Processed Cheeses and Analogues

Processed Cheese and Analogues The Society of Dairy Technology (SDT) has joined with Wiley-Blackwell to produce a seri...

Author: Adnan Tamime

1067 downloads 3228 Views 297MB Size Report

This content was uploaded by our users and we assume good faith they have the permission to share this book. If you own the copyright to this book and it is wrongfully on our website, we offer a simple DMCA procedure to remove your content from our site. Start by pressing the button below!
Report copyright / DMCA form

DOWNLOAD PDF

Processed Cheese and Analogues

The Society of Dairy Technology (SDT) has joined with Wiley-Blackwell to produce a series of technical dairy-related handbooks providing an invaluable resource for all those involved in the dairy industry, from practitioners to technologists, working in both traditional and modern large-scale dairy operations. For information regarding the SDT, please contact Maurice Walton, Executive Director, Society of Dairy Technology, PO Box 12, Appleby in Westmorland, CA16 6YJ, UK. email: [email protected] Other volumes in the Society of Dairy Technology book series: Probiotic Dairy Products (ISBN 978 1 4051 2124 8) Fermented Milks (ISBN 978 0 6320 6458 8) Brined Cheeses (ISBN 978 1 4051 2460 7) Structure of Dairy Products (ISBN 978 1 4051 2975 6) Cleaning-in-Place (ISBN 978 1 4051 5503 8) Milk Processing and Quality Management (ISBN 978 1 4051 4530 5) Dairy Fats and Related Products (ISBN 978 1 4051 5090 3) Dairy Powders and Concentrated Products (ISBN 978 1 4051 5764 3) Technology of Cheesemaking, 2nd edition (ISBN 978 1 4051 8298 0)


Edited by

A.Y. Tamime Consultant in Dairy Science and Technology Ayr, UK

A John Wiley & Sons, Ltd., Publication

This edition first published 2011 © 2011 by Blackwell Publishing Ltd. Blackwell Publishing was acquired by John Wiley & Sons in February 2007. Blackwell’s publishing program has been merged with Wiley’s global Scientific, Technical and Medical business to form Wiley-Blackwell. Registered office: John Wiley & Sons, Ltd, The Atrium, Southern Gate, Chichester, West Sussex, PO19 8SQ, UK Editorial offices: 9600 Garsington Road, Oxford, OX4 2DQ, UK The Atrium, Southern Gate, Chichester, West Sussex, PO19 8SQ, UK 2121 State Avenue, Ames, Iowa 50014-8300, USA For details of our global editorial offices, for customer services and for information about how to apply for permission to reuse the copyright material in this book please see our website at www.wiley.com/wiley-blackwell. The right of the authors to be identified as the authors of this work has been asserted in accordance with the UK Copyright, Designs and Patents Act 1988. All rights reserved. No part of this publication may be reproduced, stored in a retrieval system, or transmitted, in any form or by any means, electronic, mechanical, photocopying, recording or otherwise, except as permitted by the UK Copyright, Designs and Patents Act 1988, without the prior permission of the publisher. Designations used by companies to distinguish their products are often claimed as trademarks. All brand names and product names used in this book are trade names, service marks, trademarks or registered trademarks of their respective owners. The publisher is not associated with any product or vendor mentioned in this book. This publication is designed to provide accurate and authoritative information in regard to the subject matter covered. It is sold on the understanding that the publisher is not engaged in rendering professional services. If professional advice or other expert assistance is required, the services of a competent professional should be sought. Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data Processed cheese and analogues / edited by A.Y. Tamime. p. cm. – (Society of Dairy Technology series) Includes bibliographical references and index. ISBN 978-1-4051-8642-1 (hardcover : alk. paper) 1. Processed cheese. I. Tamime, A.Y. SF272.5.P76 2011 637 .358 – dc22 2010052430

A catalogue record for this book is available from the British Library. This book is published in the following electronic formats: ePDF [9781444341829]; Wiley Online Library [9781444341850]; ePub [9781444341836]; Mobi [9781444341843] Set in 10/12.5pt Times by Laserwords Private Limited, Chennai, India 1 2011

Contents

Preface to the Technical Series Preface Contributors 1 Processed Cheese and Analogues: An Overview A.Y. Tamime 1.1 Historical background 1.2 Diversity of products 1.2.1 Terminology and/or nomenclature 1.2.2 Classification 1.3 Patterns of production 1.4 Principles of manufacturing stages 1.4.1 Natural cheeses 1.4.2 Formulation of a balanced mix 1.4.3 Emulsifying salts 1.4.4 Addition of miscellaneous additives 1.4.5 Heat treatment 1.4.6 Homogenisation 1.4.7 Filling machines and packaging materials 1.5 Conclusions References 2 Current Legislation on Processed Cheese and Related Products M. Hickey 2.1 Introduction and background 2.2 Definitions and standards of identity 2.2.1 Background and evolution 2.2.2 Legislation in the European Union (EU) 2.2.3 Legislation in the UK 2.2.4 Legislation in the Republic of Ireland 2.2.5 Legislation in Germany 2.2.6 Legislation in the Netherlands 2.2.7 Legislation in France

xi xiii xv 1 1 2 2 3 3 5 5 5 7 7 12 12 13 14 14 25 25 26 26 27 36 41 42 44 45

vi

Contents

2.2.8 Legislation in Denmark 2.2.9 Legislation in Sweden 2.2.10 Legislation in Spain 2.2.11 Legislation in Italy 2.2.12 Legislation in the Czech Republic 2.2.13 Legislation in Hungary 2.2.14 Legislation in the USA 2.2.15 Legislation in Canada 2.2.16 Legislation in Australia and New Zealand 2.2.17 Legislation in Japan 2.2.18 Legislation in Mercosur/Mercosul 2.2.19 Legislation in Chile 2.2.20 Legislation in some Middle Eastern countries 2.2.21 Codex Alimentarius standards 2.3 Summary and conclusions 2.4 Acknowledgements References 3 Effects of Natural Cheese Characteristics and Processing Conditions on Rheology and Texture: The Functionality of Cheese Components in the Manufacture of Processed Cheese T.P. Guinee 3.1 Definition of processed cheese products: an introduction 3.2 Overview of manufacture 3.2.1 Background 3.2.2 Manufacture 3.3 Microstructure of PCPs 3.4 Principles of processed cheese manufacture 3.4.1 Destabilisation and dehydration of milk during the manufacture of natural cheese 3.4.2 Characteristics of protein in natural cheeses 3.4.3 Effects of heating/shearing cheese (protein) 3.4.4 The interaction of emulsifying salt with cheese protein during processing 3.5 Effects of natural cheese characteristics on PCPs 3.5.1 Calcium content 3.5.2 pH 3.5.3 Degree of maturity and intact casein content 3.6 Effects of processing conditions 3.6.1 Time 3.6.2 Temperature 3.6.3 Shear 3.7 Conclusions References

46 46 47 48 48 50 51 57 59 59 60 62 63 68 73 73 74

81 81 83 83 85 86 87 87 88 90 90 91 92 93 97 101 101 103 104 105 106

Contents

4 Functionality of Ingredients: Emulsifying Salts J.A. Lucey, A. Maurer-Rothmann and S. Kaliappan 4.1 Introduction 4.2 Main types of emulsifying salts 4.2.1 Citrate 4.2.2 Phosphate-based 4.2.3 Other types of emulsifying salts 4.3 Properties and roles of emulsifying salts used in processed cheese 4.3.1 Calcium binding/ion exchange 4.3.2 pH adjustment, buffering and titration behaviour 4.3.3 Casein dispersion, protein hydration and fat emulsification 4.3.4 Creaming and structure formation during cooling and storage 4.3.5 Antimicrobial activity 4.3.6 Crystal formation and other properties of emulsifying salts 4.4 Selection of emulsifying salt 4.5 Conclusion References 5 Flavours and Flavourants, Colours and Pigment G. Osthoff, E. Slabber, W. Kneifel and K. Dürrschmid 5.1 5.2 5.3 5.4

Introduction Types of processed cheese Raw material Flavour 5.4.1 Natural flavourants 5.4.2 Chemical flavourants 5.4.3 Flavour changes 5.5 Colours 5.5.1 Natural colours 5.5.2 Colour decay and changes 5.5.3 Process colours 5.6 Sensory attributes of processed cheese 5.7 Conclusion References 6 Manufacturing Practices of Processed Cheese M. Nogueira de Oliveira, Z. Ustunol and A.Y. Tamime 6.1 6.2 6.3 6.4

Introduction Some historical background Processed cheese and products Key steps in processing 6.4.1 Selection of ingredients 6.4.2 Emulsifying salts

vii

110 110 111 111 113 115 116 116 118 120 122 124 124 127 129 129 133 133 133 134 135 135 139 140 141 141 142 142 142 143 144 148 148 148 150 153 154 158

viii

Contents

6.4.3 Preservatives 6.4.4 Formulation of the cheese blend 6.4.5 Grinding/shredding 6.4.6 Heating/cooking 6.4.7 Miscellaneous processing steps 6.4.8 Packaging 6.4.9 Rate of cooling and storage 6.5 Changes in processed cheese during its shelf-life 6.6 Conclusions References 7 Processed Cheese Plants and Equipment: A Practical Overview S. Dixon 7.1 Introduction 7.2 Unit operations 7.2.1 Weighing the ingredients to be processed 7.2.2 Initial size reduction 7.2.3 Grinding 7.2.4 Blending the ingredients to form a standardised cheese mix or blend 7.2.5 Transferring the standardised cheese blend to a cooking system 7.2.6 Direct steam injection into the cooking systems 7.2.7 Filtering the molten cheese 7.3 Processing plant for the manufacture of processed cheese slices 7.4 Conclusions 8 Packaging Materials and Equipment E.M. Buys and J.F. Mostert 8.1 Introduction 8.2 Packaging materials 8.2.1 General specifications 8.2.2 Functions of a package 8.2.3 Types of packaging materials 8.2.4 Hygiene of packaging material 8.2.5 Shelf-life and interactions with packaging materials 8.3 Packaging equipment 8.3.1 Background 8.3.2 Portions/wedges 8.3.3 Blocks 8.3.4 Sausage shape 8.3.5 Metal cans 8.3.6 Tubs, jars, cups and plastic containers 8.3.7 Collapsible tubes

163 167 167 167 170 170 170 171 173 173 179 179 180 180 181 182 184 185 187 194 195 198 199 199 200 200 200 201 201 202 204 204 205 208 210 211 211 213

Contents

8.3.8 Packs with external decoration 8.3.9 Slices 8.4 Conclusion References 9 Production of Analogue Cheeses E.D. O’Riordan, E. Duggan, M. O’Sullivan and N. Noronha 9.1 9.2 9.3 9.4

Introduction Definition and legislation Applications and advantages of analogue cheese products Manufacture of analogue cheese 9.4.1 General principles and manufacturing protocol 9.4.2 Key ingredients used in the production of analogue cheese products 9.4.3 Formulation 9.4.4 Processing equipment 9.5 Factors influencing analogue cheese functionality 9.5.1 Hydration of protein: impact on cheese functionality 9.5.2 Effect of compositional change on analogue cheese functionality 9.6 Developments in analogue cheese 9.6.1 Protein replacement 9.6.2 Fat replacement 9.6.3 Microwave expansion of analogue cheese 9.7 Future of analogue cheese References 10 Quality Control in Processed Cheese Manufacture A.Y. Tamime, D.D. Muir, M. Wszolek, J. Domagala, L. Metzger, W. Kneifel, K. Dürrschmid, K.J. Domig, A. Hill, A. Smith, T.P. Guinee and M.A.E. Auty 10.1 Introduction 10.2 HACCP 10.2.1 Background 10.2.2 Implementation (theoretical approach) 10.2.3 Implementation (practical approach) 10.2.4 Verification of HACCP 10.2.5 Monitoring the processing plant 10.3 Examination of raw materials 10.3.1 Natural cheeses 10.3.2 Butter and fat of plant origin 10.3.3 Dairy powders 10.3.4 Natural flavouring ingredients 10.3.5 Emulsifying salts

ix

213 214 215 216 219 219 219 220 220 220 223 226 226 228 230 231 236 236 238 238 239 239 245

245 247 247 248 255 259 260 266 266 268 268 268 269

x

Contents

10.4 10.5

10.6

10.7

10.8

10.9 10.10

10.3.6 Miscellaneous additives 10.3.7 Water/steam 10.3.8 Sampling for quality appraisal of the retail product Analysis of chemical composition Microbiological quality and safety of the product 10.5.1 Introduction and microbiological techniques 10.5.2 Microbiological safety of the product 10.5.3 Preliminary treatment of natural cheese milk and effect of certain additives 10.5.4 Hygienic production/facility: HACCP 10.5.5 Bacteriological examination Assessment of physical characteristics 10.6.1 Unmelted characteristics 10.6.2 Melting characteristics Assessment of the microstructure 10.7.1 Background 10.7.2 Some aspects affecting microstructure formation 10.7.3 Cryo-SEM description of processed cheese microstructure 10.7.4 Faults in processed cheese products 10.7.5 Product development 10.7.6 Application of confocal scanning laser microscopy as a quality control tool in processed cheese manufacture Sensory profiling of processed cheese 10.8.1 Elements of sensory assessment 10.8.2 Assessor selection 10.8.3 Acclimatisation and confirmation 10.8.4 Sensory vocabulary 10.8.5 Tasting protocol 10.8.6 Analysis and interpretation of data Conclusions Acknowledgements References Appendix: Example of a product quality information as a result of using a HACCP system

Index A colour plate section appears between pages 302 and 303

269 269 269 270 271 271 271 277 278 279 279 279 281 283 283 283 291 295 297 303 311 311 312 313 314 315 316 319 320 320 339 341

Preface to the Technical Series

For more than 60 years, the Society of Dairy Technology (SDT) has sought to provide education and training in the dairy field, disseminating knowledge and fostering personal development through symposia, conferences, residential courses, publications, and its journal, the International Journal of Dairy Technology (previously published as the Journal of the Society of Dairy Technology). In recent years, there have been significant advances in our understanding of milk systems, probably the most complex natural food available to humans. At the same time, improvements in process technology have been accompanied by massive changes in the scale of many milk processing operations, and the manufacture a wide range of dairy and other related products. The Society has embarked on a project with Wiley-Blackwell to produce a Technical Series of dairy-related books to provide an invaluable source of information for practising dairy scientists and technologists, covering the range from small enterprises to modern large-scale operations. This tenth volume in this series, on Processed Cheese and Analogues, provides a timely and comprehensive update of the principles and practices involved in the production of these products, from raw materials and processing technology to assurance of the quality of the final product. Processed cheese and its analogues have found many uses in both domestic consumption and in the catering and fast food sectors, providing functional properties beyond those that can normally be achieved with traditional cheeses. Andrew Wilbey Chairman of the Publications Committee, SDT

Preface

There is a wide range of processed cheese products, i.e. natural products made from blending different cheeses to form a range of solid and spreadable products, and cheese analogues (made not from cheese, but from dairy and non-dairy ingredients) available to the food market worldwide. Some of these products are extensively used in the fast food/catering chains (e.g. as ‘shredded’ cheeses), and are of increasing economic value in the industrialised and developing countries. The purpose of this book, which is written by a team of international scientists, is to review the latest scientific developments in this field. The authors, who are all specialists in these products, have been chosen from around the world. The scientific aspects reviewed in this publication include (a) the functionality of ingredients, including the natural cheeses, emulsifying salts, stabilisers, flavourings and colourings, (b) the interactions between natural cheese and processing conditions in developing the rheology and final texture of the product, (c) current processing equipment and manufacturing practices, (d) the current statutory regulations (national and international) of these products because an appreciable percentage of the internationally traded ‘natural’ cheese includes processed cheese varieties and (e) quality assurance of processed cheese (in terms of chemical, physical and microbiological properties and sensory profiling) to ensure the safety of the product for the consumer. Some key scientific aspects of processed cheese manufacture can be manipulated to control and maintain the consistency and quality of the final product, and coverage of this topic has produced some overlap with those sections dealing with, for example, the interaction of emulsifying salts with natural cheese components. I have felt justified in allowing this overlap because it emphasises the prime importance of the ingredients used during the preparation of the cheese blend including the effects of processing on the quality and consistency of processed cheese for the end-user. There is no doubt that the book will have an international recognition by dairy technologists, students, researchers and processors, and will become an important component of the Technical Series promoted by the Society of Dairy Technology. A.Y. Tamime

Contributors

Editor Dr A.Y. Tamime 24 Queens Terrace Ayr KA7 1DX UK Tel. +44 (0)1292 265498 Fax +44 (0)1292 265498 Mobile +44 (0)7980 278950 E-mail: [email protected] Contributors Dr M.A.E. Auty Teagasc Food Research Centre Moorepark Fermoy Co. Cork Ireland Tel. +353 25 42442 Fax +353 25 42340 E-mail: [email protected] Professor E.M. Buys Department of Food Science University of Pretoria Lynnwood Road Pretoria 0002 South Africa Tel. +27 12 420 3209 Fax +27 12 420 2839 E-mail: [email protected] Mr S. Dixon 215 Moss Bank Road St Helens

Merseyside WA11 7NS UK Tel. +1 507 775 7070 Fax +1 507 775 7878 Mobile +1 507 254 2338 E-mail: [email protected] and [email protected] Dr J. Domagala University of Agriculture Animal Products Technology Department 30–149 Krakow Balicka 122 Poland Tel. +48 12 662 4803 Fax +48 12 662 4810 E-mail: [email protected] Dr K.J. Domig Department of Food Science and Technology BOKU – University of Natural Resources and Life Sciences Muthgasse 18 A-1190 Vienna Austria Tel. ++0043 (0)1 47654 6750 Fax ++0043 (0)1 47654 6751 E-mail: [email protected] Dr E. Duggan Food and Health Institute UCD Agriculture and Food Science Centre University College Dublin Belfield Dublin 4

xvi

Contributors

Ireland Tel. +353 1 7167675 Fax +353 1 7161147 E-mail: [email protected] Dr K. Durrschmid ¨ Department of Food Science and Technology BOKU – University of Natural Resources and Life Sciences Muthgasse 18 A-1190 Vienna Austria Tel. +43 (0)1 36006 6295 Fax +43 (0)1 36006 6293 E-mail: [email protected] Dr T.P. Guinee Dairy Products Research Centre Teagasc Moorepark Fermoy Co. Cork Ireland Tel. +353 25 42204 Fax +35325 42340 E-mail: [email protected] Dr M. Hickey Derryreigh Creggane Charleville Co. Cork Ireland Tel. +353 (0)63 89392 E-mail: [email protected] Dr A. Hill University of Guelph Department of Food Science Guelph Ontario N1G 2W1 Canada Tel. +1 (0)519 824 4120 extension 53875 Fax +1 (0)519 824 6631 E-mail: [email protected]

Mr S. Kaliappan Frito-Lay R&D 7701 Legacy Drive Plano, TX 75024-4099 USA Tel. +1 (0)972-334-4951 Fax +1 (0)972-334-2329 E-mail: [email protected] Professor W. Kneifel Department of Food Science and Technology BOKU – University of Natural Resources and Life Sciences Muthgasse 18 A-1190 Vienna Austria Tel. +43 (0)1 36006 6290 Fax +43 (0)1 36006 6266 E-mail: [email protected] Professor J.A. Lucey University of Wisconsin-Madison Department of Food Science 1605 Linden Drive Madison, WI 53706-1565 USA Tel. +1 (608) 265 1195 Fax +1 (608) 262 6872 E-mail: [email protected] Dr A. Maurer-Rothmann Management Business Line Dairy Business Unit Food BK Giulini Ladenburg Germany Tel. +49 (0)6203 77 148 Fax +49 (0)6203 77 185 E-mail: [email protected] Dr L. Metzger Alfred Chair in Dairy Education Dairy Science Department South Dakota State University Box 2104 Dairy-Microbiology Building

Contributors

Brookings, SD 57007 USA Tel. +1 (0)605-688-5477 Fax +1 (0)605-688-6276 E-mail: [email protected] Dr J.F. Mostert Food Safety and Human Nutrition ARC-Animal Production Institute Private Bag X2 Irene 0062 South Africa Tel. +27-12-672-9296 Fax +27-12-665-1551 E-mail: [email protected]

xvii

Fax +353 1 7161147 E-mail: [email protected] Professor E.D. O’Riordan UCD Agriculture and Food Science Centre University College Dublin Belfield Dublin 4 Ireland Tel. +353 1 7167016 Fax +353 1 7161147 E-mail: [email protected]

Professor D.D. Muir DD Muir Consultants 26 Pennyvenie Way Girdle Toll Irvine KA11 1QQ UK Tel. +44 (0)1294 213137 E-mail: [email protected]

Professor G. Osthoff Department of Microbial Biochemical and Food Biotechnology University of the Free State PO Box 339 Bloemfontein 9300 South Africa Tel: +27 (0)51 4012216 Fax +27 (0)51 4019335 E-mail: [email protected]

Professor M. Nogueira de Oliveira Universidade de São Paulo Departamento de Tecnologia Bioquimico-Farmacêutica Avenue Prof. Lineu Prestes 580, Bloco 16 Sao Paulo 05508-900 Brazil Tel. +55 (0)11 3091 3690 Fax +55 (0)11 3815 6386 E-mail: [email protected]

Mr M. O’Sullivan Food and Health Institute UCD Agriculture and Food Science Centre University College Dublin Belfield Dublin 4 Ireland Tel. +353 1 7167158 Fax +353 1 7161147 E-mail: [email protected]

Dr N. Noronha Food and Health Institute UCD Agriculture and Food Science Centre University College Dublin Belfield Dublin 4 Ireland Tel. +353 1 7167675

Mr E. Slabber Dairybelle PO Box 744 Bloemfontein 9300 South Africa Tel. +27 (0)51 4114426 Mobile +27 (0)825619092 Fax +27 (0)51 4301450 E-mail: [email protected]

xviii

Contributors

Dr A. Smith University of Guelph Analytical Microscopy Department of Food Science Guelph Ontario N1G 2W1 Canada Tel. +1 (0) 519 824-4120 ext. 52112 Fax +1 (0) 519 824-6631 E-mail: [email protected] Professor Z. Ustunol Michigan State University Department of Food Science and Human Nutrition 2105 S. Anthony Hall

East Lansing, MI 48824 USA Tel +1 517 355 7713 extension 184 Fax +1 517 353 1676 E-mail: [email protected] Dr M. Wszolek University of Agriculture Animal Products Technology Department 30–149 Krakow Balicka 122 Poland Tel. +48 12 662 4788 Fax +48 12 662 4810 E-mail: [email protected]

Plate 1.1 Some illustrations of packaging materials used for processed cheese and analogues sold in the UK market.

Processed Cheese and Analogues, First Edition. Edited by A.Y. Tamime.  2011 Blackwell Publishing Ltd. Published 2011 by Blackwell Publishing Ltd.

(a)

(b)

(c) Plate 4.1 Some properties of processed cheese. (a) Typical process cheese made with emulsifying salts: no oiling-off and a smooth appearance. (b) Processed cheese made without any emulsifying salt: considerable oiling-off occurs. (c) Processed cheese that has been over-creamed: the structure is brittle and crumbly. (Reproduced courtesy of Nobuaki Shirashoji, Morinaga Milk Industry Co. Ltd., 1-835 Higashihara Zama, Kanagawa 288-8583, Japan.)

(b)

(a)

Congealed matrix

Swollen particulates

Free oil & water

(c)

(d)

Cohesive matrix

Milky liquid

Homogeneous cheese mass

Plate 9.1 Illustrations of the four main stages of matrix development during the manufacture of analogue cheese.

(a)

(b)

P

F

F

P

(d)

(c)

F F

P

Plate 9.2 Light microscopy images of the four main stages of matrix development during the manufacture of analogue cheese.

Plate 10.1 Visual marking of the yellow and green hygienic zones in the factory. (Reproduced with courtesy of SEROTP Ltd., Tychy, Poland.)

Plate 10.2 Confocal scanning laser micrograph of processed cheese showing fat droplets (green), continuous protein phase (red) and crystalline inclusions of (a) calcium lactate and (b) calcium phosphate shown by negative contrast. (Source: Moorepark data.)

Plate 10.3 Bright field light micrograph of analogue cheese stained with iodine/potassium iodide solution to reveal gelatinised starch inclusions (black). (Source: Moorepark data.)

Plate 10.4 Confocal scanning laser micrograph of analogue cheese showing fat droplets (green), protein phase (red) and presumptive starch inclusions shown by negative contrast. (Source: Moorepark data.)

(a)

(b)

(c)

(d)

Plate 10.5 Microstructure of experimental processed cheese products after heating to 80◦ C and holding for (a) 1, (b) 16, (c) 24 or (d) 32 min; the cheese were formulated from Cheddar cheese, water and emulsifying salts. (Source: Moorepark data.)

(a)

(b)

(c)

(d)

(e)

(f)

Plate 10.6 Microstructure of experimental pasteurised processed cheese products after holding for 4 min at different temperatures (◦ C): (a) 70, (b) 75, (c) 80, (d) 85, (e) 90 or (f) 95.

1 Processed Cheese and Analogues: An Overview A.Y. Tamime

1.1 Historical background The production of processed cheese started in Europe, and could date to the mid-1890s. Natural cheeses have limited shelf-life and, depending on many factors (i.e. level of moisture content, sanitary conditions during the manufacturing stages and storage conditions of the product), this can range from a few weeks to a couple of years. It is possible to suggest that the idea of processed cheese originated from a desire to extend the shelf-life of natural cheese or to develop a new type of cheese which was milder in taste or more stable. Around the same period, commercial developments were made in Germany for the export of short shelf-life soft cheese, e.g. Camembert, Brie and Limburger, which was achieved by heating the cheeses in metal cans. Similar processing methods were also developed for Dutch cheeses, but the process was most successful in Switzerland by using sodium citrate (Berger et al ., 1989). Essential steps in the manufacture of processed cheese is melting and heating blends of natural cheeses (e.g. different types, varying degree of maturity, i.e. fresh/young or matured, and cheese ‘re-work’), the addition of emulsifying salts, agitation to produce a homogeneous mixture, followed by packaging and cooling or vice versa. The application of heat (i.e. indirect or direct steam injection) inactivates the starter culture organisms and other bacteria, including the enzymes present in natural cheeses, and produces a product with extended shelf-life. Although the casein in natural cheeses possesses certain emulsifying characteristics, the stability of processed cheese could not be achieved without the use of emulsifying salts, such as citrates and phosphates. Commercial production of processed cheese started in earnest in Europe and the USA between 1910 and 1920. The production techniques were based on Cheddar and other cheese varieties, and used citrates or phosphates as the emulsifying salts. These early attempts to produce good-quality processed cheese were of limited success, but the process became widespread by the 1930s when the emulsifying salts (e.g. polyphosphates and other types) appeared on the market (Berger et al ., 1989). In addition, other dairy and non-dairy ingredients could be added to the blend before processing, and the use of these ingredients is normally governed by statutory regulation within each country of manufacture. Processed Cheese and Analogues, First Edition. Edited by A.Y. Tamime. © 2011 Blackwell Publishing Ltd. Published 2011 by Blackwell Publishing Ltd.

2


Over the past few decades, many aspects of the manufacture of processed cheese have been reviewed by many authors (Jackson & Wearmouth, 1959; Price & Bush, 1974a,b; Shimp, 1985; Sachdeva et al ., 1988; Marchesseau et al ., 1997; Schar & Bosset, 2002; Abd El-Salam et al ., 2005; Dimitreli & Thomareis, 2007; Kapoor & Metzger, 2008), and the same subject has been reviewed in different textbooks (Meyer, 1973; Thomas 1977; Guinee, 1987; Berger et al ., 1989; Carić, 1991; Merkenich et al ., 1992a,b, 1994; Carić & Kaláb, 1993; Kaláb, 1995; Carić & Milanović, 1997; Kosikowski & Mistry, 1997; Zehren & Nusbaum, 2000; Guinee et al ., 2004; Schrader & Hoffman, 2008; Adhikari et al ., 2009; Bunka et al ., 2009; Johnson et al ., 2009). In addition, Mann (1969, 1970, 1974, 1975, 1978a,b, 1981, 1983a,b, 1986, 1987, 1990, 1993, 1995, 1997, 1999, 2003) has compiled several successively up-to-date international digests on processed cheese. Contrary to the current belief, processed cheese is made from good-quality natural cheeses (blends of fresh/young and matured) rather than degraded stock; however, these latter types of cheeses are only used in very small proportions, including re-work processed cheese. In addition, the processing equipment used during the manufacture of processed cheese is known as cooker or kettle (e.g. vertical or horizontal; see Chapter 6), and continuous or batch processes are also available on the market. Although the latter method of processing is more popular as it provides greater control of product quality and is more suitable for large-scale operations, the batch process may be still be favourable in small- and medium-sized production units or, alternatively, because the batch process was developed first – ‘old habits die hard’. In contrast, ‘imitation’ processed cheese is made from mixtures of dairy and/or non-dairy proteins and fat/oils. Hence, it was suggested by Shaw (1984) that in response to increasing manufacturing costs of processed cheese, imitation products have been developed to meet demand in fast food outlets (e.g. pizza), by the catering trade, ready cooked foods, in formulated foods and in school lunch programmes (see also IDF, 1989; McCarthy, 1990; Mortensen, 1991; Engel, 1992; Lee et al ., 1992; Song et al ., 1992; Bachmann, 2001; Hoyer & Kirkeby, 2007). It is evident that there are many similarities between the manufacture of processed cheese and analogues, and this chapter provides a general background to these products, their properties and the patterns of their consumption in some selected countries.

1.2 Diversity of products 1.2.1 Terminology and/or nomenclature The products of the preservative treatment of natural cheeses by the application of heat came to be known as processed cheese or processed cheese food; in some instances the word ‘process’ is used instead of ‘processed’. This product is manufactured in many countries, and numerous variants of this type of product have appeared on the market over the years with alternative names, such as ‘pasteurised’, ‘emulsified’, pasteurised blended, ‘American’, ‘cooked’ or ‘sterilised’ cheese (Carić & Kaláb, 1993; Guinee et al ., 2004; see also Chapter 2). Developed products, known as ‘imitation’ processed cheese, are widely produced, and are made from mixtures of dairy and/or non-dairy proteins and dairy fat or vegetable oil. These products are variously labelled as ‘analogues’, ‘analogs’ imitation’, ‘substitute’, ‘artificial’, ‘extruded’, ‘synthetic’, ‘Tofu’ and/or ‘filled’ cheese (Shaw, 1984; IDF, 1989;

Processed Cheese and Analogues: An Overview

3

McCarthy, 1990). The following references are recommended for further reading on different aspects on processed cheese analogues (Santos et al ., 1989; Ahmed et al ., 1995; El-Nour et al ., 1996, 1998, 2001a,b; Hetzner & Richarts, 1996; Ennis & Mulvihill, 1997; Abou El-Nour et al ., 1998, 2001; Muir et al ., 1999; Tamime et al ., 1999; Kaminarides & Stachtiaris, 2000; Mleko & Foegeding, 2000, 2001; Bachmann, 2001; Lobato-Calleros et al ., 2001; Pereira et al ., 2001; Abou El-Nour & Buchheim, 2002; Pereira et al ., 2002; El-Nour, 2003; Gustaw Mleko, 2007). These types of product are reviewed in Chapter 9.

1.2.2 Classification At present, there are many types of processed cheese made worldwide. Smith (1990) reported the classification of these products based on the FAO/WHO Food Standards Programme of the Codex Alimentarius Commission, and they are grouped into two different categories based on the physical characteristics of the product: processed cheese and spreadable processed cheese (for further details, refer to Chapter 2). The standard also details the following aspects. • • • • •

Permitted dairy and food additives/ingredients. Minimum processing temperature at 70◦ C for 30 s. The named variety of natural cheese to be used to describe the processed cheese type, and the blend being required to contain at least 70 g 100 g−1 of the cheese mentioned. The chemical composition of the product is expressed as dry matter content and percentage of fat-in-dry matter (FDM). Labelling information.

The main difference between processed cheese and processed cheese spread products proposed by Smith (1990) is the level of moisture content in the product, which affects its rheological properties, the spreadable type being softer. However, the commercial manufacture of processed cheese may also include the ‘block’ and ‘slices’ types, which merit separate subgrouping in the proposed FAO/WHO standards (Smith, 1990). Last but not least, there is no existing standard for processed cheese ‘sauce’ (i.e. natural and/or analogue), which is used sometimes in hamburger outlets. An example of the processing method of cheese sauce was reported by Hine (1995) (see also Duval et al ., 1994a,b). Natural cheeses used as an ingredient during the manufacture of processed cheese products may range from a minimum of 51 g 100 g−1 in the spreadable type to 95 g 100 g−1 in other products (Anonymous, 1986). The standards/legislations for these products in different countries are reviewed in detail in Chapter 2.

1.3 Patterns of production In the mid-1980s, the production figure for processed cheese in the European Union (EU), USA, Norway, Finland, Austria, Switzerland and Australia was ∼1.4 million tonnes (IDF, 1995; Anonymous, 1999), increasing to 1.53 million tonnes in 2004 (IDF, 2005). Detailed production figures for the 30 member countries of the International Dairy Federation (IDF) are shown in Table 1.1. It is possible that the world production of processed cheese will increase in the future, mirrored by the expected growth in the world production of natural

4


Table 1.1 Production trends (×1000 tonnes) of processed cheese for 30 International Dairy Federation (IDF) member countriesa between 1995 and 2004. Year Country

1995

2000

2004

Argentina

7

10

7

Australia

58

60

47

Belgium

52

55

44

Canada

76

67

71 b

Denmark

17

NA

Estonia

NA

NA

1

Finland

13

16

17

France

128

138

129

Germany

159

171

175

19

Hungary

11

10

11

Iceland

0.3

0.3

0.4

Ireland

12

11

12

Israel

2

1

1

Italy

NA

4

4

Japan

94

111

112

Lithuania

NA

1

3

Netherlands

31

19

16

New Zealand

11

24

25

Norway

3

3

3

Poland

30

48

60

Russian Federation

68

78

141

South Africa

5

5

5

Spain

39

36

NA

Switzerland

14

13

11

UK

24

33

37

USA

668

630

543

Total

1522

1557

1527

Source: After IDF (2005). a Production figures for processed cheese in Austria, Greece, Italy, Sweden and Cyprus are included with natural cheeses, not specified or not reported. b NA, not available.


5

cheeses, i.e. an annual growth rate of 1.8% from 2004 to 2014 (IDF, 2005). Nevertheless, annual production data (×1000 tonnes) for processed cheese in some selected countries are as follows: 30–40 (Egypt in 2007; M. Abd El-Salam, personal communication), 8.7 (Syria in 2007; A.-H. Klandar, personal communication) and 113.4 (Brazil in 2007; Associaça˜ o Brasileira das Indústrias de Queijo or ABIQ, 2008). It is safe to suggest that the demand for processed cheese in countries of the Far East is expected to rise due to an increase in annual income and the westernisation of consumer taste for pizza and hamburgers. Consequently, similar growth may also occur in the urban populations of China, India, South America, the Middle East and possibly Africa. There are no data available for world production figures of processed cheese analogues.

1.4 Principles of manufacturing stages The complexity of the manufacture of processed cheese and its analogues is well known, and is primarily influenced by the chemical interactions between the dairy constituents and the emulsifying salts, and these aspects will be reviewed in detail in different chapters. In addition, the rate of these interactions is governed by the application of heat, the duration of heating and processing, and the rate of shear applied during production, all of which will affect the quality of the final product. Nevertheless, the different stages of manufacture of processed cheese products including analogues are similar (Fig. 1.1) and the diversity of these technologies are briefly discussed in subsequent sections.

1.4.1 Natural cheeses The successful production of processed cheese is dependent on the proper quality and selection of natural cheeses. It is possible to use one or more varieties of cheese or blends of cheeses of different degrees of maturation (Carić & Kalàb, 1993; Guinee et al ., 2004; Kapoor et al ., 2007). In general, the formulation for using Cheddar cheese (i.e. mild, medium or mature flavour) may consist of different ratios (Table 1.2) and such typical blends provide the desirable elasticity character in the final product. The criteria for selection of natural cheese include flavour, texture, consistency and level of acidity. Degraded cheese (off-flavour or microbial defects) should not be used in processed cheesemaking as the quality of the final product will be reduced or unacceptable. When the cheeses have been selected, the products are removed from the wrapper, de-rinded, cleaned and ground before processing. This physical treatment of natural cheese facilitates an easier melt, ensures proper blending of the added ingredients, and enhances better contact between the emulsifying salts and cheese components.

1.4.2 Formulation of a balanced mix The main components of natural cheeses are fat, solids-not-fat (SNF) (mainly protein, minerals and sodium chloride) and moisture. Hence, formulation of a balanced mix is based on the proximate composition of the natural cheeses used, including ingredients added for the fortification of the SNF and/or fat contents (e.g. dairy powders, ‘cheese base’ – CB)

6


Miscellaneous additives

Fortification of the milk proteins Natural cheeses (shredded)

Mixing and blending

Standardisation of the fat content Homogenisation (optional)

Fill metal cans

Add emulsifying compounds Add salt and water

Processing kettle/cooker

Processed/melted cheese (block, slices, spread, sauces)

Steriliser

Filling machines

Cooling

Storage

Cartoning

Cooling

Dispatch Fig. 1.1 Schematic illustration showing the manufacturing stages of processed cheese products. Note that dotted line represents an alternative route; for cheese analogue use different ingredients, and some of the processing stages may not be applicable, e.g. use of metal cans.

Table 1.2 Some typical ratios of recommended blends of Cheddar cheese for the manufacture of processed cheese products. Natural cheese Type of processed cheese products

Mild

Medium

Mature ← 25–30 →

Block

70–75

Slices

30–40

50–60

10

Slices

55

35

10

Spread

30

50

20

and processed cheese re-work, standardisation of the fat level (e.g. cream, anhydrous milk fat or AMF, or butter), and added water or condensate from direct steam injection during the heating stage. However, some adjustments of the balanced mix should be taken into account when using food ingredients such as meat, fish or liquid additives (e.g. colouring matter – flavouring agents).


7

Skimmed milk powder (SMP) tends to improve the quality and stability of processed cheese, and the recommended level of fortification is ∼10–12 g 100 g−1 . Caseinates and whey protein concentrates (WPC) are added at a rate of 5–7 g 100 g−1 to the blend; higher rates of fortifications will affect the stability, flavour and structure of the product (Carić & Kalàb, 1993; Guinee et al ., 2004). The maximum permitted amount of caseinates in processed cheesemaking in the EU is 5 g 100 g−1 (Citro et al ., 1998). However, CB produced from whole milk can be used to replace up to 80 g 100 g−1 of natural cheeses. The proximate chemical composition of Cheddar type CB is similar to natural cheese, and its use in processed cheesemaking has been reported by Rubin & Bjerre (1984), Tamime et al . (1990, 1991), Ganguli (1991), Park et al . (1993), Jang et al . (1993), Abdel-Hamid et al . (2002), Awad (2003) and Kycia et al . (2006).

1.4.3 Emulsifying salts In general, emulsifying salts consist of monovalent cation (sodium-Na) and a polyvalent anion (phosphate); for more details refer to Chapter 4. These salts are normally added at a rate of up to 3 g 100 g−1 and, for pH adjustment, food grade citric acid is used; in addition, sodium chloride (NaCl) may be added to the cheese blend for adjusting the level of salt in the final product. Emulsifying salts are not amphiphilic and hence are not emulsifiers per se (Dalgleish, 1989). However, emulsifying salts promote, with the aid of heat and shear, a series of concerted physicochemical changes in the cheese blend which, as a consequence, result in rehydration of the aggregated para-casein and its conversion into an active emulsifying agent. Although the primary functions and/or effects of emulsifying salts during the manufacture of processed cheese will be detailed elsewhere, Carić & Kalàb (1993) and Guinee et al . (2004) reported that these salts supplement the functional properties of milk protein. In brief, they: • • • • • •

remove calcium (Ca2+ ) ions from the micelle; peptise and solubilise the protein; hydrate and swell the protein; emulsify the fat and stabilise the emulsion; control and stabilise the pH level; and form an appropriate structure of processed cheese after cooling.

Although the use of emulsifying salts is important during the manufacture of processed cheese, overdose of specific emulsifying agents (i.e. high in phosphorus content) can lead to bitterness in processed cheese slices (Mayer, 2001). The same author reported that bitter slices showed very weak or even no αs1 - and β-caseins region, but only γ-casein and low-molecularweight peptides, and contained high concentrations of hydrophilic and hydrophobic peptides.

1.4.4 Addition of miscellaneous additives The primary objective of flavouring processed cheese products is to provide the consumer with a wider choice, which may lead to increased consumption. A wide range of flavouring materials has been used in processed cheese products (see Chapter 5) and a selective list for possible novel products is shown in Table 1.3.

8


Table 1.3

Food products and flavouring agents currently used in processed cheese production.

Additive

Comment

References

Goat’s milk cheese or casein Addition of such component(s) had no effect on flavour, but improved the consistency of the product

Fredriksen & Steinsholt (1978)

Chocolate

Blending processed cheese and chocolate for the manufacture of a nutritious product

Vajda et al . (1983)

Hydrolysate of processed cheese

Processed cheese waste was hydrolysed Kunizhev et al . (1984) with hydrochloric acid and added to the blend at a rate of 5–25 g 100 g−1

Mashed potato

The blend consisted of Gouda cheese, emulsifying salts, mashed potato, curry powder and sweet corn

Shinozaki & Imagawa (1985) (see also Awad, 2003)

Decolorised blood protein

The protein was added to the milk before making a fresh cheese by acidification and centrifugation

Vareltziz & Buck (1985)

Prawns, salami, bacon and paprika

These additives enhanced the niche market of processed cheese

Anonymous (1987) and Abeid et al . (2001)

Different types of margarine, The manufactured product was fats and oils acceptable and more economical

Radovets et al . (1987) (see also Bodenstein et al ., 1990; Greim et al ., 1990; Türko˘glu et al ., 2002)

Calcium salts and phosphatidic acid

These additives were used to produce a Doleˇza´ lek & Nezda˘ril˜ık (1987) dietetic product, and clinical tests gave (see also Samodurov et al ., 1990) positive results

Vegetable protein

Soya and chickpea flour enhanced the consistency of the product

Nuts and dried fruit

Prepare the cheese paste and, while still Schoegel & Daurelles (1991) hot, pour into the packaging container (see also Maslov et al ., 1992) in which these additives are placed

Iron fortification

No effect on quality

Zhang & Mahoney (1991) and El-Sayed et al . (1997)

Egg protein

Affected the texture and formation of clumps

Hong (1992)

Smoke condensate

The recipe and the manufacturing processes have to be modified

Solo’eva et al . (1994) and McIlveen & Vallely (1996) (see also Niketić & Krˇsev, 1990)

Extract of concentrated fruit juices and/or fruit pulp

Improved organoleptic properties and enhanced the mineral content of the product

Lapshina et al . (1994), El-Shabrawy et al . (2002) and Awad et al . (2003a)

Meat emulsion

Development of a novel cheese-meat burger

Guinee & Corcoran (1994)

Mustard oil

Suitable as partial substitution of milk fat

Grigorov et al . (1995)

El-Neshawy et al . (1988) (see also Carić et al ., 1990; Ahmed et al ., 1995; DingMei et al ., 2008)


Table 1.3

9

(Continued)

Additive

Comment

References

Buffalo’s milk cheese

The age of the matured cheese used in the recipe influenced the quality of the processed cheese

Joshi & Thakar (1996) (see also Singh et al ., 1993; Tiwari et al ., 1996; Joshi & Thakar, 1996)

Plant protein isolates

Reduced the flavour acceptability as the El-Sayed (1997) level is increased to 15 g 100 g−1

Blue cheese taste

Blending Blue cheese with Emmental and casein to produce a good flavour processed cheese product

Wheat fibre

Improved quality of the product without Noli (1998) affecting the sensory properties

Okara

Acceptable product made with up to 15 g 100 g−1 Okara plus skimmed milk powder and starch

Real del Sol et al . (2002)

Casein hydrolysate or supernatant

The hydrolysed product (i.e. after 4 h, improved the emulsifying activity of the casein) was used at a ratio of 3:1 with ordinary emulsifier to produce a good-quality processed cheese with no effect on the flavour of the product

Kwak et al . (2002)

Transglutaminase (Tg-ase)

Milk gels (i.e. rennet coagulation) De Sa & Bordingnon-Luiz (2010) treated with Tg-ase and later used during the manufacture of processed cheese improved the physical properties (i.e. reduced syneresis index and increased consistency index) of the product, possibly due to the occurrence of enzymatic cross-linking of the protein matrix

Lubbers et al . (1997)

Another additive widely used as a preservative in processed cheese products are generally known as bacteriocins. These are polypeptide compounds produced by many lactic acid bacteria and can inhibit the growth of pathogenic and undesirable microorganisms in dairy and food products (Tamime et al ., 2006). An example of such a bacteriocin, which has been commercialised, is nisin, and is produced by certain strains of Lactococcus lactis subsp. lactis. Nisin has been shown to possess antibacterial activity against Grampositive bacteria, such as heat resistant spore-formers (e.g. Clostridium spp. and Bacillus spp.) and pathogenic microorganisms belonging to the genera Staphylococcus, Listeria and Salmonella. For more information regarding the use of nisin and other preservatives (e.g. potassium sorbate) in processed cheesemaking, the reader is referred to some comprehensive reviews and research reports (Delves-Broughton, 1987, 1998a,b; Hurst & Hoover, 1991; Plockova et al ., 1997; Delves-Broughton & Friis, 1998; JungHoon & Floros, 1998; Turtell & Delves-Broughton, 1998). Some suggested dairy ingredients employed during the manufacture of processed cheese products are listed in Table 1.4.

10


Table 1.4 products.

Some suggested dairy ingredients employed during the manufacture of processed cheese

Ingredients/product type

References

Processed cheese spreads Palm oil was used for the preparation of processed cheese spread, but affected its sensory characteristics

Salam (1988a,b) (see also Azzam, 2007; Calvo et al ., 2007)

Natural cheese flavours (i.e. obtained from Cheddar and Parmesan cheeses) were added to fresh cheese and used successfully to produce processed cheese spread; this approach of flavouring was useful in replacing mature cheeses by up to 15 g 100 g−1 in the blend

Kulić & Carić (1990)

Incorporating starch solution (1–25 g 100 g−1 in water, milk, buttermilk or ultrafiltered permeate) into the cheese curd maintains the creaminess of low- or fat-free cheese spreads; the addition of hydrocolloids in the cheese blend improves the texture of the product

Quiblier et al . (1991), Kokane et al . (1996) and Gokhale et al . (1999)

Addition of glycerol (5 g 100 g−1 ) improved the spreadability of the processed cheese product

Kombile-Moundouga & Lacroix (1991)

Incorporation of butter residue into the cheese blend improved the sensory properties of high-fat spreadable cheese

Abou-Zeid (1993)

Replacement of mature Ras cheese (an Egyptian variety) by up to 80 g 100 g−1 with enzyme-treated retentate improved the flavour, colour and consistency of the product

Aly et al . (1995)

Chakka (an Indian fermented milk), cheeses (pickled or brined cheeses, Queso Blanco, Ras, Ricotta or low-fat Mozzarella), Labneh (Middle Eastern concentrated yoghurt) and fermented barley (i.e. a Labneh-like product) were used successfully in the preparation of processed cheese spread

Dholu et al . (1990, 1994), McGregor et al . (1995), Hanna & Nader (1996), Tukan et al . (1998), Hanna (1999), Abdel-Hamid et al . (2000), Modler & Emmons (2001), Awad et al . (2003b), El-Shibiny et al . (2007) and Awad & Salama (2010)

Addition of whey protein concentrate (WPC) (20–25 g 100 g−1 total solids) to the cheese blend improved the texture and body of the product

Abd El-Salam et al . (1996, 1997) and El-Khamy et al . (1997) (see also Kebary et al ., 2001; Hui et al ., 2006; Pinto et al ., 2007; Shazly et al ., 2008)

The whiteness of processed cheese spreads was improved by increasing the content of WPC and emulsifying salts in the blend, but the product tended to become darker during storage, possibly due to the Maillard browning reaction

Abd El-Salam et al . (1998)

Replacement of dairy fat with fat-substitutes up to 40 g 100 g−1 with Dairy-Lo™ improved the sensory score of the product, whilst Maltrin® and Crestar® increased the rate of oiling off and meltability of low-fat processed cheese spreads

Kebary et al . (1998) (see also Lee & Brummel, 1990; Anonymous, 1992; Swenson et al ., 2000)

The use of denatured whey protein, which was modified with succinic anhydride, improved the spreadability of processed cheese

Fayed & Metwally (1999)

Taiz cheese (a Yemeni smoked variety) used at a rate of 30 g 100 g−1 in the cheese blend had the highest organoleptic score of processed cheese spread when compared with the control

Saleem et al . (2003)


Table 1.4

11

(Continued)


References

Cheddar cheese (low fat and full fat) was made from a mixture of buffaloes’ and cows’ milk, and the cheeses (i.e. fresh and mature) were used in the blend with different stabilisers to produce good-quality spreads

Rabo et al . (2004)

The addition of ι-carrageenan (0.25 g 100 g−1 ) to the cheese blend improved the firmness of processed cheese and spreads, and was more effective than κ-carrageenan

Cernikova et al . (2007, 2008)

Cholesterol-reduced processed cheese spread was made by cross-linking β-cyclodextrin (91.5 g 100 g−1 was removed), and had significantly higher scores for gumminess, brittleness, yellowness, bitterness and elasticity, and significantly lower scores for processed cheese flavour and slimy texture compared with the control product

Kim et al . (2009) and SooYun et al . (2009)

Low-sodium processed cheese spread was made from ultrafiltered Edam cheese (i.e. the brine was prepared from a mixture of NaCl and KCl at a ratio of 1:1). The meltability was low and oil separation was high of the product compared with the control, and sensory scores of low-sodium processed cheese were high

Amer et al . (2010)

Processed cheese (blocks and slices) Formulation for the manufacture of foamed processed cheese was made from Cheddar cheese (young and mature), cream, yoghurt, emulsifying salts, starch and other dried dairy powders and, after melting the blend, it was homogenised and whipped

Bode et al . (1986)

Enzyme-modified Cheddar cheese (lipase-treated) was suitable as a flavour enhancer for processed cheese

Lee & Ahn (1986)

The addition of WPC (∼26 g 100 g−1 total solids), trisodium citrates and calcium to replace 20–25 g 100 g−1 of the natural cheese in the blend improved the firmness of the product, but reduced the meltability of the cheese

Gupta & Reuter (1990, 1992, 1993) and Thapa & Gupta (1992a,b, 1996) (see also Gupta et al ., 1984; Metwally et al ., 1984; Prajapati et al ., 1991, 1992; French et al ., 2002; Mleko & Lucey, 2003; Kapoor & Metzger, 2004; Gustaw & Mleko, 2007)

The size of protein aggregates, firmness and elasticity of the product were influenced by the type of low-molecular-weight emulsifier added and the pH level of the rennet casein used

Lee et al . (1996)

Factors influencing the pink discoloration of annatto (emulsion or solution) used in processed cheese included the following: cooking temperature, continuous heating, type and blend of emulsifying salt, amount of coloured cheese in the blend and amount of whey powder added

Shumaker & Wendorff (1998)

Good-quality processed cheese was made on an industrial scale containing increased levels of potassium salt (i.e. 75–80 g 100 g−1 ) of that of the sodium content of the final product

Reps et al . (1998; 2009) and Iwanczak et al . (2001)

Processing the cheese blend containing WPC under atmospheric conditions, hydrogen donors and iron increased the content of conjugated linoleic acid (CLA) in processed cheese; in addition, the processing temperature (75 vs. 90◦ C) increased the content of CLA in the product and spread

Shantha et al . (1992), Shantha & Decker (1993), Garcia-Lopez et al . (1994) Luna et al . (2005), Calvo et al . (2007), Zhang et al . (2007) and JunHo et al . (2009) (continued)

12


Table 1.4

(Continued)


References

Low-fat processed cheese was produced using carrageenan and microcrystalline cellulose and ultrafiltered sweet buttermilk

Bullens et al . (1995) and Raval & Mistry (1999) (see also Trivedi et al ., 2008a,b)

Reduced-fat cheese containing lecithin was acceptable, but was less elastic in processed cheese

Drake et al . (1999)

Addition of ultra-high pressure-treated whey protein to the cheese blend improved the texture and body of the product

Lee et al . (2006)

The application of concentrated milk (i.e. vacuum evaporation and ultrafiltration) for Cheddar cheesemaking influenced the overall functionality and structure of processed cheese

Mistry et al . (2006)

The addition of 1-monoglycerides affected the sensory properties of processed cheese due to the off-flavour

Bunka et al . (2007)

Sudanese white cheese (presumably a fresh and brined product) was used to produce Sudanese processed cheese

El-Diam & Intisam (2007) (see also Kaminarides et al ., 2006)

1.4.5 Heat treatment The level of heating applied during the manufacture of processed cheese products ranges between 72 and 145◦ C; in brief, these products are categorised as ‘pasteurised’ or ‘sterilised’ (for more details refer to Chapter 7). In general, products that are sterilised are higher in water activity, which requires the additional security of high temperature processing conditions to eliminate the main threat of clostridial spores that can germinate and grow during the shelf-life if the product is not refrigerated. Sterilised products are not generally aseptically produced due to the complexity of the packaging, e.g. triangular foil portions. However, the pasteurised products are those heated to 72–95◦ C by means of direct steam injection under vacuum. This heating usually takes place in a batch cooker, and can be in concert with high or low mechanical/shear action. The important point is to have a minimum filling temperature of 72◦ C to ensure adequate pasteurisation of the packaging. Sterilised processed cheese products are normally heated to a temperature of 140◦ C for 10 s (corresponding to an Fo 8 value). The time/temperatures combinations that are widely used range between 128 and 145◦ C. It is obvious that the higher the temperature, the shorter the hold time. The widespread introduction of refrigeration of these processed cheese products has generally meant that these products have two barriers (i.e. high processing temperature and cold storage of the product) that prevent product spoilage.

1.4.6 Homogenisation The equipment (i.e. pilot and large-scale) employed for the manufacture of processed cheese products does not require homogenisation of the melted cheese blend because it is designed to provide an excellent shear effect to produce an emulsion of the fat droplets in a continuous hydrated phase. High-shear cookers basically simulate the homogenisation effect


13

by producing extremely fine fat droplets, and modern continuous cookers with tangential steam injectors produce the same effect, the speed of the mixing device of the cooker controlling the ‘creaming’ effect in the product. However, if the homogenisation stage is required, it would be installed downstream of the cooker.

1.4.7 Filling machines and packaging materials Different types of packaging materials, such as glass jars, metal tin cans, laminated aluminium foils, collapsible metal or plastic tubes, laminated plastics, ‘squeezy’ plastic bottles and heat-shrink or heat-melt sheets or pouches, are widely used to package processed cheese products, including analogues (refer to Chapter 8 for further details including types of filling machines). Some patented and developed packaging materials for processed cheese products are summarised in Table 1.5, and some examples of packaging materials and systems are shown in Fig. 1.2. In general, processed cheese slices are packaged individually in laminated plastic material, and a set of slices (e.g. 6 or 12) is stacked and overwrapped in similar material(s). Alternatively (i.e. an older method), unwrapped slices are packed in laminated plastic material and, to inhibit the slices from sticking to each other, parchment paper is inserted between the slices of processed cheese. Processed cheese packed in metal tin cans (see Pillonel et al ., 2002) exhibited the least chemical changes and microbiological quality during the storage period (at 30◦ C and 60% relative humidity (RH) and at ∼7◦ C and 80% RH) compared with parallel products packed in polystyrene or low-density polyethylene tubs (Goyak & Babu, 1991a,b). While the keeping quality of processed cheese spread packaged in glass jars for 3 months at 25–30◦ C or 5–8◦ C was superior to the same product packaged in different types of Egyptian-made polymeric laminated materials or imported polyamide sheets, there was a slight change in the microbiological quality and sensory scores, but the temperature of storage had a greater effect on the quality of the product. In addition, packages made from different polymers leached out substances that absorbed in the UV spectrum in solution simulating the aqueous phase of the product, and glass jars were recommended for packaging processed cheese due to their inertness (Metwally et al ., 1996; see also El-Shibiny et al ., 1996; Alves et al ., 2007). Table 1.5

Examples of some patented packaging materials for processed cheese products.

Type of package

References

Multilayer of oriented films from propylene copolymers and unplasticised Saran (i.e. heat shrinkable), suitable for block-type processed cheese

Schirmer (1986)

Daime (1987) Cylindrical pack with a lid (shipping container) that is suitable for gas flushing with N2 and CO2 to protect the individual wrapped portions of processed cheese Coated aluminium foil for wrapping processed cheese (i.e. standard specifications)

BSI (1987)

Packaging system for single portions of processed cheese

Rabier & Bonnin (1992)

A package for packing triangular portions of processed cheese

Bernard et al . (1992) and Weber et al . (1993)

14


Fig. 1.2 Some illustrations of packaging materials used for processed cheese and analogues sold in the UK market. (See Plate 1.1 for colour figure.)

1.5 Conclusions In summary, the technology of processed cheesemaking, including analogues, has evolved dramatically over the past century. It was to some extent an art, where manufacturers tended to blend different cheeses and select emulsifying salts (types and amounts) based largely on experience. Developments in emulsifying salt blends over the past few decades to suit processed cheese and analogues producers have been achieved, but there is a lack of knowledge about the exact mechanisms involved and they are still not clear since there are multiple reactions simultaneously occurring. There is no doubt that increased consumption of processed cheese products worldwide is mainly due to consumer changes in food habits (i.e. popularity and acceptability of fast food and pizza), and the product is more widely accepted by the younger consumer because it has a milder flavour than natural cheeses. Variations in existing definitions and standards for processed cheese products are evident in many countries, and international standards appear to be difficult to harmonise because of possible conflicts with national standards. Future developments in technology will encompass further reliance on automation and product safety. The following chapters reflect these aspects.

References Abd El-Salam, M.H., Al-Khamy, A.F., El-Garawany, G.A., Hamed, A. & Khader, A. (1996) Composition and rheological properties of processed cheese spread as affected by the level of added whey protein concentrates and emulsifying salt. Egyptian Journal of Dairy Science, 24, 309–322.


15

Abd El-Salam, M.H., Khader, A., Hamed, A., Al-Khamy, A.F. & El-Garawany, G.A. (1997) Effect of whey protein concentrate, emulsifying salts and storage on the apparent viscosity of processed cheese spreads. Egyptian Journal of Dairy Science, 25, 281–288. Abd El-Salam, M.H., Khader, A., Hamed, A., Al-Khamy, A.F. & El-Garawany, G.A. (1998) Whiteness of processed cheese spreads as affected by added whey protein concentrates and emulsifying salt. Egyptian Journal of Dairy Science, 26, 151–159. Abd El-Salam, M.H., El-Shibiny, S. & Ahmed, N.S. (2005) Studies on processed cheese in Egypt: a review. Egyptian Journal of Dairy Science, 33, 129–141. Abdel-Hamid, L.B., El-Shabrawy, S.A., Awad, R.A. & Singh, R.K. (2000) Chemical properties of processed Ras cheese spreads as affected by emulsifying salt mixtures. Food Processing and Preservation, 24, 191–208. Abdel-Hamid, L.B., Zammar, O.A. & Hagrass, A.E. (2002) Utilization or ripened curd slurry in processed Cheddar cheese spread making. Egyptian Journal of Dairy Science, 30, 283–296. Abeid, A.M., El-Aassar, M.A. & El-Sonbaty, A.H. (2001) The use of shrimps in processed cheese spread. Egyptian Journal of Dairy Science, 29, 127–137. ABIQ (2008) Production Figures of Dairy Products, Praça Dom José Gaspar, 30-10 Andar, CEP 01047901, Sao Paulo, Brazil. Available at www.abiq.com.br/. Abou El-Nour, A.M. & Buchheim, W. (2002) Using rennet casein and buttermilk curd in the manufacture of processed cheese analogue. Egyptian Journal of Dairy Science, 30, 315–324. Abou El-Nour, A.M., Scheurer, G.J. & Buchheim, W. & (1998) Use of casein and milk protein concentrate in the production of spread-type processed cheese analogue. Milchwissenschaft , 53, 686–690. Abou El-Nour, A.M., Buchheim, W. & Abd El-Salam, M.H. (2001) The use of novel milk protein preparations in the manufacture of processed cheese analogues. Egyptian Journal of Dairy Science, 29, 313–323. Abou-Zeid, N.A. (1993) High-fat spreadable cheese with high blood cholesterol. Journal of Dairy Research, 60, 239–245. Adhikari, K., Cole, A., Grun, I., Heymann, H., Hsieh, F.H. & Huff, H. (2009) Physical and sensory characteristics of processed cheese manufactured by extrusion. Journal of the Science of Food and Agriculture, 89, 1428–1433. Ahmed, N.S., Hassan, F.A.M., Salama, F.M.M. & Enb, A.K.M. (1995, published in 1996) Utilization of plant proteins in the manufacture of cheese analogs. Egyptian Journal of Dairy Science, 23, 37–45. Alves, R.M.V., van Dender, A.G.F., Jaime, S.B.M., Moreno, I. & Pereira, B.C. (2007) Effect of light and packages on stability of spreadable processed cheese. International Dairy Journal , 17, 365–373. Aly, M.E., Abdel-Baky, A.A., Farhat, S.M. & Hana, U.B.B. (1995) Quality of processed cheese spread made using ultrafiltered retentates treated with some ripening agents. International Dairy Journal , 5, 191–209. Amer, A.E.A., Sherif, S.A. & Harby, S.I. (2010) Preparation of low sodium processed cheese spread. Egyptian Journal of Dairy Science, 38, 85–93. Anonymous (1986) Cheese and related products, part 133. Food and Drugs 21: Code of Federal Regulations, Parts 100–169, US Government Printing Office, Washington DC. Anonymous (1987) New processed cheese varieties find important niches in the market. Dairy Science Abstracts, 49, 170. Anonymous (1992) Lowfat cold-pack. Dairy Foods, 93(3), 60–61. Anonymous (1999) Slump in dairy turnover predicted. Dairy Industries International , 64(8), 9. Awad, R.A. (2003) Impact of potato puree as a cheese base replacement in the manufacture of processed cheese. Egyptian Journal of Dairy Science, 31, 375–387. Awad, R.A. & Salama, W.M. (2010) Development of a novel processed cheese product containing fermented barley. Egyptian Journal of Dairy Science, 38, 95–103.

16


Awad, R.A., El-Shabrawy, S.A., Osman, S.G. & Saad, S.A. (2003a) Chemical composition of flavoured processed cheese spreads with different fruit flavours. Egyptian Journal of Dairy Science, 31, 235–344. Awad, R.A., Abd El-Hamid, L.B.A., Haggras, A.E. & Zammar, O.A. (2003b) Rheological and sensory properties of low-fat processed cheese spread with low-fat Mozzarella cheese in the blend. Egyptian Journal of Dairy Science, 31, 361–373. Azzam, M.A. (2007) Effect of partial replacement of milk fat with vegetable oils on the quality of processed cheese spread. Egyptian Journal of Dairy Science, 35, 87–95. Bachmann, H.-P. (2001) Cheese analogues: a review. International Dairy Journal , 11, 505–515. Berger, W., Klostermeyer, H., Merkenich, K. & Uhlmann, G. (1989) Processed Cheese Manufacture: A Joha Guide. BK Ladenburg, Ladenburg. Bernard, J.Y., Bonnin, Y., Weber, J.C., Duchesnes, J., Denis, C. & Poupard, C. (1992) A box for packaged portions of processed cheese. French Patent Application, FR 2 677 336 A1. Bode, D., Kröber, D.K.H., Konietzko, M. & Schoen, F. (1986) Foamed processed cheese and its manufacture. Dairy Science Abstracts, 48, 219. Bodenstein, D., van Daal, R. & Torenvliet, L. (1990) Cheese product and process for preparing. European Patent Application, EP 0 383 375 A2. BSI (1987) Coated aluminium foil for wrapping processed cheese. BS 1683, British Standards Institution, Milton Keynes. Bullens, C., Krawczyk, G. & Geithman, L. (1995) Cheese products with reduced fat content involving the use of carageenans and microcrystalline cellulose. Dairy Science Abstracts, 57, 856. Bunka, F., Pavlinek, V., Hrabe, J., Rop, O., Janis, R. & Krejci, J. (2007) Effect of 1-monoglycerides on viscoelastic properties of processed cheese. International Journal of Food Properties, 10, 819–828. Bunka, F., Kriz, O., Velickova, A., Bunkova, L. & Kracmar, S. (2009) Effect of acid hydrolysis time on amino acids determination in casein and processed cheese with different fat content. Journal of Food Composition and Analysis, 22, 224–232. Calvo, M.V., Juarez, M., Fontecha, J., El-Asar, M., Naguib, M. & Abd El-Salam, M.H. (2007) Effect of milk fat replacement with vegetable oils on fatty acids composition and conjugated linoleic acid content of market Egyptian processed cheese. Egyptian Journal of Dairy Science, 35, 97–107. Carić, M. (1991) Processed cheese. Encyclopedia of Food Science and Technology (ed. Y.H. Hui), vol. 3, pp. 2161–2174, John Wiley & Sons, New York. Carić, M. & Milanović, S. (1997) Processed Cheese. Nauka, Beograd (in Serbian). Carić, M. & Kaláb, M. (1993) Processed cheese products. Cheese: Chemistry, Physics and Microbiology (ed. P.F. Fox), 2nd edn, vol. 2, pp. 467–505, Chapman & Hall, London. Carić, M., Gavarić, D., Kulić, L. & Milanović, S. (1990) Application of isolated soya proteins in processed cheese manufacture. Dairy Science Abstracts, 52, 163. Cernikova, M., Bunka, F., Pavlinek, V., Brezina, P., Hrabe, J. & Kracmar, S. (2007) The effect of addition of selected carrageenans on viscoeleastic properties of model processed cheese spreads. Acta Universitatis Agriculturae et Silviculturae Mendelianae Brunesis, 55(5), 51–58. Cernikova, M., Bunka, F., Pavlinek, V., Brezina, P., Hrabe, J. & Valasek, P. (2008) Effect of carrageenan type on viscoeleastic properties of processed cheese. Food Hydrocolloids, 22, 1054–1061. Citro, A., Correale, E., Lotierzo, G. & Diamato, V. (1998) Casein and caseinates in the production of processed cheese. Dairy Science Abstracts, 60, 773. Daime, M. (1987) Pack for portions of processed cheese. Dairy Science Abstracts, 49, 566. Dalgleish, D.G. (1989) Protein-stabilized emulsions and their properties. Water and Food Quality (ed. T.M. Hardnon), pp. 211–250, Elsevier Applied Science, London. Delves-Broughton, J. (1987) Focus on nisin. Food Manufacture, 62(3), 63–64. Delves-Broughton, J. (1998a) Nisin. The Use of Nisin in Cheesemaking, Overview of Iceland’s Dairy Industry, Terminology for Milk Protein Fractions, Biofilms on Dairy Plant Surfaces: What’s New , Document No. 329, pp. 9–12, International Dairy Federation, Brussels.


17

Delves-Broughton, J. (1998b) Use of nisin in processed cheese and natural cheese. The Use of Nisin in Cheesemaking, Overview of Iceland’s Dairy Industry, Terminology for Milk Protein Fractions, Biofilms on Dairy Plant Surfaces: What’s New , Document No. 329, pp. 13–17, International Dairy Federation, Brussels. Delves-Broughton, J. & Friis, M. (1998) Nisin preparations: production, specification and assay procedures. The Use of Nisin in Cheesemaking, Overview of Iceland’s Dairy Industry, Terminology for Milk Protein Fractions, Biofilms on Dairy Plant Surfaces: What’s New , Document No. 329, pp. 18–19, International Dairy Federation, Brussels. De Sa, E.M.F. & Bordingnon-Luiz, M.T. (2010) The effect of transglutaminase on the properties of milk gels and processed cheese. International Journal of Dairy Technology, 63, 243–251. Dholu, K., Upadhayay, K.G., Prajapaty, P.S. & Pandya, A.J. (1990) Use of Chakka in processed cheese spread manufacture. XXIII International Dairy Congress, II, 499. Dholu, K., Upadhayay, K.G. & Prajapaty, P.S. (1994) Quality of processed cheese manufactured using Chakka and selected of emulsifying salts. Indian Journal of Dairy Science, 47, 490–495. Dimitreli, G. & Thomareis, A.S. (2007) Texture evaluation of block-type processed cheese as a function of chemical composition and in relation to apparent viscosity. Journal of Food Engineering, 78, 1364–1373. Doleˇza´ lek, J. & Nezda˘ril˜ık, F. (1987) Manufacture of processed cheese with dietetic effects. Dairy Science Abstracts, 49, 827. DingMei, Z., Xu, S. & BaoHua, K. (2008) The effects of soy protein on the texture of processed cheese spread. Dairy Science Abstracts, 70, 754. Drake, M.A., Truong, V.D. & Daubert, C.R. (1999) Rheological and sensory properties of reduced-fat processed cheeses containing lecithin. Journal of Food Science, 64, 744–747. Duval, D.F., Kruhmar, K.C. & Ratcliff, C.E. (1994a) Retort-stable low solid cheese base composition. United States Patent Application, US 5 320 860. Duval, D.F., Kruhmar, K.C. & Ratcliff, C.E. (1994b) Method for stabilizing vegetable products in a retort-processed cheese and vegetables. United States Patent Application, US 5 350 592. El-Diam, M.S.A.N. & Intisam, E.M.E. (2007) Yield and sensory evaluation of the processed cheese from Sudanese white cheese. Research Journal of Animal and Veterinary Sciences, 1, 47–52. El-Khamy, A.F., El-Garawany, G.A., Khader, A., Hamed, A. & Abd El-Salam, M.H. (1997) The use of whey protein concentrates in processed cheese spread: 1. Effect of type of emulsifying salt. Egyptian Journal of Dairy Science, 25, 99–112. El-Neshawy, A.A., Farahat, S.M. & Wahbah, H.A. (1988) Production of processed cheese food enriched with vegetable and whey proteins. Food Chemistry, 28, 245–255. El-Nour, A.M.A. (2003) Rennet casein: properties and application in processed cheese analogues. Egyptian Journal of Dairy Science, 31, 345–360. El-Nour, A.A., Scheurer, G.J., Omar, M.M. & Buchheim, W. (1996) Physicochemical and rheological properties of block-type processed cheese analogue made from rennet casein and total milk protein. Milchwissenschaft , 51, 684–687. El-Nour, A.A., Scheurer, G.J. & Buchheim, W. (1998) Use of rennet casein and milk protein concentrate in the production of spread-type processed cheese analogue. Milchwissenschaft , 53, 686–690. El-Nour, A.M.A., Mohammed, A.A., El-Safty, M.S., El-Zayat, A.I. & Buchheim, W. (2001a) Optimization of spread-type processed cheese analogue manufacture. 1. Effect of type of emulsifying salts. Proceedings of the 8th Egyptian Conference for Dairy Science and Technology, pp. 383–391. El-Nour, A.M.A., Buchheim, W. & Abd El-Salam, M.H. (2001b) The use of novel milk protein preparations in the manufacture of processed cheese analogues. Egyptian Journal of Dairy Science, 29, 313–323. El-Sayed, M.M. (1997) Use of plant protein isolates in processed cheese. Nahrung, 41, 91–95. El-Sayed, M.M., Abd-Rabo, N.S., Sayed, A.F. & El-Samragy, Y.A. (1997) Iron fortification of processed Ras cheese. Egyptian Journal of Dairy Science, 25, 289–298.

18


El-Shabrawy, S.A., Awad, R.A. & Saad, S.A. (2002) Manufacture and properties of flavoured processed cheese spread with different fruit flavours. Arab University Journal of Agricultural Sciences, 10, 641–657. El-Shibiny, S., Metwalley, M.M., El-Etriby, H.M., El-Died, S.M. & Assem, F.M. (1996) Changes in processed cheese during storage as affected by the packaging materials. Egyptian Journal of Dairy Science, 24, 197–206. El-Shibiny, S., Shenanna, M.E., El-Nagar, G.F. & Abdou, S.M. (2007) Preparation and properties of low fat processed cheese spreads. International Journal of Dairy Science, 2, 13–22. Engel, M.E. (1992) Process for producing synthetic cheese. United States Patent Application, US 5 098 729. Ennis, M.P. & Mulvihill, D.M. (1997) Cheese analogues. 5th Cheese Symposium (eds T.M. Cogan, P.F. Fox & R.P. Ross), pp. 1–14, Teagasc, Cork. Fayed, H.H. & Metwally, S.A.M. (1999) The use of chemically modified denatured whey proteins in processed cheese manufacture. Egyptian Journal of Dairy Science, 27, 167–178. French, S.J., Lee, K.M., DeCastro, M. & Harper, W.J. (2002) Effects of different protein concentrates and emulsifying salt conditions on the characteristics of a processed cheese product. Milchwissenschaft , 57, 79–83. Fredriksen, E.B. & Steinsholt, K. (1978) Processed cheese made from goat’s milk cheese. Diary Science Abstracts, 40, 667. Ganguli, N.C. (1991) Cheesebase: a base for new foods in its own right. Indian Dairyman, 43, 499–451. Garcia-Lopez, S., Echeverria, E., Tsui, I. & Blkanch, B. (1994) Changes in the content of conjugated linoleic acid (CLA) in processed cheese during processing. Food Research International , 27, 61–64. Gokhale, A.J., Pandya, A.J. & Upadhyay, K.G. (1999) Effect of substitution of water with sweet buttermilk on quality of processed cheese spread. Indian Journal of Dairy Science, 52, 256–261. Goyak, G.K. & Babu, K.E. (1991a) Influence of packaging and storage on the chemical quality of processed cheese. Indian Journal of Dairy Science, 44, 274–279. Goyak, G.K. & Babu, K.E. (1991b) Influence of packaging system on the microbiological quality of processed cheese during storage. Journal of Food Science and Technology (Mysore), 28(1), 39–41. Greim, P., Praisler, R. & Reichle, K.H. (1990) Processed cheese and process for preparing such. European Patent Application, EP 0 382 291 A1. Grigorov, N.I., Samudurov, V.A. & Sokolov, A.M. (1995) Use of mustard oil in the manufacture of processed cheese. Dairy Science Abstracts, 57, 956. Guinee, T.P. (1987) Processed cheese products: physico-chemical aspects. Symposium on Industrial Aspects of Milk Proteins, pp. 111–178, Moorepark Research Center, Moorepark. Guinee, T.P. & Corcoran, M.O. (1994) Expanded use of cheese in processed meat products. Farm & Food , 4(1), 25–28. Guinee, T.P., Caric, M. & Kaláb, M. (2004) Pasteurized processed cheese and substitute/imitation cheese products. Cheese: Chemistry, Physics and Microbiology, (eds P.F. Fox, P.L.H. McSweeney, T.M. Cogan & T.P. Guinee), 3rd edn, vol. 2, pp. 349–394, Elsevier, London. Gupta, V.K. & Reuter, H. (1990) Processed cheese foods incorporated with whey protein concentrates. XXIII International Dairy Congress, II, 508. Gupta, V.K. & Reuter, H. (1992) Processed cheese foods with added whey protein concentrates. Lait , 72, 201–212. Gupta, V.K. & Reuter, H. (1993) Firmness and melting quality of processed cheese foods with added whey protein concentrates. Lait , 72, 201–212. Gupta, S.K., Karahadian, C. & Lindsay, R.C. (1984) Effect of emulsifier salts on the textural and flavour properties of processed cheese. Journal of Dairy Science, 67, 764–778. Gustaw, W. & Mleko, S. (2007) The effect of polysaccharides and sodium chloride on physical properties of processed cheese analogs containing whey proteins. Milchwissenschaft , 62, 59–62.


19

Hanna, S.S. (1999) The use of halloum cheese for the production of processed cheese. International Journal of Dairy Technology, 52, 117–118. Hanna, S.A.S. & Nader, A.S. (1996) Manufacture of processed cheese from Iraqi white soft cheese. Journal of the Society of Dairy Technology, 49, 57–58. Hetzner, E. & Richarts, E. (1996) The international market of processed cheese. The Dairy World – Twenty Five Years of Change: The Dairy Industry in Southern Africa and Specifically South Africa, Document No. 316, pp. 16–26, International dairy Federation, Brussels. Hine, W.S. (1995) High moisture non-fat cheese sauce. European Patent Application, EP 0 664 085 A1. Hong, Y.H. (1992) Physiochemical and texture characteristics of process cheese manufactured with different kinds and qualities of ingredients. Dairy Science Abstracts, 54, 410. Hoyer, K.F. & Kirkeby, P. (2007) Continuous production of analogue cheese. Daiy Industries International , 72(7), 28–29. Hui, S., JianFei, W. & ChunMan, W. (2006) Studies on new products of processed cheese spread. Dairy Science Abstract , 68, 1139. Hurst, A. & Hoover, D.G. (1991) Nisin. Antimicrobials in Foods (eds P.M. Davidson and A.L. Branen), pp. 369–394, Marcel Dekker, New York. IDF (1989) Present and Future Importance of Imitation Dairy Products, Document No. 239, pp. 8, International Dairy Federation, Brussels. IDF (1995) The World Market of Cheese, 3rd edition, Document No. 307, pp. 21–50, International Dairy Federation, Brussels. IDF (2005) The World Market for Cheese 1995–2004 , 6th edition, Document No. 402, International Dairy Federation, Brussels. Iwanczak, M., Reps, A. & Wisniewska, K. (2001) Application of fluxing agent with increased potassium content in manufacture of the processed cheeses. Milchwissenschaft , 56, 553–555. Jackson, M.P. & Wearmouth, W.G. (1959) A review of some aspects of processed cheese manufacture. Dairy Science Abstracts, 21, 177–182. Jang, E.K., Lee, K.W., Shin, Y.K., Chee, G.H. & Kwak, H.A. (1993) The characteristics of sliced Cheddar processed cheese made from UF cheese base and Cheddar cheese: II. Sensory characteristics. Dairy Science Abstracts, 55, 225. Johnson, M.E., Kapoor, R., McMahon, D.J., McCoy, D.R. & Narasimmon, R.G. (2009) Reduction of sodium and fat levels in natural and processed cheese: scientific and technological aspects. Comprehensive Reviews in Food Science and Food Safety, 8, 252–268. Joshi, N.S. & Thakar, P.N. (1996) Utilization of buffalo milk Cheddar cheese made using butter milk solids in processed cheese manufacture. Indian Journal of Dairy Science, 49, 353–355. JunHo, K., OJun, K., NagJin, C., SeJing, O., HaYeon, J., ManKang, S., InHye, J. & YoungJun, K. (2009) Variations in conjugated linoleic acid (CLA) content of processed cheese by lactation time, feeding regime and ripening. Journal of Agricultural and Food Chemistry, 57, 3235–3239. JungHoon, H. & Floros, J.D. (1998) Potassium sorbate diffusivity in American processed and Mozzarella cheeses. Journal of Food Science, 63, 435–437. Kalàb, M. (1995) Practical aspects of electron microscopy in cheese research. Chemistry of Structure–Function Relationships in Cheese (eds E.L. Malin & M.H. Tunick), pp. 247–276, Plenum Press, New York. Kaminarides, S. & Stachtiaris, S. (2000) Production of processed cheese using Kasseri cheese and processed cheese analogues incorporating whey protein concentrate and soy-bean oil. International Journal of Dairy Technology, 53, 69–74. Kaminarides, S., Kalogrides, D. & Massouras, T. (2006) Creation and quality characterization of processed cheese derived mainly from Halloumi cheese. Lait , 86, 333–343. Kapoor, R. & Metzger, L.E. (2004) Evaluation of salt whey as an ingredient in processed cheese. Journal of Dairy Science, 87, 1143–1150. Kapoor, R. & Metzger, L.E. (2008) Process cheese: scientific and technological aspects: a review. Comprehensive Reviews in Food Science and Food Safety, 7, 194–214.

20


Kapoor, R., Metzger, L.E., Biswas, A.C. & Muthukmmarappan, K. (2007) Effect of natural cheese characteristics on process cheese properties. Journal of Dairy Science, 90, 1625–1634. Kebary, K.M.K., Abeid, A.M. & Badawi, R.M. (1998) Impact of fat replacer on the properties of low fat processed cheese spread. Proceedings of the 7th Egyptian Conference for Dairy Science and Technology, pp. 383–401. Kebary, K.M.K., Hussein, S.A. & Badawi, R.M. (2001) The use of whey proteins in flavoured low fat processed cheese spread. Proceedings of the 8th Egyptian Conference for Dairy Science and Technology, pp. 369–381. Kim, S.-Y., Hong, E.-K., Ahn, J. & Kwak, H.-S. (2009) Chemical and sensory properties of cholesterol-reduced processed cheese spread. International Journal of Dairy Technology, 62, 348–353. Kokane, R.D., Jana, A.H. & Thakar, P.N. (1996) Hydrocolloids in the dairy industry. Indian Food Industry, 15(4), 32–37. Kombile-Moundouga, E. & Lacroix, C. (1991) Effet de combination de chloure de sodium, de lactose et de glycerol sur les caratèritique rèologie et le couleure des fromages fondues a tartiner. Canadian Institute of Food Science and Technology, 24, 239–251. Kosikowski, F.V. & Mistry, V.V. (1997) Process cheese products. Cheese and Fermented Milk Foods, 3rd edn, vol. 1, pp. 156–161, F.V. Kosikowski LLC, Westport. Kulić, L. & Carić, M. (1990) Processed cheese production blend modification using natural cheese flavours. Dairy Science Abstracts, 52, 802. Kunizhev, S.M., Kimova, E.T., Kushkhova, M.Kh. & Kunizheva, Sh.M. (1984) Method of obtaining processed cheese. Dairy Science Abstracts, 46, 41. Kycia, K., Pluta, A. & Zmarlicki, S. (2006) Physicochemical and textural properties of processed cheese spreads made with addition of cheese base obtained from UF retentates. Polish Journal of Food and Nutrition Sciences, 15/56, 113–118. Kwak, H.S., Choi, S.S., Ahn, J. & Lee, S.W. (2002) Casein hydrolysate act as an emulsifier in process cheese. Journal of Food Science, 67, 821–825. Lapshina, N.F., Belov, B.I., Vlasova, N.M., Avetikyants, A.G. & Mel’nik, G.G. (1994) The mineral content of processed cheese with fruit and berry flavourings. Dairy Science Abstracts, 56, 976. Lee, B.O. & Ahn, I. (1986) Analysis of enzymatic preparation (EP) and enzyme-modified Cheddar cheese (Cheddar EMC) for addition to processed cheese. Dairy Science Abstracts, 48, 219. Lee, K. & Brummel, S.E. (1990) Fat reduction in processed cheese by added hydrocolloids (soluble fibre). XXIII International Dairy Congress, II, 402. Lee, S.Y.K., Park, P.S.W. & Rhee, K.C. (1992) Textural properties of cheese analogs containing proteolytic enzyme-modified soy protein isolates. Journal of the American Oil Chemists’ Society, 69, 755–759. Lee, S.K., Klostermeyer, H., Schrader, K. & Buchheim, W. (1996) Rheological properties and microstructure of model processed cheese containing low-molecular weight emulsifiers. Nahrung, 40, 189–194. Lee, W.J., Clark, S. & Swanson, B.G. (2006) Low fat process cheese food containing ultrahigh pressure-treated whey protein. Journal of Food Processing and Preservation, 30, 164–179. Lobato-Calleros, C., Aguirre-Mandujano, E. & Vernon-Carter, E.J. (2001) Rheological properties of analogous of cheese: effect of fat substitute, fat and wet. Dairy Science Abstracts, 63, 672. Lubbers, S., Cayton, N. & Taisant, C. (1997) Blue cheese taste intensification in processed cheese products. Sciences des Aliments, 17, 393–402. Luna, P., de la Fluente, M. & Juárez, M. (2005) Conjugated linoleic acid in processed cheese during the manufacturing stages. Journal of Agricultural and Food Chemistry, 53, 2690–2695. Mann, E.J. (1969) Processed cheese. Dairy Industries, 34, 87–88. Mann, E.J. (1970) Processed cheese. Dairy Industries, 35, 843–845. Mann, E.J. (1974) Processed cheese. Dairy Industries, 40, 24–25. Mann, E.J. (1975) Processed cheese. Dairy Industries International , 40(1), 24–25.


21

Mann, E.J. (1978a) Processed cheese. Dairy Industries International , 43(2), 31–32. Mann, E.J. (1978b) Processed cheese. Dairy Industries International , 43(3), 35–36. Mann, E.J. (1981) Processed cheese. Dairy Industries International , 46(2), 13–14. Mann, E.J. (1983a) Processed cheese. Dairy Industries International , 48(10), 11–13. Mann, E.J. (1983b) Processed cheese. Dairy Industries International , 48(12), 9–11. Mann, E.J. (1986) Processed cheese. Dairy Industries International , 51(2), 9–10. Mann, E.J. (1987) Processed cheese. Dairy Industries International , 52(4), 11–12. Mann, E.J. (1990) Processed cheese. Dairy Industries International , 55(11), 12–13. Mann, E.J. (1993) Processed cheese. Dairy Industries International , 58(1), 14–15. Mann, E.J. (1995) Processed cheese and related products. Dairy Industries International , 60(5), 19–20. Mann, E.J. (1997) Processed cheese. Dairy Industries International , 62(2), 16–17. Mann, E.J. (1999) Processed cheese. Dairy Industries International , 64(1), 12–13. Mann, E.J. (2003) Processed cheese. Dairy Industries International , 68(6), 35–36. Marchesseau, S., Gastaldi, E., Lagaude, A. & Cuq, J.L. (1997) Influence of pH on protein interactions and microstructure of process cheese. Journal of Dairy Science, 80, 1843–1849. Maslov, A.M., Alekseev, N.G., Lupinskaya, S.M. & Orlov, V.V. (1992) Production of fruit flavoured cheese. Dairy Science Abstracts, 54, 17. Mayer, H. (2001) Bitterness in processed cheese caused by an overdose of a specific emulsifying agent? International Dairy Journal , 11, 533–542. McCarthy J. (1990) Part 3. World Dairy Situation 1990 – Butter: the World Market – Imitation Cheese Products, Document No. 249, pp. 45–52, International Dairy Federation, Brussels. McGregor, J.U., Tejookaya, U.P. & Gough, R.H. (1995) Optimizing parameters for the development of processed Queso Blanco cheese. Cultured Dairy Products Journal , 30(2), 27, 29–31. McIlveen, H. & Vallely, C. (1996) The development and acceptability of a smoked processed cheese. British Food Journal , 98(8), 17–23. Mistry, V.V., Hassan, A.N. & Acharya, M.R. (2006) Microstructure of pasteurized process cheese manufactured from vacuum condensed and ultrafiltered milk. Lait , 86, 453–459. Mleko, S. & Foegeding, E.A. (2000) Physical properties of rennet casein gels and processed cheese analogs containing whey proteins. Milchwissenschaft , 55, 513–516. Mleko, S. & Foegeding, E.A. (2001) Incorporation of polymerized whey proteins into processed cheese analogs. Milchwissenschaft , 56, 612–615. Mleko, S. & Lucey, J.A. (2003) Production and properties of processed cheese with reduced lactose whey. Milchwissenschaft , 58, 498–502. Merkenich, K., Maurer-Rothmann, A., Walter, E., Scheuber, G. & Klostermeyer, H. (1992a) Additives for processed cheese. European Patent Application, EP 0 491 298 A1. Merkenich, K., Maurer-Rothmann, A., Walter, E., Scheuber, G. & Klostermeyer, H. (1992b) Processed cheese preparation. European Patent Application, EP 0 491 299 A1. Merkenich, K., Maurer-Rothmann, A., Scheuber, G., Walter, E., Albertsen, K. & Wilmsen, A. (1994) Use of stabilized dried milk protein in the production of processed cheese and cheese preparations, and methods of manufacturing such products. PCT International Patent Application, WO 94/01000. Metwally, M., Abd-El-Gawad, I.A., Khorshid, M.A. & El-Sayed, M. (1984) The use of concentrated whey in making cheese spread. Annals of Agricultural Science (Moshtohor), 21, 749–752. Metwally, M.M., El-Shibiny, S., El-Died, S.M. & Assem, F.M. (1996) Effect of packaging materials on the keeping quality of processed cheese. Egyptian Journal of Dairy Science, 24, 1–12. Meyer, A. (1973) Processed Cheese Manufacture, Food Trade Press, London. Modler, H.W. & Emmons, D.B. (2001) The use of continuous Ricotta processing to reduce ingredients cost in ‘further processed’ cheese products. International Dairy Journal , 11, 517–523. Mortensen, H. (1991) Imitation cheese products will gain importance. Scandinavian Dairy Information, 5(2), 14–15.

22


Muir, D.D., Tamime, A.Y., Shenana, M.E. & Dawood, A.H. (1999) Processed cheese analogues incorporating fat-substitutes: 1. Composition, microbiological quality and flavour changes during storage at 5◦ C. Lebensmittel Wissenschaft und Technologie, 32, 41–49. Niketić, G. & Krˇsev, L. (1990) Investigations on the possibility of the production of smoked processed cheese. Dairy Science Abstracts, 52, 162. Noli, B. (1998) Wheat fibre: a beneficial ingredient for processed cheese. European Dairy Magazine, 9(4), 35–36. Park, J.N., Lee, K.I. & Yu, J.H. (1993) The effect of emulsifying salts on the texture and flavour of block process cheese made with UF cheese base. Dairy Science Abstracts, 55, 97. Pereira, R.B., Bennett, R.J., Hemar, Y. & Campanella, O.H. (2001) Rheological and microstructureal characteristics of model processed cheese analogues. Journal of Texture Studies, 32, 349–373. Pereira, R.B., Bennett, R.J., McMath, K.L. & Luckman, M.S. (2002) In-hand sensory evaluation of textural characteristics in model processed cheese analogues. Journal of Texture Studies, 33, 255–268. Pillonel, L., Tabacchi, R. & Bosset, J.O. (2002) Long term study of volatile compounds from deep frozen canned processed cheese proposed as a control standard. Mitteilungen aus Lebensmittelunterschung und Hygiene, 93, 140–153. Pinto, S., Rathour, A.K., Prajapati, J.P., Jana, A.H. & Solanky, M.J. (2007) Utilization of whey protein concentrate in processed cheese spread. Natural Product Reliance, 6, 398–401. Plockova, M., Stepanek, M., Demnerova, K., Curda, L. & Svirakova, E. (1997) Effect of nisin for improvement in shelf-life and quality of processed cheese. Dairy Science Abstracts, 59, 866. Prajapati, P.S., Gupta, S.K., Patil, G.R. & Patel, A.A. (1991) Cost estimation of a cheese flavoured spread. Asian Journal of Dairy Research, 10, 158–169. Prajapati, P.S., Gupta, S.K., Patil, G.R. & Patel, A.A. (1992) Development of cheese-flavoured low-fat spread. Cultured Dairy Products Journal , 27(3), 16, 18, 20. Price, W.V. & Bush, M.G. (1974a) The process cheese industry in the United States: a review. I. Industrial growth and problems. Journal of Milk and Food Technology, 37, 135–152. Price, W.V. & Bush, M.G. (1974b) The process cheese industry in the United States: a review. II. Research and development. Journal of Milk and Food Technology, 37, 179–198. Quiblier, J.P., Carion, N. & Maubois, J.-L. (1991) Procédé pour l’introduction d’amidon dans des du genre fromage et produit obtenus. French Patent Application, FR 2 661 316 A1. Rabier, A. & Bonnin, Y. (1992) Packaging for single unit portions of processed cheese. French Patent Application, FR 2 670 188 A1. Rabo, F.H.R.A., El-Aasser, M.A., Zeidan, M.A. & Mohamed, M.M. (2004) Characterisation of low fat processed Cheddar cheese spreads prepared from mixture of buffalo and cow milk. 9th Egyptian Conference for Dairy Science and Technology, pp. 605–615. Radovets, L.V., Malygina, A.M., Makarenko, N.V. & Portonova, M.S. (1987) New fat component for processed cheeses. Dairy Science Abstracts, 49, 629. Raval, D.M. & Mistry, V.V. (1999) Application of ultrafiltered sweet buttermilk in the manufacture of reduced-fat process cheese. Journal of Dairy Science, 82, 2334–2343. Real del Sol, E., Ortega, O., Reynieri, P., Rocamora, Y. & González, J. (2002) Use of Okara in processed cutting cheese. Dairy Science Abstracts, 64, 1047. Reps, A., Iwanczak, M., Wisneiwska, K. & Dajnowiec, F. (1998) Processed cheese with an increased potassium content. Milchwissemschaft , 52, 690–693. Reps, A., Wisneiwska, K. & Kuzmicka, M. (2009) Possibilities of increasing the potassium content of processed cheese spread. Milchwissemschaft , 64, 176–179. Rubin, J. & Bjerre, P. (1984) Method for producing cheese base. Dairy Science Abstracts, 46, 41. Sachdeva, S., Tewari, B.D. & Singh, S. (1988) Recent developments in processed cheese technology: a review. Indian Dairyman, 40, 415–423. Samodurov, V.A., Dolgoschinova, V.G. & Pruidze, G. (1990) Resource-saving technology for processed cheese with vegetable ingredients. XXIII International Dairy Congress, II, 535.


23

Salam, A.E. (1988a) Texture of processed cheese related with their fat and dry matter content. Alexandria Science Exchange, 9, 45–52. Salam, A.E. (1988b) Texture of processed cheese as affected by different blend ingredients. Alexandria Science Exchange, 9, 167–175. Saleem, R.M., Habeeb, W.H., Ghaleb, A.A. & Al-Shibani, M. (2003) The use of Taiz cheese in processed cheese spread. Egyptian Journal of Dairy Science, 31, 139–145. Santos, B.L., Resurreccion, A.V.A. & Garcia, V.V. (1989) Quality characteristics and consumer acceptance. Journal of Food Science, 54, 468–471, 474. Schar, W. & Bosset, J.O. (2002) Chemical and physico-chemical changes in processed cheese and ready made fondue during storage: a review. Lebensmittel-Wissenschaft und Technologie, 35, 15–20. Schoegel, F. & Daurelles, J. (1991) Process for the manufacture of paste-type food products and the products obtained using this process. Dairy Science Abstracts, 53, 270. Schrader, K. & Hoffman, W. (2008) Rheological properties and microstructure of selected processed cheeses. Deutche Milchwirtschaft , 59, 615–618. Schirmer, H.G. (1986) Oriented films from propylene copolymers and unplasticized Saran. United States Patent Application, US 4 608 302. Shantha, N.C. & Decker, E.A. (1993) Conjugated linoleic acid concentration in processed cheese containing hydrogen donors, iron and dairy-based additives. Food Chemistry, 47, 257–261. Shantha, N.C., Decker, E.A. & Ustunol, Z. (1992) Conjugated linoleic acid concentration in processed cheese. Journal of the American Oil Chemists’ Society, 69, 425–428. Shaw, M. (1984) Cheese substitutes: threats or opportunity. Journal of the Society of Dairy Technology, 37, 27–31. Shazly, A.B., Mahran, G.A., El-Senaity, M.H., El-Aziz, M.A. & Fatouh, A.E. (2008) Improving low-fat processed cheese spread using whey protein concentrate or butter milk curd. Egyptian Journal of Dairy Science, 36, 83–95. Shimp, L.A. (1985) Process cheese principles. Journal of Food Technology, 39(5), 63–69. Shinozaki, T. & Imagawa, A. (1985) Cheese containing mashed potato and manufacturing process therefore. European Patent Application, EP 0 155 782 A1. Shumaker, E.K. & Wendorff, W.L. (1998) Factors affecting pink discoloration in annatto-colored pasteurized process cheese. Journal of Food Science, 63, 828–831. Singh, S., Tiwari, B.D. & Sachdeva, S. (1993) Suitable blend formulations of buffalo milk Cheddar cheese and fresh curd for processed cheese and cheese spread. Japanese Journal of Dairy and Food Science, 43, A111–A116. Smith, B.L. (1990) Codex Alimentarius: Abridged Version, pp. 12.10–12.16, Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations, Rome. Solo’eva, O.I., Skakunova, E.D. & Kazartseva, G.V. (1994) Processed cheese with aromatized emulsions. Dairy Science Abstracts, 56, 206. Song, J.C., Park, H.J. & Shin, W.C. (1992) A study and textural characteristics of imitation processed cheese formulated by delactosed nonfat dry milk. Dairy Science Abstracts, 54, 394. SooYun, K., EunKyung, H., JoungJwa, A. & Haesoo, K. (2009) Chemical and sensory properties of cholesterol-reduced processed cheese spread. International Journal of Dairy Technology, 62, 348–353. Swenson, B.J., Wendorff, W.L. & Lindsay, R.C. (2000) Effects of ingredients on the functionality of fat-free process cheese spread. Journal of Food Science, 65, 822–825. Tamime, A.Y., Kalab, M., Davies, G. & Younis, M.F. (1990) Microstructure and firmness of processed cheese manufactured from Cheddar cheese and skim milk powder cheese base. Food Structure, 9, 23–37. Tamime, A.Y., Davies, G. & Younis, M.F. (1991) Production of processed cheese using Cheddar cheese and cheese base: 2. Production of a cheese base from skim milk powder. Milchwissenschaft , 46, 495–499.

24


Tamime, A.Y., Muir, D.D., Shenana, M.E., Kalad, M. & Dawood, A.H. (1999) Processed cheese analogues incorporating fat-substitutes: 2. Rheology, sensory perception of texture and microstructure. Lebensmittel Wissenschaft und Technologie, 32, 50–59. Tamime, A.Y., Skriver, A. & Nilsson, L.E. (2006) Starter cultures. Fermented Milks (ed. A.Y. Tamime), pp. 11–52, Blackwell Publishing Ltd., Oxford. Thapa, T.B. & Gupta, V.K. (1992a) Rheology of processed cheese foods with added whey protein concentrates. Indian Journal of Dairy Science, 45, 88–92. Thapa, T.B. & Gupta, V.K. (1992b) Changes in the sensoric and rheological characteristics during storage of processed cheese food prepared with added whey protein concentrates. Indian Journal of Dairy Science, 45, 140–145. Thapa, T.B. & Gupta, V.K. (1996) Chemical and sensory qualities of processed cheese foods prepared with added whey protein concentrates. Indian Journal of Dairy Science, 49, 129–137. Thomas, M.A. (1977) The Processed Cheese Industry, Department of Agriculture, Richmond, New South Wales. Tiwari, B.D., Sachdeva, S. & Singh, S. (1996) Effect of processing variables on the quality and shelf-life of processed cheese spread from Buffalo milk Cheddar cheese. Indian Journal of Dairy Science, 49, 259–269. Trivedi, D., Bennett, R.J., Hemar, Y., Reid, D.C.W., SiewKim, L. & Illingworth, D. (2008a) Effect of different starch on rheological and microstructural properties of (I) model processed cheese. International Journal of Food Science and Technology, 43, 2191–2196. Trivedi, D., Bennett, R.J., Hemar, Y., Reid, D.C.W., SiewKim, L. & Illingworth, D. (2008b) Effect of different starch on rheological and microstructural properties of (II) commercial processed cheese. International Journal of Food Science and Technology, 43, 2197–2203. Tukan, S.K., Humeid, M.A. & Khalayleh, N. (1998) Developoment of spreadable processed cheese from white brined Nabulsi cheese and Labneh. Dirasat of Agricultural Science, 25, 416–424. Türko˘glu, H., Ceylan, Z.G. & C ¸ a˘glar, A. (2002) Some microbiological properties of processed cheese made with various vegetable oils at different levels. Dairy Science Abstracts, 64, 950. Turtell, A. & Delves-Broughton, J. (1998) International acceptance of nisin as a food preservative. The Use of Nisin in Cheesemaking, Overview of Iceland’s Dairy Industry, Terminology for Milk Protein Fractions, Biofilms on Dairy Plant Surfaces: What’s New , Document No. 329, pp. 20–23, International Dairy Federation, Brussels. Vajda, G., Ravasz, L., Karacsonyi, B. & Tabajdi, G. (1983) Products made from cheese and chocolate. UK Patent Application, GB 2 113 969 A. Vareltziz, K.P. & Buck, E.M. (1985) The use of decolorized blood protein in cheese spread. Journal of Food Quality, 8, 21–26. Weber, J.C., Bernard, J.Y. & Bonnin, Y. (1993) Box for packaging food products, and particularly for packaging portions of processed cheese. French Patent Application, FR 2 686 325 A1. Zehren, V.L. & Nusbaum, D.D. (2000) Process Cheese, 2nd edition, Cheese Reporter Publishing Company, Madison. Zhang, D. & Mahoney, A.W. (1991) Iron fortification of process Cheddar cheese. Journal of Dairy Science, 74, 353–358. Zhang, W., Kakuda, Y. & Hill, A.R. (2007) Conjugated linoleic acid (CLA) in processed cheese. Milchwissenschaft , 62, 174–177.

2 Current Legislation on Processed Cheese and Related Products M. Hickey

2.1 Introduction and background For many centuries, cheesemaking has been used to preserve the nutritional value of milk. With the emergence of larger cheese factories, in the last decades of the 19th century, efforts were initiated to extend the shelf-life of cheese to facilitate access to more distant markets and tropical climates. The origin of processed cheese has been attributed to the many and diverse cooked cheese products which were produced in Europe, such as cheese fondue, Kochkäse (cook cheese), Welsh rarebit, and heat preservation of soft cheeses such as Camembert. Cheese fondue, where cheeses such as Gruyère or Emmental were shredded, wine or kirsch added and heated gently with continuous stirring in a copper vessel, contains many of the fundamentals used in processed cheese production. Indeed the French term for processed cheese is fromage fondu. The presence of tartrates in the white wine used may have acted similarly to emulsifying salts; for a time, tartrates were used as emulsifying salts but, due to their tendency to causing sandiness, they fell out of favour compared to the citrates and phosphates which are used to the present time (Berger et al., 1989). In the late 1800s, some German cheese manufacturers managed to extend the shelflife of soft cheeses, such as Camembert, Brie and Limburger, by canning; however, these did not involve thermal processing. In 1899, Jan Eyssen of Oosthuisen, the Netherlands, the founder of Kaasfabriek Eyssen, to this day a processed cheese and cheese spread manufacturing company in the same town, was granted a British patent for canning Dutch semi-soft cheese (Eyssen, 1899). His process involved cleaning and subsequently kneading the cheese, without the use of heat or emulsifying salts, and hermetically sealing the resultant product in cans. The challenges of producing stable hard cheese, such as Cheddar, Gruyère or Emmental, proved more of a challenge as the heat caused the structure to break down and fat and moisture to exude. Then in Thun in Switzerland in 1911, Walter Gerber and Fritz Strettle made the breakthrough using Emmental cheese with sodium citrate as an emulsifying salt to produce a homogeneous flowing mass, which when it cooled was the first true processed cheese (Meyer, 1973; Berger et al., 1989; Caric & Kaláb, 1993; Guinee et al., 2004). In the United States of America (USA) in 1916, James L. Kraft was issued with his first major patent involving shredding and gradually heating Cheddar cheese to a temperature Processed Cheese and Analogues, First Edition. Edited by A.Y. Tamime. © 2011 Blackwell Publishing Ltd. Published 2011 by Blackwell Publishing Ltd.

26


of ∼80◦ C, with continuous stirring while heating. This started the US processed cheese industry where manufacturers developed their own techniques for processing Cheddar-type cheeses, some using citrate emulsifying salts, others phosphate salts. Patents were issued in the USA to cover some of these developments (Kosikowski, 1977; Berger et al., 1989). In the intervening 90 years, a wide range and diversity of processed cheese and related products have evolved in many countries; differing legislative and consumer requirements in different countries has contributed to this diversity. Products have been designated with names such as processed cheese, pasteurised processed cheese, spreadable processed cheese, cheese spread, cheese food, cheese preparation, cheese product, imitation cheese, cheese analog/analogue and more. Formats include blocks, triangles, slices, tubs, glass jars, tubes and aerosol cans, to mention just a few. Indeed such is the range and diversity of products designated as processed cheese and related products throughout the world that in the last 14 years the Codex Alimentarius Commission, which implements the joint FAO/WHO foods standards programme, has failed to make progress in updating its original standards for processed cheese and related products developed originally in 1978. These standards are discussed later. Any discussion on definitions of processed cheese and related products must therefore be based on looking at legislation in different countries. Such legislation varies from the very detailed and specific, as for example in the USA, Canada and Germany to the very general as for example in France. The UK and the Netherlands had specific legislation that addressed processed cheese, but the relevant legislation was repealed in the mid-1990s.

2.2 Definitions and standards of identity 2.2.1 Background and evolution The early impetus and demands for food standards often resulted from demands of manufacturers who wish to protect their products and brands from similar products that they regarded as inferior in quality and also cheaper, particularly those with differences in ingredients or composition. Definitions, standards and related requirements thus developed tended to reflect the manufacturing processes, ingredients and chemical composition at the particular point in time. Such an approach results in the need for regular revision of these standards to take into account process and product innovations, emergence of new functional ingredients and food additives, evolving developments in hygiene and food safety, and changing consumer and societal demands. Furthermore, a significant proportion of food law and regulation requires scientific or technological input and interpretation. To understand these points it is worth considering the origins of standards and legislation governing food production and composition that date back to the Middle Ages. Many will have heard of the Reinheitsgebot (the Purity Order), which concerned the purity of beer and originated in Bavaria in 1516 (Eden, 1993; Rieck, 2008). This listed the only permitted ingredients for beer as water, barley and hops. The original order also set the maximum price of beer at a mere 2 Pfennig per Maß; of course this provision disappeared a very long time ago. It should be noted that the list of ingredients did not include yeast; it would be the mid 1800s before the role of microorganisms in food fermentations was recognised.

Current Legislation on Processed Cheese and Related Products

27

Nevertheless, it was 1987 before the requirements of the Reinheitsgebot were fully lifted in Germany, as the result of a decision of the European Court of Justice (ECJ, 1987). Even to this day certain German beers claim they comply with the Reinheitsgebot. By the middle of the 19th century, concerns about the adulteration, purity and wholesomeness of foods led to the development of food legislation in many different jurisdictions. Nowadays the basis for food legislation is given as food safety, consumer protection and fair trade. The words may differ, but the fundamentals have not really changed.

2.2.2 Legislation in the European Union (EU) Access to EU legislation Following its adoption, EU legislation is published in the L-Series of the Official Journal of the European Union. It may also be accessed using the EUR-LEX website (http:// eur-lex.europa.eu/RECH_naturel.do). The use of this website is facilitated by knowing the type (directive, regulation, decision, or COM-final), the year and the number of the relevant legislation. In this chapter, the necessary information will be given when referring to specific legislation. The most recent legislation is usually available electronically in PDF format, while the earlier legislation may be directly accessed in HTML (Hypertext Mark-up Language) format only; the appendices are a problem in this format. This problem may be overcome by requesting TIFF (Tagged Image File Format) images of the original official journal document by e-mail, and the relevant website link is provided quickly, which allows access to the images. Amendments to legislation are also published in the official journal; however, these normally have just the text that is being changed. Consolidated texts of most legislation can be accessed electronically, but such texts come with a warning that they are not official texts. Nonetheless, such consolidated legislation, incorporating the amendments into the original text, can be very useful, as they facilitate use of the documents. Other national and specialised websites, such as those of the United Kingdom (UK) Food Standards Agency (www.foodstandards.gov.uk), the Food Safety Authority of Ireland (www.fsai.ie) and the food law pages of the Department of Food Biosciences of the University of Reading (www.reading.ac.uk/foodlaw/main.htm), are a few examples of sites that contain links to the legislative texts. EU legislation on natural cheeses There are some provisions for certain varieties of cheese registered according to the requirements contained in European Regulation 2081/92 on the protection of geographical indications (PGI) and protection designations of origin (PDO) (EU, 1992b) and Regulation 2082/92 on Certificates of Specific Character (also referred to as Traditional Speciality Guaranteed or TSG) (EU, 1992c). The Annex to Regulation 1107/96, as amended, on the registration of products as laid down in Article 17 of the former regulation, lists protected products (EU, 1996b). Regulation 2301/1997 on entry of certain names in the ‘Register of certificates of specific character’ provided for in the latter regulation has just three registered cheeses: one from Italy (Mozzarella), one from the Netherlands (Boerenkaas) and one from Sweden (Hush˚allsost) (EU, 1997).

28


Regulation 2204/90 (EU, 1990b) allows the use of casein in the manufacture of cheese only if such a use can be shown to be necessary. The Annex of Regulation 2742/90 (EU, 1990a), which lays down detailed rules for the application of regulation 2204/90 (EU, 1990b), specifies such permitted uses: to date use in processed cheese to a maximum level of 5 g 100 g−1 is the only such use permitted. Since the casein manufacturing subsidy has been eliminated for all practical purposes, there have also been discussions as to whether this Regulation is still necessary. At this time no decision has been taken, although its fate is probably linked to the outcome of the discussions on the manufacturing subsidy. Apart from these regulations, there is no specific EU legislation on cheese or processed cheese. To get a more complete oversight on the legislation on processed cheese and related products within the EU, it is necessary to look at a selection of Member States. However, before going on to look at these, it is necessary to consider some horizontal provisions that apply to all Member States; in particular, those relating to food hygiene, food labelling and food additives are particularly relevant to processed cheese and related products. EU hygiene legislation The early legislative work in the EU was largely taken up with market regulation; it was not until 1985 that the first Community hygiene measure for milk was adopted in Directive 85/397 (EU, 1985b). This initiated a process of harmonising hygiene standards within the Community in order to facilitate intra-Community trade without compromising existing Member State hygiene rules. It covered all aspects of the production, transport and processing of milk from farm to the final consumer. This was followed in 1992 by a new directive on the hygiene of milk and milk products, Directive 92/46 (EU, 1992a), which became effective from 1 January 1994. This Directive contained animal health requirements for raw milk, hygiene requirements for registered holdings, hygiene requirements in milking, collection and transport of milk to collection centres, standardisation centres, treatment establishments and processing establishments. For the first time, uniform EU-wide hygiene standards were created as the earlier Directive 85/397 (EU, 1985b) applied to intra-Community trade only. Directive 92/46 (EU, 1992a) laid down minimum compositional standards for milk, and also standards for the maximum plate count and somatic cell count for raw milk at collection from dairy farms intended for the production of certain milk-based products; this includes cheese, processed cheese and related products. Following a recommendation in the EU White Paper on Food Safety in 2000, a major review was carried out on the EU Hygiene Directives (EU, 2000b). Prior to this review, there were a total of 16 commodity-specific EU Directives and one Directive on general food hygiene, which had been gradually developed in the period from 1964 and had given a high level of protection to the consumer. However, they comprised a mixture of different disciplines (hygiene, animal health, official controls, etc.) and were detailed and complex. It was decided to overhaul the legislation to improve, simplify and modernise it, and also to separate aspects of food hygiene from animal health and food control issues. The review aimed for a more consistent and clear approach throughout the food production chain from ‘farm to fork’. A package of new hygiene rules were adopted in April 2004 by the European Parliament and the Council. They became applicable from 1 January 2006 and, in the case of milk and


29

milk products, replace Directive 92/46 (EU, 1992a). The new rules are Regulations and not Directives, making them binding in Member States without the necessity for national legislation to be enacted to implement their provisions. Instead of all the hygiene requirements being embodied in a single piece of legislation, however, the hygiene requirements for the dairy sector are now contained across at least six different regulations. The three main Regulations are (a) Regulation 852/2004 on the hygiene of foodstuffs (EU, 2004d); (b) Regulation 853/2004 laying down specific hygiene rules for food of animal origin – Annex III Section XI thereof contains specific requirements for raw milk and dairy products (EU, 2004e); and (c) Regulation 854/2004 laying down specific rules for the organisation of official controls on products of animal origin intended for human consumption (EU, 2004f). Then, in early December 2005, two important additional regulations were published, Regulation 2074/2005 (EU, 2005b) and Regulation 2076/2005 (EU, 2005c). In addition to laying down implementing measures and transitional measures, these also contain important amendments and derogations to the original regulations. Furthermore, in 2006, Regulation 1662/2006 (EU, 2006b) was published, amending Regulation 853/2004, which contained a replacement to the complete Section XI of Regulation 853/2004, the section addressing milk and milk products. Fortunately, a consolidated version of Regulation 853/2004 (EU, 2004e), incorporating all the amendments up to 24 April 2009, is available on the EURLEX website. Microbiological criteria for foodstuffs are laid down in Regulation 2073/2005 (EU, 2005a). These included criteria for cheeses made from pasteurised milk, cheeses from raw milk, cheeses made from milk which have undergone a heat treatment lower than pasteurisation and for unripened soft cheeses. There are no specific microbiological requirements laid down for processed cheese and related products in the latter regulation. Guidance documents on food hygiene have also been developed by the Commission on Regulation 852/2004 (EU, 2004d; see EU, 2005e,f, 2006d) and Regulation 853/2004 (EU, 2004e; see EU, 2005d). As a result of a May/June 2006 audit in UK by the Food and Veterinary Office (FVO) of the European Commission, specific hygiene issues were noted as regards, inter alia, cheese recovery. As a consequence, a specific EU decision on all the issues concerned was published, which is of relevance to processed cheese manufacture (EU, 2006a). Though the decision related to the production of the specific factory, the UK Food Standards Agency issued a letter to all heads of environmental health services and directors of trading standards in England stating that premises involved in cheese recovery operations must be approved under the terms of Regulation 853/2004 (EU, 2004e) such as (a) that hazard analysis critical control points (HACCP) system and procedures, records and raw material specifications must demonstrate clearly how hazards associated with cheese recovery are controlled by the food businesses, and (b) that raw materials are fit for purpose. In addition, it was stated that appropriate traceability arrangements must be in place. This did not necessarily change the existing legal situation, but focused attention on such operations. Probably, as a consequence of this, the Association de l’industrie de la fonte de fromage de l’UE (Association of the processed cheese industry in the EU, ASSIFONTE) decided in September 2006 to establish a special working group on good manufacturing practices (GMP) for processed cheese. These were published in 2008 (ASSIFONTE, 2008). ASSIFONTE together with European Dairy Association (EDA) and the European Association of the Dairy Trade (EUCOLAIT) also started work on a manual for cheese recovery.

30


EU food labelling legislation Horizontal European labelling requirements for foods are contained in the EU Labelling Directive 2000/13 (EU, 2000a), as amended. It should be noted that the scope of this directive applies to the labelling of foodstuffs to be delivered as such to the ultimate consumer, or to mass caterers (defined as restaurants, hospitals, canteens and other similar mass caterers). Hence, they may not necessarily apply directly to products in so far as they may be intended for further manufacture. In such instances, the products are normally traded to meet detailed specifications between the purchaser and vendor. Compliance with such specifications, especially where written and signed by both parties, would be governed by contract law. The horizontal food labelling requirements include the following provisions: • • • • • •

Name of the food. List of ingredients including ingredients or food additives; if vitamins or minerals are added, these should be indicated. An indication of the net quantity. The date of minimum durability should be indicated. Special conditions of storage and use that would affect the minimum durability. Name and address of manufacturer or seller: this information should be given in addition to the identification mark required by the hygiene regulations outlined above.

As regards the name of the food, a hierarchy of requirements is as follows: • •

•

•

When the product has a legal name specified in EU legislation, then that name should be used. Where there is no EU legal name, the name under which a product is sold shall be the name provided for in the legislation and administrative provisions applicable in the Member State in which the product is sold to the final consumer or to mass caterers. Where neither of the above provisions apply, the name under which a product is sold shall be the name customary in the Member State in which it is sold to the final consumer or to mass caterers; or description of the foodstuff, and if necessary of its use, which is clear enough to let the purchaser know its true nature and distinguish it from other products with which it might be confused. The use in the Member State of marketing of the sales name under which the product is legally manufactured and marketed in the Member State of production shall also be allowed. However, this has qualifications: (a) where the other labelling requirements would not enable consumers in the Member State of marketing to know the true nature of the foodstuff and to distinguish it from foodstuffs with which they could confuse it, in which case, the sales name shall be accompanied by other descriptive information which shall appear in proximity to the sales name, and (b) this name cannot be used where the product so named is so different, in the Member State of sale, as regards its composition or manufacture, from the foodstuff known there under that name that the provisions of point above are not sufficient to ensure correct information for consumers.


31

These requirements for the name of the food incorporate the most up-to-date provisions of the Cassis de Dijon principle of mutual recognition, based on one of the keystone rulings of the European Court of Justice in 1979 (ECJ, 1978). Basically, this ruling established or confirmed the principle that Member States accept products that comply with the legislation and standards of other Member States, if they provide at least an equivalent level of protection to their own. This principle has important implications for the product names and other labelling provisions of processed cheese and related products, in the absence of harmonised European legislation for such products. Another labelling requirement worthy of discussion is that requiring an indication of the quantity of an ingredient or category of ingredients used in the manufacture of a foodstuff in certain circumstances. This is usually referred to as quantity ingredient labelling (QUID), and is required in the following circumstances: • • • •

where the ingredient concerned appears in the name under which the foodstuff is sold or is usually associated with that name by the consumer; or where the ingredient concerned is emphasised on the labelling in words, pictures or graphics; or where the ingredient concerned is essential to characterise a foodstuff and to distinguish it from products with which it might be confused because of its name or appearance; or in other cases as determined by the Commission, assisted by the Standing Committee on the Food Chain and Animal Health (SCFCAH). However, the directive also specifies that QUID labelling is not compulsory:

• • • •

where the drained net weight of which is indicated as required for a solid food sold in a liquid medium; or where the quantities of the relevant ingredient is already required to be given on the labelling under Community provisions; or for an ingredient which is used in small quantities for the purposes of flavouring; or for ingredients, which, while appearing in the name under which the food is sold, is not such as to govern the choice of the consumer in the country of marketing because the variation in quantity is not essential to characterise the foodstuff or does not distinguish it from similar foods; where in doubt this shall be determined by the Commission, assisted by the Standing Committee on the Food Chain and Animal Health (SCFCAH).

From the above, it may be that the key issue in determining if the cheese content would be subject to QUID labelling for processed cheese and related products is whether variations in the cheese content in the country of marketing would govern the choice of consumers. This is far from clear and interpretation may well vary from Member State to Member State. An early draft of UK Guidelines on QUID labelling gave processed cheese as one of the products where QUID might not apply; however, the final copy, circulated in 1999, excluded this example. Furthermore, it is also stated that there are just examples given in the guidelines and other products may also be subject to exemption from QUID. It is believed the exclusion of processed cheese was to align the UK examples with those of the Commission which produced equivalent Community guidelines.

32


Table 2.1 Requirements for fat-related nutrient claims on solid foodstuffs in the EU under Regulation No. 1924/2006 (EU, 2006b). Claim Fat free

a

Requirement for fat content a

−1

Additional requirements

≤0.5 g 100 g

–

−1

Low-fat

≤3 g 100 g

–

Reduced-fat

25% less fat than the reference standard product

–

Light or lite

Same as for ‘reduced’ claim, i.e. 25% less fat than the reference standard product

Claim shall be accompanied by an indication of the characteristic that makes the product ‘light’, i.e. fat

Regulation 1924/2006 specifically prohibits nutrient claims of the form ‘X% fat-free’.

Regulation (EC) 1924/2006, which has been in force since 1 July 2007, aimed to ensure that nutrition and health claims made on foodstuffs comply with specified requirements (EU, 2006c). A list of permitted nutrition claims and their specific conditions of use is included in the Annex to Regulation (EC) 1924/2006 (EU, 2006c). Table 2.1 shows the requirements for fat content claims in this regulation. Furthermore, nutrition or health claims may not be made that are inconsistent with generally accepted nutrition and health principles, or if it encourages excessive consumption of a particular food, or is not consistent with a good diet. In this regard nutrient profiles are being developed to address this principle. These profiles have not been finalised at yet but may have implications for claims on cheeses, including processed cheese and related products, especially as regards saturated fat and sodium (or added salt) levels. In December 2007, guidance on the implementation of Regulation 1924/2006 (EU, 2006c) was published by the EU Commission (EU, 2007f). EU legislation of food additives From the 1960s through to the mid-1970s, the EU established a series of basic directives addressing the use of colours, preservatives, antioxidants, emulsifiers, stabilisers and thickeners; these were amended over the years. During that time specific additive provisions were included in vertical legislation on certain foods and in other cases authorisation for their use was left to Member States. Inevitably this led to differences between the legislative provisions of Member States and this hindered the free movement of foodstuffs within the open market. Thus harmonisation of this area became a major priority. With the move to horizontal legislation, as proposed in the White Paper on the Completion of the Internal Market in 1985, steps were initiated to address additives in a horizontal and more comprehensive manner (EU, 1985a). Firstly, the use of additives in foods throughout the EU was addressed under the additive framework Directive 89/107/EEC (EU, 1989), the flavourings Directive 88/388 (EU, 1988) and, in 1994 and 1995, specific additive directives were adopted addressing the following: • •

Colours: Directive 94/36 (EU, 1994b). Sweeteners: Directive 94/35 (EU, 1994a) as amended.


•

33

Additives other than colours and sweeteners: Directive 95/2 (EU, 1995c), as amended (for simplicity, this is sometimes referred to as the Miscellaneous Additives Directive).

Furthermore food additives must at all times comply with the approved criteria of purity, and these criteria are outlined in three Commission Directives: • • •

Sweeteners by Directive 95/31/EC (EU, 1995a) as amended. Colours by Directive 95/45/EC (EU, 1995b), as amended. Additives other than colours and sweeteners by Directive 96/77/EC (EU, 1996a) as amended.

The Framework Additive Directive 89/107/EEC (EU, 1989) has the following definitions: •

•

An additive is ‘any substance not normally consumed as a food in itself and not normally used as a characteristic ingredient of food whether or not it has nutritive value, the intentional addition of which to food for a technological purpose in the manufacture, processing, preparation, treatment, packaging, transport or storage of such food results, or may be reasonably expected to result, in it or its by-products becoming directly or indirectly a component of such foods’ (Article 1.2). A processing aid is ‘any substance not consumed as a food ingredient by itself, intentionally used in the processing of raw materials, foods or their ingredients, to fulfil a certain technological purpose during treatment or processing and which may result in the unintentional but technically unavoidable presence of residues of the substance or its derivatives in the final product, provided that these residues do not present any health risk and do not have any technological effect on the finished product’. Footnote to Article 1.3 a.

This Directive excludes flavourings and substances added as nutrients from the scope of the additives governed by its provisions; the latter refers to substances, such as vitamins, minerals and trace elements. Annex II lays down three basic principles for the approval of use of additives, which may be summarised as follows: (a) that a technological need can be demonstrated and that need cannot be achieved by other means that are economical or technologically practical; (b) their use does not present a hazard to human health at the levels of use proposed based on the scientific evidence available; and (c) their use does not mislead consumers. Annex I of this Directive lists 25 additive functional categories (Table 2.2); the definitions of these categories are given in the specific directives on colours, sweeteners and additives other than colours and sweeteners. The Colours Directive 94/36 (EU, 1994b) has five Annexes, listing 43 permitted food colours and the provisions for their use. Annex II lists foods which may not contain added colours except where specifically provided for in Annexes III, IV or V; this Annex II list does not include processed cheese or related products. Annex III allows the ‘orange’ colours carotenes (E160a), paprika extract (E160c), both at quantum satis level, and annatto, bixin and norbixin (E160b) at 15 mg kg−1 in unflavoured processed cheese. These are the only colours permitted in unflavoured processed cheese. Annex IV also contains the provisions for annatto, bixin and norbixin

34


Table 2.2 The 25 additive functional classes listed in the EU Framework Additive Directive 89/107/EEC, as amended (EU, 1989). Colour

Modified starch

Preservative

Sweetener

Antioxidant

Raising agent

Emulsifier

Anti-foaming agent

Emulsifying salt

Glazing agent

Thickener

Flour treatment agent

Gelling agent

Firming agent

Stabiliser

Humectant

Flavour enhancer

Sequestrant

Acid

Enzyme

Acidity regulator

Bulking agent

Anti-caking agent

Propellent gas and packaging gas

Note: Two additional additive functional classes (carriers and foaming agents) are defined in Directive 95/2, as amended (EU, 1995c).

(E160b), at a level of 15 mg kg−1 for flavoured processed cheese, as this is one of the colour groups that is permitted for specified uses only. Annex V Part 1 lists 15 colours permitted in foods other than those listed in Annexes II and III at quantum satis level ; consequently, these colours are allowed in flavoured processed cheese. Annex V Part 1 includes the ‘orange’ colours carotenes (E160a) and paprika extract, capsanthin and capsorubin (these three colours grouped together as E160c). Finally, Annex V Part 2 lists 18 colours that may be used, singly or in combination, in a list of specified foods at a maximum level of 100 mg kg−1 ; this list includes flavoured processed cheese, but not unflavoured processed cheese. Furthermore, the maximum levels of the individual colours sunset yellow FCF (E110), azorubine (carmosine) (E122), ponceau 4R (cochineal A) (E124) and brown HT (E155) may not exceed 50 mg kg−1 . The use of all colours is subject to the normal technical justification based on need. It should be mentioned that this Directive contains provisions that refer to processed cheese only, and there is no mention of other processed cheese product names, such as cheese preparations, cheese spreads or cheese food; nonetheless, it appears safe to assume that, since processed cheese is not defined or standardised at Community level, the term is used generically and applies to all processed cheese products. Directive 95/2 on additives other than colours and sweeteners (EU, 1995c) is quite long, complex and detailed. Its provisions may be summarised as follows: •

The latest consolidated text contains definitions of 24 additive functions (Article 1.3 (a)–(w) and Article 1.4). Included are definitions of two functions, carriers and foaming agents, not listed in Annex I of the Framework Directive. Additives are listed in the Annexes without specified functions. It is up to food manufacturers to assign the


• • •

•

• •

•

• •

35

principal or main additive function to each additive in product labelling, recognising that an additive may have more than one function in a food. The functional ingredients edible gelatine, certain starches, casein and caseinates are not considered as food additives. Article 2.3 lists foods where the permission to use the additives listed in Annex I do not apply unless specifically allowed for. This article does not list processed cheese. Annex I lists 114 E numbers and specific food additives that are generally permitted for use in foods not referred to in Article 2.3 or Annex II. The use of the additives in this Annex, which includes the citrates, are recognised as emulsifying salts, stabilisers and thickeners, such as the gums, alginates, agar, carrageenans, celluloses and modified starches, would be permitted in all types of processed cheese, at least in theory, where their use meets the basic principles outlined in the discussion on Directive 89/107 (EU, 1989). The quantum satis principle is often misinterpreted as meaning that one may use as much as one likes. However, this is incorrect: the term is defined in Article 2.8 as meaning ‘that no maximum level is specified. However, additives shall be used in accordance with good manufacturing practice, at a level not higher than is necessary to achieve the intended purpose and provided that they do not mislead the consumer’. Annex II lists foods where a limited number of Annex I additives may be used. This Annex does not include any specific provisions for processed cheese types. Annex III addresses conditionally permitted preservatives and antioxidants. It has four parts. (a) Part A deals with sorbates, benzoates and p-hydroxybenzoates, and permits the use of sorbates at a maximum level of 2000 mg kg−1 in processed cheese. (b) Part B addresses sulphur dioxide and sulphites. (c) Part C addresses other preservatives, and permits the use of nisin in processed cheeses, at a maximum level of 12 mg kg−1 . Potassium nitrate, sodium nitrate and propionates (the latter is used for surface treatment only) are permitted in cheese analogues, but not in processed cheese. Cheese analogues are not defined but, since processed cheese analogues are referred to in Annex IV (e.g. for phosphates and silicates), it is unlikely that the use of these additives is permitted in processed cheese type analogues. (d) Part D addresses other antioxidants. Annex IV deals with ‘Other Permitted Additives’, and is the most complicated of the annexes to comprehend. It is often best to look at each additive of interest, and then look to see if it is permitted for a particular product of interest. Phosphates, the other major group of emulsifying salts, are addressed as a group in this Annex, and the specified maximum levels apply to their use singly or in combination, expressed as phosphate ion (P2 O5 ). For processed cheese and processed cheese analogues, the phosphates are allowed at a maximum level so expressed of 20 g kg−1 . The other permitted additives from this Annex are the silicates (E numbers from E551 to E559) for use as anti-caking agents in sliced or grated processed cheese and processed cheese analogues. Annex V addresses permitted carriers and carrier solvents, and shall not be discussed further. Annex VI deals with additives for use foods for infants and young children, and thus is not relevant as regards processed cheese.

36


Forthcoming changes as regards additives In 2006, the European Commission published a package of legislative proposals that aimed to upgrade rules for additives (EU, 2007c), flavourings (EU, 2007b) and to introduce harmonised legislation on food enzymes (EU, 2007d). It also proposed the creation of a common authorisation procedure for food additives, flavourings and enzymes, based on scientific opinions from the European Food Safety Authority (EFSA) (EU, 2007a). Following inputs from the European Parliament, four new regulations were adopted on 16 December 2008 as follows: (a) Regulation 1331/2008 on a common authorisation procedure for food additives (EU, 2008a), (b) Regulation 1332/2008 on food enzymes (EU, 2008b), (c) Regulation 1333/2008 on food additives (EU, 2008c), and (d) Regulation 1334/2008 on flavourings and certain food ingredients with flavouring properties for use in foods (EU, 2008d). Article 30 of Regulation 1333/2008 (EU, 2008c) refers to the creation of ‘Community lists of food additives’, but Article 31, headed Transitional measures, states that ‘until the establishment of Community lists of food additives, the Annexes to Directives 94/35, 94/36 and 95/2 shall be amended where necessary, by measures designed to amend non-essential elements of those Directives, adopted by the Commission in accordance with the regulatory procedure with scrutiny referred to in Article 28 (4)’ (EU, 1994a,b, 1995c). In Article 34 titled Transitional provisions, it is indicated that the provisions in certain articles and annexes of the three Directives referred to in Article 31, food additives already permitted therein shall continue to apply until transfer to this regulation has been completed. The use of functional ingredients, such as starch and gelatine in processed cheese or related products, are not covered in EU legislation, but their use should be within the provisions of Regulation 1234/2007 of 22 October 2007 (EU, 2007e), as amended, establishing a common organisation of agricultural markets and on specific provisions for certain agricultural products in that by their use they do not replace milk ingredients. The legislation of some Member States addresses the use of these functional ingredients, which will be reviewed in subsequent section. On the other hand the use of casein and caseinates in processed cheese is specifically addressed in Regulation 2742/90 (EU, 1990a). This specifies a maximum level of 5 g 100 g−1 for use in processed cheese, and it lays down detailed rules for the application of Council Regulation 2204/90 (EU, 1990b). European legislation on food packaging materials Processed cheese and related products may be packed in a differing packaging formats, e.g. plastic film, foil wrappers, plastic tubs, tubes, aerosol cans. These packaging materials should comply with the general requirements of Regulation 1935/2004 (EU, 2004c), and the particular requirements such as contained in Directive 2002/72 (EU, 2003), as amended by Directive 2004/19 (EU, 2004b) and Directive 2004/1 (EU, 2004a). It is normal for processors to specify to their packaging suppliers that their products comply with the requirements of these directives.

2.2.3 Legislation in the UK Up to the beginning of the 21st century, England and Wales had common legislation, signed by the appropriate minister of the UK government and the Secretary of State for


37

Wales. Parallel, separate, but similar legislation was enacted for Scotland and Northern Ireland; however, some differences could and sometimes did occur. From 2000, with the establishment of the Welsh Assembly, separate but similar legislation for Wales was enacted. The primary source of UK legislation is by Acts of Parliament, primarily those of the Westminster Parliament; secondary legislation in the form of Statutory Instruments (SIs), or Statutory Regulations and Orders (SROs), are enacted under specified sections of the enabling Act or Acts. Details of the current legislation in the UK as well as the separate legislation applicable to Scotland, Wales and Northern Ireland may be found via the relevant link on the (UK) Foods Standards Agency website (www.foodstandards.gov.uk) or that of the Office of Public Sector Information (OPSI; www.opsi.gov.uk/legislation/uk.htm). In searching the OPSI website it is necessary to know the year and number of the Act or Statutory Instrument of interest. The availability of repealed legislation, as is the case with cheese legislation, is more of a challenge, but the relevant provisions shall be outlined in one of the subsequent sections. Background to UK legislation In the 1850s, there was increasing concern on the issues of food purity and food adulteration based on the identification of such issues by analysts and medical doctors. This led to the adoption of three separate pieces of legislation addressing food adulteration; one such was the Adulteration of Food and Drugs Act 1860 (HMSO, 1860). However, this was ineffective, but it paved the way for the enactment of the Sale of Food and Drugs Act 1875 (HMSO, 1875). The main requirements of the 1875 Act were: • • • • •

that nothing should be added to food for sale which would be injurious to health; that sale of food that was not of the proper nature, substance or quality was prohibited; that [public] analysts be appointed; that purchasers of a food were entitled [empowered] to have it analysed; and that the officers entitled to obtain samples for submission to an analyst were specified.

Although it was not without its critics, this Act, with subsequent amendments, enlargement and consolidation, remained in force for the next 60 years (Monier-Williams, 1951). In the early 1930s, a Departmental Committee on the Composition and Description of Food was established to look into the whole area of definitions, standards, labelling and advertising. This Committee was in favour of a limited number of standards, the main aim of which would be to inform consumers of what they were purchasing (Monier-Williams, 1951). Their report in 1934 resulted in a new consolidated Sale of Food and Drugs Act 1938 (HMSO, 1938). The 1938 Act remained in place until it was replaced by the Sale of Food and Drugs Act 1955 (HMSO, 1955). Then, as the result of a number of food scares in the 1980s, due to salmonella, listeria and bovine spongiform encephalopathy (BSE), the Food Safety Act 1990 (HMSO, 1990), was enacted. This was a broad measure which created a more systematic structure of UK food law and tightened up on offences, enforcement powers and penalties. The first pieces of UK legislation that set standards for dairy products were (a) The Butter and Margarine Act 1907 (HMSO, 1907; French & Phillips, 2000), (b) The Condensed Milk Regulations 1923 (HMSO, 1923a), and (c) The Dried Milk Regulations 1923

38


(HMSO, 1923b). However, the first cheese regulations were not adopted until the Cheese Regulations 1965 (HMSO, 1965; Davis, 1966). On hygienic legislation, in or about 1912, the quality and purity of milk supply became the focus of attention. World War I interfered with the enforcement of the Milk and Dairies (Consolidation) Act 1915 (HMSO, 1915) but, by 1918, a tentative system of milk grading was in operation. The production of clean and safe milk was first seriously addressed under the Milk and Dairies Amendment Act 1922 (HMSO, 1922a) and the Milk (Special Designations) Order 1922 (HMSO, 1922b), which encompassed different grades for raw milk. When the UK joined the then European Economic Community on 1 January 1973, European legislation began to have a major role in shaping the evolving national legislation. However, as outlined in the discussion of European legislation earlier, harmonisation of legislation on vertical legislation did not start until the 1970s and on hygienic aspects of milk production until the mid-1980s. European Directives have to be enacted into the laws of Member States, while Community Regulations are binding in their entirety on Member States. In the latter case, the relevant Statutory Instruments references the requirements contained therein and outline particular elements, such as interpretations/definitions, specify the competent authority, address administration, detail offences, defences and penalties, and specify certain schedules. Where the European regulations specify general provisions, the UK Statutory Instrument may lay down more specific requirements, and may address national provisions where discretion or optional provisions are delegated to Member States. UK legislation on cheese As mentioned above, the first UK cheese legislation was contained in the Cheese Regulations 1965 (HMSO, 1965; Davis, 1966). These applied to England and Wales; Scotland and Northern Ireland had separate but identical legislation. These regulations had a definition of cheese and specified the requirements for hard, soft, whey cheese, processed cheese and cheese spread. These standards were amended on a number of occasions but, in 1970, were replaced by the Cheese Regulations 1970 (HMSO, 1970); they re-enacted, with amendments, the 1965 Regulations and so contained many of the earlier provisions. The original 1970 Cheese Regulations were amended in 1974 and 1984 (HMSO, 1974, 1984). The equivalent Scottish Regulations were the Cheese (Scotland) Regulations 1970 (HMSO, 1984; The Stationery Office, 1970a, 1974, 1984); those for Northern Ireland were the Cheese Regulations (Northern Ireland) 1970 (The Stationery Office, 1970b). The Cheese Regulations 1970, as amended, outlined requirements for Processed Cheese and Cheese Spread, the latter could also be named Cheese Food. Under these regulations, cheese was the only dairy product that could be used in a product called processed cheese, while other milk products could be used in products called cheese spread or cheese food. Detailed compositional requirements for a named variety of processed cheese, processed cheese and cheese spread were also included as shown in Table 2.3. Where a variety name, other than Cheddar, that had specified compositional requirements in Schedule 1 of the Cheese Regulations (Table 2.4) was used in the name of a processed cheese the resultant processed cheese had to comply with the compositional requirements for that variety. It may be observed that the compositional requirements for cheese spread, and by extension cheese food, covered all products, including those with


Table 2.3 Compositional requirements (g 100 g−1 ) for processed cheese and cheese spread in the UK Cheese Regulations 1970, as amended, which were repealed in 1996. Moisture content (maximum)

Product name

Qualifier

Fat-in-dry Matter (FDM)

Processed cheese

Cheddara

Maximum 48

43

Full-fat

Maximum 48

48

Medium-fat

Maximum 48, minimum 20

48

Skimmed milk

Maximum 10

48

Minimum 20

60

Cheese spread or cheese food

Source: After HMSO (1970). a For compositional requirements for other specified named varieties, see Table 2.4. Table 2.4 Compositional requirements (maximum g 100 g−1 ) for certain named variety cheese, other than Cheddar, in Schedule 1 of the UK Cheese Regulations 1970, as amended, which were repealed in 1996. Cheese name

Fat-in-dry matter (FDM)

Moisture

Blue Stilton, Derby and Leicester

48

42

Cheshire, Dunlop, Gloucester and Double Gloucester

48

44

Caerphilly, Wensleydale and White Stilton

48

46

Lancashire

48

48

Edam

40

46

Goudaa

48

43

Danablu

50

47

Danbo

45

46

Havarti

45

50

45

44

45

40

a

Samsoe b

Emmental b

45

38

Tilsiterb

45

47

Limburger

50

50

Saint Paulin

40

56

Gruyère

Svecia

45

41

Provolone

45

47

Source: After HMSO (1970). a Different compositional requirements for Loaf Edam, Baby Edam, Baby Loaf Edam and Baby Gouda not included. b Alternative names given for Emmental, Gruyère and Tilsiter not included in this table.

39

40


cheese variety names. As an alternative to the descriptors, such as full-fat, medium-fat, etc. (see Table 2.3), the minimum fat content or the minimum fat-in-dry matter (FDM) and the maximum moisture content could be declared. The use of starch and gelatine was allowed in processed cheese, cheese spread or cheese food. While additive provisions were included in the 1970 Regulations, these were replaced by the EU legislation on food additives as discussed in section 2.2.2. The Cheese Regulations 1970 (HMSO, 1970), as amended, were repealed and replaced by the short-lived Cheese and Cream Regulations 1995 (HMSO, 1995). These maintained the definitions of processed cheese and cheese spread from the 1970 Cheese Regulations, as amended. However, these 1995 Regulations in turn were repealed by the Food Labelling Regulations 1996 (HMSO, 1996); while the definition of cheese and compositional requirements for Cheddar and 11 other territorial cheeses were included, the definitions of processed cheese and cheese spread were not included. So what is the present status of processed cheese-type products in the UK? It is likely that the status of the name of a processed cheese, a cheese spread or cheese food, which were defined in the repealed regulations, have become ‘customary names’ in the UK (i.e. name customary in the Member State in which it is sold, as discussed in section 2.2.2). Probably the best advice is contained in the 1997 UK Local Authority Coordination Body on Trading Standards (LACOTS) opinion on cheese names, which indicated that customary names could be used if they did not depart from the original compositional profile. They also indicated that use of the terms, such as full-fat, medium-fat, hard and soft in relation to a cheese, would indicate the true nature of the food as required by Regulation 8 of the Food Labelling Regulations 1996. It must be stressed that the LACOTS advice contains the warning that only the courts have the authority to interpret statute law; their advice was based on the information provided and might be revised in the light of further information, and was not intended to be a definitive guide, or substitute for the relevant law (LACOTS, 1997). LACOTS is now known as the Local Authorities Coordinators of Regulatory Services (LACORS). Their advice is now intended for guidance for their local council colleagues only and access to much of their advice is restricted. Furthermore, if terms such as reduced fat or other such nutritional claims are used, then these should be in line with the relevant EU regulation in this area (EU, 2006c). In the UK, labelling regulations customary names are not given preferential status and may be used, but so can designations which are a description of the product sufficiently precise to inform the consumer of the true nature of the product and to enable the food to be distinguished from products with which it could be confused. However, the existence from 1966 to 1996 of definitions are understood to change the position somewhat, particularly regarding what could be construed as misleading consumers. It is possible that products with some minor but insignificant changes could also be given the name ‘processed cheese’. However, products formerly termed cheese spread or cheese food would not become processed cheese where they are significantly different in composition or ingredients used. The only certain way this can be established is in the courts and to date this has not been the subject of case law. A personal informal survey on 39 processed cheese products on the UK and Irish markets had just 5 (12.8%) that were designated as processed cheese, 20 (51.3%) named cheese food and 14 (35.9%) called cheese spreads; these products included both branded


41

and multiple private labels. Thus, the great majority of products use processed cheese product names, rather than processed cheese, while even those designated as processed cheese contained milk products other than cheese. As regards QUID labelling, 29 (74.4%) of the products surveyed had the cheese content labelled, while the remaining 10 (25.6%) did not.

2.2.4 Legislation in the Republic of Ireland Background to Irish legislation The Irish Parliament (Oireachtas) consists of the President and two Houses of the Oireachtas (Dail Eireann and Seanad Eireann), which are responsible for enacting new legislation in Ireland. A proposal for new legislation is published as a Bill, which becomes an Act and is declared law when it is agreed by both houses of the Oireachtas and signed by the President. Acts frequently give powers to specific ministers of Government (particularly those with responsibility for health and agriculture and food) to make secondary laws known as Statutory Instruments (SIs) in relation to food. The SIs can be written in the form of Regulations or Orders and detail specific rules and give enforcement powers to a particular authority. The similarity to the UK legislative process, on which it was based, will be apparent. Indeed, from the foundation of the state in 1922 until mid-century, reference was often made to Acts of the UK Parliament, such as the Food and Drugs Act 1875, as discussed earlier, which had application in the whole of Ireland at the time of its enactment. For instance such references were contained in the Dairy Produce Act 1924 (The Stationery Office Dublin, 1924) and the Sale of Food and Drugs (Milk) Act 1935 (The Stationery Office Dublin, 1935). Until joining the European Economic Community in 1973, Ireland had quite limited legislation governing the composition of foods. Indeed it may be argued that such legislation was not really necessary, because, as an exporter of the majority of its food products, Irish manufacturers frequently adhered to the compositional standards and requirements of its main export market, the UK and production for the home market reflected the same requirements. Irish legislation on cheese There is not, and has never been, specific Irish legislation on cheese or processed cheese. Processed cheese and related products manufactured and labelled to meet UK legislation have not had problems when sold on the Irish market. This facilitated both producers and consumers. Indeed it might be claimed that the size of the home market would create problems if this were not the case. Nonetheless, in the case of reduced-fat variants of processed cheese products, where UK legislation had specific compositional requirements in its legislation, these can be designated with claims, such as reduced-fat, provided it meets the EU legislation on nutrition and health claims as regards a reduced-fat claim (EU, 2006c). Another possible approach for products intended for the Irish market alone would be to manufacture in accordance with the Codex Alimentarius Standards for processed cheese,

42


which shall be discussed later. However, since these are generally regarded as out of date and more restrictive than the corresponding UK legislation, they are not used in practice. This conclusion is reinforced by the results from my personal informal survey, as outlined at the end of the previous section (UK legislation on cheese), which indicate that the products on the Irish market generally conform with those on the UK market and not to the Codex Alimentarius standards. The possibility of certain products imported from other Member States of the EU, i.e. using the Cassis de Dijon principle, possibly accounts for any differences that exist. Of course all relevant horizontal European legislation applying to foodstuffs, as discussed in section 2.2.2, applies in Ireland.

2.2.5 Legislation in Germany In discussions on the legislation of other Member States of the EU, the focus shall be on relevant aspects of their cheese legislation only. The provisions of horizontal EU legislation shall not be addressed. The German cheese legislation is detailed in the Käseverordnung (the Cheese Order) (Behr’s Verlag, 2008). This addresses four products, which are designated as Erzeugnisse aus Käse (products made from cheese): (a) Schmelzkäse (Processed Cheese), (b) Schmelzkäsezuberitungen (Processed Cheese Preparations), (c) Käsezuberitungen (Cheese Preparations), and (d) Käsekompositionen (Cheese Compositions). Of these products, Schmelzkäse and Schmelzkäsezuberitungen are those of the greater economic importance. However, §13 addresses the description Kochkäse (Cooking Cheese) that may be used in the place of Schmelzkäse when only Sauermilchquark or Labquark and with the addition of Schnittkäse (sliced cheese) (without rind or skin) at up to 8% in the finished product are used in manufacture; of other dairy products, only cream, butter or clarified butter is used for production. In the present version of the Käseverordnung, Schmelzkäse (Processed Cheese) is defined as the product in which a minimum of 50 g 100 g−1 on a dry matter basis comes from cheese and together with other milk products manufactured by melting through using heat and emulsifying salts. It is worth mentioning that in the earlier 1995 version of the Käseverordnung, the use of other milk products was not included in the definition. Schmelzkäsezuberitungen (Processed Cheese Preparations) are products made from other milk products, or added foods, from cheese, or from processed cheese, or from mixtures of cheese and processed cheese, by melting under the influence of heat and emulsifying salts. Cheese and processed cheese preparations may not contain more than 15 g 100 g−1 of the total weight of the finished product of added foodstuffs. The use of starch and gelatine is permitted in Schmelzkäsezuberitungen, but not in Schmelzkäse. The compositional requirements for Schmelzkäse, Schmelzkäsezuberitungen and Kochkäse are outlined in Table 2.5. Erzeugnisse aus Käse (products made from cheese) may only be marketed according to the levels of FDM content as outlined in Table 2.6. In the labelling of these products, either the fat content descriptors as outlined in Table 2.6, or the fat content in dry matter with the designation ‘ . . . % Fett i. Tr’ (FDM g 100 g−1 ) should be used. Schmelzkäse (Processed Cheese) or Schmelzkäsezuberitungen (Processed Cheese Preparations) made from Frischkäse (fresh cheese) that has more than 82 g 100 g−1 moisture content the wording ‘Wassergehalt mehr als 82%’ (water content more than 82 g 100 g−1 ) is required on the label. Streichfähigem Schmelzkäse (Spreadable Processed Cheese) should have an indication of the product’s spreadability.


¨ (processed Table 2.5 Compositional requirements (g 100 g−1 ) for Schmelzkase ¨ ¨ cheese), Schmelzkasezuberitungen (processed cheese preparations) and Kochkase ¨ (cooking cheese) in the German Kaseverordnung (Cheese Order). Minimum dry mattera

Product Schnittfähiger Schmelzkäse (slices, FDM ≥ 50)

50

Schnittfähiger Schmelzkäse (slices, FDM < 50)

34

Streichfähiger Schmelzkäse (spread, FDM ≥ 50)

40

Streichfähiger Schmelzkäse (spread, FDM < 50)

30

Schmelzkäsezuberitungen

20

Kochkäse Dopplerahmstufe (double cream)

42

Rahmstufe (cream)

36

Volfettstufe (full-fat)

34

Fettstufe (fat)

32

Dreiviertelfettstufe (three-quarters fat)

29

Halbfettstufe (half-fat)

26

Viertelfettstufe (quarter fat)

24

Magerstufe (lean)

22

Source: After Behr’s Verlag (2008). a The minimum dry matter provisions do not apply to Schmelzkäse (Processed Cheese) and Schmelzkäsezuberitungen (Processed Cheese Preparations) made from Frischkäse (fresh cheese). FDM, fat-in-dry matter. Table 2.6 Compositional requirements (g 100 g−1 ) for fat content ¨ a (products from cheese) under the descriptors for Erzeugnisse aus Kase ¨ German Kaseverordnung. Product fat descriptor Dopplerahmstufe

Fat-in-dry matter (FDM) Minimum 60 and maximum 87

Rahmstufe

Minimum 50

Volfettstufe

Minimum 45

Fettstufe

Minimum 40

Dreiviertelfettstufe

Minimum 30

Halbfettstufe

Minimum 20

Viertelstufe

Minimum 10

Magerstufe

75

Double crème

>60 and 50 and 10 and

Processed Cheeses and Analogues

Great British Cheeses

Cheeses of Italy

Cheeses of Italy

Variants and Analogues of XI and XII

Variants and Analogues of XII

Knight, Damon - The Analogues

Classical Dynamics and Its Quantum Analogues

Safety of Meat and Processed Meat

Ayahuasca Analogues Pangean Entheogens

Ophiolites and their modern oceanic analogues

Classical dynamics and its quantum analogues

Handbook of Processed Meats and Poultry Analysis

Processed Foods and the Consumer: Additives, Labelling, Standards and Nutrition

Optical Monitoring of Fresh and Processed Agricultural Crops

Heteroaromatic Lipoxin A4 Analogues: Synthesis and Biological Evaluation (Springer Theses)

Classical Dynamics and Its Quantum Analogues (Lecture Notes in Physics)

Microbial Safety of Minimally Processed Foods

In-Pack Processed Foods: Improving Quality

6-Valent analogues of Eberhards theorem

Processed Lives: Gender and Technology in Everyday Life

Algal Cultures, Analogues of Blooms And Applications (2 volume set)

Algal Cultures, Analogues of Blooms And Applications (2 volume set)

Quantum analogues: from phase transitions to black holes and cosmology

Phenazine Natural Products: Biosynthesis, Synthetic Analogues, and Biological Activity

Quantum Analogues: From Phase Transitions to Black Holes and Cosmology

Sources and Analogues of the Canterbury Tales (I) (Chaucer Studies)

Sources and Analogues of the Canterbury Tales (II) (Chaucer Studies)

Processed Cheeses and Analogues

Great British Cheeses

Cheeses of Italy

Cheeses of Italy

Variants and Analogues of XI and XII

Variants and Analogues of XII

Knight, Damon - The Analogues

Classical Dynamics and Its Quantum Analogues

Safety of Meat and Processed Meat

Ayahuasca Analogues Pangean Entheogens

Ophiolites and their modern oceanic analogues

Classical dynamics and its quantum analogues

Handbook of Processed Meats and Poultry Analysis

Processed Foods and the Consumer: Additives, Labelling, Standards and Nutrition

Optical Monitoring of Fresh and Processed Agricultural Crops

Heteroaromatic Lipoxin A4 Analogues: Synthesis and Biological Evaluation (Springer Theses)

Classical Dynamics and Its Quantum Analogues (Lecture Notes in Physics)

Microbial Safety of Minimally Processed Foods

In-Pack Processed Foods: Improving Quality

6-Valent analogues of Eberhards theorem

Processed Lives: Gender and Technology in Everyday Life

Algal Cultures, Analogues of Blooms And Applications (2 volume set)

Algal Cultures, Analogues of Blooms And Applications (2 volume set)

Quantum analogues: from phase transitions to black holes and cosmology

Phenazine Natural Products: Biosynthesis, Synthetic Analogues, and Biological Activity

Quantum Analogues: From Phase Transitions to Black Holes and Cosmology

Sources and Analogues of the Canterbury Tales (I) (Chaucer Studies)

Sources and Analogues of the Canterbury Tales (II) (Chaucer Studies)

Recommend Documents