Bohr's complete works, a main source for the serious scholar, this essay will survey biographies, the work on the atomic model (early and late), Bohr's influence on other scientists, on the principles of correspondence and complementarity, and on epistemology and ontology. The well-selected anthology by ERENCH & KENNEDY can be highly recommended for the reader who is not yet familiar with Bohr's oeuvre. It collects brief, personal memoirs by some of Bohr's colleagues, and brief historical sketches of his contributions to the theory of the atom, of the periodic system, of his discussion with Einstein on paradoxes of quantum mechanics, and of his later work in nuclear physics. It also includes his institutional activities as head of the newly founded Universitetets Institut for Teoretisk Eysik in Copenhagen, and his engagement in world politics and issues raised by the atomic bomb after World War II. Interspersed are reprints of original papers and newspaper articles, as well as many illustrations. ROSENEELD et al. (1972) includes all of Bohr's scientific papers, as well as hitherto unpublished manuscripts and (unfortunately, only selected) letters from his scientific correspondence. (Danish documents are also printed in English translation.) The volumes also contain brief introductory headnotes of varying length and quality. Most biographical studies on Bohr have a rather distasteful, hagiographic tone when detailing the way in which the work of the "great, wise man" came into conflict with many world leaders, and with "sinister" Winston Churchill in particular. In MOORE's account of Bohr's meeting at Downing Street on 16 May 1944, in which he tried to convince Churchill of the need for concerted action with Russia in order to prevent the use of atomic weapons, Churchill is simply the impatient bad guy. The complex situation and the many political constraints of the time are much better described in chapter 11 of ROSEBERG's biography, which is, moreover, richly illustrated and contains a good bibliography of primary and secondary literature concerning Bohr. Though full of pertinent details, PAIS's biography does not really achieve a well-rounded portrait of Bohr; in particular, the philosophical aspects of his oeuvre, squeezed by Pais into two brief chapters, are not successfully examined. A facet forgotten in most biographies is Bohr's talent as a fund raiser, meticulously described in AASERUD's institutional history of the emergence of a nuclear science program at the Copenhagen institute, as a result of Bohr's skilful science management which was sensitive to changes in the funding policy of the Rockefeller Eoundation. In particular, Aaserud shows that when the latter decided to increase research funding of biology, Bohr immediately created a biological research program headed by George Hevesy. Several studies address the genesis and reception of the atomic model. ROSENEELD (1963) gives the standard inter-

(

BOHR nalist account, with its usual emphasis on Rutherford's alphascattering measurements as the empirical clue. More interesting is the dispute between Hirosige &: Nisio and Heilbron & Kuhn about which resources proved the most important for the development of the Bohr atomic model. HIROSIGE & NISIO (1964) point to the importance of the work of Hantaro Nagaoka, who had developed a Saturnian atomic model in the tradition of J.J. Thomson, in the hope of understanding the difference between line and band spectra. Eurthermore, they conjecture that it was Planck's theory of radiation of 1910-12 that suggested to Bohr the quantum condition defining the stationary states of hydrogen. Despite explicit refutation by Hirosige & Nisio and others, HEILBRON & KUHN argue that John W Nicholson's atomic model with quantized angular momenta was nevertheless instrumental in the formation of Bohr's model. They claim that it shifted the discussion from a mainly chemical context to spectroscopy, as Nicholson tried to explain certain wavelengths of prominent, but unaccounted, spectral lines in the solar corona. Backed by their study of Bohr's correspondence, they in turn attempt to refute Hirosige &C Nisio's claim concerning the impact of Planck's second theory, which is rebutted in HIROSIGE & NISIO (1970). There are also several studies of the history of the atomic model after Bohr's initial publication in 1913. A fairly technical, but illuminating, discussion of the development from the Bohr atom of 1913, up to the unsuccessful theory of Bohr, Kramers and Slater of 1924, is provided in DARRIGOL's study of the varying use of analogical arguments in the development of quantum theory. Eurther hints on the relation of Bohr's atomic theory to chemistry between 1913 and 1925 can be found in Helge Kragh's contribution to BLAY et al., in which he argues that the Bohr program was immunized against possible objections from the chemists by its narrow definition within physicalist terms. After World War I, Bohr gathered large crowds of enthusiastic graduate students and researchers around him; many of these later wrote of the importance to their scientific development of this period of their lives, because of Bohr's extraordinary talent in creating an atmosphere for discussion. Evidence of this can be found in ROZENTAL and in the aforementioned biographies. Given the generally hagiographic tone of the biographies, J.L. Heilbron's sarcastic tone in his contribution to Blay et al. is very refreshing; he analyses why Bohr, in particular, attracted so many intelligent young scientists, all of whom were initiated into the "Copenhagen spirit" and became converts during more or less extended research visits. Alluding to Bohr's proverbial darkness, Heilbron concedes that, as a sage, Bohr spoke in riddles and parables, both hard to grasp and hard to compose. He analyses the psychological mechanisms by which the circle of "brilliant, aggressive disciples" around the "master guru" was formed, the mode of diffusion of the spirit, and the strategies created for suppressing dissent and combating unorthodox interpretations of the quantum riddles by figures at the fringe of the Bohr circle, such as Wolfgang Pauli and Pascual Jordan. The full depth of Bohr's usage of the principles of correspondence and of complementarity is explored in parts 2 and 3, respectively, of MEYER-ABICH, unfortunately written in a style even heavier than Bohr's original. Meyer-Abich's approach is firmly rooted in the tradition of the history of ideas, with

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its tendency to retrace Bohr's thinking back to William James, Soren Kierkegaard, and, ultimately, to Socrates. Complementary to this, BELLER's paper on the genesis of Bohr's complementarity principle uncovers the underlying network of implicit scientific dialogues in his Como lecture of 1927. She argues that virtually every sentence of this famous talk is an implicit argument with leading physicists of the time, a quite plausible idea given Bohr's tendency toward "dialectic reasoning" in endless discussions with his colleagues. The root of complementarity is thus seen in Bohr's realization that a "happy marriage" between Schrodinger's wave mechanics and Heisenberg's quantum mechanics is feasible, on the basis of de Broglie's wave-packets. PETRUCCIOLI offers a different version of Bohr's route to complementarity. He finds that Bohr's earlier struggles to achieve an epistemologically consistent view of atomic physics led directly to complementarity, but he also examines Bohr's later usage of the complementarity principle, and the 1924 virtual oscillator model of the atom by Bohr, Kramers, and Slater. The strength of Petruccioli's account lies in his close analysis of Bohr's use of metaphors, and the linguistic base of his interpretation of physics. Moreover, he is also careful to compare Bohr's claims with actual facts and results. The clearest introduction to Bohr's philosophy of physics, and to the genesis, meaning, and later extension to psychology and biology of his complementary principle, is provided by EOLSE, who argues against a phenomenalist interpretation of Bohr. Eor Eolse, complementarity is merely a conceptual framework for an epistemological analysis of the measurement of processes of observational interactions (which cannot be subdivided into separate interacting systems), which does not exclude ontological suppositions about an independent, but interacting physical reality. EAYE 8c EOLSE is the best survey of the many different perspectives on Niels Bohr in contemporary philosophy. In it, competing camps claim Bohr as their own, but there are also interesting contributions on the Bohr-Einstein debate. Don Howard illuminates the importance, and systematic role, played by classical concepts in Bohr's philosophy of physics, and Paul Hoyningen-Huene analyses Bohr's argument for the irreducibility of biology to physics. A scholarly war is currently raging concerning the extent of the influence that the Copenhagen philosophy professor, Harald Hoffding had on Bohr. EAYE has collected evidence of such an influence, both indirectly through the friendship of Bohr's father, who taught physiology at Copenhagen university with H0ffding, and direcdy, since Bohr took part in Hoffding's course on propaedeutic philosophy in 1903. EAVRHOLDT, on the other hand, has vigorously attacked Eaye's thesis, and has scrutinized all the evidence regarding philosophical influences on Bohr (Hoffding or Kierkegaard, James or Kant), sometimes correcting Eaye's over-enthusiasm, and sometimes bordering on the pedantic. Eavrholdt argues that there was no intense mentor-pupil relationship between Bohr and Hoffding, just a courteous relation between a young student and his father's friend; the alleged homologies and similarities between Hoffding's philosophy of mind and psychology, and Bohr's philosophy of quantum mechanics, such as "a blurred distinction between subject and object", are partially refuted by Eavrholdt, and partially rejected as methodologically

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insufficient grounds for claiming influence of any sort. Faye describes Bohr as an objective anti-realist, holding that "truth is a concept which relates to circumstances whose occurrence or non-occurrence is, in principle, empirically accessible to our cognitive capacities". Others, such as Folse, declare him an instrumentalistic realist, with a theory of meaning close to pragmatism, since, for Bohr, physical predicates have meaning only insofar as they can be used "to make an assertion which has effects that might conceivably have a bearing on practice". As might be clear from these quotes, this often-repeated, terminological reshuffling of Bohr's unsystematic remarks by professional philosophers is not very helpful from a historical point of view, since Bohr did not simply think as a systematic philosopher, or in terms of the philosophical schools of his day, about epistemological and ontological affairs, but rather in terms of problems that originated in physics, but which crossed disciplinary borders. KLAUS

HENTSCHEL

Boltzmann, Ludwig Eduard 1844-1906 Austrian physicist and philosopher of science Broda, Engelbert, Ludwig Boltzmann: Man, Physicist, Philosopher, translated from the German by Larry Gay and Engelbert Broda, Woodbridge, Connecticut: Ox Bow Press, 1983 Brush, Stephen G., The Kind of Motion We Call Heat (A History of the Kinetic Tbeory of Gases in tbe i^th Century), z vols, Amsterdam: North-Holland, 1986 Curd, Martin Vincent, Ludwig Boltzmann's Philosophy of Science: Theories, Pictures and Analogies, PhD dissertation. University of Pittsburgh, 1978 D'Agostino, Salvo, "Boltzmann and Hertz on the BILDConception of Physical Theory", History of Science, 28 (1990): 380-98 Dugas, Rene, La Theorie physique au sens de Boltzmann et ses prolongements ntodernes, Neuchatel: Griffon, 1959 Hiebert, Erwin N., "Boltzmann's Conception of Theory Construction: The Promotion of Pluralism, Provisionalism, and Pragmatic Realism", in Pisa Conference Proceedings, vol. 2, edited by J. Hintikka, D. Gruender and E. Agazzi, Dordrecht: Reidel, 1980 Horz, Herbert and Andreas Lass, Ludwig Boltzntanns Wege nach Berlin: Ein Kapitel osterreicbiscb-deutscber Wissenscbaftsbeziebungen, Berlin: Akademie, 1989 Jungnickel, Christa and Russell McCormmach, Intellectual Mastery of Nature: Theoretical Physics from Ohm to Einstein, 2 vols, Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1986 Klein, Martin J., "The Development of Boltzmann's Statistical Ideas", Acta Physica Austriaca, supplement 10 (1973): 53-106 Stiller, Wolfgang, Ludwig Boltzmann: Altmeister der klassischen Pbysik, Wegbereiter der Quantenphysik und Evolutionstheorie, Thun/Erankfurt: Deutsch, 1989 Videira, Antonio Augusto Passos, Atomisme epistemologique et pluralisme theorique dans la pensee de Boltzmann, PhD dissertation, Equipe Rehseis-University of Paris VII, 1992

Wilson, Andrew D., "Mental Representation and Scientific Knowledge: Boltzmann's Bild Theory of Knowledge in Historical Context", Physis, 28 (1991): 769-95 Until quite recently, Ludwig Eduard Boltzmann's passionate defence of atomism, and his seminal contributions to statistical mechanics and the kinetic theory of gases, were the main reasons for the interest shown by historians and philosophers of science. However, Boltzmann's philosophical undertakings have received more attention since the end of the 1970s. With his biography of Boltzmann, the only one existing to date, the Austrian physical chemist Engelbert BRODA has helped to bring Boltzmann to the attention of historians of science. It is the first work to attempt a general presentation of Boltzmann's achievements, with biographical information and an analysis of his scientific contributions, along with critical comments about his philosophical enterprise. However, as Broda himself concedes, Boltzmann's writings are not faultless, partly because of his sparing use of primary sources. DUGAS also provides a general analysis of Boltzmann's scientific and philosophical thought. Beginning with the interest raised during the 1950s by the causal interpretation of quantum mechanics, Dugas endeavours to show, through Boltzmann's example, that dogmatism should not be accepted among scientists. Dugas's intention, then, is to present the Austrian physicist's notion of physical theory, and how this notion was consolidated by means of mechanical models and analogies. Dugas aims to establish the fruitfulness of Boltzmann's ideas and methods, when correctly employed. KLEIN aims to show how Boltzmann's recourse to statistical concepts was in keeping with the principles underlying the world picture of classical mechanics; i.e., the way in which Boltzmann used statistics for reconciling the irreversibility of thermodynamics with the reversibility of mechanics. Klein describes how the criticism heaped on Boltzmann during the 1870S only spurred on his research program, which had as its goal the establishment of a mechanical foundation for his second principle of thermodynamics. BRUSH, a collection of previously published papers, places Boltzmann's ideas within the scientific context of the 19th century. It analyses the unfolding of statistical mechanics and of the kinetic theory of gases throughout that century. CURD'S doctoral thesis is arguably the first work to attempt a circumstantial understanding of Boltzmann's arguments in favour of atomism and of a mechanistic view of the world. Curd shows why Boltzmann became involved in the explicit formulation of a philosophy of science that was significantly influenced by the writings of Hertz and Maxwell, and places Boltzmann's philosophical thought between realism and instrumentalism. The interest of HIEBERT's work resides in his attempt to shed light on the motives that led Boltzmann to develop his own philosophy of science, despite having repeatedly expressed a profound loathing of philosophy. Eaced with intense and severe criticism at the turn of the 19th century, Boltzmann devoted himself to philosophy in an attempt to justify his own scientific methods. Hiebert, like Curd, argues that Boltzmann's conceptual structure is a standard example of philosophical positivism. In his article on the physical theory worked out by Hertz and Boltzmann, D'AGOSTINO shows how, despite his great

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admiration for Hertz, the development of Boltzmann's epistemological system made him reject some of the theses upheld by Hertz. WILSON aims to settle some of the still undecided questions about the origins of Boltzmann's epistemological edifice. He points out that Boltzmann's philosophy of science does not spring from his readings of Hertz. Indeed, the inception of Boltzmann's philosophy is placed in his period as a student at the Gymnasium in Linz, where he encountered the thought of Robert Zimmermann, a partisan of Herbart, Eichte, and Kant. Discussing Zimmermann's influence, Wilson makes clear in what measure Boltzmann may be considered a neo-Kantian. VIDEIRA's main purpose is to put into relief the systematic character of Boltzmann's thought. Eor this purpose, the significance of his theoretical pluralism is analysed; in Boltzmann's work, identical phenomena may be explained in different manners and within different contexts, such as his unwavering defence of atomism, and his steadfast refusal to convert scientific and philosophical theses into dogmas. JUNGNICKEL & McCORMMACH analyse the emergence during the 19th century of theoretical physics, to a large extent a German phenomenon. They discuss the questions German physicists raised, the methods they used and the results they obtained within the context of the institutionalization of theoretical physics. On account of all his academic activities, Boltzmann is properly considered as one of the first theoretical physicists in the modern sense, and he features in four large chapters. Marxist thinkers have always been interested in Boltzmann, whom they have consistently considered a materialist scientist and philosopher as a result of his continued support of atomism. As examples of this adoption of Boltzmann's work by Marxist intellectuals, I have chosen two recent publications. The first, by H O R Z &C LASS, discusses the motives that led Boltzmann to decline the invitation to replace Kirchhoff as the new professor of theoretical physics at the University of Berlin. Besides briefly commenting on Boltzmann's life, career, and work, they stress the personal and scientific relationship between Boltzmann and Helmholtz. Eollowing the Marxist tradition, the authors propose that many of Boltzmann's scientific and philosophical conceptions may be correctly understood only when characterised as dialectic and Marxist. The second Marxist work about Boltzmann is STILLER; the author is a physical chemist from the former East Germany. Addressed to the cultivated general public, it is not intended as a biography, but instead presents Boltzmann's life and work within a global context. Its greatest merit is the prominence it gives to contemporary opinion of Boltzmann's scientific and philosophical achievements. A N T O N I O A U G U S T O PASSOS V I D E I R A

Botanical and Zoological Gardens Bendiner, Robert, The Fall of the Wild, The Rise of the Zoo, New York: Dutton, 1981 Berrall, Julia S., The Garden: An Illustrated History, New York: Viking Press, 1966; Harmondsworth: Penguin, 1978

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Blunt, Wilfrid, The Ark in the Park: The Zoo in tbe Nineteenth Century, London: Hamish Hamilton, 1976 Bramwell, D. et al. (eds). Botanic Gardens and the World Conservation Strategy, London: Academic Press, 1987 Brockway, Lucile H., Science and Colonial Expansion: The Role of the British Royal Botanic Gardens, New York: Academic Press, 1979 Eletcher, Harold R. and William H. Brown, The Royal Botanic Garden, Edinburgh. i6yo-i9jo, Edinburgh: HMSO, 1970 Gager, G. Stuart, Botanic Gardens of the World: Materials for a History, New York: Brooklyn Botanic Garden Record, 1937; znd edition, 1938 Hahn, Emily, Animal Gardens, New York: Doubleday, 1967 Howard, Richard A., Burdette L. Wagenknecht and Peter S. Green (eds). International Directory of Botanical Gardens, Utrecht: International Bureau for Plant Taxonomy and Nomenclature, 1963 Hyams, Edward, Great Botanical Gardens of the World, photographs by William MacQuitty, London: Nelson and New York: Macmillan, 1969 Hyams, Edward, A History of Gardens and Gardening, New York: Praeger, and London: Dent, 1971 Jarvis, Garoline (ed.). International Zoo Yearbook, London, published annually Kirchshofer, Rosl (ed.). The World of Zoos: A Survey and Gazetteer, translated from the German by Hilda Morris, New York: Viking Press, 1968 (original edition, i960) Meyer, Alfred (ed.), A Zoo for All Seasons: The Smithsonian Animal World, Washington, DG: Smithsonian Exposition Books, 1979 Pei Sheng-Ji, Botanical Gardens in China, Honolulu: University of Hawaii Press, 1984 Prest, John, The Garden of Eden: The Botanic Garden and the Re-Creation of Paradise, New Haven, Gonnecticut: Yale University Press, 1981 Shetler, Stanwyn G., The Komarov Botanical Institute: 250 Years of Russian Research, Washington, DG: Smithsonian Institution Press, 1967 Solit, Karen D., History of the United States Botanic Garden, 1816-1991, Washington, DG: Government Printing Office, 1993 Wyman, Donald, "The Arboretum and Botanical Gardens of North America", Chronica Botanica, 10 (1947): 395-498 Zoological Parks and Aquariums in the Americas, 1906-1987, Wheeling, West Virginia: American Association of Zoological Parks and Aquariums, published annually Although there is a vast literature on the subjects of botany and zoology, and considerable material on museums of natural history and on gardens in general, works devoted specifically to botanical and zoological gardens are more limited. Almost every major botanical and zoological garden offers publications covering its own history and the nature and extent of its individual collections. Eor comprehensive surveys of these (including information about ownership, average attendance figures, annual operating budgets, the number of species or

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specialty exhibits maintained in each facility), see HOWARD, WAGENKNECHT & GREEN, JARVIS, and Zoological Parks and Aquariums in the Americas, 1906-198J. The latter provides basic information, including a list of member institutions in the US and Canada, and pertinent local information, including hours, rates, facilities, numbers of employees and volunteers, educational programs, species on exhibit, as well as attendance figures and annual budgets. Eor the most part, works surveyed here are representative of the most useful resources currently available to anyone interested in learning more about botanical and zoological gardens around the world. Eirst botanical gardens are considered, and then publications related to zoological gardens. Botanical Gardens GAGER presents the results of a questionnaire sent to "all gardens of record", and covers both botanical gardens in their own right and those affiliated with university departments of botany or other institutions. Not included are nature preserves, public parks, flower gardens, or private collections of trees or shrubs. Thus, the book is limited to institutions and gardens whose primary aim is botanical research, teaching, or both. As a guide to the "history of botanical gardens", it includes both functioning gardens (as of 1938), as well as some notable examples of those no longer in existence, including the botanical gardens of Epicurus, Aristotle, and Theophrastus in antiquity. For gardens in operation, each entry includes as much information as supplied by each institution as possible, including the names of directors, garden revenues, the extent of holdings of both libraries and herbaria, special lectures, courses offered, and the extent of the botanical collections exhibited or maintained by each garden listed. WYMAN provides a more detailed study limited to the arboretums and botanical gardens of North America. Wyman, then horticulturist at the Arnold Arboretum of Harvard University, also includes information on colonial gardens, with a bibliography and maps, one showing climate and temperature variations across the country over the years, and another locating the "active arboretums and botanical gardens of North America". Wyman notes that as a result of World War II, many gardens closed permanently (all of which are listed), while a number of new arboretums and botanical gardens subsequently came into existence. Like Gager, Wyman is based on responses received from questionnaires sent to more than 200 institutions throughout North America. Arranged alphabetically, he also provides local descriptions and notes special features, including the number of species and variations in each collection, library holdings, special events, publications of each garden, and a list of references about the garden in question. Among the illustrations (which are not limited to North America), Wyman includes the early garden at the University of Montpellier, France (1596), and the famous Hortus Botanicus, Linnaeus' Tradgard in Uppsala, Sweden. BERRALL offers an illustrated history of gardens from the time of the Pharaohs in ancient Egypt, surveying ancient Mesopotamian, Persian, Greek and Roman gardens, Islamic gardens, and medieval monasteric and castle gardens. Italian Renaissance gardens, and the extraordinary example of the gardens at Versailles, are followed by examples of English

garden traditions, and the gardens of Japan and China. Among the drawings, engravings, paintings, and photographs used to illustrate this book, some are reproduced in color. Although not strictly devoted to botanical gardens, many of the gardens covered here represent serious research facilities. SHETLER represents another genre of writings on botanical gardens, devoted to institutional history. In celebrating the 250th anniversary of the Komarov Botanical Institute, Shetler focuses on the history of botanical research in Leningrad/St Petersburg conducted at three facilities: the Imperial Botanical Gardens of St Petersburg (1823-1931), the Botanical Museum of the Academy of Sciences (1835-1931), and the Botanical Garden of the Academy of Sciences (1713-1812). The Komarov Botanical Institute incorporated the legacy of all three institutions when it was founded in 1931, and celebrated the 250th anniversary of botanical research in Leningrad in 1966. Shetler includes a discussion of the Institute's herbarium, library, public museum, and the "Department of Living Plants", i.e., the botanical garden. HYAMS (1969) covers the great botanical gardens of the world with full-color illustrations. Italian gardens include the important research centers at Padua, Pisa and Palermo, including the Villa Taranto, and all of the great northern European gardens are here: Leiden, Munich, and Berlin-Dahlem, Paris (Jardin des Plantes), Vienna (Schonbrunn), and London (Kew). Scandinavia is represented by Goteborg and the famous garden of Linnaeus at Uppsala. North America is represented by the Arnold Arboretum (Harvard University), the Longworth and Huntington gardens, and Montreal (Canada), among others. The section on the Soviet Union includes gardens in Moscow, Minsk, Kiev, Yalta, and Tashkent, the section on the tropics ranges over Brazil, Ceylon, India, Singapore, and Uganda, while the southern hemisphere is represented by Christchurch (New Zealand), Melbourne and Sydney (Australia), and Kirstenbosch and Stellenbosch (South Africa). Botanical gardens in Japan are also covered. In addition, ground plans of historic gardens, a map showing the locations of the world's botanical gardens, and illustrations in both black and white and color are provided, along with an index. Like Berrall, Hyams (1969) is not devoted specifically to botanical gardens, although, again, many of the gardens covered here may also be counted among the world's important research centers. FLETCHER & BROWN offer another example of an institutional history, this one celebrating the tercentenary of the Edinburgh gardens. The frontispiece depicts Sir Robert Sibbald, founder (with Sir Andrew Balfour) of the garden; dissatisfied with the state of medicine at the time, these two physicians founded a physic garden for medicinal and other plants, and the original plot of 180 square yards eventually grew into the great Botanical Garden at Inverleith. This history of the gardens and the important research sponsored by the Royal Botanic Garden in Edinburgh, is nicely illustrated with ground plans and photographs of the gardens and of the individuals most responsible for their development. HYAMS (1971) offers an extensively illustrated guide to gardens around the world, from Chinese garden art and preColumbian gardens, to New York roof garden terraces and the fountains at Longword gardens in Pennsylvania. Along the way, it covers African gardens in the Dar-al-Islam, medieval gardens, and Renaissance, Erench and English gardens. But

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again, like both Hyams (1969) and Berrall, Hyams (1971) is devoted to gardens in general, not botanical gardens in particular, although these do figure to a considerable extent. BROGKWAY concentrates on the role of colonial expansion, especially the British experience in the Indies, Ghina and the New World. The book discusses seed and plant transfers, new food staples and plantation crops, along with the roles of learned societies and botanical gardens in supporting botanical research - especially at Kew in London, where quinine, rubber, and sisal were all studied. Brockway, in addition to stressing the importance of British botanical science in studying and developing plant resources, is also interested in analyzing "the social and political implications of scientific research" within the context of colonial expansion. PREST, while not a history of botanical gardens per se, is concerned with the "great age" of botanical gardens, following the discovery of the New World. It examines in particular six European gardens that achieved pre-eminence: Padua, Leiden, Montpellier, Oxford, Paris, and Uppsala. The Oxford garden, divided into four quadrants representing the four continents, Europe, Asia, Africa and the Americas, was typical. Such gardens were intended to serve as living encyclopedias, in which plants were laid out for ready reference. Prest also studies botanical gardens as "re-creations" of the Garden of Eden. This book, handsomely illustrated, also covers formal gardens like those at Ghatsworth, and college gardens such as the one at Wadham Gollege, Oxford. PEI reflects a growing interest in gardens and their history throughout Asia. This study, published by the Harold L. Lyon Arboretum in Hawaii, evolved from a lecture given at the Arboretum, and gives a brief history of botanical gardens in Ghina. As early as the Song Dynasty (AD 4ZO-79), a garden of medicinal plants, the Du-Le Garden, was being studied in Ghina, for which there is even a contemporary guide by SiMa Qian. Palace and private gardens are also discussed. Eollowing the founding of the People's Republic of Ghina in 1949, Pei reports on two major conferences on botanical gardens held in Ghina, in 1963 and 1978, and in 1981 the Ghinese Association of Botanic Gardens was established in Wuhan. Among the gardens covered in Pei, the earliest was founded in Nanjing in memory of Sun Yat-Sen in 1928, and later rebuilt in 1954 with a herbarium of 520,000 specimens. Other botanical gardens were founded in Lushan (1934), Kunming (1951), Beijing (1955, with a herbarium of more than one million specimens), Guangzhou (1956), Hangzhou (1956), Wuhan (1956), Guilin (1958), Xi'an (1959), Xishuangbanna (1959), and most recently, Shanghai (1973). BRAMWELL et al. represents a growing interest in the role botanical gardens can play in ecological research and the conservation of wildlife in all its forms. This volume, based on a conference held in Las Palmas, Gran Ganaria in 1985 (which brought together 175 botanists and botanical garden managers from 39 countries), discusses the role of botanical gardens in implementing world conservation strategies. In particular, this volume focuses on how gardens can be effective in both plant conservation efforts and in the maintenance of plant diversity. Reports from local communities range from Nancy (Erance) and Gordoba (Spain), to Xishuangbanna (Ghina) and Mexico, among many others. Topics discussed range from the computerization of garden records to the role

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of the International Association of Botanic Gardens (IABG) in conservation world-wide. SOLIT studies yet another major institution, the US Botanic Garden. Although discussed by the founding fathers, it was not until the Presidency of James Monroe that an act was signed in 1829 to establish a National Botanic Garden. Gharged with collecting plants from all over the world, this first national garden survived little more than 20 years, and was disbanded in 1837. Just five years later, however, the idea was revived, largely as a result of new interest roused by the plants collected by the Wilkes expedition to the South Seas. Solit describes the history of the institution, the significance of the Wilkes Expedition (1838-42), the achievements of the garden under the direction of William Smith, and its fortunes under the directorship of George Wesley Hess, and then gives details of its current functions, largely unchanged from its original Gongressional mandate, to collect, cultivate, and grow various "vegetable productions" and to display them to the public for their enjoyment and education.

Zoological Gardens JARVIS, although published annually, includes a brief history of zoos, from that of Queen Hatshepsut of Egypt to the "parks of intelligence" maintained by King Hui of Liang in ancient Ghina. Marco Polo noted the splendid menageries of Kublai Khan at Xanadu, and, earlier, Alexander the Great kept strange animals as tribute from lands he conquered, which were available to Aristotle for academic study. In the modern era, Jarvis describes the great zoos of Britain, Erance, Germany, Russia, Japan, and the US. HAHN concentrates on "zoos of the past, and the institution as it exists today". Practical discussion includes dealers and how they supply animals to zoos, both public and private. Unfortunately, there is nothing here on Latin America, and no zoos are covered in Spain or Portugal, or any of the reserves in Africa. KIRGHSHOEER includes a number of articles written by directors of prominent zoos, and is devoted to various aspects of the practical operation of zoos and to various philosophies concerning their functions in modern society. A.G.V. van Bemmel (of the Blijdorp Zoo in Rotterdam) considers the "zoological garden as asylums for threatened species", while H. Hediger of Zurich examines the transformation "from cage to territory" - from the 19th-century concept of menageries, to the current fashion for exhibiting animals in habitats. Heinrich Dathe (of the Eriedrichsfelde Zoo, Berlin) offers a day-to-day portrait of the life of a zoo director, while Walter Eiedler of the Schonbrunn Zoo (Vienna) describes the history of the "oldest zoo in the world" (dating from 1452). Kirchshofer provides a useful gazetteer of the zoological gardens of the world, a survey of zoos and public aquariums, as well as introductory essays by region. BLUNT focuses on zoos in the 19th century, beginning with the zoological garden established in Regent's Park, London, in 1828. This was supported by the Zoological Society of London, which was granted its charter in 1829, and was first headed by Sir Humphry Davy, President of the Royal Society, and Sir Stamford Raffles. The history of the Zoological Society, and the roles of Sir Richard Owen, Thomas Henry Huxley, and Philip Lutley Selater, are also discussed.

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MEYER is a beautifully illustrated history of the National Zoo in the US, including a history of the "evolution of the zoo", and covers such subjects as the art of acquisition, keepers and curators, feeding times, science and health, and the doctoring of exotic animals, along with the role of research and the study of animal behavior. It also provides a "who's who" of zoos, but only public institutions are listed, and no account is given of aquariums, private, or commercial zoos. Major exhibits and recent trends related to zoos in America are also covered. BENDINER considers the changing role of zoos and their value in breeding endangered species. He is in favor of zoos because "in what remains of the wild", orang-utans, Siberian tigers, one-horned rhinoceroses, and green turtles - to name but a few - "are not destined to run free and multiply at all but rather to sink into the zoological burial ground that already contains the last remnants of the dodo, the woolly mammoth and the passenger pigeon". Emphasis here is given to the Bronx Zoo (New York), the San Diego Wild Animal Park (California), England's Whipsnade Zoo, and the Erankfurt Zoo in Germany. The importance of zoos for "informing the public, for furthering scientific study, and, above all, for providing a safety net for [endaiigered] species", is stressed. National parks and preserves in India and Africa are also covered. Menus for feeding animals at the National and London zoos are provided, while Bendiner also discusses outstanding examples of "habitat" zoo designs at Chester (England), Rotterdam, San Diego, and the Bronx. JOSEPH W. DAUBEN

Botany: general works Christensen, Carl Erederik Albert, Den danske Botanik's Historie, vols i - i , Copenhagen: Haderups, 1924-26 Collander Runar, The History of Botany in Finland 1828-1918, translated from the Einnish by David Barrett, Helsinki: Societas Scientiarum Eennica, 1965 Davy de Virville, Adrien, Histoire de la Botanique en France, Paris: Comite Eran^ais du Vllle Congres International de Botanique Paris-Nice, 1954 Eriksson, Gunnar, Botanikens historia i Sverige intill dr 1800, Uppsala: Almqvist &c Wiksell, 1969 Ewan, Josef (ed.), A Short History of Botany in the United States, New York: Hafner, 1969 Green, Joseph Reynolds, A History of Botany, 1860-1900: Being a Continuation of Sachs's "History of Botany, ISJ0-1860", Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1909; New York: Russell and Russell, 1967 Green, Joseph Reynolds, A History of Botany in tbe United Kingdom from the Earliest Times to tbe End of tbe i^th Century, London: Dent, and New York: Dutton, 1914 Humphrey, Harry Baker, Makers of North American Botany, New York: Ronald Press, 1961 Magdefrau, Karl, Geschichte der Botanik: Leben und Leistung grofier Forscher, Stuttgart: Eischer, 1973; ^.nd edition, 1992 Meyer, Ernst Heinrich Eriedrich, Geschichte der Botanik, vols 1-4, Konigsberg: Borntrager, 1854-57; reprinted, Amsterdam: Asher, 1965

Mobius, Martin, Geschichte der Botanik von den ersten Anfdngen bis zur Gegenwart, Jena: Eischer, 1937 Morton, A.G., History of Botanical Science: An Account of the Development of Botany from Ancient Times to the Present Day, London and New York: Academic Press, 1981

Sachs, Julius, History of Botany, 1^^0-1860, translated from the German by H.E.E Garnsey, revised by I.B. Balfour, Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1890 (original edition, 1864) Weevers, Theodorus, Fifty Years of Plant Physiology, translated from the Dutch by A.J.M.J. Rant, Amsterdam: Scheltema 8c Holkema, 1949 In the early 19th century a number of surveys of the history of botany were published, based on the work of well-known writers and organised as chronological histories of the botanical literature. Botanists of our own time have tried to grasp both the inner logic of scientific development and, above all, the differentiation of botany into its modern sub-disciplines. A substantial genre deals with the development of botany within the borders of national states. The general overview by MOBIUS dedicates only 20 pages to the scientific approaches of antiquity and the Middle Ages; the development since the i6th century takes up 350 pages, applications from agriculture to pharmacology 30 pages, and notes on research tools (such as botanical gardens and microscopy) 15 pages. The book amply refers to events, dates, and authors to map the development of taxonomy and of the botanical sub-disciplines, including morphology, cytology, anatomy, evolution, the various aspects of physiology, plant geography, and phytopalaeontology. However, Mobius offers merely a catalogue of dates, rather than an account of the inner logic of scientific development, and his work contains many errors with respect to first names, dates, and the biographical sketches in the footnotes. To the critical reader the book may serve as a reference work for a historical introduction into the various aspects of botany. While retaining the main categories of Mobius's history, M A G D E E R A U disregards systematic plant classification (taxonomy) and emphasizes particular individuals and their achievement. Original works are carefully documented, and many achievements described more fully than in earlier attempts. Some are even acknowledged for the first time, such as phytoecology, pathology, and palaeontology, which Magdefrau presents a detailed analysis of the original works. Since all scholarly details are reliable and supported by references to the literature, the book can be recommended as a sound introduction to the fundamental problems of botany and to the development of its insights. The British botanist MORTON has also produced a general survey of the history of botany from prehistoric times to the 20th century. In 11 chapters (supplemented by references to sources and the secondary literature) he discusses the chief lines of development, from early botany to the foundation of scientific botany in antiquity, and its continuation since the Renaissance to the modern specialisation of botanical sub-disciplines. In this account, only events that led to modern developments are deemed relevant. As in Mobius and Magdefrau, the history of medieval botany is interpreted as a period of

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scientific stagnation and is paid scant attention. But, in contrast to earlier works, Morton includes developments in ancient Ghina, the Americas, and other non-European countries. The history of botany in the 20th century is dealt with until about 1930, and, since the book skips a number of contentious areas, it can merely serve as an introduction. The early history of botany from antiquity to the age of humanism is detailed in the four volumes by MEYER, who aimed at a complete listing of all authors and texts on botany known in his day. His extensive commentaries on the works are scholarly and fairly balanced. Even so, not all of his statements comply with modern standards of historical objectivity, for although a botanist of considerable philological skill, Meyer still tried to discover the biological knowledge of his own age in the earlier sources. However, the many carefully established details render his collection a reference work that is still useful. SAGHS has written a history of botany between around 1500 and the mid-i9th century. His survey cites the most important authors of the period under consideration, but fails to evaluate adequately their writings, and contains neither footnotes nor references. The selection of events and the historical opinions of this positivist professional botanist are singlemindedly focused on a confirmation of the growth of knowledge of particular "facts". The work is thus useful merely for introductory information. GREEN (1909) is a study of the following period, from i860 to 1900. It contains footnotes and references and deals with the main subject areas of botany, namely morphology with taxonomy and phytopalaeontology, plant anatomy and plant physiology, with the exception of taxonomy and plant geography. The emergent areas of research, such as evolution, bacteriology, microbiology, ecology as well as evolutionary biology, are only mentioned in passing. In the main. Green offers an introduction to the most important foundations of modern botany. The beginnings of modern plant physiology in the first half of the zoth century are discussed in detail by WEEVERS. A number of special publications trace the history of botany in particular countries. GHRISTENSEN offers a detailed study of the history of botany in Denmark between c.1600 and 1912. He discusses the history of botany in the universities, the work of outstanding individuals, and special activities such as the compilation of a Flora Danica and scientific expeditions; also discussed are Danish contributions to the development of modern botany, morphology, taxonomy, anatomy, plant geography, plant physiology and plant pathology, mycology, microbiology, and so on. The book contains a useful biography of original literature. GREEN (1914) presents a careful analysis of the history of botany in England, Scotland and Ireland from the early modern era up till about 1900. Gonsulting original literature and biographical material, he discusses the work of British botanists and their reaction to international developments, in particular to the work of Linneaus. He also gives an account of the history of botany in the universities and botanical institutions. A chronological table displays the most important events between 1516 and 1900, which are also discussed in the text. A history of botany in Einland, focusing on the period 1828-1918, has been compiled by GOLLANDER. The book

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describes the outstanding contributions by the Nylander brothers and by Erederik Elfving; it also offers an account of the rise of specialist institutions, and of the rise of botany in the educational system. In addition, Gollander thoroughly discusses modern developments in physiology, phycology, mycology, ecology, and taxonomy. In co-operation with a number of specialists, DAVY DE VIRVILLE has published a study of Erench botany between the 16th and 20th centuries. Referring to a wealth of biographical detail (supplemented by photographic portraits and illustrations) as well as original literature, this book gives a particularly detailed account of Erench contributions to modern aspects of botany in the 19th and early 20th centuries. Apart from morphology, anatomy and physiology, the book deals with the then important cryptogamy, phytogeography, pathology and palaeontology, as well as agronomical, pharmaceutical and silvicultural botany. There is a separate chapter on the notion of "species" and the beginnings of the theory of evolution. ERIKSSON contains the early history of Swedish botany up to 1800. Based on original texts, this study gives a detailed account of university history, which began as early as the late Middle Ages (when the University of Uppsala was founded). Eriksson also discusses the important achievements of Swedish botanists, including the systematic work of Linneaus, whose impact on his successors is depicted along with later innovations in plant physiology and investigations of cryptogams. HUMPHREY'S alphabetical compilation of 122 short biographies of botanists active in North America was followed by EWAN's introductory survey on the history of botany in the United States, which concentrates on the period between 1850 and 1950. BRIGITTE HOPPE

translated by Anna-Katherina Meyer

Botany: Britain Allen, David Elliston, The Botanists: A History of the Botanical Society of the British Isles through a Hundred and Fifty Years, Winchester: St Paul's Bibliographies, 1986 Bower, Erederick Orpen, Sixty Years of Botany in Britain (i8j^-i9J5): Impressions of an Eyewitness, London: Macmillan, 1938 Glokie, Hermina Newman, An Account of the Herbaria of the Department of Botany in the University of Oxford, London: Oxford University Press, 1964 Desmond, Ray, Kew: The History of the Royal Botanic Gardens, London; Harvill Press with the Royal Botanic Gardens, Kew, 1995 Eletcher, Harold Roy and William H. Brown, The Royal Botanic Garden Edinburgh, 1670-19J0, Edinburgh: HMSO, 1970 Gage, Andrew Thomas, A History of the Linnean Society of London, London: Linnean Society, 1938 Gage, Andrew Thomas and William Thomas Steam, A Bicentenary History of the Linnean Society of London, London and San Diego: Academic Press, 1988 Green, Joseph Reynolds, A History of Botany, 1860-1900: Being a Continuation of Sachs's "History of Botany,

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ij}o-i86o", Oxford: Glarendon Press, 1909; New York: Russell and Russell, 1967 Green, Joseph Reynolds, A History of Botany in the United Kingdom from the Earliest Times to the End of tbe 19th Century, London: Dent, and New York: Dutton, 1914 Harvey-Gibson, Robert John, Outlines of the History of Botany, London: A. and C. Black, 1919 Walters, Stuart Max, The Shaping of Cambridge Botany: A Short History of Whole-Plant Botany in Cambridge from tbe Time of Ray into the Present Century, Gambridge and New York: Gambridge University Press, 1981 Until recently, writing general surveys of scientific disciplines has been out of fashion. In Britain, especially, this is in marked contrast to the beginning of the 20th century when, motivated by Julius Sachs's History of Botany (1875; English translation, 1890), and anxious to justify investment in laboratories and equipment, leading figures of the first generation of professional botanists produced accounts of the origin of their discipline. In A History of Botany, 1860-1900, Joseph Reynolds GREEN (professor of botany at the Pharmaceutical Society of Great Britain before becoming Hartley Lecturer in vegetable physiology at Liverpool University, 1907-14) has written one of the very best accounts of the period in which the foundations of the discipline were laid. Taking his cue from Sachs, the material is set out in three divisions: morphology (and classification), anatomy, and physiology. With a good index and a comprehensive bibliography, this remains a splendid account of the body of work to which British botanists aspired to contribute. Green's story really begins with the Reformation and the establishment of university and private herbal and physic gardens, and covers the period from the foundation of the Oxford Botanic Garden in 1621 to the surrender of the Ghelsea Physic Garden by the Apothecaries's Company in 1899. As one might expect from someone involved with the Pharmaceutical Society for xo years, the account is particularly strong on the relationship between botany and areas such as pharmacy, chemistry, and medicine. In an attempt to temper Green's enthusiasm for all things German, Robert John HARVEY-GIBSON (a friend and colleague of Green) published his Outlines of the History of Botany in 1919. The text is based on a lecture course given to third-year students at Liverpool University (where the author was professor of botany from 1894 to 1921). Although the main body of the book concerns the story from Linnaeus to zoth-century laboratory-based botany, it is structured in a progressive, phylogenetic form, beginning with plant knowledge in antiquity and ending with the modern fields of reproduction, nutrition, ecology, sensitivity, morphology, taxonomy, evolution, palaeobotany, and anatomy. It is an attractively written account that, as the author intended, preserves the style of the lecture room. To get the most out of these accounts one should bear in mind their historical context, and, to this end, excellent insight is provided by BOWER's autobiography. Bower was professor of botany at Glasgow University for 40 years (1885-1925), and his book provides a portrait of the moribund state of the discipline in Britain in the last quarter of the 19th century. In

the 1870s, a student in the natural sciences with an interest in botany who desired more than a course in descriptive botany and herborizing excursions, was reliant on German text-books. (This was at Gambridge University, where there had been a chair of botany for more than 150 years). There is an edge to this short account that makes it a good read: as Bower puts it, while Hugo von Mohl, Wilhelm Hofmeister, and Julius Sachs were setting the plant side of biology aglow with a new synthetic flame in Germany, "official botany at Gambridge had been splitting analytically the varieties of Rubus". He attributes the development of the discipline in Britain to the provisions of the 1870 Education Act, which introduced science to the national curriculum in schools, thereby creating the demand for teachers and for teachers of teachers. These demands were first met by Thomas Henry Huxley's Normal School of Science at South Kensington, London and, later, by the expanding university sector. This is a book as much about education and science as it is about botany and botanists. After Gambridge, Bower studied under Sachs at the University of Wlirzburg (1879) and with Anton de Bary at the University of Strasbourg (1879). In these continental research institutions he learned skills in preparing, treating, preserving, and observing material for biological inquiry. Erom 1880, he worked as an assistant to Daniel Oliver at University College, London, and as a demonstrator and lecturer at the Normal School of Science. At the same time he pursued his own research interests at the newly established Jodrell Laboratory at the Royal Botanic Gardens, Kew, until his appointment as Regius Professor of Botany at Glasgow in 1885. In his account of his experience of all these institutions, personae, pedagogy, and botany are given equal status. Despite the title, the focus of the book is primarily on the period 1870-90, and those interested in the nature of the new botany will find chapter 10, "The Morphological Kaleidoscope", of much value. Here, Bower describes the way in which the perspective shifted from the old paradigm, based on a fully organized land plant (constituted by root, stem, leaf, and hair), to the propagative organs of the more rudimentary forms. The result was that, far from any spore-producing form originating as a metamorphosed stem, leaf, pinna, or hair, the reverse is seen to be the outcome of the comparison, thereby producing a stable basis "for opinions that were to prove themselves more in accord with evolutionary theory". While the general survey literature on botany is sparse, there is a good body of literature on British botanical institutions. Not surprisingly, the Royal Botanic Gardens, Kew, has received most attention, the most recent (and finest) study being DESMOND. This is an excellent institutional history, richly illustrated and with a great deal of supplementary material, including a bibliography, a biographical register of the statesmen, patrons, administrators, scientists, gardeners, and plant collectors associated with the gardens, notes on archival sources, a detailed index, and a chronology. Information on everything from annual attendance figures (1841-1994), opening times, and admission charges to the water supply is provided among the 15 appendixes. ELETGHER &; BROWN details 300 years of what is now the Royal Botanic Garden, Edinburgh, organised chiefiy around biographical chapters on the keepers and curators. Although all of the major developments are mentioned, including the

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garden's various locations around the city during its early history and, once it had settled at Inverleith in 1823, its expansions, amalgamations, constructions, and reorganisations, little or nothing is done with this catalogue of detail. Apart from the front and back matter, the chapters are divided into four parts, which are separated by "Interludes" providing information on developments in botany elsewhere in Britain and beyond. However, these "Interludes" are as eclectic as the main parts are tedious. Some information is provided on the history of the Royal Galedonian Horticultural Society and on the Botanical Society of Edinburgh. GAGE 6c STEARN's book is an in-house history based on the Linnean Society's extensive records. This is an updated version of GAGE, and there is very litde mention of anything not immediately associated with the Society, and almost no discussion or analysis of the material provided. On the other hand, with a good index and with nearly a third of the book given over to the presentation of information concerning the Society's collections, publications, prize-winners, officers, and so forth, it is an indispensable factual resource for anyone researching the oldest active biological society in the world. ALLEN is an account of the Botanical Society of the British Isles. Originally the Botanical Society of London, this was one of the plethora of scientific societies established in the capital during the 1820s and 1830s. Not only did this group seek to distinguish themselves from the Linnean Society of London, it was also in competition for membership with the Royal Botanical Society and the Medico-Botanical Society. Ostensibly a collecting co-operative established for the organized exchange of herbarium specimens, its quarrelsome membership represented disparate views concerning what the Society was about. This is a comprehensive account of a society that was dependent on slender resources, and was unclear about its purpose and, as a consequence, had an intermittent history. The text and the supporting notes are rich with suggestions and references, and there are helpful appendices on members. An important resource for the history of botany at Oxford is GLOKIE, which has a wealth of biographical information, including a biographical register of collectors stretching to nearly 150 pages. Einally, WALTERS is an account of botany at Gambridge. The author is a former director of the Gambridge University Botanic Garden, and the book is a commemorative volume celebrating the sesquicentenary of John Stevens Henslow's new botanic garden. However, it does provide a history from John Ray (a fellow at Trinity Gollege, who had a small botanic garden near his college rooms) onwards. Walters contrasts the histories of botany and zoology, the former traditionally having a strong presence due its inclusion within medical teaching, the latter being largely absent from the university curricula until a chair was founded in 1869, arguing that botany was shaped by this need to be useful in medicine, and that Henslow's garden was a significant step in the process which made botany a discipline in its own right. There are many pleasing illustrations and a bibliography, but no footnotes and no references to archival material. PERRY O ' D O N O V A N

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Boyle, Robert 1627-1691 Anglo-Irish natural philosopher and chemist Birch, Thomas, "The Life of the Hon. Robert Boyle", in his The Works of the Honourable Robert Boyle, London: Miller, 1744; 2nd edition, 6 vols, London: Rivington, 1772 Glericuzio, Antonio, "A Redefinition of Boyle's Ghemistry and Gorpuscular Philosophy", Annals of Science, 47 (1990): 561-89 Erank Jr, Robert G., Harvey and the Oxford Physiologists: A Study of Scientific Ideas and Social Interaction, Berkeley: University of Galifornia Press, 1980 Hall, Marie Boas, Robert Boyle and Seventeenth-Century Chemistry, Gambridge: Gambridge University Press, 1958; New York: Kraus, 1968 Hall, Marie Boas, Robert Boyle on Natural Philosophy: An Essay with Selections from His Writings, Bloomington: Indiana University Press, 1965 Harwood, John T. (ed.). The Early Essays and Ethics of Robert Boyle, Garbondale: Southern Illinois University Press, 1991 Hooykaas, Reijer, Robert Boyle: A Study of Science and Christian Belief, with a foreword by J.H. Brooke and Michael Hunter, Lanham, New York: University Press of America, 1997 (original edition, 1943) Hunter, Michael (ed.), Robert Boyle: By Himself and His Friends, London: Pickering, 1994 Hunter, Michael (ed.), Robert Boyle Reconsidered, Gambridge: Gambridge University Press, 1994 Hunter, Michael, "How Boyle Became a Scientist", History of Science, 33 (1995): 59-103 Jacob, J.R., Robert Boyle and the English Revolution, New York: Eranklin, 1977 Kaplan, Barbara Beguin, "Divulging of Useful Truths in Physick ": The Medical Agenda of Robert Boyle, Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press, 1993 Klaaren, Eugene M., Religious Origins of Modern Science: Belief in Creation in Seventeenth-Century Thought, Grand Rapids, Michigan: Eerdmans, 1977 Maddison, R.E.W., The Life of the Honourable Robert Boyle, F.R.S., London: Taylor and Erancis and New York: Barnes and Noble, 1969 Sargent, Rose-Mary, The Diffident Naturalist: Robert Boyle and the Philosophy of Experiment, Ghicago: University of Ghicago Press, 1995 Shapin, Steven, A Social History of Truth: Civility and Science in Seventeenth-Century England, Ghicago: University of Ghicago Press, 1994 Shapin, Steven and Simon Schaffer, Leviathan and the AirPump: Hobbes, Boyle, and the Experimental Life, Princeton, New Jersey: Princeton University Press, 1985 Webster, Gharles, The Great Instauration: Science, Medicine and Reform, 1626-60, London: Duckworth, 1975; New York: Holmes and Meier, 1976 Westfall, Richard S., Science and Religion in SeventeenthCentury England, New Haven, Gonnecticut: Yale University Press, 1958 There is currently no work that satisfactorily binds together a narrative of Robert Boyle's life with an exposition of his ideas:

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readers will therefore have to effect their own synthesis by separately consulting biographies and primarily thematic studies that sometimes make selective use of biographical detail. This is both the cause and symptom of a continuing tendency to consider Boyle's thought as a unitary system, as if his ideas hardly evolved in the 40 years of his active life as a natural philosopher, and as if he were little affected by the intellectual trends of his day. To a large extent, both the separation of his life from his ideas, and the reification of his thought as a system, can be traced back to the text of Boyle on which scholars still rely, Thomas BIRCH's edition of 1744 (reprinted in 1772), to which Birch's life of Boyle was prefixed. Birch printed Boyle's works more or less in order of publication but without dates, and the reader has therefore to turn to the accompanying "Life" in order to discover the actual year in which each work appeared. It is hoped that a new edition, currently in preparation, will use more intellectual rigour and sensitivity when detailing the dates of composition and publication of Boyle's writings, his intellectual evolution, and his relationship to his context. Eor Boyle's life, the fullest narrative remains that of Birch, which reprints many key letters and other documents. It is usefully supplemented by MADDISON, which gives more accurate texts of certain important sources such as Boyle's will, but which is similarly limited to a purely narrative structure. Those who wish to consult the most telling biographical texts concerning Boyle - memoirs by Boyle himself and by those who knew him well - will find these provided in HUNTER (1994), Robert Boyle: By Himself and His Friends, accompanied by a lengthy introductory essay that uses this data to explore Boyle's intellectual personality. In addition, key evidence concerning Boyle's intellectual characteristics in the earliest phase of his career (1640s), before he turned to natural philosophy, and when, as is now generally acknowledged, he saw his role in life as that of a moralist, is to be found in HARWOOD. A synopsis of current approaches to Boyle's ideas is to be found in HUNTER's Robert Boyle Reconsidered, which includes studies ranging from the sources of Boyle's experimental practice, to his rhetorical strategy and his philosophical outlook. The coverage is deliberately slanted towards facets of his ideas that might initially seem surprising in the work of a leading advocate of the mechanical philosophy, and which in the past have been neglected. The essays thus include upto-date accounts of such topics (of which book-length treatments are not yet available) as Boyle's interest in alchemy, and his views on things beyond the rational. Hunter's introduction uses the findings of the essays to present a view of Boyle as a man whose great "scrupulousness" in his religious and private affairs was mirrored in his intellectual life by an obsession with detail and an insistence on getting to the bottom of any question to which he devoted himself. Arguably, this does much to explain his distinctiveness and profundity as a thinker. This volume also offers a survey of the historiography of Boyle, pointing out how study of him in the post-war years was inhibited by the mismatch between his rather diffuse empiricism and the emphasis on heroic syntheses of mathematicised physics that characterised the classic post-war view of the scientific revolution. In part, this explains why Boyle received less attention than he might have done at that time.

considering his significance. It also had the effect of encouraging the principal author who did study Boyle at the time, Marie Boas Hall, to make as "rational" and mechanistic an interpretation as possible of Boyle's ideas, and to neglect aspects of them - such as alchemy - that failed to fit into this scheme. Her work is also flawed by an unfortunate obtuseness towards facets of Boyle's ideas that she deemed non-scientific. Nevertheless, there is still something of value to be found in Hall's studies, particularly HALL (1958), which combines a brief intellectual biography of Boyle with detailed attention to his eclectic theory of matter - which he christened "corpuscularianism" - and his views on chemical composition; it also includes "A Digression on Air". However, although she made a pioneering attempt to place Boyle within an intellectual context, the need for a reconsideration of Boyle's ideas on such subjects is made clear by the recent revaluation of his corpuscular philosophy by CLERICUZIO, which stresses the extent to which Boyle's explanations of chemical phenomena were not confined to purely mechanical principles. A further, more general, view of Boyle is to be found in the book-length interpretative essay prefixed to HALL (1965), a collection of extracts from Boyle's writings illustrating his outlook as a natural philosopher and his views on a wide range of scientific phenomena. A classic study of Boyle's attempts to harmonise science and religion is HOOYKAAS, originally published in 1943 but only recently translated into English. This expounds Boyle's epistemological and theological ideas and seeks to illustrate their sophistication and deep compatibility; in the process, it offers great insight into many aspects of Boyle's thought, although more recent studies have to some extent duplicated (or superseded) its findings. A better-known study written from a similar viewpoint is provided by WESTEALL, though its extensive attention to Boyle's thought is placed within the context of an account of the ideas of contemporaries such as Newton, which illustrates the strong voluntarist tendencies that mitigated the drift towards Deism in the period. A further, comparable study is KLAAREN, which places Boyle within a more portentous context of issues involving the move towards modernisation and secularisation, and, partly for this reason, is less successful in doing justice to Boyle, though it is not without value. In the 1970s and 1980s, the leading trend in Boyle studies was to attempt to place him more closely within his social and political context. One such attempt was made by WEBSTER, who deals with Boyle within the context of the circle of intellectuals surrounding Samuel Hartlib, with its emphasis on the amelioration of human life. A study focused more specifically on Boyle is that of JACOB, who argues that the impact of the English Revolution caused Boyle to question his aristocratic upbringing, and to adopt a more meritocratic ethos influenced by the Hartlib circle. It also claims that Boyle's natural philosophy was predicated on a dialogue with the radical sects that sprang up during and after the Civil War, and argues that, after the Restoration, Boyle not only continued to engage in similar debates but also sought to link science with the pursuit of empire and national prosperity. These views have been widely infiuential and form the cornerstone of the so-called "Jacob thesis" concerning the affiliations of the new science in the late 17th and early i8th centuries as a whole. On the other hand, their evidential basis is flimsier than most who

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have accepted them realise; an alternative reading of some of the key evidence is offered by HUNTER (1995), who also offers a reconsideration of Boyle's links with the Hartlib Circle. A more recent and rather different contextualist study of Boyle is by SHAPIN &c SGHAFFER. They also see Boyle's natural philosophy as predicated on the need for political stability, but they integrate this more fully with the actual content and method of Boyle's natural philosophy than Jacob, who tended to take Boyle's science for granted and to extrapolate from it in order to elucidate a broader strategy. Shapin &: Schaffer argue that Boyle's use of experiment, his appeal to "matters of fact" that might be consensually agreed, and his tendency to favour and emphasise these rather than hypotheses that were liable to prove contentious, were all deeply ideological in intent, gauged to counter the divisive effects of rival natural philosophies, particularly that of Thomas Hobbes, on whose debate with Boyle their book is focused. This book has been very influential, raising new and quite profound questions about how different types of intellectual activity were validated in Boyle's time, and problematising historical constructs that had long been taken for granted. It has undoubtedly stimulated fresh thought on many related issues. On the other hand, it can be criticised for lavishing undue attention on Boyle's debate with Hobbes, neglecting the more sustained concern shown in Boyle's writings for the continuing vitality of scholastic modes of thought. In addition, it invests Boyle with a greater decisiveness than was in fact the case, eliding the complexities and tensions in his intellectual personality, and hence paradoxically underwriting the traditional view of Boyle as a consummate apologist for the new science, albeit from a novel point of view. More recently, SHAPIN has sought to present Boyle as the paragon of a certain ideal of intellectual life, which was itself the basis for the way in which knowledge claims were formulated and adjudicated at the time. Thus the desiderata of a natural philosopher, and the appropriate codes of practice in the scientific community of the day, are seen as predicated on genteel ideals that Boyle above all exemplified, with claims to "truth" being filtered through socially-defined criteria of credibility and trustworthiness. As with Shapin & Schaffer, this book is at its strongest in setting out theoretical paradigms that informed intellectual life at the time; it is at its weakest in exploring how these worked in practice, and how they interacted with a range of other factors in explaining the complexity of Boyle's attempts to make sense of the natural world. An alternative account of Boyle is that of SARGENT, who consciously confronts the social constructivism of the Shapin/Schaffer approach, offering instead a considered restatement of the value of a more intellectualist view of Boyle's ideas. Her book traces the various sources of Boyle's experimental method, creating a profile of his practice and emphasising his complexity as a thinker and the subtlety of his position on many issues. Indeed, she stresses the danger of oversimplifying Boyle by constricting him within modern philosophical categorisations, and she interestingly discusses various aspects of modern interpretations of his thought, not least in her voluminous endnotes. The book is perhaps at its weakest in dealing with the aspects of Boyle's thought that fit least well into her intellectualist framework, notably his voluntarism and his stress on things beyond reason - his receptiveness to

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alchemy and to non-mechanical explanations in natural philosophy. On these - as on such topics as Boyle's interest in the ideas of van Helmont - fuller studies by other authors will have to be awaited. Sargent none the less provides an up-todate and useful synthesis of many aspects of Boyle's thought. Lastly, Boyle's medical writings have been the subject of two studies. KAPLAN'S full-length book attempts a general survey of Boyle's medically-related research, dwelling particularly on the application of his corpuscularian ideas to the workings of the human body, and his interest in the impact on the body of environmental factors. On the other hand, her work ignores some key themes in Boyle's writings on such subjects, and it is particularly weak on his ambivalent position in relation to the virulent debates on health care that went on at the time. As far as Boyle's involvement in research on the medical sciences is concerned, a more searching and contextualised account is provided by FRANK in his study of the school of "Oxford physiologists", with whom Boyle was associated from the mid-i65os to the mid-i66os. As with most other aspects of Boyle, however, the final word on his ideas on such topics and the manner in which he presented them has by no means been said. MICHAEL HUNTER

See also Experiments; Royal Society of London

Brahe, Tycho

1546-1601

Danish astronomer Dreyer, J.L.E., Tycho Brahe: A Picture of Scientific Life and Work in the Sixteenth Century, Edinburgh: A. and G. Black, 1890; 2nd edition. New York: Dover, 1963 Dreyer, J.L.E. (ed.), Tychonis Brahe Dani Opera Omnia, 15 vols, Gopenhagen: Gyldendal, 1913-29 Friis, F.R., Tyge Brahe: En historisk Fremstilling efter trykte og utrykte Kilder, Gopenhagen: Gyldendal, 1871 Friis, F.R., Tychonis Brahei et ad eum doctorum virorum Epistolae ab anno 1^68 ad annum i§8j nunc primum collectae et editae a F.R. Friis cum effigie Tychonis Brahei et exemplo ipsius manus, Gopenhagen: G.E.G. Gad, 1876-86 Gade, John AUyne, The Life and Times of Tycho Brahe, Princeton, New Jersey: Princeton University Press, 1947 Gassendi, Pierre, Tychonis Brahei, equitis Dani, astronomorum coryphaei, vita . . ., Paris, 1654 Nielsen, Lauritz, Tycho Brahes Bogtrykkeri: En bibliografiskboghistorisk analyse, Gopenhagen: Valdemar Pedersen, 1946 Norlind, Wilhelm, Tycho Brahe: Mannen och verket - Efter Gassendi oversatt med kommentar, Lund: Gleerup, 1951 Norlind, Wilhelm, Tycho Brahe: En levnadsteckning med nya bidrag belysande hans liv och verk, Lund: Gleerup, 1970 Petersen, Arthur, Tyge Brahe, Gopenhagen: Udvalget for Folkeoplysningens Fremme i Kommission hos G.E.G. Gad, 1924 Rxder, Hans, Elis Stromgren and Bengt Stromgren (eds), Tycho Brahe's Description of His Instruments and Scientific Work, Gopenhagen: Munksgaard, 1946

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Shackelford, Jole, "Paracelsianism and Patronage in Early Modern Denmark", in Patronage and Institutions: Science, Tecbnology, and Medicine at the European Court, ijoo-iy^o, edited by Bruce T. Moran, Woodbridge, Suffolk, and Rochester, New York: Boydell and Brewer, 1991

Thoren, Victor E., Tbe Lord of Uraniborg: A Biograpby of Tycho Brahe, Cambridge and New York: Cambridge University Press, 1990 Wittendorff, Alex, Tyge Brahe, Copenhagen: Gad, 1994 Zeeberg, Peter, Tycho Brahes "Urania Titani": Et digt om Sophie Brahe, Copenhagen: Museum Tusculanums, 1994

Swedish in NORLIND (1951), along with comments on historical sources and explanations of astronomical terminology. In fact, Eriis, Dreyer, and Norlind all collected and published historical sources on Tycho as well as writing scholarly biographies. ERIIS (1876-86) encompasses 63 Latin letters from Tycho's correspondence in the period 1568-87. DREYER (1913-29), a massive 15-volume collection of the complete works and correspondence, is almost comprehensive; however, none of the texts is translated, and for this reason, Tycho's Astronomiae instauratae mechanica, which on account of its description of his astronomical instrumentation provides material of general interest, has been translated into English in RiflDER, S T R O M G R E N &: STROMGREN.

Tycho Brahe is best known for his system of the world, which effectively constitutes a compromise between the ancient geocentric and Copernicus's heliocentric systems. The Tychonic system has the Earth at the centre, with the Moon and the Sun revolving around it, but with the planets moving around the Sun. To a lesser extent, Tycho is also known for his meticulous observation of the positions of celestial bodies, which improved significantly on the precision of contemporary astronomical tables; much of Johannes Kepler's work was only possible on the basis of Tycho's superior observations. Tycho's achievement in precision was only superseded with the invention of the telescope, introduced a few years after his death. The most recent research attempts to address aspects of Tycho's life that do notfitneatly with his contribution to the progress of astronomy. THOREN is an authoritative and detailed biography of more than 500 pages that draws together the research on Tycho. It provides a chronological account of his life with detailed footnotes, drawing both on the historical sources on Tycho and to some extent on Danish historical literature (although the latter is often misquoted). It does not eschew the technical aspects of Tycho's work, some of which is explained with very clear illustrations. Thoren's biography continues a tradition in which Tycho's astronomical achievements are presented against the background of his life. The first in line was GASSENDI, a Erench Jesuit and supporter of the Tychonic world system who moved in the circles of Seigneur de Montfort, whose salons constitute something like a pre-history of the Academie des Sciences. Gassendi used Tycho's own publications and correspondence with the Landgrave of Kassel's astronomers, but he also wrote to Ole Worm in Copenhagen and obtained information that can no longer be found elsewhere. Gassendi established the basic facts of Tycho's life, which are followed by all subsequent biographers: the noble background; the observation of the new star; the travels abroad; the loss of his nose in a duel; the establishment of the great observatory of Uraniborg on the island of Hven in the Danish Sound; the great precision measurement of stellar and planetary positions performed there over decades with a large staff; Tycho's loss of royal patronage due to his haughtiness and insubordination; and his emigration to the court of Rudolph II in Prague, where he met Johannes Kepler, who subsequently inherited Tycho's observations. Gassendi knows his astronomy, but the account is by no means just technical, and the story includes some amusing asides, such as a moose getting drunk on strong beer. Gassendi's 1654 monograph is rare, but it has been translated into

ERIIS (1871) in Danish, DREYER (1890) in English, and NORLIND (1970) in Swedish, all provide biographical accounts following Gassendi's plot. All are well footnoted, especially Norlind (1970). All contain appendices: Eriis (1871) has 22 manuscripts and letters in German and Danish; Dreyer (1890) includes a catalogue of Tycho's manuscript observations and a list of his pupils and assistants; Norlind (1970) attempts to reconstruct the contents of the Uraniborg library with a brief discussion of each book. All three authors are meticulous with their historical data, and all emphasise Tycho's scientific attitude as witnessed by the precision of his work and by his rejection of a strictly causal relationship between stars and humans. Tycho argued that humans were endowed with a free will and could counteract the influence of the stars. In addition to these scholarly biographies, there are also a number of popular versions. GADE (in English) is more concerned with readability than with historical accuracy and as such succeeds admirably. PETERSEN (in Danish) cleverly mixes modern and earlier forms of Danish to recount the usual plot in readable form, and with a delightfully archaic tone. Only very recently has Gassendi's plot, with its emphasis on Tycho as an astronomer, begun to be revised. ZEEBERG prints and translates into Danish a 605-line Ovidian epic poem written by Tycho, in the name of his sister Sophie to her beloved. Zeeberg places the poem within the noble discourse of the time and explains its many astrological, Paracelsian, and alchemical references. The book not only sheds much light on the relationship between Tycho and his sister, who was intimately engaged in Paracelsian medicaments and seems to have participated in much of the work at Uraniborg, but also reveals much regarding Tycho's intellectual activity, which has been ignored in the biographies of the Gassendi tradition, with its emphasis on Tycho as a moderniser of astronomy. SHACKELFORD has provided much of the background knowledge with which Tycho's non-astronomical work can be understood. Tycho's impact extended beyond astronomy. He set up an early printing shop where he produced his manuscripts. NIELSEN examines the infiuence of his printing press by tracking the books that were printed and bound there. WITTENDOREE is the latest biography, that in quite a few points deviates from the usual story. Eor instance, it makes Tycho's Paracelsian leanings central to his life and work - a belief-system in which the universe is conceived as an organism within which everything is interrelated, and which therefore creates a multiplicity of significant links between micro- and macrocosm, such as Moon-silver-brain, and Jupiter-tinliver. Tycho's chemistry and astronomy are thus not distinct

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activities but are intimately linked. Wittendorff also describes Tycho's haughtiness and harsh treatment of his subjects as normal behaviour for a 16th-century Danish nobleman. Wittendorff is a general historian who has published on witchhunts in 17th-century Denmark, and he is most successful when discussing the politics surrounding Tycho's fall from grace. He describes Tycho's stated belief in a free will that can counteract astrological influences as consonant with the politics of religious consent pursued by Frederik II. This policy was also consonant with Melanchthon's conception of humanity as unprovable by reason, and Melanchthonian thought was influential at the University of Copenhagen. Wittendorff also shows how Melanchthonian thought (Philippism) was under attack throughout the Protestant lands; the anti-Philippist view gained power in Denmark with Frederik IPs successor, Christian IV, who oversaw a systemic shift towards a strong and authoritative state, which engendered hostility to the notion of individual will and responsibility. This shift brought with it stricter controls, including witch-hunts, and Tycho's science had no place in this new conception of the state. Wittendorff argues that this is the main reason for Tycho's downfall, even if personal animosities and Tycho's less than diplomatic behaviour did not help. Unfortunately, Wittendorff's book does not contain footnotes. The introduction of broader historical perspectives to Tycho scholarship has thus revised some of the received wisdom of previous biographies. It is to be expected that further attention to the culture and politics of court and state, and to the now alien aspects of Tycho's work, will further enhance our understanding of his life and career, without affecting his status as by far the best astronomical observer of the pre-telescopic age. ARNE HESSENBRUCH

Brazil Azevedo, Fernando de, Brazilian Culture: An Introduction to the Study of Culture in Brazil, translated from the Portuguese by William Rex Crawford, New York: Macmillan, 1950 (original edition, 1943) Azevedo, Fernando de (ed.). As ciencias no Brasil, 2 vols, Sao Paulo: Melhoramentos, 1955 Benchimol, Jaime Larry and Luiz Antonio Teixeira, Cobras, lagartos & outros bichos: uma historia comparada dos institutos Oswaldo Cruz e Butantan, Rio de Janeiro: UFRJ, 1993 Britto, Nara, Oswaldo Cruz: a construcao de um mito na ciencia brasileira, Rio de Janeiro: Fiocruz, 1995 Dantes, M.A.M., "Institutos de pesquisa cientifica no Brasil", in Historia das ciencias no Brasil, edited by Mario Guimaraes Ferri and Shozo Motoyama, vol. 2, Sao Paulo: EDUSP, 1980 Domingues, M.H.B., "A ideia de progresso no processo de institucionalizacao nacional das ciencias no Brasil: a Sociedade Auxiliadora da Industria Nacional", Asclepio, 48/z (1996): i^9-6z Ferri, Mario Guimaraes and Shozo Motoyama (eds), Historia das ciencias no Brasil, 3 vols, Sao Paulo: EDUSP, 1979-81 Figueir0a, S.F. de M., "Charles Frederic Hartt and the

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'Geological Commission of Brazil' (1875-1877)", Earth Sciences History, 13/2 (1994): 168-73 Figueiroa, S.F. de M., As ciencias geologicas no Brasil: uma historia social e institucional (187^-19^4), Sao Paulo: Hucitec, 1997 Fonseca, M.R.G.F. da, "Ciencia e identidade na America Espanhola (1780-1830)", in Historia da ciencia: o mapa do conhecimento, edited by Ana Maria Alfonso-Goldfarb and Carlos A. Maia, Sao Paulo: EDUSP, 1995, 819-36 Lopes, M.M., "Brazilian Museums of Natural History and International Exchanges in the Transition to the 20th Century", in Science and Empires: Historical Studies about Scientific Development and European Expansion, edited by Patrick Petitjean, Catherine Jami, and Anne Marie Moulin, Dordrecht and Boston: Kluwer, 1992, 193-200 Maio, Marcos Chor and Ricardo Ventura Santos (eds), Raca, ciencia e sociedade, Rio de Janeiro: Fiocruz/Centro Cultural Banco do Brasil, 1996 Schwartzman, Simon with Antonio Paim et al., Formacao da comunidade cientifica no Brasil, Sao Paulo: Nacional, 1979 Stepan, Nancy, Beginnings of Brazilian Science: Oswaldo Cruz, Medical Research and Policy, 1890-19Z0, New York: Science History Publications, 1976 In the early 1980s, there were only a few works on the history of science in Brazil, and they all focused on the foundation of landmark institutions: the University of Sao Paulo (1934) and a number of microbiology research institutes, the Bacteriologico (1892), the Manguinhos (1899), the Butantan (1901), and the Pasteur (1903). These studies generally emphasized the bookish, non-experimental, and backward character of earlier scientific activity. These early works were mainly produced by non-historians with a positivist bias and a Eurocentric historiographical attitude: if science in Brazil did not resemble science in Europe, then it was inferior and unimportant. This framework led to a narrow view of the past that ignored the concrete scientific practices in Brazil, which after all did have a material existence in libraries, archives, and museums. The most complete and theoretically consistent formulation of this framework - although inspired by a different philosophical basis - is found in the seminal work of Fernando de Azevedo (1894-1974), a sociologist and scholar of wide interests. His first book, AZEVEDO (1943), included one long chapter on Brazilian scientific culture. Azevedo's main contribution was his innovative attempt to explain the scientific development in Brazil in terms of the country's economy, political life, educational conditions, and religious beliefs. His central thesis was that the backwardness of science in Brazil was the result of the obscurantist policy, favourable to economic exploitation, imposed by the civil and religious (Catholic) authorities in Portugal. The sciences developed only with industrialization and urbanization. This idea was further developed in the 2-volume work edited by AZEVEDO (1955), which includes texts by several distinguished Brazilian scientists. Up to the 1970s, studies on the history of science in Brazil retained the same general framework, but a number are still useful. STEPAN traces the roots of scientific development

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in Brazil. She focuses on the history of the Bacteriologico and Manguinhos institutes, and adopts the diffusion model proposed by George Basalla in 1967. This model is now considered outdated because it denied the existence of science in the so-called "pre-scientific" phase and stressed the contribution of foreign scientists during the "colonial" phase. Its Eurocentricity is anchored in "modernization theory". SCHWARTZMAN's on the formation of the Brazilian scientific community focuses on the presence of foreign scientists (especially travellers) in the country during the 19th century. It also points out the weakness of the institutional base, stating that scientific activity in Brazil was performed only by Europeans attracted by the conditions offered by the Brazilian emperor. Schwartzman argues that prior to the first decades of the 20th century science in Brazil was strictly applied science, but he perceives a more substantial scientific tradition than his predecessors had acknowledged. The 3-volume work edited by EERRI & MOTOYAMA can be regarded as updating Azevedo (1955). It has a similar theoretical framework, organized by discipline. The biggest difference is to be found in its inclusion of chapters on more recent disciplines such as space science, and on non-disciplinary themes such as the history of scientific institutions. The chapter on the history of scientific institutions (written by Maria Amelia DANTES) deserves mention, because it represents a turning point in the historiography of science in Brazil. Compared to most earlier works, which tended to be rather anecdotal and hagiographic, it is a professional treatment of history, using both primary and secondary sources, and places the research in its historical context. In the early 1980s, this paper stimulated a new and fertile line of research at the time when there was a renewed interest in the history of science and technology in Latin America generally. Since then, it has been possible to write the history of actual scientific practices as they developed into local scientific institutions, within a local, national, and international context. Instead of looking for important contributions to international science, historians of Brazilian science now prefer to write of everyday scientific life, stressing its advancements, contradictions, continuities, ruptures, and historical limits, without pursuing a nationalistic agenda. BENCHIMOL & TEIXEIRA is a comparative history of two research institutions that have been important in the field of microbiology since their foundation at the beginning of the 20th century: the Butantan and Manguinhos institutes. This pioneering comparative history demonstrates that both organizations followed similar institutional and paradigmatic trajectories; their dissimilarities lay in their different strategies, the political and scientific interests of their staffs, the personal disputes that arose in each organization, and, finally, in their different contacts in the market for vaccines. BRITTO interprets several biographies of the important Brazilian scientist Oswaldo Cruz (founder of the Manguinhos Institute) and shows how his life has been re-told, reinvented, and manipulated by different groups fighting over his legacy. The construction of Cruz's image served a number of purposes, from the promotion of a national campaign for sanitation to much more theoretical agendas. The article by DOMINGUES demonstrates how ideas of progress and civilization (conceived as essential and achievable

national aims) defined and developed the scientific enterprise of the Sociedade Auxiliadora da Industria Nacional (Society for the Improvement of National Industry), founded in 1827, Brazil's first year of independence. The works by Eigueiroa investigate the institutionalization of the geological sciences in Brazil from the end of the i8th century to the first decades of the zoth. EIGUEIROA (1994) describes the impact of the Geological Commission of Brazil in the 1870s. EIGUEIROA (1997) shows that, contrary to expectations, agricultural interests were much more important than those related to mining in determining the growth and specialization of geological institutions. EONSECA focuses on a comparison between the development of Brazil and Mexico in the late i8th and early 19th centuries. She shows that the research agenda of the time was strongly related to natural history and to using the natural products of the New World. Ultimately the agenda was embedded in questions of national identity and what constituted a "civilized", autonomous nation in Latin America. LOPES examines the institutional development of natural history, especially in Brazilian museums, demonstrating how these institutions were deeply transformed in the 19th century as a result of changes both in the boundaries between scientific disciplines and in models for the popularization of science. The book by MAIO & SANTOS is a stimulating collection of papers discussing the strong, complex interrelation between science and race in the shaping of modern notions of hygiene in Brazilian society around 1900. SILVIA E. DE M . F I G U E I R O A

British Association for the Advancement of Science Armytage, W.H.G., Sir Richard Gregory: His Life and Work, London: Macmillan and New York: St Martin's Press, 1957

Basalla, George, William Coleman and Robert H. Kargon (eds), Victorian Science: A Self-Portrait from tbe Presidential Addresses of the British Association for tbe Advancement of Science, New York: Doubleday, 1970 Cannon, Susan Eaye, Science in Culture: Tbe Early Victorian Period, New York: Science History Publications, and Kent: Dawson, 1978 Collins, Peter, "The Origins of the British Association's Education Section", British Journal of Educational Studies, 27 (1979): 232-44 Howarth, O.J.R., The British Association for the Advancement of Science: A Retrospect, 1S31-192 j , London: The Association, 1922; 2nd edition, 1931 Lodge, Oliver, Advancing Science; being Personal Reminiscences of tbe Britisb Association in the Nineteenth Century, London: Benn, 1931 McGucken, William, "The Social Relations of Science: The British Association for the Advancement of Science, 1931-1946", Proceedings of the American Philosophical Society, 123 (1979): 236-64 MacLeod, Roy and Peter Collins (eds). The Parliament of Science: The British Association for the Advancement

BRITISH ASSOCIATION FOR THE ADVANCEMENT OF SCIENCE

of Science, 18JI-1981, Northwood, Middlesex: Science Reviews, 1981 Morrell, Jack and Arnold Thackray (eds), Gentlemen of Science: Early Years of the British Association for the Advancement of Science, Oxford: Clarendon Press, and New York: Oxford University Press, 1981 Morrell, Jack and Arnold Thackray (eds). Gentleman of Science: Early Correspondence of the British Association for the Advancement of Science, London: Royal Historical Society, 1984 Historical information on the British Association for the Advancement of Science is patchy, though there is a considerable literature dealing with its foundation at York in 1831. The various explanations advanced for the founding of the British Association include: the desire to increase the professionalization of science; a reaction provoked by John Herschel's failure to be elected President of the Royal Society in 1830; a reaction against Charles Babbage's controversial text Reflections on the Decline of Science in England and on Some of Its Causes (1830); the need of the provinces to assert some kind of independent intellectual existence in response to London centralization; and, the need to promote the Humboldtian sciences. Most of the literature stemming from these positions is discussed and evaluated by CANNON and Roy MacLeod in MacLEOD &c COLLINS. The most detailed analysis of the founding of the British Association and its early years until 1844 is MORRELL & THACKRAY (1981), while MORRELL & THACKRAY (1984) includes many of the letters on which they had based their analysis. They examine the origins of the British Association, how it quickly evolved, how its structure was devised in terms of disciplinary sections, how it was decided which town would host the annual meetings, how the Presidents were chosen, what actually happened at annual meetings, and so on. They describe the formation of an institution which, in many ways, is recognisably the one that exists today. After 1844, we know much less about the British Association. Eor instance, apart from what is in HOWARTH, we know very little about the superintendence by the British Association of the Kew Observatory between 1841 and 1871. But this was not the only place where the British Association supported research. Though we know comparatively little about it in the post-1844 period, the provision of funds to individual researchers was a key feature of the activities of the British Association almost from its inception until the 1940s, when its funding role diminished. The British Association has met annually since 1831 apart from 1917, 1918 and the years 1940-46. It has generally met in some regional centre of Britain apart from the 1931 meeting in London, the 1957 meeting in Dublin and the years 1884, 1897, 1905, 1909, 1914, 192.4, and 1929 when it met in either Canada, South Africa, or Australia. (The imperial role of the British Association is discussed by Michael Warboys in MacLeod &: Collins.) At its annual meetings the President, always distinguished and usually a scientist, provides an address. Extracts from many of the addresses delivered in the 19th century are collected in BASALLA, COLEMAN &C KARCON. Although addresses were normally safe pronouncements from the establishment, John Tyndall's address to the

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1874 meeting in Belfast, in which he argued that theology had no role to play in science, provoked serious controversy. The Belfast address highlights one of the weaknesses of much of the literature on the British Association. There is a tendency to concentrate on a particular, crucial event that occurred at a meeting, and there are several examples of these: Richard Owen coining the term dinosaur (Plymouth, 1842); Samuel Wilberforce asking after Thomas Huxley's grandparentage (Oxford, i860); the Australian meeting being interrupted by the outbreak of war in 1914 when all the delegates were still at sea; the teach-in on secrecy and defence science at the 1970 meeting at Durham; and the debate on the sociology of science (Loughborough, 1994). Many of these events, but not all, have a literature devoted to them, but most tend to ignore (or are unaware of) the institutional contexts that gave rise to them; for instance, the Zoology and Botany section played a key role in arranging the meeting, the outcome of which was the confrontation between Huxley and Wilberforce. With the exception of the early period and COLLINS's study of the Education Section, very little is known about the sections and how they were organized and run. This is all the more unfortunate since the organization of the vast bulk of the programme of any annual meeting fell, and still falls, to the sections, with little central control or direction. However, since most active members of the British Association belonged to the General Committee, some degree of collegiality was ensured. Again, there is little published on the General Committee and here, as elsewhere, one has to read accounts by or about participants at annual meetings (such as LODGE) to gain some appreciation of how the British Association operated. One area of its history where the British Association is well served is the period between 1918 and 1946, during which time the centenary of the British Association was commemorated with the re-publication of HOWARTH. This book, written by its Secretary, was in fact the first full-length history of the British Association, and as such is still a useful source on topics that have not been discussed subsequently. Howarth's vision of the development of the British Association was very much influenced by the concerns of the inter-war period: it was during this time that the assumption that science was always for the moral good came to be challenged, as the use of scientific products during World War I, and the supposed role of science-based technologies in bringing about mass unemployment, gave rise to unease about the relationship between science and society. In the 1930s, the British Association responded strongly to these concerns. Richard Gregory, editor of Nature, was a key figure in getting the British Association to adopt a realistic (instead of Utopian) approach to the relationship between science and society. How this was achieved, particularly with the formation of the "Division for the Social and International Relations of Science" in 1938, is related in McGUCKEN, in Collins's paper in MacLeod &C Collins, and in Gregory's biography by ARMYTAGE. With the coming of war in 1939, the British Association, with Gregory as its President, ceased annual meetings until 1947 (Dundee), and was kept going by Gregory and by the Division, who together organized a few war-time conferences discussed in McGucken. Nothing has yet been written on how the British Association has developed in the ensuing years. ERANK A.J.L. JAMES

I08

BUCKLAND

Buckland, William 1784-1856 British geologist and clergyman Davies, Gordon L., The Earth in Decay: A History of British Geomorphology, i^j8-i8j8, London: Macdonald and New York: American Elsevier, 1969 Edmonds, J.M., "Vindiciae Geologicae, published 1820: The Inaugural Lecture of William Buckland", Archives of Natural History, 18 (1991): 255-68 Gillispie, Charles Goulston, Genesis and Geology: A Study in the Relations of Scientific Thought, Natural Theology, and Social Opinion in Great Britain, 17510-1S50, Gambridge, Massachusetts: Harvard University Press, 1951 Gordon, Elizabeth O., The Life and Correspondence of William Buckland, London: John Murray, 1894 Hooykaas, Reijer, Natural Law and Divine Miracle: A Historical-Critical Study of the Principle of Uniformity in Geology, Biology, and Theology, Leiden: E.J. Brill, 1959 Rudwick, Martin J.S., Scenes from Deep Time: Early Pictorial Representations of the Prehistoric World, Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1992 Rupke, Nicolaas A., The Great Chain of History: William Buckland and the English School of Geology, i8i4-i84C KAPLAN, an essay collection in which intellectual historians, drawing on Derrida, Eoucault, German hermeneuticists, and Anglo-American philosophers of language, try to negotiate a literary turn. According to this programme, the materials of intellectual history are no longer mined for ideas but for discourses and for the social worlds that these discourses express. Past and present, author and interpreter are conjoined in a process that the volume's commentator, Hayden White, finds deeply literary, because of its power to represent and refigure human nature and human history through linguistic form. Thus, the distinction between text and context is not ready-made, hut produced both by the "great works" that intellectual historians study, and by the interpretative acts that intellectual historians perform. In a sharper-edged, and altogether less solemn, attack on the boundaries separating literature from history, and text from interpretation, EISH confronts the ahistoric formalism predominant in literary studies before the 1970s, with the social construction of meaning by "interpretative communities" precisely situated in space and time. If the essays in LaCapra &: Kaplan show how historians might enrol literary criticism in the analysis of discourse, the arguments of Eish suggest how

LITERATURE AND SCIENCE

literary critics might use social history to connect discourses with the groups and institutions that produce them. Applied to the history of science and its texts, such approaches have introduced into a field traditionally dominated by the history of ideas, and dependent on a strict demarcation of intellectual content from discursive form, a wide range of interpretations of science as culture. In a number of works, these new resources have been used to restage a debate, epitomized in SNOW, about the relationship between the "two cultures" of the sciences and the arts. But whereas Snow looked mainly to the sciences to reform the arts, these authors write as humanist critics of a science grown mechanical and indifferent to social needs, and draw their moral examples from earlier times, when imagination and reason were still happily coupled. While the contributors to LEVINE, for example, exhibit the science and literature of ages past in "creative intercourse", the editor outlines a textual approach that "historicizes and humanizes" science, by discovering poetic leaps in biological reduction and literary devices in numerical abstraction. LEPENIES plots the rise of sociology in France, Germany, and Britain in the 19th century as a series of misguided methodological wars with the arts, and suggests that the virtue of sociology lies in the fact that it occupies a space between science and literature. More pointedly, the essays in JORDANOVA exploit the methods of literary criticism in an examination of the construction of "nature" and the uses of "nature", in order to construct models of human community, sexual relations, and femininity in the i8th and 19th centuries. In an introductory essay, Raymond Williams challenges historians to mediate between literary studies, with their particular ahistoricism, and the sciences, thus opening possibilities for cross-disciplinary collaboration, a more general education, and a more direct criticism of current uses of nature and the natural. What these works accomplish using new conventions of literary and intellectual history, others achieve through style. In an extended treatment of the literary exchange between Darwinian theory and English fiction, BEER shows how each worked to refashion contemporary myths of inheritance, sensibility, female beauty, and male dominance. The use of metaphors, such as natural selection in the writings of Darwin, Eliot and Hardy, enabled a multivalent range of readings, rather than coercing a single logical meaning. Eikewise, Beer's own strategy of persuasion rests on its use of metaphor, and its appeal is to a psychology of imagination that favors ambiguity over didacticism. Similarly, the collection of essays in SERRES actively constructs the common culture of science and literature by narrating a poetic journey to wisdom through fluctuating space and time. En route, the post-structuralist philosopher finds, for example, that Zola's novels and Turner's canvases display the operation of thermodynamic laws, and endow the elemental forces of fire and heat with new power and significance. However, it is chiefly Serres's own writing that demonstrates how scientific theories may acquire mythological form through literature. Other approaches to the topic of science and literature seek to examine the psychological structures and discursive polarities on which these contemporary humanist critiques depend. For the early modern period, BENJAMIN, CANTOR Sc CHRISTIE examine how the construction of traditions of

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philosophical rationalism and scientific empiricism required the generation and valorization of a series of opposites: poetry, rhetoric, and persuasion. Thus the truths of logic, for example, are effectually substantiated by the fictive self of the novel. Western philosophy and science emerge as strategies to escape deception through the continual fabrication of domains of error. In CHRISTIE &c SHUTTEEWORTH, science and literature are neither necessary opposites nor creative partners in the generation of culture, but cultural artifacts themselves. Ranging from 17th-century experimental culture to late 19thcentury popular science writing, these studies focus on the invention of scientific discourse as an impersonal, collective mode of pronouncing on the world. Integral to that invention was the active construction of literature as an opposite - as a storehouse of everything personal, fanciful, and erroneous. The studies also explore the value of this Manicheanism for novelists, poets, and other writers of "fiction", in their own efforts to claim the creative and moral high-ground. Attention to local historical contexts enables the contributors to examine precise relationships between modes of writing, institutions of learning, and the problems of authority that were being negotiated through particular forms of authorship. ANDERSON explores similar developments in the field of 18th-century chemistry, tracing the transformations in experimental practice, epistemology and nomenclature that brought forth the anonymous, neutral practitioner from the sociable world of the savant who was simultaneously "auteur", earning philosophic credit through literary facility and exchange. Though not concerned explicitly with the categories of science and literature, several of the many works on the literary technologies of science are also highly relevant. The essays in DEAR examine the role of writing and publishing strategies in the shaping of knowledge and scientific community, and, through accounts of the scientific essay, journal article, textbook and table, show how theory construction, communication and acceptance form part of a single process. Resources for this form of analysis abound in LATOUR, which makes the production and manipulation of inscriptions - printed words, pictures, maps, charts - into the foundation of truthclaims, the basis of their persuasive power. In a radical inversion of the "world as text" of literary critics, and of the "past as discourse" of new intellectual historians, metaphor and theory appear not as psychological marvels, but as the technical recombination and superimposition of emblematic materials. Despite fundamental differences of interpretation over the meaning of "science" and "literature", however, all of these projects tend to focus on great works, disciplines, and actors at institutional or intellectual centers. For many scholars in the field, genuine criticism or creativity require intellectual gravity. Thus the familiar authors surveyed in LaCapra &C Kaplan appear as decisive critics of their age, even when the materials with which they worked were appropriated from popular culture. Likewise, the cultural history proposed by CHARTIER is explicitly directed against the encroachments of social historians from below (here the Annales school), whose work seems to deny the importance of productions of authentic learning. However, while the history of "science and literature", of discourses, print culture, and authorship, has been written largely from the standpoint of canonical figures, some studies are now underway that show that the traffic between science

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and literature was negotiated in many different social and cultural arenas, and not just among elites. One example is PRATT, which suggests that a close attention to readership and audience can show the "text" of Euro-imperialism to have been written by a whole range of figures at both the center and periphery, and to involve improvization at the frontier, and widespread appropriations of natural historical discourse and its rhetoric of neutral observation. PAUL W H I T E

See also Reading Culture and Science

Lorenz, Konrad 1903-1989 Austrian naturalist and philosopher Burkhardt, Richard W., "On the Emergence of Ethology as a Scientific Discipline", Conspectus of History, 7 (1981): 62-81

Deichman, Ute, Biologen unter Hitler: Vertreibung, Karrieren, Forschung, Frankfurt and New York: Campus, 1992 Dewsbury, Donald A. (ed.). Leaders in the Study of Animal Behavior: Autobiographical Perspectives, Lewisburg, Pennsylvania: Bucknell University Press, and London: Associated University Presses, 1985 Evans, Richard I. (ed.), Konrad Lorenz: The Man and His Ideas, New York: Harcourt Brace Jovanovich, 1975 Heinroth, Katharina, Oskar Heinroth: Vater der Verhaltensforschung, 1871-194^, Stuttgart: Wissensschaftliche Verlagsgesellschaft, 1971 Kalikow, Theodora, "Konrad Lorenz's Ethological Theory: Explanation and Ideology, 193 8-1943 ",/owrwa/ of the History of Biology, 16 (1983): 39-73 Eerner, Richard M., Final Solutions: Biology, Prejudice, and Genocide, University Park: Pennsylvania State University Press, 1992 Nisbett, Alec, Konrad Lorenz: A Biography, London: Dent, 1976; New York: Harcourt Brace Jovanovich, 1977 Richards, Robert J., Darwin and the Emergence of Evolutionary Theories of Mind and Behavior, Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1987 Thorpe, W.H., The Origins and Rise of Ethology: The Science of the Natural Behaviour of Animals, London: Heinemann, and New York: Praeger, 1979 In 1973, the award of the Nobel prize in physiology or medicine to Karl von Frisch, Nikolaas Tinbergen, and Konrad Lorenz confirmed the international standing of ethology, the biological study of behaviour. Soon afterwards, an increasing number of studies appeared investigating the origins and growth of the discipline. They were based on scientists' reminiscences and scientific literature, and shared the problematic need to investigate the roots of the new discipline of ethology. It is in this context that studies on Lorenz's life and career first appeared. NISBETT's biography offers an idyllic portrait of Eorenz, retracing his childhood, describing the origin of his love for animals, and the various conflicts he faced during the evolution of ethology. Nisbett notably comments on the way Eorenz opposed the American school of comparative psychologists; the

biological reductionism that Lorenz advocated contradicted the environmentalism supported by the American school, for | Lorenz definitively opposed all kinds of scientific theories tied up with liberal or "pseudo-democratic" ideologies. A large part of EVANS'S book is also devoted to this aspect of Eorenz's endeavours. However, both Nisbett and Evans may not have been sufficiently cautious, as they accepted at face value most of Eorenz's claims and reminiscences. The work by THORPE reflects a different approach. Partly based on the author's own recollections, the book describes the development of animal behaviour studies from the late 19th century up to the 1970s. Lorenz appears as a crucial player in this development, as the theories he promoted constituted a synthesis of the different (and often contradictory) conceptual schemes current in the 1930s. Despite the fact that Lorenz's contribution had been largely acknowledged in the 1940s, it soon led to criticisms from American, Dutch, and British animal psychologists. None the less, Thorpe particularly insists on the way Lorenz's instinct theory had been adapted by British ethologists, and claims that the new scientific observations made in both Cambridge and Oxford were the basis for the transformation of Lorenz's first ethological theories. Thorpe's historical account may well be complemented by the testimonies or articles written by leading ethologists, such as that edited by Dewsbury. In DEWSBURY, autobiographical essays by Eibl-Eibelsfeldt and Eeyhausen underline the crucial part Lorenz played in the institutionalization of ethology in Germany and Austria after World War II. Those by Tinbergen, Hinde and Baerends bring new data on the early development of ethology in Britain and the Netherlands, and make a precise analysis of Lorenz's influence. Taken together, these essays permit an appreciation of the internationalization of ethology in the late 1940s, and also an understanding of why Lorenz's formulation led to so much criticism. This historical literature produced by scientists is an important starting point for the historians of ethology. However, more detailed articles have been published that focus on precise points of Lorenz's life and career. The roots of Lorenz's theory of instinctive behaviour had been investigated by BURKHARDT. Lorenz's first theoretical constructions reflect his desire to understand animal and human behaviour, and his attempt may be characterized as a study in "phylogenetic psychology", the end result of which is to describe human natural behaviour. Many of Burkhardt's conclusions are drawn from a meticulous reading of Lorenz's letters to Oskar Heinroth, edited by Katharina HEINROTH. RICHARDS's analysis demonstrates how Lorenz's constructs were the outgrowth of certain German scientific traditions. Lorenz benefited from several influences: that of Weisman, an ultra-Darwinian who considered natural selection as a blind mechanism; but also that of Haeckel and Ziegler, who described instinct as an inherited mechanism. In the end, Lorenz opposed the kind of vitalism advocated by Hans Driesch and Friedrich Alverdes. Lorenz's theoretical choices had strong political implications in the 1930s, and Richards points out the relation of Lorenz's theories to National Socialist ideology. This point has been explored with more scrutiny by KALIKOW and DEICHMAN. Kalikow focuses her analysis on the articles Eorenz published between 1938 and 1942. Soon after the Anschluss, Eorenz

LYELL

Started to explore human natural behaviour. His achievement was quite analogous to his previous studies of animal instinctive behaviour, as in both cases he considered instinct and emotions as if they were morphological characters that evolve thanks to the selection process. Lorenz's conception of evolution contradicted the Nazi conception of Aryan race. However, one idea that he stressed in several articles - that both behaviour and morality may regress as a result of progress - put him close to Nazi ideology. According to Lorenz's point of view, modern cities tended to transform human natural behaviour through a domestication mechanism. DEICHMAN offers a similar analysis of Lorenz's writings. However, the use she makes of recently released archives helps to understand how Lorenz contended with Nazi principles. During the early 1940s, Nazi science appeared to be of major concern to Lorenz. After he published his first Nazified article, he was appointed professor of psychology at the University of Konigsberg. Soon afterwards, he was requested to participate in the war effort and moved to Poznan. There he chose to study what he believed to be his own speciality, neurology and psychiatry, and worked with the psychiatrist Hippius to establish the psychological criteria used to recognize pure Germans from Polish or metis within a mixed population. LERNER's book focuses also on aspects of Lorenz's writing previously analysed by Kalikow: the principle of degenerescence induced by a mechanism such as domestication. Lerner does not restrict his analysis to articles that Lorenz had published during the Nazi era. Hence a new aspect of Lorenz's philosophy is put under scrutiny: the actual significance of biological determinism as advocated by Lorenz, and the way it could affect real policy. Criticising Lorenz but also human sociobiology, Lerner wishes to warn readers about the use racists and reactionary movements may make of biological determinism. PHILIPPE CHAVOT

See also Ethology and Animal Behaviour

Lyell, Charles

1797-1875

British geologist Bailey, E. B., Charles Lyell., London: Thomas Nelson, 1962; New York: Doubleday, 1963 Bartholomew, Michael, "Lyell and Evolution: An Account of Lyell's Response to the Prospect of an Evolutionary Ancestry for Man", British Journal for the History of Science (1973): 262-303 Bonney, T.G., Charles Lyell and Modern Geology, London: Cassell, and New York: Macmillan, 1895 Cannon, Walter, "The Uniformitarian-Catastrophist Debate", lsis (i960): 38-55 Eox, Robert (ed.), "Lyell Centenary Issue: Papers Delivered at the Charles Lyell Centenary Symposium London 1975", British journal for the History of Science, 9/2 (1976) Cillispie, Charles Coulston, Cenesis and Ceology: A Study in the Relations of Scientific Thought, Natural Theology, and

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Social Opinion in Creat Britain, iy()O-i8^o, Cambridge, Massachusetts: Harvard University Press, 1951; with a foreword by Nicolaas A. Rupke, 1996 Gould, Stephen Jay, Time's Arrow, Time's Cycle: Myth and Metaphor in the Discovery of Geological Time, Cambridge, Massachusetts, and London: Harvard University Press, 1987 Hodge, Jonathan, "Darwin Studies at Work: A Reexamination of Three Decisive years (1835-37)" in Nature, Experiment, and the Sciences: Essays on Galileo and the History of Science, edited by Trevor H. Levere and William R. Shea, Dordrecht: Kluwer, 1990 Hooykaas, Reijer, Natural Law and Divine Miracle: A Historical and Critical Study of the Principle of Uniformity in Geology, Biology, and Theology, Leiden: E.J. Brill, 1959; 2nd edition, 1963 Hooykaas, Reijer, Catastrophism in Geology: Its Scientific Character in Relation to Actualism and Uniformitarianism, Amsterdam: North-Holland, 1970 Laudan, Rachel, From Mineralogy to Geology: The Foundation of a Science, i6jo-i8jo, Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1987 Lyell, Charles, Sir Charles Lyell's Scientific Journals on the Species Question, edited by Leonard G. Wilson, New Haven, Connecticut: Yale University Press, 1970 Lyell, Mrs [Katherine] (ed.). Life Letters and Journals of Sir Charles Lyell, Bart., 2 vols, London: John Murray, 1881; New York: AMS Press, 1983 Ospovat, Dov, "Lyell's Theory of Climate", Journal of History of Biology, 10 (1977): 317-39 Rudwick, Martin, "Lyell on Etna and the Antiquity of the Earth", in Toward a History of Geology, edited by Cecil J. Schneer, Cambridge, Massachusetts: MIT Press, 1969 Rudwick, Martin, "Charles Lyell's Dream of a Statistical Palaeontology", in Palaeontology (1978): 225-44 Rudwick, Martin, "Transposes Concepts from the Human Sciences in the Early Work of Charles Lyell", in Images of the Earth: Essays in the History of the Environmental Sciences, edited by Ludmilla Jordanova and Roy Porter, Chalfont St Giles: British Society for the History of Science, 1979 Rudwick, Martin, "introduction", to Principles of Geology, (reprint of the ist edition), Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1990 Wilson, Leonard, "The Origin of Charles Lyell's Uniformitarianism", in Uniformity and Simplicity: A Symposium on the Principle of the Uniformity of Nature, edited by Claude Albritton Jr, Boulder, Colorado: Geological Society of America, 1967 Wilson, Leonard, Charles Lyell: The Years to 1841: The Revolution in Geology, New Haven, Connecticut, and London: Yale University Press, 1972 Wilson, Leonard, "Geology on the Eve of Charles Lyell's First Visit to America, 1841", Proceedings of the American Philosophical Society, 124 (1980): 168-202 With a well-established position in the history of geology, Charles Lyell is renowned for his Principles of Geology (1830-33), his Elements of Geology (1838), and his Antiquity of Man (1863). He was controversial in his own day for the

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LYELL

doctrine of "uniformitarianism" (as compared with "catastrophism" - t h e opposites being so named by William Whewell), and for his efforts to establish a general methodology for geology. Lyell is also well known for his influence on Darwin, his method for the subdivision of the Tertiary, his arguments for the great age of the Earth, his early deployment of the concept of metamorphism, his attempts to confirm geology as a naturalistic science distinct from cosmogony, his views on mankind's place in nature, and his work as an historian of geology. Not until the mid-zoth century did the notion that the Lyellian method was the correct one for geology come under serious attack. It is still taught to students today. Lyell was the subject of a Victorian "Life and Letters" edited by his sister-in-law Katherine LYELL, which contains an autobiographical fragment. There is also considerable extant manuscript material, most of it in private hands, which was used in WILSON (1972). BONNEY produced the first full-scale biography of Lyell, drawing on manuscript sources. He expressed approval of Lyell's uniformitarianism, representing Lyell as an empiricist, with "experience . . . redolent, not of the dust of libraries, but of the sweetness of the open air". This field knowledge, Bonney averred, "did much to disarm opposition, and to open the way to victory [against "catastrophism"]. Another early "scientist-historian's" account of Lyell was the lively biography of BAILEY, which discussed the political context of Lyell's career. Most historians today consider that Whewell's dichotomy does not do justice to all possible theoretical positions regarding the uniformity of nature that was obtained in 19thcentury geology, or subsequently. However, Lyell's methodology for the geological research - perhaps not analysed closely enough at the time - proved highly successful in the 19th century. And conjoined with Darwinian theory, Lyell's geology succeeded, by the end of his century, in achieving "victory" against catastrophism in a hard-fought and complex controversy. Twentieth-century Lyellian historiography has likewise been contentious and significantly it has to an extent revised the earlier debates. Situating his discussion in the context of the history of the relationships between science and theology, GILLISPIE suggested in an ebullient text - the first major work on the history of geology written by a professional historian of science - that Flood, or "diluvialist", geology was Lyell's chief target as he sought to establish a sound methodology for his science. Lyell, then, "prepared the way for Darwin", but did not at first see how to reconcile evolutionism and uniformitarianism. Gillispie further saw "[u]niformitarian presuppositions" as "those of optimistic materialism". He recognized that Lyell's doctrine did not rest on empirical results alone and maintained that Lyell "universalised the principle of uniformity and then arranged the facts in accordance with it". CANNON objected that, in Gillispie's eyes, Lyell's difficulty in linking uniformitarianism and evolutionism was a kind of "logical peccadillo" whereas catastrophism and the problem of the Elood were really the big issues. But for Cannon this misrepresented the historical situation. In Cannon's view, it was "progressive development" rather than the question of the Biblical Flood that came to be "the great dividing point between Uniformitarianism and Catastrophism".

Close historical and philosophical analysis of uniformitarianism was undertaken by HOOYKAAS (1959), who maintained that uniformitarianism (or "actualism") was "not a law, not a rule established after comparison of facts, but a methodological principle". For Lyell, it was a multi-faceted set of assumptions made by scientists as they approach nature. The several "facets" of the principle were: that the laws of nature were constant: that geological processes were the same in the past as at present; that the energy of geological processes was uniform over time; that conditions on Earth were approximately constant; and that there was not geological "progress". But for Hooykaas uniformitarianism should be no more than a "methodological rule", or a set of assumptions serving as a guide for the conduct of geological research. Developing the suggestions of Hooykaas, GOULD distinguished between what he called "methodological uniformitarianism" and "substantive uniformitarianism". The later, he claimed, was empirically incorrect, while the former merely asserted that the laws of nature are uniform. So he vaunted Lyellian principle for geology was little more than that which was common to all the physical sciences. Indeed, it was an unhelpful dogma, which might impede creative thinking in geology. While Lyell was an empiricist, according to the earlier writers such as Bonney, HOOYKAAS (1970), submitted that empiricism was not the prerogative of uniformitarians, as Bonney had implied. For "catastrophists" such as Cuvier and Buckland could also claim to be empiricists, given that some geological evidence strongly suggests the occurrence of great floods, if not actually the Biblical deluge. However, the view that Lyell's uniformitarianism was empirically grounded was restated by WILSON (1967), and in his first volume of his projected biographical trilogy on Lyell WILSON (1972) gave much attention to Lyell's travels and fieldwork, especially in the Auvergne and Italy. In contrast to Wilson, other historians, taking the lead from Hooykaas, have emphasized the rational aprioristic aspects of Lyell's geology. In particular, RUDWICK (1969) gave a valuable account of how Lyell reasoned actualisticaly about Etna, suggesting that his ideas and his approach were established at least in part before he viewed the rocks of the Auvergne and Sicily. In several later publications, the various arguments of which were brought together in 1990, RUDWICK has closely analysed Lyell's thinking, examining his "strategy" in composing his major work, and particularly his use of history for rhetorical purposes. He has shown for example, how Lyell deployed analogies from such fields as history, economics, and linguistics in his thinking and writing. Rudwick has also clarified the terms "gradualism" and uniformitarianism" using the term "directionalism" the latter distinguishing Darwin's uniformitarianism (say) from that of Lyell. Lyell's historiography attracted considerable attention at the Centenary Symposium held in the geologist's honour in 1975 (FOX). Among the several interesting papers. Porter presented Lyell's history as a "complex polemic" intended to "chronicle all the obstacles to the emergence of the true [Lyellian] science of geology". It was. Porter opined, a "mythic history of geology". Also objecting to Lyell's historiography, Alexander Ospovat criticized Lyell's historical account of Werner; and McCartney showed that Lyell's historiography was

LYSENKO

indebted without proper acknowledgement to the work of the Italian, Giovanni Battista Brocchi. Ruse (also in FOX) contended that Lyell's "system" was influenced by the philosophies of science of Herschel and Whewell, and was dependent on the Newtonian notion of verae causae. By arguing from the present to the past one could suggest "true causes" that might actually have operated so as to lead to the formation of the Earth as seen today. But Lyell's Earth showed no progression. Also at the Lyell Centenary Symposium, Bartholomew (in FOX) argued that although Lyell's Principles was well received as supposedly providing the correct method for geological enquiry the notion of nonprogression was largely rejected by his contemporaries. It did no seem to agree with what could be observed in the stratigraphic record. RUDWICK (1978) has analysed Lyell's method for subdividing the Tertiary according to the proportion of extant fossils contained in the different strata, and Dov OSPOVAT showed how Lyell's theory, according to which climate depended on whether high land was concentrated at equatorial or polar regions, might be used even to account for the occurrence of ice ages. Lyell's theory of climate and his methodology of science have been further analysed by LAUDAN. In 1970, Wilson published the notebooks of Lyell that dealt with the questions of species (LYELL, 1970), and discussed his fluctuating thoughts about "progressive development" as well as his response to Darwin's theories. Lyell did not accept that the idea of progressive development/special creations, as favoured by the likes of Sedgwick, Roderick Murchison and Hugh Miller, since it seemed either to sustain a miraculous element in geology or to be the thin end of the wedge for the acceptance of transmutation/evolution. BARTHOLOMEW has examined Lyell's ideas on humans and the inclusion of mankind in Darwin's theory, emphasising that Lyell's initial rejection of transformism was not because evolution conflicted with his principles of scientific reasoning but because it ran counter to his version of deism. Lyell could not tolerate the idea of humans having evolved from some other biological species. Even when he reluctantly accepted Darwin's theory and published The Antiquity of Men, there was supposedly a "bound" from the most intelligent animals to mankind. Lyell's role in the formulation of Darwin's theory has been analysed at the conceptual level by HODGE. According to his interpretation, Darwin largely derived his knowledge of Lamarck from Lyell's exposition and analysis of the Frenchman's transmutationist philosophy. And Darwin's thinking about biogeography during and after the Beagle voyage, which was central to his establishment of the notion of the occurrence of transmutation, was shaped by his intellectual response to Lyell's ideas about the coming-into-being and passing-away of species, matching ever-changing environmental circumstances. Though WILSON presented a paper at the 1975 Symposium entitled "Charles Lyell's Concept of Uniformity: A Revolution in Geology", it was not published in Fox. Later, WILSON (1980) published a strongly-worded paper that attacked the work of Hooykaas, Rudwick, and Porter, and hinted that Hooykaas's writing on Lyell was influenced by religious considerations. Wilson also criticised Alexander Ospovat's discussion of Lyell's historical account of Werner.

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The issues dividing Wilson from the other historians appear to have been partly personal, partly "philosophical", and partly to do with providing a just historical evaluation of Lyell. Broadly speaking, Wilson emphasises Lyell's empiricism and his leading position in the establishment of modern geology. His opponents have taken a more critical view and are more influenced by developments in the sociology of knowledge. But Wilson's book remains the only modern biography of Lyell. Though Wilson withdrew from Lyell's scholarship for some years, he is currently working on the volumes needed to complete his biographical project. DAVID O L D R O Y D

Lysenko, Trofim Denisovich 1898-1976 Ukrainian geneticist and agronomist Graham, Loren R., Science and Philosophy in the Soviet Union, New York: Knopf, 1972; London: Allen Lane, 1973 Huxley, Julian, Heredity East and West: Lysenko and World Science, New York: Schuman, 1949; as Soviet Genetics and World Science: Lysenko and the Meaning of Heredity, London: Chatto and Windus, 1949 Joravsky, David, Soviet Marxism and Natural Science, 1917-1932, New York: Columbia University Press, and London: Routledge and Kegan Paul, 1961 Joravsky, David, The Lysenko Affair, Cambridge, Massachusetts: Harvard University Press, 1970 Lecourt, Dominique, Proletarian Science? The Case of Lysenko, translated from the French by Ben Brewster, London: New Left Books, and Atlantic Highlands, New Jersey: Humanities Press, 1977 (original edition, 1970) Medvedev, Zhores A., The Rise and Fall of TD. Lysenko, translated from the Russian by I. Michael Lerner, New York: Columbia University Press, 1969 Popovsky, Mark, The Vavilov Affair, Hamden, Connecticut: Archon Books, 1984 Soyfer, Valery N., Lysenko and the Tragedy of Soviet Science, translated from the Russian by Leo Gruliow and Rebecca Gruliow, New Brunswick, New Jersey: Rutgers University Press, 1994 A considerable amount of scholarship on Trofim Lysenko has been conducted by biologists who studied and worked in the USSR in the years when genetics was a controversial, and even a banned, subject. Their recollections and analyses give a colour to the literature that comes of their personal acquaintance with some of the principal players in the drama, and their participation in outrageous events. Western trained scholars have tended to examine the debate at a distance, concentrating on the relationship between a dialectical materialist philosophy and the vagaries of total power, and analysing their combined effect on the pursuit of natural science. Both Huxley and Joravsky were analysing the Lysenko phenomenon while he was still the favoured biologist of the Soviet regime. HUXLEY, a British biologist, described the Cold War in science that took hold shortly after Lysenko's triumphant take-over of Soviet genetics and agronomy - a time

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when the regime's scientists challenged the new orthodoxy only at the risk of their lives. In a brief but well-documented work, Huxley covers the ideological and scientific issues, and includes a chapter on "Genetics as a Science" for those who are not biologists. His aim is to disprove Lysenkoism and thus destroy the edifice, showing it to be non-scientific, while alluding also to the effects of regimented thought on other spheres of Soviet science and culture. In a chapter on "The Crisis in Biology" in JORAVSKY (1961), the clash between "Morganism" and "Lamarckism" is explored. Joravsky argues that there was little in the Marxist heritage that portended serious conflict over biology, such that problems only began to emerge c.1931, by which time Lysenko had emerged as leader of a mass movement for the improvement of wheat culture. At the time that MEDVEDEV wrote his book, he was head of a Soviet Department of Molecular Biology, and Lysenko was completely discredited, although still in possession of a small power base in the USSR. Medvedev describes the circumstances of the Lysenko take-over in biology, and the bizarre events that transpired between 1929 and 1964. He divides the book into three parts, approaching 1929-41 as a historian, and 1946-62 as a witness to the events. In the section covering the years 1962-64, he shows that Soviet attitudes to genetics and biology began to reverse within hours of Khrushchev's downfall in October 1964. Many of Lysenko's hare-brained schemes for planting and transforming species are detailed, and the system for political and ideological control of science indicted. Popovsky and Soyfer, both citizens of the USSR, gained access to archival documents that supplemented earlier accounts of the Lysenko phenomenon. POPOVSKY employed cunning when the guards of police archives had begun to be unsure of themselves. With a journalist's eye, he examines the destructive effects of state control on the professional and private lives of individuals. The noted agronomist and botanist, Vavilov, who died in a prison hospital in 1943 of exhaustion and hunger, was the most eminent of the victims of the "Lysenko dictatorship", and Popovsky shows that the case against him had been prepared since 1931. The book suffers, however, from the lack of an index. SOYFER's is the most complete and authoritative analysis so far of Lysenko's life and times, and a pleasure to read. Soyfer saw Lysenko's power at first hand while a student in the 1950s. In the 1970s, having been stripped of his scientific positions, he set out to find out all he could about Lysenko, drawing on extensive interviews, archives long inaccessible to scholars, and his own memories. The original Russian manu-

script of this biography was circulated as a samizdat book, and smuggled to the West for publication. Soyfer shows how numerous careers were ruined and exposes many of Lysenko's breath-taking agronomic deceptions and confidence tricks. He relates the sustained challenges to Lysenkoism until Khrushchev was deposed, and continues the narrative to Lysenko's death. Graham and Joravsky (1970) address the philosophical underpinnings of Lysenkoism. They both argue that nothing in the philosophical system of dialectical materialism lends obvious support to any of Lysenko's views. JORAVSKY (1970) gives a detailed documentation of the arguments, squabbles, debates, and factions. There is a considerable amount of science in the book, and extensive discussion of the theories behind the debates in plant physiology and genetics. The pre-revolutionary background to the agronomic disputes is described, and Joravsky shows a good understanding of the theoretical basis for each argument, including the role played by Marxist philosophy. He also considers the main players besides Lysenko, consistently maintaining that scientists were subordinated to cranks. G R A H A M ' S book, which contains a chapter on the genetics controversy, is concerned with the relationship between dialectical materialism and natural science. He argues that in the 1940s and 1950s, the worst threats to Soviet science came from third-rate people who tried to win Stalin's favour, among them Lysenko. His rise, therefore, was the result of a long series of social, political, and economic events, rather than of connections with Marxist philosophy. There are two useful appendices: the first, "Lysenko and Zhdanov", discusses the puzzle of Stalin's own son-in-law, who wrote, then recanted, an article in 1948, censuring people who tried to make fiefdoms of certain areas of science; the second, "H.J. Muller on Lenin and Genetics", reproduces an article of 1934 opposing Lysenkoism by the noted American Marxist biologist who became a senior geneticist of the Academy of Sciences in Moscow. LECOURT provides a Marxist perspective of the Lysenko affair, and cautions that Marxists must not gloss over the crushing agricultural failure that followed the implementation of Lysenkoism after 1948. Lecourt focuses on what he considers to be Lysenko's bizarre exhumation of Bogdanov, Lenin's Bolshevik rival in philosophy, who was allegedly scorned by Soviet philosophers for more than 50 years, and blames the entire fiasco on this error. E L I Z A B E T H V. H A I G H

See also Genetics: general works; Marxism and Science; Russia

M jMach, Ernst 1838-1916 Austrian physicist Blackmore, John T , Ernst Mach: His Work, Life, and Influence, Berkeley: University of California Press, 1972

Blackmore, John T. and Klaus Hentschel (eds), Ernst Mach als Aussenseiter: Machs Briefwechsel Uber Philosophie und Relativitdtstheorie, mit Personlichkeiten seiner Zeit, Vienna: Braumijller, 1985 Blackmore, John T. (ed.), Ernst Mach: A Deeper Look: Documents and New Perspectives, Dordrecht: Kluwer, 1992

Cohen, Robert S. and Raymond J. Seeger (eds), Ernst Mach: Physicist and Philosopher, Dordrecht: Reidel, 1970 Diersch, Manfred, Empiriokritizismus und Impressionismus: ijber Beziehungen zwischen Philosophie, Asthetik und Literatur um 1^00 in Wien, Berlin: Riitten & Loening, 1977 Feyerabend, Paul K., "Mach's Theory of Research and Its Relation to Einstein", Studies in History and Philosophy of Science, 15 (1984): 1-22; reprinted in Haller &C Stadler, 1988 (see below) Haller, Rudolf and Friedrich Stadler (eds), Ernst Mach: Werk und Wirkung, Vienna: Holder-Pichler-Tempsky, 1988 Hentschel, Klaus, "On Feyerabend's Version of 'Mach's Theory of Research and Its Relation to Einstein', Studies in History and Philosophy of Science, 16 (1985): 387-94 Hentschel, Klaus, "Die Korrespondenz Duhem-Mach: Zur Modellbeladenheit der Wissenschaftsgeschichte", Annals of Science, 45 (1988): 73-9:r Hiebert, Erwin, "Mach's Philosophical Use of the History of Science", in Historical and Philosophical Perspectives of Science, edited by Roger H. Stuewer, Minneapolis, University of Minnesota Press, 1970 Hoffmann, Dieter and Hubert Laitko (eds), Ernst Mach: Studien und Dokumente zu Leben und Werk, Berlin: Deutscher Verlag der Wissenschaften, 1991 Mach, Ernst, Knowledge and Error: Sketches on the Psychology of Enquiry, translated from the German by Thomas J. McCormack and Paul Foulkes, Dordrecht: Reidel, 1976 (original edition, 1906) Schorske, Carl E., Fin-de-Siecle Vienna: Politics and Culture, New York: Knopf, 1979

Stadler, Friedrich, Vow Positivismus zur "wissenschaftlichen Weltauffassung": Am Beispiel der Wirkungsgeschichte von Ernst Mach in Osterreich von i S ^ j bis 1934, Vienna: Locker, 1982 Thiele, Joachim (ed.), Wissenschaftliche Kommunikation: Die Korrespondenz Ernst Machs, Kastellaun: Henn, 1978 Wolters, Gereon, Mach I, Mach II, Einstein und die Relativitdtstheorie, Berlin: De Gruyter 1987 The literature discussed below is divided into the following categories: Mach's own writings, and correspondence, biographies, discussions of Mach's attitude to perception, discussions of Mach's relation to Einstein and relativity theory, Mach as a historian of science, and finally literature on Mach's cultural context. A study of the life and work of Austrian physicist, physiologist of perception, and philosopher, Ernst Mach, should begin with the reading of several of his works. Especially recommended is MACH, containing Robert Cohen's outstanding introduction. Excellent translations of Mach's Mechanics and his popular science lectures, by the American monists Paul Carus and J. McCormmack, are also available. It was through these works that Ernst Mach became well known in the US. A good introduction to the study of Mach's scientific correspondence with physicists such as Gustav Robert Kirchhoff, Hermann Helmholtz, Ludwig Boltzmann, and Heinrich Hertz, and with philosophers such as Richard Avenarius, Franz Brentano, and Edmund Husserl, as well as with representatives of many other scientific disciplines, can be found in THIELE's detailed annotated edition. One disadvantage of this selected correspondence is that Thiele primarily published letters written to Mach that are available in the Ernst Mach Archive in Freiburg and, only in a few cases (as, for example, to the biologist Ernst Haeckel or the philosopher Wilhelm Schuppe) was he able to discover letters from Mach. A far greater selection of letters from Mach from many different archives (including letters to Friedrich Adler, Joseph Petzoldt, Josef Popper-Lynkeus, and Wilhelm Jerusalem) can be found in BLACKMORE & HENTSCHEL's anthology, which was conceived as a supplement to Thiele's. The appendix to this anthology also includes facsimiles from Mach's last notebook, for the years 1909-16. The weakness of this edition is the paucity of annotations. Additional supplements to Thiele's edition can be found in HALLER &c STADLER, and in the appendix to HOFFMANN &: LAITKO. Mach's correspondence with Ostwald can also be found in BLACKMORE

MACH

(1992). Haller &c Stadler and Hoffmann &: Laitko include a complete Mach bibliography, while Stadler contains a list of Ernst Mach's correspondents in the Ernst Mach Institute of the Fraunhofer-Gesellschaft in Freiburg im Breisgau. The only scholarly biography on Mach in English is BLACKMORE (1972), in vifhich the full range of Mach's life and work is covered. Especially noteworthy are the sections on Mach's early intellectual development, from which the motives for his phenomenalistic philosophy become clear, and on Mach and Buddhism, a topic also covered by Ursula Baatz in Blackmore (1992). Blackmore (1972) also touches on the thorny question of Mach's attitude towards atomism, and concludes that, unlike Ostwald, Mach did not accept the reality of atoms to his death, despite apocryphal anecdotes hinting to the contrary. The difficult period of Mach's two terms as rector at the University of Prague, then in the process of splitting into two separate (German and Czech) universities, are further illuminated by Dieter Hoffmann's contributions to Hoffmann & Laitko and Blackmore (1992). Although Blackmore also covers Mach's studies on the perception of different shades of grey in fast-rotating patterns from 1875 onwards - which led to the discovery of the socalled Mach bands and his famous work on the photography of shock waves - the reader is nevertheless advised also to consult the more detailed essays on these aspects by Floyd Ratcliff, Wolfgang Merzkirch and Raymond Seeger in COHEN & SEEGER. Broader reflections on the impact of Mach's "analysis of sensations" for the development of his philosophical opinions can be found in Cohen's paper (also in Cohen & Seeger), in Leinfellner's and Swoboda's contributions to Haller & Stadler, and in Tembrock's contribution to Hoffmann &C Laitko. The question as to whether Mach finally accepted Einstein's theory of relativity is particularly controversial. Though the early Mach had pioneered the thorough application of the principle of relativity, and had criticized Newton for his concepts of absolute space and time, Blackmore concludes that the late Mach did in fact oppose the theory of relativity because of its formalistic approach, the conceptual problems with the postulate of constancy of the velocity of light in vacuum, and on methodological grounds. For WOLTERS, on the other hand, the anti-relativistic foreword in Mach's textbook on optics, published posthumously in 1921, is not an authentic piece, but rather a falsified text written by Mach's oldest son, Ludwig, who lived with his father in Vaterstetten near Munich from 1913 onwards, and performed optical experiments for Ernst Mach after the latter was partially paralyzed by a stroke. The high point of Wolters's book, which, unfortunately, occasionally reads like a polemic attack on all other Mach literature, is actually the detailed analysis of this very intense father-son relationship, which culminates in Wolters's thesis that Ludwig felt entitled to write under his father's name because he had always only executed his father's wishes. However, Ludwig was in fact far more under the influence of ardent anti-relativists, such as Hugo Dingier, than was his father. Further material and controversies on this issue can be found in Haller &c Stadler, and in Blackmore (1992). Aside from this unresolved controversy, it is undisputed that the early Einstein interpreted the theory of relativity as the

direct outgrowth of Mach's philosophy of science, as shown! by his letters to Mach and his obituary of Mach in 1916.1 Furthermore, both Goenner's contribution to Cohen & Seeger I and Schmutzer's paper in Hoffmann & Laitko show that Mach's principle explaining inertia in terms of the mutual interaction of matter was an important heuristic principle in the | development of the general theory of relativity. The more philosophical impact of Mach's methodology on I Einstein has been the subject of a study by Gerald Holton (in Cohen Sc Seeger). He claims that while the young Einstein was strongly influenced by Mach, he turned to a much more rationalistic world-view after 1920. However, FEYERABEND's effort to connect Mach's and Einstein's research practice is much shakier; his unconvincing, artificial separation of Mach's physical arguments (which Feyerabend accepts) from his philosophical outlook (which he dislikes) has been criticized in HENTSCHEL (1985), who in turn called for an integrated view of Mach, explaining Mach's astonishing variety of scientific interests as stemming from a common methodological root - the systematic correlation of different types of senseperceptions. Mach as a historian of science is the subject of HIEBERT and HENTSCHEL (1988). Both authors show how Mach's pioneering studies in the history of science were rooted in philosophical notions, and intertwined with empiricist and somewhat naive expectations of steady progress. Hentschel's study also quotes from Pierre Duhem's fairly critical review of Mach's history of mechanics. Further material on the reception of Mach's "historical-critical" analyses can be found in Haller & Stadler and Blackmore (1992). A broad description of the cultural context of Mach's works can be found in SCHORSKE's book on fin-de-siecle Vienna. By his examination of the political environment, the literature of Schnitzler and Hoffmannsthal, Freud's psychoanalysis, the paintings of Klimt and Kokoschka, and the music of Schoenberg, Schorske makes the many different strands of Mach's works - e.g. his criticism of the integral subjects - comprehensible to the reader. If, on the contrary, one is interested in the impact of Mach's publications, especially on literature, ample material on this topic is available in DIERSCH's study on the significance of Mach's theory of perception for impressionism, and for the literature of the fin-de-siecle. The literary conversion of Mach's "Philosophy of the irrecoverable ego" is illustrated in the works of Hermann Bahr, whereas Diersch's interpretation of the characters of Arthur Schnitzler (such as Fraulein Else) considers also the implications of Freud's psychoanalysis. STADLER discusses Ernst Mach's persistent effort to popularize science, and its effect on the Vienna "People's Education Movement" and the "Ernst Mach Society". Moreover, he examines the effect of Mach's epistemological "positivism" on the first and second Vienna Circle, from which proceeded, in turn, logical empiricism and the "Unity of Science" movement. KLAUS HENTSCHEL

See also Atomic Theory; Einstein; Rational Mechanics

MADNESS

Madness Foucault, Michel, Madness and Civilization: A History of Insanity in the Age of Reason (abridged edition), translated from the French by Richard Howard, New York: Pantheon Books, 1965; London: Tavistock, 1967 (original edition, 1961) Gilman, Sander L., Disease and Representation: Images of Illness from Madness to AIDS, Ithaca, New York: Cornell University Press, 1988 Micale, Mark S. and Roy Porter (eds). Discovering the History of Psychiatry, New York: Oxford University Press, 1994 Roth, Martin and Jerome Kroll, The Reality of Mental Illness, Cambridge and New York: Cambridge University Press, 1986 Still, Arthur and Irving Velody (eds). Rewriting the History of Madness: Studies in Foucault's "Histoire de la Folie", London and New York: Routledge, 1992 Szasz, Thomas S., The Myth of Mental Illness: Foundations of a Theory of Personal Conduct, New York: HoeberHarper, 1961; revised edition. New York: Harper and Row, 1974 Szasz, Thomas S., The Manufacture of Madness, New York: Harper and Row, 1970; London: Paladin, 1972 As is discussed in the entry on Psychiatry, ours is a cognitive world in which "madness" (or, more formally, "mental illness") is viewed as an objective disease condition, whose manifestations and treatment may be historically traced. In recent years, however, many sociologists of knowledge and social historians have maintained that the category of madness should rather be regarded as essentially a social or a discursive construct. Two thinkers have been especially prominent in this development. The American (anti)-psychiatrist, Thomas Szasz, has argued in SZASZ (1961) that insanity is not a real disease; mental illness is rather a myth, forged by psychiatrists for their own greater glory, and, in SZASZ (1970), he details how, over the centuries, the medical profession and their supporters have been involved in this self-serving "manufacture of madness". Szasz indicts both organic psychiatry and the psychodynamic followers of Freud, whose notion of the unconscious in effect breathed new life into the obsolete metaphysical Cartesian dualism. For Szasz, any expectation of finding the aetiology of mental illness in body or mind - above all, in some mental underworld - must be a lost cause, a dead-end, a linguistic error, and even an exercise in bad faith. "Mental illness" or the "unconscious" are not realities, and at most only metaphors. In promoting such ideas, psychiatrists have either been involved in improper cognitive imperialism, or have rather naively pictorialized the psyche - reifying the Rctive substance behind the substantive. Properly speaking, contends Szasz, insanity is not a disease with origins to be excavated, but a behaviour with meanings to be decoded. Social existence is a rule-governed gameplaying ritual, in which the mad person bends the rules and exploits the loopholes. Since the mad person is engaged in social performances that obey certain expectations so as to

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defy others, the pertinent questions are not about the origins, but the conventions, of insanity. In this light, Szasz dismisses traditional approaches to the history of madness as questions mal posies, and aims to reformulate them. To an extent reinforcing Szasz's critique of the epistemological status of insanity, FOUCAULT argues that mental illness must be understood not within the domain of positivist science, but as inscribed within discursive formations. To be precise, from classical through medieval times, "madness" was a voice that spoke its truth and was listened to, within a Platonic philosophy of poetic furore, an Aristotelian assumption of the mad genius, or the Christian doctrine of inspiration through divine or demonic possession. At a later stage, as part of the developments dubbed by Foucault as the "great confinement", madness was "shut up" (in both senses of the word), reduced to "unreason" (a purely negative attribute), and rendered the object of supposed scientific investigation. Foucault's provocative formulations - which stand traditional history of psychiatry on its head, turning heroes of the standard story into villains - have been robustly rebutted by various professional psychiatrists. ROTH & KROLL, for instance, assert that such has been the stability of psychiatric symptoms presented in recorded history, that we may confidently affirm that madness is more than a label, a device for scapegoating deviants in the interests of social control, but is in fact a real disease, probably with a biological basis. Historians have also taken issue with many of the empirical particulars of Foucault's reading of the transformations of madness and its treatment from medieval times to the 19th century. MICALE & PORTER and STILL & VELODY contain many essays offering detailed critiques, favourable and unfavourable, of Foucault's views. Micale &C Porter offers a thorough historiographical survey of the history of psychiatry; the 15 essays in Still & Velody focus specifically and exclusively upon the implications of Foucault's work. The contribution by Colin Gordon ("Histoire de la Folie: An Unknown Book by Michel Foucault") to the latter volume points out that the currently available English translation of La Folie et la deraison: Histoire de la folie a I'age classique is in fact an abridgement, which in important ways presents a misleading view of Foucault's complete work. Overall, it would seem that Foucault, who saw reason and society as involved in a joint mission (or even conspiracy) to control and silence madness, did not offer a more sophisticated historical view than traditional progressive or meliorist interpretations. Nevertheless, his emphasis upon the dialectic between reason and madness is surely valuable to historians. That insight has been built on by GILMAN and others, who have examined madness as a particular mode of disease representation. Gilman argues that the image of the insane forms part of wider constructions of "self" and "other", whereby societies identify themselves by the projection of stigmatizing stereotypes. The mad form part of a world of the "other", also populated by (for example) blacks, homosexuals, criminals, and other "deviants". Such an approach to the history of perceptions appears to offer a fruitful entry into the analysis of language, myth, and metaphor respecting madness. ROY P O R T E R

See also Asylums; Foucault; Psychiatry

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MAGNETISM

Magnetism Cawood, John, "The Magnetic Crusade: Science and Politics in Eatly Victorian Britain", Isis, 70 (1979): 493-518 Chapman, Sydney and Julius Bartels, Geomagnetism, 2 vols, Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1940; revised edition, 1962 Fanning, A.E., Steady As She Goes: A History of the Compass Department of the Admiralty, London: HMSO, 1986 Fara, Patricia, Sympathetic Attractions: Magnetic Practices, Beliefs, and Symbolism in Eighteenth-Century England, Princeton, New Jersey: Princeton University Press, 1996 Harris, William Snow, Rudimentary Magnetism: Being a Concise Exposition of the General Principles of Magnetical Science, London: John Weale, 1850; 2nd edition revised and expanded by Henry M. Noad, London: Lockwood, 1872 Home, Roderick W., "Introduction", in Aepinus's Essay on the Theory of Electricity and Magnetism, by F.U.T. Aepinus, edited by Home and P.J. Connor, translated by Connor, Princeton, New Jersey: Princeton University Press, 1979 Livingston, James D., Driving Force: The Natural Magic of Magnets, Cambridge, Massachusetts: Harvard University Press, 1996 McConnell, Anita, "Nineteenth-Century Ceomagnetic Instruments and Their Makers", in Nineteenth Century Scientific Instruments and Their Makers, edited by Peter R. de Clercq, Leiden and Amsterdam: Museum Boerhaave/Rodopi, 1985 May, W.E., with a chapter by Leonard Holder, A History of Marine Navigation, Henley-on-Thames, Oxfordshire: Foulis, and New York: Norton, 1973 Mottelay, Paul R, Bibliographical History of Electricity and Magnetism, Chronologically Arranged, London: Charles Griffith, 1922; reprinted. New York: Arno Press, 1975 Pumfrey, Stephen, "William Gilbert's Magnetical Philosophy, 1580-1684: The Creation and Dissolution of a Discipline", Dissertation, Warburg Institute, University of London, 1987 Smith, Julian A., "Precursors to Peregrinus: The Early History of Magnetism and the Mariner's Compass in Europe", Journal of Medieval History, 18 (1992): 21-74 Verschuur, Gerrit L., Hidden Attraction: The History and Mystery of Magnetism, Oxford and New York: Oxford University Press, 1993 Warner, Deborah Jean, "Terrestrial Magnetism: For the Glory of God and the Benefit of Mankind", Osiris, 9 (1994): 67-84 Reflecting the consolidation of modern disciplinary boundaries, the history of magnetism has become increasingly fragmented into three major strands: the physics of magnets, geomagnetism (a zoth-century term), and navigational instruments. However, this separation distorts the historical picture, since these fields of investigation were formerly closely interlinked, only gradually drawing apart in the 19th century. The scientific study of magnetism has a short formal history. In Europe, compasses became important navigational aids only in the 15th century, and the first systematic and comprehen-

sive account was William Gilbert's Latin treatise De Magnete of 1600, not translated into English for nearly 300 years. Following the demise of Gilbert's animistic magnetic cosmology, the only major theoretical innovations were by Rene Descartes (in his Principles of Philosophy of 1644) and Franz yCpinus (in his Essay on the Theory of Electricity and Magnetism of 1759). However, magnetic phenomena and materials remained high on experimental agendas because of their enormous importance for navigation. Paralleling the establishment of geology, meteorology and pharmacology, construction of the new public science of magnetism entailed complex processes of social and epistemological legitimation, which included appropriating the expertise of traditional practitioners. After Hans Christian 0rsted's experimental demonstration in 1819 of the relationship between electrical and magnetic powers of nature, magnetism largely lost its distinct identity. Most modern accounts are framed by current theories of electromagnetism, thus concealing the important differences between the historical trajectories of electricity and magnetism before their unification. MOTTELAY is a marvellous treasure trove of information, with anecdotes that make it far more fun to browse through than most chronological bibliographies. Mottelay - one of Gilbert's translators - interpreted his brief surprisingly widely, including items, such as sympathetic powders and mesmerism, which many compilers of his era would have rejected. While his analyses have been revised, and his details not always accurate, this remains a valuable starting point for research. Unlike electricity, academic historians have written comparatively little about magnetism, although magnetic scientists have enriched their accounts of current research with discussions of their discipline's history. Among the more recent of these, LIVINGSTON entertainingly blends historical episodes with discussions of the properties of magnets and contemporary theories of their action; while apparently more scholarly, VERSCHUUR is ridden with factual errors, and disturbingly misinterprets sociological approaches to studying science's past. Fortunately for historians of science, Victorian scientific popularizers bequeathed more substantial studies. HARRIS is the most useful, starting - like most books on this subject - with a historical sketch. It then describes magnetic knowledge in the mid-i9th century, including detailed discussions of navigational compasses and techniques for making artificial magnets. From the 20th century, the 40-page historical section in CHAPMAN & BARTELS's scientific textbook on geomagnetism remains unsurpassed for its factual information, although necessarily excluding the important role of magnetic evidence in validating continental drift. Comprehensive and reliable, it presents a chronological international survey of theoretical and experimental developments, including details of instruments. Until recently, many academic articles revolved around priority debates on the origins of compasses. SMITH provides a detailed discussion of early European magnetic instruments and theories, with full references to the historical literature. PUMFREY's study is the best account of 17th-century magnetism. Historians often cite De Magnete as a Baconian exemplar of the new experimental approach to controlling nature, but Pumfrey revises this over-simplistic picture by showing how Gilbert intended his work to provide a complete magnetic

MALARIA

cosmology. Gilbert portrayed the earth as a living organism in a vitalist universe, dynamically bonded by magnetic powers. During the 17th century, work on this new magnetic philosophy was sustained by three major interests: natural magicians claimed that it endorsed their practices; Jesuit philosophers explored its cosmological significance; and navigational improvers examined its value for explaining magnetic variation and measuring longitude at sea. Gilbertian philosophy declined in Restoration England as new mechanical theories were developed, and there are now two good secondary texts describing 18th-century magnetism. HOME provides a useful discussion of theoretical and experimental work in Europe, but anachronistically excludes compasses and terrestrial magnetism, dealing only with topics that now belong to the domain of physics. In contrast, FARA provides a far more comprehensive study, analysing magnetism within the broader cultural context of 18th-century England. Eara retrieves the diverse implications of magnets and compasses, showing how, for people of this period, magnetic phenomena reverberated with a concealed symbolism of occult mystery, sexual attraction and universal sympathies, while, at the same time, navigational compasses heralded imperial expansion, commercial gain, and progress through inventive natural philosophy. Structured thematically, this interdisciplinary book uses magnetic practices, beliefs, and symbolism to explore historiographical issues such as commercialization, imperialism, technological innovation, and the roles of language. It reveals the contested rise to public power of natural philosophers, as they constructed the new science of magnetism by appropriating the skills and knowledge of experienced navigators. For the 19th century, CAWOOD demonstrates the rewards of an analytical perspective by examining the political entrenchment of scientific research into terrestrial magnetism. Studies of magnetic instruments are very patchy: this is a rich area for future research. Chapman & Bartels provide an overview, WARNER uses 17th- and 18th-century investigations of terrestrial magnetism to examine more general questions about the role of instruments, and McCONNELL relates the development of different instrument designs to the social separation of distinct groups of magnetic experts. Eor navigational compasses, there are two useful books by naval specialists: MAY includes extensive original research from the 14th century onwards, while EANNING provides detailed analyses of compass designs in the 19th and zoth centuries. However, although these books are rich in technical information, their historical approach is old-fashioned and limited. Although focusing on the :i:8th century, Eara presents a more substantial and contextualized analysis, not only describing changes in the construction, uses, and marketing of different types of magnetic instruments, but also investigating their symbolic significance. In addition, one chapter is devoted to a sociological casestudy of the introduction of a new navigational compass design. PATRICIA EARA

See also Electromagnetism; Gilbert; Mesmerism

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Malaria Ackerknecht, E.H., "Malaria in the Upper Mississippi Valley, 1760-1900", Supplement to the Bulletin of the History of Medicine, 4, Baltimore: Johns Hopkins Press, 1945 Bruce-Chwatt, Leonard J. and Julian de Zulueta, The Rise and Fall of Malaria in Europe: A HistoricoEpidemiological Study, Oxford and New York: Oxford University Press, 1980 Carlson, Dennis G., African Fever: A Study of British Science, Technology, and Politics in West Africa, 1787-1864, New York: Science History Publications, T984 Hackett, L.W., Malaria in Europe: An Ecological Study, London: Oxford University Press/Milford, 1937 Harrison, Gordon A., Mosquitoes, Malaria and Man: A History of the Hostilities Since 1880, New York: Dutton, and London: John Murray, 1978 Jarcho, Saul, Quinine's Predecessor: Francesco Torti and the Early History of Cinchona, Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press, 1993 Jones, W.H.S., Malaria and Greek History, Manchester: Victoria University Publications, 1909; reprinted. New York: AMS Press, 1977 Kiple, Kenneth E (ed.). The Cambridge World History of Human Disease, Cambridge and New York: Cambridge University Press, 1993 Macdonald, George, The Epidemiology and Control of Malaria, London and New York: Oxford University Press, 1957 Ross, Ronald, The Great Malaria Problem and Its Solution: From the Memoirs of Ronald Ross, London: Keynes Press/ BMA, 1988 Russell, Paul E, Man's Mastery of Malaria, London and New York: Oxford University Press, 1955 Targett, G.A.T. (ed.). Malaria: Waiting for the Vaccine, Chichester, West Sussex, and New York: John Wiley, 1991 The secondary literature on the history of malaria covers a wide range of different aspects of this disease. A number of texts discuss the paleogeography of malaria, as well as the origins of mosquitoes, parasites and human transmission. Several books describe the historical and geographical impact of malaria on ancient civilisations. Some are concerned with the global spread of malaria from the Old World to the New World, others with the historical epidemiology of malaria in different parts of the world during the recent past. A number of books deal with the discovery of the malaria parasite in the late 19th century and the subsequent unravelling of the role of mosquitoes in the transmission of malaria. Some of the literature focuses on zoth-century eradication and control programmes, other works adopt a historical perspective on the search for a cure or a malaria vaccine. There is also a growing literature on blood genetic polymorphisms in modern populations and their ancient association with malaria. KIPLE provides the best short overview of the history and geography of malaria. In a section on the subject by Frederick Dunn (pp. 855-62), there is a well-presented outline of the aetiology of malaria (and a reminder that the disease was once believed to be caused by the "bad air" of the marshes, hence the term malaria from the Italian, mala and aria), its clinical

432.

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manifestations and pathology, the epidemiology and control of malaria in the recent past, and a brief history of the global impact of the disease from the mid-Pleistocene to the 1980s. In most of the general and geographical sections of Kiple, malaria also receives attention as one of the major global diseases of the past and present. Another excellent and broad ranging text on the history of malaria is BRUGE-CHWATT & De ZULUETA. As its title indicates, this book covers the rise and fall of malaria in Europe from its ancient origins to its final eradication from Europe in the mid-1970s. Historical material on the disease is presented on a country by country basis. For each region, there is information on the incidence of malaria, its demographic impact, major breakthroughs in understanding the factors of its transmission, types of eradication and control programmes conducted in the 20th century, and an insight into the leading figures in its history. This book also contains a number of superb illustrations on the history of malaria. JONES'S book on the influence of malaria on the course of Greek history is one of a number of classics to suggest that malaria has been a powerful force in human history. The historical role of malaria in other parts of the world is widely discussed in monographs and journal articles: AGKERKNEGHT's paper on malaria in the Upper Mississippi Valley from 1760 to 1900 is one excellent case study, and CARLSON'S work on Africa provides a stimulating account of the contemporary images and effects of malaria on the White Man's Grave, within the context of European medical and scientific thought. The efforts and campaigns to cure, prevent, control or eradicate malaria from ancient times to the present are the subject of many writings. JARCHO presents a history of the early discovery of cinchona; this offers new material on a familiar theme - the importation of the Peruvian bark from South America to Europe in the 17th century, and its value as a drug at a time when malaria was a major problem in many parts of the world. HARRISON'S book takes us forward in time to the campaigns to control and eradicate malaria, following the discoveries by Patrick Manson, Ronald Ross, Gharles Laveran, Giovanni Grassi and others in the late 19th century concerning the role of the mosquito and parasite in the transmission of malaria. His narrative is less a medical than a military and social history, interweaving within his story both a history of the battles against mosquitoes and malaria, and a perceptive account of the hostilities within the scientific community in its endeavours to understand and fight the disease. Some of the original and influential malaria studies, discussed by Harrison, are well worth reading. The memoirs of ROSS (part of which is reproduced with a short introduction by Bruce-Ghwatt), and the 1937 text by HAGKETT, are two examples that will enable the reader to gain a fuller picture of the dynamics of malaria discoveries and control strategies in the late 19th and early to mid-2oth centuries. The studies of the 1950s, such as the mathematical and pioneering epidemiological work of MAGDONALD, and the optimistic account of "man's mastery of malaria" by RUSSELL, also provide an important historical perspective on the subject of malaria. TARGETT's work is a critical reminder that, notwithstanding the early knowledge and use of cinchona bark (containing quinine) as a malaria drug, and, in spite of the scientific discoveries and international efforts of the last few decades to

eradicate or control malaria, scientists are still some way from finding a solution to the escalating global problem of malaria. MARY J. DOBSON ]

See also Epidemics

Malthus, Thomas 1766-1834 British economist and clergyman Ambirajan, S., Malthus and Classical Economics, Bombay: Jupiter Press, 1959 Bonar, James, Malthus and His Work, London: Macmillan, 1885; 2nd edition, London: Allen and Unwin, and New York: Macmillan, 1924 Dupaquier, J., A. Eauve-Ghamoux and E. Grebenik (eds), Malthus Past and Present, London and New York: Academic Press, 1983 James, Patricia, "Population" Malthus: His Life and Times, London and Boston: Routledge and Kegan Paul, 1979 Meek, Ronald L. (ed.), Marx and Engels on Malthus: Selections from the Writings of Marx and Engels Dealing with the Theories of Thomas Robert Malthus, translated by Dorothea L. Meek and Ronald L. Meek, London: Lawrence and Wishart, 1953; New York: International Publishers, 1954 Petersen, William, Malthus, London: Heinemann, and Gambridge, Massachusetts: Harvard University Press, 1979 Smith, Kenneth, The Malthusian Controversy, London: Routledge and Kegan Paul, 1951; New York: Octagon Books, 1978 Turner, Michael (ed.), Malthus and His Time, New York: St Martin's Press, and London: Macmillan, 1986 Waterman, A.M.G., Revolution, Economics and Religion: Christian Political Economy, iy98-i833, Gambridge and New York: Gambridge University Press, 1991 The first edition of Thomas Malthus's Essay on the Principle of Population (1798) was intended to refute the revolutionary optimism of William Godwin and Gondorcet, the author asserting that, "Population, when unchecked, increases in a geometrical ratio. Subsistence increases only in an arithmetical ratio." Malthus argued, in this and later works, that the poor would not ultimately benefit from increased benefits or lower food prices; rather, they would only multiply up to the limit of the available subsistence, at which point "positive" or "preventive" checks to further increase would take their inevitable toll. He offered only one way to break this vicious circle - "moral restraint", comprising premarital chastity and late marriage. Malthus became a prominent figure in the history of sociology, politics, demography, economics, and birth control - the last is often associated with Malthus's name, despite his disapproval of artificial interference with human fertility. Eurthermore, awareness of the "struggle" involved in staying alive led Gharles Darwin and Alfred Wallace to formulate the

MALTHUSIANISM

theory of natural selection. Erom the first, Malthus's work has engendered controversy, often embittered by the fact that his theories - or, more commonly, ideas more or less directly derived from his theories - have led to so many practical applications in the modern world. How could he claim to have the interests of the poor at heart? How could he, as a clergyman, believe that God had made such niggardly provision for mankind? The most useful studies set Malthus's work within its contemporary context, as only then can its complexities, paradoxes, changes, and underlying consistency be appreciated. BONAR guides the reader through the historical background and theoretical content of Malthus's works, paying most attention to the Essay, but using the full range of his writings to elucidate his views on politics, economics, and moral and political philosophy. He then turns to Malthus's contemporary and subsequent opponents, and concludes with a brief biography. Bonar is broadly, but not uncritically, sympathetic to Malthus, finding the Essay of 1798 too controversial in emphasis to be fully scientific, and attributing the notorious ratios to "the natural liking of a Cambridge man for a mathematical simile". He stands closest to Malthus on the issue of birth control, eloquently appealing to the sensibilities of those readers who have faith "in man's power to conquer nature by obeying her". SMITH'S purpose is to "rescue Malthus's contemporary critics from unjust neglect". He finds the Essay derivative and scientifically unsound; the 1798 version owed its popularity to its "graceful style" and good timing, as its doctrine was "convenient" for upper-class readers alarmed by growing social unrest; the second edition of 1803 was marred by "occasional exhortations, more appropriate to a pulpit than to a treatise on political economy". Insisting that, "The problem of human population is an ecological study". Smith maintains that the disasters prophesied by Malthus can be averted by fertilizers, factory farming, pesticides, atomic energy, and other exertions of human ingenuity. Smith's conclusions may be suspect by today's standards, but his collection of critical opinion on Malthus is very useful, and his analysis of the birth control controversy particularly cogent. MEEK has assembled, in one conveniently compact volume, an interesting selection of references to Malthus by Karl Marx and Eriedrich Engels, in writings on political theory, economics, and Darwinism. Meek largely supports their accusation that Malthus sinned against science by his "shameless and mechanical plagiarism" and the "apologetic character of his conclusions". The economist David Ricardo, arguably Malthus's greatest opponent, emerges as the book's hero, tirelessly defending the working classes from Malthus's fabrications. Meek believes that modern economists, following John Maynard Keynes, are using Malthus's doctrines to justify oppression and imperialism in capitalist countries facing "economic stagnation", while "the Soviet Union and the People's Democracies are growing from strength to strength". AMBIRAJAN's lucid exposition of Malthus's economic theories offers a more favourable view, acknowledging the "apparent ruthlessness and real humanity" of Malthus's population theory, and taking it as a "timely warning". He admits that "the moralist in Malthus qualified (and to a certain extent confused) the social scientist", but nevertheless ranks Malthus with Adam Smith and Ricardo as one of the greatest classical economists. Malthus improved on Smith by his recognition

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that "Economics cannot be an exact science", while his disagreements with Ricardo were often questions of viewpoint or temperament rather than fundamental conviction. JAMES has written the standard biography of Malthus. Combining rigorous intellectual analysis with sensitivity to personal matters, James convincingly relates published utterances to private circumstance. The occasional bitterness of the 1803 Essay is easier to understand when we reflect that Malthus was working "with no settled home, no secure income if he married, approaching middle age and deeply in love". Her book is packed with fascinating details about Malthus's friends, relations, and environment, including informative illustrations and a family tree. PETERSEN, concentrating more on ideas than the man, gives the best general account of Malthus's work and its subsequent influence. He corrects many previous errors in Malthus scholarship, and vindicates his originality and importance, claiming that, by "examining in detail the relation of population growth to economic, social, and political development, Malthus did more than any of his predecessors or all of them together". Eurthermore, his Essay was no "mere clue", but "the scaffolding on which Darwin and Wallace hung their data". TURNER'S critically objective collection of essays by an international panel of contributors covers a wide range of periods, places, and approaches. There are sections on "Demography and Malthusianism", "Land", "Labour", and "Capital". E.A. Wrigley places the enterprise neatly in perspective by observing that "it was Malthus's fate to frame an analysis of the relationship between population, economy and society during the last generation to which it was applicable". DUPAQUIER, EAUVE-CHAMOUX & GREBENIK's book is more concerned with rehabilitating Malthus by demolishing "those prejudices which prevented a scientific approach to Malthus's theories". This compilation has a similarly international flavour, discussing Malthus in relation to his historical context, religion, Malthusianism, Socialism and Darwinism. Linda Gordon offers a solitary, but most welcome, feminist contribution. A full-scale feminist analysis of Malthus is long overdue. WATERMAN applies the theoretical insight of an economist to a vast array of theology, philosophy, and literature. He is the first to appreciate the depth and permanence of Malthus's commitment to Christianity, and to trace its full implications regarding Malthus's attempt to reconcile 18th-century optimistic theodicy with classical economics. This intellectually distinguished examination of Christian political economy marks a new departure in Malthus studies. CAROLYN D . WILLIAMS

See also Darwinism; Malthusianism; Political Economy

Malthusianism Benn, J. Miriam, Predicaments of Love, London and Concord, Massachusetts: Pluto Press, 1992 Boner, Harold A., Hungry Generations: The NineteenthCentury Case Against Malthusianism, New York: King's Crown Press, 1955

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Dupaquier, J., A. Fauve-Chamoux and E. Grebenik (eds), Malthus Past and Present, London and New York: Academic Press, 1983 Glass, D.V. (ed.). Introduction to Malthus, London: Watts, and New York: John Wiley, 1953 James, Patricia, "Population" Malthus: His Life and Times, London and Boston: Routledge and Kegan Paul, 1979 Ledbetter, Rosina, A History of the Malthusian League, 1577-15)27, Columbus: Ohio State University Press, 1976 Malthus, Thomas Robert, An Essay on the Principle of Population, and A Summary View of the Principle of Population, edited by Antony Flew, Harmondsworth: Penguin, 1970 Petersen, William, Malthus, London: Heinemann, and Cambridge, Massachusetts: Harvard University Press, 1979 The use of the term "Malthusianism" has a certain ambiguity, for it can mean not only the "iron law of population" (i.e. that population increases geometrically while the means of subsistence increases only arithmetically) and its consequences for theories of political economy and practices of social welfare during the 19th century, but also what is more correctly described as "neo-Malthusianism", which aimed at the amelioration of the potential dangers of unrestricted breeding prophesied by Malthus, by advocating the use of some form of artificial contraception. This essay discusses works mainly concerning the first of these meanings, but includes a couple of works on the latter, as a specific theme within the wider history of birth control. Malthusianism is a philosophy so intimately connected with one specific work of its first proponent, Thomas MALTHUS, that it seems logical to include a readily available edition of the text. The first edition of the Essay on the Principle of Population (1798) has been republished as a "Penguin Classic", along with the first edition of the Summary View (1830), and continues to be regularly reprinted. There is a substantial and useful introduction, and helpful editor's notes on the text. The suggestions for further reading include details of the more substantial annotated edition, and recommendations of editions of other works by Malthus. BONER's study is the definitive work on the reception of Malthus's theory, and its rise and fall in 19th-century England. It is written from a particularly engaged stance, as indicated by Boner's statement in the Preface that it is a "history of the long and dramatic struggle by which his theory as a whole was exposed as an invidious and fallacious instrument for concealing exploitation and social injustice". Malthus's project. Boner suggested, was not "quite so academically innocuous" as it might appear. With the recrudescence of anxiety concerning the growth of population around the time of writing, this time on a global rather than a national scale, he felt that an account of the tenacity of Malthus's doctrine, and the long-drawn-out struggle to overthrow it, would operate prophylactically against the danger of the deployment of similar "possible instruments of class advantage" in the present or near future. Bearing in mind this ideological position, this is nevertheless a detailed and useful account of the debates about Malthusianism during the 19th century.

An almost contemporary volume, suggesting that the revival I of anxieties about over-population in the era immediately! following World War II (replacing the fears of population! decline of the 1930s) had resuscitated interest in Malthus, is I the GLASS collection, based on three talks broadcast on the BBC Third Programme. The volume includes a reprint not only of Malthus's Summary View, but also of his Letter to Samuel Whitbread on the Poor Laws (1807), and a bibliography of British publications on the Population Question (1793-1880), compiled by Glass and the eminent historian of birth control, J.A. Banks. In his Preface, Glass argues for the need to read what Malthus actually wrote, but also of the necessity for his prescriptions to be seen within their historical context. The essays include just such a study, by H.L. Beales on the historical context of the Essay on Population, plus an analysis by Glass (himself a demographer) of Malthus's theories on the limitation of population growth in the light of modern demography, and Alan T. Peacock's consideration of "Malthus in the Twentieth Century" as economic analyst. Malthus's influence on 19th-century political economy, in particular its practical effect on the Poor Laws, has largely been seen as deleterious. Among the many essays dealing with aspects of Malthus and Malthusian thought - demography, economics, politics, and philosophy - DUPAQUIER, FAUVECHAMOUX & GREBENIK includes a section examining the impact of Malthus on biological science, via his influence on Charles Darwin, with its implications for the development of evolutionary theory. The volume is a useful overview of modern scholarship from many countries, based on the proceedings of an International Conference on Historical Demography held under the auspices of UNESCO in 1980. If there was a resurgence of interest in Malthus in the early 1950s, this volume, and the two biographically-orientated studies of Malthus that appeared almost simultaneously, suggest that the late 1970s was a period when attention was again drawn to him and his doctrines. JAMES remarks on the previous absence of any full-length biography, and the perpetuation of various incorrect statements about Malthus in works of reference. Based on a variety of sources, including papers still surviving in the hands of his descendants, her biography is a substantial and well-researched study of Malthus as an individual within his specific historical context, and includes consideration of his thought and its impact. PETERSEN pays tribute to James's grasp of the details of Malthus's life and of his place in English history. Petersen, however, explicitly concentrates on Malthus's professional career, his thought and its reception, both during the 19th century and in the light of more recent scholarship on the Industrial Revolution, economic theory, and demography. Petersen sees Malthus as having been the victim of "terrible simplifiers", intent on imposing "discrete dualities" upon a complex system of thought. While Dupaquier, in his editor's introduction to Malthus Past and Present, expressed an explicit desire to dissociate Malthus from "his embarrassing admirers - Drysdale and his disciples", those who accepted Malthus's law, but felt that human ingenuity was able to come up with the means to evade the worstcase scenario it implied, perhaps deserve some attention. BENN's volume is a meticulously researched recovery of the Drysdale family, and places the Malthusian League within the

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I context of other late Victorian fringe hodies. LEDBETTER's account of the Malthusian League is rather more of an internalist history, but none the less a useful study. Eor the place of "Malthusianism" or "neo-Malthusianism" within the wider history of birth control, the reader is referred to the entry under that heading. LESLEY A.

HALL

See also Darwinism; Malthus; Political Economy

Management Sciences Chandler Jr, Alfred D., The Visible Hand: The Managerial Revolution in American Business, Cambridge, Massachusetts: Belknap Press of Harvard University Press, 1976 Child, John, British Management Thought: A Critical Analysis, London: Allen and Unwin, 1969 Copley, Erank Barkley, Frederick W. Taylor: Father of Scientific Management, New York: Harper, 1923; reprinted. New York: Kelley, 1969 Gillespie, Richard, Manufacturing Knowledge: A History of the Hawthorne Experiments, Cambridge and New York: Cambridge University Press, 1991 Merkle, Judith A., Management and Ideology: The Legacy of the International Scientific Management Movement, Berkeley: University of California Press, 1980 Montgomery, David, Workers' Control in America: Studies in the History of Work, Technology and Labour Struggles, Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1979 Nelson, Daniel, Frederick W. Taylor and the Rise of Scientific Management, Madison: University of Wisconsin Press, 1980 Pollard, Sidney, The Genesis of Modern Management: A Study of the Industrial Revolution in Great Britain, Cambridge, Massachusetts: Harvard University Press, 1965 Sass, Steven A., The Pragmatic Imagination: A History of the Wharton School, 1881-1981, Philadelphia: University of Pennsylvania Press, 1982 Scott, William G., Chester I. Barnard and the Guardians of the Managerial State, Lawrence: University Press of Kansas, 1992 Waring, Stephen P., Taylorism Transformed: Scientific Management Theory since 194J, Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 1991 Wren, Daniel, The Evolution of Management Thought, 4th edition. New York: Wiley, 1994 Management science is about control, structure, information, and motivation - i.e. how to get individuals to function efficiently and coherently toward organizational goals. European militaries, the Roman Catholic Church, and colonial empires all had effective bureaucracies and people who thought deeply about management. The application of scientific norms and practices to management theory, however, came with the professionalization of educated, white-collar managers in the large integrated corporations that emerged between 1880 and 1920.

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CHANDLER describes the evolution of management practice in these modern corporations by showing how managers adapted strategy and structure to the technical dimensions of various industries. Chandler's vision of the rise of managerial capitalism frames the work of historians focusing on specific areas of management practice - accounting, marketing, communication, and industrial research - and how emergent schools of management keep up with the broad trends in practice. Chandler also introduces Henry Varnum Poor, Erederick W. Taylor, financiers, board chairmen, independent management consultants, and others who explicated general theories of management. POLLARD, likewise, describes the broad accumulation of organizational skills antecedent to the British Industrial Revolution, and portrays the few attempts to systematize management thought. Erederick Taylor, as the leading advocate of scientific management, figures prominently in all studies of management science. NELSON (1980) corrects COPLEY's exhaustive hagiography, and considers Taylor's key ideas on how to make work flow more efficiently through factories - time-andmotion studies, differential piece rate systems, and functional foremanship - as incremental improvements on ideas introduced by the systematic management movement. Other historians take up Harry Braverman's radical critique of scientific management as a means of shifting power on the shop floor from workers to management. MONTGOMERY provides the most balanced interpretation of scientific management on the shop floor in his wide-ranging history of American industrial relations. Other historians have explored how the quest for efficiency through scientific management extended into non-factory industries, the home, and government agencies. Scientific management, in conjunction with Eordism, blossomed from practice into ideology. The historian Charles Maier first explored the centrality of managerial ideology in European political economy during the 1920s and 1930s. By boosting productivity and erasing radical unionism, technical experts then claimed, scientific management would lead society into a new era of harmony based on mass consumption. Several excellent monographs have explored the social and political conflicts engendered in different countries by the state's adoption of the role of agent of efficiency and general uplift, while others have looked at the professionalization of the social sciences in the service of the state. MERKLE, while making some sweeping political statements, reliably summarizes the reception of scientific management among rationalized, bureaucratic states predisposed to the gospel of efficiency, including socialist Russia, Erance, Germany, and Britain. An exemplary study of management science is GlLLESPIE's account of the social construction and acceptance of the Hawthorne Experiments. The experiments began in 1924 as a classical study of the impact of lighting on productivity at a Western Electric factory. Some "confusing" results led the experiment leader, Elton Mayo of the Harvard Business School, to question the basic Taylorist premises of the experiment. After filtering his ideas through a vast network of industrial managers and social scientists, which Gillespie richly describes. Mayo authoritatively attributed improved productivity to informal human relations, improved motivation, and general

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contentment among the test workers. The fields of industrial sociology, the social psychology of work, and personnel management all emerged from these experiments, and the foundations of management sciences shifted away from physiology and towards the social sciences. The experiences of social scientists during World War II prompted further shifts in the conceptual foundations of management science. By the 1960s, the proliferation of management theories fractured the field into administrative behavior, economic theories of the firm, program management, the decision sciences, artificial intelligence, human resources, and a variety of other interdisciplinary approaches to solving the problems of big business and big government. The most mathematical, statistical, and computer-prone of the new approaches - operational research and systems analysis captured the title and spirit of "management science". As historians began to explore the content and origins of these management sciences in military programs and the computer sciences, some already addressed their political implications. SCOTT's mix of social commentary and intellectual biography explains how Chester Barnard legitimated, codified, and institutionalized the managerial revolution in American business and politics during the 1940s and 1950s, proclaiming that the moral function of an executive was to maintain the organization as a system of cultural interrelationships. WARING glosses the work of many modern management theorists particularly that of Herbert Simon and Peter Drunker - and describes such theorists as "mandarins" seeking to legitimate the role of the elite in American society. Likewise, CHILD describes the social construction of management thought in Britain that culminated in the Glacier Project - which brought task management to British factory floors - paying special attention to its legitimating functions. There are no good synthetic surveys that integrate the three dominant perspectives on management thought - as science, as practice, and as ideology. Of the institutional histories of business schools, only SASS deals systematically with disciplinary genealogies in his comments on the proximity of economics to management education at the Wharton School. WREN'S textbook treatment is the best available, though uncritical and America-centered. However, he does suggest several episodes in the history of management sciences - such as the work of Henri Fayol and Mary Parker Follet on administration and functional co-ordination - that deserve further study. GLENN E. BUGOS

See also Capitalism and Science; Information; Social Sciences

Marey, Etienne-Jules 1830-1904 French physiologist Brain, Robert, "The Graphic Method: Inscription, Visualization, and Measurement in 19th-century Science and Culture", dissertation. University of California, Los Angeles, 1996 Braun, Marta, Picturing Time: The Work of Etienne-Jules Marey (18^0-1904), Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1992

Dagognet, Erangois, Etienne-Jules Marey: A Passion for the Trace, translated from the Erench by Robert Galeta, New York: Zone Books, 1992 (original edition, 1987) Frank, Robert G., Jr, "The Telltale Heart: Physiological Instruments, Graphic Methods, and Clinical Hopes, 1854-1914", in The Investigative Enterprise: Experimental Physiology in Nineteenth-Century Medicine, edited by William Coleman and Frederic L. Holmes, Berkeley: University of California Press, 1988 Frizot, Michel, La Chronophotographie, Beaune: Association des amis Marey and Ministere de la Culture, 1984 Rabinbach, Anson, The Human Motor: Energy, Fatigue, and the Origins of Modernity, New York: Basic Books, 1990 Snellen, H.A. (ed.), E.-J. Marey and Cardiology: Physiologist and Pioneer of Technology, i8}0-i904: Selected Writings, Rotterdam: Kooyker, 1980 Sauvage, Leo, L'Affaire Lumiere: du mythe a I'histoire: enquete sur les origines du cinema, Paris: L'herminier, 1985 Etienne-Jules Marey was a physiologist renowned for introducing graphic methods and automatic recording devices into the study of function in the animal body. Besides a vast legacy of instruments built for use in the experimental laboratory and the medical clinic, Marey also designed important apparatus of high-speed photography that served as the basis for the cinematograph and motion-pictures. For this reason he has earned an important place in histories of cinema and of photography more generally. His purely scientific work has been somewhat less thoroughly examined, although it has enjoyed a wave of interest over the last decade. Most of the available literature examines either the cinematographic or the scientific work largely to the exclusion of the other. Among the exceptions to this specialized approach are some of the better recent works. DAGOGNET, a historian and philosopher of science, presents an insightful survey of the whole of Marey's scientific work, drawing out central themes and showing how Marey's methods of "chronophotography" - his term for the method of decomposing motion into sequences of still photographic images taken at high speeds grew out of his earlier approaches to physiological experiment. BRAUN, a historian of photography, similarly presents Marey's work in an integrated context, but the focus remains on the photographic work. Unlike Dagognet, Braun draws on extensive archival research, with detailed factual material about Marey's life and work. This is a beautifully produced book, with hundreds of photographs and other visual materials culled from archives and not published elsewhere. RABINBACH, a cultural historian, examines the growth of thermodynamic metaphors and conceptions of the human body in 19th and early 20th-century culture. He devotes a lengthy, central chapter of his book to the work of Marey, whom he views as pivotal figure in establishing both theoretical concepts and popular images of the body as a "human motor". SNELLEN, a cardiologist and historian of medicine, examines Marey's early cardiological work and assesses its place in the longer history of the field. Snellen includes several of Marey's important writings on the heart and the circulation of

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the blood. Snellen also contains a complete bibliography of Marey's published work, which also reappears in Braun. FRANK, a historian of science, is interested in the transfer of scientific instruments and technologies from the physiological laboratory to the practice of clinical examinations. In this article he focusses especially on the cardiology of Marey and his successors such as the English physiologist John Burdon Sanderson and the Dutch cardiologist Willem Einthoven. Frank examines the invention of the sphygmograph, a device for recording arterial pulse in graphic form and its promotion as a tool for clinical diagnosis. BRAIN considers the development of the graphic method in the 19th century in a range of disciplines. In his account, Marey appears as a central figure in the promotion of the graphic method as a universal means of scientific communication. Among the books which deal exclusively with Marey's chronophotography, FRIZOT's is the most comprehensive and insightful, and places Marey in a broader context of related photographic studies. Marey's role in the early history of cinematography has been entangled in debates about who was the "true" inventor of the cinematographic method. This complicated and perhaps badly posed question of priority has been further muddled by polemics and partisanship, often tinged with nationalistic passions. Accordingly, Marey's role has figured more prominently in French accounts and has been downplayed by English language author in favor of Thomas Alva Edison and others. SAUVAGE is a recent and the most judicious French account. R O B E R T BRAIN

See also Graphical Method; Photography

Marshall, Alfred

I842-1924

British economist Bigg, Robert J., Cambridge and the Monetary Theory of Production: The Collapse of Marshallian Macroeconomics, London: Macmillan, and New York: St Martin's Press, 1990 Blaug, Mark, Economic Theory in Retrospect, Homewood, Illinois: Irwin, 1962; 4th edition, Cambridge and New York: Cambridge University Press, 1985 Coase, R.H., Essays on Economics and Economists, Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1994 Eshag, Eprime, From Marshall to Keynes: An Essay on the Monetary Theory of the Cambridge School, Oxford: Blackwell, 1963 Groenewegen, P.D., A Soaring Eagle: Alfred Marshall, 1S42-1924, Brookfield, Vermont, and Aldershot, Hampshire: Edward Elgar, 1995 Maloney, John, Marshall, Orthodoxy and the Professionalisation of Economics, Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1985; as The Professionalization of Economics: Alfred Marshall and the Dominance of Orthodoxy, New Brunswick, New Jersey: Transaction, 1991 Marshall, Mary P., What I Remember, Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1947

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Pigou, A.C. (ed.). Memorials of Alfred Marshall, London: Macmillan, 1925 Reisman, David, The Economics of Alfred Marshall, New York: St Martin's Press, and London: Macmillan, 1986 Reisman, David, Alfred Marshall's Mission, New York: St Martin's Press, and London: Macmillan, 1990 Stigler, George J., Production and Distribution Theories: The Formative Period, New York: Macmillan, 1941 Whitaker, John K. (ed.). Centenary Essays on Alfred Marshall, Cambridge and New York: Cambridge University Press, 1990 Alfred Marshall is historically important because he was one of the three or four leading economic theorists of all time. His Principles is the last great comprehensive treatise on economics, constituting the core document of neo-classical economics and incorporating many of the tools of analysis that are currently central to the foundation of economics (which is called either "price theory" or "microeconomics"). Keynes's long biographical essay in PIGOU is a still useful, elegant and stimulating introduction to the life of Marshall. Keynes's sometime rival Schumpeter once described this essay as "the most brilliant life of a man of science I have ever read". Keynes was an admiring student of Marshall's (and Keynes's father had been an ally), so it may not be surprising that Keynes's essay has been criticized for being too protective of Marshall. The Nobel prize winner COASE, for example, has carefully collected evidence on Marshall's family background, and found it less distinguished than Keynes claimed. A brief source that enriches the biographical detail of Marshall's life is the memoir written by his wife, Mary MARSHALL, near the end of her long life. GROENEWEGEN's careful and massive work will probably be the definitive biography of Marshall for a very long time to come. The author appears to have read and exploited nearly all known sources of archival information on Marshall's life, and to have subjected early drafts of his biography to useful criticism from several of the leading Marshall scholars. Although generally favorable to Marshall, Groenewegen does not shy away from issues that may show him in an unfavorable light, such as his attitude toward women. Several useful summaries of various aspects of Marshall's views are available. Written in a non-technical style, REISMAN (1986) summarizes Marshall's positions on issues such as the evolutionary character of economics and how to lead a moral and good life. The Nobel prize winner STIGLER, in his published doctoral dissertation, devoted a chapter to explaining clearly Marshall's position on the key theoretical tools of marginal productivity. Late in his career, Stigler (in the WHITAKER volume) also summarized Marshall's main contributions. With characteristic Stiglerian mischief, he suggests that one of Marshall's contributions is to have delayed by a generation the dominance of the "abstract formalism" of the Walrasian general equilibrium economists. A "reader's guide" to Marshall's main work, the Principles, can be found in a chapter in BLAUG. MALONEY incites controversy by arguing that Marshall's main contribution was not his addition to the toolbox of economics, but rather his successful efforts to complete the professionalization of economics. This professionalization is

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seen as accompanied by an increased emphasis on theory, by the goal of scientific objectivity, and by a sympathy toward the marketplace in policy analysis. A quite different view is presented in REISMAN (1990), which argues that Marshall's main objective was to benefit humanity through social reform. Although Marshall's main contribution to economics is usually seen as his development of price theory, his writings on macroeconomics have received attention, both because they were considered important when they were written, and because there is interest in how they may have influenced Marshall's student and colleague, Keynes. In ESHAG's brief monograph tracing the development of macroeconomics from Marshall to Keynes, the author finds little in this area that is original to Marshall. BIGG's analysis is more favorable to Marshall, arguing that his macroeconomic theory was a progressive research program that contained the seeds that eventually grew into the Keynesian revolution. ARTHUR M . D I A M O N D , JR

See also Keynes; Political Economy

Martineau, Harriet 1802-1876 British writer and reformer Basham, Diana, "The Demon Redeemed: Witchcraft, Mesmerism and Harriet Martineau's Ear-Trumpet", in The Trial of Woman: Feminism and the Occult Sciences in Victorian Literature and Society edited by Diana Basham, New York: New York University Press, 1992 Cooter, Roger, "Dichotomy and Denial: Mesmerism, Medicine and Harriet Martineau", in Science and Sensibility: Gender and Scientific Enquiry, iy8o-i^4j, edited by Marina Benjamin, Oxford and Cambridge, Massachusetts: Blackwell, 1991 David, Deirdre, "Harriet Martineau: A Career of Auxiliary Usefulness", in Intellectual Women and Victorian Patriarchy: Harriet Martineau, Elizabeth Barrett Browning, George Elliot, Ithaca, New York: Cornell University Press, 1987 Hill, Michael R., introduction to How To Observe Morals and Manners, by Martineau, New Brunswick, New Jersey: Transaction, 1988 Hoecker-Drysdale, Susan, Harriet Martineau: First Woman Sociologist, Oxford: Berg, 1992 McDonald, Lynn, Women Founders of the Social Sciences, Ottawa: Carleton University Press, 1994 Martineau, Harriet, Autobiography, with Memorials by Maria Weston Chapman, 3 vols, London: Elder, 1877; Boston: Houghton, Mifflin, 1877 Pichanick, Valerie Kossew, Harriet Martineau: The Woman and Her Work, 1802-J6, Ann Arbor: University of Michigan Press, 1980 Postlethwaite, Diana, Making It Whole: A Victorian Circle and the Shape of Their World, Columbus: Ohio State University Press, 1984 Rossi, Alice, "The Eirst Woman Sociologist: Harriet Martineau", The Feminist Papers: From Adams to de Beauvoir, edited by Alice Rossi, New York: Columbia University Press, 1973

Webb, Robert K., Harriet Martineau: A Radical Victorian, London: Heinemann, and New York: Columbia University Press, i960 Wright, T.R., The Religion of Humanity: The Impact of Comtean Positivism on Victorian Britain, Cambridge and New York: Cambridge University Press, 1986 Harriet Martineau has been studied as a public educator, journalist, historian and author of didactic literature. She wrote religious tracts, tales on political economy, historical novels, histories and moralistic tales for children, and nearly 2,000 newspaper leaders on a multitude of current issues in the 1850S and r86os. However, Martineau also explored religion, philosophy, natural science and social science; examined the potential of associationist psychology, Comtean positivism, phrenology, and mesmerism; and determined how to apply a variety of theories and methodologies in conducting her own social research. Her research projects included macrosociological studies of America, Ireland, India, and the Middle East, explorations of socialization and human nature, qualitative and quantitative investigations of work, occupations and industries, and critical analyses of current history. Within the new perspective, she has been identified as the first woman sociologist, a popularizer of science, and an imposing figure in feminist causes and issues. MARTINEAU wrote her Autobiography in 1855, in anticipation of her death, which in fact occurred 21 years later. In the account, she shapes her life as progressively rationalist, secular and autonomous, characterizing it as having reproduced Comte's Law of Three Stages, as her faith and intellect evolved from religion (Unitarianism), to philosophy, and finally to science. Within the limits inherent in such a construction of self, the book provides invaluable insights into Martineau's intellectual and emotional journey and into her persistent interests and scientific work, and also provides examples of her compliance and resistance as a Victorian woman of science. Numerous biographies of Martineau appeared in the 19th and 20th centuries, and, more recently, a number of insightful literary studies. In general, these do not deal in significant measure with Martineau's concerns and accomplishments in science. One exception is DAVID, whose work on three Victorian intellectuals analyses aspects of Martineau's social thought, particularly on political economy, slavery, feminist politics and the novel Deerbrook, in which the protagonist, Edward Hope, is the doctor-scientist figure. Martineau's increasingly scientific perspective on societal change and social problems is emphasized in chapters 2 and 3. No study of Harriet Martineau would be comprehensive without inclusion of WEBB's distinguished biography of i960, unsurpassed in its breadth, historical detail and critical stance. Webb emphasizes the significance of the influence of Unitarianism, utilitarianism and necessarianism for Martineau's intellectual development, her penchant for principle, and her lifelong search for truth. Webb maintains that it is precisely Martineau's radicalism that drew her to concerns with human nature and social progress, and to science as perhaps the panacea for the problems of modernity. Webb points out that Martineau was "preaching sociology without the name" from the early 1830s, an observation that is more thoroughly developed in later works on Martineau.

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Sympathetic, readable, and situated on solid historical ground is PICHANICK's life of Martineau, which examines particularly her role as historian and journalist, but also offers an appreciation of the influence of necessarianism and of Martineau's critical stance on Comte. Martineau's industriousness as a radical reformer was punctuated by impulsiveness and stubbornness, but "she was seldom seriously out of step with the more advanced opinions and trends of her day". Other interpretations of Martineau accentuate her sociological research and writings, as well as her interests in parascientific phenomena including phrenology, mesmerism (animal-magnetism), and clairvoyance. In her collection of feminist writings, ROSSI emphasises the pioneering contributions of Harriet Martineau to feminist thought and social research, in a brief but salient introduction to an excerpt from Martineau's Society in America. In the 1988 edition of Martineau's How To Observe Manners and Morals (1838), HILL introduces Martineau's important methodological treatise with a discussion of the theoretical and methodological resonances of her empirical work with the more commonly recognized figures in the history of sociological investigation. Martineau's approach to social research, as explicated in this methodological treatise, is outlined by Hill, who also considers Martineau's intellectual journey from metaphysics to empiricism and positivism. Hill rightly emphasizes that Martineau was not an uncritical social scientist, that she was highly innovative, and that her sociological work was most certainly within the accepted cannon. An examination of the life and work of Harriet Martineau as a noteworthy founder of the sociological enterprise is presented in a biography by HOECKER-DRYSDALE. The underlying sociological orientation of Martineau's research and writings - from her earliest religious and philosophical period (her writings in Unitarian Monthly Repository), to her own literary illustrations of political economy, her empirical studies of America and the Middle East, and later to her expositions on science - provides the theme of this succinct biography. Martineau, like many Victorian intellectuals, believed in the emancipatory power of science and rational knowledge. Her translation and condensation of Comte's Positive Philosophy (1853), her original field research and analyses, and her proficiency in linking social research to public issues, properly place her among early sociologists and social scientists. Of particular importance are her systematic research practices: her macrosociological and comparative studies, her field methods (interviews, observation including participant observation, scientific note-taking, cross-checking of data) and analysis of census data, and her use of documents and of historical data in qualitative and quantitative analyses. The methodological achievements in Martineau's research on American society, and many other subjects, would alone be grounds to establish her importance in the development of sociology. M C D O N A L D underscores them in precisely that framework - Martineau as a woman methodologist within a male-dominated scientific tradition - showing the connections and influences among several generations of women in the social sciences. Martineau's attraction to science can be attributed to a number of factors, including her early study of religion and philosophy and of literature, her precocious scepticism of patri-

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archal norms, her critical view of the Martineau family dynamics, and her own physical and psychological disabilities (a sickly constitution, deafness, impaired senses, childhood phobias, and anxieties). Added to these, prolonged illness in her third and fourth decades led her to mesmerism, which she subsequently claimed "cured" her abdominal maladies, and to phrenology, to which "science" she willed her head. Both contributed to her increasing support for the science of medicine, as COOTER demonstrates, and to her conviction that mesmerism was a path to the empowerment of women, as well as to her own independence, as explored by BASHAM. POSTLETHWAITE examines the elements of materialism and spiritualism in Martineau's search for answers to the questions of human nature and scientific epistemology. She correctly claims that Martineau's Letters on the Laws of Man's Nature and Development, written with Henry G. Atkinson, is "a prototypical expression of (the) Victorian world view". Mesmerism, as experiential verification of scientific mysteries, held for them the promise of the unification of the irrational (religious or mystical) and the rational (scientific) realms. While a thorough analysis of Martineau's position within 19th-century social science remains to be written, WRIGHT places her translation of Comte, her book on science with Atkinson, and her influence among positivist contemporaries within the sweep of Comtean positivism and his Religion of Humanity. Martineau's own empirical research, sociological interpretations in theoretical and literary writings, methodological practices, analyses of social issues, problems, and social change, and commitment to a science of society constitute a broad and fascinating agenda for analysis. SUSAN HOECKER-DRYSDALE

See also Comte; Mesmerism; Social Sciences; Sociology

M a r x , Karl i818-1883 German political theorist Anderson, Kevin, Lenin, Hegel, and Western Marxism, Urbana: University of Illinois Press, 1995 Aronowitz, Stanley, Science as Power, London: Macmillan, and Minneapolis: University of Minnesota Press, 1988 Bhaskar, Roy, Dialectic: The Pulse of Freedom, London and New York: Verso, 1993 Braverman, Harry, Labor and Monopoly Capital, New York: Monthly Review Press, 1975 Colletti, Lucio, "Bernstein and the Marxism of the Second International", in his Vrom Rousseau to Lenin: Studies in Ideology and Society, translated from the Italian by John Merrington and Judith White, London: New Left Books, and New York: Monthly Review Press, 197Z (original edition, 1969) Engels, Friedrich, Anti-Diihring: Herr Eugen DUhring's Revolution in Science, Moscow: Progress, 1947; Cambridge: Polity Press, 1984 Hanson, Norwood Russell, Patterns of Discovery: An Inquiry into the Conceptual Foundations of Science, Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1958

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Jay, Martin, Marxism and Totality: The Adventures of a Concept from Lucdcs to Habermas, Berkeley: University of California Press, 1984 Kautsky, Karl, The Materialist Conception of History, London: Macmillan, 1939; abridged by John H. Kautsky, translated from the German by Raymond Meer and John H. Kautsky, New Haven, Connecticut: Yale University Press, 1988 (original edition, 1927) Kitching, Gavin, Marxism and Science, University Park: Pennsylvania State University Press, 1994 Marcuse, Herbert, Soviet Marxism: A Critical Analysis, New York: Columbia University Press, and London: Routledge and Kegan Paul, 1958 Marx, Karl, Capital: A Critique of Political Economy, translated from the German by Ben Eowkes, Harmondsworth: Penguin, and New York: New Left Review, 1976 (original edition, 1867) Sayer, Derek, Marx's Method: Ideology, Science and Critique in "Capital", Hassocks, Sussex: Harvester Press, and Atlantic Highlands, New Jersey: Humanities Press, 1979; m d edition, Brighton, Sussex: Harvester Press, 1983 Sohn-Rethel, Alfred, Intellectual and Manual Labour: A Critique of Epistemology, translated from the German by Martin Sohn-Rethel, London: Macmillan, and Atlantic Highlands, New Jersey: Humanities Press, 1978 (original edition, 1970) Wetter, Gustav A., Dialectical Materialism: A Historical and Systematic Survey of Philosophy in the Soviet Union, translated from the German by Peter Heath, New York: Praeger, and London: Routledge and Kegan Paul, 1958; revised edition, Westport Connecticut: Greenwood Press, 1973 The debate over Karl Marx's critique of science began during his lifetime, and has never ceased. The starting point for this debate is MARX's magnum opus. Capital, to which he devoted most of his life. Volume i of this great unfinished work (1867) is the locus classicus of each of the most widely disputed themes in the literature on Marx and science: (a) the "scientificity" of Marx's method in general; (b) the scientificity of Marx's critique of capital in particular; and (c) the substance of Marx's critique of science as an institution. The first of these questions, in particular, captured the imagination of a generation of early Marxists, thanks largely to the influence of a polemic by Marx's friend, ENGELS. Preoccupied with the generalizability of Marx's ideas, Engels drew from Capital a series of "dialectical" precepts which, he said, formed the conceptual basis of a "scientific socialist" theory which could be applied, with equal validity, to nature and society alike. Showing keen insight into the science of his day focusing, for example, on matter and motion, Darwinian theory, and cell physiology - Engels argued for a unified Marxian science of society and nature that would be simultaneously historical, materialist, and dialectical. The influence of this vision was immense. In the period from 1890 until World War I, Marxism as defined by Engels figured as the reigning orthodoxy in the swiftly growing international movement that marched under the flag of the "Second International". The one serious challenge to Engelsian doctrine in this period - Bernstein's claim that Marx's "scientificity"

had been eclipsed by his dogmatism - was anathematized by the leading socialist parties at the turn of the century. "Marxism" and "science" became virtual synonyms for socialists in this tradition. KAUTSKY, the "pope" of the Second International, gave a further, Darwinian twist to Engelsian "historical materialism", coloring it with determinism. Stating that societies and species are both passive products of a uniform process of evolution, Kautsky added that humanity can only "adapt" to external change. Even revolution, in this vision, is construed as a form of evolutionary adaptation. Society is driven forward by "objective forces", not, Kautsky believed, by the subjective will or imagination of classes or nations. Parallel views were elaborated by most of the other leading figures in European socialism in this period, including the founder of Russian Marxism, Plekhanov, who coined the term "dialectical materialism". Though there were minor differences in the opinions of the leading theorists of the Second International, they generally embraced an openly reductionist materialism, economic or even technological determinism, and a pre-critical epistemology anchored in the belief that objective reality is immediately "copied" by the human mind. In his influential article of 1969, COLLETTI argued that this doctrine is not only simplistic, but remote from Marx's critique of political economy. The argument of Capital did not rest on the comparatively static, scholastic "laws" that Engels distilled from a melange of Marx's footnotes and epigrams, but, rather, on subtle deductive reasoning about essence and appearance, abstract and concrete labor, the form and content of value, and a host of other issues to which Engelsian orthodoxy paid little attention. More recently, ANDERSON has argued that, though Russian Marxism in the era of the Second International was unique in its emphasis on materialist "dialectics", it was very nearly as reductionist in its materialism as Kautskyan orthodoxy. After the Bolshevik Revolution of 1917, dialectical materialism was elaborated into a comprehensive new world-view, as WETTER has shown. Initially quite sophisticated, so-called "diamat" was soon transformed, under Stalin, into an allembracing, anti-empirical, legitimating ideology serving the interests of the ruling bureaucracy, as MARCUSE explains. The well-known aberrations of this ideology (e.g. Lysenko's Lamarckian pseudo-genetics) are only the most extreme examples of the Stalinist disdain for truth. Stalinism entered a period of acute crisis in 1956, with the suppression of the Hungarian uprising and Krushchev's disclosure of Stalin-era crimes. In the ferment of the following decades, a New Left began to reconsider not only Marx and Marxism, but positivism, psychoanalysis, and other orthodoxies. Critics of the Old Left found inspiration in the earlier heresies of Gyorgy Lukacs, Antonio Gramsci, Wilhelm Reich, and the Frankfurt School, whose criticisms of reification and authoritarianism seemed to lay a foundation for a new, more open and emancipatory Marxism. Opposed by Louis Althusser, Galvano Delia Volpe, and others who aspired to revitalize "scientific" orthodoxy by placing it on a new foundation, the neo-Marxists of the New Left were concerned, above all, with the palpable uncertainties of an era in which alienation was acute, and yet emancipation seemed deeply problematic. As JAY has shown, this

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prompted a rethinking of many of the main aspects of the relationship between Marxism and science. SOHN-RETHEL, for example, united a critique of positivist epistemology with a return to Marx's critique of institutional science, claiming that knowledge has been systematically severed from the labor of the direct producers - a thesis further refined by ARONOWITZ, and especially by BRAVERMAN, whose own factory experience is used to describe the de-skilling process in the zoth century. New attention has also been devoted to the logical status of Marx's theory of value and alienated labor. This has yielded studies showing not only the richness, but also the counter-intuitive complexity of Marx's theory. Colletti, who tried valiantly, but in vain, to reconcile Marx's notion of value with rhe tenets of normal science, ultimately turned away from Marx and dialectics altogether. SAYER, agreeing that Marx's theory departs from conventional norms of induction and deduction, nevertheless argues that Marx's logic is intelligible as an example of what the philosopher Peirce called "Retroductive inference" (as expounded by HANSON). Another noteworthy contribution to this debate comes from KITCHING, for whom Marx's theory of society is an example of conceptual critique rather than "science" in the strict sense. Issues that remain to be adequately addressed in this connection include, among others, the logical status of several key categories Marx adapted from Hegel, including "reflectiondeterminations" and "existence-forms". Meanwhile, many writers now urge the "reconstruction" of historical materialism on a non-dialectical basis, although the opposite position is taken by BHASKAR, for whom Marx's greatest weakness was not an excess of dialectical imagination, but just the reverse a failure to grasp that class, culture, and consciousness are no less contradictory than capitalism itself. DAVID N . S M I T H

See also Capitalism and Science; Evolution; Ideology; Marxism and Science; Political Economy

Marxism and Science Bernal, J.D., Science in History, London: Watts, and New York: Cameron Associates, 1954 Childe, V. Gordon, Man Makes Himself, London: Watts, 1937; New York: Oxford University Press, 1939 Dorn, Harold, The Geography of Science, Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press, 1991 Farrington, Benjamin, Greek Science: Its Meaning for Us, 2 vols, Harmondsworth: Penguin, 1944-49; Baltimore: Penguin, 1953 Gould, Stephen Jay, "Sociobiology and the Theory of Natural Selection", in American Association for the Advancement of Science Symposia, (1980): 257-69 Graham, Loren R., "The Socio-Political Roots of Boris Hessen: Soviet Marxism and the History of Science", Social Studies of Science, 15 (1985): 705-22 Hessen, Boris, "The Social and Economic Roots of Newton's 'Principia'", in Science at the Crossroads, London: Kniga [1931]

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Joravsky, David, The Lysenko Affair, Cambridge, Massachusetts: Harvard University Press, 1970 Lewontin, R.C., Steven Rose and Leon J. Kamin, Not in Our Genes: Biology, Ideology and Human Nature, New York: Pantheon Books, and London: Pelican, 1984 Lumsden, Charles J. and Edward O. Wilson, Promethean Fire: Reflections on the Origin of Mind, Cambridge, Massachusetts: Harvard University Press, 1983 (chapter 2 "The Sociobiology Controversy") Needham, Joseph, Science and Civilization in China, Cambridge and New York: Cambridge University Press, 1954-86 Smith, Merritt Roe and Leo Marx (eds). Does Technology Drive History? The Dilemma of Technological Determinism, Cambridge, Massachusetts: MIT Press, 1994 Werskey, Gary, The Visible College: The Collective Biography of the British Scientific Socialists of the 1930s, New York: Holt Rinehart and Winston, and London: Allen Lane, 1978 Over the past 75 years, Marxists have exerted a strong influence on the history of science and technology while, conversely, theoretical Marxism has received little clarification in return. Marx's materialist interpretation of history - with its theory of historical stages, structural analysis of society in terms of economic base and cultural superstructure, dialectical principles with which to account for change, and suggestion that technology determines history - have all left their mark on the history of science and technology. Because Marxism has been, from its inception, both a system of thought and a program of political action, it has also embraced the principle of the unity of theory and practice. A corollary of that principle is the unity of science and technology that Marxist writers have consistently proclaimed - i.e. that science has flourished and benefited society when it has been stimulated by contact with the practical arts, technology, and medical practice. The general emphasis of these Marxist principles on material and institutional, rather than intellectual, factors has played a major role in the development of the sociological (externalist) branch of the history of science. In 1931, the Soviet philosopher of science, Boris HESSEN, read a paper at the Second International Congress of the History of Science and Technology held in London, which was a canonical and provocative presentation of the Marxist historiography of science. He postulated that, in terms of base and superstructure, the themes of Newton's Principia had a strong dependence on the technical problems of an emergent capitalism in 17th-century England. The "Hessen thesis" was sharply debated, and for many years it enlivened discussions on the connections between science and society. GRAHAM has shown that the thesis did not spring from any Marxist interest in the history of science; rather, it was a tactical maneuver within the debate in the Soviet Union between doctrinal zealots, who repudiated Einstein and his physics, and modernizers, who held that the latest innovations in physical theory were potentially as socially relevant as Newton's physics once were. A Marxist historiography of science was developed in Britain after the Russian Revolution. CHILDE and FARRINGTON, working on the prehistoric and classical eras respectively, consistently emphasized the unity of knowledge and technique sometimes, indeed, obscuring all distinction between them.

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BERNAL, who was a remarkable polymath as well as an eminent crystallographer and a member of the British Communist Party, produced a long survey of the history of science that is still in print. In 1954, NEEDHAM, an even more remarkable polymath who, as he put it, "fell in love with the Chinese people", launched a monumental study of the history of Chinese science and technology. It is based on an astonishing number of sources in Chinese, Japanese, and European languages, and covers a vast range of ideas and techniques, emphasizing their interdependence. The project is now in its fifth decade and will be completed by the Needham Research Institute, Cambridge, England. Although Needham conceded that "modern science" originated "only in Europe", his sympathetic acknowledgement of the diffusion of many scientific and technological innovations from China to the West, and his insistence that scientific development is to be accounted for by "concrete social reasons" rather than by the inspiration of geniuses, are at least vaguely consistent with his Marxist principles. While none of these British writers on the history of science is as explicitly doctrinal as Hessen, they have collectively influenced the subject by directing it towards an institutional and sociological approach, with an emphasis (sometimes exaggerated) on the interconnections between science and technology as joint components of the socio-economic basis of society. WERSKEY presents an informative and thoughtful account of the careers of these British Marxists. Marx's theory of history includes a stage of historical development that he called the "Asiatic Mode of Production". This corresponds to what are generally known as the first civilizations in the Near and Far East and in the Americas, and postulates that much of the social organization of these civilizations, which are quite unlike the European model, was determined by their physical and environmental settings, requiring the intensification of agriculture through bureaucratic control of large-scale public works, generally in the form of irrigation projects. Although Needham resolutely avoided Marx's irritating "Asiatic Mode of Production" (which, ironically, was repudiated by Marxists and, in 1931, condemned in the Soviet Union), preferring instead to designate traditional China as "feudal bureaucratism", he endorsed the thesis that major cultural patterns of Chinese history can be explained by the material environment of an agrarian society dependent on artificial irrigation in semi-arid flood plains. Also, he specifically contrasted Chinese and Greek astronomy in terms of the divergent social effects determined by ecological differences. DORN has recently applied an apolitical interpretation of the Asiatic Mode of Production, along the lines of the "hydraulic hypothesis" adopted by some American anthropologists, to an analysis of the differences between the scientific cultures of the ancient Orient and ancient Greece, extending the argument in order to establish a generalized geographical approach to the social history of science. Marx's famous aphorism, "the hand-mill gives you society with the feudal lord; the steam-mill, society with the industrial capitalist", with its forbidding implication of technological determinism, has been only slightly developed by historians of technology as a historical generalization. SMITH &C MARX have now edited a collection of articles that may refocus the discussion. Another of Marx's aphorisms, "the ideas of the ruling class are the ruling ideas", seems to be finding expres-

sion (albeit without the distinctive class analysis) in the "social constructivism" that some historians of science have advocated in recent years. As a result of its dual nature (as political program and theory of history), Marxism has often become embroiled in ideological conflict, which, in the Soviet Union, even led to the suppression of scientific research. In an effort to bolster agricultural production, Soviet authorities, in the notorious "Lysenko affair", favored a group of plant breeders, ideologues, and scientists who repudiated the science of genetics immutable genes seemed to contradict dialectical materialism, which postulates incessant change - and for a few years in the 1940s, the political authorities went so far as to prohibit research in the field of genetics. JORAVSKY presents a thorough account of that doleful episode in the history of science. In the US, a sharp controversy has erupted along another front of Darwin studies. In 1975, Edward O. Wilson published a massive survey of sociobiology, in which he included, as a tangential issue, the biological basis of human social behavior. Wilson's survey evoked an immediate condemnation, on both scientific and ideological grounds, by left-wing critics, including the scientists GOULD and LEWONTIN, ROSE & KAMIN. In terms that are more akin to political liberalism than theoretical Marxism, Wilson was accused of favoring a theory that provides a justification for "policies which led to the establishment of gas chambers in Nazi Germany". LUMSDEN & WILSON have summarized the controversy, which shows little sign of abating. Gould has also been a leading advocate, on scientific grounds, of the theory of "punctuated evolution", which may appeal to him ideologically because of its consistency with dialectical materialism, which postulates that all change is punctuated by relatively abrupt transformations. HAROLD DORN

See also Capitalism and Science; Ideology; Marx; Social Sciences

Materials Science Bever, Michael B. (ed.). Encyclopedia of Materials Science and Engineering, vol. i, Oxford: Pergamon Press, and Cambridge, Massachusetts: MIT Press, 1986 Bijker, Wiebe E., Of Bicycles, Bakelites, and Bulbs.: Toward a Theory of Sociotechnical Change, Cambridge, Massachusetts: MIT Press, 1995 Brocke, Bernhard vom (ed.), Forschung im Spannungsfeld von Politik und Gesellschaft. Geschichte und Struktur der Kaiser- Wilhelm-/Max-Ptanck-Gesellschaft, Stuttgart: Deutsche Verlags-Anstalt, 1990 Hoddeson, Lillian et al. (eds). Out of the Crystal Maze: Chapters from the History of Solid-State Physics, Oxford and New York: Oxford University Press, 1992

Johnson, Jeffrey Allan, The Kaiser's Chemists: Science and Modernization in Imperial Germany, Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 1990 Koster, Werner, 25 Jahre Kaiser-Withelm-Institut fiir

Metallforschung 192J-1946, Stuttgart: Riederer, 1949

MATERIALS SCIENCE

Kranzberg, Melvin and Cyril Stanley Smith, "Materials in History and Society", Materials Science and Engineering, 37 (1979) Pusch, Richard, "Die Geschichte der Metallographie unter besonderer Beriicksichtigung der mikroskopischen Prijfverfahren", Practical Metallography, 16 (1979) Pyatt, Edward, The National Physical Laboratory: A History, Bristol: Adam Hilger, 1983 Serafini, Anthony, Legends in Their Own Time: A Century of American Physical Scientists, New York: Plenum Press, 1993 Servos, John W , Physical Chemistry from Ostwald to Pauling: The Making of a Science in America, Princeton, New Jersey: Princeton University Press, 1990 Seymour, Raymond B. (ed.). History of Polymer Science and Technology, New York: Marcel Dekker, 1980 Smith, Cyril Stanley, A History of Metallography: The Development of Ideas on the Structure of Metals before 1S90, Chicago: University of Chicago Press, i960; 2nd edition, Cambridge, Massachusetts: MIT Press, 1988 BEVER states that materials science emerged as a scientific discipline during the 1940s when military technology in particular required new engineering materials such as high-temperature metals for jet engines or nuclear reactors. The young academic discipline integrated the materials related research of older sciences that were its mother disciplines. Thus, the historiography of materials science must be divided into two main periods covering the materials related research of its motherdisciplines such as physics, chemistry, physical chemistry, and metallography up to the 1940s, and the period from the 1950s when the results of materials science became crucial for industrial (steel) and consumer (transistor) applications. As the only study to give an overview of the subject, KRANZBERG &: SMITH perfectly reflect the heterogenous character of materials science before and after 1950. They emphasize the significance of materials for mankind from the early times on and the contributions of chemistry, physics, and engineering to the field. A key question is the dichotomy between science and practice, and engineering respectively, reflecting the different cultures and the gulf between the communities, which was overcome only after the requirements of national security brought together scientists and engineers in research and development projects. The need for sophisticated materials for communication, space flight and atomic energy purposes mainly contributed to the evolution of the discipline under the appellation "materials science and engineering" in the 1950s and 1960s. Tracing back the evolution of materials science in its mother disciplines, for the case of solid-state physics HODDESON et al. delineate the international discussion on the microstructure of metals from the 19th century on, before the emergence of quantum mechanics. Obviously, these investigations must be seen as a reaction to socio-economic needs, when the extreme increase in the production of steel for railroad and steamengine purposes in the second half of the 19th century demanded a better knowledge of metal microstructure. The "externalistic" approach shows that the state effort in industrialized nations was responsible for the foundation of research institutions which was crucial for further investigation on

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materials and which integrated fundamental and applied research. On the other hand, industrial research establishments such as Edison's Menlo Park, the Bell Telephone Company, General Electric, Siemens, Krupp and l.G. Farben, established metallurgical and strength-of-materials laboratories. World War I then fostered the material supply for and the exchange of results and personnel among these institutions. Moving over the watershed of 1950, the history of the National Physics Laboratory (NPL) is an example for the institutional attitude in the history of science. PYATT shows the state impact on the foundation and during the war years as well as the interdisciplinary character of the research program, when Walter Rosenhain became superintendent of the new Metallurgy and Metallurgical Chemistry Department in 1906. His department made a tremendous contribution to materials science with its "annual reports" on non-ferrous alloys which already covered a broad range of elements of modern materials science such as phase diagrams, chemical and microstructural constitution and the effects of processing on mechanical properties. In the history of the NPL, the period from 1945 to 1980 is labelled with "Materials Science" standing for the application of new techniques and methods with X-ray, ceramic and radioactive tracer sections but further indicating the emergence of the new discipline inside a national institution. The history of the German "Kaiser-Wilhelm-Institut fiir Metallforschung" founded in 1921 which pursued a similar research program as the NPL is portrayed in its political and socio-economic aspects by the work of BROCKE. This is an institutional history at its best, but neglects the "internal" developments of the materials scientific questions and developments that directed the institutes research. JOHNSON follows this position on a smaller scale indicating the dominance of chemistry in Imperial Germany, which is expressed by the fact that the first director of the institute, Emil Heyn, was an analytic chemist. The whole body of research has thus to be taken from a classical jubilee work of its director K O S T E R who described his institutions history as if it mainly would follow an internal logic and one discovery leading to another. Only the combination of Brocke, Johnson and Koster can reveal the whole range of driving forces for the development of materials science in this institution. The significance of chemistry and physical chemistry for the emergence of materials science is not limited on the analysis of the constituents of alloys. It expands on the theoretical basis such as the phase rule developed by J. Willard Gibbs. SERAEINI has chosen the biographical approach to the subject in order to examine the importance of an individuals life and character on his impact in physical chemistry and thus materials science. Not accidentally, the history of the phase rule and its relevance for metallurgical research is to be found in SERVOS's work on the history of physical chemistry. Although metallography is still a main element in todays materials science studies only one profound history was written yet. Unfortunately, SMITH'S work mainly covers its development from the early days up to the late 19th century and represents the old approach in history of science, excluding other than scientific driving forces. However, it is essential for any further study and the history of materials science as well as PUSCH's work which covers the years up to the 1940s from the German perspective.

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Materials science also includes non-metal materials. The work of SEYMOUR carries a misleading title because it contains i8 internalistic articles on different polymers which were developed in the 20th century. Only two articles deal with general aspects of polymer science history and the history of polymer education. BIJKER adopts a different position in his monograph, which became a role model for history of science and technology during the 1990s. He develops the "social construction of technology" (and science) viewpoint in which he takes Leo Hendrik Baekeland and his works on polymers as a key example. He claims, that the scientist is a member of a relevant social group and who is reacting to demands from outside his community. In the case of Baekeland this was the demand for a cheap and inflammable plastic material to overcome the disadvantages of celluloid. A modern history of materials science still has to be written. HELMUT MAIER

Mathematical Instruments Bennett, J.A., The Divided Circle: A History of Instruments for Astronomy, Navigation and Surveying, Oxford: Phaidon/Christie's, 1987 Bennett, Jim and Stephen Johnston, The Geometry of War, i^oo-iy^o, Oxford: Museum of the History of Science, 1996 Brown, Joyce, Mathematical Instrument-Makers in the Grocers' Company, 1688-1800, With Notes on Some Earlier Makers, London: Science Museum, 1979 Chapman, Allan, Dividing the Circle: The Development of Critical Angular Measurement in Astronomy, ijoo-18^0. New York: Ellis Horwood, 1990; 2nd edition, Chichester, Sussex: Wiley, 1995 Clifton, Gloria C, Directory of British Scientific Instrument Makers, 1550-1851, London: Zwemmer/National Museum, 1995 Gouk, Penelope, The Ivory Sundials of Nuremberg, 1500-1700, Cambridge: Whipple Museum, 1988 Hambly, Maya, Drawing Instruments, 1J80-1980, London: Sotheby's, 1988 Taylor, E.G.R., The Mathematical Practitioners of Tudor and Stuart England, 148^-1^14, Cambridge: Cambridge University Press/Institute of Navigation, 1954 Taylor, E.G.R., The Mathematical Practitioners of Hanoverian England, 1J14-1840, Cambridge: Cambridge University Press/Institute of Navigation, 1966 Turner, Anthony John, Early Scientific Instruments: Europe, 1400-1800, London: Sotheby, and New York: Philip Wilson, 1987 Turner, Anthony John, Mathematical Instruments in Antiquity and the Middle Ages: An Introduction, London: VadeMecum Press, 1994 Turner, Gerard L'E., Nineteenth-Century Scientific Instruments, London: Sotheby, and Berkeley: University of California Press, 1983 Mathematical instruments are historically the earliest devices now subsumed under the general heading of scientific instru-

ments. They were used for calculation, observation and drawing in a range of mathematical arts, including astronomy, surveying, navigation, fortification, and gunnery. As a category, "mathematical instruments" gradually disappeared in the 19th century, buried under increasing specialisation and changing technology. Much of the history of mathematical instruments therefore appears under the guise of more broadly conceived histories of scientific instruments, or within the narrower bounds of accounts of particular disciplines or topics. Taylor was one of the first to reveal the historical coherence of the mathematical arts and sciences as a tradition that actively continued through to the 19th century. Her two volumes on consecutive periods, TAYLOR (1954) and TAYLOR (1966), though largely bibliographical, nevertheless echo the interests of the mathematical practitioners themselves, by giving extended consideration to the manufacture and use of instruments. While frequently criticised on points of detail, Taylor has been the starting point for much subsequent research. Historiography has focused on the Renaissance and early modern periods, which reflects the bulk of surviving instruments in museum and private collections. However, TURNER (1994) provides a first survey of ancient and early medieval instruments. This serves as a useful preface to TURNER (1987), which reviews the subsequent period. Although the latter work also considers the natural philosophical and optical instruments of the 17th and i8th centuries, it is nevertheless heavily concerned with mathematical instruments. Taken together, these two texts offer the best current synthesis for the period up to 1800, as well as detailed references to more specialised literature. The 19th-century fragmentation of the tradition of mathematical instruments is reflected in the structure of TURNER {1983), in which such instruments are distributed through several separate chapters. Turner's account focuses on the instruments themselves, and, in a work aimed partly at collectors, he does not attempt a comprehensive review; in particular, such larger-scale devices as astronomical observatory instruments are omitted. Apart from period-based studies, mathematical instruments feature prominently in many accounts of particular topics or disciplines. Against the background of such studies of individual mathematical arts or sciences, BENNETT is unusual in presenting the three areas of astronomy, navigation, and surveying as a coherent historical terrain. The juxtaposition is justified less on the level of theory than through their reliance on shared principles of instrumentation, and especially on the geometry of the graduated circle. Bennett serves not only as an introduction to these three principal areas of practical mathematics and their instruments, but also as a demonstration of how attention to instruments can structure historical inquiry itself. CHAPMAN offers a more tightly focused account of astronomical instruments, and supplements Bennett's account in his attention to issues of construction, use, and accuracy. More than most authors. Chapman strives to reconstruct the working methods of makers and to assess and evaluate the technical frontier of precision. Not all mathematical instruments represented the cutting edge of technology; sundials, for example, were often as much

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aesthetic objects as time-telling devices. Although concerned with only a small part of this large Held, GOUK provides a model interdisciplinary study that addresses the principles, materials, manufacture, decoration and use of a particular type of sundial, as well as its market. Drawing instruments, predominantly used professionally by architects and engineers, were also part of the repertoire of the mathematical instrument maker. Although partly a picture book for collectors, particularly in its presentation of cases of drawing instruments, HAMBLY is by far the most extensive survey of this class of instrument. The text is centred on the instruments themselves, and there is no systematic analysis of the relations between instrumentation and drawing practice. However, the development of all major drawing instrument types is covered. In an area where much of the historiography has been written by museum curators, catalogues as well as monographs are a major medium of publication. BENNETT & JOHNSTON is an exhibition catalogue with an introductory essay that addresses the little-discussed area of the military uses of mathematical instruments. Apart from period surveys and subject-based accounts, much recent work in instrument history has concerned itself with the identification of instrument makers and the development of their trade. Studies such as those of BROWN have reconstituted sequences of master-apprentice relations among mathematical instrument makers, establishing a continuous lineage of craft succession over literally hundreds of years. CLIFTON provides the results of a more systematic project to document English makers of all types of scientific instrument. STEPHEN JOHNSTON

See also Astronomical Instruments; Calculating Devices; Instrument Makers; Navigational Instruments; Scientific Instruments: general works

Mathematical Modernity Corry, Leo, Modern Algebra and the Rise of Mathematical Structures, Basel: Birkhauser, 1996 Gray, Jeremy, "The 19th-century Revolution in Mathematical Ontology", in Revolutions in Mathematics, edited by Donald Gillies, Oxford: Clarendon Press, and New York: Oxford University Press, 1992 Heims, Steve J., John von Neumann and Norbert Wiener: From Mathematics to the Technologies of Life and Death, Cambridge, Massachusetts: MIT Press, 1980 Heintz, Bettina, Die Herrschaft der Regel: Zur Grundlagengeschichte des Computers, Frankfurt: Campus, 1993 Mehrtens, Herbert, Moderne, Sprache, Mathematik: Eine Geschichte des Streits um die Grundlagen der Disziplin und des Subjekts formaler Systeme, Frankfurt: Suhrkamp, 1990

Mehrtens, Herbert, "Mathematics and War: Germany, 1900-1945", in National Military Establishments and the Advancement of Science and Technology, edited by Paul Forman and Jose M. Sanchez-Ron, Dordrecht and Boston: Kluwer, 1996

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Parshall, Karen Hunger and David E. Rowe, The Emergence of the American Mathematical Research Community, i8y6-i900. Providence, Rhode Island: American Mathematical Society, and London: London Mathematical Society, 1994 Peckhaus, Volker, Hilbert-Programm und kritische Philosophie, Gottingen: Vandenhoeck & Ruprecht, 1990 Pyenson, Lewis, Neohumanism and the Persistence of Pure Mathematics in Wilhelmian Germany, Philadelphia: American Philosophical Society, 1983 Reid, Constance, Hilbert, Berlin and New York: Springer, and London: Allen and Unwin, 1970 Reid, Constance, Courant in Gottingen and New York: The Story of an Improbable Mathematician, New York: Springer, 1976 Richards, Joan L., Mathematical Visions: The Pursuit of Geometry in Victorian England, Boston: Academic Press, 1988 Rotman, Brian: Ad infinitum - The Ghost in Turing's Machine: Taking God Out of Mathematics and Putting the Body Back In: An Essay in Corporeal Semiotics, Stanford, California: Stanford University Press, 1993 Rowe, David E. and John McCleary (eds). The History of Modern Mathematics: Proceedings of the Symposium of the History of Mathematics, Vassar College, Poughkeepsie, 2. vols, Boston: Academic Press, 1989 Rowe, David E. and Eberhard Knobloch (eds). The History of Modern Mathematics (sequel to the Symposium of the History of Mathematics), Boston: Academic Press, 1995 Scholz, Erhard, Symmetrie, Gruppe, Dualitdt: Zur Beziehung zwischen theoretischer Mathematik und Anwendungen in Kristallographie und Baustatik des 15*. jahrhunderts, Basel: Birkhauser, 1989 The history of mathematics has only recently begun to focus on 20th-century developments. A key issue in approaching that last century is adequate periodization; it has long been apparent that during the final decades of the 19th century there was a slow but significant change within mathematical culture, from research and teaching to applications in various contexts. A promising proposal, made most forcefully by Herbert Mehrtens, is to regard the emergent mathematical culture as reflecting a period of "mathematical modernity", related to cultural modernity as a whole. Historical studies that substantiate this proposal are only just beginning to emerge, and, in the following discussion, some of these recent studies will be mentioned. In research, a process of differentiation and diversification of mathematical fields accompanied the onset of mathematical modernity. For a sample of historical studies, mostly dealing with new fields constituted in that process but also with a variety of institutional aspects, see the volumes ROWE & McCLEARY and ROWE & KNOBLOCH. Linked to the internal differentiation of mathematical research fields was a revolution in the relations between mathematics and the natural sciences, and mathematics and technology. SCHOLZ draws on two interesting case studies; against the background of the dichotomy between "autonomous" and "heteronomous" processes of concept formation in mathematics, he discusses the abstract group concept in 19th-century crystallography, and

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the emergence of the geometric notion of duality, in connection with architecture and technical drawing. The autonomous development of mathematics clearly rested on the new role and status of the mathematical profession. A good starting point for studies of this level of modernization is PYENSON's concise treatment of the reformation of mathematical education in Wilhelmian Germany, against the background of the neo-humanist ideal of pure mathematics. In particular, Pyenson highlights Felix Klein's institutional activities on behalf of the mathematics profession. Together with the British algebraist, Joseph J. Sylvester, Klein was also one of the key figures in the establishment of a mathematical research community in the US in the decades before 1900. The story of this influential development is told in great detail by PARSHALL & ROWE, who not only describe almost every individual involved in the project, but also emphasize how the mathematical ideas of the leading figures helped to shape the research traditions of the growing community. However, a complementary study of the tremendous growth of mathematics in the US in the early zoth century is still lacking, as are comparative studies of the development of mathematical research communities in the various imperialist countries. Internal differentiation, the achievement of disciplinary autonomy, professionalization, and the spreading of mathematics over the industrialized parts of the globe, are just some of the changes that mark the onset of mathematical modernity. At a deeper level, traditional conceptions of what mathematics is actually about were threatened and finally abandoned. The best-known line of mathematical thinking which involved such a redrawing of the image of mathematics is the emergence of non-Euclidean geometries. RICHARDS discusses the reception of these geometries in Britain within the broader context of British geometrical traditions, from the Cambridge Tripos to debates on Euclid as a school book. The central issue in her narrative is the need for the rejection of the notion of geometry as describing some sort of spatial reality, which was finally accepted by British mathematicians after a variety of arguments and controversies. Most probably, the full (international) story of these developments will transcend Richards's national perspective in significant and interesting ways. A similar developmental process in algebra during the 19th century led also to the explosion of the traditional concept of number. In a tightly-argued article, GRAY has described these and further developments as a "revolution in mathematical ontology", in the Kuhnian sense. In fact, it seems that much may still be gained from disentangling the various threads from what could be called the end of the conception of mathematics as a science of quantity, to the philosophical battles concerning the foundations of mathematics fought to this day. The turn of the zoth century saw a radicalization of mathematical culture and a movement of committed modernists. Using an interpretative framework, based on both semiotics and David Hilbert's metamathematics, and focusing mainly on German developments, MEHRTENS (1990) depicts the rise of the axiomatic style in mathematics, and the continuing struggle between "moderns" like Hilbert and Felix Hausdorff and "counter-moderns" like Felix Klein or Luitzen Brouwer. For Mehrtens, the modernist approach to mathematics implied working on a language without fixed meaning, while his

"counter-moderns" insisted that mathematical practice had to be rooted in the real world, via either intuition or application. Around this narrative core, Mehrtens groups a broad spectrum of issues, ranging from professionalization to a psychoanalytic sketch of the modern mathematical subject. Mehrtens shares the general view that the central figure in the struggles concerning the shape of mathematical modernity was Hilbert. While little of Hilbert's mathematical research has as yet received adequate historical treatment, his metamathematical activities have occupied philosophers ever since. From a historical perspective, these are also discussed in PECKHAUS, who details Hilbert's efforts to establish a research tradition at Gottingen on the foundations of modern mathematics. Following the lead of Hilbert's early work and Julius Dedekind's conceptual innovations in algebraic number theory, in Gottingen Emmy Noether and her followers created a mathematical discipline that carried "modernity" even in its name: modern algebra, understood as a science of algebraic structures. CORRY treats the rise of this discipline within a broad context; his main concern is the development of the image of mathematics with the growing faith in mathematical structures as the basis of all mathematical research - which sometimes bordered on myth-making, as refiected in the Bourbakist modern encyclopedia of mathematics. In the formalist idea of mathematics as a language without fixed meaning, and the Bourbakist idea of mathematics as a science of pure structures, the 19th-century ideal of pure mathematics survived in a specifically modern form. It would, however, be misleading to locate the essence of mathematical modernity here. At least two issues have been brought into the discussion that counterbalance this view. The first is computing; while Mehrtens links the emergence of a mathematical theory of computing with his general interpretation (by pointing out the roots of Turing's ideas in both formalist metamathematics and the intuitionists' insistence on effective computability), HEINTZ parallels theories of automatic computing with theories of social rationalization - in both cases, she argues, a system of strict rules is seen as the organizing principle. The second issue relativizing the myth of purity in mathematical modernity is the role of mathematics in war. In an illuminating parallel biography, HEIMS has contrasted the contributions of Norbert Wiener and John von Neumann to US warfare in World War II, which resulted in their antagonist views on military technology in the post-war period. MEHRTENS (1996) discusses the German case in detail, based on his earlier interpretative framework. Collecting references to the historical literature under the title of "mathematical modernity" leaves one with the impression that much has still to be done. This is due not only to the general scarcity of studies on zoth-century mathematical practices, but also to the fact that important issues for the construction of a coherent picture of modernity in mathematics still remain unresearched. One issue is the development of the relations between mathematics and the natural sciences - in particular physics, but also chemistry or biology. Another is the use of mathematical methods in the social sciences, first and foremost economics. On a different level lies the lack of critical, scientific biographies of the central actors. Apart from Heims's parallel lives, the best we have are REID's semi-popular, insufficiently documented presentations of Hilbert and Courant.

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If most of 20th-century mathematics can be described as forming part of the epoch of mathematical modernity, the question is raised as to when this period came to an end. Mehrtens is quite strict on this point: "The history of mathematical modernity ended about twenty years ago." (Mehrtens, 1990) The semiotician, ROTMAN, goes one step further: jumping on the train of academic postmodernism, he sketches a radically revisionist critique of modern mathematics, based on his conviction that mathematics should be understood as no more or less than a real (as opposed to idealized) practice of dealing with material signs. MoRiTZ EPPLE

See also Algebra; Geometry; Number Theory

Maupertuis, Pierre-Louis M o r e a u de 1698-1759 French mathematician and geodeist Beeson, David, Maupertuis: An Intellectual Biography, Oxford: Voltaire Foundation at the Taylor Institution, 199Z

Brunet, Pierre, Maupertuis, 2 vols, Paris: Albert Blanchard, 19Z9

Greenberg, John L., The Problem of the Earth's Shape from Newton to Clairaut: The Rise of Mathematical Science in Eighteenth-Century Paris and the Fall of "Normal" Science, Cambridge and New York: Cambridge University Press, 1995 Hoffheimer, Michael, "Maupertuis and the EighteenthCentury Critique of Preexistence", journal of the History of Biology, 15 (1982): 119-44 Pulte, Helmut, Das Prinzip der kleinsten Wirkung und die Kraftkonzeptionen der rationalen Mechanik: Eine Untersuchung zur Grundlegungsproblematik bei Leonhard Euler, Pierre Louis Moreau de Maupertuis und Joseph Louis Lagrange, Stuttgart: Steiner, 1989 Terrall, Mary, "The Culture of Science in Frederick the Great's Berlin", History of Science, 23 (1990): 333-64 Terrall, Mary, "Representing the Earth's Shape: The Polemics Surrounding Maupertuis's Expedition to Lapland", Isis, 83 (1992): 218-37 Terrall, Mary, "Salon, Academy and Boudoir: Generation and Desire in Maupertuis's Science of Life", Isis, 87 (1996): 217-29

Pierre-Louis Moreau de Maupertuis operated in and around the institutional centers of science in the Enlightenment. From the mathematics class of the Paris Academy of Sciences, he worked his way up the hierarchy to a pensioned position, before being recruited by Frederick II for the presidency of the Prussian Academy of Sciences in Berlin. He was well-known in England, and contributed to the Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society. His reputation rests primarily on his contributions in three areas: the shape of the earth (geodesy), the principle of least action (mechanics), and the theory of generation and heredity (life science). His works on these subjects, written in a variety of genres for a range of audiences.

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have usually been treated in the historical literature as separate from each other, without a great deal of attention to the cultural and institutional contexts in which they were written and read. The classic biography is that of BRUNET, which separates Maupertuis's life (vol. i) from his works (vol. 2). The biographical narrative relies exclusively on sources located in Paris libraries in the 1920s, ignoring major collections of correspondence and manuscripts held elsewhere. Brunet is interested in Maupertuis as the first "French Newtonian", and his account of Maupertuis's science is a straightforward summary of the oeuvre, with little emphasis on historical context. The more recent work by BEESON is based on careful archival work, including substantial sources unknown to Brunet. Beeson focuses on Maupertuis's intellectual development, representing him as an empiricist who opposed the "rationalist methodology of Cartesianism". These categories are not particularly helpful in understanding the complexity of ideas and practices that defined science in this period. Beeson takes no notice of the historiography of science of recent decades. GREENBERG's masterful treatment of geodesy gives a detailed account of the technical content of Maupertuis's papers on the subject, and chronicles the dispute that engaged the attention of many members of the Paris Academy for more than a decade. This is a valuable source on the mathematical aspects of the debate, showing how an emerging mathematical tradition in Paris drew on Newton, without imitating him. The dispute also prompted the Academy to mount measuring expeditions to the Arctic circle and the equator, Maupertuis leading the northern expedition. TERRALL (1992) analyzes the polemics prompted by Maupertuis's expedition, and examines the rhetorical strategies used by the opposing factions to defend results obtained with competing calculational, observational, instrumental, and literary techniques. Particular instruments and particular texts crystallized these disputed practices. Maupertuis's articulation of the principle of least action as the foundation of mechanics, and the key to a proof of God's existence, embroiled him in further controversy. The principle was formulated explicitly as both physical and metaphysical, an economy principle for the universe and for physics. PULTE puts this principle into its mathematical and philosophical context; he attacks positivist accounts of the development of physics as the gradual and necessary abandonment of metaphysics, arguing that metaphysics and physics worked together to reinforce particular theories of science in the i8th century. The careful attention to metaphysics is unusual and salutary, though Pulte's account stresses the philosophical context to the exclusion of political and institutional settings for the practice of mechanics. The institutional context is explored in TERRALL (1990), which discusses Maupertuis's development of the principle of least action, at an academy that included a class of speculative philosophy. Maupertuis's move from Paris to Berlin allowed him to pursue his project regarding the value of metaphysical foundations for physics, to which he enlisted the co-operation of Leonhard Euler. The natural efficiency and economy ingrained in the principle of least action resonated with the ideology that defined Frederick's Prussia. This article also analyses the version of enlightened absolutism that

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informed Maupertuis's autocratic rule as president of the Berlin Academy of Sciences. HOFFHEIMER's article is a helpful introduction to Maupertuis's work on generation and heredity. He shows how Maupertuis used experimental and observational evidence to develop an epigenetic system that challenged the prevailing wisdom about the pre-existence of organic germs. TERRALL (1996) looks at the participation of these texts in a discourse of eroticism outside the academy. Speculative claims about organic matter and the forces guiding organization drew on the language of pleasure current in fashionable social circles, where women were key interlocutors, as well as on microscopy and animal breeding experiments. Incorporating gallantry and wit into reflections about the possibilities of a new science of life was a way of playing to different, but overlapping, audiences for scientific knowledge. Maupertuis's work and career provide clear evidence for the kind of disciplinary, geographical, and stylistic boundarycrossing characteristic of the practice of science in the early modern period generally. Though many of his scientific claims and rhetorical strategies were innovative, he is perhaps most interesting for the variety of ways he played the field, at a time when there was no single route to fame and fortune in science. His name crops up in historical accounts of many different fields, from biology to linguistics, to mechanics and geography, but there is no satisfactory account of how the various pieces of his life and work fit together within the historical context. MARY TERRALL

See also Enlightenment; Newtonianism; Rational Mechanics

Maxwell, James Clerk 1831-1879 British physicist Bromberg, Joan, "Maxwell's Displacement Current and His Theory of Light", Archive for the History of Exact Sciences, 4 (1967): Z18-34 Buchwald, Jed Z., From Maxwell to Microphysics: Aspects of Electromagnetic Theory in the Last Quarter of the Nineteenth Century, Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1985 Hendry, John, James Clerk Maxwell and the Theory of the Electromagnetic Field, Bristol and Boston: Hilger, 1986 Hunt, Bruce J., The Maxwellians, Ithaca, New York: Cornell University Press, 1991' Larmor, Joseph (ed.). Origins of Clerk Maxwell's Electric Ideas, as Described in Familiar Letters to William Thomson, Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1937 Siegel, Daniel M., Innovation in Maxwell's Electromagnetic Theory: Molecular Vortices, Displacement Current, and Light, Cambridge and New York: Cambridge University Press, 1991 Smith, Crosbie and M. Norton Wise, Energy and Empire: A Biographical Study of Lord Kelvin, Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1989 Although short, James Clerk Maxwell's life was extremely interesting; not only from a scientific point of view (his work on the electromagnetic field and electromagnetic theory of light

and his contributions to the statistical molecular theory put him alongside Newton and Einstein in a unique chapter of the history of science), but also because of the milieu in which he grew up and carried out his scientific career. It is not easy to capture such variety, which includes some of the most difficult and important scientific problems of the 19th century, in just one book of biographical character. This explains why there are so few biographies of merit on Maxwell. Of all the single contributions that Maxwell made to physics, one stands out: the introduction of the displacement current. A question frequently asked of the Maxwell scholar is why it took him so long to introduce the displacement current when it was surely obvious to him that Ampere's law, which connects a current to the magnetic field, is mathematically inconsistent with the equation of continuity, which connects current to charge. Although many historians have confronted this question, especially BROMBERG in her seminal article of 1967, none is as complete and satisfactory as SIEGEL's book, in which it is shown that Maxwell did not introduce the displacement current for reasons of mathematical consistency to close currents that otherwise would be open, as is usually stated, but for reasons of mechanical consistency, to open currents that would otherwise be closed. Such "mechanical consistency" was related to the dynamical interdependence of electricity and magnetism; to illustrate this. Maxwell had to invent a complex mechanical contrivance that would faithfully imitate the dynamics of the ether. In Innovation in Maxwell's Electromagnetic Theory, Siegel also discusses the realism of Maxwell's resulting vortex system. Besides these questions, and closely related to them, Siegel also tackles the question of the assimilation of optics into the electromagnetic theory that resulted from the introduction of the new current. Less detailed and authoritative than Siegel, and based essentially on published works and accounts instead of on manuscript sources, but nevertheless offering a valuable introduction to the whole problem of the development of Maxwell's electrodynamics is HENDRY's book. Basic questions, such as what Maxwell achieved in his electrodynamical theory, what his theory meant, and how it related to other works are clearly addressed here. This last question, how Maxwell's work related to that of others, notably Andre Marie Ampere, Michael Faraday and William Thomson (Lord Kelvin), is, of course, central to any attempt to reconstruct the development of his electrodynamical theory. The relationship with the work of Ampere and Faraday has been considered much more often than the one with respect to Thomson, although Maxwell's dynamical theories mark a significant break with the ideals expressed by Thomson. A detailed and satisfactory analysis of Maxwell and Thomson's relationship, including the differences that set them apart (Thomson considered Maxwell's system of equations as metaphysical, a product of brains alone), is found in SMITH & WISE's biographical study of Kelvin. No picture of the work of a central scientific figure is complete without taking into account also how his or her work was taken up by the scientific community. This question is particularly relevant in Maxwell's case. In 1873, he published his monumental and difficult Treatise on Electricity and Magnetism, which summarizes his previous electrodynamical

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Studies. However, Maxwell's Treatise, which not only provided the mathematical tools for the investigation and the representation of the whole of the electromagnetic theory, but which altered also the very framework of both theoretical and experimental physics, did not immediately convince the scientific community. The concepts in it were strange as was the mathematics involved. When Maxwell died of cancer in 1879, midway through preparing a second edition of his Treatise, he had convinced only a very few of his fellow countrymen and none of his continental colleagues. That task fell to the "Maxwellians", men such as George Francis FitzGerald, Oliver Heaviside, Oliver Lodge, Joseph Larmor, and the German physicist Heinrich Hertz. The evolution of "Maxwell's Theory" in the years after Maxwell's death is the subject of two important books: HUNT'S study of 1991 and BUCHWALD's account of 1985. Their subject-matter is, however, very different. While Buchwald pays special attention to phenomena such as the Hall effect and the problem of conductivity, Hunt bases his narrative on the extant correspondence between FitzGerald, Heaviside, and Lodge, combined with expositions of their published papers, with LARMOR (who is a prominent figure in Buchwald's book) and Hertz playing a secondary role. There is still, nevertheless, much to be said about the reception among other scientists of Maxwell's ideas and theories, including, for instance, the role played by Hermann von Helmholtz. Josfe M. SANCHEZ-RON See also Electromagnetism

Measurement Adas, Michael, Machines as the Measure of Men: Science, Technology, and Ideologies of Western Dominance, Ithaca, New York: Cornell University Press, 1989 Diez, Jose, "A Hundred Years of Numbers: An Historical Introduction of Measurement Theory 1887-1990", Studies in the History and Philosophy of Science, 28 (1997): 167-85 Funtowicz, Silvio O. and Jerome R. Ravetz, Uncertainty and Quality in Science for Policy, Dordrecht: Kluwer, 1990 Gooday, Graeme, "Precision Measurement and the Genesis of Physics Teaching Laboratories in Victorian Britain", British Journal for the History of Science, 23 {1990): 25-51

Gooday, Graeme, "Instrumentation and Interpretation: Managing and Representing the Working Environments of Victorian Experimental Science", in Victorian Science in Context, edited by Bernard Lightman, Ghicago: University of Chicago Press, 1997 Hunt, Bruce J., "Scientists, Engineers and Wildman Whitehouse: Measurement and Gredibility in Early Gable Telegraphy", British Journal for the History of Science, 29/2 (1996): 153-70 Iliffe, Robert, "'Applatisseur du monde de Cassini': Maupertuis, Precision Measurement, and the Shape of the Earth in the 1730s"', History of Science, 31 (1993): 335-75

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Johnston, Sean, "The Construction Of Colorimetry By Committee", Science in Context, 9 (1996): 387-420 Koyre, Alexandre, Metaphysics and Measurement: Essays in Scientific Revolution, London: Chapman and Hall, and Cambridge: Massachusetts: Harvard University Press, 1968 Kuhn, Thomas, "The Function of Measurement in Modern Physical Science", Isis, 52 (1961): 161-90; reprinted in The Essential Tension: Selected Studies in Scientific Tradition and Change, Chicago: Chicago University Press, 1977 Mackenzie, Donald, Inventing Accuracy: A Historical Sociology of Nuclear Missile Guidance, Cambridge, Massachusetts: MIT Press, 1990 Olesko, Kathryn M., "Precision, Tolerance, and Consensus: Local Cultures in German and British Resistance Standards", in Archimedes: New Studies in the History and Philosophy of Science and Technology, edited by Jed Z. Buchwald, Dordrecht: Kluwer Academic, 1996 Porter, Theodore M., Trust in Numbers: The Pursuit of Objectivity in Science and Public Life, Princeton, New Jersey: Princeton University Press, 1995 Schaffer, Simon, "Astronomers Mark Time: Discipline and the Personal Equation", Science in Context, 2 (1988): 115-45 Sibum, Otto, "Reworking the Mechanical Value of Heat: Instruments of Precision and Gestures of Accuracy in Early Victorian England", Studies of the History and Philosophy of Science, 26 (1995): 73-106 Smith, Crosbie and M. Norton Wise, Energy and Empire: A Biographical Study of Lord Kelvin, Cambridge and New York: Cambridge University Press, 1989 Sydenham, P.H., Measuring Instruments: Tools of Knowledge and Control, Stevenage: Peter Peregrinus, 1979 Wise, M. Norton (ed.). The Values of Precision, Princeton, New Jersey: Princeton University Press, 1995 The historiographical interest of this subject lies in the fact that measurement is never a simple process of quantifying empirical work. The reasons why scientists and technologist strive to measure things, and the means by which they do so, are by no means self-evident. Moreover, the important question of what constitutes "accuracy" or "precision" in a given measurement is tied up with issues of disciplinary power, commercial interest, experimental skill, and spatial management. The issue of standards for calibrating measurements is dealt with in this volume under the heading "metrology" - a term often misleadingly used as a synonym for "measurement". SYDENHAM argues that while scientists and technologists like himself have produced ever more sophisticated measuring tools, they have not been able to explain very much about the process of measurement itself. The central problem is that no rigorous connection can be drawn between the results extracted from measuring instruments and the knowledge putatively built on them. He criticizes several major attempts to establish such a connection, and concludes that the meaning ascribed to any particular measurement depends on the conventions adopted by the user. He further suggests that to understand historically why certain measurement instruments and not others come to be given a special status among the scientific community, we

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should examine the contexts of commerce and engineering that generated them, looking particularly at the craft skills deployed in their creation and use. Writing in the 1950s, KOYRE contended that measurement was a characteristic feature of modern science, judging that quantitative knowledge is fundamentally more valuable than the qualitative Aristotelian natural philosophy that preceded it. Yet he argues that previous historians had rarely studied past measurement experiments with sufficient historical sensitivity, criticizing them for writing about such experiments as though they had happened in a modern laboratory. Ironically, by looking more carefully at the conditions of Galileo's measurement experiments, Koyre concluded that Galileo could not possibly have undertaken them in the manner that he had claimed, since there were too many sources of error and inexactitude to arrive at results that were so congenial; as a platonist, Koyre inferred that Galileo must have intuited his results. His general contention is that measurement was such a problematic enterprise in the scientific revolution that it cannot have been as important as metaphysics in bringing about the development of modern science. KUHN also presents a critical account of the epistemological functions of measurement in the paradigms and revolutions of modern physical science. Noting that no experiment ever gives quite the expected numerical result - an inevitable discrepancy known facetiously as the fifth law of thermodynamics - he raised important questions about what counted as "reasonable" agreement between a theoretical prediction and an experimental measurement that tested it. For example, while a mere order of magnitude similarity was considered reasonable in cosmology, within spectroscopy a concurrence of as many as six or eight significant figures was required to accomplish such "agreement". Kuhn observed that such elastic notions of "agreement" were more than just discipline-relative, they were also historically mutable. He concluded that decisions about when a measurement and a prediction were in "reasonable" agreement were of necessity conventional in character, and judgements could only be made by drawing on pedagogically-inculcated exemplars of previous good practice. ADAS argues that a particular obsession with impersonal measurement through material technologies has historically been a feature unique to Western industrial/imperial concerns. He cites many examples of African and Asian cultures in the i8th and 19th centuries that relyed on "natural" methods of quantification namely, bodily extension and seasonal, lunar and meteorological rhythms, to gauge distances and times. For such peoples the use of instrumental means could be "sinful", liable to bring bad luck to their user, or simply ill-suited to traditional everyday practices. These indigenous communities promoted values that were antithetical to the thrift, punctuality, and routinization that European colonial administrators believed to be essential to the successful functioning of advanced capitalist societies. Adas thus highlights the existence of some profound cultural presuppositions in Western notions of how measurement should be accomplished. SMITH & WISE present a rich and detailed biography of a major 19th-century expert on measurement, William Thomson (later Lord Kelvin) in the contexts of his education in Cambridge and Paris, his Glasgow University chair, and the wider panoramas of Victorian imperialism and industry. This

work shows how intimately linked were the industrial and intellectual rationales for developing schemes of thermal and electrical measurement. Most notable of all is that measurements of energy and efficiency were central to the interactions between thermodynamics and steam engineering, and between electrical theory and submarine telegraphy. The recurrent focus on the commercial environment of Glasgow illustrate how effective and important it is to locate a history of measurement in the immediate geographical setting of its practitioners. SGHAFFER's article is a similarly localized study of George Biddell Airy's work as Astronomer Royal at the Greenwich Observatory in the mid-i9th century. Airy's difficulties in achieving consistency in the astronomical measurements undertaken by his assistant observers led him to seek ways of independently calibrating their work. Schaffer shows that Airy accomplished this by determining the idiosyncrasies of each observer's reaction times in their individualized "personal" equation, and used this to recalculate their reports of stellar positions. A major feature of Schaffer's argument is that, to maximize the replicability of results and thus the reputation of work at Greenwich, Airy regulated his observers' work with a factory-like managerial supervision. Schaffer suggests that the practical effectiveness of Airy's measurement practices required a totalitarian degree of control over institutional workers. PORTER draws out the alternative "democratic" associations of measurement in his broad study of the creation of objectivity through quantification in Europe and America in the 19th century. He argues that the development of rigorous schemes of quantification in areas such as accountancy, insurance, and civil engineering did not, as has often been tacitly maintained, derive from progressive imperatives inherent in these disciplines. Rather to gain authority within their respective cultural contexts, practitioners in these fields used abstract measurements to present an image of their work in the guise of objective impersonality. Porter's political argument is that such processes of quantification were adopted where no elites were strong enough to administrate through more traditional modes of authority, thereby forcing populations lacking trust in social institutions to acquiesce instead in the apparently implacable governance of numbers. GOODAY's (1990) analysis of the genesis of physics laboratories in Britain in the 1860s and 1870s also gives a central explanatory role to the perceived cultural qualities of measurement. Seeking ways to promote the disciplinary and institutional expansion of experimental physics through novel kinds of laboratory teaching, physicists alluded to contemporary debates on the industrial and pedagogical efficacy of "accuracy" and "exactitude" in arguing that laboratories devoted to physical measurement would be an effective way of serving Britain's cultural and economic needs. Gooday shows that, having won the institutional space and resources needed for the task, and attracting students in significant numbers from various sections of the population, these physicists implemented a nationwide programme of laboratory measurement that was driven not by commitments to physical theory, nor (simply) to metrological standards, but rather to the crosscontextual imperative to measure for the virtues to be gained by measurement in itself. Taking a less irenic view of the social consequences of quantification, HUNT examines the micro-politics of measurement

MEASUREMENT

in the diagnosis of the failure of the 1858 transatlantic telegraph cable. He looks at the way in which two principal groups of telegraph experts namely the "scientists" and the "practical men", singled out as a convenient scapegoat one individual allied with neither group who shared none of their measurement practices. The cable's electrician, E.O.W. Whitehouse was cast as the villain because of his idiosyncratic and persistent use of his own "magneto-electrometer" to measure the relevant electrical parameters of cable operation, giving readings that other practitioners deemed to have little physical significance. Hunt's conclusion is that highlighting Whitehouse's lack of credibility in telegraphic measurement enabled the leading participants in the cable enterprise to evade responsibility for their own part in the cable's failure. OLESKO shows that throughout the last four decades of the 19th century there were stark differences between German and British techniques of accomplishing "accurate" measurements of electrical resistance. These differences concerned not only the material basis of resistance standards, Germans preferring liquid mercury to the British use of metal alloys, but also the protocols of processing measurement data. Olesko shows that the emphasis placed by Werner Siemens and Friedrich Kohlrausch on the importance of rigorous statistical analysis of errors led them to question results published by the British, the accuracy of which was premissed rather less transparently on the trustworthiness of the experimenters. She also tells how Ernst Dorn, recomputed the absolute value of the ohm in 1898 by a statistical analysis of both German and other researchers' results, each being "weighted", however, on the basis of its prima facie trustworthiness - rather than on the British model of "character" based determinations of accuracy. MACKENZIE argues that the perceived necessity of ballistic "accuracy" in the deployment of intercontinental guided nuclear missiles from the 1950s to the 1980s was quite contingent on fluctuations in the agenda of US military policy. Increased "accuracy", being the enhanced capacity to land a nuclear warhead within a specified distance of its target, was not the inevitable direction of ongoing technical developments in ballistic engineering. The importance of Charles Stark Draper's (expensive) gyroscopic accomplishment range-accuracy was negated when the targeting of individual sites was displaced on the military agenda by that of blanket bombing. However, if the political context so demanded, there was every chance that accuracy could become strategically relevant once more. Even so it is clear there were different ways of construing the meaning and implementation of accuracy in the US and USSR that depended on subtle differences of cultural organization. The papers collected together in the volume edited by WISE, map the striking historical contingencies in the epistemological, practical and moral value attributed to "precision". In Golinski's piece "The Nicety of Experiment", we see how Lavoisier's defence of his oxygen-based theory of chemical combustion by reference to precise measurements on reaction products was challenged by Priestley and others as no more than a rhetorical device. Gooday's chapter "The Morals of Energy Metering" shows that physicists challenged the precision of electrical determinations of Joule's constant made with ammeters and voltmeters, arguing that these engineering instruments were so decadently easy to use that the moral quality

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of the precision achieved was thereby vitiated. Warwick's chapter on "The Laboratory of Theory" draws attention to the way in which the calculation of mathematical tables evokes problems of exactitude in a manner directly analogous to the problems of physical measurement. In his account of controversial Erench efforts to determine the curvature of the earth in the 1730s, ILIEEE has shown that many difficulties attended the practice of geodetic measurement out in the field. Maupertuis experienced great difficulties in overcoming the scepticism of critics regarding the deleterious effect on the calibration of his surveying instruments during the arduous journey to Lapland and of the inclement conditions encountered at the destination. As a defence against their challenges to the accuracy of his measurements, Maupertuis had only his reputation, the vouched good conduct of his teamsmen, and his rhetorical skill in reporting and debating, to support his conclusion that the earth's poles were indeed slightly flattened - not elongated as his adversaries so wished to prove. As Iliffe shows, these and other negotiating resources were barely sufficient to convince the Academie des Sciences of the credibility of his work - and it was thoroughly discredited a few decades later anyway. Another recent historical theme is the difficulty of establishing unequivocally what it is that is being measured. SIBUM reconstructs James Joule's earliest attempts to establish the existence of a universal "mechanical equivalent of heat" in the 1840s, and showing thereby the problems of using highly localized measuring resources to persuade fellow British experimenters of an unexpected new result. In making detailed measurements on temperature rises induced in stirred water, he used thermometers and subtle techniques that were unique to Joule as a Manchester brewer's son with access to the temperature-controlled environments of the brewery industry. According to Sibum, the difficulties contemporaries had in replicating Joule's result arose because they did not have the "gestural knowledge" that Joule deployed to measure the amount of heat produced by frictiohal work. Such knowledge was in any case scarcely visible to them since reference to important aspects of it was abserit from Joule's papers; much of Sibum's article is accordingly devoted to recovering this form of tacit knowledge, and recounts his attempts to infer how Joule conducted his experiments by reconstructing the environment and skills that Joule had originally employed. GOODAY (1997) shows how academic physics laboratories in British cities of the 1860s to 1880s were affiicted with a range of chaotic disturbances that compromised - or even comprised - the identity of what physicists were attempting to measure. Rather than suppressing perturbations caused by vibration from passing vehicles and humans, as well as more inexplicable variations in readings, physicists explicitly highlighted this issue in published accounts of their experimental work. Gooday argues that this strategy of honesty was necessary since many readers would have doubted the credibility of experimental reports had reference to such well-known difficulties been omitted - despite the fact that such admissions presented critics with ammunition to challenge the integrity of the experimental environment employed. Only by the use of effective narrative methods could readers give credence to the author's claims about the nature of what was being registered in measurement experiments.

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JOHNSTON discusses the complex process by which the measurement of colour emerged in the century or so up to World War II. The major difficulty in this project lay in the persistent disagreements among physicists, psychologist and photometrists about what actually constituted the nature of colour. Johnston relates how several attempts were made to negotiate a compromise between the commercial need for quantitative descriptions with the perceived subjectivity of colour judgement. He shows how contingently the international CIE colour system, numerically defining the three primary components of blue, green and red in a "psychophysical" scheme of colorimetry was formulated by international committees in 1939. The import of this paper is that this now well-entrenched scheme of colour quantification is strongly conventional in character, and the measurement of colour would subsequently have been conducted in a quite different fashion had the political manoeuvrings of transient committees been otherwise. Measurement theories have won relatively little attention from historians, probably because such theories have often historically followed the successful practice of measurement, and thus have required little attention from historians seeking to account for the development of such practices. FUNCTOWICZ & RAVETZ discuss the ways in which the theorization of measurement emerged in the early 20th century as Norman Campbell and Percy Bridgman attempted to resolve uncertainties and ambiguities that arose in extant schemes of measurement. DIEZ argues that the now predominant measurement theory formulated by Suppes in 19 51 was moulded from two distinct traditions: the work of Hermann von Helmholtz (1887), O. Holder (1901) and Campbell (1920) on axiomatics and "real morphisms", and S.S. Stevens's classic article of 1946 on the theory of "scales" and transformations in measurement. Many historical questions still remain to be resolved concerning the relation between the theory and practice of measurement, and how - or indeed how far - measurements have come to be resiliently authoritative in scientific practices of the past. GRAEME J.N.

COODAY

See also Metrology

Mechanization Adas, Michael, Machines as the Measure of Men: Science, Technology and Ideologies of Western Dominance, Ithaca, New York: Cornell University Press, 1989 Barnett, George Ernest, Chapters on Machinery and Labor, Cambridge, Massachusetts: Harvard University Press, 1926; reprinted, Carbondale: Southern Illinois University Press, 1969 Giedion, Siegfried, Technology and Western Civilization, Oxford and New York: Oxford University Press, 1948 Habakkuk, H.J., American and British Technology in the Nineteenth Century: The Search for Labour-Saving Inventions, Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1962 Hounshell, David A., From the American System to Mass Production, 1800-1932: The Development of Manufacturing Technology in the United States, Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press, 1984

Hughes, Thomas P., "Machines, Megamachines, and Systems", in In Context: History and the History of Technology - Essays in Honor of Melvin Kranzberg, edited by S.H. Cutcliffe and Robert C. Post, Bethlehem, Pennsylvania: Lehigh University Press, and London: Associated University Presses, 1989 Jerome, Harry C, Mechanization in Industry, New York: National Bureau of Economic Research, 1934 Kranzberg, Melvin and Carroll W. Pursell Jr (eds). Technology in Western Civilization, 2 vols, Oxford and New York: Oxford University Press, 1967 Landes, David S., The Unbound Prometheus: Technological Change and Industrial Development in Western Europe from ij^o to the Present, Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1969 McPherson, Natalie, Machines and Economic Growth: The Implications for Growth Theory of the History of the Industrial Revolution, Westport, Connecticut: Greenwood Press, 1994 Mumford, Lewis, Technics and Civilization, London: Routledge and Kegan Paul, and New York: Harcourt Brace, 1934 Pollard, Sidney, Peaceful Conquest: The Industrialization of Europe i-/6o-i^yo, Oxford and New York: Oxford University Press, 1981; revised edition, 1982 Rosenberg, Nathan (ed.). The American System of Manufactures: The Report of the Committee on the Machinery of the United States, 18yj, and the Special Reports of George Wallis and Joseph Whitworth, 1S54, Edinburgh: Edinburgh University Press, 1969 Salter, Arthur James, Modern Mechanization and Its Effects on the Structure of Society, London: Oxford University Press, 1933 Sawyer, John E., "The Social Basis of the American System of Manutactm'mg", Journal of Economic History, 14 (1954): 361-79 Susskind, Charles, Understanding Technology, Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press, 1973 Over two millennia ago, Aristotle called politics "the most sovereign of all the arts and sciences". Arguably, technology has come to occupy much the same central position within contemporary society, although the fact is scarcely recognized. Nevertheless, this fact has been perceived by certain political scientists, economists, sociologists, and demographers, not to mention historians, over the last two centuries, who have turned to technology in order to gain a more complete understanding of their own disciplines. This phenomenon began with Adam Smith and Jean Baptiste Say, and continued with Charles Babbage and Karl Marx - all students of that great transition, the industrial revolution - and provides some evidence for supposing that technology (however defined) is the new "sovereign". Indeed, the Western world is what it is by reason of the technology that it has created. These writers fixed their gaze on the "engines" of change - the machines (the prime movers), and the machines driven by those prime movers - and on the social and economic consequences of what has proved to be a constantly accelerating process of mechanization. Mechanization did not, of course, begin with the Industrial Revolution. The first decisive development, or perhaps the first

MECHANIZATION visible evidence of such development, in the West belongs to the izth century. A result of this long-standing fascination with technology, and especially with machines, is that the literature on the subject is very large, and is far from being the work of historians of technology. At the same time, because mechanization is so vast a subject, and so intimately linked with society, culture, and industrialization as a whole, it touches virtually everything, so that few writers have attempted to address it as an entity in its own right. Perhaps the nearest approaches to a comprehensive treatment of the subject are to be found in the works of Giedion and Jerome. Habakkuk's study, although concerned only with Britain and the United States in the 19th century, should also be mentioned as especially important in this respect. BARNETT sought to study the human cost of mechanization as machines displaced skilled labour. By examining concrete cases, he hoped to quantify the scale and pace of the displacement of craftsmen by machines in printing, stonecutting, and bottle manufacture. Predictably, perhaps, he found it impossible to generalize, as each case was really sui generis. It appeared for the most part, however, that skill nearly always retained its market value, even if adjustment was inevitable. (This is some way, however, from Schumpeter's conception of "creative destruction".) Writing in the 1930s, SALTER saw in the evolving technology a possibility of the blight that 19th-century mechanization had visited on the Ruhr, the Pittsburgh region, and the Black Country in England, being lifted. Salter argued that a more sophisticated technology might permit the rehumanizing of the work-place, and bring with it a renewed emphasis on skills. He further argued that this was only possible however, with the political will to create adequate social structures capable of containing the destructive potential latent in Western technology. MUMFORD's stated objective is clear and simple: to explain how the development of the machine has completely modified the material basis and cultural form of Western civilization during the last 1000 years. This involved examining the preliminary process of ideological and social preparation that has permitted the West to adapt its way of life to the pace and capacities of the machine. JEROME'S work is a wide-ranging review of the course of mechanization in the US from c.1890 onwards, in which he attempted to consider the economy as a whole. Perhaps the most valuable part of the book is his review, in chapter 6, of the variety of possible approaches to the problem of measuring the rate of change in mechanization. Despite the visible effects of mechanization, Jerome concluded that there was "no one adequate single measure", and that one must create "a composite picture afforded by a number of approximate assays". The evidence seemed to suggest (and this was in line with the teaching of the classical economists) that the rate of change in mechanization was relatively stable over time, although sectoral studies revealed vast differences; i.e. window glass was 98% machine-made, but bricklaying was 100% manual. Frederick Mills's introduction to Jerome's work is a valuable essay in its own right. GIEDION called his work a contribution to anonymous history, because he was dealing with objects and processes normally ignored by historians. Giedion was not greatly

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concerned with the antecedents of the Industrial Revolution, since his target was to investigate what he called "high mechanization". This had begun in the United States after 1800, and involved the replacement of complicated craft skills by machine production using unskilled labour, the prerequisite of which was a highly developed division of labour. This had been recognized long before by Adam Smith in his classic description of pin manufacture: 18 workers, each of whom was responsible for one operation only, acting like a machine in the reduction of a strip of wire to final pin form. Full mechanization (c.1913-39) was represented by the assembly line, " . . . wherein the entire factory is consolidated into a synchronous organism". A series of case studies of how craft skills were taken over by machines includes, as an exemplary case, Linus Yale's work on locks, while further studies concentrate on bread-making, butchery, and the mechanization of the home. There is no triumphalism here; future generations, Giedion thought, would look back on these developments as "mechanized barbarism, the most repulsive barbarism of all". This is, indeed, a very long way from the optimism with which Karl Marx viewed the first flush of mechanization a century earlier. There are a number of reasons why SAWYER's article makes extraordinarily interesting reading, the most important relating to its basic structure. Describing the period of the Marshall plan, when the US poured money and machines into Europe to rebuild its economy after 1945, Sawyer shows that the returns were regularly less than those yielded by similar investments in the US. British visitors to the US found no obvious technological explanation for superior American performance, and everything pointed to the crucial importance of sociocultural factors. Sawyer then contrasts Europe with the US in the 1850s, revealing that, even at the time, the attention of British visitors was drawn as much to the "immense drive" of the people of New England as to their technological virtuosity. HABAKKUK, in his classic work, questioned why some countries of European stock invented and adopted mechanical methods more rapidly than others. His objective was to explain the astonishingly rapid development of mechanization in the US in the 19th century; its progress was such that, as early as the 1850s, the US was already ahead of England - the home of the Industrial Revolution - in the development of automatic machinery. Was the key determinant the high price of American labour? Although Habakkuk felt justified in tackling the problem from this angle, it was no simple matter of cause and effect: "American inventive ingenuity was the result rather than the cause of mechanization". There was, for example, the question of factor endowment to consider, and ultimately perhaps something as indeterminate as "the restlessness of American life". It was possible furthermore to compile a formidable list of British inventions (cf. p . i z i ) which, failing to flourish in Britain, were taken up in the US and which, when re-exported to Britain, were hailed as wonders of modernity and progress. KRANZBERG &C PURSELL's outline history, consisting of some 90 essays, has 10 that should be noted in particular. In volume I, these are chapters i, 23, 33, 38 and 45, the first of which, "The importance of technology in human affairs", makes the point that homo sapiens is also homo faber: that man makes tools but equally tools have made man, an idea at the heart of Marxian and post-Marxian thinking on the

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subject. In volume 2, chapters 2, 4, 23, 35 and 41 should be noted. The last of these is a salutary warning against attempting to extrapolate from current trends. A comparative study of the course of European industrialization from 1750 to C.1950 is offered by LANDES, although he excludes any treatment of agriculture, transport systems, and demography. This study has the great merit of making clear and wide-ranging points on the important issues: for example, coal is termed "the bread of industry", and the effect of the Industrial Revolution world-wide is seen as akin to "Eve's tasting of the fruit of the tree of knowledge". ROSENBERG'S introduction to the Reports of 1855 is devoted to placing these documents in their historical context, and to presenting a valuable digest of the literature generated over the last 100 years by the debate over "the American system of manufactures" - the onset of full-blown mechanization. Of specific interest here was the development of special purpose machinery for working both wood and metal in the US, the New England states having taken up several ideas (often brought over to the US by the inventors themselves) that had failed to flourish in the UK. SUSSKIND's contribution to the debate is valuable, not least for his examination of an astonishing paradox at the heart of Western culture: the prevalent denial of the central role played by technology in the formation of that culture. This is an extremely well-written work, that may inspire readers to seek out the literature referenced by the author. POLLARD confines his study to the essential core of industriahzation - power mechanization - and to an examination of the industrial development of Europe on a regional basis, the process "transforming and being transformed by [each] changing geographical setting and historical sequence". HOUNSHELL provides a comprehensive analysis of the development of the best-known mass-production techniques in the US, from those used in the manufacture of sewing machines, wood-working machinery, agricultural machinery, the bicycle, and the automobile, to flexible mass-production pioneered by Alfred Sloan at General Motors in the 1930s. The sequence begins at the armouries at Springfield and Harper's Eerry, which in the 1850s were already specifying the interchangeability of parts when assigning contracts to outside suppliers. HUGHES suggests that "the second discovery of America" is a more accurate phrase with which to describe the last two centuries of American history, than the more usual concept of "the frontier experience". This idea of a second discovery is based on the perceptions of European visitors in the early 1900S, who, seeing the vast mechanical development of the country, concluded that the US was "the nation of machines, megamachines, and systems", and that such figures as E.W. Taylor and Henry Eord best epitomized this phenomenon. ADAS shows how, even at the beginning of their reconnaissance of the extra-European world in the 15th century, Europeans were accustomed to measuring the cultural level of the peoples they encountered by comparing their technical capacity with the European level of accomplishment - " . . . few disputed that machines were the most reliable measure of humankind". Such an outlook was long-lived, but around 1900 it began to give way to anxiety concerning the price that Europeans, and a fortiori the Americans, had paid, and would continue to pay, for their machine-dominated condition.

The basic question McPHERSON sets herself concerns one of the salient features of our period: why do such enormous disparities in wealth exist between states? These disparities are largely the product of industrial development, but this raises the question as to why so few countries have managed to make the transition to industrialization. She concludes that the "virtuous circle growth", characteristic of the West, is shortcircuited when populations breed to subsistence. GRAHAM HOLLISTER-SHORT

See also Alienation; Marx; Technology

Medical Ethics Annas, George J. and Michael A. Grodin (eds). The Nazi Doctors and the Nuremberg Code: Human Rights in Human Experimentation, Oxford and New York: Oxford University Press, 1992 Beauchamp, Tom L. and James E Childress, Principles of Biomedical Ethics, New York and Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1979; 4th edition, 1994 Campbell, Alastair, Grant Gillet and Gareth Jones (eds). Practical Medical Ethics, Auckland and New York: Oxford University Press, 1992 Engelhardt Jr., H. Tristram, Foundations of Bioethics, Oxford and New York: Oxford University Press, 1986; 2nd edition, 1996 Eaden, Ruth R. and Tom L. Beauchamp, with Nancy M.P. King, A History and Theory of Informed Consent, Oxford and New York: Oxford University Press, 1986 Levine, Robert J., Ethics and Regulation of Clinical Research, Baltimore: Urban and Schwarzenberg, 1981; 2nd edition, 1986 Ramsey, Paul, The Patient as Person: Explorations in Medical Ethics, New Haven, Connecticut: Yale University Press, 1970

Sherwin, Susan, No Longer Patient: Feminist Ethics and Health Care, Philadelphia: Temple University Press, 1992 Veatch, Robert M., A Theory of Medical Ethics, New York: Basic Books, 1981 Medical ethics has now become a fully-fledged academic discipline in its own right, with the full panoply of journals, institutes and centres, international associations, graduate programmes, and so forth. This is a relatively recent state of affairs; until a generation ago, medical ethics was almost exclusively a question for doctors, as a matter of professional definition and self-regulation, and theologians, as a matter of pastoral guidance and what can loosely be called canon law. RAMSEY'S important book reflects some of these earlier concerns, as expressed by an eminent Protestant theologian, and also looks forward to many of the concerns that characterize medical ethics in its contemporary form. Three key events might define the situation in which this discipline began to take its modern shape: first, the Nuremberg Trial of doctors and bio-scientists involved in medical atrocities in the Nazi concentration camps; second, the rise of the welfare state and (partial) nationalization of medical care in Britain and elsewhere; and third, the liberalization of abortion

MEDICAL ETHICS

law in Britain and the United States in the late 1960s and early 1970s. The first event had two effects: it undermined the medical (and scientific) profession's claims to self-policed integrity, and it placed patient consent at the centre of ethics, as opposed to "paternal" care. The patient's right, as a subset of human rights, to be free from coercion and to be treated as a self-determining individual, even - especially - in extremis, became recognized as of paramount importance. This issue, its history, significance, and ethical details are very well surveyed in the book edited by ANNAS & GRODIN, which helpfully supplies many of the key codes of ethics relevant to the medical profession and to patients. Its particular focus is on the rights of patients who are research subjects, but it is also relevant to other patients, and to "healthy volunteer" subjects in medical research. One important issue addressed is whether patient rights and physician obligations are culturally determined or are historical universals (and if the former, what should be done internationally). LEVINE's work is by far the best on the many aspects of research ethics, providing a sound treatment of the famous, central issue of "informed consent", while EADEN & BEAUCHAMP give a valuable, albeit US-centred, account of the legal and philosophical history of the concept. The second event, the incorporation of much of the medical profession's sphere within the state, had a long history, but the significance of the creation of the British National Health Service is enormous. Ethically, it signalled a new set of obligations to what was once the "medical dyad" of doctor and patient. In fact, the Hippocratic Oath reminds us that the doctor also owed obligations to his professional peers, so this mythical dyad was in fact always a triad. But the state management of medicine has had wide-ranging cultural and political effects on the relations between doctor and patient, notably in formalizing and making visible the economic fact that medicine - like anything else - operates with scarce resources, and so choices must be made between patients, and between present and future opportunities. On the other hand, while some of these realities were already reflected in the ability to pay the doctor's fee, state provision was now intended to overcome the unjust distribution of access to health care by ability to pay, and replace it with distribution of access by need. Justice thus becomes a second central element in medical ethics. Important chapters on this are to be found in VEATCH (who favours a social contract model), Engelhardt (who uses a constructivist theory of rights), and Beauchamp & Childress. The third event, the liberalization of abortion law, inaugurates three important themes. The first is the creation of "bioethics"; the second is the expansion of patients' rights within medical law to include freedom-to as well as freedomfrom; and the third is the recognition of the ineluctability of moral pluralism. Bioethics is the study of ethical issues that shape and arise from innovations in the biosciences, including medicine. This inquiry has become detached from medical ethics as such, largely because the issues of religious ethics, social acceptability, and social and political power are broader and more complex than simply the resolution of the rights and duties involved in the medical encounter between a doctor and a patient. Often, the technical aspect of medical innovation is relatively straightforward, while the moral consequences are large. A good example is in utero screening of foetuses for some genetic disorders: while technically this is a straightfor-

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ward procedure, it raises the possible ethical problem of the "routinizing" of abortion for "non-viable" foetuses. Bioethical issues are well surveyed in CAMPBELL, GILLET & JONES. Linked to this is the second issue of the increase in patients' rights: while it is increasingly accepted that a patient has the right actively to choose some course of treatment that the doctor cannot deny out of hand, it is not the state's business to legislate for those choices, although it is the state's business to protect the patients' liberty. The history of medical ethics is often shaped by the history of medical law, as EADEN & BEAUCHAMP demonstrate, yet the law-ethics connection remains extremely unclear. And this raises the third issue concerning moral pluralism: states and philosophers recognize that on many moral questions related to the practice of medicine, traditions and arguments are in conflict, and that conflict is very likely incommensurable. This has the apparent consequence that no clear and incontestable foundation for medical ethics can be found. Two responses to this deduction dominate medical ethics, and both are species of liberalism. The first response is to deny that there is an incommensurable dispute; instead, focusing on core values, and some analytically obvious features of the concept of medicine, should remind us of some central facts that any ethic must respect. Hence disagreements are merely disagreements about glosses on these facts and principles, and disputes are piecemeal and resolvable. This is the essence of the "principlist" approach of BEAUCHAMP & CHILDRESS. Erom these principles (beneficence, non-maleficence, autonomy, and justice), the various rights and duties can be derived; and while many issues are left open by this method, this is the normal human condition. This is essentially an ethical liberalism, taking freedom and respect as core ethical values. The second response is a political liberalism, which takes the variability of ethical belief as irremovable, but the common need to live together as motivating some consensus concerning the rules of fair discussion and decision-making. This approach concentrates on a quasi-legal approach to "procedural justice". By far the most sophisticated approach to this is ENGELHARDT, a Roman Catholic who takes the postmodern social condition as his premise for an investigation into the need for a secular ethics in a pluralistic world. In Veatch there is valuable material on the different approaches of non-Christian religions to medical ethics, and in Campbell, Gillet & Jones attention is paid to multi-cultural issues beyond the religious. Veatch's social contract model stands as an alternative to Engelhardt and to Beauchamp & Childress, and may be aligned with either. A valuable service performed by Beauchamp & Childress is the analysis of the application of various different moral theories to medical ethical problems. (Notably Utilitarianism, which has widespread support among philosophers, but has less popular appeal). New developments in medical ethics involve the application of feminist, narrative, and virtue ethics, focusing on the concept of care, and shifting the focus from medicine to health care more generally. Eeminist approaches are discussed and exemplified in SHERWIN, and a useful survey of virtue and narrative ethics can be found in Campbell, Gillet & Jones. The crucial insight here is that the patient's experience now takes centre stage, rather than the "doctor's dilemma", and the period of a rather formalist approach to

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rights is now being replaced by a richer account of the social practices of health care and rights. RICHARD ASHCROFT

See also Doctor-Patient Relationship

Medical Instruments Blume, Stuart S., Insight and Industry: On the Dynamics of Technological Change in Medicine, Cambridge, Massachusetts: MIT Press, 1992 Bud, Robert and Deborah Jean Warner (eds). Instruments of Science: An Historical Encyclopedia, New York: Garland, 1997 Davis, Audrey B., Medicine and Its Technology: An Introduction to the History of Medical Instrumentation, Westport, Connecticut: Greenwood Press, 1981 Edmonson, J.M., "Asepsis and the Transformation of Surgical Instruments", Transactions and Studies of the College of Physicians, 13 (1991): 75-91 Hacking, Ian, Representing and Intervening: Introductory Topics in the Philosophy of Natural Science, Cambridge and New York: Cambridge University Press, 1983 Lawrence, Ghislaine, "The Ambiguous Artifact, Surgical Instruments and the Surgical Past", in Medical Theory, Surgical Practice: Studies in the History of Surgery, edited by Christopher Lawrence, London and New York: Routledge, 1992 Postel-Vinay, Nicolas, A Century of Arterial Hypertension 1896-1996, Chichester: Wiley, 1996 Reiser, Stanley J., Medicine and the Reign of Technology, Cambridge and New York: Cambridge University Press, 1978 Spink, M.S. and G.I. Lewis (eds and trans), Albucassis on Surgery and Instruments: A Definitive Edition of the Arabic Text, London: Wellcome Institute, 1973 Vetter, Andre and Marie-Jose Lamothe, Les Outils du corps, Paris: Hier et demain, 1978 Those familiar with the history of Western medicine will immediately recognize the contrasting images of medieval physician and barber-surgeon: the physician, attending to the art of diagnosis from theories and external observations, holds a urine glass to the light; the barber-surgeon, symbol of internal intervention and technical manipulation, holds a lancet over a patient whose blood flows into a bowl. As our historically informed observer would also know, these two medical practitioners were of strikingly different social status. The physician was a member of the urban, university educated elite; the barber-surgeon was apprentice-trained, usually poor, and living among the poor in towns and villages. Indeed, these representations underscore a fundamental dichotomy between theory and practice, art and technique, that to some extent continues to inform today's understanding of medical instruments. Historians, perhaps influenced by this dichotomy, have long ignored the role of instruments in their studies of medical history. Often, when instruments have been acknowledged.

they have served merely to illustrate texts, with the underlying assumption that their medical use was transparent. On display in texts, collectors' galleries, or public museums, these instruments have often been perceived as a kind of "cabinet of curious tools". An example of this approach is VETTER & LAMOTHE, which provides just such a richly-illustrated pageant of instruments from prehistory to modern times. Its visual and historical presentations suggest, somewhat anachronistically, that these instruments are the forerunners of modern medical technology. Evidence of the value of examining instruments beyond their illustrative capacity has recently been tentatively provided in SPINK Sc LEWIS, a study of the Arab Andalusian manuscript of Zahrawi (ioth century), better known as Albucassis, by the curators of an exhibition in Marburg, Germany. The text itself provides the first detailed representation of medical instruments; its illustrations schematically present surgical instruments (mainly cauters of various shapes), accompanied by brief indications of their use. The exhibition's curators fabricated realistic models from these illustrations, in an attempt to go beyond elliptic comment. A combination of more recent concerns, however, has brought the study of medical instruments into the centre of numerous historical studies. These concerns range from the growing technological orientation of medical practice itself, to a heightened awareness of the importance of material culture evident in a variety of academic disciplines, from archeology and anthropology, to sociology. Between is a spectrum of social and cultural concerns about the changing nature of medical practice, the understanding of the body, and the treatment of the patient - central to all of which are medical instruments. Eor an introduction to the kinds of questions raised by the historical study of instruments, one would do well to start with two texts: LAWRENCE and REISER. Lawrence's article is a kind of manifesto of medical instrument analysis, setting out a critique of traditional approaches and challenges for future directions. Although she does not believe that their study will reveal "new" knowledge about the past, Lawrence does think that investigation of instruments in action - as the outcome of the process of invention, as products or commodities, as designed and distributed by distinct individuals, or as employed (broadly speaking) by others - will raise new historical questions and provide unique historical insight. Reiser's text, on the other hand, is one of the earliest to place medical instruments in their socio-cultural context. His sweeping analysis examines instruments (including the microscope, stethoscope and sphygmomanometer), medical machines, and complex socio-technical environments (such as the diagnostic laboratory) as they were developed by inventors and adopted by medical practitioners. In so doing. Reiser argues that medical technologies not only produce information that must be interpreted, but that they also affect the practice of medicine particularly the relationship of doctor and patient, and the latter's perception of his/her own body. DAVIS is an early work in that direction. Relying on the analysis of many objects, this book focuses on the end of the 19th century as a critical time for the development of medical instrumentation. This argument is set in the context of medicine's quantitative turn, which Davis connects to forces such as the growing demand for the standardization of diagnosis

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procedures, the expansion of the medical profession, and the extension of experimental methods to medicine. Further, Davis connects her understanding of medical instrumentation to an important economic concern: the search for criteria for tabulating medical data, which was done primarily for the sake of insurance companies, eager to establish their business on a better knowledge of life expectancy. POSTEL-VINAY's recent book illustrates this trend with studies (and pictures of instruments) drawn from the field of hypertension, an area of particular interest for insurers. Debates within the sociology of knowledge have provided some of the impetus for the growing historical interest in instruments. Advocates of the actor-network theory, such as Bruno Latour, have argued that serious analytic attention must be paid to objects, from laboratories to microbes, as actors in the construction of science. HACKING'S classic text demonstrates the promise held by attending to science as it is practised, not simply as it is theorized - that is, as it intervenes, not just as it represents. In this way, he sheds light on the complex pattern that results from the interweaving of experiment, theory, invention, and technology, that is science in action. Those interested particularly in medical instruments will want to read his chapter on learning to see through the microscope. In this spirit, museum curators have also begun to pay closer attention to the potential significance of their collections. The Science Museum in London and the Smithsonian Institution joined forces to compile the encyclopedic text-Instruments of Science (BUD & WARNER). Contributions by an interdisciplinary collection of authors treat not just the "instruments", but also the "machines" and the "tests", not just of science, but of medicine. Entries include more traditional objects, such as microscopes, and stethoscopes, but also extend to the intelligence test and the polygraph. Moreover, some challenge our understanding of "instruments" (beyond standard questions concerning their distinction from simple tools and more complex technological machines): for example, there are entries on E. coli, drosophila, and "the mouse". From a different museological perspective, scholars have started to look to museum displays in history as a focal point of scientific values and national identity. Within such public displays, instruments become powerful icons for the transmission of culture. Alongside such broad-ranging treatments of medical instruments are more detailed monographs. Two exemplary studies are provided by Edmondson and Blume. EDMONSON looks to the laboratory, with its arsenal of glassware and engines, in telling the history of the so-called Pasteurian revolution and the impact of germ theory on medical practice. Specifically, he follows the transformation of surgical instruments, in their material construction (from precious wood to metal) and in their shape and design, as they moved toward increasing disposability and sterilizability. In this way, Edmonson investigates the historical marriage of biology and medicine, by studying the coming-together of medical and scientific instruments. BLUME illuminates the complex set of concerns surrounding another instrumentally-guided medical conception, medical echography. A product of the collaboration of physicians and engineers, the echogram applies the methods of physicists to the exploration of the body. As the knowledge of physics arose from the weapons programs and defense funding of the post-

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war era, this medical technology came to represent not only the applications of "Big Science" and technology to medicine, but also the desire of some physicists to find "purer", biomedical applications for their knowledge. Moreover, such technologies of medical imagery, which allow physicians to explore the body without opening it, have done much to blur the distinctions between surgeons and physicians. Clinical consequences of this move still remain to be assessed. Erom lancet and urine glass to echogram, medical instruments provide historians with a unique vantage point from which to view the development of medicine. They illuminate changes in a practitioner's education, in his/her relationship to patients, and even to those patients' understandings of themselves. The study of instruments production and evolution, and the techniques attached to their applications, can reveal the daily constraints that guide changes in medical practice. Moreover, instruments may further suggest ways in which medical practice helps to create cultures and change societies. A.M.

MOULIN AND KIM PELIS

Medical Specialization Berlant, Jeffrey Lionel, Profession and Monopoly: A Study of Medicine in the United States and Great Britain, Berkeley: University of California Press, 1975 Bynum, WE, C. Lawrence and V. Nutton (eds). The Emergence of Modern Cardiology, London: Wellcome Institute for the History of Medicine, 1985 Cone Jr, Thomas E., History of American Pediatrics, Boston: Little Brown, 1979 Cooter, Roger, Surgery and Society in Peace and War: Orthopaedics and the Organization of Modern Medicine, 1880-1948, London: Macmillan and University of Manchester, 1993 Crissey, John Thorne and Lawrence Charles Parish, The Dermatology and Syphilology of the Nineteenth Century, New York: Praeger, 1981 Dally, Ann, Women under the Knife: A History of Surgery, London: Radius, 1991; New York: Routledge, 1992 Donnison, Jean, Midwives and Medical Men: A History of Inter-Professional Rivalries and Women's Rights, London: Heinemann and New York: Schocken Books, 1977; 2.nd edition, as Midwives and Medical Men: A History of the Struggle for the Control of Childbirth, New Barnet, Hertfordshire: Historical Publications, 1988 Eulner, Hans-Heinz, Die Entwicklung der medizinischen Spezialfdcher an den Universitdten des deutschen Sprachgebiets, Stuttgart: Enke, 1970 Fye, W. Bruce, American Cardiology: The History of a Speciality and Its College, Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press, 1996 Goldstein, Jan, Console and Classify: The French Psychiatric Profession in the Nineteenth Century, Cambridge and New York: Cambridge University Press, 1987 Granshaw, Lindsay, St. Mark's Hospital, London: A Social History of a Specialist Hospital, London: King Edward's Hospital Eund, 1985 Leavitt, Judith Walzer, Brought to Bed: Childbearing in

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America, iyjo-i^^o. New York: Oxford University Press, 1986 Lomax, Elizabeth M.R., Small and Special: The Development of Hospitals for Children in Victorian Britain, London: Wellcome Institute, 1996 McGovern, Constance M., Masters of Madness: Social Origins of the American Psychiatric Profession, Hanover, New Hampshire: University Press of New England, 1985 Marland, Hilary (ed.). The Art of Midwifery: Early Modern Midwives in Europe, London and New York: Routledge, 1993 Maulitz, Russell C. and Diana E. Long, Grand Rounds: One Hundred Years of Internal Medicine, Philadelphia: University of Pennsylvania Press, 1988 Moscucci, Ornella, The Science of Woman: Gynaecology and Gender in England, 1800-1929, Cambridge and New York: Cambridge University Press, 1990 Peterson, M. Jeanne, The Medical Profession in MidVictorian London, Berkeley: University of California Press, 1978 Rosen, George, The Specialization of Medicine with Particular Reference to Ophthalmology, New York: Froben Press, 1944 Scull, Andrew, The Most Solitary of Afflictions: Madness and Society in Britain, iyoo-i^oo. New Haven, Connecticut: Yale University Press, 1993 Shumacker Jr., Harris B., The Evolution of Cardiac Surgery, Bloomington: Indiana University Press, 1992 Stevens, Rosemary, Medical Practice in Modern England: The Impact of Specialization and State Medicine, New Haven, Connecticut: Yale University Press, 1966 Weisz, George, "The Development of Medical Specialization in Nineteenth-Century Paris", in French Medical Culture in the Nineteenth Century, edited by Ann La Berge and Mordechai Feingold, Amsterdam: Rodopi, 1994 Wilson, Adrian, The Making of Man-Midwifery: Childbirth in England, 1660-ijjo, Cambridge, Massachusetts: Harvard University Press, 1995 The specialization of knowledge and of occupational function are prominent features of modernity. The reasons for this are both obvious and contentious: the increase in knowledge makes it impossible for a single individual to master a single discipline, such as medicine or chemistry, much less several disciplines, or the whole encyclopedia. We rely increasingly on technology that we do not understand, and which someone else has to develop and mend when it goes wrong. The age of the Renaissance Man has gone forever. At the same time, the extent to which specialization is inevitable and "natural", rather than the result of deliberate action by groups of "specialists", is not always clear. This is particularly true within medicine, as a broad occupational discipline and as a body of knowledge. Despite traditional medical occupational diversity in the distinction between physicians, surgeons, and apothecaries (the basic equivalents obtained throughout Europe with only minor variations), there was, until the 19th century, resistance among medical elites to the notion of specialization. Those who "speciahzed" were deemed to be quacks, and, indeed, three specialist

functions - cutting for bladder stone, setting bones, and operating for cataract - were often performed by itinerants with no formal training or qualifications. The classic account of the development of specialization by ROSEN took ophthalmology (and its relationship to cataract couchers) as its prime example. Rosen worked within the parameters of functionalist sociology, wherein specialization more or less naturally grows out of new knowledge, techniques, or diagnostic or therapeutic equipment. Thus, in this study, the ophthalmoscope, invented in the 1850s by Hermann von Helmholtz (1821-94), played a crucial role in stimulating the speciality of ophthalmology, with its formation of special societies and journals, and autonomous training programmes and standards. COOTER has analysed the development of another modern speciality from the older occupational pattern - the emergence of orthopaedic surgery from the bone setters. The traditional account placed emphasis on the frequency of trauma during World War I as a stimulus to speciality formation, and while Cooter acknowledges the importance of the war, he emphasizes the calculated actions of individuals and groups, rather than the natural outcome of war and industrial accidents, as the major driving force. Within this scenario, power, prestige, and income become the central issues, while the techniques, training programmes, journals, and societies were part of the consequence, rather than the natural accompaniment of the new speciality. Special hospitals also provided opportunities for doctors to observe and treat particular diseases or age groups. PETERSON has examined the foundation of special hospitals in mid-Victorian London within the context of the medical profession more generally. She notes that many of the special hospitals were established by ambitious men who had failed to obtain posts in the more prestigious general voluntary hospitals, and who thus sought to establish different niches for themselves. GRANSHAW'S history of St Mark's Hospital, London, for diseases of the colon and rectum provides a good example of the way in which a small hospital could become a leading centre in the gradual development of a surgical speciality, in this case devoted to surgery of the large bowel, and of the interaction between the surgeons and medical specialists in the field of gastroenterology. LOMAX has examined children's hospitals in 19th-century Britain, and their role in the formation of paediatrics. American paediatrics is the subject of a monograph by CONE; like most historical literature produced by practitioners from within the speciality itself. Cone's narrative assumes that the development of paediatrics is essentially unproblematic. Rosen had already noted that specialization was relatively easily accepted by the American medical establishment. The same was true in Germany, and EULNER's massive monograph documents the systematic growth of special chairs and institutes in many medical disciplines within the German university framework. Eulner was concerned with sciences such as anatomy, physiology, pharmacology, and pathology, as well as medical and surgical specialities. WEISZ provides a suggestive reading of the Erench scene, confined to the clinical specialities, but he is also working on a major comparative project that will examine the phenomenon of specialization in four countries: Erance, Britain, the United States, and Canada.

MEDICINE AND LAW

Curiously, psychiatry was not particularly successful in obtaining compulsory time in 19th-century medical curricula, despite being one of the earliest clinical specialities firmly to establish itself. By the mid-i9th century, there were special societies and journals in Germany, Erance, Britain, and the United States devoted to the subject. SCULL has been particularly analytical in dissecting the aspirations - not always realized - of British alienists, as they were often called. These trappings of professional structure were matched by the provision of publicly-funded asylums, compulsory in England after 1845, although the optimistic belief that insanity treated early could be cured was not borne out in practice, and as the asylums filled up with patients with chronic disorders, the speciality became more administrative than curative. McGOVERN has examined the formation of the Association of Medical Superintendents of American Institutions for the Insane, and the moves by its founding fathers, from the mid1840S, to secure a niche within the wider medical profession. GOLDSTEIN scrutinized parallel Erench developments, especially as seen through the intellectual and professional influence of J.E.D. Esquirol (177Z-1840) and his pupils. In Erance, as elsewhere in Europe and North America, psychiatrists obtained a fair amount of public visibility, although it remained a relatively low-prestige speciality, isolated from mainstream medicine and surgery and their increasing association with laboratory science. Dermatology represents another modern medical speciality with complicated historical roots. Skin diseases were traditionally considered to be the rightful province of the surgeon (they were often treated manually, by the application of an ointment or salve), and because a rash is one of the manifestations of syphilis, the treatment of venereal disease was often included within the surgeon's ken. There was never a complete surgical monopoly within skin and venereal diseases, however, and the fundamental modern monographs on dermatology were written in the early 19th century by Robert Willan ( i 7 5 7 - i 8 i z ) and Thomas Bateman (1778-1811) in Britain, and by Jean Louis Marc Alibert (1768-1837) in Erance. CRISSEY & PARISH have examined the intellectual and social development of dermatology and syphilology in 19th-century Europe and America. Gynaecology was another contentious 19th-century speciality. Although, from the i86o's, it clearly benefited from the development of antiseptic surgical techniques, it had earlier roots in the American ovariotomists, and the increasing use of the vaginal speculum. MOSCUCCI has analysed the gender issues that the speciality raised, and the more general subject of women and surgery has been discussed by DALLY Gynaecology has an intimate association with obstetrics, although the latter developed as a subject of male activity a century or so earlier, and often with acrimonious occupational boundary disputes with female midwives. WILSON has examined the subject for 17th- and early 18th-century England, highlighting in particular the specific social, as well as medical, conditions surrounding childbirth that led to the engagement of the male medical man. The longer-term relationships between midwives and medical men have been recounted by DONNISON and LEAVITT for England and the United States respectively, and the variety of different occupational structures surrounding childbirth in various national contexts is the

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subject of the collection of essays edited by MARLAND. By focusing on other "advanced" countries, such as The Netherlands, where home delivery by a female midwife is still the norm, the importance of human choice and social structures is highlighted. All these and several other clinical specialities had achieved some visibility by the end of the 19th century, but the phenomenon has gathered momentum since then. What is called "internal medicine" in the US, and was the purview of the old consultant physician in Britain, has been divided into a variety of specialities, based on organ, system, or mode of causation. A fine collection of essays edited by MAULITZ 8c LONG examines a number of instances within the American context; these include the development of specialities in infectious diseases, diseases of the kidney (nephrology), gastrointestinal tract (gastroenterology), heart (cardiology), and joints (rhematology). Other essays examine the growth of a specialist periodical literature and the politics of academic medicine. STEVENS has provided a systematic analysis of specialization in modern Britain, where the role of the state in medical care and education has been more clearly defined. The central place of the general practitioner within British medicine has meant that speciality formation has developed within the context of a referral system, and that specialities are generally hospital-based. In addition to ancillary specialities, such as radiology and anaesthesiology, medical and surgical specialities have continued to grow apace. Thus, paediatrics and surgery now have their own cadre of "subspecialities", such as paediatric neurology and endocrine surgery, most of these specialities and subspecialities having an internalist literature. Among the most sophisticated is the literature for cardiology; the essays edited by BYNUM, LAWRENCE &; NUTTON examine several aspects of speciality formation, such as its relationship to the development of the electrocardiograph in the early 20th century, and its "naturalness" as a response to the increased incidence of cardiovascular disease. FYE has written a full account of cardiology in modern America, and the development of cardiac surgery as a highly visible surgical subspeciality has been described by SHUMACKER. All this literature points to the fact that specialism raises, in miniature and in an intraprofessional setting, the same cluster of issues regarding power, prestige, and monopoly that are central to the politics of professionalism more generally. BERLANT offers a comparative account of the search for a medical monopoly in Britain and the United States. W.F.

BYNUM

See also Medical Instruments; Professionalization

Medicine and Law Clark, Claudia, Radium Girls: Women and Industrial Health Reform, 1910-193;, Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 1997 De Ville, Kenneth Allen, Medical Malpractice in NineteenthCentury America: Origins and Legacy, New York: New York University Press, 1990

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Jasanoff, Sheila, Science at the Bar: Law, Science, and Technology in America, Gambridge, Massachusetts: Harvard University Press, 1995 Leavitt, Judith, Typhoid Mary: Captive to the Public's Health, Boston: Beacon Press, 1996 Mohr, James C, Doctors and the Law: Medical Jurisprudence in Nineteenth-Century America, Oxford and New York: Oxford University Press, 1993 Novak, William, The People's Welfare: Law and Regulation in Nineteenth-Century America, Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 1996 Rosenberg, Charles E., The Trial of the Assassin Guiteau: Psychiatry and Law in the Gilded Age, Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1968; reprinted 1989 Rothman, David J., Strangers at the Bedside: A History of How Law and Bioethics Transformed Medical Decision Making, New York: Basic Books, 1991 Since at least the time of Alexis de Tocqueville's visit to North America in the middle of the 19th century, observers have remarked on the litigious nature of its citizens. A few others, mostly observers of the modern United States, have been equally impressed with American's dedication to a therapeutic culture. The juxtaposition of these two factors provides insight into an important nexus of power in American history the volatile relationship between the medical and legal professions. Falling into the interstices between historical fields the long, intimate and often combustible partnership between the law and medicine in the US has received minimal sustained scholarly attention. Practitioners of the two professions have written, sometimes penetratingly, about the intersection of the twofields,but until recently few social scientists have addressed this topic. In these more recent works the 19th century has fared better than the colonial or 20th-century periods, but even in the 19th century we are just begining to understand what this relationship has meant for Americans and their development as a nation. The best place to begin to get a sense of America's medicolegal culture is MOHR's study. Although dealing only with the 19th century, Mohr's book attempts to analyze physicians' contributions to both litigation and legislation. Mohr's recognition that understanding the relationship between medicine and the law requires famiharity with the doctor's role as expert witness and as policy maker is one of the book's strengths. It is also the source of one of its weaknesses : Mohr's failure to sustain such a broad analysis for the entire period. The physicians' role as policy maker, particularly in public health matters, disappears quickly from the book that devotes most of its attention to a detailed analysis of the various types of courtroom and profession building activities engaged in by 19th-century medico-legal practitioners. NOVAK helps to fill in the gaps left by Mohr's analysis. Although health regulation is only one of Novak's case studies, he provides valuable insight into the nature of public health decision making. Drawing on analyses of local community records, Novak distances himself from the standard interpretation of 19th century as an era of minimal regulation and laissez faire ideals and paints a portrait of an America with a substantial culture of locally based regulation. For Novak, health regulation is an important manifestation of this often

overlooked culture of local regulation. Although he overstates ] his distance from previous scholars, Novak none the less serves a useful purpose by bringing together both the medical and the legal historical literature. There are a number of other more narrowly focused histories of 19th-century medico-legal topics that make evident the complexity and power of medical and legal collaboration in this era. Two of these works - Rosenberg's account of the trial of President Garfield's assassin Charles Guiteau and De Ville's analysis of the mid-i9th century medical malpractice crisis are particularly noteworthy. ROSENBERG has produced a nuanced reading of America's response to one of the most highly publicized trials of the 19th century. His account of Guiteau's insanity plea and the subsequent furor shows the consequences of the often esoteric intellectual debates between professionals for the broader community of American citizens. De VILLE's analysis of 19th-century medical malpractice cases attempts a similar contextualization of courtroom activity. Focusing his attention on the origins of modern medical malpractice, De Ville offers revealing insights into the nature of both medical and legal practice. He uses this analysis of the actual workings of the two professions to explain the rapid growth of this kind of litigation in the mid-i9th century. De Ville also shows, as does Rosenberg, how powerful larger socioeconomic and political forces can dominate medico-legal cases. Judith LEAVITT's book gives a similarly rich account of another case of interest to both the medical and legal professions. One of the earliest identified healthy carriers of disease, Mary Mallon alias "Typhoid Mary", became the focus of intense medical and legal attention in the early zoth century. Highlighting the transformation of Mallon from a test case for a new public health theory to a cultural icon, Leavitt gives an informative glimpse of the changing power dynamic between law and medicine in the early 20th century. As Leavitt's analysis makes clear, tensions within professions are often as important as tensions between professions. Claudia CLARK similarly addresses this question of intraprofessional conflict in her book about the women employed as watch dial painters in New Jersey and Connecticut. The radium present in the paint used by these women created health risks that neither the law nor medical science was ready to confront, as Clark's explanation of the sometimes arcane debates within medicine, radiation science, and the legal profession makes clear. She also explains that the professions of the law and medicine were not the only ones with a role in deciding the fate of the "radium girls" and of the new disease entity called radium necrosis. Insurance companies, voluntary women's organizations, newspapers, various local, state, and federal government agencies, not to mention an array of courts, institutions dedicated to scientific research, and corporations had an interest in this encounter between medicine and the law. As Clark's study demonstrates, occupational health is a particularly rich field in which to explore the working relationship between medicine and the law in the 20th century. It is out of this field of occupational health and a related one of health insurance that one of the most important aspects of 20th-century medical legal debate was born - the debate over health rights. The relationship between medicine and law in post-World War II United States can not be understood without addressing the notion of health rights. The right to health has been inter-

MEDICINE, DISEASE, AND HEALTH

preted variously to include such principles as a right to access to care, a right to make decisions about treatment and termination of care, and/or a right to die. Having had a tremendous impact on the nature of care, as well as the legal status of patients and health care providers, this debate over health rights has even helped create a new intellectual discipline, bioethics. The best book-length history of bioethics and of the mid-2Oth century debate about Americans' health rights is by David Rothman. ROTHMAN's book is a chronological reconstruction of the cases that led to the expansion of the role played by law and bioethics in medical decision making. The first attempt at a comprehensive analysis of the origins of the new field of bioethics, Rothman's book contains a sometimes too brief, but always thoughtful commentary on significant aspects of late zoth-century medical-legal culture. An equally thoughtful examination of some other aspects of contemporary medical-legal relations is by Sheila JASANOFF. Focusing her attention on several of the scientific issues of most pressing legal concern today such as euthanasia and genetic engineering, Jasonoff analyzes both the current the regulatory process and that of expert testimony. She argues persuasively that (medical) science and the law configure each other. Although promising a historical context, Jasonoff's account remains firmly in the late 20th century, with only cursory forays into the more distant past. These forays present scholars with an exciting agenda for future historical research. Such future research should build upon the foundations laid by such scholars as Mohr, Jasonoff , Clark and the others mentioned here. It would be particularly useful if these future scholars could explain how the arenas of policy making and the courtroom became so closely tied with the laboratory and the clinic in the therapeutic, yet litigious United States. JANET TIGHE

Medicine, Disease, and Health Beier, Lucinda McCray, Sufferers & Healers: The Experience of Illness in Seventeenth-Century England, London and New York: Routledge, 1987 Clark, George, A History of the Royal College of Physicians, z vols, Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1964-66 Cook, Harold J., The Decline of the Old Medical Regime in Stuart London, Ithaca, New York: Cornell University Press, 1986 Kealey, Edward J., Medieval Medicus: A Social History of Anglo-Norman Medicine, Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press, 1981 Loudon, Irvine, Medical Care and the General Practitioner, ijyo-18^0, Oxford, Clarendon Press, and New York: Oxford University Press, 1986 Orme, Nicholas and Margaret Webster, The English Hospital, 1070-1J70, New Haven, Connecticut, and London: Yale University Press, 1995 Pelling, Margaret, The Common Lot: Sickness, Medical Occupations and the Urban Poor in Early Modern England, London and New York: Longman, 1998 Porter, Roy and Dorothy Porter, In Sickness and in Health: The British Experience, 1650-1850, London: Fourth Estate, and New York: Blackwell, 1988

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Rubin, Stanley, Medieval English Medicine: AD ^o New York: Barnes and Noble, and Newton Abbot, Devon: David and Charles, 1974 Webster, Charles, The National Health Service: A Political History, Oxford and New York: Oxford University Press, 1998 RUBIN provides a useful introduction to medieval medicine in England. Constructing a sound argument for its rational foundation, he places special emphasis, the title notwithstanding, on the Anglo-Saxon period. The study makes effective use of archaeological and paleopathological resources and contains fine discussions of leprosy and the development of medicine as a profession. Rubin describes most practitioners as individuals of good sense with a solid grounding in classical and contemporary knowledge. The survey includes valuable descriptions of the varieties of extant historical evidence in its appendices and is a good starting point for understanding medieval physicians and disease. A richer and more thoroughly documented analysis of medieval medicine is offered by KEALEY. His approach, though also centered on practitioners, is more focused and thematic than that of Rubin. Examining the expansion of health care between iioo and 1154, the work takes into account the contributions of faith healers and others as medical practitioners. The study presents important insights into charitable institutions and emphasizes the prominent role of secular, rather than ecclesiastical benefactors. Perhaps Kealey's most lasting contribution is his two useful appendices: the first identifies 90 physicians, while the second records 113 hospitals. The study relies extensively on charters and contemporary chronicles. As a consequence, it is less valuable treating medical studies or techniques than Rubin. ORME & WEBSTER draw particular attention to the hospitals of south-west England stressing their charitable and religious functions. Though the authors identify many types and properly observe the diversity of these institutions, most hospitals cared for the sick poor and gave sustenance to travelers. The authors caution against accepting earlier arguments regarding the use of hospitals to segregate lepers from the rest of society. The study includes a rich bibliography and is a useful survey of hospitals from Anglo-Norman times through the Reformation. Early efforts to professionalize medical practice are detailed in CLARK'S survey of the Royal College of London from its chartering in 1518 through passage of the Medical Act of 1858. Drawing extensively on the College's own archives, Clark portrays the group initially as a professional entity serving London; however, it later evolved into a national self-serving elite. The College struggled against the barber-surgeons and apothecaries, and also worked to keep unlicensed practitioners from offering their services to the public. Success was limited because they lacked popular support. They did improve the standards and status of physicians by encouraging dissections, promoting lectures, and insisting on qualifying examinations for all practitioners. Although Galen's teachings dominated their examinations through the i6th century and the College was slow to recognize the contributions of William Harvey, Clark nevertheless sees the organization as a positive force through the next century. Volume 2 covers the period from the

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late 17th century through 1858. For Clark the College lost its direction early in the i8th century; yet regained its vigor by the reign of George III, when it labored conscientiously to improve treatment and conditions for the insane. It also helped establish national standards in the struggles to address disease and the causes and consequences of poverty. Overall, Clark sees the College providing pivotal leadership in the evolution of English medicine. COOK focuses his study more narrowly, examining the Royal College of Physicians from its period of dominance in the 1630S through its decline in 1704. His revisionist analysis modifies Clark's interpretation of the 17th century. Cook presents a less attractive portrait of the College, though he does not echo those modern scholars who condemn it as simply seeking to retain its privileged status. Drawing from an impressive array of sources, such as malpractice proceedings, minutes of medical societies and licensing boards, printed treatises, and advertisements, he explains how the College ultimately failed to restrict practice by its rivals. Unlike Clark, he shows how the medical marketplace and developments in the education of physicians led to revisions in philosophy and practice. Competition fuelled publication of medical texts as practitioners sought to trumpet their successes and gain more patients. Finally, Cook interprets the College's political struggles through the late century and illustrates how these problems combined with market realities and changes in medical education to transform the group into a learned society after apothecaries gained the right to prescribe medicines. More balanced than Clark, he provides rich insights into the College's regulatory activities. BEIER both complements and challenges Cook's conclusions. She rejects the idea of an organized medical profession in the 17th century; instead, she explains in far greater depth how all types of practitioners competed in a consumer-driven open market. Each tried to promote their own skills while discrediting rivals through extensive use of propaganda. Licensed practitioners might attack their antagonists' lack of formal training; however, they seldom criticized their diagnostic skills or success. In the second part of her study, she analyzes illness from the perspectives of healers and sufferers. Basing much of her discussion of healers on the casebook of Joseph Binns, a London barber-surgeon, she depicts a cautious healer who treated more than 600 people during his career. Binns followed traditional practices ranging from purges to blood-letting and each of his patients was treated over long periods with care taken to prevent infection. Beier concludes that barber-surgeons possessed greater manual skills and were more modern in their techniques than the members of the Royal College. The concluding sections of this important social history of medicine describes popular diseases and their victims. Many contemporaries believed God visited illness on humans either because of their sinfulness, or to educate. Others recognized the power of magic and trusted healing to amulets or charms. Beier provides a fascinating window into the world of popular medicine. Studying the urban environment, age groups and gender, and occupations, PELLING offers a rich blend of essays to interpret the social history of medicine in early modern times. She emphasizes popular preoccupation with disease and disability and underscores Beier's findings about the variety of practi-

tioners who attended the poor and middling sorts. Local authorities retained several kind of medical practitioners to minister to the health needs of the poor. She also studies nutrition and moderation in medical diagnosis. Among her more significant analyses is a discussion of the 1570 household census for Norwich, UK. From this she gleans a wealth of information to illuminate public concern for the health needs of the poor and efforts to offer assistance. Her study supplies valuable insights into the omnipresence of disease, as well as treatment for children, the elderly, the disabled, and women. A survey that continues Pelling's time frame through the long 18th century with a similar focus on the social history of medicine from the perspective of the sick is contributed by PORTER & PORTER. They use traditional literary evidence: diaries, autobiographies, correspondence, fiction and poetry creatively to explore health, sickness, and the relationship between suffering and the self. Sickness and death were constant and fears about them consumed most citizens. By the later 17th century, individuals became more concerned with prevention and health, though their lives remained dominated by lifethreatening illness. The work is filled with detailed first-person descriptions of sickness and reveals the centrality of health concerns among everyday people. Viewing a portion of the same period, although through a different lens, LOUDON describes the evolution of the general practitioner. In response to rising costs of medical education, new men, trained through practical apprenticeships with hospital experience, presented the types of care sick people wanted. They were accessible, reasonably priced, and their ability to deliver effective care for common ailments and minor injuries made them extremely popular. Loudon successfully uses account books from provincial practitioners to reveal dedicated, hard-working, able professionals. His analysis also adds to an understanding of an important dimension of the professional middle class in the i8th and 19th centuries. No survey of medical history would be complete without mention of the National Health Service and its pre-eminent historian offers an important interpretation from its origins to the Blair administration. While WEBSTER'S primary attention is drawn to the politics and bureaucracy of the NHS, he provides solid analyses of clinical advances and finances. The author credits the special circumstances of the war and the special vision of Aneurin Bevan for creating the system. If Bevan draws high praise for his commitment and stewardship, few of his successors are similarly singled out. Between 1964 and 1974 the Service peaked; yet even then it suffered from poor leadership, a complicated bureaucracy, and social and geographical inequalities. Webster explains how the Thatcherites worked to discredit the NHS by lengthening waiting lists for services, insisting on more central control of the system, and increasing the number and power of managers. He sees little hope for a return to Bevan's vision for the NHS under the Blair government. MICHAEL J. GALGANO

See also China: medicine; Doctor-Patient Relationship; Greece: medicine; India: medicine; Health, Mortality and Social Class; Medieval Science and Medicine

MEDIEVAL SCIENCE AND MEDICINE

I MMedieval Science and Medicine H H • I I I H •

I

Crombie, A.C, Augustine to Galileo: The History of Science, AD 400-16^0, London: Ealcon Press, 1952; 2nd edition, London: Mercury Books, and Cambridge, Massachusetts: Harvard University Press, 1961 Garcia Ballester, L. et al. (eds). Practical Medicine from Salerno to the Black Death, Cambridge and New York: Cambridge University Press, 1994 Grant, Edward (ed.), A Source Book in Medieval Science, Cambridge, Massachusetts: Harvard University Press, 1974 Jacquart, Danielle and Claude Thomasset, Sexualite et savoir medical au Moyen Age, Paris: Presses Universitaires de Erance, 1985 Klein-Eranke, E., Vorlesungen Uber die Medizin im Islam, Wiesbaden: Steiner, 1982 MacKinney, Loren, Medical Illustrations in Medieval Manuscripts, London: Wellcome Historical Medical Library, and Berkeley: University of California Press, 1965 Rahman, Eazlur, Health and Medicine in the Islamic Tradition: Change and Identity, New York: Crossroad, 1987 Schipperges, Heinrich, "La medicina en la edad media latina", in Historia Universal de la Medicina, vol. 3, edited by P. Lain Entralgo, Barcelona: Salvat, 1972

Siraisi, Nancy G., Medieval and Early Renaissance Medicine: An Introduction to Knowledge and Practice, Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1990 Talbot, C.H. and E.A. Hammond, The Medical Practitioners in Medieval England: A Biographical Register, London: Wellcome Historical Medical Library, 1965 Ullmann, Manfred, Islamic Medicine, translated from the German by Jean Watt, Edinburgh: Edinburgh University Press, 1978 (original edition, 1970) The breadth of the above title highlights the relevance of reference books intended to provide bibliographical guidance. Such is the case of GRANT'S book, which, among the sources of medieval science, devotes a substantial part to medicine (more than 100 pages). Its contents are organized according to a selection of sources comprising medical theory, physiology, scientific methodology in medieval medicine, anatomy, clinical procedure, prognosis methods, specific treatment of some diseases, and the whole gamut of remedies used in therapeutics and surgery. This book, although not exhaustive, affords a good general view of the contents, ideas, and methods of medieval medicine, with references also to the Arabic tradition. General works on medieval science, such as CROMBIE's, provide an excellent background and include specific articles on medieval medicine, covering both general biological conceptions and theories of disease, therapeutics, and the origins of the hospital. GARCIA BALLESTER et al. comprises 10 contributions by different experts, and constitutes a magnificent revision of current research on medicine in medieval Western Europe. It tackles such disparate issues as the influence of astrology on medical practice, medical wisdom and practice in the

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century through the figure of the surgeon Gulielmo da Saliceto, medieval theories and practices of phlebotomy, the medical and surgical professions in 14th-century Paris, the teaching of medicine and the royal surgeons in the Kingdom of Aragon in the 14th century, perceptions of and reactions to the Black Death, John Aderne and scholastic surgery, curative practices of medieval women, and the medical world of Jews, Muslims, and Christians in late medieval Spain. The institutionalization of medical knowledge and the rise of the medical profession are treated in SIRAISI, which includes two chapters on anatomical and physiological knowledge, the problems posed by disease and its manifestation in the medieval world, medieval therapeutics, and surgeons and surgical professions. The last part of the book contains a good bibliographical guide to works available in English. The chapter by SCHIPPERGES, although lacking bibliographical references, is a good summary of the foundations of medicine in the High Middle Ages, describing the organization of knowledge and its academic structure in connection with medieval arts. It provides interesting biographies of the main figures of monastic medicine, and sketches out the major routes along which the Graeco-Arabic tradition was assimilated. MacKINNEY is a useful bibliographical guide to illustrated medieval manuscripts and medical miniatures available in collections in the United States, Canada, Britain, the Netherlands, Erance, Spain, Italy, Germany, Hungary, Yugoslavia, Poland, Russia, and Scandinavia. Specific aspects of medical knowledge concerning anatomy, physiology, and the making of a medical discourse on sexuality and gender are meticulously analyzed, with abundant bibliographical material and records, in JACQUART &c THOMASSET. TALBOT &C HAMMOND'S work, is a biographical dictionary of medieval English physicians. It is wide-ranging, and includes references to positions held by the subjects and their places of practice. The available biographical data is drawn from archival registers and, often, with explanatory notes indicating the sources used. The influence of the Arabic medical tradition on medieval Western Europe is highly important. Among the numerous books dealing with this topic, ULLMANN's summary of Islamic medical knowledge deserves special praise, while her analysis of the process of Islamization of the Greek medical tradition is also noteworthy. The same approach can be found in KLEIN-ERANKE's essays, which assume a diachronic perspective, spanning the period from the origins of Arabic medical thought to its encounter with the Greek tradition, in particular the Hippocratic texts and the writings of Galen. The second part of the book deals with dogmatic and empirical medicine, and the influence of religion on Islamic medicine. Einally, RAHMAN affords a general view of health and medicine in the Islamic tradition, from its cosmological views and religious tenets, to sanitary institutions and medical ethics. JosEP LLufs BARONA

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MEITNER

Meitner, Lise

1878-1968

Austrian physicist Berninger, E.H., "Otto Hahn, Lise Meitner and Fritz Strassmann in Berlin wird die Kernspaltung entdeckt", in Berlinische Lebensbilder: Naturwissenschaftler, edited by W. Treue and G. Hildebrandt, Berlin: Colloquium, 1987 Ernst, Sabine (ed.), Lise Meitner an Otto Hahn: Briefe aus den Jahren 1912 bis 1914, Stuttgart: Wissenschaftliche Verlagsgesellschaft, 1991 Feyl, Renate, "Lise Meitner", in her Der lautlose Aufbruch: Frauen in der Wissenschaft, Berlin: Neues Leben, 1981 Frisch, O.R., "Lise Meitner", Biographical Memoirs of Fellows of the Royal Society, 16 (1970): 405-20 Herneck, Friedrich, "Otto Hahn and Lise Meitner" in his Bahnbrecher des Atomzeitalters. Grosse Naturforscher von Maxwell bis Heisenberg, Berlin: Morgen, 1965 Kerner, Charlotte, Lise: Atomphysikerin: Die Lebensgeschichte der Lise Meitner, Weinheim and Basel: Beltz, 1986 Krafft, Fritz, Im Schatten der Sensation: Leben und Wirken von Fritz Strassman, Weinheim: Chemie, 1981, Rife, Patricia, Lise Meitner, Diisseldorf: Claassen, 1990 Sime, Ruth Lewin, Lise Meitner: A Life in Physics, Berkeley: University of California Press, 1996 Stolz, Werner, Otto Hahn/Lise Meitner, Leipzig: Teubner, 1983 The biographical literature on the outstanding 20th-century physicist, Lise Meitner, can be divided roughly into two parts. The first part consists of mainly older studies that treat her life and work, in a more or less hagiographic manner, in relation to that of her colleague. Otto Hahn. The second part consists of the more recent representations that, strongly influenced by the rise of the feminist movement, try to present Lise Meitner's biography within the context of women in science. Neither approach does full justice to Meitner, since she was neither a mere "co-worker" of Otto Hahn, nor was she an ambitious suffragette, or even a feminist. The most reliable information on the life and works of Meitner can be found in the voluminous biography by SIME, which details her scientific achievements, and also the social and political problems, which shaped her life. Inevitably, the focus is on Meitner's emigration from Nazi Germany a few months before the momentous discovery that the uranium nucleus could be split; Sime describes the circumstances of Meitner's emigration, and also how she lost out on the deserved honours following the great scientific success. This fact, and her modest way of life in Swedish exile, have cast a shadow on an otherwise very successful career. However, Sime also makes it clear that Meitner's life cannot be interpreted as simply a question of martyrdom; she was not just a victim of social and personal discrimination, because there was also much happiness and success in her life, not least during the Berlin years and in her collaboration with Otto Hahn.

Sime's biography is complemented by the obituary by her nephew, Frisch, and by Krafft's book on Fritz Strassmann and the history of the discovery of uranium fission. Not surprisingly, FRISCH is not free from hagiographic elements, but he gives a very instructive and highly competent overview of Meitner's research: her early radio-chemical work and her important nuclear-physical investigations of the 1920s and 1930s, which led to the important discovery of uranium fission by Hahn and Strassmann in November 1938, just a few months after Meitner had escaped from Berlin. Frisch gives plenty of first-hand information about Meitner's contribution to the first interpretation of nuclear fission in 1938 and 1939, and the appendix gives a useful bibliography of her scientific publications. What Frisch reports from personal memory and experience, KRAFFT supports by documentary evidence integrated into a wider history of science, such as the historical background in physics prior to the discovery of uranium fission. In general, some of the strength of Krafft's study lies in its documentary style, since he systematically evaluates the existing and accessible documents for the first time: from laboratory records, letters and memories, to relevant original works. As a spin-off from this project, ERNST has edited the correspondence between Otto Hahn and Lise Meitner - the result of a thesis supervised by Krafft. Unfortunately, this edition covers only the years 1912-24, and hence barely touches upon the later period, which is so exciting for nuclear physics. However, it is an excellent source for the study of the scientific work and personality of Meitner, particularly her early radio-chemical collaboration with Otto Hahn. HERNECK's important work on "pioneers of the atomic age" provided the first overview of Meitner; it remains highly readable, and can therefore be recommended as an introduction to her life and work. Herneck's strength lies in its instructive presentation of the Berlin scientific community, and the role that Lise Meitner played in it. Furthermore, he gives a sensitive presentation of the congenial relationship between Lise Meitner and Otto Hahn. The latter is also the focus of BERNINGER's essay, but here the focus is shifted slightly more towards the social environment during the discovery of nuclear fission. In comparison to Krafft's study, the essay does not offer much that is new. Another good introduction is the brief biography by STOLZ, which offers an overview of Meitner's scientific achievements, and her sometimes dogmatic social and political engagement, especially in her efforts to achieve a peaceful use of nuclear energy. Feyl, Kerner, and Rife are all concerned with a different kind of social and political engagement, tracing the destiny of Lise Meitner as a woman. FEYL does this in an easily readable, and quite stimulating, essay. KERNER's biography is an attempt to meet the demands of a popular science biography, distilled from the literature of the history of science. The biography gives new and interesting insights into the difficult years in Sweden, which are hardly mentioned in other publications, Sime's excepted. Finally, although RIFE claims to have produced the first comprehensive biography of Meitner, throughout the book her life, scientific successes, and failures are embedded in the social reality of the male-dominant scientific research community, sometimes very superficially. This is both an advantage and a disadvantage: on the one hand, Meitner's biography is understood as part and parcel of the

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history of science; on the other hand, the detailed categorization according to a general feminist theory leads to several exaggerations and factual misinterpretations. Moreover, the last two decades of Meitner's life are virtually excluded, heing merely summarized in a short epilogue. DIETER HOFFMANN

translated by Klaus Staubermann See also Nuclear Physics; Women in Science: physical sciences

Mendel, Gregor

1822-1884

Austrian biologist and botanist George, Wilma, Gregor Mendel and Heredity, London: Priory Press, 1975 Iltis, Hugo, Life of Mendel, translated from the German by Eden and Cedar Paul, London: Allen and Unwin, and New York: Norton, 1932 (original edition, 1924) Jakubicek, Milan and Jaromir Kubicek, Bibliographia Mendeliana, Brno: Universitni knihovna v Brne, 1965 Krizenecky, Jaroslav (ed.), Gregor johann Mendel (1811-1884): Texte und Quellen zu seinem Wirken und Leben, Leipzig: Barth, 1965 Olby, Robert C , Origins of Mendelism, London: Constable, and New York: Schocken Books; 1966; 2nd edition Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1985 Orel, Vitezslav and Anna Matalova (eds), Gregor Mendel and the Foundation of Genetics, Brno: Mendelianum of the Moravian Museum in Brno and the Czechoslovak Society for the History of Science and Technology, 1983 Orel, Vitezslav, Mendel, translated by Stephen Finn, Oxford and New York: Oxford University Press, 1984; revised and expanded edition as Gregor Mendel: The First Geneticist, Oxford and New York: Oxford University Press, 1996 Sherwood, Eva R. and Curt Stern (eds). The Origin of Genetics: A Mendel Source Book, San Erancisco: W.H. Ereeman, 1966 Weiling, Eranz (ed.), Versuche iiber Pflanzenhybriden, by Mendel, Braunschweig: Eriedrich Vieweg, 1970 The foundations, development, and impact of Mendelism are described by OLBY, who consults original texts in extenso and supplements every chapter with notes for further reading. The book initially deals with Mendel's predecessors among plant breeders, from the first hybridization experiments of the i8th and early 19th centuries, to Linnaeus, Klreuter, C.E. Gaertner, Charles Naudin, Charles Darwin and Erancis Galton. Olby then follows this with an account of the 19th-century debate on sexual and non-sexual reproduction, and of the possibilities, opened up by breeding, of producing hereditary varieties. He supplies a description of Mendel's career, and of the most important characteristics of his hybridization experiments. The 34 years of poor and hesitant reception that followed Mendel's publications of iS6^-66 are described merely as a "pause"; Olby does not discuss this period in detail, and only the socalled re-discoveries of Mendel's law by Hugo De Vries, Carl Correns, Erich Tschermak, and William Bateson are conceded

some attention. A detailed appendix reproduces relevant passages from original texts in English translation, and illustrations and tables help make the book a very suitable introduction for students. Mendel's life, work, and family history have been assembled by KRIZENECKY, a book full of archival material. It also contains an edition of Mendel's original publication of 1865 (for the first time revised on the basis of the manuscript), as well as a short autobiography and a commentary. A commemorative speech of 1902 and reminiscences (1928) by Mendel's nephew, A. Schindler, and the recollections of Mendel's death by A. Doupovec (1884) and by G. Niessl v. Mayendorf (1902), are followed by private correspondence on family matters. Mendel's genealogy, and the history of his ancestors and of his home region in the eastern part of North Moravia are described in great detail, and a chronological table concludes a very informative book. WEILING's critical and annotated edition of Mendel's Versuche iiber Pflanzenhybriden can be recommended to students. It includes an account of Mendel's life and an appreciation of his work. Krizenecky also contains the classical text of 1865 (revised on the basis of the original manuscript), and other original papers (in the original language) on the reception of and debate over Mendelism between 1895 ^r"^ i9°4An introduction by Nemec analyzes the achievements in botany after 1580, which made Mendel's research possible. A detailed commentary (about 40 pages) by the editor discusses the significance, for the development of early genetics, of particular texts that are reprinted in this volume. SHERWOOD &c STERN contains reprints of the classical writings in early genetics, which are published in their entirety, or in extracts in English translation. The foreword pays homage to Mendel's work and explains the editors' choice of material, while there are a number of footnotes and references for further reading which facilitate an understanding of the texts. The volume opens with Mendel's two major works on plant hybrids, along with his letters to C.W. Nageli (1866-73). Extracts on Pisum etc., from the collection on hybrids by Eocke (1881), are followed first by an introduction to works acknowledging Mendel's laws by De Vries and Correns (1900), then by their letters to the early Mendelian H.E. Roberts, conveying the circumstances of their respective studies of hybrids (1924-25), and lastly by R.A. Eisher's critical discussion (1936) of the interpretation of De Vries's, Correns's and Tschernak's work (which in the volume appears under the heading of "rediscovery"). Wright's short treatise of 1966, which follows, criticizes Eisher's claim that Mendel's number ratios were merely the result of calculations, and had not been reached through experimentation. The volume serves as an important introduction to Mendel's work and his research methods. ILTIS presents an extensive account of Mendel's life and work, both in his profession and as a scientific researcher, and a history of Mendelism, including the development from around 1900 of the discovery that heredity is governed by lawlike processes, which was intimately linked to the gradual acknowledgement of Mendel's laws. The book describes the history of empirical results and theoretical conclusions, and discusses the developments of Mendel's claims after 1900 - i.e. the influence of the chromosome theory of heredity, the theory

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of sex determination, developmental theories, and the Morgan Principles (of the behaviour of Mendelian factors). The book also touches on the discovery of the limits of Mendel's laws, and it traces the impact of plant and animal breeding on ideas of human genetics. This history describes only a few basic features of the impact of Mendelism in the first two decades of the 20th century. A brief introduction to the life and work of Mendel is • provided by GEORGE, whose amply illustrated book contains a chronology of Mendel's life and career. The book also serves as an introduction, both to the state of research into heredity around i860, and to the relevant botanical and cytological knowledge. Mendel's hybridization experiments and his later research are described and commented on in great detail. There are discussions of later contributions to breeding (by Darwin, Galton, Eocke, De Vries, Correns, Tschermak, Bateson), and of cytological genetics until around 1910. The book also provides a glossary and references to secondary literature, which, however, already needs updating. The biography by OREL (1985) provides an introduction to the life and work of Mendel. It is based on extensive knowledge of original source material, as well as of the history of the scientific, cultural, and social contexts of Mendel's work. The book offers both an appreciation of Mendel's wide-ranging scientific research, complete with graphical representations, and an introduction to the reception of his ideas, which began already before the turn of the century. There are references for further reading, and the book was updated for a new edition in 1996. OREL & MATALOVA is a collection of essays on the various aspects of Mendelism. This international volume provides information on contemporary developments in Bohemia and Brno, as well as in scientific research, and also sheds light on the pattern of scientific discovery and on aspects of Mendel's personal life. The book concludes with a discussion of the delayed acknowledgement of Mendel's laws, and an appreciation of the fundamental importance of Mendel's discovery for modern genetics. JAKUBICEK & KUBICEK is a bibliography of all literature on Mendel until 1965. A bibliography of Mendel's own works is followed by a list of original publications on the discovery of Mendel's laws since. Einally, the bibliography lists literature on Mendel's life and work, classified in general accounts, documentation and correspondence and (earlier) bibliographies. BRIGITTE HOPPE

translated by Anna-Katherina Mayer See also Botany: general works; Botany: Britain; Genetics: general works; Heredity

Mendeleev, Dmitrii Ivanovich 1834-1907 Russian chemist Eigurovskii, N.A., Dmitrii Ivanovich Mendeleev, 2nd edition, Moscow: Nauka, 1961; 2nd edition, 1983 Kedrov, Bonifatii Mikhailovich, Filosofskii analiz pervykh trudov D.I. Mendeleeva o periodicheskom zakone (1869-18J1), Moscow: Akademii nauk SSSR, 1959

Kedrov, Bonifatii Mikhailovich and D.N. Trifonov, Zakon periodichnosti i khimicheskie elementy: Otkrytiia i khronologiia, Moscow: Nauka, 1969 Makarenia, A.A., I.N. Eilimonova and N.G. Karpilo (eds), D.I. Mendeleev v vospomonaniiakyh sovremennikov, 2nd edition, Moscow: Atomizdat, 1973 Mladentsev, M.N. and V.E. Tishchenko, Dmitrii Ivanovich Mendeleev, ego zhizn' i deiatel'nost', vol. i, parts i and 2, Moscow and Leningrad: Akademiia nauk SSSR, 1938 Parkhomenko, V.E., D.I. Mendeleev i russkoe neftianoe delo, Moscow: Akademiia nauk SSSR, 1957 Pisarzhevskii, O., Dmitry Ivanovich Mendeleyev: His Life and Work, Moscow: Eoreign Languages Publishing House, 1954 Pisarzhevskii, O., Dmitrii Ivanovich Mendeleev, Moscow: Guardiia, 1959 Van Spronsen, J.W., The Periodic System of Chemical Elements: A History of the First Hundred Years, Amsterdam: Elsevier, 1969 There is a vast literature on the life and work of Dmitrii Ivanovich Mendeleev, much of which relates to Mendeleev's discovery (1869) and subsequent elaboration of the periodic law of the elements. Other aspects of his exceptionally wideranging interests have been relatively neglected, however. There is no fully satisfactory biographical study of Mendeleev in any language, including Russian. The most adequate biography is by EIGUROVSKII, which presents a standard chronological treatment of Mendeleev's life and work, and at least alludes to the many sides to Mendeleev's activities. Eigurovskii includes separate chapters on Mendeleev's work on solution theory, economic studies, and metrological studies, as well as on various aspects of his work on the periodic law. However, the biography is far too short (258 pages of text) to allow for an in-depth coverage of any topic, including the work on the periodic law. Moreover, the author relied mainly on published materials, leaving virtually untapped the voluminous archival materials concerning Mendeleev. MLADENTSEV & TISHCHENKO's two-volume work is more a compilation of excerpts from primary sources by and about Mendeleev, linked by the authors' commentaries, than a true biography. Still, the treatment does provide a strikingly vivid portrait of Mendeleev. The first volume (1938) covers only the early years of Mendeleev's life up to 1861; the second volume, which carries the treatment up to 1890 when Mendeleev resigned in protest from St Petersburg University, was completed prior to the authors' deaths in 1941, but not published until 1983. The first volume is arranged chronologically, while the second is organized in three main sections: family chronicle, scientific and pedagogical activities, and social and industrial activities. The volume by MAKARENIA, EILIMONOVA &c KARPILO is a useful collection of excerpts from memoirs, reminiscences, and other recollections of Mendeleev by students, friends, and colleagues. Many of these excerpts are taken from unpublished archival documents or from relatively obscure published sources. PISARZHEVSKII (1959) is a quite short and, often unrehable biography, which sometimes verges on the hagiographic. However, an earlier version of this work, PISARZHEVSKII

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(1954) has the value of having been translated into English. Other biographies of Mendeleev in English are highly inaccurate, have no scholarly value, and should be avoided. By far the best work on Mendeleev deals with his discovery and research on the periodic law of the elements. Non-Russian scholars often describe this as work on the periodic table, while Russian and Soviet scholars emphasize that the merit of Mendeleev's work far exceeded simply devising a new table of the elements. The most fundamental studies of Mendeleev's work on the periodic law have been written by KEDROV, who used archival documents to reconstruct the process by which Mendeleev came to his discovery. He shows that Mendeleev developed the essence of the periodic law on one specific day in 1869; Mendeleev then spent many years furiously elaborating the periodic law, confirming its features, and defending it from the numerous critics, both in Russia and the West. Kedrov emphasizes that Mendeleev came to the idea of the periodic law through writing a textbook on inorganic chemistry, a work that later became the famous Principles of Chemistry. Kedrov rejects the usual assertions of most Western historians of science, that Mendeleev's starting point was the external progression of elements by atomic weight. Instead, Kedrov demonstrates that Mendeleev began by focusing on groups of elements with similar properties, such as the halogens and alkali metals, and only later did he connect these distinct groups to the idea of ascending atomic weight. This process induced Mendeleev to include certain features in his periodic table that gave his overall scheme great flexibility and power. For example, Mendeleev left gaps in his system when necessary, assuming that these were undiscovered elements. The volume by KEDROV &: TRIEONOV presents a useful summary of Kedrov's, and other Soviet scholars's, research on Mendeleev's periodic law. One of the most contentious aspects of the periodic law is the question of priority. Some historians of science outside Russia do not give Mendeleev full, or sometimes even partial, credit for the periodic table. Eor example, VAN SPRONSEN concludes that no less than six scientists should share the credit for the discovery of the periodic table: Alexandre Chancourtois, John Newlands, William Odling, Hinrichs, Julius Meyer, and Mendeleev. In general, these works make little use of the extensive Russian-language secondary source literature and archival materials on Mendeleev. Russian and Soviet scholars such as Kedrov have shown the serious flaws in many of these accounts, and argue convincingly that the periodic table developed by Mendeleev was far better than those of the other contenders. Throughout his life, Mendeleev devoted considerable time to interests other than chemistry, especially in the years after 1880. He was greatly interested in economic questions relating to Russia, and wrote many books and was consulted on various topics, including the coal industry, the tariff structure, petroleum production, and heavy industry. In addition, he conducted large-scale laboratory research on smokeless gunpowder, as a result of a commission from the Russian Naval Ministry. He was also actively involved in the regulation of the system of weights and measures in Russia, and served as the director of the Central Bureau of Weights and Measures from 1893 to 1907. These activities have attracted little attention from histo-

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rians, and are only sketchily described in the biographies and other works mentioned above. One exception is the specialized study by PARKHOMENKO, which examines Mendeleev's involvement with questions of the production and uses of petroleum. This work is a solid technical treatment of Mendeleev's activities in this area, placed in the broader context of the early development of the Russian petroleum industry. NATHAN BROOKS

See also Chemistry; Metrology; Russia

Mersenne, Marin 1588-1648 French mathematician and theologian Beaulieu, Armand, "Bibliographie", in Correspondance du P. Marin Mersenne, religieux Minime, edited by Mme Paul Tannery and Cornelis De Waard, vol. 17, Paris: CNRS,

1988, 11-108 Crombie, A.C., Styles of Scientific Thinking in the European Tradition: The History of Argument and Explanation especially in the Mathematical and Biological Sciences and Arts, 3 vols, London: Duckworth, 1994 Dear, Peter, Mersenne and the Learning of the Schools, Ithaca, New York: Cornell University Press, 1988 Hine, William L., "Mersenne and Copernicanism", Isis, 64 (1973): 18-32 Hine, William L., "Mersenne Variants", Isis, 6j (1976): 98-103 Hine, William L., "Mersenne and Vanini", Renaissance Quarterly, 29 (1976): 52-65 Hine, William L., "Marin Mersenne: Renaissance Naturalism and Renaissance Magic", in Occult and Scientific Mentalities in the Renaissance, edited by Brian Vickers, Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1984 Lenoble, Robert, Mersenne; ou, la naissance du mecanisme, Paris: Vrin, 1943; 2nd edition, 1971 Tannery, Paul and Cornelis De Waard, "Note sur la vie de Mersenne", in Correspondance du P. Marin Mersenne, religieux Minime, edited by Mme Paul Tannery and de Waard vol. i, Paris: Beauchesne, 1932 Tannery, Mme Paul [Marie] and Cornelis De Waard, Correspondance du P. Marin Mersenne, religieux Minime, vols 1-2, Paris: Beauchesne, 1932-33; vols 3-4, Paris: Presses Universitaires de Erance, 1945-55; vols 5-17: Paris: CNRS, 1959-88 The figure of Marin Mersenne had practically vanished from the history of science when a project to publish his vast correspondence was advanced by Paul Tannery around 1900. Though they acknowledged his acumen in music, the philosophes and their followers found Mersenne's books plodding, derivative, mediocre mere trifling antiquities; worse, he was often caricatured as a meddlesome and intolerant churchman (Mersenne was a Minim friar) unworthy of association with Descartes, Fermat, Galileo, Pascal, Huygens and Hobbes, his brilliant secular collaborators. Tannery was a devout Catholic and a talented scholar who took offense at this historio-

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graphical canard and endeavoured to restore Mersenne's legacy; when he died his wife Marie continued his plan to publish a richly annotated edition of Mersenne's massive correspondence. It opens with a biographical note by TANNERY & De WAARD featuring an evocative passage from the eloge penned shortly after Mersenne's death by Hilarion de Coste, his student and Minim brother. Their construction on this firsthand account is a concise and elegant testimonial that grounds all modern Mersenne studies. Robert LENOBLE complemented the Correspondance project with an unabashedly sympathetic biography. Lenoble celebrates Mersenne's clever synthesis of natural philosophy and Ghristian doctrine into a workable institution. He champions Mersenne's curiosity, energy and enthusiasm, and grants him many of his proper discoveries and accredits him with crucial contributions; and valorizes the Minim's piety, sociability, and rectitude. This global review of Mersenne's mediation in philosophical affairs hints at the significance of trust, replication, and discipline in regimes of knowledge. However Lenoble, a priest keenly interested in the psychodynamics of development, decided that Mersenne's qualities had essentially inward, psycho-theological sources, and never pursued his fleeting sociological insights. Instead, Lenoble represents Mersenne's personal growth from zealous polemicist to tolerant mechanist as emblematic of the very constitution of modern science. Thus Mersenne, unable quite to dominate the subjects of philosophy or theology, "merely" embodied their harmonious union in his mixed mathematics and his habits of association. By working to establish the moral economy of European science he did much to ensure its future; according to Lenoble, Mersenne heralds the advent of great things. Peter Dear was dissatisfied with such an apology for Mersenne, whose subtle but powerful ideas, he argued, provided crucial philosophical underpinnings for the scientific revolution. Dear finds a deep structure within Mersenne's fragmentary oeuvre, the result of a dialectical confrontation among humanist-Ciceronian probabilism, Jesuit-Thomist eternalism, neo-Augustinian innatism and illuminationism, classical (pseudo-) Aristotelian mechanics, acoustical coincidence theory and Pythagorean harmonic theory, and anti-essentialist universal language schemes. It shows how Mersenne carefully selected and strategically deployed these orthodox resources in order to justify a strange, new mathematical natural philosophy in a hostile intellectual climate. Dear's meticulous reconstruction of esoteric doctrines and foregone habits of thought is sometimes dazzling. However, it yields a brilliant picture of Mersenne's philosophical craftwork, and is well worth the required effort. Having described Mersenne's deeply conservative intellection. Dear argues for its political agency, claiming that Mersenne's subterfuge especially facilitated consensus on matters of natural knowledge in reactionary Catholic Erance. Mersenne's open association with powerful figures is never considered as a more likely source of social power than his subtle deployment of school doctrines; this overweening intellectualism mars an otherwise sensible account. Of all the authors considered, William HINE attends most carefully to the work Mersenne assumed as a Catholic apolo-

gist. In a series of concise, trenchant studies Hine uses close textual analysis to discover Mersenne's subtle, sometimes arcane bibliographic practices. Thus we learn how thoroughly Mersenne obscured his engagement with Vanini, the Italian naturalist condemned for heresy, in biblical exegesis, and how strategically he bound and distributed his treatments of suspect topics. Hine deftly situates these author functions within the charged field of counter-Reform intellectual politics to reveal the force of Mersenne's operations. Hine is largely concerned with Mersenne's commentary on Genesis, though later works figure in his studies of "Variants" and "Copernicanism". In his preoccupation with this huge Latin book and its reflection of Mersenne's fundamental motivations, Hine has left unexplored important aspects of Mersenne's life and work (travel, association, experiment); even so his articles vivify an engaged, pragmatic "party" intellectual who seems more historically authentic than the heroic character proffered in other accounts. Eor Alistair Crombie Mersenne's interest in sensation, signs, and language expressed his "intellectual commitment" to an experimental physiological psychology that would ground all empirical knowledge, while his "moral commitment" to the study of nature, so conceived, was manifest in his faith and humility, and his patience, honesty, and openness with kindred spirits. CROMBIE supposes these commitments were shared by other philosophers, but argues that Mersenne pursued them in a distinct and superior "style", illustratively contrasted here with Galileo's. Thus Mersenne never insisted on his priority in matters Galileo, perhaps knowingly, appropriated; rather he challenged the Elorentine's questionable experimental claims with respect and resolve. Considering Mersenne's prudent support of Galileo throughout his struggle with the Roman authorities, Crombie finds the Minim friar all the more virtuous. Mersenne's gentle style produced "genuinely original contributions to scientific knowledge", which were subsequently obscured by the harmful effects of reputation and influence. This is framed in Crombie as "an exemplary historiographical problem" and resolved without an inkling that Mersenne, too, laboured to establish his reputation and influence and saw them contested along with his scientific claims. In this and other essential ways Crombie's asymmetrical treatment utterly fails as anthropology, despite its pretensions. Nevertheless, with copious extracts in translation and judicious commentary, Crombie provides the best available account of Mersenne's experimental form of life. Armand Beaulieu's extended essay brings the "Mersenne business" up to date as of 1986-87. BEAULIEU summarizes not only the secondary literature but also the historical experience of the Correspondance team, and affirms Tannery's conviction that this project, diligently pursued, would provide a wealth of material for the socio-cultural history of early 17thcentury European science. CRAIG RODINE

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Merton Thesis Basalla, George, The Rise of Modern Science: External or Internal Factors^, Lexington, Massachusetts: Heath, 1968 Clark, Jon, Celia Modgil and Sohan Modgil (eds), Robert K. Merton: Consensus and Controversy, New York: Falmer Press, 1990 Cohen, I. Bernard (ed.), Puritanism and the Rise of Modern Science: The Merton Thesis, New Brunswick, New Jersey: Rutgers University Press, 1990 Conant, James B., On Understanding Science: An Historical Approach, New Haven, Connecticut: Yale University Press, and London: Oxford University Press, 1947 Dillenberger, John, Protestant Thought and Natural Science: A Historical Interpretation, New York: Abingdon Press,

i960; London: Collins, 1961 Feuer, Lewis, The Scientific Intellectual: The Psychological and Sociological Origins of Modern Science, New York: Basic Books, 1963 Fleming, Donald, "review of The Scientific Intellectual" Isis,

56 (1965): 369-70 Hill, Christopher, Intellectual Origins of the English Revolution, Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1965 Hooykaas, Reijer, Religion and the Rise of Modern Science, Edinburgh: Scottish Academic Press, and Grand Rapids, Michigan: Eerdmans, 1972 Hunter, Michael, Science and Society in Restoration England, Cambridge and New York: Cambridge University Press, 1981 Jacob, Margaret C , The Newtonians and the English Revolution, 1689-iyio, Ithaca, New York: Cornell University Press, 1976; 2nd edition. New York: Gordon and Breach, 1990 Merton, Robert K., Science, Technology and Society in Seventeenth Century England, Bruges, Belgium: St Catherine Press, 1938; New York: Fertig, 1970 Purver, Margery, The Royal Society: Concept and Creation, Cambridge, Massachusetts: MIT Press, and London: Routledge and Kegan Paul, 1967 Weber, Max, The Protestant Ethic and the Spirit of Capitalism, translated from the German by Talcott Parsons, London: Allen and Unwin, 1930; New York: Scribner, 1958 (original edition, 1904) Webster, Charles (ed.). The Intellectual Revolution of the Seventeenth Century, London and Boston: Routledge and Kegan Paul, 1974 Webster, Charles, The Great Instauration: Science, Medicine, and Reform, 1626-16JO, London: Duckworth, and New York: Holmes and Meier, 1976 Westfall, Richard S., Science and Religion in SeventeenthCentury England, New Haven, Connecticut: Yale University Press, 1958 Zuckerman, Harriet, "The Other Merton Thesis", Science in Context, 3 (1989): 239-67 One of the most widely-discussed and controversial issues relating to the origins of the scientific revolution, and of modern science generally, is the role played by Puritanism in

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the rise of science in Britain (and in Europe wherever Protestantism was influential) and the United States. This discussion may also be approached in terms of the connections between science and religion, and, even more broadly, between science and philosophy. Among the first to study seriously the connection between science and religion from a historical perspective was Alphonse de Candolle, whose Histoire des sciences et des savants depuis deux siecles (1873) included a section devoted to "The Influence of Religion on the Development of the Sciences" (translated in Cohen). De Candolle found what he took to be a strong correlation between scientists and sons of Protestant clergymen, and suggested it was celibacy that prevented priests from producing a similar legacy for science in Catholic countries! De Candolle found a peculiarly "Darwinian" influence here, and emphasized that his work investigated aspects of the correlation between "heredity and selection in the human species". This theme was also pursued by the German sociologist. Max WEBER, not explicitly with reference to science, but in terms of the "Protestant ethic" and its presumed role in the rise of Western capitalism (1904). In this same spirit, the American sociologist, Robert K. Merton, published an article in 1936 devoted to "Puritanism, Pietism, and Science", which was followed two years later by MERTON, a monograph based on a dissertation he had completed at Harvard University. (The edition of 1970 also contains a select bibliography devoted to the Merton thesis). It was this work that eventually inspired the expression, the "Merton Thesis". Merton's monograph (or STS, as it is often called in the vast literature stimulated by this important work) has had a seminal influence on studies related to the social dimensions of science in the half-century since it was written. As Cohen points out, the idea of the singular role of Puritanism (or of radical or ascetic Protestantism) in 17th-century science has come to be known as the "Merton thesis", a name that has gained official sanction in the foremost journal (and a dictionary) of the history of science. Merton himself later described the "Merton Thesis" as the "Puritan Spur to Science" in a lengthy new preface for the reprint of his book in 1970. There he notes that his original study included among the "Motive Forces of the New Science" such Puritan concerns as affirming the "Glory of the Great Author of Nature", promoting a utilitarian respect for the "Comfort of Mankind", and supporting the concomitant "Shift to Science" and the "Process of Secularization", all of which were taking place in 17th-century England as both the scientific and political revolutions were underway. For readers desiring a succinct outline of the major subjects covered in STS, K.E. Dufin and Stuart W. Strickland have provided a useful overview in Cohen. After reading Merton himself, COHEN's edited volume should be the natural starting place for anyone interested in learning more about the "Merton Thesis", as it includes critical reviews and a number of major studies. The book opens with a monograph-length study by Cohen himself devoted to "The Impact of the Merton Thesis", which totals more than IOO pages, includes a carefully annotated list of articles and books related to the "Merton Thesis", and serves as a very

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useful guide to the vast literature Merton's work has inspired. Another informative study is to be found in CLARK, MODGIL Si. MODGIL, in which Cohen in particular provides a detailed analysis of a number of works by authors who have examined the possible links between Protestantism (as well as Puritanism) and the rise of science in England, including R.K. Merton, James B. Conant, A. Rupert Hall, Richard Foster Jones, Marjorie Hope Nicolson, Walter Pagel, and Dorothy Stimson. As a variation on the basic "Merton Thesis" and Merton's claim that the overwhelming majority of the early members of the Royal Society were Puritans, CONANT examines the important experimental work that was undertaken in Catholic Florence, another major center of activity crucial for the scientific revolution, "lest one become too engrossed with one county and the cultural effects of the Reformation". DILLENBERGER examines the "Merton Thesis" from yet another angle, in terms of the Puritans who did not embrace the new science, but rather condemned it as a distraction from the only thing that should matter in life, salvation. While questioning Merton's definition of "Puritan", Dillenberger also notes the strong representation of Puritans in the universities where science was practised, as well as among the early members of the Royal Society. On the other hand, Christopher Hill, in Webster (1974), maintains that even after the Counter-Reformation, Protestant countries were more supportive of science than those countries dominated by Roman Catholics. By reducing the power of the priesthood and the authoritarianism of the Church, Hill maintains that Protestantism was naturally a "liberating force" for modern science. HOOYKAAS also agrees with Merton that Protestantism encouraged a positive environment for the study of science by emphasizing good works and utilitarianism, but he downplays the role of salvation. Alternatively, a major attempt to show that Catholics were positively receptive to the new science is an article by Frangois Russo, originally in French but translated as "Catholicism, Protestantism and Science" in BASALLA. Russo, who is a Catholic Jesuit, argues that the Jesuits were actually more supportive of science than Protestants. A controversial, negative critique of the "Merton Thesis" came from Lewis FEUER, who claims that it was not "ascetic Protestantism", but a "hedonist-libertarian" ethic that encouraged the new approach to nature reflected in experimental science. Like Dillenberger, Feuer questions Merton's terminology and the exact meaning of "Puritanism". In the revised edition (1970), Merton responds to Feuer in a lengthy preface, giving line-by-line quotations in order to show that Feuer's emphatic critique of the Merton Thesis involved straightforward misquotation. Additionally, anyone reading Feuer's book should also consult the largely negative review by FLEMING, who objects in particular to the vagueness of the term "hedonism" in Feuer's analysis, just as Feuer objects to the vagueness of the term "Puritan" in Merton's. Similarly, HUNTER argues that Merton's use of "Puritanism" is so vague and comprehensive as to be meaningless. Another challenge to Merton has come from specific studies of the Royal Society. For example, PURVER claims that in terms of both the "testimony and actions" of its early members, the Royal Society was not a reflection of the Puritan ethic.

Theodore K. Rabb, writing on "Religion and the Rise of Modern Science" in Webster (1974), also fails to find that "radical Protestants" were over-represented in 17th-century English science. In Cohen, Rabb focuses instead on Baconianism in England, and its emphasis on the utilitarian value of the "new science", as having been more important than strictly Puritan religious motivations. Rabb argues that it was not because they were Protestants, or more specifically Puritans, that the founders of the new science in England were revolutionaries, but because they were Baconians. Christopher HILL represents another important direction in research. Not only does Hill support Merton's connection between radical Protestantism and modern science, but he links the ideas of the new science to those championed by Puritans and Parliamentarians alike. Nevertheless, Hill only maintains that there is a "connection" - not necessarily a causal link - and he broadens considerably the definition of radical Protestants to include all who were interested in reformation rather than separation from the Church prior to 1640. This serves to connect the basic Merton Thesis with larger moral and political issues. What Hill stresses are close connections between Protestantism, utilitarianism, and belief in progress. JACOB also emphasizes political elements in her approach to 17th-century England and the scientific revolution, claiming that Anglicanism itself requires closer scrutiny as a link between the interests of early Puritan scientists and the new science associated with Newton and the founders of the Royal Society. Reformers within Puritanism had different interests and a correspondingly different agenda - than the radical Puritans, and it was the conservatives among reform-minded Puritans, claims Jacob, who turned out to have been, predominantly, the scientific forerunners of Newton. Merton's lengthy preface to the 1970 edition lamented above all the fact that the question of Protestantism's role in supporting modern science had unfortunately overshadowed other aspects of his work. He had actually devoted more space in the original book to the important roles economic and military interests played in stimulating scientific advance. This same point is emphasized explicitly in an article by ZUCKERMAN, in which she considers at length those parts of Merton's original work that were not concerned with the scienceProtestantism connection. An entire section of Cohen is devoted to "Charles Webster's Analysis of Puritanism and Science", beginning with an appreciation of "Charles Webster on Puritanism and Science" by Harold J. Cook. Cook notes that Webster stresses the social consequences of broadly Puritan reform, rather than the personal responses of various individuals to religious doctrine. Furthermore, he highlights Webster's contention that, while the Puritan revolution certainly influenced English society at large, it was through that revolution (rather than through doctrinal concerns about salvation) that Puritans so significantly influenced the course of English science. WEBSTER (1974) reprints a number of articles that had initially appeared in Past and Present, all devoted to a variety of aspects of the "Merton Thesis", with an overview by Webster. WEBSTER (1976) also focuses on the problem of Puritanism and English science; although he admits that there were both Catholics in England (such as Richard Towneley and Kenelm Digby), as well as radical Protestants (such as

MESMERISM

John Digby, Ralph Cudworth, and John Webster), who contributed to the scientific revolution, his conclusion emphasizes that there is ample evidence to suggest that the entire Puritan movement was conspicuous in its cultivation of the sciences. WESTFALL, while accepting some vague, ill-defined connection between Puritanism and modern science, prefers to see this entire matter in terms of an "atmosphere more conducive to scientific investigation" than one fostered by Protestantism in any of its various forms. Westfall suggests it may simply have been the idea that nature is mechanical, material, or corpuscular that found a more sympathetic hearing among Protestants than Catholics, and that fortunately this approach turned out to be crucial to the success of the scientific revolution. For anyone interested in reading more about Merton and the "Merton Thesis", Merton himself provides a useful guide to the literature on this subject to 1957 in Cohen. Here Merton also wrote a concluding piece, in which he re-emphasized an observation by Cohen that the triad of science, technology and society has become a prime semantic marker of the rapidly growing "social science of science". It is this recognition of the significance of the sociology of science that ultimately makes the Merton Thesis such an influential concept in the history of science, and so important for the on-going study of the origins and nature of the scientific revolution. JOSEPH W.

DAUBEN

See also Religion and Science: Renaissance; Scientific Revolution; Sociology of Science

Mesmerism Crabtree, Adam, From Mesmer to Freud: Magnetic Sleep and the Roots of Psychological Healing, New Haven, Connecticut: Yale University Press, 1993 Darnton, Robert, Mesmerism and the End of the Enlightenment in France, Cambridge, Massachusetts: Harvard University Press, 1968 Ellenberger, H.F., Discovery of the Unconscious: The History and Evolution of Dynamic Psychiatry, London: Allen Lane, and New York: Basic Books, 1970 Ernst, Waltraud, "'Under the Influence' in British India: James Esdaile's Mesmeric Hospital in Calcutta, and Its Critics", Psychological Medicine, 25 (1995): 1113-Z3

Fara, Patricia, "An Attractive Therapy: Animal Magnetism in Eighteenth-Century England", History of Science, 33 (1995): 127-77 Gauld, Alan, A History of Hypnotism, Cambridge and New York: Cambridge University Press, 1992 Miller, Jonathan, "Mesmerism", in Hidden Histories of Science, edited by Robert Silvers, New York: New York Review of Books, 1995; London: Granta, 1997 Palfreman, Jon, "Mesmerism and the English Medical Profession: A Study of a Conflict", Ethics in Science and Medicine, 4 (1977): 51-66 Parssinen, Terry M., "Mesmeric Performers", Victorian Studies, 21 (1977): 87-104

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Parssinen, Terry M., "Professional Deviants and the History of Medicine: Medical Mesmerism in Victorian Britain", in On the Margins of Science: The Social Construction of Rejected Knowledge, edited by Roy Wallis, Keele: University of Keele, 1979, 103-20 Winter, Alison, "Ethereal Epidemic: Mesmerism and the Introduction of Inhalation Anaesthesia to Early Victorian London", Social History of Medicine, 4 (1991): 1-27 Winter, Alison, "Mesmerism and Popular Culture in Early Victorian England", History of Science, 32 (1994): 317-43 Animal magnetism, or mesmerism, the creation of Franz Anton Mesmer (1734-1815), a Viennese physician, was a practice in which an individual was thought to influence another by a variety of personal gestures, sustained eye contact, and the direct influence of the will. Mesmer speculated that imponderable fluids, then thought to control the celestial and inorganic world, also determined the state of living things. He applied magnets to the bodies of patients with the intention of changing the rhythm and quantity of their magnetic fluid, and their "crises" signalled the restoration of health. Mesmer and his work were as controversial as they were popular during his lifetime, and his practice spread rapidly, despite the lack of any consensus on the nature, or even the reality, of the phenomena. By the mid-i9th century, animal magnetism, or "mesmerism" as it was named by sceptics in order to deny the existence of the fluid, was practised and debated in much of Europe, America, and various colonial communities, notably British India. A variety of other practices involving altered states of mind were inspired by, or related to, mesmerism; for example, the surgeon James Braid developed the practice of "hypnotism" in 1842 as an alternative to mesmerism, while the spiritualist movement, and the related practice of "table-turning" - in which vital powers (not muscular effort) were thought to make tables spin under certain conditions - were direct descendants of mesmerism. Furthermore, mesmerism and hypnotism played a critical role in the development of psychoanalysis at the end of the 19th century. The importance of mesmerism to so many different scientific and medical enterprises was both a cause and a result of the difficulties involved in its classification. Was it therapeutic or pathological, natural or supernatural, a branch of physics, psychology, parapsychology, psychiatry, chemistry, or physiology? Diverse histories have given mesmerism a role in each practice and discipline, playing various features up or down according to the sympathies of the author. Questions of validity have also loomed as large within historical accounts as they did for the practitioners themselves: were the practitioners trustworthy natural philosophers and doctors, or charlatans and quacks; were the phenomena real or fraudulent; and if they were real, what was their cause? There are, broadly speaking, two approaches to the history of mesmerism; the first treats it as an earlier form of a body of doctrine recognizable today (such as psychical research, psychoanalysis, or cognitive psychiatry), while the second treats the practice and its phenomena as an expression of, or a stimulus to, the culture of the period. Disciplinary histories of mesmerism follow its travails through different periods and countries, isolating it (to varying

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degrees) from each local situation, rather than looking intently at a particular context and its cultural significance at any particular place and time. Mesmerism often gets at least a walkon part in the history of psychiatry and psychoanalysis, not least because of the eerie similarities between the two pivotal men two controversial "wizards" purveying radical accounts of the human rnind, who rose to prominence in Vienna at the end of their respective centuries. In short, Mesmer can appear to be a prior incarnation of Freud, or, at the very least, the 18thcentury healer can be shown to have begun investigations into the unconscious that were consummated by his 19th-century counterpart. These associations are exploited in ELLENBERGER's classic history of psychiatry and the unconscious, and in CRABTREE's scholarly portrayal of mesmerism as an embryonic form of modern psychological healing. In addition to psychiatry, other modern sciences of the mind can look to mesmerism as their ancestor; GAULD's massive study, the most empirically detailed source on the subject to date, is framed, in part, as a disciplinary history of hypnotism, while Jonathan MILLER argues that mesmeric phenomena display hitherto unrecognized components of modern cognitive psychology. The second category of literature explores the cultural significance of mesmerism. DARNTON opened up the history of mesmerism as appropriate to cultural and social history by examining Mesmer's practice within the context of lateEnlightenment and revolutionary intellectual movements in Erance. After the Revolution, mesmerism's career continued, and EARA reconstructs the activity of mesmerists on both sides of the Channel. This is one of the most detailed and informative accounts yet available of mesmerism in the late i8th century, particularly for England. Studies of mesmerism in the Victorian period have often used the phenomenon as a means of testing the boundaries of legitimacy in the culture, or conversely, as a window on to other aspects of Victorian society. Studies of the relationship between orthodox and marginal intellectual communities, such as PALEREMAN's social history and PARSSINEN (1979), the latter adapting the sociology of knowledge to his own social history, use mesmerism as a case in point in distinguishing between "fringe" and "orthodox" medicine in early Victorian England, while WINTER (1991) argues that the distinction between what was proper and improper to medicine was not so easy to make during this period. ERNST's study of mesmerism in India argues that mesmerism failed as a medical technique administered to white patients by Indian practitioners because of discomfort at the necessary interracial contact. Other studies have used mesmerism to explore aspects of Victorian culture; WINTER (1994) examines how people used altered states in order to make polemical characterizations of "popular culture" and "the common people", and PARSSINEN (1977) uses mesmerism to understand Victorian itinerant lecturing activity. ALISON WINTER

See also Magnetism; Quackery; Spiritualism

Metallurgy Aitchison, Leslie, A History of Metals, 2 vols, London: MacDonald and Evans, and New York: Interscience, i960 Allan, James W., Persian Metal Technology, joo-1300 AD, Oxford: Ithaca Press, 1979 Ashton, Thomas Southcliffe, Iron and Steel in the Industrial Revolution, Manchester: Manchester University Press, 1924; New York: Kelley, 1968 Beck, Ludwig, Die Geschichte des Eisens in technischer und kulturgeschichtlicher Beziehung, 5 vols, Braunschweig: Vieweg, 1884-1903 Chakrabarti, Dilip K., The Early Use of Iron in India, Delhi: Oxford University Press, 1992. Craig, Alan K. and Robert C. West (eds). In Quest of Mineral Wealth: Aboriginal and Colonial Mining in Spanish America, Baton Rouge: Louisiana State University Geoscience Publications, 1994 Eorbes, R.J., Metallurgy in Antiquity: A Notebook for Archaeologists and Technologists, Leiden: E.J. Brill, 1950 Gille, Bertrand, Les Origines de la grande industrie metallurgique en France, Paris: Domat Montchrestien, 1947 Johannsen, Otto, Geschichte des Eisens, Diisseldorf: Stahleisen, 1924 Oddy, W.A. and W. Zwalf, Aspects of Tibetan Metallurgy, London: British Museum, 1981 Percy, John, Metallurgy: The Art of Extracting Metal from Their Ores, and Adapting them to Various Purposes of Manufacture, 3 vols, London: John Murray, 1861-70 Rostoker, William and Bennet Bronson, Pre-Industriat Iron: Its Technology and Ethnology, Philadelphia: privately published, 1990 Smith, Cyril Stanley, A History of Metallography: The Development of Ideas on the Structure of Metals before 1S90, Chicago: University of Chicago Press, i960 Smith, Cyril Stanley (ed.). Sources for the History of the Science of Steel, 1532-1786, Cambridge, Massachusetts: MIT Press, 1968 Tylecote, R.E., A History of Metallurgy, London: Metals Society, 1976; znd edition, London: Institute of Materials, 199Z

Wagner, Donald B., Iron and Steel in Ancient China, Leiden: E.J. Brill, 1993 Wertime, Theodore A., The Coming of the Age of Steel, Chicago: Chicago University Press, 1962 There is not a great deal of literature that deals specifically with the history of metallurgy as a science, but there is a fair amount on metallurgy as technology, and, because of the dominant role of iron and steel, much has been written on the sub-field of ferrous metallurgy. Most of the general historical literature focuses on Europe. A number of monographs on metallurgy in China, Persia, Tibet, India, and Spanish America are included here to make up for the inevitable Eurocentrism. SMITH is the most important author on metallurgy as a science. His i960 general history outlines some important developments in metallurgical technology and the attempts at their explanation by 17th-century natural philosophers, then

demonstrates the suhsequent change especially with the introduction of crystallographic ideas and techniques in the 19th century. WERTIME is primarily an internalist history of technology touching also on developments in the science of ferrous metallurgy. SMITH has also commissioned and edited translations of major primary sources for the history of the science of metallurgy. The most important one is his 1968 collection of scientific texts (as opposed to furnace design or the invention of new heavy machinery) between 1532 and 1786. The authors translated are: an anonymous German 16th-century author, Vannoccio Biringuccio, Giovanni Battista della Porta, Methurin Jousse, Rene Antoine Ferchault de Reaumur, Johann Andreas Cramer, Pierre Clement Grignon, Torbern Bergman, Louis Bernard Guyton de Morveau, and the joint authors Charles Auguste Vandermonde, Claude Louis Berthollet, and Gaspard Monge. The above texts by no means do justice to the huge Held of the science of ferrous metallurgy. For example, 18th-century Swedes, such as Sven Rinman and Torbern Bergman, discovered the important role of carbon in iron alloys and this has not yet been studied by an historian with knowledge of the Swedish language. And the 20th-century elucidation of the physics of the quench-hardening of steel has hardly been studied at all. These two examples are covered only very briefly in Smith (i960) and Wertime. By contrast, the (European) history of metallurgical technology is so abundant that only a few works can be mentioned here. The best have been written by working engineers such as Percy, Aitchison, Tylecote, Beck, and Johannsen, no doubt because the subject makes heavy demands on the technical understanding of its historians. PERCY, a physician turned metallurgist, was an admirable Victorian polymath, who knew as much chemistry as one could know in his time, was friendly with the leading English metallurgists, corresponded with scientists, engineers, and businessmen around the world, and drew on a wide variety of publications in English, Latin, French, and German. He made great efforts to cover the history of every aspect of the subject, and his book, though intended as a technical treatise, can still be read with profit as a general history of metallurgy. AITCHISON is a well-written and superbly illustrated history from pre-historic to modern times, and is perhaps the best of a large number of "Whig" histories of metallurgy. As he writes, his book "is a typical success story, following the common sequence of humble beginnings, of growth to wealth, power and influence, and culminating in the acquisition of an almost unquestioned supremacy among the materials used by man". (This was written in i960, before the plastic age.) TYLECOTE is an encyclopedic history from the Neolithic period to 1950, which contains a lot of technical detail. It is the textbook on the subject for archaeologists, and is useful r,i for anyone who needs a serious technical history. FORBES is probably the best writer on metallurgy of ancient Greece and Rome. He deals with a great deal of archaeological material, but advances in archaelogical methodology as well as new excavations make this part of his book rather dated. Readers should also be aware that its very full biblio-

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graphy contains numerous typographical errors that make it difficult or impossible to find some of its references. There is no history of metallurgy that works within the more sociologically oriented conceptual framework now commonly practised in academic departments of the history of technology, but scattered articles on various metallurgical topics can be found in such journals as Technology and Culture and Technikgeschichte. The literature on ferrous metallurgical technology is especially rich. Beck and Johannsen are the classics of this specialization, giving great detail on all technical aspects. For earlier periods they are now out of date, but they remain valuable for medieval and later developments. BECK is the more ambitious of the two. In five large volumes it covers antiquity and Middle Ages, the i6th and 17th centuries, the i8th century, 1801-60, and 1860-1900. Each volume contains much on the development of technologies while also referring to the acquisition of raw materials and trade. The 1801-60 volume in particular emphasizes scientific developments. Each volume has a separate section describing the developments peculiar to particular regions, especially of the main European nation states. JOHANNSEN is much shorter, only 240 pages, and it deals with the technology of ferrous metallurgy only. But it covers the same time span as Beck. ROSTOKER & BRONSON places the technological aspects of ferrous metallurgy in a broader historical context. It is a kind of textbook of ferrous metallurgy, written by an engineer and an anthropologist, and it also applies the technical insights gained to questions of ethnology and economic history. Unfortunately it is marred by numerous minor errors of fact, both technical and historical. There are two classic economic histories of metallurgical industry that take the technology seriously: Ashton on Britain and Gille on France. ASHTON covers events and personalities in 18th-century Britain, detailing business structures, mechanical, and chemical processes, and the discovery of new sources of raw material and the expansion of markets. GILLE describes the generation of large-scale industry in the period from 1661 to 1789. He first discusses Jean-Baptiste Colbert, Louis XIV's controller general of finance, and his role in the development of the French economy. He then analyses the geographical-physical, technical, commercial, financial, and social conditions of French metallurgical development. Finally he details the concentration of industry culminating in largescale factories. Eurocentricity is a characteristic of most of the works discussed above. A list of some useful histories relating specifically to other parts of the world may remedy this to some extent: WAGNER on China, which also contains references to the fairly voluminous literature on the history of Chinese metallurgy; ALLAN on Persia; ODDY &c ZWALF on Tibet; CHAKRABARTI on India; and finally CRAIG &; WEST on pre-Columbian and colonial Spanish America. DONALD B. WAGNER

See also Materials Science

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Metaphor Bloor, David, Knowledge and Social Imagery, London and Boston: Routledge and Kegan Paul, 1976; 2nd edition, Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1991 Hannaway, Owen, Chemists and the Word: The Didactic Origins of Chemistry, Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press, 1975 Haraway, Donna, Crystals, Fabrics, and Fields: Metaphors of Organicism in Twentieth-Century Developmental Biology, New Haven, Connecticut: Yale University Press, 1976 Johnson, Mark (ed.). Philosophical Perspectives on Metaphor, Minneapolis: University of Minnesota Press, 1981 Keller, Evelyn Fox, Secrets of Life, Secrets of Death: Essays on Language, Gender, and Science, New York: Routledge, 1992 Leatherdale, W.H., The Role of Analogy, Model and Metaphor in Science, Amsterdam: North-Holland, and New York: Elsevier, 1974 Mirowski, Philip, More Heat Than Light: Economics as Social Physics; Physics as Nature's Economics, Cambridge and New York: Cambridge University Press, 1989 According to the positivist image, ideal scientific theories are axiomatic, mathematical structures that summarize and unify phenomena. Within this picture, there is usually no real place for metaphors; they are viewed as rhetorical flourishes or, sometimes, as aids to discovery, but they are never essential to the cognitive content of theories. LEATHERDALE is a summary and elaboration of philosophical criticisms of the positivist view of metaphor in science. It includes a careful survey of arguments for and against the importance of metaphor put forward in the 1950s and 1960s, by, among others, Mary Hesse, Max Black, Stephen Toulmin, Peter Achinstein, Rom Harre, Mario Bunge, and E.H Hutton. For example, one chapter explores the debate over the importance of theoretical models, closely related to metaphors. Leatherdale sees philosophers as fundamentally divided on this issue: Hesse, Black, and others argue that models provide essential cognitive content to scientific theories, making those theories usable, fruitful, and representational, while philosophers such as Bunge and Pierre Duhem regard mathematical formalisms as completing the scientific project. Although the book is constrained by its conservative picture of science, it is useful for its systematic treatment of these issues, providing extensive lists of positions on, and possibilities for, the importance of metaphor in science. JOHNSON is not primarily about science, but it is an excellent collection of philosophical perspectives on metaphor. Although the book is no longer fully up to date, it includes chapters representing the main positions on how and why metaphors are meaningful, and how they work cognitively or linguistically, including chapters by Max Black, Donald Davidson, John Searle, and George Lakoff and Mark Johnson. One strong position on the relation of metaphor to science is that of BLOOR, which argues that scientific knowledge always reflects, in a number of senses, the social organization in which it is embedded. Most thoroughly explored is the claim, following Emile Durkheim and Mary Douglas, that images of the structure and status of knowledge are metaphors for

society. However, this is taken only as a first step in the sociology of science, as can be seen most clearly in the "strong programme" in the sociology of science that has drawn on Bloor, and in the work of those who take scientific knowledge itself to be a metaphor for the society that creates it. Unlike Leatherdale, which argues that scientists use metaphors productively, the strong programme argues that science is essentially metaphorical. A huge number of works in the history of science discuss particular metaphors. The following are a few examples, dealing with very different sciences that explicitly and prominently address metaphor, and thus add something to our understanding of the use of metaphor in science. MIROWSKI puts the study of metaphor to use in a critique of the theory of value in economics. Neo-classical economics appropriated, quite directly, the formalisms of the contemporary physics of energy (which had in its turn reflected some popular economic mores), resulting in a metaphorical connection between energy and value. Nineteenth-century physics, therefore, shaped much 20th-century economic research, in ways and directions of which the researchers have been largely unaware. That lack of awareness, Mirowski argues, has contributed to confusions, both because economists have not accepted the consequences of their metaphors, and because they have been unable to see the alternatives. Mirowski suggests, then, that economists examine new metaphors or models of value, some of which might lead to new solutions to long-standing problems. HARAWAY also uses the study of metaphors in a constructive critique, attempting to revive a form of non-reductionism in biology. Following the work of Mary Hesse in arguing that metaphors are necessary to science because of their fertility, the book explores whether such a position can fit with a Kuhnian model of science, in which fertile metaphors are one component of paradigms. Haraway then studies the effects of a set of metaphors connected with organicism, an anti-reductionist position, on developmental biology. By looking at the work of three important and interesting 20th-century figures, she argues that the metaphors of organicism - crystals, fabrics, and fields - provide some consistent directions of thought and work, and thus might be thought of as contributing to a loosely structured paradigm. The paradigm may, though, be too loosely structured to be successful or analytically useful. Haraway's more recent work continues to focus on metaphors in biology, particularly on metaphorical relations between biological images and popular understandings of race, class, and gender. The uses and effects of figurative scientific language are the focus of almost all of the essays in KELLER, which range widely over such topics as population genetics, the "competition" metaphor in ecology, and the Manhattan Project. The title essay juxtaposes Watson and Crick's assault on the "secret of life" and commonly-used metaphors of paternity, in descriptions of physicists who worked on the atomic bomb. The metaphors - some of them embedded in actions, rather than being wholly linguistic - surrounding these different secrets can be regarded through the lens of gender, which greatly affects the symbolic politics of life and reproduction. HANNAWAY elucidates the beginnings of chemistry in a contrast between two readings of the metaphor of the "Book of Nature"; one by a Paracelsian physician, Oswald Croll, and

METEOROLOGICAL INSTRUMENTS

the Other by a humanist schoolteacher, Andreas Libavius. Libavius's Alchemia (1597) was a key source of chemical knowledge in the 17th century, and a model on which later chemistry text books were patterned. Reading the "Book of Nature" was not the only issue concerning metaphors over which Libavius and Croll disagreed, because the root of that conflict was the nature of language itself. The Paracelsian Croll saw power in the search for the Word of Creation, the true language whose metaphors would - with study - reveal nature's secrets. For Libavius, the Word was lost forever, and knowledge could stem only from the organization and use of literal languages. Thus Hannaway describes an important period in the de-figuralization of scientific language. SERGIO SISMONDO

See also Rhetoric

Meteorological Instruments Abbe, Cleveland, Treatise on Meteorological Apparatus and Methods, Washington, DC: Government Printing Office, 1888 Bolton, Henry Carrington, Evolution of the Thermometer, 1592-1743, Easton, Philadelphia: Chemical Publishing, 1900

Brush, Stephen G. and Helmut E. Landsberg, with Martin Collins, The History of Geophysics and Meteorology: An Annotated Bibliography, New York: Garland, 1985 Burkhardt, R, "Die Erfindung des Thermometers und seine Gestaltung im XVU. Jahrhundert", Bericht des Pddagogiums, Basel, 1867 Burkhardt, R, "Die wichtigsten Thermometer des achtzehnten Jahrhunderts", Bericht der Gewerbeschule zu Basel, 1871,

De Waard, Cornelis, L'Experience barometrique: Ses antecedents et ses explications, Thouars: Imprimerie Nouvelle, 1936 Fleming, James Rodger, Meteorology in America, i8oo-i8jo, Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press, 1990 Friedman, Robert Marc, Appropriating the Weather: Vilhelm Bjerknes and the Construction of a Modern Meteorology, Ithaca, New York: Cornell University Press, 1989 Goodison, Nicholas, English Barometers, 1680-1860: A History of Domestic Barometers and Their Makers, New York: Potter, 1968; revised edition, Woodbridge, Suffolk: Antique Collectors' Club, 1977 Meteorological Office of Great Britain, Handbook of Meteorological Instruments: Part II, London: HMSO, 1961 Middleton, W.R. Knowles, "The Early History of Hygrometry, and the Controversy Between de Saussure and de Luc", Quarterly Journal of the Royal Meteorological Society, 68 (1942): 247-61 Middleton, W.E. Knowles and Athelstan F. Spilhaus, Meteorological Instruments, 3rd edition, Toronto: University of Toronto Press, 1953 Middleton, W.E. Knowles, The History of the Barometer, Baltimore: Johns Hopkins Press, 1964

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Middleton, W.E. Knowles, A History of the Thermometer and Its Use in Meteorology, Baltimore: Johns Hopkins Press, 1966 Middleton, W.E. Knowles, Invention of the Meteorological Instruments, Baltimore: Johns Hopkins Press, 1969 Middleton, W.E. Knowles, The Experimenters: A Study of the Accademia del Cimento, Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press, 1971 Multhauf, Robert P. "The Introduction of Self-Registering Meteorological Instruments", US National Museum (Smithsonian Institution) Bulletin 228, Contributions from the Museum of History and Technology, Paper 23 (1961): 95-106 Patterson, Louise Diehl, "Thermometers of the Royal Society, i66^-i';6S", American Journal of Physics, 19 (1951): 52.3-35 Patterson, Louise Diehl, "The Royal Society's Standard Thermometer 1663-1709", Isis, 44 (1953): 51-64 Shapin, Steven and Simon Schaffer, Leviathan and the AirPump: Hobbes, Boyle, and the Experimental Life, Princeton, New Jersey: Princeton University Press, 1985; revised edition 1989 Taylor, R Sherwood, "The Origin of the Thermometer", Annals of Science, 5 (1942): 129-56 The history of meteorology has been divided into three periods: a speculative period from antiquity through the Renaissance; an empirical period, dating from the introduction of classical meteorological instruments, and ending some time between 1800 and 1920; and the final period, when meteorology, although tainted (as it were) by its prognostic end, attained some pretence to being an exact science. The history of meteorological instruments is intimately linked to this evolution. The first period is characterized as virtually instrumentfree, in the sense that the instruments that were to become important in the later history of meteorology, such as the barometer and the thermometer, were employed for entirely different purposes. The second period is defined entirely by the instruments, which is clearly reflected in the histories. Modern meteorology, in contrast, is theory driven, and, consequently, discussion of instrumentation in the third period is sparse. A fairly comprehensive bibliography of meteorology and meteorological instruments can be found in BRUSH &c LANDSBERG, which reveals also the nationalistic bent of many of the histories. Serious historical accounts began toward the end of the 19th century in a number of European sources, but these rarely rose above the merely descriptive. BURKHARDT (1867 and 1871), for instance, briefly described the discovery of the thermometer and its development in the 17th century. ABBE, although not an explicit history, contains descriptions of a great variety of instrumentation, and thus remains a valuable source. BOLTON's history of the thermometer also focuses on descriptions of the development of the instrument itself. This antiquarian and positivistic genre has continued into the 20th century; GOODISON, for instance, provides vivid descriptions of many barometers, but in the complex descriptions surrounding the derivation of each apparatus, the history is lost. Within the English-language literature of the 20th century, Middleton defines the field. A prolific writer, this meteorologist/

476

METEOROLOGICAL INSTRUMENTS

historian has an extensive body of work, from practical handbooks and historical articles in the 1940s and 1950s, followed by a comprehensive series of synoptic histories of instruments and early theoretical thought in the 1960s, to the study of early scientific academies in the 1970s. Following the positivistic genre at the onset, he developed a sympathy for earher scientific belief systems, and matured into a scholar with an interest in the patronage and social interaction of early modern practitioners. His research is comprehensive, in terms of both secondary and primary sources. What little had been written in the field of meteorological instruments is synthesized in his corpus. MIDDLETON & SPILHAUS begins its explication of the instruments with historical notes, and provides some information on 20th-century instruments in addition to information on earlier items. MIDDLETON (1964) is an invaluable and comprehensive history of the development of the barometer. It includes an historiographical analysis of the several debates surrounding the early history of the instrument, provides a summary of primary sources, and clarifies the arguments found elsewhere in the literature. MIDDLETON (1966) is narrow in scope, but it does consider the impact of the thermometer on a multitude of fields, and there is a good discussion of the conceptual shift from subjective to objective temperature. Middleton draws on much of the earlier, rather positivistic, secondary literature and his account is a great improvement on them. MIDDLETON (1969) is the major survey of the field; recapping the works on the barometer and thermometer, it proceeds to discuss most of the major instruments, and also a few minor ones, from antiquity to World War II. MIDDLETON (1971) is a study of Italy's first scientific academy, the birthplace of the thermoscope and the baroscope, and contains translations of some of the academicians' publications, placing them within their institutional, political, and intellectual contexts. Aside from Middleton's work, the bibliography on meteorological instruments is sparse, and serious analysis even more so. The primary sources on early instruments are found in correspondence and reports, such as those from the Transactions of the Royal Society. They can also be found littered among the encyclopedic publications of several of the great lights of the 17th century {e.g. Hooke, Boyle, Pascal), but here the footnotes of secondary works provide the best guidance. One is almost better served with a synopsis from Middleton. The most extensive work in the field concerns instruments the significance of which stretches far beyond the field namely, the barometer and the thermometer. The history of the barometer is an important chapter in the history of the scientific revolution: the instrument itself was developed not to measure air pressure, but rather as a demonstration brought to the fore in the controversy over the existence of the vacuum, and nearly every general work on the period makes some mention of the Toricellian experiment. Middleton (1969, Invention of the Meteorological Instruments) is a good source here, while De WAARD, one of Middleton's key sources on the early history, places the barometric experiment within its philosophical context. SHAPIN &c SCHAFFER's discussion of the role of experiment in the 17th century centers on the vacuum pump; while their account is clearly important on the one hand for an understanding of the barometer, on the other

hand, it is this kind of sociological analysis that promises to unravel the period of instrument invention later to become central to meteorology. With this kind of remit in mind, PATTERSON'S work on the Royal Society is highly relevant, as it contains an interesting analysis of the collective process by which quantitative scales and physical standards came to be generally adopted. The shift away from qualitative concepts of heat and cold, as represented by the thermometer, encapsulates the crucial shift of science toward number. However, much of the literature on the thermometer is impoverished, as it is obsessed with priority in the case of two central inventions. The first area of controversy, covered in TAYLOR and Middleton (1969), is over the invention of the modern thermoscope (non-quantitative thermometer), often attributed to Galileo. The second controversy concerns the final development of the Celsius scale. Many accounts of early thermometry betray the nationalistic bent of the historians. Recent instruments remain for the most part unanalyzed, and technical works are often the only sources of information. For example, along with practical instruction, the METEOROLOGICAL OFFICE OF GREAT BRITAIN offers a brief chronology of instruments up to the 1950s. There remains much to be done in the field, particularly as the progress of certain instruments may prove to be telling indexes of social and cultural change. So far, the best accounts of how instrumentation and instrumental practice form a part of a larger social, political, and economic context can be found in histories of national meteorological programs: FLEMING is a good example, analyzing instrumental practice in 19thcentury America, and examining the use of the telegraph; MULTHAUF relates the history of self-registering instruments, from their invention in the early-modern period to their adoption in organized institutional settings in the late 19th century; while the process by which economic and military necessity can interact with a theoretical program, through the mutually dependent rise of aviation, international observation, and thermodynamic upper-air modelling during and after World War I, is described in FRIEDMAN. There is still much room for the discussion of meteorological instruments in their social and cultural contexts. BRANT VOGEL

See also Meteorology; Scientific Instruments: general works; Telegraphy

Meteorology Fleming, James Rodger, Meteorology in America, i8oo-i8jo, Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press, 1990 Friedman, Robert Marc, Appropriating the Weather: Vilhelm Bjerknes and the Construction of a Modern Meteorology, Ithaca, New York: Cornell University Press, 1989 Frisinger, H. Howard, The History of Meteorology to 1800, New York: Science History Publications, 1977 Heninger, S.K., A Handbook of Renaissance Meteorology, Durham, North Carolina: Duke University Press, i960 Khrgian, A. Kh., Meteorology: A Historical Survey, vol. i, revised edition, translated from the Russian by Ron

METROLOGY

Harden, Jerusalem: Israel Program for Scientific Translation, 1970 Kutzbach, Gisela, The Thermal Theory of Cyclones: A History of Meteorological Thought in the Nineteenth Century, Boston: American Meteorological Society, 1979 Middleton, William E. Knowles, A History of the Theories of Rain and Other Forms of Precipitation, London: Oldbourne, 1965; New York: Watts, 1966 Shaw, William Napier, Manual of Meteorology, vol i: Meteorology in History, Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1926 Spence, Clark C, The Rainmakers: American "Pluviculture" to World War II, Lincoln: University of Nebraska Press, 1980 Thomas, Morley, The Beginnings of Canadian Meteorology, Toronto: ECW Press, 1991 Meteorology lacks a rich historiography, a misfortune for which there are two possible reasons. First, until perhaps the advent of computers, chaos theory and fears of global warming, meteorology demonstrated little of the charisma and conspicuous progress that attracted an earlier generation of historians, and historical accounts written by meteorologists remained buried in specialist journals. Second, the term's contemporary meaning fails dismally to encompass its historical one; until the 19th century, meteorology referred broadly to phenomena of the air, including much that now falls under the guise of astronomy or geology, such as meteors and aurorae. More than most subjects, then, meteorology has historical boundaries that remain ill-defined and problematic in relation to the present discipline. There are several surveys, most of which require some caution from a reader. FRISINGER's history, part of the historical monograph series of the American Meteorological Society, is widely accessible but of a length that allows for little more than chronology. Frisinger divides the subjects into three periods, and deals with the first two: the period of "speculation" dominated by Aristotle; the "dawn of scientific meteorology" in the 17th and i8th centuries; and, from the 19th century on, the coming of "meteorology as a physical science". Frisinger's emphasis is on the development of measurement, on which the advances of meteorology depend. KHRGIAN can be difficult to locate, but contains information on eastern Europe and Scandinavia that cannot be found elsewhere in the literature: for example, accounts of weather information networks in Siberia in the i8th century. The narrative also suffers in parts from a breathless chronology, but at its best is far more comprehensive and suggestive than Frisinger. The chapters on climatology are a case in point, as is the brief discussion of medical ideas about climate. Carrying his account through to the 20th century, Khrgian covers institutional developments in Europe from the i8th century onwards, as well as providing a standard treatment of meteorological concepts and instruments. A third and idiosyncratic survey, written at the end of World War I, comes from the early 20th-century head of the British meteorological office. William Napier SHAW was keenly interested in raising the profile of meteorology as a physical science, and distanced himself from both the practical applications and

477

the pre-modern conceptions of the subject. Like Frisinger, his is ultimately an account of the triumph of exact measurement. HENINGER was designed in part to serve students of Elizabethan literature, and remains an invaluable resource for those interested in this period, not least because of its bibliography and appendix of authors. Heninger integrates folkloric, literary and scriptural treatments with the natural philosophy of the period, still dominated by Aristotle's Meteorologica. The rich picture of meteorological knowledge that emerges is an interesting contrast to the surveys mentioned above. MIDDLETON has produced another type of survey, following the development of a concept. His definition of "precipitation" is wide, however, (including winds and water vapours), so that the history is more comprehensive than its title might indicate. Middleton provides a context for meteorological thought, and links speculation to other philosophical debates, such as the influence of chemical and electrical theories on ideas about rain in the i8th century. This more concentrated approach also allows Middleton to discuss some practitioners, iii contrast to the other somewhat disembodied surveys. The best of the more detailed surveys is undoubtedly FRIEDMAN, which is both more and less than a biography. Concentrating on the career of Vilhelm Bjerknes (1862-1951), and the development of physical dynamic models of the atmosphere in the first quarter of the 20th century, Friedman details Bjerknes's struggle to further both the peripheral position of meteorology and his own position as a scientist in Scandinavia. The influence of World War I is brilliantly explored. For those interested in further discussion of the development of storm theory, prior to the work of Bjerknes's Bergen school, KUTZBACH offers the 19th-century history in a scholarly account in the internalist tradition. There are three studies of meteorology in North America. FLEMING also covers the 19th-century storm theory debates, yet his account of the extensive and varied meteorological networks in the United States demonstrates how awkwardly theoretical concerns were placed in the work of organizations whose appeal and justification was practical forecasting. THOMAS supplies a pioneering account of meteorological services in Canada, covering the half-century following the foundation of the Toronto Magnetic and Meteorological Observatory in 1839. This study, based principally on the archives of the Toronto Observatory, sketches the personalities, observation programs, and institutional development of Canada's central observatory. SPENCE integrates discussions of advertising, public swindles, and ecological change into his history of experiments with rainmaking in the drought-ridden American West of the late 19th and early 20th centuries. KATHARINE ANDERSON

See also Environmental Sciences; Meteorological Instruments

Metrology Boudia, Soraya and Xavier Roque (guest eds), "Science, Medicine, and Industry: The Curie and Joliot-Curie Laboratories" (special issue). History and Technology, 13 (1997): 241-343

478

METROLOGY

Cahan, David, An Institute for an Empire: The PhysikalischTechnische Reichsanstalt, i8ji~i) Coreil, J., Innovation Among Haitian Healers, 729 Corliss, William R., Scientific Satellites, 698 Cornell, James, First Stargazers, 50 Corner, George W, History of the Rockefeller Institute, 138 Corry, Leo, David Hilbert and the Axiomatization of Physics, 338 Corry, Leo, Modern Algebra and the Rise of Mathematical Structures, 25, 445 Corsi, Pietro, Storia delle Scienze 4, 129 Cosminsky, Sheila, Traditional Medicine, 15 Costantini, Claudio, Baliani e i Gesuiti, 388 Cotter, Charles Henry, History of the Navigator's Sextant, 507 Cottingham, John, Cambridge Companion to Descartes, 173 Cotton, Eugenie, Curies, 159 Coulter, Harris L., Divided Legacy, 346 Court, Thomas H., History of the Microscope, 481 Cowan, Ruth, Francis Galton's Contribution to Genetics, 277 Cowan, Ruth, Francis Galton's Statistical Ideas, 277 Cowan, Ruth, More Work for Mother, 200, 767, 769 Cowan, Ruth, Nature and Nurture, 277 Cowen, David L., Pharmacy, 559 Cox-Maksimov, Desiree C , Making of the Clinical Trial in Britain, 139 Coyac, J., Gay Lussac, 282 Crabtree, Adam, From Mesmer to Freud, 471 Craig, Alan K., In Quest of Mineral Wealth, 472Craig, Gordon Y., James Hutton's Theory of the Earth, 362 Cramer, Jacqueline, Mission-Orientation in Ecology, 190 Cranefield, Paul F., Organic Physics of 1847 and the Biophysics of Today, 571 Crary, Jonathan, Techniques of the Observer, 674> 750 Cravens, Hamilton, Before Head Start, 680 Cravens, Hamilton, Establishing the Science of Nutrition at the USDA, 345 Crawford, Catherine, Legal Medicine in History, 261 Crawford, Catherine, Scientific Profession, 261 Crawford, Elisabeth, Arrhenius, 711 Crawford, Elisabeth, Beginnings of the Nobel Institution, 516, 711 Crawford, Elisabeth, Denationalizing Science, 381 Crawford, Elisabeth, Nationalism and Internationalism in Science, 381 Crawford, Elisabeth, Nobel Population 7, 516

Crawford, Elisabeth, Prizes in Physics and Chemistry in the Context of Swedish Science, 516 Creighton, Charles, History of Epidemics in Britain from AD 644 to the Present Time, 224 Creighton, Charles, History of Epidemics in Britain, 223 Crick, Francis, What Mad Pursuit, 179 Crimp, Douglas, AIDS, 22 Crissey, John Thorne, Dermatology and Syphitology of the Nineteenth Century, 457 Croarken, Mary, Early Scientific Computing in Britain, 146 Croizier, Ralph C , Traditional Medicine in Modern China, 135 Croker, Robert A., Pioneer Ecologist, 190 Crombie, A.C, Augustine to Galileo, 463 Crombie, A.C, Robert Grosseteste and the Origins of Experimental Science, 246 Crombie, A.C, Science, Optics and Music in Medieval and Early Modern Thought, 491 Crombie, A.C, Styles of Scientific Thinking in the European Tradition, 229, 467, 500 Crone, G.R., Maps and Their Makers, 121 Cronon, William, Nature's Metropolis, 478 Cronon, William, Uncommon Ground, 505 Crook, Ronald E., Bibliography of Joseph Priestley, 594 Crosby, Alfred W., Ecological Imperialism, 2-94, 505 Crosland, Maurice P., Lavoisier's Theory of Acidity, 407 Crosland, Maurice P., Gay-Lussac, 282 Crosland, Maurice P., Historical Studies in the Language of Chemistry, 407 Crosland, Maurice P., History of Science in a National Context, 500 Crosland, Maurice P., In the Shadow of Lavoisier, 129, 389 Crosland, Maurice P., Science under Control, I. 693 Crosland, Maurice P., Society of Arcueil, 74, 282 Crowcroft, Peter, Elton's Ecologists, 190 Crowe, Michael J., Extraterrestrial Life Debate, 336 Crowe, Michael J., History of Vector Analysis, 25 Crowe, Michael J., Modern Theories of the Universe, 153, 336 Crowther, J.G., British Scientists of the Twentieth Century, 725 Crowther, J.G., Cavendish Laboratory 1874-1974, 517, 725 Crowther, M. Anne, On Soul and Conscience, 261

Crump, Thomas, Anthropology of Numbers, 227 Cueto, Marcos, Missionaries of Science, 655 Cueto, Marcos, Saberes andinos, 405

DAY

BOOKLIST INDEX Cullen, Christopher, Astronomy and Mathematics in Ancient China, 50, 133 Cullen, M.J., Statistical Movement in Early Victorian Britain, 706 Cummins, Lyle S., Tuberculosis in History, 731 Cunningham, Andrew, Anatomical Renaissance, 745 Cunningham, Andrew, Laboratory Revolution in Medicine, 34, 571 Cunningham, Andrew, Medicine and the Reformation, 645 Cunningham, Andrew, Medicine to Calm the Mind, 90 Cunningham, Andrew, Romanticism and the Sciences, 300, 656 Cunningham, Andrew, Science and Culture of Nutrition, 1S40-1940, 512 Cunningham, Andrew, Transforming Plague, 66 Cunnison, Ian, Essays in Sudan Ethnography presented to Sir Edward Evans-Pritchard, Curd, Martin Vincent, Ludwig Boltzmann's Philosophy of Science, 94 Curie, Eve, Madame Curie, 159, 766 Curie, Marie, Pierre Curie, 159 Curry, Patrick, Confusion of Prophets, 46 Curry, Patrick, Astrology, Science and Society, 46 Curry, Patrick, Prophecy and Power, 46 Curti, Merle, Human Nature in American Thought, 353 Curtin, Philip D., Disease and Empire, 15 Curtis, Charles P., Oppenheimer Case, 532 Curtze, Maximilian, Nicotaus Coppernicus, 151

Cushing, James T , Quantum Mechanics, 617 Cushing, James T , Theory Construction and Selection in Modern Physics, 177 Cuvier, J.L.N.F., Eloge historique de M. le Comte Berthollet, 74 Czuber, Emanuel, Theorie der Beobachtungsfehler, 225 Daeron, Marc, Immunite, cent ans apres Pasteur, 369 Dagognet, Francois, Etienne-jules Marey,4'}6, 569 Dagognet, Francois, Methodes et doctrines dans I'oeuvre de Pasteur, 549 D'Agostino, Salvo, Boltzmann and Hertz on the BILD-Conception of Physical Theory, 94 Dahan Dalmedico, Amy, Formation polytechnicienne, j 794-1994, 189 Dahan Dalmedico, Amy, Idees nouvelles de Poincare, 580 Dahl, Per Fridtjof, Ludvig A. Colding and the Conservation of Energy, 210 Dahl, Per Fridtjof, Superconductivity, 157 Dainville, Fran(jois de. Education des Jesuites, 388 Dale, Andrew 1., History of Inverse Probability, 596

Dales, Richard C , Medieval Discussions of the Eternity of the World, 643 Dally, Ann, Women under the Knife, 314, 457, 708 Dalrymple, C. Brent, Age of the Earth, 17 D'Alverny, Marie-Therese, Translations and Translators, 35 Damas, David, Arctic, 582 D'Amhrosio, Uhiratan, Cultural Dynamics of the Encounter of Two Worlds after 1492, 229 D'Ambrosio, Ubiratan, Ethnomathematics and Its Place in the History and Pedagogy of Mathematics, 227 D'Ambrosio, Ubiratan, Etnomatemdtica, 227, 229 D'Ambrosio, Ubiratan, History of Mathematics and Ethnomathematics, 229 Damerow, Peter, Archaic Bookkeeping, 195, 227 Damerow, Peter, Exploring the Limits of Preclassical Mechanics, 274 Danciger, Elizabeth, Emergence of Homoeopathy, 346 Dangel, Anneliese, Alexander von Humboldt, 356 Daniel, Clyn, Hundred and Fifty Years of Archaeology, 37 Daniel, Glyn, Idea of Prehistory, 592 Daniel, Glyn, Towards a History of Archaeology, 37 Daniel, Howard, One Hundred Years of International Cooperation in Meteorology, 304 Daniels, George H., American Science in the Age of Jackson, 735 Danilov, Victor J., America's Science Museums, 690 Dantes, M.A.M., Institutos de pesquisa cientifica no Brasil, 105 Dantzig, Tobias, Henri Poincare, Critic of Crisis, 580 Danziger, Kurt, Constructing the Subject, 607 Darbishire, Francis V., Letters of Faraday and Schoenbein, i8}6-i86z, 251 Darboux, J.G., Eloge historique de Henri Poincare, 580 Darius, Jon, Beyond Vision, 562 Darmstaedter, Ludwig, Ludwig Darmstaedters Handbuch zur Geschichte der Naturwissenschaften und der Technik, 341 Darnton, Robert, Business of Enlightenment, 208, 634 Darnton, Robert, Great Cat Massacre, and Other Episodes in French Cultural History, 634 Darnton, Robert, Mesmerism and the End of the Enlightenment in France, 218, 266, 471 Darrigol, Olivier, Electrodynamic Origins of Relativity Theory, 636 Darrigol, Olivier, From c-Numbers to qNumbers, 92, 576, 617, 620

783

Darwin, Charles, Charles Darwin's Natural Selection, 502 Darwin, Charles, Charles Darwin's Theoretical Notebooks, 503 Darwin, Charles, Evolution by Natural Selection, 503 Darwin, Charles, On the Origin of Species by Means of Natural Selection, 502 Dash, Joan, Maria Goeppert-Mayer, 766 Daston, Lorraine, Classical Probability in the Enlightenment, 596, 616, 706 Daston, Lorraine, Image of Objectivity, 309, 525, 562, 647, 674 Daston, Lorraine, Moral Economy of Science, 225 Daston, Lorraine, Probabilistic Revolution, 596, 706 Daston, Lorraine, Style in Science, 500 Dauben, Joseph W., Georg Cantor, 115 Dauben, Joseph W., Intersection of History and Mathematics, 520 Dauben, Joseph W., Mathematical Perspectives, 520 Daujat, Jean, Origines et formation de la theorie des phenomenes electriques et magnetiques, 302 Daumas, Maurice, History of Technology and Invention, 716 Daumas, Maurice, Lavoisier, Theoricien et experimentateur, 407 Daumas, Maurice, Scientific Instruments of the Seventeenth and Eighteenth Centuries and Their Makers, 47, 378, 675, 677 Davenport-Hines, Richard, Sex, Death, and Punishment, 744 David, Deirdre, Harriet Martineau, 438 Davids, C.A., Technische ontwikkeling van Nederland in de Vroeg-moderne tijd., 509 Davies, Gordon L., Earth in Decay, 108 Davis, Audrey B., Medicine and Its Technology, 456 Davis, E.A., /./. Thomson and the Discovery of the Electron, 725 Davis, H. Ted, Springs of Scientific Creativity, 293 Davis, Joel, Mapping the Code, 352 Davis, John L., Research School of Marie Curie in the Paris Faculty, 1907-14, 159 Davis, John W., Problems of Cartesianism, 3 20

Davis, Nuel Pharr, Lawrence and Oppenheimer, 409, 532 Davy de Virville, Adrien, Histoire de la Botanique en France, 98 Davy, John, Collected Works of Sir Humphry Davy, 167 Davy, John, Memoirs of the Life of Sir Humphry Davy, 167 Dawson, John W., Jr, Kurt Godel in Sharper Focus, 305 Dawson, John W., Jr , Published Work of Kurt Godel, 305 Dawson, Warren R., Banks Letters, 70 Day, Charles R., Ecotes d'Arts et Metiers, 265

784

DAY

Day, Charles R., Education for the Industrial World, 214 Day, John, Bosch Book of the Motor Car, 60 Deacon, Margaret B., Scientists and the Sea, 531 Deacon, Richard,/ofc« Dee, 168 Dean, Dennis R., Age of the Earth Controversy, 17, 362 Dean, Dennis R., James Hutton and the History of Geology, 295, 362 Dean, Dennis, R., James Hutton's Place in the History of Geomorphology, 362 Dean, Mitchell, Critical and Effective Histories, 263 Dear, Peter, Discipline & Experience, 388, 741 Dear, Peter, Mersenne and the Learning of the Schools, 467, 491 Dear, Peter, Literary Structure of Scientific Argument, 420, 653 De Beer, Gavin, Charles Darwin, 163, 503 Debre, Patrice, Louis Pasteur, 549 Debru, Claude, Essays in the History of the Physiological Sciences, 569 Debru, Claude, Sciences biologiques et medicales en France, 1920-1950, 569 Debus, Allen G., Alchemy and Chemistry in the Seventeenth Century, 24 Debus, Allen G., Hermeticism and the Renaissance, 334 Debus, Allen G., Man and Nature in the Renaissance, 529 Debus, Allen G., Medicine in SeventeenthCentury England, 712 Debus, Allen G., Science and Education in the Seventeenth Century, 194 Debus, Allen G., English Paracelsians, 545, 557 Debus, Allen G., French Paracelsians, 545 Degler, Carl N., In Search of Human Nature, 625 Deichman, Ute, Biologen unter Hitler, 422, 72-3

De Kruif, Paul, Microbe Hunters, 66 Delage, Yves, Heredite et les grandes problemes de la biologie generate, 333 Delahaye, Hubert, Europe en Chine, 388 Delaunay, Albert, Institut Pasteur, 66 Deleage, Jean-Paul, Histoire de I'ecologie, 190 Delhoume, Leon, Vie emouvante et noble de Gay-Lussac, 282 D'Elia, Pasquale M., Galileo in China, 388 De Maria, Michelangelo, Discovery of Cosmic Rays, 548 De Maria, Michelangelo, Restructuring of Physical Sciences in Europe and the United States, 548 Demeulenaere-Douyere, Christianne, ll y a zoo ans Lavoisier, 407 De Mey, Marc, Cognitive Paradigm, 546 De Morgan, Augustus, Arithmetical Books from the Invention of Printing to the Present Time, 41 De Moulin, Daniel, History of Surgery, 708

BOOKLIST INDEX Dening, Greg, Mr Bligh's Bad Language, 243 Dennis, Michael Aaron, Accounting for Research, 650 Dennis, Michael Aaron, Graphic Understanding, 674 DePasquale, Nicholas P., History of Electrocardiography, n 8 Depew, David J., Darwinism Evolving, 163 De Renzi, Silvia, Medicine, Alchemy and Natural Philosophy in the Early Accademia dei Lincei, 2 Derrida, Jacques, Post Card, 606 De Santillana, Giorgio, Origins of Scientific Thought, 311 Desmaze, Charles, Histoire de la medecine legate en France, 261 Desmond, Adrian, Archetypes and Ancestors, 544 Desmond, Adrian, Darwin, 163, 503 Desmond, Adrian, Hot-Blooded Dinosaurs, 544 Desmond, Adrian, Politics of Evolution, 237, 271, 610 Desmond, Adrian, Thomas Huxley, 363 Desmond, Ray, Dictionary of British and Irish Botanists and Horticulturists, 349 Desmond, Ray, Bibliography of British Gardens, 349 Desmond, Ray, Kew, 99, 348 Dessauer, Friedrich, Offenbarung einer Nacht, 658 Detter de Lupis, Ingrid, Human Environment, 304 De Terra, Helmut, Humboldt, 356 Deutsch, Danica, Essays in Individual Psychology, 9 Deutsch, Karl W., Advances in the Social Sciences, 691 De Ville, Kenneth Allen, Medical Malpractice in Nineteenth-Century America, 459 DeVorkin, David H., Henry Rowland and Astronomical Spectroscopy, 660 DeVorkin, David H., History of Modern Astronomy and Astrophysics, 51, 721 DeVorkin, David H., Science with a Vengeance, 698 De Waard, Cornelis, Correspondance du P. Marin Mersenne, religieux Minime, 467 De Waard, Cornelis, Experience barometrique, 475, 741 De Waard, Cornelis, Note sur la vie de Mersenne, 467 De Waal Malefijt, Annemarie, Images of Man, 30 Dewey, John, Nature, Means and Knowledge, 376 Dewhurst, Kenneth, Dr Thomas Sydenham, 712 Dews, Peter, Logic of Disintegration, 263 Dewsbury, Donald A., Leaders in the Study of Animal Behavior, 422 Diamond, Irene, Feminism & Foucault, 263 Di Benedetto, Vincenzo, Medico e la malattia, 339

Dibner, Bern, Agricola on Metals, 18 Dibner, Bern, Alessandro Volta and the Electric Battery, 753 Dibner, Bern, Early Electrical Machines, 280 Dibner, Bern, Galvani-Volta, 278, 753 Dibner, Bern, Luigi Galvani, 278 Dibner, Bern, New Rays of Professor Roentgen, 628 Dibner, Bern, Oersted and the Discovery of Electromagnetism, 538 Dick, A., Dokumente, Materialien und Bilder zur 100, 671 Dickinson, H.W, James Watt and the Industrial Revolution, 757 Dickinson, H.W, James Watt and the Steam Engine, 215, 757 Dickinson, H.W, James Watt, Craftsman and Engineer, 757 Dickinson, H.W, Short History of the Steam Engine, 215 Dickson, Leonard Eugene, History of the Theory of Numbers, 520 Diersch, Manfred, Empiriokritizismus und Impressionismus, 427 Dieterle, William, Or Ehrtich's Magic Bullet, 197 Dietrich, Michael R., Richard Goldschmidt's "Heresies" and the Evolutionary Synthesis, 239 Dieudonne, Jean Alexandre, Co«rs de geometrie algebrique, 298 Dieudonne, Jean, entry on Poincare in Dictionary of Scientific Biography, 580 Diez, Jose, Hundred Years of Numbers, 449 DiFazio, William, Jobless Future, 687, 769 Digby, Anne, Madness, Morality, and Medicine, 53 Di Gregorio, Mario A., T.H. Huxley's Place in Natural Science, 363 Dijksterhuis, E.J., Archimedes, 39 Dijksterhuis, E.J., Mechanization of the World Picture, 311 Dillenberger, John, Protestant Thought and Natural Science, 469, 639 Dinneen, Francis P., Introduction to General Linguistics, 416 Dinsmore, Charles E., History of Regeneration Research, 207 Dionisotti, Carlo, Leonardo uomo di lettere, 411 Diop, Cheikh Anta, Civilization or Barbarism, 229, 625 Disney, Alfred N., Origin and Development of the Microscope, 481 Doane, Janice, From Klein to Kristeva, 400 Dobb, Maurice, Theories of Value and Distribution since Adam Smith, 584 Dobbin, Leonard, Collected Papers of Carl Wilhelm Scheele, 66 5^7> 760, 767 Donovan, Arthur L., Antoine Lavoisier, 127, 407 Donovan, Arthur L., Chemical Revolution, 407 Donovan, Arthur L., Philosophical Chemistry in the Scottish Enlightenment, 127 Doolittle, Hilda, Tribute to Freud, 268 Doran, Barbara Giusti, Origins and Consolidation of Field Theory in Nineteenth-Century Britain, 10 d'Orazio, H., Gall e la prima diffusione della frenologia in Italia, 563 Dore, Mohammed, ]ohn von Neumann and Modern Economics, 7^4 Dorn, Harold, Geography of Science, 229, 294, 441 Dorries, Matthias, Restaging Coulomb, 677 Douglas, Mary, Evans-Pritchard, 236 Douglas, Mary, Purity and Danger, 715 Douglass, Paul, Crisis in Modernism, 752 Doumbia, Salimata, Mathematiques dans I'environnement socio-culturel Africain, 13

Dousset, Jean-Claude, Histoire des medicaments des origines a nos jours, 181 Dowbiggin, Ian R., Inheriting Madness, 333 Drachmann, A.G., Ktesibios, Philon and Heron, 741 Drake, Milton, Almanacs of the United States, 28 Drake, Stillman, Galileo at Work, 274

Drake, Stillman, Role of Music in Galileo's Experiments, 491 Draper, John William, History of the Conflict between Religion and Science, 639, 643 Dreger, Alice D., Hermaphrodites and the Medical Invention of Sex, 287 Dresden, Max, H.A. Kramers, 617 Dresden, Max, Pions to Quarks, 548 Dretske, Fred, Knowledge and the Flow of Information, 375 Dretske, Fred, Seeing and Knowing, $x6 Dreyer, J.L.E., Scientific Papers of Sir William Herschel, 336 Dreyer, J.L.E., Tycho Brahe, 103 Dreyer, J.L.E., Tychonis Brahe Dani Opera Omnia, 103 Dreyer, John Louis Emil, History of the Planetary Systems from Thales to Kepler, 150 Dreyfus, Hubert L., Alchemy and Artificial Intelligence, 24 Dreyfus, Hubert L., Michel Foucault, 263 Dreyfus, Hubert L., What Computers Can't Do, 43 Drife, James, Gynaecology, 314 Dripps, Robert D., Top Ten Clinical Advances in Cardiovascular-Pulmonary Medicine and Surgery, 118 Drouin, Jean-Marc, Reinventer la nature, 190 Drummond, J . C , Englishman's Food, 522 Du Bois-Reymond, Emil, Darwin und Kopernicus, 150 Dubos, Jean, White Plague, 731 Dubos, Rene, Louis Pasteur, 66, 549 Dubos, Rene, White Plague, 731 DuBridge, Lee A., Robert Andrews Millikan, 483 Duchesne, Raymond, Histoire des sciences au Quebec, 112 Duchesneau, Francois, Physiologie des lumieres, 77, 752 Duffy, John, Sanitarians, 326 Dufour, Paul, Science and Technology in Canada, 112 Dugas, Rene, Theorie physique au sens de Boltzmann et ses prolongements modernes, 94 Duhem, Pierre, Aim and Structure of Physical Theory, ^j6 Duhem, Pierre, Etudes sur Leonard da Vinci, 411 Duhem, Pierre, German Science, 500 Duhem, Pierre, Medieval Cosmology, 643 Duhem, Pierre, Origins of Statics, the Sources of Physical Theory, 678 D u h e m , Pierre, Systeme

du monde,

785

Duncan, A.M., Functions of Affinity Tables and Lavoisier's List of Elements, 12 Duncan, A.M., Harmony of the World, 396 Duncan, A.M., Secret of the Universe, 397 Duncan, David, Life and Letters of Herbert Spencer, 701 Dunlap, Thomas R., Saving America's Wildlife, 190 Dunn, Anthony J., History of the Study of Landforms, or the Development of Geomorphology, 362 Dunn, L.C., Sbort History of Genetics, 290 Dunning, A.J., History and Perspectives of Cardiology, 119 Dunnington, Guy Waldo, Carl Friedrich Gauss, 281 Dunsch, Lothar, Fundament zum Gebdude der Wissenscbaften, 539 Dunsch, Lothar,/dns/flcofo Berzelius, 75 Dunsheath, Percy, History of Electrical Engineering, 200, 201, Z04 Dunstan, G.R., Human Embryo, 207 Dupaquier, J., Maltbus Past and Present, 43^. 434 Dupin, Charles, Essai bistorique sur les services et les travaux scientifiques de Gaspard Monge, 488 Dupree, A. Hunter, Science in tbe Federal Government, 20, 735 Dupree, A. Hunter, History of American Science, 735 Dupuy, Gabriel, Tecbnology and the Rise of tbe Networked City in Europe and America, 718 Duran Mufioz, Garcia, Cajal, 630 Durant, John R., Innate Character in Animals and Man, 231 Durant, John R., Making of Ethology, 231 Duris, Pascal, Linne et la France, 417 Durkheim, Emile, Professional Etbics and Civic Morals, 598 Durling, Richard E., Galen's Method of Healing, 273 Durner, Manfred, Friedrich Wilhelm Joseph Schelling, 670 Durr, Hans-Petr, Gesammelte Werke /Collected Works, 329 Duveen, Denis I., Bibliography of the Works of Antoine Laurent Lavoisier, 407 Dwyer, Ellen, Homes for the Mad, 53 Dyck, Walther von, Gesammelte Werke, 397 Dyck, Walther von, Johannes Kepler in seinen Briefen, 396 Dyer, Frank L., Edison, 192 Dyhouse, Carol, Girls Growing Up in Late Victorian and Edwardian England, 194

355,

741 Dumas, Jean-Baptiste, Lemons sur la philosopbie chimique, 407 Dumas, Maurice, Scientific Instruments of the Seventeenth and Eighteenth Centuries and Their Makers, 87 Dummett, Michael, Frege, 63 Dumont, Franz, Natur des Menschen, 33

Eamon, William, Science and the Secrets of Nature, 154, 529, 610, 634 Earles, Melvin P., Early Theories of the Mode of Action of Drugs and Poisons, 728 Earman, John, Attraction of Gravitation, 6j,6 Earman, John, Bayes or Bust? 560

786

EARMAN

Earman, John, Relativity and Eclipses, 636 Easlea, Brian, Fathering the Unthinkable, 767 Echeverria, Javier, Observations, Problems and Conjectures in Number Theory, 520 Eckart, Wolfgang U., Friedrich Althoff und die Medizin, 403 Eckart, Wolfgang U., Vortrdge eines Heidelberger Symposiums anldfilich des einhundertsten Todestages, 330 Eckert, Michael, Atomphysiker, 6ij Eckert, Michael, Kristalle, Elektronen, Transistoren, 697 Eckert, Michael, Primacy Doomed to Failure, 329 Ede, Andrew G., Colloid Chemistry in North America, 142 Edelstein, Sidney M., Historical Notes on the Wet-Processing Industry, 186 Edge, David O., Astronomy Transformed, 51

Edgerton, David, British Industrial Research and Development before 1945, 650 Edgerton, David, Science, Technology and the British Industrial "Decline", 1870-1970,650

Edgerton, Samuel Y., Heritage of Giotto's Geometry, 674, 750 Edmonds, J.M., Vindiciae Geologicae, 108 Edmonson, J.M., Asepsis and the Transformation of Surgical Instruments, 456 Edsall, John T , Origins of Modern Biochemistry, 81 Edwards, A.W.E, Galton, Karl Pearson and Modern Statistical Theory, 83, 277, 554 Edwards, Elizabeth, Anthropology and Photography, 1860-1^10, 562 Edwards, Harold M., Fermat's Last Theorem, 520 Edwards, Harold M., Mathematical Ideas, Ideals, and Ideology, 520 Efron, Edith, Apocalyptics, 114 Egan, Harold, Weighed in the Balance, 129, 261 Egerton, Frank N., Bibliographic Guide to the History of General Ecology and Population Ecology, 190 Egerton, Frank N., Breaking New Waters, 190

Egerton, Frank N., History of Ecology, 190 Eggleston, Wilfred, National Research in Canada, 112 Eglash, Ronald Bruce, Cybernetics of Chaos, 123 Ehrenreich, Barbara, Complaints and Disorders, 314 Ehrenreich, Barbara, Witches, Midwives and Nurses, 528 Ehrhardt, Anke A., Man & Woman, Boy & Girl, 685 Eichner, Hans, Rise of Modern Science and the Genesis of Romanticism, 656 Einstein, Albert, Collected Papers of Albert Einstein, 198

BOOKLIST INDEX Eiseley, Loren C , Darwin's Century, 160, ^37, 503 Eisenberg, Ronald L., Radiology, 628 Eisenhart, Churchill, entry on Karl Pearson in Dictionary of Scientific Biography, 83, 554 Eisenstein, Elizabeth L., Printing Press as an Agent of Change, 634 Eisler, Rudolf, Kant-Lexikon, 395 Elena, Alberto, Mundializacion de la ciencia y cultura nacional, 143, 405 Elias, Norbert, Court Society, 154 Elkana, Yehuda, After Merton, 388 Elkana, Yehuda, Albert Einstein, 198 Elkana, Yehuda, Discovery of the Conservation of Energy, 210 Elkana, Yehuda, Epistemological Writings, 330 Elkeles, Barbara, Tuberkulinrausch von 1890, 403 Ellenberger, Francois, Histoire de la geologie, 295 Ellenberger, Henri E, Discovery of the Unconscious, 268, 471, 603, 606 Elliott, Brent, Victorian Gardens, 349 Ellis, Havelock, Studies in the Psychology of Sex, 685 Ellison, E, Theorie des nombres, 520 Ellison, W.J., Theorie des nombres, 520 Elster, Jon, Cement of Society, 630 Elster, Jon, Nuts and Bolts for the Social Sciences, 630 Elster, Jon, Solomonic Judgements, 630 Elvin, Mark, Symposium, 131 Elvin, Mark, Pattern of the Chinese Past, 132-

Elzinga, Aant, Antarctica, 582 Emerton, Norma E., Scientific Reinterpretation of Form, 56 Endo, Tosisada, Zoshu Nihon Sugakusi, 682 Engel, Michael, Geschichte Dahlems, 393 Engelhardt, A. von, Hundertjahrfeier der Geburtstage von Paul Ehrlich und Emil von Behring, 72, 197 Engelhardt, Dietrich von, Hegel und die Chemie, 6$6 Engelhardt, Dietrich von, Historisches Bewusstsein in der Naturwissenschaft, 218, 656 Engelhardt, Dietrich von, Polemik und Kontroversen um Haeckel, 317 Engelhardt, H., Tristram, Foundations of Bioethics, 454 Engelhardt, Wolf von, Goethe, 308 Engell, James, Creative Imagination, 293 Engels, Friedrich, Anti-DUhring, 439 Engels, Friedrich, German Ideology, 402 Fngland, Paula, Comparable Worth, 687 English, Deirdre, Complaints and Disorders, 314 English, Deirdre, Witches, Midwives and Nurses, 528 Englund, Robert K., Archaic Bookkeeping, 195, 227

Epstein, Paul S., Robert A. Millikan as Physicist and Teacher, 483 Epstein, Paul S., Robert Andrews Millikan, 483 Epstein, Samuel S., Politics of Cancer, 114 Eri, Yagi, Science and Society in Modern Japan, 385 Eribon, Didier, Michel Foucault, 1926-1984, 263 Erikksson, I.V, Women, Work, and Computerization, 283 Eriksson, Ruben, Andreas Vesalius' First Public Anatomy at Bologna, 1540, 745 Ernst, Sabine, Lise Meitner an Otto Hahn, 464, 766 Ernst, Waltraud, Under the Influence in British India, 471 Ertel, Hans, Alexander von Humboldt, 356 Eschenhagen, Gerhard, Hygiene-Institut der Berliner Universitat unter der Leitung Robert Kochs 1SS3-1S91, 403 Eshag, Eprime, From Marshall to Keynes, 437 Esposito, Joseph L., Schelling's Idealism and Philosophy of Nature, 670 Esquirol, J.-E.-D., Etablissements des alienes en France et des moyens d'ameliorer le sort de ces infortunes, 53 Estes, J. Worth, Medical Skills of Ancient Egypt, 557 Estes, J. Worth, Quantitative Observations of Fever and Its Treatment before the Advent of Short Clinical Thermometers, 2-55 Etheridge, Elizabeth W, Sentinel for Health, 224 Etzkowitz, Henry, University in the Global Knowledge Economy, 718 Eulner, Hans-Heinz, Entwicklung der medizinischen Speziatfdcher an den Universitdten des deutschen Sprachgebiets, 457 Evans, Matha Noel, Fits and Starts, 124 Evans, R.J.W., Rudolf II and His World, 155, 5^9 Evans, R.J.W., Making of the Habsburg Monarchy, 388 Evans, Richard I., Konrad Lorenz, 422 Evans, Richard J., Death in Hamburg, 224, 403, 611 Evans-Pritchard, E. E., History of Anthropological Thought, 30 Evans-Pritchard, E.E., Nuer, 630 Evans-Pritchard, E.E., Witchcraft, Oracles and Magic among the Azande, 15, 630 Eve, Arthur S., Rutherford, 66j Evernden, Neil, Social Creation of Nature, 505 Ewald, PR, Fifty Years of X-Ray Diffraction, 343 Ewald, P.P., Max von Laue, 406 Ewan, Josef, Short History of Botany in the United States, 98 Ewing, Sir J.A., Steam-Engine and Other Heat-Engines, 215

FISSELL

BOOKLIST INDEX Eyier, John M., Victorian Social Medicine, 326, 706 Ezell, Edward Clinton, On Mars, 698 Ezell, Linda Neuman, On Mars, 698 Fabrega, Horacio, Illness and Shamanistic Curing in Zinancantan, 729 Faden, Ruth, History and Theory of Informed Consent, 454 Faden, Ruth, Women and Health Research, 283 Falconer, Isobel J., Corpuscles, Electrons and Cathode Rays, 725 Falconer, Isobel J., /./. Thomson and the Discovery of the Electron, 725 Falconer, Isobel J., J.J. Thomson and "Cavendish" Physics, 725 Falter, Adolf, Niels Stensen, 707 Falola, Toyin, Political Economy of Health in Africa, 15 Fancher, Raymond E., Biographical Origins of Francis Galton's Psychology, 277 Fang, Joong, Hilbert, 338 Fanning, A.E., Steady As She Goes, 430 Fara, Patricia, Attractive Therapy, 471 Fara, Patricia, Sympathetic Attractions, 430 Faraday, Michael, Experimental Researches in Chemistry, 251 Faraday, Michael, Experimental Researches in Electricity, 251 Farago, Peter, Interview with Dorothy Crowfoot Hodgkin, 343 Fararo, Thomas J., Rational Choice Theory, 630 Farber, Paul Lawrence, Emergence of Ornithology as a Scientific Discipline, 537, 598 Farber, Paul Lawrence, Historical Impact of Ornithology on the Biological Sciences, 537 Farey, John, Treatise on the Steam Engine, 215 Farley, John, Gametes and Spores, 207 Fames, Patricia, Women of Science, 343, 736, 762, 763 Farnie, D.A., Cotton Mills in Greater Manchester, 484 Farquhar, Judith, Knowing Practice, 8, 135 Farrall, Lyndsay Andrew, Origins and Growth of the English Eugenics Movement, 83, 234, 554 Farrington, Benjamin, Greek Science, 441 Farrington, Benjamin, Science and Politics in the Ancient World, 311 Faruqui, Aktar, Role of Women in the Development of Science and Technology in the Third World, 760 Faulconer, Albert, Jr., Foundations of Anesthesiology, 708 Fausto-Sterling, Anne, Myths of Gender, 287 Fauve-Chamoux, A., Malthus Past and Present, 432, 434 Fauvel, John, Darwin to Einstein, 639 Fauvel, John, Let Newton Be!, 24 Favaro, Antonio, Amici e corrispondenti di Galileo, 273

Favaro, Antonio, Archimede, 39 Favrholdt, David, Me/5 Bohr's Philosophical Background, 92 Fayard, Pierre, Communication scientifique publique, 586 Faye, Jan, Niels Bohr, 92 Faye, Jan, Niels Bohr and Contemporary Philosophy, 92 Feather, Norman, Lord Rutherford, 668 Febvre, Lucien, Coming of the Book, 634 Federman, Daniel, Women and Health Research, 283 Fedigan, Linda, Is Primatology a Feminist Science? 283 Fee, Elizabeth, AIDS, 22 Fee, Elizabeth, Nineteenth Century Craniology, 287 Feferman, Saul, Godel's Life and Work, 305 Fehrman, Carl, Lund and Learning, 711 Feierman, Steven, Health and Society in Africa, 15 Feierman, Steven, Peasant Intellectuals, 15 Feierman, Steven, Social Basis of Health and Healing in Africa, 15 Feierman, Steven, Social History of Disease and Medicine in Africa, 15 Feingold, Mordechai, Of Records and Grandeur, 662 Feinstein, Alvan R., Clinical Judgment, 224 Feldenkirchen, Wilfried, Werner von Siemens, 686 Feldhay, Rivka, After Merton, 388 Feldhay, Rivka, Galileo and the Church, 388 Fellows, Otis E., Buffon, 109 Felt, Ulrike, After the Breakthrough, 381 Fenichell, Stephen, Plastic, 578 Fenner, E, Portraits of Viruses, 749 Fenner, E, Smallpox and Its Eradication, 304 Ferguson, Eugene, Technical Museums and International Exhibitions, 241 Fermi, Laura, Atoms in the Family, 254 Ferngren, Gary B., Early Christian Tradition, 643 Ferrari, Giovanna, Public Anatomy Lessons and the Carnival, 745 Ferri, Mario Guimaraes, Historia das ciencias no Brasit, 105 Ferrone, Vincenzo, Intellectual Roots of the Italian Enlightenment, 514 Festugiere, A.-J., Revelation d'Hermes Trismegiste, 334 Feuer, Lewis, Scientific Intellectual, 469 Feuer, Lewis, What is Alienation? 26 Feyerabend, Paul K., Against Method, 367, 560 Feyerabend, Paul K., Mach's Theory of Research and Its Relation to Einstein, 4^7 Feyl, Renate, Lise Meitner, 464 Feynman, Richard P., Surely You're Joking, ^57 Feynman, Richard P., What do You Care What Other People Think? 257 Field, J.V, Geometrical Work of Girard Desargues, 298

787

Field, J.V, Harmony of the World, 396 Field, J.V., Kepler's Geometrical Cosmology, 397 Field, J.V., What is Scientific about a Scientific Instrument? 675 Figueiroa, S.F. de M., As ciencias geologicas no Brasil, 105 Figueiroa, S.F. de M., Charles Frederic Hartt and the "Geological Commission of Brazil", 105 Figurovskii, N.A., Dmitrii Ivanovich Mendeleev, 466 Filimonova, I.N., D.I. Mendeleev v vospomonaniiakyh sovremennikov, 466 Filippov, M.S., Istoriia Biblioteki Akademii nauk SSSR, 66$ Findlen, Paula, Possessing Nature, 155, 490 Finger, Stanley, Origins of Neuroscience, 511 Finlay, Mark R., Quackery and Cookery, 414 Finlay, Mark R., Rehabilitation of an Agricultural Chemist, 20 Finley, Kay Thomas, Women in the Scientific Search, 736, 763, 764 Finn, Bernard, Museum of Science and Technology, 490 Finnemore, Martha, International Organizations as Teachers of Norms, 304 Finney, C M . , Paradise Revealed, 59 Finnis, John, Natural Law, 501 Finocchiaro, Maurice A., Galileo and the Art of Reasoning, 274 Finocchiaro, Maurice A., Galileo Affair, 274 Fisch, Menachem, William Whewell, 758 Fischer, Emil, Aus meinem Leben, 258 Fischer, Emil, Geschiedenis van de techniek, 509 Fischer, Hermann, Mittelalterliche Pflanzenkunde, 332 Fischer, Holger, Technologietransfer und Wissenschaftsaustausch zwischen Ungarn und Deutschland, 359 Fischer, Klaus, Changing Landscapes of Nuclear Physics, 517 Fischer, Kuno, Immanuel Kant und seine Lehre, 395 Fischer, Kuno, Schellings Leben, Werke und Lehre, 670 Fischer, Robert, Pelerin de Prusse on the Astrolabe, 44 Fischer-Homberger, Esther, Medizin vor Gericht, 261 Fish, Stanley, Is There a Text in This Class? 420 Fisher, Donald, Fundamental Development of the Social Sciences, 655 Fisher, Nicholas W, Avogadro, the Chemists, and Historians of Chemistry, 62 Fisher, Richard B., Joseph Lister, 1827-1912, 419 Fishman, Alfred P., Circulation of the Blood, 119 Fissell, Mary Elizabeth, Patients, Power, and the Poor in Eighteenth-Century Bristol, 180, 351

788

FITZGERALD

Fitzgerald, Deborah, Business of Breeding, 650 FitzGerald, Rosemary, Selected Correspondence of Michael Faraday, ^51 Flashar, Hellmut, Antike Medizin, 312 Flavell, John H., Developmental Psychology of Jean Piaget, 573 Fleck, James, Development and Establishment in Artificial Intelligence, 43 Fleck, Ludwik, Entstehung und Entwicklung einer wissenschaftlichen Tatsache, 177 Fleck, Ludwik, Genesis and Development of a Scientific Fact, 72, 197, 500, 546 Fleming, C.A., Science, Settlers and Scholars, 59 Fleming, Donald, review of The Scientific Intellectual, 469 Fleming, J.A., Fifty Years of Electricity, 720 Fleming, James Rodger, Meteorology in America, 1800-1870, 475, 476 Fletcher, Harold R., Royal Botanic Garden, Edinburgh, 95, ^^ Fletcher, Neville H., Physics of Musical Instruments, 7 Flett, John Smith, First Hundred Years of the Geological Survey of Great Britain, 295 Flink, James J., Automobile Age, 60 Flood, Raymond, Let Newton Be!, 24 Florida, Richard, Beyond Mass Production, 387 Florkin, Marcel, History of Biochemistry, 81, 142 Florkin, Marcel, Leon Fredericq et les debuts de la physiologie en Belgique, 569 Flourens, M.J.P., Cuvier, 160 Fodor, Jerry, Observation Reconsidered, 526 Fogg, G.E., History of Antarctic Science, 582 Folkerts, M., Zur Entwicklung der Algebra in Deutschland im 15. und 16. Jahrhunder, 25 Follett, David, Rise of the Science Museum under Henry Lyons, 490 Folse, Henry, Me/5 Bohr and Contemporary Philosophy, 92 Folse, Henry, Philosophy of Niels Bohr, 92 Folsing, Albrecht, Albert Einstein, 198 Folsing, Albrecht, Heinrich Hertz, 337 Folsing, Albrecht, Wilhlem Conrad Rontgen, 658 Folsing, UUa, Marie Curie, 159 Fonseca, M.R.G.F. da, Ciencia e identidade na America Espanhola, 105 Forbes, R.J., Chemical, Culinary and Cosmetic Arts, 373 Forbes, R.J., Man the Maker, 509 Forbes, R.J., Metallurgy in Antiquity, 472 Forbes, Thomas Rogers, Surgeons at the Bailey, 261 Force, James E., Books of Nature and Scripture, 512 Ford, Brian J., Images of Science, 647 Ford, Edward, David Rittenhouse, 654 Ford, William W., Bacteriology, 66

BOOKLIST INDEX Forgan, Sophie, Science and the Sons of Genius, 167 Forgan, Sophie, Royal Institution of Great Britain, 661 Forman, Paul, Alfred Lande and the Anomalous Zeeman effect, 700 Forman, Paul, Behind Quantum Electronics, 566, 697 Forman, Paul, Scientific Internationalism and the Weimar Physicists, 381 Forman, Paul, Doublet Riddle and Atomic Physics circa 1924, 700 Forman, Paul, Weimar Culture, Causality, and Quantum Theory, 617 Forrest, D.W., Francis Galton, 277 Forrester, John, Chemistry and the Conservation of Energy, 210 Forrester, John, Freud's Women, 268, 604 Forrester, John, Seductions of Psychoanalysis, 606 Fortescue, Stephen, Communist Party and Soviet Science, 664 Fosdick, Raymond Blaine, Story of the Rockefeller Foundation, 655 Foster, George M., Medical Anthropology, 7^9 Foster, Michael, Claude Bernard, 73 Foster, W.D., History of Medical Bacteriology and Immunology, 66 Foster, William Derek, Short History of Clinical Pathology, 551 Foucault, Marcel, Psychophysique, 608 Foucault, Michel, Discipline and Punish, 89, 401, 704 Foucault, Michel, Madness and Civilization, 53, 218, 429, 750 Foucault, Michel, Power/Knowledge, 402 Foucault, Michel, Birth of the Clinic, 180, 351, 551, 750 Foucault, Michel, Order of Things, 30, 218, 354> 416, 715, 750 Foucault, Michel, Use of Pleasure, 285 Fourcy, Ambroise, Histoire de I'^cole polytechnique, 189 Fournier, M., Huygens' Designs for a Simple Microscope, 364 Foust, Clifford M., Rhubarb, 559 Fowden, Garth, Egyptian Hermes, 334 Fowler, David, Mathematics of Plato's Academy, 232, 579 Fox, Christopher, Inventing Human Science, 354 Fox, Daniel M., AIDS, 22 Fox, Daniel M., Photographing Medicine, 562 Fox, Daniel M., Power and Illness, 611 Fox, Maurice R., Dye-Makers of Great Britain, 18^6-1^76, 186 Fox, Robert, Caloric Theory of Gases from Lavoisier to Regnault, 327 Fox, Robert, Education, Technology and Industrial Performance in Europe, 214 Fox, Robert, entry on Pierre Laplace in Dictionary of Scientific Biography, 632 Fox, Robert, Natural Dyestuffs and Industrial Culture in Europe, 186

Fox, Robert, Reflexions on the Motive Power of Fire, 211 Fox-Genovese, Elizabeth, Origins of Physiocracy, 20 Fraenkel, A., Georg Cantor, 115 Frajese, Attilio, Galileo matematico, 274 Fralish, James S., John T. Curtis, 190 Francis, Mark, Herbert Spencer and the Mid-Victorian Scientists, 701 Frangsmyr, Tore, Enlightenment Science in the Romantic Era, 75 Frangsmyr, Tore, Linnaeus, 417 Frangsmyr, Tore, Quantifying Spirit in the 18th Century, 616 Frangsmyr, Tore Science in Sweden, 582, 711 Frangsmyr, Tore, Sidereus Nuncius and Stella Polaris, 711 Frank, Charles, Operation Epsilon, 329 Frank, Philipp, Einstein, 198 Frank, Robert G., Jr, Harvey and the Oxford Physiologists, i o i , 244, 322, 651 Frank, Robert G., Jr, Telltale Heart, 309, 436 Franklin, Kenneth J., William Harvey, 322 Franks, J., Review of Chaos, 123 Franksen, Ole Immanuel, H.C. 0rsted, 538 Franz, Marie-Louise von. Lectures on Jung's Typology, 391 Franz, Marie-Louise von. Psyche and Matter, 391 Fraser, Nancy, Unruly Practices, 263 Freeman, Joan, Passion for Physics, 766 Freeman, Milton M.R., Ethnoscience, Prevailing Science and Arctic Cooperation, 582 Freeman, Milton M.R., Traditional Knowledge and Renewable Resource Management in Northern Regions, 372 Freidson, Eliot, Doctoring Together, 598 French, A.P., Me/5 Bohr, 92 French, Peter ]., John Dee, 168, 334 French, Richard D., Anti-Vivisection and Medical Science in Victorian Society, 34, 244 French, Roger, Ancient Natural History, 311 French, Roger, Anatomical Tradition, 29 French, Roger, William Harvey's Natural Philosophy, 322 Frenkel, Viktor Ya., Alexander A. Friedmann, 78 Freud, Sigmund, Charcot, 124 Freud, Sigmund, Leonardo da Vinci and a Memory of His Childhood, 411 Freud, Sigmund, On the History of the Psychoanalytic Movement, 606 Freud, Sigmund, On the Psychical Consequences of the Anatomical SexDistinction, 605 Freudenthal, Gad, Theory of Matter and Gosmology in William Gilbert's De Magnete, 302 Freudenthal, Gideon, Atom and Individual in the Age of Newton, 5 6 Freyhofer, Horst H., Vitalism of Hans Driesch, 752

GEERTZ

BOOKLIST INDEX Friberg, Joran, Survey of Publications on Sumero-Akkadian Mathematics, Metrology and Related Matters, 195 Friberg, Joran, Mathematics, 195 Friedel, Robert, Defining Chemistry, 293 Friedel, Robert, Edison's Electric Light, 192 Friedel, Robert, Pioneer Plastic, 578 Friedlander, Paul, Plato, 579 Friedman, Alan J., Einstein as Myth and Muse, 198 Friedman, Michael, Kant and the Exact Sciences, 395 Friedman, Milton, Theory of the Consumption Function, 399 Friedman, Robert Marc, Appropriating the Weather, 221, 475, 476, 711 Friedman, Robert Marc, Background to the Establishment of Norsk Polarinstitutt, 582 Friedman, Robert Marc, Nobel Physics Prize in Perspective, 516 Friedman, Robert Marc, Nobel Prizes and the Invigoration of Swedish Science, 516 Friedman, Robert Marc, Prizes in Physics and Chemistry in the Context of Swedish Science, 516 Fries, Robert E., Short History of Botany in Sweden, 711 Fries, Theodore Magnus, Linne, 417 Friis, F.R., Tychonis Brahei, 103 Friis, F.R., Tyge Brahe, 103 Friksson, Gunnar, Botanikens historia i Sverige intill ar 1800, 98 Frisch, O.R., Lise Meitner, 464 Frisinger, H. Howard, History of Meteorology to 1800, 476 Frison, Edouard, Evolution de la partie optique du microscope au cours du dixneuvieme siecle, 481 Fritz, Kurt von, Pythagorean Politics in Southern Italy, 612 Frizot, Michel, Chronophotographie, 436 Froggatt, P.C., Galton's 'Law of Ancestral Heredity', 277, 554 Fruton, Joseph S., Contrasts in Scientific Style, 68, 81, 258, 381, 414 Fruton, Joseph S., Molecules and Life, 81, 651 Fruton, Joseph S., Origins of Modern Biochemistry, 81 Fuchs, Stephan, Professional Quest for Truth, 176 Fukasaku, Yukiko, Technology and Industrial Development in Pre-War Japan, 650 Fukuyama, Francis, End of History and the Last Man, 600 Fulder, Stephen, Handbook of Complementary Medicine, 144, 729 Fuller, Steve, Philosophy of Science and Its Discontents, 380 Fuller, Steve, Philosophy, Rhetoric and the End of Knowledge, 691 Fuller, Steve, Social Epistemology, 176

Fullmer, June Z., Sir Humphry Davy's Published Works, 167 Fumagalli, Giuseppina, Leonardo, omo sanza lettere, 411 Funkenstein, Amos, Theology and the Scientific Imagination from the Middle Ages to the Seventeenth Century, 643, 645 Funkhouser, H.G., Historical Development of the Graphical Representation of Statistical Data, 309 Funtowicz, Silvio O., Uncertainty and Quality in Science for Policy, 449 Furley, David J., Greek Cosmologists, 56 Furley, David J., Two Studies in the Greek Atomists, 56 Furth, Charlotte, Flourishing Yin, 135 Furukawa, Yasu, Inventing Polymer Science, 142 Fussell, G.E., Crop Nutrition, 20 Fye, W. Bruce, American Cardiology, 119, 457 Fye, W. Bruce, Development of American Physiology, 244 Gabrieli, Giuseppe, Contributi alia storia dell'Accademia dei Lincei, 2 Gade, John AUyne, Life and Times of Tycho Brahe, 103 Gage, Andrew Thomas, Bicentenary History of the Linnean Society of London, 99 Gage, Andrew Thomas, History of the Linnean Society of London, ^9 Gager, C. Stuart, Botanic Gardens of the World, 95 Galambos, Louis, Networks of Innovation, 85 Galilei, Galileo, Dialogue Concerning the Two Chief World Systems, 150 Galison, Peter, Big Science, 79 Galison, Peter, How Experiments End, 122, 246, 548, 566 Galison, Peter, Image and Logic, 548, 566 Galison, Peter, Image of Objectivity, 309, 525, 562, 647, 674 Gallagher, Eugene B., Health and Health Care in Developing Countries, 15 Gallagher, Richard B., Immunology, 369 Gallo, Robert, Virus Hunting, 22 Galloway, Elijah, History and Progress of the Steam Engine, 215 Galluzzi, Paolo, Accademia del Cimento, 3, 273 Galluzzi, Paolo, Leonardo da Vinci, 411 Galluzzi, Paolo, Novita celesti e crisi del sapere, 274 Galton, Sir Francis, Memories of My Life, 2-77

Gamow, George, Mr Tompkins Explores the Atom, 54 Ganascia, Jean-Gabriel, Ame-machine, 43 Gandt, Frangois de. Force and Geometry in Newton's Principia, 512 Gandy, R.O., Dr. A.M. Turing, O.B.E., ER.S., 732

789

Garber, D., Leibniz and the Foundations of Physics, 410 Garber, Daniel, Descartes' Metaphysical Physics, 120, 173 Garboe, Axel, Geologiens historie i Danmark, 171 Garcia Ballester, L., Practical Medicine from Salerno to the Black Death, 463 Garciadiego, Alejandro R., Bertrand Russell and the Origins of the Set-Theoretic "Paradoxes", 683 Gardair, Jean-Michel, I Lincei, 2 Gardner, Howard, Mind's New Science, 43, 485 Gardner, Howard, Quest for Mind, 413, 573 Garfinkel, Harold, Ethnomethodological Studies of Work, 631 Garfinkel, Harold, Studies in Ethnomethodology, 631 Garin, Eugenio, Astrology in the Renaissance, 46 Garrett, Laurie, Coming Plague, 22 Garrison, Roger, Time and Money, 324 Gascoigne, John, Cambridge in the Age of the Enlightenment, 218, 514 Gascoigne, John, Joseph Banks and the English Enlightenment, 70 Gascoigne, John, Science in the Service of Empire, 662 Gasking, Elizabeth B., Investigations into Generation, i6;i-i8i8, 207 Gasman, Daniel, Scientific Origins of National Socialism, 317 Gasper, Philip, Philosophy of Science, 560 Gassendi, Pierre, Tychonis Brahei equitis Dani, astronomorum coryphaei, vita..., 103, 151 Gaudilliere, Jean-Paul, Biologie moleculaire et biologistes dans les annees soixante, 486 Gaukroger, Stephen, Bachelard and the Problem of Epistemological Analysis, 376 Gaukroger, Stephen, Descartes, 173 Gauld, Alan, Founders of Psychical Research, 703 Gauld, Alan, History of Hypnotism, 471 Gavroglu, Kostas, Fritz London, 157 Gavroglu, Kostas, Methodological Aspects of the Development of Low Temperature Physics, 157 Gavroglu, Kostas, Through Measurement to Knowledge, 157 Gay, Peter, Enlightenment, 218 Gay, Peter, Freud, 268, 603 Gayon, Jean, Sciences biologiques et medicales en France, 569 Gebler, Karl von, Galileo Galilei and the Roman Curia, 275 Geddes, L.A., Graphic Recording before Ludwig, 309 Geddes, Patrick, Industrial Exhibitions and Modern Progress, 241 Gee, Brian, Electromagnetic Engines, 201 Geertz, Clifford, Ideology as a Cultural System, 367

790

GEERTZ

Geertz, Clifford, Works & Lives, 236, 413 Geiger, Roger L., To Advance Knowledge, 738 Geikie, Archibald, Founders of Geology, 295, 362 Geison, Gerald L., entry on Pasteur in Dictionary of Scientific Biography, 549 Geison, Gerald L., Michael Foster and the Cambridge School of Physiology, 244 Geison, Gerald L., Physiology in the American Context, 18^0-1940, 244 Geison, Gerald L., Private Science of Louis Pasteur, 66, 549, 610 Geison, Gerald L., Research Schools, 176 Gelfand, Toby, Professionalizing Modern Medicine, 351, 708 Gelis, Jacques, History of Childbirth, 528 Gellner, Ernest, Psychoanalytic Movement, 268 Gendron, P., Claude Bernard, 73 Gentilcore, David, Charlatans, Mountebanks and other Similar People, 615 Geoffroy, Daniel, Acupuncture en France au XIX' siecle, 8 George, Wilma, Gregor Mendel and Heredity, 465 Gerabek, Werner E., Friedrich Wilhelm Joseph Schelling und die Medizin der Romantik, 670 Gerbi, Antonello, Dispute of the New World, 109 Gerdes, Paulus, Ethnogeometrie, 13, 227 Gerdes, Paulus, Ethnomathematics and Education in Africa, 229 Gerdes, Paulus, Geometria SON A, 13 Gerdes, Paulus, On Mathematics in the History of Sub-Saharan Africa, 13 Gerdes, Paulus, Sipatsi, 13 Gerdes, Paulus, Women and Geometry in Southern Africa, 227 Gerlach, Walther, Otto Hahn, 318 Gernsheim, Helmut, Concise History of Photography, 562 Gero, Joan M., Engendering Archaeology, 283 Geuter, Ul fried, Professionalization of Psychology in Nazi Germany, 723 Gevitz, Norman, Other Healers, 145 Geyer, Bodo, Werner Heisenberg. Physiker und Philosoph, 3 29 Geyer, R. Felix, Alienation, 27 Geyer-Kordesch, Johanna, Women and Medicine, 765 Ghiselin, Michael T , Triumph of the Darwinian Method, 163 Giard, Luce,/e5«/?e5 a I'age baroque, 388 Giard, Luce, Jesuites a la Renaissance, 388 Gibbons, Michael, New Production of Knowledge, 718 Gibbs, A., Portraits of Viruses, 749 Gibbs, F.W., Joseph Priestley, 594 Gibbs, Sharon, Computerised Checklist of Astrolabes, 44 Gibson, G.A., Napier's Logarithms and the Change to Briggs's Logarithms, 499

BOOKLIST INDEX Gibson, Roger E, Philosophy of W.V. Quine, 249 Giedion, Siegfried, Space, Time, and Architecture, 241 Giedion, Siegfried, Technology and Western Civilization, 452 Giedymin, Jerzy, Science and Convention, 580 Gienapp, Ruth Anne, entry on Baeyer in Dictionary of Scientific Biography, 68 Gierke, Otto, Natural Law and the Theory of Society i;co-i8oo, 501 Gigerenzer, Gerd, Empire of Chance, 706 Gigerenzer, Gerd, Probabilistic Revolution, 706 Gilbert, G. Nigel, Opening Pandora's Box, 653 Gilbert, Scott E, Conceptual History of Modern Embryology, 207 Gille, Bertrand, Origines de la grande industrie metallurgique en France, 472 Gille, Bertrand, Renaissance Engineers, 411 Gillespie, Richard, Manufacturing Knowledge, 435 Gillet, Grant, Practical Medical Ethics, 454 Gillings, Richard J., Mathematics in the Time of Pharaohs, 41, 195 Gillispie, Charles Coulston, Dictionary of Scientific Biography, 40, 68, 74, 83, 151, 160, 183, 232, 281, 294, 341, 406, 539, 549, 554, 564, 580, 629, 632, 654, 659, 669, 753 Gillispie, Charles Coulston, Edge of Objectivity, 341, 525 Gillispie, Charles Coulston, entry on Pierre Laplace in Dictionary of Scientific Biography, 632 Gillispie, Charles Coulston, Genesis and Geology, 108, 295, 423 Gillispie, Charles Coulston, Science and Polity in France at the End of the Old Regime, i Gilman, Sander L., Degeneration, 170 Gilman, Sander L., Disease and Representation, 429 Gilman, Sander L., Face of Madness, 562 Gilman, Sander L., Sexuality, 287 Gingerich, Owen, Sourcebook in Astronomy and Astrophysics 1900-197J, 51 Gingerich, Owen, Astrophysics and Twentieth-Century Astronomy to 1950, 51,

72-1

Gingerich, Owen, Copernicus's De Revolutionibus, 634 Gingerich, Owen, Eye of Heaven, 397 Gingerich, Owen, From Copernicus to Kepler, 150 Gingras, Yves, Histoire des sciences au Quebec, 112 Gingras, Yves, Physics and the Rise of Scientific Research in Canada, 112 Ginzburg, Carlo, Morelli, Freud and Sherlock Holmes, 261, 268 Gipe, Paul, Wind Energy Comes of Age, 759

Giroud, Frangoise, Marie Curie, 159 Gispen, Kees, New Profession, Old Order, 214 Giusti, Enrico, Euclides reformatus, 273 Gjertsen, Derek, Newton Handbook, 512 Glacken, Clarence J., Traces on the Rhodian Shore, 221, 505 Gladstone, John Hall, Michael Faraday, 251 Glasner, Peter, Politics of Uncertainty, 288 Glass, Bentley, Forerunners of Darwin, i74j-iSj9, 237 Glass, D.V, Introduction to Malthus, 434 Glasser, Otto, Wilhelm Conrad Rontgen and the Early History of the Roentgen Rays, 658 Gleick, James, Chaos, 123 Gleick, James, Genius, 257 Glen, William, Mass-Extinction Debates, 295 Glen, William, Road to Jaramillo, 148 Glennie, Paul, Reworking E. P. Thompson's "Time, Work-Discipline and Industrial Capitalism", 726 Glick, Thomas E, Comparative Reception of Darwinism, 165, 237, 636 Glick, Thomas E, Comparative Reception of Relativity, 636 Glick, Thomas E, Einstein in Spain, 198, 636, 699 Glimcher, Arnold B., Modern Art and Modern Science, 750 Glimm, James, Legacy of John von Neumann, 754 Gloyne, Stephen Roodhouse, John Hunter, 360 Glymour, Clark, Examining Holistic Medicine, 344 Glyn, Andrew, Capitalism since 1945, 117 Gnucheva, V.E, Geograficheskii Department Akademii Nauk XVUI veka, 66$ Gnudi, Martha Teach, Life and Times of Gaspare Tagliacozzi, 577 Gochet, Paul, Hilbert, 338 Godart, O., Cosmology of Lemaitre, 78 Gode von Aesch, Alexander, Natural Science in German Romanticism, 6$6 Godlee, Rickman John, Lord Lister, 419 Goethe, Johann Wolfgang von, Schriften zur Farbenlehre, 150 Goffman, Erving, Asylums, 53 Goldberg, Stanley, Michelson Era in American Science, 480 Goldberg, Stanley, Understanding Relativity, 636 Goldin, Grace, Hospital, 351 Golding, Edward William, Generation of Electricity by Wind Power, 759 Goldsmith, Maurice, Europe's Giant Accelerator, 122 Goldstein, Catherine, Metier des nombres aux i7e et I9e siecles, 253, 520 Goldstein, Catherine, Theoreme de Fermat et ses lecteurs, 253, 520 Goldstein, Jan, Console and Classify, 53, 1^4, 457 Goldstern, Martin, Incompleteness Phenomenon, 305

GREEN

BOOKLIST INDEX Goldstine, Herman H., Computer, 146, 754 Goldstine, Herman H., History of Numerical Analysis from the 16th Through the 19th Century, 499 Goldwhite, Harold, Dorothy Mary Crowfoot Hodgkin, 343 Goldziher, Ignaz, Attitude of Orthodox Islam Toward the Ancient Sciences, 641 Golinski, Jan, Science as Public Culture, 125, 127, 129, 218, 280, 293, 556, 594, 610 Golinski, Jan, Theory of Practice and the Practice of Theory, 589 Goller, P., Erwin Schrodinger, 671 Golley, Frank Benjamin, History of the Ecosystem Concept in Ecology, 190 Gombrich, Ernst H., Art and Illusion, 750 Gonzalez, E.L., Bochard de Saron and the Oxyhydrogen Blowpipe, 87 Gonzalez-Ulloa, Mario, Creation of Aesthetic Plastic Surgery, 577 Good, I.J., Early Work on Computers at Bletchley, 732 Gooday, Graeme, Instrumentation and Interpretation, 449 Gooday, Graeme, Morals of Energy Metering, 201, 589 Gooday, Graeme, Precision Measurement and the Genesis of Physics Teaching Laboratories in Victorian Britain, 201, 449 Gooday, Graeme, Teaching Telegraphy and Electrotechnics in the Physics Laboratory, 201 Goodchild, Peter, J., Robert Oppenheime, 532,650 Goode, George Brown, Smithsonian Institution, 690 Goode, Patrick, Oxford Companion to Gardens, 349 Goodfield, June, Discovery of Time, 726 Goodfield, June, Imagined World, 369 Goodfield, June, Playing God, 288 Goodfield, June, Growth of Scientific Physiology, 652 Gooding, David, Experiment and the Making of Meaning, 177, 251 Gooding, David, Faraday Rediscovered, 251 Gooding, David, Faraday, 251 Gooding, David, Final Steps to the Field Theory, 251 Gooding, David, In Nature's School, 202 Gooding, David, Michael Faraday's "Chemical Notes, Hints, Suggestions and Objects of Pursuit", 251 Gooding, David, U5e5 of Experiment, 246, 377 Goodison, Nicholas, English Barometers, 475 Goodman, David, Refashioning Nature, 522 Goodman, Nelson, Fact, Fiction and Forecast, 249 Goodrick-Clarke, Nicholas, Paracelsus, 545 Goodstein, Judith R., Millikan's School, 320

Goodwin, Richard, John von Neumann and Modern Economics, 754 Goodwin, T.W., History of the Biochemical Society, 81 Goody, Jack, Expansive Moment, 30 Gordin, Michael, Making Newtons, 478 Gordon, Elizabeth O., Life and Correspondence of William Buckland, 108 Gordon, James S., Holistic Medicine, 344 Gordon, Linda, Woman's Body, Woman's Right, 86 Gordon, Robert B., Material Evidence of the Manufacturing Methods Used in Armory Practice, 490 Gorman, Michael E., Understanding Invention as a Cognitive Process, 192 Gorny, Philippe, Histoire illustree de la cardiologie, 119 Gortari, Eli de, Ciencia en la historia de Mexico, 405 Gotschl, Johann, Erwin Schrodinger's World View, 671 Gottlieb, Leon S., History of Respiration, 652 Goudaroulis, Yorgos, Methodological Aspects of the Development of Low Temperature Physics, 157 Goudaroulis, Yorgos, Through Measurement to Knowledge, 157 Goudie, Andrew, Environmental Change, 221 Goudie, Andrew, Human Impact, 221 Gough, J.B., Lavoisier and the Fulfillment of the Stahlian Revolution, 127 Gouhier, Henri, Jeunesse d'Auguste Comte et la formation du positivisme, 147 Gouhier, Henri, Philosophie d'Auguste Comte, 147 Gouk, P.M., Newton and Music, 491 Gouk, Penelope, Ivory Sundials of Nuremberg 1^00-1700, 47, 444 Gould, Rupert Thomas, Marine Chronometer, 507 Gould, Stephen Jay, Mismeasure of Man, 30, 33, 89, ^87, 607, 625 Gould, Stephen Jay, Ontogeny and Phytogeny, 271 Gould, Stephen Jay, Sociobiology and the Theory of Natural Selection, 441 Gould, Stephen Jay, Time's Arrow, Time's Cycle, 17, 423, 726 Gould, Stephen Jay, Wonderfut Life, 295 Goupil, Michelle, Lavoisier et ta Revotution chimique, 407 Gower, Barry, Scientific Method, 246, 560 Gowing, Margaret, Britain and Atomic Energy, 1939-1945, 650 Gradmann, Christoph, Auf Collegen zum frohlichen Krieg, 403 Grafe, Alfred, History of Experimentat Virology, 749 Grafton, Anthony, Studied for Action, 634 Graham, A.C, Disputers of the Tao, 229 Graham, Harvey, Eternal Eve, 314, 528

Graham, Loren Disciptinary Graham, Loren in the Soviet Graham, Loren

791

R., Functions and Uses of Histories, 176 R., Science and Phitosophy Union, 425, 664 R., Science and Values,

2-34

Graham, Loren R., Science in Russia and the Soviet Union, 664, 66$ Graham, Loren R., Science, Phitosophy and Human Behavior in the Soviet Union, 175, 664 Graham, Loren R., Socio-Potitical Roots of Boris Hessen, 441 Graham, Loren R., Soviet Academy of Sciences and the Communist Party, 15127-1932, 664 Grande, Francisco, Claude Bernard and Experimentat Medicine, 73 Granshaw, Lindsay, St. Mark's Hospitat, London, 457 Grant, Edward, Much Ado about Nothing, 741 Grant, Edward, Ptanets, Stars, and Orbs, 643 Grant, Edward, Science and the Medieval University, 738 Grant, Edward, Science and Theology in the Middle Ages, 643 Grant, Edward, Source Book in Medieval Science, 463 Grant, John Cameron, Typographical Printing Surfaces, 595 Grassmann, Hermann, Science de la grandeur extensive, 25 Grattan-Guinness, Ivor, Companion Encyctopedia of the History and Phitosophy of the Mathematicat Sciences, $96 Grattan-Guinness, Ivor, entry on Pierre Laplace in Dictionary of Scientific Biography, 632 Grattan-Guinness, Ivor, From the Catcutus to Set Theory, 115, 683 Grattan-Guinness, Ivor, Towards a Biography of Georg Cantor, 115 Gray, Jeremy, Algebra in der Geometrie von Newton bis Pliiker, 298 Gray, Jeremy, Geometrical Work of Girard Desargues, 298 Gray, Jeremy, Ideas of Space, 298 Gray, Jeremy, Klein's Evanston Cottoquium Lectures and Other Works, 298 Gray, Jeremy, Linear Differentiat Equations and Group Theory from Riemann to Poincare, 298 Gray, Jeremy, Mobius's Geometrical Mechanics, 298 Gray, Jeremy, Nineteenth Century Revolution in Mathematical Ontology, 445, 520 Gray, John, Hayek on Liberty, 324 Grayson, Donald K., Estabtishment of Human Antiquity, 592 Grebenik, E., Malthus Past and Present, 432, 434 Green, Edward C , AIDS and STDs in Africa, 22

GREEN Green, Joseph Reynolds, History of Botany in the United Kingdom from the Earliest Times to the End of the 19th Century, 98, 100 Green, Joseph Reynolds, History of Botany, 1860-1900, 98, 99 Green, Peter S., International Directory of Botanicat Gardens, 9$ Greenaway, E, Chemistry, i, 87 Greenberg, Jay R., Object Retations in Psychoanatytic Theory, 603 Greenberg, John L., Probtem of the Earth's Shape from Newton to Ctairaut, 447, 632 Greenblatt, Stephen, Renaissance SetfFashioning, 155, 285 Greene, Henry Copley, Introduction to the Study of Experimentat Medicine, 73 Greene, John C , American Science in the Age of Jefferson, 735 Greene, John C , Death of Adam, 237 Greene, Mott T, Geology in the Nineteenth Century, 295 Greenhaigh, Paul, Ephemeral Vistas, 241 Greenwood, Davydd J., Taming of Evotution, 33 Greenwood, Major, Epidemiotogy, Historicat and Experimentat, 224 Gregory, Frederick, Scientific Materialism in Nineteenth-Century Germany, 300, 747 Gregory, Richard L., Oxford Companion to the Mind, 485 Grell, Ole Peter, Medicine and the Reformation, 645 Grene, Marjorie, Descartes and His Contemporaries, 120 Grene, Marjorie, Dimensions of Darwinism, 2-39 Gribbin, John, Richard Feynman, 257 Gribbin, Mary, Richard Feynman, 257 Gribbon, H.D., History of Waterpower in Ulster, 484 Griffen, Clyde, Meanings for Manhood, 285 Grigg, E.R.N., Trail of the Invisible Light, 628 Grilli, Mario, Restructuring of Physicat Sciences in Europe and the United States, 1945-1960, 548 Grimaux, Edouard, Lavoisier, 407 Grindley, Peter, Standards, Strategy, and Policy, 704 Grinevald, Jacques, Quadrature du CERN, 122 Grinstein, Louise S., Women in Chemistry and Physics, 736, 763, 766 Grmek, Mirko Drazen, Catalogue des manuscrits de Ctaude Bernard, $69 Grmek, Mirko Drazen, History of AIDS, 22 Grmek, Mirko Drazen, Raisonnement experimentat et recherches toxicotogiques chez Ctaude Bernard, $69, 728 Grob, Gerald N., Mad among Us, 53 Grobstein, Glifford, Doubte Image of the Doubte Helix, 288 Grodin, Michael A., Nazi Doctors and the Nuremberg Code, 454

BOOKLIST INDEX Groenewegen, P.D., Soaring Eagle, 437 Grogin, Robert C , Bergsonian Controversy in France, 752 Gross, Alan G., Rhetoric of Science, $86, 653 Gross, S.D., John Hunter and His Pupils, 360 Grosskurth, Phyllis, Melanie Ktein, 400, 603 Gruber, Howard E., Darwin on Man, 163, 177 Gruhn, John G., Hormonat Regutation of the Menstruat Cycte, 209 Guagnini, Anna, Education, Technotogy and Industriat Performance in Europe, 214 Guerlac, Henry, Chemistry as a Branch of Physics, 327 Guerlac, Henry, Lavoisier, 127, 408 Guerlac, Henry, Newton on the Continent, 514 Guerlac, Henry, Some French Antecedents of the Chemical Revolution, 127 Guggenheim, K.Y., Basic Issues of the History of Nutrition, 522 Guibert, Herve, A t'ami qui ne m'a pas sauve ta vie, 22 Guicciardini, Niccolo, Devetopment of Newtonian Catcutus in Britain, 514 Guidoni, Enrico, Primitive Architecture, 229 Guillain, Georges,/.-M. Charcot, 124 Guillaume, J., Leonardo da Vinci, 411 Guillemin, Lucienne, Cahier rouge of Ctaude Bernard, 73 Guillemin, Roger, Cahier rouge of Ctaude Bernard, 73 Gundlach, Horst, Entstehung und Gegenstand der Psychophysik, 608 Gundlach, Horst, T Fechner and Psychotogy, 60S Gunston, Bill, Devetopment of Jet and Turbine Aero Engines, 216 Gunther, Robert Theodore, Astrolabe of Queen Elizabeth, 44 Gunther, Robert Theodore, Astrotabes of the Wortd, 44, 47 Gursch, Reinhard, Ittustrationen Ernst Haeckets, 317 Gurvitch, Georges, Twentieth Century Sociotogy, 694 Gusdorf, Georges, Sciences humaines et ta pensee occidentate, 354 Guthrie, Douglas, Lord Lister, 419 Guthrie, W.K.C, In the Beginning, 592 Gutman, Huck, Technologies of the Setf, 263 Gutting, Gary, Michet Foucault's Archaeology of Scientific Reason, 263, 377 Gutting, Gary, Paradigms and Revotutions, $46 Gwei-Djen, Lu, Trans-Pacific Echoes and Resonances, 294 Gwinn, Nancy E., Fair Representations, 242 Haacke, Wilhelm, Kart Ernst von Baer, 68 Haakonssen, Knud, Science of a Legistator, 689

Haas, Ernst B., Scientists and Wortd Order, 381 Haas, Hans, Spieget der Arznei, 181 Haas, Peter M., Banning Chlorofluorocarbons, 381 Habakkuk, H.J., American and British Technotogy in the Nineteenth Century, 45^ Haber, Francis C , Age of the World, 17, 362 Haber, L.F., Chemical Industry During the Nineteenth Century, 186, 373 Haber, L.F., Chemical Industry, 1900-1930, 186, 373 Haber, L.E, Poisonous Cloud, 650 Habermas, Jurgen, Technology and Science as "Ideology", 367 Habfast, Claus, Grossforschung mit kteinen Teitchen, 548 Habib, S. Irfan, Introduction of Scientific Rationality into India, 370 Hacker, Sally, Pteasure, Power and Technology, 767 Hackett, L.W., Malaria in Europe, 431 Hacking, Ian, Representing and Intervening, M 6 , 456, 52-6, 560 Hacking, Ian, Emergence of Probabitity, $96 Hacking, Ian, Taming of Chance, 510, 596, 616, 747 Hackmann, W.D., Etectricity from Gtass, 202, 204, 753 Hackmann, W.D., Instrumentation in the Theory and Practice of Science, 675 Hackmann, W.D., Scientific Instruments, 675 Hadamard, Jacques, Henri Poincare, 580 Hadfield, Sir Robert A., Faraday and His Metatturgicat Researches, 251 Hafertepe, Kenneth, America's Castte, 690 Hafter, Daryl, Business of Invention in the Paris Industrial Exposition of 1806, 241 Hagemann, H., Economics of F.A. Hayek, 32-4

Hagen, Joel B., Entangted Bank, 190 Hagner, Michael, Experimentatisierung das Lebens. $69 Hagner, Michael, Johannes Miitter und die Phitosophie, 571 Hahn, Emily, Animat Gardens, 9$ Hahn, Otto, Scientific Autobiography, 318 Hahn, Otto, My Life, 318 Hahn, Roger, Science and the Arts in France, 208 Hahn, Roger, Anatomy of a Scientific Institution, 1, 69} Haigh, Elizabeth J., Xavier Bichat and the Medical Theory of the Eighteenth Gentury, 77, 752 Haiken, Beth, Body and Soul, 577 Hakfoort, Caspar, Science Deified, 539 Hakfoort, Casper, Optics in the Age of Euler, 534 Hald, Anders, History of Probability and Statistics and their Applications Before I7S0, $96 Hall, A. Rupert, Att Was Light, 512, 534 Hall, A. Rupert, Correspondence, of Henry Oldenburg, 389

HAYES

BOOKLIST INDEX Hall, A. Rupert, Isaac Newton, 511 Hall, A. Rupert, Philosophers at War, 410, 512 Hall, A. Rupert, Scientific Revolution, 1J00-1800,

678

Hall, A. Rupert, Unpublished Scientific Papers of Isaac Newton, 512 Hall, Diana Hall, Biology, Sex Hormones and Sexism in the 1920s, 209 Hall, Lesley A., Chloe, Olivia, Isabel, Letitia, Harriette, Honor, and Many More, 765 Hall, Marie Boas, All Scientists Now, 66z, 693 Hall, Marie Boas, Correspondence, of Henry Oldenburg, 389 Hall, Marie Boas, Promoting Experimental Learning, 661 Hall, Marie Boas, Robert Boyle and Seventeenth-Century Chemistry, i o i Hall, Marie Boas, Robert Boyle on Natural Philosophy, i o i Hall, Marie Boas, Unpublished Scientific Papers of Isaac Newton, 512 Hall, R. Cargill, Early US Satellite Proposals, 698 Hall, R. Cargill, Lunar Impact, 698 Hall, Robert T., Emile Durkheim, 184 Hall, Stephen S., Invisible Frontiers, 85, 288 Hall, Thomas S., Ideas of Life and Matter, 747 Hallam, Anthony, Revolution in the Earth Sciences, 148 Haller, Albrecht von, Bibliotheca Chirurgica, 708 Haller, Mark H., Eugenics, 234 Haller, Rudolf, Ernst Mach, 427 Hallett, Michael, Cantorian Set Theory and Limitation of Size, 115, 683 Halleux, Robert, Bermannus (Le Mineurj, 18 Halleux, Robert, Nature et la formation des metaux selon Agricola et ses contemporains, 18 Hambly, Maya, Drawing instruments, 444 Hamel, Jurgen, Nicolaus Copernicus, 151 Hamill, James E, Ethno-Logic, 372 Hamlin, Christopher, Predisposing Causes and Public Health in Early NineteenthCentury Medical Thought, 611 Hamlin, Christopher, Science of Impurity, 125 Hamlyn, D.W., Experience and the Growth of Knowledge, 573 Hammond, E.A., Medical Practitioners in Medieval England, 463 Hammond, P.W., Weighed in the Balance, 129, 261 Hamouda, O.F., Economics of EA. Hayek, Hamy, E.T., Derniers Jours du Jardin du Roi et la fondation du Museum d'Histoire Naturelle, 489 Hanfling, Oswald, Essential Readings in Logical Positivism, 249 Hankins, Frank H., Adolphe Quetelet as Statistician, 623 Hankins, Thomas L., Instruments, 675

Hankins, Thomas L., Instruments and the Imagination, 494, 556 Hankins, Thomas L., Jean D'Alembert, 632 Hankins, Thomas L., Science and the Enlightenment, 218 Hanks, Lesley, Buffon avant I'histoire naturelle, 109 Hannaway, Owen, Chemists and the Word, 474 Hansen, Adolph, Goethe's Metamorphose der Pflanzen, 308 Hansen, Adolph, Goethes Morphologie, 308 Hansen, Alvin, Guide to Keynes, 399 Hansen, Hans Christian, Poul la Cour, Grundtvigianer, Opfinder og Folkeoplyser, 759 Hansen, Nils Roll, Eugenics and the Welfare State, 711 Hanson, Norwood Russell, Patterns of Discovery, 177, 249, 439, 526, 750 Haramundanis, Katherine, Cecilia PayneGaposchkin, 762 Haraway, Donna J., Cyborg Manifesto, 672 Haraway, Donna J., Crystals, Fabrics, and Fields, 474 Haraway, Donna J., Primate Visions, 30, 33, 283 Haraway, Donna J., Simians, Cyborgs, and Women, 285 Haraway, Donna J., Situated Knowledges, ^^83 Hard, Mikael, Machines are Frozen Spirit, 157 Harden, Victoria A., Inventing the NIH, 138 Hardie, D.W.F., History of the Modern British Chemical Industry, 373 Hardin, Russell, Rational Man and Irrational Society^ 630 Harding, Anthony, Automobile Design, 60 Harding, M.C., Correspondance de H.C. 0rsted avec divers savants, 538 Harding, Sandra, Can Theories Be Refuted? 377 Harding, Sandra, Science Question in Feminism, 283 Harding, Sandra, Whose Science? Whose Knowledge? 283, 560 Hardy, Anne, Epidemic Streets, 224, 611 Hardyment, Christina, From Mangle to Microwave, 767 Hare, Ronald, Birth of Penicillin, and the Disarming of Microbes, 259, 260 Harley, J.B., History of Cartography, 121 Harman, Peter Michael, Energy, Force, and Matter, 205 Harman, Peter Michael, Wranglers and Physicists, 205 Harper, Donald J., Early Chinese Medical Literature, 135 Harre, Rom, Early Seventeenth Century Scientists, 302 Harre, Rom, Great Scientific Experiments, 246, 249 Harries-Jones, Peter, Recursive Vision, 71 Harrington, Anne, Medicine, Mind and the Double Brain, 511

793

Harris, Marvin, Rise of Anthropological Theory, 30, 88, 413, 625 Harris, Roy, Reading Saussure, 416 Harris, Ruth, Introduction to Charcot's Clinical Lectures on Diseases of the Nervous System, 124 Harris, William Snow, Rudimentary Magnetism, 430 Harrison, Gordon A., Mosquitoes, Malaria and Man, 431 Harrison, Ira E., Traditional Medicine, 15 Harrison, John, Capitalism since 1945, 117 Harrod, R.F., Life of John Maynard Keynes, Hartley, Harold, Humphry Davy, 167 Hartley, W.G., Light Microscope, 481 Hartmann, Hans, Max Planck als Mensch und Denker, 576 Hartner, Willy, Principle and Use of the Astrolabe, 44 Hartshorne, Richard, Nature of Geography, 565 Harvey, A. McGehee, Science at the Bedside, 138 Harvey, John, Mediaeval Gardens, 349 Harvey-Gibson, Robert John, Outlines of the History of Botany, 100 Harwood, John T , Early Essays and Ethics of Robert Boyle, i o i Harwood, Jonathan, Styles of Scientific Thought, 166 Hashimoto, Keizi, Xu Guang-Qi and Astronomical Reform, 133 Hasler, Ludwig, Schelling, 670 Hassan, Mohamed, Role of Women in the Development of Science and Technology in the Third World, 760 Hatch, Elvin, Theories of Man and Culture, 88, 236 Hatfield, Gary, Helmholtz and Classicism, 494 Hauke, Petra, Bibliographie zur Geschichte der Kaiser-Wilhelm-/Max-PlanckGesellschaft zur Forderung der Wissenschaften, 393 Hauser, Wilfried, Forschen-Messen-Priifen, 568 Havard, John D.J., Detection of Secret Homicide, 261 Hawkes, Peter W., Beginnings of Electron Microscopy, 481 Hawkins, Richard, Standards, Innovation and Competitiveness, 704 Hawkins, Thomas, Dedekind-Frohenius Correspondence in Context, 313 Hawkins, Thomas, Hesse's Principle of Transfer and the Representations of Lie Algebras, 313 Hawkins, Thomas, Lebesgue's Theory of Integration, 270, 683 Hawkins, Thomas, Wilhelm Killing and the Structure of Lie Algebras, 313 Hawthorn, Geoffrey, Enlightenment and Despair, 694 Hayes, E. Nelson, Claude Levi-Strauss, 413 Hayes, Tanya, Claude Levi-Strauss, 413

794

HAYM

Haym, Rudolf, Romantische Schute, 6$6 Haymaker, Webb, Founders of Neurotogy, 563 Haynes, Raymond, Exptorers of the Southern Sky, 50 Hayward, Tim, Ecological Thought, 221 Headrick, Daniel R., Invisible Weapon, 720 Headrick, Daniel R., Tentacles of Progress, 718 Hearnshaw, J.B., Anatysis of Startight, 47, 51, 700 Heath, Thomas Little, History of Greek Mathematics, 298 Heath, Thomas Little, Thirteen Books of Euctid's Etements, 232 Heath, Thomas Little, Works of Archimedes, 298 Heathcote, Niels H., Discovery of Specific and Latent Heats, 328 Heathcote, Roy, Rolls-Royce Dart, 216 Hebbel, H. Hoff, Cahier rouge of Ctaude Bernard, 73 Heberger, Karoly, Muegyetem tortenete 1781-1967, 359 Heckmann, Reinhard, Natur und Subjektivitat, 670 Heiberg, J.L., Archimedes Opera Omnia, cum Commentariis Eutocii, 39 Heiberg, J.L., Quaestiones Archimedeae, 39 Heida, Ulrike, Me/5 Stensen in seinen Beziehungen zu medizinischen Fachkottegen seiner Zeit, 707 Heidelberger, Michael, Experimentat Essays, 246 Heidelberger, Michael, Innere Seite der Natur, 608 Heidelberger, Michael, Probabilistic Revolution, $96, 706 Heilbron, J.L., Contributions of Bologna to Galvanism, 278 Heilbron, J.L., Ditemmas of an Upright Man, $76, 620 Heilbron, J.L., Earliest Missionaries of the Copenhagen Spirit, 617 Heilbron, J.L., Etectricity in the 17th and i8th Centuries, 204, 266, 280, 616, 753 Heilbron, J.L., Etements of Early Modern Physics, 202 Heilbron, J.L., entry on Volta in Dictionary of Scientific Biography, 753 Heilbron, J.L., Genesis of the Bohr Atom, 92 Heilbron, J.L., H.G.J. Moseley, 620 Heilbron, J.L., Historicat Studies in the Theory of Atomic Structure, 617, 620 Heilbron, J.L., Lawrence and His Laboratory, 409, 517, 548 Heilbron, J.L., Nobet Poputation, 516 Heilbron, J.L., Physics at the Royat Society during Newton's Presidency, 514 Heilbron, J.L., Quantifying Spirit in the i8th Century, 616 Heilbron, J.L., Scattering of a and P Particles and Rutherford's Atom, 667 Heilbron, J.L., Weighing Imponderables and Other Quantitative Science around 1800, 32-7

BOOKLIST INDEX Heim, Roger, Buffon, 109 Heimann, Peter M., Conservation of Forces and the Conservation of Energy, 211 Heimann, Peter M., Helmholtz and Kant, 211

Heimann, Peter M., Mayer's Concept of "Force", 211 Heims, Steve J., John Von Neumann and Norbert Wiener, 445, 754 Hein, Wolfgang-Hagen, Alexander von Humboldt, 357 Heine, Heinrich, Romantic Schoot, 6$6 Heinroth, Katharina, Oskar Heinroth, 422 Heintz, Bettina, Herrschaft der Reget, 445 Heintzenberg, Friedrich, Werner von Siemens in Briefen an seine Famitie und an Freunde, 686 Heinz, David, Rudotf Virchow und die Medizen des 20. Jahrhunderts, 747 Heischkel-Artelt, Edith, Erndhrung und Erndhrungstehre im 19. Jahrhundert, 52.i Heisenberg, Elisabeth, Inner Exite, 329 Helden, Albert Van, Johannes Hevelius and the Visual Language of Astronomy, 634 Helfand, William H., Pharmacy, 559 Heller, John L., Studies in Linnean Method and Nomenctature, 417 Heller, M., Cosmotogy of Lemaitre, 78 Hellman, Geoffrey T , Smithsonian Octopus on the Matt, 690 Helm, June, Pioneers of American Anthropotogy, 88 Helman, Cecil, Cutture, Heatth, and Ittness, 72.9 Helmholtz, Hermann von, Festbericht uber die Gedenkfeier zur hundertjahrigen Wiederkehr des Geburtstages Josef Fraunhofer's, 267 Hemon, Felix, Etoge de Buffon, 109 Hempel, Carl Gustav, Aspects of Scientific Exptanation, and Other Essays in the Phitosophy of Science, $ 60 Henderson, Janice, Computerised Checktist of Astrotabes, 44 Hendricks, Gordon, Edison Motion Picture Myth, 192 Hendry, John, Cambridge Physics in the Thirties, 517 Hendry, John, James Cterk Maxwell and the Theory of the Electromagnetic Fietd, 205, 448 Hendry, John, Creation of Quantum Mechanics and the Bohr-Pauli Dialogue, 617 Heninger, S.K., Handbook of Renaissance Meteorotogy, 476 Heninger, S.K., Touches of Sweet Harmony, 612 Henning, Eckart, Chronik der KaiserWithetm-Gesettschaft zur Forderung der Wissenschaften, 393 Henning, Eckart, j o Jahre Max-PtanckGesellschaft zur Forderung der Wissenschaften, 393

Henry, George, History of Medicat Psychotogy, 602 Henry, Richard C , Henry Rowland and Astronomical Spectroscopy, 660 Hentschel, Klaus, Discovery of the Redshift of Solar Frauenhofer Lines by Rowland and Jewell in Baltimore around 1890, 660 Hentschel, Klaus, Einstein-Turm, 6^6 Hentschel, Klaus, Ernst Mach ats Aussenseiter, 427 Hentschel, Klaus, Interpretionen und Fehtinterpretationen der spezietten und der attgemeinen Retativitdtstheorie durch Zeitgenossen Atbert Einsteins, 636 Hentschel, Klaus, Korrespondenz Duhem-Mach, 427 Hentschel, Klaus, On Feyerabend's Version of "Mach's Theory of Research and Its Relation to Einstein", 427 Herbert, Christopher, Cutture and Anomie, 30 Herivel, John, Background of Newton's "Principia", 512 Herlihy, David, Opera Mutiebria, 767 Herman, Edward S., Hope and Fotty, 304 Herman, Ellen, Romance of American Psychology, 607 Hermann, Armin, Dokumente der Naturwissenschaft, 576 Hermann, Armin, Einstein, 198 Hermann, Armin, Genesis of Quantum Theory, 620 Hermann, Armin, History of CERN, 122, 517, 548 Hermann, Armin, entry on Laue in Dictionary of Scientific Biography, 406 Hermann, Armin, Max Planck in Selbstzeugnissen und Bilddokumenten, 576 Hermann, Armin, New Physics, 318 Hermann, Armin, Wellenmechanik, 671 Hermann, Armin, Werner Heisenberg in Selbstzeugnissen und Bitddokumenten, 329 Hermbstadt, Sigismund Friedrich, Sdmmtliche physische und chemische Werke, by Scheele, 669 Herneck, Friedrich, Max von Laue, 406 Herneck, Friedrich, Otto Hahn and Lise Meitner, 464 Herries Davies, Gordon L., North from the Hook, 295 Herries Davies, Gordon L., Earth in Decay, 295, 362 Herrmann, Dieter B., History of Astronomy from Herschel to Hertzsprung, 51 Herrnstein, Richard J., Bett Curve, 625 Hershberg, James G., James B. Conant, 55 Hertz, Johanna, Erinnerungen, Briefe, Tagebiicher, 337 Herwig, Helge, Werner Heisenberg, 3 29 Hess, David J., Science in the New Age, 703 Hesse, Mary B., Forces and Fields, 12, 205, 741

HOLMES

BOOKLIST INDEX

Hesse, Mary B., Gilbert and the Historians, 302 Hessen, Boris, Social and Economic Roots of Newton's "Principia", 367, 441, 589 Hessenbruch, Arne, Geschlechterverhaltnis und rationalisierte Rontgenologie, 478 Hessenbruch, Arne, Spread of Precision Measurement in Scandinavia, 1660-1800, i7i> 478

Heuser-Kessler, Marie-Luise, Produktivitat der Natur, 670 Hevly, Bruce, Big Science, 79 Heward, C M . , Industry, Cleanliness and Godliness, 194 Heymann, Bruno, Robert Koch, 403 Heymann, Matthias, Geschichte der Windenergienutzung, 759 Hiebert, Erwin, Boltzmann's Conception of Theory Construction, 94 Hiebert, Erwin, Historical Roots of the Principle of Conservation of Energy, 21 T Hiebert, Erwin, Mach's Philosophical Use of the History of Science, 427 Hiebert, Erwin, Role of Experiment and Theory in the Development of Nuclear Physics in the Early 1930s, 517 Hien, Wolfgang, Chemische Industrie und Krebs, 114 Highfield, Roger, Private Lives of Albert Einstein, 198 Hilbert, David, Foundations of Ceometry, 63 Hilbert, David, Natur und mathematisches Erkennen, 6} Hildebrandt, G., "Max von Laue, der Ritter ohne Eurcht und Tadel", 406 Hilgartner, Stephen, Dominant View of Popularization, 586 Hill, Christopher, Intellectual Origins of the English Revolution, 469 Hill, Edward, My Daughter Beatrice, 762 Hill, G.E., Development of Arabic Numerals in Europe, 41 Hill, Michael R., introduction to How To Observe Morals and Manners, 438 Hill, Stephen, Dominant Ideology Thesis, 401 Hillam, Christine, Brass Plate and Brazen Impudence, 172 Hillam, Christine, Roots of Dentistry, 172 Hillman, James, Lectures on Jung's Typology, 391 Hills, Richard L., Measurement of Power in Early Steam-Driven Textile Mills, 309 Hills, Richard L., Power from Steam, 215 Hills, Richard L., Power from Wind, 484 Hilton, Peter, Working with Alan Turing, 732 Hilts, Victor L., Statist and Statistician, 83, i77> 333. 554 Himes, Norman E., Medical History of Contraception, 86 Himmelfarb, Gertrude, Darwin and the Darwinian Revotution, 163, 237 Himmelweit, Ered, Collected Papers of Paul Ehrlich, 197

Hindle, Brooke, David Rittenhouse, 654 Hindle, Brooke, entry on Rittenhouse in Dictionary of Scientific Biography, 654 Hindle, Brooke, Pursuit of Science in Revolutionary America, 735 Hindle, Brooke, Scientific Writings of David Rittenhouse, 654 Hindle, Brooke, Technology in Early America, 490 Hine, William L., Marin Mersenne, 467 Hine, William L., Mersenne and Copernicanism, 467 Hine, William L., Mersenne and Vanini, 467 Hine, William L., Mersenne Variants, 467 Hinshelwood, R.D., Dictionary of Kleinian Thought, 400, 603 Hipler, Eranz, Biographen des Nikolaus Kopernikus, 151 Hirayama, A., Takakazu Seki Zenshu, 682 Hirose, H., Takakazu Seki Zenshu, 682 Hirosige, Tetu, Formation of Bohr's Theory of Atomic Constitution, 92 Hirsch, August, Handbook of Geographical and Historical Pathology, 224 Hirsch, Joachim, Eordism and Post-Fordism, 117 Hirschfeld, Magnus, Homosexualitdt des Mannes und des Weibes, 685 Hirschfeld, Magnus, Transvestites, 685 Hirschman, Albert O., Passions and the Interests, 584 Hirsh, Richard E., Glimpsing an Invisible Universe, 51, 698 Hirst, L. Eabian, Conquest of Plague, 575 Hitchens, Henry Luxmoore, from Lodestone to Gyro-Compass, 507 Ho Peng Yoke, Li, Qi and Shu, 50, 133 Hobby, Gladys L., Penicillin, 259, 260 Hoch, Paul, Formation of a Research School, 697 Hoddeson, Lillian, Birth of Particle Physics, 548 Hoddeson, Lillian, Critical Assembly, 55, 650 Hoddeson, Lillian, Discovery of the PointContact Transistor, 697 Hoddeson, Lillian, Out of the Crystal Maze, 442, 566, 697 Hoddeson, Lillian, Pions to Quarks, 548 Hodge, Jonathan, Darwin Studies at Work, 42.3 Hodge, Michael J.S., Conceptions of Ether, 10

Hodges, Andrew, Alan Turing, 732 Hodges, Devon, From Klein to Kristeva, 400 Hodgkin, A.L., Pursuit of Nature, 244 Hodgkiss, Andrew, Chronic Pain in Nineteenth-Century British Medical Writings, 543 Hodgson, J.H., Heavens Above and the Earth Beneath, 112 Hodson, F.R., Place of Astronomy in the Ancient World, 50 Hoecker-Drysdale, Susan, Harriet Martineau, 438

795

Hoekstra, Thomas W., Toward a Unified Ecology, 190 Hoeniger, David E, Science and tbe Arts in tbe Renaissance, 647 Hoesch, Kurt, Emil Fischer, Sein Leben und Werk, 258 Hoff, Hebbel E., Graphic Recording before Ludwig, 309 Hoffheimer, Michael, Maupertuis and the Eighteenth-Century Critique of Preexistence, 447 Hoffleit, Dorrit, Education of American Women Astronomers Before i960, 762 Hoffleit, Dorrit, Women in the History of Variable Star Astronomy, 762 Hoffman, Edward, Drive for Self, 9 Hoffman, Joseph E., Leibniz in Paris, i6'/i-i6y6, 410 Hoffmann, Dieter, Ernst Mach, 427 Hoffmann, Dieter, Erwin Scbrodinger, 671 Hoffmann, Dieter, Hermann von Heimholtz, 330 Hoffmann, Dieter, Hermann von Hetmboltz-Bibliographie der Schriften von und iiber ihn, 330 Hoffmann, Dieter, Werner von Siemens, 686 Hoffmann, Klaus, Schuld und Verantwortung, 318 Hoffmann, Roald, Chemistry Imagined, 129 Hoffmann-Axthelm, Walter, History of Dentistry, 172 Hofmann, Joseph E., Pierre Eermat, 253 Hofmann, Joseph E., Uber zahlentheoretische Methoden Eermats und Eulers, ihre Zusammenhange und ihre Bedeutung, ^53 Hofstadter, Douglas R., Godel, Escber, Bach, 305 Hofstadter, Richard, Social Darwinism in American Thought, 702 Hofsten, Nils von, Linnaeus's Concept of Nature, 418 Holder, Leonard, History of Marine Navigation, 430 Hollander, Samuel, Classical Economics, 584 Hollander, Samuel, Economics of Adam Smith, 689 Hollander, Samuel, Economics of John Stuart Mill, 482 Hollis, Martin, Cunning of Reason, 631 Hollis, Martin, Rationality and Relativism, 631 Hollister-Short, Graham, First Fifty Years of the Rod-Engine, 18 Hollister-Short, Graham, History of Technology, 200, 204, 720 Hollman, Arthur, Sir Thomas Lewis, 138 Holloway, David, Stalin and the Bomb, 5 5 Holloway, Rachel L., In the Matter of J. Robert Oppenheimer, 532 Holloway, S.W.F, Royal Pharmaceutical Society of Great Britain, 559 Holly, Daniel A., UNESCO, le Tiers-Monde et I'economie mondiale, 304 Holmes, Erederic L., Between Biology and Medicine, 652

796

HOLMES

Holmes, Erederic L., Claude Bernard and Animal Chemistry, 73, 569, 652 Holmes, Frederic L., Complementarity of Teaching and Research in Liebig's Laboratory, 415 Holmes, Frederic L., Do We Understand Historically How Experimental Knowledge Is Acquired? 246 Holmes, Erederic L., Eighteenth-Century Chemistry as an Investigative Enterprise, 127 Holmes, Erederic L., Hans Krebs, 81, 652 Holmes, Erederic L., Investigative Enterprise, M4, 571 Holmes, Frederic L., Lavoisier and the Chemistry of Life, 127, 408, 652 Holmes, Frederic L., Precision's Images, 309 Holmes, Frederic L., Research Schools, 176 Holmes, Lowell D., Quest for the Real Samoa, 30 Holmes, T , Introductory Address delivered at St. George's Hospital, 360 Holmyard, Eric John, Alchemy, 24 Holt, Geoffrey, Biotechnology, 85 Holt, Richard, Mills of Medieval England, 484 Hotter, Heinz, Cartsberg Laboratory, 171 Holton, Gerald, Advancement of Science, and Its Burdens, 722 Holton, Gerald, Albert Einstein, 198 Holton, Gerald, Einstein, Michelson, and the Crucial Experiment, 480 Holton, Gerald, Eermi's Group and the Recapture of Italy's Place in Physics, 254, 517 Holton, Gerald, Scientific Imagination, 722 Holton, Gerald, Thematic Origins of Scientific Thought, 198, 636, 722 Homans, Peter, Jung in Context, 391 Homburg, Ernst, Chemical Industry in Europe, 186 Homburg, Ernst, New Technologies, Political Frameworks, Markets and Companies, 186 Home, R.W., Australian Science in the Making, 59, 143 Home, R.W., International Science and National Scientific Identity, 59, 381 Home, R.W., Introduction in Aepinus's Essay on the Theory of Electricty and Magnetism, 430 Hon, Giora, Towards a Typology of Experimental Errors, 225 Honigmann, John J., Development of Anthropological Ideas, 30 Hont, Istvan, Wealth and Virtue, 689 Hood, Leroy, Code of Codes, 179, 352 Hoodbhoy, Pervez, Islam and Science, 641 Hoover, Herbert, De Re Metallica, 18 Hoover, Lou Henry, De Re Metallica, 18 Hooykaas, Reijer, Catastrophism in Geology, 4^3 Hooykaas, Reijer, Experientia ac ratione, 364 Hooykaas, Reijer, Natural Law and Divine Miracle, 108, 423

BOOKLIST INDEX Hooykaas, Reijer, Religion and the Rise of Modern Science, 469, 645 Hooykaas, Reijer, Robert Boyle, i o i Hopkins, Donald R., Princes and Peasants, 224 Hoppe, Brigitte, Louis Lewin, 728 Hoppe, Hansgeorg, Kants Theorie der Physik, 395 Hopwood, Anthony, Accounting as Social and Institutional Practice, 6 Horder, T.J., History of Embryology, 207 Horiuchi, Annick, Mathematiques japonaises a I'epoque d'Edo, 682 Hornix, Willem J., Organic Chemistry and High Technology, 186 Hornstein, Gail A., Quantifying Psychological Phenomena, 608 Horrocks, Sally, British Industrial Research and Development before 1945, 650 Horsburgh, E.M., Handbook of the Exhibition of Napier Relics and of Books, Instruments, and Devices for Facilitating Calculation, i i i H5rz, Herbert, Ludwig Boltzmanns Wege nach Berlin, 94 Horz, Herbert, Physiologie und Kultur in der zweiten Halfte des 19, 330 Hoskin, Michael, Cambridge Illustrated History of Astronomy, 49 Hoskin, Michael, General History of Astronomy, 49 Hoskin, Michael, William Herschel and the Construction of the Heavens, 336 Hoskins, M.A., Mathematical Papers of Isaac Newton, 513 Houghton, Bernard, Scientific Periodicals, 389 Hounshell, David A., From the American System to Mass Production, 452, 716 Hounshell, David A., Science and Corporate Strategy, 55, 186, 578 Hountondji, Paulin J., African Philosopby, 371 Howard, Don, Einstein and the History of General Relativity, 6^6 Howard, Jane, Margaret Mead, 71 Howard, Richard A., International Directory of Botanical Gardens, 95 Howarth, O.J.R., British Association for the Advancement of Science, 106 Howell, Joel D., Soldier's Heart, 119 Howell, Joel D., Technology in the Hospital, 35i> 551 Howie, W.B., Sidelights on Lister, 419 Howse, Derek, Greenwich Time and the Discovery of the Longitude, 726 Howson, Susan, Economic Advisory Council, 399 Hoyme, Lucile E., Anthropology and Its Instruments, 33 Hoyningen-Huene, Paul, Reconstructing Scientific Revolutions, 546 Hoyrup, Jens, Algebra and Naive Geometry, 195 Hoyrup, Jens, In Measure, Number and Weight, 195, 227

Hrdlicka, Ales, Physical Anthropology, 33 Hsu, Cho-yun, Han Agriculture, 132 Hsu, Kuang-Tai, Nicolaus Steno and His Sources, 707 Hu, Shiu Ying, History of the Introduction of Exotic Elements into Traditional Chinese Medicine, 137 Huang, Philip C.C., Peasant Economy and Social Change in North China, 132 Huang, Philip C.C., Peasant Family and Rural Development in the Yangzi Delta, 132 Huard, Pierre, Medecine Japonaise, 386 Hubbard, Ruth, Profitable Promises, 283 Hiibner, Jurgen, Theologie Johannes Keplers zwischen Orthodoxie und Naturwissenschaft, 397 Hudson Jones, Anne, Images of Nurses, 521 Hudson, Gill, Unfathering the Thinkable, 343 Hudson, John, History of Chemistry, 129 Hudson, Kenneth, Directory of World Museums, 490 Hudson, Nicholas, Writing and European Thought, 416 Hueper, Wilhelm C , Occupational Tumors and Allied Diseases, 114 Hufbauer, Karl, Exploring the Sun, 51, 698 Hufbauer, Karl, Formation of the German Cbemical Community, 127, 389 Huff, Toby E., Islam, Science and Fundamentalism, 641 Huff, Toby E., Rise of Early Modern Science, 35. ^94. 641 Huffman, Carl A., Philolaus of Croton, 612 Hughes, Arthur, History of Cytology, 340 Hughes, Arthur, Science in English Encyclopedia, 1704-1875, 208 Hughes, E., Making of the Physician, 598 Hughes, Judith M., Reshaping tbe Psychoanalytic Domain, 400, 603 Hughes, Miranda, Dynamometer and the Diemenese, 33 Hughes, Sally Smith, Virus, 749 Hughes, Thomas P., American Genesis, 409, 483 Hughes, Thomas P., Machines, Megamachines, and Systems, in In Context, 452 Hughes, Thomas P., Networks of Power, 192, 200, 204, 716 Hughes, Thomas P., Social Construction of Technological Systems, 509, 716 Huisgen, Rolf, Adolf von Baeyers wissenschaftliches Werk, 68 Hull, David L., Darwin and His Critics, 237 Hull, David L., Darwinism as a Historical Entity, 165 Hull, David L., Science as a Process, 177, 389 Humphrey, Harry Baker, Makers of North American Botany, 98 Hundert, E.J., Enlightenment's Fable, 218 Hunt, Bruce J., Maxwellians, 10, 205, 448, 72.5

JANZEN

BOOKLIST INDEX Hunt, Bruce J., Michael Faraday, Cable Telegraphy and the Rise of Eield Theory, 202 Hunt, Bruce J., Ohm is Where the Art Is, 202 Hunt, Bruce J., Scientists, Engineers and Wildman Whitehouse, 202, 449 Hunt, Frederick Vinton, Etectroacoustics, 7 Hunt, Erederick Vinton, Origins in Acoustics, 7 Hunt, Lynn, Eroticism and the Body Politic, 89 Hunter, Kathryn Montgomery, Doctors' Stories, 180 Hunter, Louis C , History of Industrial Power in tbe United States, 2T5, 484 Hunter, Michael, Establishing the New Science, 66i Hunter, Michael, How Boyle Became a Scientist, 101 Hunter, Michael, Robert Boyle, i o i Hunter, Michael, Robert Boyle Reconsidered, IOI Hunter, Michael, Royal Society and Its Fellows, 1660-1700, 693 Hunter, Michael, Science and Society in Restoration England, 469, 693 Hurd-Mead, Kate Campbell, History of Women in Medicine, 765 Hutchison, Keith, W.J.M. Rankine and the Rise of Thermodynamics, 211 Hutchison, T.W., Before Adam Smith, 689 Hutin, S., Alchemists, 24 Hutton, Patrick H., Technologies of the Self, 263 Huxley, Anthony Julian, Illustrated History of Gardening, 349 Huxley, Julian, Heredity East and West, 425 Huxley, Leonard, Life and Letters of Sir Joseph Dal ton Hooker, 348 Huygens, Christiaan, Oeuvres completes, 364 Hyams, Edward, Great Botanical Gardens of the World, 95 Hyams, Edward, History of Gardens and Gardening, 95 Hyatt, Marshall, Franz Boas, Social Activist, 30 Hyde, Janet Shibley, Understanding Human Sexuality, 685 Hyndman, D., Conservation Through SelfDetermination, 372 Hynek, J.A., Astrophysics, 51 lanniello, M.G., Discovery of Cosmic Rays, 548 Ifrah, Georges, From One to Zero, 41 Ignatieff, Michael, Wealth and Virtue, 689 Ihde, Aaron J., Development of Modern Chemistry, 373 Ihde, Don, Instrumental Realism, 377 llberg, Johannes, Uber die Schriftstellerei des Klaudios Galenos, 273 Ilgauds, Hans Joachim, Georg Cantor, 115 Iliffe, Robert, Applatisseur du monde de Cassini, 449, 582

lltis, Hugo, Life of Mendel, 465 Impagliazzo, John, Legacy of John von Neumann, 754 Inglis, Brian, Natural and Supernatural, 703 Inglis, Brian, Science and Parascience, 703 Ingrao, Bruna, Invisible Hand, 584 Inkster, Ian, Metropolis and Province, 693 Inkster, Ian, Science and Technology in History, 718 Irigaray, Luce, Speculum of the Other Woman, 285, 605 Irvine, William, Apes, Angels, and Victorians, 363 Isis Current Bibliography of the History of Science and Its Cultural Influences, 341 Israel, Georgio, Invisible Hand, 584 Israel, Joachim, Alienation from Marx to Modern Sociology, 27 Israel, Paul, Edison, 192 Israel, Paul, Edison's Electric Light, 192 Issekutz, Bela, Geschichte der Arzneimittelforschung, 181 Itard, Jean, Essais d'histoire des mathematiques, 253 Ityavyar, Dennis, Political Economy of Health in Africa, 15 Ivins, William M. Jr, Art and Geometry, 750 Ivins, William M. Jr, Prints and Visual Communication, $61, 634 Ivins, William M. Jr., What about the "Fabrica" of Vesalius? 745 Jackson, Christine E., Bird Etchings, 537 Jackson, Christine E., Bird Illustrators, 537 Jackson, Myles W, Artisanal Knowledge and Experimental Natural Philosophers, 267 Jackson, Myles W., Illuminating the Opacity of Achromatic Lens Production, 267 Jackson, Myles W., Natural and Artificial Budgets, 308 Jackson, Myles W, Spectrum of Belief, 308 Jacob, J.R., Robert Boyle and the English Revolution, ioi Jacob, Margaret C , Cultural Meaning of the Scientific Revolution, 678 Jacob, Margaret C , Newton and the Culture of Newtonianism, 512 Jacob, Margaret C , Newtonians and the English Revolution, 1689-iyzo, 469, 514 Jacobi, Daniel, Ehrlich's Beautiful Pictures and the Controversial Beginning of Immunological Imagery, 197 Jacobi, Yolande, Selected Writings, 545 Jacobson, Harold K., WHO, 304 Jacobson, Marcus, Foundations of Neuroscience, 511 Jacobson-Widding, Anita, Culture, Experience and Pluralism, 15 Jacobus, Mary, Body/Politics, 285 Jacquart, Danielle, Sexualite et savoir medical au Moyen Age,i,6-i Jacques, David, Georgian Gardens, 349 Jacyna, L.S., Medical Science and Moral Science, 569

797

Jacyna, L.S., Nineteenth-Century Origins of Neuroscientific Concepts, 278 Jaenicke, Lothar, Roots of Modern Biochemistry, 81 Jaenicke, Rainer, Selected Topics in the History of Biochemistry, 81 Jaffe, Bernhard, Michelson and the Speed of Light, 480 Jaki, Stanley L., Reluctant Heroine, 183 Jaki, Stanley L., Road of Science and the Ways to God, 639, 643 Jaki, Stanley L., Science and Creation, 639 Jaki, Stanley L., Uneasy Genius, 183 Jakubi'eek, Milan, Bibliographia Mendiana, 465 James, Edward, Science Fiction in the Twentieth Century, 672 James, Erank A.J.L., Collections X, 661 James, Erank A.J.L., Correspondence of Michael Faraday, 251 James, Erank A.J.L., Creation of a Victorian Myth, 700 James, Frank A.J.L., Davy in the Dockyard, 167, 204 James, Erank A.J.L., Development of the Laboratory, 568 James, Erank A.J.L., Discovery of Line Spectra, 700 James, Frank A.J.L., Early Development of Spectroscopy and Astrophysics, 700 James, Erank A.J.L., Establishment of Spectro-Chemical Analysis as a Practical Method of Qualitative Analysis,

1854-1861, 700 James, Frank A.J.L., Faraday, 251 James, Erank A.J.L., Faraday Rediscovered, i5i

James, Erank A.J.L., History of Technology, 200, 204, 720 James, Jamie, Music of the Spheres, 494 James, Patricia, "Population" Malthus, 432, 434 James, Peter, Ancient Inventions, 311 James, Wendy, Essays in Sudan Ethnography presented to Sir Edward Evans-Pritchard, 236 Jami, Catherine, Europe en Chine, 388 Jami, Catherine, Science and Empires, 143 Jammer, Max, Concepts of Force, 12 Jammer, Max, Concepts of Space, 741 Jammer, Max, Conceptual Development of Quantum Mechanics, 329, 617 Jannetta, Ann Bowman, Epidemics and Mortality in Early Modern Japan, 386 Janssen, Michel, Attraction of Gravitation, 6i6 Jantzen, Jorg, Friedrich Wilhelm Joseph Schelling, 670 Janzen, John M., Causality and Classification in African Health and Medicine, 15 Janzen, John M., Quest for Therapy in Lower Zaire, 15 Janzen, John M., Social Basis of Health and Healing in Africa, 15 Janzen, John M., Social History of Disease and Medicine in Africa, 15

798

JARCHO

BOOKLIST INDEX

Jarcho, Saul, Clinical Consultations of Giambattista Morgagni, 551 Jarcho, Saul, Quinine's Predecessor, 431 Jardine, Lisa, Francis Bacon, 65 Jardine, Lisa, Studied for Action, 634 Jardine, Nicholas, Birth of History and Philosophy of Science, 397 Jardine, Nicholas, Cultures of Natural History, 221 Jardine, Nicholas, Romanticism and the Sciences, 300, 656 Jarrell, Richard A., CoW Light of Dawn, 51, 112

Jarvie, I.C., Revolution in

Anthropology,

30 Jarvis, Caroline, International Zoo Yearbook, 95 Jasanoff, Sheila, Handbook of Science and Technology Studies, 79 Jasanoff, Sheila, Science at the Bar, 460 Jasper, James, Animal Rights Crusade, 34 Jay, Martin, Downcast Eyes, 750 Jay, Martin, Marxism and Totality, 440 Jeannerod, Marc, Brain Machine, 511 Jeans, James Hopwood, Science and Music, 494 Jeffery, Roger, Politics of Health in India, 371 Jeffreys, Alan E., Michael Faraday, 251 Jehl, Francis, Menlo Park Reminiscences,

192 Jellison, Katherine, Entitled to Power, 767 Jenkins, Alan, Social Theory of Claude LeviStrauss, 413 Jenkins, E.N., Radioactivity, 616 Jenkins, Rhys, James Watt and the Steam Engine, 215, 757 Jenni, Marcel, Leonhard Euler, iyoy-ij8^, 632 Jensen, W.B., Development of Blowpipe Analysis, 87 Jeremy, David J., Transatlantic Industrial Revotution, 718 Jerome, Harry C , Mechanization in Industry, 452 Jespersen, Anders, Lady Isabella Waterwheel of the Great Laxey Mining Company, 484 Jewson, Nicholas D., Disappearance of the Sick Man from Medical Cosmology, 180, 344 Jewson, Nicholas D., Medical Knowledge and the Patronage System in EighteenthCentury England, 180 Jia, Lanpo, Story of Peking Man, 592 Johannsen, Otto, Geschichte des Eisens, 472 Johnsen, A.O., History of Modern Whaling, 582 Johnson & Johnson, Lister and the Ligature, 419 Johnson, Francis R., Astronomicat Thought in Renaissance England, 150 Johnson, Jeffrey Allan, Kaiser's Chemists, 2-58. 393. 4 4 i Johnson, Mark, Philosophicat Perspectives on Metaphor, 474

Johnson, Phillip E., History of Set Theory, 683 Johnson, Samuel, Journey to the Western lstes of Scottand, 582 Johnson, Terence J., Professions and Power, 598 Johnson, Virginia C , Human Sexuat Inadequacy, 685 Johnson, Virginia C , Human Sexual Response, 685 Johnston, R.J., Geography Since the Second World War, 565 Johnston, Sean, Construction Of Colorimetry By Committee, 449 Johnston, Stephen, Geometry of War,

1500-17S0, 444 Johnstone, R.W., Historical Review of British Obstetrics and Gynaecotogy, 314, 528 Jollivet, Marcen, Sciences de ta nature, 229 Jonas, Gerald, Circuit Riders, 655 Joncich, Geraldine M., Sane Positivist, 680 Jones, Alexander, Book 7 of the Cottection, 298 Jones, Bence, Royat Institution, 661 Jones, Bessie Zaban, Harvard College Observatory, j6z Jones, Colin, Charitable Imperative, 521 Jones, Colin, Reassessing Foucautt, 263 Jones, Ernest, Sigmund Freud, 268, 603 Jones, Gareth, Outcast London, 170 Jones, Gareth, Practical Medical Etbics, 454 Jones, Kathleen, Asylums and After, 53 Jones, Peter, "Science of Man" in the Scottish Enlightenment, 354 Jones, Peter, Sir Isaac Newton, 512 Jones, Prudence, History of Pagan Europe, 229 Jones, Richard Foster, Ancients and Moderns, 302 Jones, Robert Alun, Emite Durkheim, 184 Jones, W.H.S., Malaria and Greek History, 431 Joravsky, David, Lysenko Affair, 175, 425, 441 Joravsky, David, Russian Psychology, 553 Joravsky, David, Soviet Marxism and Naturat Science, 175, 425, 664 Jordan, Bertrand, Travelling Around the Human Genome, 352 Jordanova, Ludmilla, Languages of Nature, 420 Jordanova, Ludmilla, Sexual Visions, 589 Jorpes, Johan Erik, Jac. Berzelius, 75 Josephson, Matthew, Edison, 192 Judah, Haim, Incompleteness Phenomenon, 305 Judson, Horace Freeland, Eighth Day of

Creation, 290, 291, 487 Juma, Calestous, Gene Hunters, 372 Jung, Carl Gustav, Man and His Symbols, 391 Jung, Carl Gustav, Memories, Dreams, Reflections, 391 Jung, Carl Gustav, Paracelsus as a Spiritual Phenomenon, 545

Jungk, Robert, Brigbter than a Thousand Suns, 329, 650 Jungnickel, Christa, Intellectual Mastery of Nature, 94, 205, 620, 636 Junker, Thomas, Charles Darwin's Correspondence with German Naturalists, 166 Junker, Thomas, Darwinismus und Botanik, 166 Kabitz, Willy, Philosophie der jungen Leibniz, 410 Kafker, Frank A., Notable Encyclopedias of the Late Eighteenth Century, 208 Kafker, Frank A., Notable Encyclopedias of the Seventeenth and Eighteenth Centuries, 208 Kahlbaum, Georg W.A., Letters of Faraday

and Schoenbein, i8^6-i86z, 251 Kahn, Richard F, Making of Keynes' General Theory, 399 Kain, Roger J.P., Cadastral Map in the Service of the State, 121 Kaiser, Christopher, Creation and tbe History of Science, 639 Kalikow, Theodora, Konrad Lorenz's Ethological Theory, 422 Kamin, Leon J., Not in Our Genes, 441, 625 Kamin, Leon J., Science and Politics of I.Q., 607 Kamminga, Harmke, Science and Cutture of Nutrition, 1840-11)40, 522 Kangro, Hans, Early History of Planck's Radiation Law, $j6, 621 Kangro, Hans, Planck's Originat Papers in Quantum Theory, 576 Kant, Horst, Hermann von Hetmhottz-Bibtiographie der Schriften von und iiber ihn, 330 Kant, Immanuel, What is Enlightenment? 218 Kantorovich, Aharon, Scientific Discovery, 177 Kaplan, Barbara Beguin, Divutging of Usefut

Truths in Physick, ioi Kaplan, Morton A., Alienation and Identification, 27 Kaplan, Steven, Modern European Intellectual History, 420 Kapoor, Satish, Berthollet, Proust and Proportions, 74 Kapoor, Satish, entry on Berthollet in Dictionary of Scientific Biography, 74 Karasszon, Denes, Concise History of Veterinary Medicine, 746 Karbe, Karl-Heinz, Salomon Neumann, 510 Kardel, Troels, Steno, 707 Kargon, Robert H., Atomism in England from Hariot to Newton, 57 Kargon, Robert H., Kelvin's Baltimore Lectures and Modern Theoretical Physics, 205 Kargon, Robert H., Temple to Science, 320 Kargon, Robert H., Rise of Robert Miltikan, 483

BOOKLIST INDEX Kargon, Robert H., Victorian Science, io6 Karlson, Peter, Adotf Butenandt, 8i Karnoe, Peter, Dansk Vindmolleindustri, 759 Karpilo, N.G., D.I. Mendeleev v vospomonaniiakyh sovremennikov, 466 Kassler, Jamie C , Inner Music, 491 Kassler, Jamie C , Science of Music in Britain, 1714—18)0, 494 Kass-Simon, G., Women of Science, 343, 736, 762, 763 Kasten, Frederick H., History of Staining, 340 Kato, H., Nihon Sugakusi, vol. i, 682 Katz, Michael Barry, In the Shadow of the Poorhouse, 326 Katz, Paul R., Demon Hordes and Burning Boats, 135 Kauffman, George B., Analytical Concept of the Chemical Element in the Work of Bergman and Scheele, 66^ Kauffman, George B., Emil Eischer's Role in the Founding of the Kaiser Wilhelm Society, 258 Kauffman, George B., Frederick Soddy, 6x6 Kaufman, Martin, Homoeopathy in America, 346 Kautsky, Karl, Materialist Conception of History, 440 Kawakita, Yosio, History of the DoctorPatient Relationship, 180 Kay, Lily E., Molecular Vision of Life, 85, 487. 655 Kay, Russell, Interrelations of Musical Instruments, Musical Forms and Cultural Systems in Africa, 494 Kaye, G.R., Hindu Astronomy, 50 Kaye, G.W.C., X-Rays, 628 Kazemi, Marion, j o Jahre Max-PlanckGesellschaft zur Forderung der Wissenschaften, 393 Kazemi, Marion, Chronik der KaiserWilhetm-Gesettschaft zur Forderung der Wissenschaften, 393 Kazer, Ralph R., Hormonat Regutation of the Menstruat Cycte, 209 Kealey, Edward J., Medievat Medicus,i\6x Kearns, Gerry, Introduction, Urbanisation and the Epidemiological Transition, 611 Keating, Peter, Ehrlich's "Beautiful Pictures" and the Controversial Beginning of Immunological Imagery, 197 Keating, Peter, Exquisite Specificity, 369 Kedrov, Bonifatii Mikhailovich, Filosofskii anatiz pervykh trudov D.I. Mendeteeva o periodicheskom zakone, 466 Kedrov, Bonifatii Mikhailovich, Zakon periodichnosti i khimicheskie elementy, 466 Keegan, David, Huang-ti nei-ching, 135 Keele, Kenneth D., Anatomies of Pain, 543 Keele, Kenneth D., William Harvey, 322 Kegel-Brinkgeve, Elze, Boerhaave's Orations, 90 Kehrbaum, Annegret, Catcuti, i i i Keilin, David, History of Cell Respiration and Cytochrome, 652

KIRSTEN Keith, Stephen T , Formation of a Research School, 697 Keller, Alex, Infancy of Atomic Physics, 54 Keller, Cornelius, Geschichte der Radioaktivitat, unter besonderer Beriicksichtigung der Transurane, 6z6 Keller, Evelyn Fox, Body/Politics, 285 Keller, Evelyn Eox, Feeling for the Organism, 487, 764 Keller, Evelyn Eox, Reflections on Gender and Science, 283 Keller, Evelyn Eox, Secrets of Life, Secrets of Death, 283, 474 Kellert, Stephen H., In the Wake of Chaos, 123 Kelley, Donald R., Human Measure, 691 Kellner, Charlotte, Alexander von Humboldt, 357 Kelly, Alfred, Descent of Darwin, T66 Kelly, John T , Practicat Astronomy during the Seventeenth Century, 28 Kelly, Sister Suzanne, De Mundo of Witliam Gilbert, 303 Kemp, Martin, Leonardo da Vinci, 411 Kemp, Martin, Science of Art, 674, 750 Kendall, M.G., Studies in the History of Statistics and Probability, 83 Kenly Smith, John, Jr, Science and Corporate Strategy, 55 Kennedy, Edward S., Studies in the Islamic Exact Sciences, 35, 50 Kennedy, Emmet, Phitosophe in the Age of Revolution, 367 Kennedy, Hubert C , Peano, 63 Kennedy, P.J., Niels Bohr, 92 Kenney, Martin, Beyond Mass Production, 387 Kenney, Martin, Biotechnology, 85 Kenwood, A.G., Technotogicat Diffusion and Industrialization Before 1914, 718 Kerber, G., Dokumente, Materiatien und Bitder zur 100, 671 Kerber, W, Dokumente, Materiatien und Bitder zur 100, 671 Kern, Stephen, Culture of Time and Space, 1880-1918, 726 Kern, Ulrich, Forschung und Prdzisionsmessung, 568 Kerner, Charlotte, Lise, Atomphysikerin, 464, 766 Kerr, J.M. Munro, Historical Review of British Obstetrics and Gynaecotogy, 1800-19^0,

314

Kerszberg, Pierre, Invented Universe, 153 Kesten, Hermann, Copernicus and His World, 151 Keswani, G.H., Raman and His Effect, 629 Kevles, Bettyann Holtzmann, Naked to the Bone, 628 Kevles, Daniel J., Code of Codes, 179, 352 Kevles, Daniel J., entry on Millikan in Dictionary of Scientific Bibliography, 483 Kevles, Daniel J., Guide to the Microfilm Edition of the George Ellery Hale Papers, 320

799

Kevles, Daniel J., Hale and the Role of a Central Scientific Institution in the United States, 320 Kevles, Daniel J., In The Name of Eugenics, 83. 2.34. 2.77. 2.91, 586 Kevles, Daniel J., Into Hostile Political Camps, 320, 381 Kevles, Daniel J., Physicists, 79, 480, 532, 566, 586, 660, 735 Keynes, Geoffrey, Life of Wittiam Harvey, 3^2. Keynes, Geoffrey, Personatity of Wittiam • Harvey, 322 Keynes, Milo, Essays on John Maynard Keynes, 399 Keys, Thomas E., Foundations of Anesthesiology, 708 Khrgian, A. Kh., Meteorology, 476 Kiernan, Colm, Enlightenment and Science in Eighteenth-Century France, 218 Kieve, Jeffrey L., Electric Telegraph, 720 Kimani, V., Ethnomedicat Systems in SubSaharan Africa, 372 Kimberling, Clark, Emmy Noether, 115 Kimmelman, Barbara A., Mendel in America, 240 King, David A., Astronomy in the Service of Istam, 35 King, David A., Istamic Astronomicat Instruments, 44 King, David A., Istamic Mathematicat Astronomy, 35, 50 King, David A., Science in the Service of Religion, 641 King, Helen, Once Upon a Text, 365 King, Henry C , Geared to the Stars, 47 King, Henry C , History of the Tetescope, 47. 7ii King, Lester S., Medicat Thinking, 138 King, Lester S., Medicat World of the Eighteenth Century, 77, 255 King, Lester S., Philosophy of Medicine, 752 King, Lester S., Road to Medical Enlightenment, 752 King, M. Christine, E.W.R. Steacie and Science in Canada, 112 King, Nancy M.P., History and Theory of Informed Consent, 454 King, Pearl, Freud-Klein Controversies, 400 Kingsland, Sharon E., Modeling Nature, 190

Kinsella, James, Covering the Ptague,$86 Kinsey, Alfred C , Sexuat Behavior in the Human Male,68^ Kiple, Kenneth F, Cambridge World History of Human Disease, 255, 431 Kipnis, Nahum, History of the Principle of Interference of Light, 534 Kipnis, Naum, Luigi Galvani and the Debate on Animal Electricity, 1791-1800, 278 Kirchshofer, Rosl, World of Zoos, 95 Kirp, David L., AIDS in the Industrialized Democracies, 22 Kirsten, Christa, Dokumente einer Freundschaft, 330

8OO

KIRZNER

Kirzner, Israel M., Competition and Entrepreneurship, 324 Kitchenahm, B.A., Women, Work, and Computerization, 283 Kitcher, Philip, Advancement of Science, 249, 546, 560 Kitching, Gavin, Marxism and Science, 440 Kitson, Anabella, Astrology and History, 46 Klaaren, Eugene M., Religious Origins of Modern Science, i o i , 645 Klaidman, Stephen, Health in the Headlines, 586 Klein, Jacob, Greek Mathematical Thought and the Origin of Algebra, 25 Klein, Julie Thompson, Interdisciplinarity, 176 Klein, Marc, Regards d'un biologiste, 569 Klein, Martin J., Development of Boltzmann's Statistical Ideas, 94 Klein, Martin J., Einstein's First Paper on Quanta, 198 Klein, Martin J., Max Planck and the Beginnings of Quantum Theory, 576, 621 Klein, Martin J., Paul Ehrenfest, 621 Klein, Martin J., Planck, Entropy, and Quanta, 1901-1906, 576 Klein-Franke, F, Vorlesungen iiber die Medizin im Islam, 463 Kleinkauf, Horst, Roots of Modern Biochemistry, 81 Kleinman, Arthur K., Medicine in Chinese Cultures, 135 Kleinman, Arthur K., Patients and Healers in the Context of Culture, 135, 729 Kleint, Ghristian, Werner Heisenberg in Leipzig, 329 Klencke, Hermann, Alexander von Humbold, 357 Klens, Ulrike, Mathematikerinnen im 18. Jahrhundert, 766 Klickstein, Herbert S., Bibliography of the Works of Antoine Laurent Lavoisier, 407 Klickstein, Herbert S., Marie Sklodowska Curie, 159 Klinge, Matti, Professorer, 711 Klopfer, Peter H., Introduction to Animal Behaviour, 231 Kloppenburg, Jack Ralph, Jr, First the Seed, 85 Klossowski de Rola, Stanislas, Golden Game, 24 Kluger, Matthew J., Fever, 256 Knight, David M., Atoms and Elements, 57 Knight, David M., Humphry Davy, 126, 167 Knight, David M., Ideas in Chemistry, 129 Knobloch, Eberhard, Historical Aspects of the Foundations of Error Theory, 225 Knobloch, Eberhard, History of Modern Mathematics, 445 Knoefel, Peter K., Felice Fontana, 728 Knorr, Wilbur, Ancient Tradition of Geometric Problems, 298 Knorr, Wilbur, Archimedes and the Elements, 39

BOOKLIST INDEX Knorr, Wilbur, Evolution of the Euclidean Elements, 232, 298 Knorr, Wilbur, Pseudo-Euclidean Reflections in Ancient Optics, 232 Knorr-Getina, Karin, Epistemic Cultures, 122 Knorr-Getina, Karin, Fabrikation von Erkenntnis, 177 Knorr-Getina, Karin, Manufacture of Knowledge, 589 Knott, Gargill Gilston, Napier Tercentenary Memorial Volume, 41 Knudsen, Ole, Elektromagnetismens historie 1810-18^1 og Faradays opdagelse af induktionen, 538 Kobler, John, Reluctant Surgeon, 360 Kocher, Paul H., Science and Religion in Elizabethan England, 645 Koestler, Arthur, Watershed, 397 Kofman, Sarah, Enigma of Woman, 605 Kohl, Ulrike, Kaiser-Wilhelm-Gesellschaft zur Forderung der Wissenschaften im Nationalsozialismus - Quetteninventar, 393 Kohler, Robert E., From Medical Chemistry to Biochemistry, 81 Kohler, Robert E., Irving Langmuir and the "Octet" Theory of Valence, 743 Kohler, Robert E., Lewis-Langmuir Theory of Valence and the Ghemical Gommunity, 1920—1928, 743 Kohler, Robert E., Lords of the Fly, 705 Kohler, Robert E., Origins of G.N. Lewis's Theory of the Shared Pair Bond, 743 Kohler, Robert E., Partners in Science, 320, 487. 655 Kohler, Werner, Meilensteine der Bakteriologie, 66 Kohlstedt, Sally Gregory, Formation of the American Scientific Community, 598 Kohlstedt, Sally Gregory, Historical Writing on American Science, 735 Kohlstedt, Sally Gregory, In from the Periphery, 736 Kohlstedt, Sally Gregory, International Science and National Scientific Identity, 59, 381 Kohlstedt, Sally Gregory, Origins of Natural Science in America, 490 Kohn, David, Darwin's Ambiguity, 163 Kohn, David, Darwinian Heritage, 163, 165, 503 Kohn, David, Theories to Work By, 163 Kohut, Adolf, Justus von Liebig, 415 Kolakowski, Leszek, Philosophie des Positivismus, 588 Koiko, Joyce, Restructuring the World Economy, 117 Kolmogorov, A.N., Mathematics of the Nineteenth Century, 520 Komkov, G.D., Akademiia nauk SSSR, 66s Komlos, John, Nutrition and Economic Development in the Eighteenth-Century Habsburg Monarchy, 523 Konigsberger, Leo, Hermann von Helmholtz, 330

Kopelevich, I.K., Osnovanie Peterburgskoi Akademii nauk, 66$ KoppI, Roger, Hayekian Expectations, 324 Koprowski, Hilary, Microbe Hunters, Then and Now, 66 Kornberg, Arthur, For the Love of Enzymes, 81 Kornberg, Arthur, Reflections on Biochemistry, 81 Korte, Bernhard, Calculi, 111 Kortum, Gerhard, Geographie des Meeres, 531 Koselleck, Reinhart, Critique and Crisis, 218 Kosso, Peter, Reading the Book of Nature, 526 Koster, Werner, Jahre Kaiser-Wilhelm-lnstitut fiir Metallforschung 1921-1946, 442 Kottek, Samuel S., Medicine and Medieval Ethics in Medieval and Early Modern Spain, 699 Kovacs, Laszlo, Fejezetek a magyar fizika elmult 100 esztendejebol, 359 Koyre, Alexandre, Astronomical Revolution, 150. 2.73, 397 Koyre, Alexandre, Etudes Galileenes, 678 Koyre, Alexandre, From the Closed World to the Infinite Universe, 645, 678, 741 Koyre, Alexandre, Galileo Studies, 275 Koyre, Alexandre, Isaac Newton's Philosophiae Naturalis Principia Mathematica, 512 Koyre, Alexandre, Metaphysics and Measurement, 449, 589 Koyre, Alexandre, Newtonian Studies, 514 Koyre, Alexandre, Origins of Modern Science, 246 Kozhamthadam, Job, Discovery of Kepler's Laws, 397 Krafft, Fritz, Im Schatten der Sensation, 318, 464 Krafft-Ebing, Richard von, Psychopathia Sexualis, 685 Kraft, Viktor, Wiener Kreis, 588 Kragh, Helge, Cosmology and Controversy, 78, 153, 566 Kragh, Helge, Dirac, 617 Kragh, Helge, Fine Structure of Hydrogen and the Gross Structure of the Physics Gommunity, 700 Kragh, Helge, Introduction to the Historiography of Science, 722 Kramer, Hans Joachim, Plato and the Foundations of Metaphysics, 579 Krammer, Mario, Alexander von Humboldt, 357 Kranzberg, Melvin, Materials in History and Society, 443 Kranzberg, Melvin, Technology in Western Civilization, 452, 716 Krausse, Erika, Ernst Haeckel, 317 Kraut, Alan M., Silent Travelers, 223 Kraut, Richard, Cambridge Companion to Plato, 579 Kreig, Margaret Baltzell, Green Medicine, 181

BOOKLIST INDEX

LAPOINTE

Kreisel, Georg, Godel's Excursions into Intuitionistic Logic, 305 Kreisel, Georg, Kurt Godel, 305 Krementsov, Nikolai, Stalinist Science, 175 Kremer, Richard L., Letters of Hermann von Helmholtz to His Wife, 331 Kremers, Edward, History of Pharmacy, 559 Kreps, Evgeny M., l.P. Pavlov v vospominaniakh sovremenikov, 553 Krimsky, Sheldon, Biotechnics & Society, 179 Krimsky, Sheldon, Genetical Alchemy, 179, 289, 291 Krings, Hermann, Natur und Subjektivitat, 670 Krinsky, Fred, Oppenheimer

Affair,

532

Krippendorff, Klaus, Communication and Control in Society, 375 Krips, Henry, Science, Reason, and Rhetoric, 653 Krishnan, K.S., Raman Effect, 629 Krislov, Samuel, How Nations Choose Product Standards and Standards Change Nations, 705 Kristeller, Paul Oskar, Renaissance Concepts of Man, 354 Kristeller, Paul Oskar, Renaissance Thought and Its Sources,

355

Krizenecky, Jaroslav, Gregor Johann Mendel, 465 Krohn, Roger, Why Are Graphs so Gentral in Science, 310 Kroll, Jerome, Reality of Mental Illness, 429 Kroll, Jurgen, Rasse, Blut und Gene, 234 Kronick, David A., History of Scientific and Technical Periodicals, 389 Kronick, David A., Scientific and Technical Periodicals of the Seventeenth and Eighteenth Centuries, 389 Kriiger, Lorenz, Probabilistic Revolution, 596, 706 Kriiger, Lorenz, Universalgenie Helmholtz, 331, 571 Kriill, Marianne, Freud and His Father, 268 Krupp, E.G., Echoes of the Ancient Skies, 50 Ksoll, Peter, Marie Curie, 159 Kubieek, Jaromir, Bibliographia Mendiana, 465 Kudlien, Fridolf, Beginn des medizinischen Denkens bei den Griechen von Homer bis Hippokrates, 312 Kudlien, Fridolf, Galen's Method of Healing, 2-73

Kiihl, Stephan, Nazi Connection, 234 Kuhlen, Franz-Josef, Zur Geschichte der Schmerz-, Schlaf- und Betaubungsmittet in Mittelalter und fruher Neuzeit, 181 Kuhn, Dorothea, Goethe, 308 Kuhn, Thomas S., Black-Body Theory and the Quantum Discontinuity, 198, 576, 621 Kuhn, Thomas S., Copernican Revolution, ISO, 546, 678

Kuhn, Thomas S., Energy Gonservation as an Example of Simultaneous Discovery, 211, 656, 769 Kuhn, Thomas S., Essential Tension, 380, 547 Kuhn, Thomas S., Function of Measurement in Modern Physical Science, 449 Kuhn, Thomas S., Genesis of the Bohr Atom, 92 Kuhn, Thomas S., Mathematical vs. Experimental Traditions in the Development of Physical Science, 246 Kuhn, Thomas S., Structure of Scientific Revolutions, 127, 177, 249, 547, 560, 589, 600, 678, 750 Kuiper, Gerard P., Telescopes, 721 Kukathas, Ghandran, Hayek and Modern Liberalism, 324 Kuklick, Henrika, Savage Within, 30 Kula, Witold, Measures and Men,s, 478 Kumar, Deepak, Science and Empire, 143 Kumar, Deepak, Science and the Raj, 370 Kumar, Krishan, Prophecy and Progress, 600

Kunfalvi, Rezso, Physics in Budapest, }S9 Kuper, Adam, Anthropologists and Anthropology, 30, 236 Kurinnoi, Victor Ivanovich, Jacob Berzelius, 75 Kuriyama, Shigehisa, Interpreting the History of Bloodletting, 8 Kusamitsu, Toshio, Great Exhibitions Before 1851, 242 Kusch, Martin, Foucault's Strata and Fields, 263 Kutzbach, Gisela, Thermal Theory of Cyclones,4yj Kuznetsov, Boris., Einstein, 198 Kvell, D.F., Question Goncerning Technology, 377 Kwa, Ghunglin, Radiation Ecology, Systems Ecology and the Management of the Environment, 190 Labaree, Leonard W., Papers of Benjamin Franklin, x66 LaGapra, Dominick, Emile Durkheim, 184 LaGapra, Dominick, Modern European Intellectual History, 420 Lacroix, Jean, Sociologie d'Auguste Comte, 147 LaFollette, Marcel G., Making Science Our Own, 586 Lafuente, Antonio, Caballeros del punto Fijo, 243 Lafuente, Antonio, Carlos III y la ciencia de la ilustracion, 6^^ Lafuente, Antonio, Ciencia colonial en America, 143 Lafuente, Antonio, Mundializacion de la ciencia y cultura nacional, 143, 405 Lagrange, J.L., CEuvres, 632 Laidler, Keith J., World of Physical Chemistry, 564, 763 Laird, Edgar, Pelerin de Prusse on the Astrolabe, 44

8oi

Laird, W.R., Archimedes among the Humanists, 39 Laissus, Yves, Animaux du Jardin des Plantes, 1793-1934, 489 Laissus, Yves, Jardin du Roi, 489 Laissus, Yves, Museum d'Histoire Naturelle, 489 Laitko, Hubert, Ernst Mach, 427 Laitko, Hubert, Kaiser-Withetm-/MaxPlanck-Gesellschaft und ihre Institute, 393 Lakatos, Imre, Falsification and the Methodology of Scientific Research Programs, 546 Lakatos, Imre, History of Science and Its Rational Reconstructions, 380 Lalvani, Suren, Photography, Vision, and the Production of Modern Bodies, 562 Lam, Lay Yong, Fleeting Footsteps, 133 Lambert, Johann Heinrich, Cosmologische Briefe iiber die Einrichtung des Weltbaues, 150 Lamberton, D.M., Economics of Information and Knowledge, 375 Laming-Emperaire, Annette, Origines de I'archeologie Prehistorique en France, 59^ Lamothe, Marie-Jose, Outils du corps, 456 Lampe, Hermann, Entwicklung und Differenzierung von Fachabteilungen auf den Versammlungen von 1828 bis 1913, 301 Lampe, Hermann, Vortrdge der allgemeinen Sitzungen auf der 1.-8^, 301 Lancaster, Michael, Oxford Companion to Gardens, 349 Landauer, J., Blowpipe Analysis, 87 Landes, David S., Revolution in Time, 141 Landes, David S., Unbound Prometheus, 452, 718 Landsberg, Helmut E., History of Geophysics and Meteorology, 475 Lang, Helen S., Aristotle's Physics and Its Medieval Varieties, 40 Lang, Ken R., Sourcebook in Astronomy and Astrophysics J900-1975, 51 Langevin, Paul, Henri Poincare, 580 Langholf, Volker, Medical Theories in Hippocrates, 339 Langins, Janis, Republique avait besoin de savants, 189 Langley, Pat, Computational Models of Scientific Discovery and Theory Formation, 177 Lankford, John, History of Astronomy, 49 Lankford, John, Photography and the Nineteenth-Gentury Transits of Venus, 562 Lanteri-Laura, George, Histoire de la phrenologie, 563 Laplace, Pierre Simon, marquis de, GLuvres completes, 632 Laplanche, Jean, Language of PsychoAnalysis, 268, 603 Lapointe, Glaire G., Claude Levi-Strauss and His Critics, 413

8O2

LAPOINTE

Lapointe, FraiKjois H., Claude Levi-Strauss and His Critics, 413 Laqueur, Thomas, Making Sex, 89, 287 Larmor, Joseph, Origins of Cterk Maxwett's Etectric Ideas, 448 Larsen, Knud, Nicolai Stenonis opera theologica, 707 Larson, James L., Reason and Experience, 418 Lasch, Christopher, True and Onty Heaven, 600 Lass, Andreas, Ludwig Bottzmanns Wege nach Berlin, 94 Lasserre, Francois, Formes de pensee dans la coltection hippocratique, 339 Lasswitz, Kurd, Geschichte der Atomistik, vom Mittetalter bis Newton, 57 Last, Murray, Professionalisation of African Medicine, 15 Last, Murray, Professionalization of Indigenous Healers, 729 Laszio, Pierre, Molecular Correlates of Biotogicat Concepts, 81 Latour, Bruno, Drawing Things Together, 4Z0, 634 Latour, Bruno, Laboratory Life, 249, 377, 589, 653, 695 Latour, Bruno, Pasteur, 549 Latour, Bruno, Pasteurization of France, $49, 747 Latour, Bruno, Science in Action, 243, 478, 695 Latour, Bruno, We Have Never Been Modern, 402 Laudan, Larry, Progress and Its Probtems, $60, 600 Laudan, Larry, Science and Hypothesis, 600 Laudan, Larry, Science and Relativism, 249 Laudan, Larry, Science and Values, $46 Laudan, Rachel, From Mineralogy to Geotogy, 295, 423 Laue, Max von, Gesammette Schriften und Vortrdge, 406 Laufer, Berthold, Sino-Iranica, 137 Launay, Louis de, Un Grand Frangais, 488 Laurens, Henry, Expedition d'Egypte, 1789-1801, 243 Lauritz-Jensen, Chr., Hans Christian 0rsted, 538 Lavine, Shaughan, Understanding the Infinite, 683 Lavoie, Don, National Economic Ptanning, 3M Lavoie, Don, Rivatry and Centrat Ptanning,

3M Law, John, Power, Action and Betief, 402 Lawrence, Christopher, Emergence of Modern Cardiotogy, 457 Lawrence, Christopher, Medicat Theory, Surgical Practice, 708 Lawrence, Christopher, Moderns and Ancients, 119 Lawrence, Christopher, Photographing Medicine, 562

BOOKLIST INDEX Lawrence, Christopher, Physiological Apparatus in the Wellcome Museum, 310 Lawrence, Christopher, Science, Medicine and Dissent, 594 Lawrence, Ghislaine, Ambiguous Artifact, Surgical Instruments and the Surgical Past, 456 Layton, Edwin T , Jr, History of Heat Transfer, 318 Lazarsfeld, Paul, Notes on the History of Quantification in Sociology, 623, 694 Leach, Edmund, Claude Levi-Strauss, 413 Leaf, Murray J., Man, Mind and Science, 30 Leake, Chauncey D., Historical Account of Pharmacotogy to the zoth Century, 557 Lear, John, Recombinant DNA, 289 Leary, David E., Fate and Influence of John Stuart Mill's Proposed Science of Ethology, 231 Leary, John E., Jr, Francis Bacon and the Potitics of Science, 65 Lease, Cary, Reinventing Nature? 505 Leathard, Audrey, Going Inter-Professionat, 344 Leatherdale, W.H., Rote of Analogy, Model and Metaphor in Science, 474 Leavitt, Judith Walzer, Brought to Bed, 457, 528 Leavitt, Judith Walzer, Typhoid Mary, 460 Leclainche, E., Histoire de ta medecine veterinaire, 746 Lecourt, Dominique, Protetarian Science? 42-5

Ledbetter, Rosina, History of the Malthusian League, 1877-19Z7, 434 Lederer, Susan E., Subjected to Science, 34 Lee, Judith Yaross, Beyond the Two Cultures, 293 Lee, Philip R., Pitls, Profits and Potitics, 559 Lee, Thomas F., Human Genome Project, 35^ LeFanu, William Richard, List of the Originat Writings of Joseph, Lord Lister, O.M., 419 Leffek, Kenneth T., Sir Christopher Ingotd, 535 Lefkowitz, Mary, Not Out of Africa, 229 Legee, Georgette, Pierre Ftourens 1794-1867, $69 Legendi, Tamas, Leben und Werk von John von Neumann, 754 Le Goff, Jacques, Time, Work, and Cutture in the Middte Ages, 726 Le Gourieres, Desire, Wind Plants, 759 LeGrand, H.E., Drifting Continents and Shifting Theories, 148, 531 Legros, Lucien Alphonse, Typographical Printing Surfaces, $9$ Leibowitz, J.O., History of Coronary Heart Disease, 119 Leicester, Henry M., Development of Biochemical Concepts from Ancient to Modern Times, 81

Leijonhufvud, Axel, On Keynesian Economics and the Economics of Keynes, 399 Leitz, Christian, Studien zur dgyptischen Astronomie, 195 Lemay, J. A. Leo, Reappraising Benjamin Franklin, z66 Lemery, P., Claude-Louis Berthollet, 74 Lemmerich, Jost, 100 Jahre Rontgenstrahten, 659 Lemoine, Paul, Museum National d'Histoire Naturelte, 489 Leneman, Leah, In the Service of Life, 76$ Lennig, Petra, Von der Metaphysik zur Psychophysik, 608 Lennon, Thomas M., Probtems of Cartesianism, 120 Lenoble, Robert, Mersenne, 467 Lenoir, Timothy, Helmholtz and the Materialities of Communication, 310 Lenoir, Timothy, Politik im Tempel der Wissenschaft, 571 Lenoir, Timothy, Strategy of Life, 271, 571, 656. 747 Lepenies, Wolf, Between Literature and Science, 420, 692 Lepenies, Wolf, Ende der Naturgeschichte, 218, 489 Lepenies, Wolf, Functions and Uses of Disciplinary Histories, 176 Lerman, Nina E., Arwen Palmer Mohun and Ruth Oldenziel, 716 Lerner, Richard M., Final Solutions, 422 Lesch, John E., Science and Medicine in France, 244, 557, 569 Lesky, Erna, Franz Joseph Gait, 563 Leslie, Charles, Asian Medicat Systems, 371 Leslie, Charles, Paths to Asian Medicat Knowtedge, 371 Lesourne, Jacques, Potytechniciens dans te siecte, 189 Levenson, Thomas, Measure for Measure, 494- 647 Levenstein, Harvey A., Revotution at the Tabte, 523 Levere, Trevor H., Affinity and Matter, 12 Levere, Trevor H., Poetry Reatized in Nature, 293, 656 Levere, Trevor H., Science and the Canadian Arctic, 582 Levey, Martin, Earty Arabic Pharmacotogy, 557 Levin, David Michael, Modernity and the Hegemony of Vision, 750 Levine, Donald N., Visions of the Sociotogicat Tradition, 694 Levine, George, One Cutture, 420 Levine, Robert J., Ethics and Regutation of Ctinicat Research, 454 Levi-Strauss, Claude, Savage Mind, 6ji Levshin, B.V., Akademiia nauk SSSR, 66$ Levy-Bruhl, Lucien, How Natives Think, 631 Levy-Bruhl, Lucien, Philosophy of Auguste Comte, 147

LiJBBIG

BOOKLIST INDEX Lewin, Louis, Gifte in der Weltgeschichte, 728 Lewis, G.L, Albucassis on Surgery and Instruments, 456 Lewis, Aubrey, State of Psychiatry, 602 Lewontin, R . C , Doctrine of DNA, 352 Lewontin, R . C , Not in Our Genes, 441, 625 Leydesdorff, Loet, University in the Globat Knowtedge Economy, 718 Li, Hui-Lin, Nan-fang ts'ao-mu chuang, 137 Li, Yan, Chinese Mathematics, 133 Libbrecht, Ulrich, Chinese Mathematics in the Thirteenth Century, 133 Licoppe, Christian, Formation de ta pratique scientifique, 246 Liebenau, Jonathan, Paul Ehrlich as a Commercial Scientist and Research Administrator, 197 Liebenau, Jonathan, Chattenge of New Technotogy, 6$o Liebenau, Jonathon, Medicat Science and Medicat Industry, 557 Liebenberg, Louis, Art of Tracking, 13 Liebig, Justus, Animat Chemistry, 523 Lienhard, John H., History of Heat Transfer, 328 Lightman, Alan, Origins, 78 Lightman, Bernard, Origins of Agnosticism, 363, 702 Lilienfield, Abraham M., Ceteris Paribus, 139 Lilienfeld, Abraham M., Times, Ptaces, and Persons, 224 Lilly, Malcolm D., Biotechnology, 85 Limoges, Camille, Development of the Museum d'Histoire Naturelle of Paris, 489 Limoges, Camille, Selection naturette, 163 Lind, L.R., Studies in Pre-Vesatian Anatomy, 19, 745 Lindberg, David C , Beginnings of Western Science, 311, 643 Lindberg, David C , God and Nature, 6^9, 645 Lindberg, David C , Medieval Science and Its Religious Context, 643 Lindberg, David C , Reappraisats of the Scientific Revotution, 678 Lindberg, David C , Science and the Early Church, 643 Lindberg, David C , Science as Handmaiden, 643 Lindberg, David C , Theories of Vision from at-Kindi to Kepter, 35, 534 Lindberg, David C , Transmission of Greek and Arabic Learning to the West, 35 Lindeboom, G.A., Boerhaave and Great Britain, 90 Lindeboom, G.A., Boerhaave and His Time, 90 Lindeboom, G.A., Descartes and Medicine, 174 Lindeboom, G.A., Herman Boerhaave, 90 Lindee, M. Susan, DNA Mystique, 179, 291 Lindee, M. Susan, Suffering Made Reat, 55

Linden, Walther, Atexander von Humbotdt, 357 Lindqvist, Svante, Center on the Periphery, 711 Lindqvist, Svante, Technotogy on Trial, 215, 716 Lindroth, Sten, History of Uppsala University, 711 Lindroth, Sten, Kungt. Svenska vetenskapsakademiens historia, 711 Lindroth, Sten, Svensk tdrdomshistoria, 711 Lindroth, Sten, Swedish Men of Science 16^0-19^0,

711

Lindroth, Sten, Two Faces of Linnaeus, 418 Lindsay, Jack, Autobiography of Joseph Priesttey, 594 Lindsay, Jack, Origins of Alchemy in Graeco-Roman Egypt, 24 Lindsay, Robert Bruce, Acoustics, 7 Lindsay, Robert Bruce, Julius Robert Mayer, 211

Ling, Wang, Heaventy Clockwork, 141 Link, Stephen W , Wave Theory of Difference and Similarity, 608 Lintsen, Harry W , Geschiedenis van de techniek in Nedertand, 509 Lipartito, Kenneth, When Women Were Switches, 767 Lipietz, Alain, Mirages and Miractes, 117 Lipmann, Fritz, Wanderings of a Biochemist, 81 Lippman, Edward A., Musicat Thought in Ancient Greece, 491 Lipschitz, Rudolf, Briefwechset mit Cantor, Dedekind, Helmholtz, Kronecker, Weierstrass und anderen, 331 Lipset, David, Gregory Bateson, 71 Livingston, Eric, Ethnomethodologicat Investigation of the Foundations of Mathematics, 631 Livingston, James D., Driving Force, 430 Livingston, M. Stanley, Early History of Particle Accelerators, 409 Livingstone, David N., Geographicat Tradition, 221, 243, 294, 565 Livingstone, David N., Human Geography, 565 Livingstone, David N., Preadamite Theory and the Marriage of Science and Retigion, 592 Lloyd, G.E.R., Earty Greek Science, 40, 298, 311

Lloyd, G.E.R., Greek Science after Aristotte, 4 0 . 2.73. 2.98, 311

Lloyd, G.E.R., Magic, Reason and Experience, 232, 311 Lloyd, G.E.R., Methods and Probtems in Greek Science, 273, 311, 340 Lloyd, G.E.R., Revotutions of Wisdom, 311 Lloyd, G.E.R., Science, Folklore and Ideology, 311, 312 Lock, Margaret M., East Asian Medicine in Urban Japan, 386 Locke, Robert R., End of the Practical Man, 214

803

Lodge, Oliver, Advancing Science, 106 Lohff, Brigitte, Suche nach der Wissenschaftlichkeit der Physiologie in der Zeit der Romantik, 571 Loir, Adrien, A t'Ombre de Pasteur, 549 Lomax, Elizabeth M.R., Smatt and Speciat, 458 Lomholt, Asger, Det Kongetige Danske videnskabernes setskab, 171 Long, Diana E., Grand Rounds, 458 Long, Esmond R., History of American Pathotogy, 551 Long, Esmond R., History of Pathotogy, 551 Long, J . C , James Smithson and the Smithsonian Story, 690 Longino, Helen E., Can There Be a Feminist Science? 283 Longino, Helen E., Science as Sociat Knowtedge, 249 Longrigg, James, Greek Rationat Medicine, 312 Lopes, M.M., Brazilian Museums of Natural History and International Exchanges in the Transition to the 20th Century, 105 Lopez Austin, Alfredo, Cuerpo humano e ideotogia, 405 Lopez Pifiero, Jose Maria, Ciencia en ta Espana en et sigto XIX, 699 Lopez Piiiero, Jose Maria, Ciencia y tecnica en ta sociedad espaiiota de tos sigtos XVI y XVll, 699 Lopez Pinero, Jose Maria, Diccionario historico de ta ciencia moderna en Espaha, 699 Lopez-Beltran, Carlos, Forging Heredity, 333 Losee, John, Phitosophy of Science and Historicat Enquiry, 722 Lottin, Joseph, Quetetet, 623 Lotz, Gunther, Forschen und Nutzen, 539 Loucks, Orie L., John T. Curtis, 190 Loudon, Irvine, Death in Childbirth, 528 Loudon, Irvine, Medicat Care and the Generat Practitioner, 461 Loudon, J.B., Sociat Anthropotogy and Medicine, 15 Lougheed, A.L., Technotogicat Diffusion and Industriatization Before 1914, 718 Lovejoy, Arthur O., Buffon and the Problem of Species, 109 Lovejoy, Arthur O., Primitivism and Retated Ideas in Antiquity, 505 Lovejoy, Arthur O., Great Chain of Being, 639, 715 Lowe, Victor, Atfred North Whitehead, 63 Lowie, Robert H., History of Ethnotogicat Theory, 30, 88 Lowinger, Armand, Methodotogy of Pierre Duhem, 183 Lowood, Henry, Max Ptanck, $76 Lowood, Henry, Calculating Forester, 6 Lu, Gwei-Djen, Cetestiat Lancets, 8, 135 Lu, Gwei-Djen, Spagyrical Discovery and Invention, 135 Liibbig, Heinz, Hermann von Helmhottz, 330

8O4

LUBBOCK

Lubbock, Constance A., Herschet Chronicte, 336, 762 Lucas, Alfred, Ancient Egyptian Materiats and Industries, 195 Lucas, Prosper, Traite phitosophique et physiotogique de t'heredite naturette dans tes etats de sante et de matadie du systeme nerveux, 333 Lucas, Robert E., Jr, Studies in BusinessCycte Theory, ^99 Luce, Judith De, Beyond Preservation, 505 Luck, Georg, Arcana Mundi, 529 Luckin, Bill, Questions of Power, 204 Luderitz, Berndt, History of the Disorders of Cardiac Rhythm, 119 Ludmerer, Kenneth Marc, Genetics and American Society, 234 Ludwig, Karl-Heinz, Technik und Ingenieure im Dritten Reich, 723 Lukes, Steven, Emite Durkheim, 184 Lukes, Steven, Essays in Sociat Theory, 631 Lukes, Steven, Rationatity and Retativism, 631 Lumsden, Charles J., Promethean Fire, 441 Lundgreen, Peter, Engineering Education in Europe and the USA, 214 Lundgreen, Peter, Staattiche Forschung in Deutschtand, 568 Lundgren, Anders, Berzetius och den kemiska atomteorin, 75 Lusk, Graham, Nutrition, 523 Luttenberger, Franz, Arrhenius vs. Ehrlich on Immunochemistry, 516 Luyendijk-Elshout, Antonie M., Boerhaave's Orations, 90 Lyall, Kenneth, Etectricat and Magnetic Instruments, 202 Lyell, Charles, Principles of Geotogy, 295 Lyell, Charles, Sir Chartes Lyett's Scientific Journats on the Species Question, 423 Lyell, Mrs [Katherine], Life Letters and Journats of Sir Chartes Lyett, 423 Lynch, Michael, Art and Artifact in Laboratory Science, 631 Lynch, Michael, Representation in Scientific Practice, 310, 589, 674 Lynch, Michael, Scientific Practice and Ordinary Action, $, 69$ Lyng, Stephen, Hotistic Heatth arid Biomedicat Medicine, 344 Lyons, Henry, Royat Society, 1660-1940, 662 Lyotard, Jean-Fran?ois, Postmodern Condition, 123 Lysaght, A.M., Book of Birds, 537 Maar, Vilhelm, Nicolai Stenonis opera philosophica, 707 McAllester Jones, Mary, Gaston Bachetard, Subversive Humanist, 377 McArthur, Tom, Worlds of Reference, 208 McCabe, Irena M., Collections X, 661 Maccagni, Carlo, Leonardo nelta scienza e netta tecnica, 411 McCann, S.M., Endocrinotogy, 209

BOOKLIST INDEX McCay, Clive, Notes on the History of Nutrition Research, 523 McCleary, John, History of Modern Mathematics, 445 McClellan, James E. Ill, Academie Royale des Sciences, i McClellan, James E. Ill, Cotoniatism and Science, 143, 294, 693 McClellan, James E. Ill, Science Reorganized, i, 632, 662, 693 McClelland, Charles E., State, Society and University in Germany, 738 McCloskey, Donald N., Rhetoric of Economics, 653 MacCloskey, Monro, Our Nationat Attic, 690 McCollum, Elmer Verner, History of Nutrition, 523 McConnell, Anita, Directory of Source Materiats for the History of Oceanography, 531 McConnell, Anita, Nineteenth-Century Geomagnetic Instruments and Their Makers, 430 McConnell, Anita, No Sea Too Deep, 531 McCorduck, Pamela, Machines Who Think, 43 McCormmach, Russell, Einstein, Lorentz, and the Electron Theory, 636 McCormmach, Russell, H.A. Lorentz and the Electromagnetic View of Nature, 636 McCormmach, Russell, Henry Cavendish on the Theory of Heat, 328 McCormmach, Russell, Intettectuat Mastery of Nature, 94, 205, 620, 636 MacDonald, Bertrum H., Science and Technotogy in Canadian History, 112 Macdonald, George, Epidemiology and Controt of Mataria, 431 McDonald, Lynn, Women Founders of the Sociat Sciences, 438 MacDonald, Michael, Witchcraft and Hysteria in Etizabethan London, 365 Macdonald, Stuart, Revotution in Miniature, 697 McDougall, Walter A., Heavens and the Earth, 698 McDowell, Frank, Source Book of Ptastic Surgery, 577 McEvoy, James, Phitosophy of Robert Grosseteste, 643 McEvoy, John G., God and Nature, 594 McEvoy, John G., Joseph Priestley, 127, 594 Macey, Samuel L., Encyctopedia of Time, 726 Macey, Samuel L., Time, 726 Macfarlane, Gwyn, Atexander Fteming, 259, 260 Macfarlane, Gwyn, Howard Ftorey, 259, 260 McGaw, Judith A., Most Wonderfut Machine, 767 MacGillivray, William, Travets and Researches of Alexander von Humboldt, 357

McGovern, Constance M., Masters of Madness, 458 McGrath, William J., Freud's Discovery of Psychoanatysis, 268 McGrayne, Sharon Bertsch, Nobet Prize Women in Science, 343 McGucken, William, Nineteenth-Century Spectroscopy, 701 McGucken, William, Social Relations of Science, 106 McGuire, J.E., Certain Phitosophicat Questions, 512 McGuire, J.E., God and Nature, 594 McGuire, J.E., Hermeticism and the Scientific Revotution, 334 McGuire, J.E., Newton and the Pipes of Pan, 491 McGuire, J.E., Science, Reason, and Rhetoric, 653 McGuire, Meredith B., Rituat Heating in Suburban America, 719 Mach, Ernst, History and Root of the Principle of the Conservation of Energy, 211

Mach, Ernst, Knowledge and Error, 427 Mach, Ernst, Science of Mechanics, 63 2 Machabey, Armand, Phitosophie de Pierre de Fermat, 253 McHenry, Lawrence C , Garrison's History of Neurology, 563 Machlup, Fritz, Knowledge, 375 McHugh, Paul, Prostitution and Victorian Sociat Reform, 744 Mclntosh, Robert P., Background of Ecotogy, 190, 531 Mclntosh, Robert P., John T. Curtis, 190 Macintyre, Alasdair C , After Virtue, 589 Mclntyre, D.B., James Hutton's Theory of the Earth, 362 Mack, Arien, In Time of Ptague, 223 Mackay, David L., In the Wake of Cook, 70 McKee, Janet, Holistic Health and the Critique of Western Medicine, 344 McKenzie, D.F., Bibtiography and the Sociotogy of Texts, 634 MacKenzie, Donald A., Statistics in Britain, 83- 2.77, 554, 706 MacKenzie, Donald, Inventing Accuracy, 449, 650, 716 MacKenzie, John M., Orientatism, 536 McKeown, Thomas, Modern Rise of Poputation, 611 McKeown, Thomas, Rote of Medicine, 326 Mackey, George W, Scope and History of Commutative and Noncommutative Harmonic Anatysis, 313 McKie, Douglas, Antoine Lavoisier, 408 McKie, Douglas, Discovery of Specific and Latent Heats, 328 McKie, Douglas, Partners in Science, 757 McKinney, H. Lewis, Wallace and Natural Setection, 503 MacKinney, Loren, Medicat Ittustrations in Medievat Manuscripts, 463

BOOKLIST INDEX McKnight, Brian E., Washing Away of Wrongs, 135 McLaren, Angus, Birth Control in Nineteenth-Century Engtand, 86 McLaren, Angus, History of Contraception, 86 McLaren, Angus, Our Own Master Race, 234 McLaughlin, Peter, Kant's Critique of Teteotogy in Biological Explanation, 395 McLeish, John, Soviet Psychology, 553 McLellan, David, Ideology, 367 MacLeod, Roy, Ayrton Incident, 348 MacLeod, Roy, Commonwealth of Science, 59 MacLeod, Roy, Nature in Its Greatest Extent, 143 MacLeod, Roy, Partiament of Science, 106, 598 McLuhan, Marshall, Gutenberg Gataxy, 634 McMahon, A. Michal, Making of a Profession, 204 McMullin, Ernan, Gatiteo, 275 McMullin, Ernan, Newton on Matter and Activity, 515 McNeill, William H., Ptagues and Peoptes, 223, 224, 575 McPherson, Natalie, Machines and

Economic Growth, 452 MacPike, Eugene Fairfield, Correspondence and Papers of Edmond Hattey, 321 Macrae, Norman, John von Neumann, 754 McRae, Robert R, Introduction to A System of Logic, 482 Macrakis, Kristie, Surviving the Swastika, 393 Maddison, R.E.W., Life of the Honourahte Robert Boyte, i o i Madison, Gary B., Hayek and the Interpretive Turn, 324 Maehle, Andreas-Holger, Johann Jakob

Wepfer (i6zo-i6^j) als Toxikologe, 728 Maffioli, Cesare S., Out of Gatiteo, 274 Magdefrau, Karl, Geschichte der Botanik, 98 Magnello, M. Eileen, Karl Pearson, 83 Magnello, M. Eileen, Karl Pearson's Gresham Lectures, 83, 277, 554 Magnello, M. Eileen, Karl Pearson's Mathematization of Inheritance, 83, 554 Magnus, Rudolf, Goethe as a Scientist, 308 Mahoney, Michael S., Beginnings of Algebraic Thought in the Seventeenth Century, 25 Mahoney, Michael S., Mathematicat Career of Pierre de Fermat, 1601-166;, 253 Maiden, J.H., Sir Joseph Banks, 70 Maienschein, Jane, Reflections on Ecology and Evolution, 190 Maier, Clifford Lavv'rence, Rote of Spectroscopy in the Acceptance of the Internatty Structured Atom, 1860-1920, 701 Maio, Marcos Chor, Raca, ciencia e sociedade, 105 Maiocchi, Roberto, Chimica e fitosofia, 183

MASTERS Maiocchi, Roberto, Non soto Fermi, 255 Maiorov, F.P., Istoriia ucheniia ob uslovnykh

refleksakh, 553 Majno, Guido, Healing Hand, 708 Major, John, Heaven and Earth in Early Han Thought, 133 Major, John, Oppenheimer Hearing, 532 Makarenia, A.A., D.I. Mendeteev v vospomonaniiakyh sovremennikov, 466 Makin, Stephen, Indifference Arguments, 54 Malamoud, Charles, Hierarchie et technique, 370 Maley, V. Carlton, Theory of Beats and Combination Tones, 1700-186}, 7 Malgaigne, J.E, Surgery and Ambroise Pare, 708 Malinowski, Bronis3aw, Diary in the Strict Sense of the Term, 243 Malley, Marjorie, Discovery of Atomic Transmutation, 626, 668 Malloch, Archibald, Wittiam Harvey, 322 Malmestrom, Elis, Cart von Linne, 418 Maloney, John, Marshall, Orthodoxy and the Professionatisation of Economics, 437, 585 Malthus, Thomas Robert, Essay on the Principte of Poputation, and A Summary View of the Principle of Population, 434 Maltz, Maxwell, Evolution of Plastic Surgery, 577 Mamiani, Maurizio, Isaac Newton fitosofo della natura, 51Z Mamiani, Maurizio, Prisma di Newton, 512 Mandelbaum, Maurice, History, Man and Reason, 600 Mandelbrot, Benoit B., Fractal Geometry of Nature, 123 Mandl, Louis, Anatomie Microscopique, 340 Mangan, J.A., Mantiness and Moratity, 285 Manheim, Jerome H., Genesis of Point Set Topotogy, 683 Manicas, Peter T , History and Phitosophy of the Social Sciences, 692 Manier, Edward, Young Darwin and His Culturat Circle, 163 Mann, Gunter, Natur des Menschen, 33 Mann, Gustav, Physiologicat Histotogy, 340 Mann, Ronald D., Modern Drug Use, 559 Mannheim, Karl, ldeotogy and Utopia, 367, 402 Mannoni, Octave, Freud, 268 Mansell, Robin, Standards, Innovation and Competitiveness, 704 Manuel, Frank E., Isaac Newton, 512 Manuel, Frank E., Portrait of Isaac Newton, ^93. 5 i i Manuel, Frank E., Retigion of Isaac Newton, 512 Manzini, Ezio, Material of Invention, 578 Marcorini, Edgardo, History of Science and' Technology, 342 Marcus, Alan I., Agriculturat Science and the Quest for Legitimacy, 20 Marcus, Steven, Freud and the Culture of Psychoanalysis, 268

805

Marcuse, Herbert, Eros and Civilization, 603 Marcuse, Herbert, Soviet Marxism, 440 Margolis, Howard, Paradigms & Barriers, 546 Marguin, Jean, Histoire des machines et instruments a calcuter, i i i Marin, Louis, Portrait of the King, 155 Markley, Robert, Fatten Languages, 515 Markovits, Andrei S., Advances in the Social Sciences, 1900-19S0, 691 Markowitz, Gerald, Deadty Dust, 326 Marks, Harry M., Notes from the Underground, 139 Marks, Harry M., Progress of Experiment, 139 Markus, R.A., Christian Faith and Greek Philosophy, 643 Marland, Hilary, Art of Midwifery, 458 Marquardt, Martha, Paul Ehrtich ats Mensch and Arbeiter, 197 Marsden, Ben, Engineering Science in Glasgow, 589 Marshall, Mary P., What I Remember, 437 Martelli, F., Gonsiderazioni preliminari sull'origine della frenologia, 564 Martin, Clyde E., Sexuat Behavior in the Human Male, 685 Martin, Emily, Egg and the Sperm, 283 Martin, Emily, Flexibte Bodies, 369 Martin, Emily, Woman in the Body, 649 Martin, Ernst, Catcutating Machines, 111 Martin, Henri-Jean, Coming of the Book, 634 Martin, Henri-Jean, Histoire de t'edition franfaise, 634 Martin, Julian, Francis Bacon, the State, and the Reform of Naturat Philosophy, 65 Martin, Luther H., Technologies of the Self, 263 Martin, M., Native American Healers, 729 Martin, Michele, "Helto Central^' Gender, Technology and Culture in the Formation of Telephone Systems, 767 Martin, R.N.D., Pierre Dubem, 183 Martin, Thomas, Faraday's Diary, 251 Martin, Thomas, Royat Institution, 661 Martin, Thomas C , Edison, 192 Martineau, Harriet, Autobiography, 438 Martzloff, Jean-Claude, History of Chinese Mathematics, 134 Marvin, Ursula B., Continental Drift, 148 Marx, Karl, Capital, 440 Marx, Karl, German Ideology, 402 Marx, Leo, Does Technology Drive History? 441 Mason, Stephen F, Chemicat Evotution, 1Z9 Massey, Harrie, History of British Space Science, 698 Masson, Jeffrey Moussaieff, Assautt on Truth, 268 Masterman, Margaret, Nature of a Paradigm, 546 Masters, William H., Human Sexual Inadequacy, 68$ Masters, William H., Human Sexual Response, 68$

8o6

MASTROIANNI

Mastroianni, Anna, Women and Health Research, 283 Matalova, Anna, Gregor Mendel and the Foundation of Genetics, 465 Matschoss, Conrad, Werner von Siemens, 686 Matthaei, Rupprecht, Goethe zur Farbe und Farbenlehre, 308 Matthews, J. Rosser, Quantification and the Quest for Medicat Certainty, 83, 138, 224, 706 Maulitz, Russell C , Grand Rounds, 458 Maulitz, Russell C , Morbid Appearances, 551 Maulitz, Russell C , Pathological Tradition, 551 Maulitz, Russell C , Rudolf Virchow, Julius Cohnheim and the Program of Pathology, 747 Maurer, Margarete, Frauenforschung in Naturwissenschaften, 283 Mauro, Alexander, Role of the Voltaic Pile in the Galvani-Volta Controversy Concerning Animal vs. Metallic Electricity, 280 Maurois, Andre, Life of Sir Atexander Fteming, 259 Mauss, Marcel, Seasonat Variations of the Eskimo, 582 Maxwell, Grover, Ontological Status of Theoretical Entities, 526 May, Kenneth O., entry on Gauss in Dictionary of Scientific Biography, 281 May, WE., From Lodestone to GyroCompass, 507 May, WE., History of Marine Navigation, 430 Mayer, L.A., Istamic Astrolabists and Their Work, 44 Mayes, Stephen, Positive Lives-Responses to HIV, 22 Mayr, Ernst, Evolutionary Synthesis, 165, 166, 239, 503 Mayr, Ernst, Growth of Biologicat Thought, 160, 165, 237, 240, 290, 715 Mayr, Ernst, One Long Argument, 16j, 240 Mayr, Ernst, What is Darwinism? 165 Mazars, Guy, Medecine indienne, 371 Mazuecos, Antonio, Cabatteros det punto Fijo, 243 Mazumdar, Pauline M.H., Antigen-Antibody Reaction and the Physics and Chemistry of Life, 197 Mazumdar, Pauline M.H., Eugenics, Human Genetics and Human Failings, 234 Mazumdar, Pauline M.H., Immunology, 1930-1980, 369 Mazumdar, Pauline M.H., Species and Specificity, 369 Mazzolini, Renato G., Non-Verbat Communication in Science Prior to 1900, 647 Mazzolini, Renato J., Stato e organismo, individui e celluli nell'opera di Rudolf Virchow negli anni 1845-1860, 747 Mead, Margaret, Btackberry Winter, 71

BOOKLIST INDEX Meade, Teresa, Science, Medicine and Cutturat Imperiatism, 143 Meadows, A.J., Devetopment of Science Pubtishing in Europe, 389 Meadows, A.J., Science and Controversy, 51, 389 Meckel, Richard A., Save the Babies, 326 Medvedev, Fyodor A., Scenes from tbe History of Real Functions, 270 Medvedev, Zhores A., Rise and Fall of T.D. Lysenko, 425 Medvedev, Zhores A., Soviet Science, 664 Medvei, Victor Gornelius, History of Endocrinology, 210 Medvei, Victor Cornelius, History of Ctinical Endocrinotogy, 210 Meek, Ronald L., Marx and Engets on Matthus, 432 Megill, Allan, Prophets of Extremity, 263 Megill, Allen, Rethinking Objectivity, 525 Mehler, Barry Alan, History of the American Eugenics Society, 1921-1940, 234 Mehra, Jagdish, Einstein, Hilbert, and the Theory of Gravitation, 6'}6 Mehra, Jagdish, entry on Raman in Dictionary of Scientific Biography, 629 Mehra, Jagdish, Erwin Schrodinger and the Rise of Wave Mechanics, 671 Mehra, Jagdish, Beat of a Different Drum, ^57 Mehra, Jagdish, Historical Development of Quantum Theory, 329, 617 Mehrtens, Herbert, Mathematics and War, 445 Mehrtens, Herbert, Moderne, Sprache, Mathematik, 63, 338, 445 Mehrtens, Herbert, Naturwissenschaft, Technik und NS-Ideologie. Beitrage zur Wissenschaftsgeschichte des Dritten Reichs, 723 Meikle, Jeffrey L., American Plastic, 578 Meine, Curt, Aldo Leopold, 190 Meinel, Christoph, Artibus Academicis Inserenda, 127 Meinel, Christoph, Medizin, Naturwissenschaft, Technik und Nationalsozialismus, 723 Meinel, Christoph, Nationalismus und Internationalismus in der Chemie des 19. Jahrhunderts, 381 Meissner, W, Max von Laue als Wissenschaftter und Mensch, 406 Melhado, Evan M., Enlightenment Science in the Romantic Era, 75 Melhado, Evan M., Jacob Berzelius, 75, 126 Melia, Trevor, Science, Reason, and Rhetoric, 653 Mellor, D.P., Role of Science and Industry, 59 Mellor, David P., Evotution of the Atomic Theory, 54 Melsen, Andras Gerardio Maria van. From Atomos to Atom, 54, 57 Menard, H.W, Ocean of Truth, 148 Mendel, Lafayette B., Nutrition, 523

Mendelsohn, Everett, Heat and Life, 652 Mendelsohn, Everett, Science, Technotogy and the Military, 650 Mendelsohn, John Andrew, Cultures of Bacteriotogy, 403 Mendelssohn, Kurt, Quest for Absotute Zero, 157 Mendelssohn, Kurt, World of Walther Nernst, 508 Mendoza, Eric, Physics, Chemistry and the Theory of Errors, 225 Menninger, Karl, Number Words and Number Symbols, 41 Menozzi, Paolo, History of the Geography of Human Genes, 229 Merchant, Carolyn, Earthcare, 283 Merchant, Carolyn, Death of Nature, 283, 505^ 52-9 Merkel, Ingrid, Hermeticism and the Renaissance, 334 Merkle, Judith A., Management and ldeotogy, 435 Merleau-Ponty, Jacques, Cosmologie du XX siecle, 153 Merskey, Harold, Pain, 543 Merton, Robert K., Science, Technotogy and Society in Seventeenth Century Engtand, 117, 380, 469, 645, 693, 770 Merton, Robert K., Singletons and Multiples in Science, 293 Merton, Robert K., Thematic Analysis in Science, 722 Merz, John Theodore, History of European Scientific Thought in the Nineteenth Century, 176 Merz, Sigmund, Leben und Wirken Fraunhofers, 267 Merzbach, Uta C , Cart Friedrich Gauss, 281 Meschkowski, Herbert, Probteme des Unendtichen, 115 Messer-Davidow, Ellen, Knowtedges, 176 Mestrovic, Stjepan G., Emite Durkheim and the Reformation of Sociotogy, 184 Meszaros, Istvan, Marx's Theory of Atienation, 27 Meteorological Office of Great Britain, Handbook of Meteorological ' Instruments, 475 Metzger, Helene, Genese de la science des cristaux, 295 Metzger, Helene, Newton, Stahl, Boerhaave et la doctrine chimique, 12, 91 Meyer, Alfred, Zoo for All Seasons, 95 Meyer, Arthur William, Human Generation, 68 Meyer, Ernst Heinrich Friedrich, Geschichte der Botanik, 98 Meyer, Kirstine, Scientific Life and Works of H.C. Oersted, 538 Meyer, Rudolf W., Leibniz and the Seventeenth Century Revolution, 410 Meyer, Rudolf W., Natur und Subjektivitat, 670 Meyer-Abich, Adolf, Alexander von Humboldt, mit Selbstzeugnissen und Bilddokumenten, 357

MORRIS

BOOKLIST INDEX Meyer-Abich, Klaus Michael, Korrespondenz, Individuatitat, Komptementaritdt, 92 Meyer-Neumann, Elsbeth, S. Neumanns Wirksamkeit auf dem Gebiete der Sozialhygiene, 510 Meyer-Thurow, Georg, Industrialisation of Invention, 186, 650 Meynell, G.G., Materials for a Biography of Dr. Thomas Sydenham, 138 Micale, Mark S., Approaching Hysteria, 365 Micale, Mark S., Discovering the History of Psychiatry, 429, 602 Micale, Mark, Hysteria Male/Hysteria Female, 124 Michel, A., Constitution de ta theorie moderne de I'integration, 270 Michel, Henri, Traite de I'astrotabe, 44 Michel, Jacques, Necessite de Ctaude Bernard, 569 Michell, A.R., History of the Heating Professions, 746 Michelson-Livingston, Dorothy, Master of Light, 480 Middlehurst, Barbara M., Tetescopes, 721 Middleton, WE. Knowles, Early History of Hygrometry, and the Controversy Between de Saussure and de Luc, 475 Middleton, WE. Knowles, Experimenters, 3, 2-74, 475 Middleton, WE. Knowles, History of the Barometer, 475, 741 Middleton, WE. Knowles, History of the Theories of Rain and Other Forms of Precipitation, 477 Middleton, WE. Knowles, History of the Thermometer and Its Use in Meteorology, 328, 475 Middleton, WE. Knowles, Invention of the Meteorotogicat Instruments, 475 Middleton, WE. Knowles, Meteorological Instruments, 475 Mikami, Y., History of Japanese Mathematics, 682 Mikami, Y., Zoshu Nihon Sugakusi, 682 Mill, J.S., Auguste Comte and Positivism, 147 Mill, J.S., Autobiography, 482 Millard, Andre, Edison and the Business of Innovation, 192 Millas Vallicrosa, Jose Maria, Estudios sobre historia de la ciencia espanota, 699 Millburn, John R., Benjamin Martin, 378 Miller, Arthur I., Study of Henri Poincare's Sur la Dynamique de l'electron, 580 Miller, Arthur I., Atbert Einstein's Speciat Theory of Retativity, 6^6 Miller, Arthur I., Imagery in Scientific Thought, 750 Miller, D.M., entry on Duhem in Dictionary of Scientific Biography, 183 Miller, David Philip, Visions of Empire, 243 Miller, David Philip, Between Hostile Camps, 70, 167 Miller, James, Passion of Michel Foucautt, 263

Miller, John David, Henry Augustus Rowtand and His Electromagnetic Researches, 660 Miller, John David, Rowland and the Nature of Electric Currents, 660 Miller, Jonathan, Mesmerism, 471 Miller, Konrad, Mappaemundi, 121 Miller, Peter, Accounting as Social and Institutional Practice, 6 Miller, Ronald, Technical Development of Modern Aviation, 216 Millikan, Robert A., Autobiography of Robert A. Millikan, 483 Milliken, Stephen E, Buffon, 109 Mills, Eric L., Biologicat Oceanography, 190, 531 Mills, Eric L., Historian of Science and Oceanography after Twenty Years, 531 Minder, Walter, Geschichte der Radioaktivitat, 626 Minio-Paluello, L., entry on Aristotle in Dictionary of Scientific Biography, 40 Minority Rights Group, Polar Peoples, 582 Minowitz, Peter, Profits, Priests, and Princes, 689 Mirowski, Philip, More Heat Than Light, 474> 585 Misa, Thomas J., Nation of Steet, 718 Mises, Richard von. Positivism, 588 Mitchell, Juliet, Feminine Sexuatity, 60$ Mitchell, Juliet, Psychoanalysis and Feminism, 603, 605 Mitchell, Juliet, Selected Melanie Klein, 400 Mitchell, Stephen A., Freud and Beyond, 603 Mitchell, Stephen A., Object Relations in Psychoanatytic Theory, 603 Mitman, Gregg A., State of Nature, 190 Mitsuo, Sugiura, Intersection of History and Mathematics, 520 Mittasch, Alwin, Withetm Ostwatds Auftosungstehre, 540 Mladentsev, M.N., Dmitrii Ivanovich Mendeteev, ego zhizn' i deiatel'nost', 466 Mladjenovite, Milorad, History of Early Nuclear Physics, 517, 626 Mobius, Martin, Geschichte der Botanik von den ersten Anfangen bis zur Gegenwart, 98 Mochmann, Hanspeter, Meilensteine der Bakteriologie, 66 Modgil, Celia, Robert K. Merton, 469 Modgil, Sohan, Robert K. Merton, 469 Moggridge, D.E., Maynard Keynes, 399 Mohr, James C , Doctors and tbe Law, 261, 460 Mohr, Richard D., Ptatonic Cosmotogy, 579 Moiso, Francesco, Friedrich Wilhelm Joseph Schelling, 670 Moller, K. Max, Cartsberg Laboratory, 1876-1^76, 171 Mollers, Bernhard, Robert Koch, 403 Moncada, Omar, De Patas a Minerva, 69^ Money, John, Man & Woman, Boy & Girt, 68$

807

Monk, Ray, Ludwig Wittgenstein, 63 Montagnier, Luc, Des Virus et des hommes, 22 Montellano, Bernard R. Ortiz de, Aztec Medicine, 229 Montesinos, Jose Maria, Ctassicat Tessettations and Three-Manifotds, 313 Montgomery, David, Workers' Controt in America, 435 Montgomery, William Morey, Evotution and Darwinism in German Biology,i66 Montgomery, William Morey, Germany, 166 Moody, Thomas E., Atienation and Sociat Criticism, 27 Moore, G.H., Axiomatisation of Linear Algebra, 25 Moore, Gregory H., Zermeto's Axiom of Choice, 63, 683 Moore, James, Darwin, 163, 503 Moore, James, Deconstructing Darwinism, 165 Moore, James, Herbert Spencer's Henchmen, 702 Moore, James, Post-Darwinian Controversies, 237 Moore, R. Laurence, In Search of White Crows, 703 Moore, Ruth, Niets Bohr, 92 Moore, Walter, Schrodinger, 671 Moore, Wilbert E., Twentieth Century Sociotogy, 694 Moran, Bruce T , German PrincePractitioners, 155 Moran, Bruce T , Patronage and Institutions, 155 Moran, James, Composition of Reading Matter, 595 Moran, James, Printing Presses, 595 Morange, Michel, Institut Pasteur, 66 Morantz-Sanchez, Regina Markell, Sympathy and Science, 76$ Morawetz, Herbert, Polymers, 578 Morgan, Mary S., History of Econometric Ideas, 585 Morgan, Mary S., Probabilistic Revotution, 706 Morgan, Neil, Strategy of Biological Research Programmes, 142 Morley, W.H., Description of a Planispheric Astrolabe Constructed for Shah Sultan Husain Safawi, 44 Morpurgo-Tagliabue, Guido, / processi di Galileo e t'epistemotogia, 275 Morrell, J.B., Chemist Breeders, 194, 415 Morrell, Jack, Gentteman of Science, 107, 598, 693 Morrell, Jack, Metropotis and Province, 693 Morris, David B., Cutture of Pain, 543 Morris, David B., Marquis de Sade and the Discourses of Pain, 543 Morris, Peter J.T., American Synthetic Rubber Research Program, 578 Morris, Peter J.T., Archives of the British Chemicat Industry 1750-1914, 373 Morris, Peter J.T., Development of Plastics, 578

8o8

MORRIS

Morris, Peter J.T., Milestones in i j o Years of the Chemical Industry, 373 Morris, Peter J.T., Polymer Pioneers, 578 Morrison-Low, Alison D., Brass and Glass, 378 Morris-Suzuki, Tessa, Technotogicat Transformation of Japan, 387 Morselli, Mario A., Amedeo Avogadro, 62 Morss, John R., Biotogising of Chitdhood, 573 Mort, Frank, Dangerous Sexuatities, 744 Mortimore, G.W, Rationality and the Social Sciences, 630 Morton, A.G., History of Botanical Science, 98 Morton, Alan Q., Pubtic and Private Science, 490, 610 Morus, Iwan Rhys, Correlation and Control, 211

Morus, Iwan Rhys, Different Experimental Lives, 556 Morus, Iwan Rhys, Manufacturing Nature, 556 Morus, Iwan Rhys, Telegraphy and the Technology of Display, 202 Morzer Bruyns, W.F.J., Cross-Staff, 507 Mosak, Harold H., Adlerian Psychotherapy, 9 Mosco, Vincent, Political Economy of Information, 375 Moscucci, Ornella, Science of Woman, 287, 314, 458, 528, 649 Moser, Helmut, Forschung und Priifung, $68 Mosig, Alfred, Arzneipflanzen, 181 Moss, Ralph W., Cancer Industry, 114 Mossman, S.T.I., Development of Plastics, 578 Moszowski, Alexander, Einstein the Searcher, 198 Mothe, John de la. Science and Technology in Canada, 112 Motoyama, Shozo, Historia das ciencias no Brasil, 105 Mott, Nevill, Beginnings of Solid State Physics, 697 Mottelay, Paul Fleury, Wittiam Gitbert of Cotchester, 303 Mottelay, Paul Fleury, Bibtiographicat History of Etectricity and Magnetism, 204, 430 Motz, Lloyd, Wortd of tbe Atom, 54 Mould, Richard F., Century of X-Rays and Radioactivity in Medicine, 628 Mould, Richard F., History of X-Rays and Radium, 628 Mouledoux, Elizabeth C , Atienation, 27 Mouledoux, Joseph C , Atienation, 27 Moulin, Anne Marie, Dernier Langage de ta medecine, 369 Moulin, Anne Marie, Science and Empires, 143 Moulton, Forest Ray, Liebig and After Liebig, 20, 415 Mouy, Paul, Devetoppement de ta physique Cartesienne 1646-1712, 120

BOOKLIST INDEX Mowery, David C , Technotogy and the Pursuit of Economic Growth, 6$o Moxon, Joseph, Mechanick Exercises in the Whole Art of Printing, 168j-4, 595 Moyal, Ann, Bright and Savage Land, 59 Mozans, H.J., Woman in Science, 760 Mozzhukhin, A.S., l.P. Pavlov v Peterburgye, Petrogradye, Leningradye, 553 Mudimbe, V.Y., Invention of Africa, 372 Mudry, Philippe, Formes de pensee dans la cottection hippocratique, 339 Mueller, Ian, Phitosophy of Mathematics and Deductive Structure in Euctid's Etements, 63, 232 Muirhead, James Patrick, Origin and Progress of the Mechanicat Inventions of James Watt Ittustrated by His Correspondence witb His Friends and the Specifications of His Patents, 757 Mulkay, Michael, Astronomy Transformed, 51

Mulkay, Michael, Opening Pandora's Box, 653 Mullen, Pierce C , Preconditions and Reception of Darwinian Biotogy in Germany, 1800-1870, 166 Mullens, W.H., Bibtiography of British Ornithotogy from the Eartiest Times to the End of 1911, 537 Miiller, Rainer A., Formen ausserstaatticher Wissenscbaftsforderung im ii). und 20. Jahrhundert, 568 Multhauf, Robert P., Atchemy and Chemistry in the Seventeenth Century, 24 Multhauf, Robert P., Introduction of SelfRegistering Meteorological Instruments, 475 Mumford, Lewis, Technics and Civitization, 452, 716 Mumford, M.J., Phitosophicat Perspectives on Accounting, 6 Munday, Patrick E., Liebig's Metamorphosis, 20 Munday, Patrick E., Sturm and Dung, 415 Munro Kerr, J.M., Historicat Review of British Obstetrics and Gynaecotogy, 1800-ig^o, 528 Murdoch, Dugald, Niels Bohr's Philosophy of Physics, 92 Murdoch, John, entry on Euclid in Dictionary of Scientific Biography, 232 Murray, Charles, Bett Curve, 625 Murray, David J., History of Western Psychotogy, 608 Murray, David J., Perspective for Viewing the History of Psychophysics, 608 Murray, Joan, Hut 8 and Naval Enigma, 731 Musgrave, Alan, Is There a Logic of Scientific Discovery? 177 Musser, Charles, Before the Nicketodeon, 192 Musser, Charles, Emergence of Cinema, 192 Musson, A.E., James Watt and the Steam Revotution, 757

Musson, A.E., Science and Technotogy in the Industrial Revolution, 757 Myers, Greg, Writing Biology, $86, 653 Myrdal, Gunnar, American Ditemma, 625 Nagel, Bengt, Discussion Concerning the Nobel Prize for Max Planck, 516 Nagel, Ernst, Formation of Modern Conceptions of Formal Logic in the Development of Geometry, 63 Nagel, Ernst, Godel's Proof, 305 Nagel, Ernst, John Stuart Milt's Phitosophy of Scientific Method, 482 Nagy, Ferenc, Neumann Jdnos es a "Magyar Titok", 754 Nakayama Shigeru, Academic and Scientific Traditions in China, Japan, and the West, 385,386 Nakayama Shigeru, Chinese Science, 131 Nakayama Shigeru, History of Japanese Astronomy, 50 Nakayama Shigeru, Science and Society in Modern Japan, 385 Nakayama Shigeru, Science, Technology and Society in Postwar Japan, 385 Napier, Mark, Memoirs of John Napier of Merchiston, 499 Nash, Roderick, Wilderness and the American Mind, 505 Nash, Stephen G., History of Scientific Computing, 146 Nasmith, J., Recent Cotton Milt Construction and Engineering, 484 Nasr, Seyyed Hossein, Science and Civitization in Istam, 35, 294, 641 Natorp, Paul, Ptatos Ideenlehre, 579 Naumann, Friedrich, Georgius Agricota, 18 Naux, Charles, Histoire des togarithmes de Neper a Euter, 499 Nechaev, I., Chemicat Etements, 669 Needham, Joseph, Botany, 137 Needham, Joseph, Cetestiat Lancets, 8, 135 Needham, Joseph, Chemistry of Life, 81 Needham, Joseph, Grand Titration, 131 Needham, Joseph, Heaventy Clockwork, 141 Needham, Joseph, History of Embryology, 207 Needham, Joseph, Hopkins and Biochemistry, 1861-1^47, 81 Needham, Joseph, Science and Civitisation in China, 131, 134, 294, 441, 716 Needham, Joseph, Science in Traditional China, 131 Needham, Joseph, Shorter Science and Civilization in China, 229 Needham, Joseph, Sound (Acoustics), 494 Needham, Joseph, Spagyrical Discovery and Invention, 135 Needham, Joseph, Trans-Pacific Echoes and Resonances, 294 Neill, Catherine A., Developing Heart, 119 Neilson, Robert M., Steam Turbine, 215 Nelkin, Dorothy, Animal Rights Crusade, 34 Nelkin, Dorothy, Disease of Society, 22 Nelkin, Dorothy, DNA Mystique, 179, 291

OKEY

BOOKLIST INDEX Nelkin, Dorothy, Setting Science, 586 Nelson, Daniel, Frederick W. Taytor and the Rise of Scientific Management, 435 Nelson, Stewart B., Oceanographic Ships, Fore and Aft, 531 Nemec, Jaroslav, Hightights in Medico-tegat Relations, 261 Nerad, Maresi, Gender Stratification in Higher Education, 345 Nersessian, Nancy J., How Do Scientists Think? 177 Nesse, Randolph M., Evolution and Healing, 256 Nettheim, Garth, Human Rights, 501 Neu, John, Isis Cumulative Bibtiography, 341 Neuburger, Max, Heating Power of Nature, 256 Neuburger, Max, Historicat Devetopment of Experimental Brain and Spinat Cord Physiotogy Before Ftourens, 485 Neugebauer, Oscar, Early History of the Astrolabe, 44 Neugebauer, Otto, Exact Sciences in Antiquity, 195, 311 Neugebauer, Otto, History of Ancient Mathematicat Astronomy, 195 Neugebauer, Otto, Mathematicat Astronomy in Copernicus' De revolutionibus, 152 Neuman, James R., Godel's Proof, 305 Neumann, Friedrich, Windmotoren, Beschreibung, Konstruktion und Berechnung der Windftiiget, Windturbinen und Windrdder, 759 Neville, Leslie E., Jet Proputsion Progress, 216 Nevin, N.C., Galton's 'Law of Ancestral Heredity', 277, 554 Newcomb, T.P., Technicat History of the Motor Car, 60 Newell, Homer E., Beyond the Atmosphere, 698 Newman, Alexander, Non-Comptiance in Winnicott's Words, 603 Newman, M.H.A., Alan Mathison Turing, 733 Newmeyer, Frederick J., Linguistic Theory in America, 416 Newton, Alfred, Dictionary of Birds, 537 Ngubane, H., Aspects of Clinical Practice and Traditional Organization of Indigenous Healers in South Africa, 729

Niangoran-Bouah, G., Univers Akan des poids a peser for, 13 Nicholas, John M., Probtems of Cartesianism, 120 Nicholls, Ann, Directory of Wortd Museums, 490 Nicholls, David, Nineteenth-Century Britain,

1S1J-1914, 557 Nicholls, Peter, Encyctopedia of Science Fiction, 672 Nicholls, Phillip A., Homoeopathy and the Medicat Profession, 346 Nichols, K.D., Road To Trinity, 532

Nicholson, Julia, Development and Understanding of the Concept of Quotient Group, 313 Nickles, Thomas, Scientific Discovery, 177 Nickles, Thomas, Scientific Discovery, Logic, and Rationality, 177 Nicolson, Malcolm, Art of Diagnosis, 256 Nicolson, Malcolm, Giovanni Battista Morgagni and Eighteenth-Century Physical Examination, 551 Nicolson, Marjorie Hope, Newton Demands the Muse, 515 Niedersen, Uwe, Energie, Gliick und Autopoiese, 540 Nielsen, Henry, Industriens MiEnd, 171 Nielsen, Lauritz, Tycho Brahes Bogtrykkeri, 103

Nieto-Galan, Agusti, Natural Dyestuffs and Industrial Culture in Europe, 17^0-1880, 186 Nikkiforuk, Andrew, Fourth Horseman, 223 Nisbet, H.B., Goethe and the Scientific Tradition, 308 Nisbet, Robert A., History of Sociological Analysis, 694 Nisbet, Robert A., History of the Idea of Progress, 600 Nisbet, Robert A., Sociologicat Tradition, 694 Nisbett, Alec, Konrad Lorenz, 422 Nisio, Sigeo, Formation of Bohr's Theory of Atomic Constitution, 92 Nissen, Claus, Botanische Buchittustration, 332Nissen, Claus, Ittustrierten Vogetbiicher, 537 Nissen, Hans J., Archaic Bookkeeping, 195, 227 Nitske, W Robert, Life of Wilhelm Conrad Rontgen, Discoverer of the X-Ray, 659 Nkwi, P., Ethnomedical Systems in SubSaharan Africa, 372 Noble, David F., America by Design, 6, 117, 214, 650 Noble, Douglas D., Ctassroom Arsenat, 680 Noble, Iris, Master Surgeon, 360 Noether, M., Entwicklung der Theorie der algebraischen Functionen in alterer und neuerer Zeit, 270 Norbye, Jan P., Gas Turbine Engine, 217 Nordau, Max, Degeneration, 170 Nordenskiold, A.E., Periptus, 121 Norlind, Wilhelm, Tycho Brahe, 103 North, J.D., Astrolabe, 44 North, J.D., Fontana History of Astronomy and Cosmotogy, 49, 153 North, J.D., Horoscopes and History, 46 North, J.D., Measure of the Universe, 153, 636 Norton, Bernard, Karl Pearson and Statistics, 83. 554 Norton, John D., Attraction of Gravitation, 636 NOVA, Rise of A Wonder Drug, 259, 260 Novak, William, Peopte's Wetfare, 460 Novitski, Mary Eunice, August Laurent and the Prehistory of Vatence, 743

809

Novy, Lubos, Origins of Modern Atgebra, 25 Nowotny, Helga, After the Breakthrough, 381 Nuland, Sherwin B., To Tend the Fleshly Tabernacle of the Immortal Spirit, 419 Nuland, Sherwin B., Why the Leaves Changed Color in the Autumn, 360 Numbers, Ronald L., God and Nature, 639, 645 Nunn, John E, Ancient Egyptian Medicine, 195 Nutting, M. Adelaide, History of Nursing, 52-1

Nutton, V, Emergence of Modern Cardiotogy, 457 Nutton, V, Gaten, 273 Nutton, V., Humanistic Surgery, 355 Nutton, V., Idle Old Trots, Cobblers and Costardmongers, 615 Nutton, V., Theories of Fever from Antiquity to the Entigbtenment, 255 Nye, David, Etectrifying America, 204, 716 Nye, David, Electrifying Expositions, 242 Nye, Mary Jo, From Chemicat Phitosophy to Theoreticat Chemistry, 12, 130, 564 Nye, Mary Jo, Question of the Atom, 54 Nye, Mary Jo, Science in the Provinces, 265 Nye, Robert A., Crime, Madness and Potitics in Modern France, 170 Nye, Robert A., Mascutinity and Mate Codes of Honor in Modern France, 287 Nyhart, Lynn K., Biotogy Takes Form, 166, 2-71, 317

Oakley, Ann, "Domestic Work", in Work, Emptoyment and Unemptoyment, 770 Oakley, Ann, Captured Womb, 528 Obenga, Theophile, Phitosophie africaine de ta periode pharaonique, 13 Oberkofler, G., Erwin Schrodinger, 671 O'Brian, Patrick, Joseph Banks, 70 O'Brien, D., Theories of Weight in the Ancient Wortd, $7 Ockenden, L., Great Batteries of the London Institution, 280 O'Connell, Joseph, Metrology, 202, 478 Oddy, W.A., Aspects of Tibetan Metatturgy, 47^ O'Donnell, John M., Origins of Behaviorism, 607 O'Driscoll, Gerald P., Economics as a Coordination Probtem, 324 O'Driscoll, Gerald P., Economics of Time and Ignorance, 3 24 Oehser, Paul Henry, Smithsonian Institution, 690 Oesper, R.E., Claude-Louis Berthollet, 74 Ogilvie, Marilyn Bailey, Women in Science, 763, 764, 766 Ogura, K., Chugoku, 682 O'Hara, J.G., Hertz and the Maxwettians, 337 Ohnuki-Tierney, Emiko, Illness and Culture in Contemporary Japan, 386 Ohya, Zensetsou, Medecine Japonaise, 386 Okey, Ruth, Woman in Science, 345

8lO

OKIMOTO

Okimoto, Daniel I., Between MITI and the Market, 387 Olby, Robert C , Companion to the History of Modern Science, 342 Olby, Robert C , Dimensions of Scientific Controversy, 277, 554 Olby, Robert C , Origins of Mendelism, 290, 333, 465 Olby, Robert C , Path to the Double Helix, 142-, ^91, 487 Old, R.W., Principles of Gene Manipulation, 289 Oldroyd, David R., Darwinian Impacts, 165 Oldroyd, David R., Edward Daniel Cooke, 126 Oldroyd, David R., Highlands Controversy, 19 S

Oldroyd, David R., Thinking about the Earth, 296 Oldstone, Michael B.A., Microbe Hunters, Then and Now, 66 Olesko, Kathryn M., Physics as a Calling, 176, 225, 300 Olesko, Kathryn M., Precision's Images, 309 Olesko, Kathryn M., Precision, Tolerance, and Consensus, 449, 478 Olesko, Kathryn M., Science in Germany, 300 Olff-Nathan, Josiane, Science sous le Troisieme Reich, 723 Oilman, Bertell, Alienation, 27 Olmi, Giuseppe, In essercitio universale di contemplatione e prattica, z Olmsted, J.M.D, Claude Bernard and the Experimental Method in Medicine, 73, 569 Olmsted, J.M.D., Charles-Edouard BrownSequard, s(>9 Olmsted, J.M.D., Francois Magendie, s(\ Shorr, Philip, Science and Superstition in the Eighteenth Century, 208

Shorter, Edward, Bedside Manners, 180 Shorter, Edward, History of Women's Bodies, 314, 528 Shorter, Edward, From Paralysis to Fatigue, 543 Shortland, Michael, Let Newton Be!, 24 Shortland, Michael, Science and Nature, 190, 221 Showalter, Elaine, Female Malady, 124, 285, 365 Shrager, Jeff, Computational Models of Scientific Discovery and Theory Formation, 177 Shrewsbury, J.F.D., History of Bubonic Plague in the British Isles, 224 Shukla, K.S., History of Astronomy in India, 50 Shukla, K.S., History of Oriental Astronomy, 50 Shultheis, Heinz, Milestones, 186 Shumacker, Harris B., Jr, Evolution of Cardiac Surgery, 119, 458 Shumaker, Wayne, John Dee on Astronomy, 168 Shumaker, Wayne, Occult Sciences in the Renaissance, 529 Shumway, David R., Knowledges, 176 Shuttleworth, Sally, Body I Politics, 285 Shuttleworth, Sally, Nature Transfigured, 420 Siary, Gerard, Medecine et societe au Japon, 386 Sibum, Otto, Reworking the Mechanical Value of Heat, 211, 449, 556, 590 Sidgwick, J.B., William Herschel, 336 Siegel, Daniel M., Innovation in Maxwell's Electromagnetic Theory, 205, 448 Siegel, Jerrold E, Rhetoric and Philosophy in Renaissance Humanism, 355 Siegel, Patricia Joan, Women in the Scientific Search, 736, 763, 764 Siegfried, Robert, Ghemical Revolution in the History of Ghemistry, 127 Siegfried, Robert, Gomposition, 127, 408 Siemens, Georg, Weg der Elektrotechnik, 686 Siemens, Werner von, Lebenserinnerungen, 686 Siemens, Werner von, Wissenschaftliche Anhandlungen und Vortrdge, 686 Siemens-Helmholtz, Ellen von, Anna Von Helmholtz, 331 Sigerist, Henry E., Primitive and Archaic Medicine, 15 Sigurdsson, S., Unification, Geometry and Ambivalence, 298 Silsbee, Nathaniel F., Jet Propulsion Progress, 216 Silverman, Milton, Pills, Profits and Politics, 559 Silverman, Robert J., Instruments and the Imagination, 494, 556 Silverman, Sydel, Totems and Teachers, 88 Silverstein, Arthur M., History of Immunology, 197, 369 Sime, Ruth Lewin, Discovery of Protactinium, 318

SORRENSON

BOOKLIST INDEX Sime, Ruth Lewin, Lise Meitner, 318, 464, 766 Sime, Ruth Lewin, Lise Meitner and the Discovery of Fission, 318 Simon, Franz, Walther Nernst, 508 Simon, Gerard, Kepler, 397 Simon, Herbert A., Sciences of The Artificial, 43 Simonton, Dean Keith, Scientific Genius, 177 Simpson, Allen D . C , Brass and Glass, 378 Sinaceur, Hourya, Corps et modetes, 25 Sinclair, Bruce, Philadelphia's Philosopher Mechanics, 490 Singer, B., History of the Study of Animal Behaviour, 231 Singer, Charles, Evotution of Anatomy, 29 Singer, Charles, Fascicuto di Medicina, Venice, 149}, 745 Singer, Charles, Herbal in Antiquity, 332 Singer, Charles, History of Technotogy, 716 Singer, Charles, Vesatius on the Human Brain, 745 Singer, Isadore, Legacy of John von Neumann, 754 Sinkovics, Istvan, Az Eotvos Lordnd Tudomdnyegyetem tortenete, 359 Siraisi, Nancy G., Medievat and Earty Renaissance Medicine, 463 Sivin, Nathan, Chinese Science, 131 Sivin, Nathan, Science and Medicine in Imperial China-The State of the Field, 131 Sivin, Nathan, Science and Technotogy in East Asia, 131 Sivin, Nathan, Traditionat Medicine in Contemporary China, 135 Sivin, Nathan, Why the Scientific Revolution Did Not Take Place in China-or Didn't It? 294 Six, Jules, Decouverte du Neutron, 518 Skea, Jim, Standards, Innovation atid Competitiveness, 704 Skidelsky, Robert, John Maynard Keynes, 399 Skolnikoff, Eugene B., Etusive Transformation, 381 Skorupski, John, John Stuart Mill, 482 Slack, Paul, Epidemics and Ideas, 223 Slack, Paul, Impact of Plague in Tudor and Stuart England, 224, 575, 611 Slade, Joseph W., Beyond the Two Cultures, ^93 Slater, E.C., Selected Topics in the History of Biochemistry, 81 Slater, John C , Sotid-State and Motecutar Theory, 698 Slater, Leo, Organic Synthesis and R. B. Woodward, 535 Slikkerveer, L. Jan, Etbnomedical Systems in Sub-Saharan Africa, 372 Slikkerveer, L. Jan, Plural Medicat Systems in the Horn of Africa, 15 Sloan, A.W, English Medicine in the Seventeenth Century, 712 Sloan, P.R., John Locke, John Ray, and the Problem of the Natural System, 715

Sloan, P.R., On the Edge of Evolution, 271 Slotkin, J.S., Readings in Early Anthropology, 592 Small, Helen, Practice and Representation of Reading in Engtand, 634 Smart, Barry, Foucault, Marxism and Critique, 263 Smiles, Samuel, Lives of the Engineers, 757 Smith, Alice Kimball, Robert Oppenheimer, 532Smith, Bernard, European Vision and the South Pacific, 70, 243 Smith, Bernard, Imagining the Pacific, 674 Smith, Crosbie, Energy and Empire, 202, 206, 211, 448, 449 Smith, Crosbie, Science of Energy, 211 Smith, Crosbie, Work and Waste, 770 Smith, Cyril Stanley, History of Metallography, 443, 472 Smith, Cyril Stanley, Materials in History and Society, 443 Smith, Cyril Stanley, Sources for the History of the Science of Steel, 472 Smith, Dale C , On the Causes of Fever, 256 Smith, David Eugene, History of Japanese Mathematics, 682 Smith, David Eugene, Rara Arithmetica, 41 Smith, David N., Who Rutes the Universities? 117 Smith, Edward, Foods, 523 Smith, Edward, Life of Sir Joseph Banks, 70 Smith, Francis B., Retreat of Tuberculosis, 731 Smith, Sir Frederick, Early History of Veterinary Literature and Its British Devetopment, 746 Smith, J.-C, Historical Foundations of Cognitive Science, 485 Smith, John Graham, Origins and Early Development of the Heavy Chemicat Industry in France, 373 Smith, John Kenly Jr, Science and Corporate Strategy, 186, 578 Smith, John Kenly Jr, Scientific Tradition in American Industrial Research, 650 Smith, Julian A., Precursors to Peregrinus, 430 Smith, Kenneth, Matthusian Controversy, 432 Smith, Merritt Roe, Does Technology Drive History? 441 Smith, Merritt Roe, Harpers Ferry Armory and the New Technology, 716 Smith, Merritt Roe, Science, Technotogy and tbe Mititary, 650 Smith, Michael L., Pacific Visions, 221 Smith, Pamela H., Business of Atchemy, 155 Smith, Robert W., Engines of Discovery, 721 Smith, Robert W, Expanding Universe, 52, 153 Smith, Robert W, Space Tetescope, 52, 698, 721 Smith, Roger, Fontana History of the Human Sciences, 354 Smith, Roger, Inhibition, 511

819

Smith, Wesley D., Hippocratic Tradition, 2-73> 34° Smith, Willoughby, Rise and Extension of Submarine Tetegraphy, 720 Smithcors, James Frederick, Evolution of the Veterinary Art, 746 Smithsonian Insitution, Snakes, Snails and History Tails, 690 Smocovitis, Vassiliki Betty, Unifying Biology, 165, 240 Sneader, Walter, Drug Discovery, 557 Snelders, H.A.M., Oersted's Discovery of Electromagnetism, 538 Snellen, H.A., £.-/. Marey and Cardiology, 436 Snellen, H.A., History and Perspectives of Cardiotogy, 119 Snorrason, Egill, Hans Christian 0rsted, 538 Snorrason, Egill, Nicolaus Steno, 707 Snow, C.P., Two Cultures and the Scientific Revolution, 420 Snow, John, Snow on Chotera, 224 Snow, Loudell F., Waikin' over Medicine, 729 Sobel, Dava, Longitude, 141 Sobol, Peter G., Shadow of Reason, 231 Soderbaum, Henrik Gustaf, Jac. Berzetius, 75 Soderqvist, Thomas, Ecotogists, 190, 221 Soderqvist, Thomas, Hvitken kamp for at undstippe, 171 Soerlin, Sverker, Denationatizing Science, 381 Sohn-Rethel, Alfred, Intettectuat and Manual Labour, 440, 770 Sokal, Michael M., Introduction, in Psycbologicat Testing and American Society, 607 Solit, Karen D., History of the United States Botanic Garden, 95 Solmsen, Friedrich, Aristotte's System of the Pbysicat World, 40 Solovev, Iurii Ivanovich, Jacob Berzetius, 75 Soloway, Richard A., Birth Controt and the Poputation Question in Engtand, 86 Soloway, Richard A., Counting the Degenerates, 170 Soloway, Richard A., Demography and Degeneration, 170 Solowjew, Ju. I., Wilhelm Ostwald, 540 Sommerfeld, Erich, Geldtehre des Nicotaus Copernicus, 152 Sommerfeldt, W.P., Norske atmanakk gjennom }oo dr 1644-1944, 28 Somsen, Geert J., Wetenschappetijk Onderzoek en Atgemeen Betang, 142 Sontag, Susan, Imagination of Disaster, 672 Sopka, Katherine Russell, Quantum Physics in America, 617 Sorlin, Sverker, Hans W. Ahlmann, Arctic Research and Polar Warming, 582 Sorokin, Pitirim A., Contemporary Sociotogicat Theories, 692 Sorrenson, Richard, Towards a History of the Royal Society in the i8th century, 662

820

SOUDER

Souder, Lawrence, G.V. Raman, 629 Soule, Michael E., Reinventing Nature? 505 Soyfer, Valery N., Lysenko and the Tragedy of Soviet Science, 425 Spanier, Bonnie B., Im/partial Science, 283 Sparks, John, Discovery of Animal Behaviour, 231 Spary, Emma G., Cultures of Natural History, 221 Spear, E.G., Pain, 543 Spence, Glark G., Rainmakers, 477 Spence, Jonathan D., Memory Palace of Matteo Ricci, 388 Spencer, Frank, Ecce Homo, 592 Spencer, Frank, Piltdown, 592 Spencer, Herbert, Autobiography, 702 Sperber, Dan, On Anthropological Knowledge, 413 Sperber, Manes, Masks of Loneliness, 9 Spilhaus, Athelstan F, Meteorological Instruments, 475 Spillius, Elizabeth Bott, Melanie Klein Today, 400 Spink, M.S., Albucassis on Surgery and Instruments, 456 Spink, Wesley W, Infectious Diseases, 256 Spitz, Peter H., Petrochemicals, 373 Sprat, Thomas, History of the Royal-Society of London for the Improving of Natural Knowledge, 662 Sprinker, Michael, Edward Said, 536 Spurr, R.T., Technical History of the Motor Car, 60 Srinivasan, P.R., Origins of Modern Biochemistry, 81 Stachel, John, Einstein and the History of General Relativity, 636 Stachel, John, History of Relativity, 636 Stadler, Friedrich, Ernst Mach, 4Z7 Stadler, Friedrich, Vom Positivismus zur "wissenschaftlichen Weltauffassung", 427, 588 Stafford, Barbara Maria, Artful Science, 634, 647, 750 Stafford, Barbara Maria, Body Criticism, 218, 647, 674, 750 Stafford, Barbara Maria, Voyage into Substance, 647 Stafford, Robert A., Scientist of Empire, 296 Stafleu, Frans, Linnaeus and the Linnaeans, 418 Stage, Sarah, Rethinking Home Economics, 345 Stagner, Ross, History of Psychological Theories, 485 Stahl, William H., Roman Science, 294 Stair-Douglas, Janet, Life and Selections

from the Correspondence of William Whewell, 758 Stalker, Douglas, Examining Holistic Medicine, 344 Stallybrass, Oliver, Selected Correspondence of Michael Faraday, 251 Staniukovich, T.V., Kunstkamera Peterburgskoi Akademii nauk, 66$

BOOKLIST INDEX Stanley, Autumn, Mothers and Daughters of Invention, 767 Stanton, William, Leopard's Spots, 30, 33 Star, Susan Leigh, Ecologies of Knowledge, 687 Starfield, Barbara, Ghild Health and Public Policy, 326 Stark, Johannes, Forschung und Priifung, 568 Stark, Susanne, Liebig, Gregory and the British Association for the Advancement of Science, 20 Starosel'skaya-Nikitina, O.A., Istoriya radioaktivnosti i voxniknoveniya yadernoy fiziki, 627 Starowolski, Szymon, Scriptorum Polonicorum Hekatontas seu centum illustrium Poloniae scriptorum elogia et vitae, 152 Stauffer, Robert C., Speculation and Experiment in the Background of Oersted's Discovery of Electromagnetism, 539 Stearn, W.T., Bicentenary History of the Linnean Society of London, ^^ Stearn, W.T., Introduction to the Species Plantarum and Gognate Botanical Works of Garl Linnaeus, 418 Stearns, Raymond P., Science in the British Colonies of America, 143, 735 Stedman, Bruce J., International Whaling Gommission and Negotiation for a Global Moratorium on Whaling, 304 Steen, Kathryn, Wartime Gatalyst and Postwar Reaction, 186 Steenberghen, Fernand Van, Thomas Aquinas and Radical Aristotetianism, 643 Stefansson, Vilhjalmur, Friendly Arctic, 243 Stefansson, Vilhjalmur, Hunters of the Great North, 582 Steffens, Henry John, Development of Newtonian Optics in England, 534 Steggall, J.E.A., Short Account of the Treatise De Arte Logistica, 499 Stein, Herbert, Fiscal Revolution in America, 399 Stein, Lyndall, Positive Lives-Responses to HIV, 22 Steinberg, S.H., Five Hundred Years of Printing, 595 Steiner, Riccardo, Freud-Klein Controversies, 400 Steiner, Rudolf, Goethes Weltanschauung, 308 Steinhaus, Edward A., Disease in a Minor Chord, 191 Steinle, Friedrich, Experimental Essays, 246 Steleanu, Adrian, Geschichte der Limnologie und ihrer Grundlagen, 191 Steneck, Nicholas H., Science and Creation in the Middle Ages, 64^ Stengers, Isabelle, History of Chemistry, 129 Stengers, Isabelle, Order Out of Chaos, 123 Stepan, Nancy, Beginnings of Brazilian Science, 105, 405

Stepan, Nancy, Hour of Eugenics, 234 Stepan, Nancy, Idea of Race in Science, 33, 625 Stepansky, Paul E., In Freud's Shadow, 9 Stephenson, Bruce, Kepler's Physical Astronomy, 397 Stephenson, Bruce, Music of the Heavens, 397> 491 Stephenson, R.H., Goethe's Conception of Knowledge and Science, 308 Sterling, Keir, Contributions to the History of American Ornithology, 537 Sterling, Robert, Toward a Science of Accounting, 6 Stern, Gurt, Origin of Genetics, 465 Stern, Nancy, From ENIAC to UNIVAC, 146 Stern, Philip M., Oppenheimer Case, 532 Stevens, Anthony, Archetype, 391 Stevens, Leonard A., Explorers of the Brain, 511 Stevens, Peter F, Development of Biological Systematics, 348 Stevens, Rosemary, In Sickness and in Wealth, 351 Stevens, Rosemary, Medical Practice in Modern England, 458 Stevens, Stanley S., Psychophysics, 608 Steward, Julian H., Handbook of South American Indians, 229 Stewart, Balfour, Conservation of Energy, 211 Stewart, John A., Drifting Continents and Colliding Paradigms, 148 Stewart, Larry, Rise of Public Science, 515 Stichweh, Rudolf, Zur Entstehung des modernen Systems wissenschaftlicher Diszipinen, 300 Stiebing, William H. Jr, Uncovering the Past, 37 Stieda, Ludwig, Karl Ernst von Baer, 68 Stigler, George J., Production and Distribution Theories, 437 Stigler, Stephen M., History of Statistics, 83, i ^ 5 . ^77, 554> 596, 623, 706 Still, Arthur, Rewriting the History of Madness, 263, 429 Stiller, Wolfgang, Ludwig Boltzmann, 94 Stimson, Alan, Mariner's Astrolabe, 44, 507 Stinchcombe, Arthur L., Information and Organizations, 687 Stock, John T , Development of Instruments to Measure Electric Current, 202 Stocking, George W, Jr, After Tylor, 31 Stocking, George W, Jr, Ethnographer's Magic and Other Essays in the History of Anthropology, 88 Stocking, George W., Jr, Objects and Others, 88 Stocking, George W, Jr, Race, Culture and Evolution, 30, 88, 625 Stocking, George W, Jr, Victorian Anthropology, 31 Stoddart, D.R., On Geography and Its History, 566 Stoller, Robert, Sex and Gender, 605

TAYLOR

BOOKLIST INDEX Stolz, Werner, Otto Hahn, Lise Meitner, 318, 464 Stowell, Marion Barber, Early American Almanacs, 28 Straus, William L., Forerunners of Darwin, i74S-f8s9, 237 Stresemann, Erwin, Ornithology from Aristotle to the Present, 537 Strom, Sharon Hartman, Beyond the Typewriter, 767 Stromgren, Bengt, Tycho Brahe's Description of His Instruments and Scientific Work, 47> i ° 3 Stromgren, Elis, Tycho Brahe's Description of His Instruments and Scientific Work, 47> 103 Stromholm, Per, Fermat's Method of Maxima and Minima and of Tangents, 2-53

Strong, Philip, AIDS and Contemporary History, 22 Stroup, Alice, Company of Scientists, 1 Stroup, Alice, Royal Funding of the Parisian Academie des Sciences during the 1690s, I

Struik, Dirk J., Early Golonial Science in North America and Mexico, 143 Struve, Otto, Astronomy of the 20th Century, 52 Stubbe, Hans, History of Genetics, 290 Stuewer, Roger H., Compton Effect, 617 Stuewer, Roger H., Mass-Energy and the Neutron in the Early Thirties, 518 Stuewer, Roger H., Michelson Era in American Science, 480 Stuewer, Roger H., Nuclear Physics in Retrospect, 518 Stuewer, Roger H., Rutherford's Satellite Model of the Nucleus, 668 Stuewer, Roger H., Springs of Scientific Creativity, 293 Stuik, Dirk Jan, Concise History of Mathematics, 298 Stuik, Dirk Jan, Lectures on Classical Differential Geometry, 298 Stump, D., Henri Poincare's Philosophy of Science, 580 Sturrock, John, Structuralism and Since, 413 Sturtevant, A.H., History of Genetics, 290 Subbarayappa, B.V., Concise History of Science in India, 370 Sudduth, William, Voltaic Pile and ElectroGhemical Theory in 1800, 280 Sudhoff, Karl, Hundert Jahre Deutscher Naturforscher-Versammlungen, 301 Sudhoff, Karl, Rudolf Virchow und die Deutschen Naturforscherversammlungen, 301 Sudnow, David, Ways of the Hand, 631 Sugerman, Susan, Piaget's Construction of the Child's Reality, 573 Sugimoto Masayoshi, Science and Culture in Traditional Japan, 229, 385 Suhling, Lothar, Bergbau und Hiittenwesen in Mitteleuropa zur Agricola-Zeit, 18

Sukhomlinov, M.I., Istoriia Rossiiskoi Akademii, 66$ Sukhomlinov, M.I., Materialy dlia istorii imperatorskoi Akademii nauk, 66$ Sulloway, Frank, Freud, 269 Summerfield, Penny, Women Workers in the Second World War, 767 Summers, Anne, Angels and Citizens, 521 Suppe, Frederick, Structure of Scientific Theories, 560 Siisskind, Gharles, Henrich Hertz, 337 Siisskind, Gharles, Understanding Technology, 452 Sutherland, J.D., Fairbairn's Journey into the Interior, 603 Sutherland, Peter, Cognitive Development Today, 573 Sutton, Geoffrey, Politics of Science in Early Napoleonic France, 280 Sutton, Geoffrey, Science for a Polite Society, 120 Sutton, Michael A., Sir John Herschel and the Development of Spectroscopy in Britain, 700 Sutton, Michael A., Spectroscopy and the Ghemists, 701 Sutton, Michael A., Spectroscopy and the Structure of Matter, 701 Suvin, Darko, Metamorphoses of Science Fiction, 672 Suvin, Darko, Victorian Science Fiction in the UK, 672 Swain, David L., Science and Culture in Traditional Japan, Z29, 385 Swales, Peter, Freud, His Teacher and the Birth of Psychoanalysis, 269 Swann, H. Kirke, Bibliography of British Ornithology from the Earliest Times to the End of 191 z, 537 Swann, John P., Academic Scientists and the Pharmaceutical Industry, 557 Swarup, G.A.K. Bag, History of Oriental Astronomy, 50 Sweeney, Thomas J., Adlerian Counseling, 9 Swenson, Loyd S., Jr, Ethereal Aether, 10, 480, 636 Swerdlow, Noel M., Mathematical Astronomy in Copernicus' De revolutionibus, 152 Swetz, Frank, Capitalism and Arithmetic, 6 Swijtink, Zeno G., Objectification of Observation, 225 Swinburne, R.G., Galton's Law, 277 Sydenham, P.H., Measuring Instruments, 449 Sylvan, David J., Knowledges, 176 Symons, Lenore, Curiosity Perfectly Satisfyed, 251 Syson, Leslie, Watermills of Britain, 484 Szabadvary, Ferenc, History of Analytic Chemistry, 126 Szabadvary, Ferenc, Kemia tortenete Magyarorszdgon, 359 Szabadvary, Ferenc, Technologietransfer und Wissenschaftsaustausch zwischen Ungarn und Deutschland, 359

821

Szabo, Arpad, Beginnings of Greek Mathematics, 232 Szasz, Thomas S., Manufacture of Madness, 429 Szasz, Thomas S., Myth of Mental Illness, 429 Szenassy, Barna, History of Mathematics in Hungary until the 20th Century, 359 Szentivanyi, Tibor, Leben und Werk von John von Neumann, 754 Szokefalvi-Nagy, Zoltan, kemia tortenete Magyarorszdgon, 359 Szreter, Simon, Importance of Social Intervention in Britain's Mortality Decline, 731 Szymborski, Krzysztof, Physics of Imperfect Grystals, 698 Tadmor, Naomi, Practice and Representation of Reading in England, 634 Tagg, John, Power and Photography, 562 Tait, P.G., Sketch of Thermodynamics, 211 Talbot, G.H., Medical Practitioners in Medieval England, 463 Tamny, Martin, Certain Philosophical Questions, 512 Tannery, Mme Paul [Marie], Correspondance du P. Marin Mersenne, religieux Minime, 467 Tannery, Paul, Note sur la vie de Mersenne, 467 Tarbell, Ann Tracy, Essays on the History of Organic Chemistry in the United States, 535 Tarbell, Dean Stanley, Essays on the History of Organic Chemistry in the United States, 535 Targett, G.A.T., Malaria, 431 Targioni-Tozzetti, Giovanni, Notizie degli aggrandimenti delle scienze fisiche accaduti in Toscana net corso di anni LX del secolo XVII, 274 Tarr, Joel A., Technology and the Rise of the Networked City in Europe and America, 718 Tatarewicz, Joseph N., Space Technology and Planetary Astronomy, 698 Tatlow, Ruth, Bach and the Riddle of the Number Alphabet, 494 Taton, Rene, Huygens et la France, 364 Taton, Rene, Invention d'une langue des figures, 488 Taton, Rene, Oeuvre mathematic de G. Desgargues, 298 Taton, Rene, Oeuvre scientifique de Monge, 298, 488 Taub, Abraham H., Collected Works, 754 Taube, Mortimer, Computers and Common Sense, 43 Tauber, Alfred I., Immune Self, 369 Tauber, Alfred I., Metchnikoff and the Origins of Immunology, 369 Taubes, Gary, Nobel Dreams, 122 Taylor, Gharles, Hegel, 6$6 Taylor, E.G.R., Mathematical Practitioners of Hanoverian England, 378, 444

822

TAYLOR

Taylor, E.G.R., Mathematical Practitioners of Tudor and Stuart England, 378, 444 Taylor, E.G.R., Tudor Geography, 168 Taylor, F. Sherwood, Alchemists, 24 Taylor, F. Sherwood, Origin of the Thermometer, 475 Taylor, Frederick, Principles of Scientific Management, 6 Taylor, Jeremy, Hospital and Asylum Architecture in England, 53, 351 Taylor, M.W., Men versus the State, -jox Teich, Albert H., Politics and International Laboratories, 381 Teich, Mikula, Drugs and Narcotics in History, 728 Teich, Mikula, Scientific Revolution in National Context, 678 Teichgraeber, Richard F., Ill, Free Trade, 689 Teichmann, Jurgen, Experimente die Ceschichte machen, 246 Teichmann, Jurgen, Cuide to Sources for the History of Solid State Physics, 698 Teichmann, Jurgen, Zur Ceschichte der Festkorperphysik, 698 Teitelman, Robert, Cene Dreams, 85 Teixeira, Luiz Antonio, Cobras, lagartos & outros bichos, 105 Temkin, C. Lilian, Ancient Medicine, 312, 340 Temkin, Owsei, Ancient Medicine, 312, 340 Temkin, Owsei, Double Face of Janus, 747 Temkin, Owsei, Forerunners of Darwin, 237 Temkin, Owsei, Gall and the Phrenological Movement, 564 Temkin, Owsei, Hippocrates in a World of Pagans and Christians, 340 Terrall, Mary, Gulture of Science in Frederick the Great's Berlin, 447 Terrall, Mary, Representing the Earth's Shape, 447 Terrall, Mary, Salon, Academy and Boudoir, 447 Terry, Jennifer, Deviant Bodies, 287 Tester, S.J., History of Western Astrology, 46 Teuteberg, Hans-Jurgen, Rolle des Fleischextracts fiir die Ernahrungswissenschaften, 415 Thacker, Ghristopher, History of Cardens, 349 Thackray, Arnold, Atoms and Powers, 12, 57> 12.7, 515 Thackray, Arnold, Centleman of Science, 107, 598, 693 Thagard, Paul, Conceptual Revolutions, 177 Thearle, M.J., Rise and Fall of Phrenology in Australia, 564 Theodorides, J., Maladies virales, 749 Thepot, Andre, Ingenieurs du Corps des Mines du XIXe siecle, 265 Theunissen, Bert, Relevance of Cuvier's Lois Zoologiques for His Palaeontological Work, 160 Thevenot, Roger, History of Refrigeration Throughout the World, 157 Thiaudiere, Glaude, Homme contamine, 22

BOOKLIST INDEX Thiel, Rudolf, And There Was Light, 49 Thiele, Joachim, Wissenschaftliche Kommunikation, 427 Thomas, Ann, Beauty of Another Order, 56Z Thomas, Keith, Man and the Natural World, 505 Thomas, Keith, Religion and the Decline of Magic, 46, 529 Thomas, Morley, Beginnings of Canadian Meteorology, 112, 477 Thomas-Emeagwali, Gloria, African Systems of Science, Technology and Art, 13 Thomas-Emeagwali, Gloria, Historical Development of Science and Technology in Nigeria, 13 Thomas-Emeagwali, Gloria, Science and Technology in African History, 13 Thomasset, Glaude, Sexualite et savoir medical au Moyen Age, 463 Thomasson, E.M., Study of the Sea, 531 Thompson, G.J.S., Quacks of Old London, 615 Thompson, E.P., Time, Work-Discipline, and Industrial Gapitalism, 726 Thompson, John D., Hospital, 351 Thompson, Silvanus P., Cilbert, Physician, 303 Thompson, Silvanus P., Michael Faraday, 251 Thompson, Silvanus P., On the Magnet, 303 Thompson, Susan J., Chronology of Geological Thinking from Antiquity to 1899, 296 Thomsen, Esteban F., Prices and Knowledge, 3M Thomson, Don W, Men and Meridians, 112 Thomson, George P., J.J. Thomson and the Cavendish Laboratory, 725 Thomson, J.J., Recollections and Reflections, 7^5 Thoren, Victor E., Lord of Uraniborg, 104 Thoren, Victor E., New Light on Tycho's Instruments, 47 Thorndike, Lynn, Encyclopedias of the Fourteenth Gentury, 208 Thorndike, Lynn, Encyclopedie and the History of Science, 208 Thorndike, Lynn, History of Magic and Experimental Science, 46, 529 Thorpe, Nick, Ancient Inventions, 311 Thorpe, Thomas Edward, Essays in Historical Chemistry, 669 Thorpe, Thomas Edward, Humphry Davy, 167 Thorpe, W.H., Origins and Rise of Ethology, 231,

422

Thorwald, Jiirgen, Century of the Detective, 261

Thrift, Nigel, Reworking E. P. Thompson's 'Time, Work-Discipline and Industrial Gapitalism', 726 Thrower, Norman J.W., Standing on the Shoulders of Ciants, 321, 515 Thrower, Norman J.W, Three Voyages of Edmond Halley in the Paramore, 321

Tibi, Bassam, Worldview of Sunni Arab Fundamentalists, 642 Tijdens, K.G., Women, Work, and Computerization, 283 Tiles, Mary, Philosophy of Set Theory, 683 Tiley, Nancy, Discovering DNA, 289 Tilgher, Adriano, Work, 770 Tilliette, Xavier, Schelling im Spiegel seiner Zeitgenossen, 670 Tilly, Louise A., Women, Work and Family, 767 Timpanaro Gardini, Maria, / Pitagorici, 612 Tinbergen, Nikos, Ethology, 231 Tishchenko, V.E., Dmitrii Ivanovich Mendeleev, ego zhizn' i deiatel'nost', 466 Titchener, Edward Bradford, Rise and Progress of Quantitative Psychology, 608 Tobey, Ronald G., American Ideology of National Science, 3 20 Tobey, Ronald G., Saving the Prairies, 20 Tod, Jan, Colonial Technology, 719 Todd, Alexander, Time to Remember, 535 Todes, Daniel P., Pavlov and the Bolsheviks, 553 Todhunter, I., William Whewell, DD, 758 Toepell, Michael-Markus, Uber die Entstehung von David Hilbert's "Grundlagen der Geometrie", 63, 338 Tomes, Nancy, Private Side of Public Health, 326 Tomlinson, J.D.W., Fabric of the Body, 29 Tennessen, J.N., History of Modern Whaling, 582 Toomer, G.J., On Burning Mirrors, 298 Tooze, John, DNA Story, 289, 290 Torrance, John, Concept of Nature, 505 Torrance, John, Estrangement, Alienation and Exploitation, 27 Torretti, Roberto, Philosophy of Geometry from Riemann to Poincare, 298, 580 Torrini, Maurizio, Dopo Galileo, 274 Tosh, John, Manful Assertions, 285 Toulmin, Stephen, Cosmopolis, 355, 525 Toulmin, Stephen, Discovery of Time, 726 Toulmin, Stephen, Human Understanding, 176 Trabulse, Elias, Ciencia y tecnologia en el Nuevo Mundo, 405 Trabulse, Elias, Historia de la ciencia en Mexico, 405 Trachtenberg, Alan, Classic Essays on Photography, 562 Travis, Anthony S., Chemical Industry in Europe, 18^0-1914, 186 Travis, Anthony S., From Turkey Red to Tyrian Purple, 186 Travis, Anthony S., New Technologies, Political Frameworks, Markets and Companies, 186 Travis, Anthony S., Organic Ghemistry and High Technology, 1850-1950, 186 Travis, Anthony S., Rainbow Makers, 186, 374. 53 5 Travis, David, Politics of Uncertainty, 288 Traweek, Sharon J., Beamtimes and Lifetimes, 385, 548, 590

BOOKLIST INDEX Traynham, James G., Essays on the History of Organic Chemistry, 535 Treneer, Anne, Mercurial Chemist, 167 Trenn, Thaddeus J., Self-Splitting Atom, 627, 668 TrepI, Ludwig, Geschichte der Okologie vom 17, 191 Trescott, Martha Moore, Dynamos and Virgins Revisited, 767 Trescott, Martha Moore, Rise of the American Electrochemicals Industry, 374 Trevor-Roper, Hugh, Gourt Physician and Paracelsianisn, 545 Tribby, Jay, Body / Building, 155 Tribby, Jay, Gooking (with) Glio, 155 Trifonov, D.N., Zakon periodichnosti i khimicheskie elementy, 466 Trigger, Bruce G., History of Archaeological Thought, 37 Trinkaus, Gharles, In Our Image and Likeness, 355 Trinkaus, Erik, Neanderthals, 592 Tropp, Eduard A., Alexander A. Friedmann, 78 Trovillo, Paul V, History of Lie Detection, 26T

Troyer, James R., Nature's Champion, 191 Truax, Khoda, Joseph Lister, 419 True, Webster P., First Hundred Years of the Smithsonian Institution, 690 True, Webster P., Smithsonian, 690 True, Webster P., Smithsonian Institution, 690 Truesdell, G., Essays in the History of Mechanics, 632 Truppi, Garlo, Continuita e mutamento, 722 Tsukahara, Togo, Affinity and Shinwa Ryoku, 12 Tuana, Nancy, Feminism & Science, 560 Tuchman, Arleen Marcia, Science, Medicine and the State in Germany, 571 Tuck, Richard, Natural Rights Theories, 501 Tufte, Edward R., Envisioning Information, 647 Tufte, Edward R., Visual Display of Quantitative Information, 310, 647 Turing, Sara, Alan M. Turing, 733 Turkle, Sherry, Psychoanalytic Politics, 606 Turnbull, H.W., Correspondence, 512 Turner, A.J., Early Scientific Instruments, iii> 378, 444. 675 Turner, A.J., From Pleasure and Profit to Science and Security, 378, 677 Turner, A.J., Mathematical Instruments in Antiquity and the Middle Ages, 444, 675 Turner, A.J., Of Time and Measurement, 6yy Turner, A.J., Paper, Print, and Mathematics, 44 Turner, A.J., Science and Music in Eighteenth-Century Bath, 494 Turner, A.J., Time Museum, 44 Turner, Bryan S., Dominant Ideology Thesis, 401 Turner, Frank M., Between Science and Religion, 703

VICKERS Turner, Frank M., Contesting Cultural Authority, 363 Turner, Gerard L'F., Antique Scientific Instruments, 675 Turner, Gerard L'E., entry on Rontgen in Dictionary of Scientific Biography, 659 Turner, Gerard L'E., Essays on the History of the Microscope, 481, 490 Turner, Gerard L'E., Great Age of the Microscope, 481 Turner, Gerard L'E., Nineteenth-Century Scientific Instruments, 87, 202, 444, 675 Turner, Gerard L'E., Scientific Instruments, 675 Turner, James, Reckoning with the Beast, 34 Turner, Jonathan H., Impossible Science, 694 Turner, Michael, Malthus and His Time, 432 Turner, R. Steven, In the Eye's Mind, 300, 33i> 571, 750 Turner, Roy, Ethnomethodology, 631 Turner, Stephen P., Search for a Methodology of Social Science, 184, 623 Turner, Stephen Park, Impossible Science, 694 Turrill, W.B., Joseph Dalton Hooker, 348 Turrill, W.B., Pioneer Plant Geography, 348 Tweney, Ryan D., Michael Faraday's "Chemical Notes, Hints, Suggestions and Objects of Pursuit, 251 Twigg, Graham, Black Death, 575 Tylecote, R.F., History of Metallurgy, 472 Tyndall, John, On Faraday as a Discoverer, 251 Ulam, Stanislaw, John von Neumann, 754 Ulin, Priscilla R., Traditional Health Care Delivery in Contemporary Africa, 15 Ullmann, Dirk, j o Jahre Max-PlanckGesellschaft zur Forderung der Wissenschaften, 393 Ullmann, Manfred, Islamic Medicine, 463 Ullrich, Rebecca, Nobel Population, 516 Underwood, Edgar, Boerhaave's Men at Ley den and After, 91 Unger, Hellmuth, Unvergdngliches Erbe, 72 Unguru, S., On the Need to Rewrite the History of Greek Mathematics, 25 United States Atomic Energy Gommission, In the Matter of J. Robert Oppenheimer, 532 Unschuld, Paul U., Forgotten Traditions of Ancient Chinese Medicine, 135 Unschuld, Paul U., Medicine in China, 8, J35, 137 Unschuld, Paul U., Nan-Ching, 135 Updike, Daniel Berkeley, Printing Types, 595 Urdang, George, History of Pharmacy, 559 Urla, Jacqueline, Deviant Bodies, 287 Urry, James, Before Social Anthropology, 31 Uschmann, Georg, Geschichte der Zoologie und der zoologischen Anstalten in Jena, 317 Utzschneider, Joseph von, Kurzer Umrifi der Lebens-Geschichte des Herrn Dr Joseph von Fraunhofer, 267

823

Vallery-Radot, Rene, Life of Pasteur, 549 Vamos, Tibor, Neumann Compendium, 754 Van Alphen, Jan, Oriental Medicine, 371 Vanderbilt, Byron, Thomas Edison, 192 Van der Waerden, B.L., Pythagoreer, 612 Van Doren, Garl, Benjamin Franklin, 266 Van Fraassen, Bas G., Scientific Image, 526 Van Gent, R., Een vernuftig geleerde, 364 Van Heijenoort, Jean, From Frege to Godel, 305 Van Helden, Albert, Accademia del Gimento and Saturn's Ring, 3 Van Helden, Albert, Birth of the Modern Scientific Instrument, 675 Van Helden, Albert, Building Large Telescopes, 1900-1950, 320 Van Helden, Albert, Eustachio Divini Versus Ghristiaan Huygens, 364 Van Helden, Albert, Instruments, 675 Van Helden, Albert, Invention of the Telescope, 47, 721 Van Helden, Albert, Measuring the Universe, 47 Van Helden, Albert, Telescope Building, 721 Van Helden, Anne, Een vernuftig geleerde, 364 Van Heys, Johann Wilhelm, Was Jeder Deutsche Uber Windkraft wissen mufl, 759 Van Riper, A. Bowdoin, Men among the Mammoths, 592 Van Sertima, Ivan, Blacks in Science, 13 Van Spronsen, J.W., Periodic System of Chemical Elements, 466 Vasold, Manfred, Rudolf Virchow, 747 Vaucelles, Louis de, Jesuites a I'age baroque, 1J40-1640, 388 Vaughan, Denis, Development of Instruments to Measure Electric Current, 202 Vaughan, Megan, Curing Their Ills, 15 Veatch, Robert M., Theory of Medical Ethics, 454 Veglahn, Nancy J., Women Scientists, 764 Veith, Ilza, Great Ideas in the History of Surgery, 709 Veith, Ilza, Hysteria, 365 Velimirovic, B., Is Integration of Traditional and Western Medicine Really Possible? 729 Velody, Irving, Rewriting the History of Madness, 263, 429 Venkataraman, G., Journey into Light, 629 Verbeek, Theo, Descartes and the Dutch, 120 Verg, Erik, Milestones, 186 Verkade, Pieter Eduard, History of the Nomenclature of Organic Chemistry, 535 Vernet, Juan, De Abd al-Rahman 1 a Isabel II, 69 743 forces 128 tables 12, 13 Africa astronomy 49, 50 colonialism 719 ethnography 237 ethnomathematics 373 expeditions 583 exploration 563 Greek achievement 626 health and healing 15-17 malaria 432 musical culture 494, 497 national parks 98

830

AFRICA

natural methods of quantification 450 pagan civilizations 230 sociomathematics 228 traditional birth attendants 730 traditional thought 632 Africa, south of the Sahara 13-14 AIDS policies 23 arithmetic 42 astronomy 50 African gardens 96 Afrocentrism 230 Afrocentrist reorientation 625-26 Afzelius, Pehr 76 agarose gel electrophoresis 289 Agassiz, Louis 238 age of the earth 17-18 aggregate theory 142, 143 aging 728 Agnesi, Maria Gaetana 767 agnosticism of Thomas Huxley 363 agrarian sciences, Hungary 360 agrarian societies 505 agreement 450 Agricola, Georgius 18-20 agricultural machinery 454 China 133 agricultural science, Liebig 22 agricultural technology, ancient 312 agriculture 20-22 Banks 71 biotechnology 292 botany 98 Brazil 106 China 132-33, 717 economics 21 evolution of practices 132 factory farming 433 France 21-22 genetics 21 implements 133 improvements 499 India 370 industrial model 86 intensification in China 133 knowledge 132 Lavoisier 409 Liebig 415 managerial in North China 133 mechanization 133 metrology 568 Mexico 656 Netherlands 510 refrigeration 158 Rockefeller Foundation 655 Royal Institution 662 scientific research 21 specialization in China 133 technology 717 treatises 133 US 736 women 761, 769 agri-food system 523 Agrippa 65 agronomy 21 Lysenko 425, 426 Ahlmann, Hans W. 584

GENERAL INDEX AIDS 22-23, ^^4> 744> 750 drug policies 729 historical context 223 media coverage 587 pandemic 223, 225, 403 prevention 730 ailment treatment, Chinese recipe manuals 135 air combustion 408 dephlogisticated 128 liquid 158 phenomena 477 qualities 594 air conditioning 158 air lines, commercial 217 air pump 676 experiments 250, 556, 742 rhetoric 654 working 696 airborne microwave surveying, Canada 113 aircraft design 217 airs, Hippocratic ideals 611 Airs, Waters and Places (attrib. Hippocrates) 221

Airy, George Biddell 450, 727 Albert of Saxony 412, 679 Albertus Magnus 19, 41 Albright 374 Albucassis 456 Al-Burini 227 Alchemia (Libavius) 475 alchemy 19, 24-25, 131, 182, 529 Accademia dei Lincei 3 Bacon's sources 65 business 157 Chinese 132, 136 Dee 169 engraved emblems 25 ethnomethodology 631 experimentation 247 fire 328 Hermeticism 335 homeopathic origins 347 Hungarian 359 India 370 inner 136 Jesuit 389 modern science relationship 392 Napier 499 Newton 514 Paracelsus 546 physiological 136 political power of courts 157 status at court 156 Alcmaeon, circulatory research 323 alcohol drinks testing for taxation 130 evaluation 479 North American Indians 728 oil alternative 85 Aleksandrov, P.S. 581 Alembert, Jean le Rond d' 633 Alexander, Jerome 143 Alexander II (Emperor of Russia) 76 Alexander the Great 97

Alexandrian Museum and Library (Greece) 311

algae, medical use 182 Algarotti, Francesco 516 algebra 26, 42, 299, 446, 520 Chinese 134-35 commutative 300 determinental matrix 555 equations 683 expressions 682 Fermat 254 function 271 Gauss 281 geometic 612 higher form 555 Hilbert 339 Islamic 36 Lie 313 modern 446 Napier 500 number theory 446 operator 754 Poincare 580 rhetorical r96 Seki 683 algebraic analysis 758 algorithmic interpretation, Egyptian mathematics 197 algorithms 146 Alibert, Jean Louis Marc 459 alienation 26-28 alienists 459 alizarin, synthetic 187 alkali extraction from sea salt 758 industry 374 alkaline earth metals 467 analysis 126 alkaloids 536 al-Khwarizmi z6 Alma-Ata Declaration 731 almanacs 28-29 nautical 29, 146 alpha ray velocity 667 alpha-particle charge 668 alternative medicine 731 acupuncture 9 cancer therapies 115 marginality 145 see also complementary medicine; traditional medicine Althoff, Friedrich 404 Althusser, Louis 440 altitude, astrolabe measurement 44 altruism 598 al-Tusi 3 6 aluminium 374 Alvarez, L.W. 409 Alverdes, Friedrich 422 Amazing Stories (magazine) 672 America see Latin America; pre-Columbian America; South America; United States American Association for the Advancement of Science 599 American Association of Immigrants 223

ANTHROPOMORPHIC MEASURES

GENERAL INDEX American Association of Petroleum Geologists 149 American Association of Variable Star Observers 763 American Astronautical Society 699 American Corps of Engineers $26 American Eugenics Society 134-35 American Home Economics Association 346 American Indians see Native Americans American Men of Science 660 American Meteorological Society 477 American Museum of Natural History 545 American Philosophical Society 654, 693 American Physical Society 480, 660 American Physiological Society 245 American Psychiatric Association 602 American Revolution 502, 663 American Rontgen Ray Society 628 American Type Culture Collection 705-06 Americas, botany 99 Amerindian civilizations 295 Ames family 28 amino acids 81, 82, 536 Fischer 258 research 523 ammeters 203, 204 amnesias. National Socialism 723 Ampere, Andre Marie 178, 448 electro-dynamics 205 amputation 709 Amsterdam Municipal University 509 amulets 462 amusement park 718 anaesthesia 183, 709, 710 pain 543-44 anaesthesiology 459 anaesthetic equipment for dentistry 173 analgesia 183 acupuncture 345 analogies 72, 363 physics 742 analogue devices i i i analysis Causs 281 Hilbert 339 analytic functions 271 Analytical Engine 146 analytical instruments 126 analytical techniques, chemical 126 anarchism 566 Anatomia (Mundinus) 745 anatomical organization 162 Anatomie generate (Bichat) 78 anatomists 485-86 anatomy 29-30 ancient Greece 313 Aristotle 41 Bernard 73 cerebral 564 comparative 29, 544 Cuvier 160—62 Egyptian medicine 196 exact Z79 Galenic tradition 745 Harvey 323

hospital medicine 180, 181 illustrators 287 Japanese 386 Leonardo da Vinci 412 medicine 313 medieval science 463 minute 341 Morgagni 552 philosophical 161, 271 plant 99 specialization 458 Stensen 707, 708 teaching 746 theatre 746 Vesalius 745 Anatomy Act (1832; UK) 30 anatoxins 67 Anaximander 579. ancestry, common 715 ancien regime institutions 2, 489 decline 5 Ancient Way 25 Andean region 405 andrology 649 angelology. Dee 169 angina 119 Anglicanism 66 see also Protestantism Angola, sand drawing 14 aniline bladder cancer 114 aniline dyes 187 animal behaviour 230—32, 422 animal chemistry 81 Animal Chemistry, or Organic Chemistry in Its Applications to Physiology and Pathology (Liebig) 81, 415 animal electricity 203, 279, 280 animal heat 211, 213 generation 652 animal kingdom classification 419 unity of composition 272 animal magnetism 219, 439 see also mesmerism animal matter analysis 409 animal psychology 422, 681 animal rights protesters 35 animality 231 animals breeding 333 breeding experiments of Maupertuis 448 complexity gradation 715 drugs 182-83 experimentation 34-35, 728 farm 35, 747 health 746 laboratory 245 livestock 747 mechanization 231 morphology 271 organ extract therapeutic use 210 as sexual partners 231 welfare 728 see also anti-vivisection animism 752

animist theory 752 animistic universe 335 animus / anima 392 Annalen der Chemie (Liebig) 211 Annales de Chimie 390 Annales school 368, 421 Annual Reviews of Astronomy and Astrophysics 722 anorexia nervosa 90, 366 anorgasmia 686 Anson, George 243 Antarctic science 583, 584 Antarctic Treaty (1991) 584 antenatal care 528 anthrax 67, 611 Black Death 575 anthropocentrism 506 anthropology 15, 30-33, 342 alcohol-related health problems 728 ancient Greece 312 archaeology relationship 38 Arctic peoples 584 Baer 67 Bateson 71 Boas 88-89 Chicago Columbian Exposition (1893) 242 China 137 cognitive science 486 Darwinism influence 166 education 681 environmental sciences 222 Evans-Pritchard 236-37 fieldwork 244 Galton 277 gender 284 Greek 592 human perception 486 hydraulic hypothesis 441 Indian medicine 372 of knowledge 276 laboratory society 696 Levi-Strauss 413, 414 Mead 765 medical 23 photography 563 physical 593 polar science 584 practice 591 prehistory 592-93 reflexivity 696 relativism 632 scientists 250 sex 284 Smithsonian Institution 690 social 16 time 728 Virchow 749 visual descriptions 243 women scientists 765 see also social anthropology anthropometry 33-34, 261 Boas 88, 89 Galton 277 nutrition 524 anthropomorphic measures 479

831

832.

ANTHROPOMORPHISM

anthropomorphism 23 z anthyphairesis 133 anthyphairetic ratio theory 579 anti-Aristotelianism, Accademia del Cimento 4 anti-atomists 55, 58 Ostwald 540 antibacterial drugs 67, 558 antibiotics 182, 260, 261 bacterial resistance 289 Fleming 259 production 85 antibodies, homogenous 370 antichaos 124 anti-Darwinism 545 antidotes to poisons 709 anti-dualism 657 anti-evolutionism 31 antigen-antibody reaction 197 antigens 369 anti-Idealists 671 anti-intellectualism 601 anti-matter 566 anti-mechanism 78 anti-Newtonianism 743 antinomy 396 anti-phlogistic chemistry 127 anti-phlogiston debates 280 Schelling's theory 671 anti-plastics crusaders 578 anti-positivism of Planck 576 anti-psychiatry hysteria 366 romanticism 264 antiquarianism, Dee 169 antiquity 311 Antiquity of Man {LycW) 423,425 anti-realism, objective 94 anti-relativists 428 anti-scientific view in Germany 618-19 anti-Semitism Germany 510, 724 von Neumann 510 antisense mRNA 208 antisepsis in hospital medicine 352 antiseptic technique 709 anti-tuberculosis movement 732 anti-vivisection 34-35 Huxley (Thomas) 363 movement 245 anxiety, psychotic 604 Apollonius 26, 299 apologetic historiography 724 apothecaries 616 professional power relations z6z Apothecaries Act (1815) 616 apparatus cinematographic 311 collecting 245 electrical 280 electrophoresis 81 laboratory 281, 551, 572 Rontgen 659 see also equipment; instruments Applied Biosystems 353

GENERAL INDEX applied science 252 apprenticeship Anglo-American tradition 214 healers 730, 731 Japan 387 mathematical instruments 445 medicine 713 appropriate technology 601 aquariums 97 aquatints, maps 122 Aquinas, St Thomas 231 Arabic language spread 35-37 Arabic logic, knowledge systems Z30 Arabic medical tradition 463 Arabic science 35-37 astrolabe 45 astronomy 49 biochemistry 81 embryology 207 Indian science relationship 370 Spain 700 Arabic-Islamic civilization 36 Arago, Dominique Francois 535 arboretums 96 arc transmitters 718 Arceuil, Society of 75 archaeoastronomy 50, 295 cultural anthropology 51 archaeology 37-38, 592-93 American women 737 anthropometry 34 Arctic peoples 584 Denmark 172 gender inequalities 285 industrial 374 metallurgy 473 pharmacy 559 time 728 archetypes 391, 392 Archimedean methodology 276 Archimedes 39-40, 579 geometry 299 humanism 356 Leonardo da Vinci 412 mechanics 633 architecture astronomy 50 asylums 53 cultural aspects 229, 230 drawing instruments 445 duality 446 engineering-oriented in international exhibitions 242 geometry 299 hospitals 53, 352, 522 laboratories 569 Leonardo da Vinci 412, 413 musical theatre 8 naval 112 orientalism 537 physics institutes 549 psychiatry 603 railway stations 727 school 682 skill 689 Smithsonian Institution 691

thema in evolution of form 723 time 728 Archives of Sexual Behavior (journal) 686 Arctic regions 583-84 Argentina 405 women in science 761 argumentation, Greek mathematics 233 Arid Zone Project 304 aristocrats, support for science 156 Aristotelian elements 408 Aristotelian mechanics 468 Aristotelian tradition 57 Middle Ages 644 Aristotelianism 658 Harvey 323 Paris University 644 Aristotle 40-41, 684 acoustics 8 animal study 97, 231 atomism 57, 58 axioms 63 Bacon's ideas 66 behaviourism 486 botanical garden 96 circulatory research 323 empiricism 40, 246 empty space rejection 741, 742 environmental sciences 222 essentialism 716 experimentation 247 four elements 328 Galileo's refutation 275 geology 19 Great Ghain of Being 640 humanist rejection 355 Islamic commentators 644 mathematics 233 minima 54 notion of scale 715 Philoaus's theories 613 philosophy of nature 312 Plato 579, 580 practical reasoning 631 sexual science 287 speculation 477 two-fold exhalation theory 19 women 89 Aristoxenus 492 arithmetic 41-43 Archimedes 39 Ghinese 134 computations 42 Egypt 196 empirical 281 evolution 228 Frege 684 Greek theoretical 520 Hungary 360 Incas 42 innovation 6 Islamic 36 Mesopotamia 196 sub-Saharan Africa 14 Arithmetica (Jordanus de Nemore) 26 arithmetico—geometric mean in asteroid perturbations 281

ASTROPHYSICS

GENERAL INDEX arithmetization 306 Arithometer 146 armed forces dentistry 173 Faraday's connection 253 Armitage, Peter 140 armouries, mass-production 454 arms control 56 see also weapons aromatherapy 145 Arrhenius, Svante 517, 565, 711 arrow poisons 729 Arrow-Debreu, Kenneth 585 arsenic cancer 114 organic compounds 69 Arsenic Act (UK; 1851) 728 art anatomical illustration 30 ancient civilizations 230 colour theory 751 degeneration 170 orientalism 537 perception of scientists 751 photography 751 science relationship 71 scientific revolution 752 time 728 visual descriptions 243 world standard time 727 articles, scientific 653 artifacts archaeology 38 electrical engineering 720 paradigm 547 prehistory 593 technological 717 artificial disintegration 667, 668 artificial insemination 649 artificial intelligence 43-44, 306, 436, 486 Turing 733 Artificial Respiration on a Sow (Vesalius) 710 artificial selection 503 artisans Japan 387 replacement by machinery 268 artists anatomists 746 bird books 538 Leonardo da Vinci 411, 412, 413 Renaissance 751 use of physics 200 arts relationship to sciences 421 science connections 648 Aryan race 2 3 5 , 4 2 3 , 7 2 3 asbestos 114 Asclepius 313 Asclepius dialogue 335 asepsis 419 Asia astronomy 50 gardens 97 Humboldt's expeditions 357 Indo-British mapping 371

natural methods of quantification 450 traditional birth attendants 730 Asiatic Mode of Production 441 Asilomar Gonference (1975) 289 Assayer (1623) 276 assembly line 118 assimilation 574 Association for the Advancement of Women 762 Association for the Study of Animal Behaviour 232 Association of Medical Superintendents of American Institutions for the Insane 459 Astbury, W.T. 292, 487 asteroid perturbations 281 Astounding (magazine) 672 astrolabes 44-46, 48, 51, 112, 403, 676 international survey 507-08 astrological charts 47 astrology 46-47, 529, 730 almanacs 28-29 Ghinese 134 Dee 169 herbals 333 Hermeticism 335 high 46, 47 judicial 46, 47 Kepler 398 medieval medicine 463 music 493 physical 398 Ptolemaic 36 readings in herbals 333 Astronomer Royal 450 Astronomia Danica 134 Astronomia nova (Kepler) 397, 398 Astronomiae Instauratae Mechanica (Brahe) 48, 104 astronomical alignments 50 astronomical clocks 48 astronomical instruments 47-48, 51, 444, 507, 676, 722 Archimedes 39 growth 52 instrument makers 379 lenses 268 mathematical 444 medieval 51 photography 563 see also astrolabes; telescopes astronomical record-keeping 51 astronomical tables 683 Astronomie des dames (Lalande) 761 astronomy 49, 342 Academie de Sciences 2 Accademia del Gimento 4 accountancy relationship 7 African 14 after Gopernicus 274 age of the Earth 17 American women 737 antiquity 311 Arabic 36, 37, 700 Archimedes 39 Aristotle 40

Australia 60 Babylonian 151, 196 Brahe 104 Galtech 320 Ganada 113 Ghina 132, 133-35, 44i Ghinese system 683 computational 29 Gopernican 151, 274, 336 Gopernicus 153 cosmology differentiation 153-54 court society 156 cultural 50 Denmark 172 Egyptian 196 error theory 623 folk 642 Gauss 281 Greek 311, 441 Hale 320 Halley 321 Herschel (William) 336 high-precision observation 727 Humboldt's 357 Hungarian 359 Huygens 364 India 370 Islam 642 Islamic method introduction to Ghina 134 Jesuits 388, 389 Kepler 398 Latin America 406 Leibniz 410 Leonardo da Vinci 412 mathematical 134, 226, 398, 642 analysis 633 medieval encyclopedias 209 Mesopotamian 196 navigation links 48 Newton 514 non-European 50-51 observational 29 photography 563, 675 planetary 69 519 Cesalpinus 323 Cesi, Frederico (Prince) 2, 3 cetacea 41 Chadwick, Edwin 326, 327 Chain, Ernst Boris 85, 259, 260, 261 Chalcedon, circulatory research 323 Challenger Expeditions 531, 532 Challenger space shuttle 257 chalogogs 182 Chamberlain, Owen 409 Chambers, Ephraim 209 chance configuration model 178 traditional peoples 228 Chancourtois, Alexandre 467 chaos 753 concepts of ancient world 124 ecology 506 theory 123-24, 496 chaotic attractors 124 Chapman, Colin 61 characteristics acquired 333 hereditary transmission 334 hierarchy 715 taxonomy 715, 716 characters inheritance 333 transmission 333 variant 503 Charcot, Jean-Martin 124-25, 366, 602

Chargaff, Erwin 291, 292 charity, hospitals 461 Charlas de cafe (Ramon y Cajal) 630 charlatans 615 Charles law 282 charms 17, 462 Chartists 364 Chase, Agnes 764 chastity rule, Accademia dei Lincei 3 Chatelet, Gabrielle Emilie du 767 Chaucer, Geoffrey 45-46 astrology 47 chaulmooga-oil i 8 i chauvinism Russia 664 war-related 638

GENERAL INDEX Chayanovian rationality, Chinese farmers 133 Chelsea Physic Garden 100 chemical affinity 13, 63 Berzelius 76 laws of 12, 75 chemical analysis 125-27 limits 130 chemical bonds 743 Hungarian chemistry 360 chemical combination 12, 75, 743 chemical communities 129 chemical compounds 75 nomenclature 130 chemical electricity 280 chemical elements, combining 12 chemical equilibria theory 565 chemical experiments Accademia dei Lincei 3 exact anatomy 279 Chemical Heritage Foundation 579 chemical industry 374 cancers 114 dyes 186-87 Japan 388 new substances 729 public concerns 292 research 187 research and development 651 skills 687 chemical institutions 130 chemical lectures 130 chemical nomenclature 63, 76, 536 chemical phenomena 657 Newton 515 chemical profession development 126 chemical proportions 76 chemical reactions 540 chemical revolution 126, 127-29 discovery 178 Lavoisier 127-29, 130, 408 Chemical Society of London 130 chemical symbols 76 chemical theory 477 Chemical Treatise on Air and Fire (Scheele) 670 chemicals laws for industrial use 182 organic 374 toxic effects 182 chemistry 129-31 aethers 11 affinity 12 age of the Earth 17 agricultural 21, 22, 360 Liebig 415 agricultural science 21, 22 analysis 360 analytical 76, 126 animal 81 animal heat 652 anti-phlogistic 127 aromatic 743 atomism 57, 59 Berthollet 74-75 Berzelius 75

blowpipes 87, 88 Boerhaave 91 Caltech 320 careers 130 chemotherapeutics 182 colloid 142-43 control of language 131 Davy 168 Denmark 172 drugs 558 dyestuff^s 186 early 181 Edison's inventions 194 Ehrlich 197 error theory 227 experimentation 246, 247 Fischer 258 generic ingredients 76 Germany 258, 302 gravimetric 128 Humboldt 357 Hungarian 359-60 Hungary 360 Imperial Germany 443 India 370 inorganic 360 Berzelius 76-77 internationalism 382 journals 390 Kant 396 Lavoisier 408-09 Liebig 415 Leibniz 410 literature relationship 421 materials science 443 mathematics 13 mechanization of calculus 311 medicine 546 Mendeleev 466-67 metaphor 474-75 National Socialism 723 new 129 Nobel prizes 517 oceans 532 0rsted 539 Pasteur 550 physical 360, 508, 540, 564-65 women 764 pneumatic 594 polymer 142, 143, 579 practice 590 Priestley 594-95 professional organization 129 public accessibility 130 quantification 12, 616 reduction to physics 131 research schools 131 Scheele 669-70 Schelling's reaction 670-71 scientific revolution 679 Smithsonian Institution 690 social organization 129 Spain 700 Sweden 76, 711 technological context 129 theoretical 565

GENERAL INDEX

thermodynamics 183 time 728 Tycho Brahe 104-05 unitary theory 743 women 761, 763-64, 767 X-rays 659 see also organic chemistry; quantum chemistry chemists heroic 293 qualifications 728 chemotherapeutics 182 chemotherapy 182, 535, 558 cherry-laurel 729 Chetverikov, Sergei Sergeevich 240 Cheyne, George 366 chhi concept 497 chiaroscuro 751 Chiarugi 602 Chicago Columbian Exposition (1893) 242 Chicago (US), trading 479 chick embryology 208 child(ren) analysis 400, 401 development 682 education 681 guidance 10 health 327 hysterical 125 intelligence 573 mind 681 moral development 574 pre- and post-natal care 236 psychology 346 thinking 574 welfare 681 childbirth 314, 459, 528, 529 explanation 229 forceps delivery 769 traditional birth attendants 730 childlessness, involuntary 649 child-rearing 681, 682 children's hospitals 458 child-saving 326 chimney sweeps' cancer 114 China 131-32 agriculture 132-33 astronomical system 683 astronomy 49, 50, 51, 133-35 biochemistry 81 botanic gardens 96, 97 botany 99

burn treatment 577 civilization 294 clocks 141-42 Cold War 343 Communist medical orthodoxy 136 communist offensive 533 cultural contact with Iran 138 discoveries 717 European encounter with culture 230 health care 731 Indian science relationship 370 influence on Japan 385 Jesuit mission 389

CLEFT PALATE REPAIR

mathematics 133-35 medicinal rhubarb 559-60 medicine 135-37 metallurgy 473 musical temperament 497 natural history 137-38 Needham's study 441 numerical system 42 printing 595 relations with West 719 rites controversy 389 Rockefeller Foundation 656 science 294 time 728 vision 751 Western medicine 136 women in science 761 zoological gardens 97 chinchona 347 Chinese medicine 8, 9, 16, 135-37 Latin nomenclature of plants 183 traditional 183, 731 Chinese philosophy, knowledge systems 230 chiropractic 145 Chirurgerie (Henri de Mondeville) 710 chi-square test 83, 84, 555 chlorine 282 bleaching 758 liquefying 168 Scheele 669 chloroform 710 cholera 67, 223, 224, 225, 611 Hamburg epidemic 404 Japan 386 cholesterol 536 Chomskian paradigm 417 Chomsky, Noam 486, 574 Chou Kou Tien (China) 593 Christian healing 731 Christian IV of Denmark 105 Christianity age of the Earth 17 Coleridge 658 cosmology 644-45 economics 690 Hermeticism 335 Hippocratic medicine 340 Malthus 433 medicine 644 medieval 643-44 Mersenne 468 natural philosophy 644-45 origins of mankind 592-93 prehistory 592 science relationship 639, 640 Spain 700 spiritualism 703 universe nature 642 see also Calvinism; Catholic Church; Greek Orthodox Church; Jesuits; Protestantism Christine de Pizan 283 chromate cancer 114 chromosomal inheritance 291 chromosome theory 290, 291

chronographs 310 chronometers 142 chronopharmacology 181, 182 chronophotography 311, 436, 437 Church, Alonzo 307 Churchill, Winston 92 Ciampoli, Giovanni 3 cigarette smoking, lung cancer 114, 225 cinchona 432 cinema 497 cinema industry, Edison 193-94 cinematographic apparatus 311 cinematography 436, 437, 717 circle theory 683 circulatory disease 182 see also blood circulation circumnavigation of globe 243, 566 cities domestication 423 social problems 170 citizens, electrification 718 citric acid cycle 82 Cittar medicine 371 city ideal 413 planning 50 civil engineering quantification 450 Rowland 660 Watt 758 civil history 726 civil rights 533 civil service institutionalization 479 scientific 349 civil society 689 civilian economy 387 civility 155 court society \%6-^-i civilizations ancient 295 archaeology of early 38 Brazil 105, 106 race 625 Clairault, Alexis-Claude 633 clairvoyance 439 Clark, Eugenie 765 Clark, Latimer 203 Clark University (US) 480 Clarke, Edward Daniel 126, 583 class technical of Soviet Union 664 see also social class class field theory 521 Classical period 219 classification 419, 715 Bacon 66 biological 715 birds 538 by Comte of sciences 148 zoological of Cuvier 161 see also systematics; taxonomy Clausius, Rudolf 212, 213, 216 Clavius, Christoph 388 clay tablets. Babylonia 228 cleft palate repair 577

841

842.

CLEVELAND

Cleveland (US) 480 climate 222 awareness of change 222 history 221 Lyell 425 climatology 295 clinical encounter, social dimensions 137 clinical entity 139 clinical experience of psychoanalysis 401 clinical procedure, medieval science 463 clinical research 139 clinical science 138-39 clinical standards in nursing 522 clinical trials 139-41 components 140-41 double-hlind 225 clinics, Paris 351 clocking-in 727 clockmakers guilds 141 clockmaking 678 clocks 141-42, 676 astronomical 48, 51 atomic 727 China 141-42 church 727 communal 141 Huygens 365 Industrial Revolution 726 Japan 142 mechanical 141 miniaturization 141 pendulum 676 quartz crystal 727 clockwork inventions 142 cloud chambers 247 coagulation 341 coal 374 Japan 387 mines 485, 499 coal industry 467 research and development 651 coal tar derivatives 535 dyes 186 cocaine 728 Code and Cypher School (UK) 733 code-breaking 257, 733 Codex Atlanticus 412 coding 754 co-enzyme A 82 coffee 728 cognition objectivity 525 vision 751 cognitive development, Piaget 574 cognitive history of science 179 cognitive imperialism 429 cognitive legitimation of scientists 156 cognitive pragmatics 44 cognitive rationality 598 cognitive science 486 paradigm 548 Piaget 574 cognitive theory, Helmholtz 331 Cohen, Paul 306

GENERAL INDEX Cohen, Stanley 289 Colbert, Jean-Baptiste i French economy 473 Cold Spring Harbor (US) 487 Cold War Big Science 80 dialectical materialism 175, 176 Einstein's response 199 externalism 380 Hodgkin's politics 343 ideologies 175 International Ceophysical Year 584 Lysenko 425 nuclear missiles 718 political power 567 psychology 608 space science 699 Colden, Jane 737, 764 Colding, Ludvig 211 Coleridge, Samuel Taylor 168 empiricism 657-58 encyclopedia classification 209 mind 293 collaboration Curies 160 between scientists 320 transnational 383 collecting apparatus 245 court society 157 polar travel 582-83 collective phenomena 697 collective production, China 133 College of Chemistry, Berkeley (US) 565 colleges gardens 97 Jesuit 388 Collins, Harry 297 colloid chemistry 142-43 colloid particles 143 colloids 81 Colombia 405, 406 colonial science 295 colonialism 16, 143-44 administrators 236 African independence 15 empire 435 environmental impact 507 exploitation 71 French science 694 gardens 97 indigenous knowledge systems 373 Latin America 406 microbes 551 Royal Society of London 735 technology transfer 719 colonization 17 Africa 16 India 371 colorimetry 52, 452 colour centres 697 international CIE system 452 measurement 452 Newton 513, 534 observation 527

colour science 752 colour theory 308, 309, 751 art 674 harmonic 494 Helmholtz 331 Newton 515 Ostwald 540 colour-tone analogy 496 Columbia University (US) home economics 346 Columbus, Christopher 323 voyage 244, 566 Columbus, Realdus 745 combination chemical 12 tones 8 combinatorics 520 combining proportions 75 combustion 127-28, 408 analysis 126 Lavoisier 408, 409 Schelling 671 comedy, pain 544 cometography 516 cometry theory 633 comets 51, 321, 322 Halley's 322, 516 Coming of Age in Samoa (Mead) 32 Comite Consultatif International Telgraphique 705 Commandino 40 commerce metallurgy 473 modern scientific practice 378 Newtonianism 515 political power of courts 157 quacks 616 telegraphy 720 universities 738 see also business commercial class, courtly elite 157 commercial corporations, patriarchy 769 commercial enterprises, metrology 479 commercial interests, human genome project 353 commercialization of Chinese agriculture 132commodification 376, 727 commodity pricing 479 Commoner, Barry 578 communication(s) ancient techniques 312 Canadian research 112 within cultures 230 cybernetics 375 Denmark 172 doctors 344 Fordism 118 graphic method 437 Hertz's contributions 338 humanists 356 journals 390 knowledge 268, 390 manuscript 634 materials science 443 mathematical theory 375

COPENHAGEN INTERPRETATION

GENERAL INDEX microscopical 482 natural knowledge 635 Netherlands 510 print 634, 636 radio 718 scientific 310 societies 693 spirits 704 technology 205, 719 theory 71, 375, 376 visual mode 648 world standard time 727 written 636 Communism 409-10, 441 collapse 664 Pavlov 553, 554 scientists in US 533 von Neumann's opposition 755 Communist Party 665 communitarianism 601 community care 602 health educators 730 traditional healers 730 see also scientific communities companies, large 718 Comparative Reception of Darwinism (Click; 1974) 167 compass 303, 508 China 717 magnetic 717 navigational 431 compensation issues, cancer 114 competence, linguistic 417 competition ecological metaphor 474 markets 325 complementarity 92, 93, 292, 722 principle 618 complementary medicine 144-46, 731 see also alternative medicine; traditional medicine complexity gradation in animals 715 numerical measures 124 theory 124 composers 496 composing, journals 390 composition musical 493 unity of 272 Comptes rendus (Academie de Sciences) 2 Compton, Arthur Holly 618 Compton effect 618 computational tools, human genome project 353 computations 521 mental processes 574 computer(s) 43, 306 chips 111 digital III ENIAC 147 Hodgkin 343 personal computer 705 simulation experimentation 247 stored program 147

computer languages 306 computer models 675 computer programs 310 computer sciences 436 Turing 733 von Neumann 754 computer technology 205, 629 musical instruments 496 computer-aided design 689, 771 computer-based education (CBE) 682 computerized tomography 629 computing 146-47 calculating devices i i i digital 124 gendered culture 285 mathematical theory 446 scientific 754-55 computus 727 Comte, Auguste 147-48, 380 Law of Three Stages 438 Levi-Strauss 414 Martineau 438, 439 Mill's criticism 483 positivism 588, 589, 642 science replacement of religion 600 sociology 694 Conant, James B. 55, 56 conception, human 284 concepts 752 conceptual analysis discovery 178-79 conceptual schemes 548 condenser 757, 758 see also capacitor Condillac, Abbe £tienne de 128, 367 conditioned reflexes 553 Condorcet, M. de 220, 432, 596 mathematical analysis 633 progress 601 conductivity 449 conductors 280 Conference on the Human Environment, UN 305 confessional practices 264 confirmation 561 conformal mapping 281 Confucianism 13 Congo 14 Congreve, Richard 589 Conies fApollonius) 26 conjecture 262-63 conjure men / women 731 connectionist research 486 connections, principle of 272 connectivity 588 Connolly 602 consciousness 10, 306 Descartes 174 Jung 391 seat of 486 spiritualism 704 conservation botanical gardens 97 dyestuffs 186 conservation of matter principle 128 conservatism. Spencer's drift 702

consonance theory 493, 495, 496 Constantine the African 287 Constantinus Africanus Colloquy 207 constellations 51 construction Netherlands 510 paradigm 547 constructionism aims 123 genetics 290 politics 123 constructivism 44 nature 506 scientific facts 250 consultation 10 consumer culture 523 consumer protection, animal testing 728 consumerism 416, 563 consumers electrification 718 materials science 443 consumption 770 court ethic 155 fever 256 contagion 550 contagionism 611 Contagious Diseases Act (UK) 744 contamination 67 content analysis 723 continental drift 148-49 magnetism 430 continental geology 149 continuity mathematical 58 thesis of physics 184 continuous flow processes 687, 770 continuous variation 555 continuous wave technology 718 continuum 722 hypothesis 115, 306, 684 Maxwellian 725 contraception 86-87, 73° techniques 86 contraceptive hypothesis 649-50 contraceptive pill 210 Control Data Corporation (US) 682 Controversial Discussions (Klein) 401 conventionalism 299, 581, 588 conversion coefficient 770 conversion processes 657 conveyor belts 718 conviction 596 Cook, James 60, 582 artists 674-75 Australia 243-44 Banks's voyage 70 voyages 243 Cook, Thomas 222 Cooke, William 205 cookery 416 co-operation international 320, 381, 382 women's science 343 Copenhagen (Denmark) 172 Copenhagen interpretation 618, 619

843

844

COPENHAGEN ROYAL ACADEMY OF SCIENCES AND LETTERS

Copenhagen Royal Academy of Sciences and Letters 539 Copenhagen University (Denmark) Library 538 Mineralogical Museum 171 Copernican era discovery 178 religion conflict 640 Copernican revolution 653 astronomy 336 Copetnican turn, Kant 396 Copernicanism 150-51, 303, 304 debate in 17th century 304 Galileo's campaign 275 Jesuits 389 Kepler 398 Mersenne 468 rotation of earth 303 Copernicus, Nicolaus 150, 151-53 Arabic science influence 36 astronomy 49 comparison to Darwin 150 influence on Hungarian physics 359 popularization 587 scientific revolution 679 copper mining 216 copper-plate illustrations 596 copying press 758 copying processes 675 Cordemoy, Gerauld de 121 Cori, Gerty 765 corn mills 484, 485 Cornell, Ezra 565 Cornell University (US) Charter 640 home economics 346 coronary heart disease 119 coroners 262 corporate business environment, innovation 193 corporate science 117-18 academic science relationship 118 corporations, managers 435 corporatism, bureaurocratic 599 Corps des Ponts et Chaussees 526 corpus callosum 486 Corpus Hermeticum 335 corpuscle 725 corpuscular philosophy 246 corpuscularianism 13, 57, 58 Boyle 102, 103 matter 58-59 corpuscular-kinetic school 589 correction, logic of 178 correlation 83, 707 coefficients 278 methods 555 Correlation of Physical Forces (Grove) 212

Correns, Carl 465, 466 correspondence doctrine 348 principles 92, 93, 619 cortisone 85, 536 cosmic harmony 398, 493, 494, 495, 496 cosmic microwave background radiation 79 cosmic ray physics 698

cosmic rays 548, 620 cosmic returns 612 cosmobiology 354 cosmogony 296, 424 Kant 395 cosmological models 306 cosmology 49, 50, 52, 153-54 Aristotle 40, 41 astronomical 638 Big Bang 78, 79, 154, 568 Buffon 109 Chinese 134 Christian assumptions about nature 643 Christian belief 644-45 Copernican 150 cultural aspects 229 Galileo 277 geocentric 150 geology separation 296 Gilbert 303, 304 Halley 322 heliocentric 150, 151 Herscbel (William) 336, 337 India 370 Leibniz 411 Newtonianism 516 observational 336 particle physics interface 79 physical 726 Plato 580 Pythagorean 612 relativistic 78, 154, 638 relativity 638 statistical 154 sub-Saharan Africa 14 theology 644-45 20th-century physics 567-68 void space 742 cosmopolitanism 382, 657 cultural 537 Humboldt 358 cosmos 312 divine order 613 harmony 492 scientific revolution 679 cossists 26 cost accounting 7 cost-benefit analysis quantification 617 welfare spending 626 Cotes, Roger 226 cotton industry 485 Netherlands 510 Coulomb, Charles 202-03, ^7i> 677> ^7^ balancing 267 torsion balance 677 Council for Scientific and Industrial Research (CSIR) 60 Council of Europe 488 Council of Pharmacy and Chemistry (US) 141

counselling 10 counsellors multi-professional teams 345 therapeutic interventions 264 counter-Reformation 470

GENERAL I N D E X

countersciences 354 countertransference 603, 604 counting 14, 42 common mathematical activity 228 counting table 146 Couper, Archibald 535, 743 couples, scientific 761, 762, 763 Cours de linguistique generate (Saussure) 705 Cours de philosophie positive (Comte) 148 court service 681 courtly activities 155 courts / court society 3, 4, 154-57 Dee 169 etiquette 276 Galileo 556 genetics 292 Gilbert 303 Harvey 323 Leonardo da Vinci 411 natural philosophy 610 political power 157 princely 156 status of science 156 Tuscan 276 see also patronage covalent bonds 743 covariance 638 cow pox vaccine 749 craft / craftsmen 303 displacement by machines 453 post-war factories 687 technology 676 telescopes 721 traditional 687 craft-processes, alchemy 24 craftsmanship, anatomical illustration 30 Cramer, Johann Andreas 299, 473 craniology 67, 90 craniometrists 287 Crawford, E. 328, 480 crayfish appendage replacement 208 Creation celestial organ 496 naturalistic alternatives 238 nature 640 Word of 475 creationist tradition 641 creativity 178, 179, 293, 590 psychology 164 Creator 504 Creutzfeldt-Jakob disease 750 Crick, Francis 142, 292, 487 discovery of double-helix 178, 291 genetic code 653 popularization 587 Crimean War 521, 522 criminal detection 262 criminality 170 criminals 429 criminology, photography 563 crisis 340 critical philosophy 339, 395 critical theory 368 anthropometry 34

DATA

GENERAL INDEX

music 495 see also literary criticism Critique of Judgement 395 Critique of judgement (Kant) 396, 657 Critique of Pure Reason (Kant) 151, 396 Croll, Oswald 474-75 Cromagnon man 593 Cromwell, Thomas 66 Cronstedt, Axel Fredrick 88 crops China 133 management 192 nutrition 2.0, 21, 22 cross-cultural studies 236 Arctic science 584 body 90 cross-disciplinary turf wars 176 cross-staff 507-08 Crowther, James 668 cruelty farm animals 35 see also anti-vivisection Cruelty to Animals Act (UK; 1876) 145 Cruz, Oswaldo 105, 106 cryogenics 157-58 laboratory at Leiden 158 cryptoanalysis 733 cryptobiology 270 cryptogamy 99 cryptography, Dee 169 crystal dynamics 629 crystallography 58, 296, 313, 441, 487 group theory 314 Kepler 399 mathematics 445 Stensen 708 women 343, 737, 763 X-ray 343 crystals ionic 697 X-ray diffraction 407 X-ray interactions 659 Ctesibios 741 Cuba, alienation 27 Cullen, William 256, 552 cultivation methods in China 133 cultural analysis, AIDS 23 cultural anthropology 31, 32 archaeoastronomy 51 cultural astronomy 50 cultural background of scientists 501 cultural behaviour, relativism 631-32 cultural encounters 230 cultural factors of women in medicine 765 cultural formations, positivism 588 cultural heritage, Chinese medicine 136 cultural history 247 cultural institutions, museums 491 cultural materialism 31 cultural phenomena, encyclopedias 209 cultural politics, Jesuit 389 Cultural Revolution (China) 137 cultural significance of Newtonianism 516 cultural stereotypes 737 cultural studies 696

cultural systems of science and ideology 368 culture beauty 578 concept 32, 33 Einstein 198, 200 imperialism 537 indigenous 230 language 413 Levi-Strauss 414 local 382 mathematics 228 music 494 nature 506 psychoanalytic theories 604 race linkage 625 Russian 666 Schrddinger 672 theory 34 time 728 Curanderos, Mexico 16 curare 182, 729 curators, zoological gardens 98 cures, administration 616 Curie, Marie 55, 159-60, 479, 627, 761, 763, 767 Curie, Pierre 55, 159, 668, 761 curiosity, court society 156-57 current displacement 206, 448 flow 203 measurement 202 currents, sea 532 curriculum. New Mathematics 228 curve-fitting 84 Cusanus 151 Cushing, H.W. 553 Customs and Excise laboratories 262 Cuvier, Georges 33, 34, 160-62, 489, 490 catastrophism 424 characteristics hierarchy 715 embranchements 715, 716 fossils 544 functionalism 271 cybernetics 71, 375, 376 dialectical materialism 175 cyborgs 673 Cyclopedia (Chambers) 209 cyclotron 409, 410 cytochrome 652 cytogenetics 764 cytology 98 cytoplasm, gendering 284 cytoplasmic inheritance 291 cytostatics 182 Czolbe, Heinrich 301 Daguerre, Louis 562 daguerrotypes 563 Dahlem (Germany) 394 Dale, Henry 197 D'Alembert, Jean le Rond 633 Dalton, John 55 atomic theory 75 atomism 57, 59 Berzelius' correspondence 76

chemical atomism 62, 129 law of multiple proportions 76 Dampier, Sir William 21 dams, China 132 Dana, James Dwight 362 Danfrie 678 Danish Academy of Sciences 171 Danish language 171 Daoist meditative practices 136 DARPA (Advanced Research Projects Administration; US) 43 Dart engines, turboprop 217 Darwin, Charles 17, 163-65, 342 comparison to Copernicus 150 discovery 178 environmental sciences 222 ethology 232 evolution 238, 561 genetics 290 genius 294 geography influence 566 heredity 291, 333 history of morphology 271 Hooker 348, 349 Humboldt 357 Huxley comparison 363, 364 landscape artists 674 Lucas's treatise 334 Lyell's influence 424, 425 Mendel's pea research 240 natural selection 432-33, 503-04 nature concept 507 notebook 653 pangenesis hypothesis 278 plant breeding 465, 466 recapitulation theory 272 taxonomy 716 theory of evolution 241, 593 Darwinian biology 164 Darwinian evolution anthropology link 31 archaeology history 38 biometrics 83 Darwinian medicine 256 Darwinian revolution 238 discovery 178 Darwinism 165-66 acceptance 238 anthropology 32 Baer 67 Bateson 71 evolutionary synthesis 240 Germany 166-67, 3°^) 3i7> 318 heredity 333 Malthus 433 Marx 440 Spain 700 theology 239 see also neo-Darwinism Darwinismus 166, 167 data census 439 demographic 342 discarding 722 generation from expeditions 244 medical 457

845

846

DATE FIXING

date fixing 727 Daubenton 489, 490 Davy, Humphry 13, 21, 167-68 audiences 220 chemical analysis 126 electrochemical experiments 205 experimental procedures 178 fertilizers 130 galvanic battery 280 genius 293, 556 0rsted correspondence 539 rivalry with Gay-Lussac 282 Royal Institution 661 travels with Faraday 252 zoological garden 97 Davy, Jane 168 Davy-Faraday Research Laboratory, Royal Institution 662 day length calculation 51 De Anima (Aristotle) 231 De Arte Logistica (Napier) 500 De curtorum chirurgia per insitionem (Tagliacozzi) 577 De Generatione Animalium (Harvey) 32.3

De Humani Corporis Fahrica Lihri Septum (Vesalius) 30, 709, 745 De la richesse territorial du royaume de France (Lavoisier) 409 De I'Allemagne (Stael) 656 De Magnete (Gilbert) 303, 304, 430 De Motu (Newton) 513 De Motu Cordis (Harvey) 323 De Motu Locali Animalium (Harvey) 323 De Mundo (Gilbert) 303, 304 De musculis (Harvey) 323 De musculis et glandulis (Stensen) 708 De Natura Fossilium (Agricola) 19 De Ortu et Causis Subterraneorum (Agricola) 19 De Re Metallica (Agricola) 19 De Revolutionibus (Copernicus) 635 De revolutionibus orbium coelestium linri VI 150

De solido intra solidum naturaliter contento dissertationis prodromus (Stensen) 708 De Veteribus et Novis Metallis (Agricola) 19-20

dealers in wild animals 97 death 462 explanation 229 Debierne, Andre 627, 668 decimal fractions, Islamic 36 deciphering 257 decision sciences 436 decision-making 5 decisions rationality 178 skill levels 688 Declaration of Independence (US) 266-67, 502

Declaration of the Rights of Man (France) 502

Dedekind, Julius Richard 116, 446 deductive demonstration, Greek mathematics

GENERAL INDEX deductivism 250 Dee, John 168-69,335 book annotations 635 deep sea research 172 deep time 727 Deerbrook (Martineau) 438 defence science 107 deflection measurement 638 degeneration 170-71 urban 170 degenerescence 423 Degenerescence 334 de-institutionalization 602 Delambre, Jean Baptiste 226 Delboeuf 609 Delbriick, Max 487 Del Monte 40 Deluc 671 democracy Humboldt 358 Japan 386 liberal 681 Spain 700 democratic liberalism 220 democratization of Paris hospitals 351 Democritus 54, 592 atomism 57, 58 demography 327 Arctic peoples 584 data 342 Malthus 432, 434 probability 596 demonology 125, 529 demons 529 Dendral system 43 Denkkollektiv 548 Denmark 171-72 botany ^^ wind power 759, 760 Dental Historian 172 dental schools / hospitals 173 dentistry 172-73 Denmark 172 formation of mouth 264 deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA) see DNA Department of Energy (US) 353 see also human genome project Department of Scientific and Industrial Research (DSIR; NZ) 60 dependence, scientific 60 dependent groups 54 depersonalization 5, 6 medicine 344 dephlogisticated air 128 deposit science 568 depression 604 Comte 148 Raman 629 derivatives concept 684 dermatology 459 dermolipectomy 578 Derrida, Jacques 420 visual theory 751 Desaguliers, John 516 Desargues, Girard 299

Descartes, Rene 18, 120-21, 173-75 animal behaviour 231 atomic theory 54 geometry 299 heart 708 Huygens influences 364 influence on Hungarian physics 359 Kant 395 language 417 magnetism 430 mathematics 26 mechanical philosophy 493 mind 293, 486 mind-body dualism 344, 485 neuroscience 511 Newtonian physics 513 objectivity 525 optics 534 rationalism 631 scientific revolution 679 Stensen's arguments 708 theology and religion 645 thinking method 218 visual theory 751 void space rejection 742 design asylums 53 common mathematical activity 228 computer-aided 689, 771 Creator 504 divine 594 hospitals 53 orientalism 537 telescopes 721-22 deskilling 688 despotism 309 enlightened 700 destitution 327 destruction 673 destructor technology 719 determinism philosophy 124 technological 441, 688, 718 see also biological determinism deterministic aperiodicity 124 deterministic laws 368 Deutsch, Helene 401 Deutsches Museum (Munich) 242 developed countries 23 developing countries 23 see also Third World development embryonic 207 heredity 291 Piaget's model 179 progressive 296 deviance 429 norms 706 deviant groups 54 Devonian System 297 de Vries, Hugo 240, 291 plant breeding 466 rediscovery of Mendel's law 465 Dewar, James 158, 661, 662 diagnosis clinical 552

DRAWING INSTRUMENTS

GENERAL INDEX Galen 273 homeopathy 347 hysteria 366 retrospective 125 Scottish hospitals 352 syphilis 590 techniques 352 diagnostics, Freud 270 diagrams 310, 654 Dialectic of Teleological Judgement 396 dialectical materialism 175-76 dialectics 440 Bacon 65 Cantor 116 Levi-Strauss 414 dialling, mathematical instruments 444 Dialogue (Galileo) 276, 277 diamagnetism 252 diamat 440 diamond mining 14 South Africa 17 diaries 142 diarrhoeal diseases 730 Diaz, Bartholomew 566 Dick, Philip K. 673 Dickens, Charles 521 Dickson, William 193 dictionaries 208, 342 Diebner, Kurt 330 dielectric, electric current 659 diet 264 prescriptions 612 dietetics 523 medicine 313 Difference Engine 146 differentiable functions 271 differential analyser 146, 311 differential topology 580 diffraction gratings 563 diffusion 81 diffusionism 31 Digby, Kenelm 470 Digges, Leonard 48 digital audio 705 digital technology 204 digitalis 139, 140 dignity 354 dilatation and curettage 315 dilettantism 157 diluvialist geology 424 Dingier, Hugo 428 dinosaurs 545 term 107 Diodes of Carystus 299, 313 Diodorus 39 Diophantine equations 520, 521 Diophantus 356 Dioptrice (Kepler) 399 dioptrics. Gauss 281 Dioscorides Pseudo-Apuleius 332, 559 diphtheria 67, 260 media coverage 587 toxin spread 72 diplomacy atomic bomb 56 time-sense 727

Dirac, Paul 617, 619, 620 directionalism 424 Dirichlet, Peter Lejeune 271 Discepoli (Galileo) 274 disciplinary matrix 547 discipline 176-77 military 122 Discipline and Punish (Foucault) 264 discontinuous variation 555 Discorsi (Galileo) 276 Discours sur I'anatomie du cerveau (Stensen) 708 Discourse on Method (Descartes) 175 discovery 177-79 context of 178, 560 logical necessity 370 post-mature 723 scientific 178 voyages 566 disease 66 animal 746 biochemical study 81 causality 16 chronic 224, 612 classification 712 conquest 732 control 256, 432 demographic distribution 611 diagnosis 68 Egyptian medicine 196 genetic engineering 290 Greek medicine 313 health relationship 9, 461-62, 552 Hippocratic medicine 340 infectious 68, 256, 612, 750 Japan 386 Koch 404 madness 429 malaria 431-32 media coverage 587 medical fight 369 medieval science 463 nutrition association 223 pathological signs 256 resistance 369 Scottish hospitals 352 Sydenham 712 theory 611 treatment 611 water-based 14 water-borne 327 disintegration artificial 667, 668 radioactive 668 theory 627 display 610 collections 157 court ethic 155 itinerant practitioners 615 dispute settlement, maps 122 dissection 746 hospital medicine 180, 181 dissociation theory 701 Planck 565 distilling industry 374 distribution theory 483

847

Planck 577 diuretics 182 diurnal narrative structure 142 divination 17, 262-63, 529, 730 Egypt 197 Mesopotamia 197 divine creation see Creation diviners 730 Zulu 731 diving suit 411 Divini 4, 364 Division of Labour in Society (Durkheim) 185 divorce laws 704 Dixon 685 DNA 82, 179-80, 291, 749 biochemistry 289 cutting 289 discovery 291 joining 289 map of human 292 restriction 289 sequencing 180, 353 NIH patent applications 353 structure 291, 292, 487 DNA-polymerase 82 Dobzhansky, Theodosius 240—41, 706 Doctor Faustus (Thomas Mann) 294 doctoring of exotic animals 98 doctor-patient relationship 180—81, 712 doctors see physicians Doctrine of Chances (de Moivre) 596 doctrine of signatures 333 Doiphantus 26 Doll, Richard 139, 225 Dollinger, I. 671 domestic hygiene movement 771 domestic location electricity 201 technology 768-69 domestic science see home economics domestic technology, ancient 312 domestication 423 domination Charcot 125 Foucault 263, 264 Dominion Observatories 113 Donder, Theophile de 743 Donkin, William Fishburn 227 Doppler principle 701 Dorn, Ernst 451 double helix discovery 142, 178, 179, 291, 487 double-bind 71 double-blind clinical trial 139 Douglas, Mary 474 Dove, Alfred 357 Doyle, Arthur Conan 170, 270, 703 Draper, Charles Stark 451 Drapers' Biometric Laboratory 83, 84, 554, 555 drawing, technical 446 drawing instruments 445 mathematical 444

848

DREAM INTERPRETATION

dream interpretation 603 Adler 10 dreams, Jung 391 Dresden codex 257 Driesch, Hans 422, 753 drink, ancient 312 drive-shafts 242 dropsy treatment 139 Drosophila 290, 291, 457, 706 druggists qualifications 728 drugs 181-83 addictive 181 affinity system 559 ancient 312 animal 182-83 classification 182, 558 cultural history 182 empirical trials 181 isolation of effective substances 181 legislation for control 551 pharmacology 557-59 problems of therapy 182 risks 182 sale to doctors 559 secret 182 semantics 729 social 728 toxic effects 182 trade 181 drumming, bongos 257 drums, Indian 257 Drunker, Peter 436 Dryander, Johannes 30, 745 dualism 31, 485 Descartes 174 duality, geometric notion 446 DuBois-Reymond, Emil 331, 572 DuBridge, Lee A. 484 Duhem, Pierre Maurice Marie 183-84, 249, 380 affinity 743 conventionalism 588 metaphor 474 Duhem-Quine thesis 249, 378 Dumas, Jean-Baptiste Andre 77, 523 Dunkin, Edwin 52 Duns Scotus, John 41 duplexing 720 Du Pont, Pierre Samuel 374 Du Pont chemical industry 56, 579 Durkheim, £mile 27, 184-85 division of labour 599 language 417 Levi-Strauss 414 metaphor 474 rationality debate 631 sociology 695 Dutch East India Company 502 Du Toit, Alex L. 149 dyeing, bacteriology 404 dyes / dyestuffs 69,182,185-87 Fischer 258 intermediates 187 maritime trade 186 natural 186, 187 synthetic 186-87, 535

GENERAL INDEX dyestuffs industry 374, 535 cancer amongst workers 114 Germany 651 dynamic theory 58-59 dynamical systems theory 124, 580 chaotic non-linear 581 probability 596 dynamics Huygens 365 Kant 395 magnetic 304 Newton 514 dynamometers 203, 310 dysentery 386 EAI spark chamber (CERN) 123 earth age of 17-18, 362-63, 424, 727 curvature 451 expansion theory 149 female 507 geography 222 nature 505 as planet 296 Plato 579 quadrant measurement 478 sciences 221, 243 shape of 122, 244, 447, 582, 633 soul 303 square 134 theories of 222, 600 velocity 398 earths, classification 128 East, pagan civilizations 230 East Africa, sociomathematics 228 East India Company 144, 560 eastern Europe, meteorology 477 Eastern health philosophy 145 Eastwood, Alice 764, 765 Ebola virus 750 echography, medical 457 eclampsia 528 Eclectics 347 eclipses 51 British expeditions 638 prediction 683 ecofeminism 284, 285, 507 Ecole de mines 265 Ecole de ponts-et-chaussees 265 £cole des arts et metiers 215, 265 Ecole normale superieure 265-66 Ecole Polytechnique 189-90, 215, 265 Gay-Lussac 282 mathematics 299 Ecole superieure de physique et de chimie 266 ecological change, rain-making experiments 477 ecological disturbance, plague 575 ecological tradition, tension 222 ecology 21, 190-92, 506 acceptance of discipline 222 American women 737 applied 192 Bateson 71, 72 botanical gardens 97

competition metaphor 474 cultural 229 dialectical materialism 176 fascist tendencies 212 human 221 oceanography 532 plant 98, ^^, 167, 191 radiation 191 econometrics 585 Economic and Philosophical Manuscripts of 1844 (Marx) 27 economic attitudes to birth control 86, 87 economic calculation 5 economic change, Scottish Enlightenment 354 economic competition, clockmaking 141 economic decline, degeneration 170 economic development, technology transfer 719 economic dominance 720 economic growth, technology transfer 719 economic history of metallurgy 473 economic rational man 631 economic resources, birth control 86 economic strife 585 economic theory Malthus 434 Smith 689-90 von Neumann 754, 755 economic transformation, Chinese failure 133 economic welfare 483 economic-political space 658 economics agriculture 21 Christianity 690 energy 213 evolutionary character 437 Hayek 324, 325 housework 771 Humboldt 357 information 376 Keynesian 342, 399, 400 Lavoisier 409 Malthus 432, 433 man as part of nature and society 354 Marshall 437 Marx 117 mathematical 755 metaphor 474 Mill 482-83 molecular biology 487 Nazi Germany 724 neo-classical 585 New Deal 702 political 376 professionalization 437-38 progress 601 qualifications 599 research and development 650—51 rhetoric 653 of science 7 Smith 506, 689-90 Soddy 627 standardization 705 statistics 707

GENERAL INDEX

'

technological development 717 time 7z8 welfare 585 women in medicine 765 see also macroeconomics; microeconomics; political economy economy 7 family 769 Japan 387 principle 254 research and development 147 Rockefeller Foundation 655 ecosystem 192, 566 ecology 191 Eddington, Arthur 154, 638 edge of chaos 124 Edgeworth, Francis Ysidro 83, 84 Edgeworth, Richard Lovell 706 Edinburgh gardens 96, 100-01 Edinburgh School, sociology of knowledge 368 Edison, Thomas Alva 192-94, 205, 437 Edo period (Japan) 682 education 194-95 American women 737 anthropology 681 botany 100 Einstein 200 ethnoscience 230 food preparation 345 French Revolution 299 health inequality 327 higher 338 Huxley (Thomas) 363 IQ 682 Jesuits 388 knowledge incorporation 228 Lavoisier 409 management 436 maps 122 mathematical 228, 446 medical 347 medicalization 680-81 meritocracy 265 moral 352 national systems 638 nutrition 345 physics in Hungary 359 popularization 586 Priestley 594 psychology 681 public 438, 491 Russia 664 science 194, 301 scientific and technical in France 2.6^-66 scientification 680-82 social selection 265 state systems 194-95 technical 214, 738 Netherlands 510 tertiary institutions and chemical industry 187 working class 195 see also schools; universities Education Act (1870, UK) 100 Education as a Science (Bain) 681

ELECTRICITY EDVAC computer 147 Edwards, Robert 649 Effect, Law of 681 Effective Demand Theory of Keynes 400 egalitarianism 34 Priestley 220 egg mammalian 67, 207 regendered 284 ego defence mechanisms 603 psychology 604 egocentrism 574 egomania 170 Egypt 195-97 Berthollet's expedition 75 Napoleon's expedition 244 Roman 24 traditional birth attendant 730 Egypt, ancient 14 Afrocentrism controversy 230 arithmetic 42 astronomy 49, 50 botanical gardens 96 drugs 557 Great Pyramid 478 physiological theory 557 science 295 zoological gardens 97 Egyptology, Jesuit 389 Ehle, Herman Nilsson 711 Ehrenfest, Paul 622 Ehrlich, Paul 67, 72, 197-98 Nobel prize 517 staining 341 Einstein, Albert 55, 92, 198-200 Brownian motion 601 electrodynamics 637 electron theory 637 field equations 638 general works 342 genius 294 gravitation theory 300 Kaiser Wilhelm Society 394 light quanta 623 Mach 427, 428 Nobel prize 517 nuclear physics 319 Planck's distribution law 577 presuppositions 722 quantum physics 619 quantum theory 622 of light 618 of solids 565 relativity 154, 636, 637, 639 special 591 scientific couple 761 Spain 700 theological comparisons 641 void space 742 Einstein Tower 638 Einsteinian predictions 638 Einstein-Podolsky-Rosen paradox 619 Einthoven, Willem 437 Eisenhower, Dwight 119 Ekeberg, Anders 76

elastic fluid theories 12 electric convection experiments 660-61 electric current 660-61 dielectric 659 electric deflection 725 electric lighting 201, 202, 203, 205 Edison 193 filament lamp 205 introduction 717 electric motor, 0rsted's 539 electric pylons 205 electric signals, electronic amplification 203 electric waves 337 light wave equivalence 338 electrical apparatus 280 electrical discharge creation 204 electrical engineering 200-01, 205, 720 information 375 institutionalization 687 physics 687 research and development 651 Siemens 686-87 techniques 201 electrical industry 568 nuclear physics 519 precision instruments 203 Siemens 687 electrical instrumentation for medical diagnosis 203 electrical instruments 201-04 electrical machines 676 electrical measurement 204, 450 international standards 203 electrical phenomena 183, 657 Schelling 671 electrical plant 205 electrical power Japan 387 systems 201, 202, 203, 717 electrical practice 590 electrical resistance international standard 479 measurement 451 electrical science, Newton 515 electrical standards 478-79 electrical theory 477 electricity 204-05, 430, 717 Avogadro 63 chemical 280 domestic location 201, 718 dynamical interdependence with magnetism 448 experimentation 246 human cadavers 279 fluid theory 202, 660 Franklin 267 Gauss 281 generating engines 216 Gilbert 303 Hungary 359 industry 201, 485 life 81 metering 478 physical science 280 power 216

849

850

ELECTRICITY

quantification 616 Royal Institution 661 Schelling's reaction 670-71 standard measurements 242 static 204, 359 theory 183 Volta 753-54 wind generation 485 wood conducting 678 see also animal electricity electrification 718 social impact 205 electroacoustics 8 electrocardiogram 119, 459 electrochemical battery 279 electrochemical protectors, ships 168 Electrochemical Society 540 electrochemical theory, Berzelius 76, 77 electrochemistry 75, 77, 186, 203, 743 Davy 168 industrial 374 electrodynamics 639 advanced and retarded potentials 257 Britain 638 classical 206 Einstein 637 experimentation 247 Heimholtz 331 theory 639 Thomson 725 Weberean 338 see also quantum electrodynamics electrolytic decomposition 13 electrolytic solutions 565 electromagnet, Bellevue 678 electromagnetic aethers 11, 12, 206, 213 electromagnetic beams 410 electromagnetic equations 206 electromagnetic field 448, 620, 638 electromagnetic induction 200 Faraday 203, 252 electromagnetic pulse theory 535 electromagnetic rotations 252 electromagnetic theory 199 electromagnetic wave radiation 338 electromagnetic world view 637 electromagnetism 200, 205-06, 430 aether versions 206 astrophysics 52 Faraday 252 Maxwell 206, 539 0rsted 539 Rowland 660-61 electrometers 202, 676 electron 5 5 atoms 743 charge 483 discovery 701 Kepler-orbits 701 nature 226 pairing 743 relativistic theory 620, 637 sharing 743 Thomson 725 electron theory 637, 701 metals 697

GENERAL INDEX electronic calculation 43 electronic engineering 202 electronic equipment 203 electronic journals 390 electronic mail 705 electronics microelectronics 118 musical instruments 496 electrophores 280 electrophoresis apparatus 81 electrophysiology 754 investigations 512 electrostatic force, inverse square law 202 electrostatics 204 Volta 753 electrotechnics 720 electrotechnology 206 Elementary forms of the Religious Life (Durkheim) 185 Elementorum myologiae specimen (Stensen) 708 elements Aristotelian 408 high frequency spectra 618, 622 Elements (Euclid) 26, 63, 232, 233, 612 Elements of Geology (Lyell) 423 Eli Lilley company 210 Eliot, George 589 elitism 220 science education in France 265 universities 739 elixir of life 24 Elizabeth I, court of 169 Elizabethan England, religion and science 645-46 Elliotson, John 556-57 eloges of academicians 2 ELSI (Ethical, Legal and Social Implications of Human Genome Research) 353 embossing 596 embryo conceptualization in biochemical terms 208 legal rights of human 207 mosaic development 208 reproductive technology 649 sex determination 287 embryological recapitulation 272 embryology 207-08 Baer 67 experimental 207 vitalism 752 women in science 765 embryonic creation 207 emergent phenomena 124 Emerson, Gladys Anderson 765 emotion 511 emotional fulfilment, Comte 148 empire anthropological photography 563 see also imperialism empiricism 313, 588 Accademia del Cimento 4 anti-Aristotelian 303 Aristotle 40, 246 Baconian 759

constructive of Priestley 594, 595 humanists 356 Kant 395 logical 588 Martineau 439 Maupertuis 447 medicine 347 Mill 482 natural philosophy 646 philosophy of science 561 Piaget 574 Romanticism 657-58 vision 751 Whewell 759 empirio-criticism 588 employers 292 employment rights for women 737 skills 687-88 women 763 enculturation process 228 Encyclopaedia Britannica 209 Encyclopedia Metropolitana 209 encyclopedias 208-09 Encyclopedie 209 endangered species, zoological gardens 98 Endeavour voyage 70 endocrine processes, nervous regulation 210 endocrinology 209-10, 686 France 571 gender and sex 288 reproductive 210 see also hormones; sex hormones energeticism 540 energetics 213 Ostwald's theory 540 energy 210-14, 34^ actual 213 Canadian research 112 conservation 81, 211, 213, 657 law of 331, 770 conversion process trigger 212 dissipation 770 global supply crisis 80 law of conservation 211,212 measurement 526 metabolism 523 Ostwald 540 potential 213 quantization 200 science of 213 sources in Japan 387 transfer 534 transformation 540 unity in nature 214 wind power 759 energy-physics experimentation 247 industry 213 Engels, Friedrich 433 free-enterprise individualism 238 Marxism 440 survival of the fittest concept 504 engineering 14 academic 118 Arabic 36

GENERAL INDEX atomic bomb 56 automobiles 61 capitalist production 117 drawing instruments 445 electronic 202 France 265 Halley 321 Hungary 360 instrumentation 203 international exhibitions 242 Leonardo da Vinci 411, 412 materials 443 materials science 443 military 322 Netherlands 510 objectivity 526 professions 214 schools 214—15 scientific 757 skill 689 Soviet Union 664 status at court 156 work 770 see also civil engineering; electrical engineering; mechanical engineering engines air-cooled 217 electrical 203 liquid-cooled 217 mechanical effect 770 rotative 757 steam 215-16 turbo 216-18 England almanacs 28, 29 Cartesian thought 121 hospitals 351-52 English Enlightenment 219-20 English gardens ^6 English Revolution, Boyle 102 engravings 675 ENIAC computer 147 Enigma Code 733 Enlightened Despotism 700 Enlightenment 218-20 civic life 595 display 610 gender 262 illustration 674-75 image of body 648 Latin America 406 materialism 334 medical theory 262 medical vocabulary 544 Mesmer 472 modern world differences 354 music theory 494-95 phrenology 564 positivism 588 printing 635 progress 367, 601 quantification 616, 617 reason 367 Romanticism criticism 656 science 219, 635 scientific expeditions 243

ESSAI SUR LA GEOGRAPHIE sociology 695 Spain 700 surgical theory 710 theory of errors 226 woman question 287 women in science 767 entelechial wholeness factor 753 enterprise efficiency / effectiveness 80 spirit of 601 enthusiasm tradition 72 entity realism 527 entomology 192 women in science 737, 761, 765 entrepreneurial activity China 132 Edison 193 nutrition 524 science of energy 213 Siemens 686, 687 technology transfer 719 enumeration quantification 616 environment concern 221 Hertz' contributions 338 human impact 222 hygiene 730 impact of aboriginal populations 507 improvement policies 171 international policies 305 poisons 114 pressures and animal behaviour 232 protection in Sweden 711 Spencer's psychology 702 environmental sciences 191, 220-23, 285 space science 698 environmentalism 221, 505, 506, 601 Boasian 232 polar science 584 enzymes 81, 82 Fischer 258 eotechnic period 717 Eotvos, Lorand 359 Eotvos University (Hungary) 360 ephemerides 29 Arabic 36 Epicurus 54 atomism 57 botanical garden •)& epidemics / epidemic disease 223-24 causes 575 China 137 impact 223

Japan 386 nursing 522 periodicity 575 public health reform 611 Sydenham 712 see also pandemics epidemiology 224-25, 295 alcohol-related health problems 728 health inequality 327 malaria 432 social 749 Virchow 748

851

epigenesis 207, 752 epiphysis 708 epistemological questions 485 epistemological revolution 610 epistemological system of Boltzmann 95 epistemology 92 Descartes 174 Durkheim 185 Einstein 200 Evans-Pritchard 237 evolutionary 179 Galen 273 Galileo 276 Goethe 309 natural science 123 Epitome of Copernican Astronomy (Kepler) 397, 398 equality, metrological 5 equations 310 Chinese algebra 135 theory 313 equatoria 51 Equatorial Guinea 14 equilibration 574 equilibrium, economic 324, 325 equinoxes 51 equipment laboratories 569 see also apparatus; instruments equivalence principle 638 Erasistratus 273 Erasmus of Rotterdam 152 civility 155 Eratosthenes 566 Ereky, Karl 292 ergodic theory 580, 754-55 Erhaltung der Kraft (Heimholtz) 212, 213 Eriangen Program 300 Ernest Orlando Laboratory (US) 549 Ernst Mach Institute of FraunhoferGesellschaft (Freiburg im Breisgau) 428 Eros 603 erosion 19 erotic aspects of body 90 eroticism 448 error analysis 301 elementary causes 227 random 226 error theory 225-27, 623 determinate branch 226 probabilistic 226, 596 significance tests 227 Erxleben, Dorothea Leporinin 283 escapements 727 Eschenmayer, Carl August 670 Escherichia coli 67, 457 Escher's drawings 306 Eser, Friderich 301 Eskimos 583 see also Inuit espionage, atomic 56 Essai de statique chimique (Berthollet) 75 Essai sur la geographie mineralogique des environs de Paris (Cuvier) 161

852.

ESSAY ON THE PRINCIPLE OF POPULATION

Essay on the Principle of Population (Malthus) 43^-33- 434 essential amino acids 82 essentialism Aristotelian 716 feminist science 124, 284, 605 estimativa (sense of animals) 231 estrangement 27 ether 725 chemical 479, 480 models 676 theory 637 ether-drag experiment 481 ethics animal testing 728 clinical research 139 Comte 148 Einstein 200 experimental 361 Human Genome Project 353 Marie Curie 160 organ transplantation 90 partnership 284 Plato 579 religious 455 scientific 588 secular 455 Spencer 702 spiritualism 704 see also medical ethics Ethiopia 14 ethnobotany 373 ethnographic turn 31 ethnography 33 Africa 237 Boas 88, 89 CERN 123 Humboldt 357 texts 237 traditional healers 730 ethnology 354 Boas 88 metallurgy 473 ethnomathematics 127—29, 373 ethnomedicine 16 ethnomethodology 6, 631, 696 Jesuits 388 knowledge and power 402 sociology of science 695 ethnomusicology 497 ethnophilosophy 373 ethnoscience 229-30 etho-cartography 583 ethology 230-32, 422 Etna, Mt. 424 etymology 758 Euclid 26, 63, 232-33, 311, 446 Leonardo da Vinci 412 mathematics 579 Pythagoreans 612 Theory of Proportions 274 eugenics 34, 167, 233-36, 626 biometrics 84 degeneration 171 education 681 enforced sterilization 710

Galton 277, 278 human genetics 292 Nazi 394, 724 negative 236 Pearson 554, 555 statistics 707 Sweden 711 US 736 see also race; racism Eugenics Record Office (US) 234 Euler, Hans 271, 299, 494, 520 consonance theory 496 light 534 number theory 633 rational mechanics 633 Russian Academy of Sciences 666 St Petersburg Academy 633 Euler, Leonhard 227, 447 Eurasian steppes 575 eurocentrism 32 Humboldt 359 Euro-imperialism 422 Europe contact with alien cultures 230 cultural level assessment 454 dentistry 173 industrialization 454 mathematics in Middle Ages 228 mechanization 453 medieval science 230 metrology 477 modern science 294 nuclear research 519 pagan civilizations 230 photography 562 science education 195 scientific culture 295 standardization 705 wind technology 760 women in medicine 766 women in science 761 European Committee for Electrotechnical Standardization (CENELEC) 705 European Committee for Standardization (CEN) 705 European science in Latin America 406 European settlers Australia and New Zealand 60 colonial science 295 European Telecommunications Standards Institute (ETSI) 705 European Union standardization policies 705 euthanasia 461 Evans, Oliver 484 Evans-Pritchard, Edward Evan 236-37, 373 evidence 249 acceptance 310 evolution 32, 237-39 age of 222 anti-Darwinian 545 Baer 67 Bergson's theory 753 Buffon 109 Cuvier's knowledge supporting 162 Darwinism 165, 166, 561, 593

GENERAL INDEX Darwin's discovery 178 embryology 207 Galton 278 geology 296 Germany 302 heredity 291 human 34 Lyell 425 microevolution 241 palaeontology 544 plant 98 progress 601 punctuated 441 Spencer 504 time 726 see also fossil record; fossils; natural selection Evolution creatrice (Bergson) 753 evolutionary biology 164, 240 Darwinism in Germany 167 Haeckel 318 statistics 83, 84, 555 evolutionary epistemology 179 evolutionary morphology 167 evolutionary synthesis 164, 239-41, 504 Darwinism 166 development 291 social approach 241 evolutionary taxonomy 715 evolutionary theory 17, 33, 166 Bergson 753 emergence 231 environmental sciences 221 Huxley (Thomas) 364 synthetic 166 evolutionary thought 631 evolutionism 31, 32 acceptance 239 early 19th-century 238 human mind 239 Lyell 424 natural selection 239 post-Darwinian 611 religious values 238 UNESCO 305 Ewald, Julius 357 exchange systems 715 exchangeable parts in manufacturing 717 excommunication of Kepler 398 exegetical tradition in Chinese medicine 136 exemplar 547 Exercise, Law of 681 Exercitationes de Generatione Animalium (Harvey) 207 exhibitions 241-42, 557 industrial 242, 557 museum 491 exile 311 existentialism 753 exorcising rituals, Chinese 135 expeditions ^^, 243-44 Africa 583 Canada 113 geodesy 447 Halley 321-22 indigenous techniques 244

FEMINISTS

GENERAL INDEX Latin America 406 North Pole 583 polar 583, 711 representation 648 solar eclipse 563, 638 surveying 2.26 Swedish 711 experience 311 extreme 264 experiment(s) 246-47, 560 air pump 250 animals 34 Boyle 102, 103 categories 247 demonstrations 610 design in clinical science 139 discovery 178 Duhem's critique 184 French physiology 570 great 247 instruments 377, 378 music 493 perception of importance 637 performance 556 poisons 729 practice 590 replicating historical 247 reports 654 research 572 revival movement 247 Thomson 725 Watt 758 experimental article writing 390 experimental error 226 experimental ethics, Hunter 361 experimental knowledge 4 experimental method 752 Gilbert 303 experimental physiology 244-45 experimental sciences modern 275 Newton 515 theory of error 226 experimental strategies, theory testing 527 experimental systems 247 experimentalism 250, 694 experimentation 311, 323 honesty 451 humans 35 meteorological instruments 476 expert testimony 461 expertise 526 experts, elitism 363 explanation 560, 561 common mathematical activity 228 formal 722 exploitation 27 exploration 60 Africa 563 Banks 70 cartography 121 France 265 geographical 222 Hooker 348 Humboldt 357 state financed 71

explosives 186 expository science 587 expressivism 657 externalism versus internalism 380-81 extinction 544 extra-galactic structure 52 extrema 254 Faber, Johannes 3 Faber, Sandra 762 fables 231 classical 65 Fabrica (Vesalius) 746 Fabricius, Heironymus 745 Harvey 323 facial fractures 577 fact 249-50 factories conveyor belts 718 invention 193 punch clocks 727 factory farming 433 factory management, rational 7 Fairbairn, Ronald 604 Fairbairn, William 484 faith healing 125, 731 family 681 constellation 10 and consumer sciences 346 economy 769 forms 87 networks and medical implications 344 pedigrees 555 traditional healers 730 Family Doctor (journal) 528 family planning 730 famine 223 genetic engineering 290 see also malnutrition fantasy, unconscious 401 Faraday, Michael 11, 168, 251-53, 764 archive dispersal 251, 252 cloud chambers 247 diary 252 electrolytic decomposition 13 electromagnetic rotation 205 electromagnetism 206 experimental procedures 178, 247 field theory 720 influences 130 laboratory notebook 251, 252 letters 251, 252-53 lines of force 206 magnetic curves 247 magnetoelectricity 539 Maxwell 448 0rsted correspondence 539 papers 251 pocket rotation apparatus 203 public performance 556 Royal Institution 661, 662 travels with Davy 252 void space 742 Faraday cage 677 farm animals 747 cruelty 3 5

853

Farm Hall (Godmanchester; UK) 330 farmers 303 interaction with scientists 21 see also agriculture Farmer's Almanack 230 farming see agriculture Faroes, Danish geology 171 Farr, William 225, 326, 327 statistics 707 farriery 746 Fascism 553, 753 German 317 Italian mathematicians 300 Italy 255 father 392 psychoanalysis 401 fatigue 770 Faulds, Henry 262 fauna, polar 583 Favoro, Antonio 275 Fayol, Henri 436 Fechner, Gustav Theodor 214, 543, 596, 706 psychophysics 608-09 feeding element substitution 258 zoological gardens 98 feeding the world, Rockefeller Foundation 655 feelings, Jung 392 felt cutter 412 females beauty in literature 421 inferiority in ancient Greek medicine 313 femininity 686, 704 anatomical illustrators 287 Freud's theories 270, 605 psychoanalysis 605 feminism anthropometry 34 body 90 Gharcot's account of hysteria 125 Marie Gurie 160 difference 284 ecofeminism 284, 285, 507 Hodgkin 343 hysteria 366 Klein 401 liberal 284 Malthus 433 Martineau 438, 439 medical ethics 455 Meitner 465 nature 507 objectivity 525 psychoanalysis 604, 605, 606 reflexivity 696 science 284 skills 688-89 technology 768 women's surgery 710 work 771 feminist science, essentialist 124 feminists 283-84 approach to science 250 obstetrics 528

854

FENICHEL

Fenichel, Otto 604 Ferdinando, Grand Duke 4, 708 Ferenczi, Sandor 604 Ferguson, Adam 354 Ferguson, Margaret Glay 764 Fermat, Pierre 253-54, 52-° anthyphairetic ratio theory 579 Last Theorem 521 optics 534 fermentation 66, 67 biotechnology 85 cell-free 66-67, 81 microbiology 404 Pasteur 550 Fermi, Enrico 254-55, 519, 722 Fermilab 123 Fernel, Jean 552 ferrous metallurgy 473 fertiliser industry 22 fertility decline 86 human 432 limitation 87 treatment 649 fertilization 207, 284 in vitro 649 fertilizer industry 374 fertilizers 433 Ghina 133 Davy 130 fetus 207 monitoring 528 in utero screening 455 Feuchtersleben, Ernst von 366 Feuerbach, Ludwig 301 fever(s) 224, 2.55-56 chart 256 quinine 347 Feyerabend, Paul 279 philosophy of science 560 sociology of science 312 Feynman, Richard 257-58, 620 Feynman diagrams 257 fibre-reactive dyes 187 fibres, colloid chemistry 142 Fichte, J.G. 657 Ficino, Marsilio 354, 679 field biology evolutionary synthesis 240 population genetics 240, 241 field calculation, self-consistent 743 field clubs 716 field concept 26 field equations 638 field methods of Martineau 439 field naturalists 504 field systems in Ghina 133 field theory 213, 637, 720 Einstein 200 Faraday 252 renormalised 620 Schrodinger 671 fieldwork anthropology 631 environmental sciences 222 expeditions 244

GENERAL INDEX geology 600 Hutton 362 Lyell 424 polar regions 584 Torres Strait 244 Filles de la Gharite of St Vincent de Paul

522 films motion-pictures 436 science fiction 672-73 finalization 380 finance biotechnology companies 86 metallurgy 473 Finetti, Bruno de 596 finger reckoning 146 fingerprinting 261, 262 Galton 277 finitism 339 Finland, botany 9^ fire 328 Firth, Raymond 236 fiscal policy in Ghina 132 Fischer, Emil 69, 258, 394 Fisher, Ronald A. 83, 84, 140 Galton 278 population genetics 504 randomization 140, 141 theoretical population genetics 240 Fisher Body Gompany 718 fisheries 531 biology 532 management 192 fishing, Humphry Davy 168 Fisica dei corpi ponderabiti (Avogadro) 62 FitzGerald, George Francis 11, 12, 206, 449 Five-Year Plan (USSR) 665 fixation 341, 482 fixed air 128 fixism 161 continental 149 fixity 63 5 flame colours 88 Flamsteed, John 47 Fleck, Ludwik 590 Fleming, Alexander 85, 259-60, 261 Flexner, Simon 67 Flick, Lawrence 732 Flinders, Matthew 583 Flood geology 424 floods 424 flora(s) 332 Ghinese 138 polar 583 Flora Danica 99 Florence (Italy) 412, 413 cathedral dome 676 Florey, Howard Walter 85, 259, 260-61 Florey, Mary Ethel 260 Flourens, Pierre 570 flow diagram 754 Fludd, Robert 24, 492 fluid dynamics, experimentation 247 fluid mechanics 274 fluorine, Faraday's work 253 fluxions invention 514, 515

Focke 466 folk medicine 313, 729-31 folklore in ancient Greece 313 Follet, Mary Parker 436 Fontana, Abbe Felice 729 food adulteration 130 ancient 312 animals as 231 habits 523 health 523 industry and refrigeration 158 metabolism 652-53 prices 223 processing 14 production 16, 523 Food and Agriculture Organization (FAO) 305 Food and Drug Administration (US) 141 Foppel 637 Forbes, Edward 272 force I I , 212 concept 12, 212 Kant 395 Newton's concept 13, 25 thermodynamics 12 transformation 212 work 770 force atom theory of matter 252 forceps delivery 528 Forchhammer, Johan Georg 171 Ford, Henry 454 Ford factories 717 Fordism 118, 435 Foreest, Pieter van 615 foreign bodies theory 181 foremanship, functional 435 forensic medicine, Ghinese 135 forensic sciences 261-63 laboratories 262 toxicology 182, 728, 729 forgery accusations against Haeckel 318 form 58, 271 nature of 58 formal explanation 722 formal gardens 97 formalism 271, 339 abstract 437 Lagrangian 759 formative drive 657 fortification, mathematical instruments 444 fossil record deciphering 599 interpretation 238 prehistory 593 fossils 17, 285, 544 classification 162 Guvier 161-62 human 593 strata 297 Foster, Michael 245 Foucault, Jean-Bernard-Leon 150 Foucault, Michel 161, 263-64, 377 discourse 536 geography influence 566 literature and science 420

FUNDING

GENERAL INDEX microphysics of power 562 natural history 337 pain 544 psychiatry 602 visual theory 751 Four of 1847 572 Fourcroy, Antoine 408, 489 Fourth World 23 Fowler 671 Fox Talbot, William Henry 562, 563, 701 fractal basin boundaries 124 fractions, mathematical use 196 Fraenkel, Abraham Adolf 64, 684 France academic politics 185 acupuncture 9 affinity 743 agriculture 21-22 AIDS 23 anti-Newtonianism 743 automation 770 bacteriology 404 barometric experiments 742 biology 490, 571 blowpipe analysis 88 botany 99 cell theory 571 chemical industry 374 chemistry 130 colonialism 144, 694 cultural history of the book 634 curvature of earth 451 Darwinism 238 economists 327 education system 638 endocrinology 571 engineering 265 eugenics 236 existentialism 753 expeditions 243 exploration 265 forensic science 262 Harvey's disciples 322-23 heredity 334 iatrochemistry 546 instrument makers 379, 677, 678 instruments 6-77-78 Jesuits 388 journals 390 legal medicine 262 linguistics 705 literary culture 635 mapping 226 Marey 437 medical schools 552 medicine 571 practice 552 reforms 616 specialization 458 medieval medicine 463 Mesmerism 267 metallurgy 473 molecular biology 488 Museum National d'Histoire Naturelle 489-90 music and science 495

natural history societies 21 Newtonianism 516 nuclear physics 519 nursing 522 obstetrics 529 ornithology 538 Pauling's resonance theory 743 pharmacology 558 physics 266 physiology 569-71 popularization of science 588 positivism 668 precision measurement 478 pre-revolutionary provincial institutions 694 professionalization of science 600 psychiatry 459 psychoanalysis 604, 607 rational mechanics 633 relativity 638 research training 266 Romanticism 656-57 science faculties 265 scientific and technical education 264-66 secularization 125 surgery 709-10 technical innovation 265 technocracy 265 Third Republic 125, 705 transmutation theory 668 tuberculosis 732 universities 266 venereal disease 745 veterinary science 747 vision 751 weights and measures 479 wind turbines 760 women in medicine 766 see also French Revolution Francis I, King of France 411 Frankenstein (Shelley) 672 Frankfurt School 440 informational media 376 Frankfurt Zoo (Germany) 98 Frankland, Edward 126, 743 Franklin, Benjamin 202, 266-67, 671 Franklin, Rosalind 179, 291 double helix 292 Franklin family 28 Franklin Institute (US) 491 Fraunhofer, Joseph von 267-68, 701 Fraunhofer lines 661 Fraunhofer rays 701 Frechet, Maurice 684 Frederick the Great of Prussia 218 Fredericq, Leon 570 free association 603 free will 306, 354 complementarity principle 619 Turing 733 Tycho Brahe 105 freedom, core ethical value 455 Freeman, Michael I. 627 Freer Gallery of Art 691 Frege, Friedrich Ludwig Gottlob 63, 684 Fremy, Edmond 490

French Gode 551 French Revolution 219, 663 education 299 ideology 367 Laplace 633 Lavoisier 409 medical reforms 616 natural law 502 Paris hospitals 351 Priestley's support 594 scientific democrats 610 statistics 707 Frenicle de Bessy 254 frequentism 596 Fresnel, Augustin Jean 11, 534-35, 629 optics 247 Freud, Anna 401, 604 Freud, Sigmund 268-69 Adier's opposition 9, 10 femininity 270, 605 hysteria 366 institution of psychoanalysis 606-07 intelligence of child 573 Levi-Strauss 414 neuroscience 511 psychiatry 602 psychoanalysis 428, 603 revaluation 366 Spain 700 Freudian psychology Jung 391 orthodox 604 Freundlich, Erin 638 Freundlich, Herbert 143 frictional machine 202 Friedman, Herbert 699 Friedman, R.M. 480 Friedmann, Alexander 78 Friend, John 615 friendship 689 Fries, J.J. 657 Frisch, Karl von 422 Frobenius, Georg 314 Fromm, Erich 604 fruit flies see Drosophila FSX fighter co-development agreement 387 fuke (medicine for women) 136 fulling machines 485 function 270—71 algebraic fields 521 concept 684 physiology 271 functional co-ordination 436 functionalism 32, 271-72 anthropology 31 mind 485 UNESGO 305 fundamentalism 753 Islamic 642 Protestant 640 funding Academie de Sciences 2 clinical research 139 Indian state 629 laboratory at Royal Institution 662

855

856

FUNDING

patterns for biology 241 postwar physics 567 public 611 research 599 Rockefeller Foundation 655 Royal Society of London 663 space science 698 state for research and development 651 technology transfer 719 Third Reich science 724 see also patronage fundraising Bohr 92 Marie Gurie 159 fungi, medical use 182 Fusoris, Jean 45 future, orientation towards 727 Gabon 14 Gadroys, Glaude 121 Gaertner, G.E 465 Gahn, Johan Gottlieb 88 Gaia 72 galactic distances 154 galactic structure 52 Galapagos islands 503 galaxies 154 Galen 41, 273, 313 anatomy 745 Greek medicine 463 humoral theory 558 medicine 461 surgery 709 Galilean School 273-74, 680 Galilean science, humanism 356 Galileo, Vincenzo 492, 493 Galileo Galilei 2, 3, 274-77 Accademia del Gimento 4 artistic developments 751 artistic training 674 atmospheric pressure 742 atomic theory 54 clocks 142 courtly performance 556 experimentation 246, 247 genius 294 Gilbert 303 Harvey 323 Huygens influences 364 Kepler 399 measurement experiments 450, 590 Medician court 156 Newtonian physics 513 objectivity 525 philosophy of science 560 scientific method 247 scientific revolution 679 solar system 561 theology and religion 645 thermoscope 476 trial 389 vacuum 742 Gall, Franz Joseph 564 Galois, Evariste 579 Galois theory 313 Galton, Francis 83, 84, 262, 277-78

GENERAL INDEX correlation 707 eugenics 234 genetics 290, 291 heredity 333, 334 Law of Ancestral Heredity 278 Lucas's treatise 334 Pearson 554, 555 plant breeding 465, 466 population genetics 623 probability 596 sensibility 609 statistics 706 Galton Eugenics Laboratory 235, 554, 555 Galvani, Luigi 81, 203, 278-79, 671 Volta's disagreement 754 galvanic battery 13, 279, 280 galvanism 13, 280, 359, 657 Schelling 671 galvanometer electromagnetic 280 tangent 203, 204 galvanoscope 203 gambling 14 game theory 585, 755 zero-sum two person 755 games of chance 596 cultural aspects 229 traditional peoples 228 gaming 124 gamma rays 618, 623 electromagnetic pulse theory 535 Gamow, George 668 gangue 19 Garden History Society 350 gardening 3 50 gardens 96-97 college 97 design 350 history 349-50 record computerization 97 spirituality of medieval 350 see also botanical gardens; zoological gardens Garfinkel, Harold 6^6 Gargamelle bubble chamber collaboration 122, 123 gas gangrene 260 gas industry 374 gas turbine engine 217 gas warfare 319 gaseous conduction 725 gases adiabatic expansion 283 law of combining volumes 283 Schelling 671 thermal expansion 282 thermal properties 63 see also kinetic theory of gases gasohol 85 Gassendi, Pierre 742 Epicurean mechanism 120 theology and religion 645 gastric juice function 73 gastric surgery 709 gastroenterology 458

gastronomy 523 Gas-Tube Gang 628 Gauss, Garl Friedrich 226, 227, 281-82 anthyphairetic ratio theory 579 differential geometry 300 probability 596 Gaussian error theory 609 gay community response to AIDS 23 see also homosexuality Gay-Lussac, Joseph Louis 62, 75, 282-83 gearing, mills 484 gears, public understanding 242 Gegenbauer, Garl 166, 272 Geiger counter 518, 567 gel electrophoresis, pulsed field 353 Gell-Mann, M. 591 gender 283-85, 342 analysis 286 knowledge 285 anthropological photography 563 anthropology 284 bias 284 biology 210 bureaucracy 346 Ghinese medicine 136 construction 288 differences 287 dysphoria 686 Enlightenment 220 Enlightenment science 262 environmental sciences 222, 507 forensic medicine 262 Foucault 264 geography 566 Hodgkin 343 hysteria 366 identity 285-87 Indian medicine 372 inequalities 284 knowledge 286 in landscape 584 McGlintock's research 487 medical discourse 463 play 718 polar exploration 584 politics 16 psychiatry 603 psychoanalysis 604, 604-06 relations and technological change 688-89 representation 648 roles 287 science education 195 sex 287-88 social construct 605 social history 286 technology 718 toys 718 warriors 673 gender issues anthropometry 34 automobiles 61 birth control 86, 87 body 90 gendering of cell nucleus 284

GEOMETRY

GENERAL INDEX gene(s) 180 expression 291 regulation 291 bacterial 289 understanding 284 gene sequencer machine 353 gene therapy 182, 234, 601 Genentech 289 General Electric 443 general formulae 633 General Motors 454 general practitioner 462 medical 91 General Problem Solver 43 General Theory of Keynes 399 General Virology (Luria) 749 generation 207 Buffon's theory 109 Maupertuis's theory 447, 448 see also spontaneous generation Genesis, Mersenne's commentary 468 genetic code 291 genetic disorders, in utero screening 455 genetic engineering 86, 180, 288-90, 291, 292, 461 genetic essentialism 180 genetic manipulation 289 genetic material transfer 247 genetically engineered organisms 180 geneticization. North America 285 genetics 34, 290—91, 342 agriculture 21 bacterial 67, 291 bacteriophage 289 biochemical Z90 biotechnology 289 Brazil 656 cancer 114, 115 chemotherapeutics 182 classical 290, 291 constructionism 290 corn 487 cytological 466 Darwinism in Germany 167 degeneration 171 Drosophila melanogaster 706 eugenics 234 Germany 302 Goldschmidt 241 human 234, 235, 291, 292 humans 290 industrial use 85-86 institutional use 292 Japanese bomb survivors 56, 353 Lysenko 175, 425, 426, 441 McGlintock 764, 765 media 292 molecular 81, 291, 292 natural selection 239, 503 nature 506 popular culture 292 post-DNA 291-92 science fiction 673 Soviet Union 425, 426 Sweden 711 US 736

virology 749 vocabulary 292 women scientists 764, 765 see also Mendelian genetics; population genetics Geneva School 589 genius 293-94 Davy 556 intellectual history 293 Leonardo da Vinci 412 mad 429 Newton 514 Romantic 300, 556, 658 genius-as-llluminatus 293 genocide 626, 723 Nazi promotion 72 genome laboratories 353 genome projects see Human Genome Project geochemistry 297 geochronology 17, 18 geodesic expedition, Hispanic-French 244 geodesy 122 Gauss 281 Maupertuis 447 measurement 226 Geoffroy Saint Hilaire, fitienne 271 biological imperative 610-11 principle of connections 272 geographical exploration 222 geographical thought 222 geographical variation 503 geography 294-95 ancient 222 Baer 67 Boas 88-89 cartography 121 Chinese 134 Dee 169 early modern 222 earth 222 environmental sciences 221 expeditions 243 human 565-66 humanistic 243 Humboldt's 357 India 371 influence on environmentalist ideas 221 Kant 395 Latin America 406 oceanography 531-32 physical 565-66 phytogeography 98, 99, 191, 357 Plato 579 professionalization 566 Smithsonian Institution 690 time 728 Geological Association, Danish 171 Geological Evidences of the Antiquity of Man (Lyell) 363 geological forces 727 geological revolution, discovery 178 Geological Society of Ganada 113 Geological Society of London 599, 600 Geological Survey, Denmark 171 geological time 545 geology 295-98

age of the Earth 17, 18 Agricola 19 antiquity of man 593 archaeology history 38 blowpipes 87 Brazil 106 Buckland 108 Ganada 113 continental 149 Danish 171 deep time 727 Denmark 172 discovery 178 environmental sciences 221, 222 evolutionary synthesis 240 Goethe 308, 309 historically-oriented approach 108 Humboldt 357 Hutton 362 Kant 395 lectures 587 Linnaeus 418 literature 297 maps 122 oceanography 532 physics 727 prehistory 592, 593 professionalization 599, 600 research methodology 424 Romanticism impact 658 Smithsonian Institution 690 Stensen 707, 708 time 728 transformation to interpretative science 108 uniformitarian 296 visual imagery 297 see also Lyell, Gharles geomagnetism 430 Gauss 281 Humboldt 358-59 polar research 583 geometric form 14 geometrical algebra 26 geometrical method, Greek 246 La Geometrie (Descartes) 299 geometry 298-300 algebraic 300, 520 analytic 253, 254 Archimedes 39 Aristotle 40 art 674 astrolabe 45 axiomatic 300 descriptive 299 differential 300 ethnomathematics 228 Euclidian 63, 232-33, 299, 751 Hilbert 339 fractal 124 Gauss 281 Germany 299 Greek 751 group theory 313 higher 299 Hilbert 339

857

858

GEOMETRY

Hungary 360 Islamic 36 Jesuit 389 Kepler 398 medieval encyclopedias 209 metageometry of Kant 396 Monge 488 naive 196 Newton 514 Nigeria 14 non-Euclidian 63, 233, 282, 299, 300, 446 Poincare 580, 581 optical 508 origins 230 Poincare 580, 581 projective 299 geomorphology 108, 297 Hutton 362 geophysics 297, 566 Halley 321 international 383 metallurgy 473 oceanography 532 Plato 579 polar regions 582 space science 698 time 728 Georgian Britain, music 49^-96 Gerarde, John 333 Gerhard, G.E 743 Gerling, Ghristian Ludwig 282 germ attenuation 550 germ cells 291 germ layers 207 germ plasm 504 theory 753 germ specificity 550 germ theory 224, 256, 419, 550, 709, 771 animal experiments 747 Pasteur 550, 551 Germain, Sophie 282 German territories 300, 301 German union 302 Germanophone areas 300-01 Germany anti-scientific view 618-19 anti-Semitism 510 automobiles 61 bacteriology 404 biology 657 biomedical community 236 chemical industry 374 chemistry 258 dyestuffs industry 186-87, 651 East-West polarity 358 education system 638 electron theory 637 empire 572, 573 forensic science 262 geometry 299 Gesellschaft Deutscher Naturforscher und Artze 301-02 health insurance 510 Humboldt 357, 358 Idealism 671

GENERAL INDEX imperial power 317 institutionalization 331 international science 394 journals 390 laboratory medicine 572 literary revolution 657 materials science 443 mathematical education 446 mathematics 637 measurement 451 metrology 568 morphology 272 national unity 302 Nernst 565 nuclear bomb project 319, 330 nutrition 524 objectivity 525 oceanographic ships 532 organic chemistry 535 particle physics 549 pharmaceutical industry 573 pharmacology 558 philosophical anatomy 271 physics 206, 637 physiology 570, 571-73 precision measurement 478 public health 235-36 quantum mechanics 618-19 rational mechanics 633 relativity 637, 638 Romanticism 300, 302, 656 science 302 scientific relationship with Hungary 360 sexual politics 235 Social Democratic Party 748 state health care system 235-36 sterilization law (1933) 234, 235 student movement 724 technical education 214 universities 572, 621, 738 vitalism 302, 618 wind power 759 see also Darwinism, Germany; National Socialism; Nazi Germany; Nazism; Third Reich; Weimar Republic Gernsback, Hugo 672 Geschichte der Botanik (Sachs) 418 Gesellschaft Deutscher Naturforscher und Artze 301-02 Gestalt psychology 527 Geulinex, Arnold 120 Ghana 14 Giambattista Vico 726 giant accelerator physics 123 Gibbs, Josiah Willard 183, 443, 743 genius 294 probability 596 Gibson, J.J. 247 Gieryn, Thomas 704 Gilbert, Walter 353 Gilbert, William 207, 302-04 magnetism 4 3 0-31 Gilded Age 702 Gilman, Gharlotte Perkins 284 Gingerich, Owen 49 Girl with the Watering Can (Renoir) 691

girls science education 195 see also women glacial erosion 108 Glacier Project 436 glaciology 584 Glasgow University (Scotland), forensic medicine 262 glass industry 374 optical 268, 721 refractive powers 701 glass-making 14 Glick, Thomas H 167 Glidden, Stephen Clifton 628 global organizations 304-05 global transformation of nature 506-07 glucose, sugar conversion 73 glycogen 73 gnomon / gnomonics 676 God, natural law 501 Godel, Kurt 63, 64, 117, 305-08 Axiom 684 independence 684 positivism 588 theorems 63, 306, 307, 308, 581 Godel numbering 306 Godwin, William 432 Goeppert-Mayer, Maria 767 Goethe, Johann Wolfgang von 75, 308-09, 657, 658 Gold, Thomas 638 gold mining 14 South Africa 17 gold therapy 141 Goldberger, Joseph 225 Goldberger-Theil estimators 226 Goldschmidt, Richard 241 gonads 288 gonococcus 67 gonorrhoea 260 Hunter's self-inoculation 361 Gonseth 63 goodness of fit testing 84, 555 Gorky, Maxim 553 Gosset, William Sealy 83 Gottingen Eighteen 407 Gottingen physics research school 697 Gottingen University (Sweden) 281 Gould, John 538 gout 713 government Chinese 132 science relationship 80 Spencer 702 government agencies, home economists 346 government bureaucrats psychology use 608 public health 611 Government Chemist Laboratory 262 government policy Faraday 662 women in science 761 government support American science 736 Big Science 79

HARMONICS

GENERAL INDEX space science 698 technology transfer 719 government-industrial relations in Japan 387 Gowers, William 543 gradualism 424 Graham, James 616 grain evaluation 479 milling 484 trade 479 grammar generative 417 universal 416 Grammar

of Science (Pearson)

555

Gramsci, Antonio 440, 536 grand river view of anthropology history 31 grandes ecotes 265 Grant, Robert E. 272 grants, Academie de Sciences 2 graphic images 310 Marey 437 graphical method 309-11 physiology 478 graphs 14, 647 tracing in sand by traditional peoples 228 Grassi, Giovanni 432 Grassi, Orazio 388 gratings, ruling 661 gravitation 200, 567-68, 636 Freundlich 638 general 638 Newton 178 theory 300 universe origin 568 gravitational fields 638 polar regions 582 gravitational inverse square law 493 gravity centres of 39 wave detection 696 Gray, Stephen 202 Great Cat Massacre 635 Great Ghain of Being 640, 715 Great Exhibition (1851) 676 Great Exhibitions 242 Great Purge (Soviet Union) 664 Greece Indian science relationship 370 malaria 432 Greece, ancient 311-12 anthropology 592 art 751 astrolabe 45 astrology 46, 47 astronomy 49 atomism 57 biochemistry 81 biology 592 birth control 87 botanical gardens 96 city states 312 ethnoscience 230 geometry 299, 751 Hermeticism 335 humanist influences 356

hysteria 365, 366 mathematics 228, 233, 579, 580 mechanicians 741 medicine 312-13, 463 nature 507 opium 728 optics 534 psychiatry 486 Pythagorean theories 612 reality 54 scientific culture 295 sexual self-construction 286 work 770 zoological taxonomy 313 Greek classical tradition 36 Greek ideas of health 9 Greek Orthodox Church 640 Greek science embryology 207 revival 40 Green, George 11 Greenland, Danish geology 171 Greenstein, Jesse 762 Greenwich Mean Time 727 Greenwich Observatory 450 Newton 516 royal patronage 663 time-keeping exhibition 727 Greenwood, Major 84, 140, 225 Gregory, Richard 107 Gregory, William King 545 Griesinger 602 Griffin, John Joseph 126 Grignon, Pierre Clement 473 Griscom, John H. 326 Grosses vollstdndiges Universal Lexicon (Zedler) 209 Grosseteste, Robert 644 Grothendieck 300 Grotius, Hugo 501, 502 ground waters 19 group analysis 604 group procedures 10 group relations 604 group representation 313 theory 5 20 group theory 26, 313-14 Grove, William Robert 212 Grundziige der Mengenlehre (Hausdorff) 684 Grundziige der theorestischen Logik (Ackermann) 305 Guangzhou College of Traditional Chinese Medicine 137 Guareschi, Icilio 62-63 Guenther, Johannes 745 Guericke, Otto von 742 guilds 601 clockmakers 141 scientific couples 761 Guiteau, Charles 460 Gulielmo da Sliceto 463 Gullstrand, Allvar 711 gunnery, mathematical instruments 444 gunpowder 709, 717 Ghina 717

859

Lavoisier 130 smokeless 467 Gurney, Edmund 704 Gut, Alan 79 Gutenburg, Johannes 417, 595 gynaecology 210, 314-15, 459, 761 ancient Greece 313 fertility treatment 649 sexual 314 gyroscopic range accuracy 451 Haas 622 Haavelmo, Trygve 585 Haber, Fritz 394 Haberlandt, Gottlieb 167 Habermas, Jiirgen 380 habitats animal exhibition 97 zoo designs 98 habitus theory 591 Habsburg dynasty 389 Hacking, Ian 378 Haeckel, Ernst 167, 272, 317-18, 422 Darwinism 166 debate with Virchow 748 ecology 191 Huxley (Thomas) 363 Mach's correspondence 427 haemoglobin 652 Hagemann, Gustav 172 Hagen, Gotthilf 227 Hahn, Otto 318-20, 464, 588 collaboration with Meitner 464, 767 nuclear physics 519 Hahnemann, Ghristian Friedrich Samuel 346, 347, 348 Haiti 295 traditional healers 730 Haken, Hermann 671 Haldane, J.B.S. 84,235,240 Hale, George Ellery 52, 320-21, 480, 721 Hale 200 reflector 48 Hales, Stephen 671 halftone engraving 675 Hall, Stanley G. 681 Hall effect 449 Halle physics research school 697 Haller, Albrecht von 78, 671 Haller, Victor 752 Halley, Edmond 321-22 Halley's comet 322, 516 hallucination 703 halogens 467 Halstead, William Steward 419 Hamilton, Alice 765 Hamilton, William 483 hardness. Hertz's study 338 Hardy, William Bate 143 Harless, Christian 761 Harley, J.B. 122 harmonic functions 271 harmonic law 398 harmonic theory 495 Pythagorean 468 Harmonice Mundi (Kepler) 398, 492 harmonics, planetary 492

86o

HARMONICS

Harmonics (Smith) 495 Harmonie der Welt (Hindemith) 496 Harmonie universelle (Mersenne) 493 harmony 492. Bohr 641 Einstein 641 mechanistic 492 Mersenne 493 music and science 493, 494, 495 Pythagorean 493 theory and practice 590 Harmony of the Worlds (Kepler) 397 Harnack, Adolf von 394 Harnack principle 395 harpsichord, ocular 496 Harre, Rom 474 Harris, John 209 Harrison, John 142 Harrison, Ross 207, 208 Harrison Narcotic Act (US; 1914) 728 Harteck, Paul 330 Hartley, David 594 Hartlib, Samuel 102, 103, 335 Harvard Business School (US) 435 Harvard College Observatory (US) 763 Harvard University (US) 607 harvesting machines 717 Harvey, David 566 Harvey, Gabriel 635 Harvey, William 29, 41, ^11-14, 461, 652, 671, 712 development 207 experimental physiology 245 Haswell Colliery disaster 662 Hausdorff, Felix 446, 684 Havers, Gilbert 712 Hawking, Stephen 49, 79 Hawthorne Experiments 435-36 Hayek, Eriedrich August von 324-26 H-bomb 533 healers / healing 730 Africa 15, 16 animals 746 Chinese 136, 137 Erance 616 India 371 mind 486 music 497 non-medical 731 Paracelsus 545-46 quack 616 religious 615 spiritual 145, 704 traditional 16, 23, 730, 731 traditions 16 women 765 health 326-27 animals 746 children 327 class-based inequality 326, 327 disease relationship 9, 461-62, 552 education in Africa 16 employees 687 environmental influence 345 exotic animals 98 food 523

GENERAL INDEX inequality 326, 327 Netherlands 510 policy in India 372 pre-Columbian tradition 229 preservation 16 reform 327 regulation 460 restoration 16 rights 460-61 Rockefeller Foundation 655 self-responsibility 344, 345 socioeconomics 326 health care photography 563 traditional birth attendants 730 health insurance 181, 460 Germany 510 health programmes, traditional healers 730 health-nurturing exercises, Chinese 135 hearing instruments 497 heart 119 attack 119 beat 245 blood vessels 119 disease 119 electrical action 119 function 119-20 rate with fever 256 rhythm abnormalities 119 surgery 261 heat 327-29, 633 caloric 128 conversion factor for work 212 engines 213 excess 256 experimentation 246 instrument analysis 227 Kant 396 Laplace 633 matter of 128 mechanical equivalent 211, 212-13, 45i> 557 radiation of Planck 199 theorem of Nernst 508 theory 183, 396 transfer 328, 329 see also caloric theory; kinetic theory heating industry 621 Heatley, Norman 259, 260 heavens construction of 336, 337 fluidity debate 389 Hevelius' representation 635 round 134 Heaviside, Oliver 205, 206, 449 heavy metals 182 Hebrew people, astronomy 49 Hedge, Frederick 671 hedonist-libertarian ethic 470 Heelan, Patrick 378 Heereboord, Adriaan 120 Hegel, Georg Wilhelm Eriedrich 148, 600, 671 Piaget 574 Romantic School 657 visual theory 751

Hegelianism 579 hegemony 536 Newtonian 515 Rockefeller Eoundation 655 Heian period 386 Heidegger, Martin 391, 579 phenomenology of material practices 591 visual theory 751 Heidelberg University (Germany) 572 experimental physiology 245 Heine, Heinrich 658 Heinrich, Duke of Saxony 20 Heinroth, Oskar 422 Heisenberg, Werner Karl 93, 329-30, 596, 743 presuppositions 722 quantum mechanics 619, 620 uncertainty principle 618 Heitler, Walter 743 helicopter engines 217 heliocentricity 561 heliometer 268 heliotrope. Gauss 281 helium atom 743 ionized 701 liquefaction 158 Hellenic thought 36 see also Greece, ancient Helmholtz, Hermann von 81, 95, 183, 206, 301, 310, 330-32, 427 affinity 743 axiomatics 452 energy 211, 212 Eour of 1847 572 Gesellschaft Deutscher Naturforscher und Artze 302 Hertz 338 Maxwell's work 449 mechanistics 212 Michelson 480 music 496 ophthalmoscope 458 perception 609 physiology 572-73 Raman influence 629 Rowland 660-61 tuning fork 497 visual perception 751 Helmont, Johan Baptist van 752 voluntarism 646 Henle, Eriedrich 572 Henri de Mondeville 710 Henry, Caleb Sprage 671 Henry, Edward Richard 262 Henry of Langenstein 644 Henry of Navarre, assassination 525 Henslow, John Stevens ioi hepatitis B 23 herb doctors 731 herbal medicines 17, 182-83, 55^> 73° herbal writing, Chinese 138 herbalism 145, 332-33, 731 illustrations 332 Japan 387 herbalists 730

HOROSCOPES

GENERAL INDEX herbaria ^6, 97, 332 collecting ioi Kew Gardens 349 Herbart, Johann 681 Herder, Johann Gottfried von 34, 148, 657 expressivism 657 hereditarianism 234, 334 IQ 682 psychology 607 theory 290 hereditary material 292, 504 hereditary transmission 291 heredity 234, 291, 333-34, 466, 503-04 ancestral 278, 555 Baer 67 chemical basis 82 chromosome theory 465 Darwin's studies 238, 239, 504 Galton 277, 278 hard theory 278 material substance 334 mathematical-statistical approach 235 Maupertuis's theory 447, 448 Mendelism 239 non-Mendelian 236 Planck 576 probability 596 racism 625 statistical investigation 278 vitalism 752 Herigone, Pierre 254 Hering, Ewald 301, 331, 572 visual perception 751 Hering, Peter 677 heritage, common 584 hermaphrodites 288 hermeneutics 420 Hermes Trismegistus 334 Hermeticism 169, 334-36 medical thinking 347 Rosicrucian phase 169 Hero of Alexandria 741 Herophilus 273, 313 Herschel, Caroline 762, 767 Herschel, John 107, 478, 701 encyclopedia entries 209 photography 563 Herschel, William 49, 154, 336-37, 762 error theory 227 fingerprinting 262 music 495 Uranus discovery 226 Hertz, Heinrich Rudolf 206, 337-38, 427, 449 Hertzsprung-Russell diagrams 49 Herz, Robert 31 Hesse, Mary 474 heterodoxy, Paracelsus 546 heterogenesis 67 heterosexuality 288 Heuschling, Xavier 623 Hevelius, Johannes 635 Heyn, Emil 443 Hickok, Laurens P. 671 Hicks, John Richard 400

hieratic script 42 hieroglyphs 42 high frequency generators 718 higher education 739 Highlands Controversy 297 Hilbert, David 63-64, 305, 306, 338-39 Einstein's account 638 metamathematics 446 Poincare's criticism 581 relativity 638 space theory 754 Hilbert space 618 Hilbert's Programme 307, 308, 339 Hildegard of Bingen 287, 764-65 Hill, Austin Bradford 225 Hill, A.V, 553 Hindemith, Paul 496 Hindu science 486 knowledge systems 230 Hinduism 371, 731 Hippius, Zinaida Nikolayevna 423 Hippocrates 221, 273, 339-40 disease 712 healing power of nature 256 holistic medicine 344 homeopathy 347 Leonardo da Vinci 412 medical texts 463 Hippocratic Corpus 340 Hippocratic medicine 312-13, 340 pain 543 preventive ideals 611 Sydenham 712 Hippocratic Oath 455 Hippocratic question 340 Hippocratism, Galen 273 Hirn, G.A. 212 Hiroshima (Japan) 55, 533 Hisinger, Wilhelm 76 Histoire naturelle generate et particuliere (Buffon) 109 histology 340-41 historical approach to science 250 historicism 185 ideology 367 historiography Humboldt 357 Ionian 313 history Denmark 172 early Victorian 759 general books 341-43 of medicine in Enlightenment 220 time 728 History of science 341-43 History of the Theories of Aether and Electricity (Whittaker) 206 HIV 22, 23, 496 Hjelt, Otto 418 Hobbes, Thomas 103, 250, 494 Boyle's air-pump experiment 680, 696, 74 i Enlightenment 219 natural law 502 performance of experiments 556 theology and religion 645

86l

Hodgkin, Dorothy 343-44 Hoechst pharmaceutical company 197 Hoeg, Peter 682 Heffding, Harald 93, 172 Hoffmann, Eriedrich 752 Hofmeister, Wilhelm 100 Hogben, Lancelot 235 Holder, O. 452 Holderlin, Eriedrich 220, 657 holism 10, 344 Duhem 183 Goethe 309 phenomena of life 652 in science 124 holistic medicine 145 holistic systems, Bateson 71 Hollerith, Herman 146 HoUoway, Thomas 616 Holmes, Harry 143 Holocaust see eugenics; Nazi Germany; Nazism Holtzmann 212 Holyoake, George 589 home construction 327 mechanization 453 Home, Everard 361 home economics 345-46, 761 American women 737 collegiate level 346 home rule 286 homeopathy 145, 346-48, 616 Britain 559 holistic medicine 344 India 731 Homer pain 543 psychiatry 486 homology concept 272 homosexuality 23, 89, 429, 685 Humboldt 358 Turing 733 Hooke, Robert 712 fossils 544 influence on Harvey 323 meteorological instruments 476 microscopy 674 music and science 494 optics 534 vacuum 742 Hooker, Joseph Dalton 348-49 Hooker, William Jackson 583 Hopf, Eberhard 596 Hopkins, Erederick Gowland 82, 143 Hoppe-Seyler, Eelix 81 hormonal hurricane 288 hormones 81, 182, 210, 558 marketing of preparations 210 steroids 85 see also sex hormones Horner's method 682, 683 Horney, Karen 401 Horologium Oscillatorium (Huygens) 365 horology 728 horoscopes 46 astrolabes 44

86z

HORROR VACUI

horror vacui 741, 742 horses 747 Horstmann, August 743 horticulture 349-51 Hoskin, Michael 49 hospital medicine 180, 181, 344, 345 technical developments 352 hospitals 78, 351-52 architecture 522 British 351-52 charity 461 childbirth 528 children's 458 control 347 design 53, 709 Paris 351 photography 563 religious 461 south-west England 461 special 458 travellers 461 Hottentots 90 hour division 141 household economics administration 228 household science see home economics housework 771 housing employees 687 problems in London 170 Hoyle, Fred 79, 638 Huainanzi 134 Huangdi nei jing (Yellow Emperor's Inner Canon / Classic) 135 Hubbard Brook Ecosystem Study (USA) 222

Hubble, Edwin 154 Hubble constant 49 Hubble Space Telescope 699 Hudson, Rock 23 Huggins, Margaret 762 Hugo, Victor 172 human body 89-90, 752 cancer 115 deviant 288 fatigue 727 female 90 Foucault's notion 264 gendered 287 ownership 30 problematization 264 social invention 90 Vesalius' illustrations 745 human capital theories 688 human character formation 232 human DNA map 292 human ecology 221 human genome mapping r8o Human Genome Project 86, 180, 234, 285, ^89, 291, 352-53 popular culture 292 human immunodeficiency virus see HIV human life, amelioration 102 human motor concept 436 human nature 34 Human Potential Movement 731 human reason 644

GENERAL INDEX human relations 770 human resources 436 human rights 502 human sciences 353-55 human welfare, natural philosophy 65 humanism 354, 355, 355-56, 506 Humboldt 358 linguistics 416 objectivity 525 Renaissance 356, 679 socialist 358 humanist-Ciceronian probalilism 468 humanitarianism 506 psychiatry 602 Rutherford 667 women's science 343 humanities Rockefeller Foundation 655 Russia 664 humanity Comte's idea 148 multiple origins 625 protection of nature 506 shared 632 humans animal ancestry 239 classification 419 conception 284 evolution 425 experience, 263 264 experimentation 35 clinical trials 140 fossil 593 genetic engineering 180 genetics 234, 235, 290, 291, 292 heredity 334 history 17 liberty 395 nutrition 345 perception 486 perceptual apparatus 378 population 433 relations with animals 231 see also consciousness; mind Humboldt, Alexander von 356-59 correspondence with Causs 282 environmental sciences 222 expeditions 243 Gay-Lussac's collaboration 282 geology 296 Gesellschaft Deutscher Naturforscher und Artze 301, 302 landscape artists 674 Liebig 415 polar regions 582, 583 Romanticism 657 voyage to Spanish America 244 Humboldt, Karl Wilhelm von 417 Humboldt, Wilhelm von 357 Humboldtian science 107, 244 Hume, David 220, 354 economics 690 Hayek 325 induction 596 Kant 395 natural law 502

positivism 588 race 625 humoral doctrine 181 humoral pathology 748 humoral theory 558, 752 humoralism 552, 611 humour 654 humours, disease 712 humus theories 20 Hund, Friedrich 743 Hungarian Academy of Sciences 359, 360 Hungarian uprising 440 Hungary 359-60 Hunt, John Dixon 350 Hunter, John 207, 360-61 surgery 710 Hunter, William 207, 361 hunter-gatherers, scientific thinking 14 Hunterian Oration 361 hunting 35 astronomy 50 Huntington Library 320 Husserl, Edmund 427 Husserlian phenomenology 354 Hutcheson, Frances 502 Hutton, James 18, 296, 297, 362—63 geology 337, 727 Hutton, E.L. 474 Huxley, Thomas Henry 97, 100, 107, 363-64, 704 Owen's rivalry 297 X-Club 349 Huygens, Christiaan 4, 142, 254, 364-65 Leibniz 410 optics 534 probability 596 vacuum 742 Huyghens 629 Hyatt, John Wesley 579 hybridization experiments 465, 466, 743 hybridoma 370 Hyde, Helen 765 hydraulic hypothesis 294, 441 hydraulic screw 499 hydraulic thesis 31 hydrazine 258 hydroaromatic compounds 69 hydrodynamics 183, 754 hydroelectric power 347, 717 hydrogen liquefying 158 molecule ion 743 satellite nuclei 668 spectrum lines 701 stationary states 93 hydrogen bomb 56, 409 hydrography, oceanography 531 hydrology, Leonardo da Vinci 412 hydrostatics, Archimedes 39 hygiene Brazil 106 education 681 Germany 302 homeopathy 347 personal 730

INDUSTRIAL REVOLUTION

GENERAL INDEX hygienics 681 hylomorphism 58 hypnotism 471, 511 Charcot 125 hypodermic injection 710 hypotheses 752 thematic 722-23 hypothetical-deductive method 560 hypotonic drugs 182 hysterectomy 315 hysteria 10, 365-66 Charcot 124, 125 defeminization 125 female 286 ovariectomy 314 pain 544 Iamblichus 613 iatrochemistry 3, 9 1 , 535, 546, 752 iatrogenic dangers 344 iatromechanism 752 IBM 146, 147 Ibn al-Haytham 37 Ibn Juljul. 19 Ibsen, Henrik 170 ice ages 425 studies 583 Iceland, Danish geology 171 ichthyology 765 ICI 374, 375, 651, 716 iconography bird books 538 nursing 522 ideal factor 118 ideal number construction 521 idealism German 671 Soviet Union 665 Whewell 759 ideas. Rockefeller Foundation 655 identification 28 identity Foucault 264 gender 285-87 Schelling's philosophy 670 ideology 367-69 control of science 426 Rockefeller Eoundation 655 Russia 664 idleness 770 idols 66 I.G. Earben 443 Illinois University (US) 682 home economics 346 illness representation in Japan 386 social determinants 344 whole person 145 women 286 illustration 595, 674-75 American women 737 anatomical 30, 745, 746 scientific 648 Stensen 708 technical in Renaissance 674 textbook 648

imagery 674, 751 physical chemistry 565 images 635 imagination 658 imaging graphical method 310 modalities 628, 629 Imago Mundi (journal) 121 immortality maps 122 spiritualism 704 immune system 369 public knowledge 370 immune tolerance 370 immunity humoral theory 72 Pasteur 67 immunization 730 immunology 369-70 Ehrlich 197 molecular 370 virology 749 immunotherapy 182, 558 immutability, Cuvier 161 immutable laws 727 immutable mobiles 635 Imperial Botanic Gardens (St Petersburg) Imperial Cancer Research Eund 114 Imperial Chemical Institution (Germany) 394-95 imperial state, China 133 imperialism Bengal 372 British Association role 107 China 137 culture 537 Dee 16^ Denmark 171 expansion 286, 431 expeditions 244, 563 geography 566 German 572, 573 palaeontology 545 promotion 242 Royal Institution interests 662 submarine cables 720 imperialists 32 impetus theory 679 imponderables 11 impotence 686 impressionism 428 Impressionists 170 in vitro fertilization 649 incantations, Chinese 135 Incas 228 arithmetic 42 culture 406 mathematical ideas 229 incense seals 142 income 400 health inequality 327 incommensurables, theory of 233 incompleteness theorem 306, 307 indanthrene dyes 187 independence 5 Godel's results 684

863

scientific 60 indeterminacy 640 India 370-71 astronomy 49, 50, 51 biochemistry 81 colonialism 144, 719 European encounter with culture 230 health care 731 homeopathy 731 medicine 371-72 metallurgy 473 national parks 98 plague epidemic 575 railways 719 science funding 629 Tamils 14 time 728 traditional birth attendant 730 Indian drums 629 Indian peoples (North and South America) mathematical ideas 229 see also Aztecs; Incas; Maya; Native Americans Indicator Diagram 310 Indice de cose naturali (Stensen) 708 indigenous knowledge 584 systems 372-73 women 762 indigenous peoples Arctic 583-84 artists 674-75 natural law 502 technology use 719 indigenous techniques for polar survival 583 indigos 6^ individual difference 607 individual in society 646 Individual Psychology 10 individualism Durkheim 185 free-enterprise 238 geneticists' notions 284 indivisibility 58 indoles 258 Indo-Malay Archipelago, astronomy 49 induction 560, 561, 596 coil 678 embryological 208 Mill 482 Whewell 759 industrial archaeology 374 industrial chemicals 182 industrial chemistry 373-75 industrial chemists 187 industrial environment of US 327 industrial exhibitions 242, 557 industrial intelligence 720 industrial policy in Japan 387 industrial processes 687 industrial psychology 436 industrial research 193, 443 Industrial Revolution 717 chemical industry 374 dyestuffs 186 economics 689

864

INDUSTRIAL REVOLUTION

home impact 771 ideology 367 iron waterwheel 485 life-expectancy 326 Malthus 434 mechanization 453, 454 Newton 514 organizational skills 435 social impact 717 social relations of science 368 statistics 707 time 726 Watt 758 industrial science 180 industrial society achievements 601 socio-economic needs 368 industrial toxicology 728 industrialists chemical 374-75 laissez-faire 702 Lunar Society 594 Siemens 687 industrialization 11, 717 Europe 454 housework 771 Japan 388 mechanization 452 Netherlands 510 nutrition 523 Soviet Union 664 states making transition to 454 work 770 industry biotechnology 376 capitalism 376 colloid chemistry 142, 143 Copenhagen 172 electricity 201 energy physics 213 instrument making 379 international competition 242 Martineau 438 metallurgy 473 microbes 551 modern scientific practice 378 research and development 650 semiconductors 697, 698 solid state physics 697 technology transfer 719-20 universities 738 working habits 726 world standard time 727 inertia 58 Cartesian principle 178 mutual interactions of matter 428 infant mortality 327 infanticide 262 infection body response 256 Pasteur 550 penicillin use 259 infertility 650 industry 649 reproductive medicine 314 infinite / infinite series 684

GENERAL INDEX infinity 115, 685 Hilbert 339 inflation 325 influenza 223 information 375-76 absolute 375 capitalism 376 distributed 375 encyclopedias 208-09 exchange 376 management crisis 80 processing 376 semantic theory 376 transmission in Japan 387 information science 375 information societies 375, 376 information technology skill 688 social relations 376 information theory 71, 375 gaming and mathematics 124 science fiction 673 informational media 376 informed consent 139, 455 Ingold, Christopher 536, 565 inheritance 333 acquired characteristics 504 biological 333, 334 cytoplasmic / chromosomal 291 discontinuous variation 555 healing skills 730 literature 421 theories 291 inks 595, 596 innate capacity 417 innatism 574 innovation 717 corporate business environment 193 dynamics 370 geopolitical approach 72 technological 133, 356 technology transfer 719 innovative brilliance, Chinese failure 133 inoculation 369 inorganic compounds 75 see also chemistry, inorganic inquest system 262 Inquiry into the Nature and Causes of the Wealth of Nations {Smith) 689 insanity 53, 429, 459 defence 262 Eoucault's work 220 Guiteau's plea 460 pathology 602 treatment and conditions 462 women 286 see also madness insects hosts for plague 575 see also Drosophila; entomology; mosquitoes insight 658 instauration 65 great 222 instinct animal 231, 232

biological rhetoric 604 inheritance 422 Lorenz's theory of behaviour 422 instinctive behaviour invariability 232 Institut de France 2 Institute for Advanced Study (Princeton; US) 306, 307, 754 Institute for Serum Testing and Experimental Therapy (Erankfurt) 197 Institute of Physical and Chemical Research (Tokyo) 388 Institute of Physics, University of Rome 255 institutes, Virchow 748, 749 Institution of Electrical Engineers zoo-oi, 205, 251 institutional confinement 54 institutional context, Davy 168 institutional control, body as instrument 90 institutional history 294 geology 297 institutional politics, evolutionary synthesis 241 institutional revolution 568 institutional science 599 institutional structures for study of science 37 institutionalization 32, 33, 697 civil service 479 electrical engineering 687 ethology 422 geography 566 human rights 502 Humboldtian sciences 244 Jesuits 388 music 494 natural rights 502 process in Germany 331 social science 692 Spain 700 toxicology 729 institutions American science 735, 736 Brazil 105, 106 Hale 320 hospitals 351 India 371 National Socialism 723 peer review 637 physical chemistry 565 quantum mechanics research 619 relativity 637 replication 637 Virchow 748 Institutum Geometrico-Hydrotechnicum 360 instrument analysis 227 embodied theory 376-78 instrumental inscriptions 310 instrumentalist realism 94 instrumentalists 496 instrumentality 323 human genome project 353 Japan 385 instrumentation 676 electrical 203 engineering 203

GENERAL INDEX

music 492, 494 nuclear physics 518 particle physics 567 self-registering 310 thermometric 328 instrument makers 303, 378-79 apprenticeship 445 directory 676 France 677, 678 Huygens's relationship 365 musical 495 Rittenhouse 654 ruling gratings 661 Watt 758 instruments 343, 675-77 analytical 126 biochemistry 81 calibration 583 chemical analysis 126 classification 675-76 companies 203 dentistry 173 experimentation 246, 247 experiments 377, 378 France 677-78 hearing 497 Huygens 365 illustration 674 international exhibitions 242 magnetic 43] Marey's cardiology 437 mathematical i i i , 112, 444-45, 676 measuring 449 medical 456-57 meteorological 475-76 museum collections 491 musical 7, 8, 494, 495, 496 navigational 430, 507-08 observing nature 226 oceanography 531, 532 Pasteur 551 physics 247, 377 polar travel 583 precision 379 princely involvement in making 156 public performance 557 of revelation 246 Rockefeller Foundation 655 scholar-craftsman interactions 379 self-recording 310 self-registering 476 speech 497 surgical 709, 710 surveying 507 telescopes 721 see also astronomical instruments; electrical instruments; mathematical instruments; medical instruments; meteorological instruments; navigation, instruments insulating materials 202 insulin 140 Denmark 172 discovery 517 genetically engineered 86 human gene 289

ISLAMIC SCIENCE isolation 110 production 182 X-ray photographs 343 insurance Gauss 281 probability 596 quantification 450, 617 Victorian 478 see also health insurance; life insurance intaglio 595, 596 integers 520 integrating devices i i z integration set theory 684 theory 271 integrators 111 intellective skills 688 intellectual achievement, sexual differences 287 intellectual activity, validation 103 intellectual anarchy 368 intellectual communities 472 intellectual development states 147 intellectual freedom, Accademia dei Lincei 3 intellectual history 294 biochemistry 83 Denmark 172 intellectual property 720 intellectual views of Boyle 103 intellectualism 646 intelligence animal 232 Galton's ideas 278 genetic sex differences in IQ 188 heritability 626 levels and race 6z6 machine simulation 43, 733 Piaget 573 psychology 607, 682 tests 457, 681 racism 626 see also IQ interchangeable parts manufacture 61 interdisciplinarity 177, 178 interest rates 325 internal combustion gas turbines 217 internal environment concept 73-74 internalism versus externalism 380—81 International Gouncil for the Exploration of the Sea (ICES) 532 International Gouncil of Scientific Unions (IGSU) 304 International Electrical Exposition (Paris; 1881) 242 International Electrotechnical Commission (IEG) 705 International Exhibitions 242 International Geophysical Year 383, 584 international organization 381 International Organization for Standards (ISO) 705 International Polar Year 583 international relations 698 International Research Gouncil 320

865

international science 381-83 cooperation 305 Germany 394 International Society of Aesthetic Plastic Surgery 578 International Union of Grystallography 343 International Union of Refrigeration 158 internationalism 342 Interpretation of Dreams (Freud) 269 interpretation of nature, Buffon n o interventionism, state 368 intonation 492, 493 intoxication, biochemistry 183 intraspecific variation 232 Introduction a t'etude de la medicine experimental (Bernard) 74, 245, 570 intuitionism 307, 658 intuitionists 339 Inuit 228, 583, 584 invariance principles 200 inventions / inventors 61 business context 193 collaborative approach 194 Edison 193 industrialization 651 inventors Edison 193 technology transfer 720 women 769 invertebrates comparative anatomy 162 fossils 544 investigation humanists 356 reductionist 652 investment Australian and New Zealand science 60 Denmark 172 involution 133 Ionian philosophers 505 Ionists 565 Iowa Ghild Welfare Research Station 682 Iowa University (US) 682 IQ genetic sex differences 288 testing 90, 381 Iran, cultural contact with Ghina 138 iron alloys 473 industry 485 mill structures 484 technology in Hungary 360 Iroquois 228 irrationality 673 irreversibility 577 irrigation systems in Ghina 132, 133 irritability 671, 752 bodily 78 Irvine 328, 329 Isaacs, Burt and Susan 681-82 Islamic science 642 astronomy 50, 51 comment on Aristotle 644 Spain 699-700

866

ISLAM / ISLAMIC CIVILIZATION

Islam / Islamic civilization 294, 295, 641-43 art and geometrical accomplishments 314 astronomy 49, 50 colleges 36, 37 Darwinism influence 166 decline 37 gardens 96 law 36, 37, 642 mathematics 26, 196, 228 medical schools 731 medicine 463 Mutakallimun thinkers 58 plague 576 prophetic healing 16 scientific innovation 642 Spain 700 spread 35-37 time 728 IS-LM equilibrium graphs 400 isolation of Austalian and New Zealand science 60 isomerism 76 isomers 627 isomorphism 77 isotopes 627 elaboration 518 Israel alienation 27 Italy Black Death 575-76 city states 355, 611 court society 156-57 Eermi 255 Galilean School 680 gardens ^6 Jesuits 388 meteorological instruments 476 Newtonianism 516 particle physics 548 plastic surgery 577 Pythagoreans 612-13 relativity 638 Renaissance court culture 556 science decline 4 Swedish science 711 women in science 767 Ivory Coast 14 Jacob, Eran(;ois 247, 291, 487 Jacob thesis 102, 103 Jacobi, Eriedrich Heinrich 670 Jacobsen, J.C. 172 Jahresberichte (Berzelius) 75, 76 Jainism 731 Jakobson, Roman 414 Jamaica, traditional birth attendant 730 Jameson, Robert 583 Janet, Pierre 602 Japan 385-S6 astronomy 50, 51 atomic bomb 55, 56 botanic gardens ^6 chemical affinity 13 clocks 142 fermentation technology 85

GENERAL INDEX mathematics 682-83 medicine 386-87 numerical system 42 relativity 638 Soddy's research 627 standardization 705 technology 387-88 Japanese Mail Steamship Company 388 Jardin du Roi 489 jargon, medical 616 Java, astronomy 51 jazz piano playing 631 Jefferson, Thomas 735 Jekyll, Gertrude 350 Jena University (Germany) 317 zoology 318 Jenkin, Fleeming 504, 720 Jenner, William 749 Jerne, Niels Kaj 172 Jerusalem, Wilhelm 427 Jesuits 134, 388-89 Canada 113 influence on Galileo 276 magnetism 431 science association 470 Jesuit-Thomist eternalism 468 jet propulsion 217 Jevonian Revolution 585 Jewell, Lewis E. 661 Jewish National Library (Jerusalem) 514 Jewish science, psychoanalysis 269 Jews 90 assimilation into urban bourgeoisie 270 Cantor 116 expulsions from Germany 724 immigration to Germany 510 migration patterns in Europe 270 National Socialism 724 nuclear physicists 518 scientists in Nazi Germany 197 see also Judaism ]io zhang suanshu {Nine Chapters on Mathematical Art) 134 job ethic 771 Joffe, A. 659, 697 Johns Hopkins University (US) 660 Johnstrup, Johannes Erederik 171 joint enterprise, technology transfer 720 Jokyo Reki 683 Joliot-Curie, Erederic 761 Joliot-Curie, Irene 761, 763 Jones, Richard 758 Jones, William 417 Jordan, Camille 313 Jordan, Ernst Pascual 93, 330, 617, 619 Jordanus de Nemore 26, 679 Jorden, Edward 366 Josephson junction 479 Joubert, Laurent 615 Joudain, P.E.B. 684 Joule, James Prescott 211, 212 experimental performance 557 genius 294 mechanical equivalent of heat 212-13, 451

practice 591 steam engines 216 Joule's constant 451 journal des Scavans 390 journal for the History of Astronomy journal of Chemical Education 764 journal of Sex Research 686 journalism Leibniz 411 Martineau 438, 439 popularization of science 587-88 journals 3S9-90 Jousse, Methurin 473 Juan 244 Judaism 486 Ereud 269 Spain 700 von Neumann 510-11 see also Jews Jung, Carl Gustav 24, 391-92 psychoanalysis 604, 606 Junta para Ampliacion de Estudios e Investigaciones Cientificas 700 Jupiter, moons 156 Jupiter-tin-liver 104 juridical-theological space 658 jurisprudence 596 Egyptian 197 medical 262 Mesopotamian 197 Smith 689, 690 Jussieu, Antoine-Laurent de 348 Jussieu, Bernard de 161 justice 455 justification, context of 560 justificatory historiography 724 juxtaposition 63 5

722

Kaempfer, Engelbert 386 Kahlbaum 602 Kaiser-Wilhelm-Gesellschaft zur Eorderung der Wissenchaften 393-95, 569 Kaiser Wilhelm Institut flir Metallforschung 443 Kaiser Wilhelm Institutes 82, 394-95 Berlin 330 Chemistry 393 Fischer 258 Physical Chemistry and Electrical Chemistry 393 Research on Coal 394 see also Max Planck Gesellschaft Kaiserliche Normal-Eichungs-Kommission 568 Kaiserreich 331 Kalman filter 226 Kamakura period 386 Kamal al-Din al Earis 37 Kant, Immanuel 32, 34, 148, 151, 172, 395-96 Enlightenment 220 Goethe's thinking 309 Hayek 325 metaphysics 539 natural law 501 0rsted 539

KUHN

GENERAL INDEX Piaget 574 sociology 695 structure of the universe 336-37 Kantianism, evolutionary 703 Kapitza, Peter 667 Karolinska Institute (Sweden) 516, 517 Katsuyo sampo (Seki) 683 Kauffman, Stewart 124 Kaufmann 588 Kautskyan orthodoxy 440 keepers, zoological gardens 98 Keilmayer 6 7 : Kekule, Eriedrich August 6^, 535, 743 Kelvin, Lord see Thomson, William (Lord Kelvin) Kendrew, John Cowdery 343, 487 Kennix, Margaret 615-16 Kent, William 350 Kenya, astronomy 50 Kepler, Johannes 47, 396-99 astronomy 49 books 635 Copernican revolution 151 harmony 492-93 music and science 492 Newtonian physics 513 optics 534 planetary system 647 presuppositions 722 theology and religion 645 Tycho Brahe's meeting 104 Kepler's laws 178 Kevlar 579 Kew Botanic Gardens (England) 97, 100 Hooker 348, 349 Kew Observatory (England) 107 Keynes, John Maynard 247, 342, 399-400 economists 433 macroeconomics 325 Marshall 438 Keynesian revolution 324 Khinchin, Alexander Yakovlevich 596 khi-zero-satisfiable formula 306 Khrushchev, Nikita 426, 440 Kielmeyer, K.E. 657 Kierkegaard, Soren 600 kinematics 638 Napier's methods 499-500 kinetic theory 216, 328, 565 kinetic theory of gases 59, 328 astrophysics 52 Boltzmann 94 Kingdon, William Clifford 704 Kingo, Thomas 172 king's foot 479 kingship 155 Kinsey, Alfred C. 241 kinship 414 Kircher, Athanasius 388, 389, 496 celestial organ of Creation 496 Kirchhoff, Gustav Robert 427, 701 Kirchhoff's law 621 Kirkdale Cavern, bone-filled 108 Kirwan, Richard 297, 671 Kitdb al-Manazir (Ibn al-Haytham) 37 Kitasato, Shibasaburo 72, 385

Klein, Eelix 300, 339, 446 Klein, Melanie 400—01, 604 Kleist, Heinrich von 658 Kluyver, Albert J. 67 Knorr food products company 416 knots, string 42 knowledge abstract 689 academic 692 anthropology 276 archaeology of 715 artisanal 268 authority 694 bacteriological 224 Chinese medicine 386 colonial India 371 communications 268, 390 constitution 390 contraception 87 corpus 230 credibility 694 deep 749 dissemination by Royal Institution 661 economies 375 emotional 72 experimental 4 exploitation of biological 488 farming 132 forensic medicine 262 gender 286 gender analysis 285 general theory 753 generation 228, 247 geographical exploration 222 Hayek 325 indigenous 584, 762 institutionalization 228, 463 Kant 395 Leonardo da Vinci 412 limits 401 local 32

mapping 376 mathematics in acquisition 613 medical 351 natural 635-36, 6^6 natural law 502 negative 123 non-dogmatic 3 objective 310, 574 ownership 584 Plato 579 political power relationship 3 power 401-03 professional 352 psychoanalytic accounts 285 public 610 immune system 370 quantitative 450 rational 439 rational growth 547 relational 368 Rockefeller Eoundation 655 scientific genius 293 situated 284 social and cultural knowledge 368 social construction 278, 420

867

social forms of making 247 social structure 402 sociology 250, 280, 368, 457, 561, 588, 603, 653, 695, 696 specialization 458 systems 230 tacit 325, 688, 723 transfer 719 translation role 417 transmission 176, 228 Japan 387 unconscious 72 understanding 376 unity I I , 440 validation 65-66 Western medicine 386 work 771 see also indigenous knowledge knowledge-based networks 383 Knox, Robert 272 Koch, Robert 67, 256, 403-04, 732, 747 tuberculosis bacillus 732 Koch's postulates 404 Koelreuter 465 Kohlrausch, Friedrich 227, 451 Kohut, Heinz 604 Kolbe, Hermann 535 Kolmogorov, Andrei 596 Konig 685 Konigsberg University 423 Koninklijke Shell 509 Koppen, Friedrich 671 Korea, astronomy 50 Korean war 533 Kosmos (Humboldt) 357, 358, 359 Kossel-Sommerfeld theory of X-ray spectra 618, 622 Kotelnikov 666 Kovalevsky, Sonya 124 Kovel, Joel 604 Koyre, Alexander 380, 398 Kpelle people 228 Kraepelin, Emil 602 Kraft 211 Kramers 620 Kratzenstein, Christian Gottlieb 172 Krebs, Hans 82 cellular metabolism 652-53 Krishnan, K.S. 629 krisis 340 Kronecker, Leopold 115, 116, 339 Kronig 596 Kropotkin, Peter 566 Kroyer, Peder Severin 172 Krug, Wilhelm Traugott 671 Kruid, Paul de 369 Krupp industrial research establishment 443 Kruyt, Hugo 143 Kublai Khan 97 Kuhn, Thomas 32, 149, 279, 370 American science 736 geography 566 internalism-externalism debate 380 model of scientific paradigms 312 philosophy of science 560

868

KUHN

quantification 616 sociology of science 312 Kuhnian revolution 325 Kultukainpf 748 Kummer, Ernst Eduard 511 Kwakiutl ethnographic materials 89 kymograph 245 laboratories apparatus 281, 551, 572 doctors 550 German physiology 572 instruments 676 international 382, 569 medical instruments 457 particle physics 548, 549 Pasteur 550, 551, 611 physical 660 practice 591 prestige 718 Royal Institution 662 school practice 681 sociology 696 technicians 552 travelling 244 Victorian practice 478 laboratory animals, experimental physiology laboratory medicine 181, 344, 352 Germany 572 revolution 35 laboratory notebook Faraday 251, 252 Lavoisier 409 Laboratory of the Government Chemist (Britain) 130 laboratory science Japan 386 nutrition 523 pharmacology 558, 559 physiology 245 Virchow 749 labour 326 corporate science 118 division 387, 599 efficiency and nutrition science 523 energy expenditure 770 force academic 176 casualization 170 free 118 health 17 intellectual 771 manual 770 market 688 Marx 117 nursing 521, 522 oxygen supply 528 politics 268 productivity in China 133 surgery 710 synchronization 726 women 769 see also employment; slavery labour, birth attendants 730 Lacan, Jacques 116, 604, 605, 607

GENERAL INDEX La Condamine, Charles-Marie de 226, 244 la Cour, Poul 760 lactic acid 85 Laennec, Renee T.H. 139 Lagrange, Joseph Louis 226, 254, 520 anthyphairetic ratio theory 579 general formulae 633 rational mechanics 633 Whewell's views 759 Laguna, Andres de 30, 745 Lakatos, Imre geography 566 sociology of science 312 Lake Placid Conference 345-46 Lalande, Jerome de 761 Lamarck, Jean Baptiste 108, 333 biological imperative 610-11 European science 489 Lyell's exposition 425 Lamarckism 32, 238, 239 England 610 Morganism clash 426 Piaget 573 race 625 Spencer 504, 702 see also neo-Lamarckism Lambert, Johann Heinrich 226,328 structure of the universe 336-37 Lancet (journal) 616 land enclosure 583 land use and health 17 landlordism, China 132 landowners, China 133 landscape, art 674 landscape gardening 350 Landsteiner, Karl 369 Langevin, Paul 160 Langmuir, Irving 743 Langton, Christopher 124 language 17, 416 American Indian 89 anti-essentialist universal schemes 468 Bateson 71 Boas 89 botany 243-44 chemical 131 child 10 Chinese 132, 134 classification 88 de-figuralization of scientific 475 Foucault 263 genealogy 263 instrumentalistic theory 588 knowledge 715 Linnaeus 419 Mersenne 468 Mill 482 pain 543, 544 philosophers 420 philosophy 263, 588 physical chemistry 565 production by independent self 285 rhetoric 653 time 728 universal 389, 540

visual 674 Vygotskian model 653 Whewell 758-59 L'Anne sociologique (journal) 185 La Perouse 243 Laplace, Pierre Simon 74, 226, 227, 706 astronomy 337 caloric theory 328 probability 596 psychophysics 609 Volta 753 Lappland, survey expeditions 226 Large Hadron Collider, ATI AS (CERN) 123 Larmor, Joseph 11,449 lasers building 6^6 development 591 technology 247 Lassa fever 750 Lasswell, Harold 723 Last Supper (Leonardo da Vinci) 411 latent heat 328 Latin culture in Sweden 711 language 419 plant nomenclature in Chinese medicine 183 Latin America 405-06 colonialism 144 eugenics 236 religion 731 Rockefeller Foundation 656 traditional birth attendants 730 yellow fever 656 Latin American Society for the History of Science and Technology (SLHCT) 405 latitude, geographical 44 La Touche, C.J. 259 lattice theory 755 Laue, Max von 406-07, 637 Laurent, Auguste 76, 77, 743 Laval, Carl Gustav De 216 Laveran, Charles 432 Lavoisier, Antoine Laurent 55, 75, 407-09 animal heat 652 caloric theory 328, 329 chemical analysis 126 chemical revolution 127-28, 178, 220 entrepreneurial role 129 gunpowder 130 influence on Berzelius 76 on Harvey 323 on Hungarian chemistry 360 influences 130 journal 130 new chemistry 129 oxygen discovery 661) phlogistic chemistry 128-29 phlogiston theory rejection 561 precision measurement 478 Priestley 594 profession 282 respiration 652-53 Schelling 671

GENERAL INDEX scientific practice 128 Volta 753 law Dee 169 Islamic 36, 37, 642 medicine 459-61 Pastorian revolution 551 professionalization 598 Romantic institutions 658 time 728 Western 37 see also legal entries; legislation; medicolegal entries Lawrence, Ernest Orlando 409-10, 533 Lawrence, William 333 Lawrence Berkeley Laboratory (US) 549 Lazarsfeld, Paul 616 laziness 327 lead, atomic weight 627 leadership, research groups 82 leaflets 616 League of Nations' Committee of International Intellectual Cooperation 3°5 Leakey, Louis 593 Leaning Tower (Pisa) 275, 276 Lear, Edward 538 learned behaviour 10 learning gender differences in styles 285 humanists 356 neurosciences 512 Thorndike's laws 681, 682 learning theory 681 situated 688 least action, principle of 447 least squares method 84, 226, 227, 281 LeBel,J.A. 69,743 Lebensraum 724 Lebesgue, Henri Leon 684 Lebesgue integral 684 Lecons d'anatomie comparee (Cuvier) 161 LED display 204 Lederberg, Joshua 723 Leeuwenhoek, Anton van 481 microscope 485-86 legal autonomy, Europe 642 legal concepts 502 legal medicine 262 legal practice 629 legal requirements, industrial toxicology 728 legal systems, fertility control 87 Legend 250 Legendre, A.M. 226, 520 anthyphairetic ratio theory 579 legislation dentistry 173 eugenic 234 industrial use of chemicals 182 medico-legal 262 racial 255 telegraphy 720 see also law; legislation; medico-legal entries legitimation of science 758, 759

LIGHT Le Guin, Ursula 673 Lehrbuch der Chemie (Berzelius) 76 Leibniz, Gottfried Wilhelm 54, 410—11 atomism 58 calculating devices i i i dispute with Newton 514 Kant 395 language 417 rationalism 631 space 58 thinking method 218 void space 742 Leiden University (Holland) 509 Leighton, Ralph 257 Leipzig University (Germany) Heisenberg 3 29 physiology research 245 leisure facilities for employees 687 time 770 Leitfaden der praktischen Physik (Kohlrausch) 227 Leitsungen der deutschen Frau (Oelsner) 761 Leland, Henry 61 Lemaitre, George 78-79 Lenin, Vladimir Ilyich 665 Leningrad physics research school 697 Leninism 553 Lenoir, Etienne 379, 677 lenses achromatic 267, 268, 701, 721 formation 208 Eraunhofer's 268 Leonardo da Vinci 4 1 , 411-13 Leopold de' Medici, Prince 274 Leopoldo, Prince 4 Lepekhin 666 lepers 461 lepra bacilli 67 Le Regne animate (Cuvier) 161 LeRoy, Eduard 580, 581, 588, 671 Lesage 671 Letter to Samuel Whitbread on the Poor Laws (Malthus) 434 letterpress printing 595, 596 Letters on the Laws of Man's Nature and Development (Martineau) 439 Leucippus 54 atomism 57 Levi-Strauss, Claude 413-14 Lewes, George Henry 589 Lewin, Louis 729 Lewis, Gilbert Newton 565, 743 Lewis, Thomas 139 Lexicon Technicum (Harris) 209 Lexis, W.H. 596, 706 Leyden jars 202, 204, 280 // 134 Libavius, Andreas 474-75 liberalism 11 classical 325 cosmopolitan 358 gender studies of science 284 medical ethics 455 paternalistic 502

Protestant 640 Virchow 748, 749 liberalization 272 liberation, rhetoric 264 liberty 395 Liberty and Defence of Property League 702 libido theory 603, 604 library Dee 169 map 121 Russian Academy of Sciences 666 Library of Congress (US) 691 Libri Mysteriorum (Dee) 169 licensing, medical 347 lichen 186 Lie, Sophus 313 Lie groups 313, 314 Liebig, Justus von 21, 22, 6^, 211, 414-16 animal chemistry 81 Berzelius' correspondence 76 chemical analysis 126 chemical combination 743 force 212 research laboratories 194 lie-detection 262 life biochemistry 81 expectancy 326 nature of 752 life force experiments 486 life forms, geographical patterns 222 life insurance probability 596 statistics 707 life sciences 221 Academie de Sciences 1-2 animal electricity 279 Latin America 406 Maupertuis 447 Soviet Union 175 standardization 705-06 women 764-65 lifestyle 10 factors for cancer 114 lifts, powered 217 ligatures 709 light constancy of velocity in vacuum 428 electromagnetic theory 206, 448 Hooke 494 Huygens's theory of 364 monochromatic source 701 nature of 277 Newton 494, 513 particle models 623 periodicity 534 propagation 534 properties 200 quanta 618, 623 quantization 200 quantum theory 618 ray bending 638 rectilinear propagation 364 reflection 674

869

870

LIGHT

Structure 725 velocity 480 wave models 623 work ethic in research 478 light waves electric wave equivalence 338 Huygens 364 lighthouses 205 lighting industry 621 Netherlands 510 lightning conductors 204-05 Hungary 359 Lilienfield, Abraham 140, 141 Lillie, Frank 207 Lilly, John C. 71 limitation of size theories 684 limnology 192 Lind, James 139, 140 Lindbergh, Charles 691 Linde, Andrei 79 Linde, Carl von 158 Lindman, C. 418 line spectra 701 linene industry 485 line-testing equipment 203 linguistics 3 1 0 , 3 5 4 , 4 1 6 - 1 7 cognitive science 486 dialectical materialism 175 France 705 Hindu 371 ideology and science 368 innovation 354 metaphors from Bach and Escher's work 306 neuroscience 511 origins 705 structural 414 themata 723 Linnaean Society (London) l o i , 418 Linnaean taxonomy, gender inequalities 284 Linnaeus, Carl 3 3 , 9 9 , 4 1 7 - 1 9 , 7 1 1 classification 207 plant breeding 465 plant hybridization 333 sexual system 715 lip flaps 577 lipids 258 Lipmann, Fritz 82 liquors, distilled 728 Lister, Joseph 419-20 surgical revolution 710 literacy 417 development 312 Hippocratic medicine 340 literary constitution of knowledge 653 literary criticism 420-21 meaning of society for man 354 themata 723 literary culture 648 elite 155 Newtonianism 516 literary revolution in Germany 657 literary studies in Enlightenment 220 literary texts, Ereud's writings 270

GENERAL INDEX literate civilizations, archaeology 38 literature 420-22 adventure 286 children's 764 Darwinism influence 166 Dee 169 degeneration 170 Denmark 172 didactic 438 early Victorian 759 Einstein 200 energy 213 Enlightenment 220 Mach 428 Malthus 433 Martineau 439 positivism 589 science relationship 300 time 728 time-sense 727 world standard time 727 see also novels lithographs 595, 596, 675 maps 122 lithography 538, 596 lithotomy 709 litigation 460 liver function 73 livestock 35, 747 living form 753 living standards 326 Livy 39 lizard tail regeneration 208 Lobachevskii, Nikolai 271, 299 local knowledge 32 locating, common mathematical activity 228 Locke, John 742 capitalism 585 Kant 395 linguistics 417 natural law 502 sensationalism 495 Whewell 759 Locke, Joseph 293 locks 453 Lockyer, Norman 53, 390, 701 Lodge, Oliver n , 206, 449 Logan, William 113 logarithmic slide rules 111 logarithmic tables 146 logarithms 42-43, 146 Napier 499-500 logic applied 727 Arabic 230 Bacon 66 Frege 684 Galen 273 Galileo 276 Godel 306 Hilbert 339 intuitionistic 307 knowledge systems 230 mathematical 305, 307, 588 mathematization of economic theory 585

metaphors from Bach and Escher's work 306 Mill 482 natural law 502 new 588 Pasteur 550 Piaget 574 proof of completeness of elementary 307 Ramist 65 of relations for traditional peoples 228 scientific discovery 156 Smith 689 sub-Saharan Africa 14 traditional 65 von Neumann 754 logical empiricism 178, 588 logical parsimony 722 logical positivism 177, 232, 249, 560 Poincare 581 logicism, Russell 684 La Logique, ou L'Art de Penser (Arnaud &c Nicole) 596 logistic, Plato's mathematics curriculum 233 Logo Project 43 logocentrism 220 Lombosianism 607 London centralization 107 East End 170 London, Eritz and Heinz 158 London, E.W. 743 London School of Hygiene and Tropical Medicine 225 London Veterinary College 746 London-Manchester school of theoretical organic chemistry 565 long-chain molecules 292 longevity promotion, Chinese medicine 136 longitude computation 51 Huygens 365 navigation 142 perturbations in movement of moon 227 polar travel 582-83 Longomontanus 134 Lonnberg, Einar 418 Lononosov, M.V. 666 Lonsdale, Kathleen 629 Lorentz, Hendrik Antoon 11, 55, 622 electron theory 637, 701 relativity 637 Lorentz-Eitzgerald transformation equations 637 Lorenz, Konrad 231, 232, 422-23 Los Alamos (New Mexico; USA) 55, 56 Eermi 255 Eeynman 257 fusion group 353 high-energy physics 567 thermonuclear blast 533 Lotus cars 61 Loudon, Jane Webb 764 Louis, Pierre 139, 225 Louis Napoleon, Emperor 74 Louis, P.C.A. 140 Louis XIV (King of Erance) i, 121

GENERAL INDEX love Bateson's concept 72 Plato 579 Lovell, Bernard 699 low temperature phenomena 565 Lowenberg, Julius 357 Lowenheim-Skolem theorem 306 Lower, Richard 245, 712 Lubbock, John 349 Lucas, George 672 Luckmann, Thomas 695 Lucretius 54 Ludovico Sforza 411 Ludwig, Carl 245, 310, 572 Lukas, Gyorgy 440 lumber trade 479 luminiferous aether, stagnant 11 luminous intensity standards 621 lunar calendar, Islam 642 Lunar Society 594 lunar theory 398 lunatic asylums 53-54 Lund, Peter Wilhelm 171 Lund University (Sweden) 711 lung cancer cigarette smoking 225 uranium miners 114 lung-dust disease 114 Luria, S.E. 749 lute 493, 494 Luther, Martin 309, 415, 771 Lutheran Formula of Concord 398 luxury 717 Lyell, Charles 18, 108, 423-25 antiquity of man 363 correspondence with Forchhammer 171 environmental sciences 222 geology 297, 727 uniformitarian geology 296, 297, 545 Lysenko, Trofim Denisovich 175, 425-26, 665 genetics 441 pseudo-genetics 440 lysozyme 259 Lytton, Edward Bulwer 672 McCarthy, John 43 McCarthyism 409-10, 533 Einstein's response 199 McClintock, Barbara 487, 737, 764, 765 McCormick factories 717 MacCullagh, Louis 11 McGill University (Montreal) 667, 668 Mach, Ernst 199, 213, 427-28 empirio-criticism 588 Eechner influence 609 Pearson 555 Planck 576 positivism 589 relativity 637 Machado, Antonio 700 machine tools 484 development 717 machinery Italy 648 Netherlands 510

MAN machines access to 285 artisan replacement 268 dominance 454 electrical engineering 201 engines of change 452 frictional 202 intelligence 733 Leonardo da Vinci 412 production 717 skilled labour replacement 453 Mcllroy, Anne Louise 528 Mack, Pamela E. 762-63 Mackenzie, George 583 McKeown, Thomas 732 MacLeod, J.J.R. 517 McLuhan, Marshall 417 MacMichael, Harold 236 McMillan, E.M. 409 McNaughton, A.G.L. 113 Macquer, Pierre 12 macroeconomics 325 development 438 macroevolution 241 macromolecules 81 concept 143 macroparasitism 224 madder plant 187 madhouses 658 madness 220, 429, 658 control 429 Foucault 263-64 women 286 see atso insanity Madness and Civitization (Eoucault) 264 madrasas 36, 37, 642 magazines, science fiction 672 Magellan, Ferdinand 566 Magendie, Erangois 73, 245, 543, 570 physiology 570 magic 529 animal healing 746 Azande 373 Bacon's sources 65 China 135 decline 531 Dee 169 drugs 181 Egyptian medicine 196 electricity 267 health and disease 462 herbals 333 heritage 531 Hermeticism 335, 336 Jesuit 389 late Renaissance 3 medicine 313 Paracelsus 546 squares 14 status at court 156 Magic Flute (Mozart) 495 magical arts 46 astrology 47 magical galvanism 657 magical traditions 529

871

magnetic curves 247 magnetic deflection 725 magnetic dynamics 304 magnetic fields in polar regions 582 magnetic inclination 303 magnetic phenomena 431, 657 magnetic polarity-reversal time-scale 149 magnetic research, low temperature 158 magnetic resonance imaging 629 magnetical speculation of Kepler 398 magnetism 430-31 Canada 113 dynamical interdependence with electricity 448 experimentation 246 Geneva School 589 Gilbert 303 Halley 321 instrument analysis 227 palaeomagnetism 149 Schelling 671 solid state theory 697 soul of earth 303 terrestrial 281, 303, 357, 431 magnetoelectricity 539 magneto-electrometer 451 magnetometer. Gauss 281 magnets 430 magus 156 Mahler, Margaret 604 Mailer, Norman 578 Maimonides 207 Malacarne, Vincenzo 564 malaria 431-32 male bond, Accademia dei Lincei 3 male dominance 421 Malebranche, Nicolas 121 Malekula people 228 Mali 14 Malinowski, Bronistaw 32, 236, 237 Mallon, Mary 460 malnutrition resource diversion 285 see also famine Malpighi, Marcello 29, 712 influence on Harvey 323 Maltby, Margaret 767 Malthus, Thomas 432-33, 434, 483, 583 political economy 585 population expansion 504 Malthusian League 434-35 Malthusianism 433-35 Malting House School (Cambridge) 682 Mamluk astronomy 37 Mammalia 284 mammals behaviour 232 marine 583 mammaplasty 578 mammography 629 man antiquity 363 concept of 354 the hunter 288

872.

MAN AND THE BIOSPHERE PROGRAMME

Man and the Biosphere programme 305 management 435 education 436 housework 771 military 435, 436 natural resources 373 personnel 436 programme 436 sciences 435-36 scientific 118 Siemens 687 skills 688 systems 436 task 436 technological 717 time 728 work 770 managerial initiatives 687 Mandeville, Bernard 220 Manguihos Institute, Brazil 105, 106 Manhattan Project 56 Big Science 80 metaphor 474 Oppenheimer 533 research and development 651 manhood 288 ideals 718 manic depression 115 Cantor 116 mankind, intellectual stages 642 man-midwives 761, 769 Mann, Thomas 294 Mannheim, Karl 588, 695, 696 Mannheim's Paradox 368 manometers 310 Warburg 82 Manson, Patrick 432 Manuel of the Steam Engine and Other Prime Movers (Rankine) 216 manufacturing Banks 71 cultural prejudice 215 enterprises 718 jobs 687 strategies in dye industry 187 technology transfer 720 manuscripts. Banks 70 Maori people 675 astronomy 50 mathematics 228 Maplecroft, John 712 mapmaking 121, 122, 566 mapping 599 cadastral 633 France 226 polar regions 583 maps antique 121 Halley's expeditions 322 libraries 121 printing 596 Russian Academy of Sciences 666 thematic 322 topographical 268 trade 121 Maragha school 36

Marafion, Gregorio 700 Marburg disease 750 March, James 671 Marchetti 274 Marco Polo 97, 559 Marconi, Guglielmo 718 Marey, fitienne-Jules 310-11, 436-37 photography 563 physiology 570 marginal productivity 437 Marie, Mileva 199, 761 marihuana 183 marine ecology 192 marine mammals 583 marine production 531 marine science 531 mariners, astrolabe 46 Mariotte, Edme 742 maritime expeditions, Halley 321-22 maritime trade in dyestuffs 186 marketing of automobiles 61 market-orientation of Chinese farmers 133 markets access in China 133 mechanisms 585, 689 world 601 Markov, A.A. 521 Marquez, Garcia 406 Mars 398 Marsh, Othniel Charles 222 Marshall, Alfred 437-38, 483 political economy 585 Marshall plan 453 Marsilio, Ficino 335 Martin, Benjamin 379 Martin, H. Newall 245 Martineau, Harriet 438-39, 589 Martini, Franceso di Giorgio 412 Marvel, Speed 579 Marx, Karl 27, 28, 439-41 Asiatic Mode of Production 294 capitalism 117 free-enterprise individualism 238 geography influence 566 knowledge and power 402 Levi-Strauss 414 Malthus 433 mechanization 453 political economy 585 sociology 695 survival of the fittest concept 504 technology 452 Marxism 342, 441-42 ideology 3 67 Lysenko 426 materialist doctrines 590 philosophy 175, 664 skills 689 Soviet Union 664 work 771 Marxist history of science 72 Boltzmann 95 Virchow 748 masculinity 10, 288, 686 anatomical illustrators 287

GENERAL INDEX feminist critiques 286 fragility 286 Masonic lodges 219 Masonic works 495 mass action, law of 75 mass destruction legitimization 72 mass phenomena in mathematics 596 mass production 118 Massa, Niccolo 30, 745 Massachusetts Institute of Technology (MIT) (US) 697 massage, Japan 387 Massieu, Francois 743 mass-market creation 61 mass-production techniques 61, 454 master molecules 284 Master of the Mint, Newton 514 Materia Medica (Dioscorides) 559 Material Basis of Evolution (Goldschmidt; 1940) 241 material factor 118 materialism 11, 13, 610-11 anatomical discoveries 486 Bacon 66 Cantor 116 cultural 31 dialectical 72, 175-76, 440, 441, 664, 665 Enlightenment 334 erosion of synthesis 704 Haeckel 317 historical 440 Marxist 590 medical 365 mind 485 natural selection 503 Planck 576 Priestley 594 progressive 652 reductionist 440 Romanticism in Britain 658 Soviet Union 664, 665 vitalist 748 materials fatigue, railways 727 materials science 442-44, 567 Netherlands 509 maternal effects 290 maternal mortality 528-29 mathematical analysis 633 mathematical calculation 478 mathematical complexity, Pearson 278 mathematical ideal 521 mathematical instruments i i i , 112, 444-45, 676 mathematical models ecology 191-92 Mersenne 120 natural populations 240 population variation 240 mathematical modernity 445-47 mathematical notation 499 Mathematical Papers (Newton) 513 mathematical sciences, colonialism 144 mathematical statistics 83-84 mathematical tables 146, 147, 451 mathematical texts, Chinese 134

GENERAL INDEX Mathematicatt Praeface (Dee) 169 mathematics 342 acoustics 8 American women 736, 737 ancient civilizations 230 ancient Greece 311, 312 antiquity 311 applied 169, 313, 581, 707 Arabic 36 astrology 47 astronomy 51 axioms 63 Babylonian 196 Bourbakist idea 446 Cantor 115-17 chaos theory 124 chemistry 13 China 133-35 Chinese attitudes 132 classification of problems 196 consistency 307-08 constructions 521 Copernicus 153 court society 156 cultural modernity 445 Dee 169 Descartes 174, 175 divisions 42 Duhem 183-84 economics 585 education 228 Egyptian 196, 197 Einstein 200 ethnomethodology 631 ethnoscience 230 experimental thinking 521 Earaday 253 Fermat 253-54 function 270-71 Galilean 274, 276 games 14 gaming relationship 124 Gauss 281 Germany 637 Godel 305-08 Greek 26, 233, 276, 579 Helmholtz 331, 332 Hilbert 339 Hindu 371 humanists 40, 356 Humboldt's 357 Hungary 360 Huygens 364, 365 incompletability 307 India 370 instrument makers 379 internal differentiation 446 Islamic 26, 196 Japan 682-83 Jesuits 388 Laplace 633 Leibniz 411 Leonardo da Vinci 411, 412 mass phenomena 596 meaning and form 306 Mesopotamian 196, 197

MEASUREMENT metamathematics 446 military 228 Mill 482 modern 339 Monge 488-89 music 492, 495 Napier 499-500 National Socialism 723 New 26 curriculum 228 Newton 513, 514, 515 objectivity 526 ontological revolution 521 ontology 446 physical chemistry 565 Plato 580 curriculum 233 Poincare 580, 581 practice-ladenness 591 pre-Greek 196 princely involvement 156 probability 596 professionalization 446 pure 124, 281, 313, 446, 581, 754 Pythagoreans 612 sand drawing 14 scientific expeditions 243 Seki 682-83 Smithsonian Institution 690 sociomathematics in Africa 228 Spain 700 status at court 156 study of nature 679 sub-Saharan Africa 13-14 Sumero-Babylonian 228 time 728 traditional peoples 228 Turing 733 Victorian language 11 von Neumann 754-55 war 446 Wasan school 682 women 767 work 771 see atso algebra; arithmetic; calculus; ethnomathematics; geometry; logic; set theory; statistics; trigonometry mathematization, quantification 616 mating 284 matrix formulation 619 manufacture 595, 596 mathematical equivalence 617 mechanics 329, 618, 619 matter 58 Boyle's theory 102 corpuscular theories 58-59 denunciation of Galileo's theory 276 differentiation of inert and animate 207 dynamical theory 396 Herschel's theory 337 Kant 395, 396 Marx 440 material 578 nature of 752 Newtonian view 58, 91

873

photography 563 structure 76 substrate 392 theory 11 Huygens 364 vortex-sponge 11, 12 Matthew, William Diller 545 maturation, individual 601 Maudsley, Henry 602 Maudsley Hospital (London) 602 Maupertuis, Pierre-Louis Moreau de 333, 447-48, 633 curvature of earth 451 Lapland voyage 582 Maurolico 40 Mauss, Marcel 414, 631 Mawangdui tomb (China), medical manuscripts 135 Max Planck Gesellschaft 82 Fischer 258 Max Planck Society for Promotion of the Sciences 393 Maxam, Allan Marshall 353 maximum likelihood principle 227 Maxwell, James Clerk i i , 205, 206, 448-49 electromagnetism 206, 539 equations 206, 637 genius 294 instruments 676-77 metrology 478 objectivity 525 observation-theory dichotomy 527 probability 596 Rontgen current 659 statistical physics 623 void space 742 Maxwell, Martha 764 Maya (Central America) astronomy 50 mathematical ideas 229 numerical system 42 time 728 Mayer, Robert 211, 212, 415 energy conservation 212 Mayer, Tobias 227 Mayhew, Henry 170 Mayo, Elton 435-36 Mayow, John 245 Mayr, Ernst 538 Mead, Margaret 32, 71, 765 measles 223, 224 Japan 386 measure Borel's theory 684 Radon's extension 684 theoretic probabilities 596 measurement 449-52 blood pressure 710 British units 478 conduct of work 590 cultural aspects 229 cultural presuppositions 450 current 202 epistemological functions 450 error 226

874

GENERAL INDEX

MEASUREMENT

Germany 301 graphical method 310 Impersonal 450 instruments 676 meteorology 477 probability 596 quantification 616 standards 478 sub-Saharan Africa 14 terrestrial magnetism 281 theory 617 time 7z8 units 5 von Neumann's theory 754, 755 work 770 see also metrology; precision measurement measuring common mathematical activity 2z8 devices 676 meat trade 479 Mecca, direction 51, 642 mechanical aethers 11 mechanical effect 770 mechanical engineering 310 Canada 113 professionalization 214 mechanical laws 637 mechanical mode of scientific explanation 121

mechanical models, aether 11-12 mechanical objectivity, theory of errors zz6 mechanical output 770 mechanical philosophy 58, 219 Boyle 102 mechanical properties 697 mechanical reasoning 306 mechanical theory 59 mechanicians, ancient 741 mechanicists 219 mechanics 14, 212 astrophysics 52 celestial 633 Einstein 199 Galileo 276 Huygens 364 Kant 395 Lagrangian 213 Leonardo da Vinci 412 matrix 329 Maupertuis 447 Mersenne 493 Newtonian 213, 516 precision 141 rational 213, 632-33 statistical 94, 200, 565 sub-Saharan Africa 14 see also quantum mechanics Mechanics, Molecular Physics, Heat and Sound (Millikan) 483 mechanism 11, 13, 753 Gartesian 12, 121 Descartes 174 Epicurean 120 Germany 302 Kant 396 materialist 495

Mersenne 468 motion of heart 323 Ostwald 540 reductionist investigations 652 Virchow 748 Weismann 753 mechanistic science. Romanticism 658 mechanist-vitalist debate 752 mechanization 452-54, 717 women 769 Mechnikov, Ilya 517 Meckel, Johann Friedrich 272 media 587-88 AIDS 23, 587 genetics 292 popularization of science 587-88 science relationship 80 median 83 Medical Act (UK; 1858) 461, 616 medical care hospitals 351 nationalization 454 medical data tabulation 457 medical diagnosis electrical instrumentation 203 X-rays 659 medical doctrine of Paracelsus 545 medical dyad 455 medical education complementary medicine 145 reforms in America 245 medical ethics 313, 454-56 medical innovations of Boerhaave 91 medical inspections in schools 680 medical institutions. Romanticism 658 medical instruments 456-57 medical interests of Accademia dei Lincei 3 medical jurisprudence 262 medical knowledge, transvaluation 544 medical law 455 medical malpractice 460 medical movements 347 medical phenomenology in Ghina 137 medical police 262 medical practice 752 medical practitioners, itinerant 615 medical profession 463 unification 145 Medical Research Gouncil 139 Statistical Gommittee 140 Therapeutic Trials Gommittee 140 medical schools control 347 hospital-based 351 medical science 671 medical sociology 327 medical specialization 457-59 medical statistics 140 medical systems analysis 9 medical teaching, botany i o i medical technology 181 women 768, 769 medical theory professoriate 658 medications, classification 182 Medicean stars 556

Medici cultural policy 4 patronage 274 Medician stars 156 medicinal plants 96, 97, 182 medicine acupuncture 8-9 Agricola 20 allopathic 347 ancient 312 ancient Greece 312 animal electricity 279 apprenticeship 713 Arabic 36, 37, 463 astrology 47 Bichat 77-78 biology 457 Boerhaave 91 Boyle 103 chemistry 546 Ghina 135-37 Ghinese 132, 386 Ghristian belief 644 clinical 712 colloid chemistry 142, 143 cultural hegemony 366 Darwinian 256 Davy 168 decision making 461 Dee 169 degeneration 170 dentistry 173 depersonalization 344 Descartes 175 disease and health 461-62 drug therapy 559 Egyptian 196, 197 empiricism 347 epistemology 752 experimental 342 physiology 245 folk 313, 729-31 France 571 fringe 472 Germany 302 Greece 312-13 health inequalities 326 Helmholtz 331 heroic 347 heterodoxy 704 Hippocratic 312-13, 340 holistic 344-45 Hungarian 359 iatrogenic dangers 344 India 370, 371-7^ indigenous 372 induction coil 678 industrial 765 institutionalization of knowledge 463 internal 459 inter-professional care 344 Islamic 463 Japan 386-87 Jerne 172 law 459-61 lay 615, 616

GENERAL INDEX learned 615 Liebig 415 male-domination of profession 769 Martineau 439 medieval 461 medieval science 463 Mesopotamian 196, 197 missionaries 16 moral science 570 Nobel prize 517 nuclear 628 occupational diversity 458 opium use 728 orthodox 145, 472 pain 543-44 papyrus 709 Paracelsus 546 photography 563 physiological 564 plague in Near East 576 plastics use 578 pre-Columbian 229, 406 pre-Socratic 313 preventive 611 primitive in Africa 15, 16 professionalization 87, 461, 462, 598, 616, 710 rational 313 rationalism 347 regulation of practice 615 reproductive 314, 649-50 response to Black Death 575-76 Rockefeller Eoundation 655 Romanticism 658 scientific 270, 749 scientific research 550 social 327, 510, 748 social history 462 Spain 700 state 710 statistics 84 Sweden 76 technical control 352 time 728 unorthodox 145, 146 US 655 Western 386 women 736, 765-66 see also hospital medicine; hospitals; laboratory medicine; traditional medicine; venereal diseases medicines patent 731 side-effects 729 toxic side-effects 728 medico-legal culture 460 medico-legal history 261 medico-legal issues 30 medico-legal legislation 262 medico-legal practice 262 post-mortems 262, 552 power relations 262 medico-moral politics 744 medieval science 312 Duhem 184 medicine 463

METAPHYSICS methodology 246 space 742 vacuum 742 meditation, Chinese medicine 136 Meditations on First Philosophy (Descartes) 120 mediums 703 female 704 Medline 327 Meiji Restoration 385 Meitner, Lise 319-20, 464-65, 767 Melanchthonian thought 105 Meltzer, Donald 604 Memories, Dreams, Reflections (Jung) 391 men, work 689 Men of Industry (Kroyer; painting) 172 menageries 97 Mendel, Gregor 465-66 heredity 239 laws 291, 465, 466 pea research 240 plant hybridization 333 rediscovery 290, 291 Mendel, Lafayette B 346 Mendeleev, Dmitrii Ivanovich 227, 466-67 weights and measures 479 Mendelian genetics 21, 84, 290, 291, 333, 504 eugenics 235, 236 evolutionary synthesis 240, 241 Mendelians 240 Mendelism 290, 291, 342, 504 adoption 333 contemporary developments 466 genetics 333 natural selection 503 Pearson 555 meningitis 260, 261 Menio Park laboratory (USA) 193 industrial research 443 mental functions 702 mental health Africa 16 Japan 386 policy 53 mental hygiene 681 mental illness 429, 602 Cantor 115, 116 degeneration 170 experience 264 heredity 334 Hippocrates 340 Malacarne 564 mental processes 574 mental suppression 125 mental testing 707 mentalite 368 mercantilism 11 merchandise distribution 727 merchants, time 727 Merck company 86 mercury oxide 408 Mercury perihelion 638 Meredith, Ceorge 589

875

meridian degree 244 meritocracy education 265 Huxley 363 Merleau-Ponty, Maurice 391 Mersenne, Marin 467-68 mathematical models 120 music and science 492, 493 neo-Platonism 495 theology and religion 645 Merton, Robert K. 469 scientific knowledge 696 sociology of science 695 Merton thesis 469-71 mescaline 183 Meselson, Matthew 487 Mesmer, Anton 219, 267, 471 hysteria 366 mesmerism 125, 219, 267, 471-72, 564, 704 construed 587 Martineau 438, 439 performance 556-57 popular science 610 Mesoamerica 405 astronomy 49 Mesopotamia 14, 195-97 astrology 47 botanical gardens 96 mathematics 228 surgery 709 metabolism 652 chemical pathways 82 intermediary 653 school in Munich 245 metageometry, Kant 396 metal-bending, paranormal 704 metallography 443 metallotherapy 125, 511 metallurgical industry 374 metallurgy 14, 443, 472-73 Agricola 19 ferrous 473 Hungary 360 Latin America 406 sub-Saharan Africa 14 tool development 717 metals calcination 128 microstructure 443 nature 19 technology 14 metamathematics 446 metamorphism, geological 424 metaphor 474-75 mangle of practice 591 nature 507 metaphysical assumptions 243 Metaphysical Foundations of Science (Kant) 396 metaphysical physics, Cartesian 120, 121 metaphysical state 147 metaphysics 752 aethers 11 affinity 12 Cantor 116

876

METAPHYSICS

Gartesianism 120 chemical affinity 13 Descartes 174 dialectical materialism 175 Durkheim 185 Einstein 200 electricity 267 Faraday 252 Fechner 609 German 252 Godel's theorems 307 homeopathic thought 348 Kant 395 Kantian 539 Leibniz 410, 4 i t Mach's elimination 633 Martineau 439 Maupertuis 447 medieval theology 645 nature 505 Newton 514 paradigm 547 Piaget 573 Priestley 594 Romanticism 657 Smith 689 Spencer 703 stage of man 642 Thomson 725 metascientific discourse 759 meta-standards 705 Metchnikoff, Ilya 67, 370 Meteorologica (Aristotle) 477 meteorological instruments 475-76 Meteorological Service of Ganada 113 meteorology 328, 476-77, 566 Ganada 113 computers 754 Denmark 172 environmental sciences 222 Galton 277 Humboldt 357 music 493 nationalism 475 periods 475 quantification 616 Smithsonian Institution 690 space science 698 meteors 477 method 3, 560 accountability 5 experiments 247 Fermat 254 Galileo 276 Germany 302 innovations 601 positivism 588 probability 247 Stensen 708 Method of Healing (Ga\en) 273 Methode de nomenclature chimique (Lavoisier et al) 408 Methodists 313 methodological questions 485 methodology 752 geography 566

GENERAL INDEX Kant 396 progress 601 metre 478 definition 480 metric system 5 Laplace 633 metrology 5, 449, 450, 477-80 Africa 14 commercial enterprises 479 Egypt 196 electrical instruments 202 Germany 568 institutional 568-69 international exhibitions 242 Mesopotamia 196 musical 497 Physikalisch-Technische Reichsanstalt 568 metronome 495 metropolitan scientific controversies 244 Mexico 405 agriculture 656 Guranderos 16 Darwinism influence 166 public health 656 traditional birth attendant 730 yellow fever 656 Meyer, Julius 467 Meyer, Lodewijk 120 mezzotint 675 Michelson, Albert A. 247, 480-81 Michelson-Morley experiments 11, 199, 480-81 ether-drift 637 Microbe Hunters (de Kruif) 369 microbiology 67, 99, 256 biotechnology 292 Brazil 105, 106 chemotherapeutics i 8 z industrial 289 medicine foundation 182 Pasteur 404 research 178 microeconomics 325 microelectronics 118 microevolution 241 Micrographia (Hooke) 674 micrometers 563 astronomical 48 Micronesia, astronomy 50 microparasitism 224 microphotography 404 microphysics 247 microscope(s) 30, 481-82, 485-86, 676 achromatic lenses 268 bacteriology 67 biological specimens 341 confocal 208 electron 482 experimental physiology 245 Huygens 365 medical 456, 457 natural philosophy 207 pathology 552 Scientific Revolution 246 Virchow 748-49

microscopy high-power 482 illustration 674 Maupertuis 448 observation 341 preparations 341 microtechnique 341 microwave ovens 771 microwave surveying, airborne 113 microwaves 620 cosmic background radiation 79 Middle Ages nature 507 positivism 588 time j±6-zj midwives 314-15, 459, 522, 527-29, 730, 769 folk 730 professional power relations 262 women in science 761 Mie 638 migration Jewish in Europe 270 ritual 170 Miletus 312 milieu interieur concept 73-74 military 681 management 435, 436 mathematical instruments 445 mathematics 228 operations 601 psychology and education 682 research and development 650 science relationship 80 solid state physics 698 space science 698, 699 Spain 700 von Neumann 754 military engineering Halley 322 Leonardo da Vinci 411-12 military institutions 718 military intelligence 720 military power, internationalism 383 military science, research and development 651 military technology ancient 312 Gottingen Eighteen 407 Japan 387 military troops, mortality rate 17 military-fiscal state 479 milk artificial 523-24 hygienic quality 67 Milky Way 154 Mill, John Stuart 232, 482-83, 502 political economy 585 positivism 588, 589 millenarianists 704 Miller, Hugh 425 Miller, D.G. 480 Millikan, Robert Andrews 483-84, 722 Millikan-Ehrenhaft dispute 226 mills 484-85 engines 216

MOTION

GENERAL INDEX productivity 757 Milne, Edward 154 Minard 310 mind 485-86, 752 animal 232 Bateson's concept 72 child 681 Goleridge 293 Descartes 293 deterministic nature 733 development 148 evolutionism 239 Locke 293 Piaget 574 savage 414 scientific theory 270 theory 527 mind-body dualism 344 mineral drugs 182-83 mineralogical analysis 126 mineralogy 76, 77, 296, 599 affinity 12 Agricola 19 blowpipes 87, 88 Goethe 308, 309 Smithsonian Institution 690 Stensen 708 minerals, ore content 87 miners 303 lamp 168 phthisis 17 uranium 114 Miner's Friend (Savery) 215-16 Minim friars 467, 468 minima 54, 76 minima naturatia 57, 58 mining academy 658 Agricola 19, 20 Brazil 106 chemical analysis 126 copper 216 diamond 14, 17 European 19 Netherlands 509, 510 princely involvement 156 productivity 757 Ministry of International Trade and Industry (MITI; Japan) 387 Minkowski, Hermann 637 Minsky, Marvin 43 miracles 529 scientific of the Qu'ran 642 Mirandola, Pico della 506 Mirimanoff, D. 684 mirror-galvanometer 203 mirrors, speculum 721 Mises, Richard von 596 misogynism 366 missionaries, medicine 16 Mitchell, Maria 737, 762, 763 Mitsubishi-Nagasaki shipyard (Japan) 651 Mittag-Leffler, Gosta 115 mobilism, continental 149 Mobius, A.F. 299

models 310, 752 building 247 physics 742 modern science non-Western context 371 universal 132 modernism 170 modernist writing, Freud 270 modernity 65 modernization in Ghina 133 modernizers of Ghinese medicine 136 Mohl, Hugo von 100 Mohnike, Otto 386 Moivre, Abraham de 596 molecular biology 81, 142, 486-88 applied 85 feminist criticism 284 Rockefeller Foundation 655-56 Schrodinger 672 virology 749 molecular immunology 370 molecular orbitals 743 molecular politics 180 molecular structure 558 molecular theory Avogadro 62, 63 statistical 448 Molecular Theory of General Anaesthesia (Pauling) 710 molecular weight 62 molecules formation 743 Hungarian chemistry 360 Moleschott, Jacob 301 Mona Lisa (Leonardo da Vinci) 411 monarchy, power 155 Monas Hieroglyphica (Dee) 169 monastic culture 268 monasticism 717 Mond, Ludwig 662 monetary theory 325 Hayek 324 Mill 483 monetary value 479 money 14 cultural aspects 229 political economy 585 Monge, Gaspard 299, 473, 488-89 Mongol empire 575 monism 31 Monist League 317, 318 monoclonal antibodies 85, 208 Monod, Jacques 291, 487 monogenism 32 monsters 673 Montaigne, Michel de 525 Monte Garlo simulation 549 Montesquieu, Gharles-Louis 31, 694 Montmort 596 Montpelier tradition 752 moon landings 699 orbits 134, 683 perturbations in movement 227 surface 674 time reading 142

877

Moon-silver-brain 104 Moore School of Electrical Engineering, University of Pennsylvania 147 moral development of child 574 moral economy, precision measurement 661 Moral Majority 23 moral philosophy 695 Durkheim 185 human science 354 Malthus 433 Smith 690 Whewell 759 moral pluralism 455 moral psychology 511 moral sciences Enlightenment 218-19 medicine 570 Mill 482 quantification 617 moral theories in medical ethics 455 moral worth, individualistic 170 moralist, Boyle 102 morality artificial intelligence 43 rhetoric 603 scientific 758 morals Ghinese 132 Gomte 148 Kant 395 More, Henry 121 Morelli, Giovanni 270 Morgagni, G.B. 552 Morgan, Agnes Faye 346 Morgan, Thomas Hunt 208, 291, 706 Morganism 426 Morgenstern 585 Morley, John 589 morphology animal 271 evolutionary 167 generational analysis 272 German 272 Goethe 308, 309 physiology 571 plant 99 teleological 272 Morpurgo, experimentation 247 Morris, William 601, 673 mortality 326-27 peaks 223 Morveau, Louis Bernard Guyton de 408, 473 Morvillier, Masson de 700 Moseley, Henry Gwyn Jeffreys 618, 622 atomic theory 623 mosquitoes, malaria transmission 431, 432 mother 392 psychoanalysis 401 motherhood 286 biological 136 social 136 mothering bond 401 motion accelerated 636 doctrine 580

878

MOTION

Kant 395, 396 local 276 Marx 440 Napier 499, 500 perpetual 212, 213, 389 photography 563 Plato 580 rectilinear of constant velocity 636 motion-pictures 436 motor symptoms of pain 544 motor system 511 Mt Kobau Observatory, Ganada 113 Mount Wilson Observatory 320 mountain-building theories 297 mountebanks 615 mounting 482 mourning, Hakka Ghinese ritual 90 mouse 457 movement animal 511 chaotic 580 cosmic 580 mechanical 412 sensorial perception 412 moxibustion, Japan 387 Mozambique 14 Mozart, Wolfgang Amadeus 495 Muirhead, J.H. 671 Mulder, G.J. 523 mule spinners' cancer 114 Miiller, Johannes 543, 572 Humboldt 357 Muller, G.E 666 Muller, H.J. 426 Mulliken, Robert S. 743 Mullis, Kary 353 multiculturalism 286 ethnoscience 230 medical ethics 455 multiple correlation 278 multiple proportions, law of 76 multiple regression 278 multiplexing 720 multiplication Islamic tables 51 printing 635 multiplier 203 Mundo visto a los ochenta ahos (Ramon y Gajal) 630 Murchison, Roderick 297, 425 murder 729 Muromachi period 386 muscle impulses 754 17th-century studies on contraction 323 muscular dystrophy 125 muscular sclerosis 125 Musee oceanographique de Monaco 532 museology, Smithsonian Institution 691 Museum National d'Histoire Naturelie (Paris) 161, 489-90 Museum of History and Technology (US) 691 Museum of Science and Industry (Ghicago) 242

GENERAL INDEX

museums 490-91 calculating artefacts 112 natural history 587 public display 242 Russian Academy of Sciences 666 music 8 acoustics 7 antiquity to 1700 491-94 cultural aspects 229 Darwinism influence 166 institutionalization 494 interface with science 648 Kepler 398 Mach 428 orientalism 537 Plato's mathematics curriculum 233 since 1700 494-97 time 728 time-sense 727 music theory 494 Enlightenment 494-95 France 495 musical balloon 495 musical instruments 7, 8 musical resonance 497 musical scores, printing 596 musical theatre, architecture 8 musicians 494 Helmholtz' relationship 332 Herschel (William) 336 music-making 493 musicology 492, 495 Muslim science see Arabic science; Islamic science Muspratt, James 374 mutants 673 mutation 290, 291, 504 Mu'tazalites 642 mutilation 577 muwaqqit 37 My Philosophy (Lodge) 11 Mycielski, Jan 685 Mycin system 43 mycology 99 Myers, F.W.H. 704 Myers-Briggs Type Indicator (MBTI) 392 myocardial infarction 119 Mysterium cosmographicum (Kepler) 398 mystical experiences 391 mysticism 170, 612 complementarity principle 619 Ritter 657 Romantic School 657 roots of rational science 680 myth, astronomy 50 mythology 414 Linnaeus 419 Schelling's philosophy 670 Nagaoka, Hantaro 93 Nagasaki (Japan) 55, 533 Nagel, Thomas 525 Nageli, Karl Wilhelm von 240 Namoratunga (Kenya) megalithic site 14 Napier, John 42, 112, 146, 499-500 Napier's bones i i i , 112, 146

Napoleon Bonaparte 74 expedition to Egypt 244 galvanism 280 map of Bavaria 268 Monge 488 Napoleonic bureaucracy, medical reforms 616 Napoleonic Wars 663, 738 narcissism 604 narcosis 710 narcotics 183, 728 toxicology 182 Narrative of Child Analysis (Klein) 401 Nartov, A.K. 666 NASA 698, 699 Nathorst, A. 418 nation state, research and development 650, 651

National Academy of Sciences (US) 320 National Archives (US) 691 National Bureau of Standards (US) 479 National Dental Hospital (London) 173 National Endowment for the Arts (US) 691 National Gallery of Art (US) 691 National Health Service (UK) 455, 462 hospital births 528 National Institute of Science and Technology (US) 479 National Institutes of Health (US) , human genome project 353 National Insurance Act (1911) 732 National Museum of American History (US) 691 National Museum of Natural History (US) 691 National Physical Laboratory (UK) 733 National Physics Laboratory (US) 443 National Research Gouncil of Ganada 113 National Science Foundation (US) 567 national security 698 National Sociahsm 723 Haeckel 317 Humboldt 357 Kaiser Wilhelm Institutes 394 Planck 576 victims 724 see also Nazi Germany; Nazism National Standards Bureau (US) 705 national styles of reasoning 500-01 National Zoo (US) 98, 691 nationalism 342 birth control 86 India 372 international science 382 museums 491 Weimar Republic 382 nations anthropological photography 563 characters 34, 500-01 identity 106 rivalry 720 style 500-01 unity in Germany 302 Native Americans 14, 728 Amerindian civilizations 295 anthropology 33

NAVIGATION

GENERAL INDEX astronomy 49, 50 indigenous knowledge systems 373 traditional healers 730 native people 632 nativism 607 nativists 751 Natta, Giulio 579 natural causes, investigation 644 natural change, Buffon's concept 109 natural environment 221, 505 control 312 natural history 220 ancient 312 Aristotle 41 Brazil 106 Ghina 137-38 collections 599 Guvier as legislator 161 environmental sciences 222 Foucault 337 Latin America 406 Leibniz 410 museums 587 Piaget 573 polar regions 582-83 scientific expeditions 243 separation from human history 726 social logic of court 157 societies in France 21 Spain 700 taxonomy 716 natural law 501-02 timelessness 726 natural phenomena explanations 230 Japanese interpretation 385 natural philosophy 58 anti-Aristotelian 304 Aristotelian 303, 644 Bacon 65-66 Boyle 102, 103, 646 Gartesianism 120, 121 Ghinese 134 Ghristianity 644-45 Ghristianization 644 Goleridge 658 Dee 169 Descartes 174, 175 drugs 181 empiricism 646 energy 211-12

experimental 496, 6r6 Germany 302 Harvey 323 Hellenistic 312 Hermeticism 335 historical consciousness 220 history 726 human science 355 human welfare 65 influence on theology 646 instruments 377-78 Ionian 313, 340 Jesuits 388, 389 Kant 395 late Renaissance 3

*

Linnaeus 419 Lunar Society 594 mathematical instruments 444 medieval 644 Mersenne 468, 493 meteorology 477 microscope 207 natural religion 646 Newtonian 219 notion of light 534 optics 534 0rsted 539 Ostwald 540 performance of experiments 556 Platonic 644 pre-Socratic 313, 592 Priestley 594, 595 public benefits 610 Schelling 670-71 scientific expeditions 243 scientific genius definition 293 Thomson 213 vision 751 work 770 natural populations, mathematical models 240

natural purpose 396 natural resources management 373 natural rights, institutionalization 502 natural sciences academic knowledge 692 American women 736 Antarctica 584 Arabic 36, 37 Ghina 132 epistemology 123 exclusion from Islamic science 642 geography 566 Gesellschaft Deutscher Naturforscher und Artze 301 Hungary 360 Huxley (Thomas) 363 Kant 396 Martineau 438 mathematics 445 Plato 579 reductionism 344 secularized 553 social science 692 Soviet Union 175 Stensen 708 Sweden 76 natural selection 502-04 biometrics 83, 84 Darwinism 166, 238 delay in publication of theory 164, 165 evolutionism 239 functionalism 271 genetics 239 Huxley (Thomas) 363 Pavlov 553 statistical studies 555 theory 164, 433 see also evolution Natural Style garden design 350 natural theology

879

Darwin 164 design argument 272 latitudinarian 219 Mill 483 Newton 515 teleology 271 naturalism 681 naturalists American women 737 Darwinism in Germany 167 expeditions 243 field 504 illustrators 675 Kant 395-96 natural selection 504 scientific 704 nature 505-07 Ghinese attitudes 132 Ghristian assumptions 643 collecting 157 cultural attitudes 221 Darwinian conception 164 gendering as female 284 Goethe's views 308, 309 human understanding 521 instruments of exploration 676 literary criticism 421 Newton 513 philosophical conceptions of Einstein 199 philosophy of Schelling 670 Romantics 300 unity 672 Nature 390 Nature Gonservancy (Great Britain) 222 nature of life 752 nature-nurture debate 34, 287 Naturphilosophie 212, 213, 271, 272, 300, 657,658 Schelling 539, 670-71 vitalism 753 Naturwissenschaften (journal) 258 Naudin, Gharles 290, 465 Nautical Almanac (US Navy) 480 nautical almanacs 29, 146 Navajo 228 naval architecture 112 Naval Research Laboratory (US) 698 navigation 678 astrolabe 46 astronomy 50 astronomy links 48 Dee 169 Gilbert 303 Halley 322 instrument makers 379 instruments 430, 507-08 Latin America 406 longitude 142 magnetism 431 mathematical instruments 444 oceanography 531 perturbations in movement of moon 227 Portuguese 402-03 surveying links 48 time 728

88O

NAVIGATIONAL INSTRUMENTS

navigational instruments 507-08 navigators 303 Nazi Germany 171 atomic bomb 620 Darwinism 167 economic machinery 724 eugenics 234, 235 Heisenberg 329, 330, 620 Jewish scientists 197 Kaiser Wilhelm Institutes 393, 394 Laue 407 medicine 72 Meitner's emigration 464 nuclear project 56 publishing 511 race hygiene 234, 235-36 racial superiority 723 racism 272 research traditions 114 von Neumann 511 see also National Socialism Nazism 723 complementarity principle 619 Ehle 711 Einstein's response 199 Haeckel 317-18 Hahn's opposition 318-19 Lorenz 232, 423 medical atrocities 454 national style 501 Planck 576 racial hygiene 234, 235-36 sterilization law (1933) 234, 235 see also National Socialism; Nazi Germany Neanderthal man 593 Near East, plague 576 nebulae 154, 336, 337 nebular universe 154 necessarianism, Martineau 438, 439 Needham, Joseph 380 Chinese women in science 761 Needham Research Institute (Cambridge) 441 negativity 401 negotiation in Cold War 718 Nehru, Pandit 629 Nelson, Leonard 339 neo-Augustinian innatism / illuminationism 468 neo-Darwinism 240, 241 eugenics 236 progress 601 neo-Kantianism Boltzmann 95 psychophysics 609 neo-Lamarckism 236, 238 neo-Malthusianism 434, 435 neon isotopes 725 neonatal deaths 528 Neoplatonism 169, 679 European 355 Gilbert 303 neo-positivism 588 neo-Scholasticism 184 neotechnic revolution 717

GENERAL INDEX Neptunists 296 Nernst, Walther 508-09, 565, 622 Ostwald's correspondence 541 nerves impulses 754 irritation 508 transmission velocity 310 nervous breakdown. Cantor 115-16 nervous fluid, Galton 279 nervous system 511 drugs 182 endocrine control 210 Galvani 279 mechanistic model 486 Payloy 553 phrenology 564 nervous theory 366 Netherlands affinity 743 childbirth 459 Japanese medicine influence 386 surgery 709 technology 509-10 network technology 705 Neumann, Franz Ernst 227, 301 Neumann, John see von Neumann,

John Neumann, Salomon 510-11 neural tube formation 208 Neurath, Otto 249, 588, 589 neuroanatomy, pain 543 neurobiology, evolutionary schemes 354 neurohistology, Ramon y Cajal 630 neurological examination 544 neurology Charcot 124-25 Lorenz 423 neurophysiology 728 computers 754 pain 543 neurosciences 511-12 cognitive science 486 human science 355 neurosecretions 210 neurosis 544 neutrinos 549 neutrons artificial radioactivity 255 discovery 518, 520 slow 255, 722 New Age 71, 72, 704 healing 731 New Archaeology 38 New Atlantis (Francis Bacon) 335 New Biotechnology 289 New Deal economics 702 New England Kitchen (Boston) 345 New Left 440 New Mathematics 26 curriculum 228 New Right 2.3 New Science 553 motive forces 646 New System of Chemical Philosophy (Dalton) 55

New York gardens ^6 New Zealand 59-60 Newcomb, Simon 480 Newcomen, Thomas 216 Newcomen engine 757 Newell, Allen 43 Newell, Homer E. 698 Newlands, John 467 Newton, Isaac r i , 440, 512-14, 764 absolute space 741, 742 aethers 11, 58 alchemy 24-25 algebra 26 approximation method 682 astrology 47 astronomy 49 atomic theory 54 atomism 58 Cartesian principle of inertia 178 chemical affinity 13 coloured bodies 534 colour-tone analogy 496 cosmic harmony 495 dispute with Leibniz 514 fits 534 force 12 Franklin compared 267 general works 342 genius 293, 294 geometry 299 Goethe's polemic against 308, 309 Halley's relationship 321 Huygens 364 interpolation formulae 682 Leibniz 411 light 534 Marxist analysis 368 Master of the Mint 514 matter 58 music and science 492, 493-94 occult 25 optical experiments 378 optics 653 Paracelsus 546 philosophy of science 560 Quaestiones 513 rational mechanics 633 Royal Society of London 663 Schelling 671 scientific method 247 shape of the earth 582 space 58 void space 742 voluntarism 646 Newtonian predictions 638 Newtonian revolution 513 Newtonian theory 633 Newtonianism 12, 25, 219, 342, 514-16 Coulomb 678 Geneva School 589 Kant 396 Newton's Laws 633 Nicholas of Cusa 412 Nicholson^ John W. 93 nickel cancer 114 Nicolai, B. 282

GENERAL INDEX Niels Bohr Institute (Copenhagen) 519 Nietzsche, Friedrich 72, 170, zzo progress 600 visual theory 751 vitalism 753 Nigeria 14 geometry 14 healing 16 number systems 42, sociomathematics 228 Nightingale, Florence 521, 522 Nipperdey, Thomas 727 nipple transplantation 577 nitrous oxide, Beddoes's experiments 220 Nixon, Richard 114 Noah's flood 108 Nobel, Alfred Bernhard 374, 382, 517 Nobel archives 516-17, 711 Nobel committees 516 Nobel Foundation 516-17 Nobel Institution 516-17 Nobel prize 516, 517 Arrhenius 711 Banting 517 Butenandt 82 Coase 437 Ehrlich 517 Einstein 517 Fermi 255 Feynman 257 Fischer 258 Fleming 259 Friedman 400 Frisch 422 German view of importance 394 Goeppert-Maycr 767 Guilio Natta 579 Gullstrand 711 Hahn 319 Hayek 324 Hicks 400 Hodgkin 343 Hopkins 82 Kornberg 82 Krebs 82 Laue 406 Lawrence 409 Lipmann 82 Lorenz 422 MacLeod 517 Mechnikov 517 Michelson 480 Millikan 483 Mullis 353 Nernst 565 nominating records 382 Ochoa 82 Ostwald 540 Planck 517 Robinson 536 Siegbahn 711 Stigler 437 Svedberg 711 Tinbergen 422 Todd 536

NUMBER SYSTEMS Warburg 82 women scientists 767 Woodward 536 Noether, Emmy 300, 446 Noferi 274 Nogerath, Jakob 301 Nollet, Jean Antoine (Abbe) 267 nomenclature botany 243-44 Kantian 395 nominalists 580 nomography 112 non-epistcmic seeing 527 non-intentionality 179 non-linear science 123-24 non-maleficence 455 non-progression 425 non-reductionism 474 nonself 369, 370 Nordic countries see Scandinavia Nordstrom 638 Norfolk, England, windmills 485 norm 706 normal curve 83 Normal School of Science, South Kensington (London) 100 normal science 633 normatiens 266 Norman, Robert 303 Normanist theory of Russian origins 666 North, Roger 494 north, true 44 North America natural resource management 373 see atso Ganada; United States North American Indians see Native Americans North Pole expeditions 583 North Vietnam, Gold War 343 North West Goast (US) 89 Northwest Passage 582-83 navigation 121 Norway almanacs 29 polar science 583 technology 172 nose reconstruction 577 Notgemeinschaft / Deutsche Forschungsgemeinschaft 569 Novalis 657, 658 novels degeneration 170 gothic 672, 673 science fiction 672 Novum Organum (Bacon) 65, 679 Novy, Frederick George 67 Noyes, William Albert 565 nuclear atom 668 nuclear device, Soviet 533 nuclear emulsions 567 nuclear energy civilian 56 Hahn 319 Japan 387 National Socialism 724

88l

nuclear fallout 114 nuclear fission 55-56, 319, 464, 518 discovery 519 nuclear isomerism 320 nuclear medicine 628 nuclear missiles 718 guidance systems 651 guided 451 nuclear physics 55, 56, 319, 517-20, 627, 659 accelerator-based 519 astrophysics 52 Bohr 92 elementary 567 German emigre 520 Heisenberg 329 interwar 519 Jewish 518 Lawrence 409 postwar funding 567 pre-war 518 research 519, 549 Rutherford 667-68 theory in development 519 universe origin 568 women 767 nuclear reactors 56 nuclear technologies, public concerns 292 nuclear tbeory 519, 520 fission 518 nuclear warfare 319 nuclear weapons 319 human genome project 353 nucleic acids 82, 292, 487 blotting 289 discovery 179 see atso DNA; RNA nucleosides 536 nucleotides 536 coenzymes 536 nucleus 518 atomic 55 liquid drop model 518 splitting 518 Nuer Kinship (Evans-Pritchard) 236 Nuer people 236, 237 culture 632 null predictions 638 number(s) 5-6, 42 Ghinese 134 computable 733 cultural context 228-29 hypercomplex 26 mysticism 14 nature of 392 Pythagoras 486 Rittenhouse 654 rule of 707 sequence 42 shift of science towards 476 sociomathematics 228 traditional peoples 228 trust 7 number systems alphabetic 42 ancient i i i

882

NUMBER SYSTEMS

cultural ecology 229 Egypt 196 Hindu-Arabic 42 Mesopotamia 196 Nigeria 42 pre-literate 42 sociomathematics 228 number theory 281,313,520-21 additive 521 algebraic 446, 521 Euler 633 Fermat 254 modern 253 numerical abstraction 421 numerical analysis, computers 754 numerical coefficients 683 numerical objectivity 5 numerology 42 cosmic 497 Pythagorean 612 Nuremberg Trial 454 nursing 521-22, 761 male 522 professionalization 327 nutrition 345, 522-24 disease association 223 Fischer's research 258 health 17 health educators 730 Liebig 415 Netherlands 510 pre-Columbian tradition 229 substitutes 258 tuberculosis 732 women 346 women's knowledge 416 see also famine; malnutrition nylon 578, 579 Oak Ridge National Laboratory (USA) 222

oath, Hippocratic 340 object relations 603 theory 604 object study 635 objective purposiveness 396 objectivity 7, 525-26 absolute 525 ideals 287 mechanical 226, 525-26 nature-nurture debate 287 observational 527 photography 563 reading 634 resolute 284 science 250, 561 statistics 707 Western science 284 object-relations theory 284 observation 526-27 geology 727 humanists 356 instruments 676 international 476 mathematical instruments 444 microscopy 341

GENERAL INDEX

neutrality 249 photography 563 theory-ladenness 249 observational sciences, theory of error 226 observatories 51, 722 Dominion 113 Einstein Tower 638 Greenwich 450, 516, 663, 727 Harvard College 763 Kew 107 Mt Kobau 113 Mount Wilson 320 Palomar 320 Paris 516 Potsdam space 49 Toronto Magnetic and Meteorological Observatory 477 Uraniborg 104 women astronomers 737 Yerkes Observatory 320 obstetrics 314,459,527-29,761 techniques 528 occidentalism 537 occult court 156 Dee 169 Hermeticism 336 Napier 499 Newton 25 Paracelsus 545-46 scientific revolution 680 occult sciences 529-31 occupational cancer 114 occupational health 326, 327, 460 occupational toxicology 729 occupations 438 skills 688 theory 688 women 769 ocean circulation 531,532 ocean currents, polar regions 582 ocean floor, magnetic reversal belts 149 oceanography 192, 531-32 environmental sciences 221 Octagon Chapel (Bath) 336 Odling, William 467 Oedipus Complex 269, 603 Oelsner, Elise 761 Oenothera 290 oestrogen 649 Office of Women's Health Research (US National Institutes of Health) 285 Official Secrets Act (UK) 733 Ohain, Hans Joachim Pabst von 217 oil crisis (1974) 61 oil industry 374 Japan 387 research and development 651 skills 687 Oken, Lorenz 272, 301, 302, 671 Romanticism 657 old age 340 Oldenburg, Henry 390 Leibniz 410 On Ancient Medicine (Hippocrates) 340

On the Application of Gast and Wrought Iron to Building Purposes (Fairburn) 484 oncogenes 114 Ong, Walter J. 635 Onnes, Heike Kamerlingh 158 ontogeny 272 ontological questions 485 ontology 92 open systems 705 open-endedness 590 operational research 436 ophthalmology 458 Japan 386 ophthalmoscope 331, 458 opiate restriction 728 opinion, natural law 502 opium 728, 729 Oppenheimer, J. Robert 409, 532-33, 620, 651 presuppositions 722 trial 533 optical aethers 11 Optical Institute (Bavaria) 267, 268 optical precision 268 optical systems 481 optical theory, telescope 398 Opticks (Newton) 11, 12, 309 optics 534-35. 633 Arabic 36, 37 art 674 astrophysics 52 calculus of variations 253 comparative 123 electromagnetic theory 448 experimentation 247 Fermat 254 Fraunhofer 267, 268 Galileo 277 Geneva School 589 Goethe 308 instrument analysis 227 Kepler 398 mathematical instruments 444 Mersenne 493 Michelson 480 Newton 378, 513, 514, 516, 653 physiological 301 Raman 629 sub-Saharan Africa 14 visual perception 750-51 Optics (Euclid) 233 Optiks (Newton) 513, 514, 515, 534 oral hygiene 173 oral rehydration therapy 730 orality 417 classical Indian 370-71 Oration on the Dignity of Man (Mirandola) 506 orbit theory 698 Order of Things (Foucault) 264 order out of chaos 124 ordnance survey equipment 268 ore 128 channels 19 content of minerals 87

PARTICLE THEORY

GENERAL INDEX deposition 19 origins 19 Oresme, Nicole 47 organ transplantation antibiotics z6i ethics 90 organic chemistry 59, 69, 360, 535-36 Berzelius 76, 77 dyes 186, 187 theoretical 565 organic compounds 75 dyes 186, 187 Fischer 158 organic material, standardized 705-06 organic phenomena 657 organicism 658 organicists 219 organisms 566 phenotypc 191 Schelling 671 structure 715 theory 396 organization of science. Bacon 66 organization theory 671 organizational skills 435 Organon of the Rational Art of Healing (Hahnemann) 347 orgasm, female 686 Orient, ancient 295 Oriental philology, Denmark 172 orientalism 536-37 origin of life dialectical materialism 175 theology issues 640 Origin of Species (Darwin; 1859) 165, 166, 167, 238, 239, 271 ornithology 5 3 7-3 8 professionalization 600 women 737, 764, 765 orphanages 54 orreries 48, 654, 676 0rsted, Hans Christian 203, 206, 212, 430, S38-39 electromagnetism 205 Ortega y Gasset 700 orthodox medicine 145 orthodoxy Islamic scholars 642 Protestant 640 orthopaedics 458 Osborn, Henry Fairfield 545 oscillograph 203 osteopathy 145 Ostwald, Wilhelm 143, 428, 539-41, 565 other, construction 429 otoplasty 577, 578 Oughtrcd, William 42 Oughtred Society 112 Our Wandering Continents: An Hypothesis of Continental Drifting (Du Toit) 149 outliers, rules for reiection 227 ovarian compression 125 ovariectomy 314 ovariotomists 459

Owen, Richard 97, 107 fossils 545 homology concept 272 rivalry with Huxley 297 Owen, Robert 704 Oxford Botanic Gardens, England 97, 100 Oxford Group 259, 260, 261 Oxford (UK) botany

ioi

physiologists 103 scientific community in Commonwealth / Restoration periods 323 Oxford University (UK) 738 oxidation, biological 81 oxidative phosphorylation 653 oxides 408 oxygen 128 biological systems 82 discovery 669 Lavoisier's theory 75, 408, 409 Priestley 594 Ozeretskovskii 666 ozone hole 403 Pacific eastward diffusion of science 295 European representation of experiences 71

expeditions 243 Pacific islanders 674-75 pacifism 540 women's science 343 paediatrics 458, 459 paganism in classical antiquity 218 pain 543-44 anti-vivisectionists 3 5 lesionless 544 theories 183 pain relief childbirth 528 homeopathy 347 Paine, Thomas 5 pain-killers 183 paintings 647, 674, 717 time-sense 727 Palaeolithic man 231 palaeomagnetism 149 palaeontology 544-45 Buckland 108 Cuvier 160—62 embryology 67 environmental sciences 221 evolutionary synthesis 240 fossil record interpretation 238 Huxley (Thomas) 363 natural selection 504 plant 98, 99 progressive development 611 Srnithsonian Institution 690 Stensen 708 palaeotechnic revolution 717 Palaeozoic geology 297 palaetiological sciences 296 Paley, William 759 Pallas, Simon 583 Pallas perturbations 281

883

Palomar Observatory 320 Panama-Pacific International Exposition (San Francisco) 483 pancreatic iuice function 73 pandemics 223 AIDS 23 bubonic plague 575 pangenesis 239 Darwin's hypothesis 278 pansophistic thought 156 pantheism, Goethe 309 papal infallibility 640 papal patronage, Accademia dei Eincei 3 paper making 390 paper mills 485 Papert, Seymour 43 Pappus 299, 356 papyrus, medical 709 Paracelsian experimentation at Accademia dei Eincei 3 Paracelsian influence, Tycho Brahe 104 Paracelsian tradition 728 Paracelsus, Philippus 24, 152, 347, 496, 545-46 fire concept 328 hysteria 366 therapeutic theory 557 parachute 411 paradigm 546-48 conflict 127 model 312 parallel postulate 233 paranoia. Cantor 116 paranoid-schizoid positions 604 paranormal 704 experiences 391, 704 parapsychology 696, 704, 753 Pare, Ambrose 709 parental authority 125 Parent-Duchatelet, Alexandre 326 parenthood, biological 649 Paris Academy, Maupertuis 447 Paris Observatory, Newton 516 Paris school pathological signs of disease 256 theoretical organic chemistry 565 Paris University (France) 490 Jesuit influences 388 Middle Ages 644 Parkinson, John 333 Parliament of Science 599 Parmenides 40, 579 Parsons, C.E. Auguste 216 partial differential equations 488 particle acceleratjop 409 particle phygics 520, 548-49 astropl^ysics 52 CERN 122, 123 cosmology interface 79 Denmark 172 elementary 567 neutrinos 549 Newton's alchemical studies 25 postwar funding 567 particle scattering 668 particle theory 534

884

PARTICLE WAVE CONTROVERSY

particle wave controversy 534 particles, forces between 515 Pascal, Blaise i i i , 299 barometric experiments 742 meteorological instruments 476 probability 596 Paschen, Friedrich 621, 701 passions psychology and physiology 174 reductionist anatomy Z2o Pasteur, Eouis 67, 256, 266, 419, 549-51 germ theory 771 political manipulation 611 public funding 611 rabies experiments 749 Pastorian myth 611 Pastorian revolution 457, 551 Patent Office (Bern) 199, 200 patents control 187 cyclotron 410 human genome project 353 industrial chemistry 374 litigation 187 steam engine 216 steam turbine 216 paternalism in medical care 455 paternity metaphor 474 pathogenic factors in Egyptian medicine ' 196 pathological organization 604 pathology 551-52 Charcot 124-25 Chinese 135 Egyptian medicine 196 forensic 262 gross 181 insanity 602 microbes 551 plant ^9 sexual 685 specialization 458 theories 77-78 patient-physician relationship 344 patients consent 455 doctor-patient relationship 180-81 examination 713 Lister's care 420 mesmeric performance 557 narrative 180 psychoanalysis 606 radiotherapy 479 rights 139, 455 patriarchy commercial corporations 769 middle-class 363 psychoanalysis 605 patriotism 501 patronage aristocrats 156 astronomy 53 Bernard 74 chemistry in medicine 546 court 155, 157 Cuvier 161

GENERAL INDEX Dee 169 doctor-patient relationship 180 Fraunhofer 268 government for American science 736 Habsburg 389 Halley 321 Herschel (William) 336 industrial 569 Jesuits 388 Medici 274 opposition by X-Club members 349 papal 3 philanthropic 352 popularization of science 610 princely court 4, 156 psychology 608 royal 155, 663 Royal Institution 662 school 682 scientific revolution 680 space science 698 technology transfer 719 telescope building 721 Tycho Brahe's loss 104 see also courts / court society; funding patrons client relationship 719 Owen 272 pattern Chinese 134 sociomathematics 228 Pauli, Wolfgang 93, 392, 619 Pauling, Linus Carl 291, 565, 710 Ostwald 540 resonance structures 743 pauperism 23 5 Pavlov, Ivan Petrovich 511, 552-54 Payne-Gaposchkin, Cecilia 762 Peale, Rembrandt 675 Peale Museum (US) 491 Peano, Guiseppe 63, 581 Pearson, Karl 83, 84, 140, 225, 554-55, 706 biometrics 240 Darwinism 504 mathematical complexity 278 probability 596 Peary, Robert 584 peasant farmers in China 133 pedagogy 14, 680, 681 Germany 301 Pedersen, Olaf 49 peer review 637 Peirce, Charles S. 671 Peking Man 593 Peking Union Medical College (China) 656 pen reckoning 146 pendulum 657 isochrony 275 regulators 142 penicillin 85, 140 clinical effectiveness 260 clinical tests 260 Fleming 259 Hodgkin's work 343, 344

mass production 259-60, 261 therapeutic power 259 X-ray photographs 343 Penicillium notatum 259 penis envy 605 penitentiaries 54 Pennant, Thomas 583 Pensees (Pascal) 184 perception 247 aural 492 bodily health / illness 137 Mach's theory 428 quantitative analysis 609 sensorial 412 shades of grey 428 visual 751 percussion 412 performance 556-57 perinatal mortality 528 periodic law 467 periodic table 467, 479 Peripatetics 492 Perkin, William 535 peroxides 69 perpetual motion 212, 213, 389 Perrin, Jean 55 Perry, John P. 203 persecution 311 Persia botanical gardens 96 metallurgy 473 personal effects 312 personal hygiene 730 Personal Narrative of Travels to the Equinoctial Regions of the NewContinent (Humboldt) 357 personality antagonistic conceptions 511 diagnostic tests 392 Einstein 198-99 Leonardo da Vinci 412 Schelling 670 Schrodinger 672 Siemens 686 survival of human 704 theories 10 Thomson 725, 726 traits 287 Turing 733 types 10 personality disorder, multiple 366 personnel laboratories 569 management 436 perspective 751 persuasion 421 Peru 405 astronomy 50 survey expeditions 226 Perutz, Max 343, 487 Peschel, Oskar 357 pessimism 170 pest-control research 221 pesticides 433 Peter of Abano 47 Petrarch, Francesco 354

GENERAL INDEX petrochemicals 535 cancers 114 industry 374 petroleum biotechnology 85 power 216 production 467 petroleum industry Netherlands 509 Russian 467 petrology 297 Petron 340 Petty, William 585, 689 Petzoldt, Joseph 427 Peyrere, Isaac La 593 Pfizer Corporation 260, 261 Phaedrus (Plato) 580 phages 289, 487 pharmaceutical chemicals 182, 186, 535 pharmaceutical discoveries 182 pharmaceutical industry 729 Ehrlich 197 Germany 573 sex hormone research 210 pharmaceutical research 559 modern 182 Pharmaceutical Society 728 pharmaceutical writing Chinese 138 dentistry 173 pharmacists, Pastorian revolution 551 pharmacological remedies 182 pharmacological research, modern 182 pharmacology 182, 557-59 ancient Greece 313 biochemical 573 hotany 98 chemotherapeutics 182 experimental 728 hospital laboratory-based 352 modern 182 specialization 458 pharmacopoeia 712 official 182 Pharmacopoeia Diaholica 183 pharmacy 535, 559-60 Scheele 669 Spain 700 phase rule 443 Phelps, Almira Hart Lincoln 737 phenolic resin 578 Phenomena (Euclid) 233 phenomenalism, Planck 576 phenomenology 378, 579 existential 391 Jung 391 material practices 591 sociology of science 695 theory of superconductivity 158 phenomenotechnics 377 phenotype 291 pheromones 82 philanthropy American clinical research funding 139 Rockefeller Foundation 655, 656

PHRENOLOGY surgery 710 US 656 Philebus (Plato) 579, 580 Philo of Byzantium 741 Philolaus 340, 613 philology 416, 417 early Victorian 759 man as part of nature and society 354 medieval 172 Oriental 172 professor 658 root of Indo-Aryan languages 625 Philonus 41 philosopher of science Bacon 66 Galileo 276 public 610 rhetoric 654 Whewell 758-59 philosophers language 420 Russia 665 philosopher's stone 24 philosophes 218-19 philosophical anatomy 161 philosophical approach to science 250 philosophical independence 3 Philosophical Radicals 483 Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society of London 390, 663 wind and water power 484 philosophy 343 analytical 588 ancient civilizations 230 ancient Greece 312 Bohr 93-94 Boltzmann 94-9$ \ Boyle 102 • \ Buffon 109, n o ^ Cartesianism 120-21 Chinese 132, 230 cognitive science 486 Comte 147, 148 Copernicanism 151 critical 339, 395 Darwinism influence 166 Davy 168 determinism 124 Enlightenment 218 experimental 91 Galileo 276 Helmholtz 332 Hilbert 339 humanist 355-57 interpretive / postmodern 325 Islamic 36 Jesuits 388 Kantian 395 language 263, 588 Laue 407 Leibniz 410 Malthus 433 Martineau 438, 439 mind 485, 486 monistic 553 music 492

885

occult 169 Pavlov 554 Poincare 581 political 325 Priestley 594, 595 Pythagoreans 613 relativity 639 scientific ideas 297 Scottish 354 Smith 689 speculative 337 sub-Saharan Africa 14 time 728 time-sense 727 transcendental 579 see also mechanical philosophy; natural philosophy philosophy of science 560-62 analytical 178 autonomy from conduct 601 computational 179 Comte 148 disciplines 177 Durkheim 185 Einstein 199, 200 mathematization of economic theory 585 Mill 482 physical chemistry 565 Poincare 580, 581 Rutherford 667 themata 722-23 Phipps, Constantine 583 phlebotomy 9, 463 phlogiston theory 127, 128, 408, 409 Lavoisier's rejection 561 Priestley 594, 595 Scheele 670 phonetics, experimental 310 phoronomy 395 phosphorus combustion 127-28 photochemistry 508, 565 photocomposition 596 photoelectric effect 200 photoelectric photometry 52 photographic plate-making 596 photographs 310, 647, 675 oceanography 532 photography 562-63, 751 astrophysics 52 forensic 261 Galton 277 high-speed 436 microphotography 404 surveying in Canada 113 telescopic astronomy 721 see also chronophotography photogravure 595 photomechanical technologies 675 photometer 281 photons 618 phrenology 34, 90, 511, 563-64 drawings of brain 674 Martineau 438, 439 popular science 610 popularization 587 Spencer 702

886

PHTHALEINES

phthaleines 69 phthalocyanine dyes 187 phthisis 256 miners 17 phycology 99 phylogeny 272 physic gardens 96 physical anthropology 32, 33 Boas 88, 89 physical chemistry 564-65 physical constants tables 227 physical exercise techniques, Chinese 136 physical experiments, exact anatomy 279 physical geography 565-66 physical phenomena 703 physical processes, pictorial models 11 physical reality, Newtonian 515 physical restraint 53 physical sciences American women 736 atomism 57 Hungary 360 meteorology 477 Soviet Union 175 women 766-67 physical theory Boltzmann 94 Duhem 183-84 physicians 456, 459 drug administration 559 hierarchical divide 615 influence 616 obligations 455 Pastorian revolution 551 power-seeking 528 professional power relations 262 Sydenham 712-13 Taussig 765 university-trained 615 women 765 physicists Cold War 567 emigration from Hungary 359 intellectual migration to biology 292 internment of German 330 meeting ground in Copenhagen 619 national / international roles 567 nature 507 particle physics 548-49 reading habits 390 work relationships 567 physico-mathematical sciences, Jesuit 388 physics 342 accelerator 620 acoustics 8 affinity 12 age of the Earth 17 analogies 742 antiquity 247 Archimedes 39 architecture of institutes 549 Aristotle 40, 41 articles 653 Big Science 80 Bohr 92, 93

GENERAL INDEX Caltech 320 Canada 113 Cartesianism 120, 121 celestial 274 chemical 565 chemistry relationship 131 continuity thesis 184 cosmic ray 548 Descartes 174, 175 discovery 178 disturbance reporting 451 Duhem 183-84 Einstein 198, 199, 200 electrical engineering 687 energy-based 753 error theory 227 experimental 130, 212-13, 659, 667, 668 reports 390 Thomson 725-26 experimentation 247 Fermi 255 force 12 France 266 Galileo 276 Gauss 281 Gay-Lussac 283 geology 727 German 206, 300, 301, 637, 724 giant accelerator 123 global 583 Hertz 337, 338 high energy 123, 178, 520, 548-49, 567 Hilbert 339 Humboldt 357 Hungarian 359 Huygens 365 instruments 377 ionospheric 698 Italy 255 Japan 386 Kant 396 laser technology 247 Laue 407 low temperature 158, 328 Mach 427 magnetism 431 magnets 430 materials science 443 mathematical 515, 754, 755 mathematization 616 matter-based 753 Maupertuis 447 Maxwell 448 measurement 450 mechanization of calculus 311 medical 457 Meitner 464 metaphor 474 metaphors from Bach and Escher's work 306 metaphysical 120, 121 Michelson 480 microphysics 247 Millikan 483

MIT 697 models 742 molecular 508 Monge 488 music 495, 496 National Socialism 723, 724 Newton 513 Nobel committee 517 Oppenheimer 533 organic 331 0rsted 539 philosophy 562 Poincare 580 practice-ladenness 591 prohahility 596 radiation 618, 621 research 660 Romanticism impact 658 Rontgen 659-60 Rowland 660-61 Schelling 671 Schrodinger, Erwin 671-72 Smith 689 Smithsonian Institution 690 solar 699 solid state 567, 659, 696-98 sound 497 space science 698 Spain 700 speculative 671 statistical 596 statistics 707 stellar 49 sub-atomic 59 sub-Saharan Africa 14 superconduction 247 Sweden 76, 711 terrestrial 274 20th century 566-68 themata 723 Thomson 725-26 time 728 US 533, 736 Volta 753-54 Weimar Republic 382 women in science 737, 761, 767 work 770 X-rays 659 Yalow 765 see also atomic physics; nuclear physics; particle physics; quantum physics; relativity; theoretical physics Physics (Aristotle) 54 physics laboratories in Britain 450 Physikalisch-Technische Reichsanstalt 568-69, 621 Planck 576 physiocracy 22 physiognomy 355 Physiological Society (Britain) 245 physiology 342 aethers 11 animal electricity 279 animals 746 Aristotle 41 bacterial 67

GENERAL INDEX Bichat 77 Brazil 656 Cartesian 120 chemical aspects 573 chemotherapeutics 182 Chinese 135 Cuvier's interest 161 Descartes 174, 175 Egyptian medicine 196 experimental 244-45, 5^9i 7^9 Fernel 552 France 569-71 Galvani 278-79 Germany 302, 570, 571-73 graphical method 310, 478 Harvey 323 Helmholtz 331 histology 341 history of ideas 570 hospital laboratory-based 352 Humboldt 357 Hyde 765 institutes 245 Jerne 172 laboratory-hased approach 523 Liebig 415 Marey 436 medicine foundation 182 medieval science 463 mind 485 music 496 Nobel prize 517 Pavlov 553 pharmacology 558 plant 98, 99 respiratory 710 Schelling 671 sight 331 specialization 458 thematic development 573 vitalism 752 Volta 754 women in science 765 phytoecology 98, 99, 167, 191 phytogeography 98, 99, 191, 357 phytopalaeontology 98, 99 Piaget, Jean 26, 573-74 development model 179 Levi-Strauss 414 piece rate systems, differential 435 Pierce, Charles Sanders 588 pigment theory 752 Pilgrim Fathers 355 Pilippism 105 Piltdown fossils 593 pin manufacture 453 pineal gland 486 Pinel, Philippe 140, 220, 602 Pioneer Fund, US-based 235 Pitcairn, Archibald 752 pitch pipe 497 wire wheel assembly 61 Pithecanthropus 593 Pittsburgh (US) 480 placental anatomy 361 places, Hippocratic ideals 611

POISONS place-value notation 42 plagiarism Kepler 399 Leihniz 411 plague 23, 68, 223, 224, bacillus 575 bubonic 223, 224 cattle 747 China 136-37 control 611 epidemics 386 nursing 522 Plaine Discovery of the Whole Revelation of St John (Napier) 499-500 planarians, regeneration 208 Planck, Max 93, 576-78 black-body radiation 619, 621, 622 heat radiation 199 Laue 407 Nobel prize 517 quantum theory 622 theory of dissociation 565 theory of radiation 93 thermodynamic irreversibility 622 Planck's constant 55, 621 Planck's law 200 planetariums 48 planetary astronomy 52 planetary motion 654 Kepler 398 Tychonic theory 134 planetary music 493 planetary tahles 29 Arahic 36 planetology 698 planets exploration 699 motion 51 orbits 134 planimeters i n plant(s) classification 333 collection 97 contraception 87 description 333 Egyptian medicine 196 gendering 284 hybridization 290, 333 introduction to Australia 60 inventories 332 nomenclature in China 138 properties 333 sexing 284 terminology in China 138 varieties 333 plant biology 536 plant breeders 465 plant breeding institutes 21 plant ecology 98, 99, x6j, 191 plant geography 98, 99, 191 Humboldt 357 plant pathology 98 plant physiology, Lysenko 426 planting, astronomy 50 plasmids 289 plastic surgery 577-78

plastics 578-79 colloid chemistry 142 plate tectonics 149, 296, 532 revolution 297 theory 178 Plato 40, 579-80 Academy 579 atomism 57 Bacon's ideas 66 dialogues 579-80 Goethe's thinking 309 Great Chain of Being 640 Hippocrates 340 humanist rejection 355 mathematics curriculum 233 music 492 principle of plenitude 715 Pythagoreans 613 recollection theory 486 Platonic theory 579, 612 Platonism Cantor 116, 117 Godel's 307 mathematical 679 play 717 gender 718 Playfair, William 310, 3ri playing, common mathematical activity 228 pleasure 287 principle 603 Plekhanov, Georgiy Valentinovich 440 plenitude principle of Plato 715 Plotinus 613 plough, heavy 719 plumhing, health inequality 327 pluralism immune phenomena 369 Japanese medicine 387 medical 345 moral 455 theoretical 95 Plutarch 39, 40 plutonium bomb 56 pneuma, Chinese 134 pneumatic chemists 128 Pneumatic Institute (Bristol) 168 pneumonia 67, 260, 261 Pockels, Agnes 764 poem of the world 657 poetic furore 429 poetry 421 Davy 168 Plato 580 time-sense 727 Poggendorff, Johann Christian 203 Pohl, Robert Wichard 697 Poincare, Jules Henri 55, 299, 580-81 conventionalism 581, 588 relativity 637, 639 point defects 697 point sets theory 684 poisons murder 729 regulation 560, 728 suicide 729

887

GENERAL INDEX

POISSON

Poisson, Nicholas-Joseph 121 optics 247 Poisson, Simeon 596, 609 Poland relativity 638 weights and measures 479 Polanyi, Michael 294, 325 tacit knowledge 723 polar expeditions, Swedish 711 polar regions 582, 584 polar science 581-84 policy 705 AIDS 23 atomic weapons 56 Denmark 172 economic 400 Fischer 258 health in India 372 physicians 460 recomhinant DNA technology 180, 290

scientific in Latin America 406 standardization 705 see also government policy poliomyelitis 224 vaccine 749 political activism Comte 148 Pythagoreans 612-13 political attitudes birth control 86, 87 body 90 Brazil 105 political context Darwinism 165, 167 Rutherford 667 political control of science 426 political economy 376, 584-85 Comte 148 Denmark 172 early Victorian 759 Enlightenment 219 Japan 387 Malthusianism 434 managerial ideology 435 Martineau 438, 439 probability 596 Ricardian 758 Scotland 690 Smith 690 Whewell 758 work 770 political elites, psychology use 608 political history cadastral maps 121 general works 342 political ideas Dee 169 epidemics 223 political ideology, scientific theory 301 political institutions 633, 718 political intervention, puhlic health 612 political involvement, Pythagoreans 612-13

political issues, Bohr 92 political organization, Nuer 237

political philosophy 325 political power court society 157 knowledge relationship 3 political protest, hysteria 366 political reform 301 political repression, macroparasitism 224

political science articles 653 time 728 political theory anti-absolutist 502 atomism 58 natural law 501 Pythagorean 612 politics academic 176 discipline 692 in France 185 Antarctic science 584 body 90 cultural aspects 229 Denmark 172 disciplinary in mathematics and physics 637 Einstein 200 German use of Humboldt 357 Human Genome Project 353 human science 354-55 ideology 367 immunology 370 international science 382 liberalism 748 Malthus 432, 433 molecular 180 molecular biology 487 Newtonianism 515 nuclear physics 519 Pearson 555 Plato 580 Priestley 594, 595 psychology 608 racist 724 Restoration 696 science separation 343 scientific practice 382 solid state physics 697 Soviet 665 Spencer 702 Tory 11 Virchow 748, 749 Polybius 39, 40, 340 polyester 578 polygenesis 625 polygenism 32 polygraph 457 polygyny 90 China 136 Polymer Project, Center for History of Chemistry 579 polymer science 444 polymerised chain reaction (PCR) 353 polymers 578-79 Polynesia, astronomy 50 polynomial equations 271, 313

polypeptides 81 Fischer 258 polypharmacy 713 polyphonic theory 493 polypropylene 578 polyps 363 regenerative capacity 208 polystyrene 578 Pomonazzi, Pietro 354 Poncelet, Jean-Victor 299 poor health needs 462 medical practitioners 462 sick people 461 Poor, Henry Varnum 435 Poor Laws, Malthus 434 Poor Richard (Franklin) 266 Pope factories 717 popliteal aneurysm 361 Popper, Karl 279 disciplines 177 experimentation 247 geography 566 philosophy of science 560 positivism 588 scientific discovery 178 sociology of science 312 Popper-Kuhn debate 653 Popper-Lynkeus, Josef 427 popular astrology 46, 47 popular culture genetics 292 quackery 616 relativity 638 US 638 Whig reform 29 popular science 587, 653 popular unrest 223 popularization of science 491, 586-88, 610

population control 432 expansion 504 global explosion 650 human 433 iron law 434 Malthus's theory 433, 434, 504 racist politics 724 rational management 235 statistics quantification 616 population biology, Japanese bomb survivors 56 population genetics 291, 504 evolutionary synthesis 240-41 macroevolution 241 microevolution 241 Quetelet 623 statistics 84 theoretical 240 population growth birth control 86, 87 China 132 populist patois 616 Porta, Giovanni Battista della 473 Porter, George 661, 662 portolan charts 121

PRISON

GENERAL INDEX portraiture 674 positivism 588-89, 658 Boas 88 Boltzmann 94 Comte 147, 148 Comtean 438 discovery 178 Duhem 183 Durkheim 185 France 668 French biology 570 Germany 302 Latin America 406 Machian 175, 428 Martineau 439 metaphor 474 natural law 502 New Left 440 Pearson 84, 554 philosophy of science 561 scientific facts 250 skill 688 social sciences 692 see also logical positivism positron emission tomography 629 positrons 247, 257, 620 posivitism, biomedical beliefs 345 possession divine / demonic 429 hysteria 366 post-colonialism 537 Posterior Analytics (Aristotle) 233 post-Fordism 118 post-industrial society 687, 770 post-industrialism 601 postmodern skepticism 72 postmodernism 284 identity 286 ideology 367 immunology 370 secular ethics 455 vision 751 post-mortems 552 medico-legal 262, 552 poststructuralism 284, 286, 355 reflexivity 696 postulates Koch's 404 Pasteur 550 quantum 200 potassium isolation 168 potentiometers 203 potentization 347 Potsdam observatory 638 Pouillet, Claude Servais Matthias 203 Poullain de la Barre, Francois 283 poverty 326 degeneration 170, 171 eugenics 235 resource diversion 285 rural in China 132 sickness relationship 327 Powell, John Wesley 362 power 264 electric supply 205 hierarchies 156

industrial in US 216 knowledge 401-03 male fantasies 286 maps 122 mechanical 770 patriarchal 286 psychoanalytic accounts 285 relations in Chinese women's medicine 136 royal 155 society 403 power meters, domestic 203 Power Set Axiom 685 Pozzo, Cassiano dal 3 Practical Essays in Mill Work and Other Machinery (Buchanan) 484 practice 589-91 macro 590 micro 590 physical chemistry 565 Salk Institute study 591 Practique de astralahe (de Prusse) 46 pragmatism, scientific facts 250 pragmatistic method 588 Prague school 414 Prague University (Czechoslovakia) 428 pre-Adamism 593 precipitation 477 precision 7, 449, 451 calculation 227 development 3 error theory 227 instruments 676 mapping 122 Rowland 661 Scandinavia 171-72 see also accuracy precision measurement 171-72, 227, 478, 526 expeditions 244 international exhibitions Z42 moral economy 661 standardized 526 time 727 precision mechanics 141 Fraunhofer 267, 268 precision ruling machine 661 pre-Columbian America culture 406 gardens 96 metallurgy 473 Pred, Allan 566 predestination 354 Preece, William Henry 201 pre-existence 752 preformation theory 207, 208 preformationists 207 pregnancy 528 ectopic 709 gynaecology 314 prehistoric life representation 648 prehistory, anthropology / archaeology 59^-93 Prelictiones (Harvey) 323 pre-literate civilizations, archaeology 38 premedication 710

889

Presidential Science Advisory Committee (US) 567 pre-Socratics 40, 613 atomism 57 prestige, court society 156 presuppositions 722-23 Prevention of Genetically Diseased Progeny Law (Germany) 235 Prevost, Pierre 589, 671 Prezent, I.I. 176 Price, Harry 703 price theory 438 prices 3 24 priest-craft, Islamic 642 priesthood of humanism 148 Priestley, Joseph 127, 128, 594-95 empowerment of science 130-31 Gilbert 303 opposition to Lavoisier 220 oxygen discovery 408, 669 Schelling 671 Prigogine, Ilya 671 primary health care 345 primary process 603 primates, sexuality 34 primatology 34, 286 gender analysis 285 prime numbers 520, 521 theory 521 Primitivism 231 primordium 207 Primrose, James 615 princely court 156 Principia (Newton) 11, 299, 411, 440, 513, 514, 515 Principles of Chemistry (Mendeleev) 467 Principles of Mathematical Logic (Ackermann) 305 Principles of Mathematics (Russell) 685 Principles of Mechanics, Presented in a New Form (Hertz) 337 principles of medical ethics 455 Principles of Philosophy (Descartes) 120, 174 Principles of Political Economy (Mill) 483 Principles of Psychology (Spencer) 702 print culture 421 printers, bird books 538 printing 595-96, 634 almanacs 28 China 717 houses 635 images 635 impact 635 journals 390 machines 453 western science 717 printing press 417, 596, 635 Tycho Brahe 104 prions 750 prisms 268 experiments 514 prison 402 psychiatric service 264 regimes 706 service 681

890

PRIVACY

privacy 629 private science in Japan 386 prizes Academie de Sciences 2 see also Nobel prize probabilism, Fechner 609 probabilistic laws 596 probability 342, 596-97 analysis 588 Gauss 281 inverse 596 philosophical 633 scientific method 247 statistics 596 probability theory 254, 560 Buffon 109 Fermat 253 quantification 617 procedures, objectivity 526 Proceedings of the Briinn Natural History Society 240 procreativity, female 286 production calculability 118 mode 376 rural in China 133 systems in capitalism 117 technology transfer 720 theory 483 professional organizations 598 biochemistry 82 chemistry 129 professional status 599 professionalism homeopaths 347 women 704 professionalization 342, 598-600 anthropology 3 2 economics 437-38 geography 566 Huxley (Thomas) 363 mathematics 446 medicine 461, 462, 616, 710 nursing 327 oceanography 531 psychiatry 334 psychology 724 science 127 statistics 707 traditional healers 731 urban sanitation 327 veterinary science 747 zoology 490 professions skills 688 sociology 177 professors research 658 status 660 progestogen 649 prognosis, medieval science 463 programme management 436 Programmed Logic for Automatic Teaching Operations (PLATO) project 682 programming 754 progress 170, 213, 600-02

GENERAL INDEX belief in possibility 641 Enlightenment 367 progressionism, Buckland 108 progressive development 425 projective identification 604 pronatalism 236 proof 596 Propaedeumata Aphoristica (Dee) 169 propaganda 376 music 494 property animals as 231 natural necessity 501-02 propfans 217 prophecy, almanacs 29 prose, scientific 4-5 protactinium 320 protectionism 719 protein analysis 552 protein deficiency diseases 523 proteins 81, 487 biochemistry 82 chemistry 82 colloid chemistry 142 Fischer 258 molecular studies 143 structure 292 X-ray crystallography 487 Protestant Ethic 646 Protestantism 118 ascetic 646 factionalism 640 industrial progress 702 pain and original sin 543 radical 470-71 science association 469, 471, 640 protocol statements 249 proto-existentialists 600 Proust, Joseph 75 Prout, William 227 proximity fuses 567 Prtvay, Rudolf 754 Prusse, Pelerin de 46 Prussian Academy of Sciences (Berlin) 447 Przibram 697 pseudo-sciences 529 psyche 392, 486 driven 10 psychiatric classification 366 psychiatry 53, 54, 429, 459, 602-03 Adler 10 Africa 16 cognitive imperialism 429 degeneration 170 dynamic 270 identity of women 286 Lorenz 423 mesmerism 472 mind 485, 486 photography 563 professionalization 334 progressive humanitarianism 264 sexuality 686 psychic experiences 392 psychical phenomena, naturalization 609

psychical research 11, 703, 704 psychoactive chemicals 558 psychoanalysis 262, 269, 270, 354, 511 Adler 9 conceptual 603-04 confessional 264 femininity 605 feminism 604, 605, 606 Freud 428 gender 604-06 institutional 606-07 Klein 400-01 mesmerism 471, 472 New Left 440 patient relationship 606 sexuality 605 time-sense 727 training unit 606 psychoanalytic method education 681, 682 Goethe 309 psychobiography, Jung 391 psychogenic pain 544 psychological healing 472 psychology 342, 607-08 abnormal 658 animal 422, 681 Archetypal school 391 associationist 438, 596, 702 behaviourist 682 Cartesian 120 child 346 Classical school 391 cognitive 253, 472, 486 cognitive science paradigm 574 comparative 231, 232 Darwinism influence 166 Descartes 174 Developmental school 391 dialectical materialism 175 discovery 178, 397 education 680, 681 educational 681 Einstein 200 Enlightenment 219 experimental 176, 727 experimentation 247 genetic 681 Helmholtz 331 industrial 436 instruments 678 intelligence 682 Jamesian 355 Jungian 391, 546 Levi-Strauss 414 mammalian behaviour 232 meaning of society for man 354 metaphors from Bach and Escher's work 306 Mill 483 mind 485, 486 moral 511 music 496 observation processes 527 Paracelsus 546 Pavlov 553

QUIPU

GENERAL INDEX philosophy $62 phylogenetic 422 Piaget 574 Priestley 594 professionalization 724 reading 635 research 608 rhetorical tropes 587 scientific creativity 164 Soviet 553 Spencer 702-03 statistics 707 subfields 607 tests 681 themata 723 theoretical 325 therapeutic interventions 264 time 728 traditional healers 730 universal epistemology 619 women in science 736, 765 psychometricians, conservative 607 psychoneuroses 602 psychopathology 603 psychopharmacological drugs 182, 183 psychophysical law 609 psychophysics 213, 214, 608-09 psychophysiological analysis 492 music 494 psychosexual experience 264 psychosexual theory 366 psychosomatic illness 10 psychosomatic symptoms 365 psychotherapy 511, 731 Adler 9, 10 Ptolemaic models 36 Ptolemy 311 geocentric cosmology 150 pub culture 587, 591 public display 242 notion of 5 popularization of science 586 resistance to biotechnology 86 science relationship 80, 342 public analysts 126 public and the private 609-11 public health 327, 345, 611-12 Brazil 656 cholera 225 decision making 460 Germany 235-36, 302 immunology 370 Japan 386 Koch 404 laboratories 67 Latin America 406 Liebig 415 Mexico 656 Netherlands 510 New York sanitary school 327 nutrition 524 physicians 460 self-determination 510 tuberculosis 732 US 736

891

venereal diseases 744 women 771 public lecturing, women 704 public opinion 707 women in society 737 public policy AIDS 23 biology 626 eugenics 626 public regulation, quantification 616 public school rituals 286 public science Japan 386 objectivity 526 public swindles, rain-making experiments 477 public understanding of science 126, 242 Royal Institution 662 public works and policy 327 publication serials 390 Smithsonian Institution 691 women 763, 767 publishing 421 Pueblo world, time 728 puericulture 236 puerperal fever 528 Puerto Rico, traditional birth attendant 730 Pufendorf, Samuel 501 Pugwash movement 382 pulleys, public understanding 242 pulse, fever 256 pulse phenomena, light 534 pumping engines 216, 757 pumping mills 485 pumps 742 punch-cutting 595 punched-card machinery 146, 147 punches 596 punctuality ethic 727 punishment 706 Punnett, Reginald 555 purges 53 purines 81, 258 synthesis 258 Puritanism 469, 646, 680 labour 599 New England 264 Royal Society of London 693 science association 469, 470, 646 purpose, Kant 396 Putnam, Frederick 89 putrefaction 66, 67 Pythagoras 311, 612-13 arithmetic 41 music 492 number 486 Pythagoreans 233, 340, 612-13 harmonic theory 468 identity 612

quadrants 112 quadratic equations 26 theory 196 quadratic forms 521 qualifications in economics 599 quantification 7, 450, 616-17 Franklin 267 geography 566 quantity objection 609 quantum chemistry 565 group theory 314 quantum effect 479 quantum electrodynamics 257, 548, 620 quantum field theory 620 quantum logics 754 quantum mechanics 92, 617-20 abstract 618 astrophysics 52 Boltzmann 94 conceptual development 618 dialectical materialism 175 Einstein 198, 199, 200 Fermi 255 Feynman 257 Heisenberg 93, 329 low temperature phenomena 158 non-relativistic 618 radioactive disintegration 668 relativistic 566 resonance 743 Soviet Union 665 spectroscopy 701 technical development 619 von Neumann 754 Weimar Germany 380 quantum phenomena, macroscopic 158 quantum physics 92, 508, 621 conceptual development 619, 622 Schrodinger 672 quantum postulates 200 quantum theory 55, 59, 329, 508, 620—23 Bohr 93 conceptual background 621 Einstein 198, 199, 200 extensions 622 Germany 302 Nernst 565 old 619 Planck 577 probability 596 public property 200 spectroscopy 701 quarantine 611 quarks 55 fractional charges 591 free 247 theory 123 quartile measures 83 quasars 79 Quesnay, Francois 585 Quetelet, Lambert Adolphe Jacques 83, 623,

qibta 37, 134 quackery 615-16 quacks 544, 615 Quacks' Charter 615-16

probability 596 quinine 97, 182, 347, 536 malaria 432 quipu (Inca) 42, 228

706

892.

QUIPU

Quipu (journal) 144, 405 quotient group 313 Qur'an 642 ethnoscience 230 rabies 67, 611 vaccine 550, 749 race 625-26 anthropological photography 563 anthropometry 33-34 biological interpretation of body 90 birth control 86 Boas 88, 89 Brazil 106 concept 32 demarcation 749 geography 566 German 749 hygiene 234, 235-36 intelligence levels 626 relationship to sex 288 representation 648 science 3 3 sexual differences 90 Virchow 749 welfare spending 626 see atso eugenics; racism racial characters 34 racial doctrine, Nazi 394 racial formalism 89 racial hygiene 318 Nazi 724 racial justice campaigns 608 racial laws, Italy 255 racial superiority 723 racism 23, 31, 32, 607 biological determinism 423 environmental 626 eugenics 235 Germany 272 intelligence testing 607 IQ 682 Nazi ideology 724 population politics 724 progress 601 promotion 242 racial hygiene 234, 235 scientific 625, 626 Western science 561 see also eugenics; race radar 205, 567 Radcliffe-Brown, Alfred Reginald 236, 2-37 radial velocity determination 701 Radiata 716 radiation absorption 618 black-body 200, 576, 577, 617, 619, 621,

622

cosmic microwave background 79 ecology 191 electromagnetic 5 27 entropy 577 free 617, 618, 622 interpretation 623 physics 618, 621

GENERAL INDEX Planck's theory 93 shielding 627 statistical analysis 618 synchrotron 659 theory 621 toxicology 728 Radiation Laboratory (Berkeley) 409, 410 radicalism evolutionary 272 Martineau 438 middle-class 238 Britain 235 radio 205, 718 national networks 727 propagation in polar regions 583 technology 718 wireless technology 203 Radio Corporation of America 718 radio telescopes 722 radio waves 206, 718 detectors 52 Hertz 338 radioactive substances, Pierre and Marie Curie 159 radioactivity 55, 319, 626-28 artificial 255, 518, 722 discovery 518 disintegration theory 480, 627 knowledge of hazards 160 uses 627 women 763 radioastronomy 79 radiochemistry 320, 627 Meitner 464 radioelement classification 627 radioisotopes 81, 628 radiology 459, 628-29 non-medical 628 precision measurement 479 radiometry 52 radiophysics 627 radios 257 radiotherapy, factory-style 479 radiothorium 320 radium economy 479 watch dial painters 460 radon 114 Radon's extension of measure 684 Raey, Joannes de 120 Raffles, Stamford 97 railways 717 culture 727 Japan 388 local and standard time 727 locomotive operation in India 719 locomotives 216 stations 727 rain 477 rain-making 477 Raman, Chandrasekhara Venkata 629 Raman effect 629 Rameau, Jean Philippe 495 ramjets 217 Ramon y Cajal, Santiago 630 Ramsey, William 247

randomatic theory 226 randomization 140, 141 randomized controlled clinical trial 139-41 range accuracy, ballistics 451 range finders 678 Rankine, William John Macquorn 213, 216, 590 energy conservation laws 212 Rateau, Patrik 216 Rathenau, Emil 687 ratio concept 233 rational action, mathematical modelling 631 rational analysis 612 rational choice theories 631, 632 rational demonstration 646 rational mechanics 213, 632-33 rational reconstruction 380 rational science 680 rationalism Aristotle 40, 644 Burnet 727 Descartes 174 Islam 642 Kant 395 medicine 347 Piaget 574 shift to empiricism 646 stage of man 642 rationality 342, 369, 630—32 changing notion 596 Christian 643 debate 631 divine 642 Islam 643 science 561 rauwolfia 182 Ray, John ioi, 708, 716 Rayleigh, John William Strutt 629 Rayleigh-Jeans law of spectral distribution 622

reaction times 727 reactionary movements, biological determinism 423 Read, William 616 reading culture and science 633-36 methods 169 science fiction 673 realism 342, 549, 561 agential 284 epistemological 668 rhetoric 654 scientific facts 250 reality 54, 71, 753 cosmic 580 depiction 751 objective 440 Plato 580 principle 603 reason 311 Enlightenment 367 practical 395 revolts against 601 in Western science 284

REPLICATION

GENERAL INDEX

reasoning deductive 178 Enlightenment xzo national styles 500-01 Reaumur, Ren Antoine Ferchault de 208, 473 recapitulation embryological 272 Piaget 573 Recherches sur les lois d'affinite (Berthollet) 75 Recherches sur les ossemens fossils (Cuvier) 162

reciprocity law 521 recollection theory 486 recombinant DNA research 289, 653 debates 292 moratorium 290 regulation 289 recombinant DNA technology 85, 86, 180 reconciliation, post-World War II 358 record making 226 Recorde, Robert 43 record-keeping 14 recreation 770 rectal surgery 710 Recuerdos de mi vida (Ramon y Cajal) 630 recursion 306 recycling of plastics 578 Red Cross 522 red shift 154 gravitational 638 solar spectrum 661 Redi, Francesco 3, 5, 157 reduction biological 421 embryological 208 reductionism 561 Goethe 308 investigations 652 mechanistic 396 natural science 344 physiological 609 Reed, Walter 67 Reflections on the Decline of Science in England and on some of Its Causes (Babbage) 107 reflectors, speculum metal 721 reflex action 511 reflexivity 33, 696 reform 213 asylums 53, 54 radical 439 Reformation Luther 309 work 770 reformatories 54 reformulation school 118 refraction, true law 254 refrigeration 158 industry 157, 158 regeneration 671 nerve-dependent studies 208 research 208 Regent's Park Zoo, London 97

region concept 222 Regis, Pierre-Sylvain 121 regression 83 regulation quantification 617 school 118 Reich, rise of 301 Reich, Wilhelm 440 psychoanalysis 604 Reichenbach, Hans 247 Reichsanstalt 568 Reid, Thomas 354 reification 440 Reil, J.C. 657, 658 reincarnation 612 reinforcement 681 Reinhold, Karl Leonard 671 relativism 590-91 anthropology 63 2 Big Bang theory 78 Evans-Pritchard 632 historical 33 Kuhn 547 linguistic 417 scientific facts 250 sociology 632 vision 751 relativity 636-39 cosmology 638 Freundlicb 638 general 636, 638 kinematic 638 national systems 638 philosophy 639 popular culture 638 public property 200 Spain 638, 639 special 636, 639 relativity theories 12, 55 cosmology 154 dialectical materialism 175 Einstein 198, 199 Mach 428 Germany 302 Laue 407 religion 342, 639-41 age of the Earth 17 ancient civilizations 230 astronomy 50 Azande 237 Boyle 102 Buffon 109 Caribbean 731 Ghinese 132 Comte 148 Darwinism 239 Durkheim's theory 185 Einstein 200 Faraday 252 fertility control 87 Galen's belief 273 geography 566 geology relationship 108 Halley 322 Harvey 323 hospitals 461

Huxley (Thomas) 363 Huygens 365 Indian science 371 Islam 641-43 Japanese ritual 387 Jung 391 Kant's doctrine 395 Latin America 731 Malthus 433 Martineau 438, 439 medicine 313 medieval 643-45 Napier 499 Nuer 237 oriental 731 Paracelsus 546 plague impact 576 Plato 580 Priestley 594 Renaissance 645-47 Russia 664 Schelling's philosophy 670 science relationship 108 scientific revolution 680 sociological study 185 Spencer 702, 703 spiritualism 703-04 Stensen 708 time 728 traditional healers 730 Umbanda Afro-Brazilian 731 see also Christianity; Islam / Islamic civilization; Jews; Judaism; tbeology Religion of Humanity 439, 589 religious debate, physical anthropology 33 religious orders, nursing 521 religious practices, self constitution 264 religious values, evolutionism 238 remedies 182 medieval science 463 potentized 347-48 Renaissance artists 751 court culture 556 divine order of cosmos 613 Elizabethan 169 gardening 350 Hermetic writings 335 humanism 356, 679 language 416 late 3 Leonardo da Vinci 412, 413 mathematics 228 plastic surgery 577 progress 601 religion 645-47 technical illustration 674 void space 742 Renault's electric car project 718 Rensselaer Polytechnic Universities (Troy, New York) 660 repetitive activity 688 replication 591 institutions 637 sociological account 688

893

894

REPORTS

reports experiments 654 written 310 representation 310, 647-48 man 354 masculine system 286 non-textual 591 repression 10 psychology 608 reproduction control 87 non-sexual 465 regulation 210 Schelling 671 sexual 465 societal 26$ reproductive medicine 314, 649-50 reproductive rights 90 reproductive system, female 708 reproductive technologies 264, 649 women 768, 769 reproductive technology 234 Repton, Humphrey 350 Republic of Letters 219 Republic (Plato) 233, 579 republicanism 272 Rescher, Nicholas 671 research American science 736 chemical industry 187 clinical 139 disciplines 176 dynamic aspects 178 education 681 French universities 266 funding in Erance 266 genetics 706 globalization 382 industrial 193, 443 journal publication 390 Kaiser Wilhelm Institutes 394 Liebig 415, 416 licensing 584 Martineau's practices 439 mathematics 754 microbiology 178 model laboratory 194 national styles 382 physics 660 professor 658 Royal Institution 662 schools 194 schools of physics 697 skill 689 sociology 695 solid state physics 697 spending in Canada 112 state interference 394 teleo-mechanist program 657 tradition 561 training in France 266 universities 739 see atso pharmaceutical research research and development 650-51 research institutes Brazil 105, 106

GENERAL INDEX Hungary 360 resistance electrical 202 measurement standards 213 resonance 743 resonators 577 resource degradation, control in China 133 resource management, tropical 373 respect, core ethical value 455 respiration 651-53 fever 256 intracellular 652 Lavoisier 409 17th-century studies 323 respiratory exchange 652 respiratory ferments 82 respiratory physiology 710 responsibility 327 neurosciences 512 Restoration politics 696 resuscitative care 710 Retreat Asylum (York) 54 revelation 311 Schelling's philosophy 670 revenue fraud 262 reverse salients 718 revivalism, gardening 350 revolution Copernican 336, 653 institutional 568 Jevonian 585 laboratory medicine 35 literary 657 Newtonian 513 Pastorian 457, 551 plate tectonics 297 Romantics 300 Russian 175, 326 technological 644 see atso American Revolution; English Revolution; French Revolution; geological revolution; industrial revolution; scientific revolution revolutionary science 547 Rhesus blood groups 369 Rheticus, Georg Joachim 152 rhetoric 421, 653-54 Greek mathematics 233 humanists 356 morality 603 natural law 502 Oppenheimer 533 Pasteur 611 representation 648 Smith 689 sociology of science 587 theology 355 rhetorical style Boyle 102 Faraday 253 rheumatism, Charcot 125 Rhine, Joseph Banks 703, 704 rhinoplasty 577, 578 Rho, Jacobus 134 rhubarb, medicinal 559-60 rhytidectomy 578

ribonucleic acid see RNA Ribot 334 Ricardo, David 5, 433, 483 political economy 585 Ricci, Matteo 389 rice farming in China 133 Richards, Ellen 345, 346 Riemann, Georg Friedrich Bernhard 299, 300, 684 Riesz-Fischer Theorem 684 right to die 461 rights theory 501 Rinman, Sven 473 Ripley, S. Dillon 691 risk assessment in toxicology 728 risk factors 225 Ritchey, George 721 Rittenhouse, David 654-55 Ritter, Carl 539 Ritter, J.W. 657, 658 ritual analgesics 183 Japanese 387 physical chemistry 565 psychopharmacological drugs 183 public school 286 traditional birth attendants 730 RNA 82, 749 road building in Netherlands 509 Road to Serfdom (Hayek) 325, 326 roads 61 Robinson, Robert 536 Robison, John 758 robotics 118 Rockefeller Foundation 67, 139, 655-56 funding policy 92, 487 nuclear physics 519 Rockefeller Institute 139 rockets 217, 698 engineering 698 rod-engine 19 rodents, plague 575 Roebuck, John 757 Rogers, W.A. 661 Rohault, Jacques 121 rollers, printing 595, 596 Roman civilization astrology 47 ethnoscience 230 opium 728 prehistory 592 science 295 science and technology 230 sexual self-construction 286 Roman gardens 96 Roman group, Fermi's 255 Romantic School 656, 657 Romanticism 656-58 art 674 Britain 657-58 genius cult 300 Germany 300, 302 new structure of science 658 Virchow 748 Rongten rays 628 Rontgen, Wilhelm Conrad 658-60

SCHLEGEL

GENERAL INDEX Rontgen craze 659 Rontgen current 659 Roosevelt, F.D. 653 root doctors 731 Rorty, Richard 486 Roschlaub, A. 671 Rose Case 615-16 Rosicrucianism 169, 335 Ross, Ronald 432 Rossi, Paolo 335 rotation apparatus 203 Rothamsted Experimental Station 84 Rousseau, Jean Jacques 220 expressivism 657 Kant influence 395 Levi-Strauss 414 natural law 502 rationality debate 631 sociology 695 Roux, Emile 67, 72 Rowland, Henry Augustus 660-61 Rowntree, Joseph 170 Roy, Henri de 120 Royal Academy of Sciences (Paris) 495 Royal Botanic Gardens, Edinburgh (Scotland) ^6, 100-01 Royal Botanic Gardens, Kew (London) 97, 100

Royal Canadian Institute 113 Royal College of London 461-62 Royal College of Obstetricians and Gynaecologists (London) 528 Royal College of Physicians (London) 615 Royal College of Veterinary Surgeons (London) 746 Royal Edinburgh Infirmary (Scotland) 552 Royal Free Hospital (London) 628 Royal Geographical Society (London) 566 Royal Institute of Chemistry (London) 126 Royal Institution (London) 158, 661-62 Davy 21, 168 Faraday 251, 253 galvanic battery 280 Royal Microscopical Society (London) 481 Royal Navy electrochemistry applications for ships 168 scientific expeditions 583 Royal Pharmaceutical Society (London) 560 Royal Society of Canada 113 Royal Society of Chemistry (London) 130 Royal Society of London i, 662-64, 680 authority 6^6 Banks 70, 71 colonialism 735 Davy 168 Faraday 251, 253 foundation 693 Hooker 348, 349 humanist views 356 Italian connections 516 Joule 213 Maupertuis's contributions 447 meteorological instruments 476 natural law 502 Puritans 470, 646

Rumford Medal 338 science promotion in America 735 scientific expeditions 583 Royal Society of New Zealand 60 Royal Statistical Society (London) 140 Royal Swedish Academy of Sciences 516, 517 Royce, Josiah 671 rubber 97 colloid chemistry 142 industry 578 natural / synthetic 578 Rubbia, Carlo 123, 255 Rubi, Mariano 564 Rudbeck, Olaus 711 Rudolph II 155 Rule of False Position 42 Rule of Three 42 rules, objectivity 526 Rutes of Sociotogicat Method (Durkheim) 185 ruling gratings 661 ruling screw 661 Rumford Kitchen (Chicago World's Fair; 1893) 345 Rumovskii 666 Ruskin, John 601 Russell, Bertrand 63, 580, 581 Idealism criticism 671 Logicism 684 mathematical logic 307 new logics 588 set theory 115, 684, 685 Russia 664-65 Russian Academy of Sciences 665-66 Bureau of Weights and Measures 479 eugenics 236 Humboldt's expedition 357 medicinal rhubarb 560 Normanist theory of origins 666 relativity 638 Soddy's research 627 women in medicine 766 see also Soviet Union Russian Revolution 175 Hayek 326 Rutherford, Ernest 55, 320, 519, 666-68 alpha-scattering measurements 93 atomic theory 623 nuclear model of atom 622 radioactivity 627 Rutherford, Lewis 563 Rutherford, L.M. 661 Ruysch, Frederick 29 S-matrix theory 178 Sabin, Albert 749 Saccheri, Girolamo 233 Sachs, Julius 100, 418 Sade, Marquis de 544 safe-cracking 257 safety measures for radioactivity 628 Saggi di naturali experienze 4, 274 sailors 403 St George's Hospital (London) 361 Saint-Hilaire, Geoffroy 161, 489, 490

895

St Mark's Hospital (London) 458 St Petersburg Academy (Russia) 633, 693 St Petersburg problem 596 St Petersburg University (Russia) 466 Saint-Simon, Henry de 147, 148 Salk, Jonas 749 Salk Institute (California; US) 250, 591, 696 Salmon, Daniel Elmer 67 Salpetriere hospital (Paris) 124, 125 saltationists 239 salts classification 128 theory of 76-77 salvarsan 140, 197 San Diego Wild Animal Park (California) 98 sanatorium 732 sand drawing 14 Sandage, Allan 79 Sandemanian religion 252 Sanderson, John Burdon 437,747 Sanger, Frederick 353 Sanger, Margaret 87 sanitarians 326 sanitary devices 327 sanitation, international cooperation 225 sanocycin 141 Sanskrit medical texts 371 Sarjant, Ethel 764 Sarton, George 342, 380 Sartre, Jean-Paul Levi-Strauss 414 visual theory 751 satellites 698 Saturn Huygens's observations 364 rings of 4 Saussure, Ferdinand de 328, 414, 417, 671, 705 Savery, Thomas 215-16 saw mills 484 Saxton, J. 661 Say, Jean Baptiste 452 scale Aristotle's notion of 715 of being 162 scales theory 452 Scaliger, Joseph 416 scallops 403 Scandinavia botany 99 eugenics movement 235, 711 meteorology 477 polar science 583 see also Denmark; Norway; Sweden Sceptical Chymist (Boyle) 24 sceptics 704 Schallmayer, Wilhelm 234, 235 Scheele, Carl Wilhelm 669-70 Scheiner, Christoph 388, 389 Schelling, Friedrich Wilhelm Joseph von 2-93. 539. 657, 658, 670-71 schemata, abstract 220 Schiller, Herbert 376, 657 schizophrenia, double-bind theory 71 Schlegel, August Wilhelm 657

896

SCHLEGEL

Schlegel, Friedrich 657 Schlegel, Karoline 670 Schleiden, M.J., cell theory 748 Schleiermacher, F.E.D. 657 Schlick, Ernst Otto 149 Schlick, Moritz 588 Schlumberger, research and development 651 Schmidt Camera 711 Schneeberger Krankheit 114 Schneider, Rudi 703 Schoenbein, Christian Eriedrich 251 Schoenberg, Arnold 496 scholars 658 scholasticism 658 scholastics 356 origins of mankind 592-93 schooling 194 schools 681 culture 214, 215 discovery 682 genetics 292 punishment 706 science curriculum 194 science education 194-95 surveys 680 technical 194-95, 738 Schopenhauer, Artur 72, 600 Schott, Gaspar 389 Schrodinger, Erwin 93, 617, 671-72 genius 294 quantum mechanics 619, 620 Schumpeter, Joseph 601, 689 Schuppe, Wilhelm 427 Schutz, Alfred 695 Schwann, Theodore 748 Schwartz, David 353 Schweigger, Johann Salome Christoph 203 Schwender, Simon 167 science accountancy-based reforms 7 ancient 312 art relationship 71 capitalist production 117 community forum 242 Davy 168 Denmark 172 discourse at Royal Society of London 663 early Victorian 759 education 301 Enlightenment 220 faculties in France 265 feminist criticism 285 feminist theory 284 Galileo 276 literature relationship 300 medieval 312 modern 294 Newtonian model of practising 292 organization 258 orthodox 703 permanent mobilization 69^ political reform 301 promotion 29 religion relationship 108 of science 80

GENERAL INDEX social studies 688 Soviet Union 175 sustainable 284 theory in Germany 302 world standard time 727 see also academic science; management, sciences; policy; social sciences Science and Civilization in China (Lu & Needham) 8 Science Citation Index 390 science fiction 672-73 women 286 Science Museum (London) 242, 491, 532 scientific change 547 paradigm theory 149 scientific claims 249 scientific collections, oceanography 531 Scientific Committee on Antarctica 584 scientific communities construction 80 Japan 385 social contract 289 scientific detection 261-62 scientific display and public nature 126 scientific enquiry, societies 693 scientific illustration see illustration scientific optimism. Big Science 80 scientific order 6^6 scientific phenomena, anthropological analysis 377 scientific problem formulation 40 scientific revolution 303, 342, 678-80 art 752 barometer 476 books 635 experimentation 246, 247 internalism-externalism debate 381 Kuhnian 291 Marxist analysis 368 Mersenne 468 Merton Thesis 471 nature 507 Paracelsus 546 progress 600 religion interactions with science 641 steam press 634-35 17th-century 169 scientific societies, journals 390 scientific state 147 scientific theory acceptance 250 facts 249, 250 observation 527 political ideology 301 scientific thought, Buffon 109, n o scientific unbelief 363 scientists anthropological observation 250 professional 282 ruling class in Soviet Union 664 stereotypes 586-87 work 771 Scoresby, William 583 Scotland chemical industry 374 dyes 186

Highlands 583 Highlands Controversy 297 hospitals 352 instrument makers 379 lichens 186 philosophy 354 phrenology 564 playgrounds 682 political economy 690 water-powered mills 485 Watt 757 Scottish Enlightenment 148, 219-20, 354 scrapie 750 screen printing 595 scribes, professionalization 196 script, proto-cuneiform 228 scriptures prophecies 595 prophetic books 514 time 726 scrofula 710 scurvy 139 trial of cures 140 sea currents 532 Seaborg, Glenn 409 seafarers 243 see also expeditions; exploration sea-floor spreading, drift mechanism 149 seance 704 Searles, Harold 604 Second Sophistic 273 secondary process 603 secrecy teach-in at British Association 107

secret agent 169 secret societies 219 sectioning 482 secular learning 65 secular professions, nursing 522 secularism 704 secularization France 125 pain 543 theology 646 thesis of progress 600 Sedgwick, Adam 297, 425 sedimentary cycling 297 seduction theory 269 seed industry in America 86 seed preservation 762 seeing, philosophical prejudice 220 Segre, Emilio Gino 300, 409 Seguin, Marac 212 Seki Kowa 682.-83 Selater, Philip Lutley 97 Selborne (England) 222 selection artificial 503 technology 718 theory 239, 504 selectionism 164, 239 selenium 76 self 681 constitution 264 construction 429 history 286

GENERAL INDEX meanings 376 metaphor 369, 370 self-analysis, Freud 269 self-care 344 self-command 689, 690 self-determination indigenous 373 patients 455 public health 510 self-development 738 self-education 704 self-experimentation 657 self-fashioning 155, 286 self-governance of British colonies in America 266 self-hood 512 self-identity 155 self-induction 202 self-inoculation. Hunter 361 self-interest 689 self-knowledge 401 self-organizing phenomena 124, 671 self-reference 306 Seligman, Charles 236 semen donation 649 semiconductors 697 industry 697, 698 transistor 203 semi-inference pattern 178 semiotics 414, 653, 705 sensation analysis 428 measurement 609 Mersenne 468 sensationalism 231, 495 sense-extending devices 676 senses analogies 496 internal powers 231 physiology 412 sensibility 671, 752 bodily 78, 543 literature 421 measurement 609 sensory symptoms of pain 544 sensory system 511 serendipity, discovery 179 serfdom 325 serological tests 67 serology 261 serum therapy 72 Servetus, Michael 323, 640 set theory 115, 116, 307, 683-85 axiomizations 684 Cantorian 308, 684 consistency proofs 307 paradoxes 306, 308 transfinite 684 settlement patterns 16 Severgin 666 Severi 300 Severinus, Petrus 356 sewer gas 327 sewing machines 454, 717 sex anthropology 284

SLEEP anthropometry 34 biology 210 construction 288 gender 287-88 surveys 686 therapy 686 venereal disease 744 sex determination 287 theory 466 sex hormones 82, 210, 649 archeology 288 sexism Hodgkin 343 Oxbridge 343 Western science 561 see also feminism; gender; women sexology 170 sextant 508 sex-typed fields of work 737 sexual attitudes to birth control 86 sexual behaviour 686 regulation 210 sexual desire, demonized 286 sexual difference 90, 284 body 90 sexual discrimination 767 sexual identity, masculine 286 sexual organ ambiguity 207 sexual orientation of Humboldt 358 sexual partners, animals as 231 sexual pathology 685 sexual politics in Germany 235 sexual reproduction, variation 503 sexual science 284 Aristotle 287 Western science 288 sexual self-construction 286 sexual toys 312 sexual treatises, Chinese 135 sexuality 10, 287, 685-86 British attitudes 744 Enlightenment 220 Foucault 264 Freud 604 history 286 infantile 603 medical discourse 463 natural form 288 primates 34 psychoanalysis 605 representation 648 sexually transmitted diseases 23, 744-45 Sforzeide 413 shadow 392 shafting, mills 484 Shakespeare, William 116 shamans 612, 730 shape in sociomathematics 228 Shattuck, Lemuel 326 Shelford, Victor Ernest 192 shell shock 366 Shelley, Mary 672, 673 Sherrington, Charles 260, 511 shiatsu 731 Shibasaburo, Kitasato 72, 385 Shibukawa Harumi 683

Shintoism 13 ship-building 717 ships electrochemistry applications 168 oceanographic 532 steam turbine propulsion 216 shivering 256 shop culture 214 shop floor management 435 Shoushi li 683 shu 134 shunts, electrical 203 Sibbald, Robert ^19 Tertiary subdivision 424 testimony 5 testing educational 680, 681 intelligence 457, 626, 681 IQ 9 0 , 3 8 1 mental 707 testosterone 649 textile industry 717 Hungary 360 Netherlands 510 skill 687 spinning jenny 412 technology transfer 719 textile mills 484, 485 engines 216 steam power 310 textiles dyestuffs 186 printing 186 technology 14 Thacker, Christopher 350 Thales of Miletus 201 Thanatos 603 theatre acoustics 8 orientalism 537 Theiler, Max 749 themata 722-23 thematic analysis 723 Thenard, Louis 282 theodolites 268 Theodoric of Freiberg 37, 247 theological beliefs of Cantor 116

GENERAL INDEX theological ideas of epidemics 223 theological stage of man 642 theological state 147 theology Christian 644 cosmology 644-45 Darwinism 166, 239 early Victorian 759 Galileo 276 Hermes 335 human science 355 humanism 355 Huxley (Thomas) 363 Islamic 36, 642 Jesuits 389 Kepler 398 Leibniz 410 Linnaeus 418 Malthus 433 metaphysics 645 metrology 478 natural 504 natural philosophy influence 646 New England 355 Newton 514 Pavlov 553 Priestley 594, 595 rhetorical 355 science conflict 640 secularization 646 Stensen 707 void space 742 voluntarism 646 Theophrastus, botanical garden 96 theoretical coherence 183 Theoretical Groundwork of the Philosophy of Nature (Schelling) 671 theoretical physics 95, 183, 199, 200, 567, 591, 619 Germany 206 post-war research 620 Rutherford 668 Theoretical Physics Institute, Budapest 754 theoretical properties 527 theoretical technologies 638 Theorie Physique (Duhem) 184 theory, experimentation 247 Theory of Moral Sentiments (Smith) 689 Theory of the Earth (Hutton) 362 theory-ladenness 527 theory-observation dichotomy 526-27 theory-practice nexus 590 theosophy 703 therapeutic choice 16 therapeutic concepts 181 therapeutic confinement 53, 54 therapeutic efficacy judgement 140 statistics 707 therapeutic experiments 141 therapeutic interventions 264 therapeutic reformers 141 therapeutic relationship 10 therapeutic substances 352

TOBACCO MOSAIC VIRUS therapeutic trials randomization 140 see also clinical trials therapeutics 552, 557 medieval medical knowledge 557 value for money 615 therapy evaluation 139 Galen 273 theriophily 231 thermal measurement 450 thermodynamic irreversibility 622 thermodynamic laws fifth 450 literature 421 third 565 thermodynamic theory 55, 58-59 Boltzmann 94 of solutions 565 thermodynamic upper-air modelling 476 thermodynamics 211-12, 213, 328, 565, 671 astrophysics 52 chemical 565 Duhem 183 Einstein 200 force 12 Helmholtz 331 Laue 407 refrigeration technology 158 statistical 633 steam engineering 450 steam power 216 third theorem 508 thermometer 328 clinical 256 development 475 impact 476 thermometric instruments 328 thermonuclear blast 533 thermoscope 328, 476 thinking method of Enlightenment 218 Third Reich 235, 723-24 Heisenberg 330 Humboldt 357 science-state relations 56 Third Republic (France) 125, 705 Third World 23 development 305 Rockefeller Foundation 655 technology transfer 717 women in science 761 work 771 Thirty Years' War 156, 525 Thistleton-Dyer, William 349 Thomas Aquinas 644 Thomism 184, 501, 502 Thompson, Benjamin (Count Rumford) 328, 661, 662 Thomson, J.A. 334 Thomson, William (Lord Kelvin) 11, 18, 203, 205, 206, 448 age of earth 727 energy conservation laws 212 measurement 450 natural philosophy 213

903

science 117 vortex atom theory 701 work 770 Thomson, J.J. 55, 623, 668, 724-26 electron discovery 701 Thomsonians 347 Thoreau, Henry 191 Thorek, Max 577 thorium 76, 627 Thorndike, Edward L. 681 thought-collectives 72, 548 scientific 178 threatened species, zoological gardens 97 three body problems 580 three stages, law of 438 three states, law of 147, 148 throat swabs 67 Throop College of Technology (Pasadena; US) 483 Throop Polytechnic Institute (US) 320 Thucydides 726 Thunberg, Carl Pieter 386 Tibet astronomy 49, 50 Indo-British mapping 371 metallurgy 473 tidal friction 149 tides polar regions 582 predictors 111 Tieck, Ludwig 657 Timaeus (Plato) 492, 579, 580, 612 time 141, 726-28 bi-directional 306 Chinese attitudes 132 concepts 14, 638 cultural aspects 229 deep 727 measurement 142, 310 Napier 499, 500 nature of 392 standardized world 141 telling with astrolabe 44 unidirectional 727 time and motion studies 435 time signal distribution 727 timekeeper of mosque 37 timekeeping 141 Arabic 36, 37 astronomy 50, 51 time-sense age-specific 727 internalization 726 Tinbergen, Nikolaas 231, 232, 422 tinkering model 179 Tinsley, Beatrice 762 tissue culture technique 207 tissue irritability 323 tissue sectioning 341 tissue structure 341 tissue theory 77 titrimetry 126 tobacco 728 smoke 114 testing for taxation 130 tobacco mosaic virus 749

904

GENERAL INDEX

TOCQUEVILLE

Tocqueville, Alexis de 460 Tokugawa period 385, 386 tomography 628 Tonempfindungen (Helmholtz) 496 tonics, Chinese medicine 136 tools 453 agricultural in China 133 Japan 387 sensory 378 topographic hypothesis 603 topography Canada 113 maps 122 topographical-historical 172 topology differential 580 methods 271 Poincare 580, 581 Toronto Magnetic and Meteorological Observatory 477 Toronto University fisheries research, Canada 222

Torres Strait fieldwork 244 Torricelli, Evangelista 274, 276, 742 Torricellian experiment 476 Torricellian vacuum 742 Tory, H.M. 113 Tory politics 11 totalitarianism 325, 326, 501, 664 totemism 414 Toulmin, Stephen 474 tourism 563 Tousey, Richard 699 tower clocks 141 Tower of Babel story 625 Towneley, Richard 470 toxic waste dumps and minority communities 626 toxicology 262, 728-29 drugs 182 forensic 182 toxins 182 toys, gender 718 Tracey, Antoine Destutt de 367 tracking 14 Tract against Ursus (Kepler) 399 traction, electricity 205 trade art 675 directories for dentistry 173 healing practices 17 health 17 international 478 networks and plague spread in China 137 political economy 585 trading zones 591 tradition, local 382 traditional ecological knowledge (TEK) 584 traditional healers 16 AIDS 23 birth attendants 730 networks 731 professionalization 731 traditional medicine 14, 16, 145, 729-31 see also alternative medicine; complementary medicine

tragedy 544 Traite elementaire de chimie (Lavoisier) 127, 128, 408, 409 traits, acquired 626 hereditary transmission 625 trams 718 Transactions of the Royal Society 476 transatlantic cable 203, 204 transcendalism, medieval garden 350 transcendental method of Kant 396, 657 transcendental numbers 521 transdisciplinarity 177 transducers 8 transduction 291 transference 603, 606 transfinite numbers 684, 685 abstract theory i r 6 transformation 291 in measurement 452 processes 657 theory 617 transformism, morphology-based 272 transistors 203, 697, 698 transitional objects 604 translation 417 transmission lines 717 mills 484 transmutation 24, 627 Lyell 425 Rutherford 667, 668 of species 232 transmutationists 108 transnational communities 383 transnational problems 382 transport, ancient 312 transposition 764 transubstantiation 276, 644 transuranic elements 627 transvestism 685 travel environmental sciences 222 journals 142 polar 582, 583 scientific 244 Sweden 711 travellers geography 566 hospitals 461 travelling association 599 Treatise on Domestic Economy (Beecher) 345 Treatise on Electricity and Magnetism (Maxwell) 448-49 Treatise on Mitts and Mitlwork (Fairbairn) 484 Treatise on Money (Keynes) 400 Treatise on the Astrolabe (Chaucer) 45-46 Trembley, Abraham 208 trepidations, theory of 152 Treviso Arithmetic 6 Trevithick, Richard 216 trial of Galileo 276 triangulation 582 geodesic 226 Triewald, Marten 216

trigonometric series 683, 684 trigonometry, Islamic 36 Trinitarianism Coleridge 658 Hildegard of Bingen 765 Trinity College, Cambridge 251, 758, 759 Trinity doctrine, Newton's denial 514 Trinity House 251 triphenyl methane dyestuffs 258 trona 75 tropical diseases 23 Trudeau, Edward Livingstone 732 trust 5 truth 733 truth-seeking 356 tsarist regime 664 Tschermak 465, 466 tuberculosis 23, 67, 224, 731-32 decline 326 Koch 404 miners 17 pulmonary 141 see also valves, electronic Tuberkulin 404 Tuke, William 220, 602 tuning fork 497 turbine pumps 217 turbo air compressors 217 turbojet 217 turboprop engines 217 Turgot, Anne Robert Jacques 601, 633 Turin Academy (Italy) 62 Turing, Alan M. 307, 446, 732-33 Turing machine 733 Turing test for artificial intelligence 306 Turkey astronomy 51 women in science 761 Turner, Joseph Mallord William 421 Turner, William 333 Tusi-couple 36 Twente Technical University (Holland) 509 two sex model of biological divergence 288 two-fold exhalation theory of Aristotle 19 Tychonic world system 104 Tylor, Edward 32 Tyndall, John 107, 211, 704 Faraday 251 Royal Institution 661, 662 X-Club 349 typefaces 595. 59^ type-founding $95-96 typesetting, computerized 595, 596 typhoid fever 67, 256 Typhoid Mary 460 typhus 223, 224, 225 media coverage 587 vaccine production 72 typography 635 tyranny 309 Tyson, Edward 33 UA2 experiment (CERN) 123 Ulam, Stanislaw 353

GENERAL INDEX Ulloa 244 ultracentrifuge 81 ultrasound 528, 629 ultra-violet light 657 Umbanda Afro-Brazilian religion 731 Unani medical schools 73 r Unani Tibb medicine 371, 372 uncertainty principle 618 relation 596 unconscious 10, 269, 342, 603 Jung 391 mesmerism 472 metaphor 429 undecidability theorem 307 unemployment 400, 770-71 UNESCO 304, 305 unification 722 Unified Science 588 uniformitarianism 108, 424, 727 Lyell 545 Unilever 375 Unitarianism 438 Unitarians, immune phenomena 369 unitary theory of chemistry 743 United Kingdom see Britain; England; Scotland United Nations (UN) 304 Environment Programme (UNEP) 305 world order 382 United States 735-36 agriculture 21 almanacs 28, 29 astronomy 50 astronomy of Southwest 50 asylums 54 automobiles 61 bacteriologists 67 biochemistry 81-82 biotechnology 85 botanical gardens 96 botany ^^ British Colonies 144 cardiology 119, 120 chemical industry 374 clinical science 139 colonialism 144 Constitution 267 cultural history 193 dentistry 173 Department of Defense 479 dye industry 187 ecology 192, 222 education 681 education system 638 elite scientists 735 eugenics 234 European encounter with ancient civilizations 230 experimental physiology 245 Fermi 255 food habits 523 FSX fighter co-development agreement with Japan 387 geneticization 285 health care provision 611

URANIBORG OBSERVATORY health rights 460-61 health system 327 hospital architecture 352 hospitals 352 immigrants 89 industrial environment 327 industrial power 216 information 375 instrument makers 661 internal medicine 459 international science 382 Japanese industrial methods 387 Keynesian economics 400 knowledge mapping 376 litigation 460 machine technology 717 malaria 432 marine science 531 Marshall plan 453 materials science 567 mathematics 446 mechanization 453, 454 medical system 655 metrology 479 mills 484 museums 491 neo-Lamarckism 238 Nobel laureates 517 oceanographic ships 532 organic chemistry 536 paranormal 704 pathology 552 pharmacology 558, 559 philanthropy 656 photography 562 physical chemistry 565 physics 533, 567 plastic surgery 578 popular culture 638 popularization 586 psychiatry 459 public policy 626 Puritanism 469 quantum physics 619-20 radioactivity 627 radiology 628 rain-making experiments 477 relativity 638 research and development 651 security system 533 social welfare 327 sociology 695 solid state physics 698 space science 69S-99 spiritualism 704 standardization 705 state / federal involvement in science projects 410 statistics 707 textile industry 719 thought style 500-01 time 727 traditional medicine 731 tuberculosis 732 universities 738 venereal diseases 744

905

vitamin supplementation 524 water pump 760 wilderness 506 withdrawal from UNESCO 305 women in medicine 766 women of science 736-37, 761, 765 zoological illustration 675 see also atomic bomb; Manhattan Project United States Botanic Garden 97 United States National Museum 691 unity idea 657 of type 271 Unity of Science movement 428, 589 Universal Expositions 242 Universal Natural History and Theory of the Heavens (Kant) 396 universal structures, hidden 574 universalism, philosophical 357 universality, Humboldt 358 universe 153 Christian theology 642 Copernican 303 evolutionary model 154 expanding 78, 638 expansion 154 geocentric model 134 heliocentric model 134 high-energy 699 inflationary 79 Kepler 722 music 497 origin 568 Paracelsian concept 104-05 Ptolemaic 679 rationality 641 Steady State model 154 structure 336-37 unified cosmos 644 Victorian quest 704 universities 738-39 civic 738 elite 739 France 266 Germany 621, 738 land-grant 346, 738 medieval curriculum 209 modernization 738 national system 176 positivism 589 professionalization 599 Romantic institutions 658 science faculties 266 Spain 700 Third Reich 724 women in science 761 University College, London 84 University College Hospital, London 557 University of London 363 Unknown 703 unorthodox medicine 145 complementary nature 146 Unreason 220, 264 Uppsala University (Sweden) 711 upskilling 688 Uraniborg observatory (Denmark) 104

9O6

URANIUM

uranium 627 fission 464 machines 330 miners 114 nucleus splitting 464 uranium bomb 56 German project 330 Uranus 226, 336, 337 Uranuerein 330 urban life artifacts, ancient 312 urban phenomena, American science 735 urban sanitation "327 urban underclass, eugenics 235 urbanism, Latin America 406 urbanization 326, 327 cultural context 230 traditional healers 731 uric acids 69 urogynaecology 314 uroscopy 615 users of technology technology transfer 720 Ussher, Archbishop 362 USSR see Soviet Union usury 585 utilitarianism 483 Banks 71 chemical analysis 126 Martineau 438 natural law 502 Smith 631 Swedish science 711 Whewell's rejection 758-59 utility companies 718 V-2 missile 698 vaccination 550 vaccines 749 production 550 recombinant DNA technology 86 traditional research 86 vacuum 476, 741-42 vacuum cleaners 771 vacuum pumps 476, 725 vacuum tubes 718 vagrancy 170 valence 743 valency 59 Valla, Lorenzo 355-57 Vallicrosa, Millas 699-700 values 705 Chinese 132 valves electronic 203 public understanding 242 Van Allen, James 699 van den Broek, J.K. 386 van der Graff generators 204 van der Waerden 300 Van Helmont, Jan Baptista 24 van Leeuwenhoek, Antoni 29, 66 bacteriology 67 van Meerdervoort, J.L.C. Pompe 386 van Schooten, Frans 254 van Schurman, Anna 283

GENERAL INDEX van Waterschoot van der Gracht, W.A.J.M. 149 Vandermonde, Charles Auguste 473 Vanini 468 van't Hoff, Jacobus Henricus 69, 565, 743 Varese, Edgar 496 variants 468 variation coefficient 278 Darwin's studies 238, 504 technology 718 vascular disease 182 vascular surgery 709 Vaux, Clotilde de 148, 589 Vavilov, Nikolay Ivanovich 426 vectors, mathematical 26 Vedas 370, 371 vegetable chemistry 81 vegetable matter analysis 409 Velikovsky 124 Velpeau, Alfred-Armand-Louis-Marie 577 venereal diseases 459, 744-45 Venn, John 596 Venus expeditions 563 transits 633, 654 veracity 5 Vercelli College (Italy) 62 Verdienste der Frauen um Naturwissenschaft Gesundheits-, und Heitkunde (Harless) 761 verification 249, 560, 561 empirical 588 Verne, Jules 672 Versailles gardens (France) 96 Versuche iiber Pftanzenhyhriden (Mendel) 465 vertebrates fossils 545 internal anatomy 162 Vesalius, Andreas 30, 4 1 , 323, 356, 709, 710, 745-46 Vestiges of the Natural History of Creation (Chambers) 635 veterinary practice 747 veterinary schools 747 veterinary science 746-47 professionalization 747 vibration 58 physics 8 Vico, Giambattista 18 victimization, AIDS 23 victimology 366 Victorian gardens 350 video cassette recorder 705 videotex 705 Vienna (Austria) 5 89 Adler 9-10 Schrodinger 672 Vienna Circle 588 logical positivists 249 Mach 428 Vienna physics research school 697 Vienna University (Austria) 305, 306, 307

Vieta (Viete), Francois 254 Vietnam War 567, 607 CIA programs 608 Villerme, Louis-Rene 326, 327, 707 Vine-Matthews-Morley hypothesis 149 vintners, arsenic cancers 114 violence 673 coercive of state 90 viper venom 729 viral research 82 cancer 114 Virchow, Rudolf 284, 302, 326, 552, 747-49 Neumann 510 public health 327 virology 289, 749-50 molecular 81 virtual oscillator theory 619 virtue 590 virulence 550 vision 750-52 cognition 751 panoramic 727 Raman 629 visionary pain 544 visual arts 647 visual descriptions, aesthetic issues 243 visual imagery geology 297 photography 562 visual perception theories 751 visual representation 647 visual technologies 751 visual thinking 648, 751 visual virtuosity 635 visualization, bacteriology 404 vital phenomena 652 vital statistics 712 vitalism 181, 422, 748, 752-53 complementarity principle 619 critical 753 Germany 302, 618 Goethe 309 Hunter 361 modern 753 naive 753 phenomena of life 652 reproductive technology 649 respiration 652 vitalist theory 77, 78 vitality 671 nurturing in Chinese medicine 136 vitamin B12 536 X-ray photographs 343 vitamins 81, 85, 182 discovery 523 supplementation 524 Vitruvian ideas 169 Vitruvius 8 Viviani, Vincenzo 3, 274, 275, 276 vivisection 323, 746 life force experiments 486 techniques 245 void space 741, 742 Voigt, Karl 301 Voider, Burchardus de 120

GENERAL INDEX volkish variants 724 Voipe, Galvano Delia 440 Volta, Alessandro 205, 279, 671, 753-54 voltage 202 standards 204, 479 voltaic battery 279 voltaic electricity 203 voltaic pile 203, 280, 539, 676 Ritter 657 Voltaire 625 women 761 voltmeters 203, 204 volumetric analysis 283 voluntarism 185, 646 voluntary action 511 von Neumann, John 71, 147, 446, 585, 618, 684, 754-55 von Neumann machine 754 voodoo 731 Voronoi 521 vortex system 448 vortex-atom theory of matter 11, 12, 701 voyages, representation 648 Vucetich, Juan 262 Vulcanists 296 Vygotsky, Lev Semenovich 573, 574 W particles 123 Waddington, C.H. 208 wage-labour 771 Wagner, Herbert 217 Wagner, Richard 67, 332 Waismann, Friedrich 588 Waksman, Selman 732 Walaeus, Johannes 323 Walden, Paul 541 Wallace, Alfred Russell genius 294 natural selection 432-33, 503, 504 spiritualism 704 Walras, Leon 585 Wapolski 152 Warburg, Otto 82 Ward, Mrs Humphry 589 Wargentin, Pehr Wilhelm 711 Waripiri people 228 war/warfare 16,342 biologically-based 14 imperial 563 machines 39 macroparasitism 224 mathematics 446 model 643, 644 mutilation 577 nuclear 319 poisons 729 Scandinavia 171-72 surgery 709, 710 technology 717 world standard time 727 wound treatment 709 see also military; weapons Wasan school of mathematics 682 washing machines 771 Washington, George 691 dental problems 173

WHITTLE Wassermann, August von 72, 197 Wassermann reaction 548, 590 waste incineration 719 watches dial painters 460 spiral spring invention 365 water analysis 126 Hippocratic ideals 611 hygienic quality 67 Schelling 671 water clocks, Chinese 141-42 water power 484-85 water pump 757, 760 water turbines 217, 485 water-pumping engine 19 waterwheels 484-85, 719 Watson, James 142, 292, 487 discovery of double-helix 178, 291 genetic code 653 master molecules 284 NIH Office of Human Genome Research 353 popularization 587 Watson, John 608, 681 Watt, James 216, 310, 311, 757-58 steam engine 328, 719 wattmeters 203 wave mechanics 93, 617, 618, 619 Schrddinger 671, 672 wave packets 93 wave propagation 364 wave theory 534 of light 534-35 wavelength, spectral line 480 Way of the Carpenter 387 weak-interaction theory 257 wealth accumulation 689 analysis 219 disparities between states 454 weapons development in US 410 factories 717 of mass destruction 533 Napier 499 nuclear fission 55-56 see also atomic weapons; nuclear weapons weaving 716 see also textile industry Weber, Ernst Heinrich 543, 609, 694 sociology 695 Weber, Max 27, 213 capitalism 117, 118 Webster, Charles 470, 646 Wegener, Alfred 148-49 environmental sciences 222 weights, gold of Akan 14 weights and measures 5, 14, 479 Gauss 281 Mendeleev 479 Reichsanstalt 568 Weil, Andre 300 Weil conjectures 521 Weimar Republic 317, 724 international science 382

907

Kaiser Wilhelm Institutes 394 quantum mechanics 380 Weismann, August 166, 208, 753 germ plasm 504, 753 heredity 333 Weizsacker, Carl Friedrich von 330 Welch, William Henry 67 Weldon, Walter ER. 278 Pearson 554, 555 Weldon Walter ER. 83, 84 welfare economics 585 industrial growth 601 policy 710 welfare state 454 Wells, H.G. 589, 672 Weltanschauung, Schrodinger's 671, 672 Wen, Marshall 137 Wepfer, Johann Jakob 729 Werner, Abraham Gottleb 296, 297 Lyell's account 424 Wesley, John 33 West Orange laboratory (USA) 193, 194 Western culture nature 505 technology 454 Western Electric factory 435 Western medicine 8, 9 Western science 288 wet engineering 24 wetware 601 Weyer, Johannes 365 Weyl, Hermann 300, 313, 314 relativity 638 whaling 305, 583 Wharton School, management education 436 wheat culture improvement 426 Wheatstone, Charles 203, 205 speaking machines 497 Wheeler, John 257 wheels, assembly 6T Whewell, William 251, 424, 758-59 Whig histories geography 566 metallurgy 473 psychiatry 602, 603 Royal Society of London 663 spectroscopy 701 time 726 Whig values 213 Whipple Museum of the History of Science (Cambridge) 677 Whipsnade Zoo (England) 98 whispering galleries 629 White, Gilbert 191, 222 White, Paul Dudley 119 White Man's Grave 432 white noise spectra, random 124 Whitehead, John Henry Constantine 63, 588 Whitehouse, E.O.W. 451 Whitmore, Hugh 733 Whitney, Eli 61 Whittaker, Edmund 206 Whittle, Frank 217

GENERAL INDEX

WHORF Whorf, Benjamin Lee 417 Whytt, Robert 78, 752 Wiedemann, Gustav 357 Wien, Wilhelm 576, 621 Wiener, Norbert 71, 446 Wilberforce, Samuel 107 Wilcke, J.C. 670 wilderness 506 wildlife conservation in botanical gardens 97 management 192 Wilkes Expedition 97 Willan, Robert 459 Willard, Emma 737 William de Moerbecke 699-700 Williamson, A.W. 743 Willis, Thomas 245, 712, 752 investigation 546 neuroscience 511 tuberculosis 732 Willis, William 386 Wilson, Curtis 49 Wilson, Edward O. 441, 653 Wilson cloud chamber 518, 567 Wimshurst machines 204 wind gauges 365 wind power 484-85, 759-60 plant 760 wind turbines 759-60 winding engines 2t6 windmills 485, 719, 760 windpumps 485 wine 551 Winnicott, Donald 604 wire chambers 122 Wisconsin University (US) 192 Wissenschaft 658, 738 witchcraft 16, 366 Azande 237 drugs 183 Kepler's mother's trial 397 persecutions 125 Withering, William 139 Wittfogel, Karl 31 Wittgenstein, Ludwig 63, 695, 696 Godel's Eirst Incompleteness Theorem 308 logical empiricism 588 philosophy of language 588 Wohler, Eriedrich 743 Wolff, Christian von 395 Wolff, K.E 752 woman question of Enlightenment 287 womanhood ideals 718 Victorian construction 287-88 womb envy 286 malposition 315 removal 315 women 284 agriculture 769 alternative epistemology 284 American science 736-37 anti-vivisectionists 34 Aristotle's view 89

astronomy 762-63 career opportunities 346, 761 chemistry 763-64 children's literature 764 crystallographers 763 domestic hygiene movement 771 domestic role 761, 768-69 domestic science 345 electrical power 201 employment 763 empowerment 439 exclusion from science 284 forensic medicine 262 Freud's psychoanalysis 270 gardening 350 Harvard College Observatory 763 healers 765 home economics 345, 346 indigenous knowledge 762 inventors 769 labour 769 life sciences 764-65 marginalization 34 mathematics 767 mechanization 769 medical technology 768, 769 medicalizing of control 366 medicine 765-66 China 136 mediums 704 military nursing 522 minority 761 nature 507 nuclear physicists 767 nursing 521 nutrition 524 nutrition careers 346, 524 occupations 769 ornithology 764 personal life tensions 761 philosophical attitudes 767 photographers 563 physical sciences 766-67 position in society 86 primordial object of knowledge 285 professionalism 704 public health 771 public lecturing 704 publication 763, 767 radioactivity 763 radiology 479 reproductive technologies 768, 769 in science 760-69 science education 195 scientific couples 761 social role definition 737 social sciences 439 subjection 264 surgery 710 technology 767-69 telecommunications 769 telephone 768 Victorian Britain 744 work 688, 689 see also childbirth Women's Health Initiative 285, 288

women's liberation 608 wood, tensile strength 109 wood engravings, maps 122 woodcuts 745, 746 Woodward, Robert Burns 536 wood-working machinery 454 Woolf, Arthur 216 Word of Creation 475 Wordsworth, William 168 work 769-71 ethic 770, 771 frictional 45 i future 770-71 industrial 771 investigations of Martineau 438 manual labour 770 Marxism 771 measurement 770 occidental concept 118 professional 688 skill 687-88 social psychology 436 time 726 traditions 696 working conditions 327 working day 727 workplace rehumanization 453 world fairs 242, 587 world government 381 World Health Organization (WHO) 304, 305 traditional medicine 730 world market 601 World Meteorological Office (WMO) 304, 305 world science 382 world standard time 727 World War I British Association Australian meeting 107 women in medicine 766 World War II atomic weapons 55, 56 Australian impact 60 British Association 107 Canada 113 electronic computing machines 147 physics 567 women in science 761 wound management 709 Wren, Christopher 303, 712 Wright, Almroth 84 Wright, Sewall 84, 240 Wright, Thomas ^i6-'}y writers, use of physics 200 writing 421 Egypt 196 Mesopotamia 196 speech 417 Wundt, Wilhelm 357, 609 Wyle, Margaret 346 X-Club 349 Huxley (Thomas) 363 Xenakis, Iannis 496 xenophobia 23

GENERAL INDEX Xi yuan lu {Washing Away of Wrongs) 135 X-ray diffraction 406, 697 apparatus 81 X-ray photography 343, 6z^ X-ray spectroscopy 618, 62.3 X-rays 114, 623, 6z8 detection 52 discovery 619 electromagnetic pulse theory 535 hospital medicine 352 Rontgen 659-60 scattering 6r8 spectra 61:8, 622, 701 world history 628 Xu Dachun, Confucian medical scholar 136 Xu Guanqi 134 Yahuda manuscripts 514 Yale, Linus 453 Yalow, Rosalyn 765 yard, imperial 478 yellow fever 256, 656, 749 Yemen, astronomy 51 Yerkes Ohservatory (US) 320 Yerkes, R.M. 553 Yin and Yang forces 345 Young, Thomas 534

ZYMOTECHNOLOGY Young Mitt-Wright's and Miller's Guide (Evans) 484 youth organizations 186 Yule, G. Udny 83, 706 Z particles 123 Zahrawi manuscript 456 Zaire, sand drawing 14 Zambia 14 Zande healing systems 16 Zarlino, Gioseffo 492, 493, 494 Zedler, Johann 209 ^ Zeeman, Pieter 701 Zeeman effect 701 Zen Buddhism 306 Zeno 40, 684 Zerbi, Gabriele 30, 745 Zermelo, Ernst Friedrich Eerdinand 63, 64, 684 zero 42 Zhou bi suan jing 134 Ziegler, Karl 422 zij tables 36 Zimbabwe 14 Zimbabwe National Traditional Healers Association 731 Zionism, Einstein 198, 199, 200

Zirconium 76 Zola, Emile 170 novels 421 Zollner, Johann Garl Friedrich 52 zoological gardens 95-96, 97-98 environmental sciences 222 Zoological Society of London 97 zoology Aristotle 41 Baer 67 Cuvier 161: ecology 191 environmental :iences 221 Goethe 309 Huxley (Thomas) 363 illustration 675 India 370 Jena University 318 nomenclature 90 professionalization 490 Smithsonian Institution 690 taxonomy in ancient Greece 313 women in science 765 zootomy 29 Zuckerman, Harriet 723 Zweig, G. 591 zymotechnology 292

NOTES ON ADVISERS AND CONTRIBUTORS

Alhr~e,

Joe. As~i~t:'"t Pr()fcssor of M:ahematic. and Pre· Engineering, Auburn University 31 Montgomery, Alabama. Autho r of A Stalion FalJOrable to the PU1"SI/ir.; o{ Science (with David C. rney and V. Frederick Rickc». 1.000). lIl1Tiburor 10 the journals MathematICs Magaz.ine, labama JOllrtlol of

Mathematics , Bulletin of 'he London Mdthemotkal Soc,cty, !-lis1onca Mllthe,nati{ll, and Mathematical Imelligt'llcer. Managing editor of the IIlnbama j aumal of Mathematics _incc 1996; reviewer ftl r rhe histury section of UIJTary Recl)mnumdalions for Undergraduate Mathcmat/C~ edired by l.ynn Arthur Steen (1992). Es ay: Arithmetic. Alex:mdcr, mir. fa Cil ity \ember, Cemer fOf I Ih 3IJd , 81h Cc:ntury Studies, Vniversir of California at Ln. Angd~. Author of "The (rnperiaJi~t Space of Elizabethan A-lathe· macic&~, Studies in History and Philosophy of cil'nce ( '995 ) and ~ ll!n3r Map and oast;] I Ourlin ". t"die$ ill Ihe His/()ry and Pbilosophy of Sciellce (1998 . E s.ay: Sclen ti fi Revolutio l1. Anderson. Katharine. I iting Pr()fcs~or. Dcpanmc.nl of the Hi lory of Science, Hnn'ard UllivCfSIlY. Author of severn l nrd · de~ including -Tht! Weather Prophets: Science, Reput.lrioll :lnd For . ,\~(jng in Ictorian Brim in ~, Hi.tory of Scicllce (fonh · coming). Es :I)' : ER ,Mcteorology. Andrews. BJ. As,iSlanl ('rules,or and Head Tutor, Department of the History of ience Harvard Voi"usit),. Co·a uthor of The Making of Modern Chinese Medicine (in preparation). Editor of Western Medicine as COr/ tested 1(JJowltdge (with Andrew Cunnmgham, (997). Author of several articles on the hi lOry of medicine and science in r:.a , A ia. Essay: hina: medicine. Apple. Rima D. ('rofe~sor, School of Hum"n Ecology and the Women's Studies Program. Uni"ersiry of Wi onsill. Author of Vita/lta~lia ( 1996) and Mothers m,d Medit'ine (19 87). Editor of Women. Hea/th, alld fedic:ille in America ( 1990). Motbers and Motherhood (with Janet Golden, t99 ). Conrributor of an article 011 nutrition to rhe !ourtlal of Food and Sodety. Co-cdiror of Ad",mcing tbe Conmmu ItlIeresf. 199 -9S , and associute editor of /sis, 198H~ . . say: Home conolnics.

Arriubalaga, JOII . Researcher in lhe History of Science ar CSIC, Barcelona. Author of The Creal Pox: Tile Frellch Disease ill Rellaissance Europe (with John Henderson .1nd R(lg~r French. 1997) :lnd La sa/ut Cilia hisrvrUt d 'Europa (with Alvar Martinez Vida l and Jose Pardo Torno, 1998). ditor of

Praaical Medicir't from 501",.,0 fo the Black Dcath (wit h Lu i

Garda-B.llle rer, Roger French and Andrtw Cunllillgh.lIll. 199 4). Member of the editorial ""ard of the jourtl:1ls History of Medicine CU'1/CC, ASc/l'pio, Gnd Dynamis. ES!>l1~': AIDS.

A heroft, Rjchard. Sir Siegmund Warburg l.(:cturer in .\1cdiC.1I Erhi ' .lmper;:!1 lIeg," hool of Mcdi ine, London .• p'-"Cia li t ill the crhic:5 of medi '~I and ieOlif\c re earch. onrri\JutQr of :til article on the ethi . of linical tria ls to Health Tecbnology Assessment, and contributor to the journals Biocthics. Journal of Medical Ethics, He